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Vol. XXXI= Nos.
~ INDEX
TO THE
(
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND JUAGAZINE OF THE 6. ft.
EDITED BY
J. C. WILLIS, Sc.D., F.L.S.
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya.
Ito VI:
July to December, 1908.
A. M. & J. FERGUSON,
PROPRIETORS AND PUBLISHERS, COLOMBO, CEYLON.
PaGeE,
A.
Aberia—(Ketembilla) Miscellaneous ,
Economic Plants ‘a 339
‘“‘ Aerator” Garden Plough .. 278
Africa, re Ce Planting in... 92
do , Rubber Estates in 511
Retin of Waste Lands 551
Agaves and Soil Denudation 123
Agricultural Apprentices, Madras 480a
do Banks 71
do Conference at ‘Ahmedabad 155
do Implements, Light Ameri-
can nid 480¢
do Industries in Natal 226
do Instruction in Heenan
Schools oh 480
do Sayings in Bengal 272
do Society, Genera Meeting.
Minutes : om 70
do Society of Batticaloa 188
Agriculture, European, in Nyasaland .. 284
do and Rats 4 ia 560
do in peyion, Rural 569
do in F.M 483
do in Kalutara District in 1907 86
do in Southern India Pr 45
do Literature of Economic
Botany and aoe 55
do Literature of Economic ... 51, 162,
266, 366, 470, 571
do Native, and Tillage 288
do Science in 466
ta) U.S.A Department of #4, 59
Amazon Rubber .. ... 410, 506
Amherstia Nobilis 5 284
Angola, Rubber in 298
-Annatto, Cultivation and Utilisation of 418
- Annual Review of the Tea Trade of 1907 99
Anti-Opium Drug, CombretumSundaicum = 225
do Plant, The Malayan . 124, 225
Apiculture, Bami bara Bees 69
do Bees, Artificial Swarming 0 of
do Bee Notes I
do II ,
do Gora: foundations for Mee-
messa Bar
do Honey in California “
do Some Sounds of the Bee ...
Apple Trees, Effect of Grass on
Areca Palm Cultivation in New Guinea
Argemome Mexicana (Mexican Poppy)
Arrowroot, A Leaflet on , Bi
Avocado Pear .. rs
--Ayapana Oil sn. ve
Pace
B.
Balata Rubber 212
Bananas, Enzymes in 79
do and Oranges in Mexico 398
do in Cuba 524
do Market of France. 104
Bassia (see Miscellaneous Economic
Plants) 423,
Bengal Flax, A Fortune in. 96
do Fish Products 604
do Raw Silk, Production of 190
Bitter Gourd _... ; 480e
Blue Stone and Ammonia ... 69
Board of Agriculture: Minutes 70, 171,
275, 385, 578
do Progress Report 171, 375, 578
Bordeaux Mixture Rs 181
Borneo, Copra and Oilmaking i in 91
Botanic Garden in East Java 88
Botany, Articles on the Literature of
Economic 51, 162, 266, 366, 470, 571
Brazil Production of Para Rubber in. 585
Brinjal, Inedible oe 69
British Guiana, New Rubber Co. for ... 199
do do ‘Rubber Experiment
Station in 84
do do do Trust 199
do Malayaasa Field for Investment 94
do NewGuineaasaPlantingCountry 405
do North Borneo, Para Trees in
Government Garden at Tenom 184
do North Borneo, Tobacco Estate
Life in AR 501
Breadfruits of the Tropics ... 428
do with Seeds p ; 588
Brucea Sumatrana: Chemical Exami-_
nation of be 125
Budrot of Coconut Trees i in Jamaica Be 181
do do do in Other Coun-
tries... 557
do doin the Philippines... 555
Bukit Rajah, Rubber Tapping Methodson 285
Burma, Rubber in 395
C.
Cabbages, Manures for Bok 577
Cacao and Copra from Samoa 96, 293, 447
do and Rubber Estates Co. of
Uganda 484.
do asan Adjunct to Rubber Culture 1
do Estates, Number of Pods Pro-
duced by Trees on a ‘ 342
do Exports, Trinidad .... 31
ii ore OS INDEX, "Tle
PaGE,
Cacao Fermentation, Denteputicne to
the Knowledge of, .. 340, 531
do in Dominica ; 530
do inthe United States 228
do in the West Indies, Result of
Recent Experiments with 30
do Manuring Experiments with ... 530
do Seeds, Packing 128
do Shade for 529
do Uses of Mulch in the Cultiva-
tion of . 2217
Cactus for Fodder for Behar Planters. 104
Calabash Gourds, Possible Market for.. 136
Camphor Exports from Formosa 491
do from Foochow, China : 190
do Japan, and Celluloid Sos 78
do —_ Low- priced ‘Bc 94
do nN etre and Synthetic Ae 212
do ca 115
do Post, ING 398
do Prospects rs aos 318
do Pruning of aD ay 287
do Trade, The oy ee 85
do War, The oe oe 292
Candle-nut Tree (Kekuna) ... 120
Caravonica Cotton in India... a, 517
Cardamoms, Ceylon sr aR 282
Cashew Nuts ar 311
Cassava as a Famine Food . 390
do Cultivation in Ceylon 390
do Hydrocyanic Acid Content of 126
do Manioca or Tapioca . 378, 525
do Starch, ipeneteet Engeperis © of 30
do Yield o 577
Castilloa, Coawuletine 408
do Latex, Mr. Harvey’ s Treat-
ment of 206
do New Method of Tapping a 208
do ontheIsthmus of Tehuantepec 511
do Under Shade 26 205
Caucasian Russian Tea 396
Ceara or Manicoba Rubber.. 316
do Rubber inthe Dry Zone of Ceylon 318
Celluloid and Japan Camphor 78
Ceylon, Ceara Rubber in the Dry Zone of 318
do Chamber of Commerce Annual
Report .. 474
do Coconut Oil and Soap- “making .. 81
do do Trade ... 77
do Essential Oils in 1907 287
do Hevea Plant, Animals Associated
with the ee 294
do Mangoes ... 1.135, 480f
do Planter, Remeniscences of an Ex- 291
do Planting Industry ... 208, 282, 298
do - Rubber Estimates Le 394
do do Output 394
do Rural Agriculture in 569
do ‘Tan-producing Trees 170
do Tropical Agriculture 303
Chamber of Commerce: Annual Report 474
Charcoal Burning in Salem Division,
Method of ae cio 36
Chena Cutting ... 159
Chickens, Food for 577
Chilli Growing i in Natal 481
Cinchona and “Tea in Java . 387
do in Ceylon 282
Circulation, Oils... 505
Citrate, Tax on 431
do West Indian
_ 67
ee ere
:, a.
PaaE,
Clean Weeding on Rubber Estates... 489
Cleanliness of Cultivation +. 313, 381
Clove Tree of Zanzibar a 490
Coagulating Castilloa Rubber : “408, 511
Coca Leaves from Perak ... * 124
Coconut and Rubber in Kelanban : 76
do and the Cyclone at Batticaloa. 178
do Cultivation 129
do do in the Phili pines 71
do Desiccated, in Ceylon and N.s.
W., Manufacture of .. 385, 386
do Disease in Cochin _... .. 182, 192
do District, N.W.P., Notes from ... 180
do Husks, Wasteof.. 58 387
do in Porto Rico 338
do Manufacture of Desiccated,
Ceylon 385
do Notes on the Sprouting, on
Copra and on Coconut Oil . 417
do Oil and Soapmaking in Peye 81
do do in the States ... 324
do do Purification of ... a 119, 416
do do Trade, Ceylon ... 463 77
do Planting, Territory of Papua ... 335
do Scientific Study of the ae 228
do Stem Bleeding Disease, Reme-
dies and Danger ... ... 178, 182
do Trees in Jamaica, Budrot of 181
Coffea Robusta, Java’s New 494
Coffee Curing in the Malabar Coast 28
do Sumatra 95
Combretum Sundaicum (Anti- Opium
Drug) .. 225
Congo, Rubber to Date in the 397
Conservation of Soil Moisture S 463
Cooch Behar, Tobacco Experiment in 104
Cookery Notes . 567
Co-operative Credit Societies, i in India 267
A do do in Madras
Presidency 268
do do do Where
Flourish 53
Co-operation, Demonstration Work in 258
Copra Sy Ben f 2333
o and Cacao in Samoa... BAS 293
do and Oilmaking in Borneo Ae 91
do from Samoa fs 96
do do do and Cacao 96
Cotton: British Cotton Growing Asso-
ciation: 3rd Annual Rena 91
do Caravonica in India me 517
do Growi ing in Siam ... 96
do in London any 285
do Sea Island, Yield of by Sage 516
Cow Dung as Fuel 900 149
Cowpeas | 249, 351
Cultivated and Wild Plants, Differences in 51
Cultivation under Canvas ... 604
De
Dairy Practice, Modern
Department of Agriculture, U.S.A.
Devil Grass
Divining Rod: its Local Application ..
Dryland Farming
Durian, The
Dwarf Rubber, New Important
E.
-Edible-Garcinia Fruits
one
Eggs, Testing of ..
Eri Silk, Pamphlet on ait
Essential Oils, Ceylon, in 1907 ies
Kucalyptus Trees aes
Experimental Plots :
do Work at Heeleaka abe
Extraction of Rubber by Electricity ...
F.
Farming in Madras Presidency, Dryland
Fence Plants: Godakaduru, Walbeli
and Suriya ... dine
Fermentation of Tobacco ... es
Fermentation of Cacao bee oon
eoualicors, New Nitrogen ...
anese Compounds as
Fortilising Folic Plant for Rubber
and other Estates :
Fibre, Sida Age LA om
do Sisal see at ove
do Useful, in Java as sed
Field Fruit Culture in Mysore
Fiji Tropical Products of ..
Fish Insects
Fishing Nests of the Kolis of Bandra ..
Fish Products for Bengal
Flax in Bengal ...
Fodder, Prickly Pear as
do Soy Bean as
Forestry
do *, What it has Done.
Forests and Rainfall
Formosa Sugar Industry
French Garden £600 in a
Fruit Culture in Mysore
do Edible Garcinia
do Farm Manure
do Trees, Root Pruning of
Fruits, New
_ Fuel, Use of Cowdung i in India as
Fungicide, Self-boiled Tans ous
Mixture as a
Funtumia Elastica
Furrow Irrigation
G.
Gambier Cultivation in West Sumatra
Garcinia Fruit, Edib le SPs
Garden, French, £600 ina ...
do ’ Notes and Strawberr y Growing
German Rubber Magnate in Ceylon
Germination Experiments in Hevea
Giant Rubber Tree of the East
Green Manuring for Young Rubber
do in Tea we
do Tea, Manufacture of..
Grevillea Robusta Gum Br
Groundnuts (Arachis HM ypoge) Notes
on the Cultivation of 1
Guava Jelly bie
Guavas
Guayule Situation |
Sugul .. tr
Gum of Grevillea Robusta re
a
Hana Hemp as a Village Industry
‘ie Experimental W ork of
INDEX, i
Paae.
278
56
PAGE,
Hevea Brasiliensis Germination, Experi-
ments in ond 414
do do See Rubber a
do do Some Remarks on
the Tapping of ... 315
Housefly, The Deadly 453
Hydrocyanic Acid Content of Cassava 126
Hypnotism of Insects are a4 47
I.
Implements, Light American - [4802
Incubator one 277
India, Tropical Agriculture i in ae 303
Indian Agriculture, Introduction of
Improvements into ci one 372
Insect Pest Hypnotism Soe om 47
Insecticide, Cooper’s V.2 170
International Conference of Rubber
Growers ae oo eee 494
Ipecacuanha dio wis one 224
Irrigation, Areas dec on 146
do Furrow ae so 459
J,
Jaffna Mangoes ... cx 69
Jak Trees, The Cultivation of 500 69
Jamaica, Rats in as 451
gepen Camphor and Celluloid 78
Rubber Factories, Combination in 312
do Tea Export Trade ... Ba 95
do do Production of, in 1907 seal 88
do do Trade, Future of the Be 79
J Byanete Rubber Manufacturing In-
ustry 0 196
Java, New “Coffee Robusta” of aut 494.
do Rubber Canker in... oe 395
do do —- Cultivation in sais 92
do do Growing in sie 202
do Noteson ... ih 595
do Tea and Cinchona in. so 387
do do and Sugar a Ae 596
do Tea in de ... 89, 181, 203, 283
do Tobacco and Sugar |... was 596
do Useful Fibres in a 88
Jebong Rubber Production, Cost of ... 484
J.
Joedlite: Wood Preservative aa 601
K.
Kekuna—see Candlenut Tree Sap
Kelantan, Rubber and Coconuts in... 76
L.
Lalang, A New Usefor ... one 301
Lantana Pest, The oi 494, 599, 600
Latex Coagulation of INR yt
Lead Arsenate as an Insecticide net 552
Leaf Manuring in Sovth pater bet 461
Legumirous Plants pe 104.
Lime Cultivation, A.B.C. of . 435, 535
Lime-Sulphur, Self- boiled, as a Fungi-
cide.. br Gs, 137
Limes, How to Pack 205
Literature of Economic aes and
Agriculture... 55, 162, 266, 366, 470, 571
Loans to Paddy Cultivators a 568
iv INDEX
Pace Paces.
M. O.
Madras Experiments in Paspalum Dila- Oil Palm (Elwis Guineensis) Cultivation... 16
tatum 312 Oils in 1907, Ceylon Essential % 87
Maize, An Important Tropical Cereal 592 ~ Olive and’ its Cultivation in Ceylon 583
do Cultivation and Marketing of 550 Olu—See’ Nymphaea Lotus ...
Malaya, British, asa Field for Invest- Opium Plant, The Malayan Anti- 124
ment ... 94 Oranges and ‘Bananas in Mexico 398
do ‘Nigerian Report o1 on 500 Ornamenta! Trees, Some other 256, 582
do Rubber Exports 2986 Our Circulation 5 505
do Rubber in 398 :
Malayan Anti-Upium Plavt_ 124
do Rubber Estimates... 394 Packing Cacao Seed for Export 128 .
do do Output 394 do Vanilla for Shipment 127
do Plantain Fibre... 298 Paddy Cultivation and the Wallage Cul-
Manganese Compounds as Fertilisers. 54 tivator . ... 128, 369
Mango Supplies, New 95 do Transplanting : 480e
do- eevil ; 480e Palm Disease in South India ie 75
Mangoes in Ceylon “135, 480 ef Papaya 480e
do Jatina Papua, Coconut Territory i in is 335
Manicoba, Cultivation, Preparation and Para Grass (Panicum Molle) Sho 430
Yield of 317 do Rubber by Herbert Wright é 298
do | or Ceara Rubber 316 do do Cultivation, Weeding in 38
Manihot, Planting of the New wieperieee! of 106, 209 do do inthe Amazon .. 410, 506
Manioc or Cassava 525 Paspalum. Dilatatum—Experiments in
Manioc, Yield of 577 Madras ‘ me 505 312
Manure:, Artificial vs. Green and Cattle 170 = Passiflora Fetida 265
do for Orange.Trees ... 170 Penang Rubber Vines 397
Manuring, Principles of é 189 Pepper i in Sarawak, The Cultivation of 245
do Effects of Long- continued Peradeniya Experimental Silk Farm ... 85
Nitrogenous ... 48 Perak, Coca Leaves from ... sar 124
do Green, for Young Rubber 84 Pests Bill, Straits Destructive 408
Market Rates for Tropical “Products... 72 Philippines Spirit Industry 63
Martynia Diandia as a Hemedy, for En oepnetes: Selection of 191
Snake-bite ; 69 Pickling Wheat 35
Mexican Poppy ... 578 Pineapple Cultivation in Singapore 284
Mexico, New Rubber Plant in 498 do Culture, IIT. 231
do Oranges and Bananas in 398 do do IV. Handling the
do Poppy 215 Crop 344
do Something doing in 315 do Juice, Manufacture of 244
Milo as a Dryland “Grain ( Crop 427 do Manure for ‘ 32
Miscellaneous Economic Plants—Aberia 339 Plant Pathology in its Relation to
do do do Bassia 423 other Sciences .. ot 553
Modern Dairy Practice of 38 Plantain Fibre at Malaya A. HL Show 398
Mosquitoes, Destruction of.. ... 141, 397 do Meal Manufacture “a 205
Mozambique, Rubber in 3 396 Plantains, Cooking of heme 567
Mustard Meal as a Tea Manure 387 Planters and Scientific Advice ae 192
Mysore, Field Fruit Culture in 97 Planting in B.C. Africa... : 92
do in British East Africa 407
do in British New Guinea 405
N do inJava and Sumatra BG 391
‘ do in Nyasaland 99, 400, 408
Natal, Agricultural Industries of 226 do inTravancore ... ae 489
do Chilli Growing in 481 do Industry, Ceylon ... 208
do Teas from 322 do Reserves on Estates FS 282
New Fruits 9g Plants, Wild and Cultivated, Differ-
do Guinea, Planting Prospects in 73 ences between fee 51
do Mango Supplies i 95 Ploughs, Eastern vs. Western Pap 69
Nigerian Report on Malaya... 500 Porto Rico, Coconutsin... 338
Nitrogen Fertilisers, New ... 142 Pounds 600 in a French Garden 165
N itrogenous Manures, Sources and Useof 4s P reservation of Red Sorrel Fruits : 244
do Manuring, Effects of 48 Prick] Pear as Fodder as pas 342
Noiseless London ; Rubber- -paved Streets 513 Prize Hssays on Tea ; 549
Notes and Queries 69, 170, 277, 380, 480c, 577. Province Wellesley fan its Products a 287
Noxious Weeds ... ay mts 49 Pruning . on 566
Nutmeg in the Moluccas 104 Pruning of Camphor tee tee 287
Nutmegs, the Fats of Indian 217 Pulse of Animals one 170
Nyande Fibre... 170 Purification of Coconut Oil... ane 416
Nyasaland, European Agriculture in. 284 aa
do Rubber, and Planting 399, 400 Q. :
Nympheea Lotus (Olu), Seed of “a 243 Quinine in India, Demand for ae 484
PaGeE.
R.
Rambong Rubber at the Rubber Exhi-
bition 3 95
Ramie in Korea 88
Rats and Agriculture 560
do . in Jamaica 451
Raw Silk, Production of, in ‘Bengal 190
Reminiscences of an ex- Ceylon Planter 291
Reserves on Estates, Planting / 282
Review of the Tea Trade, Annual 99
Rice .. 1 855
do Cultivation and Fertilization in
e U.S. of North
ene ene 26
do do by Machinery 99
do do in.British Guiana 293
‘do do in Hawaii .. 523
do do in Siam 300
Roadside Trees, Preservative Effect of 204
Root Pruning of Fruit Trees ees 480F
‘do Rubber in Nyasaland... 400
Rozelle: Its Culture and Uses 378
pe ber, A New Important Dwarf 101
do American View of Planting . 312
‘do and other Estates, a F ertilizing
Fodder Plant for uM 77
do and Coconuts in Kelatan 76
do andTea . 177, 208
do and Tillage: Green Manuring
. and Acacias 86
do at Para Exhibition 608
do Balata ... an 212
do _ British Grown 401
do Cankerin Java __... 395
do Castilloa, Coagulating 408
do . do nag Eide of Tap-
‘ 208
do do pping of Cultivated 212
do do ater 205
: do Ceara, in the Dry. Zone of Ceylon 318
do do or Manicoba... 316
do Clean Weeding and Green
Manuring for ... 402
do Coagulation, ‘‘Purub’’—a
New Method of.. 492
do do Da Costa Process 608
do Cultivation in Java 92
do Culture, Cacao as an Adjunct to ll
do do the Present Condi-
tion of . 106
do District, A Big 492
do Dry, Returns of F. M. Ss. 207
do Estates, Clean Weeding on 489
do do inG. E. Africa 4 511
do Estimates: Ceylon and Malaya 394
do Exhibition and Mr. Bamber.. 590
do Experiment Station in British
uiana 84
_ do do with Cuttingsi inBurma 602
do Exports, Malaya ... 3 286
r do Extraction by Electricity 208
do Factories in J ns Combin-
ation of a 312
do Factory, Singapore | 197
do Ficus Elastica from India,
Analysis of ie 211
‘do from English Plants co 490
; do do Penang Rubber Vines ... 397
a4 do do Trinidad Ee As 507
hs do Funtumia Elastica .. Bh 412
eS ' do Future of ay ut 281
ALND EX.
y
Page.
Rubber Giant, Tree of the East 206
do Green Manuring for Young 84
do Growers’ and Hamatacturers
Banquet .. 496
do do Association, Malay .. 279
do do Straits, and Increased
Freight “a 96
do Growing in Java 202
do Guay ule ‘, 200, 411
do Gitiapertha and “Telegraph
Works Co. 199
do Hee ee eae 315
do i i on, Animals.
Moastinted with a 294
do in Angola 298
do in Bombay ba a 193
do in British Guiana ... he 196
do in Burma A 24, 395
do in Ceylon 91
do in Fiji . 605
do in Giayule a Me 103
do inJdava. an 92, 202, 595
do in Jebong sh 484
do in Malaya 398, 488, 491
do ind Mexico, Me nLOss 205, 393, 492
do ;do Discovery of New
Rubber- producing Plant 498
do in Mozambique 396
do in North Borneo 184, 207, 484.
do in Nyasaland, and Planting . 400
do in do Root-Ceara and
Para... te 400
do in Perak Bac ‘, 601, 604
do in Samoa 392
do in South Coorg 198
do in South India is 514
do in Southern Nigeria -. 200, 501
do in the Congo—to date 397
do in the F.M.S., American Report
oe 96
do in the Sandwich Islands 290
do in Travancore My -.. 302, 489
do Industry, The Eastern ba 485
do Industry of Trinidad, Pro-
gress of the 264 “5 2
do ~ International Conference i 494
do LatessM Mr. Harvey’s pe eee
dos 602
do Magnate, German... 606
do Manicoba or Ceara 316
do do; Remarkson the Cul-
tivation, piobevetion and
Yield 317
do Manchot Glaziovii, “New Spe.
cies of 106
do Manufacturing Industry, Jap:
anese 196
do Mexico, Something doing i in. 315
do Notes... 602
do on the Nile aN 197
do Output, Ceylon and “Malaya sit 394
do Para by Herbert Wright : 298
do do Crops 601
do do inthe Gold Coast 70
do do Production in Brazil 585
do do Root Discases in . 587, 590
do do Tapping Experiment on 210
do do Trees in B.N.B 484.
do do Thumbnail Pruning of .. 103
do do Uses of Plantation Ss 608
do .do Weeding in .. . ba
INDEX,
e
Vi
Pace.
rae Para State $3
do Planting in India. Compared.
with Ceylon i 198
do Propatalicn of Crude 5, 592
do Prices ... 586
do Rambong at the Rubber Exhi-
bition .. 95
do do Tapping Experiments
210
do Samples from redial ‘Analysis of 211
do Seed, Size of 285
do Seeds, packing, for. long Dis-
tances e. . 205, 606
do do for Oil urposes oa 591
do Shipments, Recut teee and Ex-
ports... as 177
do BuneRetis Rubber ... 508
do Tanned Leather _.. 491
do pape Methods on Bukit Rajah 285
do New System of .. 591, 607
do do and Pricking, Basal . 607
do Teo-non, Anew Tree from Tonkin 289
do The Future of 281
do do World’s Future Supplies of 196
do Treatment of Latex in the Pre-
paration of a 300
do Trees, Big 199
do do and their Yield 601
do do in Colombo .. 490
do pe of British Guiana ; 199
do anda, and Cacao Hstates Co. 484
do alcanina:” Artificial Rubber Co. 204
do ‘sVallambrosa,” Mr. Herbert
Wright on . a 183
do Vines, Penang ; wee 397
do Weeding vs. Grotalaria for... 499, 600
do do Clean vs. Imperfect 600
Rural Agriculture in Ceylon and its
Improvement... tae 569
Ss.
Samoa, Cacao and Copra from 96
do Copra from We 96
do Rubber in 392
Samoan Cacao and Copra .. . 293, 447
Sandmann’s Journey through Ceylon,
India and Burma 369
Sandwich Islands, Rubber i in the 299
Sapodilla Tree, The 551
Sarawak, Pepper Cultivation in Me 245
Scholars’ Garden and what was done
with it ee ie - 153
School Gardens ... 1, 57, 85
Science in Agriculture 466
Scientific Advice and Planters 192
Sea-Island Cotton, Yield of... 170, 516
Secret of the Soil, The is 79
Seed, Influence ot Character on Growth
of Trees : : 255
Seeds, Vitality of Garden 50
Seepage Losses 564
Siam, Cotton Growing in 96
Sida Fibre 283
Silk Farm at Peradeniya, The Experi-
mental _.. 3? 85
do , Raw, Production in Bengal of 190
Beever e, Pineapple Cultivation in ... 284
Rubber Factory... 197
Sisal. conv atipn in the Caicos Islands 19
do Fibre coc ass a 122
Sisal Fibre in India
do Hemp in British Guiana
Soap-making in Ceylon, Coconut Oil and
Sodium, Value of to Plants.. eae
Soil Denudation and Agaves
ao Moisture, Conservation of
, The Secret of the Re
a , Water and the
Sorrel Fruits, Preservation ‘of Red
South India, ‘Demonstration in Connec-
tion with 5 bs
do Rubber in __... ote
do Palm Diseases om
Soy Beans as a Forage Crop
do _ as Food for Man
Sparrow Destroyer
Spirit Industry in the Philip) ines
Strait’s Destructive Pests Ball
Strawberry Growing and Garden Notes
Sugarcane, Vinegar toe
do Wax as a By- product of
Sugar Industry of Formosa... aa
do inPerak ... Bod oe
Sumatra Coffee
do Mr. Herbert Wright on his
Recent Tour in 0nG
do Tobacco one
Sunflower Oil 3 ven
do 3 The... om
Sweet Potatoes 500
Synthetic Rubber om
T.
Tamarind (Zamarindus Indica) 3
Tanned Leather, Rubber ... ee
Tan-producing Trees, Teal
Tapioca, Cultivation of é
Tapping Experiments on Rambong and
Para
vee 210
do Heveas, ‘Observations on cs 315
do of Cultivated Castilloa fe 212
do Rubber on Bukit Rajah mee 285
Taungya (Chena) Cutting ... wah 159
Tea and Cinchona in Java ... ee 387
do and Rubber .. .-. 177, 208
do do in Java Ak 202
do and Shot-hole borer 603
do Brick Making at Hankow 399
do Chests, The Making of 603
do Cultivation in Java. 282
do Culture Manurial Experiments. in 603
do Export Trage, Japan 403 95
do from Natal 322
do Green, Manufacture of... 202
do in Formosa ... 604
do in India as 403
do do, All About ce 403
do in Java 181, 2038, 595
do in Nyasaland 3be 492
do in Travancore hia 489
do Manufacture, Notes on. ... 201, 396
do Manuring in Culture ... = 499
do do with Mustard Meal,
Results of 902 387
do Notes Bi 283.
do Packing and Despatching 289
do Planting in Java 89
do Prize Hssays on, Java’s : offer 549
do Production of Japan in a ay 88
do Prunings, Burning of . «4 590, 600
204, 305, 502
os.” ie.
INDEX.
te iPaan.
Tea onity. in a 54L
do Russian Caucasian 396
do Seed, its Selection and Growth 493
dc Substitute for 207
do Trade, Annual Review of the 99
do do , Japan, Future of the 79
do, Tr uth about 543
Tehuantepec Castilloa on the Isthmus of 511
Termite Attacking Young Coconuts 278
Testing Eggs 278
Tillage aan Rotation, Principles of... 288
Tissamaharama Cultivators’ Association,
Revival of 478
Tobacco and Clover near Zanzibar 190
do Cultivation under Canvas 604
do Estate Life in B. N. Borneo . 501
do Experiments in Cooch Behar 104.
do Fermentation of ... : 321
do Industry of the N.P. 4 187
do in Cuba, Propagation of .. 439, 538
do in Bengal, Cultivation of 444
do Java 596
do Sumatra 432
Tomato Cultivaion 71
do Diseaset 278
Toxic Substance excreted. by Roots of
Plants 563
Transplanting Paddy, Advantages of . 480e
Travancore, Planting in Es 489
do Rubber in : 302
Treatment, of Latex in the Preparation
of Rubber 300
do of Unknown Vegetable Products 520
Trees, and their Uses, some Beautiful
Tropical 256
do Growth of, Influence of Charac-
ter of Seed on is 255
do Root Pruning of Fruit 4807
Trinidad Cacao Exports 31
do Rubber from 507
Peopical Agueaute, Ceylon and India 303
Literature of 499
Vil
Paar.
Tropical Bread Fruits 428
do ——- Products of Fiji 605
U.
Uganda Rubber and Cacao Estates... 484
U.S.A. Department of Agriculture : Its
Origin, Growth and Present Condition 59
Vv.
Valuation of Rubber Estates 490
Value of Sodium to Plants 577
Vanillas, acking for Shipment 127
Vegetable Products, reatment of
nknown at 520
Vitality of Garden Seeds 50
Ww.
Waste of Coconut Husks 387
Water Hyacinth 359
mi and the Soil 457
Wattle Bark, Production and Utilisa-
ation of . 419, 602
Wattle Cultivation in German East
Africa aA 121
do Growing.. 219
Wax as a By- -product of Sugarcane 203
do Excreting Palms 515
Weeds, Noxious 49
West Indian Citrate 67
West Sumatra, Gambier Cultivation ... 488
What Forestry has Done 356
Wheat, Pickling 35
White Ant Destroyer 277
do do Exterminator ... 498
Wild and Cutlivated Plants, Differences
between ae 51
Wood Preservation a 459, 601
Zz.
Zanzibar Clove Tree, Vitality of 490
AO Ss Bea ak
PROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
AND
MAGAZINE OF THE
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
Vou. XXXI.
COLOMBO, 15tn JULY, 1908,
No. 1.
=
School Gardens,
The working of School Gardens is now
going on in almost 150 schools through-
out the greater part of the island, and
people who are in any way interested in
horticulture, agriculture, or the practical
education of the young, will find much
to occupy their thoughts and attention
if they will take the trouble to visit one
of the better gardens, such, for instance,
as that at Mirigama (Mugurugampola,
close to the station), at Alawatugoda) on
the Kandy-Matale road), at Welimada, or
at Passara.
- The general principle upon which these
gardens are worked is to avoid direct
and definite teaching of agriculture as
such to young children, but to pick
out plants which, though useful or
ornamental, are not familiar in the neigh-
bourhood, and to work at these by
labour of the boys (or girls), under
‘superintendence of the master, checked
by the occasional visits of the travelling
inspector. The boys are given “ nature-
study” lessons by such masters as are
capable of giving them, and in any case
they learn the general principles of
sowing, watering, weeding, cultivation
of the soil, &e., just as wellas if they
worked with crops already familiar in
the district, and without inviting im-
mediate criticism or comparison with
older and more experienced workers.
Incidentally the scheme is doing much
good ina small way by introducing all
kinds of ‘“‘new products” into places
where they were hitherto unknown.
Cabbages have been taken up from the
school gardens all over the island;
sunflower is grown for oil in the dry
parts of Uva; radishes have been largely
taken up, and so on. The scheme
practically provides an Experimental
Garden for each village at small cost.
| 46768
Gums, Resins,
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. ~
PROGRESS OF THE RUBBER
INDUSTRY IN TRINIDAD.
By J. H, Hart, F.1L8.,
Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Trinidad.
At the West Indian Conference of 1901,
Tread a short paper on the experiments
carried out by the Botanical Depart-
ment, Trinidad, in connection with the
cultivation of various kinds of rubber
trees. In that paper (published in the
West Indian Bulletin, Vol. I1., pp. 100-10),
six different kinds were mentioned,
viz., Castilloa, Hevea, Manihot, Ficus,
Landolphia, and Funtumia; to which
was also added Balata (Mimusops glo-
bosa), a native tree affording produce
similar to that of guttaperchas of the
Rast.
CASTILLOA OR CENTRAL AMERICAN
RUBBER.
Since 1901, Castilloa planting has
been steadily continued in Trinidad, and
some thirty-three estates are now en-
gaged in the industry, the total number
of trees planted being estimated at
some 300,000. Numerous experiments
have been made with a view to discover-
ing suitable methods of tapping and pre-
paring the latex, and the specimens
secured afford reliable evidence of the
success achieved.
tt can now be recorded that the colony
of Trinidad and Tobago have several
plantations which, during the past year,
marketed rubber of fine quality and ob-
tained satistactory prices. In recent
account sales, 3s. 3d. was obtained from
Scrap and 4s. 3d. from Castilloa Sheet rub-
ber. The samples were identical with
those presentedat the Conference. In
Tobago, fine rubber has been produced.
Scrap realized 4s. per lb., while prepared
Sheet made Is. tols. 38d. higher. The
quality of this rubber may be judged
from the produce kindly loaned by pro-
prietors, now exhibited. -
In Mr. de Verteuil’s block rubber we
havea very fine specimen, and I should
not be surprised to find rubber prepared
by this method taking a first place upon
the market, it being apparently pre-
ferred to sheet on account ofits oxidizing
less quickly.
The specimens of Castilloa prepared by
the Experiment Station show the result
of experiments in preparation.
The first was prepared by creaming in
three waters:: and:then naturally coa-
CGP yh
gulating by placing in blotting paper
Over atine wire strainer.
Md
In preparing the second specimen, the
rubber latex was washed through a fine
strainer with about eight. volumes of
water and then left for six days. The |
rubber naturally coagulated on the |
surface in a_ solid mass, and has since :
been pressed and dried. |
The third specimen is the creamed
latex of the first sample pressed between
blotting paper, the fibre of which has =
formed a coat upon the surface. This is
seen to have preserved the specimen i
from oxidization, except in places where
it is not covered with the paper fibre. 7
‘
.
The rubber latex from which these
specimens were prepared was produced f
by immature and undersized trees about
eight and a half years old, which were
cut out for thinning purposes. The
rubber is not of first-class quality, but
the specimen prepared without washing :
appears to be the best and most elastic. 4
The ‘Tortuga’ sample is from trees
some nineteen years old. The ‘Louis
D’Or’ samgle is from younger trees. :
The ‘Richmond’ sampleis from trees
some twelve to fourteen years old; the i
exact ageof the trees is not stated, but —
it is mentioned that 4 lb. of dry rubber #
is expected trom one of the trees for the i
year 1906.
The ‘Monte Christo’ sample is from
one of the first estates planted with
this kind in Trinidad. The age of the N
trees which produced it is not stated by ah
the proprietor, but from certain facts - a
known to me Iassume it to be nineteen m
years. }
Vhe ‘Verdant Vale’ sample is from :
young trees sevenanda half-yearsold.
{ft appears that scrap rubber of the f
quality seen on the table is readily ‘i
saleable, and as it costs less to prepare, a
it raises a question whether the price
realized for sheet rubber is sufficient es
to cover the cost of extra preparation. By |
The cost of preparation per lb. has
been variously estimated. It would
be unsatisfactory, however, to make a
definite statement of the cost of tapping
and preparation ou the present evidence. —
One large grower states that he prepares
his sheet rubber by indentured labour,
at the rate of 15c. per Ib., but whether
this will prove generally above or below
the average. is still doubtful. In
estimates I fix the cost of prepa
sheet rubber at a somewhat
i
I
AK
‘
So
ee le
sep
a)
?
be ee
~ a a
~
eee ee
Kew over thirty years ago.
LY, 1908,]
; Gane It is to be noted that West Indian
labour has to be taught first before it
ean be calculated upon.
The preparation of ‘scrap’ rubber
would cost probably one-third less than
‘sheet.’
Castilloa as a rubber has dove well in
all parts of Trinidad, and appears to
suit the conditions of soil and climate.
The supply of seed is so plentiful that
the sales made by the Department are
now merely nominal]. Moreover, by birds
carrying off seed the tree is being dis-
tributed widely through the natural
forest, where it grows readily.
HEVBA, OR PARA RUBBER.
The progress made in Hevea planting
has been much encouraged recently by
the prices obtained for Ceylon produce.
The demands upou our resources for
seed and plants is now more than we can
meet; hence, a considerable number ot
importations have been made with a
success varying from 2 per cent. to 60
percent. Various methods of packing
have been tried. Krom personal experi-
ence it appears better to take the chance
of seed transport rather than to import
plants, even in Wardian cases.
Some twelve years ago I advocated
strongly in the Trinidad Bulletin the
planting of Hevea. One planter planted
a considerable number, and to-day his
trees are seeding freely and he is making
an excellent returnfor seedand seedlings,
and has thus provided for a future
supply of home-grown seed, which will
probably meet future demands. The
trees in the lands of the Botanical Depart-
ment gavea fair supply of seeds, from
which several thousands of healthy
plants have been realized. All of these
have been readily sold.
Hight or ten estates are now planting
Hevea, and this number will probably
be doubled during thecoming year.
With regard to the ability of Trinidad
to produce first-class Para rubber, I
submit to the Conference specimens of
various forms from the older trees of the
Botanical Department. These speci-
mens have been produced by two trees
of the fist consignments sent out by
The first
tree gives rubber decidedly yellow in
appearance, while the second tree gives
rubber which on first coagulation is pure
white, and probably differs considerably
_iIn composition from the first.
~ Two methods of collection have been
opted. The first is to collect all
Jates possible and set it to coagulate
4
Saps and Eeudations.
naturally; the second is to roll up the
remainder of the rubber which dries
in the cuts to a ball.
Itis found that asecond and evena
third flow can be obtained trom the
same cuts, if the rubber is allowed to dry
for some eighteen to twenty hours in the
cut;for when it is removed a new flow
takes place from those cells, which have
been prevented from closing by the ad-
hering rubber.
That the rubber is of good quality
is shown by the specimens now sub-
mitted for examination. The latex
when set to coagulate is simply strain-
ed through fine wire gauze with a
minimum of added water, and then left
in a soup. plate or glass cell in
a cool place. Twelve to twenty-four
hours afterwards there can be removed
soft sheet rubber perfectly coagulated.
It may then be pressedinto biscuits, in
a copying press or by other suitable
means. Rubber thus treated will dry
quicker than if left todrain by itself.
At the Experiment Station, Hevea
trees eight and a_ half years old do
not as yet yield rubber in quality or
quantity to pay for tapping, although
the trees are some 35 feet high with
stems 6-9 inches in diameter. Our oldest
tree has a diameter of 2feet3 inches at
4 feet from the ground, and gave a crop
of over 4,000 seeds during the season 1906.
From our tapping experiments it may
be estimated that 3 to 4 lb, of rubber
could readily be taken from this tree3
but, as it is depended upon for purposes
of seed, it has been deemed better not to
hazard productiveness by tapping too
heavily.
Two young trees raised from seeds
brought down by Dr. Bovallius, from the
interior of South America, are growing
slowly and appear to be somewhat
different from the kind first introduced,
but, as they have not as, yet flowered, it
is impossible to decide their affinity.
They are said to be suitable for growth
at higher elevations or in cooler climates
than the ordinary varieties of Hevea,
but this remains to be proved. There is
no doubt a great future for Hevea plant-
ing in Trinidad, the only drawback
being the length of time the trees take
to reach maturity. This state of matur-
ity most assuredly will be fixed at
different ages by individual growers,
probably gauged by financial reasons.
Trees can be tapped at an age when
tapping is sure to injure them, therefore
cropping must always be conducted
with greatest care, as serious wounds
most inevitably prove prejudicial to thg
life of the tree,
Gums, Resins,
The question of the best method of
tapping is well laid down in Wright’s
‘Para Rubber,’* but there is always the
possibility that local circumstances will
compel the adoption of methods differ-
ing slightly from those found successful
in other countries. We see spiral cut-
ting strongly recommended and illus-
trated, and have found it a successful
method with trees growing strictly
perpendicular, but it is evidently one
which cannot be used with leaning trees.
MANIHOT, Ficus, AND LANDOLPHIA.
These three rubbers, at present, do
not commend themselves to our culti-
vators for various reasons. Manihot
Glaziovii has, however, been tried on one
or two estates, and one of these, situated
on a hillside, is reported as doing well.
Ficus elastuca grows readily and lasts
for a long time, but is only cultivated as
individual specimens. Landolphia spp.
exist in the gardens, and one of them
affords rubber of fair quality. These
rubbers are not at present sought by
planters.
LaGos SILK RUBBER.
Funtumia elastica is_ being largely
planted. Many thousands of seeds have
been sold during the past year, and
plants to the number of nearly 50,000
have been distributed, or stand to order
from the nurseries at the Experiment
Station. This tree affords rubber at an
earlier age than any other rubbers.
Specimens of rubber taken from trees
six and ahalf years old were reported
upon by the Imperial Institute in 1908,
when 80 per cent. of caoutchouc was
found, and Professor Dunstan in his
reportt states that it would be desirable
to examine specimens from older trees.
To 1908, this rubber, compared with
Castilloa from trees over twelve years old,
was valued by London brokers at 2d.
to 3d. less per lb. than Castilloa. We
are not yet in possession of sufficient
evidence to make astatement as to yield,
but those persons who have seen it in
its native forest consider the yieid satis-
tactory-.
BaLATA.
Of balata (the produce of Mimusops
globosa) there is little to report. The
tree is indigenous to Trinidad and South
America and produces fine timber for
railway work. A considerable number
of inquiries have been received for
* Hevea brasiliensis or Para Rubber by Herbert
Wright, 4.R.C.8., 7.4.8.3 Colombo; Messrs. A. M,
and J, Ferguson.
+ Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 19038, No,
# PP: 260-7;
Ras ae)
* a) 2 he?
Vinee Lr *
we Fe. ee
[Juny, 190s.
plants at the St. Clair nurseries, and
plots have been started at St. Clair and
on the Government estate at Diego
Martin, Trinidad, so as to havea con-
venient supply of seed on hand to meet
future demands.
At present the forest has to be de-
pended on for supplies.
Many applications have been received
for seed from foreign and colonial estab-
lishments, which show that cousider-
able interest is taken in this product.
Trinidad exports but little of the
locally grown product, but considerable
quantities are shipped from Venezuela
via Trinidad.
The tree isof slow growth and the
seeds are difficult to transport. Even
when fresh they take a long time to
germinate, periods of twelve months
having trequently been observed from
the time of sowing to germination. In
the St. Clair uarseries the germination
is hastened by grinding or filing away
the hard exterior of the seed to allow
access of moisture.
CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, Iam able to state that
the rubber industry is now well estab-
lished in Trinidad, and that there isa
prospect of abundant success. The
initial difficulties have been met and
overcome, and it is probable that, with
further experience in the details of
manipulation, greater economy and
profit will follow.
Estates planted with rubber have
largely increassd in value, and planters
are beginning to appreciate the feeling
of adding to their established industries
one that promises well for the future.—
West Indian Bulletin. Vol. VILL, 1907,
Oo. 2.
RUBBER IN BRITISH GUIANA.
The possibilities of the rubberindustry
in British Guiana are mentioned very
favourably in the Report for 1906-7 of
the Lands and Mines Department of that
colony.
Reference is made to the fact that
indigenous rubber trees, notably sapiwm
Jenmani, are growing luxuriantly in the
lower reaches of all the rivers in the
North-West District, as well as on the
banks and islands of the Hssequebo
river, and the Commissioner of Lands
and Mines is strongly of opinion that
rubber cultivation in the colony should
receive every encouragement, ‘The low,
|
i
A
cially adapted
‘first meeting of the Mexican
NaS
ae
—— duny, 908.3
flat, alluvial banks of the river are espe-
for the growth of the
native species of Sapiwm, and thousands
of acres of this land might be utilized in
the cultivation.
The terms on which land is leased for
rubber-planting purposes by the Govern-
ment of British Guiana were summa-
rized in the Agricultural News (Vol.
_ VI, p. 409), and they arecertainly favour-
able enough to encourage men of means
to test the rubber-producing possibilities
of the colony.
During the year 1906-7, 2,563 lb. of
rubber and 684,222 lb. of balata were
exported from. British Guiana.—T'he
Agricultural News, Vol. VII, No. 153,
March, 1908.
PREPARATION OF CRUDE RUBBER.
By Dr. PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER.
(Extracts from paper read before the
Rubber
Planters’ Association on October 10th,
1907.)
During the last few years much has
been done in regard to the progress of
the preparation. of crude rubber, and
as we stand at the present day we are
able to make rubber which is far supe-
rior to the product placed on the market
afew yearsago. I will here briefly dis-
cuss the various methods of collecting
and preparing rubber such as they have
been gradually developed.
TAPPING Toois.—All of you know that
throughout Central America the native
machete is used for the purpose of open-
ing the bark of the rubber tree to permit
the latex to exude. It stands to reason
that such a crude method can be greatly
improved on. Asa matter of fact, trees
tapped by means of machete incisions
are badly injured, and as a result they
are generally attacked by diseases, and,
after lingering for a longer or shorter
time, they finally die on account of the
injury. have seen planted trees in
Mexico, which, after having been tapped
with machete for twelve years, are now
useless, because it is almost impossible
to tap them as they are so badly scarred
and cut.
Rubber planters soon found out that
they must have a better tool for tapping
if the industry was to become a perma-
nent success. Some of the first improve-
ments in tapping tools were made in
Central America, where many years ago
a tool somewhat resembling a farrier’s
knife was made by turning over the
point of a machete, and the tool was used
tor pulling, thus making an incision or
Saps and Hxudations.
groovein the bark. A somewhat simi-
lar idea was developed in a_ tapping
device, figured in James Collins’ book
“Report on the Caoutchoue of Com-
merce,” which was published in 1872.
In later years other variations of the
farrier’s knife have been used. Two
years ago I had a knife made on this
principle, and this crude sample made
by a native blacksmith in Chiapas was
the origin of the so-called Zacualpa
knife, of which much has been written
and said, as it was patented by a person
who happened to see it used. (Samples
of these knives were exhibited.)
Knives of this sametype are used in
Brazil for tapping Mangabeira and
Ceara rubber, and the various moditica-
tions of the V-knives are but develop-
ments of the farrier’s knife. One of
these V-knives was patented: in Ceylon
by EF. Holloway, and this knife has been
widely used also in Mexico. It is evi-
dent, however, that all these knives
give a wound, the edges of which are
more or lese torn, depending upon the
sharpness of the tool. One needs but
examine the incision under a microscope
to find that the cells and vessels of the
bark are fringed, and not cut through so
as to leave a clean opening. These
fringes naturally impede the flow of
latex, and the result is that we do not
get the amount we ought to.
Before discussing the latest develop-
ment of tapping tools, I wish to draw
attention to some other knives, built ou
different principles. Most of these have
been developed in Ceylon, where the
number of ‘‘ patented” tapping knives
is almost as pumerous as that of the
rubber plantations. The Bowman and
Northway knives, which have been
widely advertized, and which are quite
extensively used for tapping Hevea trees
in Ceylon, are useless tor Castilloa, as
they are entirely too weak. One of the
series of three of these knives is the
so-called ‘‘ pricker,” which isa kind of
aspur. The object of thisis to cut the
latex tubes near the cambium and
thus increase the flow of latex. The
objection to this is that it often causes
abnormal development of tissue, and the
wound upon healing will not be smooth
but ‘‘bumpy.” Macadam’s comb-pricker
is a very formidable looking weapon,
and doesits workin opening the latex
tubes, but is unpractical on account of
the labour it requires. You cav easily
realize that such a tool is not what we
want where labour is paid at the rate of
$1 a day.
The different nature of the Hevea tree
has called forth different requirements
Gums, Resins,
in regard to tapping tools suitable for
this tree. The Hevea planter re-opens
the incision at frequent intervals, and
his plan is to do this by cutting away as
small amount as possible of the cortex.
The paring process is adopted for this
‘ purpose, and the many different tools
employed in this connection show a wide
variation. Among these may be men-
tioned the Golledge tapping knife,
which is a modification of a chisel; the
“V.D.K.” knife, patented by Gustav
Van den Kerkhove; Dixon’s knife; the
Para chisel; and various others. (Nearly
thirty different rubber tapping tools were
demonstrated.)
The principal idea in tapping a rubber
tree is to make it possible to extract the
maximum amount of latex with the
minimum injury to the tree, as the ex-
traction cannot be done without injur-
ing the tree. This injury need not and
should not be more than a very tem-
porary one, and the trees as such should
not perceptibly suffer. We know that
the more bark we excise the more time
is needed by the tree for replacing the
cortex. We should therefore make a
| cut which takes away as little bark as
possible. On the other hand, we must
make a groove big enough to allow the
latex to run. If the groove is too narrow,
the latex clogs and is apt to coagulate
in the incision. If the grove is too
shallow the latex is liable to run over the
edges andis lost. Then, again, if the
groove or the incision is too deep, we have
cut, through the bark, the cambium into
the wood. In this case we have greatly
injured the tree, as we have disconnected
the tissue which carries the food mate-
rials of the tree from roots of the crown
where they are prepared for the use of
the plant. It is evident that the tree
will suffer from such a treatment. The
more we have cut away of the cambium
the longer time will it take for the tree
to recover and for the incision to heal.
Most of the knives, of the type of the
tarrier’s knife, lend themselves to too
deep cutting in the hands of an unskilled
tapper. Many of these tapping devices
have some kind or another of gauge to
determine the depth of the wound, and
‘theoretically these ‘‘ guides” work well,
but | have seldom found a tapper who
did not cut into the wood.
The latex tubes occur in the layer
between the cambium and the outer
bark, but as they originate in the cam-
bium and are constantly being added to
from this tissue, it is impossible to draw
a line of demarcation between these
tissues. Itis therefore incorrect to talk
about tapping a tree by cutting through
the inner bark without touching the
cambium, Hither we do not cut entirely
juny, ees
through the inner bark or we cut into
the cambium. In the former case we
do not cut all the latex tubes and there-
fore do not obtain the maximum amount
oflatex. Inthe latter case we get all the
latex, but we injure the cambium. The
question then arises How are we to get
all the latex without seriously injuring
the cambium? Experiments ~— have
shown that, if we cut through the cam-
bium witha sharp knife blade, without
taking away any part of the cambium,
the cells ot this last tissue that have
been injured continue in growth and
the wound begins to heal over within
24 hours, and takes only a short time to
heal completely. We should therefore
have a knife which opens a groove suffi-
ciently largely to permit the flow of latex,
but which only penetrates the harder
part of the cortex. Itshould at the same
time cut through the softer parts of the
cortex without making a deep groove,
and it should, in fact, open all the latex
tubes. In practice this last can only be
done by cutting through the cambium.
To accomplish this the ‘‘ Alpha” knife
was developed by me, and the first
sample made showed that the theory
was sound. The amount of latex ob-
tained was larger than with any other
knife tried in the experiments, and they
number over two dozens. Another
feature of this ‘‘ Alpha” knifeis that it
has two handles which gives the operator
an opportunity to work with both
hands, thus being able to direct the in-
cision according to will. The first blade
of the knife or the ‘‘ groover” makes a
shallow incision in which the latex runs.
The second blade or the ‘‘cutter” is
placed so that it pares off a thin slice of
the lower side of the groove leaving a
clean cut, and as it cuts deeper and the
operator rests on this blade it will cut
through to the wood. In this way it
cuts all the latex tubes and at the same
time the cambium, but itdoes not take
out any part of the softer tissues. I
mentioned before that a wound penetrat-
ing into the cambium, with a single
knife blade, such as this ‘‘ cutter,” does
not cause any permanent injury to the
tree and heals very rapidly.
This last mentioned tool can be oper-
ated by a comparatively unskilled work-
man, and as he can use both hands he is
able to do much more rapid work than
with single-handed tools. HKxperiments
have shown that one man can with this
tool cut incisions at the rate of over 1,000
current teet per day. ‘Taking four in-
cisions of a length of one foot per each
tree, one man can thus tap 290 trees per —
The best results obtained in Mex-
day:
ico with one-handed tools have been 12) —
trees per man, while the average is 70,
x
“~~.
Ke
dony, 1908,)
At the present time there is being
developed here in Mexico a new tapping
device, which will supersede all knives
developed so far, and will, in fact, re-
volutionize rubber tapping all over the
world, as this device can be used for any
kind of rubber tree. As this device is
not yet patented, Iam not at liberty to
describe it, but so much is certain that
it is a decided success. It isa mechan-
ical device, run by hand, foot, or elec-
tric power. It makesit possible to tap
the trees to a height of at least 12 feet,
_ and one man can without any exertion
tap as many as 500 trees per day or
about 4,000 running feet. 1 am assured
that this tapping Cevice will be on the
market before our next tapping season,
' STIMULATING THE FLOw.—It has also
been found that the flow of latex can be
stimulated by artificial irritation of the
bark. This can be donein many ways,
either by application of some chemical to
the bark or by mechanical irritation.
This latter can be accomplished with a
brush, but it is an operation which takes
some time, and the question is whether it
would be profitable or not.
LATEX COLLECTING.— We then come to
the question of the tatex collecting
vessels. You all know the primitive
calabash used by the Indian for this
purpose. In Ceylon, where plantation
tapping first became a question of im-
portance, many different kinds of collect-
ing cups have been developed. Some of
these are made of tin sheets, others of
pressed iron sheet, afterwards tinned,
and others again of aluminium. Some
are without a cover, others have covers
to prevent water ordirtfrom falling into
the cup. Some are attached by hanging
them on a nail driven into the tree.
This method is, on the face of it, quite
unpractical.
eral manipulations, it would require a
large amount of nails on a plantation
with say, 1,000,000 trees. Further, driv-
ing nails into the tree causes the develop-
ment of a diseased spot, generally
marked by abnormal growth. Anether
method of attaching the cup to the trunk
is to push the sharp edge of the cup
underneath the bark where the cup is
held. There is one grave objection to
this, and thatis the development of large
bumps on the trunk which seriously im-
pede future tapping. Such a place of
attachment is turther liable to various
diseases. On other plantations the prac-
tice isto place the cup on the ground at the
bottom on the tree, and to use a spout for
conducting the latex intothecup. There
are many objections also to this method.
The most practical collecting cup seems
to me to be an ordinary round cup with
thin edges, one side being bent inwards
Besides necessitating sev-_
Saps and BRwudations.
so as to approximately fit the trunk of a
tree. Holes are punched through the
corners at the beginning of the concavity
and a piece of string sufficiently long to
reach round the trunk is tied through
one hole. At the end of the string a
small wire hook is fastened, and this
hook is placed in the other whole, thus
securing the cup to the trunk. When
these strings are tied on tothe cup be-
fore they are taken out in the field, the
whole operation of fastening the cup
consists of one single manipulation. In
the Orient the cups used are very small,
being sufficient for the small amouut of
latex exuding from the trees, but in
tapping Castilloa trees much larger cups
are needed. ‘I'he smallest serviceable
cup should hold one quart or half liter.
TAPPING System.—Of the various
systems of tapping employed in the
different parts of the world I first want
to refer to the one in general use in
Brazil, which results in short incisions
more or less horizontal. The Central
American Indian long ago found by
experience that diagonal or oblique cuts
gave the largest amount of latex, and he
finally reached the method of making
two incisions forming an angleora V.
The object of this form of incision is to
permit the latex from the two cuts on
each side of the trunk to run together at
the apex, whence it flows into the cup.
Most Mexican planters still adhere to
this method, which, however, has many
serious objections. The principal one is
that the apex is very difficult to heal,
and usually forms a big execrescence or
bump, which seriously interferes with
future tappings. Iv further does not
lend itself to regularity in tapping and
prevents the trunk from developing
symmetrically. A continued tapping
according to this system results in want
of space for incisions a few years after
the first tapping, and then it is found
necessary to cut across the old wounds
which gives the tree the peculiar criss-
cross appearance of the wild trees
tapped by the Indians.
In Ceylon a number of various systems
have been developed. One of these
Ceylon systems which in the beginning
had a number of advocates is the gso-
called ‘‘spiral” system. This has been
tried on some plantations in Mexico, but
the result is almost invariably the death
of the tree after the first tapping. There
is, further, nothing to recommend this
system.
The “spiral curves” developed by
Northway and Bowman in Ceylon con-
sist of independent ‘“ spiral” incisions
each ending at the bottom of the tree.
There are the same objections to this
system as to the ordinary ‘‘ spiral.”
Gums, Resins,
The ‘‘ full-herringbone” system, which
has been used by the natives in Central
America and in Africa is a natural
development of the V incisions such as
those made in Mexico. The idea was
simply to connect the apices of the V’s
by alongitudinal incision, the object of
which was to serve as a conduit for the
latex. The objection to this system is
the same as in regard to the V incision.
The oblique incision meeting at the apex
of the angle make a bad wound difficult
to heal.
A modification of this last method is
the ‘‘half-herringbone” system. This
consists of a longitudinal channel, into
which the oblique cuts lead from one
side. Hxperiments have shown that this
method is the most practical and
efficient.
In regard to tapping Castilloa trees,
I would advise the employment of the
“ half-herring bone’ system in the follow-
ing manner :—A rather shallow vertical
channel is first opened from the height
to which it is intended to tap the tree.
At the bottom of this vertical incision
the collecting cup is attached to the
trunk in the manner already described.
The operator now makes an incision on
the left side of the vertical channel, at
an angle of 45° to this, and as close to
the base of the trunk as possible. This
incision should reach nearly to the
opposite side of the trunk. The plan is
to leave approximately two inches of bark
surface uncut between the end of the
incision and the second vertical channel
which will be opened opposite to the
first one at the next tapping of the tree.
When this second tapping is done the
oblique cuts are commenced at the same
distance, or at about two inches from the
first vertical channel. This leaves on
each side of the tree a narrow strip, two
inches wide, from the base to the top,
where the cortex has never been injured,
and the development of the tree can go
on at all times without interruption.
Having made the first cut as deseribed,
the operator makes another oblique in-
cision about 12-18 inches above the first
One, and subsequently opens other in-
cisions at the same distance as high up
onthe trunk as he can reach. About
two months later, when the incisions
made at the first tapping have healed,
the second series of incisions on the
opposite side of the trunk is made.
Two months later, if the seasons permit,
a third tapping is done, and this time
the oblique incisions are opened immedi-
ately below the earlier ones, and as close
to these as possible. If this policy is
followed out the surface of the trunk
will last for a number of years, and re-
is 1 -
[Jury, 1908,
tapping of the old wounds can safely be
done 8 or 9 years later. The advantage
of this system is that it permits a
symmetrical growth of the trunk, and
no loss of latex is caused by cutting into
or through old channels, which are likely
to conduct the latex in the wrong
direction.
In tapping operations great care should
be taken in not wasting latex, which is
often the case at present. Every drop
of latex should be well taken care of, as
neglect in this regard will cause a con-
siderable loss. All cups and collecting
cans should be well washsd in cold water,
and this water used in the coagulation
process.
Sometimes it happens that the latex
coagulates very rapidly, even before it
has been brought in from the field. This
is especially the case with the latex from
young trees. Coagulation can be pre-
vented by adding a few drops of for-
maldehyde to each can.
COAGULATION METHODS.—Many differ-
ent methodsavein use for the purpose of
preparing the latex for rubber. One of
the most primitive used by the Indians
is to leave the latex alone to coagulate
by the fermentation process which ,
ultimately takes place. Another one is
to expose the latex in thin layers to the
atmosphere allowing evaporation of the
moisture. This leaves a black and very
sticky substance which easily deterio-
rates and becomes tacky.
Another primitive method of the
Indians is to use an extract of a morning
. glory wine, or Ipomeea bona nox, which
extract is added to the latex and quickly
causes coagulation. The rubber obtain-
ed in this way is fairly good, but rather -
wet and irregular in appearance.
Of more modern methods we have two
essentially different types—the chemical
and the mechanical.
Coagulation is effected by means of
many different chemicals. | have made
experiments, several hundreds in num-
ber, using different chemicals. The re-
sults vary greatly, and I cannot here go
into details, but can only mention that
the observations made in this connection
will soon be published. So much has
been established, that whatever chemical
is used the resulting rubber is not of as
good quality, as when coagulation is
effected by mechanical means, Chemi-
cally coagulated rubber is usually shorter
in fibre, and does not last as long as
mechanically prepared rubber. Some-
times it may be found necessary to use a
chemical coagulant, but wherever this
can be prevented we get a better rubber,
—
4
-the latex passes into
_ strainer, in which all
Sub, 1008.
One Of the first methods of mechani-
eally preparing rubber was by means of
centrifugal force. A separator, built on
somewhat similar lines to those of an
ordinary cream separator, was used with
success.
The latest method of preparing rubber
on a commercial scale is one which I
developed after numerous experiments
at La Zacualpa Botanical Station and
Rubber Laboratory. I shall here briefly
describe this system, which has recently
been patented. (Diagram of a rubber
factory was shown.)
I shall here show a diagram of a plant-
ation rubber washing, drying and press-
ing plant according to the system re-
ferred to. Vhe latex, when brought in
from the field, is weighed on the scales
P. placed on an elevated platform. It is
then poured into A, the latex receiving
tank, where it remains until the coagul-
ating process remains. If it is necessary
to keep the latex from coagulating for
some time. asmall amount of formalde-
hyde is mixed with the latex.
From the receiving or storage tank A.
B., a centrifugal
mechanical im-
purities are separated. The latex now
~ yuns into C,a special coagulating con-
veyor. This coagulator is provided with
a steam heated jacket, so that the tem-
Pee of its contents can be raised.
he latex is mixed with an equal quan-
tity of water, and an alcoholic solution
of creosote is added in order to thorough-
ly disinfect the resulting rubber, The
temperature is raised to about 50° C.,
and the latex is-slightly stirred by the
movement of the conveyor. When the
rubber commences to coagulate, which
process begins in about 20 minutes, it is
forced by the conveyor into the cream-
ing vats D, and D,, where it is allowed
to stand fora short while. The latex
is further diluted with water entering
underside of these vats. Upon being
allowed to rest acreaming begins, and
when separation has taken place some
of the serum is drawn off from the
lower part of the vat, and new clean
water added from below.. This washing
oft the cream is repeated several times
in order to separate as much as
possible of the resins contained in
the latex, which have been kept in
a fluid state by the warm water.
Finally, the cream is allowed to rise,
and the surface is raised by the in-
jection of water allowing the cream or
partly coagulated rubber to run over an
overflow lip onto tables fixed beneath
the lips of these vats. The rubber is
partly worked by hand with small
wooden spades, and passed to the wash-
ing machines F. In these the rubber is
2
Saps and BLxudations.
pressed between heavy steel rollers, and
at the same time it is further washed
with water. The rubber is put through
these machines several times until it
appears in the form of fresh crepe rubber.
All serum or washing water drawn off
is passed through aseparator K.in which
all the rubber contained in the water is
extracted.
The strips of crépe referred to are
placed in the vacuum dryer J. until
only 6 or7 % of moisture remains. The
strips of dry rubber are then folded and
placed in the box of the press G, in which a
sufficient pressure iS applied. In this
manner a block of rubber is obtained,
which contains the maximum amount
within a minimum of space. In order to
keep the presses continuously going inter-
changeable boxes are introduced, and
by a duplicate bridle arrangement fitted
with four strong screws the inverted
name plate for branding the rubber,
is held down by these screws and easily
relieved from the foot on the press. The
press ram screw is then raised, a new
name inserted, and another box placed
in position. After pressing, the boxes
with the rubber still under pressure are
taken to another stove for ‘fixing,’ and
then by simply unlocking the hinged base
the branded and finished block is thrust
through the bottom. These rubber
blocks are made of a standard size, and
packed in suitable standard packing
cases, well planed on the inside, and
they are then ready for shipping.
The complete plant for preparing
crude rubber, as here described, is made
by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., of
Castleton, Manchester, England, and
costs, complete with boiler, engine,
shafting, circular saw, planer and ma-
chinery referred to, about $18,000 Mex.
Such a plant has acapacity of 300 lbs.
dry rubber per day.
QUALITY OF RUBBER.—The rubber pre-
pared by this method has been _ pro-
nounced fullyequal to best hard cure
Para, which, as is well-known, is the
best rubber on the market. The prices
offered for this new Uastilloa rubber are
pane than current prices for ordinary
ara.
A general fault previously found with
Castilloa rubber is the large amount of
resin which it contains. The percent-
age of resin in Castilloa rubber has
varied from 8 to 41%. By this new
method of preparation the amount of
resin can be lowered to less than 3 %.
This new rubber therefore fills the re-
quirements placed upon rubber articles
by the British Admiralty. It is curious,
but a well-known rubber buyer, to
whom I showed a sample, made ac-
Gums, Resins, 10
cording to this new method, claimed
that it was Para rubber, and another
manufacturer was highly interested
thinking that the sample was some new
rubber of some unknown plant.
Another point in connection with this
method of preparing rubber I shall now
refer to. As you know, the Brazillian
rubber collector prepares the crude pro-
duct by dipping a spade-like piece of
wood into the latex and then drying
the thin film of latex over the smoke
from burning palm nuts. When the
film is solid, another one is added, and
thus the work goes on, until a large ball
of rubber has been formed. Each of the
succeeding films exerts a certain pressure
on the inner parts, and in this fact we
have tolook for one of the main rea-
sons why so-called hard cure Para
retains its strength so well. Another
observation is that, if a piece of crude
rubber is surrounded by twine asin a
cricket ball, the rubber remains perfectly
sound for years, while if a piece is ex-
posed to the atmosphere and is not
subjected to pressure it will inthe same
period of time lose many of its physical
qualities. I attribute the keeping quali-
ties of Para balls and of therubber in a
cricket ball to the pressure to which
it is exposed in either case. Hxperiments
have shown that pieces of freshly coagu-
lated rubber which have been subjected
to very high pressure retain all the
characteristics of good rubber much
ionger than pieces not pressed.
Itis further important to notice that
hard cure Para rubber is not perfectly
dry. Experiments have shown that
rubber containing a slight amount of
moisture is more ‘‘elastic,” has a high
resiliency than rubber not containing
any moisture. Other experiments have
shown that perfectly dry rubber does
not keep as long as a rubber containing a
certain amount of moisture.
On the other hand, if the amount of
moisture is too large the rubber is liable
to deteriorate, as the moisture assists
bacterial organisms in their destructive
processes. With these points in view
the method of drying and pressing rub-
ber employed in the just described
system of preparation was developed.
In drying the strips of crépe rubber
until they contain about6 or 7 % of mois-
ture the excess water is extracted and
the rubber is left with a suitable amount
of moisture to retain all its physical
qualities. As I mentioned, the rubber
is blocked in this condition. The so-
ealled “fixing” of the block, or its
rapid drying until the outer part to a
depth of about 5mm. is perfectly dry,
results in this outer layer contracting
and exerting apressure on the inner part.
When such a block of rubber is eut open,
it will be noticed that there is a slight
difference between the outer layer and
the inner part of the block, the latter
being superior in quality.
In regard to Castilloa rubber, it is
important that as small a surface as
possible is exposed to the atmosphere,
as it is very liable to oxidize. From this
point of view it is evident that the block
form is the most suitable. For shipping
BEEDORES the block is also the most handy
orm.
TACKINESS OF RUBBER.—The develop-
ment of tackinessin Castilloa rubber has
been studied to some extent at La Zacu-
alpa Laboratory. Many experiments with
inoculation of bacteria, which cause
tackiness, have been made, and it has
been proved that tackiness can be pre-
vented by the use of one or another dis-
infectant in the preparation of the crude
rubber. Following up the cue given -
by the method of coagulation employed
in the Amazon district, most experi-
menters first used creosote as antispetic
in preparing rubber. It had been found
that the smoke of the urucuri nuts con-
taired among other substances, small
amounts of creosote, acetic acid and
acetone. My experiments have shown
that a great number of different chemi-
cals can be used in asseptizing the latex,
but an alcoholic solution of creosote
in small quantites is probably one of
the best.
PACKING.—It is of importance that in
packing rubber blocks for shipping per-
tectly clean cases be employed, and no
paper or other substances should he
placed with the rubber in the cases. It
is not advisable to make the blocks
heavier than about 25lbs. Four of these
blocks can then conveniently be packed
in one case, which thus contains from
100 Ibs. to 1 ewt.
CLEANLINESS.—I may add that, in all
the processes of rubber preparation the
strictest cleanliness should be observed.
The latex factory should be as scrupu-
lously clean asa-dairy. How different is
not this idea from the general method
of rubber making employed at present
in Mexico.
STORING RUBBER.—Rubber prepared
ina proper manner can be stored on
the plantation for along time. Experi-
ments have shown that one year of
storage ina tropical climate does uot
perceptibly affect the rubber which has
been prepared well. In passing, I
may here mention that it is advisable
to have a store room supplied with
orange or ruby coloured windows in
we
ea ee
Let us say
the rains have set in.
in the tissues after the rains.
i ie anne Re ne ee
Ly, 1908.) .
; udex to prevent the actinic rays of
daylight from reaching the rubber.
_ Prices or RuBBER.—Although I do not
expect the present high prices of rub-
ber to last, there is very little reason
to suppose that the prices would go
duwn to any considerable extent for the
next few years to come. It now costs
us approximately 25cts. Mex. to collect,
prepare and market one pound of
rubber, while under the old systems
in this country it has cost in some cases
as much as 74 cts. The price we can
get at present for rubber prepared on
the new system is $2°62 Mex. per lb.
that the prices go down
50 %, and we will still find rubber cul-
ture profitable.
The goal we must work for is to pre-
pare as gooda quality of rubber as is
possible. At the same time we must
endeavour to decrease the cost of pro-
duction by employing modern labour-
saving appliances anda carefully planned
system of work and management.
DISCUSSION.
THe CHAIRMAN said that after such
an interesting paper he was sure that
there were some questions to be put to
Dr. Olsson-Seffer.
Mr. J. C. HARVEY : I would like to ask
if there is any special time for tapping
which you would recommend. Ido not
think this was mentioned in your paper. |
Dr. OLSSON-SEFFER said that experi-
ence had proved that the best time of
tapping is in the wet season, when a
greater amount of latex is obtained,
and the incisions healed quicker. The
actual time naturally varies with the
geographical position of the plantation.
It may be said that as arule tapping
should begin about 2 or 3 weeks after
It is necessary to
give the treea little time after the dry
season in order to permit the tree to
accustom itself to receive the larger
amount of water which always circulates
The trans-
piration is always larger immediately
after tapping, and if the tree is not
adjusted to a rapid circulation it will
suffer. It generally takes about two
months for the incisions to heal, and if
we follow the plan suggested in tke
paper not to tap again before the tree has
_ recuperated, we will be able to tap our
trees every second month as long as the
rains last. Ina region with six months’
rainy season we thus can tap about three
times a year. If the trees are tapped
during the dry season the tree suffers
considerably, and instead of healing the
wounds remain open, and on the edges
an accumulation of cork takes place,
which makes the bark rough and uneven
11 Saps and Reudations.
and greatly hampers future tappings.
During the rainy season the trees are
also more immune to the attacks of
diseases than during the dry season. I
may here show some larvze which are the
worst enemies of the rubber planter. He
knows them well, but does not like to
talk about them. If the trees have been
cut badly, fungisettlein the wounds and
in conjunction with bacteria cause decay,
the smell of which attracts insects,
which deposit their eggs in the wounds,
and sometime afterwards the ravages of
the borer begin. This as wellas other
diseases of the rubber tree can be pre-
vented, and it behoves the planter to be
on a constant look-out for these enemies.
Mr. A. ALDASORO, speaking in Spanish,
said in part: “I have listened with
pleasure to the address of Dr. Olsson-
Seffer, and I extend to those in atten-
dance at this Convention my felicitations
upon their having so able and scientific
aman to discuss the subjects in which
they are interested. I wish the organiza-
tion which is now being formed all
success, andI assure youof my ever
earnest support.” The Under-Secretary
thereupon leftthe meeting.—Year Book
of the Kubber Planters’ Association of
Mexico, 1907-1908.
CACAO AS AN ADJUNCT TO
RUBBER CULTURE.
By J. C. HARVEY.
(Paper read before the first meeting of
the Mexican Rubber Planters’ Associa-
tion on October 9th, 1907.)
It is not attempted in this brief paper
to treat exhaustively with the cultivation
of either rubber or cacao, but to allude
tentatively to the advantages under
certain circumstances of the cultivation
of cacao as an adjunct to rubber grow-
ing. It should further be clearly under-
stood that such methods as may be fur-
ther referred to are only intended to
apply to the conditions of rainfall, soil
and temperature which exist in the
district in which the writer’s conclusions
have been arrived at.
From experimental plantings, made by
the writer at La Buena Ventura, of
cacao plants set out with rubber grow-
ing in full sun, there seems to be every
reason to doubt the success of the plant-
ings, for the following reasons :—The
rubber trees must have reached a
height of from 10 to 15 feet in order to
provide a proper shade even when the
rubber trees are in full foliage. This
would entail, after the planting of the
rubber, a waiting period of from three
to five years; then again, the loss of
foliage of the Castilloatree becomes more
marked and the periodicity more fixed
Gums, Resins, 12
as the tree becomes older, and there
would be a deficiency of shade for cacao
during the very period when it required
it the most, viz., during the hottest and
the driest months of the year—March,
April and May,—and still further, the
more or less frequent occurrence of
strong south winds, occurring during
this period, are of serious disadvantage,
causing the rupture of the tendril of the
leaf at its point of junction with the
peduncle. This is tantamount to defolia-
tion and is a serious check to the tree.
All of the foregoing does not by any
means close the question, and my con-
viction arrived at after several years
of practical experience is that cacao can
be grown toa very considerable degree
of advantageinconnection with Castilloa,
and provide an income before the Castil-
loa can in the nature of things be expected
to produce any appreciable amount of
rubber. It however involves the accep-
tance of the system of growing rubber in
partial shade, and upon this score there
is such a wide difference cf opinion,
namely, ‘‘sun versus shade,” that it is
with some diffidence I bring forward the
pestion at all. Rubber planting in
shade, so called, and as applying to soil
and climatic conditions existing on that
portion of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
familiar to the writer, includes the
southern part of the State of Vera Cruz
and a portion of the State of Oaxaca.
Here the seasons may be divided into
three meteorological epochs: the dry
season of March, April and May during
which in normal years the rainfall is
insignificant and the heat very consider-
able; the rainy season proper, which
includes the months of June, July,
August, September, and in part the
month of October, with much sunshine,
during three quarters of which the
annual precipitation occurs. This
season is followed by whatis called the
season of the northers, whose influence
carries from the Gulf considerable
volumes of vapour, usually in the form of
much cloudiness and more or less mist
and drizzle. This period comprises the
months of November, December, Janu-
ary and February. Observations kept
by the writer extending over a period of
eighty years show a total average
annual precipitation for these months of
about 12 inches, or a total for the whole
year of approximately 100 inches—a
good and sufficient rainfall for any tro-
pical country where well distributed.
Continued cloudiness. during these
months and a relatively mild series of
temperatures favour any slight evapor-
ation. Hence, though the rainfall is so
very much less, the actual humid con-
es of soil and atmosphere is relatively
igh.
[Jony, 1908.
With the foregoing data I will now
enter upon the system of planting cacao
with rubber.
First, nurseries are prepared in January
by digging up the soil in any favourable
locality. Seeds are sown during Febru-
ary, March and April as they may be
procurable, and by November of the
same year the plants are ready for trans-
planting. Before proceeding further it
will be necessary to refer to the rubber
plantings already made. This involves
the partial clearing of forest in May,
lining and staking at 14 to 15 feet apart.
The next step is selecting the trees from
nurseries established the previous year.
At this point I cannot refrain from
alluding to the vital importance of
having nurseries of Castilloa of such
quantity in point of number that there
will be asurplus of at least 50 per cent.
in excess of actual need, resulting in a
selection of prime trees of indicated
constitutional superiority in size and
development of roots. This constitu-
tional fixed character is in my opinion
a pronounced aspect of the Castilla trees,
more noticeable than in many other eco-
nomic plants.
We will therefore be ready for plant-
ing operations in the month of June
with the first rains. Following the
planting of rubber the cacao trees of the
nurseries of February and March of the
same year will be ready for planting in
the November following. While we
thus make the two plantings in the
same year, the nurseries are made in
different years. Rubber in June of the
preceding year and cacao in February
and March, ,as already indicated, of the
same year of planting. All that will be
required in the preparation of the land
for the cacao trees will have practically
been accomplished in its preparation for
Castilloa, except that toward the end of
October the centres of each 14 feet square
of Castilloa should be cleaned, staked and
made ready for the cacao trees.
The degree of shade required for this -
double planting will somewhat depend
upon the character of the first growth.
Nice, fairly tall timber of a permanent
evergreen character, likely to endure
many years, will prove the best. If
reasonably lofty, greater advantage is
likely to result in a greater effect of
shade with a lesser number of shade
trees per acre, thus affording the maxi-
mum of soil for the root development.
Cacao so planted may be expected to
come into light bearing in the fifth year,
and an increasing crop thereafter, while
Castilloa might be expected to yield some ~
return in the eighth year. Now, as the
above system of planting the rubber is
in opposition to the more general plan
Ba ak 5
eae NY ee hn di
ty
Jury, 1908.]
of felling and burning all timber and
sowing the rubber seed at stake, it does
not at first blush commend itself to the
rubber planter, whose principal issue is
rubber and not the special value of
other crops. Since the partial shade
planting involves a rather greater outlay
than seed planting at stake, such objec-
tion is met by the following, namely,
that an uninterrupted large area of
rubber without other cultures is a
direct invitation to the pernicious insects
and increased risk from fire—in short a
serious disturbance in the equilibrium
of nature. As has been remarked in
Dr. Olssson-Seffer’s paper, a sufficient
sub-dividing of rubber in blocks with
strips of primitive forest dividing them,
for the purpose of not too severely dis-
turbing the said equilibrium of natural
conditions, and further as_ affording
protection against destructive winds
and fire, is to be recommended. We
see at once that such forest divisions
can be ultilized for cacao growing, and
evenif this were not so, a segregation of
certain blocks of an estate to be dedicated
_to growing cacao in comparative light
shade with rubber would be advisable for
the reasons stated. Another consider-
ation of importance becomes appar-
ent, viz., the constant employ of a
large force of men, that will inevitably
be required to conduct tapping _ oper-
ations on estates of some magnitude. It
is clear that, if further knowledge
demonstrates the apparent correctness
of this practice acquired from such ex-
perience already had, viz., that tapping
operations aftord the best results when
conducted through the cooler months
of the year, extending through Novem-
ber, December, January and February,
that such a force of men can hardly be
profitably employed during the balance
of the year, unless the plantation be
divided in the formation stage, But
provided all plantings have been made,
it is then evident that some other crop
requiring work during other months of
the year is admirably met with by the
necessary culture required by cacao.
When we consider that while rubber is
purely a silvan or first culture, cacao on
the contrary «s requiring the best and
most intelligent of agricultural practice,
and, further, that the crop season in at
least that portion of the Republic
embraced by the writer’s conclusions,
namely, the State of the Vera Cruz
and a portion of the State of Oaxaca,
occurs during the months of March,
April, and May. Thisisthe dry season,
when the natural conditions without the
aid of drying apparatus permit a com-
plete curing of the crop.
The following inquiry may now sug-
gest itself:—What is the return from
18 Saps and Exudations.
cacao, planted under favourable condi-
tions of soiland climate,’ likely “to be?
Hirst, I must say that cacao requires a
deep, well-drained soil, as its tap root
extends to a considerable depth, A poor
sandy or gravelly soil is unsuitable.
Mellow loam carrying a good percentage
of decayed vegetable matter, which
soil characterizes a goodly portion of the
districts under consideration, is prefer-
able. Shallow soils underlaid by trap
rock, impervious clays or strata of
gravel too near the surface are especi-
ally to be avoided, and such soils are
also unfavourable to the growth of
Castilloa. Wewmay conclude that cul-
ture under the conditions described
promises every hope of success. The
writer has some 100,000 cacao trees
growing under his care, a part of which
are at Buena Ventura and the larger
portion at La Junta, and, further, actual
initial crops have been harvested and
sold. I have therefore not quite the
same sense of modesty in pressing for-
ward my viewsas under a purely hypo-
thetical premise. Returning, however,
to the question of profit, I will say at
once that the history of cacao is a
thoroughly practical one, and one with
ample precedent, and further that the
increase of consumption has outgrown
the supply as indicated by the steady
rise in value, since three years ago.
During this period cacao of prime qual-
ity has advanced in London and Ham-
burg markets from 60 shillings per cwt.
to95 shillings and 100. Weatonce find
food for reflection from these figures,
and since 225 trees of cacao per acre
should in good bearing give 24 to 3 Ibs.
per tree, though commencing with a
compartively small yield, it will bs:
sufficient to say that cacao is a success,
culturally speaking. This is the case in
Venezuela, Ecuador, and Ceylon, in cer-
tain parts of West Africa and of the West
Indian Islands, and the cultivation is
advancing, as statistics positively show.
I have, both on the estate in which I am
financially interested and in the corpor-
ate property which I am at present
managing, planted perhaps the largest
single plantings of cacao yet in exist-
ence in Vera Cruz during the past eight
years, and the results so far justify the
conclusions arrived at.
Those taking part in the discussion
following this paper were Mr. W. S.
Murdock and Dr. P. Olsson-Seffer.— Year
Book of the Rubber Planters’ Association
of Mexico, 1907-1908.
[Cacao is proving to be perhaps the
best crop to grow with rubberin Ceylon.
The best average growth we have yet
measured is on an estate growing these
two products.—ED. |
14
OILS AND FATS.
NOTES ON THE CULTIVATION OF
GROUND NUTS, EARTH NUTS,
MONKEY NUTS (ARACHIS
HY POG.)
By Viscount MOUNTMORRES.
In answer to many enquiries from
West. African merchants and their
agents, the following note on the culti-
vation of the ground nut has been re-
cently circulated by the Institute :—
SOI.
A very light, preferably sandy, soil is
necessary for the cultivation of ground
nuts in order that the fruits may be
easily able to bury themselves cn matur-
ity. The plant will not succeed in
clays or evenin heavy damp loam. A
certain amount of lime appears to be
necessary for, or atany rate favourable
to, their successful cultivation.
PREPARATION OF THE GROUND.
The ground ought to be well worked
up to a depth of 10 or 12 inches, and
then thoroughly harrowed after having
been exposed for a few days to the action
of the atmosphere. The ground is next
ridged up into flat ridges about 4 feet 6
inches wide, with narrow furrows
between.
SOWING.
The seeds shouid be set at such a time
that the plant comes to maturity at the
commencement of the dry season. For
West Africa this would mean sowing
about June. The seeds are set two or
three together in pockets about 33 to 4
inches deep, at distances of 12 inches
along the centre of the ridges. It is
advisable to manure the bottom of the
pockets before setting the seeds with’
any rich available manure. About 100
lbs. of seed will be required per acre.
CULTIVATION.
The ground must be hoed over round
the pockets at intervals as soon as the
plant has made its appearance, and just
when the plant is coming to maturity
the ground immediately round it should
be worked up and loosened in order to
facilitate the fruit burying itself.
During the growth of the plant it re-
quires a considerable amount of mois-
ture, and will want watering if there is
any sign of drought. But immediately
any fructification commences it is abso-
Iutely essential that the plant and
ground around it be allowed to dry as
muchas possible. No watering must be
done. Atter the fruits have appeared,
they bury themselves in the ground, and
complete maturity is indicated by the
stalks and leaves withering and turning
yellow. ;
CROPPING.
The fruit-bearing stems may then be
pulled up, thoroughly shaken to detach
the earth, and dried in the sun. The
nuts should be detached from the stalk
by hand, and exposed to the sun as long
as possible to dry them _ thoroughly.
They can be shipped either in the husks
or shelled. Both plans are common,
YIELD.
The yield of ground nuts is very vari-
able. Thus, in Senegal, in Cayor, in
ground prepared simply by the hoe, the
yield is about half a ton toa ton of the
fresh gathered nuts per acre, whilst in
the same districts on lands cultivated by
the plough and properly prepared, the
yield is as high as four or five tons per
acre. 'The average yield on properly
Prepared ground may be taken, how-
ever. at about a ton per acre. It addi-
tion to the ground nut, the vegetation
of the plant is one of the most. valuable
forms of fodder, and yields from a ton to
aton and a half per acre, green, and
about half this weight dry.—Liverpool
University Institute of Commercial Re-
search in the Tropics, Vol, Il, No. 6,
January, 1908.
SUNFLOWER OIL.
A POSSIBLE SUNFLOWER INDUSTRY.
A considerable amount of attention
has attracted in India in recent years to
the cultivation of the sunflower for
economic purposes. Hitherto the in-
dustry has been almost entirely confined
to Russia, where it has attained a posi-
tion of no little importance. In that
country the seeds, which are the most
valuable part of the plant on account of
the edible kernels, are used largely for
local consumption. The farmer, it is
stated, sells them at an equivalent to
from 4s. to 6s. per pound—but we fancy
this must be a misprint for the Russian
weight pood—the purchaser retailing
them, after being salted, at about double
that figure, and they are sold atthe
street corners in provincial towns, like
chesnuts in France or peanutsin America
or India, On feast days and holy days
they are sold in large quantities, roasted,
under the name of ‘‘Semolchky.” Birds
of all kinds thrive on the seeds—as the
cultivator knows to his cost—which are
specially used for feeding caged biids
¥
are at present employed in
*
Jury, 1908.}
and in fattening fowls for the table,
whose laying powers are also greatly
inereased thereby. In America the seeds
feeding
poultry, and to some extent, mixed with
' other fodder, as a cattle food ; otherwise
rl
f
i
Ng
;
F
in that country the plantis simply rared
for ornamental purposes. In Russia the
oil cake is valued higher than maize or
linseed cake as a cattle food, and is also
said to act as a “condition powder” for
horses owing to its easy digestibility
and highly nutritive properties. Sheep,
pigs. rabbits, and pigeons as well fatten
rapidly on the oil cake.
The oil itself is not a less valuable
product in Russia, for on account of its
‘great palatability, when in a pure state,
itis extensively employed for culinary
purposes, and as an adulterant of, and a
substitute for, olive oil. But although
the cultivation of the sunflower is carried
on successfully in Russia, and the manu-
facture of the oilis a long established
and prosperous undertaking, the pros-
pects to theagriculturist and the manu-
facturer in other countries seems to be
by no means assured; even in America
the oil is not produced commercially.
SomME UNSUCCESSFUL HXPERIMENTS.
Attempts to create a sunflower oil
industry in India have so far proved dis-
appointing, if not a pronounced failure.
In 1896, Sir Frederick Abel arrived at
the conclusion that there was no like-
lihood of India competing successfully in
England with other sources of supply.
One eminent firm of cilseed crushers at
home, determined to give the Indian
product a fair trial, purchased 100 tons
of seed inthe London Market, but the
yield was so very unsatisfactory that
they decided not to touch it again. A
similar verdict was passed in Marseilles,
Planters in Behar have tried the seed,
but obtained no encouragement to go
beyond the experimental stage. Cultiva-
tion of the plant was carried on in
Bangalore for several years, but there
too it was abandoned as unprofitable.
‘At the Experimentai Farm in Sibpur,
Russian seed was tried and it was proved
that the plant could be grown in Bengal
with ease, but whether it would pay the
_eultivator was considered problemetical.
A plot of one-tenth of an acre was
planted with Russian seed first as a rain
crop and a second time in the cold
weather. The outturn of seed was 8}
|bs. in the rains and 474 lbs. in the winter.
Out of 56 lbs. of seed 50 lbs. were crushed
and gave 43 lbs. equal to 9 per cent. of
oil, a yield very iow compared with that
of other oilseeds in India. The oil, how-
ever, was clear and agreeable to the
taste. In ancther experiment at Coimba-
15 Oils and Fats.
tore with Russian seed, a yield of about
31 per cent. of oil was obtained. Of
several experiments in Behar, the most
recent, apparently, was one conducted
by Mr. E. Hudson, of the Rajpore Indigo
Concern ; some of the best seed was pro-
cured from Messrs. Sutton & Co., and
sown in October, 1905. The seed from
this crop was kept for sowing till the
following year, so that it might be
acclimatised. Froma plot of one-tenth
of an acre 72 lbs. of seed was obtained,
giving 40 per cent. husks ete. and 60 per
cent. kernels; and from the kernels 30
per cent. oil was extracted. This result
was not considered a success, aS more
profitable returns were obtained from
mustard seed and linseed. Lieutenant
J. F. Pogson, stated to be an authority
on Indian agriculture a generation ago,
wrote to the Secretary of the Agri-
Horticultural Society of India in 1875
that he looked upon experiments in the
production of sunflower oil in this
country as time and money wasted.
‘he general conclusion seems to be that
sunflower is an unprofitable crop in
India, although it can be successfully
grown over large areas, and the same
methods of cultivation as those applied
to Indian corn may be followed.
THE FUTURE.
The question of whether the crop may
be made to pay or not must depend,
however, on the prices obtainable for
the products. For example, although
the oil, owing to its poor drying pro-
perties as compared with linseed oil and
poppyseed oil, is of a relatively low
value for mixing with plants and for
other purposes, there may be a future
before it as an edible oil and for culinary
purposes, also for the production of
artificial butter, for varnish making,
even for soap making in a small way.
Again, although anything like the price
obtainable in Russia for the oileake—
about £610s. to £7 10s. per ton—is not to
be thought of in India, still as the values
of the various kinds of oileake come to
be properly appreciated by the Indian
cultivator, there is little doubt that
much better rates than are at present
obtainable will eventually be procured.
Theexploitation of oil seeds and the oil
manutacturing industries in India are
but in their infancy, and sunflower oil
may yet be found valuable: for other
purposes than those known at present.
Most, if not every one, of the expensive
blends of the various kinds of machinery
oils that are at present largely imported
from Hurope could be produced locally,
as there is little doubt their com-
ponents—or substitutes as suitable—are
indigenous, Burma and Assam furnish-
ing what with few exceptions is the
Oils ‘and Fats.
common base,—Capitat.—_|The Indian
Agriculturisl, Vol. XXXIII, Calcutta,
Monday, March 2, 1908, No. 3. |
(The sunflower is already, thanks to
its introduction by the School Gardens,
being cultivated as a village crop for oil
in the Welimada District.—KD. ]
A SHORT NOTE ON THE
POSSIBILITIES OF THE OIL PALM
(4LAIS GUINEESNIs, WILD.) IN
CULTIVATION.
By Eric DRABBLE, D SC.,F.L S.
The oil palm is abundant throughout
most parts of tropical West Africa. It
is a palm attaining a height in large
trees of as much as ninety feet, but it
is usually considerably smaller, even
when mature. It flourishes on all kinds
of soil, whether on steep slopes or on
the level ground, and from sea level up
to 3,000 feet, though at these great
elevations it does not bear fruit so
abundantly as at lower levels. It grows
best of allin damp valleys, but will not
succeed in marshy land, though occa-
sional floods do not affect it adversely.
Preuss states that sea breezes do not
harm the tree, and this appears to be
perfectly correct for certain localities.
A. EH. Evans, however, writing of the oil
palm on the Gold Coast, says that it
grows in all localities, except those
directly exposed to the sea breezes.
In any case, it is a tree that will succeed
in most soils in tropical West Africa, and
will bear fruit abundantly except at
great heights.
Though truly nativein West Africa, the
tree is most abundant in the neighbour-
hood of human habitation, owing to the
fact that the natives use the oil very
extensively for cooking and for anoint-
ing their bodies. The hard shells con-
taing the seed are thrown away, and
may germinate, giving rise to new trees.
Lord Mountmorres states that in some
parts the natives have been in the habit of
deliberately cultivating the oil palm
from apparently quite early times.
Some of the so-called natural ‘“ palm
belts” he believes to be plantations, and
instances one in Western Krobo, Gold
Coast, which was planted by the then
Omanhene of the tribe forty years z2g0,
and is of very large extent. Certain it
is that even the belts of wild self-sown
plams are in many cases very carefully
tended and maintained by re-planting,
and the ground often weeded and hoed .
by the natives whodraw their supplies
from them.
16
There can be little doubt that the tree
would prove remunerative to Europeans
in cultivation, on one condition, namely,
the presence of suitable machinery for
extracting the oil. This will be referred
to later. It is certainly curious that
whilst so much energy and capital are
expended in the introduction and eculti-
vation of exotic crops, so little attention
has been given to this, the great staple
of West Africa.
FORMATION OF PLANTATION.
The seeds germinate readily. Indeed
the heaps of ‘‘nuts” thrown away by
the natives, after the oily pericarp has
been removed, are found to become
covered with the young plarts. Itis
only necessary to plant the fruits to
obtain a growth of seedlings very
quickly.
The native method is to transplant
the young plants which spring up
plentifully around the old trees, and this
method has advantages over direct
growth from the seeds. It demands
more trouble, but the time taken to reap
a harvest of fruits is lessened ; and hardy,
likely-looking plants alone need be
chosen, guaranteeing a high yield per
acre.
Though usually set very close together
by natives, it is probable that the young
plants should be ata distance of about
twenty-five feetapart. This gives sixty-
seven trees to the acre. They begin to
peoduce fruit very soon, at about the
third to the fifth year, but are not in
full bearing until the tenth to the
fifteenth year. Occasionally trees are
found which do not begin to bear fruit
before the fifteenth to the twentieth
year. Itis possible that this statement
may refer to a distinct variety, -but this
has not hitherto been proved. :
The plant begins to form a trunk at
about the fifth year under favourable
conditions, and from that time onwards
it needs but littie attention. Previously
to this itis advisable to see that the
young plants are not choked out oft
existence by surrounding vegetation.
Once the crown gets above the other
plants in the neighbourhood it shoots
ahead rapidly.
DISEASES AND PESTS.
The oil palm seems to be singularly
free from fungal and insect pests. The
principal one is Rhynchophor us phenicis,
whose larva lives in the trunk, but does
relatively little damage. The mature
weevil also sucks the juice of the fleshy
upper portions.
METHOD OF GATHERING AND EXTRAC-
TION BY THE NATIVES. —
The nacives of West Africa climb the
|. Sioa
oy Marah
fy,
‘and are of a dark
i
Jury, 1908.)
tree by means of rope girdles made of
palm-leaf fibre. They cut the bunches
of fruit. In the Cameroons the fruits
are detached and placed in a boiler, with
sufficient water to cover them. They
are then boiled for one and a half or two
hours. The wateris then poured off,
the fruits are placed in a wooden or
metal vessel, and crushed with wooden
elubs. The hard shells containing the
seeds—the ‘“‘ nuts ”—are then removed,
and the pulp is pressed by hand_ to
extract as much oil as-possible. The
remaining pulp and the ‘“ nuts” are then
thrown into a receptacle with cold
water, and stirred. The‘ nuts” are
then removed, and the pulp is again
pressed by hand. The exuding liquid
runs back into the receptacle, and the
remaining pulp is thrown away. The
liquid is thoroughly and continuously
whisked. A yellow froth forms on the
surface, which is skimmed off and
thrown into a boiler and boiled for half
an hour, and the oil is then ladled off.
In this way Dr. Preuss finds that from
60°5 kilograms of fruit 4:062 kilograms of
oil are obtained.
Lord Mountmorres thus describes the
process on the Gold Coast: In the
preparation of palm oil the fruit clusters
of the palm are cut off by the natives,
and the fruits themselves detached from
the stalk. The first process in the re-
eovery of the oil consists in heaping the
fruit up in large masses to the extent of
several hundredweights, on a flooring
of loose rods overlying a shallow
cemented pit. The heap is covered up
with banana leaves, palm fronds and
mats, and left for several days, during
which a kind of fermentation occurs and
a certain fraction of the oil exudes and
drips into the pit. The whole mass is
then transferred to a large saueer-shaped
cement floor, round the edge of which a
gutter leads to a small well on one side.
It is again covered up and left fora few
days, when the fermentation advances a
stage further, and more oil issues and is
collected in the well. Neither this oil
nor the first fraction are ever exported,
being retained by the natives for their
own use, the one for culinary purposes
and the other as an unguent. Both
remain liquid at ordinary temperatures,
amber colour and
perfectly clear. Subsequently the fruit
is pounded with logs or trodden by large
groups of natives standing round the
heap, water being constantly thrown
over it to assist in the extraction of
the oil. This process is repeated for
some hours daily, sometimes for a fort-
night, the heap being covered up with
banana leaves and mats during the
remainder of the twenty-four hours. As
3
17 Saps and Reudations,
goon as no more oil can be extracted in
this fashion, the nuts are removed and
the fruit is boiled in large cauldrons,
and the oil which rises to the surface
skimmed off. Finally, the mass of pulp
is removed from the cauldrons, placed in
large wicker-work bottles, which are
squeezed between two logs by leverage
across a bar over a pit or well. The oil
collected from these processes is gener-
ally mixed together for purposes of
trade, and the oil is boiled to remove
Wetter: After boiling it sets asa semi-
solid.”
It is perfectly evident that by these
methods a very large percentage of the
oil is lost, for though no considerable
quantity is left in the fibrous pericarp,
during the operations of skimming, ete.,
avery great deal is wasted. Exactly
what proportion is lost is not quite
settled, and no doubt it varies according
to the care exercised by the natives.
Dr. Preuss is of opinion that in the
Cameroons about two-thirds is lost.
Lord Mountmorres estimates the loss on
the Gold Coast at not over’ one-third
on the average, and amongst the care-
ful Krobos at probably much less.
QUANTITY OF FRUIT PRODUCED
BY A TRER.
It is difficult to make any general
statement, as the number of bunches
formed per tree varies so widely. Lord
Mountmorres is inclined to think that
not more than four should be counted
upon as an average; while Dr, Preuss,
speaking for the Cameroons, says ten;
and Mr. Evans, of the Gold Coast, gives
four to twelve.
The size of the bunches varies, but
about 1,500 fruits per bunchis not an
outside limit, and bunches with less than
1,000 are said to be searce.
The percentage of oil as given per
fruit is very variable,
Also the size of the fruits varies. I
have found volumes :—7:2, 4'0, 5'2, 6°7,
and 7‘d. ec. respectively, and even with
simillar sized . fruits the quantity of
fat-containing pericarp is a variable
quantity.
Hence any calculation as to the amount
of oil to be obtained from one tree is
hardly worth undertaking, as the
figures can never be trustworthy, except
for any given district.
What is certain, however, is that with
suitable machinery for ‘crushing the
pericarp the yield would be materially
greater than that obtained at present
by native methods, and, accepting aver-
age figures, it ought to be safe to count
upon 83 to 85 Ibs, of oil per tree per
Gums, Resins,’ 18
annum, or, at 67 trees peracre, almost
exactly one ton per acre.
The kernels contain a rich supply—
about 47% when fully ripe—of palm
kernel oil.
The kernels are in nearly all varieties
of oil palm enclosed in an exceedingly
hard shell. This is at presentcracked by
amost laborious process, each shell being
individually broken by hand between
two stones, and though the women who
do this work acquire an extraordinary
dexterity at it, there is no doubt but
that it represents a very great loss of
valuable labour. Many attempts have
been made to introduce many mechan-
ical nut-crackers, to be worked either
by hand or by steam or water power,
but so far without much success. For
various reasons the machines, most of
which are based on the centrifugal
principle, invented up to the present,
have proved unsatisfactory,though there
are two recent types atleast which give
some promise of solving this very great
problem. Most of thekernelsat present
go to Germany, where the oil is extract-
ed. Since the establishment of the
African oil mills in Liverpool, however,
a considerable quantity come to this
country.
In forming a plantation it must be
remembered that the whole of the oil
will not be available for export, since
the natives must be supplied with a
considerable quantity for their domestic
purposes. Still this would be only asmall
drain on the production.
VARIETIES OF PALM.
It was noticed by Lord Mountmorres
that there were several varieties of oil
palm, differing in their botanical charac-
ters, andalsointheir yield of oil. Mr.
Evans of the Gold Coast. following
up this observation, finds four well-
marked forms as follows :—
1. Abetumtum or Yue Yumu, with
black fruits, yielding 138°7 % of oil.
2. Abepa or Yue, with 11:2 %.
8. Abdem or Yue-hlem, with reddish
yellow fruits, larger than those of
the outer varieties, and yielding
11:2 %.
4. Abobo-be or Yue Wyiam. This
is the best variety on the Gold
Coast. The shell of the kernel
is much thinner than that of the
other varieties, and is so soft
that it can be cracked with the
teeth. The fruits are reddish
black, and the oil yield is 19°3 %.
These yields are all poor as compared
with those found vy me for fruits sent
from Benin and Calabar, wherelI found
24°8 % and 29:0 % respectively.
Attention should be paid to these two
forms. Seeds can well be taken from
them to other parts of the Coast, as they
will retain their power of germinating
for many months.
VARIETIES TO BE PLANTED FOR
CULTIVATION.
These two last-mentioned forms from
Calabar and Benin are the best I have
met with of the ordinary hard-seeded
palm fruits, from the point of view of
pericarp oil, and should be planted if
their quality is found to be general.
The results obtained were founded on
only a small sample, and hence too
much stress should not be laid on them.
The Abobo-be of the Gold Coast, with
its thin shell, should also be grown,
as the shell may not need removing
before the kernels are crushed. This
would be a very great saving in labour of
extracting the kernel oil.
A form similar to this Abobo-be is
found in the Cameroons, and was describ-
ed by Dr. Preuss. He terms it the
Lissombe or Issombe. It differs from the
odinary form,and resemblesthe Abobo-be
of the Gold Coast in possessing a soft
shell, and should be grown on that
account,
It must be remembered that the oil
palm commences to bear very early, and
continues to bear for as much as sixty
years.
It hence presentsa great advantage
over crops which need replanting year
by year, or after a few years.
It is only necessary that good and
suitable machinery be forthcoming to
ensure a very great success from the cul-
tivation of the oil palm.—Liverpool Uni-
versity, Institute of Commercial Research
in the Tropics Journal, Vol. III., No. 6,
Janury, 1908.
[Though the oil-palm was not’ much
taken up in Ceylon in the eighties, and
only, so far as we know, is to be seen
conspicuously on one estate at Matale,
there seems no reason to suppose that it
might not prove as profitable a crop
to the natives of Ceylon as to those of
West Africa.—ED.]
it
a
%
/ ia
i
“Jury, 1908}
19
FIBRES.
SISAL CULTIVATION IN THE
CAICOS ISLANDS.
Although the cultivation of sisal hemp
for economic and export purposes has
been carried on in the Caicos Islands for
no more than sixteen or seventeen years,
yet its rapid extension, and the now
very considerable annual exports of
fibre, have made it one of the chief
mainstays of the dependency, coming
second in importance only to the ‘salt-
preparing industry.
The sisal industry of the Caicos forms
the subject of a most readable report
recently prepared by the Commissioner
of the Islands, the Hon. F. H, Watkins.
This report contains a good deal of
interesting and valuable information in
regard to sisal cultivation and the pre-
pee on and grading of the resulting
re.
The first year in which any sisal fibre
was exported from the Caicos was in
1890, when a consignment of the value of
£50 was shipped. In 1894 the value of
the exports rose to £420, and three years
later to £2,539. The year in which the
greatest shipments have been made,
so far, was 1899, when the exports
reached the value of £7,494. This figure
has been, however, approached on two
occasions since. In 1906, the quantity of
fibre extracted was 219,365 lb. and the
value of the exports £5,605.
The area under cultivation with sisal
in the Caicos Islands is estimated at
about 3,200 acres, while the industry
gives employment to about 300 people.
A further area of 1,000 acres in East
Caicos is to be planted in the near
future, while it is mentioned that several
thousand acres, suitable for sisal culti-
vation, exist in the different islands, but
are awaiting development. Two com-
panies were formed at an early stage of
the industry to carry on planting opera-
tions. In addition there exists a con-
siderable number of small growers,
many of whom are extending their area
as rapidly as their limited means will
' allow:
These figures indicate sufficiently the
rapid expansion of the industry, and its
value to the inhabitants of the Depen-
dency will be realized when it is remem-
bered that the soil of the Caicos Islands
is very shallow, that droughts are of
frequent occurrence, and that the bulk
of the population were previously en-
tirely dependent for a precarious liveli-
_ hood upon salt-raking or sponge col:
Jecting,
In regard to the cost of clearing land
and planting it with sisal, it is stated
that in some places £1 an acre with an
additional $d. for each plant set out,
forms the average expense, but in other
cases £1 10s. is generally paid for an acre
fully planted 45 by 45 feet. The average
daily wages for a man in Kast Caicos are
2s. 3d., for a youth ls. 6d., and for a
woman ls.
The life of the sisal plant in the Caicos
Islands may be put at about eight years,
at the end of which period replanting
must take place. The first crop of leaves
may be gathered three or four years
after planting. An acre of land should
yield an annual average of from 675 to
900 lb. of fibre.. At an average cost of 6c.
per lb., or £28 per ton (present price is
about £32 per ton) this would give a
return of £10 per acre per annum.
At the close of his report, Mr. Watkins
mentions the following three conditions,
the existence of which is essential to
profitable results in sisal cultivation :—
(1) Capital, on account of the some-
what expensive machinery for extract-
ing the fibre, and the length of time
which must elapse before a _ veturn is
made.
2) A large area of land, especially
where the soil is poor, to maintain the
cultivation in regular succession,
(8) Anabundant and cheap supply of
labour.—Agricultural News, Vol. VIL,
No. 153, March, 1908.
THE BRITISH COTTON GROWLNG
ASSOCLATION:
THIRD ANNUAL REPORT,
REPORT OF WORK IN THE COLONIES.
I. INDIA.
The Council regret to report that the
experiments carried out through the
medium of Messrs. Shaw, Wallace, and
Co. with ‘‘ Tree” and other cottons have
unfortunately failed. A small quantity
of cotton has been produced, and possibly
there may be Some further return, but in
view of the doubtful possibility of this,
the whole of the money spent was
written off in last year’s accounts,
Similar experiments have been carried
on by Mr. Spence with tree cottons.
It is understood that these have been
rather more successful, but the Associa-
tion have been unable to take an active
part in the same,
Fibres. 20
The cultivation of Egyptian cotton has
been continued in Scind with fairly
satisfactory results. The acreage plant-
ed and the approximate yield are as
follows :—
Acres. Yield.
1905 1,000 450 bales of 400 lbs.
1906 5,000 700, a
1907 6,000 1,800. .;
99
An improvement has been made in the
system of marketing, and the native
growers have received better prices than
in the past, but there will be great diffi-
culty in establishing the cultivation of
exotic cotton, which requires more care
and attention than native varieties. The
Association is unable todo much in this
direction, but the Government of India
is giving the matter the most caretul
attention, and it is hoped that even if it
be impossible to largely extend the culti-
vation of Egyptian cotton in Scind, the
Government, by supplying improved
and selected strains of indigenous seed,
will be able to effectan improvement in
the quality of Indian cotton, not only
in Scind, but throughout the whole of
our Indian possessions. It should not
be forgotten that, however great may be
the possibilities in other parts of the
Empire, the largest tracts of land under
cotton at the present moment are in
India, and ifit were only possible to
improve the quality of Indian cotton,
Lancashire’s dependence on the vagaries
of the weather in the United States
would become a question of the past.
The Associations are, however, powerless
to do much good in this direction, and
the difficulty can only be overcome by
the Government of India.
Itis most unfortunate that the climatic
conditions in India during the past
season have been unfavourable to cotton,
and it is therefore probable that the
increase in cultivation which has been
so marked in recent years will conse-
quently receive a severe ‘‘set-back.”
The 1907-8 crop is estimated at 3,056,000
bales of 400 lbs., as compared with
4,945,700 bales in 1906-7—a decrease of
1,889,700 bales, or 88°2 percent. This is
the more regrettable as it comes at a
time when the cotton crops inthe United
States and other parts of the world are
less than usual,
The cultivation of long-stapled cotton
in Ceylon still continues to make great
progress, and the Council are now
arranging for the erection of a small
ginning plant in that colony.
2, West INDIES,
The most noticeable event during the
past year was the cotton expedition
of the West Indiss on the ‘* Port Kings-
ton,” under the auspices of the President
(Sir Alfred Jones), who, with his usual
generosity, defrayed most of the ex-
peuses of the same. On reaching Bar-
bados a most interesting and useful
conference took place between represen-
tatives of the Association and planters
and others. The gold and silver medals
which the President had offered for
competition for the best cotton produced
during the previous season were then
presented. From Barbados the ‘Port
Kingston ” proceeded to Jamaica, and
a number of offcials and planters ac-
companied the expedition, to take part
in the Agricultural Conference which
had been arranged by Sir Daniel
Morris. Owing to the terrible calamity
which happened at Kingston on January
14th, 1907, the proceedings were suddenly
interrupted, and it was impossible to
carry out the programme originally
arranged, Mr. Hutton and Mr. Oliver,
who had left the steamer at Barbados,
were, however, able to spend a consider-
able time at that island and at St.
Vincent. They visited most of the cotton
plantations, and had several meetings
with the officials and planters, and much
useful work was done, and arrangements
were made for placing the work of the
Association, asfar as the West Indies
are concerned, on a sound business
footing.
The progress recorded in the last report
has been surpassed in 1907. Larger
quantities of cotton have been grown
and have been sold at high prices, and
the industry is now established on a
permanent basis, so that we can con-
tidently look to the West Indies for
sufficient supply of the best long-stapled
cotton to render us almost absolutely
independent of the United States.
Negotiations are now in progress for a
visit of West Indian cotton growers to
Lancashire. It is proposed to hold
meetings in Manchester and Liverpool,
and arrangements will be made for
visiting various cotton mills.
3. WEST AFRICA.
The Council are glad to be able to con-
gratulate the shareholders on the con-
tinuance of the progress made in 1906,
They have had to face some digappoint-
ments and failures, particularly in Sierra
Leone, but these have been more than
outweighed by the success which hag
been obtained in other colonies, and
they are now convinced that Lancashire
can confidently look to West Africa as
the great cotton-producing field of the
future, It is satisfactory to note the
record shipment of 1,050 bales on one
steamer in May, 1907, from Lagos along, —
i
t
:
5
_ the work in West Africa.
SuLy, 1908.]
Arrangements have been made with the
Government to continue the ‘ grants
in aid” for a further period of three
years, expiring on March dist, 1910, as
follows :—
Gold Coast Ba Piso £1,500
Lagos and Southern Nigeria 5,000
Northern Nigeria ha 1,000
£7,500
These grants are, however, given on
condition that the Association provides
a similar amount of money, making a
total of £15,000 to be spent on‘‘ experi-
mental” and educational workin each
year. Itis evident, therefore, that until
the cotton buying and ginning accounts
show a profit in excess of £7,500, it will
be impossible for the Association toshow
a surplus on its transactions in West
Atrica.
Arrangements have been entered into
with the Bank of British West Africa
for financing the cotton passing through
the hands of the Association, and had
it not been for this assistance it would
have been almost impossibe to carry on
Hspecial
thanks are due to Sir Alfred Jones, who,
in his capacity as Chairman of the Bank,
has facilitated these arrangements.
3A. SIERRA LEONE.
In the last report it was stated that
the results so far obtained were most
disappointing. The 1906-7 crop showed
little improvement on its predecessor,
and, in view of the limited funds at the
disposal of the Association, the Council
decided, in April, 1907, to close up this
venture, and to concentrate its main
efforts in West Africa on Lagos and
Northern Nigeria. The whole of the
buildings and plant were disposed of, and
after closing up the accounts there was a
deficiency of £2,703 12s. 5d., which has
been written otf in the Balance Sheet.
3B. GOLD COAST.
The progress made in this colony,
though slow, is satisfactory. The gin-
ning factory at Labolabo is working
well, and as far as quality is concerned
there is not much need for improvement
in Gold Coast cotton, which generally
obtains a higher price than shipments
from other parts of West Africa.
8c. LAGos.
The progress made in 1906 in Lagos has
een fully maintained in 1907, as will be
shown by the following statistics of the
value of cotton and seed exported from
_ this colony during the last few years i—
ff, “bres
£.
1902 oe 200
1903 a} 7,000
1904 12,000
1905 28,000
1906 60,000
1907 100,000
The extension of the railway was com-
pleted as far as Oshogbo (60 miles beyond
Ibadan) in April, 1907, and it is expected
that the railway will shortly reach
Ilorin. It is being extended as far as
Jebba, on the River Niger; and now
that the real cotton country has been
reached, one can confidently look for a
wuch larger increase in the production
of cotton during the next few years.
The Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa
was completed early in 1907, and has
worked most satisfactorily. The Alfred
Jones Ginnery at Oshogbo was opened
in February, 1908, These two ginneries
were recently inspected by Sir Percy
Girouard and Sir Walter Egerton, and
both of them were most favourably im-
pressed. The Council have now decided
to erect another large ginning factory
at Ilorin, to be completed early in 1911, in
time for that season’s crop. It will be
a similar plant to the Alfred Jones Gin-
nery, and will contain two batteries of
four gins each, with pneumatic feed and
a hydraulic press, and_ will turn out
12,000 bales per annum. Like the other
large ginneries at Lafenwa, Ibadan, and
Oshogbo, it will be protected against
risk of fire by a sprinkler installation.
Serious difficulties arose in 1907 owing
to shortage of railway trucks, and both
the Association and the merchants
suffered very great inconvenience in not
being able to torward cotton and other
produce. The Association suffered some
heavy losses through ‘‘country damage”
to cotton and seed, as it was impossible
to store under cover all the large stocks
which were accumulating every day.
The Government have ordered a large
number of additional trucks, and it is
hoped that a trouble of this nature will
not again be experienced.
A further difficulty arose in tranship-
ping cotton at the Lagos terminus. The
wharf and sidings on Iddo Island were
barely sufficient for the traffic from the
first section of the railway from Iddo to
Ibadan, a distance of 120 miles; but now
that the raitway has been opened to
Oshogbo, and is being extended to Ilorin
and the Niger, they are inadequate for
dealing with the increased tratftic which
may be expected. Jifficulties have also
arisen on the Lagos Bar with the branch
boats, and two steamers have been lost
in 1907. The Association’s losses werg
hte
iy tare
PEL hig PING
e
{
Fibres. 29 (Joy, 1908,
fully covered by insurance. The whole great difficulty the Association has to
question is being enquired into by the tace everywhere is to induce the natives
Government. to grow cotton at all, and in some dis-
tricts this will require much patience and ;
perseverance. The experience of 1907 has
only still more strongly convinced the
Another difficulty arose owing to the
silting of the Forcados Bar. All goods
passing to and from Lagos have to be (Council of the soundness of the opinion
carried in branch boats a distance of originally formed, viz., that, speaking
over 100 miles between Lagos and For- generally, throughout the whole world
cados, there being barely ten feet of cotton must be more or lessa black man’s
water on the Lagos Bar, and ocean @op, and that therefore the principal
steamers cannot enter Lagos Harbour, energies of the Association must be devot-
and the heavy swell prevents tranship- ae ss a
ment in the offing outside the Bar. eee ecm its cultivation) ass
The silting of the Forcados Bar may Catone Be §
be due to the failure of the rains, but 8E. NORTHERN NIGERIA
the fact remains that ocean steamers
had te come home only partially loaded
in order to cross the bar, and conse-
quently on many occasions large quanti-
ike Cee ae Sarees RON Shs en rs Government to proceed with the imme-
diate construction of the railway from
Dredging operations are now in pro- Baro on the Niger to Kano, the Manches-
gress in the Lagos Bar, and it is hoped ter of West Africa. ‘he new Governor
that the deepening of the channel will (Sir Percy Girouard) has had a large
enable branch steamers to cross the experience of railway construction, more
same in future in safety. The Associa- especially in the Egyptian Soudan, and
tion have made very urgent representa- the reports he brings honie are most “
tions to the Government that now the encouraging. He fully expects to con-
Lagos Channel is improved the dredger struct the railway (which is to be 3 ft. 6 in
should be temporarily transferred to gauge) ata cost of not more than £3,000
Foreados. per ee i whet is zipet impongaey is eet
A : iy, yt none of the gradients for the downwar
The quality of Lagos cotton showsa trastic will exceed, in 100, so that heavy
considerable improvement in 1907, and ¢yain loads can be carried, which means
is now selling at prices ranging from jow freights. The Lagos and Gold Coast
pass” to 50 points on Middling Ameri- jailways have been expensive to con-
te There | Utena) fount ee ee aa struct, and have sharp curves and bad
pea eecov ere lts use Ee eae Mae saved, gradients, with the consequence that
ue shu CONE pau / fo ud cesirec’, freight cannot be carried ata less cost
aa the Council are ee ie a us fan than 2d. per ton per mile. Sir Percy
sible to haine of iS 4 Haas se cx ce Girouard, with his usual energy, is push-
LU gee chen lee x e Arvo anc ing on the work in a most expeditious
Agege districts for white, clean cotton. manner. The construction of the line
Owing to the extensions of therailway, was authorised on August 5th, 1907—an
a large number of new stations are being auspicious day for Lancashire—earth
opened, and in order to avoid the works wereimmediately commenced,and
heavy expense of maintaining a buying 18 miles of rails were landed at Baro be-
centre at each station, the Council have fore the river began to fall. The base has
entered into a tentative arrangement been completed and sidings laid in order
with the leading Lagos merchants to buy to enable the 150 miles of rails which are
for the Association. It is hoped that being shipped next autumn to be landed
this arrangement will work satisfactorily expeditiously. One hundred miles of
In previous reports the Council have
always spoken of Northern Nigeria as
the country of the future. One can now
say that it is the country of the imme-
diate future, thanks to the decision of the
to both sides. earthworks are nearly completed, and u
j 150 miles of rail will be laid by the middle s
3D. SOUTHERN NIGERIA. of 1909; a further 150 miles in 1910; and .
As mentioned in the last report, the in 1911 Kano, the Mecca of the Lanca-
Council were considering the question shire spinning trade, will be brought :
of transferring their headquarters from into economical touch with the rest of
Onitsha to Ilushi, where it seemed there the world.
was a greater prospect of success. The es . ht
whole of the plant has now been removed, In addition to railway transport, Sir
and a small ginning factory has been Percy Girouard has been studying that
erected at Illushi. Someexcellentcotton much neglected natural highway, the
has been grown on the Association’s River Niger. Kvery mile of river from
plantations, and rather more cotton has the sea to Lokoja was sounded under his
been produced by native farmers. The supervision, and he is convinced that
So
. districts.
Jury, 1908,]
with a small expenditure on dredging
there will be little difficulty in maintain-
ing a channel of six feet throughout the
whole year. To use Sir Percy’s own
words :—
“The Niger will compare most favour
ably with the Mississipi, and is the cheap-
est and best outlet for the trade of
Northern Nigeria.”
The Government are now organising a
public service of steamers from Foreados
up the Niger and the Benue, and it will
soon be possible for a merchant to open
trading in this country without having
to incur an expenditure of at least £20,000
on steamers alone.
In the meantime the Association is
working in those districts which are
aceessible by river transport. The qual-
ity of the cotton is well maintained, and
is increasing in quantity, and a small
ginning factory was erected at Ogudu.
rather over 100 miles above Lokoja up
the Niger. The operations of the Associ-
ation have been much facilitated by the
co-operation of the Niger Company.
The Local Manager has recently trans-
versed the country between Lokoja,
Zaria, and Kano, and he fully confirms
the previous optimistic reports of the
possibilities of cotton growing in these
Sir Perey Girouard was also
much impressed with the high state of
agriculture between Zaria and Kano.
Everywhere one will find large tracts of
country ploughed or hoed up with as
long, deep, and straight furrows as one
would findin England. Thesestatements
are also confirmed by Mr. C. A. Birtwistle
(the Commercial Intelligence Officer of
Southern Nigeria), who read a most inter-
esting paper on Nigeria at a meeting of
the Royal Colonial Institute on December
18th, 1907.
4. NYASALAND.
The Councilare glad to report that the
Government have decided to restore the
old name of this colony, in place of the
misleading term British Central Africa.
The season of 1906-7 has been disappoint-
ing. Some planters have done well,
others have done badly, and it is feared
that the Association may not be able to
recover all the advances made in 1906.
It has therefore been decided to take the
precaution of reserving a further sum of
£1,000 to meet any possible deficiency.
Endeavouis are being made, with the
corporation of the African Lakes
co-operation, to establish cotton grow-
ing as a native industry, and a consider-
able amount of native grown cotton
was received last year.
The Shire Highlands Railway is still
uncompleted, The original contract time
28 Fibres.
expired in November, 1906. This was
extended to December, 1907. The Asso-
ciationurged that the Government should
take over the railway, or should not at
any rate cancel the large concessions of
land which formed part of the contract.
The Government have, however, decided
to grant the Company a further exten-
‘sion of six months to June, 1908. For
tle present, Blantyre and the adjacent
country has stillto depend on altogether
inadequate means of transport.
In spite of these difficulties, cotton
now heads the list of exports, which in
recent years are as follows, stated in
bales of 400 lbs :—
1903 2 bales.
1904 ae
1905 Eat Late
1906 - 1,444 ,,
5. British Hast AFRICA.
At the end of 1906 the Association
were approached by Major Leggett, on
behalf of certain capitalists who pro-
posed to interest themselves in East
Africa. After some negotiations it was
decided to co-operate with them, and
the British Hast Africa Corporation was
formed, to which the Association handed
over its work, Sir R. Moor, K.C.M.G.,
is the chairman, and the Association is
further represented on the Board by
Mr. Crapper and Mr. Hutton.
An arrangement had been previously
entered into with the Government to
spend £2,000 a year on ‘“‘ experimental”
and educational work, one-half of which
is paid by the Government and the other
half by the Association. This obligation
has been taken over by the Corporation.
The small ginnery at Kilindini (Mom-
basa) was taken over and worked by the
Corporation. cultivated and wild plantsin the tropics will
be comparable with the corresponding dif-
ference in temperate regions than was required
by our forefathers to bring about this latter
difference.
More will be said in further numbers of
the Tropical Agricullurist and Magazine
of the Ceylon Agricultural Nociety on
the subjects of variation, hybridization
and selection. At present it suffices to call
attention to the much smaller difference
Miscellan cors,
between wild and cultivated in tropical, as
compared with the more advanced tem-
perate, countries, and to point out that very
great advantages will accrue to any tropical
country in which steps are taken to make
this difference greater,
WHERE CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT
FLOURISHES.
One of the great needs of the artisans and
cultivators of this country is a supply of loan-
able capital at a reasonable rate of interest.
How it has come about that the workers are
so largely destitute of the means of carrying
on their industry is a question on which
opinions differ, but as to the fact there can
be no dispute. In many occupations the
process of increasing indebtedness can be
watched. Mr. J. Hope-Simpson has described
the manner in which the Benares silk weavers,
who have been accustomed to work for the
bazaar and sell their own goods, have gra-
dually become the virtual bondsmen_ of
wealthier members of their craft. When
times are bad the weaver applies to the
dealer who makes an advance of materials
at retail prices. When the stuff is ready for
the market it is brought to the dealer for
sale, and some months afterwards ‘‘a settle-
ment of accounts is made, the weaver’s
account being credited with the amount for
which the dealer alleges the cloth to have
been sold (an amount frequently very much
below the actual price received, if common
rumour may be trusted) and debit with the
advance made, plus one anna in the rupee
per mensem as interest, plus commission on
the sale at one anna per rupee, plus, in
many cases, a fixed charge of one anna per
rupee for temple offerings.” No one needs
to be told that such a system of credit as
this means perpetual indebtedness for the
weaver. “The account runs on from month
to month, year to year, and generation to
generation, and the weaver is practically a
slave.” | A similar description could be
written of the weaver of Madras, as well as
of other craftsmen. The agriculturist, as is
well known, is commonly, over extensive
areas throughout the country, a chronic
debtor. For this condition of things the
only practical remedy which has so far
been suggested is the Co-operative Credit
Society ; and it is refreshing to see that,
thoughthe progress of institutions of this type
has been disappointingly slow in Lower and
Kastern Bengal, they have thoroughly estab-
lished themselves in the United Provinces
and are rapidly gaining in popularity. The
annual report recently issued shows that
there are now in the United Provinces 170
societies of various kinds, with more than
44,000 members. The variety of these insti-
tutions is a point the importance of which
at once attracts notice, many of them being
special types which are likely to be exten-
Miscellaneous.
sively copied once their merits become
“known. Thus the successful establishment
of the Moradabad District Bank was
followed by the starting of similar banks
in half adozen other places. In the case
of Moradabad assistance was granted by
Government, but in every other instance the
banks have depended on their own resources.
This example of the readiness of the people
to adopt a new ideaisa most encouraging
sign, and augurs well for the future develop-
ment of the Co-operative scheme. If every
responsible zemindar in Bengal, every lead-
ing man in the principal towns, would make
it his business to read the story of this move-
ment in the United Provinces, and en-
deavour to realise its enormous possibilities
for Bengal, the benefit to the people would be
incalculable. Merely as agencies for the in-
vestment of capital, the Co-operative Societies
are worthy of consideration. The district
banks, which finance societies affiliated to
them, charge interest at the rate of 25 per
cent. Loans are freely taken on these terms,
and there is no reason to doubt that in com-
parison with the amount charged by the
bania, 123 per cent. isa philanthropic rate of
interest ; while judging from past experience
the loans are perfectly safe. **In most
societies,” says the Report under consider-
ation, ‘‘ repayments are wonderfully regular.”
Even in a bad season the repayments to
the central banks amounted to about 90
per cent. of the loans issued. It is not claim-
ed thatthe results achieved in the United
Provinces are due to the initiative of the
people themselves. The independence and
self-government of the societies will be
attained in course of time, but at present
the help of public-spirited men is needed
to train the people in the principles of co-
operations and to give the initial impetus. In
some cases, where a movement is being start-
ed on new lines, a condsiderable time must
elapse before the services of competent
directors can be dispensed with. But in ordin-
ary circumstances the people have been
quick to learn. Old-established societies
have become prosperous, and new ones on
the same lines have been established. The
effects have been such as to surprise and de-
light any one who takes an intelligent inter-
est in the welfare of the community. Money-
lenders have been paid off, and peasants
have been enabled to cultivate their land on
conditions which promise prosperity and
ultimate freedom from all debt. Artisans
have been helped to secure their own emanci-
pation. In short, wherever the societies
have come into being they have brought
new life and new hope. Im the light of
these facts we have no hesitation in
saying that there are few ways, if any,
in which an educated native gentleman of
means can render better service to this
country than by taking an active partin the
promotion of co-operative credit; and we
trust that in Bengal there may be no lack of
e 4
such benefactors. It cannot be that the
United Provinces have a monopoly of men of
the required type.—Indian Agriculturist,
Vol. XXXIII., No. 1, January, 1908.
MANGANESE COMPOUNDS AS
FERTILISERS.
By W. F. SUTHERST, PH.D., F.1.C.
Some years ago reports from Japanese
experimental stations came out about the
good effects of manganese on certain crops,
and latterly in Holland the matter has been
taken up more thoroughly, and so far the
results have been most favourable, Man-
ganese is widely distributed in the soil, and
most plant ashes contain a good percentage
of it, especially is this the case in forest trees,
in which iron is present in about the same
quantity.
Whether it occurs in these plants as acci-
dental or a necessity, and the reason for its
presence, is not yet fully known. So far it
has been explained that the good effects are
more or less of a tonic nature, such as small
doses of arsenic have been known to exert
on certain crops. A recent report from the
Groningen Experimental Station (Holland)
shows that certain plant diseases have been
cured by using manganese salts as fertilisers,
and, in consequence, much larger crop yields
obtained. So far this is only a theory, and
needs further work for absolute proof.
As maize has been spoken of as answering
best to manganese fertilisers, trials were
carried out here to see if such effects could
be obtained under our conditions of climate
and soil. To be absolutely under control,
pot experiments were tried, each pot being
about 3 feet high, with an area of about one
square yard. A quantity of soil was tho-
roughly mixed, and each pot filled under like
conditions; holes were made about 2 in.
from the bottom, so as to allow excess water
to drain out; but the 2 in. of soil below
the holes being constantly wet, kept the pot
from being absolutely dry in case of great
evaporation. In pot No. I. 2 grammes (30
grains) of chloride of manganese were dis-
solved in water and sprinkled on the soil ;
in No. II., 5 grammes of the black oxide of
manganese (pyrolusite) were thoroughly
mixed with the first 6 inches; in No. I1.,
2 grammes of manganese sulphate; and in
No. IV. no mangarese was placed.
In order to get a thoroughly representative
growth in such a small space, about 20 seeds
of equal weight were planted in each pot,
and when a certain size had been reached,
about ten of irregular growth removed.
Later on this process was repeated till one
only remained, and was allowed to reach the
height when photographed. t
}
ct
i
b J
r
~~ z
' From the accompanying Plate (not repro-
duced) it will be seen that pyrolusite, which,
by the way, occurs in such large quantities
in South Africa, gave by far the best result,
a remarkably healthy plant being produced,
No. I., grown with chloride of manganese,
also shows considerable improvement in size
and quality. No. III. did not give such a
result as expected, but the quality is far
better than No. IV., containing no manganese.
Of course, absolute reliance cannot be
placed in one trial only, but next year the
work will be repeated on a far larger scale,
and on the ground itself.
Note ON MANGANESE COMPOUNDS AS A
MANURE.
Although from the experiments of Kata-
yama, Nagaoko and others, there can be
little doubt that small additions of man-
ganese salts to soils often produce a consider-
able increase in crop, especially in legumin-
ous ones,* Salomone has shown that large
amounts are decidedly injurious, and that
manganic salts are much more injurious than
manganous.
Experiments at Woburn have shown con-
siderable benefit by soaking seed wheat in a
solution of manganese sulphate containing
less than 2 per cent, of the salt before sowing,
while barley obtained no advantage by such
soaking. Both crops, however, were im-
proved by the addition to the soil of about
_ 50 or 60 lb, of manganese sulphate per acre,
The Japanese experimenter, Nagaoko,
found that with rice up to 80 or 90 lbs. per
acre of manganese sulphate was_ beneficial.
In Dr. Sutherst’s experiment the dressings
employed would correspond to approxi-
mately 22 lbs. of manganese chloride and
manganous sulphate, and about 55 lbs, man-
ganese dioxide per acre. These quantities
are apparently somewhat lower than pre-
vious investigators had found the most bene-
ficial. With reference to this point, I may
mention that I have found appreciable quan-
tities of manganese in several samples of the
so-called ‘*bats’ guano” from caves in the
dolomite,
As to the method by which manganese
compounds act upon plants, I have little to
add to what Dr. Sutherst has stated, It
appears probable that its effects are very
similar to those of ferrous sulphate (‘‘ green
vitriol”’), small dressings (say 56 lbs. per acre),
of which have long been known to have a
decidedly beneficial effect upon many crops.
This is apparently due to an increase of
chlorophyll production in the plant, though
*In the case of peas the former investigator
found an increase of 50 per cent. in the straw and
25 per cent. in the seed by the addition of °015 per
cent. of manganese sulphate to the soil, while
with barley the total increase wag only 10 per cent,
55
Miscellaneous.
Griffiths adduced evidence that the iron
enabled the plants to develop without such
large amounts of potash compounds as they
would otherwise require.
For the present it will be safer to assume
that manganese exerts a “tonic” action,
but its application to a soil must not be
regarded as at allan efficient substitute for
the plant food required and usually supplied
in commercial manures.
In other words, it is probably better re-
garded as a medicine than as a food.
HERBERT INGLE,
Chief Chemist,
Transvaal Agricultural Department,
—Transvaal Agricultural Journal, April,
1908.
[In the Plate referred to are the following
notes: No.1, 2 grains manganese chloride ;
No. 2, 5 grains manganese dioxoide ; No. 3,
2 grains manganese sulphate; and No. 4,
No manganese. |
LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE,
XXXI.
Rubber Cultivaton.
METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND TAPPING.
‘Collecting rubber. Planting Opin.
10, 2. 1900, p. 100.
Sur un nouveau procédé d’extraction
du Caoutchouc. Rev. Cult. Col.
VI. 1900, p. 304.
Blatterkautschuk. Preyer
penpfi. 4. 1900, p. 280.
The tapping of rubber trees in the
Charduar rubber plantation, As-
sam, 1899, ‘‘T. A.” Aug. 1900, p. 82.
A new method of extracting rubber
(pounding the bark). ‘T.A.” Sept.
1900, p. 192.
The Charduar rubber plantation,
Assam: results of tapping. ‘‘T.A.”
Jan. 1901, p. 453.
Das Schneiden der Kautschuk-
_biiume. Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, p. 79.
A new method of extracting rubber.
Rev. Cult. Col. 5. 2, 1900, Ind.
Gardening 15. 3. 1900, p. 176, and 29.
8. 1900, p. 209.
L’extraction du caoutchouce des ecor-
ces. Rev. Cult. Col, 6. 1900, p. 104.
Tapping results in Penang. Singa-
pore Bot. Gdn, Report 1899, p. 11.
Vergleichende Zapfversuche mit
Manihot und Kickxia in Misahéhe
in Tro-
(Togo). Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 382.
De caoutchouc-guds. Ind. Mere. 24.
9. 1901, p. 722.
Miscellaneous.
Experiments on collecting latex. Str.
Bull. 1. 1902, p. 881. And see many
papers in this journal of recent
years.
Conseils sur la saignée des caou-
tchoues. Journ. d’Agr. Trop. I., 183.
La cultivation de l’Hevea en Malaisie-:
Journ. d’Agri, Trop., July 1903, p:
198.
The business of gathering rubber,
Str. Bull. 1903, p. 97.
Rubber tapping experiments in the
Botanic Gardens. Str. Bull. 1903,
pp- 118, 264.
Methodes indigenes de recolte et de
preparation des differents caout-
choucs du Congo. Rev. Cult. Col.
11. 1903, p. 269.
Manuring rubber. Str. Bull. Oct:
1904, p. 405.
See Just’s Jahresbericht.
Measurement of trees. Str. Bull. 1.
1901, p. 156.
A new instrument for tapping. do.
1902, p. 230.
Quelques observations sur la recolte
du latex. Journ. d’Agri. Trop. II.
1902, p. 99.
Tapioca and rubber. ‘“T.A.” Dec.
1905, p. 788.
Rubber tapping methods. Ethering-
ton in Ind, Rub. Journ. July 1906,
p. 38.
And see below under separate kinds
of rubber trees.
Rubber Cultivation.
PREPARATION OF RUBBER.
Remarks on the coagulation of rub-
ber. Trin. Bull. Jan. 1901, p. 294.
La productivité des essences a caou-
tchoue. Rev. Cult. Col. VI. 1900,
p. 342.
Ueber Kautschuk-bereitung. Preyer
in Tropenpfl. July 1899, p. 327.
Burgess. Report ona visit to Great
Britain to investigate the india
rubber industry in its relation to
the growth and preparation of raw
rubber in the Malay Peninsula.
Str. Bull. 4. p. 458.
Ueber Rohkautschuk-untersuchung.
Der Pflanzer 30. 6. 1906, p. 172.
Plantagen-Kautschuk. Tropenpli.
1906. p. 17.
Notes sur les phenomenes généraux
de coagulation. Bull. Jard. Col.
III., p. 32.
Washing of crude rubber. ‘“T.A.”
Sept. 1903, p. 281.
Preparation of crude rubber. Pears,
Str. Bull. 1904, p. 119.
[juiy, 1008.
Visite & une usine instituté pour la
traitment mecanique des écorces
& caoutchouc. Rev. Cult. Col.
Sept. 1901, p. 136.
Formalin in treating rubber fluids.
Trin. Bull. 1908, p. 598. ,
Researches on the coagulation of the
latex. Ind. Rub. Journ. 138. 8. 1906,
p. 196,
The’ production of indiarubber.
“T.A.” Mar. 1907, p. 180.
The question of moisture in rubber.
Ind. Rub. Journ. April 1906, p. 451.
Drying, Smoking, ete. do. p. 403.
Smoking plantation rubber. ‘‘T.A,”
Sept. 1906, p. 208.
The future curing of Ceylon rubber,
“TA.” May 1906, p. 272.
Ceylon plantation rubber. do. 277.
Rubber curing: the use of smoke. ~
do. 278.
Block rubber. Pears. ‘‘T.A” Dec,
1906, p. 469.
Plantation-grown rubber. do. Jan.
1907, p. 14.
Experiments in creosoting and block-
ing wetrubber. Willis and Bamber.
Circ. R. B. G. Perad. JV. I, 1907.
Sheet versus crepe rubber. ‘T.A.’
Nov. 1905, p. 653.
The value of cultivated rubber to the
manufacturer. do. p. 657.
The rubber washing machine of the
Federated Engineers’ Co. ‘*T.A’
Dee. 1905, p. 747.
Preparation of rubber for the market.
“TA.” Aug. 1907, p. 36. c
Les defauts du caoutchoue de plan-
tation. Journ. d’Agri. Trop. 30.
8. 07, p. 287.
Ueber das Coagulations-mittel Coa-
latex. Der Pflanzer 1907, p, 145.
A new process for the coagulation of
atin in bulk. Trop. Life 1908,
p. 54.
RUBBER: MANUFACTURE AND TRADE:
SUBSTITUTES.
Over het caoutchoue-surrogaat
Bresk. Ind. Mere. 11. 2. 1899, p. 95.
Artificial rubber. Tilden. Kew Bull.
1899, p. 27.
Corn rubber. Ind. Gard. 11, 1. 1900,
p. 934.
Velvril, a new substitute.
and Drug. 11. 11. 1899, p. 788.
Three natural rubber substitutes.
Ind. Agri. Sept, 1899, p. 280.
Rubber review. Str. Bull. Mar. 1904,
Recent rubber statistics. Ind. R.
World, Dec. 1904, p, 92.
Chem.
Jury, 1908.)
Production et consommation mon-
diales du caoutchouc. Bull. Econ.
Indoch. 8. p. 785.
Appareils de mésure, employés pour
la fabrication de caoutehouc. Le
Mon. de Caout. Mar. 1906, p. 370.
Rubber prices and other notes. Str.
Bull. July 1904, p. 272.
Substitute for rubber (Synantherea
sp.) Ind. Gard. 9. 8. 1900, p. 96.
Imports and exports of raw rubber,
United Kingdom. Ind. R, Journ.
July 1906, p. 78.
Annual review of the Indiarubber
market, 1906. ‘T.A.” Feb. 1907,
Dood.
Warburg. Was lehrt uns die Statis-
tik des Kautschuks? Tropenpfl.
1907, p. 65.
Exports and imports of raw_rubber
into the United Kingdon, Ind, R.
Journ. 15. 7. 1907, p. 87.
The crude rubber field. Ind. R.
World, Aug. 1907, p. 387.
Rubber interests in Europe. do.
p. 3800.
An apparatus for testing unmanu-
factured rubber. Str. Bull. July
1907, p. 201.
Methods of analysis of raw rubber.
Journ. L’pool Univer. I. C. R. 1907.
The art of vuleanisation. Ind. R.
World, Mar. 1904, p. 187.
The action of chalk in vulcanised
rubber. Ind. R. Journ. Aug. 1906,
p. 246
The influence of time in cold vulcan-
isation. do. Sept 1906, p. 283.
The testing of raw rubber. do. p. 288.
Vulcanising freshly coagulated latex.
do. Oct. 1906, p. 405.
Report on a visit to Great Britain to
investigate the rubber industry,
Burgess. Str. Bull. “T.A.” Aug.
1906, p. 181, Sept. p. 209.
A revolution in the rubber trade
(direct export of latex to Hurope).
‘““T. A.” Feb. 1906, p. 12.
Rubber Vuleanisation, Bamber.
“T. A.” Oct. 1906, p. 281.
Rubber sale system at Antwerp.
“TA.” Nov. 1905, p. 664.
A manufacturer’s report on rubber
samples. ‘‘T.A.” Dec. 1905, p. 745,
Vulcanisation tests with plantation
rubber. ‘T.A.” Sept. 1907, p. 67.
Vulecanisation tests with plantation
rubbers. Str. Bull. Feb. 1908, p. 54.
The price of rubber. ‘“T.A.” May
1908, p. 411.
8
Miscellaneous.
SCHOOL GARDENS.
In dealing with the subject of Agricul-
tural Education at the recent Con-
ference, special attention was drawn to
the progress made in establishing School
Gardens in connection with elementary
schools in the West Indies and British
Guiana. It was mentioned that at
Jamaica, fair progress was being made
in this direction. In 1900, only six
schools received special grants amount-
ing to £32. In 1906, the number of
schools had increased to ninety-two, and
the special grants to £227.
At British Guiana, three Government
school gardens had been established at
Georgetown. In addition, it was re-
ported that the managers and teachers
of over fifty schools had started small
gardens in the country districts. These
latter are stated to be earning about 80
per cent. of the small grant offered under
the Code Regulations.
In Trinidad during thelast year 203
schools were examined in practical agri-
culture. Steady progress is reported
from all parts of the island. The forma-
tion of school gardens is stated to be
hindered by the want of suitable land,
and by other difficulties. Five horticul-
tural school-shows are annually held in
Trinidad and Tobago.
At Grenada, agricultural education in
elementary schools appears to have
declined during the last two years, and
nothing worth mentioning is being done
at present with school gardens. Matters
are practically at a standstill also in the
elementary schools at St. Vincent.
Moderate progress is reported from St,
Lucia.
At Barbados, forty-one boys’ schools
and three girls’ schools presented
children at the annual examinations in
object-lessons. About one-third of these
had school gardens or showed plants
under cultivation in pots or boxes. It
is stated that the school gardens are
decidedly better managed than before,
and the number has increased to twenty-
one. The school exhibits atthe Peasant
Exhibitions reached a higher standard.
At Montserrat, five school gardens have
been started, and it is reported that very
good results have been obtained in the
cultivation of various kinds of vege-
tables. Theoretical instruction is also
given in school hours.
At Antigua, efforts have been fairly
successful in introducing and encour-
aging the teaching of agriculture and the
formation of school gardens. So far,
Miscellaneous.
school gardens have not been successful
at St. Kitts. On the other hand, at
Nevis, they have had greater success,
and at the Agricultural Shows the
schools have always been well repre-
sented.
The Education Committee of the Con-
ference reported that the evidence avail-
able from the different colonies testified
that opposition on the part of the
parents to their children working in
garden plots has now practically died
out. Lack of interest in agricultural
teaching on the part of the teachers in
some of the colonies is probably ac-
counted for by the smallness of the
grant allotted to this subject.
With the view of assisting in the
work of establishing gardens for teach-
ing purposes, a special pamphlet, en-
titled ‘‘Hints tor School Gardens” was
issued by the Imperial Department of
Agriculture in 1901. In this the hope
was expressed that the time was not far
distant when every primary school in
the West Indies would include elemen-
tary agriculture in its curriculum, ‘and
that to all such schools a garden should
be attached where the pupils might
learn by actual practice the best way to
earry on the more important details of
gardening work. This, it was considered,
would afford a valuable opportunity of
training the powers of observation of
the pupils in a way not attainable by
mere book learning or even by watching
the work done by the teacher.
In cases where a suitable area for a
school garden was not available, it was
recommended that the cultivation of
plants in pots and boxes might be
adopted as likely to supply, in part, the
training obtained from school gardens.
In 1907 a new and enlarged edition of
“Hints for School Gardens” was pub-
lished. As showing the considerable
growth of interest that was taken in
starting school gardens, this edition was
exhausted within a few months, and now
a revised edition (Pamphlet No. 52%), con-
taining fifty-five pages and a plan is
placed within the reach of all who are
interested in the subject.
In the introduction to the revised
edition, itis stated that instruction in
school gardens is not given merely for
the purpose of showing how to grow
vegetables, any more than the ordinary
teaching in schools has for its object the
winning of prizes. It derives its value
% «+ Hints for School Gardens,”’ Pamphlet Series,
No. 52. Price 4d, Free by post, 5d. On sale by all
Agents of the Imperial Department of Agriculture.
58
- u ii
p.
from its usefulness in training the in-
tellectual faculties, especially those of
observation and correct inference, and
its power todo this is the best indication
of its true worth. Knowledge useful to
the agriculturist is gained incidentally,
and the material profit arising from the
produce of the soil may be an incentive
to painstaking efforts on the part of the
learner.
Pupils should be put through a good
course of box and pot culture, and
should thoroughly master the principles
underlying it before they are allowed to
proceed tothe cultivation of plants in
plots. The latter is a repetition of the
elementary work ona large scale, but
does not serve so well as a means of
imparting knowledge connected with
plant life, as its processes are not under
such immediate control. Its main object
is to show how the methods adopted in
practice naturally have their founda-
tion in_ ideas derived from careful and
accurate observation and to provide
exercises in actual agricultural pro-
cedure. At all stages, the teacher should
seize every opportunity of demonstrat-
ing the processes of nature, so that the
course of instruction may include also
facts concerning animal life, especially
that of insects.
In the revised edition of the pamphlet,
considerable attention is devoted to pot
and box cultivation, and details are
given in regard to the preparation of
boxes and pots, the manner in which
seeds are germinated, the necessity of
water, air, and shade for young seed-
lings, the effect of the age of seeds on |
their germination, theuse of plant food
in the seed to the growing seedling and
the best means for raising plants from
leaves and cuttings, the care of orna-
mental pot plants, and the treatment of
plants with the object’ of producing
flowers and fruit.
With regard to garden plots, full
particulars are given as to selecting the
site, preparing the ground, planting
hedges, laying out plots, and the succes-
sive operations necessary to establish —
a well-equipped and successful school
garden.
The latter part of the pamphlet is
taken up in affording special instruction
in regard to twenty-six of the principal
vegetable crops grown in the
Indies.
simple and useful hints in regard to
the various processes of budding, graft- —
ing and training garden plants.—Agri-
1908,
f
cultural News, Vol, VII., No, 155, April, —
West —
The concluding pages contain —
— eS
PRE aa
=
Pet ewe KES
Suny, 1908.]
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE: ITS ORIGIN,
GROWTH AND PRESENT
CONDITIONS.
By T. F. MAIN, B.SC., F.H.S.,
Deputy Director of Agriculture, Bombay.
The Indian Agricultural Departinent
is but on the threshold of its existence.
One is naturally inclined to speculate a
little upon its future and to enquire
what work it willbe likely to perform,
and to what extentit will be a real _be-
nefit to the agriculture of the country.
If analogy be of any use under these
circumstances, we have a very interest-
ing example inthe United States Agri-
cultural Department.
In the space at my disposal I shall
endeavour to show how this department
was developed, and also refer to some of
the work accomplished. I am indebted
chiefly for this information to a histori-
eal sketch compiled by Charles H. Great-
house. I have taken numerous quota-
tions from his Bulletin. The sketch
explains the objects of the Department
and its organization, and also describes
its various divisions.
Previous to 1860, little attention was
given to scientific agriculture in the
United States. The ratent office distri-
buted seeds, and collected and published
agricultural information. At this time
the United States Agricultural Society
was active in urging the establishment
of a separate Department of Agriculture.
In 1862 an Act) was passed which provid-
ed for an independent department with
a Commissioner at its head.
Washington really started the United
States Agricultural Department and
Franklin helped its progress by practical
activity. The former proposed the for-
mation of a branch of the National Gov-
ernment to care for the interest of
farmers.
The Department asit is now consti-
tuted embraces many divisions, and its
gradual growth is a most instructive
study. The Weather Bureau took its
origin from the observations of the
Smithsonians, who devoteda great deal
of time to the publication of Meteorolo-
gical data. In 1872 the Government pro-
vided a Meteorological Department, and
the Department began to publish Agri-
cultural Statistics. In 1863 the Depart-
ment of Statistics was established. In
1904 a Bureau organization was provided.
During Commissioner Newton’s time
the Department Library and Museum
59
Miscellaneous.
were started. This Library was not
officially recognised tili 1871, when a libra-
rian was appointed. The first books were
obtained from the patent office. Addi-
tions have since been made by exchange
and purchase. The library now contains
92,000 volumes, and is probably the best
separate collection on agriculture and
allied subjects in the world.
Although the Agricultural Department
was separated from the patent office in
1862, it was not provided with separate
buildings and other accommodation till
1867. It comprised at this time the
Division of Chemistry, Gardens and
Grounds, Entomology, Statistics and
Botany. About this time the coutrol
of quarantine for animals was trans-
ferred from the Treasury to the Com-
missioner of Agriculture, and in 1884 the
ureau of Animal Industry was estab-
lished by Act of Congress with a grant
of $150,000 to deal with pleuro-pneumonia
and other diseases.
The Hatch Bill became Law in 1887. It
deals with the form in whichthe results
of experiments and investigations should
be recorded, and for this purpose the
. office of experiment stations was estab-
lished.
In_1889 the Department was raised to
the first rank in the executive branch of
the Government. Its work was “treated
slightingly by many Congressmen, and
was considered merely as a means to
reach many constituents with -small
favours by the distribution of seeds and
books. 'The clerkships and the positions
in the Department were regarded as
patronage to be given to political ad-
herents with little regard for fitness.”
‘*But Commissioner Le Duc, when ap-
pointed by President Hayes, took up
the duties with such earnestness that
Congressmen were impressed with the
seriousness of the work for which the
Commissioner asked appropriations and
the Department was granted more
funds.” ‘The head of the Department
owing to persistent public opinion was
yiven a place at the President’s Council
able.
The Hon’ble Jeremiah M. Rusk was
selected by President Harrison as_ his
Secretary of Agriculture in 1889. In re-
organising the Department he divided
the work in two main classes: executive,
under his own immediate charge, and
scientific, under a specially appointed
Assistant Secretary who had scientific
agricultural attainments.
In 1893 the Howble J. Serling Morton
became Secretary of Agriculture. He
developed the Department considerably,
Miscellaneous: 60
and gave much time to the extension
of publications and of the Library.
He intioduced farmer’s bulletins. The
Division of Statistics was developed.
The Division of Agvrostology and an
agency to obtain new foreign plants
from all parts of the world were formed.
The Handbook of grasses of the United
States was published. The Weather
Bureau was much extended, a cyclone
service was established and exchange of
data with other Governments arranged
for. The Forestry Division made good
progress.
Competitive examinations for service
in the Agricultural Department were
introduced.
Secretary Wilson took office in 1897.
The Department has advanced exten-
sively under his direction. The budget
allotment for the Department in 1907
was $9,932,940 against $2,448,332 in 1897.
Since 1897 notable changes have been
made in the work of the Department,
particularly as regards enquiries into
plant diseases, plant breeding, seed and
‘plaat testing and investigations regard-
ing fruit growing. A Bureauof Forestry
has also been established.
Other branches of the Department
which have been changed within the
period indicated from a divisional toa
Bureau organization with large increase
of activities are the Bureau of Chemistry,
Bureau of Soils, Bureau of Entomology,
Bureau of Statistics and Bureau of
Biological Survey.”
The division of Foreign Markets was
organized separately from the Division
of Statistics in 1898, anda Solicitor for
the Department was provided in 1905.
Secretary Wilson has given much atten-
tion to the encouragement of home in-
dustries and sugar, silk and tea industries
have thereby greatly benefited. ‘ Agri-
cultural explorations for discovering new
crops, new _ varieties of old crops,
new methods of cultivation and farm
management, new species of desirable
domestic animals, new modes of combat-
ing diseases of animals and plants and
injurious insects, formed important
features of the period from 1897-1905.
Great progress has been made in the
studies of plant breeding and _ soil in-
vestigation. Special attention has been
paid to such points as food inspection,
methods of storage for foreign markets,
forest development and management,
and a special point has been made of the
encouragement of agricultural education
by school garden work and prize com:
petition,”
[Juny, 1908 ae
One of the most important works done
by the Department in recent years has
been the establishment in 1903 of practi-
cal and direct relations between the
Department and farmer’s institutes
through the appointment of a special
agent of the office of Hxperiment
Stations to co-operate with the State
and County officials interested in this
line of Agricultural Education. ‘‘ Great
advances have been made in the study of '
meteorological phenomena. Instruments
and apparatus for recording weather
data were improved and standardised
and climatic statistics gathered, com-
pared and used in making forecasts,
then put in form for future use. The
number of stations was increased, in-
cluding points on the Caribbean Sea and
the Gulf of Mexico, in Bermuda, the
Bahamas and the Azores, until the real
direction of important progress has
changed from practical extension of
this kind to a study of scientific pro-
blems, suchas the study of the move-
ments of the atmosphere at much higher
altitudes than heretofore commonly
reached. Kor this purpose the establish-
ment ofa great National Observatory
for weather study has been begun at
Mount Weather, Virginia, a suitable
point inthe Blue Ridge Mountains, 50
miles from Washington. The watching
of storms and floods was continued, and
efforts were made to render more
efficient service to sea-faring interests
and to farmers and business men in over-
flowed districts. It has been impossible
of course to prevent losses by floods, ice
gorges and hurricanes, but the known
saving effected has exceeded — several
times over the costof the entire service.”
““Crop reporting has been continued
and improved, and the issue of frost
warnings extended. The function of the
statistical service of the Department was
clearly defined as the rendering of assis-
tance to the farmer in receiving a fair
price for his products. The reporting
of crop prospects was improved and the
spread of the information, when gather-
ed, studied and printed, was made more
effective, especially by a system of post-
ing card announcements of results in
the 92,000 post offices of the country.
The study of foreign market was con-
tinued, and reports of trade relations
with important nations, based on a
study and anlayses of Treasury reports
of exports and imports were publishsed.
The Crop Reporter, an _ eight-page
quarto monthly paper, was established
in 1899 as a means of communication
between the Bureau and its thousands
of correspondents. , A special agent was
maintained in London, chiefly for the 4
purpose of reporting Huropean crop
their chosen lines.
re
JuLy, 1908,}
conditions and prospects to this paper.
Great progress has been made in the
study of animal and plant diseases and
likewise in Economic Entomology.”
The editing, illustrating and publica-
tion of results reached by the several
branches of the service grew with the
extension of the Department’s activities.
No effort has been spared to_ present
facts of practical value in actual farming
in terms perfectly plain to farmers
of every position in life,so that all
may receive the benefits paid for by all.
At the same time statements of progress
in scientific research have been in techni-
cal language in limited number for the
benefit of persons associated more or less
directly with Department scientists in
their investigations. The illustration of
these books was directed to making
clear the statements of the text. The
Year-Book Series of the Department,
which had recently been started when
Mr. Wilson came into office, was con-
tinued andimproved. 1t has received the
commendation of American farmers and
farm journals as well as Kuropeon autho-
rities. The distribution of Department
publications to farmers constituted an
important feature in connection with
these publications. Press notices, lists of
new and of all available publications
were issued to keep the people informed
as to what information and aid could be
obtained. At the same time methods of
keeping records of where valuable books
have been sent, as wellas of enquiry as
to where they are needed, were combin-
ed to secure the greatest usefulness from
these books to the farming world. The
demand tor these publications has
so far exceeded the supply that it has
been necessary practically to do away
with -all free distribution except to
persons who contribute by service ren-
dered to the Department work. Sales of
them have increased notably in recent
years. Special efforts by indexing were
made to keep easily inreach of farmers
and students such information as has
been secured by the Department.”
“The Library of the Department
affords a means for the study by persons
fitted for independent investigations of
what has already been done in the lead-
ing Agricultural problems that is already
equalled anywhere else in the world.”
“The need of specially trained assis-
tants in the Department work and the
existence of unusual opportunities for
study joined to make practicable a
-system of admission of young men and
women into certain branches of Depart-
ment work at low salaries with the pur-
pose of continuing their studies along
From these student
61 Miscellaneous.
assistants, the Department has selected
a number of capable officials, whose
service has justified the establishment
of the system.”
The investigation of the Cotton Boll-
worm weevil has resulted in the estab-
lishment of experimental farms in the
cotton regions with the consequent wide
introduction of improved and diversified
farming.
Again Congress, through the exertions
of the Agricultural Department, has
passed bills for the protection of game,
and a special survey and study of birds
and mammals is being conducted.
As mentioned above, the first special
buildings for the Department were
erected in 1867. In that year Congress
appropriated $100,000 for the construc-
tion of an office building. This was
ready for occupancy in 1868; about the
same time houses for use in the propaga-
tion of plants for distribution were con-
structed along with conservatories and a
grapery for testing foreign grapes. The
total cost of these buildings was $140,000.
In 1881 after the Atlanta Exposition, the
Museum received so many additions that
it was found necessary to provide more
room. Accordingly $10,000 were appro-
pvriated for the construction of a build-
ing. Various other additional buildings
were found necessary as the various
sections of the Department increased,
but up till 1897 not more than $210,000
had been spent on buildings. In order
to keep pace with the rapid development
of the various departments, buildings
had to be constantly added from time to
time, tillin 1903 Congress appropriated
$1,500,000 for a magnificent building
which provides accommodation for all
sections of the Agricultural Department.
This building is only now approaching
completion.
During the last decade numerous ex-
perimental stations have been estab-
lished all over the country as well as in
Hawaii, Porto Rico and the Philippines.
the development of
Scientific Agriculture in the United
States Department of Agriculture.
Now, let us turn to the work which it
has accomplished and analyse the value
of the results obtained in comparison
with its cost to the nation, The layman
usually expects results in less time than
is necessary for accurate investigation.
Instances of this are common in India,
and sceptical people in India should
study American results. The American
Agricultural Department has been in
existence for nearly fifty years, and the
list of work accomplished should influ-
ence the opinion of those who doubt the
So much for
Miscellaneous.
value of agricultural science. I propose
to mention briefly some of the more
striking achievements.
“The Department up to May Ist, 1906,
cost $60,110,836, or less than $1,500,000 a
year. The chief question is what return
did the nation get for its money. It is
claimed that the Department has spread
information which has enabled agricul-
turists, (1) to}pay their taxes more easily,
(II) to protect their property, (III) to
largely increase the value of their
property.”
About the time the work of the Depart-
ment began it was necessary to import
large quantities of agricultural products.
This was partly due to careless and
ignorant methods of culture. Artificial
fertilizers and even farmyard manure
were little used and the rotation of crops
was little practised.
Certain census figures indicate the
increasing effectiveness of superior culti-
vation. In 1839 the production of corn
(maize) was 23 bushels for each person
in the United States, in 1899 it»was 34
bushels.
This does not, of course. show with
certainty that there was a corresponding
increase in the production for each acre
cultivated, but a comparison of the crop
of 1879 with that of 1889 justifies that
inference. The comparison of the pro-
duction of wheat gives a similar result.
The quantity raised for each person
in 1889 was 5'3 bushels: in 1890 it was 7°4
bushels.
It is impossible to estimate the mone-
tary saving to the country of the work
done, but the saving has been immense.
The suppression of diseases of cattle and
sheep has increased the foreign trade
of the country enormously in export of
live animals and probably of tinned
meats. The Division of Chemistry has
shown the way to a large economical
increase of production of cane sugar,
and the introduction of the beet sugar
industry is flourishing. I could point
out many other agricultural investi-
gations which have been profitable to
the country. This is perhaps unneces-
sary, but I can say that investi-
gation regarding plant breeding, inju-
rious and beneficial insects and plant
diseases have given results which are
quite beyond calculation as regards
profit to the country. The California
Orange Industry was rescued from anni-
hilation by the introduction from Aus-
tralia of the enemy of the Fluted Scale
Insect; and the establishment of the
Smyrna fig industry was rendered pos-
sible by the introduction and culture of
the Blastophaga insect, whose activities
are necessary to the production of the
62
[Juny, 1908
finest class of fig. The introduction of
new varieties of crops and of new agri-
cultural methods has in many casses
been immensely successful.
Specific exemples of money saved
through the warnings of the Weather
Bureau are numerous and easily estab-
lished. Frequently throughout a year
the services of the Weather Bureau
cause savings in all sections of the
country which are far in excess of annual
expenditure.
I have only referred toa tithe of the
advantages of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. It returns to the
country full value for its cost.—Agri-
cultural Journal of India, Vol. Il. Part,
I., January, 1908.
EFFECTS OF GRASS ON APPLE
TREES.
An experiment was commenced in 1902_
at the Harper-Adams Ayricultnral Col-
lege to compare the growth of trees
when planted on grass or on cultivated
ground. The grass upon which the trees
are planted is manured regularly with
farmyard and artificial manure, the
grass mown and removed, while special
artificial manures are used for each crop
on the cultivated portion, in addition to
farmyard manure, thus giving equal
conditions as to manure for the trees on
both plots. The difference between the
trees on grass and those on cultivated
ground has been very marked, as will
be seen from the following table, show-
ing the average diameter in inches of
the trees at a distance of 44 ft. from the
ground.
Average Diameter in inches.
Grass. Cultivated Ground.
oe
meas CUES
1905. 1906. 1907. 1905. 1906, 1907.
Bismark Ab 1:08 {1°05 1°18" SSP eee aa
Bramley’s seedling ... O'78 0°31 1:04 1:20 1°50 1°91
Cox’s orange pippin.. 0°82 0°85 ‘Ol ll 1°40) 1°83
The wet season of 1907 benefited the
trees on grass to a marked extent, for
while in 1906 the proportionate increase
was one in the trees on grass to ten in
the trees on cultivated ground, the
increase in the past year was four in the
trees on grass to ten in the trees on
cultivated ground. Insufficient moisture
seems, therefore, to be one of the causes
Variety of Apple.
of the poor development of trees planted’
in grass.
At the commencement of 1907 the ex-
periment was modified by removing
from around the stems of alternate trees
on grass a square of turf. The surface
groand laid bare (4 square yards to each
tree) was forked without disturbing the
alee i
hese “ e
a {
JuLyY, 1908.]
roots, and kept free from weeds through-
out the year. The effect of this treat-
ment was soon visible, the growth made
during the summer was strong and
healthy, and the increase in the thick-
ness of the main stem was also marked.
On the whole the growth was nearly
equal to that_ made by the trees in culti-
vated ground, and very much greater
than that made by the trees with grass
all around the stem.—Journal of the
Board ef Agriculture, Vol. XV., No. 2,
May, 1908.
A REVIEW OF THE PRESENT CON-
DITIONS OF THE SPIRIT INDUSTRY
IN THE PHILIPPINES.
By DANIeEL T. BRown,
Internal Revenue Agent.
[The chief source of spirit in the
Philippines, as will be gathered from a
perusal of this article, is the Nipa palm,
better known in Ceylon by its native
name of Gin-pol and found growing in
the swamps about Bolgoda, Gintota,
&e. ‘‘Tuba” is what we call ‘“ toddy.”
“Banca” isthe name for a river boat (dug-
Out) such as fisher folk use in river-fish-
ing. The article would suggest the plant-
ing up of low brackish land with nipa
palm to be ‘‘tapped” for toddy. ]
The manufacture of distilled spirits in
63
these Islands is to-day ina healthy and -
thriving condition. The industry is not
a big one, noris ita new one. As far
back as the year 1712 the Governor of
the Islands, Don Martin de Urzua, we
find, had a monopoly uf the business of
distilling spirits from the sap of the nipa
palm and the sap of the coco palm, and
farmed it out for the sum of P10,000°00.
Since these early times there have been
many steps in its development, the
latest and greatest stride forward being
the regulation and control of the in-
dustry by the present Government, as
provided by the Internal Revenue Law
of 1904. This law has put the business
on a_ stable foundation. During the
year 1905 there were removed from the
distilleries for domestic consumption
over 5,000,000 proof liters; in 1906 over
7,000,600 proof liters were removed, and
trom January to June 30 of the present
year taxes have been paid on 4,380,436
proof liters by ninety-one of the ninety-
five registered distillers.
Three years ago no accurate statement
could be obtained by the Government,
not even from the distillers, as to the
Miscellaneous.
annual output of spirits, as the law re-
pealed by the new internal revenue law
imposed a tax on the capacity of distill-
ing machines and not upon what was
produced. By some the output was
estimated at 50,000,000 proof liters, and
others, amongst whom were distillers,
confidently asserted that the normal
Sue) consumption was 42,000,000 proof
iters.
The Government upon investigation
soon ascertained that the normal annual
consumption is 10,006,000 proof liters—
so the present yearis nearly a normal
one.
Agriculture in the Islands is closely
connected with the distilling industry.
When agriculture has fully regained its
former prosperity it will show itself on
the records of distillers, as prosperity in
European countries and in America is
felt by brewers and distillers and in the
national treasuries. The native, before
he enters his rice fields to wallow in mire
up 40 his knees, and the hemp strippers,
before beginning their laborious work,
like to fortify themselves with a glass of
vino. A large portion of the liquours
manufactured in Manila and in the
provinees is distributed throughout the
archipelago, and bartered for domestic
products, chiefly the staples hemp and
coprax. This business has always been
lucrative and important.
The prime materials from which spirits
are manufactured here are the sap of the
nipa palm, the sap of the coco palm,
sugar, corn and rice—by far the most
valuable and important being the sap
from the nipa palm, “ tuba” as it is
called. The butik of the _ spirits is
now distilled from the nipa-tuba. Tuba
is much cheaper than sugar, and
in consequence there is but little
original distillation from sugar being
earried on. A good quality of rum is
taken from sugar in one of the provinces
in which sugar cane is cultivated, but
the output is not large. When “tuba”
is out of season some distillers use sugar
or molasses to a limited extent for a few
months each year. Rice and a mixture
of sugar and boiled rice are used to a
limited extent, but the total amount of
spirits manufactured from all grains is
not large. The coco “tuba” gives a
quality of spirits resembling closely the
nipa alcohol, but no distillation on
a large scale is attempted. Distillation
from tuba de coco has always been
carried on by the primitive caua,
and now the modern caua is being used
in this branch of the industry as well as
by owners of small nipa lands, the pro-
duct being used almost entirely for con-
sumption as a beverage.
Miscellaneous.
The nipa palm regions, called nipales,
are limited to belts of swamp land along
the coast where conditions of soil, etc.,
are iavourable. The nipa palm is useful
for fortifying swamp-land standing in
salt water and unfit for any other culti-
vation. The palm is most productive
when planted on such land.
The provinces in the order of their
importance for the nipa palm are as
follows:—Bulacan, Pangasinan, Pam-
panga, Cagayan, Capiz, Surigao and
Samar. The exact area of the nipa lands
is not yet known.
Nhe collection of the tuba in the
nipales is done by means of bamboo
receptacles attached to the stalk from
which the fruit has been cut.
great fuel economy.
Inthe city of Manila there are five
distilleries which manufacture spirits
from original distillation. Sugar and
native corn are the prime materials, but
no considerable quantities of spirits are
so produced. It is often the case that
the Manila distiller manufactures spirits
from sugar or corn for special purposes
only.
The crude alcohol distilled in the pro-
vinces, which runs in grade from 80 to
90%, is shipped under bond to Manila in
large quantities to the distillers, who
all have rectifying establishments in
connection with their distilling plants.
The Manila distiller finds it more pro-
fitable to use the provincial «alcohol.
There are also four separate rectifying
establishments in the city of Manila
which also use the crude alcohol from
the provinces. And all of the Manila
manufacturers engage in the compound-
ing or mixing of liquors. :
e
eee wat Ve
5 i
oh Soy, 1908] BS Miscellaneous,
oy
1
;
rd
Pint
ta
he
Ne
i)
4
centavos,
The types of machines used by the
large manufacturers in the city of Manila
and in distilleries in the provinces
are: Savalle Fils (Paris), Revere-Dubois
(Bruxelles), Egrot, EK. Barbet.
The alcohol produced by the modern
caua is consumed asa beverage almost
entirely, but the bulk of all other spirits
produced inthe Islands after rectifica-
tion is used in the manufacture of
liquors.
The following are the principal pro-
ducts of the distilleries :—
Anisado. Curacao
_ Gin. Benedictine.
Carbanchel. Marasquino.
Blackberry brandy. Créme de Menthe.
Moscatel. Chartreuse.
Vermouth. Tinto Seco.
Sherry.. Tinto Dulce.
Rum. Anis.
Punch Unrectified alcohol.
Cognac Rectified alcohol.
Industrial alcohol.
Anisado, 60% proof, the commoa drink,
is offered by one of the leading distillers
at the wholesale price of P3.00 per
arroba of 16 liters; and gin 85% proof at
P5.20 per arroba. Fine rectified alcohol
184% proof is being offered at P8.40 per
arroba, and an arroba of industrial
alcohol 167% proof may be had at P7.30.
All of the foregoing imitation liquors
are inferior to the genuine article im-
ported from Europe or America, and are
sold at much lower prices. In the favour
of the natives anisado is far in the lead,
due probably to the pleasant odour and
lasting flavour of the anise seed. The
essence of the anise is the cheapest and
most plentiful inthe Orient. The liquor
is made by mixing sugar and the essence
with rectified alcohol, the proportion of
each being a trade secret. Hach manu-
facturer has his special formula. Anisado
is put upon the market in grades which
vary from 50% to75% proof. Large ship-
ments are made from Manila to all pro-
vinces, and the business is a most profit-
able one for manufacturer and dealer.
Next in popularity is the domestic gin,
-aliquor superior to anisado and more
expensive, the cost of production being
greater, and it is used generally by the
better classes.
The excise tax on alcohol is 20 centavos
per proof liter, a modest tax, and one
_ which it has been demonstrated the
industry is able to bear. A liter of
anisado, sixty proof, paying here 12
would pay in the United
States 55 centavos. And compared to
_ Porto Rico the tax collected here is only
_ about one-third—Manilla Daily Bulle-
& tim, November, 3, 1907,
9
A LEAFLET ON ARROWROOT.
By C. DRIEBERG,
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society.
INTRODUCTORY.
The Superintendent of St. Joseph’s
estate, Weeraketiya, forwarded on April
15 last asample of West Indian arrow-
root flour for examination and report.
The sample was duly submitted to the
Government Agricultural Chemist, who
reported on May 27 :—‘‘I have examined
the sample of arrowroot flour sent with
your letter No, 581 of the 24th ultimo
and findit to be quite pure.” He also
furnished an analysis, which it is
not necessary to reproduce here, The
Superintendent of St. Joseph’s, in for-
warding the arrowroot, stated that it
was prepared by him in a crude way, and
asked for instructions as to cultivation
and manufacture. Hence the present
leaflet, which may be of use to others
interested in this product.
The report of the Agricultural Chemist
proves that there is no difficulty in pro-
ducing good arrowroot in Ceylon. In
fact, this is already being done at quite
anumber of school gardens (eg., at
Mugurugampola), and in view of this
circumstance it seems strange that both
West Indian and Queensland arrowroot
should have to be imported from abroad.
It is to be hoped that the simple instruc-
tions which follow will induce culti-
vators to take up the preparation of
arrowroot, for thelocal market at least,
as at present arrowroot flour is nearly all
imported.
West INDIAN ARROWROOT.
West Indian arrowroot is the product
of the rhizomes of Maranta arundinacea
(called in Sinhalese ‘‘ Hulan-kiriya ”),
Soil.—A light loam is the most suitable
soil, but other soils will do, except those
which are waterlogged or composed of
heavy clay, *‘cabook,” or gravel.
Cultivation.—See that your land is
well drained and worked deep. Mark
out the land with furrows 6 inches deep
and 3 feetapart. Put the young shoots
or sections of the rhizomes 12 inches
apart in the furrows. Subsequent weed-
ing and hoeing between the roots are
all that is necessary. Remove the
flowers as they appear. April is the
best month for planting.
Crop.—The crop will be ready in from
ten to twelve months, by which time the
leaves will tend to fall over. Dig up the
plant with a fork, cut off the leaves, and
wash the rhizomes. About 7 cwt. is a
good average return of arrowroot flour,
reckoning that the tubers yield 15 per
cent, of farina.
Miscellaneous.
Preparation.—For the best flour the
skin of the zhizmoes should be cleaned
with a knife and washed a second time.
Next they should be reduced to a _ pulp.
Thisis usually done by pounding in a
lagre wooden mortar. On a large scale,
however, it is necessary either to pass
them through a machine with two rollers.
or grate them by pressing against a
rapidly revolving wheel overlaid with
rough tin, like a nutmeg grater. An
arrangement such as the last is easily
made. Now wash the pulp thoroughly
with clean water and strain through
a sieve which will allow the flour to pass
through. The flour is allowed to settle
in avessel, and, after the removal of the
water, is taken out and washed over and
overagain till the water left standing
over it is quiteclear. Now thoroughly
dry the flour in thesun as soon as pos-
sible. For keeping, pack in sealed tins.
QUEENSLAND ARROWROOT.
Queensland arrowroot is the product of
Canna edulis, also called ‘‘tois-les-mois ”
(known in Sinhalese as ‘ But-sarana,”
the name of ‘Indian shot,” of which it
is aspecies). It may be distinguished
from the ordinary garden canna by the
peculiar shape and colour of the leaves,
which are inclined to be round and
-eoloured brown. The small flowers are
a bright vermillion red.
The plant is propagated and cultivated
in thesame way as ordinary arrowroot,
butthe ‘ sets” are put further apart,
say 3feet by 3feet. The preparation of
the flour is done in the same way.
On account of the larger size of the
starch grains and their greater solubility
in boiling water the flour is cousidered
one of the best starchy foods for
childern and invalids.
(For plants or divisions apply to the
Superintendent of School Gardens, Gov-
ernment Stock Garden, Colombo.)
June 20, 1908. C, DRIEBERG.
SUGAR INDUSTRY OF FORMOSA
In reply to inquiries of manufacturers
of machinery and of equipment com-
panies, Consul Julean H. Arnold, of
Tamsui, furnishes the following infor-
mation concerning the sugar industry of
Formosa and imports of machinery and
mill supplies thereof :—
There is much activity in South
Formosa in the erection of large modern
sugar mills. Machinery for five mills,
representing an outlay of several millions
of dollars, is at present lying on the
beach in Takao Harbour awaiting trans-
66
“ion So oe
“* oe
[Juny, 1908,
portation to the sugar plantations.
There are ten vessels now engaged in
discharging or attempting to discharge
cargoes of sugar machinery and mill
equipments. The harbour facilities have
been taxed to such an extent, that large
demurrage claims have been lodged by
the shipping companies against consig-
nees.
Outside of the Honolulu Iron Works,
which has secured a contract for the
erection of three large mills, no other
American firms have booked any orders
or appear to be interested in attempting
to compete with the British and German
firms, which are at present engaged
in supplying the great part of the
machinery for the new mills.
Experts declare that the soil and
climatic conditions of Formosa are pecu-
liarly well adapted to the growing of
sugar cane. The Formosan Government
is doing every thing possible to eneourage.
the growing of cane in the island.
Furthermore, the Japanese Government
is determined that Formosa, which at
present supplies but 20 per cent. of the
Japanese consumption, shall supply the
entire consumption, as well as enter the
markets of Chinaand the rest of the
Far East. That capitalists in Japan
have every confidence in the sugar
industry of Formosa is attested by the
fact that, in face of a financial stringency
during the past year, over $10,000,000
has been subscribed to sugar manufactur-
ing companies in Formosa.
There are still a number of mills to be
contracted for, and future developments
are bound to require extensions in the
mills now under course of erection, and
the native mills, of which there area
large number, must either amalgamate
and erect modern mills or be absorbed
by the larger companies,
In connection with the erection of the
yaills at present contracted for, there
will be a demand for good concrete
mixers, pumps, and electric fittings.
Naturally, the large mills all find the
cane cars a necessity. Already 825 miles
of sugar trams are contracted for, and
the little 20-ton locomotives are now
puffing over the sugar plantations to an
extent undreamed of a tew years ago.
One of the larger companies has
purchased two pairs of steam plough, and
pronounces the steam plough a necessity
to the future welfare of the sugar
industry in Formosa. The country is
flat and lends itself well to the use of the ©
steam plough. Undoubtedly within a
few years the steam plough will beas
common on the lowlands of Formosa as
the sugar trams.
q
|
q
ce het ae as y
Bie at
i
i
JULY, 1908. |
The Government Sugar Bureau recent-
ly purchased three American windmills
for experimental purposes in connection
with irrigating their experimental sugar
plantation in South Formosa. Water
can be found ata depth of from 10 to 20
feet on the lowlands, and it is quite
possible that the windmills may be found
to be profitable in irrigation work.
Whether windmills prove a success or
not, the introduction of pumps through-
out many of the plantations will be a
necessity. oY
This office finds that there is much
ignorance on the part of the American
business public as to the facilities which
this island furnishes for the commercial
traveller. Boats of 2,000 to 2,500 register-
ed tonnage ply between Formosa and
Japan on regular three and five day
schedules. These have good passenger
accommodations, From Kobe, Japau to
Kelung, Formosa, about 950 miles is
covered in three and one-half days.
The Government railway extends from
Kelung in the north, to Takao Harbour,
in the south, about 200 miles. The
various sugar plantations can be easily
reached from this railway; in fact,
many of the mills are being erected
along the road. A _ splendid modern
hotel is in course of erection in Taihoku,
the capital city. Good Japanese hotels
can be found all along the railway.
Reports have been published in the
United States from time to time in
regard to savage warfare in Formosa
which would make it appear that the
island is over-run with head-hunting
tribes; but savage tribes in Formosa
are all confined to the heavily timbered
mountain regions, and one may live on
the lowlands for years and never see one
of them. Life and property on the low
» Jands in Formosa are as safe from the
attack of savages as they arein Japan.
The island is remarkably well policed,
and law and order obtain throughout
the civilized portions. The American
‘manufacturer who is looking forward to
business relations with Kormosa in
connection with the sugar industry
would do well to send his representative
here to study conditions and interview
prospective buyers personally. He need
not be told that the catalogue is of little
use without the man to explain it,
especially among a people who read but
little English.—Lowisiana Planter, Vol,
XXXX-, No. 20, May 16, 1908.
ARTIFICIAL SWARMING.
Those of our readers who know some-
thing of artificial swarming will value a
note on ‘‘How to make Two Colonies
~ from One,” by Mr. Frederick Sworder.
Bees increase in large numbers when
6
Miscellaneous.
there is a good honey flow. The result
of this is that they make preparations
to swarm, as their abode is getting
uncomfortably full. During this period
they are in an unsettled state, and,
provided the weather is favourable,
their owner may lose hisswarm. If we
desire an increase of stocks an artificial
swarm can be easily and successfully
made in the following manner: On a
fine afternoon, after having taken the
necessary precautions to subdue the
bees, open a strong hive, lift out, and
examine three frames from the centre
and search for the queen.
When found, place these frames of
comb along with her and the hatching
and adhering bees into another hive
previously prepared; next cover the
frames with clothing. Move the remain-
ing frames of the brood in the old hive
to its centre, filling up the empty space
with frames of fouvndation and prefer-
ably wived. Now move the old hive,
which is queenless, say, 40 feet away, and
on the spot where the old hive stood
place the new hive, carefully covering
these frames with warm quilting,
and the operation is finished. By this
simple method it will be seen that only
one stock of bees is disturbed, and the
old bees from the old hive will return to
the old spot. Further, this hive has
plenty of female eggs besides hatching
bees, and is in excellent condition for
raising a queer. She will be laying in a
fortnight. Most of the old bees will fly
back to the old spot and form the swarm.
Frames of brood foundation must be
added, as required, to the new hive which
now possesses the old laying queen.
—Transvaal Agicultural Journal, No.
23, Vol. VI., April, 1908.
WEST INDIAN CITRATE.
Several weeks ago we referred to the
progress which the island of Dominica
has made in developing the lime indus-
try. Wenow learn that the lime crop
last year was the largest ever reaped in
Dominica, being estimated at 245,000
barrels, or 28,000 barrels more than in
the previous year; while the value of
the exports increased from 54,8741. to
77,407. The manufacture of calcium
citrate is a department of the industry.
This was commenced in 1906, when 720
ewt. of citrate was exported, but last
year the output was 2,380 ewt., valued at
7,761l. In addition there was exported
126,800 gals. of concentrated lime-juice,
valued at 49,150/., a small increase in
quantity over 1906, but 11,000/. more in
value; while of raw lime-jucice the
exports were 254,238 gals,, valued at
Miscellaneous.
8.784l., an inerease of 60,700 gals., and
2,239l1. over the preceding year. The
bulk of these products comes to London
and sells readily. The production of
West Indian concentrated juice and
calcium citrate is particularly interest-
ing at present, in view of the condition
of the citric-acid market. The West
Indian juice does not command the price
compared with Sicilian juice that its
citric content warrants, it being 3. to 4.
per hogshead lower than the Sicilian.
The West Indian juice usually contains
large quantities of pulp, foreign matter,
and carbonished matter arising from
excessive concentration. These objec-
tionable matters can be avoided, for the
Hon. J. C. Macintyre, of Dominica, who
is aregular shipper of juice to London,
has produced a concentrated juice quite
equal to the Sicilian; and in reporting
on samples of a large shipment Messrs.
Ogston & Moore said: ‘‘ We do not think
concentrated lime-juice can be better
made.” Atthe West Indian Conference
last ‘year Mr. Macintyre told planters
how they can turn out high-quality con-
centrated juice, and stated that efforts
at improvement have usually taken the
direction of attempts to clear the raw
juice, and have invariably resulted in
failure, for the following reasons :—
1. Raw juice takes long to settle, and
therefore very large storage capacity is
necessary, Which is impossible on most
estates.
2. Subsidence is never complete, it
being only possible to draw off as clear
juice 60 to 65 per cent. of the entire
quantity, and the residue, a thick mass
of pulp and oil, defies every effort at
economical treatment. The best results
are obtained by distillation, which re-
moves the oil, and if the juice is then
run into subsiding vats, the pulp as well
as a good deal ofthe gummy matter in
the juice rapidly settles to the bottom
along with heavier impurities. The
supernatant liquid can after the lapse of
a few hours be drawn off perfectly clear,
and the remaining juice recovered from
the sludge, with which itis mixed, by
pressure in brewers’ filters (canvas bags
enclosed in an outer casing of loosely
woven twine).
At Mr. Macintyre’s works the juice is
pumped from the mill into vats placed
high up in the boiling-house, thence it
flows into the still, and from that into
the subsiding vats, which are fitted with
taps 8 in. above the bottom for drawing
off the clear juice, and a _plug-hole in
the bottom for removal of the sludge.
After the subsidence the clear juice is
run into the ‘‘tachye” and the sludge
thrown up into filter-tanks, from which
the filtered juice also finds its way to
68
(JuLy, 1908 —
the “‘tachye.” That it pays the planter
to becareful with his concentration may
be judged from the fact that one of the
leading firms of Londonimporters were
able to obtain 30s. per hogshead more
for juice which was thin and clear, and
which contained less than 115 oz. of citric
acid per gal. This, Mr. Macintyre main-
tains, would be equal to a net gain of 28s.,
after deducting discount and charges,
based on the valueof the product. The
question as to whether planters should
manufacture calcium citrate or ship the
concentrated juice is of even great im-
portance. Citric-acid makers much prefer
the citrate, and pay more for it pro rata
than for juice. There is also a con- ~
siderable saving in freight. casks, and _
loss by leakage, while there is no
chance whatever of the demand for
citrate falling off and returning to con-
centrated juice. It is alsostatedthat ~
more citric acid can be saved in mak-
ing citrate than in making concen-
trated juice. The consumptionof citrate
for making citric acid is estimatedat
about 6,000 tons per annum, valued at
about half a million sterling. Onthe —
other hand, the manutacture of citrate —
demands greater skill than the concen-
tration of lime-juice. Chalk has to be
imported, driers erected, and the con- —
sumption of fuel in drying the citrate is
considerable; yet inspite of this the
manufacture is rapidly developing inthe
West Indies, and now that a successful
start has been made it is to be hoped _
that all the lime juice intended for citric. —
acid makers will be exported in the form _
of citrate. Dr. Francis Watts, the
Government Chemist, is fully alive to ~
the possibilities of the industry for the
West Indies, and has published much ~
information and given valuable advice
on the manufacture of commercial
citrate. Much has to be learned in re-
gard to the marketing of the produce,
and, although the price may be right
and the quality uniform, most of the
shipments come on the market ata time
which citric-acid makers are in no imme-
diate need, they having contracted for
the Sicilian citrate from January to
April. Moreover, it comes on to the
market in small lots at irregular periods,
and the makers only buy it because it is
cheap. This is a matter that should be
remedied by the appointment of a
suitable agent on this side who would
devote his interests to pushing citrate
and juice, endeavouring to obtain con-—
tracts for definite quantities at fixed and
better prices than are now obtained.
With regular shipments of uniform high
quality at the seasonable periods, there
isnoreason why West Indian citrate
should not command the same price as
Sicilian, and in course of time become
sl Gin
SR ATE eR aie a ot
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Osea texk,:
fg 5
alee Se Sh RA i i) i I, 1 Mee
JULY, 1908.)
formidable competitor. It may be
mentioned that the output in Sicily has
gradually increased in recent years, the
1907 figures, which have just come to
hand, showing exports of 6,100 tons of
citrate, against 5,100 tons in 1906, and 4,100
tons in 1905, the exact figures in 100 kilos.,
as published by the Board of Trade, being
61,684, 51,498 and 41.259 respectively.
After a long period of depression the
citric-acid market has lately shown signs
of improvement, prices having advanced
from 13d. to 2d. per lb. during April, and
the prospects are for a still further
advance ; but in view of the disappoint-
ing course of the market last year the
placing of contracts has been slower and
more cautious. In April-May, 1906, the
English manufacturer’s price for citric
acid touched 2s. 2d. (the highest point),
but previously (in March) a large con-
tract-business for delivery was done at
about 1s. lld. The consumption of acid
in the summer fell off remarkably, and
prices slowly declined from June
to December, leaving a heavy loss to
those who contracted for their season’s
supply. This decline continued through
the first quarter of 1908 also, English
make falling to ls. 14d. by April, and
even at this comparatively low price
buyers were shy to contract, hoping for
a shilling market, In this they were
disappointed, for the reaction came, as
announced in our issue of April 11, and
to-day the market isa rising one, and the
English-makers have this week with-
drawn from the market, they having
enough in hand to keep their works full
up to July.—Uhemist and Druggist,
No. 1,475, Vol. LX X1I., May, 1908.
NOTES AND QUERIES.
By C. DRIEBERG.
A. DE S.—Jaffna mangoes—not those
so called in Colombo with a green skin
even when ripe—are of decidedly good
quality. They take on the typical
orange yellow colour of a_ properly
ripened fruit, and the small variety is
particularly sweet and well flavoured.
Propagation isasa rule by grafting or
‘*Gootie,” and it is doubtful whether
many seeds could be got to germinate as
they are almost invariably damaged by
a weevil which is found inside the stone.
H. H. C.—Mollison’s and Muke1ji’s works
on Indian Agriculture treat of all crops
grown there, and should give you the in-
formation you want. Youcould, if neces-
sary, consult the books in the library at
the Government Stock Garden, Thurston
Road ; but they cannot be sent to you.
BLUESTONE.— Both bluestone (sulphate
of copper) and sulphate of iron are use-
69
Miscellaneous.
ful in fixing ammonia, which, as a rule, is
lost from manure heaps in the form of
carbonate of ammonia—a very volatile
compound. The above salts help to
produce sulphate of ammonia, which is a
valuable and expensive fertilizer. So
that if you have no other use for the
bluestone, and cannot find a purchaser,
1 would advise you to have it crushed
into powder and employ it on your
estates to mix with manure collected
from your cattle sheds.
P. J.—The experiment in the planting
up of jak trees in the Western Province
has not proved a success under the
conditions it was carried out. The
Forest Department might well take up
the work since the gradual extermin-
ation of the jak is steadily progressing.
Apart from the inconvenience caused by
the scarcity of the wood, a more serious
consideration is the threatened dis-
appearance of a tree which at all times,
and especially when crops fail, supplies
wholesome food for the masses (Jak=
Artocarpus integrvfolia).
F. D.—The plant you refer to is
Martynia diandia. The flower is de-
cidedly pretty, and_ makes the plant
worth cultivating. The dry seed is a
good example of mimicry, resembling as
it does the head of a snake, and for that,
if not a better, reason reputed as a
remedy for snake-bite!
S.—Your informant is correct; there
is a species of brinjal (egg-plant) of which
the fruits are inedible owing to their
extreme bitterness, but the leaves are
cooked and eaten.
BEE-KEEPER.—Bambara bees (A pis dor-
sata) and Danduwel bees (A. florea) only
build one comb, and that in the open,
depending from the branch of a tree.
They are, therefore, very unlikely to
build parallel combs in a box hive in the
same way that A. mellifica and A. indica
do. Youcansee some striking specimens
of the huge combs built by the Bambara
about 23 miles from Rambukkana on ~
the old Kandy road going towards
Mawanella. Hanging from a solitary
tree just below the road, they form very
conspicuous objects. I do not know of
any near about Colombo.
Gorya.—No: it is not expected that
they should adopt the heavy ploughs of
the West, but that they should use a
more effective implement than the so-
called plough they are so wedded to—
which is no plough at all, since it does
not turn a furrow, and, asa “ cultivator,”
is most unsatisfactory, doing a minimum
of work and wasting labour (of men and
cattle) instead of saving both labour
and time. They willsome day come to
give it up for something better.
M iscellaneous. 70
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
GENERAL MEETING.
Minutes of a General Meeting of the
Ceylon Agricultural Society held at the
Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday
the 15th June, 1908.
His Excellency Sir Henry McCallum
presided.
There were also present:—SirS. D.
Bandaranaike, Dr. J. C. Willis, the Hon.
Mr. John Ferguson, the Hon. Mr. FE. C.
Loos, the Hon. Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere,
the Hon. Mr. A. Kanagasabai, Messrs.
A. H. Thomas, R. H. Lock, M. Kelway
Bamber, G. W. Sturgess, J. Harward,
BE. Cowan, P. Arunachalam, W. Dunu-
wille, L. W. A. de Soysa, F. Daniel,
F. M. Mackwood, W. D. Baldwin, M.
Suppramaniam, T. Cockerill, Jas. Gibson,
H. J. Peiris, A. N. Galbraith. W.S. D.
Tudhope, A. EK. Rajapakse. Dr. H. M.
Fernando, Rev. P. T. Cash, Capt. Curling
and Dr. KE. Ludovici.
; re ™ , ‘e
[JuLY, 1908.
Minutes of the General Mecha held
May 25th, 1907, were read and confirmed.
The Secretary’s Report for the year
1907-1908 was laid on the table and
adopted on the motion of the Hon. Mr.
Ferguson, seconded by Mr. Dunuwille.
H. EK. the Governor addressed the
meeting at length with reference to the
work of the Society as shown in the
Report, and indicated his own views as
to the lines on which it should develope.
Dr. Willis read a paper by Mr. R. W.
Smith entitled ‘‘ Alkali Soils and Water
Logging in Irrigated Lands.”
Mr. R. H. Lock read a paper on
‘Beautiful Tropical Trees and their
Uses” by Mr. F. H. Macmillan,
The meeting terminated with a hearty
vote of thanks--proposed by Mr. KFer-
guson—to H. EH. the Governor for pre-
siding.
(In the last number the date of meeting
was given in error as May 15th which
should read June 15th).
C. DRIEBERG.
Correspondence,
PARA RUBBER IN THE GOLD
COAST. ;
Abosso, Gold Coast,
West Africa, 30th April, 1908.
Sir,—I enclose you some photos. of
Para (Hevea Braziliensis) on an estate
near ‘‘ Axim” onthe sea coast of the
Gold Coast. The estate is about seven
miles jinland from Axim—‘‘The Kost
Development Syndicate, Ltd.”
(1.) Isa road through the estate show-
ing the new clearing for rubber and
road fringed with plantains,
(2.) Is some Para, 18 feet high and 16
months old.
You may care to reproduce these
photos. in your most excellent Magazine,
and have my full permission to do so.
This country from the Coast inland 100
miles is ideal for Para in most parts, the
only difficulty is the labour; imported
labour would have to be used to work
with any cheapness. The local people
‘““Rantis” are not only lazy and untrust-
worthy, but they work in the gold mines
at Tarquah and other places on this coast,
and can get higher wages than any
planter can pay.
Down the coast. further up round
‘Accra’ the capital and inland there
are Cocoa and Kola _ estates, nearly
allin the hands of natives, who either
sell to Kuropeans at Accra or ship home
themselves. The export of cocoa this
year should reach a tremendous figure,’
quite - £250,000 worth, and the cocoa
is very fine.
appearing on the trees and no drastic
remedy being taken to remedy it like
Ceylon took—‘“‘the knife” and all the
canker burnt. The export of rubber
from here in 1906 was valued at £360,000,
nearly all ‘‘Landolphia” rubber, but it
is getting less and less every year now,
and will continue to do so owing to the
ruthless way the natives continue to col-
lect it. Imentioned thisin a previous
article to the “T.A.” last year—about
July number, I think.
Yours faithfully,
K. R. MURPHY.
AGRICULTURAL BANK: TELIJJA-
WILA AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY.
Telijjawila, 20th June, 1908.
Sir,—I have the honour to state that
this society distributed seed paddy to
136 persons of this korale for the present
yala harvest, at 5 per cent, in lieu of the
prevailing rate of interest recovered by
private lenders—50 per cent.
Rs. 350 was spent for the purpose. The
proceedure adopted was as follows :—
The Vidana Arachchies of the several
divisions, pursuant to an order from me
a
[,
‘
However, I hear of canker’
Sooo
ee ee ee eS ee
aire
i
‘SHAN, NIVINVIG HLIM GHONIYA GVOY :SONIAVATO AATAOAY ONIMOAS ALVES HODOVHL GVO
‘LSVOO G109 SHL NI Yaasnd Wud
eo)
PARA RUBBER IN THE GOLD COAST.
Trees 16 Monrus Onn ann 18 Frer. Hice.
sooo hes papell demise i
Jury, 1908.]
submitted a list of small field-owners—
the most insignificant of owners, holders
of six kwrunies extent or thereabouts—
who usually depend on loans for their seed
paddy. From this list the most helpless
are selected, and, on appointed days, the
paddy, which is purchased for them by
Agents of the Society, is distributed
at the village market-place or the
most populous centre in the village, if
there is no market. The place and time
of distribution are fixed by me. The
reason for this is to give the widest publi-
city possible to the movement.
The largest. quantity given was twelve
kurwivies, and the smallest six kuruwnies.
At Akuressa the distribution took
place at the Akuressa V.C. Market, at
Pahalawalakada, at the Paraduwa Boys’
School, and so on,
Measures are in contemplation to very
considerably extend the area of oper-
ations in the next yala harvest. It will
take years for a small body such as ours
to supersede the present system of
usury practised by the village money-
lender. That we could, in the course of
two seasons, rescue from his rapacity
over a hundred villagers is by no means
a small matter.
Facilities for obtaining seed paddy on
reasonable terms, and the encouragement
of transplanting are the important
factors in the extension and improve-
ment of paddy cultivation. The lien
which the money-lender has over the
crops which supply the staple food of
the people is the principal deterrent to
. the cultivation of many an acre of arable
3 lands. If it is possible to introduce legis-
( lation to check this scandalous form cf
; usuary prevalent in the Island, the
i sooner it is brought into force the better.
_ I think we may be pardoned for taking
E some pride to ourselves for having been
i: the first to initiate a scheme for miti-
‘i gating what has so long been an unavoid-
able evil. ’
Tam, sir,
Your most obedient servant,
JAS. A. WICKREMERATNE,
Mudaliyar, W. K.
Hon. Sec., T, A. S.
COCONUT CULTIVATION IN
THE PHILIPPINES.
Wiltshire, Matale,
19th June, 1908.
Sirz,—In the May number of the ‘*‘T. A.,”
page 427,—Article on the Cocount in the
Philippines (contd.),—there appears the
following statement with regard to the
planting of Coconuts : — |
1
“The planting ‘pit’ fetish, in such
common use in India, has nothing to
commend it.”
The writer of the article, who I take to
be an authority on the cultivation, does
not, however, state what kind of arrange-
ment in the matter of planting has some-
thing to commend it.
AslIam very much interested in the
planting and cultivation of coconuts, I
shall be very glad to learn anything
there is worth learning on this important
subject.
Yours faithfully,
K. GORDON REEVES.
[If the nuts are not to be planted in
pits, they are presumably to go upon the
level. but the whole of the article was
published.—ED. |
TOMATO CULTIVATION.
St. Joseph’s Estate,
Weeraketiya, 19th July, 1908.
Sir,—I have the honour to forward for
your inspection specimens of two varie-
ties of tomatoes grown on St. Joseph’s
Kstate at Weeraketiya, as an experiment,
between coconut plants.
No. 1. Variety, Tomato ‘‘ Champion”
aetnias oe 6 ‘*The Peach”
Calculating their value at 3 cents per
fruit (local market value), a plant should
yield about Rs. 1:50 worth of truit on an
average, so that tomatoes ought to
prove a remunerative catch crop.
The district is a dry zone as will appear
from the statement of the rainfall hereto
annexed, and I think the result is due to
eareful cultivation.
Yours faithully,
FRANCIS CRUSE,
RAINFALL.
1906 ... lst July to 3lst Dec. ... 26:98 in.
1907 ... lst Jany. to 8lst Dec. ... 48°05 ,,
1908 ... lst 5, to 30thJune ... 2346 ,,
[It is quite evident from the samples
of fruit received that great care has been
exercised in raising them. The fact is
also proved that, by proper methods of
tillage, good crops could be raised with
the minimum of rainfall, Mr, Cruze
deserves much eredit for the results
shown. Not long ago he submitted for
inspection a specimen of Cuban Queen
Melon which, on weighing, turned the
scale at 19 lbs. and was of excellent
quality and flavour.—Secretary, C.A.S.]
72
MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS.
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Price Current, London, 16th, June 1908,)
' QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. —
, Soccotrine cwt.|Fair to fine +» /858 a 90s INDIARUBBER.(Contd. : \
Gea Hepatic ,, |Common to good ..(20s a 803 Borneo )Common to good 6d a 2s 2d
ARROWKOOT (Natal) lb.|Fair to fine .)2gd a 4d Java Good to finered — --'Is9d a 2s 6d .
BEES’ WAX, cewt. Penang low white to prime redils 4d a 2s sd
Zanzibar Yellow _,, |Slight'y drossy to fair .. |£6 10s a £6 15s Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball ,../2s6d a 3s 4d |
Bombay bleached ,, |Fair to good £7 12s 6d a £7 15s Sausage, fair to good ..2séda3s4d
unbleached,, |D: rk to good genuine ../£515s a £6 10s Nyassalana Fair to fine ball 123 :da 284d
Madagascar », |vark to good palish |£6 1:sa £6 17s 6d Madagascar Fr to fine pe & whitelisi0d a 2s 2d
CAMPHOR, Fermosa ,, |Crude nom, Majunga & blk coated ..Jis a 1s 6d .
China ,, |Fair average quality .. |136s Niggers, Jow to good ../6éda2s 1d ,
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb|Gocd to fine bold 1s 10d a 2s New Guinea Cremany, to fine ball .. 1s 6d a 2s 6d nom
Middling lean Is 5d a ls 7d INDIGO, E.I. Bengal |Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a 3s lud
Tellicherry Good to fine bold .|28 a 2s 6d } Consuming mid. to gd.'3s 1d a 3s 4d
Brownish . {ls 6d als 9d Ordinary to middling |2s 9d a 3s
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair boldjis 9d a 2s9a nom. Oudes Middling to fine [256d a2/8nom
Ceylon.— Mysore _,, [Smell fair to fine plump /|1s 4da 3s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 3d a 2s 6d
“ Malabar .. |Fair to good .. jis 5d a 1s 6d Low to ordinary ls 6d a 28 2d
Seeds .. [is 6da Is 9d Mid. to fine Madras |1s da 28 4d
Long Wild,, |Shelly to good _|6d als 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang Pale sedaishy to fine ls da 1s 10d
CASTOR OIL, Calcutta,, |Ists and 2nds .. (3d a 3nd per Ib, Ordinary to a : 1s 2d als 6d
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to fine bright ...{408 a 25s Maer ” », g00d pale }isldalsé6d
~Ib. " aa
yen ran Crown, Renewed 32d a 7d Madras CoM UG and Coconada 456d a 48 9d
aay Org. Stem [2d a 6d Bombay Jubblepore 5s a5s 6d
Red Org. Stem [lid a 44d |Bhimlies 5s a6s
Renewed 3d a 54d Rhajpore, &c. 439s a 5s 3d
Root igd a 4d Bengal we Calcutta, ; 53 abs 3d
CINNAMON, Ceylon dete Common to fine quill gig pisisd NUTMEGS— Ib. prsite ore a 5 ae a Baad
2uds (dals s zd ¢
Beran aed 2 A 6d ais Bombay & Penang », |i¢o's to 115's did a54d
4ths Ns ij 5d a 83d NUTS, ARECA ewt,|Ordinary to fair fresh |l7s 6d a 20s
Chips, &¢../Fair to fine bold 23ada 3d NUX VOMICA, Cochin |OTdinary to good 93 a 11s 6d
CLOVES, Penang Ib.{Dull to fine bright boldj94.a 11d per cwt. Bengal ” i as eal a af 9d
Amboyna -|Dull to tine ind a 8d MEER) eae heme? Ss oe s
Ceylon i “i Hy ida 8d OIL OF ANISEED _,, Fair merchantable 4s 6
Zanzibar Fair and fine’ bright 43d a 54d CASSIA us According to analysis |4s6d a4s 9d
Stems -lPair 2d LEMONGRASS i Good flavour & colour a ee
COFFEE NUTMEG pat piaey to Mee ie 2 ae
Ceylon Plantation ,, |Bold to fine 10s a 116s CINNAMON pramary, 0 oir see 23 a s
Medium to good sus a 100s OL LLEON ELLE ,, Bright & good flavour jls
Native Good ordinary nominal RCHELLA W EED—cewt),,- "
Tapa plants 7 lecaaied ah faeaton: vexon : Pieced closet fat eae: som mii
, Ceylon Plant. ,, |Special Marks 783 a 90s Zanzibar. a pee py :
Coy . Red to good 7zs a 77s 6d Vola wiry Mozambique] ,,
Native Estate », |Ordinary to red 55s a 70S PEPPER - (Black) Tb; |e ‘
Alleppee & Tellicherry;Fair .. [83d
COLOMBO ROOT » |Middling to good 12s 6d a lis Ceylon ,, Lo fine bold heavy ..|34d a 4d
CROTON SEEDS,sift.cwt./Dull to fair 273 6d a 32/6nom. Singapore aie 220 oes ne
cUTCH .» » |Fair to fine dry 21s a25s nom. | Acheen & W. C. Penang|Pull to fine « [8d a 33d
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, |Fair 30s (White) Singapore ,, |Fair tu fine BA ..jod a8d
Calicut, Cut A ,, |Small to fine bold 72s 6d a 85s - Siam ;, |Bair 1a) OP aeolian oa
B&C,, Small and medium 48s a 658 Penang » |Fair Po a
Cochin Rough ,, |Common to fine bold |35s a 37s PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.|Fair_to tine bright bold|35s a 455 nom.
,, (Small and D’s 33s a 358 Middling to good small|29s a 403
Japan > |Unsplit 288 chips Dull to fine bright _ ..|16sa 30s
@UM AMMONIACUM,, |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright i a ae ri
ANIMI, Zanzibar , |Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £19 SAGO, Pearl, large .../Dull to fine ae .. |l4sa shea '
‘ 7" » little red|£13 a £15 medium *.| 4, 7 lds a 1696
Bean and Pea, size ditto|70s a £14 small eae | a7: Be 14s a 153
Vuir to good red sorts |£9a £12 SEEDLAC ewt,|Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 a £6 nom.
Madagascar
AP.ABIC E.1. & Aden
Turkey sorts
Ghatti
Kurrachee
Madras
ASSAFGTIDA
KINO
MYRRH, picked
Aden sorts
OLIBANUM, drop
pickings
siftings
INDIA RUBBER lb.
Ceylon, straits,
Malay Straits, etc.
Assam
Rangoon
Med. & bold glassy sorts
Fair to good palish
e
”» ATS. me
Ordinary to good pale
Sorts to fine pale
Dark to fine pale
Fair to fine bright
Fair to fine pale
Middling to good
Middling to fair
Low to good pale
Slightly foul to fine
Fine Para bis. & sheets|4s
», Ceara ,,
Fine Block ,,
Scrap fair to fine
Plantation
Fair II to good red No.1|2s a 2s 9d nom.) VERMILLION ..
2
Good to fine white
2»
Crepe ordinary to fine.
Reddish to good pale Ait
Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 100s
con). stony to good block!25s a 75s
£6 108 a £7 10s
SENNA, Tinnevelly
.. £4 a £8 10s
£4 a £7 10s
25s a 82s 6d SHELLS, M. o’PEARL—
32s 6d.a 60s Egyptian ewt.
17s a 428 6d Bombay ny
20s a 380s nom. Mergui 75
15s a 25s Manilla x
Banda a
TAMARINDS, Calcutta...
6d als per cwt. Madras
£5 a £6 TORTOISESHELL—
60s a 748 Zanzibar, & Bombay lb.
45s a 65s
40s a 40s TURMERIC, Bengal cwt.
10s a 20s Madras ,,
lisa 15s Do. ef
2d. Cochin ,,
4s 2d
.|48 1d ads 3d VANILLOES— Ib.
.j4s 3d Mauritius... Ists
2s 6d a 3s Madagascar ... } 2nds
3s 4d Seychelles .. érd.
2s 2d a Ys 4d
WAX, Japan, squares
Small to bold .. 45s a.£5 10s
as 60 9s a £6 1Cs
een Ps ove --|£55s a £7 7s 6d
‘Fair to good «-|£4 58a £8 2s 6d
|Sorts a ... 2568 23.8 nom, —
Mid.to fine bl’k not stony|11s a 12s
Stony and inferior -|48 a 58
Small to vold --|88 a 31s
Fickings -. 68 a 268
Fair greenish 23d a 4d
Commonspeckyand small|1éd a 2d
Fair "
Finger fair to fine bold|i9s a 22s
Bulbs [bright|13s a 16s
Finger . 17s ”
Bulbs + [188
Gd cry stallized 3} a8} in|8s a 15s
Foxy & reddish 34.48 ,,|6s6dalls
Lean and inferior «(0S 9d a 6s 9d ~
Fine, pure, bright . |28 9d wee
Good white hard «(508
THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE
Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8.
No. 1.]
ARECA PALM CULTIVATION IN NEW
GUINEA: AND PLANTING PROSPECTS
GENERALLY.
Papua, March 14th.
. SIR, aevind had the pleasure of reading
your pamphlet on ‘* All about the Areca Palm,”
I have (as a resident here, and the owner of 640
acres which I hope to put under Para Rubber
and other plants about December next) taken a
great interest init. In this country there is a
very large amount of areca-nut grown by the
natives in their gardens, and used as a masti-
catory with lime, and a leaf that I do not know,
but it is not a pepper*. There is also a very
inferior indigenous areca-nut that grows wild in
the bush : this grows on the tree in clumps on a
central stalk completely covering the latter on
all sides. The clumps are from 6 in. to 12 in,
long, the nut very small.
Your pamphlet has made mo believe that the
village nut might be profitably grown on my
estate: with this in view, [ am taking the
liberty of sending you a bag of the best local
nut, and would ask you to be good enough to
inform me if it differs in any way from the
Ceylon variety, or the Mysore and Shriwardun
nuts. [This bag has not yet come to hand.—
Ep., C.0.1
If you could manage to send mea sample of
Mysore and Shriwardun nuts, with price and
freight charges, I should be extremely obliged.
Unfortunately, this country is so poorly sup-
plied with shipping facilities that freights are
very heavy and shipping opportunities few and
far between. Were it otherwise, this country
(the climate of which is much maligned) offers
a splendid opening fora planter. Coffee, rub-
ber and sisal hemp plantations are already in
existence and promising well. The native
labour is cheap and good, though the naturally
* The Betel-nut vine is Pepper Betcl: the leaves to be sent
by our correspondent may lead to identification,—Ep.
JULY, 1908.
10
[Vor. ITI.
lazy inhabitants do not care to work for tvo
long at a time. Some people are taking up
blocks cf 5,000, 10,000 and even 20,000 acres
with, I fancy, small hope of immediately de-
veloping such large areas : principally (I am
afraid) with a view of floating a Company, get-
ting a few hundred pounds for themselves by
so doing, and then turning to something else.
The Federal tariff in Australia is another
blow to any industry here: although we are
now part of the Commonwealth, nothing has
yet been hvard of a rebate of duty for the
produce of this country. This is due to the
fact that we employ coloured labour ; a deadly
sin in the eyes of the Australian, who imagines
thereby that we are competing against him! |
will try and get a few of the different kinds of
leaves eaten with arecanut, and send them to you.
Has any machine yet been brought out for
utilising the areca-nut husk as a fibre producer ?
There would seem to be a great opening ahead
for such a machine,—Yours faithfully,
PLANTER.
P.S,—Which is the best way to pick the crop ?
By nuts individually, or to pull off the fibrous
attachment to which the nuts are attached, and
then remove the individual nuts ?
I should be extremely obliged if you would
answer the following questions for me, I am
afraid itis rather a long list :—
(i) Is there yet any machinefor husking nuts?
[No—so far as we know: coconut fibre is so
abundant in Ceylon as to supply fibre require-
ments.—Ep., C.0O.]
(ii) £ cannot reconcile the different prices as
given on page 4of pamphlet—-R18 for 2% cwt.
dried nuts = R7 1-6 per cwt.
[So quoted by the Agent, Kegalla district, in
1893.—Ep., C.O.]
Page 11 of paraphlet—60c por 1,000 or R6 per
cwt—this is presumably in husk as they are sold
at the station store (?)
74 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
[At the ‘‘estate store” in an upcountry district
as quoted by a planter.—Ep., C.0,]
Page 11 of pamphlet footnote— R22 to R40
per cwt. !!
[That is in Bombay for superior kinds—of
course some years ago.—Eb., (.0.]
(ili) On page 21 of pamphlet—‘ wholesale
value at Galle or Colombo is R8 per cwt’: is this
in the husk ?
(iv) On same page—‘‘ At Madras and Bom-
bay Ceylon nuts fetch about R15 per cwt:’—
is this for dried nuts (?) [Both dried and
husked of best quality.—Ep., (.0.]
(v) On page 30, at the bottom, is given the
recipe for ‘ pandhri’ or white betel-nut. Is this
the method of preparing all the nuts described
as white betel-nuts on page 23? If this be so,
how is it that red betel nut such as ‘ tambdi’
and ‘chikni’ (page 30) fetch a lower average
price than white betel-nuts (see page 23) when
their proparation is so much more tedious and
consequently more expensive ?
(iv) Can you give me any information as to
shipping and agents’ charges at Bombay (apart
from freight) ? Also the names of leading betel-
nut merchants there. PLANTER.
{Here is some further information from Col-
ombo native dealers :—
Arecanut exporters to Bombay from Ceylon
are :—Three Parsee firms and about two to
three Borah firms. Nuts are exported without
husk. They are exported in pieces, too, but
generally whole. The merchants in Bombay
who deal in arecanuts are natives, branch firms
of the Ceylon merchants. The charges in
Bombay are R2‘50 per cwt.—Eb., C.0.]
In reply to ‘‘ Planter’s” letter on this subject;
from New Guinea, Messrs. J. P. William Bros.,
the well-known seed firm of Henaratgoda, say
that the arecanut crop is gathered when the
nuts are ripe, the whole bunch or cluster being
pulled; self-sown nuts are gathered from the
ground. A man or boy ascends each tree for
plucking. Itis easy work: one man can pluck
over a hundred treesa day. The nuts are dried
in the sun in dry weather and in the wet weather
by heat or smoke. To further points preferred
in ‘‘Planter”’s letter, the replies are :—
1. Nuts are husked by an arecanut cutter:
* gire” of the Sinhalese and “ pakku vetti”
of the Tamils—the cost is 4 to 5 cents per 1,000.
2. Price R7‘15 per cwt for dried and husked
nuts is for inferior quality, Average price for
undried nuts in husk is 60 cents per 1,000 at
estate store. When dried and husked the average
price is for ordinary RS to R9; ‘‘ Hamban” R10
to R12 per cwt. Undried, or dried nuts in husk,
are not sold by the ewt.
3. The wholesale value KS per cwt is for
dried and husked nuts,
4, Madras and Bombay prices R15 per cwt
is for dried and husked nuts.
5. It is not advisable to go in for special pre-
parations ; besides, they are expensive. The mar-
ket for such kinds is limited in Ceylon. No special
preparation is made for exporting purposes.
6. Dried and husked arecanuts are shipped
in bags to Bombay and other parts of India.
As regards shipping agency. charges and those
for selling, they may be ascertained from the
Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, P.O. Box No. 14, Bombay.
7. Arecanuts are dried in the sun in dry
weather and in wet weather by- heat.
8. The variety called Hamban Puwak is ex-
tensively grown in Ceylon and found to be more
profitable than other varieties.
9. Ordinary, dried and husked, arecanuts are
now sold in the villages at 874 cents per 1,000;
Hamban Puwak at R1'124 per 1,000, the latter
fetches always 25 cents more, a hardy tree, nut
large, bears more nuts than the ordinary areca.
Ordinary, dried arecanuts, husked, holds about
82 to 85 per lb., 1,000 equal to about 11 lb and
about 10,000 to the cwt. Hamban Puwak, dried
and husked, holds about 72 to 75 per lb.
10. Ordinary arecanut crop per tree average
per annum about 300 to 450. Hamban ditto
about 400 to 550.
As regards getting samples of Ceylon nuts, or
other business arrangements, we would refer
‘‘Planter” to Messrs. J. P. William Bros.,
Henaratgoda, Ceylon.
RUBBER-GROWING IN BURMA.
A PLANTER’S EXPERIENCE.
Tavoy, Burma, May 29th.
Sik,—With reference to the leaderette in
the April Tropical Agricultural on the weeding
question as regards rubber, will you allow me
to give my experience.
I am planting 16 ft. by 15 ft. now, but one
field of 60 acres is planted 15 ft. by 10 ft. No
catch crops are grown. Weeding is only done
in the rubber rows 4 ft. on each side of the tree
or about 8 ft. in all; the balance of 7 ft. is
left alone to grow up with secondary jungle
growth. This secondary growth is not allowed
to get much more than 10 ft. to 12 ft. high
so far, so as not to suppress the rubber, and,
|
|
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society,
of course, all lateral growth protruding over
the cleared rubber lines is cut back. My
theory is that not only does this strip of jungle
act as a very efticient windbreak and as partial
shade from the sun, by lines being run N. and
S., but also as a ready source of copious mulch,
and also of surface soi] and dead and rotting
leaves which will be annually scraped into
trenches 3 ft. by 2 ft. by 1ft. These will be
this year dug for the first time between each
rubber tree in the case, of the field planted
~ 15 ft. by 10 ft., and 3 ft. or more feet, accord-
ing to the size of each tree, from each tree
on the upper side of the hill slope, in the case
of 15 ft. by 15 ft. areas,
The weeding of my rubber under the above
conditions costs on an average 8 annas per acre
for six months of the year. In December, the
7th month, and the beginning of our somewhat
prolonged hot weatber, a very thorough weed-
ing is done and the ground in tho rubber rows
thoroughly mulched with branches and leaves
from the uncut intervals. This weeding costs on
an average R1'8 per acre. This, though mulch-
ing, of course, also prevents to a great extent
weed re-growth. In my case no weeding is
found necessary, or done, till the succeed-
ing June although we usually have good
showers in March, April and May. The total
cost of weeding then per annum under this
system is R48 per acre per annum. ‘This
is done where rubber is grown as its own
catch crop so to speak, and close planted, and
no eatch crops are troubled about. In the
course of 7 or 8 years our rubber, it is hoped,
will have so covered the ground with its
canopy as to preclude the necessity of any
weeding and will also have considerably sup-
pressed the interspaces grown over with jungle,
which, as [ have noted above, is at no time
allowed to exceed more than a foot or two
in height the rubber in the rows. There is
the fact that this method tends to run up the
tubber trees very rapidly ; but this is counter-
balanced by adopting Mr Wright’s thumbnail
pruning and topping all trees at 10 feet and
again the succeeding lateral branches at 2 feet
or. so more.
A pure crop of any vegetable growth is
known to lead to thespread of disease fungoid,
cankerous, and of insect pests ; and this inter-
mixing of jungle tree growth suggests itself
as a possible remedy. [I should say that the
weeding done is what is generally known as
‘grass kniying” only; that is, cutting down,
we
i)
as close to the ground as possible, all growth
in the rows. ‘This is left to lie as a cover to
the ground and to obviate wash to a great
extent by preventing the direct impact of the
torrential rains we get in Lower Burmah for
4 to 5 months of the year.
In calculating cost I would ask your readers
to note that our coolies here get 8 annas per
day pay. In the first year the cost of weeding
was rather heavier than the figures I give above,
but owing to constant grass-kniving, covering
with subsoil from the trenches, lateral shade,
and heavy mulching, the cost has been reduced
and I hope will be even more reduced until
it reaches, practically, a vanishing point. It
is, perhaps, unnecessary to point out that if your
lines run at such an angle (according to your
latitude) as to get the maximum amount of
lateral shade from the West sun, also run
along your hill centres, the interstrips of jung
would obviate wash to a great extent, and catch
what little does occur for future re-applica tio
to the rubber.—I am, Sir, yours truly,
J. G. F. MARSHALL.
PALM DISEASE IN S. INDIA.
How it Is SPRBAD.
The following information—-says our contem-
porary’s Tuticorin correspondent-has been circu-
lated in Travancore and Malabar by the Collector
of the latter district :—-The ryots in Travancore
have lost a great deal of money from a new
disease which has attacked their coconut trees
lately. The disease is spreading slowly, and may
appear in other districtsere long. It causes the
trees gradually to become barren; in some gar-
dens the best trees, that used to give over a hun-
dred nuts afew years ago, now only give 10 or
20 or even sometimes none at all, The first sign
of this disease is that some or all of the trees turn
yellow, asif they did not get enough water. Then
the tips of the leaflets dry up and hang down.
At the same time the outer leaves bend away
from the crown and become loosened, so that
they can easily be torn off the tree. In one or
two years all the leaves will have turned yellow
and dried up at the tips. When this happens the
bunches of nuts get affected. At first some of the
nuts do not ripen properly, but fall to the
groundin an immature condition; next year
there will be fewer and smaller nuts; and
after four or five years there may be none
atall, Sometimes the flower spathes are un-
able to break out from the base of the leaves,
76 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
Usually, however, they are formed, but are
not strong enough to produce good nuts.
Such nuts as are given by diseased trees are of
bad quality, thecopra is hard and gives little
oil, and the water inside the nut is disagreeable
in taste and diminished in quantity. Gradually,
as the palm gets more and mcre weakened, the
new leaves that are formed are smaller than
those of healthy trees. Thecentre shoot, that
stands straight up in the middle of the crown,
gets shortened and turns yellow or may even
wither completely. After five or ten years the
diseased palm will dry up altogether and the
head falls off. This is fairly common in some
places asin the Minachil Taluq of Travancore,
while in others, at Changanachery, very few
trees have died even though somo of them have
been barren for many years.
Areca palms are attacked in the seme way.
As they are smaller and more delicate they be-
come: barren more quickly than coconuts, and
they may be killed in from three or five years,
though after they remain much longer without
dying. They are never killed in three months
as with the koleroga disease which attacks areca
palms in Mysore. This disease has caused such
loss in some villages in Travancore that there is
now only one quarter of the yield of coconuts in
these places that there used to be some years
ago. [tis caused bya little ‘‘ fungus” which
attacks the roots inthe soiland causes them
to rot. Thisisso small that it cannct be seen
without great difficulty. It lives and grows in
the soil, but can only move along underground
very slowly. It has taken about ten years to
get from one village to another, only a few miles
away. If people take soil or cuconut roots from
a diseased garden and put them into a healthy
garden, the fungus may be brought along in the
soil or roots,and may begin toattack healthy trees
atonce. This must be the way it has spread over
a large part of North Travancore in the
last twenty years, for in this manner it can,
of course, be made to travel quickly. Hence
people should be very careful not to let any soil
or roots from a diseased garden into their gar-
dens. The only way to kill the ‘‘ fungus ” is
to dig up and burn the roots of diseased trees
as soon any are noticed. [fall the owners of
coconut and areca gardens will do this, there
is a good chance that the disease will not get
established in Malabar. It will require great
watchfulness, and all must unite in keeping a
look-out for cases; for if a few trees are left
diseased they will serve to harbour the “ fun-
gus” and enable it to spread in the soil, and
attack all the palms near by. The trees
should be dug up and the roots burnt as soon
as they are noticed to be diseased, as, even
though the owner may lose a few nuts by dig-
ging up the palm, the loss will be small, and
will save his other trees. The palms do not
ever seem to recover, and it is better to lose
a little ac once than a great deal later or by
allowing all the trees to get attacked.
RUBBER AND COCONUTS IN
KELANTAN.
(From Mr W A Graham's latest report on the
State of Kelantan.)
A largo number of inquiries concerning land
for rubber-planting were received during the
year. These led to further negotiations with
many parties, some of which resulted in the tak-
ing up of land while several applications were
pending at the end of the year. The area of land
taken up amounted to 14,000 areas of which
8,000 are situated within the Duff Company’s
Concession, An arrangement was arrived at by
which the Duff Company, although all its rights
as now defined terminate with the year 1904,
was enabled to enter into negotiations with pos-
sible rubber planters for long leases, the Govern-
ment agreeing, under conditions, to recognise
such leases as may not have expired at the date
when the Company’s rights cease. The soiland
climate of Kelantan have been reported on as
very suitable for rubber planting and land is
being leased to planters on exceptionally easy
conditions. Rubber already planted isall doing
well and the young trees compare favourably
with those of the other Malay States. The paddy
crop forthe year 1,324, was an exceptionally good
one asis fully testified by the large amount of
paddy exported and the low price of rice which
has obtained locally since the crop was reaped,
A large area of new paddy land was opened up
and it seems that this form of agriculture is
about to develop extensively under the new con-
dition of Government. Although more copra
was manufactured than during last year, the
coconut crop was not upto the average, and this
seems to have been the case elsewhere, judginz
by the high prices which were paid in
Singapore for copra. The number of young
coconut trees planted was less than at any time
during the past three years, available land
being now all required for rubber. The planting
of rubber has quite caught the fancy of the
Malay cultivator. Stories of the large profits
to be secured from rubber and of the great areas
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. Vi
which are being devoted to this form of agri-
culture in the Federated Malay States, have
reached Kelantan with the result that every-
body who has a piece of land lying fallow now
wishes to see it covered with Para rubber trees as
soon as possible. For this purpose a considerable
number of seeds and young plants have been
imported from Singapore and from the Perak
State. Seeds were preferred, the plants supplied
by the rubber estates being too highly priced to
suit Malay ideas, but lately large numbers of
young plants have been brought into the State
for sale by Chinese growers and these being much
cheaper than the plants formerly obtainable,
have come very much into demand. What will
be the outcome of these small plantations it is
difficult to foretell. The pcssibility is that many
of them will come to nothing, but it is also clear
that in a few years’ time there will be a consid-
erable number of trees in the State of tappable
size though probably of slightly inferior rubber
producing quality owing to want of sufficient
care during the early stages of their growth.
There should, however, be a regular supply of
rubber and if the price of the article is main-
tained there should be a good opening for a
tubber-buying agency to take the produce of
the lands off the Malays.—S. IF’, Press, May 29.
CEYLON COCONUT OIL TRADE.
Our important staple, Coconut Oil, had been
for a long time past, since October 1878, declin-
ing in value; but recent years show great re-
covery. At the time mentioned, the London
quotation was £49 with a stock of only 900 tons,
Cochin oil being then quoted as high as £66.
During the previous period of scarcity of Coco-
nut oil in December 1868, the London price was
£50 against a stock in London of 2,500 tons; and
going again back to end of 1862 and beginning
of 1863, we find that the London price of Ceylon
Cocoriut oil was £53 with stocks in London of
2,000 tons. We have so far been dealing with
the minimum stocks of the article and tho
maximum prices obtained, and it will be re-
marked that on each recurrence of scarcity the
price has been lower than on the previous occa-
sion. We now turn to the period of maximum
stocks and minimum prices, We find that in
May 1865 with a stcck of Coconut Oi! in London
of 15,700 tons, the price then was £40. In Sept.,
1870, with a stock of 8,000 tons, the price was
£37 to £38, and the lowered value in this instance
was—be it remarked —at a time when the stock
was neatly one-half of the quantity. On Oct.,
1573, stocks inLondon had risen to 13,800 tons
and prices had declined to £32 15.
Coconut oil remained on amuch lower Jevel
of value after 1870 than before it. This was
due to the largely increased production of Palm
oil aud the competition it has caused since.
Later on we have another influence at work to
reduce prices of the staple in Europe. This
was the increasing production of Copra in the
South Sea Islands, &c., and the Export of it
mostly to the Continent of Europe where it is
manufactured into o1l. The demand for Coco-
nut oil in recent years has been helped by the
large increase in its treatment for edible pur-
poses on the Continent and elsewhere, A turn
for the better took place during 1901 with
great demand for soap-making, and prices have
since beea at a high lovel, more especially in
1906 and 1907,
Anything which will benetit Ceylon people
is of the first importance to us and we herewith
wish Coconut Growers all the success they
well deserve.
Cryton Coconut Ort.
Stock in Spot Price O.I.F,
January London of Oil Per Price of
Tons, Cwt. Copra Per
Cwt,
1860 4,629 41/ =
1865 14,997 36/ by
1870 6,073 41 / —
1875 5,886 38/ a
1880 3,263 37 —
1885 this — _— —_
1890 oy au 24/ 17/6
1891 A 875 29/ 17/0
1892 M 1,591 23/3 14/
1893 my 618 23/6 16/
1894 568 25/6 14/6
1895 614 24/ —
1896 594 22/9 —_
1900 234 25/6 15/6
1901 100 25/6 17/6
1902 200 31/6 18/9
1903 200 29/ 17/
1904 400 25/9 15/9
1905 200 30/ 19/14
1906 200 28/6 19/ —
1907 200 39/3 25/9
1908 200 30/ 19/6
A FERTILISING FODDER PLANT FOR
RUBBER AND OTHER ESTATES.
Burringbar, Tweed River, N.S.W., May 25th.
Srr,—Having frequently read of the great
trouble and expense planters experience in trying
to maintain the fertility of their lands, would
you kindly permit me to give a description of
‘‘ Melilat ” or ‘* Pea Clover.” (Melilotus Offi-
cinlis.) This plant grows on an Island off bho
78 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
coast of Tasmania and it kas been’ proved by
Botanists and Agricultural experts, to be a
nitrogenous plant of the highest order, able
to grow on poor sandy wastes or rnbbish-ridden
country, which it rapidly enriches by the
great amount of nitrogen it absorbs from the
atmosphere, and conveys to the soil. It has
proved most useful.as a fodder plant, an
improver of poor soil, an exterminator of fern
and scruh, and it is especially good for green
manuring. It grows from 2 to3 feet high; in
appearance it resembles lucerne and it yields
from 30 cwt. to 2 tons of hay per acre. An
American expert of Botany declares that ‘‘ each
well-developed plant conveys to the soil fully
4 lb. of nitrogen’’. I have read recently that
Mr Carruthers, Director of Agriculture, has
been searching for a plant for this purpose, and
so far has succeeded in procuring only a thorny
species of mimosa which adds only about
150 1b. of nitrogen to the soil per acre per
annum. He also writes :—‘‘ The introduction
of a leguminous plant to take the place of the
weeds, which grow so vigorously and are so
expensive, means an automatic manuring of
the soil, anda conservation of surface soil that
will otherwise be washed away.” A writer in
one of our Government Agricultural Journals
says: ‘‘This seed has been sown in raw white
sand, and in the course of 5or 6 years it has
changed it into dark, almost black rich loam.
We are now growing lucerne (which generally
requires the best soil) which, had it not been
for Melilot, would never have grown at all.
Japan Clover (Lespedeza striata) is an-
other splendid fertilising fodder plant, and
in nutritive value it stands at the head of the
list. It yields from 1 to 3 tons of hay per acre,
and will grow in almost any class of country.
It is largely cultivated in the Southern States
of America, and there are many places in
India and the Straits Settlements suitable for
its cultivation, Like the Melilot it is a great
ameliator and fertiliser. The abundant long
tap-roots uf both of these plants penetrate to
a great depth, and decaying annually, render
the soil porous, and leave therein much_nitro-
genous material and humus. They release and
bring up from the sub-soil valuable plant food.
The analysis of Japan Clover ashes reveals: 40
per cent. potash, 29°60 oxide lime, 7°82 sulphuric
acid, 7°54 phosphoric acid—all most valuable
elements in plant life and growth. Soils are thus
renovated, slopes prevented from washing, mois-
ture solicited and retained, and atmospheric fer-
tilisers gathered and garnered.—Y ours faithfully,
B. HARRISON.
JAPAN CAMPHOR AND CELLULOID.
From various sources we learn that the pro-
posed company for the manufacture of cellu-
loid and artificial silk in Japan. has fallen
through, as originally intended, the foreign
capitalists not having been able to complete
their part of the bargain. The enterprise has
been reconstituted by Japanese alone, the
capital being 1,200,000 yen. The company was
created under the augpices of Mr. R Kondo,
the president of the Nippcn Yusen Kaisha,
and the Iwasaki family. A second company
has also been constituted by the Mitsui Com-
pany with a capital of 2,000,000 yen. The con-
sumption of celluloid in Japan has greatly
increased the last few years, and the annual
import has been of the value of about one
million yen. As it has to bear a heavy duty,
there should be a good chance for the home-
made article in competition with the imported
commodity, Celluloid is largely composed of
camphor, which is a native product and has
no duty to be paid on it. A brilliant future
is therefore looked forward to by the Japanese
promoters.—L, & C. Hxpress, May 29.
APPLE CULTURE AND GRASS.
The result of an interesting experiment made
to compare the growth of apple trees planted
on grass and on cultivated ground is given in
the May number of The Journal of the Board
of Agriculture. The growth of three varieties
of apples was tested, and it was found in each
case that given equal conditions as to manure,
the increase in diameter of the stem of a tree
grown on cultivated ground is much more
rapid than that of a tree planted on grass. A
Cox’s orange pippin, one of the examples
given, planted on grass showed an increase of
1-25 in. in diameter of the stem in the year
1906, and another on cultivated ground 3-10
ip. in the same year, In the wet season.
of 1907, however, there was not such a
marked difference in their respective increases,
which seems to show that insufficient mois-
ture is one of the causes of the poor deyvel-
opment of treee planted on grass. The ex-
periment of removing a square of turf (four .
square yards) from around the stems of some
trees resulted in a healthy and strong growth,
almost equal to that made by trees in culti-
vated ground, and very much better than that
made by trees with grass all around the stem.
—Home paper.
tind Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 79
ENZYMES IN BANANAS.
‘When a fruit such as the banana becomes
ripe, and still more when it reaches the pulpy
stages of over-ripeness, it might well be sup-
posed that micro-organisms are at work, and
that very likely the over-ripe fruit might be
harmful upon that account. This is not the
case, however. Dr. Giuseppe Tallarico has dons
some very elaborate and exhaustive work upon
the subject, publishing his ful! papers upon
“Gli Enzimi ideolitici e catalizzanti nel pro-
cesso di maturazione delle frutta’’ in the
‘‘ Archivio di Farmacologia sperimentale e
Scienzeaflini,’’ His main conclusions are two-
fold ; first, that the pulp of the banana remains
absolutely free from microbes so long as the
pericarp is intact; cultivations upon bread, agar,
gelatine, and so forth remained completely
sterile, Secondly, that the maturation of
the fruit is due to ferments, of
which there are three main kinds—amylotic,
invertive, and proteolytic—each of which is
present in quantity in the ripe banana. It
is, perhaps, upon this account that the fruit is
so beneficial in many cases of simple dyspepsia.
—8S. China MU. Post, May 28.
FUTURE OF THE JAPAN TEA TRADE.
As some time ago the Tokyo Keizai Zasshi
editorially remarked, the future prospect of our
tea trade solely depends on the authorities’
measures for dealing with the trade. At pre-
sent the bulk of Japanese tea exported abroad
is green tea. As to
RED THA
it isin a state hardly worth mentioning, proba-
bly owing to the limited amount of its produc-
tion. The statistics show that the greater
amount of red tea in this country is made in
some districts of Kyushu in comparative abund-
ance, while the remaining small quantity is
produced in Shizuoka Hyogo and a few other
prefectures,
THE PRODUCT FROM CHINA, INDIA AND CEYLON
is greatly esteemed by westerners for its excel-
lent quality while the Japanese production is
in quality by far inferior to the product of those
climes and so quite unable to suit the taste of
western people. Lately the Fukuoka Experi-
mental Farm set about the manufacture of red
tea with the aid of the state treasury. The
result is reported to have proved so satisfactory
that orders are constantly pouring in from
Russia Having obtained from
THIS YEAR MORE THAN THE USUAL SUBSIDY FROM
THE TREASURY
it intends to make greater efforts in the manu-
facture with the view to improve the quality
and to largely extend its sale to Russia and
other countries. This will probably encourage
general manufacturers of red tea to put more
stress on the industry. As regards
GREEN TEA
the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce
recently ordered the Shizuoka Experimental
Farm to start its manufacture and the cultiva-
tion of the plant for which purpose a subsidy
of 1,600 yen has been conferred for the current
year. Shizuoka is widely known as the impor-
tant centre of tea manufacture and its produc-
tion is universally recognised as the best in the
empire. There is a promise of the industry
there being improved hereafter. At the same
time efforts are being made in all other pro-
vinces for the
IMPROVEMENT OF THE INDUSTRY
so that we may be assured of the future deve-
lopment of the export trade. The total yield
during last year throughout the country
amounted to 27,216,564 kin, of which Shizuoka °
heads the list with 15,377,954 kin, next coming
in order :—Miye with 11,422,138 kin; Kyoto
1,501,319 kin; Fukuoka 749,670 kin; Nara
745,756 kin ; Shiga 455,140 kin; Hyogo 541,525
kin and Gifu with 455,140 kin other prefectures
ranging between 366,€64 kin (Kumamoto) and
270 kin (Kanagawa).—Japon Times, May 16.
THE SECRET OF THE SOIL,
(1) TILTH ; (2) MICROBES,
When the farmer in Aisop’s fable told his
sons that he was leaving them treasure buried
in his fields, which they would find if they dug
for it, he gave them nearly the sum of the
knowledge which the modern agriculturist pos-
sesses of the soil he ploughs, With all the added
learning of athousand experiments in manuring,
in irrigating, and in applying the science of
bacteriology to the cultivation of crops, the con-
clusion is still the same, Tilth is the essential,
imperative need. Farmers jhave learnt a great
deal about the vaiues of different manures for
different crops, and a great deal, too, as to the
necessities and possibilities of rotation of one
crop after another, though the Roman farmer
had discovered that principle two thousand
years ago. Virgil’s first Georgic is full of
advice as to alternating crop and crop—lupins
before oats, for oxample—which is really the
8) Lhe Supplement to the
practical teaching of our modern experiments
for extracting nitrogen from the air. Varro,
before Virgil, even came nearer modern prac-
tice, for he advised the sowing of certain crops,
not with the immediate hope of harvest, but in
the knowledge that such crops ploughed in
would increase the fertility of the soil. That is
the practical experience of high farming of
today. Crops are sown to
CATCH AND DETAIN CHEMICAL ELEMENTS NECES-
SARY FOR THE CROPS
to succeed them, and then are ploughed in. But
the great thing is the mixing and breaking up
and ventilating the soil, ploughing it to enable
the frost to do its proper work, pulverising it so
that the water which is to hold the food for the
plants’ roots can cling round every tiny particle
of soil. Then the roots can push free and far
and find food and drink wherever they push.
That is the substance of human knowledge of
the oldest of man’s industries. The soil holds
all that a plant needs if it can be broken up
sufficiently small for the plant to get at its food.
To increase tilth and to decrease manure is
the main tendency of modern scientific farming.
An interesting little book, summing up in @
condensed form the conclusions of many ex-
periments in soils and farming generally, has
just been published by Mr Primrose McConnell,
a, practical farmer of Southminster, Essex, un-
der the title ‘‘Soils: their Nature and Treat-
ment.” How much is there still waiting for the
farmer to discover, of the soil which Varro
wrote two thousand years ago, and man had
been learning for uncounted centuries before
him? If the need for good tilthstill romains
the greatest need of all, what have we learnt
that the Roman farmer did notknow? Of
. the actual practical work of ploughing and
sowing probably very little. Of the com-
position of soils and subsoils perhaps a
littl more. We know, for instance, what
he had no opportunity of knowing,—that the
rule of cultivable soils is pretty nearly the
same the whole world over. First the top
layer, some three inches of turf ; under that
a layer, which may be shallow or deep, but is
seldom much more than a foot deep of soil; under
that a subsoil ; under that, a layer of ‘‘brash” or
rubble ; and, last ofall, the bedrock itself, from
whose surface all the rest have been rubbed and
washed and broken by frost and rain and sun and
clinging plants. The Roman farmer could get a
practical knowledge of the actual earth which he
himself worked, but he could not of course,
Tropical Agricultrist
compare the geology of five continents, What
has been reserved for a generation living two
thousand years after him to discover is that the
soil is something very different from what Eng-
lish farmers believed it to be forty or fifty years
ago. Perhaps the Roman, or the Greek before
him, knew itinstinctively, for was it not an Eng-
lishman who first called the earth Mother ? But
it was not until our day that science established
the fact that the soil isnot a mass of dead, inert
matter, to be shovelled here and shifted there,
merely a fortuitous collection of powdered rocks
which can bo ‘‘manured,” or worked by the
hand into different places and various uses; but
is a teeming world of living creatures; an aggre-
gate of millions of tons ofso-called ‘‘soil” which
can bring forth life because it is itself alive ;
which holds in itsopen,
ARABLE SURFACE SECRETS OF LIVING ORGANISM
AND GROWTH AND FERTILITY
which men who have ploughed it since the begin-
ning of earning bread only yesterday began tosus-
pect, only today recognise faintly and perhapsonly
in the end of things, perhaps never, will fathom.
The more man learns of other life, the further
the horizon of hisown life retreats from him,
The principles of the plainer methods of im-
proving soils aresimple enough. Wet soil can
be drained, andso made more capable of hold-
ing water. It sounds contradictory, but an ill-
drained soil does not hold water as plants like
it held,—that is, collected by capillary attrac-
tion to tiny particles, with room for air next to
the water. Rather it contains stagnant settle-
ments of water at which roots will not drink,
and which need to be drained away. Some
soils must be drained of water, others cleared
of stones. Others, again, need to be limed, or
supplied with a body which acts in various
ways, nearly invariably beneficially, on various
soils. Lime stiffens sand, makes clay friable,
and helps plants whose roots take up nitrogen
from the air inthe soil in retaining surpluses
of the gas which otherwise might be too much
for them. Plants which take up nitrogen some-
times succeed in choking themselves; and lime,
as it were, helps them with what they cannot
manage of their plateful. But the most interest-
ing, and, regarded from different points of
view, at once the darkest and best lighted of
the problems of soil and cultivation, is the
question of what perhaps may be called bac-
terial aid to plant-growth. Soil, separated into
its constituents, consists of some twelve or
thirteen chemical substances, existing in various
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society, 81
tompounds, of which the most important are
seven : nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime,
ferric oxide, magnesia, and sulphuric acid.
Roughly and vaguely speaking, for many of the
chemical processes which goon in the soil are
still entirely obscure, of three or four of these
there is such an abundance that no imaginable
process of crop-growing could exhaust them.
Three, or perhaps four—nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, potash, and lime—might conceivably be
removed by plant-growth toan extent harmful
to the soil, and might need to be replaced. Of
these, lime may be necessary to assist the
presence of nitrogen, but is very little re-
quired asadirect manure to the plant itself.
Potash, again, need be added in comparatively
few cases. Butnitrogen and phosphoric acid
are abundantly and perpetually wanted, and
one ofthem, nitrogen, has been the subject of
some extraordinarily interesting discoveries.
Two German chemists, Hellriegal and Willfarth,
first established in 1886 that on the roots of
certain leguminous plants, vetches, beans,
lupins, and so on, there grow little
NODULES, WHICH ARE THE RESULT OF THE
GROWTH OF MICROBES
within them. The microbes extract nitrogen
from the air in the soil round them, and, as it
were, build it up into the substance of the root
of the leguminous plant which is their “host.”
That discovery was the beginning of a series, of
which we can only guess the possibilities. To
it has already been added the discovery that
seeds can be dressed with cultures of particular
microbes which feed, and help the plant to
feed, onnitrogen, and so help it to a vigorous
growth, and to vigorous growths in other plants
that are tofollow it in the soil, The almost
certain induction seams to be that all plants
have particular microbes which, in feeding
themselves, help the plant to feed.
If that is so, the science of ‘‘manuring”’ a soil
will resolve itself, first, into perfect tilth, sothat
every particle of the soil can be surrounded with
its coat of water containing soluble food ; and
second, into the
PROVISION OF THE RIGHT KIND OF MICROBE
in the neighbourhood of the plant that
needs it. Ofthe four substances known to be
absolutely necessary to plant life, and alsoliable
to exhaustion, we still have no better means of
supplying phosphoric acid than in the form of
manure. Butisit to be supposed that Science
has yet made all her discoveries? Mr McConnel
states, surely a littledogmatically, that phospo-
ric acid “‘is the one ingredient that is univer-
sally deficient in the soil that 1shotadded by the
ordinary farmyard dung of the farm in sufficient
quantity, and thatcannot be developed or ex-
tracted from anywhere by any system of crop-
ping or treatment and must be returned by ex-
traneous manuring.” Is not that, considering
that we knew nothing of nitrogen-extracting
nodules thirty years ago, rather too sweeping ?
We have not yet heard all the secrets even
whispered. The secret of the life of the soil is
not to be dragged from her in thirty years, pos-
sibly notin three thousand. Our postecity, per-
haps, will decide that we were little further on
the road to discovery than was Varro.—Spec-
tator, May 16.
SISAL HEMP CULTIVATION PROJECT
IN BRITISH GUIANA.
CAPITAL SUBSCRIBED IN New York.
The news will be received with satisfaction
in Georgetown that onthe 21st ultimo a wire
was received from New York, stating that all
the necessary capital had been subscribed for
putting into execution the project to extensively
cultivate sisal hemp in the tract of country com-
prising some 7,000 acres in the vicinity of
Bartica granted by the Government for this
purpose. Mr Viton stated to a representative
that something like $50,000 will be put into
circulation in the colony in putting the land into
cultivation.—Demerara Chronisle, May 1.
COCONUT OIL AND SOAP—AND SOAP-
MAKING §N CEYLON.
‘¢ Cleanliness” being ‘‘ next to godliness,” itis
a good sign that the consumption of Soap has
so greatly increased of recent years, not simply
in Europe, America and Australia; but through-
out the Asiatic and African continents and the
Islands of the Sea. But as civilisation and
Christianity advance, we may be sure, so will the
demand for soap. That there are great possi-
bilities of expansion in the trade for many de-
cades to come cannot be doubted. Every year
should see an increase in the demand and con-
sumption and, consequently, in the manufacture,
Now, as coconut oil is one of the principal in-
gredionts in soap-making, there is a good pro-
spect that a‘keon demand for this palm staple
will keep up for a long time to come. Trus,
the great soap-making house of ‘‘ Lever ”
(“Sunlight Soap ”) have gone in for planting
coconuts in the Solomon and other South Sea
islands, on their own account. But their pro-
duction can only be asa fraction of the world’s
consumption which again must be a constantly
growing quantity. But what we wish to enquire,
in connection with this matter, is whether
something could not be done in Ceylon in Soap
Manufacture. Many years ago an appreciable
quantity of soap was made in Hulftsdorp Coco-
nut Oil Mills, chiefly for export—and largely to
Mauritius, if we remember rightly, Not very
much, we believe, was sold locally. ‘‘ Soap ”
like the proverbial ‘‘ prophet”, perhaps, is not of
much reputation in its own country ; or, per-
haps, a sea-voyage improves it? Be that as it
may, it is a fact that between 1865 and 1892,
a not inconsiderable export trade in Ceylon
soap took place. The Customs value in 1865 was
given at R7,500; but by 1880 it had risen to
R25,791 ; in 1885 it was R40,005 ; then it fell
off and in 1890 was R24,140—1891=R14,180;
—1892=R475 and then the trade and, we sup-
pose, the local manufacture, stopped. Mean-
while, soap imported was valued at R58,460 in
188() and rose steadily to R128,472 in 1890, and
so on, to R269,338 in 1899 and year by year
steadily increasing until it reached to R423,670
in 1906. Last year, the full particulars of the
importation may be copied from the Customs
Returns as follows :—
11
82 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
3 $322 4 |
. ano so 69 98
Sat sy aS oss
ARTICLES. 222 S388 a3 6
sH Bros >
on O58 @
SOAP, TOILET— Cwt, Cwt Cwt.
United Kingdom 2611 2647 151635
British Colonies—
British India 9 9 609
New South Wales — _ 23
South Australia — — 8
Straits Settlements 2 2 41
Victoria 21 21 893
Zanzibar — _— 12
Foreign Countries—
Austiia 23 23 1707
China — _— 10
Egypt _ = 2
France 40 45 1069
Germany 83 85 5421
Holland — _ 78
Italy 45 45 1835,
Japan 148 148 5830
U. 8., America 21 21 8916
tussia in Hurope — _ 7
Switzerland 4 4 217.
3007 8050 173313
SOAP, BAR—
United Kingdom 1887 1823 32846
British Colonies—
British India 1056 1056 7397
Hongkong _ = =
New South Wales 58 58 649
Queensland
South Australia 125 125 1741
Victoria 11335 11335 135945
West Australia 2678 2678 30432
Foreign Countries—
Austria 15 15 315
China, _ ae =
France 2 2 48
Germany 81 $1 1125
Russia -- = arr
17237 17173 210498
It will be seen that the total value of toilet
and bar-soap was R383,811 last year, or nearly
R40,000 less than in 1906; such fluctuations must
be expected ina trade of this kind. The curi-
ous fact. however, is that while in 1891 nearly all
our soap came from India (R70,933) with R37,313
from the United Kingdom and R15,986 from
Germany,—in 1907, we find the Australian
Colony of Victoria supplying us with soap to
the value of R135,945, and Western Australia
R30,432, both in ‘‘bar-soap.” while the U.K. is
represented by R32,846 and India only by R7,397,
In regard to ‘* toilet soap,” however, R151,635
came from the U. Kingdom, leaving only R22,000
to represent what comes chiefly from Japan,
Germany and the U.S. of America, The trade in
“toilet” soap can scarcely be disturbed; but surely
Ceylon could, in the present day, manufacture
its own “bar” soap, with the advantage
of a 64 per cent ad valorem import duty,
considering that it manufactured and ex-
ported soap so freely twenty years agoP A
great deal of the raw material—coconut oil
especially—is available in the island, and,
indeed, it is a question whether the preparation
of emollients should not, to some extent, become
a household industry. We do not know whether
such has become the case in the West Indies ;
but we cannot better conclude our present deli-
verance than with the following extract froma
West Indian journal of a good many years ago—
for, the statement has its lesson tor Ceylon ;—
A tropical country, unless it be pure sand or rock, is
pretty sure to, it certainly can easily, be a great oil-pro-
ducer. ‘Lhe best oil-seeds and most of the palms grow there
and give it oil abundance, and yield it up at slight cost.
From these we obtain lighting, cooking, salad, and iubricat-
ing oils, soap, candles, oil meal for stock, and other use-
ful products. Every cook on board ship has his slush
bucket, and the grease he saves for the soap makers isa
perquisite that gives a welcome addition to his wage a
the end of the voyage. In North America many a thousand
housewives in clearings remvute from towns, saving the
grease-offals from their kitchen and the ashes of their
wood fires (to dissolve out the alkali) make soft soap enough
for the family washing. Yet, inthis Colony, with a super-
abundance of material, in various forms, we have put none
of it to use for soap till now,and none at all for candles !
Let the Colonists abjure petty insular. conceit and silly
pride, and humbly stoop to learn the many things they
are ignorant of, or—knowing -- have neglected.
The rude material of wealth, the opportunities of
industry, are almost boundless in these countries.
Better a moderate competency at these, with inde-
endence, than an aching uncertain strugglefor a place
in the few professions, or be one in a crowd of applicants
for a vazancy as clerk or salesman, without a trade or
creative pursuit in arm or brain to fly to in case of
failure. - é z
There is a lesson with a decided local ap-
plication in the above. Another industry
closely allied to Soap, is Candle-making.
Of candles, Ceylon imported to the 7alue of
R96,289 in 1907, For what purpose could we
have imported last year 30,884 ewt. of Fuller's
Earth from India? —worth R65,094.
OPINIONS OF COLOMBO MERCHANTS.
The subject of the feasibility of soap manu-
facture in Ceylon has been taken up in one or
two quarters but is not looked upon with opti-
mism. A partner in a local firm which did a con-
siderable business in soap manufacture a little
over a decade ago, whilst admitting the local
advantages to the soap factor in Ceylon, looked
at the matter froma purely compelitiye point
of view, and on that ground could not support
its encoursgement.
‘““We gave up soap manufacture on account
of the keen competition which we experienced
from home. Home firms made it quite as
good as we could, and at a cheaper rate,
They have all the advantages of machinery,
chemists, the best perfume treatments, and
compared with their methods we could do it
in only a very crude way. Moreover, Ceylon
is too small for soap manufacture to pay.
The Colombo market is much too small. Even
the common soap now-a-days is got up
with such neatness, such nicety, perfume, &e-
We could not develop an export trade from
Ceylon that would be likely to pay, in spite of
the freight from home. To Singapore it
would be about R14 for a ton, and it is only
about 22s 6d from home,” ~
Our representative mentioned that it was
understood there is a wealthy native gentleman
in Ceylon who is prospecting local soap manu-
facture on an extensive scale in view of the
advantages of local coconut oil, ete.
‘“ Then,’’ was the reply, ‘‘he will not long re-
main the wealthy native gentleman thathe is.”
Another member of a Colombo firm ex-
pressed the opinion that the effect of the climate
on soap that was stocked locally had mitigated
against the continuance of its manufacture
some years ago. ‘‘ Unless it was sold as it
was produced,” he remarked, ‘‘ it was materially
affected. I have heard that one of the firms
in Singapore is ina bad way on this account”
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 83
RUBBER IN PARA STATE.
THE FALL IN PRICE.
AFFECTS THE Statx’s FINANCIAL CONDITION,
The following [is from the] report, dated Ist
February, on the financial condition affecting
commercia] interests in Para, received from
H.M. Consul at Para (Mr C B Rhind) :—
_ ‘**Since my arrival herein September, 1907,
reports have been constant of the unsatisfactory
condition of finances in the commercial circles
of this market. The most prominent cause of this
depression 1n local resources is the diminution
in value of the staple product of the district
figuring in international trade—rubber. At 31st
December, 1906, the prices of rubber per kilo
were as follows: fine rubber, 5650 milreis,
coarse, 3°450 milreis, Caucho ball, 5°500 milreis ;
these prices had fallen by 3lst December, 1907,
to 3°500 milreis, 2°200 milreis and 3°400 milreis
for the respective qualities, The fall in value
was thus about 35 per cent. Itis true that
during 1907 as much as 37,525 tons were placed
on the market, against only 34,590 tons during
1906, but the increase in quantity failed to com-
pensate the great depreciation in value. This
depreciation, though continuous, was mainly
confined to the last three months of the year.
The consensus of opinion associates the depre-
ciation with the financial crisis in the United
States, and it is natural that such an influence
should withdraw from operation much capital
which, in normal circumstances, would be avail-
able for speculation in this and other products
of this district. The
HIGH RATE OF TAXATION TO WHICH RUBBER
IS SUBJECTED
must, however, be borne in mind in con-
nection with the depreciation in the com-
mercial value of this product. I here give a
Schedule of the duties fixed for export from
this State during the week from 30th December,
1907, to 5th January, 1908, and I should explain
that in addition to this list there are in all
districts of the country municipal taxes on pro-
ductions of all classes :—
Value on which
duties are Export
Weekly Tariff of Export Duties calculated. Duty.
from Para: Milreis per kilo, Per cent.
Rubber, tine 3°900 22
Rubber, coarse . 2'570 22
Cocoa, good AB 976 6
Cocoa, inferior “K 500 6
Per hectolitre,
Brazil Nuts 22°200 16
Per kilo,
Fish Glue, Gurijuba 2°250 17
Fish Glue, of other fish 1°v00 17
Deer Skins, good a 1‘300 17
Deer Skins, inferior Ri 900 17
Hides, various qualities 200 to 690 Vv
‘“These data show that before rubber can
leave this State it has to pay tributes armounting
to almost a quarter of its value. It will be
readily understood that if an article is selling at
a high price, say, at 65600 milreis a kilo., the
producer may see no hardship in paying a tax of
26 per cent, of its value, as he would still receive
4200 milreis net, yielding a remunerative result;
but, if the selling’ price were reduced to 3°600
Pilreis a kilo, and the taxation maintained at
25 per cent., the net seiling price would be re-
duced to 2°70 milreis, which might involve him
in absolute loss: this is practically what is hap-
pening at present with the owners of rubber
properties in this district. Jn conjunction with
the item of taxation, the heavy scale of expendi-
ture incurred for all services connected with the
industry, such as
TRANSPORT AND COST OF LABOUR,
must also be taken into consideration, none of
these being reduced in sympathy with the fall
in the market value of the product
mM oe wo
‘‘ There has lately been a slight recovery in
the value of rubber, and itis said that the col-
lection of the article has been satisfactory,
There having been a copious rainfall, I under-
stand that the Alto Purus and other affluents of
the Amazon are in good condition for bringing
supplies to market, but it appears that these
SUPPLIES ARE BEING RETAINED IN THE HOPE OF
SECURING HIGHER PRICES,
‘“¢Projects are also under consideration for
easing the monetary situation (as affecting the
circumstances of the owners of rubber pro-
perties) by the opening of a branch of the Bank
of Brazil at Para, and tor including in its trans-
actions the making of advances on rubber in
deposit, Itis thought, however, that this idea
can have little success, as advances would pro-
bably be limited to 50 per cent. of the value,
whereas, I understand, merchants will advance,
en produce consigned to them for sale, as much
as 70 per cent. of the value, It has also to be
remembered that the rubber while stored would
ba subjected to warehouse rent and other ex-
penses, and also that the article dries in keep-
ing, thereby losing in weight, and in vaiue,
WARNING TO BRITISH INVESTORS,
‘‘T am told that there is still a great disposi-
tion among British capitalists to mvect in the
acquisition of rubber-producing properties in
Brazil. Investments of this nature have not
invariably been successful, and, in my opinion,
such undertakings should be engaged in with
the greatest circumspection. I would urge par-
ticularly that care be exercised in the supervi-
sion of title deeds, so that security in the
possession of the property may be assured. Atten-
tion to these matters is especially to be recom-
mended in connection with properties in the
Acre Gistrict, where the change of régime,
whereby the administration of this territory has
been constituted in the Federal Government of
Brazil, may engender disputes should the owner-
ship of the estates offered for purchase not be
clearly vested in those representing themselves
as proprietors. One formality, which I under-
stand to be indispensable in the
PROCESS OF PROVING A CLEAR TITLE TO THR
OWNERSHIP OF PROPERTY,
perty, is the exhibition of proof that the title
deeds have been duly registered in the State
Department charged with the recording of re-
gistrations of this nature, which I believe to be
subordinate to the Department of Public
Works, Land and Communications (Obras Pubs
ligas, Terras e Viagao),
84 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
‘While dealing with this topic I may also
refer to the development of rubber cultivation
in Ceylon, the Straits Settlements and other
British Possessions, as well as in Africa, Central
America and Mexico. Up tothis time little im-
portance has been attached to possible competi-
tion from these sources, but Brazilian economists
are beginning to view this matter as fraught
with more danger to the interests of this country
than was at first supposed. It has even been
argued that, in a period of not more than ten
years, the practical Brazilian monopoly in this
production may be at an end, Certainly it
appears to me that, other conditions being
favourable, the systematic processes observed
in the countries named, together with the
greater cheapness of labour, transport, and
other items affecting the industry, will place those
CULTIVATORS IN A VASTLY SUPERIOR POSITION TO
THOSE OF BRAZIL,
where the expenses in every branch of
activity connected with the industry are
on an extremely high scale, and where the
process of collection seems, more often than
not, attended with risk to health, if not of more
serious consequences.
‘‘{n any case British investors, when consid-
ering business of this class, should be careful
not to be impressed by the simple statement of
the possible production of an estate, without
considering the very heavy outlay required for
marketing the article. Another point is, that,
in my opinion, they should not attempt to work
such properties with british labour, or to place
their workers under British working overseers ;
the best labourers for such properties are the
natives, Portuguese, Spaniards and Italians, and
such men do not always agree with and work
well when held strictiy to British systems. IL
need not say that these remarks do not apply to
members oi the superior staff.”—Board of rade
Journal, May 21.
GREEN MANURING FOR YOUNG
LUBBER.
Pollibetta, June 9.—The Cearas have made
good growth since the early rains. Many which
appeared to be dead have thrown out shoots
which have attained a length of from six inches
to one foot. The Para planted out last Sept-
ember-October in the field, though a goodly
proportion has survived, has not made such
good growth as the plants that have been
watered and tended in the nurseries, but they
ought to put on a spurt after the setting in
of the monsoon, The question as to whether
there should or should not be a green cover-
ing over the soil'in rubber clearings, which
was discussed by your special planting. corre-
spondent in the Madras Mail of the 30th May,
has been settled in these parts by allowing
grass and weeds—there are some legumes
amongst them—to overrun rubber openings,
an occasional grass-knifing being done to keep
down too exuberant growth. Lantana and
other thorny jungle stuff are dug out by the
roots, and a radius of two feet round young
plants is kept clean to protect them from
eing choked out, and they are mulched.
This treatment has had no deleterious effects
on the Ceara rubber and would apnea the
rational method to adopt in the case of what is
ae i
arobust jungle tree which can easily hold its
own against puny weeds. Para rubber, too,
once itis given a start, ought to be well able
to look after itself with but little atten-
tion. Deep digging and drainage would pro-
bably accelerate the growth of both species,
and there can be objection to a clean digging,
as the land would soon be covered with a green
mantle again, but monthly weedings in rubber
would appear to be useless and unnecessary.
Your special planting correspondent, I[ see,
incidentally mentions thatthe Bilwara (Albizzia
odoratissima) has not been found to be a good
shade tree for coffee in many estates in Mysore.
In this district it is taken as an indication
of good soil where it occurs, and coffee thrives
and supplies come on very well under it. On
the other hand, the
= a8 ® ofa Bf 6
oS am A as n
No: f: f. ts f, £3 per
cent,
413,569'51 145,266°75 316,829°39 1C7,302°76 161,000 804
2 95,908°83 17,09705 + 78,811°78 29,811°78 49,u00 28
3 71,459°01 11,459°01 60,000" — 15,000°-- 45,000 224
4 73,466°53 22,043'45 5 1,423°08 15,423°08 36,000 18
5 47,374°85 2,975°46 44,399°39 16,399°39 28,000 14
6 45,805'70 3,986°81 —41,818°89 11,818°89 30,000 15
7 23,397°04 9,348°32 14,048°72 4,048°72 10,000 10
8 26,96: *83 1,682°28 19,428°57 5,828°57 13,600 8
9 26,388'72 26,388°72 — — - —
[For our private information we have re-
ceived the names of the estates to which the
above numbers refer.—Ep., C. O.]
SraATEMENT oF JAVA TEA SHIPPED FROM 1895 UP
TO AND INcLUDING APRIL, 1908.
YEAR, IXILOS. ENGLISH L
1895 ; 2,673,730 10,282,206
1896 4 4,554,980 10,029,956
1897 : 4,794,045 10,546,899
1898 3 6,328,738 11,723,228
1899 3 5,771,199 12,709,837
1900 6,626,358 14,577,987
1901 7,444,310 16,377,484
1902 7,386,674 16,250,682
1903 9,882,204 2',740,848
1904 11,055, 262 co 24,321,576
1905 go 11,716,517 oa 25,776,327
1906 ate 12,151,568 60 26,733,140
1907 i 12,543,386 27,595,449
1908 Jan. / April 5,543,168 12,195,740
———
BORNEO COPRA AND OIL MAKING,
The Resident of Dutch South West Borneo
calls attention to the flourishing condition of
the copra trade there, especially with Singa-
The Government is doing its best to im-
prove the quality of the copra produced by
supervising strict
pore.
its
preparation for the
|
market. But, for all that, much inferior copra is
notonly prepared, but it is also sold. The buyers
readily snap up the article, knowing as they do,
that any kind of copra finds sale in Singapore
for oil-making.—Straits Times, June 1.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Society. 1
RUBBER PLANTING IN CEYLON.
PLANTERS’ EXPERIENCE IN
“TAPPING” WITH SOME OF THE
OLDEST TREES IN THE ISLAND.
We recently .reproduced an _ interesting
short contribution from the London Times
entitled ‘‘ Some impressions of Rubber Planting
in Ceylon,” evidently from the pen of a visitor.
The following was the portion relating to
rubber-tapping :—
“ Having had no previous experience—most
of their knowledge has been attained from
text books—tapping has been wrongly and
often badly carried out, with the result that
the trees have been damaged at a time when
they are extremely susceptible to rough
usage. In the great planting fever of two and
three years ago many rushed in and planted
without any regard to the quality of seed.
And just as the owners of some tea gardens
are now regretting having planted a bad jat
or variety of seed, so in the future planters
of poor rubber will repent their haste. As far
as one can judge, the effect of continual tap-
ping over a long period of time is not fully
known. It does not follow that, because
during the first four or five years of tapping
no apparent injury is done to the trees, the
same will be the case in 12 or 15 years’ time.
Much rubber has been tapped badly and too
soon by the origiral owners of estates in order
that a large yield per acre may be obtained
before selling to a Company, and the trees
have been hacked to pieces regardless of after-
effects. One cannot too strongly deprecate the
action of tapping before the trees are ready.
In one or two cases which have come under
the writer’s notice and there must be many
more) this has been carefully guarded agairst,
the trees having been given anextra year after
the tappable age has been reached. Such ac-
tion as this can have but one effect, that of
increasing the yield in the future,”
We have thought it well to endeavour to collect
the experience of practical planters dealing
with some of the oldest Rubber trees in the
island. We, accordingly, issued the following
circular letter to eight plantations which ap-
peared to us to represent the longest experience
in tapping :—
Dear Sir,— Referring to the contribution in the London
Times {see Observer, June 16th) on some impressions of
rubber planting in Ceylon, we should be gladif you would
inform us:
1. Whatisthe age of the oldest rubber trees on your
charge, J
2. Whether any of these trees—regularly tapped since
they first yielded latex—have ceased to yield any ?—if so,
for how long and freyuently they have been tapped.
8. Whether any other rubber trees under your observa-
tion have been tapped up toa point when they ceased to
bear at all:—(a) Ageof these: (b) Frequency of tapping.
4. Were there any apparent or evident reasons why
the trees in (2) or (3) ceased to give latex ?
Thanking you very much if you'can spare the time to
answer these brief questions of general interest to the
investor and grower, &e: y
From six of the Managers so addressed we
have been favoured with replies and although
only one makes it a condition to omit his name
and that of estate in publishing his information;
yet to prevent invidious or unpleasant feeling,
we number the replies and'zive thom with no
other indication than location ,'Pho. firsti-"te
come to hand was from a’ planiatioOa sone ft
miles South of Colombo and the Manager
wrote ; —
In answer to your letter of 16th :—
(1) Age :—13 or 15 years,
(2) No trees have ceased to yield latex. They
have been tapped for over 5 years regularly, and
(3) No trees have been so tapped.
(4) Ihave found the flow of latex to increase
with age of trees.
Then we have experience from the heart of
the Kalutara district :—
The oldest rubber trees on this estate are 28
years and others at 15 years, they have been re-
gularly tapped for the past 8 years, and none
have to date shown any signs of ceasing to yield,
though a large number of trees were damaged
by the early primitive methods of tapping.
From another plantation in the neighbour-
hood, we have the following :—
With reference to your letter of 17th inst. re
yield and age of rubber on this estate, I annex
replies :—
(1) Age of oldest trees, 18 to 19 years,
(2) Regularly tapped since 1900. None have
ceased to yield. Tapped regularly 10 months
every year.
(3) None.
Yet another and specially interesting report
from a gentleman who writes :—
In reference to your letter of 17th inst, :—-
No. 1. Trees are from 2 to 10 years with the
exception of one tree about 14 years.
Nos. 2 & 3. Theold tree was tapped for 12
months and gave 144 lb. dry rubber; it was then
given 15 months’ rest, and—tapped for a second
period of almost a year—it gave 14lb. dry rubber
again, but some of the cuts ceased to yield and
I stopped tapping. It has now had a short rest
of about 2 months, and I noticed this morning
that the cells are again filling and a small
quantity flowed, I know of nc apparent reason
why it should have ceased to yield, except
perhaps over-tapping.
I trust these particulars will be of interest.
On all trees the flow of latex is regulated by the
state of the weather; it flows much freer in cool,
damp weather, and in dry it is difficult to get
the thick latex to flow at all without the appli-
cation of plenty of water.
Even fuller is the reply of a Manager who has
taken a special interest in the topic discussed:—
Seeing that so few rubber estates are in
bearing there is little wonder that the majority
of rubber planters know very little about rub-
ber tapping or curing. Hence the advantage of
the inexperienced Superintendent with his
inexperienced labour starting as early as pos-
sible, with what trees are available, to pick up
the work himself and to train his labour,
Seed should, of course, be good ; but the im-
portant point is the very best plants at any cost.
Good seed does not necessarily mean good plants.
I have no experience of the results obtain-
able from trees that have been tapped conti-
nuously for 12—15 years, With the necessary
care, however, to prevent coming back to the
renewed bark too quickly there is nothing to
6
92, The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist.
show at present that results should not be as
aahsfaptory in tnefutureas now. With conti-
nivous" tapping “carried out with care the
opinion I have arrived at is that we shall kave
normal yields.
“* A correspondent ” says he knows of cases
where trees have been allowed to go an extra
year ‘‘ after the tappable age has been reached.”
He does not say what the ‘‘ tappable age” is?
He then goes on to say ‘‘Such action as this
ean have but one effect, that of increasing the
yield in the future. This is a statement which
without ‘“‘a correspondent’s” arguments and con-
ditions is difficult to tollow. You can tap say
anywhere on a tree where the girth is 18” at
any age and with very great care can, I think,
do good. Not, however, as in cases I have
heard of, with a view to getting large returns.
Latex here is not the primary point, but part
of the cultivation.
The only ‘‘upcountry”’—that is, medium
elevation--report, runs as follows :--
In reply to your letter of 17th instant.
(1). 14-15 years old.
(2). Periodically, but not permanently.
(3). No.
I tap a tree for three months; then give it
three months’ rest; hence each tree is only tapped
six months in the year. I have all systems of
tapping, the V, the spiral and the semi-spiral,
but I have no figures to show which method
gives the best results. Most of my tapping is
on the V system and comparing my yield per
tree with other places which adopt the
full or semi-spiral systems, I am in favour of
the V tapping and for the following reasons :—
Firstly.—The V cut removes less bark than
any other methods.
Secondly.—I get the same yield per acre at
a smaller cost. The following are my figures
forthe last seven years. (This is as far as the
records go back.)
1901 1,051 Ib., 1902 2,902 lb., 19°3_7,272 Ib.,
1904 20,665 lb., 1905 27,008, 1906 32,156 lb., 1907
32,254 1b. I will be glad to give you any more
information on the subject should you require it.”
Tendering our special thanks to our several
correspondents we think it will be admitted
that the tenor of each of the above reports will
have a decidedly reassuring and_ satisfactory
effect on the minds ofall interested in the Ceylon
Rubber Industry.
RUBBER CULTIVATION IN JAVA.
TOTAL EXTENT ABOUT 58,000 ACRES.
SN OMISSION SUPPLIED.
Java, June 10th.
DEAR S1R,—With reference to the copy of my
Notes on Rubber Cultivation sent to H.B.M.’s
Consul in Batavia and reprinted on page 486
of your issue of May, [ much regret to inform
you that owing to an error in typing.
a line (see words in italics) was missed out
of the copy which was sent you. The sentence
commencing on the 19th line from the begin-
ning of my statement should therefore read :—
‘‘No statistics are available for the acreage
not represented at above Congress, but from
information taken this can be safely put at
10,000 bowws, giving a tolal acreage in Java under
Liubber of 33,000 bouws or about 58,000 acres.”
I much regret that this matter was not re-
ferred to me again before my notes were put
into print, but trust that you will see your
way to make a note of the above correction
in a future issue of your paper.—I am, dear
Sir, yours faithfully,
NOEL BINGLEY.
[It gives.us special pleasure to insert this. By
the Knglish mail we have the following :—
RUBBER IN JAvA.—A good deal of interest
continues to be shown in the cultivation of rub-
ber-producing trees throughout Netherlands
India, and the suitability of the climate and
soil, togther with the labour advantages which
Java possesses over most tropical countries, has
resulted in considerable and increasing Kuro-
pean capital being put into rubber enterprises
there. According to statistics lately compiled,
the capital of British companies interested in
rubber in the Dutch East Indies, but domiciled
in the United Kingdom, amounted to nearly
£1,500,000. This, however, does not include
the numerous companies formed during the
last tew years, also with British capital, but
domiciled in Java, which may be estimated at
another £250,000. The first conference of rub-
ber planters was held in October last, at which
it was resolved to institute an experimental
station with nurseries, which Mr. Consul Ste-
wart, repurting upon the trade and commerce
of the island (Annual Series No. 3991) thinks
should prove valuable to rubber planters. The
area at present under cultivation is estimated
at some 58,000 acres in Java, 25,000 acres in
Sumatra, and 7,000 acres in Borneo, of which
most of the older rubber, and nearly all that
is in bearing (say one-half of the whole acre-
age) must be Ficus elastica, as the cultivation
of the Para variety dates only from 195 on-
wards, At present exports are still inconsider-
able, but in the course of a few years the Dutch
East Indies are likely to prove an important
factor in the rubber markets of Europe.
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, June 5.
—Ep., |
PLANTING IN B.C. AFRICA,
NYASSALAND NOT ADVANCING—COFFEE CROPS
GOOD--COTTON RISKY—TOBACCO GOING
AHEAD—TEA PROMISING—LABOUR
CHEAPEST IN WORLD !
‘“H.B.’s” letter reprinted hereafter gives some
interesting information. He advises that tea
grows well and that land and latour are the
cheapest in the world.—In connection with this
part of the world (though by no means so far
inland) we see thatin a despatch dated December
17th last the Governor ot East Africa said :—
There is a growing tendency amongst the
white settlers in the uplands to keep the Indian,
not only out of the uplands, but out of the
country altogether. The spirit is akin to that
prevailing in Natal and elsewhere, and is due to
the fact that the white cannot compete in the
east with the Indian shopkeeper for supplies of
provisions and articles in daily use, oras a
petty trader,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricullural Sociely. 98
By all means let us keep the land in the
uplands, known asthe white settlement area,
for whites only ; but outside this I see no reason
why we should not give small allotments of Jand
to agricultural Indians—not to Indian traders,
who would not themselves cultivate—on the
terms proposed by the Commissioner of Lands.
I am instructing Col. Montgomery accordingly.
Lord Elgin, in his concluding despatch ap-
proves of this view.
M’lanje, May 24.
I am glad to see by the grand cld Ubserver
that Ceylon is going ahead with Railway
Extensions. Fancy getting into a train for
Ratnapura and Badulla (and I hope Man-
nar for the cooly emigrants’ sake in no
very distant date) instead of the hard tedious
and wearisome journey by roads as in days of
old, on horseback, coach, bullock bandy, or
hackery. I shall never forget some of the jour-
neys I made between 20 and 35 years ago to those
out-of-the-way places.
Tea seems booming again with an average of
8d. in London. Ceylon planters should be
cheery, but they are never otherwise seemingly.
Even rubber dropping to 3/6 per lb. does not seem
to affect them in the least. You are to beenvied,
indeed, with such capital at your command, and
such go-ahead men to utilise it,
Poor Nyassaland is not advancing as it might
do and our railway, although completed to
Blantyre, does not seem to do much for the
country. It was thought when completed that
this Protectorate would be boomed a bit; and
capital and men would turn up to develop the
resources of this ‘tCinderella of Africa” as Sir
Harry Johnston calied it.
Soffee crops are good this year on those
properties that have any in cultivation, and
there should be a decent export before the
end of the year.
Cotton is now only planted in a few favoured
lovalities where it has been found that soil and
climate are favourable, it is a very risky crop
indeed. An estate near here planted up some
300 acres last year, and the whole of it was so
blighted that it might be termed a complete
failure as it only yielded a few cwts. of cotton.
Strange to say the same land was planted again
this year and has a grand crop of cotton, the
finest I have seen in the country.
Tobacco is being cultivated to a much
greater extent than it ever was in the
country before, as the Imperial Tobacco Co.
of Great Britain and Ireland have tendered
their support to planters and are not only
growing tobacco themselves, but are buyers
for spot cash. Huge stores and factories are
being erected at the Railway Terminus Blan-
tyre for storing, packing, &c., by this Company.
Prices of tobacco range from 2d to 8d. per lb.,
and as it is an annual crop that never fails, I
may say there is encouragement for planting
this weed and money shculd be made out of
this product by those who have the means to
go in for it on a large scale,
Tea gave avery good yield last year, as we
had a good rainy season. Our total for the
year was 107 inches well distributed too. The
growth of tea on young clearings has been very
satisfactory, too,
There is a fine chance now here for would-be
tea planters. Labour is going a-begging every-
where and land and living, as well as labour, is
cheaper in Nyassaland than anywhere in the
world, I may say. Further I do not think
Ceylon can extend in the tea line very much
further, neither can India; so the price must
keep up as consumption has overtaken pro-
duction,
H. B.
COPRA.
PRODUOING SEASON AND A
LOW MARKET,
A BIG
REMARKABLE EXCESS IN PRODUCE FROM CEYLON
AND SINGAPORE,
The remarkably large excess in the shipment
of copra from Ceylon to Great Britain and
Europe, during the period between Jan. 1st to
June 15, thisyear, as compared with the first
five months of last year, is worth calling
attention to. The figures are :--
January 1 to June 15, 1907 .. candies 108,246
198 158,640
..candies 650,394
” ” ”
Showing an excess of
The ruling price today, accerding to our
Copra expert, is from 50:00 to 50°62 per candy ;
and the tendency is towards a decline. A few
years ago the ruling rate was R45 to R46 per
candy for good estate stuff ; and this rose until
the record price of RS&S6 was obtained in
February last year. Such a condition of affairs
was, of course, abnormal. The South Sea
Islands, a notabla producing centre, had
suffered badly from hurricanes, and stocks in
Europe were low.
Looking at
The Singapore Market Report
also, we tind the same remarkable excess of
exports :—
To Great Britain for first 5 months of
1907 ats ..piculs 12,227
Do do ido? = of1908..0 5 29,491
Excess in 1908.. 17,264
To Continent of Europe in same period
of 1907 F ..Piculs 163,097
Do do do of 1998... 5; 317,761
Excess in 1908 . 154,664
It will thus be seen that while Ceylon has
increased by 50 per cent. Singapore has practi-
cally doubled its exports so far this year;
providing the contributory factors to the
decline in present prices and the prevailing
tendency of the market, Of course, too, the
big crop season is now ‘‘on”; and with the
present abundance of nuts on estates there
is bound to be a further drop in prices.
According to our copra expert there is just
now a strong likelihood of another important
local firm entering the market, which should
contribute to improved competition.
Unless some unforeseen calamity takes place,
such as an unlikely repetition of the South Sea
disaster in our own, or the Singapore estates,
there is a likelihood of present rates not being
reached in the near future, and a low price
prevailing throughout the coming season,
oO The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
‘LOW PRICED CAMPHOR”’
Is the heading ofan article in the New York Ov
Pain tand Drug Reporter, May 25th which tells us
(inter alia) :—The expression ‘* how low are the
mighty fallen” may be well applied at the pre-
sent moment tothevalueof Camphor. Not sovery
long ago the refined gum sold in this country
at $1.24 per pound; today the same goods are
freely offered at 52 cents. Such a sweeping dis-
parity seem well nigh incomprehensible, It
certainly appears extraordinary that a staple
article of commerce like camphor could fluctuate
between such extreme high and low figures.
Camphor at one dollar and twenty-four cents
per pound, wholesale, is changed from a house-
hold necessity to a luxury which few people
of moderate means can afford, and its at one
time almost universal use as an insecticide was
discontinued except in rare instances, and so
substitutes have come to find a place so
well established that it will take considerable
effort and very low-priced camphor to replace.
As a result of the Russo-Japanese war and
from other causes, the natural position of the
gum became exceptionally strong. Then through
a series of circumstances the distribution of
campher in this country became vested in a
few hands, competition was stifled and prices,
which were also favoured by natural conditions,
soared to the unprecedented level quoted in
the spring of last year. But it is always
dangerous to the permanent good of an industry
to force the value of its product to phenomenal
limits; it attracts too much attention, and
unless the monopoly is absolute and compete,
which is seldom (if ever) the case, competition
in some form or other is bouad to creep in,
and—when it does—it generally comes to stay.
Chinese camphor received an extraordinary
impetus from the high prices of Japan and
the synthetic product got quite a boom.
Nothing so stimulates invention as the force
of necessity, and so the chemists were en-
couraged to work on the production of artificial
camphor toan extent which alarmed the Mono-
poly Bureau of Japan. But after all acomparison
with the high and low figures of previous years
does not tend to make the present price of
52 cents per bulk camphor appear so remarkable.
In 1898, or ten years ago, camphor sold as low
as 33 cents and did not exceed 374 cents during
the entire year. In 1899 it gradually rose to
51. cents and during the following two years
fluctuated between this figure and 604 cents.
It fell again in 1902 to 57 cents, and continued
close to this price throughout the following
twelve months. From 1904 to 1907 camphor rose
gradually but surely, with few set-backs until
the highly level mark of $1.24 was reached curing
the early part of last year. It should be
worthy of notice that the growth of the Chinese
camphor industry has had much to do in the
lowering of values. At one time, not very long
ago, receipts from this source were both light
in quantity and poor in quality, but of late
there has been a decided change in both
opposite directions and in view of the greater
price inducements offered, it holds at the
moment a decided advantage.
‘““BRITISH MALAYA AS A FIELD FOR
INVESTMENT ”’
Is the heading of a paper in’ ‘‘ Chambers’s
Journat” for June, by Sir Frank A. Swettenham,
There is nothing very new to our readers and
there is perhaps too little made of certain draw-
backs and difficulties attendant on fresh in-
vestments at the present time of day. The
cultivation of rubber, Sir Frank mentions, was
not seriously taken in hand till eight years
ago when Liberian rubber failed. The rush
in Ceylon came a little later and yet strange
to say three if not four editions of our
“Rubber Planters’ Manual” were taken off
by Ceylon and Malayan and Java _ planters
between 1887 and 1903 and before Mr.
Herbert Wright turned his attention to the
subject! We read how Penang and Province
Wellesley have long had staple industries in
rice and coconuts, as wellassugar. Malacca
has rice, coconuts and tapioca with rubber of
recent years. Tin-mining was the great industry
in the Malay States, until first coffee and then
rubber planters came on thescene. Sir Frank
actually recommends ‘‘ sugar” as a catch crop
for large estates of coconuts or rubber! He
goes into full detail as to the rubber ‘* boom ”
and recent if not present depression. — Sir
Frank has no faith in ‘' synthetic” rubber
proving a practical success, and he has high
chemical authority on his side, as we showed
in 1906 when Mr, Tilden (Professor of Chemistry,
Royal College of Science, London, F.R.s., and a
very bigh authority on his subject) at the British
Association meeting at York, told us that if he
were a young man in Ceylon he would plant all
the rubber he could without the slightest fear of
competition from ‘‘synthetic rubber.” As a speci-
men of Sir Frank Swettenham’s writing and
argument, we give the conclusion of his paper
—a paper that is sure tobe read very widely
all over English-speaking countries :—
The planters of Ceylon have earned a well-
deserved reputation for courage, persistence,
and resource in adverse circumstances. There
are many of them in Malaya; and they and there
colleagues, who have only local experience, must
recognise the conditions, which fortunately are
far from adverse, but still need firm and intelli-
gent treatmert and the undivided .attention of
each manager to hisown chargé. The fact that
a considerable proportion of the 1907 produce.
can only realise a reduced price must affect
future dividends, but thoughtful shareholders
willremember that these and previous dividends
have been earned on the produce of a fraction of
the planted area of their property, and even
the tappable trees are all still young and have not
yet reached anything like the limit of their
yielding capacity. There is no doubt that even
with rubber at two shillings and sixpence per
pound the cultivation of Para will pay well; for
it can be put on the market at one shilling “and
sixpence per pound, and itis questionable
whether the forest rubber of South America
can be brought to market at that price. With
proper economy, good management, and no un-
foreseen calamity, thoughtful planters believe .
that it may be possible: to reduce the cost of
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agriculiural Sociely, 5
production to ove shilling per pound; while
those who give special attention to uniformity
and excellence in the preparation of their rub-
ber will always be rewarded by securing the
best prices. So far as it is possible to judge
the future by past results, British Malaya offers
a good opportunity for sound investment in
alluvial tin-mining and in the cultivation of
rubber and coconuts as permanent industries,
Sugar and tapioca have both been used as catch-
crops with satisfactory results ; and, in Johore
especially, Chinese planters have made fortunes
out of the combined cultivation of gambier and
pepper, using gambier as the catch-crop. So
much depends upon good management that suc-
cess cannot be expected unless that condition is
secured; with the right men in charge of mine
and plantation, a property combining these two
industries might prove a very successful under-
taking, for the tin-mine should be able to return
good dividends while the rubber was being plan-
ted and brought to the producing stage.
SUMATRA COFFEE.
Evits of FrE& CuntivatioN DEMONSTRATED,
The Malay Coffee growers in the Province of
West Sumatra were relieved lately of the bur-
den of the compulsory delivery of their pro-
duce to the Government at a fixed price, which
was far below the market value, and were
allowed to sell the berry freely, there being
no longer any official supervision in the matter.
The results of this freedom have been disas-
trous in several districts. The coffee is plucked
green for the sake of greed. The berries are
boiled, scraped and dried over a fire. The
coffee thus treated keeps its colour well fora
few days, but, afterwards, the berries become
spotted or whitish in appearance. Yet, such
is the competition among dealers that this bad
articlo fetches good prices. With such prac-
tices, Padang coffee will surely lose its good
name very soon.—-Straits Times, June 16.
JAPAN TEA EXPORT TRADE.
This year’s toa manufacturing industry con-
tinues to present a good prospoct though
owing to somewhat stagnant transaction in the
American market the quotation generally has
fallen by 10 per cent, compared with last year.
The situation is considered not to be improved
_ andconsequently the manufacturers in Shizuoka
and other tea producing prefectures have
adopted measures to produce more of middle
and inferior articles which can be produced at
less cost and in larger quantity than com-
paratively unremunerative superior tea. This
tendency is denounced by some as likely to
damage the trade. However, reflecting on the
condition of the general consumers in America,
this is thought rather unavoidable, as the
superior Japanese tea is too costly to meet
the general demand and is no rival to the
cheap Indian tea, sothat the demand in America
is naturally in favour of the inforior article.
A decrease of 10 percent or so is anticipated
in this year’s crop. In view of the reduction
of 10 per cent, in the price and the decrease
of 10 per cent in the production, the total
~
export for this year is estimated as something
lie 8,000,000 yen, a decrease of 2,000,000 ;yen
in comparison with last year. The export
markets in Yokohama and Shizuoka are active
as both places are making energetic efforts to
attract the trade to their respective ports.
This is in truth a very influential factor in main-
taining the market price of export tea. The
result of direct export from Shimizu has proven
a great success, the total amount of export
during last year reaching 12,633,700 odd cattles.
This year’s figure is exported to be even greater
than last year so that it will compete with
Yokohama as far as the teaexport is concerned,
—Japan Times. June 6.
RAMBONG AT THE RUBBER
EXHIBITION,
The Dutch Indies’ Display.
To ensure a representative display of Nether-
lands India products, a committee has been for-
med under the presidency of Professor Treub,
the Head of the Agricultural Department.
Shipping companies have been written to in
order to secure freight reductions on rubber
exhibits by the Syndicate. Planters are urged
to interest themselves most in Ficus Elastca
exhibits, on the ground that this kind of rub-
ber which has been found to be useful for
varlous purposes needs to have gerater public
attention focussed upon it. The Syndicate
dwells upon the merits of the Ficus which is
better known under the name of getah rambong,
and the advantages of so preparing the speci-
mens of it, as to show at a glance the good
qualities of the article. Success in this
line will be of enormous benefit to the
planting community, and to the Colony
generally. The Ficus is indigenous to Java,
and thrives there, beside having the addi-
tional advantages of requiring -but little care
and attention. The Syndicate points out
that Para rubber is a foreign plant, the culti-
vation of which is hampered by diseases costly
and hard to check, This is not the case with
Ficus, so that its cultivation is not only remu-
nerative, butis just the thing for the natives
because of the httle care needed.
Planters are urged finally by the Syndicate
to do their very best to show that Ficus Hevea.
and other kinds of rubber flourish in Java,
and that labour thereis cheap. Another point
dwelt upon is the need for bringing forward
the claims of Sumatra as a rubber producer.
There, large stretches of fruitful land are lying
idle awaiting capital and labour for develop-
ment, with exceedingly bright prospects of
fabulous profits.—Malay Mail, June 19.
NEW MANGO SUPPLIES.
A correspondent writes that, as the result of
importing grafts of the famous Alfoos Bombay
mango into Florida through the United States
Consul in India, the Florida fruit-tree propa-
gators claim that in a few years time they will
he enabled to ship quantities of these fruits
to London. The great difficulty experienced
hereafter with the Bombay mangoes consisted
in the inability of shippers to get the matured
06 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
fruits upon the English markets in quantity.
The mango is a tender fruit after once it begins
to ripen. By shipping Bombay Alfoos or
Alphonso mangoes from Fiorida this difficulty
will be overcome, as there will be no trouble
or risk in exporting them with such a shortened
voyage. ‘he variety named is admittedly the
finest fruit of its class grown. It is popular
in the Bombay markets, where it sells freely
and commends high prices. These latter often
range from 4d to 6d each fruit. During recent
years the Florida fruit-raisers have been de-
voting close attention to the commercial culture
ot the Bombay Alfoos mango, finding it the
highest quality variety obtainable for sale. It
is even said that the flavour and quality of
the Alphonso are improved through the culture
of the tree in American soil. Already a great
demand has sprung up for Bombay mangoes
in Eastern American cities especially. It 1s
expected that the first supplies of these man-
goes in London will realise at least 9d each and
in quantity wholesale, too.—London Times,
June 12.
AMERICAN REPORT ON RUBBER IN
THE F.M.S.
An interesting report on the agriculture and
industries of the Federated Malay States has
just been issued by Mr. Haynes, the American
Consul-General at Singapore. We quote the
following from the report :—‘‘ Rubber is the chief
agricultural product. At the beginning of the
past year there were 240 estates, with 10,745,000
trees, an increase of 4,000,000 over the preced-
ing year, and a total acreage of 86,000, an in-
crease of 45,000. The output of dry rubber was
130 tons in 1905 and 390 tons in 1906, At pre-
sent there are employed regularly in estate work
70,000 coolies, of whom 31,000 are Tamils, 4,000
Javanese, 1,500 Malays and 3,400 Chinese. The
cultivation of the coconut ranks next in import-
ance. The area under cultivation at present is
over 105,000 acres, an increase of 5 per cent
over that of a year ago. More than one-half
this area is bearing, and the whole is said by
the Director of Agriculture ofthe Malay States
to be worth about £2,240,000. At an average
of forty nuts per tree, the yield, if converted
into copra, would amount to over 50,000 tons,
with a large and valuable stock of fibre for the
manufacturing of coir matting and rope.—Malay
Mail, June 17.
COCOA AND COPRA FROM SAMOA.
Apia, May 7.—Quite a large shipment of cocoa
will be going forward by thesteamer ‘‘Atua” this
trip, the Upolu Cocoa Company alone shipping
20 tons this month. Mr F Harman, the mana-
ger now, has his new drier in working order,
which from all accounts is working splendidly;
he is now able to dry six tons of cocoa at one
drying.—There is good prospect of a good copra
season this year, nuts are lying about in all
directions. The natives so far have not at-
tempted to make copra on account of thelow
prevailing prices.--Fiji Times, May 27.
STRAITS RUBBER GROWERS AND
INCREASED FREIGHT.
With reference to the cable in our issue of the
13th inst., on the subject of the recent increase
in freight on rubber from F.M.S. and 8.8.
ports to Europe—we understand this matter
has already engaged the attention of the Com-
mittee of the Selangor Chamber of Commerce,
who, whilst being in full agreement with the
protest stated to have been made by the Rubber
Growers’ Association in London, have taken in-
dependent action locally.—Malay Mail, June 15.
Our Ipoh contemporary of Saturday says :—
The message which reac’ies us today is better
reading than the recent proposals of the Rubber
Growers’ Association with regard to Malayan
estates. ... If the Rubber Growers’ Association
will confine itself to such questions as this—the
Imperial Politics of Rubber —it will earn and
retain the gratitude of all whoin any way de-
vend upon the industry for their daily bread
All, whether shareholders of companies or super-
intendents or assistants on estates, must
heartily endorse this action of the Association.
—Pinang Gazette, June 19.
COTTON-GROWING IN SIAM.
A Bangkok correspondent, writing on May 7th
tothe Manchester Guardian, says :—‘‘Some time
ago I briefly mentioned the fact that the Agri-
cultural Department of the Siamese Government
was trying experiments in the growing of cotton,
with some prospects of success. The Govern-
ment, [ find, has two plantations now and a
Siamese nobleman another, in each of which
cotton plants from different parts of the world,
as well as the indigenous varieties, are being
cultivated. An expert cotton planter of 20
years’ experience, who is in charge of one of the
plantations, reports that so far the experiments
have proved a wonderful success, and predicts
that before many years have elapsed a very large
area in Lower Siam will be under cotton. He
says that both Egyptian and Indian varieties
thrive well, although the plants from American
seed havenot proved a great success. The native
cotton of Siam, which grows wild everywhere,
is at present almost worthless owing to the
shortness of its staple; but this is a matter
which it is hoped may be remedied in the future.
Samples of cotton, I understand, are being sent
to European experts for their opinions on the
Siamese product.”—L. & C. Express, June 12.
A FORTUNE IN FLAX IN BENGAL.
Mr J Mollison, Inspector-General of Agri-
culture in India, in the course of a review on
the report of Mr Em. Vandekerkhove, Flax
Expert, for the Quarterly Journal of the De-
partment of Agriculture, Bengal, says that the
results of the-experiments carried out at
Dhooria indicate so far that flax is likely to
become a paying crop ona commercial scale in
Behar, The net profit from an acre of flax is
estimated at rather over R74, the outturn being
worth R140-6-9 and the expenses being put at
R66.—M. Mail, June 29.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
THE MYSORE EXHIBITION.
THIs YEAR'S Prospectus: APPEAL TO
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES,
With the sanction of the Government of H.H.
the Maharajah of Mysore, the Committee of the
Mysore Dusserah Industrial and Agricultural
Exhibition has issued a prospectus in connec-
tion with the Exhibition of 1908. This year the
Exhibition will commence on Wednesday, the
30th September, and close on 14th October. The
Cattle Show will begin on Tuesday, the 6th
October, and close on Thursday, the 8th. The
Committee states that from the experience of
last year it may be observed that the Show
offers a good opportunity for people desirous of
purchasing good specimens of Mysore cattle,
The primary aim of the Committee is to im-
part to the Exhibition an educative character
and to bring together articles, machinery, and
processes, the use of which it is desirable to
bring to the notice of the ryot, the artisan and
the manufacturer, by actual demonstration, But
as the Exhibition of solitary samples may not
afford sufficient information and may not be
attractive to the visiting public, articles intended
for sale will also be admitted. Articles on a
large scale sent merely for sale will have
to be kept in separate stalls and under the
charge of the exhibitors or their agents. There
is no objection to the sale of samples, but
they will not be allowed to be removed from
the Exhibition grounds till the termination
of the Show. Articles admitted for purposes
of sale alone may be removed after purchase,
but no article will be allowed to leave the
Exhibition grounds without a gate pass.
Lectures will be delivered by competent per-
sons in English and Kanarese on _ subjects
connected with industry, agriculture, health
and sanitation, the value of agricultural im-
plements and machines, their cost, construction
and repair. Arrangements will also be made
for holding a competition on the Exhibition
grounds in ploughing and weaving, and pro-
cesses connected therewith. The exact time
and place of the lectures and demonstrations
will be announced later. The Committee
would thankfully accept donations for award-
ing prizes or medals from individuals or Asso-
ciations desiring to give an impetus to any
special branch of agriculture or industry.
The Committee invite exhibits from all the
Districts in the State, as well as from outside.
They also appeal to the various Agricultural
Departments and Associations in other parts of
India, Burma and Ceylon to help them with
exhibits and suggestions. Loading ryots and
non-official gentlemen will be invited to assist
the Committee in judging the exhibits. An
admission fee of two annas per head will be
levied each time a person enters the Exhibition
buildings. There willbe no season, nor family,
nor special tickets at half rates for pupils.
The prize list is divided into four main groups.
The first includes classes for field produce, plan-
tation and garden products, vegetables and
fruits, Cyes, forest products, sugar, honey, b2es-
wax, etc., dairy products, essential oils, fibres,
fodder plants end’ manures. Group IL consists
THE
97
of agricultural instruments and machinery.
Group IIL is the Industrial section ; and Group
LV live stock. In connection with the last men-
tioned, a sum of R500 is provided for prizes,
against R400 awarded last year. In all groups,
the Committee states that no prizes will be
awarded unless the exhibits are worthy of them.
Intending exhibitors are requested to send
their exhibits soas to reach Mysore on the 10th
September, from which date the Committee
will arrange to take charge of them, but no
exhibits will be received after the 23rd idem.
These may beadmitted at the discretion of the
Committee, but will not be allowed to compete
for prizes. Vegetables, fruits, dairy produce
and other perishable articles may, however, be
sent in until 7 p.m. on the 29th September,—
M. Mail, June 29,
od
FIELD FRUIT CULTURE IN MYSORE.
Bangalore, June 28.—Yesterday, at 5 p.m.,
the Chairman and Members of the Mysore Fruit
Syndicate, Ltd., were ‘‘At Home” to many
friends, on the occasion of the first harvesting
of grapes. Between two and three hundred
people assembled. The British Resident, the
Hon. Mr. Stuart Fraser, motored out with the
First Assistant Resident, Mr. J P Rennie,
Refreshments were provided for all commu-
nities, apart from the tasty dishes of fruit with
which all visitors were to be served. The Band
of Napier’s Rifles was in attendance. Mr Fraser
went out while the rain was falling to pick
THE FIRST BUNCH OF GRAPES
from a vine that he had planted with his own
hand some months ago, and he then added
bunch to bunch as he walked from vine to vine
until he had proved himself quite an efficient
“picker.” His reward came when he tasted the
fruit! Ofits quality everyone spoke in the
highest terms, anda particular variety of Rose
Muscatel Grapes elicited special commendation,
for no one present appeared ever to have tasted
anything so delicious until the first fruits of the
Bangalore venture were placed before them.
Inthe course of the evening, Mr, Paul, the
Manager of the Fruit Farm, and its originator,
delivered a very effective speech. It was about
tivo years since he took up his first block of
land in Bangalore for fruit-growing, and about
18 months since, at his request, Mr.Fraser
had very kindly taken the trouble to plant
ONE AUSTRALIAN NAVEL ORANGE TREE
(then hardly 18 inches in height) as well asa
erapevine, known as Muscat of Alexandria. Mr.
‘Fraser was present that day in order to harvest
the first basket of grapes with his own hands,
from the very vine that he had planted so re-
cently as eighteen months ago. It was, said
Mr. Paul, very gratifying, not only to him as
the Manager, but also to the worthy Chairman
and shareholders of the Mysore Fruit Syndi-
cate, Ltd., to welcome those present at a time
when both Orange tree and the Vine were
bearing their first fruits. He had no doubt
that they had already inspected these and
others ; probably they might have eventouched
the fruit tosee if it were not tied to the branches.
(Laughter), It might seem very funny for him
2
>)
98 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
to say this, but he could assure them that a few
months agoa gentleman who was visiting the
vineyard was so astonished to see 8 months’ old
plants bearing fruit, that he was actually feeding
to make sure that the fruit was not tied on to
the branch! It was certainly a wonderful sight
to see thousands of vines—some of them with two
or three bunches of the finest grapes that the world
can produce—when some of them were planted
only nine months ago. The first difficulty that
had to be contended with was
WHITE ANTS;
but that destructive pest had been almost got
rid of. ‘Pardon me,’ exclaimed Mr Paul at
this point,—‘‘I was nearly forgetting another
and very funny obstacle that I had to overcome;
that was, Local Prejudice.” From the very
beginning he was advised, even cautioned over
and over again (and this by friends) that his
scheme wouid be a complete failure in less than
twelve months, but this was the happiest day
he had had since his arrival in Bangalore. Not
because Fortune was smiling on him, but
because he had overcome the nonsensical Local
Prejudice. Moreover he proved he was right
in his estimates, As they all knew, the old
English saying that the proof of the pudding
is in the eating, he invited them all to taste
and prove for themselves the first season’s fruit
and to see if grapes and fruit can be grown to
perfection on scientific principles and in open
fields on ‘‘this land of H. H. the Maharaja of
Mysore.” He closed by calling for three cheers
for His Highness.
The cheers having been given with hearty
goodwill, the British Resident said a few words
in response to Mr. Paul’s remarks, Mr. Fraser
spoke in very high terms of the fruit and of the
progress of the Syndicate’s venture. He con-
gratulated Mr. Paul and the Chairman and
shareholders of the Syndicate on their success.
He believed that 40,000 tons of dried fruit was
imported yearly into India, and that the whole
of that quality, and even more, could be pro-
duced in the State of Mysore alone. This
ought to be very gratifying to His Highness
the Maharaja, and Mr, Paul deserved to be re-
garded as a benefactor of Mysore. In years to
come a statue ought indeed to be erected to
commemorate Mr. Paul’s great work. There
was a fortune for the Syndicate in this enter—
prise, and he wished Mr. Paul and them long
life and prosperity. A large group photograph
was taken by Mr. Wiele before the assemblage
dispersed.—Madras Times, June 29,
‘“NEW FRUITS”
Mr. Frederick Boyle contributes an interest-
ing paper under this heading to the latest Corn-
hill Magazine. He begins :—‘‘ Most of us have
echoed the cry of Punch’s footman :—‘ It’s high
time a new animal was invented.’ But a new
fruit is still more desirable.” It would appear to
have been found when the ‘‘ cherimoya” was
introduced to Covent Garden; but the author
does not think this comes up to its reputation
of combining the excellence of strawberries and
cream. The great necessity is to improve existing
fruits and scientific gardeners say ‘‘hybridisation
is initsinfancy.” Darwin long ago showed why
countries occupied by uncivilised man—Aus-
tralia, South or any part of Africa, &c.—could
not be expected to yield fruits of any great value.
It is because the native plants have not been
improved by continued selection. All the
familiar fruits of Europe have been cultivated
and improved for ages unknown. Professor
Sayce believes there were regular botanical
gardens at Nineveh. The Greeks and Romans
did much: ‘Attic figs’ attracted the Per-
sians. Lucullus first brought cherries to
Rome from Pontus long betore the Christian
era and in less than a hundred years they
had passed into Britain. Turning to tropi-
cal fruit, the mango has undergone wondrous
changes in the last hundred years, and improved
varieties have been so freely distributed that
“they promise to be universal shortly.” Dr,
Beccari, a great tropical explorer and high
authority, states positively :—‘the native land
of the mangosteen is unknown’; and so also
with the durian, and yet again with the betel
nut palm, no wild species can be identified.
For a long time it was thought the mangosteen
would not bear transplanting far from the East-
ern archipelago; but ten years ago the Duke
of Devonshire sent one of two mangosteens
grown at Chatsworth to Her Majesty, and
these two were all the result of 20 years
of expense and culture—and with a Malay
gardener, it is said. But mangosteens are
now getting quite common in the West
Indies as well as in Ceylon. A great pro-
blem, but one that should be solved, isto rid
the durian of the offensive odour peculiar to
the rind: when this is effected, the rage for the
durian will be universal.‘ Mr. Boyle thinks
the 40 species of banana known to the Malays
and 17 peculiar to the Philippines the finest in
the world; but what of the 60 varieties said to be
distinguished by the Sinhalese? Probably the
very finest will succeed as well as the common
kinds in the West Indies. Looking across the .
Atlantic Mr. Boyle asks, ‘who trausformed the
wooden pinuela into the luscious pineapple’?
Then as to fruits never seen in Europe, so far,
we read: In Malay countries are the tarippe,
most excellent of breadfruits ; the jintewan, as
large as a big pear, very pleasantly acid—the
plant is an india-rubber vine and the flesh
lies in a thick envelope of india-rubber ; also
the bilimbing (Ceylon. bilimbi?) mandaint,
lang-sit, loring, rambi, this last in bunches like
sweet grapes.’ Not one of these, he adds, is
cultivated and yet cultivation (with cold stor-
age) might do wonders for the European
markets, Dr. Beccari found five new species
of Nephelium in one Borneo village or-
chard, and all excellent; also a Hicus bearing
great bunches of fine red fruit agreeably acid ;
anda new variety of garcinia with acidulated
pulp not unlike mangosteen. Then a Huphorbia
(Elatererospermum Tapos) is favoured by the
Dyaks calling it Buaruppi, and he speaks
highly of the fruit of the so-called ‘‘ Rain Tree
Pithecolobium Saman, so well-known in Ceylon
and India :—‘‘ Its fruit has 6 or 8 seeds em-
bedded in a sweet pulp which all human beings
like and some think exquisite,” and he hopes to
see it freely sold in Covent Garden. Sir Geo,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 99
Watt in his Dictionary makes no mention of the
fruit of ‘ P. Saman,” but of another species ‘‘ P.
bigeminum ” (Calateya in Sinhalese) he says :—
“¢ Foop.—Mason states that, though the seeds
are poisonous and sometimes produce disastrous
consequences, the Burmese and Karens are
extravagantly fond of them as a condimeht with
preserved fish. They are said to fetch a high
price in the bazirs of Burma.”
And of ‘* P. dulee” (Karkapulli cr Keruka-
pelte of Tamils) :—
‘‘Roop—The Fruit, which ripensfrom April to
June, consists of anumber of large seeds, each
of which is enveloped in a sweet, wholesome,
whitish pulp. These are contained in a cylin-
drical, irregularly swollen pod curled at the
end. The pulpy aril is eaten by the poorer
classes, Church states that 100 parts of tke
bean contain :— Water, 13-5 parts ; albumenoids,
17°6; starch, 41°4; fat, 17:1: fibre, 7°8, and
ash, 2°6.’
Trimen’s reference isas follows :—
P. Saman, Benth. (Inga Saman, Willd.), a
native of Central and Tropical S. America,
whence it was introduced into Jamaica, where
it is called ‘Guango,’ has been very much
planted asa shade-tree by roads and in public
laces. It was introduced to Ceylon about
1851, and there are very large trees in Pera-
deniya planted in that year. ‘The pod is
straight and indehiscent, with a sweet pulp
round the seeds, and it scarcely fits well in
the genus Pithecolobium. It is often called
the ‘ Rain-tree,’ and grows with great rapidity
to its full size.
Who has tried ‘ Pithaya cactus’ of Mexico P—
fruit ‘sweet, soft, nourishing’; or ‘monstera
deliciosa,’ fruit 12 to 14 inches long, succulent
‘with a luscious pineapple flavour.’ Then there
is ‘Ponteria suavis’ from Uruguay, extremely
agreeable with remarkable digestive properties.
There is next the stoneless plum of Japan; the
Cornell plum in United States and the ‘grape
fruit’ originally from China as also the persim-—
mom. ‘hen there is the Navel or Washington
orange, now causing such a stir that it is super-
seding all others in America. Dr. Henry, a
high authority, ‘‘found even the pomegranate
delicious in some districts of China.” The
‘Marule’ of South Africa resembles a green,
gage with a large stone and scarcely any pulp
the place of which is filled with a sweet liquid,
‘simply delicious.’ Hast Africa has a kind of
wild raspberry about 1 inch long, deep yellow,
tasting more like a mulberry than a raspberry.
In South Africa there is the ‘ bododo,’ ‘the most
luscious fruit I ever tasted’ says Chapman,
Why should not Ceylon do its share in
procuring, and growing some if not all of these
new fruits: possibly some in the list may be
already on trial at Peradeniya or Hakgalla ?
—_—_—
RICE CULTIVATION BY MACHINERY.
One of the long felt needs in agriculture in
Siam, especially in rice-planting, has advanced
a step nearer solution with the adoption ofa
light engine for ploughing purposes. Ploughing
by steam traction engine as carried on in Eng-
land and America could have been attempted
here years ago, if it had been feasible, but
owing to the difficulty of overcoming the soft-
ness of the ground when wet with the rains
it has not been tried, as it was practically
foredoomed to failure. Experiments have
recently been made with steam engines but
have proved disastrous as when the rains came
on freely the engines sunk into the ground,
and could no longer be used.
The ideal machine is one which, while light,
at the same time furnishes considerable power.
Such a machine Dr. Adamsen has had working
on his farm in the Klong Rangsit district for
some time. It consists of a 4 h.p. oil engine,
placed on a truck with wheels, and geared down
to the requisite power and speed. The weight
of the engine and truck is only two-and-a-half
tons, and is easily managed by one man. It
drags two disc ploughs, makes a two foot fur-
row and can plough two-and-a-half acres a
day. Under the old arrangement such an
acreage would take eight men and sixteen
buffaloes to accomplish. The wet ground will
bear a little more than the engines at present in
use, say three-and-a-half tons. This will allow
additions being made to the number of ploughs
employed, and it will be possible to provide
power sufficient to draw five or six disc
ploughs at once, at aspeed of about two miles
an hour, ploughing eight or ten acres a day,
while still requiring the services of only one
man. Machine ploughing is possible when the
ground is still hard as well as when the ground
is wet with the rains. Again atter ploughing is
finished the engine can by used for pumping and
irrigating purposes, and when the time of har-
vest arrives can drive a threshing machine.
With this style of engine the difficulty of sup-
plying fuel and water as in the case of a steam
engine is eliminated. The engine at present in
use requires only one gallon of kerosine per
horse power and fifty gallons of water per day.
Dr. Adamsen invites all interested in the
question of applying machinery to rice cultiva-
tion to visit his farm. He has already received
alot of visitors.—Bangkol: Times, June 17.
ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE TEA TRADE.
(By Messrs, Wm, Jas. and Hy, Thompson.)
38, Mincing Lane, June, 1908.
In reviewing the history of the past year, we
feel that the steady maintenance of the trade’s
general stability and soundness is a most en—
couraging feature, and we record with particular
satisfaction that the aggregate profit which the
industry has given to growers has fully equalled
that made last season, though it has not been
evenly distributed but partly diverted into
different hands,
With a smaller export from India to the
United Kingdom, the inexorable law of supply
and demand has made its mark, and Buyers
instead of feeling that at any time a superabun-—
dance of stock could be forced upon them, have
realised that the monthly offerings would about
supply their current requirements, but not more
—the result being that prices for common leaf
grades have maintained a minimum value of
about 6d per lb, The total
100
VOLUME OF BUSINESS WITH FOREIGN MARKETS,
done either through London, Calcutta or
Colombo, continues to expand, and we believe
that its limit has net yet been reached, but
that further development will result from the
combined efforts of the Agentsof the producers
and of London merchants, by whose enterprise in
the past, our foreign and colonial trade has been
built up.
RUSSIAN BUSINESS LOOKING UP.
Despite the serious financial crisis that took
place in America last autumn and the consequent
crippling of trade for some months throughout
the world, the improved demand from Russia
more than made up for any less enquiry from
elsewhere. This fact in itself perhaps may be
considered a good omenand a sign of ameliora-
tion in the condition of that country both
politically and commercially, in which case the
improvement noted should not be transient but
permanent.
The decision to remit on September Ist
the surtax of nearly 1d. on British grown
tea entering Russia at European frontiers,
should tend to promote more business in our
roducts, and we understand that some of the
ondon Export houses are already looking for
a renewal of orders which were diverted from
this market whilst the surtax was in force.
Now though there has been progress, and
while after a careful study of the various Re-
ports of the season’s working, it is patent that
the properties have as a whole gained ground,
it must be noted in analysing the working
of the estates that very different results have
been attained as compared with those of last
season, which seem to require some explanation.
It is seen that both Ceylon and Indian gardens
producing low-priced tea have secured a better
profit than those which have worked for and
aimed at producing quality and flavour—that is
to say Cachar, Sylhet and Dooars have improved
their average, whilethe districts of Assam and
Darjeeling have inonly a few instances done as
well. The same is the case withlow and high
grown teas in Ceylon—so that the difference of
value of the crops’ of the districts that
pluck fine and of those that pluck freely
has been brought down to a very narrow
margin—less indeed than the intrinsic quality
would warrant.
DISTRIBUTORS NARROWING PRICES,
Now this narrowing of pricesis mainly due per-
haps tc the action of distributors who have chosen
to sell the lowest canister for little or no profit
in order to compete with their rivals. The
consequent concentration of demand upon low
priced tea, coincident with the prospect of
total supply barely sufficient for requirements,
has maintained the value of common tea at
a comparatively high level, though at one which
with average crops and the natural increase,
of population, should be considered normal and
by no means excessive. In addition to the above
we have to bear in mind that owing to climatic
causes the teas from Assam, Darjeeling and the
Dooars have been notably wanting in the dis-
tinctive flavour and characteristics, which in
ordinary seasons can be counted on. The June
pickings, as also the autumn, which latter fre-
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
quently enhance the average of the whole pre-
vious working, were conspicuous by the want
of fine flavour, and the quality being of uniform
level, the preponderance of good medium tea
from every district has often made buyers
indifferent whether they dealt in one mark or
another, ,instead of picking out some special
brand and following it through the year.
It will be remembered that once before the
same causes were at work, and Planters were
asking themselves whether it would not pay
better to pluck freely, irrespective ofthe district
and character of the produce. It seemed at
the time a reasonable proposition but the follow-
ing year really choice teas were shipped from
the districts above alluded to, and realised re-
munerative prices, showing that the Public can
and will pay for a first rate article when it can
be procured,
It would be well indeed if the Consumer
could for once and al] be brought to realise that
cheapness is not true economy, and we feel con-
vinced that were this principal better known and
carried into practice, the Public, the Producer,
and the Distributor would all materially benefit,
INDIA,
In recapitulating the result of the various
crops, we find that India, from Cachar, Sylhet,
and Southern India, has shipped good all-round
medium teas ofa character that has doubtless
helped to promote their use in every canister—
while Assam proper, as noted elsewhere, the
most important district of the tea producing
area, has only been able to forward acrop of
good medium tea and has been conspicuous by
the absence of its usual fine invoices which are
always looked for early and again late in the
season, Darjeeling and the Dooars too have
suffered in these respects, occasionally short
in outturn and lacking the fine flavour for
which they are so deservedly known end appre-
ciated. Now while the results from the former
district are disappointing and the average in
many instances is less than that of last season—
when the prices paid for Cachar and Sylhet
growths showed an all-round advance—it should
be pointed out that this loss of position is due
to climatic causes,—labour difficulties and high
cost of rice,—and not to want of skill in the
planter’s management as some possibly not con-
versant with the working of the estates may
think. The teas received have been well-made
and finished with the usual care—we may here
state that the bulking and packing in India
have been quite satisfactory and it is now but
very rarely that a parcel has to be rebulked here
on account of irregularity. There is however
one point to which we feel attention should be
drawn—and that is, of late years there has been
a tendency tocut or mill the leaf teas so that
they come under the trade term ‘‘Choppy ”;
the intention of this is no doubt to make the
common leaf lcok better and to save Blenders
here the necessity of again ‘‘ Milling ”»—but we
hardly think this object is gained and there is
no doubt that shippers generally far prefer
an even whole leaf tea and pass over as undesir-
able for the export trace the “ Choppy” broken
lines ; it must be remembered that all blenders
have their own ideas as to size.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society,
CEYLON,
Cry1on—has given a crop of good averagequa-
lity. The teas arrived in excellent condition and
well-made, giving evidence of care and attention
in the factories to the various processes therein
carried on, Rebulking especially seems to be-
come less necessary year by year. While the
quality has, as usual, varied more or less from
climatic conditions, we are glad to note the con-
tinued absence of very common tea, of which too
much vsed to be sent. Fine gardens, as last
year, have not shown the autumn improvement
to the extent to which we have been accus-
tomed to look forward, but on the whole we
think the industry in a thoroughly sound con-
dition. Probably the grade that has disap-
pointed managers more than any other is the
Orange Pekoe made with a wiry attractive leaf.
At one time it was freely taken by shippers both
for Russia and America, but of late this demand
has slackened and as the liquor is frequently no
better than the Pekoe line in the same invoice,
the prices realised for both grades have often
been the same,
JAVA,
Java—teas have met with a steady demand
—their improved character derived from use of
Assam and Ceylon seed proving acceptable to
the Buyers. So farthe imports are about the
same as for some years past, although we hear
of large extensions suggesting more tea in the
near future from that island, where heavy yields
can be secured at a low cost.
CHINA.
Cxina,— Although the percentage of China tea
sent into this market is still only avery small
one, considerably more was imported during the
last season—doubtless on account of the high
the North was not very attractive, and great
difficulty was experienced in dealing with it—
many parcels being held over for months, and
then only realising very much lower prices than
were offered on arrival. A quantity of very low
Dusts came here—too low we think for con-
sumption—thus swelling the stocks of unde-
sirable tea, The increased delivery of China
teafor home use, of which much has naturally
been made by those interested in its sale, is
mainly due to the fact that.those who
sell tea at 1s. Od. and 1s. 2d. duty paid
have been compelled to pass through
their blending machines something cheaper
than could be bought from India or Ceylon.
The difficulty in selling even the small
quantity of tine China tea available for home
consumption, except by continually reducing
its price, seems to negative the idea that more
of itis being used. Results to importers have,
indeed, been so discouraging, especially during
the later months, that a more cautious policy
should prevail this season: but it is probable
that the low price of silver will stimulate Uhina’s
export of tea and all her other commodities.
Now while it is, of course, impossible to look
far into the future, it would seem to be quite
legitimate to endeavour to forecast the possible
course of the trade for a few mouths at all events.
There are certain pointe to be noted—and one,
perbaps, of more importance than some may
think, is the fact that the sales of Northern
101
Indian crop here are virtually closed. This to
allthe trade, both in London andin the country,
is of great value. The stocks held, whatever, they
may be, can be worked off quietly in confidence,
as the Buyers know that no large supply can be
placed on the market until after the August
Bank Holiday—when the usual resumption of
business may be counted on. In the meantime
Ceylon ard Southern Indian tea and the spares
offering of the new Indians are quite sufticiert
for the daily summer requirements. Importers
also have a stronger position, knowing that their
consignments will come to a bare market—
and at a busy time of year.
At the risk of repetition we would again re-
mark what in past years has often been said
—we feel somewhat concerned lest the re-
sult of the working of last season may
tend to make some managers of fine tea gardens
seriously consider whether to pluck freely,
instead of in the usual way. It is quite conceiv-
able that this may be done in view of the price
of common tea andits prospects—but once it is
realised how delicate the balance point of supply
and demand has always shown itself, we hope
such astep will not be taken,—as it might be
fraught with no small danger to the entire in-
dustry.
Wo. Jas. & Hy. THOMPSON,
ANEW IMPORTANT DWARF RUBBER.
YIELDING GOOD LATEX FROM THE
ROOT.
ECANDA RUBBER.
(Raphionacme utilis, Brown & Stapf).
[By Orto Srapr.]
In 1906, Mr. C. E. de Mello Geraldes, Profes-
sor in the Instituto de Agronomia e Veterinaria
at Lisbon, published in his ‘‘Hstudo sobre os latex
borrachiferos,” pp. 143-172, an article dealing with
a new rubber plant known in Benguela as
‘ Ecanda’ or ‘ Marianga.’ But it was only in
the summer of the following year that the dis-
covery became more generally known through a
short abstract from Prof. Geraldes’ paper pub-
lished in The India Rubber World (vol. xxxvi.,
p. 300). Aboutthe same time, in July of last
year, a portion of a tuber was
SUBMITTED TO KEW FOR IDENTIFICATION, BY
MR, SPENCER BRETT
for Messrs. Gow, Wilson & Stanton, Ltd. It was
stated to yield good rubber, and to have been
sent ‘‘ from the neighbourhood of Lake Nyasa.”
The tuber was made out to belong most likely
to the Asclepiadaceous genus LRaphionacme
Later on in the year Kew received from the
Companhia de Mocambique a number of healthy
specimens of ‘ Bitinga 'fubers’ or ‘' Tubers of
the plant from which the ‘ Bitinga’ Rubber is
extracted.” They were evidently identical with
the tuber communicated by Mr Brett and stated
to have come from West Africa. The tubers
have been grown in the Royal Gardens and one
of them flowered early in March of the present
year. Although it 1s proposed to figure and
describe the plant in the Botanical Magazine,
it seems desirable in this. place to give a preli-
minary description and a general account of
102
THE PLANT AND ITS PROPERTIES.
The ‘ Bitinga ’ plant agrees very well with the
description and figures given by Prof. Geraldes,
of the ‘ Ecanda’ plant, and there is practically
no doubt that they are identical. It is a new
species of Raphionacme, nearly allied to R. Wel-
witschit, Schlechter & Rendle, a native of Central
Angola, and is described below as Raphionacme
utilis, Brown and Stapf. It differs from all the rub-
ber plants already known in so far as it is a dwarf
herbaceous plant with a fairly large subterres-
trial tuber abounding in caoutchouc. As prac-
tically all our knowledge concerning the dis-
tribution, properties of the plant, and the pro-
cess of working it, is at present confined to
what we may learn from Prof. Geraldes’ article,
a translation of the more important paragraphs
is given here:
‘*The interest attaching to the ‘ Ecanda’ or
‘Marianga’ rests not only on the fact that we
‘have to deal here with a new species and more-
over one which is morphologically different
from all the other known rubber plants, but
also, and more especially, as I believe, on its
capacity of producing first-class rubber and
the facility of working it, in which. respect it
has no rival. The ‘EKcanda’ is a herbaceous,
stemless plant with a tuber-shaped root fairly
LARGE AND RICH 1N LATEX,
‘‘ From experiments made in the interior of
Benguela in order to find out the best process
for the preparation of Hcanda rubber, I came
to the conclusion that the only rational and
practical method is by crushing the roots and
treating the latex thus obtained by one of the
processes of ‘ lato-borrachificacao externa’ (co-
agulation of the latex after extraction). It is
evident that the method of first extracting the
latex very much simplifies the preparation of
rubber and clearly results in considerable
economy. The ‘Kcanda”* or ‘Marianga’* is
found in the treeless, sandy and _ alluvial
tracts (anharas) of Bailundo and Bihé and
the Xdnes (sandy and treeless tracts) of
the region between the rivers Kwanza and
Zambese (Ganguellas), the home of the Ota-
rampa (Carpodinus chylorrhiza).+ Those tracts
occur locally, asa rule near the headwaters and
along the banks of the rivers, occupying, some-
times, vast areas, and it is in their drier parts
that the ‘ Ecanda’ thrives. The altitude of the
region where the ‘ Ecanda ’ grows is from 4,000
feet (Ganguellas) to 5,500 feet (Bihe).
‘‘ As stated, the laticiferous tubes of the
‘ Ecanda’ are found spread all over the pulp of
the root ; at the same time the latex, being very
concentrated, coagulates rapidly in contact with
air. Itis therefore
NOT POSSIBLE TO EXTRACT IT ENTIRELY FROM THE
ROOTS BY MEANS OF INCISIONS.
“The extraction of the rubber direct from the
roots necessitating, as it does, first prolonged
boiling and then crushing, followed by repeated
~ “Keanda’ is the name by which the species (which
occursin Bailundo and Bihe) is known to the Bailundos
and Bihanos, and it is, I assume, identical with the spe-
cies known to the Lutxases (Ganguellas) as ‘ Marianga.’
+ I suppose that the ‘ Ecanda’ also occurs in the Xana
of Xifumage (an affluent of the Zambesi which I have
crossed) a vast, treeless, sand and humus plain to the
north-east of the district of Benguela. But whenI tra-
versed it, the natives had set fire toit as they are used
to;do, and the whole vegetation was destroyed.
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
washing is not practical since, apart from tho
tediousness of the process, it implies necessarily
the use of chemical agents in order to secure the
complete separation of the caoutchouc from the
pulp by the disorganisation of its tissues. And
even so, unless dissolvents are used for the puri-
fication, the rubber remains somewhat impure
as may be well imagined.
‘*But to my great satisfaction I made sure
that it was possible to extract the latex of the
‘ Keanda’ (although mixed with the sap of the
roots) with great ease by means of simply
crushing the roots. To extract the latex pro-
ceed as follows:—After having washed the
roots well, cut them into several pieces at a
right angle to their greatest diameter and
subject them to a slight pressure in a copying
press. When the liquid ceases to flow raise the
top of the press, turn the pulp and subject it
anew to slight pressure. Repeat these opera-
tions aslong as the liquid comes out yellowish
and without streaks of white, that is to the
point when the latex is completely extracted
and only root sap continues to flow.
“To obtain this result it is necessary to
extract from the roots, on the average, 77°7 per
cent. (of the weight) of the liquor; hence the
latex is much diluted (1°5 per cent. of the liquid
extracted from the roots should on the average
be pure latex). Having found a practical process
for extracting the latex, I tried now to deter-
mine the best method for coagulation. I
obtained good coagulation with alechol or
brandy whenever the latex was not very much
diluted. This process is evidentiy not econo-
mical as the coagulating agents are dear. . . .
Acetic acid, sulphate of aluminium and
potassium, phenol and chlorate of sodium do
not act on the latex diluted with root sap.
pas: Other coagulating agents I was not
able to try. . . It 1s, however, probable
that coagulation of the latex of ‘ Ecanda’ may
be obtained with other agents, even when it
is diluted with root sap. The process of skim-
ming leaves much to be desired, since, in my
experiments, I have never succeeded in extract-
ing by this method more than half of the
caoutchouc contained in the latex. ile
also studied. the effect of heat onthe liquid
obtained by pressing the roots of the ‘ Ecanda.
‘Tf the liquid is subjected direct to the action
of fire, a skin forms on the surface, like that
on boiled milk, consisting of caoutchouc. If
this skin is removed in the measure as it forms,
its production ceases after some time, and when
at length the liquid is completely evaporated,
a copious yellow and viscous residue is left. By
SUBSTITUTING A HOT BATH FOR DIRECT FIRE
and proceeding in the way just described, there
also remains a yellow and viscous residue, but it
is less copious. In this way I obtained a greater
percentage of caoutchouc which was of greater
elasticity than that produced by coagulating
direct over fire. ‘‘Thus by using heat as the
coagulating agent I always obtained beside the
caoutchouc a more or less copious residue of a
ellow and viscous substance. Now, it is well
nown, that generally caoutchouc, if subjected
to temperatures above 35° C., gradually loses its
elasticity, and turns viscous, until at 170° ta
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agriculturist Society. 103
180°C. it is converted into a thick liquid much
resembling molasses, Therefore, it might be
supposed that the residue mentioned above also
consisted principally of resinified caoutchouc,
‘“¢My suspicion was confirmed when treating
the latex by a mixed process of skimming and
spontaneous desiccation.}
“ By this method I obtained a much higher
percentage of rubber and only a small residue,
consisting likewise of a yellow and viscous
matter. However, the rubber was less elastic
than that obtained by coagulation in the hot
bath. This is not surprising, seeing that the
rubber prepared by the latter process contains
all the components of the latex and the root
sap (excepting the greater part of the water),
and, besides, I had not been able to strain the
liquid, having no metal net nor adequate strainer
with me.
Percentage of raw
Loss by
rubber per cent.
Processes employed. drying per
Green. Dry. cont.
Coagulation over fire ss! 2°90) 1°870 35°50
i in the hot bath ve 68°54 2°415 33°09
Skimming and spontaneous
desiccation ~> 13°00 6°360 51°60
“‘ In order to determine the
PERCENTAGE OF PURE CAOUTCHOUC OBTAINED
by these process, I analysed the samples of
‘Keanda’ rubber prepared in Benguela, in the
chemical laboratory of the Instituto de Agro-
narnia e Veterinaria, with the following re-
sults :—
RUBBER OBTAINED BY COAGULATION IN THE
Hor Bata.
Caoutchouc ate 3 88°025 per cent,
Resins Nig BG 4°725 i
Substances soluble in water .. 1*100° 5
Ha Fe in alcohol at boil-
ing point 1°300° ,,
Water So are 1°082 3
Impurities not determined A 3°768 *
RUBBER OBTAINED BY SKIMMING AND Sponva-
NEoUS DkEsiIccaTION.
Caoutchouc fe Rie 71°925 per cent.
Resins an aS 3°300 5
Substances soluble in water .. 2°950 aH
- - in alcohol at boil-
ing point 1°385 *
Water ate Se 3°154 3
Impurities not determined .. _ 16'926
“Thus I obtained by coagulation in the hot
bath 2°125 per cent of chemically pure caout-
chouc, calculated from the weight of the fresh
root, and bythe mixed method of skimming and
spontaneous desiccation 4°574 per cent of pure
caoutchouc: that is, I obtained by the latter
process more than twice the quantity of pure
caoutchouc than by the first. .
‘It follows, therefore, that, of the processes
which I tried, it was the process of skimming
and spontaneous desiccation by which I ob-
tained the best result. The great drawbacks
{ To extract the rubber by this method I proceeded as
follows :—I poured the liquid obtained by the crushing of
the ‘Ecanda’ roots into enamelled iron dishes so as to
form a layer 1cm. thick. After a while in every one of the
dishes and adhering to their sides a skin of rubber formed on
surface of the liquid. This skin I removed, and soI went
on for two days—the duration of the experiment—new
skins continuing to form, but every time less thick. Then
the production of skins ceased, But to make sure whether
the liquid still contained caoutchouc I left it in the dishes
until the evaporation was complete, which was the case
five days after the commencement of the experiment. As
the dishes were exposed to the air, and the latex some-
what caught the sun, I believe that the little yellow and
viscous residue which formed consisted to a small extent
of resinitied rubber.
inherent in that method are, however, aggra-
vated when itis applied to the treatment of a
liquid resulting from the crushing of the Ecanda
root and that makes it hardly practicable.
GUAYULE RUBBER INDUSTRY IN"
MEXICO,
Adverting to the article on pp. 632-4 of the
Board of Trade Journal of the 28th March, 1907,
giving particulars of the Guayule Rubber in-
dustry of Mexico, H.M. Legation there now
reports, on the authority of an American expert
who has been studying the industry, that there
is only about 400,000 tons of guayule now in
existence in the Republic, either standing in its
native soil, or at the extraction plants, or on
the way to the plants for extraction. The
scarcity has become so marked that the most
remote districts are now being searched for the
plant, and the Bolson de Mapimi district is
being thoroughly gone over, and the guayule
gathered and delivered under contract to the
Continental Rubber Company of Mexico, This
district, lying between the Sierra Mojada and
worreon, is practically the last remaining one
There there is guayule in any quantity, and the
remainder of the 400,000 tons has long since
been purchased by various extracting companies
at from 21. 10s. to 7]. 10s. per ton. The pur-
chases at the lower prices were made before the
. landowners realised the value of the shrub or
were aware of the improbability of the plant
reproducing itself in a short time. It is a
practical certainty, according to the expert, that
with the consumption of the existing supply,
THE INDUSTRY WILL GO INTO DECAY,
It had been hoped that experiments would be
made by persons interested, in the production,
planting of seed and joining it with some
kindred plant to accelerate its growth, so that
a period of but four or five years would be neces-
sary for the plant to reach the proper size for
extraction. This, it is said, could be effected by
grafting the guayule upon some kindred plant,
the roots of which would furnish the tops with
a greater flow of sap, and consequently result in
more rapid growth ; but this has not, to the
expert’s knowledge, yet been attempted, al-
though, in his opinion, it is the only hope for
the future of the industry.—Board of Trade
Journal, June 11.
Tavoy, June 28th.
Duar Six,—I do not quite understand Mr
W W Bailey’s letter in the last issue of the Tro-
pical Agriculturist, with reference to ‘tthumb-
nail” pruning para rubber. One would infer that
the trees he refers to, and the method adopted in
Malaya, is to slice off the tops of young saplings.
This, I take it, is not what Mr Herbert Wright
recommends, or ever recommended. As thename
clearly seems to imply, what I suppose should
be—and is—done is to nip off with the thumb
and first finger nails the extreme tip of each
sapling which has reached 10’ or 12’, or such
other height as the owner fancies is the correct
‘104
one, and then again repeat the process to the
tip of the resulting shoots when they have
grown 2’ or 80 more. Once more if possible, and
the sapling can be bent down to do so without
force, and so left to nature. Weareall still in
‘the infant school stage as regards cultivated
rubber ; and whether thumb-nail pruning is ad-
visable—or not—is a debatable point. 46 initio
we’ grow rubber under unnatural conditions
and the proceeding of forcing its growth arti-
ficially in a desired direction, that of in-
creased girth, at a younger age, and hence
earlier tapping, is of considerable importance
viewed from any point. I quite agree as to be
abnormally bending over of repeatedly thumb-
nailed trees ; but I have noticed it in trees dune
twice only very seldom, and never in those only
once topped in this manner.
As long as we tap by girth and not by age,
and as long as experts, scientific and practical,
tell us that no harm is done by early tapping,
and that the quality of rubber is as good as
from older trees,so long—I suppose—will thumb-
nail pruning find strong supporters. It ap-
pears obvious that if this method is resorted
to, the wider should the spacing of your plan-
tation be—as the crown of the tree is more in-
clined to spread itself out, with a consequent
greater root area. The matter is worthy of dis-
cussion and careful report as to results and
the experiences of Ceylon and Malaya planters,
and I hope that some of them will be induced
to give us the benefit of their experiments in your
columns.— Yours faithfully,
BURMAH.
TOBACCO EXPERIMENTS IN COOCH
BEHAR.
Important experiments with tobacco—one of
the chief products of the Cooch Bekar State
—are in progress, and negotiations have been
entered into with a French Company, that pro-
poses to start a cigarette factory near Calcutta,
with the object of securing a market for the
State tobacco and a school of practical train-
ing in the industry for such natives as the
ruler of the State may nominate. Cooch Behar
cigarettes were imported into Calcutta to the
value of almost 23 lakhs during 1906-07 and
there is, therefore, an ample field apparently
for the operations of the company.—Statesman,
July 5.
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.
June 24th.
Dear Sitr,—Some months ago I wrote to
you that I had read in your columns of a
soil-renovating leguminous plant and enquired
whether the Agricultural Society had applied
for a supply ot seed. Not being able to give
you the name of the plant, you were not able
to supply me with the information [ asked for.
The plant has been brought before the public
again by Mr. B. Harrison, of Burringher, N.S. W..,
Australia, and now I can give its name—
Melilotus Officinalis. I want a_ soil-renovator
specially for white, sandy soil, and of this it
is said: ‘This seed has been sown in raw,
white sand, and in the course of 5 or 6 years,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
it has changed it into a dark, almost black,
rich loam.” ‘Each well-developed plant con-
veys to the soil fully 4 1b. nitrogen.” It is almost
superfluous to say that the latter is the
declaration of an American !
One drawback, as far as coconut planters
are concerned, is that it is a fodder plant.
For this reason the seed will have to be sown
within a wired enclosure.
Another leguminous plant is the Japan clover
(Lespidiya Striata); that, too, is a fodder plant
and a valuable soil renovator.
Will the Agricultural Society kindly obtain
seeds of both the above leguminous plants
and grow them in the Stock Garden as object
lessons and report results in the Tropical
Agriculturist.—Truly yours, z
THE BANANA MARKET OF FRANCE.
Paris, June 17.—The trade in bananas, so
flourishing in the United States and England,
is only just beginning here, where the imports
are not over 9,000 tons, although France is
nearer to the producing countries. The reason
is that this country
DOES NOT BUY DIRECT, BUT IN ENGLAND
and second hand. It is calculated, how-
ever, that, in buying in this way, a parcel
of bananas of 66 1b. comes to about 17f. on deli-
very, while—if imported direct fromthe Azores
or the Canary Islands—the price would only be
13f. to 13f. 50c. If not put up in packets for
shipping, the price would be lower still. Unfor-
tunately, the consumption is not large enough
to permit cf buying direct, and it would be
necessary for such shippers as might make the
attempt to make up their minds for a certain
amount of loss at the start in order to increase
consumption. As to the other oversea fruits,
their sale in a fresh state is still more limited,
and all the more so on account of the high price
to be paid for the reasons mentioned above.—
London Times.
NUTMEG IN THE MOLUCCAS.
Evil times have fallen upon the well-known
nutmeg plantations at Banda in the Moluccas.
The Java Bode says that, in consequence of a
heavy fall in the price of that spice, the planters
cannot meet thecJaims uponthem. The coolies
on the estates can get neither wages nor rations.
The ruined planters have not the means to send
them back to their homes. Unless the Govern-
ment affords relief, the consequences will be
disastrous,—Straits Times, June 30.
CACTUS FOR FODDER: FOR BEHAR
PLANTERS.
The Behar correspondent of the Indian
Planters’ Gazette (July 4) writes: —‘‘Our enterpris-
ing Collector, Mr Woodman, is distributing cut-
tings of Cactus opuntia procured from California
to neighbouring planters with a view of seeing
whether this thornless species of the Cactus
family can be grown successfully in these
districts and form a useful fodder for cattle.”
—M. Mail, July 8. é
Photo by H. F, Macmillan.
‘“JAFFNA MANGO” IN CEYLON.
(Vide page 135 for Article.)
TROPICAL
Gia S> Be oe
AGRICULTURIST
a AND
MAGAZINE OF THE
- CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
Vou. XXXI.
COLOMBO, 15tx AUGUST, 1908,
4, —
A Sessional Paper (VI. of 1908) has
just been published, containing the re-
plies of the Government Agents to an
- enquiry addressed to them asking fora
_ report onthe present condition of rice
cultivation in their provinces, with
statements of hindrances to it, and re-
commendations how best to secure its
- extension.
Their replies are distinctly discourag-
- ing to those who hope to see great
extensions, and indeed it cannot be
wondered at. Ceylon, with its small areas
_ of flat land, poor soil, broadcast sowing,
poor weeding or cultivation, inferior
% grades, absence of crop-rotation, and
other disadvantages, to say nothing of
; any lack of industry of its people, cannot
hope to compete against Bengal, Burma,
_ or Indo-China as a_ rice-exporting
oy. The most that can be hoped for
is that it should grow its own supply, so
‘ far as its native (other than immigrant
Rice Cultivation in Ceylon.
There are many districts in which the
continued opening of village tanks is
recommended for the extension of culti-
vation, but it must be remembered that
the people are rarely willing to grow
any rice for sale, and will often leave
the land uncultivated for a year or two
after a good crop.
Agricultural banks or credit societies,
and similar societies for the supply
of seed or manure, are probably the
most promising direction in which to
look. We have preached this doctrine
for several years now, and were con-
sequently very glad to hear His
Excellency’s deliverance on the subject
(cf. T.A. last Vol., p. 578) at the Annual
Meeting of the Society. ;
Another feature that comes out
strongly is the effect of more remuner-
ative occupation, e.g., on rubber estates,
upon paddy cultivation.
Altogether the report is:worth study,
and we shall probably return to the
subject.
106
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS.
PLANTING OF THE NEW SPECIES
OF MANIHOT.
It is reported that the Bahia-Kauts-
chuk-Actiengesellschaft has bought over
300,000 acres of land in Bahia, on which
the ‘‘new” Manihots, Hancornia, &c.,
are already abundant, and intends to
plant it all up with the former.
So far no British Botanie Garden, not
even Kew, has been able to obtain any
of the new Manihots other than M. dicho-
toma (of which one hundred are grow-
ing on the Experiment Station at Pera-
deniya), and it is useless for people to
apply to the Botanic Gardens for them.
In any case we could not supply them
till they had seeded freely. Ina couple
of years’ time we shall likely be able, for
instance, to supply a lttle Manihot
dichotoma, but only a few thousand
seeds, not the large quantities people are
already asking for.-——ED.
i
THE PRESENT CONDITION OF
RUBBER CULTURE.
By Dr. PEHR OLSSON-SEFFER,
(Paper read before the first meeting of
the Mexican Rubber Planters’ Associ-
ation on October 19, 1907.)
At the present moment, on the date
of the birth of the Mexican Rubber
Planters’ Association, it is opportune to
review in brief the development and the
present condition of the rubber planting
industry.
Universal interest is now manifested
in regard to thisindustry. The rapid
increasing demand for rubber, a commo-
dity so closely connected with electricity
and many other modern inventions, has
called forth the question, whether the
world’s market can be supplied trom the
natural sources of wild rubber, which
hitherto have been sufficient, or whether
cultivation has to be resorted to.
The concensus of opinion is that
although there has been a steady growth
of the output of the raw rubber, and
although the rate of production so far
has shown no decline, we are rapidly
approaching the narrowing limits of
the natural rubber supply.
It is generally known thatin Brazil,
from where the largest amount of rubber
has been obtained, the rubber collectors
— Ave@ust, 1908.
have to go further and further inland
every year for their supply. With the
prevailing reckless method of gathering,
the rubber trees are gradually being ex-
terminated. Naturally the cost ot collect-
ing is thus increasing, and it is to be
observed that the extraordinary high
prices have not greatly stimulated the
production. This applies not only to the —
Amazon valley, but more or less to all
countries producing wild rubber. Very
little has been done, and very little can
be done to stop this destruction of the
natural rubber forests. The natives can- —
not be taught to consider the necessity
of saving the trees for a coming year. —
Their sole object is to obtain as large an
amount of rubber as possible for the
time being.
=
In some rubber-producing countries
Steps have been taken towards replant-
ing the natural rubber forests. Most
notable is the decree passed by the Govy-
ernment of theCongo Free State on the
5th of January, 1899, in which it is regu-
lated that :—
“In all the forests of the territory
rubber trees shall be planted every year
toa number not less than 1&0 for every
ton of rubber gathered during the
same period. The agents of the State
in those forests, where the State has
the private owners and concessionaries —
of all the forests where the State has
given it up, whether by decrees of
October 30th, 1892, or by the granting ©
of special concessions, are expected to —
form and keep up these plantations —
conforming tothe conditions specified in —
the present decree.”
Three years later the Congo Govern- —
ment issued a new decree increasing the —
number of plants to be replanted per ton
of rubber collected. The production on —
the Amazon and the Congo has so far
notgiven any sign of decline, but itis
certain that the natural supply has not
increased. We have on the other hand
instances where a rapid decline in the
output is taking place. ie
In Colombia the export of rubber has”
been diminishing for the last thirty years,
and from Lagos a marked decrease is
noticeable for the last decade. F
We are thus confronted with the
following situation: while the consump-
tion of rubber is increasing at an acceler-
ating rate, the natural supply, although
enormous, is not augmenting, in spite of |
the fact that new rubber-producing
plants are discovered and new fields are
being exploited. al
Aveust, 1908.]
It seems safe to conclude that the
requirements of modern life will not
permit the demand for rubber to become
diminished. The point is whether the
supply will be altogether unequal to this
demand. Varying opinions are ex-
pressed in this regard. Some maintain
that the natural propagation of the
rubber tree is sufficient to keep the
supply up to its natural limits. There
ee raver. no evidence at hand to
show that such a statement was based
on true facts or ona right understand-
ing of the situation. Others hold that
the natural sources of wild rubber are
rapidly being exhausted. Such an asser-
tion is more logical, but even here we
lack sufficient knowledge to be able to
forma positively correct opinion. It
may be safer to say that the limit of pro-
duction will soon be reached, if we are
not so far already, and if the demand is
growing in the same proportion as
hitherto, there must comea shortage in
the supply.
The prices have been steadily advanc-
ing for the last ten years and longer. It
is possible that some of the rise in value
is due to the general prosperity, which
has caused an increase in the value of
almost all raw material. But it is not
likely that even a financial or industrial
_ panic would very materially influence the
rubber market.
Ever since Charles Goodyear’s dis-
covery rendered the rubber of practical
» use to mankind, the tropical forests have
been scoured by the natives and by
white men searching for rubber produc-
ing trees. In Central America the indi-
genous rubber tree, Castilloa elastica,
_Cerv. and related species, have been the
the sake of profit and
- reasons.
object of a diligent search and_subse-
quent destructive treatment. The des-
_ truction of the wild tree is usually given
as the strongest argument in favour of
rubber culture. I doubt if this is the
raison d@’etre of rubber cultivation.
Very few business men go into busi-
ness from fear. Noris rubber planting
a matter of philanthropy. We do not
' plant rubber because we know that the
supply from previous sources will one
day become exhausted and humanity
needs rubber for industrial purposes.
We plant rubber because we have every
reason to believe thatit is a profitable
industry. We plantrubber simply for
not for other
Is then rubber culture after all
a profitable industry? There are many
ale say no, but those who have investi-
e Epred the matter, and most of those who
ave invested in rubber, that has been
taken care of properly, know for certain
-thatit is not only profitable but very
a
: ee
107
Saps and Hxudations.
profitable. {It has been claimed that it is
impossible to cultivate the rubber tree.
There is no necessity to refute such a
statement, How it has been able to
gain credence is hard to understand. It
shows a complete ignorance in regard to
agriculture. In the history of human
progress, there is not asingle instance
where domestication of a plant has not
been possible. There is, of course, a
great difference in different plants, but
by employing proper methods we have
been able to overcome the greatest diffi-
culties. As regards the rubber trees,
there are hardly any plants that are
better adapted for cultivation.
The many conflicting statements as to
the commercial feasibility of rubber
planting have been cleared up now and
again by disinterested parties who have
devoted much time to the study of this
question in all its details. There are
still those who are doubtful, either on ac-
count of personal failure in the undertak-
ing or because they have entertained pre-
conceived notions upon the question and
are not willing to admit that their con-
clusions are wrong. Observations ex-
tended over a somewhat wide field
covering most countries where rubber is
planted have given me conclusive evi-
dence that rubber, when cultivated right,
is not only a possibility but a decided
commercial success. Anyone who de-
votes intelligenc attention to this ques-
tion cannot fail to find that, when he
acquires more concrete knowledge about
the matter, there are actual iesults at
hand which prove to be indisputable,
and which show beyond a shade of doubt
that the rubber planting industry is a
profitable venture.
The thousands of trees now planted and
the hundreds of plantations producing
rubber on a commercial scale demon-
strate that rubber culture is an industry
which has come to stay. Fears are ex-
pressed that we will have ar over-
production of rubber if the planting
industry increases at the rate it has
done for the last few years. This leads
us into the question of the present and
the future supply and demand of rubber.
The annual output of rubber has been
rapidly increasing, and for the last seven
years the production and consumption
are represented by the following figures :—
Year. Production Consumption:
Metric tons. Metric tons.
1900 59,048 ee 48,352
1901 52,864 ued 51,186
1902 53,877 fl 51,110
1903 55,603 52,276
1904 61,759 59,666
1905 68,879 65,083
1906), Howe 67,099... 162.754
Gums, Resins, 108
& The visible supply on hand on June
80th, 1905, of 8,869 metric tons was re-
duced to 5,852 metric tons by June 380th,
1906, though the production of the latter
year was 14,651 metric tons greater than
that of the former year.
Comparing the first and the last two
years, this table shows an increase of
28°3 per cent. in both production and
consumption.
Last year’s output is valued at about
300,000,000 dollars Mex., and of this
amount tropical America yielded about
63 per cent., tropical Africa 34 per cent.,
and Asia 3 per cent., of which Ceylon
plantation rubber to the amount of 150
tons. Mexico’s total export of rubber
during the same period was valued at
$3,342,000 or 3 per cent. of the world’s
total output,
In 1906, the United States imported from
Mexico 16,993 bales rubber, of which
about 5,000represented Castilloa. During
the first seven months of the fiscal year
1906-7 the value of rubber exported was
$2,761,873,00 U.S. currency, including
Guayule. The total value of rubber
exported in 1906 was $1,671,000 Gold.
Although Mexico as a rubber-produc-
ing country does not yet rank very high,
Mexico was the original country where
rubber was found by Europeans. The
oldest data about rubber come from
Mexico. The earliest historical reference
to rubber was made in 1525, when an
Italian writer speaking of the customs
of the Mexican Indians mentions the
rubber balls used by them in certain
games.
While thus rubber was first discoverd
in Mexico, the first rubber planting in the
world was also made in Mexico, not in
Ceylon as is often claimed. The person
who first took up the question of plant-
ing rubber for commercial purposes was
the Mexican statesman, Sr. Matias
Romero, a close friend and relative of
our present President. When he wrote
his paper on rubber culture in the year
1872 there were already several rubber
plantations in existence in this Republic.
From inquiries in the region where
Romero started his own rubber plantation
I have found that rubber was planted as
early as 1867 in Mexico by Don Jose
Maria Chacon at Zanjon Seco, in the
district of Soconusco in Chiapas. During
the next year plantations were started
jn Guatemala, and later on in Nicaragua
and Honduras. These plantations were
small, but even as regards size they were
much larger than the first plantations
begun in Ceylon or India.
Less than ten years ago American
capital was attracted towards rubber
ne"
ne Ls i
[AucusT, 1908. fi
planting in Mexico. Asa result of thiS
movement we have to-day approximately
95,000 acres on 118 plantations, entirely
or partly devoted to rubber, represent- —
ing an investment of $60,000,000 Mex.
From data at hand I would consider
the world’s area of rubber plantations to
be 355,500 acres, distributed as follows :—
Mexico My 95,000
Malay Peninsula 92,000
Ceylon 85,000
Africa A 30,000
Central America 14,000
Java Boe 10,000
India 8,2
Brazil 6,00C
Venezuela 3,400
Ecuador ; 3,000
New Guinea ... 2,500
Borneo 2,000
Colombia a 1,800
West Indies . 1,600
Other countries 1,000
As seen from these figures Mexico
among other countries has still the lead
in regard to area under rubber. The
statements published regarding the total
area of rubber in Ceylon are highly
misleading on account of the fact that
rubber is being interplanted between
tea and cacao. Thus on many estates
there are not more than 75 rubber
trees to the acre, but in the esti-
mates each acre is stated to be under
rubber. In the statistics the same area
thus often appears both under tea and
rubber or under cacao and rubber. One
of the latest statements was made by
Mr. Wright, until recently an assistant
at the Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, who
estimated the present area under rubber
in that island to 130,000 acres. Méssrs.
Ferguson of Ceylon recently stated (ia
August this year) that the planted
acreage of rubber in Ceylon is 150,000
acres, of which they claim that 116,000
are under rubber alone, and that 52,400
acres of tea and caoao are interplanted
with rubber. Data collected by myself
in Ceylon in the beginning of the present
year show that, taking 250 trees to the
acre, the area planted does not exceed
85,500. Another favourite method inthe —
East of making upa large acreage isto ©
count in the area ‘' alienated ” for rubber
culture. That is to say, if a Company
has alienated from the Government 2,000 —
acres for a rubber plantation, but —
planted only. 50 acres, they will speak of —
their plantation as a 2,000 acres rubber —
estate. If the same rule was followed in ~~
Mexico our acreage would be nearly
400,000 acres. We have rubber estates _
owning as much as 20,000 acres, of which FE |
itis intended ultimately to plant 50 per
cent. a
ai
Avausr, 1908.]
Only a few years ago it was stated in
a Government publication that the
entire area of land suitable for rubber
in the island of Ceylon did not exceed
10,000 acres. That this estimate was in-
correct isshown by the actual area now
planted. This area increased between
the years 1890-1898 at the rate of 50 acres
per year, and ‘in the last named year
there were about 750 acres planted. It
took three years more before the acre-
age rose to 2,500 acres, but in the last
few years it has increased very rapidly.
During the last two years the planting
has suddenly inereased largely in the
entire Indo-Malayan region, and it can
therefore be hoped that in a few years
hence plantation rubber from the Hast
will become of some importance on the
*
Ry
- prices.
world’s market.
Only quite recently I had a letter from
London, in which it was pointed out that
the price of crude rubber was liable to
decrease very soon, on account of the
large supply due from the ‘‘vast rubber
plantations ’ in the Hast. As seen from
the statistics given above the total area
is not yet so “ vast” as might be expected
from the exaggerated statements , issued
from London headquarters.
With a total area under rubber at the
present time of over 855,000 acres, we
must naturally expect in six or eight
' years hencea large supply of plantation
rubber. But admitting that the supply
of wild rubber would not decrease in
that time, while on the other hand the
demand would keep on increasing. there
is not much to fear from a decline in
The present output of plantation rub-
‘ber does not exceed 600 tons. If we con-
sider that the yield per acre is 300 lbs.,
the supply of plantation rubber from the
present area planted would twelve years
hence be tiearly 55,000 tons per annum.
During the last dozen years the increase
of the consumption of rubber has been
on an average 8 per cent. per annum, and
this average is increasing rather than
decreasing. If we carry on this increase
for another dozen years, we find that
twelve years hence the need for rubber
would be close to 175,000 tons. We have
noreason tosuppose that the supply
of wild rubber twelve years hence would
be greater than to-day. On the contrary,
everything tends to show that the pro-
duction has reached its limit, and will
decrease instead of augment in the
future. The present area planted would
thus not nearly supply the balance of
the consumption, provided the output
of wild rubber twelve years hence was
still 65,000 tons.
109 Saps and Exudations.
We need not think that the planting of
rubber has come to a standstill. Much
more land will be planted under this crop
all over the Tropics, but very large plan-
tations are needed to supply the increased
demand. It is therefore evident that we
have not much to fear from over-produc-
tion for many years to come.
It is not many years since rubber plant-
ing was looked upon by the ordinary
investor as a very hazardous under-
taking, and those who were spending
money on rubber planting were con-
sidered visionaries. At the present time
many rubber plantations are coming
into bearing, and are for the first
time demonstrating the truth of the
ideas of the pioneers. Plantations in
Ceylon have already. paid as much as
40-50 per cent. in annual dividends.
Some Mexican plantations have been
able to pay as much as 15 per cent. on
the invested capital trom rubber obtained
on the estate.
The ever-increasing areas under rubber
indicate that this industry is able to
draw capital, and this is perhaps the best
proof that its propects are good, as
capital is a fairly correct index regard-
ing such matters. The fact that rubber
planting has gained much notoriety
through capital being obtained for the
ostensible purpose of exploiting rubber
plantations, but in reality has been
diverted to the private use of dishonest
promoters is not proof against the possi-
bility of cultivating rubber, or against
the profitableness of rubber culture. The
public has become suspicious towards all
rubber planting companies, and many
legitimate concerns have suffered.
lf we investigate the causes which have
produced some of the most disastrous
and sensational failures of rubber planta-
tions, we will find that in every case
such a Company was not promoted as a
bona fide and legitimate enterprise for
the purpose of building up a successful
plantation, but thatthe whole scheme
was intended to benefit the promoters.
In some cases the home office expenses
have exhausted the entire capital, and
little or nothing has been left for the
development of the plantation. Some
of these plantations have been started
on soil which is in every way unsuitable
tor the cultivation ofi1ubber. On others
the development work has been greatly
overpaid to the benefit of one or ano-
ther interested person. Very often the
management has lacked all the experi-
ence of tropical agriculture, and some of
the plantations do not show a result
corresponding to the outlay.
Gums, Resins,
The first requirement is the right kind
of soil and climate, and at the same time
an honest and competent administration.
If these conditions are fulfilled, rubber
planting promises to become the most
profitable tropical industry.
The commercial exploitation of various
rubber-producing plants was naturally
first taken up by the nations which owned
tropical colonies or tropical lands. It
was in these same countries the profitable-
ness and possibility of rubber culture
were first realized. There was naturally
at first a certain hesitation, but of late
years an increasing faith in rubber is
evident from the fact that more and
more capital is being diverted to this
new tropical industry.
There are few plants that are better
adapted to cultivation than the principal
rubber-producing trees. It has now been
fully demonstrated that rubber can be
grown profitably on a commercial scale,
and that plantation rubber can be pro-
duced cheaper and better than the
product of the wild tree. Many mistakes
are yet made and comparatively little
knowledge exists regarding cultural
methods, but with the increased atten-
tion now being paid to rubber cultivation
it can be hoped that present defects and
shortcomings will be corrected in a not
too distant future,
Rubber planters in Mexico and Central
America have been experimenting re-
garding cultural methods for a good
many years, and it isonly of late definite
results have been forthcoming. In many
special questions no ultimate conclusions
have yet been arrived at, and we cannot
say that we are absolutely certain as to
the best methods in any particular stage
of the cultivation or preparation of
Castilloa rubber.
In regard to soilrequirements Castilloa
needs an open porous soil, well drained,
but with sufficient underground water
supply. The chemical consistency of the
soil or its relative richness is of little
importance. Stagnant water or very
acid soil is detrimental, and thin soil
with hard impermeable subsoil will grow
Castilloa for a few years, but when
the tree reaches 6 or 7 years of age, and
the roots penetrate deeper and reach
water, growth ceases and the tree is
liable to die back.
The question of shade in Castilloa
culture has been much debated. In
Mexico there are still three different
methods in vogue. The first that was
used in the early days of rubber culture
was to plant in shade. Itis based on
an erroneous observation of nature.
Castilloa was found in the forests, and
as it is a comparatively low tree, it
110
{Aueust, 1908.
was supposed that it required shade for
its successful growth. It was also found
that, if the seeds were sown in the open
without any shade, the young seedlings
often failed, or if they survived the first
dry season they grew very slowly. On
the other hand seeds germinated very
freely when sown in shade, and the
seedlings grew rapidly, especially in
height. The observant planter soon Gis-
covered, however, that the first year’s
growth was not continued, and as years
went by he found that shade-grown
Castilloa developed into fishing rods
without any increment in trunk growth.
Moreover, the trees were sickly, often
attacked by root fungi, and generally
very liable to disease. There are still
some planters who persist in keeping
shade, enjoying the sight of 40-50 feet
high whip-like trees, 6-7 years old, but
which never will reach a ‘‘ tapable” size.
The second system as regards shading
is to plant in semi-shade, that is, to leave
a few high trees when clearing, expect-
ing these to give the rubber trees a
certain amount of shelter-in the dry
season, when the Uastilloa has shed its
leaves and is exposed to the scorching
sun. This method has been employed
with a certain amount of suecess on
some plantations, especially where the
soil is liable to become hard and baked if
exposed to the sun. It seems the most
natural, as Castilloa in its wild state
always occurs in the vicinity of other
trees from which it receives shelter and
shade. To establish such conditions it
is not, however, necessary to leave
jungle trees as shade, but by planting
close the commensalism needed will be.
obtained. This can easily be overdone,
atid the planter has to exert consider-
able judgment in regard to the distance
at which he should plant. In localities
where the soil Is very moist or drainage
imperfect any shade whatsoever may
prove dangerous to the health of the
rubber, and it certainly will greatly
retard the proper development of the
stand.
The third method is to plant in the
open. If theseeds are sown at an unsuit-
able time, that is, if the soil is not moist
or if no rain follows for weeks, complete
failure in germinating may result. If
the district has a distinct dry season,
the seedlings will suffer greatly during
that time, in case they have not had a
good growth before the rains were over.
Otherwise there are no objections to
planting in the open, and if this has
been done fairly close, so that the
young plants partly shade each other,
they have under these conditions the
best opportunities fora rapid develop-
ment. a"
» AUGUST, 1908. |
Another important question in regard
to rubber planting is that of dis-
tance between the trees. Considerable
difference of opinion exists in this regard,
and as is the case with Hevea planters,
distances varying from 6x6 feet to 30x30
feet have their advocates among planters
of Castilloa.
I have concluded from experiments
conducted with a view towards ascertain-
ing the relation of distance between the
trees, and the weekly, monthly and
annual increment of trunk growth, that
as soon asthe roots of the trees touch
and become intermatted the growth of
the trees isimpaired. But on the other
hand, we know that if the Castilloa trees
are planted very far apart their growth
is stunted, and, when the trees become
colder, their bark is exposed to the heat
of the sun and to evaporation caused by
dry winds passing through the planta-
tion. The result of this is that the bark
cracks, the latex vessels shrivel, and no
latex can be obtained. We then say
that the trees are ‘‘ sunburned.”
The question then arises: at what
distance are we to plant? I decidedly
condemn too close planting, as it leads to
a disproportionately whip-like growth
of the trunk. I wouldalso emphatically
warn against too open planting. I think
the error of the latter practice is con-
elusively proven by the following in-
stance that has come under my observa-
tion. Two yearsago I visited a large
Castilloa plantation on which the trees
had been planted 21 x 24 feet apart. The
trees were five years old, and investiga-
tion disclosed the fact that a great
percentage of the trees, especially those
which had been growing on dry knolls
or exposed places, had a bark very
rough, scaly and full of longitudinal
fissures. The inner bark, in which the
latex vessels are situated, was very dry,
and the latex in the ducts had coagu-
lated. In many places_on the bark
exudation of latex had taken place, and
big drops or tears of latex had formed
scrap rubber. The only way in which
this condition of the trees could be
remedied, wasto allow the weeds to
grow up and underbush to develop.
This vegetation shades the trunk, and in
due time the bark is formed and the old
is thrown off. This process takes at
least two years, and is successful only in
case the cambium has not been injured.
In deciding about the distance at
which to plant we have to take the
following two primary factors into con-
sideration. The trees must not stand so
close as to impede the growth of each
other, and they must not be far enough
apart to leave the trunky exposed to sun
and wind,
111
Saps and Hzxudations.
_From the above we obtain an indica-
tion pointing towards the method we
ought to follow, i.e., close planting and
subsequent gradual thinning, according
to the requirements of the trees. Be-
sides fulfilling some of the conditions
leading to a successful development of
the rubber stand, the method of close
planting has other advantages. It
permits of a thorough system of selec-
tion which is not possible under the
method of open planting in permanent
situations. From a financial point of
view close planting is decidedly superior
to any other method. It has been
proved that by proper management the
intermediate rubber trees, which are not
supposed to remain permanently in the
stand, can be made to produce a suffi-
cient quantity of rubber to render the
system very profitable, before the
permanent trees can be considered pro-
ductive. By close planting the danger
of failures in the stand is reduced almost
to nil, and this is important to the
planter, as filling up failures in a young
forest is both expensive and _ precarious.
There is always a temptation to leave
too many trees, in order to provide for a
big side crop, but this should naturally
be resisted. A heavy thinning comes to
the assistance of the best specimens of
growth, and it must on no account be
omitted or postponed. It is extremely
difficult to lay down any definite rules
as to thinning operations, but it has
been conclusively proved that the
general rules applied in scientific for-
estry in regard to silvicultural operations
are fully applicable to the cultivated
rubber trees. Rubber planting is
nothing else than silviculture, and we
should take our lessons from ordinary
common sense, and from results obtained
from the extensive experience of the
forest planter, naturally with due atten-
tion paid to the particular condi-
tions obtained in the Tropics and the
peculiar nature of the rubber tree,
The method of propagating Castilloa
first employed was to sow the seeds in
nurseries, and when the seedlings were
four to six months old they were trans-
planted. Very often, however, trans-
planting was not done before a year
after sowing. The plants were , then
from 5to 12 feet high. The seedlings
were cut five or six inches below the
surface, and topped, leaving a pole some
three feet long. Tied into bundles these
poles were carried to the field. Witha
pointed stake, holes were made in the
ground about one foot deep, and the
pole placed in the hole and the soil
pressed close to the stem. When this
planting was done carefully, and if rain
fell within the next two or three days,
Gums, Resins,
not more than 3 or 4% of failures
occurred. In places where the soil is
somewhat sandy the failures were more
frequent.
Later experience has proved that the
cheapest and surest method is to plant
the seeds at stake. Nearly a year’s
growth is thus gained, and it does away
with the expensive replanting, where
failures occur under the transplanting
method. The seeds are planted in small
hills, about seven seeds in each hill, three
inches between the seeds. The hills are
at a distance of about seven feet in rows
twelve feet apart.
In planting in this manner we allow
for a high percentage of failures in
gcrmination; we can give ants, lizards
and field rats their due amount and we
still have plants in abundance. This
method has now been practised for
several years with success. There ure
no complete failures in any hills, except
where planting has been done in ground
which is too acid. In such places we
may have to replant in small patches
after proper drainage has been prepared
for, and for this purpose we use excess
plants growing in the neighbourhood.
During the first few months seedlings
backward, misshaped, or where crowd-
ing is observed, should be thinned at
the time of each weeding. Generally at
least 50 % of all the seedlings should be
cut out during the first six months.
This thinning should be continued
during subsequent years until at the
end of the six years from sowing. There
are approximately 800 trees to the acre.
The best 400 trees are to remain perma-
nently, and are not touched before they
have reached 26 or 28 inches in circum-
ference at three feet from the ground.
The intermediate trees are tapped, when
six years old, very heavily, that is, as
yuch latex as possible is extracted. A
few weeks later the trees are inspected.
Those that have suffered from the
tapping should be marked and doomed.
If they still yield latex they are cut up
with numerous incisions, and a few days
afterwards the scrap is collected and
the trees felled. Those trees that pro-
mise to recuperate should be left un-
touched for four months, when they are
again tapped in the regular way. After
a second inspection they should be
killed. Exceptional trees which do not
crowd upon the permanent trees may
be left to the following or seventh year,
when they are tapped with an ultimate
view to their destruction. At the end
of the seventh year we have 400 trees to
the acre.
A most important item in the formation
of a plantation is an efficient drainage. In
112
ee Seiad Yi
this work every fall of the ground must
be taken advantage of, and inmany cases
much may be done by straightening and
clearing existing water courses.
The question of draining for rubber
has been overlooked in the whole of
Mexico. Most planters claim that it is
sufficient to have what is called “a good
natural drainage.” This is a mistake.
The Eastern planter has fully realized
this, and even on very sloping land
drains are made before the rubber is
planted. I do not remember having
seen a single rubber plantation in the
East, where this was not done.
The object of draining is not only to
provide an outlet for the surface water,
but to drain the yround down to a
certain depth.
In commencing the work the position
of the main outlets must first be deter-
mined. The main drains are next opened
according to the fall of the ground, and
minior conduits are formed up and down
the face of the slope. It is impossible to
lay down definite rules as to the exact
method of making the drains. The fault
of overdraining must be guarded against
as wellasits opposite extreme.
Much has been written and said about
the disease of rubber trees. We have
been fortunate enough in Mexico not to
be bothered with any serious outbreak,
but it is necessary that we be very care-
ful and keep a constant watch over any
disease that may appear. In this respect
the Planters’ Association has a great
mission by undertaking systematic and
organized inquiries. We know perfectly
well that every cultivated plant has
its enemies and it would be wrong to
assume, that the rubber tree would be
the sole exception to this rule. As a
matter of fact, we know thatthe rubber
tree is attacked by many various
enemies.
Perpetual immunity from disease can-
not be expected, and every possible step
to prevent the occurrence of an epidemic
must be observed.
The larger the area planted with one.
particular crop, the greater the danger
of an outbreak. A single crop system
is for this reason most unsuitable and
even disastrous. Ri
Where no natural enemies exist, the
changed conditions caused by a large —
acreage being put under asingle product
call forth new diseases.
Special measures have to be taken to —
meet such an emergency. Where vast —
continuous areas hnve been planted with —
one product, it is imperative that protec- —
At eek
(Avaust, 1908
dae Avaust, 1908.]
tive belts either of jungle or of other
plants be left to form boundaries. In
the Federated Malay States the Director
of Agriculture has prevailed upon the
Government to declare a certain area of
forest as reserve, and this divides the
entire country into two main districts.
The idea is that if an epidemic appears
in one district there is every possibility
of checking its spreading into the other.
A similar policy is advisable on indivi-
dual estates. A belt ora strip of forest
30—50 meters wide is not only an effective
means of preventing of diseases from
eprcading, but is also an excellant fire-
break.
In regard to diseases of the rubber tree
we must draw lessons from the serious
damage which has been done in other
countries to other agricultural iudus-
tries. If we take steps and keep any
pest appearing under control, we need
have no fear.
I mentioned the word fire. As you all
know fire is the rubber planter’s worst
enemy. We have had the sad experience
in Mexico of large areas of planted
rubber being burned in the dry season.
In some cases this has been an inevitable
misfortune, but in other cases it would
_ have been easy to prevent the fire.
§ One of the most important matters in
_ this connection is thelaying out of the
_ plantation. It is not practical to plant
_ the entire area of say thousands of acres
- in one continuous block. This for many
_ reasons. Roads are needed for commu-
_ nication into the plantation. It is
further a great advantage to have the
entire plantation laid off in symmetrical
blocks for the purpose of controlling the
_ tapping and other work on the planta-
_ tion, as well as the number of trees.
_ Several rubber plantations in various
_ parts of this country were laid out eight
_ and nine yearsago on the plan of square
_ blocks each containing a certain number
- of trees. Such squares are surrounded
by roads of more or less width. If these
_ roads are kept clean, as they should be,
_ they constitute effective firebreaks, and
it is possible by means of these to check
_ afire, and limit same toa certain area,
instead of having it swept over the
~ whole plantation.
_ Hvery now and then we hear of some
_ writer who claims that some Mexican
rubber planters have expressed their
doubt as to the wisdom of planting
' Castilloa, when Hevea shows such a
_ decided success in the East. Let me here
_ draw attention to the fact that, even it
_ we could successfully grow Hevea here
__ in Mexico, we could not possibly make it
me) 15
113
Saps and Exudations.
a paying business. Why, you may ask.
The nature of the latex-bearing ducts in
Hevea is such, that at each tapping onlya
very small amount of latex exudes. For
this reason a system of multiple tapping
is employed for this tree. Castilloa, on
the other hand, gives much more latex
at each individual tapping, and we know
that multiple tapping such as employed
on Hevea is of no avail on our trees.
With the price of our labour standing
close to $1 Mex. a day, and as long as it is
searce at that price, it would be im-
possible to tap our rubber trees every
second day, receiving only about one-
tenth of an ounce per tapping. In Java,
Federated Malay States and Ceylon they
pay about 20—80 cts. Mex. to their
labourers, and this explains why their
rubber industry is profitable.
We need not by any means feel dis-
couraged over Castilloa planting. Do it
right, and it will pay you as much as
almost any other tropical crop. We do
not need to trouble ourselves about the
many other rubber-producing plants
which are cultivated elsewhere.
Although many points have been ad-
vanced for the profitableness of one or
another rubber plant in preference to
others, there can be no doubt that the
number of rubber plants which can be
shone with commercial success is very
small.
Ofthe many different plants, which
contain rubber, there is one class that is
wholly unsuitable for cultivation. We
refer to the climbers or lianes. These
plants furnish a great part of the crude
rubber now available in the market.
For instance, all the rubber or gutta-
percha collected in the Philippines
comes from various climbing plants.
Similarly most of the African rubber
hails from lianes. In collecting, these
have to be cut down, and consequently
furnish only one crop. When we con-
sider that it takes several years for one
of these plants to grow up to its full size,
and when we further remember that the
climbers require large trees for support,
it is evident that cultivation of climbers
for commercial purposes cannot be a
success.
Other rubber-containing plants yield
rubber in such small quantities, that
cultivation would not pay, and others
again do not yield before they have
reached an age of over 20 years, in which
ease the returns would not offer induce-
met enough for starting plantations.
If we eliminate all the many different
rubber plants, which for one reason or
another are not suitable for cultivation,
Gums, Resins.
we have four or perhaps five kinds to
take into consideration. Besides the
two principal kinds of Para rubber and
Castilloa, we have the Ceara rubber
(Manihot Glaziovii, Muell. Arg.) which
originally was found wild in certain
mountain districts in Brazil, where it is
oceasionally gathered by the natives.
This tree was first considered very suit-
able for cultivation, and more than
twenty years ago it was largely planted
in Ceylon and also in India, but at the
present day it is hardly considered
worth collecting.
The Assam rubber (Ficus elastica) of
East India has been producing rubber
for a long time, but it is not likely to
become planted very widely, as even in
its native country it does not produce
rubber profitably before it has reached
rather advanced age. Both in Java and
the Malay Peninsula I found that both
private planters and Government experts
were discouraging the planting of this
tree. It is, however, the most long-
lived of all the rubber trees, and would
probably go on improving for a century.
The main trouble with the Ficus is in
the tapping, which is very difficult.
The so-called Lagos rubber (funtumia
elastica) which grows wild on the west
coast of Africa is being planted in its
native country, and has been tried
experimentally in many _ Botanical
Gardens throughout the Tropics, but it
is not considered very good.
In Colombia and in certain parts of
Central America there occurs in the
high mountains a rubber tree which
produces a very good kind of rubber.
This is Sapium tolimense, which may
yet prove to be suitable for our tropical
highlands up to an elevation of 7,000
feet. Tomy knowledge no experiments
with this plant have yet been done in
Mexico, mainly on account of the diffi-
culty of obtaining true seeds. Over a
year ago I received and planted seeds,
which were said to be those of Sapium
tolimense, but when the plant appeared,
1 found it to be another species of
Sapium which does not produce rubber.
The Hancornia speciosa of Brazil, or
the Mangabeira rubber is a very slow-
growing tree, rather difficult to cultivate,
and I do not think it would be a success
in Mexico.
114
a
As we have to leave out the Hevea on
account of the cost in collecting the
rubber, we find ourselves confined to the
rubber tree of Mexico growing at our
very doors in the Tropics.
Taken as an ordinary cultivated tree,
the Castilloaisas easy a plant to cultivate
asany. But we must not for a moment
believe, as many company promoters
like to state, that all we have to do is to
plant the seedsin the ground and wait
for the crop to appear. We have to
wait, and the waiting period is, as you all
know, quite long and costly, but during
this time we have to keep busy
looking after our trees and their develop-
ment. As in regard to other plants
Castilloa re-acts to good treatment.
We have so far learnt quite a deal about
the methods of cultivation, and our
knowledge of rubber culture to-day is
quite different from that of five years
ago. But we have still to find out many
things in order to get the very best
results... To reach this end we need
co-operation between the planters, and
I trust the new Rubber Planters’ Asso-
ciation of Mexico will be able to establish
a system of co-operative experiments in
different parts of the country under the
general direction of its Council.
If we are to progress and keep our
own, it is necessary that we all co-
operate, and we must remember that
the valuable man in any business is the
man who can and will co-operate with
other men. It has been fitly said that
‘“‘the foreman who opposes the introduc-
tion of a new man into an institution,
and fights every innovation which he
himself does not suggest, is doomed to
a gradual and creeping defeat.” ‘‘Men
succeed only as they utilize the services
and ideas of other
Hubbard. Therefore, let us co-operate.
In this and in many other regards the
Planters’ Association has a great mission,
and we hope that a few years hence, when
the result of the work of this Association
is beginning to show what the Mexican
rubber industry shall be, not a thing to
be laughed at, but one of the leading agri- —
cultural industries of this country, and
one which will have the lead in com- —
petition with other countries.—Year
Book of the Rubber Planters’ Association —
of Mexico, 1907-1908.
men” says Elbert ~
_[Aveust, 1908. zs
‘
:
Avaust, 1908. |
llo
OILS AND FATS.
CAMPHOR OIL.
Although the camphor oil market:
under the influence of the declining
camphor-quotations, has also during the
past six months shown a very feeble im-
print, the prices of crude oil have fallen
bat little below the levelof October, 1907.
From certain delays in the shipments it
would appear that the Japanese have
undertaken larger contracts for forward
delivery than they were finally able to
execute, and to this fact it must be attri-
buted that but very rarely firm offers
could be obtained. On the other hand,
very little desire was manifested to buy,
and it was a matter of satisfaction to us
to find that the camphor oil and safrol
business is becoming more and more con-
centarted in our hands. For the rest, the
contract between the Monopoly Board
and the London firm of Samuel, Samuel
& Co. expires at the end of March, and
the Japanese now propose to take the
salé in their own hands. It is stated
that for the present it is not intended to
make any alteration in the sale of
camphor oil.
Of light and heavy camphor oil any
repuired quantity can be supplied prompt-
ly, and we shall be pleased to submit
special quotations to firms interested in
larger parcels. Thanks to our extensive
production, we are generally ina position,
in the case of light oil, to meet the
wishes also with regard to _ specific
gravity, of those who require larger
quantities for definite purposes, and in
such cases shall be happy to receive
enquires.
According to an unnamed source in the
Chemiker Zeitung, the shipments from
Japan in 1906 amounted to
Camphor 2,656,581 kin (1596°6 tons),
value 3,632,785 yen.
Camphor oil 769,279 kin (462°3 tons),
value 122,502 yen.
From the same paper we learn the
following with regard to the causes
which have led to the collapse in the
prices which occurred about the middle
of last year. Itsays that, according to
-acommunication which reached a New
York periodical from a Formosan em-
ployé, the fall in the prices originated in
an important change in the sale of cam-
phor tothe United States. Upto that
time the consignees of the Monopoly
- Bureau, Messrs. Samuel, Samuel & Co.,
had supplied the camphor exclusively to
the American refiners, from whom the
celluloid-manufacturers were compelled
to buy. The Committee sent in 1906 by
the Monopoly Bureau to Europe and
America for the study of the camphor
market, reported that owing to this
indirect trade, the celluloid-industry, the
principal consumer of camphor, was
toreed by the high prices demanded by
the refiners—prices which were twice as
high as the selling prices of Samuel,
Samuel & Co.—either to fall upon sub-
stitutes, or to employ artificial camphor.
Thereupon the Japanese Government
made a considerable reduction in the
quantities to besupplied to the refiners,
and sold direct to the celluloid-manu-
facturers. This fact, and also the in-
creased production in South China, led
to a fall in the prices which in New York
amounted to 30 %.
The same report states, with reference
to the market-position of synthetic
camphor that, according to the makers,
itis not suitable for all purposes, but
only for articles of inferior quality. Its
price regulated itself according to that
of natural camphor, and was usually 10
to 15 cents per lb. lower. The consumers,
however, were not satisfied with this
and desired a greater difference, and
especially that the price of the synthe-
tic product should be placed on a footing
independent of that of Japanese camphor,
and no longer move up and down with
the latter.
Not quite in harmony with the fore
going reportis the official communica
tion which the Editor of the Chemist and
Druggist has received from the Japanese
Monopoly Bureau. In this, the continued
difficulties in supplying the world’s
market with camphor are pointed out,
andit is stated that, when some of the
savage tribes in Formosa have been
subdued, the production here is expected
to increase. The above communication
further refers to the increased supplies
from South China, with the remark that
the merchants there, after the drop in
the prices since June, 1907, would hardly
find the business pay; but it might he
taken for granted that the production
in South China would soon come to an
end, especially in view of the irregular
manner in which itiscarried on. Finally
the report denies the statement that the
contract with Samuel, Samuel & Co.
would cease to be in force at the end of
1907. We find in a subsequent notice in
the same Journal, as already mentioned
by us above, that the contract expired
on 38lst March of the present year.
Oils and Fats. 116
According to the returns of the
Camphor Office at Nagasaki which com-
prises the districts Nagasaki and Saga,
the annual yield from these districts
amounts to about 160,000 kin (=100,000
kilos) and has consequently a capacity
only inferior to that of the Kagoshima
department which produces the largest
amount of camphor in Old Japan. The
production of Nagasaki is placed on the
market by the intermediary of the Kobe
office. The intention is to obtain
camphor also from the leaves, and also
to carry on the work, instead of by the
steam-distillation method, by a ‘‘more
simple” process, of which, however,
nothing further is said.
In connection with this proposal to
make use of also the leaves of the tree
for the production of camphor, we com-
municate acriticism by Cayla, of a work
on the camphor-production from leaves
and young branches, which appeared in
the Agricultural News of 18th July, 1907.
It is said that the statement made in the
article referred to, that the camphor
made from the leaves and from the wood
is of equal quality, is, according to
earlier experiments by Hilgard in Cali-
fornia, not correct; but in this case it
may have been a question of two
different varieties. In the data given of
the yields obtained, viz., 120 lbs. from
124 acres, Cayla misses an exact calcula-
tion which would show whether the
process is remunerative. According to
experience obtained elsewhere, the pick-
ing of the leaves requires a good deal of
expensive labour ; moreover, the removal
of the foliage has a very unfavourable
influence on the condition of the trees in
the next following year.
An Englishman residing in Formosa
communicates in Chambers’ Journal the
impressions gained by him on this island,
and in the course of his description he
discusses the camphor-production there.
The camphor oil distilled on the spot in
the forests is shipped to Japan for
further treatment, whilst the crude
camphor is worked up at Taipeh
(Tamsui) into the quality brand A, whose
value on foreign markets is £10 14s. per
picul. The annual profit to the Japanese
Treasury amounts to from £300,000 to
£400,000. The camphor-labourers, whose
life and limb are in constant peril,
receive £8 per picul. The narrator
states that the subjection of the savages
is progressing, and that the complete
subjugation of the island is only a
question of time.
With regard to the camphor-industry
in the South of China, we learn from a
Japanese source that, besides in the
province Fo-kien, camphor is also ob-
bam
Rh
[Auaust,
tained in the adjacent provinces of
Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, Chi-kian Kiang-
si, and Sze-chwang.
The exports from Foochow in the first
half-year of 1907 amounted to 1,350,000 kin
(about 810 tons). According toa report
from the British Commercial Attaché in
China, Sir Alexander Hosie, there are in
Foochow seventeen Chinese and several
Japanese refiners in full operation, where
the natural crude camphor oil produced in
the interior and put up in old petroleum
tins is worked up intocamphor. In view
of the primitive installations deseribed
by Sir Alexander, it isnot surprising to
hear that for working out 50 % of cam-
phor, it is necessary to repeat the dis-
tillation 16 to 17 times. With regard to
the production, Sir Alexander makes the
following statements :—
The total export from China altogether
was in 1906, 17,652 ewts. value £215,734; in
1905, 6,384 ewts., value £54,732.
For 1907, the Japanese source mentions
a total export of 4,000,000 kin (in round
figures 2,400 tons). The export-figures of
Foochow have been communicated by us
in our last Report; we add that camphor
oil was first of all exported via Foochow
Mt the year 1903, the figures being since
then :—
19038 624 cwts., value & 9938
1904 744 ~—Cy,, by; »» 1,380
1905 ... 3849 ,, "5 », 600
1906 oce 3,796 99 3° 59 8,344
Of the camphor-production of the
province Kwang-si, 914 cwts. were
shipped via Woochow to Hong-Kong.
With regard to the future of the Chinese
camphor-industry, the British author
holds the same pessimistic opinion as the
two Foochow consuls. In view of the
fluctuations of the camphor-market, the
British merchants in Foochow have
preferred not to participate in this busi-
ness, Which is mainly controlled by —
Hongkong parsees, who tranship the —
camphor to India.
We have again before us a number of
communications dealing with experi-
ments in the production of camphor
outside the present Japano-Chinese pro--
ducing districts. For example, S. Naka-
mura, up to now ‘‘agent” of the afore-
said camphor-office at Nagasaki, has
founded a company for the utilisation
of the camphor-plantations in Kyushyu, 7
the production of which is to be sold
to tue Japanese treasury fora suitable
indemnity.
As camphor in Old Japan is now for
many years an article of monopoly, the
above report, in its present form, is not
quite clear. '
Spiel in Fi a
tion of camphor-trees,
Biers
Avaust, 1908.]
According to reports from Ceylon. the
cultivation of camphor trees now extends
over an area of 900 acres, and if there
had not been a scarcity of seedlings, the
area under cultivation would be larger.
The work by Nock (mentioned on page
25 of our last Report), on the propaga-
has now been
published in The Circulars and Agri-
cultural Journal of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Ueylon, and gives exact details
on the various methods recommended
for the propagation.
With regard to the experiments in the
cultivation of camphor in the South of
France and the French Possesions, a
good deal of information is available.
In these experiments, which were appa-
rently undertaken both officially and
privately, the question was whether the
trees produce in their new surroundings
a commercially impurtant quantity of
camphor. The first trials, made in the
experimental garden at Algiers and else-
where in Algeria, had at first a totally
negative result. In 1895, Trabut suc-
ceeded in obtaining from the leaves of
young camphor trees sown by himself,
a yield of 38g. from 6°6 ]b., equal to 1:27
per cent., and Battandier was recently
able to produce camphor in a yield of
1:05 to 1:40 per cent. from leaves and
young branches of trees which Trabut
had planted in 1895. Tarbouriech had
for his experiments only available the
single tree, 15 years old, of the botanical
garden at Montpellier, which had a very
strong growth, and which put forth long
branches year by year. But from the
leaves of this tree only 0,65 per cent.
camphor could beisolated. Trabut attri-
butes this unsatisfactory 1esult to the
fact that the treeis placed in a hot house,
owing to which the sapin the tree has
ceased to flow in consequence of the
smaller quantity of air and light ad-
mitted. According to Tarbouriech, the
camphor-question is worthy of full
attention from official quarters. The
last-named investigator explains the
first unsuccessful attempts, in quoting
_ the work of Trabut and Battandier, in
this way that at that time a camphor-
less variety, Camphora inuncta, Hardy,
had been used for the studies.
From a compilation by Cayla on the
same subject, we learn that Beille at
Bordeaux also obtained camphor from
the leaves and young branches of a tree
grown in the botanical garden of that
town, but here no details are given of
the yield. From trees grown by grafting
twigs of the genuine camphor-tree on
Camphora inuncta, the camphorless
species, Trabut obtained the same good
7
_ per
Oils and Fats.
yield as from the tree with genuine roots.
The fluctuations observed in the yields
are not due to climatic influences, but
are explained by differences in the indi-
vidual species, and possibly also in the
individual trees. Cayla discusses es-
pecially in detail the researches of
Crévost and Lan with regard to the
occurrence of several camphor-producing
varieties in Tonquin. From the extra-
ordinary results obtained by _ these
scientists it would appear that the true
camphor-tree, Cinnamomum Camphora,
is not found among them, Lan mentions
trees whose leaf-stalks acquire a red
colour when kept, and others whose
stalks remain green, and he considers
the two as different species. This dif-
ference would show itself by the fact
that leaves and branches of the red-
stalked trees yield camphor, those of
the green-stalked trees oil. A further
difference, according to Lan, shows
itself in the odour of the _ fresh
leaves, and in their appearance after
drying; the green-stalked leaves, when
rubbed, produced a distinct odour of
rancid oil, and when dry had a chavac-
teristic greasy-oily appearance, whilst
the red-stalked leaves had a camphor-
odour, and a dull appearance after dry-
ing. As neither blossoms nor fruit of
either species were available, and an
exact identification was therefore impos-
sible, Lan concluded from the nervature
of the two species allied to the cinnamon
tree, Cinniamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne,
of which the roots contain camphor, and
the leaves camphor oil, as was shown by
Kurz,—a view which is perhaps sup-
ported by the presence of the above-
named varieties in the midst of strongly
growing cinnamon-shrubs.
(Avaust, 1908.
pure state was accompanied by difficul-
ties, although a considerable enrichment
of this product could be attained by
fractional crystallisation. For example,
a mixture of the two _ tetrabromides
showed a rotation of @D about+12° in
chloroform solution.
The undoubted proof of the presence
of d-limonene in addition to dipentene
was obtained by us as follows :—
With due regard to the fact that
B-limonene nitrosochloride is more diffi-
cultly soluble in chloroform than the a-
compound and the two dipentene com-
pounds, and that the nitrolpiperidides
which can be formed therefrom show
different solubilities in petroleum ether,
the nitrosochloride, which was formed
from the fraction only in a_ small
yield, was shaken for a short time at
ordinary temperature with double the
quantity of chloroform, and the portion
which had not entered into solution was
collected. The chloroform solution of
this substance melting at 100 to 101°,
proved to be strongly dextrorotatory.
The portion of the nitrolpiperidide ob-
tained by conversion with piperidine,
which first made its appearance from
dilute alcohol, was treated with cold pet-
roleumether. The portion which had not
dissolved consisted chiefly of dipentene
nitrolpiperidide, small needles of the
melting point 150 to 152°; from the solu-
tion B-limonene nitrolpiperidide crystal-
lised in coarse crystals of the m.p. 110
to 111°, the solution of which in chloro-
form was laevorotatory.
To the numerous constituents detected
in camphor oil must therefore still be
added d-limonene, which represented
about one-third of the examined frac-
tion.—Semi-Annual Report of Schimmel
& Co., April, 1908.
i
~
Leal
f
—, ¥,
AUGUST, 1908:]
PURIFICATION OF COCONUT OIL.
Coconut oil, asit is expressed from sun
or grill-dried copra, always contains a
quantity of impurities-organic colouring
matter, albuminoid bodies and a certain
characteristic odour, all of which are
objectionable for particular purposes for
which the oil is otherwise well suited.
While it is entirely possible to produce
a pure oil directly from the nuts if
special precaution in curing them is
taken, the demand for highly refined oil
does not seem to warrant the introduc-
tion of modern mechanial methods of
desiccation at the present time, hence
the numerous patents which are taken
out from time to time and the frequent
notices in the literature of new or im-
proved processes for the production of
pure coconut oil, refer to some subse-
quent chemical treatment of the com-
mercially expressed oil itself. Clarifica-
tion by filtration, subsidence or heating
with or without the addition of -coagu-
lants is simple and economical of applica-
tion, and, as generally practised, removes
all of the suspended foreign matter
and most of the soluble impurities,
producing a perfectly clear, light, amber
oil of sufficient purity for soap stock,
but it falls short of being completely
free from odour ard colour. Therefore,
further refining constituents, the only
known means of producing an odourless
and colourless product suitable for ali-
mestal or cosmetic purposes. The
removal of the last traces of odour and
colour from coconut oil presents many
difficulties in the way of subsequent
clarification and risk of loss of oil, and
the methods of procedure are _ neces-
sarily limited to the use of such chemical
reagents as are harmless or are easily
removed. In general, refining processes
may be conveniently divided into (1)
acid and (2) alkaline treatments; the
former has not proved applicable for
the production of oils for edible, cosmetic
or lubricating purposes, because of the
poisonous nature and otherwise harmful
action of mineral acids. The alkaline
“process makes use of the hydrates or
carbonates of the fixed alkalies, ammo-
nia, caustic lime or magnesia, with or
without the aid of heat. The efficiency
of an alkaline treatment depends upon
incomplete saponification, whereby the
free, volatile, fatty acids, which are
responsible to a large measure for the
characteristic odour of coconut oil, are
first neutralized and precipitated as a
salt of whichever alkali is employed.
If the alkali be added in excess of the
amount necessary to neutralize the free
acids, and the oilis steamed or otherwise
heated, then the neutral glycerides—that
119
Oils and Fats.
is, the oil itself—suffers partial decom-
position and goes to augment the amount
of soaps formed. Therefore, unless any
alkaline treatment of a vegetable oil is
carefully regulated, both as regards the
amount of alkali used and the temper-
ature employed, low yields of purified
oil are obtained. All of the residues
or ‘‘foots” go to form soap stock, hence the
advisability is apparent of employing
this process in conjunction with a mar-
ket for the by-product, The main points
to note in connection with refining by
means of alkalies are, first, the minimum
quantity of alkali necessary to effect the
purification, and, second, the right con-
centration of caustic lye which is un-
favourable to the formation of emulsions.
The minimum quantity of alkali can be
determined accurately by testing the
acidity of asmall sample of the oil to
be refined, or by the cut and dried
methods of practical experience.
Ordinary commerical grades of coconut
oil collected on the Manila market con-
tain from 1 to 10 per cent. of free fatty
acids, calculated as oleic acid, and these
percentages require approximately 0°15
to 1°5 parts, respectively, of caustic soda
per 100 parts of oil. The caustic soda
may be added tothe oil either in the
solid state with subsequent addition of
water, or better, in the form of a caus-
tic liquor previously prepared. The
strouger the caustic liquor used the less
the tendency to emulsion formation and
the more rapid and complete the action,
if proper mechanical devices for tho-
roughly mixing a strong lye with the oil
are used. If, after the addition of the
caustic the oil is gradually heated to the
boiling point of water, the soap separ-
ates in a granular condition and is
easily removed by filtration or sub-
sidence. The oil may now be steamed
and washed with hot water until it is
perfectly clear and neutral, and if the
above treatment with caustic liquor and
the subsequent steaming are properly
conducted, the resulting oil will be
found perfectly free from the well-de-
fined odour of the original oil and to pos-
see ine bland, fatty odour of pure melted
ard.
Coconut oil is also’ considerably
lightened in colour by the above treat-
ment, but in no sense can it be con-
sidered as a colourless oil. To remove
the last traces of colouring matter from a
vegetable oil is much more difficult than
the destruction of the rancid odour, and
in order to accomplish this completely it
is necessary to subject the refined oil to
some mild bleaching action which does
not introduce harmful ingredients which
would be difficult of subsequent removal.
Of the many well-known methods of
Oils and Fats,
bleaching proposed for general use, hy-
drogen peroxide seems to be most favour-
able in this regard as itis easy of appli-
cation, and at its present price is not
prohibitive. Sufficient dilute alkali
should be added to neutralize any
mineral acid it may contain, and a slight
excess favours the action of this reagent,
at the same time having no saponitying
action. Nextin order of suitability is a
dilute solution of chloride of lime
slightly acidified with aceticacid. Ifthe
addition of acid and the temperature of
the bleaching are carefully controlled,
the chance of injury to the oil by free
chlorine is a minimum, and the result is a
pure, water-white product.—Philippine
Journal of Science, Vol. If1., No. 1.
THE CANDLE-NUT TREE,
One of the many ornamental trees
naturalised in many parts of India, writes
Capital, is the Belgaum or Indian walunt
or camdle-nut tree (Aleurites moluccana).
The home of this tree stretches from
the Pacific Islands through the Malayan
Archipelago to Further India, and it is
abundant in New Caledonia, Queensland,
and New Guinea, It appears to prefer a
protected situation, hence it is common
in the woods and especially plentiful in
narrow valleys and ravines up to an
altitude of 2,600 feet above sea level.
Its roundish fruits are about the size of
a small apple and consists of a thick
fleshy rind, containing one or two heart-
shaped seeds, which are very hard-
shelled and of the size of a horse
chesnut. The oil, whichis present to the
extent of over 60 per cent., is almost
colourless, rather thick and of agree-
able taste and smell when cool pressed.
If warm pressed it is brown and dis-
agreeable in taste. It is a good but
rather slow drying oil. It is highly
prized for burning. It also serves asa
lubricating oil and for soap-making.
The natives of the Pacific Island take
the nuts out of the rind and roast them
over a fire until the shell can be broken
with the tap of astone. The kernels are
then threaded ona splinter of bamboo
or on the midrib of a coconut leaf.
They then bind round a few strings of
seeds with barks or leaves and obtain a
bright burning but sooty and disagree-
ably smelling torch. This is the origin
of the word ‘“‘candle-nut tree.” The
torches, because they burn so brightly,
are used for fishing at night. The half
ripe fruits with salt have a delicate
flavour, but the ripe nuts are unwhole-
some and only eaten in time of scarcity.
With regard to commerce, the French
in Tahiti have tried to place the nuts on
the European market, but with in-
120
se Se
ug
ape
+e
i
LAvenaiea
different results. The difficulty liesin the
want of an apparatus to shell the fruits
on the spot. The shelling of fruits
before shipment is essential, for the nut
consists of two-third shell and one-third
kernel, and the method of shelling
adopted by the islanders is too expensive
to allow nuts so treated to compete with
other oil seeds in the European market.
Occasionally, however, small consign-
ments of kernels are sent to the west coast
of America, where the oil is expressed
and used in soap-making.
The oilof the candle-nut tree is ex-
pressed from the kernels by first powder-
ing them in an ordinary grain mortar,
and steaming the powder placed in a
basket, then pressing in a cloth or piece
of bullock hide. The oil is very drying;
itis pale yellow witha slightly bitter
taste. In burning it emitsa great deal
of black smoke. It is useful in painting
and in making varnishes. It is not fit
for edible purposes, because of its
purgative properties. The oil cake con-
tains a large quantity of nitrogenous
material and is consequently suitable for
manure.
The Reporter on Economic Products,
whose avocation it is to inquire into
indigenous and introduced commodities,
has been making an inquiry into the
distribution of the candle-nut tree in
India and the utilisation of the oil. One
hundred years ago, in Dr. Roxburgh’s °
day, the tree was fairly common in
Calcutta, and was planted near temples
in Rungpur. At the present time itis
not so common in Caleutta, but in
Dr. Roxburgh’s day the tree was fairly -
common in Calcutta, and was planted
near templesin Rungpur. At the present
time it is not so common in Calcutta,
butin Rungpur it is still found planted
on roadsides. It seems to be a very
desirable tree for forming shady avenues.
The tree has been planted in the
Wynaad, Cochin, and Travancore, where
itis said to thrive. In North Malabar
the tree has been established and fruits © g
freely, but no attempts have been made
to extract the oil from the seeds.
The tree occurs scattered about in
Burma. In the Southern Shan States it
is planted by monks at monasteries, and
the oil of the seeds is extracted by
private medicinemen and others on a
small scale. The oil is used for rubbing
in with vermillion on the pillars of the
wats or monasteries, and for mixing with
lacquer in the manufacture of trays,
betel boxes, etc.
from those who own trees.
008,
“
At present the oil is
very rarely bought andsold, and those —
who require it generally beg seeds or oil a
Se Oe D
oe aaa
Auaust, 1908.]
The candle-nut tree is nota very im-
portant tree in this country, but for
those who would wish to grow it for
experimental purposes the _ following
instructions given by Mr. J. Cameron of
Bangalore will be found useful :—‘‘ Seeds
germinate in about five weeks, from the
time of sowing, or a week earlier if
placed in fermenting litter such as
leaves and bedstraw. When upwards of
a foot in height the seedlings should be
planted out into large square pits at 25-30
feet apart. Being a gross feeder, the
121
Oils and Fats,
tree requires the exclusive use of deep
fertile soil, as, when the roots of other
trees encroach, the Belgaum walnut
usually suffers and becomes stunted and
unproductive in consequence,”’—Indian
Agriculturist, Vol. XX XIII., No. 3.
[This tree, Aleurites triloba, Forst., is
common in the West and South of
Ceylon, where it is known as Tel-kekuna.
There should be a market for the oil if it
could be collected from the growers at a
moderate cost.—HD. |
DYES AND TANS.
WATTLE CULTIVATION 1N GER-
MAN EAST AFRICA.
Ina note in Der Pflanzer (1907, 3, 252)
‘it is stated that several samples of
the bark of Acacia decurrens, grown
at West Usambara, have been exa-
mined and reported on with a view
to ascertaining whether the cultivation
of wattle can be successfully undertaken
in German Kast (Africa. Many of the
barks first examined gave promising
results, and as a consequence a number
of plantations have been laid down,
principally in the neighbourhood of
‘West Usambara. Some of the samples
of bark collected recently from these
plantations have proved to be of poor
quality, and though barks of better
quality have also been obtained, this
inequality in material produced will,
unless it can be remedied, seriously affect
the future of the plantations. It is sug-
gested that the difference in the tannin-
content of the various samples is due
to principal causes, viz.. variation in the
tannin-content of the tree at different
times of the year, and differences in the
method of treatment (drying &c.) of
the bark after stripping. These impor-
tant questions are receiving close atten-
tion with a view to the production of a
wattle-bark of uniform quality.—Bul-
letin of the Imperial Institute, Vol.
VI., No, 1., 1908.
FIBRES,
SISAL FIBRE IN FOREIGN LANDS’
The cultivation of Sisal hemp in Ger-
man Kast Africa, judging by an article
which is published in thelast issue of the
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, is pro-
gressing most favourably. The original
plants, 1,000 in number, were imported
from Florida in 1898, but of these only 62
survived. However, propagation from
them was so carefully attended to that
by 1898 the number had increased to
63,000, and by 1904, out of a total of
1,800,000 plants, 1,300,000 were ripe for
cutting. From these 624 tons of fibre
were obtained, which gives a yield of
about 17 oz. per plant, but in the follow-
ing year the yield from the same number
of plants was 887 tons or about 25 oz,
per plant; and it is calculated that
the annual crop from an acre planted
with 800 plants should amount to from
900 lb. to 1,200 lb. of fibre. Itis to be noted
also that asit isfound in German Kast
Africa that cutting can only be carried
on for two or three years before the
plant poles, after which it dies, it is
necessary to insert new plants between
the old ones in order that the yield may
be maintained. The progress of the in-
dustry in the Colony may best’ be
judged by the quantity of hemp export-
ed, which in 1908, 7.e., ten years after the
first plants were introduced, amounted
to 422 tons of the value of £16,000. In
1906, however, the quantity of fibre
exported amounted to 1,836 tons, of the
value of £66,900. Here is a lesson for
agriculturistsin India, where the Sisal
plant thrives admirably, and where there
are hundreds and thousands of acres
lying fallow on whichit should succeed
admirably,
The machine employed for Sisal hemP
extractioninthe larger undertakings it
German East Africa is one which is use
to some extent in Yucatan, Mexico, and is
known as the ‘‘ Mola” machine. It costs
about £650, is capable of treating from
85,000 to 120,000 leaves in ten hours, and
needs about 48 h.p. to drive it. The
bundles of leaves as brought in from the
plantation are placed by one or two
workers on a travelling lattice, which
carries them up toa table in front of
the machine. Four men are then re-
quired to open the bundles and lay the
leaves on the conveyor, which introduces
them to two raspadors arranged at right-
angles to oneanother, where they are
cleaned, one-half of the leaf being strip-
pedat atime. The fibre on leaving the
122
[Avausr, 1908.
a
machine slides down on a wooden frame,
and is then subjected to washing, women —
being employed for this work. In order
to keep the machine sufficiently employ-
ed, a plantation of at least 600,000 plants is
said to be required. The disadvantages
of this machine are the ditficulty of
replacing damaged parts, and the lack of
durability of the bronze coating with
which certain portions of it are provided.
The Sisal fibre industry also bids fair —
to become well established in Queens- _
land, and numbers of interesting parti-
culars regarding it are to be foundin a
Bulletin on the subject issued by Mr.
A. J. Boyd, of the Department of Agri-
culture and Stock, Brisbane. He states
that in writing his pamphlet he was
‘actuated solely by the desire toestablish
an industry which, in all other countries
where it has been introduced, has put
thousands, aye, even millions of pounds
sterling into the pocket of planters and —
farmers, besides furnishing a consider-
able revenue to the countries interested.”
Mr. Boyd first of all deals with the
possibility of unremunerative prices
resulting from increased production,
regarding which he says :—
‘‘ These fears may be at once dismissed.
The Sisal hemp market, for the-past ~
twerty years, shows that the demand is
constantly increasing. The greater the
production the greater the demand. —
Phenomenal prices, such as those of 1890,
when the price ran up to £50 15s. per ton
have been obtained. ButI would point ©
out that such exceptional prices have —
been the result of ‘‘Trusts,” and cannot —
for a moment be regarded as a regular —
market price. If the planter obtains £25
per ton for the product, there remains a
big margin of profit, as I shall presently ~
show when dealing with the returns of _
plantations in Yucatan, the Bahamas, —
Florida, Mauritius and other tropical —
countries. The enormous trade done in —
these countries and the ever-increasing ~
demand with which the production has
not yet been able to keep pace, the
reap a rich reward.”
The Arabs say that he who plants a
date palm has provided for his old age, so |
he who plants a field of Sisal provides,
i
~ out any hoeing or ploughing.
accelerate the period of poling.
BPN Herre ey, >
Pe
Avaust, 1908. }
Mr. Boyd says, not only a living, but a
most comfortable one for his old age,
and a_ living which begins to be
enjoyed within five years of planting.
As far as profit is concerned, he adds,
putting the expenses at the extreme
and the fibre at the lowest price obtain-
ed in a series of years in New York, the
principal market for the world’s pro-
duction of Sisal fibre—viz., 45 cents, or
2id. per lb.—which is equal to £20 19s.
8d. per ton, Sisal hemp will give a clear
profit of from 50 to 70 per cent,
As regards the best distance ut which
to plant, Mr. Boyd says authorities differ ;
it is however largely a question
of soil. He advocates 12 feet between
the rows and 6 feet between plants,
which gives 605 plants per acre; and
he says that the plant thrives best with-
Once a
field is planted, he adds, it may be
practically left to itself, as there is pro-
‘hably no plant except the castor oil
plant which requires less care to bring
it to perfection, or which grows under
more apparently adverse circumstances
than Sisal. There is one trouble in
Queensland, however, which is the same
asin India —dearth of plants. In the
former country, Mr. Boyd says, the
demand is far in excess of the supply, and
importations from foregin countries are
impossible in some cases owing to the
prohibition against their export. He
maintains also that the life of the Sisal
plant is intimately connected with the
production of the pole, and that it may
be materially shortened by not cutting
the leaves at the right age or by over-
eutting. With careful management no
pole should appear for ten or even
twenty years. It isalso believed that
the root suckers, if allowed to remain
attached to the mother plant for a long
period, tend to exhaust the latter and ve
s
regards probable returns in Queensland,
Mr. Boyd remarks :—
. Allowing 1,000 plants to the acre, each
plant at four years gives forty leaves a
year. of a weight of about1201lb. This
has been shown to be the average
rate of leaves in Queensland.
In Yucea-
tan, the weight averages-about 1b. 15 oz.
Let us take the lesser weight -as a basis
a
for a calculation of returns—that is,
‘501b. as the weight of forty leaves. Four
per cent. of this turns into marketable
125
Fibres.
fibre, dried and white, 2 lb. of fibre per
plant. This gives us 2,000 lb. toan acre.
The value of the fibre in the Melbourne
market is at present (1906) £37 10s. per
ton f.o.b. at Brisbane. We will, however,
take £35 as the market price. An allow-
ance for cultivation, preparation, baling
and carriage to a Queensland port of
40 per cent. on the value of the fibre
is considerably in excess of the truth—
40 per cent on £385 is £14. Deducting
this from the sale price, the net proceeds
per acre amount. The planter will, how-
ever, do well to reckon for a first crop
upon about half a ton of fibre per acre;
40 per cent. on the sale price reduces this
to £10 10s., which represents the net
profits per acre. Mr. Boyd describes a
number of machines, and speaks most
favourably of the respective inveations
of Mr. T. C. Todd, of New Jersey, U.S. A.,
and of Mr. Thos. Barraclough, of
Bucklesbury, London. Finnally, he says
that the Sisal plant has been free from
disease and insect pests in Queensland,
where its worst enemy is a hurricane,
—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXIII,,
No. 4, April, 1908.
AGAVES AND SOIL DENUDATION.
An excellent example of the use of
vegetation in arresting soil denudation
is reported from South Africa, where
there is removal of the soil through the
agencies of burning, excessive trampling,
torrential rain, ete. Itis stated, how-
ever, that a good deal of success has
attended efforts made to combat this
evil by planting the American ‘Aloe’
(probably Agave americana) on affected
areas.
An effective barrier is formed to the
denuding effects of torrential rain by the
establishment of lines ot these plants
across sloping lands, and since the sedi-
ment washed downis stopped by the
barrier, periodical terraces tend to be-
come formed on the hillside in the course
of a few years.
Further, shelter is provided for other
plants which grow up below the lines
and form an additional mass of vegeta-
tion, while the young succulent leaves of
the agave afford a supply of palatable
food for stock during dry seasons.—
Agricultural News, Vol. VII, No. 153,
March, 1908.
124
DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS.
~
[Aveust, 1908. x
COCA LEAVES FROM PERAK.
The Imperial Institute has examined a
sample of coca leaves from Perak,
Federated Malay States. They found
them to be similar to the Java descrip-
tion, but rather browner than a good
sample of the latter, while the percent-
age of total alkaloids was 0°64 per cent.,
being quite equal to an average amount
found in commercial coca from other
sources. Similar leaves, but of good
green colour, realise 73d. to 8d. per lb. on
the London Market.—Chemist and Drug-
gist, No. 1, 475, Vol. LX XII, May, 1908.
THE MALAYAN ANTI-OPIUM
PLANT.
(Combretum sundaicum, Miq.).—In the
Kew Bulletin, 1907, p. 198, reference
was made to the discovery of a plant in
Malaya, which was reputed to be valu-
able for the purpose of destroying che
desire for opium. The plant has been
identified by Mr. Carruthers as Com-
bretum sundaicum, Miq., a native of the
Malayan Peninsula and _ archipelago.
The history of the discovery of the value
of the plant is given by Mr. Wray in the
Journal of the Federated Malay States
YMuseums, Vol. [I., No. I., December,
1906, and is as follows :—
‘““A party of Chinese wood-cutters
working in the jungle near Seremban,
in Negri Sembilan, ran out of tea, and, to
supply its place, took the leaves of a
jungle climber, dried them and made an
infusion in the ordinary way. This,
however. was not successful, as the
beverage made the men ill with ‘sakit
perut,.’ (i.e., bowel complaint). The leaves
were then roasted anda fair substitute
for tea was obtained, which had no ill-
effects. Then, for some obscure reason,
‘tengo’ (opium dross), or the refuse opium
after being smoked, was mixed with it,
and the men continued drinking the
mixture for a week or more in place of
tea. After this time it was found that
all desire for opium smoking had been
lost. Friends of the men were told of
the discovery, and so the news was
spread and others were induced to try
the remedy.”
With regard to the further history
of the plant and the spread of the
knowledge of its properties, Mr. J. G.
Alexander has been kind enough to
furnish us with the following parti-
culars :—
The young men of the Chinese Y.M.
C,A., connected with the church of the
Rev. W.E. Horley, of the Methodist ~
Kpiscopal Church, Kuala Lumpur, heard _.
that in the village of Jelebu, in the
neighbouring State of Negri Sembilan, a
cure for the opium habit had _ been
found, namely, a decoction of the leaves
of a forest creeper (Combretum sun-
daicum) which grows abundantly in
the tropical jungle. They brought the
matter before Mr. Horley, as they pur-
posed to devote their leisure to the dis-
tribution of the medicine if he would
afford them the _ necessary help. He
obtained a supply from the Anti-Opium
Society of Selangor, who undertook to
pay all expenses on condition that the
medicine was distributed without charge.
Inafew weeks the news of the cure
spread quickly, and after some four
weeks 500 applicants daily were supplied.
An applicant brought with him two
bottles, old brandy or whisky bottles
which were filled with the decoction,
and into one of the two he placed—if .
beginning the cure—his usual quantity of
opium drops; this is not repeated, and ~
he fills up the bottle containing it from
the other bottle which contains none, so
that gradually the pioportion of opium
is reduced tonil. If he came a second
time no opium was used.
The somewhat crude method of pre-
paration of the drug is given in detail
by Mr. Wray in the article to which
reference has already been made. With
regard to its chemical nature nothing
has as yet been discovered either in the
leaves or stem of the plant or in the
decoction of the roasted drug which ©
mould account for its physiological
value.
Medical men seem to be strongly in- —
clined to the view that the plant has no —
real value, and that it is the effect on the
mind of the opium consumer which
helps him to overcome the opium habit.
In favour of this latter view it appears —
that in Malaya many of those who were, ~
or appeared to be cured, have relapsed
into the habit, though on the other ©
hand many are still holding their ground ©
after more than a year.
—
of the value of the anti-opium plant is
forthcoming, it seems advisable to pre-
serve an open mind on the subject.
Kew Bulletin, No. 5, 1908. ie
3 Aveust, 1908.]
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF
BRUCEA SUMATRANA.
We have received from Messrs. Bur-
roughs and Welcome’s Laboratories two
pamphlets by Drs. F. B. Power and A.
W. Salway, and Mr. W. Thomas, giving
the results of chemical examination of
the barks of Brucea sumatrana and
bark and fruits of B. antidysenterica,
the latter plant being a native of Africa,
The bark of B. sumatrana was analy-
sed by Dr. Thomas, who writes:—‘‘ A
quantity of the bark of this species of
Brucea was obtained through the kind-
ness of Mr. H. N. Ridley, Director of the
Botanic Gardens of the Straits Settle-
ments, Singapore. Its collection was
attended with considerable difficulty, for,
as stated in a communication from Mr.
Ridley to Messrs, Burroughs, Welcome &
Co., of London, the plant is a tender
shrub, the stems of Which are barely an
inch in diameter and the bark not
easily removed. It was also ncted that
although the bark is distinctly less
bitter, it is much less so than the fruit,
and therefore probably contains less of
the bitter principle. The bark was in
their strips of a light brown colour ex-
ternally and paler on the inner surface.
In the analysis there was found buty-
ric and formic acid and behenic acid.”
The author concludes that, in view of the
difficulty of obtaining any quantity of the
bark of Brucea sumatrana, and the fact
that it contains a much smaller propor-
tion of bitter principles than the fruit,
it would appear that the latter is to be
preferred for medicinal use. This would
certainly be so, asthe bark of the shrub
is very thin and adheres so closely to the
wood that it is very troublesome to
serape it off.
In examining the fruit of the Abyssi-
man Brucea antidysenterica, Dr. Power
125
Drugs and Medicinal Plants.
and Dr, Salway find that the constitu-
ents of this species are very simillar to
that of Brucea sumatrana,and it may
consequently be assumed that the two
Species possess similar medical proper-
ties.. The bitter principles appear, how-
ever, to be contained in relatively larger
amount in the fruit of Brucea swmatrana
than in that of the Abyssinian species,
and in view of the difficulty experienced
in collecting the fruit of the latter it is
not probable that it will acquire a very
extended use.
It may finally be noted that the Phar-
macopzea Nederlandiea (Editio quarta
1905) has given official recognition to the
fruit of Brucea sumatrana, Roxb., which
is described under the title of Fructus
Bruceze, and it is there stated that in
the Dutch East Indies this is known
among other names as“ biji makasar ”
and ‘‘tambara maridgi.”
It seems therefore from these two
papers that the seed of our local species
is better either than its bark or the
fruits of the American one, and fortu-
nately it is very easy to grow from seed,
and fruits heavily in a short time. If a
sufficient demand for the fruits could be
found, Brucea sumatrana would be an
excellent catch crop for rubber, The
seeds need only be planted two or three
feet apart in situs, andno manuring or
other cultivation is necessary. When
the fruit commences to ripen it is
gathered and simply dried. Hach plant.
will produce about a pound of dried
fruit per year.
H. N. R.
—Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits
and Federated Malay States, No. 5, Vol.
VI, May, 1908.
[This plant is not uncommon as a weed
about Kandy, and the seeds are used as
a remedy in dysentery.—Ep.]
126
EDIBLE PRODUCTS. eee
HY DROCYANIC ACID CONTENT OF
CASSAVA.
The question of the danger of poison-
ing arising from the consumption of im-
perfectly cooked cassava has formed the
subject of several notes and articles in
the Agricultural News (Vols. I, p.5;
II, p. 102; and III, p. 425), anda leaflet
(Hints and Information wm regard to
Cassava Poisoning) dealing with the
subject was issued some twoor three
years ago.
Some investigations in connection with
the amount of hydrocyanic acid and
starch present in cassava have recently
been carried out by the Bureau of
Chemistry of the U. S, Department of
Agriculture, and the results are pub-
lished in Bulletin No. 106 of the Bureau.
The previous work that has been done in
relation to this question has chiefly been
undertaken in Trinidad by Professor
Carmody and his predecessor in the
office of Government Analyst, and by
the Hon. H. H. Cousins in Jamaica.
Cassava has been divided into sweet
and bitter varieties, and although sweet
cassavas are considered to be less poison-
ous than the bitter varieties, yet it.
appears that the sweet or _ bitter
character of cassava is not directly con-
nected with its content of hydrocyanic
acid, but is dependent upon the absence
or presence of some bitter principle. As
the result of his investigations, made
some five years ago, Professor Carmody
reported the mean percentage of hydro-
cyanic acid in the sweet varieties
examined as 0:010, and in the bitter
varieties as 0'022. Itis usually held that
sweet varieties contain only half as
much prussic acid as those known to
have been fatal.
Varieties of cassava grown in Colum-
bia, and analysed by the Government
Analyst of Jamaica showed a mean
percentage of only 0°001 of hydrocyanic
acid, the, maximum being only 0-008.
From this it appears’ that all the
Columbian cassavas may be practically
classed as sweet.
On the other hand, analyses of native
bitter cassavas made by the same officer
show percentages of hydrocyanic acid of
from 0°036 to 0°077.
Professor Carmody suggets that the
difference between the two kinds con-
sists in the hydrocyanic acid being dis-
~~
tributed throughout in the bitter kind,
whereas in the sweet varieties it exists
chiefly in the cortex.
In regard to the proportion of hydro-
cyanic acid present, this is certainly
influenced by environment, and the ex-
periments with cassava that have been in
progress in Jamaica for some years past
(Agricultural News, Vol. V1, p- 261)
would appear to indicate that when a
variety—usually cultivated in elevated
districts—is transferred to lower levels
of country, the proportion of hydro-
cyanie acid tends to increase. Mr.
Cousins reports that fourteen varieties
of cassava, stated to be quite non-poison-
ous in Columbia, were tested after a
year’s growth in the Liguanea plains of
Jamaica, and were found to contain, on
the average, 0'0034 per cent. of hydro-
cyaniec acid. Aftera further period of
four years’ growth inthe same changed
locality the hydrocyanic acid content
rose to 0'0124 per cent., or practically
four-fold. On the other hand, a report
from Trinidad, dealing with this ques-
tion, notes that residents of Columbia,
who have imported bitter varieties from
Jamaica, find they have become sweet.
The work referred to as having been
carried out in the United States was con-
ducted at Biloni, Mississippi, and at
Miami, Florida, in 1904 and 1905. Cassava
isa crop that may be grown inany of
the Gulf States, and it was felt that the
great feeding value of the roots, could
the danger of poisoning be eliminated,
justified investigation of the hydro-
cyanic and starch contents of different
varieties, and the conditions which
influenced variation in these constituents.
Thirty-nine varieties were under trial
at Biloni and twenty-eight at Miami.
The whole of those raised at Miami were
originally obtained from Jamaica, while
at Biloni twelve varieties from Porto
Rico were grown in addition to the
Jamaica kinds. At Biloni, a common —
native variety, Florida Sweet, was also
grown.
It is curious to note that none of the
imported varieties gave so low a percen- —
tage of hydrocyanic acid as ‘Florida ~
Sweet,’ which contained only 0°002 per —
cent. Pie de Perdiz and Cenaguera —
approached nearly, however, with an —
average content of 0:003. Of the cas-
savas grown at Biloni, Porto Rico, —
White top contained the highest pro- —
portion of hydrocyanic acid, 0°030 per
cent, This was closely followed by
Avaust, 1908.4
Porto Rico Auntie Grace, with 0:028 per
cent., and by the Mantera and a Helada
variety from Jamaica, which contained
0:026 and 0°022 per cent., respectively. At
Miami, Florida, the percentage of hydro-
eyanic acid was, in the great number of
cases, somewhat lower than a Biloxi. In
the twenty-eight so-called sweet varie-
ties grown at Miami, the hydrocyanic
acid content ranges from 0:005 to 0°016
per cent,, and more than half the varie-
ties contained 0:002 per cent. or less. On
reference to the Biloni results with the
same varieties, it is seen that two-thirds
of the samples contained 0°010 per cent.
or more of hydrocyanic acid. The
Mantera cassava, for example, which at
Biloni showed a proportion of 0:026 of
hydrocyanic acid, contained only an
average of 0'006 at Miami. Statements
have in the past been made to the effect
that varieties of cassava, grown in
Florida, cease in time to be poisonous,
and these results certainly give some
- ground for this theory.
. sweet cassavas,
The chief portion of the hydrocyanic
acid was, in the case of both bitter and
found to exist in the
cortex.
From the observations made, there
does not appear to be any relationship
between the starch and the hydrocyanic
acid content of the cassavas.—-Agricul-
tural News, Vol. VII, 154, March, 1908.
PACKING VANILLAS FOR
SHIPMENT.
At the May public sales held in London,
prices realised for this article were
rather easier than those paid at the
April auctions. In proportion to the
rather indifferent quality, due to un-
scientific curing and packing, prices
realised, as shown below, were fairly
good, and ranged from barely steady to
about 6d. below the sales in April.
What might have been a nice useful
- lot of Tahitis, saleable at 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d.
per lb., were found on being opened to
show signs of poor curing and a tendency
to become mouldy. Shippers’ attention,
and not only those connected with
Tahiti, has repeatedly been called to the
mistaken idea of stuffing vanilla tins as
full as possible, and then soldering on
the cover so as to render the inside hope-
lessly air-tight. No vanillas should be
packed absolutely air-tight, and least of
all common and _ insufficiently dried
Tahitis. The beans swell on the voyage,
and also sweat copiously; if, therefore,
the tins are rigidly air-proof, the con-
127
Edible Products.
densed vapour clings to the tin, and
hangs over the beans. On opening, one
finds the inside not only dampand rusty,
but corroded and rough with scales of
rust, and the excess of moisture can be
squeezed out of the bundles. The result
is that almost immediately signs of
mould appear, and in a week, when
buyers arrive to inspect the shipment
the beans are all more or less badly
moulded, and worth only 4d. per lb. or
so instead of 2s. 6d. This serious loss is
entirely due to insufficient drying, pack-
ingin air-tight soldered tins, and also
through squeezing into eighty large
pitch-oil tins nearly 100 ewt. of beans,
which should have been distributed
between 100 or even 120 tins, so as to allow
for aeration and expansion on the
journey across.
The ideal method of packing is to use
tins of about 10 lb. to 15 lb., or rather
more, each provided with a well-fitted
turned-over-edge lid that grips the sides.
Such a tin is all but air-tight, though
able to allow gases or excess of moisture
to escape and so prevent any chance of
the contents becoming damp or even
mouldy. It is not even necessary to
paper the lid on to or down to the sides
of the tin, as that prevents such ventila-
tion taking place. It isadvisable, in
order to ensure the lids remaining tight
down on to the tins, either to solder the
corners only or else to tie them with
strong twine, but not to solder all round
the tin. If the Tahiti shippers find it
necessary to keep to their well-known
jarge soldered pitch-oil tins they should
perhaps make two small punctures at
the top and bottom of the tins at the
extreme corners, pack the contents less
tightly and well dry their beans after
curing ; it would then be found that the
outturn would be more satisfactory and
far less liable to deterioration than with
present methods,
Prices realised ruled as follows :—
Seychelles.—FKair quality, 24 to 8 in.,
ds. 9d. to 7s. 6d. per Ib. t
Bourbon.—Fair quality, 64 to 7% in.,
8s. per lb; fair quality, 64 in., 7s, 9d.
per lb.
Madagascar.—KFair quality, 63d. to 7 in.,
9s. 6d. per lb. ; 6 to 63 in., 7s. 6d. to 9s. 3d.
per lb. ; 4 to 74 in., 6s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. per lb.
Zanzibar.—Common cure, brown and
split, 6s. to 7s. per lb.
Java.—Common brown, 6s. per lb.
Ceylon.—A single bin, dry brown, of
poor flavour, 5 to 7 in,, 2s. per lb.—Tropi-
cal Life, Vol. TV,, No. 5, May, 1908.
Edible Products.
THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR AND
PADDY CULTIVATION.
SOME SUGGESTIONS
By MUDALIYAR A. DISSANAIKE.
(Paper read at the Meeting of the
eae of Agriculture on the 8rd August,
A great obstacle in the way of the
paddy cultivator in Ceylon is the pre-
carious nature of the rainfall and its
great variation in thedifferent parts of
the Island. Insome places, such as the
Tangalle and Jaffna districts, there are
long seasons of drought without a drop
of rain. Even in’ places where the
rainfallis more regular there are some-
times months without water to enrich
the soil. The lack of water, therefore, is
the great drawback to the regular carry-
ing on of paddy cultivation. In some vil-
lages or districts this could be remedied
without depending much on rainwater
by constructing anicuts or bunds across
rivers and streams where possible. In
most of the tracts water could be stored
ip tanks or reservoirs, put up at the
upper ends of a range of tracts, to
collect water coming down from higher
elevations, aud store it till the next rainy
season. A tank of this kind covering
an area of ten acres or so could
in this way supply water to a number
of tracts lying below its level. For
this purpose lands will have to be
acquired under the Ordinance and bunds
put up by labour supplied by the
field-owners or cultivators. It appears
that during the rule of Sinhalese kings in
most of the villages there existed a great
many minor reserviors or tanks which
proved highly beneficial to paddy culti-
vation. The names of places indicate
the existence of such tanks. Abnormal
droughts on the one hand, and serious
floods on the other cause great devasta-
tion. Such being the case it should
be the care of the people, with the
help of Government, to devise the
best means for remedying the _ evils
arising from these causes. It is unfair to
talk of laxity on the part of the culti-
vators when they are often placed
in such unfavourable circumstances
and are powerless to do anything with-
out outside aid. If paddy land-
Owners are willing to give over a tithe
of their crops which they once paid
as royalty, and which the Government
gave up as an unfair tax on food, this
may be made use of to forma fund which
will accumulate to their credit, and by
means of which a great many neces-
sary improvements can be effected.
128
Another important matter for con-
sideration is the difficult position in
which cultivators are generally placed
owing to want of ready money, especially
when they arein need of seed paddy,
bone dust manure, ploughing cattle, &e.
It is no wonder that these discourage-
ments have often induced many of the
goiyas to give up paddy eultivation and
to go in search of other employment
which isless irksome and more lucra-
tive. In this way large numbers of
villagers have left their homes and
removed to towns. All this has told
heavily against the progress of the
rice industry. If there were a fund
created for the people, through the
encouragement of the Government, and
administered by accredited Committees
in the different districts of the Island,
much of the obstacles referred to
above could be averted, as it would
afford an opportunity for organizing
Agricultural Banks for the benefit of
cultivators, enabling them to get small
loans on easy terms in times of need.
It would be easy to raise such a fund
for the people from the payments of the
tithe. If the Government considers it”
expedient, half the fund may be
reserved for remunerating the head-
men who willas such be employed in
supervising paddy cultivations in the
different districts, and this will to a
certain extent solve the present vexed
question of remunerating the minor
headmen. These officers can be made
to co-operate with the Branch Agri-
cultural Societies. The collecting of the
tithe, the arrangement to give out loans
to parties who need help, and the
recovery of such loans might be regulated
by special rules enacted under the
Village Communities Ordinance. When
a cultivator is in want of a loan for any
agricultural work he can make his
application to the President of the Village
Tribunal who. after taking the evidence
of the headman of the division and two
or more witnesses, may forward his
statements to the proper authorities
with his recommendation. When the
amounts due are not paid promptly,
the Village Tribunal can again be
utilized for their recovery. A system
such as I have endeavoured to indicate
in outline would, I feel persuaded, effect a
revolution inthe present state of agri-
culture in Ceylon.
PACKING CACAO SEEDS.
A method of packing cacao seeds for
export, which had given good results in ~
Samoa, was described in the Agricultural —
News of October 20, 1906 (Vol. V. p. 331), —
bt
[Avaust, 1908,
EPO LEAS LR RY th. Se
buat
bi
a
,
]
_Aveust, 1908.)
;
By this method, ripe seeds, after being
_ well washed, were gently rubbed with a
rough towel in order to remove the pulp,
care being taken not to damage the skin.
The beans are next placed in a current of
cool air for twenty-four hours. The
material with which the seeds are pack-
ed consists of a mixture of equal parts
of vegetable mould and finely ground
charcoal, moistened to resemble earth
taken froma shady place. A layer of this
mixture, } inch deep, is spread in the
bottom of a tin box (8x44 inches),
and on this rows of seeds are placed,
another layer of charcoal and mould
coming above. Thebox is filled in this
way with alternate layers of seeds and
packing mixture, and a box of the above
dimensions will hold about 200 seeds.
In order to put the above method to the
test at Kew Gardens, a_ request was
made to Sir Daniel Morris that a pack-
age of seeds, put upin the manner des-
-cribed, should be forwarded to Kew. A
box containing 200 seeds was accordingly
sent by parcel post from Dominica, and
arrived at Kew apparently in good con-
dition, every one of the seeds having
germinated on the way. A second supply
of seeds packed in a similar manner
was forwarded a tew months later, and
_ these also arrived in good condition, and
practically all of them germinated.
The outline of this packing experiment
is that cacao beans, selected, prepared,
and packed as above described, can be
sent from the West Indies to England,
_ete., of coconut plantations.
the points dealt with are worthy of
and probably much farther, and that
about 70 per cent. of them are likely to
produce healthy plants.—Agricultural
News. Vol. VII., 154, March, 1908.
COCONUT CULTIVATION.
The Brazilian journal Hl Hacienda
recently contained a lengthy article
dealing with the cultivation, manuring,
Some of
_ reproduction,
In the nursery where the seedlings are
grown, it is recommended that the seeds
_ be planted, base uppermost, in raised
banks of earth, the nuts being placed
quite close to each other.
Germination
_ takes place in about four or five months,
and transplanting may be carried out
_when the plants have three or four leaves.
The young trees are set out at distances
of from 23 to 28 feet each way. The
more fertile the soil, the greater the dis-
tance at which they may be set, since
_ growth is more rapid.
a
The holes dug to receive the coconut
plants should be about 3 feet in diameter,
and it is advantageous to half fill the
me
129
Edible Products,
hole with manure, or earth mixed with
ashes. Growth is more rapid in a fairly
loose soil. In dry seasons or dry districts
it will be necessary to water the plants
regularly, and indeed the tree is one
that always repays attention to provide
a good supply of water. Depth of soil is
very favourable to good growth of the
coconut.
Hor the first two or three years after
planting, the cultivator may with
advantage raise other crops, such as
maize, cassava, ground nuts, ete, be-
tween the rows of palms. If the last-
named crop is grown and ploughed in,
there will be a considerable gain to the
fertility of the soil. Regular cultivation
of the land during the early years of
growth of the coconut trees must be
undertaken in order to bring about
development of the plantation at the
earliest date. Experienced growers as-
sert that the cost of such operations is
fully repaid by the enhanced returns
obtained.
Some yield of fruit may be given on
good soil, where the trees have received
every attention, at the end of five years
after planting, but a full crop will not
be obtained until from the seventh to
the tenth year.
At the end of the fifth year it is recom-
mended that the whole of the plantation
be cleared of other crops, undergrowth,
etc., and the land receive a fairly good
ploughing. The soil should not be dis-
turbed, however, too near the roots of
the palms.
As a general rule, the application of
fertilizers to the coconut crop is repaid
by an increased yield, but manures
should not be given until the trees have
commenced to bear. In fact, unless the
soil is poor, manuring may be deferred
until one or two crops have been ob-
tained.
Pen manure, and the use of green
manure, such as ground-nuts (already
mentioned), cow peas, and velvet beans
are reported to form excellent dressings
for ‘coconut plantations. On some
estates in Ceylonit is stated to be the
custom to tether cattle to the trunks of
the trees, allowing them in this way to
manure the plantation with their drop-
pings. Inorder to obtain the best results
the manure should be afterwards worked
into the soil by cultivation.
A dressing of manure may occasionally
be given with advantage, even though
the plantation shows no sign of falling
off in condition. The ground should be
ploughed and the manure worked into
the soil. As in the case of most other
fruit trees, it is usually preferable to
Edible Products.
dress coconut palms with slow-acting
manures suchas bone meal, basic slag,
organic refuse, cotton seed meal, etc.,
instead of using quick-acting manures,
such as nitrate of soda and superphos-
phate. In the former case, the results
are not at once apparent, but they are
continuous, and spread over a consider-
able time. Nitrogen and phosphoric acid
are stated to be the elements chiefly
necessary, but, except on very heavy
soils, an occasional dressing of a potas-
sic manure should certainly also be given,
since large quantity of potassium salts are
removed from thesoilbya cropofcoconuts.
When the husks are removed from the
nuts on the plantation, these should
always be buried between the rows of
palms, since a considerable amount of
fertilizing matter is returned to the soil
in this way.
An average return of nuts is usually
considered to be about 3,000 per acre,
and, assuming sixty trees to this area,
each tree would give about fifty nuts.
With judicious cultivation and manur-
ing, however, this return, it is stated,
is not infrequently increased to seventy
or eighty nuts per tree, which means a
total of from 4,200 to 4,800 nuts per acre-
—Agricultural News, Vol. VII., No. 156,
April, 1908.
LIST OF JUNGLE PRODUCTS USED
BY THE POOR DURING THE
FAMINE, 1896-7,
By T. E. D. INNEs,
Agent, Balrampur Estate.
(Concluded from page 35.)
GRASSES.
74. Buust DHAN (Oryza sativa, L.,
Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—This is simply
the husks of the rice, which was ground
down and made into flour and eaten as
bread. Not very nutritive.
75. DHONRA (Eleusine coracana,
Goertn., Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—A grass
commonly found in the fields. The seed
is collected and husked and eaten like
rice. It ripens about September. I[t has
the appearance of rice from which _ is
cannot be easily distinguished, when the
plants are young and small. [Kurakkan. |
76, SENWAL (Panicum, sp).—A kind of
grass very common inall fallow lands
and along roadsides. It ripens about
Octber and November, and is collected
at all times by the very poor, who scrape
it together on the ground with stiff
brooms made from thick grass or twigs.
The seed is collected and husked and
faten like rice. It was greatly sought
eater during the famine, and evenin
NS
130.
a) aed
Bat eta +"
+
[Avaust, i908. a
ordinary years is collected and used by
the very poor. [Many species in Ceylon. |
77. Baurt (Panicum, sp., Nat. Ord.
Gramineoe.).—A kind of grass which
grows on high land. The grain is
gathered, husked, and eaten like rice.
It ripens in October.
78. MAKRA GHAS (Setaria glauca,
Beauv., and Panicum Crusgalli, L., Nat.
Ord. Gramineoe).—A grass which grows
in fallow lands, and its seed is collected
by the poor by scratching it up with
stiff brooms from the ground. It is
husked and eaten like rice and is most
edible. [Common in Ceylon: Kawalu
and Wel-marukku. |
79. BANDRI (Setaria glauca, Beauv).—
A kind of grass which springs up in the
rains and ripens in September. The
grain is gathered, husked, and eaten
like rice. [Common in Ceylon.]
80. KopRELL (Paspalum _ scrobicu-
latum 1, Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—A kind
of grass found on high ground and
fallow lands. The seed is collected,
husked, and eaten like rice. Ripens
about October and collected by scraping
the ground with stiff brooms. [Common
in Ceylon. Amu, Sinh.; Waragu, Tam.
81. TInNI (Oryza sativa, L., Nat. Ord.
Gramineoe).—Found in jheels and is a
kind of wild rice and most edible. It
ripens about October when it is gathered
and eaten like other rice. [Rice. ]
82. PourRsAH! (Hygrorhiza aristata, ~
Necr., Nat. Ord. Gramineoe).—A wild
rice Which is found in jheels, which
ripens in October and is gathered and
eaten like other rice.
83. DAHI.—A commod grass found in ~
the jungle. The leaves are boiled and
used as a vegetable.
WEEDS.
84. DANA PETWa (Hibiscus sabdariffa,
L., Nat. Ord. lalvaceoe).—When the fruit —
is unripe it is cooked and eaten, and —
when ripe they are taken and parched,
and either eaten whole, or ground and _
made into sattu. The flower is also
boiled and eaten as vegetable. A chatni —
is made of the outside of the ripe fruit.
Ripens in October. [The rozelle. ]
85. CHAKWAND (Uassia occidentalis,
L., Nat. Ord. Legumiosoe).—A_ very
far as the seeds are concerned, but the
leaves are innocuous.
eaten in June and July, and the s
ripens in October. [Common in Ceylon,]
Peti-tora, Sinh. | ’ ~ ei
Avuaust, 1908. }
86. Kaan Unst (Linum usitatissi-
mum, L., Nat. Ord. Lineoe).—The refuse
of the linseed oil mills was pounded,
ground, and made into bread.
87. SurRwaRi (Celosia argentea, L.,
Nat. Ord. Amarantaceoe).—A kind_of
weed which ripens about October. The
seed is collected, ground, and made into
bread. The leaves are also used as a
vegetable after being boiled. ([Kiri-
henda, Sinh. |
88. Bun P1azA (Asphodelus tenwi-
folius, Cav., Nat. Ord. Liiaceoe).—A very
common weed found on the fields. It
was boiled and eaten asa vegetable in
the famine and is not used ordinarily.
89. GADA PURANAN.—A very common
weed found everywhere on dry ground.
It was boiled and used as a vegetable.
Itisatits best when young during the
rainy season.
90. DupHi (fuphorbia sp. (probably).
—A very common weed found in most
places and gathered by the poor, boiled
and eaten as a vegetable.
91. ANKARA MunMUN (Vicia hirsuta,
Koch., Nat. Ord. Leguminosoe).—A weed
found in cultivated lands. The leaves
are very bitter, but were boiled and
eaten asavegetable. The grain, which
ripens about March, is gathered, ground,
and bread made of it.
92. GHAS LonI.—A weed which grows
on high land, and which is boiled and
eaten as a vegetable. — :
938. GHAS Bopa.—A weed very much
like methi found in cultivated lands. It
is boiled and eaten as a vegetable. It
is only found in the cold weather.
94. Musti Suraip (Chlorophytum
tuberosum, Baker. Nat. Ord. Liliaceoe.)—
A small weed found in the jungle with
onion-like leaves. The root is ground
and eaten like flour. It is also used
medicinally.
95. Musi SIAH (Chlorophytum tu-
berosum, Baker, Nat. Ord. Liliaceoe).—
A small weed found in the jungle with
onion-like leaves. The root is black, and
is ground and eaten like fiour. It is
: _ also used medicinally.
96. BARYARA (Sida sp., Nat. Ord.
Malavaceoe)—A weed found on high
ground. The seed known as biuband
matures in January and Februry, and
is collected and ground, and used as
flour. [Many Sidas in Ceylon. |
97. BAtTHUA (Chenopodium album, L.,
Nat. Ord. Chenopodiaceoe).—A common
weed found in cultivated lands about
November, December and January.
It is collected, boiled and eaten as a
vegetable,
#4
tug’
e
->
4a
181
. Hdible Products.
98. GINNI(Alternanthera sessilis, R. Be,,
Nat. Ord. Amarantaceoe).—A weed found
in cultivated and falluw lands, which
is boiled and used as a vegetable.
99. Ban Mount (Moringa wpterygos-
perma, Goertn,, Nat. Ord. Moringeoe.—
There appears to be some mistake here;
M. pterygosperma is a tree.—Hon. Hd.—
A jungle plant with a root like a radish,
which is boiled and eaten like a vege-
table. It is more or less sour to the
taste,
100. BHAR BANDA.—A_ weed which
springs upin cultivated lands. During
the cold weather the bark is stripped off
the stem, which is then boiled and eaten.
Said to be nutritive. From the seeds of
the plant oil is extracted which is used
for burning,
101. SupA.—A weed which grows on
damp ground in the jungle. The leaves
are gathered, boiled, and eaten as a
vegetable.
102. JANGLI GUBAN.—A jungly weed,
the leaves of which are gathered, boiled,
and eaten as a vegetable.
103. BAnK.—A weed found in the
jungle. The root is boiled or roasted
and eaten.
104. NuR KacHoor.—A common weed.
the root of which is boiled and eaten.
Considered fairly edible and nutritive.
105. TrpaTTia.—A weed found on
banks of jheels. The leaves are gathered
during August and September and boiled
and used as a vegetable.
/ WATER PLANTS.
106. Sirk1 (Nymphea Lotus or N.
Stellata, Willd., Nat. Ord. Nymphoea-
ceoe).—This is produced in jheels and is
aroot. It is either boiled or roasted,
then the outside removed and the
remainder eaten. The flower known as
nilofar is used as a medicine for fever by
drying it first, then boiling and straining
it, then mixing some sugar, and again
boiling it when itis ready. It is found
all the year round. [Common in Ceylon.
Olu, Sinh.]
107. SAG KARMUA. (Flower stalks of
above.)—This was greatly used during
the famine. Itis a water plant or weed
and was boiled before being eaten. It is
said to remove the poisonous effects of
an over-dose of opium. Ready to be
gathered from July till September.
108. THutTHi Ka JAR (Cyperus escu-
lentus, L., Nat. Ord. Cyperacec.)—The
root of a water plant, which grows with
onion-like tubular leaves, and is very
Edible Products.
common in all jheels. The roots are
parched and eaten after removing the
outside. Not very nutritive, and was
only used during famine. Ordinarily
the mud attached to the root of this
plant is used asa dye, and produces a
very permanent black colour. Found
all the year round. [Many species of
Cyperus in Ceylon. |
109. Bonka SmED.—Grows on tanks
and banks of jheels. The seed is collected
parched, and made into a kind of sattu. -
It ripensabout January. Notvery nutri-
tive, and the leaves are more or less
poisonous.
182
a aie
110. Buasir (Nelumbiwm speciosum, —
Willd., Nat, Ord. Nymphoeaceoe).—The —
root of the purain water lily, found
more or less in all jheels. It is eaten raw
like a radish, and is also boiled and eaten
as a vegetable. The seed of the fruit is
also eaten uncooked, and was much
sought after during the famine. _ Flowers
in July and August, and ripens in
October. [Common in Ceylon. Nelun, —
Sinh. ; Tamarai, Tam. | “a
lll. JHEONI.—A small creeper found
in jheels. The roots are boiled and
eaten, and considered most edible and ~
nutritive.—Appendix to Indian Forester —
for February, 1908.
4
;
i
if
a ee
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;
i
}
b
4
x,
Avast, 1908.
ee
13
TIMBERS.
EUCALYPTUS TREES.
Eucalyptus trees are becoming widely
known in India, but the virtues of their
timber are not generally recognised.
The following extract from Circular No.
59 of the United States Forest Service
describes the economic uses of the blue
gum, the best known spices of eucalypt.
The circular gives directions as to pro-
pagation, planting and care of the young
- tree, and refutes the common idea that
the propagation of the seed is difficult.
Reference is made to the fact that
eucalypts are peculiarly sensitive to
frost, few being able to survive a tem-
perature below 20° F.
The wood of the blue gum is very
heavy, hard, strong and tough, but it is
not durable in contact with the soil. It
is close-grained, and is split with diffi-
culty after it has dried. Itis less elastic
than hickory, but it has been demon-
’ strated by mechanical tests that seasoned
blue gum timber is very little inferior in
strength and stiffness to the best second
- growth hickory. In appearance it closely
resembles the wood of hickory and ash.
Blue gum timber is utilized fora great
variety of purposes in California. The
wood is excellent for fuel, and in the
treeless valleys has been the chief fuel
supply for many years. In Southern
California the steady demand renders
commercial planting for fuel very pro-
fitable. Eucalyptus timber has been
extensively used in California for wharf
piling. Blue gum piles are in use in
nearly every port on the California coast,
and extended trial has shown that they
resist the attacks of marine borers which
destroy timber in sea water longer than
other species commonly used for piling.
Blue gum timber has also been used to
some extent for fence posts and tele-
phone poles. The wood is not suitable
_ for this purpose, however, on account of
its short life in the ground. Seasoned
posts last a little longer than green posts,
and timber cut from the heart is more -
durable than sapwood. Blue gum timber
has been used to a limited extent to
determine its value for rail road ties.
The results thus far obtained indicate
that it compares favourably with second-
grade pine tie timber. In case blue gum
ties gain a place in the market it may be
profitable to plant the tree for that pur-
pose. However, if commercial planta-
tions are to be established for ties, sugar
um should be used in preference to
lue gum, on account of its greater
strength and its greater durability in
_ contact with the soil.
STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS.
In recent years blue gum has been
manufactured into lumber, and has come
into favour for many uses. Its strength
and toughness have led to its use as a
material for vehicle construction with
very satisfactory results. A just appreci-
ation of the qualities of gum timber will
encourage extensive commercial planting,
and so furnish an important source of
hardwood timber supply for the Pacifie
coast. The lumber has been extensively
used for vehicle stock and for the
wooden parts of agricultural imple-
ments. It is also made into insu-
lator pins for electric wiring, and it is
used for furniture and cabinet work,
hardwood flooring, trip-hammer beams,
the levers of windlasses, and the block-
ing for oiland wine presses, wood paving,
pulley blocks, and belt wheels.
The extensive utilization of gum lum-
ber has hitherto been prevented chiefly
by the scanty supply of timber of
merchantable size and by the difficulty
experienced in seasoning the lumber
without warping and checking. It is
believed, however, that in the seasoning
of gum no greater difficulties will be
encountered than in the seasoning of
any other hard wood of similar density
and strength.
The esteem in which eucalyptus timber
is held in California is based upon the
exclusive use of blue gum. In Aus-
tralia, however, this species is considered
inferior in strength and timber value to
several other eucalypts. Strength of the
timber of blue gum and other eucalypts
grown in California have sustained this
opinion. It is therefore probable that
eucalypts are destined to. enjoy yet
great favour when these other species
become more widely used.
A product_of considerable importance
derived from blue gum is the oil distilled
from the leaves. Eucalyptus oil is recog-
nised as a valuable drug and is extensive-
ly used by pharmacists and physicians.
EUCALYPTUS WINDBREAKS.
In many valleys of California eucalyp-
tus windbreaks are considered abso-
lutely necessary to insure the sucessful
production of crops. They have been
most extensively used to safeguard
citrus orchards from strong and destruc-
tive winds in Southern California, but
they are now being established also for
the protection of vineyards and orchards
of deciduous fruits, olives and walnuts.
The blue gum excels other species for
windbreak purposes on account of its
Tumbers:
height and the rapidity of its growth.
The tall shatts of the trees bend before
the wind and act as a cushion and deflect
it upward over an orchard, whereas
ordinary windbieak trees form a more
solid wall and the wind draws down-
ee forming eddies near the leeward
side.
Eucalyptus windbreaks planted every
quarter mile across level country will
give effective protection. Near the foot-
hills the belts should be planted closer,
since winds blowing down from _ the
mountaius gather’ greater velocity.
Through orchards they should generally
be planted at intervals of about 200 feet.
Where winds are very severe, double or
treble rows of trees should be planted.
The best spacing of blue gum trees for
protective planting is4 feet apart each
way. Indouble rows the trees of one
row should be planted opposite the centre
of the spaces in the other. The most
effective windbreak protection is secured
by a combination of Monterey cypress
and blue gum. The tree of each species
should be planted in separate rows
rather than alternated in a single line.
The cypress row will then form a dense
Bit
Avausr, 1908:
understory, closing up the lower open-
shed branches of the
ings left by the
faster growing eucalyptus.
Objection is often made to the blue
gum for protective planting on account
of its wide rooting habit. It is true that
a windbreak draws much moisture
from the soil, so that the adjoining rows
of orchard are often rendered less
productive. Wide extension of the roots
may, however, be _ readily limited
without injury to the windbreak. Ata
distance of from 6 to 10-teet from the
windbreak a trench parallel to the trees
should be dug toadepth of 3 or 4 feet,
cutting off the surface roots of the gum
trees. Such trenches should then be
refilled, but should be reopened every
second year.—Indian Trade Journal.
In the above article no mention is made
of the valuable properties of the leaves
of blue gum and other eucalyptas for
boiler cleaning purposes.
of leaves is placed in water in the boiler
and boiled, the decoction wil] soften
any hard incrustation of lime which may
have formed, so that it can be readily
removed.—Hon. Ep.—Indian Forester,
Vol. XXXIV., April, 1908, No, 4.
If a quantity —
GLAS ER GIL.5 TT RI Aetna fines, octets =e aie mtg
Photo by H. I. Maemillan,
THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MANGOES GROWN IN CEYLON.
No, Rupee Mango (not full grown).
Jaffna Mango,
Baittee or Bombay Mango.
Parrot Mango.
Mi-amba (Honey Mango).
Etamba (Seed Mango).
(A variety of Etamba).
NTO om we
(See Frontispiece for 2nd plate.)
Aveust, 1908.}
135
MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS.
MANGOES IN CEYLON,
(Illustrated. )
By H. F. MacmMILLan.
The Mango (Mangifera indica) is the
fruit par excellence of India. It is in
fact ‘‘The King of Fruits” in the opinion
of Lady Brassey and others. In India,
its birth-place, the mango has been culti-
vated from time immemorial, and it may
now be met with cultivated or in a semi-
wild condition in every tropical country.
Its cultivation extends also to the sub-
tropics as far as Natal, Florida, Queens-
land, the Canary Islands, &c. The
common distribution of the genusina
wild state may be acounted for largely
by the fact that many birds are very
partial to the fruit, and carry the seed
-eonsiderable distances. The varieties of
Mango are numerous. and vary in quality
of flavour, juiciness and succulency of
the pulp, size and shape of seed, «c.
Sume have a distinct turpentiney but
pleasant taste, whilst others are said to
~**combine the flavour of a peach witha
dash of pineapple.” The quality also
largely depends on the absence of fibre,
and the proportionate size of the stone
to the amount of pulp surroending it.
The wilder forms are characterised
- mainly by a comparatively large oblong
flattish stone, a scanty fibrous acid flesh
anda tough skin. The size and shape
_ of the fruit are as variableas the flavour.
In some varieties the fruit is but an
ounce or twoin weight, whilst in others
it weighs as much as three or four
pounds, e.g., the “Rupee Mango” of
_ Ceylon.
i ee
Se ee ee ee ae ae eee
Sal
+
pe
In Ceylon there areat least five dis-
tinct types of mango recognised, viz.,
the‘ Jaffna mango,’ with a large oval
fruit of excellent quality when well-
grown (evidently synonymous with the
* Alphonse” of India); the ‘‘ Rupee
mango,” a very large and somewhat
globular fruit (probably synonymous
with the ‘‘ Inerma mango” of India);
and the ‘‘ Parrot mango,” whose medium-
sized fruit is distinguished by a_pro-
% minent beak; the ‘‘ Baittee” or ‘‘ Bom-
bay” mango, fruit round, distinctly com-
_ pressed, usually very juicy, yellowish in
~ colour when ripe; ‘' Mi-amba” (honey
- mango), a small roundish fruit of a
rather tart pleasant flavour, but not
justifying the signification of the name ;
“Kt-amba” (seed-mango, signifying the
small size of the fruit), a small oval fruit
with scanty, juicy pulp of a tart flavour,
The last-named varies in size, but is
usually that of a small hen’s egg. There
are several sub-varieties of this, one of
which bears small juicy fruit of the size
ofa plum. A tree of this in Peradeniya
Gardens is called by the coolies ‘‘ Maha-
mudaliyar mango” (a name, one would
think, which would be more appropriate
for the Rupee mango), it having been
presented to the Gardens by the late
Maha-mudaliyar, Mr, C. P. Dias Bandara-
naike.
Of all these there are many sub-varie-
ties, more especially of the first two
named. The best forms of our so-called
“Jaffna mango” (Alphonse) are the
choicest that [have met within Ceylon.
lam informed that at Jaffna the name is
reversed, the fruit being known there
asthe‘‘Colombo mango.” The‘: Aiphonse”
is a much-prized fruit in India. Wood-
row, who has written much about
mangoes, and is an authority on the
subject, considers this to be perhaps the
best of all mangoes. Mr. Oliver, of the
Fruit Department of the United States
Department of Agriculture, confirms this
opinion and considers the ‘‘ Alphonse”
one of ‘‘ two mangoes which can be eaten
in polite society,” the other being the
‘“Mulgoba” mango. There is a variety
much appreciated in the West Indies by
the name of the ** Ceylon mango,” which,
however, isnot knownin Ceylon. Ceylon
is not an ideal country tor mangoes,
which generally are adapted toa rather
dry, hot climate. Thus the northern
part of Ceylon, especially the Jaffna
district, can produce much _ better
mangoes than the moist south-west por-
tion of the low-country.
High cultivation of mangoes is seldom
adopted in Ceylon, and the usual method
of propagation is by seed. Of late, how-
ever, grafted plants from India have
been more generally imported. These
are preferable to local plants even when
raised by grafts, if one is sure of obtain-
ing them from a reliable source. A
peculiarity of Ceylon mangoes, at any
rate of those grownin the moist south-
western districts, is that they always
retain their green colour even when ripe ;
in fact a fruit that showsa yellow tint
may, as a rule, be discarded as bad.
Mango-growing for market is a very
profitable undertaking in some parts of
India, where they are sometimes syste-
matically cultivated as anindustry. A
planter from Lower Burma, who has a
considerable area under mango trees;
\ 4 OY aay
Sabbaths:
Miscellaneous Products. 126
informed me that the crop yielded him
a better return than Para rubber, could
do atis.alb. For good fruit he could
always find a localand ready sale from
Rs. 3 to Rs. 5 per 100. A crop averaging
1,000 fruits per tree (with 100 trees to the
acre) would thus give a return of
Rs. 5,000 per acre.
Oriental people are very partial to
mangoes; the rich eat only good kinds,
but the poorer classes will eat or chew
anything in the shape of a mango. The
mango fruit enters very largely in the
preparation of chutneys and _ other
numerous preserves. As to the economic
use of the fruit, it has been said that had
mangoes not been so plentiful in Cuba,
the Spaniards might still be in posses-
sion of that colony, for the insurgents
were able to live on mangoes when there
was nothing else for them to eat.
[See Frontispiece for Illustration. ]
AUSTRALIAN CALABASH.
AN INTERESTING INDUSTRY.
The Colonial Botanist of Queensland,
Mr. F. M. Bailey, lately received from
Messrs. Field and Villars, of the Aus-
tralian Calabash Pipe Factory, Pitt
Street, Sydney, two calabash pipe
bowls—one, silver-mounted, ready for
use; and one prepared, ready for mount-
ing—also a pipe head made of the seed
capsule of one of the gum-trees Hucalip-
tus mineata); the latter, however, is,
as the makers say, not likely to come
into favour with the public, being too
| Avcust, 1908,
clumsy. The calabash pipe is, on the
contrary, very handsome, looking much
like a meerschaum, and equally light.
The firm namedannounced that they
will buy large quantities of these little
gourds (Lagenarvia vulgaris) at £12 per
1,000 f.0. b., Brisbane. A very small plot
of ground will grow thousands of them, —
and, on good soil, they thrive as well as
pumpkins, melons, or chokos in Queens-
land. They must be without flaw, and,
when ripe, expossd to the sun until they
bleach to a very light yellow-colour.
Whlist growing, the gourd, when possi-
ble, must be placed with the large end
downwards, in order to secure the
shape. After being cut, and during the
bleaching process, care must be taken
not to leave them exposed to rain or
dew. Before shipping the gourds, ,the
thick end must be eut off, asit is not
used. If growers send three or four
gourds to Sydney, they will there be ent
as required, and returned to the sender
as a guide. Only the stem portion is
used for pipe bowls. At present these
gourds are imported from South Africa.
Queensland farmers, gardeners, and
others could easily capture the trade,
and, seeing with what little trouble the
gourds can be produced in large quan-
tities, the price of £12 per 1,000 should be
very remunerative. Mr. Bailey is of
opinion that this kind of gourd will do
best, for pipe-making purposes at least,
on the tableland from Toowoomba to
Warick. The warmer coast land, he
thinks. would produce gourds too large
for the purpose required,--Journal of _
the Department of Agriculture, West Aus-
tralia, Vol. XVI., Part 4, April, 1908.
z
Aveust, 1908.)
137
PLANT SANITATION.
SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR
MIXTURE AS A PROMISING
FUNGICIDE.
INTRODUCTION.
The well-known toxic action of Bor-
deaux mixture on peach foliage, which
renders it practically useless for the cou-
trol of peach diseases in the growling
season, led the writer to investigate
other possible fungicides that might
prove less caustic. Moreover, Bordeaux
mixture, although remarkably beneficial
in the control of fungous diseases, evea
stimulating the growth of plants in
addition to its fungicidal effect, is un-
fortunately often injurious tu the fruit
and toliage of the apple and some other
plants. The fruit russeting and foliage
injury caused by Bordeaux mixture in
the case of the apple has been the sub-
ject of much complaint in recent years,
thus increasing the demand for a fungi-
cide that can be used in growiny plants
without danger of injury.
The investigations of fungicides in
which various sulphur compounds as
well as other substances were tested,
have extended over several years, but no
satisfactory results were obtained until
last season, when the self-boiled lime-
sulphuc wash was tried and proved to
be sufficiently active to prevent fungous
diseases without injuring the plauts
treated. Although the results reported
are exceedingly encouraging, it should
be distinctly understood that this fungi-
cide in the self-boiled form is in its
experimental stage, and has not been
sufficiently tested to justify its general
recommendation. For the present, its
use is advised for trial only, and the
object of this preliminary paper is to
show the rather striking results so far
obtained and make them available to
investigators and fruit growersas a basis
for further experiments, in order that
the value of the mixture may be more
speedily determined. The Bureau of
Plant Industry will continue the investi-
gations, and itis hoped that at the end
of another season definite recommenda-
tions can be made for the use of this
wash or some modification of itin the
treatment of orchard diseases.
A similar self-boiled wash has some
slight reputation as a dormant treat-
ment for the San Jose scale, and a few
fruit growers have used it rather exten-
sively for this purpose, but it seems to
have had very little consideration as a
fungicide and has apparently never been
recommended for use on plants in
foliage. Curiously enough, however, as
early as 1833, before the general use of
fungicides, Dr. William Kenrick recom-
mended for mildew on grapes a mixture
of sulphur (14 pints), quicklime (a piece
the size of the fist), and boiling water,
(2 gallons). This mixture, after cooling,
was diluted with cold water and allowed
to settle. The clear liquid was then
drawn off and diluted to make a barrel-
ful before using. In 1885 William Saun-
ders also recommended for pear-blight a
self-boiled lime and sulphur wash con-
sisting of 8 pounds of sulphur and one-
half bushel of lime with boiling water;
the mixture to be applied as a white-
wash with brushes; and for mildews he
advised applications of the pure sulphur
liquid deawn off from this wash and
greatly diluted.
SULPHUR AS A FUNGICIDE.
Sulphur has long been known to have
fungicidal properties, and has played an
important part in the treatment of
several plant diseases, notably the grape
powdery mildew, rose mildew, and
asparagus rust. Previous to 1880 it was
almost the only fungicide in use, and it
is to-day one of the best remedies for
various mildews. Intheform of potas-
sium sulphide it has for years been the
chief remedy recommended for goose-
berry mildew and to a less extent for a
few other diseases. The boiled lime-
sulphur wash used as a dormant spray
ranks close to Bordeaux mixture in the
treatment of the peach leaf-curl and
the California peach blight (Coryneum
beyerinckii, Oud.), a Serious disease of
the peach on the Pacific Coast. On
account of its caustic effect on the foli-
age of plants this boiled wash cannot
be used during the growing season, and
its usefulness as a Fungicide is therefore
restricted to diseases that can be reached
in the dormant period; but the self-
-boiled mixture used in the experiments
reported in this paper was entirely
uninjurious to the foliage and fruit of
both the peach and the apple.
THE SELF-BoILED LIME-SULPHUR
MIXTURE.
Atintervals during the past several
years the writer has made experiments
with sulphur and various sulphur com:
pounds with the object of finding a
fungicide that could be used during the
‘growing period onfruits trees, especially
the peach, without injury to the foliage
Plant Sanitation.
or fruit. The first work was done in
1901, at the suggestion of Mr. M. B.
Waite, and consisted of experiments
with various sulphides, all of which
proved injurious to peach foliage. Dur-
ing theseason of 1907 self-boiled lime-
sulphur mixtures in various proportions
and strengths were tested on both the
apple and the peach.
PREPARATION OF THE MIXTURE.
The mixture that gave the most pro-
mising results was composed of 10 lbs. of
sulphur (flowers or flour) and 15 lbs. of
fresh stone lime to 50-gallons of water,
and may be prepared as follows :—-
Place the lime in a 50-gallon barrel and
poura 2 or 3-gallon bucket of boiling
water over it. Immediately add the
sulphur and another bucket of hot
water. The heat from the slaking lime
will boil the mixture violently for
several minutes. Some stirring is neces-
sary to prevent burning, and more water
should be added if the mass gets too
thick to stir, but the cooking is more
effectual when the minimum quantity
of water is used, usually from 6 to 8
gallons being required. A piece of old
carpet or gunnysack thrown over the
top of the barrel helps to keep in the
heat. The boiling will continue from
twenty to thirty minutes, depending
upon the quality of the lime. When the
boiling ceases, dilute with cold water to
make 50 gallons, stir thoroughly and
strain through a seive of about 20 meshes
tothe inchin order to take out coarse
particles of lime, but all the sulphur
should be carefully worked through.
Iua similar manner, enough for 150
gallons may be prepared ina barrel by
using 30 poundsof sulphur and 45 pounds
of quicklime, with about 20 gallons of
boiling water, When the boiling ceases,
the barrel should be filled with cold water
and diluted with100 gallonsmore when
transferred to the spray tank.
In some of the experiments a wash con-
sisting 5 pounds of sulphur and 10 pounds
of lime to 50 gallons of water gave
excellent results. This would indicate
that a much more dilute mixture than
the 10-15-50 formula may prove to be
a satisfactory fungicide. The wash was
also prepared with cold water instead
of boiling water, and in some cases a por-
tion of the lime was at first withheld
and later added, a small lump ata time,
in order to prolong the boiling; but the
experiments have not yet been sufficient
to determine definitely the correct for-
mula and the best method of prepar-
ation.
+ Should the boiling be very prolonged
the mixture might become caustic enoug
138
{Aueust, 1908,
to burn foliage, although nu such injury
developed in the experiments. If it
should be found in practice that the
use of hot water dissolves too much ~
sulphur, so that the foliage is uninjured,
cold water may be substituted anda —
less intense heat thus developed, orthe
sulphur can be withheld until the lime
has partly slaked, thus regulating the
amount of sulphur dissolved.
_ By this boiling process the sulphur :
is putin good mechanical condition for
spraying, and enough of it is dissolved j
to make the mixture adhesive. Asalarge
percentage of the sulphur is simply held —
in mechanical mixture with the lime
water, it is necessary that the spraying
outfit be provided with a good agitator,
so that the mixture may be kept con- :
stantly stirred, and settling be thus
avoided. In the treatment of apple
trees, Paris green may be added for the —
control of the codling moth in the same
mar as when Bordeaux mixture is
used.
on the apple trees to destroy from 80
to 90 per cent. of the crop on the
unsprayed trees, the lime-sulphur mix-
ture held it down to less than 10 per
cent. of the crop. Inthis experiment the
sulphur wash compared favourably with
Bordeaux mixture, the latter giving
only slightly better results. The disease
had a considerable start before the first
application was made, and this accounts
for at least a part of the diseased
fruit on the sprayed trees. Slightly
better results with both the sulphur
and the copper treatments could prob-
ably have been secured had the first
application been made a week earlier.
It would appear that the two fungi-
cides are equally effective against bitter- —
rot, and that when desired the lime-
sulphur mixture may be substituted
for Bordeaux mixture in the treat- —
ment of this disease. These results —
show that the self-boiled lime-sulphur ~
mixture isan excellent fungicide under ~
the conditions attending this experi- ~
ment. The only question that remains
is whether it will maintain this high ~
standard under unfavourable condi- —
tions, such as extremely wet weather.
So far as the writer could observe,
absolutely no injury to the fruit or
foliage developed from the use of this
wash, and it adhered almost, if not ~
quite, as well as Bordeaux mixture. At
picking time the foliage was still white
with the mixture and thefruit had a
good coat of it. Again, however,
must be remembered that the seasot
was comparatively dry, the rainfall for
4s
«
i
Although bitter-rot was severe enough i
i
a ee
me my
ios 3
a ae
_ Aveust, 1908.]
July being only 0:81 inch and for August
376 inches. Although the mixture seems
to be quite adhesive, heavy beating rains
might take it off the fruit and foliage,
sothat a large part of its fungicidal
value would be lost.
ey Preach BRown-ROT AND SCAB.
The self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture
heretofore described did not injure the
peach foliage or fruit, and proved to be
astrong fungicide inits effect on both
brown-rot and peach scab, as_ well as on
some leaf diseases. Unboiled sulphur
with milk of lime and pure sulphur
suspended in water were also used with
promising results,
9 eed
Sulphur, wherever used in this experi-
ment, whether self-boiled or unboiled,
_ applied once or oftener, had more or less
effect on the brown-rot disease. Where
the self-boiled wash of both full strength
and half strength was used, nearly 90
per cent. of the crop came through free
from the disease. Owing, perhaps, to
the late spring frosts, some of the peach
pits cracked, and there was considerable
proliferation around them which result-
ed in a cracking of the skin, thus expos-
ing the fruit even on sprayed trees to
brown-rot infection.
Itis not at all surprising that this
sulphur mixture should be a good fungi-
cide; the gratifying surprise is that it
does not injure peach foliage. Under
different weather conditions or when
boiled with a more active grade of lime
- it might prove injurious, and for this
reason caution should be exercised until
further knowledge of its action is
obtained.
Oe Ae ee Pee Fo a eS ron ye
¢
Niue Ty ead
oe
Although occasional rains occurred at
~ Koshkonlong, Mo., while the experiment
was in progress, the season would be
- eonsidered rather dry. The rainfall
‘there as recorded by the voluntary
Mr. John W. Hitt, was as
of brown-rot. During avery wet season,
however, the treatment might not be so
successful; in fact, this disease is in-
fluenced by so many factors that it
seems doubtful whether an_ entirely
satisfactory treatment for it will ever be
found. The plum curculio punctures
_ the skin of a certain percentage of the
fruit and thus admits the fungus in
spite of all spraying that can be done;
also, some of the leaf-footed plant bugs
_ feed on the rotting and the sound fruit
indiscriminately, thus undoubtedly dis-
139
Plant Sanitation,
tributing the fungus. and perhaps even
with their beaks inserting the spores
beneath the skin of the fruit. It seems
quite impossible to protect against such
infections.
In the case of peach scab the results
were very decided. In every plot where
sulphur was used before infection took
place, this disease was almost completely
controlled. Even sulphur suspended in
water without theaddition of lime seems
to be sufficient to control this disease.
As a rule, the scab infections on the
sprayed fruit were manifested in small
specks instead of the large spots and
cracks that were so common on the
unsprayed fruit.
A COMBINED FUNGICIDE AND
INSECTICIDE.
Self-boiled lime-sulphur washes used in
the dormant spraying of fruit trees are
known to have some effect against the
San Jose seale, and, inorder to avoid the
expense of cooking-plant, afew growers
have employed this method of spraying
the wash. Entomologists have wisely dis-
couraged the use of self-boiled washes
because of their inferiority to the boiled
preparations, but when used as a fungi-
cide in the growing season a self-boiled
lime-sulphur wash might be expected to
aid considerably in the control of the
San Jose scale and other scale insects by
the destruction of the crawling lice, and
would thus perhaps prevent the infesta-
tion of the fruit, a condition especially
likely to occur with apples and pears.
This would give it a decided advantage
over Bordeaux mixture and make it
especially useful as acombined fungicide
and insecticide in the treatment of large
apple trees on which the scale is so diffi-
cult to control. Summer applications
for the prevention of fungus diseases
would thus supplement the dormant
treatment of the San Jose scale without
extra cost.
Sulphur is also a well-known remedy
for various mites, and the _ self-boiled
wash would probably be of considerable
value in the control of the red spider.
RANGE OF PossIBLE USEFULNESS.
_ The fungicide described in these pages
is only in the experimental stage, and it
is impossible to predict the extent of its
usefulness ; but if it will control apple
bitter-rot, as the results so far obtained
indicate, it would naturally be expected
to prevent apple scab. Although no
positive results were obtained with this
disease, the indications were that it
might easily be controlled with the lime-
sulphur wash and the fruit russeting
and foliage injury due to theluse of
Plant Sanitation.
Bordeaux mixture thus avoided. Except
the injury following its use in a wet
season, Bordeaux mixture furnishes an
entirely satisfactory fungicide for both
apple scab and bitter-rot, perhaps better
than can be expected of the lime-sulphur
wash; but the latter has the advantage
of being a combined insecticide and fun-
gicide, and does not injure the fruit or
foliage, or at least it would so appear
from these preliminary experiments.
This self-boiled mixture could reason-
ably be expected to readily control the
powdery mildews of fruit, some of which
ave long been known to be preventable
by the application of sulphur in some
form. Owing to its greater adhesive-
ness, it should perhaps largely supplant
dry sulphur and liver of sulphur in the
treatment of various mildews.
lf the results of last year’s experiments
are borne out by further tests, the most
important function of this fungicide
will doubtless be the control of peach
diseases. Heretofore, practically no
known fungicide could be used on peach
foliage without injurious results, and
for this reason orchardists have been
unable to combat some of the more im-
portant peach diseases and to prevent
the annual loss of several millions of
dollars’ worth of fruit caused by them.
140
i
[AUGUST, 1908
Bordeaux mixture, the standard fungi-
cide, cannot be used on peach trees
during the growing season without
danger of serious injury to the foliage.
While a weak Bordeaux mixture may be
used in a dry season without injurious
results, the same mixture applied in a
wet season, when most needed, will
usually defoliate the trees. The other
forms of copper, such as ammoniacal cop-
per carbonate and acetate of copper, are
even more toxicthan Bordeaux mixure.
It is apparent, then, that an efficient
cheap fungicide that canbe used on the
fruit and foliage of the peach without
injurious results will be of inestimable
value. The self-boiled lime-sulphur mix-
ture gives promise of meeting these
requirements, and itis hoped that the
results already secured will be substan-
tiated by further investigations. Under
some unfavourable weather conditions
injury to the foliage or fruit might pos-
sibly develop, and heavy beating rains
might wash the sulphur away, so that
its fungicidal effect would be partly lost.
It seems likely, however, that a lime-
sulphur mixture, either self-boiled or
unboiled, will prove to be a safe and
valuable fungicide for use on fruit trees
and other plants during the growing
season.—U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, April 18, 1908.
j
Avast, 1908.]
Y
s
141
LIVE STOGK.
THE DESTRUCTION OF
MOSQUITOES.
(To the tditor of the ‘* Times.’’)
Sir,—Any suggestions or discoveries
that help towards the destruction of
mosquitoes and other insect pests in
their larva stage are of such great im-
portance that I venture to ask you to
‘give me a small space in which to record
some results which have been attained
in the West Indies.
It has long been known that Barbados
- isthe only West Indian island that is
absolutely free from malaria and from
the presence of the anopheles mosquito.
_ Major Hodder, R.8., in his reports to the
_ War Office three years ago on the drain-
age works that were then being carried
out in St. Lucia, came tothe conclusion
that there was
the culex was abundant.
some hitherto undis-
covered reason why the anopheles failed
to propagate its kind in Barbados, where
It appeared
from this observation that the
anopheles could, or did, only breed on
the ground level; none of its larve
being found in tanks which were raised a
few feet from the earth, nor even on
Mae EN
those which were actually resting on the
ground. The culex can, on the other
hand, breed in the gutters onthe roofs
of high buildings as easily as in the low-
_ lying swamps and pools. My friend Mr.
C. Kenrick Gibbons, who had given a
good deal of attention to the matier,
pointed out at once that all the pools and
swamps in this island were stocked with
swarms of a tiny fish (known locally,
_ from their vast numbers, as “ millions”),
and that their favourite food was the
larvee of the mosquito, It is obvious that
- any species of that insect which is unable
_to breed above the ground level must fall
aprey tothisenemy. The fishhas been
identified by Mr. Boulenger, F.R.s., of
the British Museum, as Gwardinus
pocciloides. Some specimens are success-
fully got to England, and flourished for
some time in the insect house at theZoolo-
gical Society’s Gardens. Mr. Gibbons’
suggestion that the ‘‘ millions” sh ould be
imported into malarial districts in other
islands has been acted upon, and with
felicitous results. For instance, the
Country Health Board of Antigua,
‘‘being convinced of the useful part
played by these fish in consuming
mosquito larvee, have arranged for their
systematic destruction througbout the
onds and streams of the islands.”
Similar news comes from Jamaica,
whither a consignment of the fish was
sent in November, 1906. The Secretary
of the Agricultural Society writes that
the tanks at the Titchfield Hotel are full
of them, and that he had been informed
that ‘‘there has been a marked diminu-
tion of fever round about, the ‘millions’
evidently accounting for the mosquito
larve.” They have also been sent to
Colon and British Guiana, One cannot
help wishing that these useful little fish
were given a trial in the deadly districts
of Africa, if, like the material mosquito,
the insects which convey the terrible
diseases which are endemic there, pass
the larvze stage of their existence in
water. One may add in this connection
that the Swedish Corsul at Frankfort
has discovered a small fish (‘‘ the blue-
eyed”) which feeds on mosquito larve,
and that, at the request of the Italian
Government, some are to be, or have
been, sent to the Campagna, where so
much has been done in recent years to
diminish malaria.
Iam, Sir, your obedient servant,
T. HERBERT BINDLEY.
Codrington College, Barbados, March, 1908,
142
[Avausn, 1908; ”
SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE.
NEW NITROGEN FERTILIZERS.
By L. G. BLACKMAN.
The principal constituents of plant
food are present in greater or less pro-
portion in most soils. As the latter are
formed by the disintegrating and general
weathering process of rocks, the com-
position of a particular soil is dependent
to a great extent upon the nature of
the rock from which it has been derived.
Intermingled with the inorganic decom-
posed rock there is present in every
fertilie soil a variable proportion of
decomposed organic matter, the accu-
mulation of former generations of
animal and vegetable growths. It is the
latter ingredient, termed “humus”
which gives the soil much of its agricul-
tural value, and upon which to a great
extent plants feed, for vegetation, as
wellas animals, is incapable of support-
ing life directly from inorganic sub-
stances alone.
In anatural state the earth’s successive
growths of vegetation contribute to the
accumulation of the soil’s humus. Each
generation returns to the earth an added
deposit of matter in a form readily
available as plant food. The continual
cultivation of crops and their removal
from the soil by man, however, depletes
the soil of much of its valuable plant
food, and this process being continued,
atime is soon reached when the land
becomes so exhausted that it cannot be
profitably cultivated without artificial
reinforcement.
In order that a plant may grow to
advantage, it is of prime importance that
a sufficient supply of allthe elements
of its food be present in an assimilable
form. At times, although such elements
are contained in the-soil, they are locked
up in some chemical combination with
other elements, which renders them
unavailable by vegetation, Speaking
broadly, the main necessary food of
plants may be said to be carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen and nitrogen, and in less
degree potash, lime, magnesia and
phosphoric acid.
The four latter foods (being the
ingredients of the primitive rock) are
abundant in most soils, and as the
supply of carbon, hydrogen and oxy-
gen is usually fully provided for by
means of rain and the atmosphere, the
chief question affecting the well-being -
of a plant. once the soil has been deplet-
ed of its natural humus, is a supply
of available nitrogen. This element
constitutes the chief bulk of our atmos-
phere, but plants are unable to assi-
milate itin a free state, that is, unless
it is first* chemically combined with
another element. Although surrounded
by an inexhaustible supply of this neces-
sary food, vegetation, therefore, will
languish, and die unless some means is at
hand to render it available. This is
generally accomplished by the chemical
combination of nitrogen with hydrogen
in the form of ammonia, or with potash
or soda inthe form of one of the well-
known “‘nitrates,” solargely employed
as artificial fertilizers.
\Nitrogen is a necessary constituent
of every organic body. Although it
plays soimportant a part in the com-
position of living matter and exists in
such inexhaustible quantity in the atmos-
phere, the free nitrogen of the air is not
drawn upon for plant and animal food,
becauss it possesses the property of
refusing, under most circumstances, to
combine with other substances. This pe-
culiarity of nitrogen is remarkable when
we consider the readiness with which
some other elements combine with one
another as seen, for instance, in the case
of oxygen. The slow combination of this
latter gas with some metalsis exempli-
fied in the corrosion or rust of iron and
in the tarnishing of silver. The more
rapid and energetic combination of oxy-
gen with other substances produces, as
is well-known, the phenomenon otf fire.
So noteworthy is the inertness of.
nitrogen, that Lavoisier, the emnient
French chemist, in reference to this
quality termed it Azote, a name siguifiy-
ing “without life,” and which is still
in general use by the French. On ac-
count of this property the element was
long regarded as a more or less useless gas
whose chief function lay in diluting
the atmospheric oxygen and thus ren-
dering it suitable for animal respiration. _
How comes it then, in view of the
refusal of nitrogen to enter into com-
binations with other elements, that
this element, so extremely insoluble in
water, plays such an important part in
the economy of plant life? What subtle
force is at work which overcomes its
inert quality and renders it suitable for
~
wee
RES Taher
* The distinction between a mechanical and a
chemical mixture is most important. In a mecha-
nical mixture the ingredients are simply mixed
together and no new body is formed, while in a
chemical mixture an entirely new body is produced.
The mechanical mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
is an invisible gas, but their chemical mixture
produces water. In the air, oxygen and nitrogen
are mixed mechanically, while if they were in
chemical combination they would produce suffocat-
ing ammonia and nitric acid gasses in whic
nothing now living could exist.
=
3 it
-Avaust, 1008.)
+
‘
absorption into the system of the plant ?
‘The extreme insolubility of nitrogen
- shows that the agency of water is not
accountable for the absorption of this
element even when it is remembered
that, in order to produce one pound of
dry vegetation, the enormous quantity
of four hundred pounds of water is
necessary.”
In order to satisfy the difficult question
of the assimilation of nitrogen by
plants, many theories have at times
- been considered. Of these, digestion by
means of the sap juice cannot be held to
_ be the cause of the absorption of insolu-
ble elements, for sucha process would
_ necessitate the ‘ breaking up’ of nitrogen
_ into an assimilable form—a process at
- variance with the elemently constructive
function of sap. It is now, however,
- generally held that the appropriation of
nitrogen by vegetation is due to the
agency of bacteria, which infest all
fertile soils and exist upon most plants.
_ By means of these minute organisms,
_ the insoluble nitrogen is, as it were,
- decomposed or predigested, and rendered
_ assimilable as plant food.
In the sequence of vegetation growing
upon soil undergoing the process of
_ weathering from primitive rocks, until
- late years, the lichens were considered
as appearing first. The action of these
- simple structures after many gener-
ations prepared the way for mosses,
_ which again rendered conditions suitable
for plants of a higher order.
Itis now known, however, that pre-
ceding the lichens are the minute bac-
_ teria to which reference has been made,
whose function is to render the organic
_ constituents ot the soil capable of
- supporting plant food. The origin of
_ the bacteria themselves is a more pro-
found question, which has not been
- solved, but their presence to the agri-
culturist appears to be as necessary as
_ the working of the yeast plant is to the
brewer.
\
_ This renders the distinction between a
_ sterile and a fertile soil better under-
_ stood, for of two soils almost similar in
_ chemical and physical characteristics, one
_ may be extremely tertile and the other
- non-productive. The question of the
presence of suitable bacteria in a soil is
therefore a very important one, and
z= at # og mw eu
* The same problems affect the absorption by
the plant of the extremely insoluble elements
phosphorus and silica, The latter element, inert
_ alike to the action of water and all acids (except
hydrofluoric) is first ‘broken up’ and rendered
_ assimilable by the plant root, and then reconverted
within the system of some plants where it exists as
Minute crystals,
at - i
y
143
Scientific Agriculture.
ranks equally with those affecting its
chemical constituents and physical pro-
perties.
The action of the beneficial organisms
referred to, as regards their function of
supplying plant nutrition is principally
confined to the nitrogenous matter
already in the soil, although these
organisms may possess to a small degree
the power of tapping the air reservoir
itself and obtaining a supply of nitrogen
direct therefrom.
The conversion of the nitrogenous con-
stituents of the soil into nitrate
assimilable by plants is known as nitri-
fication. In order to bring about this
little-understood process three conditions
are necessary, viz., the presence ot
bacteria, a supply of oxygen, and a
salifiable base such as lime, soda or
potash. Nitrification takes place under
favourable circumstances in all fertile
soils, and as the bacteria are most active
at a temperature of from 75 to 100
degrees, F., itis between these thermal
points that plant growth is most
vigorous. At temperatures much below
that indicated the work of the bacteria
is retarded, and at a certain degree
of coldness their operation ceases.
The economic use, from the _ point
of plant life of these beneficial organ-
isms, therefore, is their conversion
of the nitrogenous organic matter and
ammonia compounds of the soil and, to
a less extent of the air, into soluble plant
food. This is affected by combination
with such bases as lime and potash
with which nitrates are formed. From
these latter compounds plants derive
most of their nitrogen, and in order to
support plant life, it is necessary that
such soluble nitrates be present.
When the natural supply of nitrates
in the soil becomes exhausted, it is neces-
sary that these be removed artificially.
This opens up the important subject of
plant fertilization, which is every year
forcing itself more and more to the
notice of agriculturists.* As the avail-
* An additional vagary on the part of the element
nitrogen also tends to emphasize the importance of
the diminishing available supply of this important
vegetable food, for it does not follow the natural
cycle pursued by most other substances in their
appropriation by the organic world, Asa rule, the
constituents of the primitive rocks crumble into
soil and after assimilation by vegetables and animals,
are reburned again to the soil, With regard to
nitrogen, however, such a cycle is not completed,
for this element, instead of returning to the soil
passes offinto the atmosphere. There is therefore
a continual process in operation for the liberation
of nitrogen from combination with other elements,
and each generation of life depletes the earth of its
supply and diminishes the potontiality of our
planet for sustaining organic life,
Scientific Agriculture.
able supply of nitrates is restricted, the
question of the continued fertilization
of the soil is an exceedingly urgent one.
With regard to the supply of animal
manure (the use of which asa supply of
plant nitrogen has obtained in all ages,
although itis only during the last cen-
tury that the reason of its beneficial
action was understood), the production
is diminishing rather than increasing.
Moreover, with more enlightened know-
ledge of hygiene, even if this fertilizer
Were to become available in sufficient
quantities, it is questionable whether
for this reason alone its general use for
agricultural crops would be adopted.
Among the nitrogenous chemical
manures, sulphate of ammonia is im-
portant. The fertilizer is produced by
the destructive distillation of coal and
shale, and is a by-product in the manu-
facture of gas. Although its manu-
facture is extending, it must always be
quite insufficient to meet the demand of
the agriculturists.
The main supply of nitrogen for ferti-
lization is at present chiefly obtained
from natural deposists of nitrates which
occur in certain countries. With respect
to this source of plant nitrogen also, the
available quantity is limited, and in view
of the enormous extension of cultivated
areas demanding scientific fertilization,
the day is not distant when the output
of this fertilizer will decrease and will
ultimately become exhausted. Of these
fertilizers the two best known are the
nitrates of potash and soda. Both of
these are found in considerable natural
deposits, the former in India and Persia,
and the latter in Chili. Nitrate of soda
is known as Chili Salpeter, and is used
very extensively in agriculture. It is
also largely used in the manufacture of
nitric acid and of other chemicals, for
as has been said, the extreme inertness
of the free gas nitrogen has caused the
naturally existing supply of the world’s
nitrates to be resorted to for the forma-
tion of many new nitrogenous combina-
tions. In this way the available deposits
are being rapidly exhausted, and in order
to insure the continued prosperity of
many agricultural crops, it is imperative
that a new supply of nitrates be forth-
coming. Where then, when the natural
deposits have disappeared, will agri-
culturists turn for their new supply of
nitrogen of fertilizers? The most ready
means of satisfying this demand which
suggests itself, is to tap the great air
reservoir of its nitrogen, and then to
discover some way of combining it chemi-
cally with suitable substances.
The atmosphere may be described as an
serial ocean surrounding the earth
144
{Auausi', 1908,
From the tinie of Aristotle until less than
one hundred and fifty years ago it was
regarded as one of the four elements.
It is now known to consist almost
entirely of a mechanical mixture of the
two gases nitrogen and oxygen, in the
proportion of about four volumes of the
former to one of the latter. A graphic
representation of this proportion may
be had by inscribing a cirele within a
square. In such a figure a eirele will —
represent the nitrogen present in the
atmosphere and the four spaces at the
corners of the square, the oxygen. ;
Besides the nitrogen contained inthe ~
atmosphere in chemical mixture with —
oxygen, there are also present traces of —
nitrogen in chemical mixture with
hydrogen, and also with hydrogen and
oxygen together. Of these latter com-
pounds ammonia (N.H3) and nitrie acid
(H.N.O3 ) are the mostimportant to plant
life, but they occur in infinitesimal
amounts, varying according to local
and meterolozical conditions.
The presence of ammonia in the atmos-
phere is chiefly dueto the decomposition ~
of organic matter. The precipitation of —
rain brings with it small quantities of its
compound which is thus rendered avail-
able for plant use. The occurrence of —
electrical disturbances in the air pro- —
duces nitric acid, and in India, where the
soil has been depleted for courtless
generations of cultivators, the crops are —
dependent upon the periodical monsoon
for their supply of nitrogen. :
The insulation of nitrogen from the
atmosphere is a very simple operation.
A well-known method is by igniting
phosphorus in a_ receptacle containing
atmospheric air. The combustion of the
phosphorus exhausts the oxygen present, —
and when the burning ceases the result-
ant gas consists of nitrogenin a fairly —
pure condition. Another method of
obtaining this gas is to pass a stream of
dry air through turnings of red-hot —
copper. The oxygen of the air remains
behind and forms oxide of copper. while
the nitrogen passes away alone.
Daring the last few years a very
material advance has been madein the
discovery of practical methods to com-
oe"e
agricultural purposes.
newest and in some ways most remark-
able of the scientific industries is in its
infancy, but it has already passec
beyond the realms of experiment and
engaging more and more the attention
capitalists. The chief obstacle at presen
Aveusr, 1908.]
which the manufacturer of nitrogen com-
pounds has to face is found in the cost of
the new product. Although this can be
marketed at a price below the cost of
Chili saltpetre and similar fertilizers, the
margin of profit is as yet not sufficiently
great to attract the notice of those who
are looking for an investment to yield an
extraordinary return. In this, as in all
new enterprises, those who will benefit
most are the manufacturers first in the
field, for in spite of the present conser-
vative profits to be derived, the methods
of manufacture of the new products are
already being cheapened and improved.
This, taken into conjunction with the
undoubted facts that the natural supply
of nitrogen compounds is diminishing,
- andthe demands of agriculture are in-
creasing to an unprecedented extent,
renders it certain that the factories
which now take control of the supply of
artificial nitrogen fertilizers will, in a
very short time, be placed in a most
_ advantageous position.
CALCIUM CYANAMIDE.
The manufacture of the new fertilizer,
calcium cyanamide, isconducted accord-
ing tothe Frank and Caro method, an
- electro-metallurgical process, the Kurope
rights of which are held by the Societa
Generale de la Cianamide, of Rome, Italy.
Already many subsidiary zompanies are
in operation, chiefly in Italy, France,
Norway and Switzerland, which are con-
- ducted on a profit-sharing basis in :con-
junction with the general Company. The
manufacture of calcium cyanamide is
performed on the principal that calcium
- earbide absorbs nitrogen when heated
toa sufficiently high temperature. The
calcium carbide is first produced in the
_ usual manner by heating lime and coke
_toatemperature of 2,500 degreee centi-
grade in electric furnaces of the resis-
_ tance type.
in retorts, and at 1,100 degrees (C.),
- atmospheric nitrogen is introduced and
absorbed, the new compound being
known as calcium cyanamide.
The first plant erected for the manu-
_ facture of calcium cyanamide was at
Piano d’Orta, Italy, in 1905. ‘In this
- factory were installed six furnaces, each
with five retorts for the absorption of
nitrogen by the carbide. Each retort
works off three charges daily, consisting
_ of 1000 kilograms (2,200 lbs.). ‘I'he absorp-
_ tion of nitrogen by the carbide increases
the weight materially, and from each
charge 125 kilograms (275 lbs.) of calcium
cyanamide is obtained. The plant has,
therefore, an annual capacity for the
conversion of 3,000 tons of carbide into
8,750 tons of cyanamide. This factory is
_ Operated by water power, supplied by an
independent Company. The generating
(ok, 19 ‘
i)
145
The carbide is then heated.
Scientific Agriculture.
station, where a head of 90 feet, supply-
ing 8,400 h.p. is available, is more than
six miles from the cyanamide plant, to
which the power is transmitted at 6,000
volts. The factory has proved so success-
ful, that already an extension to an
annual 10,000 tons capacity isin progress,
and other similar plants are projected
throughout the country.
In France, the Societé Frangaise des
Produits Azotes is already in operation,
and another in Savoy has an annual out-
put of 3,750 tons. In Germany and
Hngland the Frauk and Caro process is
also being actively operated, and in the
United States the America Cyanamide
Company of Alabama will have an
annual capacity of 20,000 tons.
The method is already being improved,
and the chemist, Polzeniusz, has dis-
covered an important modification in
the manufacture of cyanamide. This
is brought about by the addition of
Fuor-spar to the carbide which facili-
tates the absorption of nitrogen at the
comparatively low temperature of 400
degrees (C.), and, moreover, produces a
product which does not so readily be-
come moist. The market price of cyana-
mide is at present regulated by the
price of the two competing artificial
manures, ammonium sulphate and_ni-
trate of soda. Its actual cost of produc-
tion has been found in Germany to
average about $40 per ton, which has
been marked at a little over $50. This
has been achieved in cases where cheap
water power was available, but as the
process improves, the rival fertilizers
will, without doubt, be eventually driven
from the market by this and similar new
products,
CALCIUM NITRATE.
Another noteworthy new artificial
fertilizer, calcium nitrate, is manufac-
tured by the Birkeland and Hyde pro-
cess, at Notodden, in Norway. This
product is obtained on the principal that
at the extreme heat of 3,000 degrees
Centrigrade, atmosphoric nitrogen can
be made to directly combine with oxy-
gen. Although this fact has long been
known, the intense temperature required
has been against the general adoption
of the process, but by the use of the
electric are flame it is now operated on a
large scale. The chemical combination
of nitrogen and oxygen thus achieved
produces nitric acid gas. The compound
is afterwards passed through absorption-
towers through which water and milk of
lime flow. The resulting liquid obtained
is then evaporated and solid nitrate
of lime (calcium nitrate) is obtained.
The Notodden plant was established
in 1903. It possesses. three furnaces,
each producing 250 tons of nitric acid
Scientific Agriculture.
per annum, which yield about 325 tons
of calcium nitrate. The factory, there-
fore, turns out approximately one thou-
sand tons of fertilizer per year, but
another plant of twenty times this capa-
city issoon to be erected. Licenses for
the Birkeland and Eyde process are
granted by the Aktieselskabet Notod-
den Salpeterfabric, Christiania, Sweden.
Many plants are at work in Europe on
the manufacture of calcium nitrate by
this patent, although Norway is more
forward in this respect than other coun-
tries. At Rjukanfos, a factory is being
constructed where 250,000 h.p., is avail-
able from water power.
In the Birkeland and Eyde process, also,
a great improvement has lately been
introduced by which the percenage of
nitrogen is increased and the hygroscopic
properties of the product is reduced.
In the Hawaiian Islands there is with-
out doubt a splendid opportunity for
the manufacture of either calcium cya-
namide or calcium nitrate. The enor-
nous and growing quantity of fertilizers
required by the cane fields, the anti-
cipated reduction of the output of natu-
ral nitrogenous compounds, and many
other circumstances hold out to the
manufacturer of the new products a
most promising investment. The avail-
able water supply of the Kauai moun-
tains naturally would suggest that island
as the most appropriate site for such an
enterprise, although there are without
doubt throughout the islands other
available sources of water power. In
the near future we predict the introduc-
tion tothe Hawaiian Islands of one of
the processes briefly described, and we
hope that such an undertakiag will be
prosecuted with Hawaiian capital.
The following letter from the United
States Department of Agriculture was
recently elicited in response to a request
by a correspondent in the Islands who
desired information on this subject :—
United States Dept. of Agriculture,
Office of Experiment Stations,
Washington, D.C., March 26th, 1908.
DEAR SirR,—Your letter of February
29, asking information regarding the
manufacture and use of calcium nitrate
and calcium cyanamide, has been re-
ferred to this office for reply,
The Department has not yet inves-
tigated the fertilizing value of these
materials, but from the large number of
reports of foreign investigations which
have been reviewed in this office, it seems
safe to say that the basic calcium nitrate
prepared by the Birkeland and Eyde
process is a very valuable fertilizer,
fully equal, and in some cases superior,
146
[AuGusi, 1908, 4
to nitrate of soda, particularly on soils
benefited by lime as well as nitrate.
The results of investigations with regard
to calcium cyanamide or lime nitrogen
are, however, not so conclusive. There
are certain facts relating to the pro-
perties and changes which this material
undergoes in the soil which have not yet ~
been thoroughly investigated, but which
have an important bearing upon its _
fertilizing value. As faras lean learn —
neither of the products is yet upon the —
market as staple fertilizing materials. —
The processes of manufacture, I believe,
are all fully covered by patents both in
this country and abroad, but exact in-
formation on this point can only be
obtained by applying to the U.S. Com-
missioner of Patents.
|
Very truly yours,
A. C. TRUE,
Director.
—Hawatian Forester and Agriculturist.
Vol. V., No 4, April, 1908.
SMALL IRRIGATION AREAS.
By W. R. Fry,
Fruit Inspector, formerly Manager, Moore
Irrigation Farm.
The recent copious rainfall throughout
the State has relieved farmers and stock-
owners of much immediate anxiety and
labour. It is to be hoped, however, that
the experiences in the coastal areas will
not be forgotten, but that ensilage-
making and provision for irrigation —
will receive more attention.
It is somewhat surprising that more
irrigation has not been practised in
mavy places where running streams —
occur. Certainly the water in permanent —
streams cannot always be utilised by —
settlers without infringing on the ripa- ©
rian rights of others. However, when a
stream rises in a farmer’s paddock and.
merely creates a swampy patch—from —
which most of the water is lost by eva-
poration,—the owner or occupier could —
justly and profitably irrigate a few acres —
by gravitation. In streams with suffi-—
cient fall, part of the water could often —
be diverted by means of an automatic —
hydraulic ram. These rams are compara-—
tively cheap (from £3 upwards accord-
ing to size), and will effectively raise a
small supply from 30 to 150 feet high,
without any cost for fuel or attention.
Again, suitable spots are frequently
seen where a valley could be easily
dammed and a few thousand gallons of
water impounded, to be gravitated or
syrhoned on to a cultivation patch a
required.
Do pest atone
-~Avaust, 1908:]
Several opportunities for these me-
thods occur in the Moss Vale and other
districts, but in very few cases have
they been practised. Possibly the chief
reason is that the necessity for irriga-
- tion has never before been so apparent ;
but in other cases, it may be due to a
want of knowledge of the advantages or
practice of irrigation.
Many people, when the subject_of irri-
gation is discussed, speak as though it
required a great expenditure for costly
pumps, pipes, cement drains, and special
implements. For large areas, perma-
nent, and therefore costly, appliances are
necessary ; but a few acres can often
be cultivated by the judicious use of
the plough, with a little fluming of
the most primitive materials. In the
Kangaroo Valley, for example, the
trunks of the cabbage-tree palms are
frequently used for water fluming,
whilst hollow logs, and strips of bark,
- are used in other cases. Withan ordi-
nary spirit level on pegs or a home-made
A-level, it will often be found that water
can be brought on to land apparently
higher than the stream. Old miners are
generally expert in constructing water-
races, and several examples of their
industry can be seen around Adelong
and other old mining districts.
Although to many people’ these
schemes may appear paltry, they go to
_ prove the possibilities of more extended
areas, and provide that practical experi-
ence which will be necessary when
larger water supplies are available.
Settlers should not be above consider-
ing such methods, even if the irrigable
area is small, foritis really wonderful
what an amount of succulent fodder
ean be obtained from a small area.
Only two acres planted with sorghum
will, with watering, produce over 40
tons of green stuff. This would, lately,
have been very acceptable on those dairy
farms where the occupiers were carting
prickly-pear for miles, or paying pro-
hibitive prices for hay. Even the over-
flow from a wind-mill tank could often
irrigate a small patch, and thus save a
little of the expensive hay.
Coming to the actual application of
water tocrops, the chief object should
be to ensure aneven supply. This even
supply of moisture—not too much and too
little—is absolutely necessary for perfect
plant development. To quote the words
of a well-known agricultural lecturer,
“Plants drink their tood, they don’t
eat it.” It has been, unfortunately, too
often demonstrated that the best arti-
ficial fertilisers or the richest basaltic
soils are utterly useless without suffi-
cient moisture. To artificially supply
this moisture, ‘‘sprinkling” may appear
the most natural method, butitis seldom
147
Scientific Agriculture’
practised for farm crops. In the town
of Picton (which rejoices in a water
supply at Id, per 1,000 gallons) some
Chinamen have rented a few acres of
land from A. H. Antill, Esq., and erected
tall poles, with outstanding spars to
carry hoses and sprinklers. The vegeta-
bles are growing luxuriantly ; but the
method does not appear an unqualified
success, and probably the furrow system
of watering would be just as effective and
more economical. Surface sprinkling,
although extensively practised in subur-
ban gardens, only gives best results when
the soil is covered with a good mulch
or heavy foliage of plants. Unless a
thorough soaking is given, most of the
moisture is evaporated by the next day’s
heat. Sprinkling when the sun is scorch-
ing hot, although often practised, is
certainly unnatural, and has not nearly
such a good effect asona dull day or at
night-time.
Theoretically, the best time to apply
water is when the weather appears like
rain, as the moisture is then received
under natural conditions of atmospheric
pressure and evaporation. In practice,
however, water must be applied when-
ever the leaves of the plants show that
the moisture content of the soil is betow
their requirements. This is one of the
reasons for the frequent statement that
‘‘a shower of rain is better than hours
of sprinkling.” Another reason is that
the first showers of rain after thunder
(especially hailstorms) generally contain
asmall quantity of ammonia and nitric
acid from the electric disturbances, and
this hasa stimulating effect as an im-
mediately available plant food. The
initial cost of pipes and taps is another
disadvantage of the hose and sprinkler
method. which may be dismissed. as
seldom applicable for farm crops.
The flooding and check system of
watering, as practisedin many parts of
Amevica, has not been generally adopted
in this State, except for lucerne and per-
manent pastures. Flooding invariably
leaves the land very hard and sodden,
and requires more preparation of the
land. Grading and levelling is generally
necessary to prepare any extensive
irrigation area, but the process is rather
expensive, and not always easy for the
average farmer. Where the _ soil is
shallow, as in most parts of Cumberland
and Camden, extensive grading oper-
ations are not practical, for it is evident
that if 1S inches of the surface soil is
scraped away, it will be years before the
bare patch of subsoil will produce pro-
fitable crops.
How To IRRIGATE.
By the furrow system, which is the
best for most crops, land can be irrigated
Scientific Agriculture,
even on a hillside, provided the contour
of the land is considered when striking
the drills. The distance apart of these
furrows depends on the kind of soil and
the fall. If the newly-sown land is of a
clayey nature, and very dry, the furrows
may be6to9 feet apart, as the water
will spread out ina lateral direction.
With a steeper tall, or more porous soil,
the furrows must be closer together.
The furrows can be made by an ordinary
plough or a cultivatior, and should be
parallel. All dead furrows or ‘clean
outs” should be ploughed in before the
cross furrows are made. Having suc-
ceeded in bringing asupply of water to
the highest pointin the main channel,
the next object is to get it into the soil.
To distribute it evenly to each furrow,
short lengths of pipe or turfs are neces-
sary. Sluice-boxes or pieces of board, con-
taining an inch auger hole, are also
useful. Care must be taken not to rush
too big a stream down to the furrows at
first, or the soil may ‘‘slicken,” or become
puddled, and prevent percolation. In
watering maize or sorghum, water is best
applied down every alternate furrow to
germinate the seed, and then down every
row when the plants are growing well.
Frequent surface cultivation is a most
essential operation after furrow irriga-.-
tion. The settler who, when asked why
he did not use more horsehoe and less
water, replied, ‘I can’t sit down to
irrigate, but have to walk to cultivate,”
explained a too common cause of failure
amongst irrigators.
When the soil commences to crack
after irrigation, it is time to eultivate,
not irrigate. Onclay soils the surface
may be cracked and yet the subsoil may
be saturated. For fruit-trees, wait until
the soil is almost too dry to “hall”
when squeezed in your hand _ before
watering again. Surface cultivation des-
troys the crust, fills up cracks, and by
preventing undue evaporation ensures
the necessary even degree of moisture.
A good rule in irrigating is never to run
water more than once over the same
surface. Give a good soaking, and when
dry enough for horse-work, stir the soil
weekly. With this treatment a 4-inch
watering will last two months, whilst
without cultivation it will only last a
few weeks.
‘In all cases where the subsoil is not
porous, underground drainage is abso-
148
| Bf Me ' hh bade i r
[AuGusT, 1908. |
—_—- -
lutely necessary where irrigation is
practised. A heavy fall of rain falling
after an irrigation may, in the absence
of drainage, do considerable harm, as
the soil becomes waterlogged and air-
tight. With crops of oats or rape the
leaves turn red and growth is stunted,
but with lucerne or fruit-trees more
disastrous effects follow. The roots
decay, encouraging the attack of ‘‘ white
rot,” or ‘‘mal-di-goma,” or the plants —
may be drowned for want of air. Uuder- —
ground drains, which may be filled with
stones, tea-tree, logs, or any available
material, take up less room than surface
drains, and, if properly made, are more ~
effectual. In many cases where trouble
has occurred with alkaline salts in the ~
soil or water, it has been due toa neg- —
lect of this important factor. With ;
underground drainage, a heavy fall of
rain tends to leach out the excess of
salts; whereas on undrained, flat clay
lands the excess moisture has to escape ;
by evaporation, and the secretion of —
surface salts is therefore increased. y
#
¥
A
On an irrigation area, heavy manur-
ing, or correct rotation of crops, is neces-
sary. If an irrigated acre of land pro- —
duces 20 tons of green-stuff every year, |
it is evident that it must become ex-
hausted sooner than land that ocecasion-
ally misses a crop owing to drought.
Most agricultural returns are more or
less affected by the rainfall, but whilst
rain is often a remote probability, syste-—
matic irrigation is an absolute certainty.
Several profitable crops of strawberries
and cauliflowers could have been ob-—
tained, and many a milk cheque in-
creased, by the practice of these methods
during the past few months. a ore
» ~~
haan
Nal ae
Avausr, 1908.|
.
Ynanure.
large resources
- tised.
eee”
a“ character of the tillage adopted. The
careful working of the soil has been
already noticed, and the second essential
in a country such as Japan, where plenti-
ful and regular rainfall obviates the
necessity for artificial irrigation is the
application of manure. In most parts
of the country there areno plough cattle,
and horses, pigs and goats are very few
in number, while the use of mineral
fertilisers has not as yet become general.
‘As the fields are worked with human
labour, so they are enriched with human
From time immemorial this
material has been the chief source of
fertilisation. It is carefully preserved
and treated with a view to utilisation
in the fields, and isapplied in liquid form
tothe growing crops in small and fre-
quent doses as required. Then in the
homesteads no scrap of other organic
matter is allowed to goto waste. Allis
collected with care, piled up under a
_shed covered with earth, and allowed to
ferment together in a mass. ‘‘ This is
occasionally turned over and left till
the whole has decomposed into a fine,
rich nutrient earth, which is passed
through a sieve and used as a fine
powder, especially at sowing time.”
The peasantry, too, spend large sums
every year on fish manure, chiefly
sardines and herrings dried in the sun,
and on oil cake. Not only dothey not
permit the mass of cake produced from
their oil seeds to leave the country,
but they import large quantities,
valued in 1903 at over £1,000,000,
from China. Then the people have
in their forests and
woodland blocks or plantations. Exclud-
ing the State forests, which cover a
large proportion of the wild and sparsely
populated area of North Japan, there is
an area of about eighteen and a half
million acres of private woodlands.
Most of these are in blocks of small area
attached to agricultural holdings or to
the communes (which are, as in Conti-
nental Europe, political corporations self-
governing and possessing property), so
that for each acre of cultivation there
is on the average one anda half acres of
woodland. These groves and woods, the
State assessment on which is nominal,
and for the preservation or replanting
of which special regulations are made
by the State, supply not only all the
timber and firewood necessary for rural
tracts, but are largely used by the people
for procuring manure grasses and _ her-
bage for use in their compost. The
virtues of green manuring are, of course,
known, and they are extensively prac-
In the rice fields, many of which
grow no second crop, it is a common
practice to scatter the seeds off astra-
,
-
r
; np, i
ae he
151
Miscellaneous.
galus or other leguminous crop on the
wet ground before the paddy is cut.
Such are the characteristics of old-
time Japanese agriculture—economy of
space, careful tillage and utilisation of
all available material as manure. It is
not surprising that the produce is large.
The average produce of the rice fields is
given as 3,075 bushels of husked rice
weighing nearly 2,000 lb., and nearly
one-third of this land grew a second crop
of wheat averaging 22 bushels or of
rape. In the uplands figures of outturn
are not so instructive as mixed crops,
and second crops are the rule, but the
average yield of wheat grown on ridges
20 inches apart, with another crop be-
tween them is given as 21°‘8 bushels or 1°77
lb., which compares well with average
Indian produce. But Japanese states-
men for some part have seen that the
conditions of agriculture must be modi-
fied to suit the new conditions of the
country. Population increased between
1895 and 1905 by 18 per cent., but the
cultivated area during the same period
increased only by 35per cent., and but
little further increase is possible. As
the author says, ‘‘ methods and practices
suitable for a stationary population, and
a self-contained country do not suffice
for a progressive nation where continued
and rapid advances are essential if in-
telligent productivity is to keep pace
with competitors. The methods adopted
show that, as usual with these alert
statesmen, they searched the world for
the most fruitful ideas on the develop-
ment both of farmimg and of the farmer ;
America and Germany, as might be ex-
pected, seem to have supplied most of
the new ideas both as regards education,
State assistance, and organisation. As
in these countries the Government has
assisted notin one but in many ways,
by the establishment of a comprehensive
and expert Agricultural Department
under a Minister for Agriculture and
Commerce, which studies the agriculture
and agricultural systems of the world,
and applies the results to Japan through
its various agencies; by wide and con-
tinuous inquiry and experiments in ex-
perimental stations scattered over the
country ; by the educative examples and
teaching provided in the farms, gardens,
libraries, ete., of these stations for the
adult peasant; by education, through
the medium of agricultural schools which
cover the country, and through the
lectures and teachings liberally provided
in the villages; by the chain of Agricul-
tural Associations of every grade from
the Prefecture to the village, for finance
education or mutual assistance and sup-
port; by the support given to financial
Miscellaneous.
institutions, such as banks, credit asso-
ciations, ete. ; by direct financial aid and
by various legislative and executive
stimuli.” All these aids are in active
operation, and their effects are becoming
obvious in many ways, What lessons
can we, in India, learn from them? In
most directions in this country a begin-
ning has been made, but inevery matter
we are yet on the threshold of progress.
In spite of the urgent need for restoring
to the land the cattle manure now con-
sumed as fuel, very little has yet been
done to encourage plantation. Agri-
cultural education is yet in its infancy.
Besides the Agricultural School at Cawn-
pore, lately raised to the status of a Col-
lege, there is no institution in the
United Provinces where special instruc-
tion in agriculture can be obtained.
The Department of Agriculture is in pro-
cess of expansion, but is still much too
weak for the mainfold functions expected
of it. Till recently there was but one
agricultural experimental station—also
at Cawnpore—now there are four, and
others are in process of being establish-
ed, and useful experiments are being
carried on. Measures have been recently
taken to encourage associations for co-
operative credit and co-operative supply
of good seed. Operations in these direc-
tions will expand, and in course of time
their influence will be felt, but in every
country the conservatism of the farmer,
relying as he does on generations of
experience, is proverbial, and India is
no exception to the rule. The cultivator
is slow to adopt new methods, imple-
ments and materials even if their
efficacy is proved. Could not new ideas
be introduced by agricultural associa-
tions formed as in Japan for the pro-
vince, for the district, the tahsil and the
village, all connected with each other
and inter-dependent? As Mr. Plunkett
said in recommending the formation of
similar associations in Ireland, ‘‘I wish
to call your attention to another and
very important aspect of local organisa-
tion. While people differ as to the
possible increased production which
would result from improved husbandry,
it is generally admitted that the soil of
Ireland does not produce anything like
what it ought to produce. An opinion
prevails that the desired reform in our
agricultural methods will follow upon
the establishment of an Agricultural
Department, of which I shall speak
presently. NowI havea strong belief,
based upon a cosiderable amount of
observation, that no means of improving
the methods of farmers will beof any
great utility, so long asacentral body
tries to work upon unorganised indivi-
dual farmers. House-to-house work
152
:
[Aveust, 1908,
with this object is slow, laborious, and
utterly ineffectual. Habit exercises a
predominant influence which no amount
of misson work can overcome. When,
on the other hand, the iudividuals
are organised into societies, then the
latter form an easy channel for the
dissemination of information and a
lever for the enforcement of better —
methods. And, in addition to this fact, ~
you will find that in such an association
the advance thinkers come to the front,
and that the others follow them—the
whole process resulting in the triumph
of intelligence and progressiveness over ;
habit.” And this is at least as true of —
India as itis of Ireland. In Japan the
institution of these associations is an
accomplished fact. The village associa-
tion is formed by consent of two-thirds
of the persons qualified to join it, 7.e.,
all landowners and occupiers, and when
once formed all persons qualified to join
must become members. A typical asso-
ciation is described by the author. It
has 500 members, and an income of
Rs. 777. The headman of the village is
president, and the paid employé isan ~
expert on Rs. 180, an assistant expert on _
Rs. 60, a secretary on Rs. 45 per annum, ~
Some of the work done by it is as —
follows :—‘ Preparation of statisticaland —
economic report of the village of which —
200 copies were printed and distributed;
the provision of four temporary agri- 4
cultural classes attended by 33 men, and ~
the despatch of a student to learn about 6
noxious insects, the provision of agri- —
cultural lectures; the award of honour, ry
and prizes to successful farmers; the ~
grant of rewards to persons, especially —
school boys most successful in destroying —
noxious insects; the co-operative pur- —
chase of manures; the protection of
useful birds ; the establishment of —
more compost heaps; distribution of
seeds, plants and eggs to farmers
and to school boys; the purchase and —
distribution of seed, the disinfection of
silkworm sheds; the establishment of —
amulberry farm; the award of prizes”
such as implements, fans, ete., for field”
competitions (not samples) of four kinds— ~
The prefectural
associations elect deputies who form a
Standing Committee or Central Agric
tural Council. There is thus a chain
associations, the lowest link of which
ee
- Avaust, 1908.]
gets down to the individual cultivator,
and so the whole country is being per-
meated with new ideas and stimulated
to new action. The village associations
are financed entirely by the cultivators
themselves. The district associations
are assisted both by imperial and local
funds. but the total amount spent on
them from these sources in 1905 was only
1:42 lakhs and 3°45 lakhs respectively.
“The object of Government,” Sir FE.
Nicholson says, “is gradually to shift
the work of agricultural development
from the shoulders of the Government
to those of the people themselves, recog-
nising that itis not that which is done
for the people, but that which is done
by the people that is truly beneficial,
and that real progress can come only
from within. This is a proposition of
universal application, and more espe-
cially in India where the tendency of a
bureaucratic Government is to work
- Independently of the people, it requires
to be constantly borne in mind. As yet
perhaps primary education is not so
widely diffused in India, nor has it a
sufficiently practical bent as to admit of
the general establishment of village
- associations, but a real attempt might
be made to found them in some of the
more advanced districts where the
spread of primary education among the
agricultural population affords the best
hope of success.—Indian Agriculturist,
Vol. XXXITII., Caleutta, May, 1908 No. 5.
/
THE SCHOLARS’ GARDEN AND
WHAT WAS DONE WITH IT.
By A. C. NEATE,
Late Melbourne Botanic Gardens.
When visiting the A. N. A. Exhibi-
tion in February, 1901, we inquired
into the subject of school gardens in
Victoria, and were afforded some inter-
esting information on the matter by
Mr. Ambrose C. Neate, for many years
associated with Mr. Guilfoyle, the
Curator of the Melbourne Botanic Gar-
dens. Mr. Neate writes, enclosing a
letter from two young horticulturists,
“Frank and Florrie,” who appear to
have profited greatly by his instruction.
He says :—
“The accompanying sketch of the
‘Scholars’ Garden, &c.,” is in the main
Outcome of a talk—a while back—with a
large gathering of both lads and lassies of
from eleven to fourteen years of age, in
one of the public schools here; and,
though delivered in this conversational
form, with a view to eliciting responses
20
pars
153
Miscellaneous.
trom the young people, this object was
the more certainly attained, because the
writer exhibited during the talk quite a
score of (Vick’s New York) coloured
plates of well-formed garden flowers,
on which also remarks were made and
questions asked.
“The interest seemed to be so well
maintained during the three-quarters of
an hour’s converse, and proved what has
long been testified by others, that the
love of flowers is inherent, and only
needs a little encouragement to prove
it a welcome aid to Christian conduct
with associated education both in the
public schools and ‘home’ life of our
boys and girls.
‘If you would approve further notes,
they (Part II.) will be sent, say, as
now, for the perusal of the Queensland
cousins of ‘Flora’ and ‘Frank,’ as to
the operations likely to be entered upon
after the summer heat has vanished, and
in preparation thereafter until spring
time approaches.
* These noteg will be partially sug-
gestive, or. at any rate, they will be
perused (in part from my original jot-
tings) to show sympathy with the young
people as to gardening pastimes, linked
with and leading up to their personal
interests in floriculture generally; and,
where possible, associated with such
encouragement as may (will ?) ‘be forth-
coming in connection with their very
own school garden.
“THE SCHOLARS’ GARDEN AND WHAT
WAS DONE WITH IT.
Part I.
‘“ The Character of Our Ground .—It
comprises the family home, and has a
garden plot in front and at the side,
with a spare piece at the back; the soil
is sandy loam, about 18 inches deep,
with a clay subsoil.
‘“My father said that my brother and
myself might have a piece which is near
the ferce—about 36 feetlong by 12 feet
wide, witha partly sunny aspect—buton
condition that it shall contain not only
pretty flowering shrubs, but be also
plentifully stocked with annuals and
perennials in season, and that it must be
kept clean and quite free from weeds ; and
further, that we may have all the spare
water available for the summer time
with supplementary helpfrom the hose
and water taps when necessary.
‘““Well, about Our Commencement.—
We had some trouble as to the plan,
and asked father’s advice. He at once
marked out the ground for us, and
gave us a good cheery young gardener
Miscellaneous.
for a whole day to dig over the plot, and
level it just nicely so as to leave us
but little to do besides putting in the
plants and seeds; also a good supply of
cuttings; and as there was still fully
two hours’ time after digging, the gar-
dener gave us much useful help and
guidance as to our little plantation and
its future possibilities. I must not for-
get to say we were fortunate in this our
first garden to have init at regular dis-
tances—standing well back—a fig tree, an
apricot, loquat, anda pomegranate, all
of which are, the gardener says, sure to
give a nice lot of fruit next season, quite
as acceptable in their way as the flowers
of the other plants will be. We then
planted a number of roses, which father
gave us, and this proved sufficient for
our first day’s efforts in our very own
little garden. Afterwards, during a
whole week we made quite a large addi-
tion of plants, which were given to my
brother or myself by friends of our
father’s from their pretty gardens at St.
Kilda and Camberwell. These plants
were of the following kinds :—Geraniums
in vaviety, daisies (pretty pink ones),
carnations, perennial phloxes, violets,
hydrangeas, echeverias (various kinds).
and some cuttings of three or four kinds
of climbing pelargoniums, twelve kinds
of roses (cuttings), anda good many
other things, such as veronicas, blue,
silvery-leaved, and mauve-flowered ; also
a supply of seeds of asters, phloxes,
zinnias, and linarias for sowing in the
spring.
“The way we put in the roses and
other shrubby plants was at distances of
about 4 feet apart, and standing well
backin the bed; then we _ planted the
smaller growing (dwarf) plants in the
front of the border; some of these were
verbenas, oxalis, cowslips, primroses, and
here and there a pretty blue pentstemon,
and a nice little set of a pink-flowered
plant called by the gardener Heuchera
sanguinea ; whilst in the front we made—
it multiplies very quickly-—a pretty moss-
like edging, rich emerald green, and we
found it most suitable ; we may add, too,
that it was much admired by our
visitors. Its name is, so father told us,
Spergula pilifera. When one treads on
this, it is as if the feet would sink in its
pile carpet-like cushioning. It likes the
shade to some extent, and stands a
rather limited supply of sunshine; but
it must have, we find,a fairamount of
water put on inthe evening asa matter
of necessity to save sun-scorching.
“Tmayadd that, in addition to the
climbing roses and pelargoniums for the
fence at the back of our plot, we added
two or three passion fruit plants, some
Tecomas (McKenii and Jasminoides),
154
also a few of Coboea scandens (which we —
first raised from seedin a pot). The
passion fruit climbers we raised from
seed out of a small purchase of this fruit
in a Glenferris road produce shop.
So far as we have gone with our little
garden, father says, we have made a
good deal of progress—everything now
for the past two or three months has
done very well, indeed; and he added, as
he kindly tied up some of our climbers
against the wire netting and trellis work
that, if we waited patiently, the shelter
given by the climbers against the strong
winds both hot and cold would, with our
care in other respects, give a good show
of colour as varied as the rainbow from
the many flowers now growing so well,
andenable us to not only supply the
house or a friend now andagain witha ~
choice supply of blooms, but also to give —
us some very practical knowledge, of
which, as to many plants and flowers,
both my brother Frank and myself
(Flora) were quite ignorant at the
commencement of our pleasant work of
partnership as amateur horticulturists
in our spare time, principally either
before or after school hours. And we
found that we enjoyed both our meals
and nightly rest the better, tosay but
little of the improved interest we took
in our lessons, and the outcome in every
way proved satisfactory, so our father
and mother, also our many friends, tell
us. Anyway, a good many of our fellow
scholars come to see the garden fre-
quently, and we know that some of them
think of doing their share of flower eul- —
ture, too, in their own ground, with the
hope of doing as well or better than we
did. Of course, we wish them success,
but they will haveto work hard to do
even as wellas we have done; at least
we believe so from our successes, to say
nothing of our many failures, for which, —
of course, father says (with a twinkle in —
his eye) we are at liberty to blame the —
climate! Well, we think he is right, for —
the terribly hot summer we have been ~
suffering from for many weeks past has ©
also told badly on other gardens than
ourownall over the suburbs of Melbourne. ©
‘We commenced our little Malvern”
early last spring (September), and we are
still enduring our summer (February),
being thankful that on the whole our
floral treasures have mostly survived
and thriven, because (in addition to one
or two welcome downpours of rain) the
demand for extra care has not been
denied our much-loved little garden by
my ever helpful brother and myself.—
‘Krank and Flora.’ “ag
“P.S.—As soon as we can get shade
enough from the climbers, which wil
O
* Avavst, 1908. ] i
A eartiatty cover the summer house the
carpenter has made, mother and father,
ourselves, and friends will often read,
talk, or rest there in full view of our
floral success.—‘ F’, and F.’”—Queensland
Agricultural Journal, Vol. XX,, Part
4, April, 1908.
\
THE AGRICULTURAL CONFERENCE
AT AHMEDABAD IN NOVEMBER,
1907.
By HarRoup H. Mann, D.Sc.,
Principal, Agricultural College, Poona.
Provincial Conferences in India for the
discussion of agricultural matters are
eomparatively new and their utility is
_ disputed. Many believe that they can
serve no useful purpose and lead to
little else than impracticable and
irrelevant talk. The Ahmedabad Con-
_ ference gave me an opportunity of judg-
ing whether such an _ opinion could
usually be justified.
THE CONFERENCE.
The Conference was presided over by
_ the Senior Member of the Governor's
~ Councilin the Bombay Presidency (Mr.
_ J. W. P. Muir-Mackenzie), and contained
representatives from nearly every in-
terest in the province which had even a
remote connection with the culture of
_ the land. It comprised merchants and
i millowners from Bombay and Ahmeda-
bad, upon whom a large part of the
- cotton growers of Western India depend
for their market; exporters of cotton
or other produce whose agents penetrate
- into every corner of the province; land-
& owners, large and small, from Gujerat,
- Kathiawar, the Deccan, and even from
if ‘Kanara and the Southern Mahratta
i. country; representatives from local
Agricultural Associations and genuine
_ agriculturists—actual tillers of the soil.
’ The agricultural needs of particular
Es localities were clearly defined, and the
Bee vion showed what were the real
difficulties of the cultivators. They,
_ moreover, indicated many lines in which
the Department of Agriculture might
Pe: of direct and immediate use to the
agricultural interest. I came away
_ feeling that, for me at any rate, the
- Conference had furnished much food for
_ reflection and basis for action.
In this article I shall merely discuss
one or two matters that were brought
_ before the Conference, and indicate some
conclusions to which I have come, after
a careful consideration of what passed
cies combined with independent infor-
_ mation. I am hopeful that such a
5 Miscellaneous.
statement will induce some of those
who may not be in accord with my con-
clusions to indicate in a future number
of the Journal their reasons for coming
to acontrary opinion.
COTTON,
On the first day the very important
discussion on the improvement of cotton
completely overshadowed other pro-
ceedings. It was complained that the
efforts of the Agricultural Department
in this direction were painfully slow,
and that little result had been obtained
after a good many years of experiment.
Doubt was expressed, moreover, as to
the possibility of maintaining the purity
and hence the quality of any new
variety or type of seed that may he
introduced. It was further stated that
there had been great difficulty in getting
manufacturers to give a fair price for
small quantities of an improved staple,
and that cultivators were, therefore,
discouraged from growing new kinds.
The manufacturers complained that they
had no means of knowing where and
when improved staples were being
actually cultivated.
Round these points the whole discus-
sion ranged. Mr. Gammie was able to
give a complete answer to the complaint
regarding the slowness in the production
of improved types. In Bombay the
false method of ‘‘ field to field” selection
was adopted and proved a failure many
years ago. This might have been anti-
cipated, since in many districts the best
fields then contained, as they do now,
a very complex mixture of different
types of cotton, and these types them-
selves consist of good, bad and indif-
ferent plants. Mr. Gammie stated that
he had found it necessary, before even
beginning the systematic selection and
crossing of cottons on any large scale, to
obtain, examine in detail, and define the
very numerous varieties of cotton in the
Bombay Presidency. This had taken
years. Then selection and crossing were
begun, and now there was a prospect
that after next year some of the new
varieties which have been produced
could be distributed for experiment on a
fairly large scale.
Neither Mr. Gammie nor any speaker
at the Conference mentioned a difficulty
which must follow as soon as im-
proved stocks are brought into general
use. Thisis the necessity for continu-
ing the selection continually, for if this
is not done, reversion to the average
characters of the type from which they
are produced will inevitably occur.
Nearly all plants are apt to deteriorate
in this country. An improved cotton
hybrid will speedily degenerate unless its
‘
Ss SS
Sa eS eae an ee ee
Miscellaneous. 156
stindard of quality and productiveness
is maintained or improved by continual
selection.
In other countries the difficulty is got
over, in a measure, by the existence of
professional seed growers, who are selec-
tors—in general—to the community. A
farmer may use his own seed repeatedly,
but ultimately he goes elsewhere for it,
and obtains it, directly or indirectly,
from a special seed merchant, Here in
India we have no _ professional seed
growers on a large scale. For exotic
crops the usual remedy is to import
fresh seed at frequent intervals.
For indigenous crops which can be
easily selected, like Jowar, the culti-
vators have, in many places, done the
selection themselves. But for crops like
eotton, where the seed cannot usually
be imported every year, and where the
selection, plant by plant, not only for
staple, but also for percentage of lint,
for weight of crop per plant, and so on,
is difficult, selection is by no means
generally carried out.
There are only two remedies so far as
I can see. One of these is to train
cultivators in cotton seed selection by
means of frequent short courses at the
experimental farms, or similar short
courses in their own villages; the other
is for Provincial Governments either to
organise seed farms themselves on a
considerable scale, or give expert assis-
tance to outside capitalists who may be
induced to become seed growers on a
commercial scale. The first method is
admirable as faras it goes. I feel that
too much cannot be made of its impor-
tance. But it is slow in action. It is
necessary not only to teach how to
select, but to make the cultivators
realise the importance of selection.
A number of speakers at the Con-
ference emphasised the fact that dete-
rioration of cotton, due to admixture of
varieties, was largely caused by the ex-
tension of steam ginning factories. The
general opinion was that pure types of
cotton could not be maintained in these
districts, where mixed types are grown,
if cultivators depend upon ginning
factories for their seed. Steam gins are
usually so arranged, that without very
elaborate care it is practically impossi-
ble to give back unmixed to cultivators
of small holdings their own seed. Large
cultivators can arrange so that several
gins and the adjoining floor space ina
factory can be cleaned out before their
cotton is put in. Thus, there isa fair
chance that they can get back their own
seed reasonably pure. There was a
decided feeling at the Conference that it
would be well for the cotton industry of
[AveusT, 1908,
any district if we could get back to the
system of hand-ginning which has almost
entirely died out, or failing this, if pure
types of cotton were ginned under the
direct supervision of officers of the
Agricultural Department, or by genuine
seed merchants.
It seems necessary, therefore, that a
system ofseed growing and ginning for
sale must be part of the organisation of
the cotton industry if real improvement
is to take place. The same reasoning
applies equally to any other agricultural
crop in which selection cannot be made
with considerable ease. In this article
it is out of place for me to describe fully
the requirements for seed growing, but
alternative methods might be suggested
as follows :—
I. Should Government initiate large
seed farms ?
If. Should selected cultivators be
subsidised and their work con-
trolled or guided by trained men
of the Agricultural Department ?
III. Can outside capitalists be in-
duced to take over such large seed
farms as are initiated by Govern-
ment and extend them as a speci-
alized Indian industry? These
suggestions demand careful con-
sideration, and a criticism by
practical men of their advantages
or disadvantages would doubtless —
be welcomed by the Agricultural —
Department.
There was a good deal of animated —
discussion at the Conference as to the
means of securing a faiv price for im-
proved cottons. Many of these better
types are recognised as being more
difficult to grow; a longer staple usually
means a longer growing season; often —
the percentage of lint to seed is lower;
and it is only if the cotton obtains a
distinctly higher price in the market —
that it will pay to grow the better
variety. On the other hand, it was
urged on behalf of the manufacturers
that small quantities, though recognised
as being superior, were nouse to them.
Unless at least five bales* are marked
together, they could not give a better
price. Now, five bales of cotton are usu
ally beyond a single cultivator’s power
to produce. So that till a considerable
area is under an improved cotton, no
better price is obtainable. The difficulty
is considerable. The cultivator says:
“Unless you give me better price for
my lint, I cannot grow the improved —
cotton.” The manufacturer replies;
*This amount was mentioned as their mini
mum by the millowners of Ahmedabad,
~Aveust, 1908: |
“Unless you give me atleast five bales,
I cannot give a better price.”
This difficulty has been got over in
the case of HKgyptain cotton in Sind,
by the establishment of a public auction
at Mirpurkhas, where all the small
quantities of cotton can be auctioned
together. The extension of this method
in other parts where improved cottons
are introduced, is one way out of the
difficulty, if it is found feasible. Other-
wise the only method seems to be for
Government or others to arrange tem-
porarily for combined marketing. It
was also suggested that a fund should
be raised by the trade, to be aided from
the money placed in the hands of the
Government by the British Cotton Grow-
ing Association, to be given as a bonus
to cultivators growing improved cotton.
This might be possible, but I am not
very sanguine,
Another proposal came fromthe mill-
owners of Ahmedabad, that a sample
room (which they were willing to pro-
vide) should beopened at Ahmedabad
where all the improved cottons could
‘be on view, and data given as to where
they were being grown. If this infor-
mation was in their hands, they could
send their agents to the places where the
cotton was being grown, and purchase
various lots themselves on the spot. The
suggestion appears to be a very practical
one. The required samples should con-
sist of at least ten pounds of cotton lint,
and be renewed as needed, and should be
freely open to public inspection. If such
a sample room were opened, and well
managed, it would at least enable buyers
to collect from the growers sufficient
' quantity for practical trade trials.
Such are the principal points of the dis-
cussion on the improvement of cotton.
The questions of the maintenance of an
improved stock, of the prevention of
mixture with inferior varieties at the
gins, and of the marketing of small
quantities of improved cotton seem to
have perhaps those of the first impor-
tance. Whether any of the suggestions
I have recapitulated or made are suffici-
ent to deal with, these undoubted
difficulties can only be decided in the
future. But they certainly give a basis
for action, and action of some kind will
certainly be necessary, by one more of
the parties concerned, if these very
real difficulties are to be solved.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS.
Just asthe question of the improve-
ment of cotton was the chief matter for
discussion on the first day at the Ahme-
dabad Conference, so on the second day
the most interesting and profitable time
was given to the question of the functions
157
Miscellaneous:
and best method of the working of agri-
cultural associations.
It may be well to preface an account
of the principal points in the discussion
by saying that there are not as yet any
number of such associations in the Bom-
bay Preisdency. Three district agri-
cultural associations exist at present.
These are at Ahmedabad, Dharwar, and
Broach, and there are a number of
smaller associations organised in talukas
in Gujerat and the Deccan. But, gener-
ally speaking, the idea has not yet taken
root, and the work which the associ-
ations are todo, has not hitherto been
very clearly understood or defined.
CO-OPERATIVE BANKS.
In attempting to consider, in the light
of what was said at Ahmedabad, the
probable line of most useful develop-
ment of what I may call co-operative
associations for the improvement of
agricultural methods and practices, it
was striking to observe how unanimous
the speakers were as _ to the necessity of
building up from the smaller units to
the greater, that is to say, from the
village association (where possible) to
that at taluka, and from the latter to one
extending its services to the whole of a
district. This position was stated by
men from Gujerat, from the Deccan, and
from the south of the Presidency, The
opinion was, in fact, the echo of what
has been found in almost all, if not in all,
efforts of every kind to benefit agricul-
turists everywhere, including co-oper-
ative banking. In respect to the latter,
the most recent writer says :—‘‘ Organise
downwards from the top, and in such
matters you are bound to fail. Organise
upwards from below, and, if only you
are judicious in your measures, you will
succeed.” I am confident that this is
the right method, and that the attempt
to form a central agricultural association,
whose existence shall afterwards induce
the formation of smaller local and village
associations, is usually bound to fail.
CONSTITUTION AND FUNCTIONS OF
DRANCH ASSOCIATIONS.
_Several speakers insisted on the neces-
sity of not pressing the formation of
local associations with any semblance
of aGovernment order. If local ideas
are largely inflnenced by official opinion,
we may have again, at once, all the evil-
effect of building from above. A body
of men who unite for any purpose by
instruction, or even apparently by
instruction, trom a superior authority,
will also limit their activity tothe fur-
ther instruction received. I am con-
fident again that the speakers were
right in this matter, and that, unless
the people feel it is a co-operative and
not an Cfficial effort, little or no develop-
Miscellaneous.
ment of useful functions will take place,
In this connection, as a result of a con-
versation I had with the representatives
of existing associations, I would be in-
elined to doubt whether the regular
appointment of a Government officer,
especially a revenue officer, as chairman,
is wise if the organisation is to succeed.
It is all a question of personality. In
some eases, the Mamlatdar in the case of
the smaller bodies, or the collector in the
ease of the larger, will be naturally the
leader; in others, he will always he sus-
pected, and the association will be
still-born. I am aware that the appoint-
ment of these men as officers to corres-
pond with the Department of Agricul-
ture is usually very advantageous.
They are accustomed to such corres-
pondence, and their representations are
more easily understood and perhaps carry
more weight. But if we really mean the
local associations to fulfil their primary
purpose in improving the agriculture of
the villages, this advantage must, where
necessary, be at least partly sacrificed.
A suggestion was made at the Con-
ference that, where such still existed,
the village organisation should itself
become the agricultural association.
No new name would be imposed, no
sense of strangeness would be felt, only
that this organisation would be asked
to fulfil some extra purposes. “That
would be a more natural procedure to
adopt,” said Mr. Wood, *‘ than to create
some new bodies, impose upon them
occidental names, and put before them
long sheets of printed bye-laws.” The
idea seems an admirable one, but in any
case, as is at once obvious, ‘‘the long
sheet of printed bye-laws” would be
fatal to an agricultural association or
to anything else in Indian village life.
There seems a good deal to be said for
the suggestion, also made at the Con- .
ference, to let the formation of agri-
cultural associations follow the intro-
duction of co-operative credit societies.
The latter introduce the idea of co-oper-
ation under a regular inspection, and once
such a society is successful in a place,
the people will be ready fora further
development of the idea. This has been
even more recently emphasised by Mr.
Stanley Reed of Bombay in a paper read
at the Indian Industrial Conference at
Surat. Hesaid:—‘‘At a recent Con-
ference at Ahmedabad a decided pre-
ference was expressed for village, or
at most taluka, associations. I would
only say that this is one of those ques-
tions in which it is desirable to hasten
slowly, and if it beagreed thata start
should be made with village societies,
those villages should be selected where
theco-operative credit movement has
taken the firmest root.”
158
Oe my 4
ee
he
fAvarst, 1908,
Regarding the organisation of agri-: —
cultural associations, we have, then, in
summary the following points :—
(1) The unit of organisation should
be as small as possible, a village by. pre-
ference, but where this is impossible, a
taluka.
(2) The organisation should nut be
forced, and should have as little as pos-
sible of the Government order about it.
(3) While officially patronised, its
organisation should be essentially popu-
lar and co-operative.
(4) Existing villageorganisation should
be used, wherever possible, rather than
have the introduction of a new body
with a new name.
(5) Co-operative credit societies, firmly
rooted, are the best introduction to an
agricultural association.
Turning now from the organisation to
the functions of an agricultural asso- -
ciation, it was universally recognised at
Ahmedabad that they must be solely —
agricultural if they are to do their best
work. The improvement of agricultural
methods was seen to be as much as an
association was capable of dealing with.
And if this be the case, perhaps the most
important function of the local organisa-
tion is to keep the central body, which
stands for the improvement of agricul-
ture in the whole province, i.e, the
Department of Agriculture, in touch
with the actual cultivators in the field.
Here has been the weak point hitherto
in the agricultural organisation of many
Indian provinces, if not in most. One of
the speakers particularly emphasised the
présent lack of touch, in Gujerat atany —
rate, betweenthe Agricultural Depart- —
ment and the agriculturists. And the
local agricultural association must he
the link, if any is to exist.
But here a difficulty arises. If the ©
local organisations are to be small, as —
already recommended, the touch cannot —
be maintained by correspondence: it must —
be by the personal and frequent presence —
of thoroughly syiupathetic officers of —
the Department, who are themselves
practical agriculturists. If correspon- ~
dence can be fully replaced by personal —
presence, then I shall have better con-
fidence in the success of agricultural
associations as a means of agricultural
development. The men who ean doit
must be sons of the soil, be well educated
in the science and practice of agriculture
and be otherwise well chosen; the areas -
they have to cover must be compara-
tively small; they must be very keen on
their work. Such men already exist in
Bombay, and more will be producer
An Rae PS ee TE ETE eee ee ee ‘
Ea tL ay
<
ea rte ee
Avéust, 1908.
_ when the Agricultural College at Poona
is thoroughly established. Divisional
Inspectors of the class above described
will have, as part of their duties, the:
function of bringing the local associa-
_ tions into regular touch with the Depart- ,
ment. But ultimately more men than
_. these will be required if the movement
ft
ty
_ Imay be excused the term.
must carry from show to show some
is to be a thorough success,
SHOWS AND DEMONSTRATIONS.
Such a man, as I have described, as th®
adviser of the local people, will, if he is
the proper man forthe work, give just
the impetus which is required to make a
village or talukaassociation an actually
working body. And with this impetus.
the next step isto the organisation of
agricultural shows and demonstrations of
clearly known improvements. These
two things should go hand inhand. The
demonstrations, if successful, as they
~ must be, would probably be an integral
- part of the local show. Adequate prizes
‘could be arranged for produce, for stand-
- ing crops and for animals, and so givea
spirit of emulation among the people.
The special officer of the Department,
whom I have described, must be present,
and demonstrate the demonstrations, if
Further, he
- machine, within the capacity of a culti-
vator or a village association, which
- would, from his own personal and _ inti-
\
They would themselves do
-_ mate knowledge, be an improvement on
the system. in vogue on that countryside.
These shows would be very local, the
more local the better in many respects.
good as
shows, but they would be even better as
a means of oringing actual improve-
- ments to the door and notice of the
cultivators.
_ Jarger and more elaborate shows at im-
They would not replace the
s portant centres, but they would have a
function, an important function. Of
them the localagricultural association is,
_ however, asit were, the foundations tone.
SPECIFIC IMPROVEMENTS.
A good many speakers at the Confer-
ence emphasised the importance of
short courses in specific improvements
which should be given at the experi-
mental farms or elsewhere. It would
be probably impossible to arrange for
these directly in connection with samller
associations, but these latter could and
would select the men
who would be
most likely to profit by them, and send
them to a centre for the purpose.
_ Beyond this such local associations
havea larger number of useful functions,
many of which were indicated at Ahme-
dabad. They give (generally through
‘the Divisional Inspector or the more
numerous men who will replace him)
6
159
Miscetlaneoris.
intimation of a plant disease or an insect
pest, and indicate that they want help.
They select the best men to whom new
seed, hew manures, and new implements
aresentfor demonstration. They report
difficulties through deterioration of
land, which can then be closely investi-
gated. They are the body to whom agri-
cultural information is sent, whether pub-
lished in the furm of vernacular leaflets
or through a vernacular press. And, in
general, they form, as I have said above,
the link between the Department and
the people.
This, on the whole, is how I interpret
the trend and meaning of the opinions
yxpressed at the Ahmedabad Confer-
ence. There was much enthusiasm, an
enthusiasm which should, I think. be
utilised. Many of the suggestions
demand much elaboration and modifi-
cation at the hand of the man who
earries them out. The key, however,
to a rapid progress of agricultural im-
provement in Bombay Presidency lies,
I was made to feel at the Conference,
in the development of co-operative
agricultural associations, together with
the getting together of a body of advisers
who can go from place to place, are
thoroughly imbued with a_ belief
in agricultural development, and
are keen agriculturists themselves.
The whole of this must be backed (and I
think that fact is already realised) by
consistent and constant scientific investi-
gation into the difficulties, as they arise.
In the present paper, I have only indi-
eated, and more or less inadequately
discussed, the two principal questions
which formed the programme at the
Ahmedabad Conference. Other impor-
tant matters were raised, but their con-
sideration was not thorough enough to
inake it profitable to summarise the
ideas that were expressed. Their dis-
cussion on a more satisfactory basis will,
no doubt, be taken up again at one of
the future Conferences.—A gricultural
Journal of India, Vol. III., Part 1, Janu-
ary, 1908.
TAUNGYA (CHENA) CUTTING.
Taungya cutting, as I have seen it,
would appear to fall roughly into four
classes.
The first of these, which is distinct from
the other three, is the ordinary upland
cultivation on land where ploughing is
possible. The cultivator ploughs a piece
of land, takes one or two crops off it and
then lets it revert to grass land or scrub
jungle for another six years or so.
Except that the patches are not arranged
Miscellaneous. i60
systematically, and the period during
which the land is allowed to lie fallow is
long, the difference between this method
of cultivation and agriculture as prac-
tised in more civilised countries is not so
striking.
The growth of weeds is so much more
rapid in Burma, that I doubt if the agri-
cultural methods applicable at Home
could effectually cope with them, so it
would seem a necessity to allow the land
to lie fallow for a certain period, so that
weeds may be killed out bya crop of
grass or woody plants.
2. The other three classes comprise
taungya cultivation where the nature
of the ground does not admit of plough-
ing and may be sub-divided as follows :—
(a) Taungya cultivation where the
taungya areas are_ fire-protected and
worked under a fixed rotation. This
method is largely practised in the Karen
Hills and in the south-west of the
Southern Shan States.
(6) Taungya cultivation where the
area is not fire-protected but a rotation
of sorts is observed.
(c) Taungya cultivation where there
is neither fire-protection nor rotation,
ae, taungya cultivation in its most
primitive form. carried out for the most
part in virgin forest.
3. The attitude of the Forest Depart-
ment is not unnaturally hostile to
taungya cultivation in any shape or
form, but the fact remains that, in
the present state of their agricultural
knowledge, taungya cultivation of some.
description must be permitted to
enable the various people in the
hilly localities to live, and our various
proposals to abolish it altogether in
certain areas are generally viewed rather
ube thotically by the powers that
e.
Till quite recently the efforts of the
Forest Department to curtail the areas
used by the taungya cutter were under-
taken more in the interests of teak than
with a view to the preservation of the
forests for climatic reasons. In recent
years, however, the question of protect-
ing our forests for climatic reasons
against the inroads of the taungya cutter
has come prominently forward, and the
authorities are less suspicious of our
efforts in this direction than formerly
they appeared to be. I would submit,
however, that the attitude of the Forest
Department is still too uncompromis-
ingly hostile to the taungya cultivator.
We are not inclined to recognise him as
an evil that has to be tolerated. We
strive to abolish him rather than to
regulate his devastations.
0 oe
fAvGusi, 1908.
4. To turn to the classification of
taungya cultivation given above. The
chief evilin the case of the first two
‘groups (upland and _ fire-protected taun-
gyas) is that the taungya areas, instead
of being concentrated in one block, are
scattered in small patches over huge
areas, each patch being an unnecessarily
large distance from that of the previous
year and chosen unsystematically, the
choice depending on the instinct or
superstition of the taungya cutter.
Thus where some 50 acres under a proper
rotation are required by each individual
taungya cutter, he probably scatters his
yatches over ten times this area and
acks away the intervening forest,
partly to remove shade from his crops,
partly on account of his irresistible
propensity to hack atevery thing tree-
like. Wereit not for their scattered
nature upland cultivation and fire-pro-
tected taungya cultivation would do
comparatively little harm.
5. Un-fire-protected taungya cultiva-
tion, however, falls into a very different
category from either of the above two
groups and requires a much greater
measure of control as much in the
interests of the taungya cutters them-
selves where they are confined to a res-
tricted area as in the interests of the
forests, where a fixed taungya rotation
is adopted; if the areas to be cut over
are not protected from being annually
burnt, the soil deteriorates from year
to year, the woody growth which is
depended on for manure gets scantier
and fails to protect the soil, so that the
crops get poorer year by year and pro-
bably in course of time the taungya
areas become almost completely sterile.
Taungya cultivation without a rota-
tion need not be taken into consider-
ation. There can be no question but
that it should be stopped drastically.
6. To properly regulate taungya culti-
vation in unclassed areas is beyond the
power of our present establishment. —
We may have it stopped in certain areas;
but this probably results in the areas not
closed to taungya cutting being merci-
lessly overworked. We may try to res-—
trict the use of fire in the areas where
taungya cutting is permitted by pro--
hibitory order; but even if the inhabi-—
tants themselves were careful in the use
of fire, the areas would be almost certain — 3
to be burnt through carelessness of —
passing wayfarers. 4
Taungya cultivation in unclassed forest
can‘in my opinion only be properly regu-
lated by a settlement which allots to
‘dl
taungyas.
take time and cost money; but the hill
o
AUGUST, 1908.]
and forests and incidentally the people
themselves, though they would not
realise it at the time, would be bound to
benefit by it. At settlement the area
required by each village could be roughly
marked out and a few simple rules pres-
eribed. Above all, the fire-protection of
the area allotted to each community
should be insisted on and an endeavour
should be made to gradually concentrate
the cuttings of each year. Such areas
should come under the care of the
revenue authorities. The Forest Depart-
ment would have enough on its hands
looking after the areas of unclassed
forests which were not subject to
taungya cultivation.
7. To turn to the question of areas
inside reserved forests which are subject
to taungya privileges, I think we
could and should do something to re-
gulate the operations of the taungya
cutter. Itis the duty of the forester so
to manage any forest burdened with
rights, that it may be capable of yielding
whatever produce the right-holder is
entitled to, and even if taungya cultiva-
tion is reckoned a privilege, subject to
restriction or abolition at the stroke of
a pen, I would submit that it behoves
-usto attempt, as far as we can, to keep
the areas subject to itin as fita state
for the purpose of taungya cutting as
possible. I would further submit that
foresters of other countries would
adversely criticise our methods if they
realise that in some, atany rate, of the
areas subject to taungya_ privileges
inside our reserved forests taungya cul-
tivation was allowed to continue in the
old primeval manner in which it was
practised in prehistroric times.
-8. In the settlement proceedings of
Certain reserves that were settled in
Lower Burma some twenty or more years
ago, areas allotted to each village for
purposes of taungya cultivation were
determined by multiplying the number
of taungya cutters in the village by the
_ average area in acres worked annually
by each taungya cutter, multiplying the
figure thus obtained by the average
taungya rotation, and doubling the result
to allow for areas unsuited for taungyas.
The figure thus obtained was taken to
represent in acres the area required by
each community. The only restriction
was that no teak was to be cut or
injured in the taungya areas. In none
of the areas, that I have experience of,
was fire-protection compulsory, though
of course fire-protection would have
been insisted on had the fire-protection
of the rest of the reserve been under-
taken, and the annual fires have so
reduced the fertility of the taungya
areas, that each lorest Officer that visits
21
ee
——
161 - Miscellaneous.
the area has to listen to long grumb-
lings about the inadequacy of their size.
Whereas, if these areas were treated
under any system or even flre-protected
only, they would in all probability
suffice to support double the population
located on them. If certain taungya
cultivators, such as the Karens in the
Karen Hills, recognise that fire-protection
is beneficial to their taungya areas,
there can be no doubt that it must be
beneficial.
9. I would therefore suggest the
following rules for areas subject to taun-
gya privileges inside reserved forests :—
(a) That the privilege-holders fire-
protect the whole area allotted for
taungya cultivation.
(b) That they observe a fixed rotation
for their taungyas.
(c) That they gradually concentrate
von taungyas for each year in one
ock.
(d) That when putting in a crop in the
poorer part of their area where woody
growth is scarce, they put in at intervals
some quick-growing woody plants, e.g.,
the common taung kathit (&rythrina
stricta) seems specially suitable, It
thrives anywhere and everywhere, and
has such an extraordinary vitality that
apy cutting placed anyhow into the
ground will probably grow. Such woody
plants if put in wood protect the soiland
serve asa useful manure at the next
cutting.
10. Somesuch regulations seem abso-
lutely necessary where taungya cultiva-
tion has to be permitted in reserves
formed on high hills for the protection
of the water-supply or for climatic
reasons. The result of their application
would cause the taungya areas to resem-
ble to a certain extent a forest managed
under a clear cutting system on a short
rotation. If the areas are fire-protected
the percentage of the soilexposed at a
time would be much less than if they
were not protected from fire, and the
damage done by the taungya cutter
would be reduced to a minimum.
11. To prevent the regulations from
becoming a dead letter orto enforce a
taungya rotation on communities that
have never observed one, the area sub-
ject to taungya privileges could suitably
be divided into a number of compart-
ments of approximately equal area to
correspond in number with the years of
proposed taungya rotation, each com-
perenne being demarcated by rough
lazing, and the privilege-holders could
each year choose which block they liked
for their taungyas, provided they did
Se ES ce
i 5
+2
—
ia Pha 5s ee ee
Se a ek, ee ol
Miscellaneous. 162
not return to it till its turn came in the
second rotation. Departmental fire-
protection might be undertaken for the
first few years to teach the people how
to fire-protect their area.
12. I have written the abovefor the
purpose of eliciting information as to
whether any attempt has ever been
made to systematise taungya cultivation,
andalso for favour of any suggestions
that may be made. I am at present
assisting at the settlement of an area of
some 850 square miles with hills running
to over 7,000 feet that is about to be
reserved for climatic reasons. This area
contains some 1,400 Palaungs, a race that
cannot live at low levels. These Pa-
laungs have to be provided with taungya
areas inside this reserve. They have
already done an incredible amount of
damage, cutting without a rotation and
in virgin forest by preference. The
forests at the high altitudes were mostly
pine, and taungya cutting has caused
large patches to become treeless grass
land which has materially affected the
water-supply.
If taungya areas are simply formed in
the usual way without regulations being
insisted on, I have little doubt that in at
most another two decades the Palaungs
would convert them into unproductive
wastes incapable of supporting any
population.
H, W. A. WATSON,
Deputy Conservator of Forests.
Camp, Southern Shan States,
15th February, 1908.
—Indian Forester, Vol. XXXIV., No. 5,
May, 1908.
LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE.
XXXII.
Rubber Cultiwation.
DISEASES.
Rot on Rubber. Str. Bull. 1903, p. 42.
Moulds and Rubber. Petch, ‘‘T.A,”
Jan. 1907, p. 9.
Two rubber pests. Ridley. Str. Bull.
Mar. 1908, p. 89.
Report on diseased rubber trees for-
warded from Perak. do. p. 90.
' Rubber, Special, by genera.
CASTILLOA.
Morris, Santor Lectures on rubber,
p.
do British Honduras pp. 74, 80.
Hooker and Dyer. Trans. Linn. Soc.,
Aug. 1886
a J 7.
1 een
Ma TX C4
{Auaust, 1908. 4
Kew Bulletin, Dec. 1887.
Seeligmann, Lamy, and Falconnet.
Le Caoutchouc.
Foreign Office Report 322 Mis. (Co-
lombia) 1894.
Foreign Office Report 885 Mis. (Mex-
ico) 1895.
Trinidad Bull. Aug. 1898, p. 115.
“T.A.” Feb. 1883, Nov. 1884, Mar.
1885. cay
Trinidad Bull. Jan. 1899, p. 165.
R. B. G. Circular. I. 11. 1899.
Rubber in Guatemala. Ind. Mer.,
Apr. 1899.
Kew Bull. 1899, p. 159, copied in
Jam. Bull. 1900.
Transportation of seeds. ‘‘T.A.”
June 1900, p. 853.
Sur un espéece nouvelle de Castilloa
de Costa Rica. Rev. Cult. Col. VI
1900, p. 302.
Castilloa Tunu. Hemsley in Icones
Plant. 2651, 1900.
Die verschiedene Castilloa-sorten von
Costa Rica. Tropenpfil. 5. 1901,
p- 189.
Castilloa australis Hemsley. Icones |
Plant. 2676, 1901.
Bons et mauvais Castilloas. Journ.
d’Agr. trop. 1. 1901, pp. 17, 35.
Kosechny. Die Kultur der Castilloa
Kautschuk. Beih. zum Tropenpfi. —
TI. 8. 1901, p. 119.
Planting Castilloa in open pathways. —
““T.A.” Nov. 1901, p. 342.
Pittier. Le Castilloa Tunu: con- —
tient-il du caoutchouec. Journ.
d’ Agr. trop. 1. p. 99. &
Sur ladureé du pouvoir germinatif —
des graires de Castilloa. Rev.
Cult. Col. Nov. 1901, p. 841. i
Rubber planting in Costa Rica. —
Koschny Trin. Bull. 1902, p. 406. f
Une ferme a castilloa au Guatemala,
Journ. d Agr. trop. 1902, p. 78. =
Sur les caoutchoues au Rio Sinu. ©
Journ. d’Agr. trop. p. 124. ]
Rendement du Castilloa au Costa —
Rica. Journ. d’Agr. trop. p. 174.
Bons et mauvais Castilloas. Hule
liga du Guatemala. do. p. 190. q
Seeds of Castilloa (keeping quality).
Malay Bull. 1902, p. 318. of a
Yield of Castilloa tree. Ind. Gard.
16. 5. p. 441, 1908. q
Cultivation of Castilloa in Java. Str.
Bull. 1903, p. 105. }
Yield of Castilloa tree, “T.A.” 1903,
p. 843.
‘+!
‘Caucho and Castilloa Ulei
AUGUST, 1908. |
Experiments on the latex and rubber
from Castilloa. Weber. Ind. For.
29, p. 123. ‘
Growth in Matale district. ‘T.A.’
Apr. 19038, p. 698
Castilloa in Mexico. Ind. Plant. and
Gard. 1 Aug. 1903, p. 88
Castilloa in the Kast.
1904, p. 371.
Exploring for Castilloa rubber in
Panama. Ind. World. Dee. 1904—
Feb, 1905.
Rubber preparation and Castilloa
rubber. Trin. Bull. 1904, p. 162,
“TA.” Jan. 1905, p. 484 and after;
has several papers.
“T.A.” Dee.
Warb.
Esch in Ind. Journ. Nov. 1905, p. 48.
Zur Castilloa-kultur. Tropenpfl. 9,
1905, p. 690.
Culture et rendement du Castilloa &
Tacotalpa. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 31.8.
1905, p. 245.
Notes on the Castilloa rubber tree’
Jamaica Bull. IV. 1906, pp. 97, 172:
popeciatien of Castilloa rubber. do
pp. 9
Die ieeIPnE und Kautschukgewin-
nung von OCastilloa-arten. Zim-
mermann. Der Pflanzer 21. 4. 1906,
p- 81. seq.
The cultivation of the Castilloa tree.
Trop. Life, Nov. 1906, p. 163
Gathering Castilloa rubber in Pana-
ma. Ind. World, Apr. 1903, p. 238.
The South American caucho tree
identified. Ule (transtd.) Ind.
World, May 1905, p. 259.
A visit to rubber plantation in Nica-
ragua. do. July 1905, p. 329
Notes on the Castilloa rubber tree,
do. Apr. 1906, p. 217, May, p. 255
The introduction of Castilloa elastica
oo the East. “T.A.” Sept. 1906,
. 206.
The culture of the Central anoles
or Castilloa rubber tree.
Sept. 1905, p. 416.
The cultivation of the
rubber tree. ‘T.A.”
p. 363, July, p. 17.
A Mexican Castilloa rubber planta-
tion. “T.A.” Feb. 1906, p. 3.
Hinige Erfahrungen uber den Anbau
von Castilloa elastica. Tropenpfi.
1906, p. 716.
Castilloa rubber planting in Mexico.
ee Seffer. Trop. Life 1907 (se-
Castilloa
June 1906,
eS).
Patera ad Une plantation de Cas-
tilloa en Colombie. Journ. d’Agr.
trop. 7, 1907, p. 46.
163
MNiscellaneous|
Growth of Castilloa rubber in Mexico.
Ind. World, Jan. 1907, p. 116
Tapping Castilloa. do.
Coagulation of Castilloa rubber.
““T,A.” Mar. 1907, p. 185.
Cultivation of rubber.
Castilloa
“TA.” July 1907, p. 3,
Tapping Castilloa trees. p. 4.
Castilloa rubber. “‘T.A.” April 1908.
p. 300.
Rubber planting in
Central America.
Singapore, 1907.
Mexico and
Olssun-Seffer,
CEARA RUBBER.—See Manihot.
ORYPTOSTEGIA.
C. grandiflora.—Ind. Plant.
23. 4, 1804, p. 288.
Ficus.
Wiederholte anzapfung von F’ elas-
Lares Preyer in Tropenpfl. 4. 1900,
p. 404.
& Gard.
Die Kautschukkultur auf der Pama-
nukan und Tjiasem Landenin Java.
do. p. 429.
Les Ficus 4 caoutchoue Re oars Afrique
du Nord. Rev. Cult. Col. 5. 11. 99.
Der Milchsaft von F. ie Preyer
Beih. zum Tropenpfl I. 1900, p. 24.
Propagation du &. elastica par ‘‘ goo-
tees.” Rev. Cult, Col. 1900, p. 533.
Le latex du F. rubiginosa en Algerie.
do. p. 6382.
Charduar rubber plantations: result
of tapping. ‘‘T.A.” 1901, p. 453,
Le F. elastica en Annam, Bull.
Indoch. 1901, p. 97.
Boktorren uit F. elastica.
mann.
Pourquoi les Ficus d’Algiers ne don-
nent pas du caoutchoue. Journ,
d’ Agr. trop. I. 37.
Ke
Zimmer
Gutta Rambong in Malacca. Str,
Bull. I. 1901, p. 185.
A study aa iba planting. “T.A.”
1903, p. 8
Der canes liefernde Feigenbaum
von Neuealedonien (Ff. Schlechteri
Whbg). Tropenpfl. 1903, p. 581.
De kultuur van F. elastica. Ind.
Mere. 6, 12. 1904, p, 829.
Die kultur von fF. elastica. Tro-
penpfl. 1905, p. 673.
F. elasticain Angola. do. p. 581.
Multiplication du F. elastica par
semis. Journ. d’Agr. trop. Sept.
1905, p. 283.
Le Ff. elastica au Tonkin. Bull. He.
Indoch, 9, 1906, p. 1104.
Miscellaneous. 164.
Bald. The cultivation of 7. elastica.
Caleutta, 1906.
Report on tapping of F. elastica at
Mukkie in Kanoth range, N. Mala-
bar district. Ind. For. 33. 1907, p.
279. “'T.A.” Sept. 1907, p. 170.
Ficus in the East. Ind. Rub, Journ.
Aug. 12. 1907, p. 200.
The chemical nature of the albanes
in the rubber from Ff. Vogelit.
Liverp. Univ. J, C. R. 1907.
F. elastica, its growth and propaga-
tion, Forest Bull. 4. India, 1906.
Die Kultur und Kautschukgewinnung
von Ficus-arten Zimmermann.
Der Pflanzer 1905, p. 321.
Wie vervielfaltigt man den Karet-
baum (Ff. elastica) Tropenpfl. 1906,
p. 505.
Assam rubber and its commercial
prospects. Mann. Agr. J. of Ind.
I. p. 390.
Het stekken van F. elastica. Korte
Ber. Buitenzorg. 1908.
FUNTUMIA.
West African rubber. Pl. Op. 8. 4.
18, p.' 2655). TAL vAnor: 1809, p.
Lagos rubber industry. Kew Bull.
1899, p. 29.
Ueber Westafrikanische Kickxia-
arten. Notizbl. Berl. II. 1899, p.
358.
Ueber Kautschuk pflanzen und Kick"
xia africana in Victoria (Kamerun):
Tropenpfl. II. 1898. ‘* B.C.” Beih:
9, 75.
Kickxia africana. Str. Ball. 1900.
See Tropenpfl. 4. 1900, pp. 325, 280.
Quelques mots apropos des Kickxias.
Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 638.
Zwei neue Arten des Gattungs Kick-
xia aus Afrika. Notizbl. Berl. II.
p. 80,
Notes sur les espéces africanes du
genre Kickxia. Rev. Cult. Col.
1900, p. 748.
Westatfrikansche Caoutchouec. Ind.
Mere. 5. 2.1901, p, 78.
Funtumia elastica Stapf. Hooker’s
Icones Plant. 2694 et seq.
A Funtumia pest. Str. Bull. 1903, p.
355.
Die Kickxia elastica Preuss und ihre
kultur. Tropenpfl. 1904, p. 228.
Vorschlige betreffs der Ausbeutung
der wilden Kickxia-bestande in
Kamerun. Tropenpfi. 8 Nov. 1904,
p. 597.
Kickxia-ertrage i in Kamerun. do. 10.
1806, p. 82.
HANCORNIA.
HEVEA (PARA RUBBER).
Fe Gk
[Avavst, 1908,
Quelques mots apropos de F. elastica :
de Viare chain Rev, Cult. Col. 1902,
p. 74.
F. elastica. Str. Bull. If. 1903, p, 186
Der Westafrikanische Kautschuk
baum F. elastica in Uganda. Tro-
penpfi 1905, p. 509.
Die F. elastica in Uganda. do. 1906,
p- 663.
Die Ergebnisse des ersten Zapfver-
suches Hiner Kickxia- piaaaunes
Warburg. do. 9. 1905, p. 885
Hine neue Anzapfungs Methode fur
seers elastica. do. Mar. 1906, p.
Nochmals die Kickxia-ertrage in
Kamerun. do. 1906, p. 464.
Die kultur des Westafrikanische
Kautschukbaumes K. — elastica
Preuss. Mitth. Amani 27. 18. 6. 1904.
Ueber Kickxia-kultur in Kamerun
Tropenpfi. 1906, p. 701.
Afri ican tree rubber. Kew Bull. 1907,
p. 187.
Analysis of a latex from F. elas- —
a eee Univ. J. C. R. JI-
Une arbre a caoutchoue du Congo,
Bull. Jard. Col. July 1907, p. 4
Coagulation of F. latex. Ind. Jl.
Aug. 12. 1907, p, 198.
Notizie sulla F. elaslica. Bull. —
Palermo II. 1907, p. 78.
Latexfrom Funtumia. Liverp. Univ.
J.C. R. Ji. 1907.
Anzapfungsversuche mit K. elastica. ¢
Zimmermann Der Pflanzer 1907, —
p. 182
Lagos silk rubber. Jou “BAe
Brit. Gui. Jan. 1908, p
Mangabeira rubber. Kew Bull. 1899,
p. 185.
ee rubber. ‘‘T.A.” March 1900, p, —
Die Mangabeira. B.C. Bei. 8. p. 475.
Der Mangababaum (H. speciosa) un
waaeen kultur. Tropenpfi. 1900, p.
Botany, PLANTING, &e.
Rubber cultivation in Ceylon.
R.B.G. Perad. I. 4. Jan. 1898.
Caoutchoue or Indiarubber. do. I. 12,
June 1899. j
Sipapore Botanic Gardens Report
Para rubber notes. Malay Bull. 1900.
Rodrigues. As Heveas. Rio de-
Janeiro, 1900.
~
be
|
i
i
4
Le) OL
-Avavst, 1908.]
Ule’s expedition. Notizbl. Berlin,
ITI. 1901, p. 129. ;
Para rubber in the Straits Settle-
ments. Straits Bull. I. p. 193.
“TA.” Feb, 1902, p. 524.
Growth of Para rubber trees. Str.
Bull. I. 1902.
Arden’s Report. Ind. Gard. 7. 2. 1903,
Dp. L25;
Notes on Arden’s Report. Str. Bull.
II. 1903, p. 42.
Planting in Ceylon and the F.M.S.
Ind. World, April 1904, p. 225.
L’Hevea brasiliensis: Sa cultu e et
son exploitation daus_ le Sud-
Annam. Bull. Ee. del’ Indcch. 8
p. 687,
Collet. L’Hevea asiatique. Bruxelles
1904.
Extra-floral nectaries of Hevea.
Parkin. Ann. Bot. Agr. 1904.
Two Para Heveas. °'T.A.” Aug. 1904
p. 126
Sur les formes d’Hevea dites ‘ blan-
che” et “noire.” Huber. Journ.
d’Agr. trop. Dec. 1905, p. 388.
The nature of the Para rubber tree,
&e. Wright. “T.A.” Sept, 1906,
p. 214.
Ueber Hevea brasiliensis in Singa-
pore. Schlechter. Tropenpfi. 1907,
p. 133,
LT’? Hevea discolor de la region de
Manaos. Journ. d’Agr. trop. 1907,
p. 69.
A non-rubber-yielding Hevea. ‘‘T.A.”
June 1907, p. 344.
Abnormalities in the stem of Hevea.
Ridley. Str. Bull. June 1907, p.
157.
Early fruiting of Para rubber do.
p. 176.
ee vitality of Hevea. ‘‘T.A.” Aug.
1907, p. 87.
Burrs or nodules on Hevea stems.
do. p. 60
The Hevea tree.
Nov. 1907, p. 314.
Hevea discotor Mull.—Arg. als Lief-
erant des Kautschuks vom Rio
neete: Tropenfl. Nov. 1907, p.
788.
Variation and selection in Hevea‘
Journ d’Agr. trop. July 1907, p.
195, reviewed by Lock in ‘T.A.”
Apr. 1908, p. 299.
Big rubber trees in the Botanic
Gardens. Str. Bull. July 1908, p.
Wright. Para Rubber, 3rd. ed, 1908.
Wickham. ‘‘ T.A.”
165 Miscellaneous.
£600 PER ACRE IN A FRENCH
GARDEN.
THE GREAT POSSIBILITIES OF THE SOIL.
Tt is difficult to find a parallel in agri-
culture or horticulture to the astonish-
ing growth of interest in the system of
French gardening since an experimental
garden in Berkshire was visited by the
tenant of the Daily Mail farm in March,”
says Mr. W. Beach Thomas in the Daily
Mail. ‘‘Itis not only that people of all
sorts and conditions, including large
landowners, leading seedsmen, and every
variety of person whoowns a garden
have written and made inquiries about
intensive cultivation; but a considerable
proportion have begun to make pur-
chases with a view to starting French
gardens this autumn, and several French
gardeners are being engaged.
THE INTEREST IN FRENCH GARDENING.
“The reformatory schools, to the
number of two hundered ana more, have
already adopted the system. Oxford-
shire and some other county councils are
beginning to purchase a few frames and
bell glasses for purposes of instruction,
and companies have been started in
horticultural centres in England for
providing requisites. I know of cases
where men have taken land and goneto
live in the country in order to promote
the cause of intensive cultivation and
test the capability of English soil to
supply English wants. Here and there
agricultural labourers have managed to
buy bell glasses and frames, under the
advice of horticultural schools and
colleges.
THe NEED OF A TEXT-BOOK.
“During the last three months hun-
dreds of people have written to the
Daily Mail asking for precise instruc-
tion, and every post has made manifest
the fact that an authentic and simple
text-book giving a diary of work in the
garden was urgently needed if these
nundreds of people were to profit by the
system. Erench gardening flourished in
England, to some extent and in one form,
a hundred and fifty years ago, and the
French learnt a good deal from our
gardeners. who, they considered, could
grow certain vegetables—cauliflowers
especially—much better than they could.
But since those early days no text-book
of any authority has been written, and,
indeed, no book making the due allow-
ances for English climate as compared
with French could have been written
before a complete garden had _ been
tested in England.
oo Cag i ee
Miscellaneous.
“Mr. McKay, who now makes good the
deficiency, may be regarded as the
founder of the French garden in England,
since he first persuaded English gar-
deners to go over to Paris to see for
themselves the wonders of cultivation
which they would not believe on hear-
say. His diary and manual of French
gardening is published to-day, and we
trust that in continuation of the ac-
counts of French gardening given and
about to be giveninthe Daily Mail, it
will promote, in a practical and health-
ful manner, this important industry.
How PRoFITS ARE MULTIPLIED.
“The prosperity of the English
countryside depends first and foremost
onclose or intensive cultivation. The
growth of machinery has_ greatly bene-
fited the large farmer, and, indeed, the
small farmer, but for the moment it |
made a reduction in the amount of
labour employed on the land, That was
the first stage of the new agriculture.
The second came when science began to
teach us that personal attention to small
plots may do even more than mechanical
attention to ample spaces. With the
help of a cutter and binder a farmer can
gather his crops cheaply and neatly. He
can make, we will say, an average profit
of £2 an acre where previously he would
make 30s. anacre. But that advance is
as nothing to the next. It is now
proved that aman equipped with scienti-
fic and practical knowledge of the in-
finite capacity of the soil may with the
help of capital now make profit to the
extent of £100 or £150 an acre, where in
earlier days it was supposed impossible
to make £30 or £40.
PROFITS ON FOUR AND A HALF ACRES.
“Mr. McKay quotesin this book the
exact figures from the farm of four and a
half acres set up at Evesham. From one
acre gross returns of over £600 were
procured. A few of the details of the
sale may be given. ‘From 600 lights Mr.
Harvey cut 21,600 lettuces, at an average
of 2s. per dozen. Out of the same lights
2,400 cauliflowers, atan average of 4s.
per dozen; again from the same lights
2.400 dozen turnips and 5,000 dozen
bunches of carrots at 6d. per dozen, as
wellas three melons from each light
occupied with them at 2s. 6d. each.
“Entirely apart from the question
how much it may cost to get that result,
the fact itself is a revelation of the
power of the soil to produce wealth. It
means that a man who will work hard,
and who has the knowledge, can easily
liveon an acre, and can, at the same
time, pay high rent for the land and for
the equipment. The man who goes in
166
ee i
[Avaust, 1908,
for French gardening on the highest
scale will need capital and will risk it,
but the system can be employed by any —
man, however poor. Itis full of hints
and suggestions, and applies to the
greenhouse as to the frame. You can
begin wih a single frame, and test French’ —
gardening on a capital of £2. The sup- ©
reme secret is that a piece of land may —
bear four or even fivecrops in the year
with very much less cost both of mannre
and of glass than is involved either in the
greenhouse artificially heated or in the
ordinary hot frame of the English
garden.
THOSE WHO ARE EXPERIMENTING.
“FHrom one point of view French
gardening may be regarded as very
costly. It involves fencing, protecting,
levelling, and covering with glass a large ~
part of che garden ground, but any other
system of glass is very much more ex-
expensive and brings smaller returns. —
The people who are now beginning to ©
start French gardens’ are the right
people to start. One class consists of
professional market gardeners, one of —
amateurs who have little difficulty in~
finding the capital, but who need con-—
siderable return if their capital is to sup- i
port them; the third consists chiefly of —
educational horticulturists, and from
all these it is to be hoped that the inten-—
sive science of the Freneh will spread
throughout the English people, and will
help them to see that the land, from
which we all live, ought to be treated
with such scientific care as we,apply to
any other industry. For example, the
best brewers employ the most distin-
guished botanists they can find and
send them to study both nature and art
in many countries. The farmer and
the market gardener should, like the
brewer, regard the treatment of the land —
as essentially a scientific business, and
the study of the science of the soil will
give as good returns to intelligent work
as the ferment of the barley grain.
The French system may be regarded
as the natural development of the mar
ket garden. A man can make £60 an
acre off an open garden. An_ hotel
waiter has done this on an indifferent
gite in his spare hours. i”
Foop RrrormM. -
“The establishment of the Fre
garden coincides witha growing des
for food reform. The French ha
learnt to defy the seasons for a hundret
years or more. So far, we have bee
content to experiment with a few h
house fruits, principally grapes 2
peaches, At much less cost we can pr¢
vide for the general use an all-the-ye
re Roane
mi 1 fi
‘ Aveus', 1908.]
_ round salad and a variety of vegetables
if we will consent to bring to the study
of the subject such energy and skill as
under the ganius of Parisian gardeners
have brought the value of the land round
- Paris up toa rent equivalent to £30 and
tion Work conducted by the
more an acre.”—Public Opinion,
26th,
June.
DEMONSTRATION WORK IN CO-
OPERATION WITH SOUTHERN
FARMERS.
By S. A. KNAPP.
INTRODUCTION.
The Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra-
United
States Department of Agriculture
through the Bureau of Plant Industry
was inaugurated under authority of
Congress in January, 1904, primarily
because of the depredations of the Mexi-
can cotton boll weevilin the State of
Texas. By the rapid spread of this pest
east and north it had then become evi-
dent that it would in time invade all of
the cotton-producing States. This occa-
_ sioned a general alarm among the cotton
ing advances
planters and in the industrial centre of
the entire country. For a number of
years prior to 1904 the Mexican boll
weevil had been steadily encroaching
upon the cotton-producing lands _ of
Texas, until it had spread from the Rio
Grande, to ashort distance beyond the
eastern boundary of the State and
threatened the entire cotton industry of
the South. In sections where cotton
as the sole catch crop the invasion of
he weevil and the consequence loss of
the cotton crop brought disaster to
every interest and so completely demora-
lized financial conditions as to produce
in some sections a panic.
The cotton crop had been generally
produced upon a credit system by secur-
from merchants and
bankers. Upon the advent of the boll
weevil, confidence in securing a cotton
crop was impaired and in some districts
almost totally destroyed. The usual
advances were either witheld or limited;
labour became discontented and sought
other sections or other States, and,
tenant-farmers unable to obtain ad-
~ vances, removed to non-infested districts,
a marked decline in property values re-
sulting.
These circumstances created a demand
for immediate relief which appealed to
the entire country, as the loss of the
cotton crop would beanational calamity.
In response to this appeal, Congress made
ah emergency appropriation in January,
&.
167
Miscellaneous.
1904, which has been continued each
year, thus affording opportunity for the
growth and enlargement of the work.
THE Two BRANCHES OF THE DuMon-
STRATION WoRK.
As at present organized and developed
the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra-
tion Work may be said to consist of two
divisions: (1) The demonstration of im-
proved methods of agriculture in the
weevil-infected districts, which is the
natural outgrowth of the original plan,
and (2) the extension of the same prin-
ciples to other Southern States beyond
the range of weevil infestation.
_The territory ccvered by the first divi-
sion of the work includes eastern and
northern Texas, southern Arkansas,
Oklahoma, Louisiana, and a portion of
Mississippi. The total area thus covered
is more than 300,000 square miles. The
work in Arkansas, Oklahoma, and
Mississippi has been broadly inagurated
only since October, 1907.
The second division of the work was
commenced in Mississippi in March, 1906.
In co-operation with the General Educa-
tion Board of New York, this work in
1907 was conducted ina limited way in
Alabama and Virginia, and has recently
been extended, into North Carolina
South Carolina, and Georgia. The ex.
penses of this division of the work are
defrayed by the General Education
Board, which has appropriated the sum
of $69,000 for demonstration work during
the year commencing October 1, 1907.
The Board has shown deep interest
hearty co-operation, and avery broad
philanthropy inthis work of reaching
ee rural masses and bettering farm con.
itlons.
PLAN OF ORGANIZATION.
The Farmers’ Co-operative De ra
tion Work is conducted by the wut
special agent in charge, who reports di-
rectly to the chief of the Bureau of Plant
Industry. A corps of field agents, classi-
fied according to territory in charge
as State, district, and county agents is
employed. The county agents ‘are
appointed mainly on the advice of local
committees of prominent business men
and farmers conversant with the ter-
ritory to be worked. Each agent has in
charge the practical work in or more
counties, strictly under such general
directions as may be issued from the
central office at Washington, D.C. The
field agents have been selected With
special reference to a thorough know-
ledge of improved agriculture and prac-
tical experience in farming in the sections
to which they are appointed. District
Miscelianeous.
agents are expected to have not onlya
knowledge of scientific agriculture, but
to be practical farmers and to have
had considerable experience in the
demonstration work. State agents are
strong and capable men, who have
shown their ability to successfully carry
out the instructions of the central office
over a large territory, and they are
specially qualified for the work by the
possession of the tact necessary to
influence men.
The term ‘‘demonstration farm” is
used to designate a portion of land on a
farm that is worked strictly according
to our instructions. This is visited by
an agent as often as once a month, if
possible, to see that these instructions
are carried out and to give any further
advice necessary.
A “co-operator” is a farmer who agrees
to work a part or all of his crop accord-
ing to our instructions, but a Depart-
ment agent only visits him in excep-
tioaal cases,
During the ensuing year there will be
employed in the co-operative demon-
stration work 59 agents paid from Govern-
ment appropriations, and in the exten-
sion work 84 agents paid by the General
Education Board. With this force about
12,000 demonstration farms had _ been
established up to February 1, 1908, and
20,000 farmers had agreed to co-operate
and make reports as to results.
SCOPE OF THE DEMONSTRATIONS.
The Farmers’ Co-operative Demon-
stration Work is a system by which the
simple and well-established principles of
successful farming are directly taught
to the men on the farms. The men who
toil on the tarms to produce the food
that nourishes all the people, and who
in a large measure provide the resources
that support our civilization, are as
justly entitled to a knowledge of the
best that science and general experience
have evolved for increase of production
and for the betterment of agricultural
conditions as the youth of our country
are entitled to an education that will fit
them for a broader critizenship.
One of the most serious problems in
the reform of agricultural methods has
been how to influence the farmer to
adopt improved practices. It has been
found that the mere dissemination of
printed information sometimes does not
accomplish this result, and therefore the
method of neighbourhood farm demon-
strations in co-operation with pro-
gressive farmers has_ been evolved.
The effect of a field demonstration is
immediate and positive, and reaches all
classes.
168
oa
[Aveusr, 1908.
{
By actual count, it is determined that
the number of farmers who annually
visit each demonstration farm ranges
from thirty toa hundred. If the average
is placed as low as thirty the total num-
ber visiting 12,000 demonstration farms
in one year would be 360,000. If we are
the co-operating farmers, the aggregate
is greatly increased.
The teaching by object-lessons is more
effective where itis simple, direct, and
limited to a few common field crops,
such as cotton, corn, cowpeas, and oats
in the South, so that the comparisons
may be evident and accepted at a glance.
If general success can be secured with
these standard crops, further diversifica-
tion follows as a natural result.
Briefly stated, the salient features of
the co-operative farm demonstrations
are as follows :—
(1) Better drainage of the soil. 5
(2) A deeper and more thoroughly ~
pulverized seed bed ; deep fall breaking —
(plowing) with implements that will not —
bring the subsoil to the surface. t
(3) The use of seed of the best variety,
ine eal selected and _ carefully
stored.
(4) In cultivated crops, giving the
rows and the plants in the rows a space —
suited to the plant, the soil, and climate. —
(5) Intensive tillage during the grow-
ing periods of the crops.
(6) The importance of a high content
of humus in the soil. The use of legumes,
barnyard mauure, farm refuse, and com- —
mercial fertilizers. Fi
(7) The value of crop rotation and a —
winter cover crop on southern farms.
(8) The accomplishing of more work
in a day on the farm by using more horse-
power and better implements.
(9) The importance of increasing the —
farm stock to the extent of utilizing all
the waste products and idle lands of the
farm. ;
(10) The production of all food re-—
quired for the men and animals on the
farm. ; p
(11) The keeping of an account with
each farm product, in order to know
from which the gain or loss arises.
THE INSTRUCTIONS.
Our instructions have the following
advantages :—(1) What the Department
of Agriculture at Washington knows
from its vast stores of information
about the special crop under consider.
ation; (2) what the State agriculture
> gh malticks ee ee
- Avaust, 1908: ]
experiment stations in the South have
_demonstrated to be the most advanta-
geous methods ; (8) what the best farmers
in the South have tested and proved to
be the most successful practices upon_the
farm, and (4) the knowledge obtained by
the travelling agents of this demonstra-
tion work, who visit and have personal
knowledge of the localities in the State
in which they are stationed. Even then
the instructions given are along the
lines of correct principles, leaving many
details to the good judgment of the
farmer.
_ In this co-operative work great stress
_is laid upon a more thorough preparation
_ of the soil in the autumn, because in our
southern climate the frostsdo not pene-
_ trate the soil sufficiently to open them
an .4imit air; we musttheretore do by
- ploughing in the fall and by some winter
—eultivation what Nature does in the
colder North. |
Inthe richest soils there is but little
food ready prepared for the plant, and
_Nature’s plan is that this food shall be
prepared more or less daily by the action
of the air, the moisture in the soils, and
the sun. These three agents make
active the forces that prepare the food,
so the plant can be properly nourished.
This cannot be done without ploughing
and cultivating to admit the air, and the
earlier this work is commenced before
the winter, the greater the effect it will
have upon the crop of the following
‘season.
The effect of using good seed is not
sufficiently appreciated, nor perhaps is it
understood just what makes good seed.
It must be the best variety for the pur-
pose, carefully selected early in the fall
and stored inadry place. The reasons
for very frequent cultivation are the
admission of air, the conservation of
moisture in the soil, and the prevention
of a surface crust.
4 Young plants require excellent culti-
vation, just as young animals require
the best food and care.
_ The judicious use of commercial ferti-
zers is one of the most important
matters in modern agriculture, for this
furnishes plant food directly and in-
directly tothe young plants. For soil
improvement we must largely depend
upon barnyard manure, the compost
heap, and leguminous plants, such as
cowpeas.
The importance of doing more as well
as better work ina day has not been
sufficiently impressed upon the southern
ial
169
Miscellaneous,
farmer. This requires the use of stronger
teams and better tools. Working three
acres in a day where one is worked now,
and working each acre three times as
well isa problem in profit easily under-
stood after demonstration.
How FARMERS ARE INFLUENCED TO
ADOPT BETTER METHODS.
In the South nearly all the merchants,
ankers, and lawvers in the towns and
smaller cities own farms and are in-
tensely interested in agriculture. They
form an effective centre of influence,
easily convinced of the value of the
co-operative demonstration plan _ by
reason of their high intelligence.
Meetings are called and the work in-
augurated. No further argument is
necessary after the demonstrations have
been made. Facts do the talking. The
teachers in the public schools are
generally alert and render most valuable
assistance, The agricultural colleges
and agricultural experiment stations
give hearty co-operation. Thus, general
interest is aroused in these demon-
strations, which leads to careful obser-
vation and study on the part of
the farmers and of the community.
Public meetings are held for the discus-
sion of these plans. In the cotton-pro-
ducing States the first instructions
include cotton as the main catch crop,
corn as the standard food for work
animals and the basis for more stock on
the farm, cowpeas for food and for the
renovation of the soil, oats or wheat as
a winter cover crop, and the meadow
and the pasture as the most economical
source of food for farm stock. When
the farmer has mastered these crops he
is ready for diversification in any desired
direction.
In districts where cotton is not the
standard catch crop, instruction is given
in whatever replaces cotton as a money-
earning crop. These simple lessons at
the start gradually made progressive
until they cover all information neces-
sary to success in the agriculture of the
district.
Asa means of reaching thousands of
farmers with whom our agents do not
come in personal contact, systematic use
is made of the newspapers. Every
bulletin or letter of instruction sent to
co-operators is also furnished to about
2.000 county newspapers, and by most of
them published in full. The hearty
co-operation of the press has’ been
of Chel value to the demonstration
work.
(Zo be concluded.)
Miscellaneous: 170
NOTES AND QUERIES.
By C. DRIEBERG.
G. D.—The principal local tan-produc-
ing trees are Kadol (Rizophora mucron-
ata), the common mangrove found at the
mouths of rivers, Ranawara (Cassia
auriculata) very common in the dry
country, and Kahata (Careya arborea)
the patana ‘“Oak.” The Australian
wattles, grown upcountry, are the only
cultivated tan-producing trees.
“NIYVANDE.’—Referring to this fibre
(Sanseviera zeylanica), a gentleman resid-
ing in the Matale District (as he puts it
“in the midst of Niyande”) does not give
a satisfactory report. He has his own
machine of simple design for extracting
the fibre, but considers it a non-paying
product at £386 per ton, it is to be
presumed, delivered inEngland. Every-
thing, of course, depends on the cost of
extraction, and £36 does not seem a bad
price.
KF, C.—Why don’t you try an artificial
mixture for your paddy and tobacco,
such as has been found so satisfactory
in Bengal? You will, I fancy, find it
cheaper than cattle manure and green
manure which you say costs you so much
to get on to the land. A good many
members of the Society are using arti-
ficial mixtures.
BEE-KEEPER.—The question of secur-
ing comb-foundation for the mee-messa
(Apis indica) has been before the Bee-
Committee for some time, and just now
there appears to be a fair prospect of
the matter being brought to a satis-
factory issue.
G. DES.—The sample is not limestone
which can easily be distinguished from
quartz by the extreme hardness of the
latter (on trying it with a knife); besides,
limestone will show effervescence with
hydrochloric acid.
SOUTHERNER.—A preparation has just
been placed on the market by Cooper of
sheepdip fame. Itis known as the V2
solution, and, mixed with a hundred
times its volume of water, is an excellent
insecticide and preventative of insect
attack—specially good for scales. I can
send you a sample bottle for trial.
CiTRUS.—Here is a good mixture for
orange trees:—2 lbs. groundnut cake,
2lbs. bonemeal, 2 lbs. steamed bones,
[AUGUST, 1908.
2 lbs. sulphate of potash. Total per
tree 8 lbs, which might be applied mixed
with cattle manure. ~
B. S.—The following will give you the
intormation you want: Healthy pulse of
(1) horse is 30 to 40 beats per minute, (2)
cow 40 to 50, (3) dog 70 to 80.
CoTTON GROWER.--6 lbs. per acre is
the usual estimate for Sea Island. 1 lb.
contains about 4,000 seeds. If you get
200 Ibs. of lint per acre, there would also
be about 700 lbs. seed, which, as you
will see from the Progress Report (vide
page 171) is worth a good deal.
N. P.—Cerbera odallam isthe name of
the common fence-plant grown round
paddy fields in the Western Province,
and known in Sinhalese as gon-kaduru or
weta-kaduru. The diference between
suriya (Thespesia populnea) and beli-
patta (Hibiscus tileaceus) is quite clear.
It is the latter that is so commonly used
for forming boundary fences. As a
shade tree the suriya is going out,
though one still sees itin dry districts
like Puttalam.
THE DIVINING Rop.—A local authority
qualified to express an opinion writes as
follows in reply to my query enquiring
whether he does not think we might find
the “‘ divining rod” useful in Ceylon :—
‘*T have no practical experience or know-
ledge of the ‘‘ Divining Rod” myself.
I have, however, read a good deal
about it, and I really think that, so far
as at present known, it seems about as
difficult to form an opinion on as the
question of ghosts or thought-reading.
One cannot in reason set down all
these people who give apparently very
authentic accounts of success as being
frauds, wilfully or otherwise ; at the same
time I cannot conceive any possible
solution—with our present knowledge—
of the phenomena, if such really exist.
However, no more can you or Il
actually give any account of the un-
doubted phenomena regarding magne-
tism, e.g., the fact that a common bar of
iron, without magnetic properties, be-
comesa magnet if held in the position
which makes it point to the magnetic
pole! There is one point, however, on
which I have very decided opinions, and
thatis, that I believe all these men who
use the “diviningrod” have a very shrewd
appreciation of their surroundings
coupled with a knowledge of practical
geology, that is to say, they never go to
find water in an unlikely place.” |
_ Avaust, 1908.
Correspondence.
“HANA” HEMP: A VILLAGE IN-
DUSTRY WORTHY OF
ENCOURAGEMENT.
On Cireuvit—Hunupolla.
Kurunegala, 138th August, 1908.
D#AR Sir.—I am sending you by this post
some seed of ‘‘ Hana” (Crotalaria juncia)
that I find is freely grown in this part of
the Kurunegala District, in the hope that
something might be done to encourage
the industry in this excellent hemp.
It is quite a useful addition to the
finances of the villagers here, who grow
it without difficulty, and at small cost.
The ground is roughly prepared, as for
hill paddy, just before the S. W. rains
begin, and the seed is planted broadcast.
It germinates in three days, and in three
months the crop is ready. In that time
it grows to 4ft., and is pulled up by the ’
roots. The stems are cut to uniform
lengths, and tied and put into water for
about five days, after which the fibre is
stripped off by hand.
The next process is sun-drying and
arranging the dry fibre into ‘‘murukkus”
or small bundles, and then are sold at
from 123 to 16 cts. per lb. I find that the
trade appears to be in the hands of a few
Moratuwa people, who, [suspect, make a
very considerable profit out of the sutff.
Isend you a small sample of hand-
made string from this hemp, and which
you will find to be exceedingly strong.
I think the matter is quite worth atten-
tion, and I would suggest expert opinion
being obtained on the value of the fibre,
as I ean hardly suppose it can be only
worth so small a sum as 123 cts. a pound.
Lhave also observed that the “sticks”
atter the fibre has been removed, are
very highly inflammable, beside being
exceedingly light; and it has struck me
that this ‘‘ bye-product” might be largely
used for making “spills,” matchwood,
or even matches, so thatin that way
something might be done with it.
Lastly, the lopped-off ends make a good
green manure, so that all round there
appears to be scope for developing a
trade in this little-known product.
The whole business is so simple, and
the crop so easily raised, that I can’t but
think it deserves to be encouraged.
Isend some seed with the hope that
you will raise it in Colombo, and satisfy
yourself as to the ease and readiness
with which it can be grown. The
“sticks” I will bring with me on my
return to Colombo. Yours truly,
FREDERICK LEWIS.
171 Miscellaneous.
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
MINUTES OF THE 4ist MEETING,
The forty-first meeting of the Board
of Agriculture was held at the Council
Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, the 3rd
August, 1908.
His Excellency the Governor presided.
There were also present :—The Hon’ble
Mr. Hugh Clifford (Colonial Secretary),
the Hon’ble Mr. W. H. Jackson, the
Hon’ble Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere, Sir
Solomon Dias Bandaranaike, Capt.
Curling, A.D.C., Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs.
J. Harward, G. W. Sturgess, R. H. Lock,
A. F. West, C. J. C. Mee, Francis Daniel,
Kdward Cowan, M. Suppramaniam, and
the Secretary.
BUSINESS.
(1.) Minutes of the previous meeting
peld Be May 4th were read and con-
rmed,
2.) Progress Report No, 40 was pre-
sented and adopted.
(3.) Dr. J. C. Willis presented the
report of the Special Committee on
School Gardens and Agricultural Educa-
tion, which H. EK. the President said he
would consider when it came before him,
(4.) The Secretary (in the absence of
the writer) read a paper by Mr. A.
Dissanaike Mudaliyar and Retired Pre-
sident, V. T., Salpiti Korale, entitled
“The Village Cultivator and Paddy
Cultivation.” His Excellency spoke at
length onthe paper, and was followed
by the Hon’ble the Colonial Secretary
and Mr. Obeyesekere.
(5.) Mr. A. EF. West, Acting Govern-
ment Entomologist, read a paper on
‘*Vermin Destruction.”
(6.) The writers of the two papers
were accorded a vote of thanks.
PROGRESS REPORT XL,
Membership.—Since the last ordinary
meeting held on May 4th, the following
members have been enrolled :—Alfred Bawa,
Allan Drieberg, Cecil C, Harding, Clement
R. Ingleby, C. Sri Kanta, V. S. Kanaisa-
pillai, the Managing Director of the Lanka
Agricultural Co., Ltd,, W. Hunter, L. B.
Fernando, D. Carson, and E, Abdul
Hamid Didi,
Miscellaneous:
Inspection Tours.—On June 25 Dr, Willis
and the Secretary visited Jaffna in connec-
tion with the proposed experiment in the
better growing and curing of tobacco in
the North. The Jaffna Tobacco Committee
had already submitted a report setting forth
their views as to what action Government
should take in the matter, but His Excel-
lency the Governor soon after paid a visit to
the North and announced the conditions on
which the experiment in question would be
undertaken. The agricultural officers, acting
on behalf of the Society’s Tobacco Committee,
sought a conference with the Jaffna Com-
mittee with a view to discovering a modus
vivendi. Their report will be considered at
a meeting of their Committee fixed for this
day.
On July 16 Dr, Willis and the Secretaiy
visited Chilaw. and Puttalam. A meeting of
the Puttalam Branch Society was held on
the 17th, when various agricultural matter's,
including irrigation of crops, proper method
of tillage, rotation of crops, and coconut stem
bleeding disease, came up for discussion. It
was decided to institute a series of practical
demonstrations in the continuous cultivation
of chena land on approved lines in place of
the present wasteful system of cultivation.
The services of an Agricultural Instructor
will be made available for controlling the
demonstrations, which itis hoped to start
next October in the Demela_ hatpattu,
where agriculture is in a very primitive and
backward state.
' At the meeting of the Chilaw Society
held on the 19th afternoon Mr. R. G.
Saunders, Assistant Government Agent, in
the Chair—the subjects discussed included
agricultural banks and distribution of seeds,
as well as the importance of proper tillage
and rotation. It was decided to join Puttalam
in a series of comparative trials on the lines
already indicated, the sites selected to be
in Pitigal Korale North.
A meeting of the coconut planters of
Chilaw followed, when an interesting con-
ference on the bleeding and other diseases
of the coconut took place. It was reported
that the eradication of the stem disease was
progressing very satisfactorily. Dr. Willis
advised those present not to relax their
vigilance, but to give steady and continuous
attention to the suppression of the disease
with a view to bringing it to the same
position as the canker disease in cacao, which
is kept well in check by a little extra regular
expenditure,
Branch Societies.—The Wellaboda Pattu
(Galle) Branch held a meeting of the Work-
ing Committee an June 24. Arrangements
for the Cattle and Vegetable Fair proposed
to be held in December were entrusted to a
Sub-Committee. It was decided, with a view
of encouraging change of seed paddy, that
as many members as possible should each
172
cde As)
a, Fra Fd
1 ae
19,
[Aveust, i\ 908, ‘
procure atleast two amunams of a suitable
paddy new to the district and distribute it
by sale or loan to cultivators. Seven mem-
bers undertook to carry out the suggestion.
The question of the establishment of Co-
operative Credit Banks was also discussed,
and it was agreed to defer final decision till
next meeting, when Mr. C. A. D. S. Wickre-
mesuriya undertook to read a paper on the
subject, explaining at the same time the lines
of an experiment now in operation in con-
nection with coconut crops.
_ The Wanni Hatpattu Branch held a meet-
ing on July 15, Among the matters dis-
cussed was the damage done by the drought
which prevailed in the district, 'The tobacco
plantations in several centres were reported
to be badly affected, the leaves being in
many cases scorched and their full develop-
ment invariably retarded, The paddy, too,
suffered, The present yala cultivation is
practically a total failure. The Society was
of opinion that restoration of oldtanks cannot
be expected to help in contingencies like the
present without the restoration of storage
tanks, which have long been lying aban-
doned since they fell into a state of disrepair.
The question of extending the cultivation
of cotton on chena was discussed, and it
was decided to urge on the Government
Agent the desirability of granting permits
for Crown chenas for the purpose.
Agri-Horticultural Shows.—Shows have
been arranged to be held in the following
centres in the North-Western Province on
August 15, 22, and 29 :—
On August 15, 1908, at Kuliyapitiya, for
Katugampola Hatpattu (Medaketiye Korale,
Yatikaha Korale, Karandapattu Korale,
Kiniyama Korale, Yagamapattu Korale, Ka-
tugampola Korale North, Katugampola
Korale South, Medapattu. Korale West,
Medapattu Korale East, and Pitigal Korale),
On August 22, 1908, at Balalla, for Wanni
Hatpattu(Mi-oyen Egoda Korale, Hatalispaha
Korale West, Hatalispaha Korale East,
Pahalawisideke Korale, Gantihe Korale,
Magul Medagandahaye Korale East and
West, Magul Otota Korale, and Katuwana
Korale).
On August 29, 1908, at Pilessa, for Weuda-
wili Hatpattu (Madure Korale, Hewa-
wisse Korale. Weuda Korale, Gannawa
Korale, Gandahaye Korale, Maha Galboda
Megoda Korale, Kuda Galboda Korale, and
Katuwana Korale). t
Kegalla Agri-Horticultural Show.—It
has-been decided to hold an Agri-Horti-
cultural Show at Kegalla onSeptember 25 and
26. The Catalogue has already been issued,
Kandy Agri-Horticultural Show.—The
idea of holding a Show at Kandy this year
has been abandoned, At a general meeting
of the Branch Society held on May 23 it was
resolved to hold a Show in August, 1909.
, {
Avevst, 1908.)
Colombo Show,—The Colombo Agri-
Hoticultural Society contemplates ornaniz-
ing an all-Island Show next year.
Mysore Dassara Industrial and Agri-
cullural Esxhibition.—Mr. Subba Rau,
Secretary to above Exhibition, Mysore, has
forwarded forms of application, rules, Xc.,
of the above Exhibition, requesting that it
be widely advertised in order to induce
Ceylon to send exhibits, As there are several
products depending largely on the Indian
market, such as tobacco, arecanuts, &c.,
it would be wise to forward exhibits in
’ order to extend the market for such pro-
ducts. It is to be hoped that the Secretaries
of Branch Societies, to whom forms have
been forwarded, will take the matter up.
Copies of the prize list are available on appli-
cation.
Special Committee on Agricultural In-
struction.—This Committeeheld three meet-
ings, and also visited a school garden at
Mirigama with a view to seeing for them-
selves how work is there carried on. The
Committee’s report will be presented at to-
day’s meeting,
Hill Paddy in the North.—Mv. 8S. Chel-
liah, Tamil Agricultural Instructor, reports
that some of the cultivators in the North
have agreed to try hill paddy on dry lands
which are at present entirely cultivated
with kurakkan. The necessary seed paddy is
being procured from the North-Western
Province.
Moulmein Paddy.—Arrangements are
being made to obtain a consignment of
paddy from Moulmein for trial locally. The
paddyis well spoken of as regards yield
and quality.
Manuring Paddy.—An experiment is
being made in the manuring of paddy under
the Minneri tank, and _ several individual
members and Branch Societies are also
conducting similar experiments.
Nitro-Bacterine.—The preparation suit-
able for ground-nuts is being tried at the
Government Stock Garden, The results of
the trial will be available when the crop
is lifted.
Vegetable Seeds —A large order has
been placed for vegetable seeds to be supplied
to applicants who have sent in requisitions.
The seeds are expected to arrive in time for
planting during the next rainy season—
October.
Coconut Stem Disease.—In addition to
the five special Inspectors appointed to
work under the Botanic Department, three
additional hands have been engaged, and the
workof eradicating thedisease is being pushed
on with vigour. From reports received it is
apparent that the disease has been got well
under control.
173i” Miscellaneous,
Brucea Sumatrana.—Some seeds of this
plant were received from the Botanic Gar-
dens, Straits Settlements, and put in nursery
at the Government Stock Garden. The fruits
have a considerable reputation as a remedy
for dysentery. An article on Brucea will
appear in the August number of the ‘*Tro-
pical Agyriculturist and Magazine of the
Ceylon Agricultural Society.”
Coca Plants and Malabar Pepper Cut-
tings.—Mr. K. Bandare Beddewela of Mali-
gatenne, Kandy,is offering coca plants and
Malabar pepper cuttings. These may be
had in quantity at reduced rates by members
applying through the Society. Coca seed is
also available.
Votton Seed.—Cultivators will be in-
terested to learn that there is a ready market
for cotton seed as well as lint. Messrs.
Nieland & Wilson, writing on the sub-
ject, say: ‘*It would be. best to carry it
(the seed) to the best market which no doubt
is England. The British Cotton Growing
Association are only too willing to pay
anything like £6 per ton c.i.f., Liverpool,
while there is hardly any local market or
only little, prices ranging from Rs. 2 to Rs, 3
per cwt., or even less.”
Cotton.—Mr. M. Suppramaniam, broker
of the Ceylon Spinning and Weaving Mills,
Wellawatta, writing on July 21, reported :—
*“Kive tons of Sea Island cotton were
purchased last week, and to-day a sample
has been received from a Pettah trader, who
has five tons more in hand. There is every
prospect of further increased supplies being
received.”
Plantain Fibre Machinery.—Iin reply
to inquiries, Mr. L. H. Dewey, Botanist in
in charge of Fibre Plants, writing on March
5, Says i—
‘ awa Haws ®O bed
ee as at eae oak
Bin) Rae OO BI) Bis =
BE o ia
Ib. lb. Ib: Ib: Ib,
Perak 24,687 164,946 189,633 98,591 91,012
Selangor 179,240 687,327 866,567 554,824 312,243
Negri Sembilan 32,147 293,811 825,958 208,610 117,348
Pahang nil nil
Total 236,074a 1,146,084 1,882,158 861,525 520,633
a Excluding Pahang export for June.
RUBBER CULTIVATION IN NORTH
BORNEO,
(Unitep Stares ConsunaAR Report.)
Tho following information concerning British
North Borneo estates devoted to the cultivation
of Para rubber is furnished by Consul Lester
Maynard, of Sandakan:—The soil of British
207
North Borneo equals, if it does not actually
survass, that of the Federated Malay States
and is about the same as that of Sumatra. The
cost of labour is as low as that of any place
east of Ceylon and the climate is well suited to
the cultivation of Para rubber, judging by
growth thereof in such widely different spots
as Sandakan and the interior. At present, Para
rubber is cultivated at one place only on the
Has Coast, at the head of Sandakan Bay and
here it appears to be doing well. Chinese have
so far been used on tobacco estates only, where
they are paidat afixedrate per thousand stalks
of tobacco delivered in the drying sheds and
under this system they provide a fine labour
force, but they would not perhaps do so well
on daily wages ou a rubber estate. They
will, however, prove the back-bone of that
industry as soon as a system of payment
by result can be introduced. Javanese have
a contract specifying that they shall fell
jungle, make buildings, and drain at usual
local rates, When on daily pay they receive
from $3.92. to $5.60 (gold) monthly according to
their abilities. In the Kudat district tobacco
is planted in five estates, one of which has com-
menced to plant rubber. The Langkon, worked
for many years as a tobacco estate, has now
ceased to plant that product and having been
recently purchased by a rubber company, is
being planted with Para rubber, There are
threes rubber estates now opened on the west
coast and all these are situated in the neigbour-
hood of Beaufort. The first opened were the
Beaufort and the Woodford estates, Some four
miles down the Padas River, on the Beaufort-
Weston Railway line, is another estate. All
these properties are connected with the port of
Jesselton by the Beaufort-Jesselton Railway:
These three estates have ample command of
free labour, Some of the Para rubber trees
planted there in March, 1906, havenow attained
a girth of over 9 in, 3 ft. from the ground and
are from 25 to 30 ft. high. In the interior there
are two estates, both of which were opened for
tobacco and one of them still plants this pro-
duct in addition to Para rubber; the other plants
Para rubber only, tobacco having bean aban-
doned after one year’s trial. One of these
estates is 5 miles by cart road and the other 12
miles by bridle path from the present Tenom
terminus of the Jesselton-Tenom Railway. On
these estates the greater part of the labour force
isindentured Chinese and Japanese, but it is
also supplemented by Tuaran Dusuns, Papar
Dusuns, and Bajaus. The Murut is also of con-
siderable use to estates, but like the Kudat
Dusuns, he will not work for more than a fort-
night ata stretch.—L. d C. Hupress, July 10.
A TEA SUBSTITUTE.
A curious kind of tea called ‘t Mayin cha
sold in the north of Calcutta was submitted
by Mr. B A Gupte. It consisted of the outer
bark of a tree used as fuel, and from its
appearance it resembled that of a mangrove
(Ceriops candolleana), a tree common in the
Sundribans.—Mr. D. Hooper, I.C.8,, in Calcutta
Muscum Leport for 1907-8,
208
THE CEYLON PLANTING INDUSTRY:
MAIN RESULTS FOR JULY, 1908.
392,000 ACRES THA ; AND 180,000 ACRES
RUBBER.
The above figures indicate the main results of
the present season’s collection of statistics from
every planting district and nearly every planta-
tion in the island. The compilation has been
completed for our Directory, and we hope to
begin issuing copies of the book to subscribers
very shortly. Unusual care has been taken in
the collation, and it is quite evident that planters
have been much more particular in making up
their returns. lor, only in this way can we ex-
plain the fact that ‘“‘ rubber planted in tea,”
which was represented by 41,690 acres a
year ago, now stands at 60,299 acres ; while
rubber in cacao has increased from 10,707 to
12,804 acres. It is most unlikely—in fact im-
possible—that there have been new clearings or
rather interplantings to this extent ; but rather
it is evident that more discrimination has been
shown in making up the estate returns. Asa
consequence, the area of ‘‘ tea alone” is actually
less by 13,000 acres than'a year ago ; while, even
allowing two-thirds of the 60,000 acres, we only
show an advance of 2,000 acres in our staple.
Practically, indeed, our tea industry has stood
still for three years back. Indeed, if we are to
believe the prophets of evil in regard to the fate
of tea mixed with rubber, we may be said to be
going back. But itis satisfactory to know that
a practical planter, whose opinion can be trusted,
gives tea ten years of fruitful life from the time
rubber was first planted amongst it. Now, very
little rubber was put out in tea before 1905 ; for
5,000 acres covered the return made up in the
middle of that year. Meantime, with 345,744
acres of tea alone and 60,299 tea and rubber
and some more of tea and other products, we
consider our staple may be safely put down a
equal to 392,000 acres.
Of rubber alone, there are 24,000 acres more
than a year ago, and altogether the increase—
counting ‘‘interplanted’”—has been put at 30,000
acres ; but we are convinced that half of this at
least belongs properly to 1906-07, The equiva-
lent of 180,000 acres in rubber, and the fact that
rubber altogether (counting what is amongst tea
and cacao) and 14 million of trees separately
rendered, is spread over not less than 212,000
acres in Ceylon ought to make the boldest and
most sanguine pause to consider whether any
more land should be opened with rubber, until
further experience is gained as to the course of
the market in the face of yearly increasing sup-
plies of the plantation product, and the states
ment that wild rubber must continue to be
gathered along the Amazon and its tributaries
as well as in Airica.
is ee
EXTRACTION OF INDIARUBBER BY
ELECTRICITY.
MR. COCKERILL’S INVENTION,
The following Specifications have been ac-
cepted :—No. 1,012 of October 12, 1907. Name:
—Thomas Cockerill. Title Improvements in
apparatus for the extraction of indiarubber from
latex by Electricity, Abstract :—A rotating
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
conducting plate, disk, drum, or cylinder dip-
ping in the latex and connected to the positive
pole of a source of electricity forms the anode ;
or a moving conducting endless belt, on one
surface of which latex is poured, connected to
the positive pole of a source of electricity forms
the anode. In the latter instance, which is the
one illustrated by drawings the, cathode is a
fixed adjustable plate extending over the upper
surface of a horizontal moving belt and the latex
is poured between. Rubber is deposited on
that moving belt. by the action of the electric
current. The deposited rubber and the belt
passes between rolls to consolidate the rubber.
The rubber is then guided offthe belt and
doubled and passes again through rolls to con-
solidate it. It is then led through hot water to
heat it and wash it; and it is then led through
rolls again, which are heated, and the rubber
is finally consolidated and polished and partially
dried thereby. The claims include, beside
the use of a rotating or moving anode, the pro-
cess for obtaining a continuous sheet of rubber
by the mechanical arrangements described and
set forth in the drawings.—G
NEW METHOD OF TAPPING
‘* CASTILLOA,”’
Mr J Herbert Foster, manager of the
plantation ‘‘La Meriden,” in Vera Cruz,
Mexico, reports a now method of tapping their
cultivated ‘‘ Castilloa’ rubber. He uses the
same knife as before—a knife brought out by
Mr Smith, of Chiapas, and described same time
in this journal—which cutsa U-shaped groove
in the bark, but making the cuts only about two-
thirds the former depth ; then with a blade like
that of a jack knife a deeper cut is made along
the middle of the first one. This makes certain
thatthe layer of bark which contains the latex
is penerated throughout its length, but the cut
is so narrow as t6 make a comparatively trifling
wound. It issaid that these cuts are entirely
healed in two or three months, whereas the
old style cuts required a year or two to disap-
pear.-—India Rubber World, July 1.
TEA AND RUBBER.
Seeing that there are 60,000 acres of tea and
rubber intermixed at this time (and 12,000 acres
of rubber and cacao) and that expert authority
gives ten years life to the tea from the date of
the rubber being planted, how soon may we
expect the tea to disappear. Here is our calcu-
lation : in the middle of 1905, the interplanted
area was given at 5,200 acres, We then get,—
5,000 acres tea dying out by..,1914-15
13,000 acres more tea dying
out by... i ... 1915-16
30,000 acres additional
dying out by >. 1916-17
and 12,000 acres additional
dying out by .- 1917-18
There is, therefore, ample time for enterprising
planters who prefer to open fresh tea clearings
to get their tea into bearing before the final
collapse of the mixed fields. In the same way
cacao planters should also be on the alert,
\
GARCINIA MANGOSTANA. /.
MANGOSTEEN.
AER EN
Photo by H, F. Macmillan.
al
a
Es Ol
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
AND
MAGAZINE OF THE
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
Von. XXXII,
COLOMBO, SEPTEMBER 15rx, 1908,
No. 3.
——— >
Manihot Rubbers.
Considerable interest has been aroused
by the papers on the new Manihot
rubbers, lately published; and, as usual,
the Department at Peradeniya has been
asked to book 100,000, 50,000, and other
numbers of seeds for delivery this or
next year. It will be well, therefore, to
make clear that the history will be the
same as with Para or Ceara rubbers
long ago. At present we have 100 plants
of Manthot dichotoma, and may expect
a few hundred seeds the year after
next; while we, like other gardens, have
as yet been totally unable to get either
M. piawhyensis or M. heptaphylla, the
two best species. In 1910 we shall be
able to give would-be experimenters @
few seeds of M, dichotoma to try.
It may also be well to point out that
the Manihots, though they grow so
freely for instance at Pallekelle or near
Kandy, are plants of a dry climate.
The finest specimens’ of Ceara rubber
(M, Glaziovii) in Ceylon, so far as we
know, are near Trincomalie, and the
tree is growing splendidly on the Ex-
periment Station at Maha-iluppalama,
near Anuradhapura. Should the yields
of the new Manihots turn out to be any-
thing like as good as stated, we may
expect some day to see a good deal of
land cultivated under them in the North
and Hast.
\
210
[SEPTEMBER,
St
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. |
TAPPING EXPERIMENTS ON RAM-
BONG AND PARA. .
Professor Dr. A. Weberbauer records
in the last December number of the
‘“Tropenflanzer ” some interesting experi-
ments he made in Camerun on the tap-
ping of certain species of rubber-bear-
ing plants. Weabstract his remarks on
Ficus elastica (Rambong) and Hevea
braziliensis (Para).
In tapping Ficus elastica he used the
ordinary tapping knife (‘‘die Kaeufli-
chen Kautschukmesser”). Inthe outer
layer of bark, which contains little or no
latex, a groove was cut tothe depth at
which the first drops of latex show them-
selves, then with an ordinary penknife a
deep cut was made in the bottom of the
groove. The author claims that wounds
in the cambium, which cannot always be
avoided, will heal more quickly, if caused
by the sharp pocket knife than by the
ordinary coarser tapping knife.
The weights given are those of well-
dried rubber.
In the first experiment two trees with
stems of about equal girth were taken.
In (a) a cut of 16 centimetres (about 64
inches) was made ina sloping direction,
In (b) the cut was 22 centimetres (about
8? inches) and parallel with the axis of
the stem, that is vertical in the case of
an upright growing tree. The yield
from (a) was 2'1 grams (1000 grams=2}
tbs.)from (b) 1:2 gram; so that the
sloping cut, though shorter than the
other, yielded nearly twice as much
rubber.
In another experiment six cuts were
made on the same branch and on succeed-
ing days, except that a clear day inter-
vened between the second and third.
All cuts were made at right angles to
the long axis of the branch, which grew
horizontally. The time of day,9to 12
o’clock, was much the same in each case,
and so was the weather. The first cut
yielded 12:47 grams ; the second, close to
but behind No. 1 ou the same side of the
stem, gave 0°87 grams; the third, on the
same side as No.2 and about 4 inches
distant from it, yielded 2°08 grams; the
fourth was on the same side as No. 3 and
distant about 8 inches, the yield was 2°25
grams. The fifth was on the opposite
side to the previous ones and lay under
the first: it yielded 3°80 grams. The
sixth was on the same side of the stem as
the fitth but 16 inches distant from it:
yield 2°26 grams.
The first cut gave more than double as
much rubber as the three others together
which were on the same side of the
branch. The farther the cuts are from
each other the greater is the yield. On
the opposite side of the stem, the fifth
cut gave nearly four times as much latex
as the sixth, though the distance
between them was relatively large.
Therefore if Ficus elastica is tapped
with sloping cuts, and if a good number
of these are made in a short time, they
should, if they lie on the same side of a
stem ora branch, be made considerable
distances apart, otherwise there is only
a useless injuring of the tree. In his
fifth and sixth experiments the author
found that if the time between two
tappings is lengthened (to three weeks or
a month) the distance between the cuts
may be lessened. It would, perhaps,
have been more valuableif more trees
had been tapped in each experiment.
The author made 9 number of experi-
ments on Hevea braziliensis, He applied
the spiral and the herringbone methods,
and short sloping separated cuts, but
none vertical; his object was not so
much to compare different methods of
tapping as to see whether Para yielded
paying quantities of latex in Camerun,
which has been doubted.
The sloping cuts gave somewhat the
best results. The method was as
follows:—The tapping-knife and pen-
knife were used exactly as in the Ram-
bong experiments.
Six sloping cuts, each 4 inches long,
were made at equal distances apart (and
presumably at the same level) round
the stem. Every cut was parallel with
and 2 inches from that of the previous —
day, so that after 28 days the surface of
the tree exhibited six vertical rows of
sloping cuts, 28 parallel cuts in each row,
and the rows separated by six stripes of
untouched bark. The author does not
state the width of each groove. Not
much can be deduced from the figures
given. Only three. trees, one of each
method, were experimented on, and the
periods during which they were tapped
do not agree.
There are things against the practica-
bility of the separated sloping cut. It
would be interesting to know if less
bark is used up, and if it renews more
quickly than is the case with the almost
universal herringbone method.—A gricul-
turaliBulletin of the Straits and Feder-
Ho eae States, No. 4, April, 1908,
ol. VI.
4 _ SEPTEMBER, 1908. ]
ANALYSIS OF RUBBER SAMPLES
FROM INDIA: FICUS ELASTICA.
Severalsamples of Ficus elastica rubber
from India have been examined recently
at the Imperial Institute, and the results
obtained are recorded in the following
account :—
FIcUS ELASTICA RUBBER FROM ASSAM.
I'wo specimens of thisrubber from the
Kulsi Plantation in the Kamrup Divi-
sion of Assam were submitted for
analysis and valuation.
(1) ‘Tree Rubber from Ficus elastica.”
The specimen conistsed of an irregular
cake of rubber formed by the aggrega-
tion of thin strips. The rubber was
reddish-brown, clean, free from sticki-
ness, and exhibited good elasticity and
_ tenacity.
- A chimical examination furnished the
following figures :—
Per cent.
Moisture O'7
Caoutchoue Ba 78:0
Resin Ye At 19°60
Proteids we dealt 0-9
Insoluble matter 14
Ash Ay 0°49
The rubber was valued at 4s. 3d. to
4s. 6d, per lb. in London, the current
price of fine hard Para from South
America being ds. 2d.'per lb.
The percentage of resin in this rubber
is higher than is desirable, but otherwise
‘itis of satisfactory quality and would
be readily saleable.
(2) ‘*Mat Rubber from Ficus elastica.”
This was a piece of dark-brown rubber
composed of several thin sheets firmly
attached together. The rubber was
soft, sticky, and rather weak.
The rubber was found to have the
following composition :—
Per cent.
Moisture 21
Caoutchoue 80:0*
Resin Aah 16:0
Insoluble matter 19
ae 1°94
sh dé
*Including proteids,
The specimen was valued at 2s. to 2s.
3d, per lb, in London, but would be diffi-
cult of sale on account of its soft, sticky
character.
The sample was too small for complete
chemical examination, and consequently
it was not possible to determine the
amount of proteids present. The per-
centage of the later constituent is in-
cluded with the ‘‘ caoutchouc.”
211 Saps and Hxudations.
This rubber contains a little less resin
than “ the tree rubber, ” but on account
of its weak, sticky character it is much
inferior in value. The stickiness may
be due to the plan of placing the mats
covered with rubber in the sun to dry.
It would be preferable to effect the dry-
ing in the shade so as to avoid over-heat-
ing the rubber.
FICUS ELASTICA RUBBER FROM INDIA.
Two specimens from this rubber ob-
tained at Mukkie in the Kanoth Range
North Malabar, have also been examined
(1) Ficus elastica, scrap rubber.
A cylindrical lump of reddish-brown
rubber, made up of aggregated shreds
and weighing 124} oz. The latter was
ck free from stickiness, but rather
weak.
The rubber had the following com-
position :—
Per cent.
Mositure 09
Caoutchouc 67'°3
Resin 28°1
Proteids os 09
Insoluble mattter 2°8
Ash 0°47
The sample was valued at 2s, 11d. per
lb. in London, with fine hard Para
quoted at 3s. 53d. per lb.
This rubber contains an excessive
amount of resin, which adversely affects
its physical properties.
(2) Ficus elastica, ‘‘ biscuit” rubber.
A large circular biscuit of black rub-
ber weighing 8 oz.
free from stickiness, but deficient
elasticity and tenacity.
in
A chemical examination gave the fol-
lowing results .—
Per cent.
Moisture 4-0
Caoutchouc 71°2
Resin 2277
Proteids Hn 1:0
Insoluble matter 11
Ash 1°68
The specimen was valued at 2s.5d. per
lb. in London, with fine hard Para from
South America quoted at 3s. 54d. per lb.
This sample contains a little less resin
than the preceding specimen, but on
account of its dark colour it would not
realise such a good price-—Bulletin of
bie Eneeme! Institute, Vol. VI., No. 1.
The rubber was clean, |
Gums, Resins,
THE TAPPING OF CULTIVATED
CASTILLOA.
(ABSTRACTED By R. H. Lock.)
(Journal d’ Agriculture Tropicale, May
1908, p. 142.)
Whilst the area under Hevea has been
rapidly increasing in Indo-Malaya, Castil-
loa has been taking an important place
in the plantation of Mexico and Central
America, and it has also been tried in
several of the West Indian Islands. In
German West Africa, New Guinea and
Samoa this cultivation has been less
successful.
The structure of the laticiferous tubes
of Castilloa renders necessary a different
method of tapping from that employed
in the case of Hevea, the former being
tapped much less frequently in order to
obtain the best results.
Three tapping knives, specially de-
signed for theuse with Castilioa, are des-
cribed in the present article, and two
of them are figured. A feature common
to all three is the U-shaped blade, dif-
fering in the three cases in radius of
the curve and angle of attachment to
the handle,
The knives are the inventions of Dr.
Strunk, Dr. Preuss, and Mr. V. Smith,
a planter of Soconusco, respectively.
With regard to systems of tapping it
is admitted that the ideal method has
not yet been evolved. In Mexico the
system adopted is to make 3 or4 V cuts
on each tree. The limbs of the V do not
quite meet at the base, but a space of
two or three inches of bark is left intact
and two partial spirals are traced upon
the bark. The first V is made as near
the base of the trunk as possible, and
others at successive distances of two feet
above it. The trees are first tapped
when they have arrived at an age of six
or seven years and a circumference ‘of
2 feet a yard from the ground.
Various other methods,
slightly from the above are enumerated,
as well as several different modes ot
collecting the latex; also estimates of
the yield, which are admittedly some-
what vague.
CAMPHOR: NATURAL AND
SYNTHETIC.
P. A. HovsEMAN in Science Progress
o. 9, July, 1908: Abstracted by J. C.
WILLIS. ]
The author is the chemist to the
British Camphor Co., and starts by
assuming that no cultivated camphor
need be considered, as it cannot yield
till 50 years old! Hethen describes the
212
differing ©
(SEPTEMBER, 1908, of
process of preparation of synthetic
camphor, and ends, ‘‘Assuming a good
supply of turpentine at moderate price,
there is little doubt that synthetic cam-
phor, which is quite equal in all respects
to its Oriental rival, has a good future
before it, and will be able to compete
successfully with Japanese camphor,”’—
BALATA.
The exports of balata from Ciudad
Bolivar during 1907 amounted to 1,456
tons, valued at £224,414, against 1,232
tons, valued at £176,039., in 1906. Last
year the figures reached the highest
total ever known in one year. The
prospects of this industry, however, are
not favourable for the future, as the
consequences of the fatal system of
felling the trees to obtain the gum are
now beginning to be felt as the more
accessible forests become exhausted.
The season for 1908 has also set in very
dry, and it is therefore probable that the
balata shipments during the current
year will show a decline. The Para and
Caura rubber shipments show an in-
crease for 1907. ‘Lhe system followed in
the Caura district for collecting rubber
includes also the felling of the trees.
Lately, regalations have been issued
by the Government forbidding this
practice.—Chemist and Druggist, No. 1,
475, Vol. LXXII., May, 1908. '
LAC-PRODUCTS IN INDIA.
A recent number of the ‘Indian Trade.
Journal” contains an article discussing
the possibility of manufacturing lac-
products in India, and suggests the
desirablity of an inquiry as to the faci-
lities that exist for the manufacture of
cheap spirit. Itis pointed out that the
chief lac-bearing country is also the
country where the mahua-tree is abun-
dant, and the mahua-flower is as cheap.
a spirit-base as any. Another possible
source of cheap spirit-supply is the wood-
spirit so largely made and used in
America, and it is suggested that the
manufacture of this might well be
combined with that of acetone, for
which there is a large demand at the
cordite-factory. A third possible source
might be found in’the refuse of the
sugar-factories now being rapidly extend-
ed in Bengal and elsewhere, and it is
believed there is little doubt that India
could in a short time become self-
supplying in respect to industrial spirit,
and could carry the manufacture of lac-
products several stages further than is
done at present, with much profit to the
country.—Chemist and Druggist, No. 1.
475. Vol, LXXII., May, 1908. ; iy
~ pee marin
213
OILS AND FATS.
THE SUNFLOWER.
A USEFUL PLANT.
In 1906 we produced, in Natal, 1,186
muids of sunflower seeds, from a total
area of 191 acres, Of these 1,186 muids
212 were produced in the Lower Umzim-
kulu Division, 233 in the Division of
Alexandra, and 160 in the Upper Um-
komanzi Division, the balance being
scattered generally over most of the
remaining Magisterial Divisions of the
Colony. The sunflower grows fairly
well in most parts of the Colony, the
conditions essential for its successful
cultivation being, generally speaking,
very similar to those required by maize.
It is, however, not regarded as a staple
or major crop; itis, nevertheless, found
a useful accessory in mixed farming.
Very little has so far been done, so far
as our observations go, in the cultivation
of the sunflower in Natal on a commer-
cial scale. Here,in our very midst, a
market exists for large quantities of the
seed for the expression of its oil for
soap-making and other purposes, so that
the systematic cultivation of the plant
could be made a considerable source of
revenue.
BOTANY AND HABITAT.
The sunflower (Helianthus annwus) is
said to bea native of Mexico and Peru,
and was introduced into Europe at the
end of the sixteenth century. It is
largely cultivated in Russia, Germany,
Italy, and France, and also in China and
Tartary, as well as in the United States.
It is an annual herb, bearing large, flat,
circular flower heads. The seed is the
most useful portion of the plant, and
this is commonly eaten raw or cooked
or used for the extraction of oil. The
oil-cake after expression forms a valu-
able cattle-food and a condition powder
for horses. The leaves and the stalk
have distinct food values, aud when
reduced toa sufficient state of fineness
possess nutritive qualities of a high
order. The sunflower stem has rather
strong bast fibres, and the plant has
often been suggested as a source of cellu-
lose for paper mills, The amount of
cellulose is generally comparatively high,
The fibre is too weak and brittle, how-
ever, to Je of value for cordage or textile
purposes, and perhaps its highest value
lies in its’ use for fuel, the ash being rich
in potash,
CULTIVATION.
The method of cultivating sunflowers
for commercial purposes is best described
by Dr. H. W. Wiley from the results of
their growth in the United States: ‘As
a rule the soils which are best suited for
the growth of Indian corn (mealies) pro-
duce the best crop of sunflowers. If the
soil is not naturally fertile, liberal ferti-
lisation must be practised in order to
secure large crops. The character of the
fertilisation depends upon the nature of
the soil and the deficiencies of the plant
food therein. The kind of fertilisation -
necessary to produce a good crop of
maize will be found suitable for the
sunflower. The soil should be prepared
by careful ploughing, and the surface of
the ploughed soil should be reduced to
good tilth by the use of the harrow.
Sunflowers are best planted by a drill
in rows from 8 to 3} feet apart. In order
to secure a good stand the seeds may be
placed by the drill 2 or 3 inches apart;
but should they all grow, at least halt
of them should be cut out when the
plants are thinned. The seeds should
be planted deep enough to secure abun-
dant moisture to germinate them; from
2to 3 inchesin depth when the soil is
- not too heavy will be found the best.
With heavy, stiff soils, which are likely
to become very hard on the surface after
heavy rains, it is better not to plant the
seeds so deep. The seeds should be
planted as early as possible in the spring,
as they endure very well a slight degree
of cold. After the plants are well formed
they should be thinned so as_ to stand at
a distance of from 12 to 18 inches in
the row. The cultivation should be of
the ordinary kind, mostly superficial,
and sufficient to prevent the weeds from
growing and preserve the moisture
during periods of drought. When the
production of seed is sought, the best
results are secured by limiting the
number of seed heads on each plant toa
very few. The superfluous heads when
formed should be removed. No special
directions need be given for the cultiva-
tion, since it is so much like maize as to
be practically the same.”
As this crop is sensitive to frost, it
should not be sown until all danger of
this sortis past. Dr. Kric A. Nobb says
(Cape Agricultural Journal, Jan., 1908)
that in Cape Colony seed sown about
September or October has given the
best results. He adds that the most
suitable climate is one which is warm
aud sunny, and not subject to unseason-
able frost, The sunflower takes from 3
Oils and Fats.
to 4 months to mature, according to the
variety of climate and soil.
Whilst the sunflower is susceptible to
frost, it is singularly free from other
diseases. Damage is sometimes reported
by small birds and by suriace cater-
pillars. The plant withstands drought
well.
THE SEEDS.
There are three principal varieties now
cultivated in Russia, known by the
shape and size of the fruits (Achenes),
conventionally called seeds: one with
large white seeds which are said to
yield the Jargest amount of oil; one
with small black seeds which are sweeter
and regarded as best for eating; and an
intermediate from with striped seeds,
used both for eating and the production
of oil.
The yield varies according to the
variety and the method of planting and
cultivation. In America the yield is
from 30 to 50 bushels—900 lbs. to 1,500 Ibs.
—to the acre. Inthe Cape Colony a yield
of 3,250 Ibs. to the acre has been obtained.
Tn Natal in 1906 the average yield for the
whole Colony was 5 muids peracre. The
average yields of the more important
Magisterial Divisions of the Colony were
as follows :—Lower Umzimkulu, 6:5; Alex-
andra, 4'S; Inanda, 7:0; Ixopo, 4°6; Um-
geni, 3:0; New Hanover, 40; Upper
Tugela, 80; Estcourt, 37; Weenen, 4°3;
Klip River, 4°38; Dundee, 3°6; Utrecht, 4'0;
Paulpietersburg, 75; Eshowe, 6:0.
The heads should be harvested before
the seeds are quite ripe, to avoid shatter-
ing and loss. The sunflowers may be cut
with a sickle or bill-hook, such as is used
for cutting up prickly pears or aloes.
After drying, the seeds can be thrashed
out or beaten with a flail, or, where
large quantities have to be treated, they
may be easily removed from the heads
by pressing the latter against a revolv-
ing wooden cylinder into which nails
have been partly driveu, the projecting
heads serving the purpose of teeth on
the cylinder of an ordinary threshing
machine (Nobbs). The seeds should be
stored in bags in a dry place to prevent
mould.
USES OF THE SEEDS.
The seeds are the most valuable part
of the plant on account of their edible
kernels and of the superior quality of
the oil prepared from them. In Russia
the seeds are used largely for local con-
sumption, where they are parched and
eaten in the same way as “ Monkey-
nuts” or earth-nuts in other parts of the
world. Birds of all kinds thrive upon
214
them, and they are specially employed in
feeding caged birds and in fattenin
fowls for the table, and the diet is sai
to increase their laying powers. In
America the seeds are at present employ-
ed in feeding poultry, and to some extent
mixed with other fodder as a cattle food.
In Natal there is a demand for the seeds
for use in the local soap and oil factories.
The oil-cake left after the expression
of the oil forms a valuable cattle food,
being, it is said, superior in this respect
to maize or linseed cake, while it is
also said toact asa natural ‘‘ Condition
powder” for horses owing to its easy
digestibility and its great nutritive pro-
perty. Sheep, pigs, rabbits and pigeons
also fatten rapidly on the oil-cake.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
Dr. J. Koenig* gives the average com-
position of five samples of whole seeds
and of four kernels. An analysis of
the shells or hulls is added for com-
parison :—
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION,
Seeds. Kernels. Shells.
Oil ie 31°32 44°31 517
Albuminoids 13°67 26:28 5°16
Carbohydrates 18:08 16°44 23°92
Fibre : 25°35 2°81 54:95
Ash 3°05 3°46 1:78
Water 8°58 6:70 9°02
100°00 100:00
100:00
Dr. H. W. Wiley gives, in Bulletin
No. 60, Division of Chemistry, U. S,
Department of Agriculture, the follow-
ing composition of sunflower seeds grown
in the United States :—
Per cent.
Oil hs 27:08
Albuminoids Bt: pe 14:97
Carbohydrates... AR 20:94
Fibre bap ne 29°17
Ash 3°41
Water 4°43
100-00
According to Mr. D. Hooper, in the |
Indian Agricultural Ledger, European
sunflower seed from which the hulls have
been removed contains :—
German. Russian.
Oil pst 33°48 34°25
Organic substances... 54°04 54°39
(including Protein) 14°12 18°80)
sh ak An 2°86 3°56
Water 9°62 7°80
100°00 100°00
*Quoted by Mr, David Hooper, F.0.S., F.L.S., in
the Agricultural Ledger, India.
SEPTEMBER, 1908.)
pees Ae)
The cake left after expression of the
oil has, according to the same authority,
the following composition :—
per cent.
(070 ee i AA 8°94.
Albuminoids 21°68
Carbohydrates ... eo 1905
Fibre ... .. = 83°00
*Ash ).. 9°33
Water 8°00
10000
* Containing sand, 1°37 per cent.
Tap OIL.
The oil obtained by expression from
the seeds is the most important product
of the sunflower, and is valuable for
many purposes. In its pure state the
oil is said, on account of its palatability
and sweetness, to be excellent for table
use, for frying fish, and for other culi-
nary purposes; indeed, it is much used
in Russia as an adulterant of and substi-
tute for olive oil for all domestic pur-
poses. It may also be used for woollen
dressing, lighting, and varnish and soap
making. For the last mentioned pur-
pose it is said to be superior to most oils.
It has also been substituted recently for
other fixed oils in the making of mar-
garine.
OTHER UsEs oF THE PLANT.
As already stated, the stalks of the
plant yield a fibre, which is, however,
too brittle to be of much value for tex-
tile purposes. The stalks are, however,
said to be useful for both fuel and manu-
rial purposes. Both the leaves and stalk
make a valuable manure, either directly
ploughed in or after being used as cattle
litter.
Smith observes that the sunflower is
an excellent plant for bees, large quanti-
ties of honey and wax being obtained
from the flowers.
According to Balfour, the blossoms
yield a brilliant, lasting and useful dye.
Crookes states that the petals are pecu-
liarly rich in the amphorphous resinous
substance, Xanthin, the base of the yel-
low pigment from which they derive
their colour. The seeds yield “ helian-
thie acid,” which, when treated with
hydrochloric acid in acurrent of hydro-
gen, is resolved into glucose and a violet
dye.—Natal Agricultural Journal, No. 4,
Vol,, XI. April, 1908.
215 Oils and Fats |
ARGEMONE MEXICANA.
(MEXICAN Poppy.)
The present Agricultural Ledger brings
together the latest information on the
uses, composition and commercial pros-
pects of the seeds and oil of an American
weed naturalized all over India and
other parts of the world. The Mexican
Poppy or Gamboge Thistle (Argemone
Mexicana) grows in desert Jand and
saliferous soils of the United Provinces
and the Punjab, sometimes where few
other plants persist. The plant yields
an abumdant crop of seed which is very
oleaginous, and. considering the demand
for oil seeds at the present time, sugges-
tions are made for utilising the oil and
cake in the arts and agriculture. The
Ledger owes its inception to observations
on the extensive use, in Behar, of oil of
the seeds, which were made by the
Reporter on Economie Products to the
Government of India. The uses are
two: one is as a remedy for skin
diseases, the body being smeared with
the oil ; the other is for burning. Under
normal conditions, it seems that not
very much of the oil is burnt, but that
it is quite a regular practice in the dis-
tricts of Patna, Darbhanga and Mozuffer-
pur to put bya supply to serve as a
remedy in skin troubles; but in the
current year bad crops had led to a
considerable amount of want, and many
people were turning their hands to
unusual avocations, among them the
gathering of an amount of the seed of
this plant far beyond what is customary.
Everywhere in the districts named, in
April, May and June last, women with a
clumsy pair of tweezers were busy
plucking the prickly pods just before
they were ready to open and to scatter
their seeds. The tweezers are made of
two pieces of a split bamboo or of a bent
piece ot hoop iron. The morning’s
gathering is spread outin the midday sun
for the pods to open, and theseed that is
obtained is crushed in the ordinary oil
press. In Chota Nagpur it has been
observed that the seeds are sometimes
collected into little heaps by ants, thus
lightening the labour of women and
children, whose duty it is to gather
them.
The Reporter on Economic Products
collected at Dalsingh Sarai and Barh
the samples of oil, which have been
examined in part by Lieutenant-Colonel
D. St. J. Grant, I.M.S., Chemical
Hixaminer to the Government of the
Punjab, and partly by myself, for the
purpose of this account of the plant as
one yielding an oil seed,
Oils and Fats,
The Mexican Poppy is known by the
following vernacular names :—
Bharbhand, kutaila, kutila, kantala,
Hind.; Shiel kanta, Beng.; Feringi, or
pila dhatura, Dec.; Dalturi, Can.; Bir-
ama dandu, Tam.; Daruri, Kandew, Mar.
The plant is at once recognised by its
yellow flowers, prickly leaves with white
veins, and the yellow juice that exudes
when the plant is broken.
Aabitat.—The Mexican poppy is a
native of Jamaica, the Carribean Islands
and Mexico, from which last country
the Spaniards brought it to Europe
under the name of Fico-del-inferno or
Fig-of-hell. It was introduced into
India about three centuries ago, pre-
sumably as ballast from abroad, and is
now found all over the country in every
nullak and abandoned rubbish heap.
Being an annual it springs up from seed
in the cold season, spreads as a weed in
waste ground and on newly turned soil,
ascending tv 5,000 feet in the Himalayas.
In Sind it is found among field crops
and about a mile inward along the
Indus, and in some places, as Kotri, may
be seen to cover large tracts. In the
Punjab it has been introduced within
recent years and is slowly extending. It
has not been noticed as occurring much
to the West of Lahore. In 1854, Edge-
worth observed that it had not reached
Multan, but in 1866, it was seen in the
extreme south-west of that district near
the junctlon cf the Chenab with the
Sutlej. It is abundant near Delhi, where
an oil is extracted, and it is a typical
plant of the nitre region of Hissar and
Hansi. Itis one of the principal plants
forming the vegetation of Lakhimpur,
Assam, and is an invading foreigner in
Manipur. In many parts of the country
the plantis so abundant as to become
a source of anxiety to the cultivator,
and it was found to be doing so much
harm to the young growth of Sadnani
Forest in Sind in 1899 that the depart-
ment were compelled to take steps to
suppress it.
USES OF SEED AND OIL.
Argemone has long been used in India
in medicine. Ainslie informs us that the
Hakims employed the oil as an external
application in such headaches as are
caused by the sun, and the Vythians
recommend itas aliniment for a scald
head. Dr. Irvine of Patna says the oil
stimulates indolent ulcers and eruptions,
and others have applied it in cases of
itch, ringworm and cutaneous diseases,
with beneficial results.
The seeds are emetic, cathartic and
acrid. The acrid and purgative proper-
ties of the seeds are contained in the
216
%
MI Bie vy
Pi 1908,
oil. Opinions regarding the efficacy of
the oil have differed in the past, but the
balance of recent medical opinion is that
in small doses of 10 to 80 minims it con-
stitutes an active cathartic. This has
recently been confirmed by Colonel
Grant. It has been noticed that freshly-
prepared oil is more energetic and uni-
form in its operation than that which
has been kept for some time.
The oil is used for burning in the lamps
in the Konkan and other parts of India.
In South America the expressed oil is
employed by painters and for giving a
shining appearance to wood; it is pro-
bable, too, that the acridity of the oil
will prevent the attacks of white ants
and borers. It saponifies readily and
gives a hard soap with soda.
[SBPTE
It is not likely to take the place of
castor oil in general practice, but the
smallness of the dose is an advantage
which is calculated to recommend it in
some quarters.
The seeds are poisonous if taken in
quantity. In 1878, a case occurred in
Bombay in which a number of people
suffered from vomiting and purging
after using sweet oil which had been
adulterated with Argemone oil. The
adulteration may be detected by the
rich orange-red colour developed when
strong nitric acid is added to the oil or
mixtures containing it. In the same
year samples of oil were received by the
Punjab Chemical Examiner from Amrit-
sar, Simla, and other towns which were
said to possess irritant properties, caus-
ing purging and vomiting. The oil was
stated to have been imported from the
United Provinces and to have been made
from Siyal kanta (Jackal’s thorn) the
vernacular name for Argemone Mexicana.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
The seeds are small, round, black, and
roughish from pitted depressions; they
are about the size of rape seed.
They contain in one hundred’ parts,
36 parts of oil, 49 parts of carbohydrates,
albuminoids and tibre, 9 of moisture and
6o0fash. W.H. Bloemendal, examining
ten samples of the seeds of Argemone
from Curacao and other countries, col-
lected in the Haarlem Colonial Museum,
found the yield of oil to vary from 35 to
38°7 per cent., or an average of 37 per
cent. (Pharm. Weekblad., 1906, 14). By
ordinary pressure the seeds yield from
25 to 30 per cent. of oil, a quantity equal
to that obtained from rape secd.
It has been stated that the narcotic
property of the sceds is due to the pre- |
sence of morphine, and Gragendorff iso-
lated an alkaloid from them in 1868, and
} ti >
Ay
mx, |
Bi i moe
ee 2 eh
eS et
ya
ee
Fe Dig .- ay
2a
—
>
wpe Seed —2 ee
*
hol:
ti Peckolt in 1878 separated argemonine.
In 1902 J. O. Schlotterbeck (Journ. Am.
Ohem. Soc. 24, 288) investigated the seeds
and proved that morphine was entirely
absent. Hefound two alkaloids present ;
one berberine and the other protopine.
Peckolt’s argemonine was identified
with the latter base. The presence of
notable quantities of potassium nitrate
among the inorganic salts was indicated.
The oil has a light yellow colour,
nauseous and acrid taste and a raw
odour. O. Frolich (1871) obtained from
the oil a hard soap with soda, and found
in the soap liquor butyric, valerianic,
acetic and a little benzoic acid. Accord-
ing to Fliickiger (1871) the oil has the
specific gravity of ‘919 at 16°5°C., dries
slowly and incompletely, and is not
soluble in 6 volumes of 90 per cent. alco-
On keeping, the ‘acid value in-
creases, and the oil becomes more solu-
ble in alcohol. It gives with nitric acid
an orange-red colour which distinguishes
it from other fixed oils.
The following constants have been
recorded :—
Specific Gravity Acid value. Saponitication
at 15? value,
"9247 Crossley and 60 Crossley and 190°3 Crossley and
Le Sueur, Le Sueur, Le Sueur.
9435 Bloemendal 200 Bloemendal,
"924 Grant Grant.
19
Todine value. Oleo-refractomer Refractive Index.
at 352
122°5 Crossley and °65 Grant
Le Sueur.
113°3 Bloemendal
113
11
The oil afforded 95°07 per cent. of fatty
acids melting at 22.°
14675 Crossley and
Le at 35° Sueur.
1452 Grant,
Grant
J
The oil dries to a hard jelly, gaining
during the process 8 per cent. of its
weight, an amount which corresponds
with that absorbed by poppy seed oil.
It then ceases to give a red colour with
nitric acid.
CONCLUSIONS.
The properties of Argemone oil as
shown in the foregoing remarks and
chemical reactions somewhat restrict it
for general employment. Its acrid taste
and active therapeutic action preclude
its use foc edible and culinary purposes.
Although not so siccati as linseed oil, it
has_ distinctly drying properties and
could be used for paints and for caulking
timber and boats when it is required to
keep out damp and destructive insects.
If obtainable at a sufficiently low price it
would be most serviceable for soap mak-
ing. The seed is said to sell in North
Arcot for Rs. 1-4 to Rs. 2-1 per maund of
25 1b., and in Northern India the price
should be lower. The cake is unsuitable
28
217
Oils and Fats.
as a cattle food, but from its compo-
sition it would form an excellent bulk
manure for cultivating exhausted soil.
Large quantities of the seed are occa-
sionally brought to the markets, but at
present there is not much demand for it.
The oil seed is not one that would be
attractive to Huropean commerce, but
there are many ways in which the oil
could be made serviceable in this
country. The plant is so abundant that
an unlimited amount of oil would be
available should a demand arise.—Agri-
cultural Ledger, 1907, No. 57, Vegetable
Product Series, No. 104.
——
THE FATS OF INDIAN NOTMEGS.
By Davip HoopER, F.¢.S.
Wild nutmeg seeds are occasionally
imported into Kngland under the name
of ‘‘oil nuts,” and are supplied from
Africa and South America where they
are said to be available in large quanti-
ties. In view of theconstant and increas-
ing demand for oil seedsin Hurope it
would seem desirable to examine the
seeds of wild nutmeg trees of India to
learn particulars of the amount and
quality of the fat they contain. It has
been known for many years that these
seeds are oleaginous, but no special in-
vestigation has been made ofthem. The
subject has been re-opened by the receipt
from Mr. . Latham, District Forest
Officer, South Kanara, of a sample of the
seeds of Myristica canarica, with the
interesting information that they are
used by the villagers in making candles.
The seeds and candles were exhibited at
a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Ben-
gal held in December, 1906. They point
to asource of oil for illuminating and
other domestic purposes, and if obtain-
able in sufficient quantity would doubt-
loss form a minor forest product of some
value.
Further quantities of the seeds of
M. canarica have been received, and
they have been examined with those of
M. malabarica, which are already an
article of commerce in Bombay. The
results of the chemical examination of
the seeds and fat of these two indigenous
nutmegs are given in the following
pages, and their composition is compared
with that of wild nutmegs from other
countries.
MUyristica Fragrans, Houtt.—Culti-
vated in Penang, Malay Islands and
Zanzibar. The true nutmeg.
The origin of the nutmeg and mace of
commerce is alluded toin this place in
order to draw attention to the fat which
is sometimes sould, The expressed oil of
Oils and Fats.
nutmegs was formely imported into
India from Banda, and was known as
Jawitri-ka-tel or oil of mace. It was
brought into Kuropean commerce via
Holland, in oblong cakes having nearly
the form of common bricks, but some-
what smaller and packed in monocoty-
ledonous leaves, commonly called ‘tig
leaves.” Atthe present time much of
the oil ismanufactured in Europe, and
put up in the same shape, but packed in
paper. When discolured and hardened
by age, the oilis called “Banda soap.”
Oil of mace is manufactured by exposing
imperfect and broken nutmegs, reduced
to a paste and enclosed ina bag to steam,
and then pressing the bag between
heated iron plates. The yield is about
20 to 30 per cent.
Nutmeg butter is used in Europe in the
manufacture of scented oils, perfumes
and soaps, andasa flavouring agent in
cooking and confectionery. 35;
On one of the plots receiving this
compost at the rate of six tons per acre,
more than half the plants were affected
with ‘long leaf,” which he attributes
to fermentation of the compost. How-
ever, in the light of more recent experi-
ments one would probably attribute
some of the bad effects, at least, to the
kainit and acid phosphate.
Another plot which received this com-
post, at the rate of two tons per acre,
taken from the top of the pile, and in
addition, a top dressing of hen manure,
is reported as a complete success. Still
another, which received five tons per
acre and was mulched with salt marsh
grass, proved a failure. A plot ferti-
lized with cotton-seed meal one and one-
half tons per acre, and kainit five
hundred pounds per acre, is also reported
asa failure. It isperhaps due Dr. Wash-
burn to state that he expressed his dis-
approval of the above-mentioned com-
post for pineapples, and adds that it was
not of his choosing.
Further comparative tests were not
made until the winter of 1897-8, when a
rather extensive experiment was begun
by Professor P. H. Rolfs, then Biologist
and Horticulturist to this Station. on the
lands of Ballentine and Moore, at Jensen
on the Indian River. The results of this
experiment were published in bulletin
No. 50* of the Station. The bulletin gives
the general plan, details and results of
the work. and conclusions which were
drawn from the results. Different forms
of phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash
were used alone and in combination. A
study was made of the effect of fertili-
zers upon leaf area and upon freeze-resis-
tance of the plants. . 637739 DrcOT 44 3 71 eb ALS, Semen (Pate!
ye i) 2 56 «38 2 60 30 0 64 °° 37 On. Gey ty On aa 4 7 76 8 4
[SEPTEMBER, 1908.
.
f.
Reis
pe
“Plot 24’s 42’s
Section T.
Section U. Section V,
ee an
foisop \
Plot 24’s 42’s
a Ss —— — A. —— —.
Plot 24’ 42’s
ae 26 10 Si- oil) 10 Sole ga,
Selo 6G 82 26 0 8 aa
Ao 18. 6 8 40 7 87 Ce
0
80 29 0 84 43 88 a a
239
Miscellaneous Products.
Section W. Seotion X. Total. Total.
Plot 4's 42's Plot 24's 4s sas
89 OME 93 8 21 124 131
90 ay ie 94 5 8 165 81
91 Cand i353, val) 7 262 75
92 Cane 96 9 10 269 25
@ Special Plots.
Table III, which shows the increase in
24’s and decrease in 42’s, as the fertilizer
is increased, still further emphasizes this
fact. For example, by reference to the
table it will be seen that the total num-
ber of 24’s in the third plots of the upper
sections is 277, while the total number
in the fourth plots, which received one-
fifth more fertilizer than the third, is
exactly the same—277. In thelower half,
the total 24’s in the third plots of the
sections is 262, while in the fourth it is
269—only 7 more. A further study of
this table will reveal the rapid increase
of 24’s from the first to the third plots of
nearly all the sections, but as already
pointed out this increase does not extend
to the fourth plots in very many cases,
while in some instances there is actually
a decrease. Onthe other hand there is
a decrease in 42’s which is very decided
from the first to the second plots of the
sections but more gradual from the
second to the fourth.
Assuming that the total number of
pines on the third horizontal line of
plots would have been the same as the
total number on the first line, had the
fertilizer not been increased on the third,
we have a basis for calculating the
increase in crop value due apparently
to the quantity of fertilizer which was
added to the third line of plots above
that which was added to the first. By
referring to the first column headed
totalin Table IIl., and taking the sum
of the total number of 24’s from the third
line of plots, both upper and lower sec-
tions, it will be found to be 530, while
the total from the first line of plots,
both upper and lower sections is 169,
giving an increase on the 22* plots appa-
rently due to increase in fertilizer, of 370
pines or about 153 crates. Since these
plots are 1-150 of an acre the increase is
at the rate of 105 8-5 crates per acre,
which, at $1°65+ per crate would amount
to $174'24. Again, referring to the same
* Sections V. and W. being intended for special
purposes have been omitted from this count.
+ An experienced grower estimates that taking
a series of years 18’s would bring $1°80, 24’s and
30’s $1°65, 36’s $1°30, and 42’s $1°10 per crate,
table it will be seen that the 42’s have
decreased from a total of 386 in the first
line of plots to 114 in the third line,
making a loss of 272 pines or 63 crates for
the 22 plots, which is at the rate of 441-3
crates per acre, which at $1:10 would be
worth 48°67. Subtracting this from
$174:24 we have $125'47 gain, due appa-
rently to increasing the number of 24’s
by increasing the fertilizer about 3-4 of
a ton peracre. To get the net gain we
have but to deduct from this the cost
of the extra fertilizer. Calculating the
cost of the extra fertilizer added to the
third line of plots, above what was
added tothe first, on the basis of the
cost of the raw materials at the factory,
we findit to be $3°88 for the 22 plots,
which is at the rate of $26°45 per acre.
Deducting this from $125:-47 leaves usa
gain of $99°02. From this must still be
deducted the cost of mixing and the
freight rate from Jacksonville to the
pineapple district, and this would be,
according to statement furnished by a
manufacturer, $3'79 per ton; and since
the extra fertilizer required amounts to
about 3-4 of a ton, this change would be
$2°85. Deducting this from $99:02 would
leave usa net profit per acre on the 24's
of $96:17.* In the same way it may be
shown that the increase in value of the
30’s above the decrease of 36’sis about
$11'80, and this is net gain, the fertilizers
having already been accounted for.
This makes the total net gain $107:97.
The gain in 18’s was so slight that they
were not taken into consideration in
this case. But this does not represent
the entire possible gain, since in an
experiment some fertilizers are used in
order that their unfitness for the parti-
cular erop may be demonstrated, and
the results from such plots are neces-
sarily lower than they would be under
ordinary circumstances. This can be
demonstrated by calculating the increase
in value on one of the best plots. On
examination we find that plot 19 of
In making these calculations we havs
made them for the average year and not for
the first crop, which would require a little more
extra fertiizer than the ? ton provided for.
Miscellaneous Products.
section F. has yielded a greater increase
with increase of fertilizer than any
other plot, as follows :—
Value,
42 24’s equivalent to 262} crates
per acre at $1°65 .-. $483'°12
17 30’s equivalent to 85 crates
per acre at 1°65 140°25
Total gain on 24’s
and 30’s ... 0473 crates $573'37
The decrease in 36’s and 42’s is as
follows :—
Value.
8 36’s equivalent to 384 crates
per acre at $1:10 .. $43°33
42 42’s equivalent to 150 crates
per acre at $1°10...
Total loss on 386’s
and 42’s ... 1884 crates $208'33
Subtracting this from, $573°37 gives us
again per acre of $865°04. To get the
net gain we must still deduct from this
the cost of the extra fertilizer per acre,
including the cost of mixing and the
freight from Jacksonville, which for the
materials used on this plot (see Diagram
IL, plot 19) would be $25'88 (a little less
than the average extra expense on the
22 plots), and this leaves $839°16 clear
gain per acre, obtained by increasing the
fertilizer from 2,250 to 3,750 pounds. In
this connectien it will be of interest to
learn which section* and which plott
have given the largest gross returns. On
calculating the yield per section to yield
per acre we find that section I. which
received slag phosphate, blood and high
grade sulphate gave the largest rteurns,
as follows :—
117 24s equivalent to 182°8 crates
per acre at $1°65 Bee
176 80's equivalent to 220:0 crates
per acre at 1°65 ee
83 36’s equivalent to 86°46 crates
165°00
$301°62
363°00
per acre at 1°30 «. 112°40
10 42’s equivalent to 9°00 crates
peracre at 1:10 ans 9:90
Total 498-26 erates $786-92
That is, section I. has yielded at the
rate of nearly 500 craters per acre which,
at the price assumed, would amount to
$786°92. But the four plots of this sec-
tion, as already explained, received
their fertilizer in gradually increasing
amounts, beginning with the first, and
consequently this amount does not re-
present the yield per acre from the best
*To convert number per section to crates per
acre, multiply by + of 159 or 37°5 and divide
by the size.
+ To convert number
per plot to crates per
acre, multiply by 150 an
divide by the size.
240
plot. On examination it is found that
plot 35, the third in section I., has given
larger total returns than any other plot
in the entire experiment as follows :—
50 24’s equivalent to 312% crates
per acre at $1°65 Pe $515°625
385 380’s equivalent to 175 crates
per acre at 1°65 288°750
12 36’s equivalent to 50 crates
per acre at 1:30 «.. 65°000
Total ... 5874 crates $869°375
Plot 36 the fourth of the same section,
gives the following results :—
318’s equivalent to 25 crates
per acre at $1°80 $45°00
36 24’s equivalent to 225 crates
per acre at 1°65 foe 371°25
39 30’s equivalent to 195 crates
per acreat 1°65 aN 821°75
22 36’s equivalent to
91°66 crates
per acre at 130 —— il
19°16
Total 53666 crates $857°16
This bears out the statement already
made that the limit of profitable fertiliz-
ing has been reached with the amount
applied to the third plot of the sections.
Plot 47, section L., also furnishes some
interesting facts. It will be remembered
that this section was introduced for the
purpose of ascertaining what is likely to
prove the best raito for phosphoric acid,
nitrogen and potash. Already we have
seen that the third plot of this section
received these constituents in a ratio
which more closely approaches the 4, 5, 10
raito adopted for the experiment, than
any of the other plots of this section,
and also that it received the fertilizer at
the rate of 3,750 pounds per acre, which
is the amount that has in most cases
given the best results.
And now in the crop from this p:ot_ we
have still further evidence on this point.
We find on examination that it has
yielded larger returns than any other
plot of the section, and that it is not-
very far behind plots 35 and 36 of sec-
tion I. The results are as follows :—
38 24’s equivalent to 2873 crates
per acre at $1°65 ‘ $391 ‘875
49 30’s equivalent to 245 crates
per acre at 1°65 «- 404:250
9 36's equivalent to 373 crates
per acre at 1°30 .-- 48°750
crates $844'87
Total ... 520
yoo ea rrr
(SuPTEMBUR, 1908.
i”
i: SEPTEMBER, 1908.) |
Section T. ae the rate of 487°76
To return again to the yield per section,
we find that several others approach
very closely the yield of section I. as
follows :—
Value.
crates per acre
Section P. at the rate of 483°62
erates per acre
Section EH. at the rate of 488°55
crates per acre 766°25
Section M. at the rate of 484: 84
crates per acre 763°94
Section O. at the rate of 488°59
crates per acre .. 763°30
Section Q.* at the rate of 474: 28
creats per acre .. 756°40
Section U. at the rate of 475: 00.
erates per acre 750°00
Section V. at the rate of 472° 00
crates per acre v —140°38
Computing the value of twoof the
poorest sections we find them to beas
follows :--
Value.
Section B. at the rate of 283:95
crates per acre 428-44
Section R. at the rate of 324°44
crates per acre 483°05
Computing the value of the poorest
plot—plot 69 Section R.—we find it to be
as follows :—
Value.
24 30’s equivalent to 120 crates
per acre at $1°65 ... $198°00
5 42’s equivalent to 17°86 crates
per acre at 1:10 ae, 19°94
137°86 crates $217 '64
Comparing the best and poorest sec-
tions aud the best and poorest plots we
we have the following results :—
Vaule.
Best section—I 498°25 erates
per acre 786.92
Poorest section—B 283° 81 coates
per acre .. - 422°44
Difference 214°31 crates
per acre $358°38
Best plot—plot 85637" 50 erates
per acre 869°375
Poorest— plot 00-137 85 seis
per acre 217-640
Difference 399°64 crates
per acre ey ean Oa 730
*Since the gathering of the first crop this section
has deteriorated very greatly.
3l
241 Miscellaneous Products.
We believe, therefore, that the experi-
ment fully demonstrates that there is
good profit to those growing pineapples
undershade on the Hast Coast, in applying
as high as the equivalent of 3,750 pounds
per acre of a fertilizer analyzing 4 per
cent. phosphoric acid, 5 per cent. nit-
rogen, and 10 per cent. potash, but that
beyond this amount there is but little if
any profit. Just how far this will apply
to pineapples grown inthe open we can-
not say, though it seems to be generally
conceded that less fertilizer is “required
under sheds than in the open, and, this
being the case, itis quite possible that
the amount to be used in the open might
profitably be increased beyond the
amount here specified for sheds.
Crop oF 1904.
No such decisive conclusions can be
drawn from the crops of 1904 and 1905,
but this is undoubtedly due to causes
other than fertilizers. The shortness of
the crop for 1904 may possibly be attri-
buted to the fact that the plants were
somewhat exhausted from having
yielded so full a crop in 1903. , Certainly
the fact that in many cases the plots
receiving the least fertilizer gave the
largest yield, would indicate that it was
not want of fertilizer that caused the
short crop. It would hardly seem fair
to undertake to draw many conclusions
from a crop which is less than one-third
of a total possibility. Unfortunately,
we failed to get arecord of the fall and
winter crop for either 1903 or 1904. Could
this crop have been added to the sum-
mer crop for 1904, it is quite possible
thatthe showing would have been dif-
ferent, as we would naturally expect so
small a summer crop to be followed by a
heavy fall and winter crop. The fall and
winter crop for 1903 was small on
account of the heavy summer crop, and
therefore would not have materially
affected the total.
Crop oF 1905.
The freeze of February, 1905, explains
the shortage of the crop for this year,
and again it would seem unfair to draw
many conclusions, for undoubtedly the
fertilizers had little to do with the fall-
ing off. At the same time a careful
count will show that the number of 24’s
has been considerably increased on many
of the plots as the fertilizer was in-
creased, while the 42’s were decreased
but slightly. In the upper half of the
plot (see Diagram III., crop of 1905), it
will be noticed that the total number of
pines has increased from the first to the
third line of plots, while in the fourth
the total is less than in the third line,
Miscellaneous Products.
Again emphasizing the fact that the
imit of profitable fertilizing has been
reached with the third line. In the
lower half of the experiment plot, there
is a gradual decrease in the total from
the first to the fourth line, but this
may possibly be accounted for from the
fact that several of these plots received
fertilizers that proved injurious, and as
the amount was increased the injurious
effects were more pronounced.
A study of the table will bring out
some other interesting facts. Sections
A,and B., both of which received acid
hosphate up to this year, each yielded
ess than 100 pines, while section K.
which received the same treatment and
lime in addition yielded 162 pines, an
increase of over 60 per cent.; this section
produced the highest number of 24’s.
Section U., which was fertilized with dis-
solved bone black, dried blood and high
grade sulphate gave the highest yield
for this year, 168, while sections H. and
I. with 152 and 153 respectively, and
which received their phosphoric acid in
the form of slag, closely follow section
K. Section O., which also received slag
is next, with 147. Sections G. and J.,
both of which received kainit, yielded
less than ten 24’s, while section S. yielded
only one.
THE KREEZE OF 1905.
After the freeze of February, 1905, the
experiment plot was carefully examined,
first by Mr. W. R. Hardee and later by
one of us (Blair) to see whether plots
fertilized differently had been differently
affected, but no marked difference could
be detected. True, some of the plots
looked worse than others, but they were
the plots that had already been injured
by the treatment they had received.
Practically no difference, so faras the
effect of the freeze was concerned, could
be detected in the condition of those
plots which had responded well to the
treatment they were receiving.
Although the crop for this year was
very much reduced, this statement is
weli borne out by the results. A further
examination of the table reporting the
crop for 1905 shows very clearly that the
most of those plots which have already
been reported as injured by the treat-
ment they were receiving, for example
sections A,, B., G., J., R. and S., gave the
lowest total number of fruits, or a very
small number of the larger sizes, or both.
Neither were we able to detect any
difference in the effect upon those plots
which received phosphoric acid, nitrogen
and potash in varying ratios.
242,
REMARKS.
lt was assumed that an average of 4
and of the total ‘phosphoric acid in
bone meal is available,
According to the method used for
determining the available phosphoric
acid in slag, approximately +4 of the
total is available.
Slag tends to produce a rank growth
of plants, and it is possible that if a part
of the slag should be replaced with bone
meal better results would be obtained
than with either alone.
While land plaster was not used in
this experiment, except for one applica-
tion, it is used by a number of the
growers with good results. The claim
is made that it tends to aid in fixing
the nitrogen of organic fertilizers, such
as dried blood and cotton-seed meal. It
is considered especially helpful in this
respectif these organic fertilizers are
applied during a dry spell. This claim is
borne out by the work of a German
invenstigator.* He finds that land plaster
not only assists in the rotting of manure,
but that it also fixes or holds much
ammonia that would otherwise escape.
The conditions under which this investi-
gator worked are, of course, not the con-
ditions which exist in the pineapple belt,
but it is not at all unlikely that the same
chemical reactions take place. Those
growers who have used land plaster put
on about 200 pounds per acre.
An effort was made, by analysis, to
find out whether the fruit would show
an increase in the elements of plant food
as the fertilizers were increased, but the
method of taking the samples tended to
vitiate the results. I[t was not possible
to make acomposite sample of all the
fruit from each plot, and to take two or
three fruits from a plot, as was done,
probably does not give average results.
The results obtained do uot warrant us
in drawing any conclusions in regard to
the relation which exists between the
plant food in the soil and in the fruit.
indeed, it is quite possible that increas-
ing the amount of plant food in the soil
may not affect the quantity to be found
in the fruit, but only thatin the plant.
The results are of interest as showing
the amount of plant food removed by
the fruit and will be found in Table IV.
Given the weight of a crate of pineapples,
and the number of crates per acre,
itis a simple matter to calculate the
plant food removed by a crop of pine-
apples.
*§. A. Sewerin, Gips als ammoniakbindende
Substanz bei der Verrottung des Stallmistes.
Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Par. u. Infek.
XI. Bd., Nos. 12-13 und 14-15.
hf SEPTEMBER, 1908. %
Sd |
ANALYSES OF PINEAPPLES FROM EXPERI-
MENT Plot SHOWING PHOSPHORIC ACID,
NITROGEN AND POTASH IN THE
ORIGINAL FRUIT.
Station P2 Os N K2 O
No. Per cent. Percent. Per cent.
1494 "0368 0767 "2432
1495 0418 0688 2201
1496 0391 06/6 "1838
1497 ‘0374. “0883 *2281
1498 0875 ‘0641 *2092
1499 0858 “0647 2085
1500 “0402 0680 2315
1501 "0844 0657 "2283
1502 0409 0674 2458
1503 “0462 ‘0688 2136
1504. 0471 0885 “2049
1505 “0410 “0694 *2095
1506 0420 ‘0781 2182
1507 0484 “0859 2188
1508 ‘0369 0727 “1883
1509 ‘0369 “0795 2010
1510 0381 0710 2187
1512 0434 "0666 2148
1518 04338 0757 2545
1519 0421 0929 2475
1520 0390 0669 2197
1521 0426 0736 2361
1522 0390 0765 2288
1528 0401 “0706 "2384
1524 0417 ‘0605 +2330
1526 "0339 0580 “1980
1527 0404 0621 *2470
15381 0395 0633 ‘2179
1582 0455 ‘0760 1822
1534 0522 ‘O704 ‘2198
15387 0508 0648 2283
1588 0497 0650 "2347
1539 0386 0638 “PATA
1540 *0429 O69L "2111
1541 0563 0742 *2581
1542 -0892 ‘0667 OPA Ware
1543 0482 0662 2518
1544 0477 0650 2716
1545 0482 0796 *2585
1551 04380 0692 12312
1552 0450 0697 *1955
1553 0429 0680 ‘2876
1554. 0443 .0789 +2320
1555 0451 0698 2558
1556 ‘0416 ‘0703 “1868
1557 "0398 ‘0658 °2090
1558 "0429 "0664 2244
1559 "0451 0724 "2259
Average "0423 0707 22:56
_ Some work has also been done looking
towards ascertaining whether increasing
the fertilizers has any effect upon the
sugar and acid content of the pineapple,
but this wok is not yet complete.
For the beginner in pineapple grow-
ing there will be many details which
must be learned by experience or from
the practical grower. The experimenter
SEPIEMBER, 1908.) 243
Miscellaneous Products.
is, of necessity, obliged to content hin-
self largely with working out general
principles, since different localities and.
different individuals require that dif-
ferent methods be employed in executing
many of the minor details in almost all
agricu[tural pursuits.—Bulletin No. 83,
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station,
February, 1906, pp. 411-435.
By C. K. Suspa Rao
The seed of Nymphea Lotus, which is
very plentiful in the Koller Lake, is
known in the Kistna District, Madras,
as Allyalu, the whole plant being called
Alli. The plant occurring in the Koller
Lake bears white flowers. It is met
with, though not abundantly, in other
parts of the Presidency. While the seed:
and the fleshy root of the plant are used
as articles of diet by the lower classes of
people inhabiting the villages bordering
on the Koller Lake, their dietetic value
is quite unknown elsewhere.
SEPTEMBER, 1908. |
255
SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE.
INFLUENCE OF THE CHARACTER OF
SEED ON THE GROWTH OF TREES.
Iaan address to the Royal Scottish
Arboricultural Society, Dr. Somerville
drew attention to experiments made in
Australia and Switzerland to test the in-
fluence of elevation on seed of the spruce
and larch. In the case of the Swiss
experiments, an examination of the
seed procured from trees of approximate-
ly equal age situated at different ele-
vations showed that there wasa gradual,
though by no means regular, reduction
in size according as it was obtained
from low and high elevations; for in-
stance, it was found that 1,000 seeds
usually weighed more than 6 grammes
when obtained from an altitude under
3.000 feet, and less than 6 grammes when
the altitude was 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The
percentage germination followed the
same order, being 70 to 80 for lower alti-
tudes, and 50 to 60 for higher altitudes.
It was also clearly shown that there was a
relationship between the rate of growth
of the seedlings and the elevation at
which the seed was gathered. As is well
known, above a certain altitude the
growth of trees in height is affected,
and at the upper levels the trees became
more or less stunted. These experi-
ments showed that this reduction in the
stature of trees is a character that is
inherited, for example, plants from seed
gathered ata height of 1,800 feet were
18inches high after 5 years, while seed
obtained from levels between 5,000 and
6,000 feet only produced plants 9-10
inches high. Similar results were ob-
tained in Austria, where spruce gather-
ed and sown at an altitude of 1,700 feet
attained a height of 53 inches after 15
years, while seed sown in the same nur-
sery but gathered at a height of 5,200
feet only gave plants 380 inches high.
The height-growth in 1905 was also
smaller, so that fifteen years after sow-
ing the seed the slower growth of
plants from seed harvested at a high
altitude was still conspicuous. and it
seems probable that this characteristic
will be maintained throughout the life
of the tree. A number of other trials
were made besides those mentioned,
and also some with larch and sycamore,
which confirm the conclusion as to the
transmission of the tendency to slower
growth. The converse is also true, for
seed from low elevations produced
plants thatthrove badly at high alti-
tudes. For use at high altitudes,
seed from similar altitudes must be
obtained, and Dr. Somerville thinks it
not unlikely that woods could be grown
in Scotland at greater heights than at
present if high-grown coniferous seed
were obtained for the purpose. Gener-
ally seed should be obtained from well-
grown healthy trees situated in the
district where the woods are to be
grown, orin adistrict of similar char-
acter.—Journal of the Board of Agricul-
ture, Vol. XV., No.2, May, 1908.
[This is the method employed in Java
to get Liberian Coffee to grow at higher
elevations than it. would naturally
stand. It has, we believe, now been
successfully cultivated as high as
3,500 feet.—ED. |
256
HORTICULTURE.
SOME OTHER ORNAMENTAL
TREKS.
By J: P. Lewis.
Mr. Macmillan, in his interesting paper
on “Some Beautiful Tropical Trees,” in
the June number of the ‘‘7.A.,” has
omitted to mention some of the best and
most suitable trees for planting along
the roads.
I do not know whether he has been to
Jafina; but I should say probably not,
or he would have referred to the fine
avenue of Mahogany trees on the main
road to the Kachcheri and Chundikuli.
planted by Sir William Twynam, and, if
he had made the journey by road, the
similar but much younger avenue at
Vavuniya, planted by the same veteran
Vice-Presideut of the
Society, soon after the Vavuniya Kach-
cheri was opened in 1880.
This tree, which was identified by Dr.
Trimen as the “Marsh Mahogany”
(Swietenia mahogani), was introduced
by Mr. Dyke into Jaffna, and the largest
trees then at the Kachcheri, Nellore and
Chundikuli, were planted by him.
In 1842 he applied to Peradeniya for
seeds, but he does not seem to have been
able to get them. InJune, 1844, however,
he received a dozen plants from the
Caleutta Botanic Gardens (presumably
through Peradeniya), and in April, 1846, a
quantity of seeds. He planted some ofthe
trees at the Kachcheri, Chundikuli and
Nellore, and gave one ortwo to the Moor-
men of Jaffna to plant at_ their mosque.
Several of the former and one given to
the Moors were still standing 60 yéars
later. The plants were 10 or 12 feet high
in August, 1847; over 18 feet with
circumference of 7 inches at 4 feet trom
the ground in May, 1848.
The height of one tree near the gate of
the Chundikuli Mission compound was
measured in 1864 or 1865, by Mr. Reginald
Pole, Office Assistant, and found to be 60
feet.
Mr. Henry Pole of the Civil Service
planted two at Mullaittivu, in the
Assistant Government Agent’s compound
in 1846 or 1847, and these are still stand-
ing.
The first pods in Jaffna were obtained
from a tree in front of the Fiscal’s Office.
The original trees planted did not fruit
until very late, and then not freely. The
Agricultural.
younger trees grown from the seeds
fruited early and somewhat freely, es-
pecially, one close to the Kachcheri resi-
dence.
Mr. Dyke remarks with regard to
these trees that ‘‘they grow as if indi-
genous and require very little watering,
even in this arid climate and in very
exposed situations.” *
The Vavuniya trees were grown from
seed obtained from the Jaffna trees.
From Jaffna they have been introduced
also into Trincomalee and Anuradha-
pura. Mr. Le Mesurier introduced them
into Kandy (I think from Jaffna), about
25 years ago, and there are two large
trees in front of the Kachcheri, which he
planted ; also some smaller trees on the
green alongside of the Audience Hall.
In 1904-5 the writer sent some dozen
plants from Jaffna to Mr. S. M. Burrows
at Kurunegala, and I believe they are
flourishing there. I planted another
dozen plants obtained from Jaffna in
Kandy, in 1906, but it was a case of taking
eoals to Neweastle, for afterwards there
were discovered some plants in the Old
Palace Garden below the wall which
bounds the green referred to, the only
tree apparently out of nine in Kandy
which bears seed. The plants from Jaffna
are doing well, some of them are now
6 feet high and others would be the same
if they had not been broken by mischiev-
ous persons in spite of the tree guards.
I have also introduced the tree into
Gampola and Nawalapitiya, and expect
to see it soon at Matale.
I sent at his request two plants to Mr.
tT. R. Ward, P. E., at Badulla in 1904, and
when I saw them last in October, 1905,
in the Provincial Engineer’s compound,
they were then 10 feet high.
i think the Jaffna climate suits them
better than that of Kandy ; though they
grow well in both places—they flourish
especially in Jaffna.
Another tree is the large-leaved Maho-
gany (Swietenia macrophylla), if any-
thing, a finer tree than the first-named. I
introduced this into Negombo in 1894-
1895 from Henaratgoda Gardens. The
trees were planted in front of the Rest
House and grew very tast; they are now
quite large trees. In July or August last -
the Secretary of the Local Board sent
me a pod from one of the trees I planted
* This account of the introduction of the Maho-
gany tree into Jafina is taken from the Kachcheri
records,
‘SEPTEMBER, 1908.]
- in Negombo; from this I have now half-
dozen trees growing round the lake at
Kandy and in other places in Kandy—
one in front of the Kachcheri.
I introduced this tree into Jaffna in
1903, and left two growing very well in
the Park in 1906.
The Parkia Roxburghiw is the third
splendid shade tree not mentioned by
Mr. Macmillan. It shoots up straight for
20 feet or so, and then throws out
branches. It was introduced by the late
Colonel Byrde, Secretary of the Munici-
pality, into Kandy about 25 years ago,
and there is a fine, though short, avenue
of the trees planted by him in Ward
Street, between the National and Mercan-
tile Banks, which has completely trans-
formed tbat street from a glaring white
thoroughfare into a shady boulevard.
T introduced it into Jaffna and Vavu-
niya in 1903-4 from seed obtained
from these trees, and left two plants
growing well in the Park at Jaffna in
1906, and one at least at Vavuniya, The
dry climate did not seem to affect them
injuriously.
The resemblance between the maho-
gany and the margosa, to which, I believe,
itis allied, is very striking. The mar-
gosa is the distinguishing tree of the
Jaffna Peninsula and Islands, but it is
almost useless planting it as an orna-
mental tree, as it is ruthlessly ‘‘barked”
by the people for medicine. I have had
the same experience here with the two
or three na trees growing in the lake
round.
The only redeeming feature at Cal-
pentyn, besides the Fort and the lagoon,
is its avenue of margosa trees.
Would tarring the bark for 8 or 10 feet
hurt the tree? It would be unsightly
perhaps, but not more unsightly than
che bark scored with wounds all round ;
and if it put a stop to this and helped to
preserve a beautiful tree, it would be
worth doing. I am going to try corru-
33
257
Horticulture.
gated iron cylinders encircling the na
trees, and should be glad of any hints
as to how to stop the practice.
The Spathodea was introduced int
Negombo by Mr. E. M. Byrde, s.G.A., in
1884, and the Jacaranda mimoscefolia
(see Mr. Macmillan’s paper) by the writer
in 1892-1894. I planted a good many
Spathodea and Pehimbiya (Filiciwm de-
cipiens, a fourth tree which, though a
jungle tree, is well worth planting for
ornament owing to its handsome fern-
like foliage) on the Esplanade there.
I introduced the former into Vavuniya
in 1889-1890, but tailed to get it to grow
in Jaffna. Jaffna possesses one pehimbiya
in the Park, and the largest Nelli tree
(Phyllanthus emblica) I have seen, but I
suppose planted by Mr. Dyke, who
collected trees of every kind to plant in
the Park. The latter tree is for months
leafless, but the rest of the year flourishes
like the green bay tree. The pehimbiya
does not flourish—the ends of the bran-
ches die off.
Mr. Dyke also introduced the ‘‘Sissoo”
tree from India into Jaffna in 1848, but
the climate did not suit it, and the few
trees left in 1902 looked very shuck and
died off. I doubt whether one is now
left. Ido not know the scientific name
of this tree; * it is a good timber tree.
Seeing that so many miles by road in
Jaffna and the Jaffna Peninsula are
planted with the Suriya or tulip tree
(Thespesia populnea) and its prominence
in all sea-side towns in the Island, I
think it might have been worthy of
being included in the list. It is very
handsome in December, when it is in
flower. The only objections to it are the
fact that it harbours a peculiarly ob-
noxious hairy caterpillar and is the prey
of the Kuruvichchar (Loranthus). Itis
a godsend in hot, dry, wind-swept
places. I have seen it growing at the
tanks at Aden.
* Dalbergia Sissoo,—Ep,
4 a
4
258 [SEPTEMBER, 1908.
;
MISGELLANEOUYS. )
DEMONSTRATION WORK IN CO. we have allowed the stalks to be turned
OPERATION WITH SOUTHERN under provided the immature bolls are
FARMERS.
By S. A. KNAPP.
(Concluded from page 169,—Read cash
for catch on page 169.)
THE CULTURAL SYSTEM FOR PRODUCING
CoTTON UNDER BoLL-WEEVIL
CONDITIONS.
As it is evident that the cotton boll
weevil will soon spread over the entire
cotton-producing territory of the United
States, itisa matter of general interest
to know how cotton is at present produc-
ed with the weevil present.
Success in making a cotton crop under
boll-weevil condition is based upon there
principles. It was found (1) that the
numbers of the weevils could be limited
so that they would not become totally
destructive to the crop until the first
and middle crops are out of danger; (2)
that the cotton plant can be so bred
‘and selected as to throw nearly its whole
life forces into the lower and middle
crops ;and (8) that the plant can be
so hastened to maturity by the applica-
tion of cultural methods that most of the
boll will be developed—to the safety
point before the weevils are too
numerous.
Guided by the principles just men-
tioned, the Bureau of Plant Industry
has worked out a co-operative plan of
producing cotton under boll-weevil con-
ditions, which is known through the
South as the ‘‘cotton cultural system.”
This plan is based upon our knowledge
of the cotton plant upon the life habits
of the boll weevil as ascertained by the
Bureau of Entomology.* Its chief
features may be briefly mentioned as
follows :-—
(1) The destruction of the weevils in
the fall (a) by burning the cotton stalks
early in the fall while the weevils are
still upon them, and (b) by burning all
rubbish in and about the field which
might serve for hibernating quarters.
It is so difficult to secure a general
adoption by the farmers of the plan of
early burning of the cotton stalks that
* See Bulletin No, 61 of the Bureau of Ento-
mology.
destroyed.
(2) Immediately after destroying the
bolls breaking (ploughing) the field as
deep as conditions will allow.
(8) The shallow winter cultivation of
the soil.
(4) As early planting as the season
will allow with safety to the crop.
(5) The planting of early-maturing
varieties of cotton,
(6) The use of fertilizers.
(7) Leaving more space between the
rows, and on ordinary uplands having a
greater distance between plants in the
row than is usually allowed. On rich or
highly fertilized lands it is better to
crowd the plants slightly in the rows to
avoid the excessive growth of the stalks.
(8) The use of the toothed-harrow
before and after planting and on the
young cotton.
(9) Intensive shallow cultivation.
(10) Agitation of the stalks by means
of brush attached to the cultivator.
(11) Picking up and burning the
squares that fall, where practicable.
(12) Controlling the growth of the
plant if excessive by barring off or top-
ping.
(13) Selecting the seed.
(14) The rotation
of crops and the
use of legumes.
It will be noted that the system as
outlined has a two-fold object: (1) To
reduce the number of weevils, and (2) to
aid early maturity in order to obtain a
crop in advance of the weevil.
A few remarks concerning the main
features of this plan may prove of value.
DESTRUCTION OF THE WEEVILS.
One of the greatest dangers to the
cotton crop is the wintering of large
numbers of weevils. By a failure to
destroy early in the fall the immature
cotton bolls and the rubbish in the fields,
enough weevils may be wintered over to
jeopardize the crops the ensuing year.
{f the immature bolls and the field rub-
bish are destroyed, the stalks may be
safely ploughed under. The rubbish in
the field which may serve for hibernating
quaters includes the borders and fence
corners.
|
_ SEPTEMBER, 1908. | 2
Two methods of destroying the over-
wintered weevil while they are feeding
on the tender te1minal buds are advo-
cated: (1) They may be hand-picked
and burned, or (2) some may be destroyed
by the use of the harrow and brush.
FALL AND WINTER CULTIVATION
OF THE SOIL.
After the destruction of the bolls in
the fall, breaking (ploughing) the field 1
or 2inches deeper than usual assist in
the destruction of the weevils and in the
preparation of the field for successful
cropping the following season. In order
to air the soil and destroy grass, shallow
winter cultivation of the soil should be
practised, z.e., working the land with a
toothed harrow or a disk once every
twenty or thirty days during the
winter, as the weather may permit.
The soil should be in excellent condition
at the time of planting.
EARLY PLANTING AND THE USE OF
EARLY-MATURING VARIETIES.
The object of early planting is to
hasten the maturity of the crop. The
Bureau of Entomology has shown that
the weevils do not multiply until the
squares begin to form and do not gener-
ally become numerous enough to des-
troy the entire crop before the last of
July. In addition to this, early planting
has been found generally helpful against
cotton pests, such as the bollworm and
the leafworm. Furthermore, the winter
rains usually leave the soil with plenty
of moisture, while in the spring there is
liable to bea drought which may retard
germination in late planting.
Varieties of cotton differ in time of
maturity, and the same variety may
differ owing to soil, moisture, ferti-
lization, cultivation, ete. The planting
of early-maturing varieties of cotton is
not only important as an aid in securing
a crop, butalso asa meansof destroy-
ing the weevil. The early-maturing
cotton can be gathered and the immature
bolls destroyed beforeit is time for the
weevils to go into winter quarters. If
all growers would plant early-maturing
cotton and follow the plan here outlined
it would result in gieatly lessening the
damage of the weevil.
In advising the planting of early-
maturing cotton it is not the intention
to advocate the exclusive use of small-boll
cotton. These varieties may be better
adapted to the northern limits of the
cotton belt, but in nine-tenths of the
cotton-producing territory there are
large-boll varieties which can be just as
successfully grown under boll-weevil
conditions as the small-boll cottons.
9) ! Miscellaneous.
They must be varieties that are generally
vigorous and that put out short-jointed
fruit limbs close to the ground.
USE OF FERTLIZERS.
The use of fertilizers, especially acid
phosphate and potash, to hasten matu-
rity and increase fruitage, as well as the
use of cotton-seed meal when necessary
to promote vigour and growth, is re-
commended. Soils and methods of appli-
tation are fully explained, and it has
been demonstrated that a small quantity
of fertilizer properly applied accom-
plishes marvellous results.
SPACING BETWEEN PLANTs AND Rows.
Planting in rows wider than usual and
allowing more space inthe row on light
lands are advised under boll-weevil condi-
tions. Special attention must be direct-
ed to have the rows proper distance
apart and to thin the plants in the rows.
There must be width enough for the
sun’s rays to reach the earth between
the rows and thus aid in destroying the
larvae of the weevil.
Generally speaking, more space to the
plant makes a better stalk with more
limbs, more bloom, and a higher grade of
cotton. The spacing between the rows
must depend on the soil and the variety
of cotton. Morespace should be given to
fertilized than to unfertiJized cotton. It,
however, extreme space is allowed be-
tween plants in the rows and intensive
cultivation is given there may be enough
stimulus imparted to the growth of the
plant to actually retard maturity unless
the growth is controlled by barring off,
as explained later ; hence, on rich lands
it is best to give plenty of space between
the rows and to crowd the plants a little
in the rows.
USE OF THE TootuspD HARROW.
The use of the toothed harrow as soon
as the crop comesup is of sufficient im-
portance to warrant special mention.
After early planting the germination is
frequently slow and the earth may _ be-
come crusted. The harrow may be used
to break the crust before the plants are
up, and should be used soon afterwards
to keep the soil loose so that the plants
will take on rapid gro vth at once. The
crop is surprisingly advanced by the
judicious use of the harrow.
INTENSIVE CULTIVATION.
Ploughing or eultivating deep the first
time and shallow at all subsequent times
isan important feature of good cotton
production. It destroys weeds, increases
the plant food, and conserves moisture,
consequently hastening maturity. Under
boll-weevil conditions the cotton crop
Miscellaneous.
should be cultivated every week. Some
of our} most successful co-operators have
cultivated fifteen times and continued
till picking commenced.
AGITATION OF STALKS.
Violent agitation of the cotton stalks
when cultivating or ploughing, by means
of a brush attached to the cultivator or
plough, is reeommended. Some farmere
attach a chain to the tongue and smooth
poles to the whiffletrees, and also a pole
to the handles, so as to brush the stalks
more than once in passing. Bundles of
soft, leafy twigs are better. This knocks
off the infested squares. The great
majority of squares fall off naturally in
avery few days after they become in-
fested. Abundant testimony has come
from our co-operators to show that as
long as weekly cultivation of the crop
with violent agitation of the stalks is
continued, the damage done by the boll
weevil is greatly reduced.
PICKING UP FALLEN SQUARES.
An important aid toward the destruc-
tion of the weevils
squares that fall. If two or three gener-
ations can thus be destroyed, it will
result in retarding the increase of the
weevil and in adding tothe cotton crop.
This reduces the rapidity with which
the weevils multiply and isa great aid
in saving the crop,
BARRING OFF OR TOPPING.
Under boll-weevil conditions the main
cotton crop must be made upon the lower
and middle limbs. There is no use of a
tall plant. The growth of the plant
should therefore be controlled by har-
ring off or topping. As soon as the
plant indicates too rapid growth, bar off
on each side, thus slightly root pruning
and retarding upward growth. The
tendency will then be to throw more
vigour into the lower limbs and to put on
more fruit. This method is especially
valuable ov rich bottom lands where the
stalks frequently grow 6 to 7 feet high.
It should be noted that with the boll
weevil no top crop is made; hence, more
bottom crop must be secured, requiring
a low, limby, vigorous plant.
SELECTING AND STORING SEED.
Scarcely any item in the cultural
system is of more importance than the
selection of the seed as an aid to early
maturity in the following crop. The
largest, best, and earliest bolls from the
most vigorous — short-jointed plants
should be selected for seed in advance ot
the general picking and be stored in a
260
is picking up the |
[SEPTEMBER, 1908.
dry place. The planting of early-
maturity varieties and the selection of
seed from the earliest and best bolls on
the most vigorous and best-developed
stalks are fundamental principles in
growing cotton irrespective of
boll weevil and cannot be too closely
followed.
ROTATION OF CROPS AND USE OF
LEGUMES.
. The Bureau of Plant Industry in all
its instructions seeks to build up soil
€nergy and to improve the mechanical
Condition of the soil as well. An im-
portant factor to this end is rotation of
crops and the increase of humus by
ploughing-under green plants, especially
cowpeas. This builds up the soil and
renders it more porous and responsive.
Some of the serious difficulties in
cotton production arise from the grow-
ing of consecutive crops of cotton on the
same land. This reduces fertility and
hence operates against early maturity.
With the best of efforts to clear fields of
the weevil in the fall by burning the
stalks and deep ploughing, some weevils
will survive, and a few soon infest a
field. By planting one-half of the land
to corn and cowpeas and the other half
to cotton, as much cotton can be pro-
duced as formerly, and the land will be
gradually restored to its original ferti-
lity. The corn and cowpeas will also
add materially to the income of the
farm, but the special reason urged for
such rotation under boll-weevil infesta-
tion is that the crop of corn and peas
leaves the field free from the weevil,
as it feeds only upon cotton. It is
evident that with the boll-weevil it
requires more labour to cultivate an
acre of cotton; consequently, only as
many acres should be planted as can be
given the best attention, so as to pro-
duce a maximum crop, thus leaving
more laud for cereals and for meadows
and pastures.
DEMONSTRATION WORK ON VARIOUS
FARM OROPS.
The Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra-
tion Work, as before stated, aims to
cover the entire scope of the manage-
ment of the standard crops in the
sections where the work is conducted. |
In addition to the cotton-culture system,
which is the main feature of the work in
many localities, it may be well to give
brief mention of some of the co-operative
work on other crops now under way,
such as corn culture, the use of soil-
renovating crops, and the product of
good farm seeds.
SEPTEMBER, 1908. |
CorN CULTURE.
Corn is the main grain dependence for
farm stock and can be successfully raised
in most portions of the South. Any
considerable increase in its anuual pro-
duction would have a marked effect
upon the value of the unused lands for
grazing purposes, and would perceptibly
increase the income of the farms. The
importance of corn for food and for
rotation with other crops gives it a
rank next to cotton asa standard farm
crop. Notwithstanding this, its cultiva-
tion has been singularly neglected until
the average yield per acre has fallen
below the profit line in many States.
Even at the high value per bushel
allowed, the corn cropin many of the
Southern States does not pay a living
wage or a fair rent value for the land.
There is abundant proof that large
and_ profitable crops of corn can be
produced in the South by the use of the
best seed andimproved methods. The
planting of low-grade seed ina shallow
and impoverished seed-bed is responsible
in the main for deficient yields and
quality. However, to secure the best
results other reforms must be made,
such as better drainage, an adjustment of
distances between the rows and the
stalks in the rows to meet the require-
ments of soil and climate, intensive
cultivation of the erop, the use of
cowpeas in the corn, and the following
ot the corn with a winter cover crop.
The Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra-
tion Work includes instruction along all
of these lines, and the results have been
most encouraging. Our investigations
show that not even one per cent. of the
lands in the South planted to corn are
ploughed deeply enough at breaking,
that they have not sufficient humus, and
that they are not given the proper tillage
to make the best crop. Seed is so gener-
ally defective that only about one-third
of so-called good seed is suitable for
planting if maximum yields are expected.
Along these practical lines weate con-
ducting co-operative demonstrations
with the object of increasing the corn
crop in the South Atlantic and Gulf
States atleast threefold per acre without
additional cost. A system of seed selec-
tion for improving the quality and in-
creasing the yield and methods of storage
for the preservation of vitality are out-
lined, detailed instructions beiny given
on application.
SELECTION OF SEED CoRN.
The object of the average farmer in
planting corn is to secure the largest
crop of good corn possible under the con-
ditions. The selection of the seed is very
important,
261
Miscellaneous.
Kor the best results corn should be
selected in the field. The Japanese select
their rice seed before the harvest.
The model ear of cornis only a small
part of the problem. The stalk, the leaf,
the root habits, the husk, and _ the
environment of the plant from which the
ear is taken must be considered. Mostof
the Southern States are subject to a
shorter or longer drought during the
period of growth of the corn crop, and
the crop will depend largely upon the
drought-resisting habits of leaf and roots.
Some varieties of corn which are model
in ear have so open a husk that the
weevils destroy much of it while in the
field. Again, the ear in the crib does not
tell how many weak or bastard stalks
grew in the vicinity.
COWPEAS AND OTHER Soir-RENOVATING.
CROPS.
As just stated, corn requires a strong
well-tilled soil, and upon thin land
deteriorated by bad management, the
yieldsoon drops below a remunerative
average. Such lands will, however, pro-
fitably produce other crops of great value
for the sustenance of farm stock, and, in
addition, the growing of these crops will
provide an excellent means of soil renova-
tion. Lands that are now producing ten
bushels of corn per acre will with much
less labour produce 14 tons of cowpea
hay per acre, equal in nutritive value to
thirty-one bushels of corn, or they will
yield 14 tons of peanut hay per acre, equal
in nutritive value to 23? bushels of corn,
and in addition a peanut crop of 25
bushels per acre may be secured.
On rich lands that under good culture
will produce forty or more bushels of corn
per acre satisfactory results can be
secured by planting cowpeas between
the rows of corn. EKven rich bottom
lands rated to yield forty bushels of corn
per acre if sown to alfalfa frequently
produce five tons of hay per acreina sea-
son, equal in feeding value to 1053 bushels
of corn. In addition, sucherops as cow-
peas, peanuts, and alfalfa rapidly enrich
the soil and leave it in excellent mecha
nical condition for the ensuing year.
“Generally speaking, poor hill lands
should not be used for corn culture
unless they are placed under a thorough
system of renovation, or unless fertiliza-
tion with stable manure or compost is
practised toa high degree.
SEED FARMS.
The good-seed problem has been a most
difficult); one to solve. in the South.
Very few farmers have paid any atten-
Miscellaneous.
tion to planting pure seed or keeping it
pure when planted, and still fewer have
tried to improve their seed by selec-
tion. Notone farm in one hundred inthe
South has proper’ storage for good
seed. Through field agents prominent
farmers in every county have been
induced to establish seed farms, where
the cultivation of the crop and the
selection and storing of the seed are
supervised by agents of this co-operative
demonstration work under an agree-
ment that the seed produced shall be
distributed to the farmers at a moderate
price. The best seeds for a given sec-
tion are observed, anda general interest
is aroused among the farmers to plant a
separate seed patch on every farm and
carefully select for improvement.
PRACTICAL RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED.
The field operations in connection with
the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra-
tion Work extend over such a vast
territory that it is difficult to state
results in a concrete way. The follow-
ing statements give the more important
items in condensed form :—
Amount available from Con-
gressional appropriations for
year 1907-8 ae wel Oh TOO 1OO
General Education Board
Contribution* 69,000:00
Slater fund* : 1,000:00
Voluntary local contributions
(estimated)+ ... _20,000°00
167,739°80
Agent in charge oh “ia ‘iL
General assistant agents Hs 2
Field agents i oe 148
States partially or wholly worked 10
Public meetings held annually .... 2,750
Circulars distributed annually... 200,000
Number of demonstration farms,
1907-8, of which exact records
are kept in central office 12,000
Number of co-operating farms,
1907-8 an 20,000
Number of farmers visiting the
demonstration farms annually
(conservatively estimated) ... 300,000
Great interest is everywhere manifest-
ed in better preparation of the soil, in
* The responsibility for handling these funds re-
mains in thafhands of the contributors, acting
underthe advice of the agent in charge.
+ Many counties ask for more demonstration
farms andjmore improved seed than the Depart-
ment jof Agriculture can furnish on account of
lack of funds. Someof these pledge the money
necessay to thus supplement the work.
262
planting selected seed, and in general
betterment.
Thousands of prize contests have been
started in cotton and corn production
among farmers and also among boys on
the farm.
Thousands of letters bearing testimony
to the value of the work have been re-
ceived, but it is impossible to present any
extended digest of these within the limits
of a Farmers’ Bulletin.
The following extracts from letters
received show the people’s estimate . of
the value of this demonstration work :—
Marshall, Tex., October 10, 1907.
We, the undersigned committee for
Harrison County, Tex., make the follow-
ing prelimanry report on the Karmers’
Co-operative Demonstration Work donein
the past season in this county :—
On account of the ravages of the bol-
weevil, Harrison County, Tex., was
threatened with a disaster in the
loss of the cotton crop that would affect
every material interestin the county.
The loss of money was not the sole con-
sideration. Our tenants and farm
labourers would toa large extent leave
the county, and it would thus _ per-
manently injure our Commonwealth.
In this emergency we appealed to the
United States Department of Agricul-
ture through you for advice and aid.
You came to our county and organized
the woikin February, 1907, under an
arrangement by which the Department
of Agriculture would furnish superin-
tendence and the people of this county
would raise enough funds to buy im-
yroved seed for the demonstration
‘arms. The citizens of the county
promptly raised and deposited in bank
$1,000, and later contributed $700 more,
making a total of $1,700 invested in
better seed. All agreements between
the Department of Agriculture and the
people were promptly and satisfactorily
carried out. Almost without expection
this was the worst season this section
has ever known for producing cotton,
but without reservation we wishto make
the following statements :—
(1) The results of the demonstration
work have been in the highest degree
satisfactory to our people, and they re-
gard this movement as one of the
greatest ever made for the upbuilding of
our secticn.
(2) Our people are unanimous in asking
for its continuance and would regard the
discontinuance of the work as an untold
disaster.
7
.
‘SEPTEMBER, 1908. |
(3) Among the many good things
- accomplished we enumerate the follow-
ing :—
(a) It established over 300 demonstra-
tion farms, scattered over the entire
county.
(b) It taught better culture and in-
troduced better seed. These two items
alone were worth more than $100,000 this
year to our county in actual cash, to say
nothing of future benefits. Theimprove-
ment was so apparent that the observing
traveller on the high ways could pick
out every demonstration field.
(c) This demonstration work saved a
stampede of tenant farmers and labourers
from the farms,
(d) It gave confidence to the mer-
chants and bankers that a crop would be
made, and thus promoted credit.
(e) It demonstrated to the farmers
that a crop of cotton could be made
under extremely adverse condition of
weather and insect pests, and they enter
upon another year with perfect confi-
dence.
Great credit for the success of this
year’s work is due to the excellert super-
vision of W. F. Proctor, State Agent for
Texas, and to the untiring energy of
T. O. Plunkett, local agent.
JNo. H. Pore
W. T. TwyMon
P. G. WHALEY
M. ScuLLy
H. B. McwiLLiAMs
W. L. MARTIN.
The above committee-men are well-
known to me, and are among the most
substantial and reliable citizens of Har-
rison County, Tex., and I also personally
endorse the statements made.
H. S. LyTrLeton,
County Judge, Harrison County.
Palestine, Tex., January Ist, 1908.
Drar Sir,—We, the undersigned citi-
zens of Anderson County, Tex., desire
to acquaint you with the character of
the work done in this county since last
March through the department known
as the Farmers’ Co-operative Demonstra-
tion Work, and to call your attention to
some of the beneficial results accom-
plished.
The work of the Department in this
county was done on a comparatively
small scale. The enterprising board of
trade of the city of Palestine contributed
$600 to this work, which constituted the
sum of local support the work has had
in the way of money contributed. But,
notwithstanding this, the result of the
work accomplished has been most grati-
fying in many ways.
263 Miscellaneous.
Two hundred demonstration farms
have been established; improved seed
has been used; improved methods of
cultivation have been employed, anda
fine sowing has been made. Outside of
these demonstration farms.a conservative
estimate places the average yield of
cotton per acre at about 300 pounds of
seed cotton, or about 1 bale to 6 acres.
The record made by the demonstration
farms is 608 pounds of seed cotton per
acre as an average. The yield of corn
per acre outside of the demonstration
farms is certainly not greater than 15
bushels per acre. The demonstration
farms show an average yield of 283
bushels per acre.*
This good showing on the cottton is
still further augmented by the fact that
while it formerly took about 1,700 pounds
of seed cotton to makea bale, the im-
proved seed used on the demonstration
farms produces a bale with 1,400 pounds
of seed cotton.
These manifest results of the work are
proving very stimulating to the farming
interests, and the advantages of the
work of this first season are simply in-
calculable. We believe that one of the
certain results is a general awakening of
the farmers of this county to the need
of better seeds and up-to-date methods
of farming.
It must be remembered that the sow-
ing that has been made this last year has
been made under the most adverse cir-
cumstances imaginable. Adverse crop
zonditions have existed from the very
beginning of the work.
We earnestly petition that the good
work be continued in this county on just
as large a scale as possible, and we pledge
the same our hearty co-operation and
encouragement. * * *
JOHN R. HEARNE,
President, Board of Trade, and Presi-
dent, Royal National Bank.
H. W. Watts,
Ex-Sheriff, Anderson County.
R. R. CLARIDGE,
President, Texas Div., Southern Corn
Association.
Don M. BARRETT,
EKx-Tax Collector, Anderson County.
_Y. L. JONEs,
Merchant.
H. Horwitz,
Merchant.
S. M. Paut,
Farmer.
J. J. STRICKLAND,
Representative, Thirtieth Legislature.
*The yields of cotton and corn given are an-
usually low because of the excessive rainfall,
~~
ee ee ae Gs ee
aw ee oe
i
Miscellaneous.
Denison Board of Trade,
Denison, Tex., January 2nd, 1908.
DEAR S1R,—Referring to your esteemed
favour of recent date, beg to say that we
greatly appreciate your interest and
co-operation in our efforts for agricul-
tural advancement, and we expect great
good to result from the work planned
next year. The work of the past year
has served to thoroughly arouse our
people to an understanding of the great
work that your Department is doing in
the interest of agricultural advance-
ment.
Your workin this community during
the past year has been of inestimable
value to our people. There has been a
wonderful awakening of interest among
our farmers, who are now onthe alert
for new ideas and progressive methods.
There was a time, perhaps, when farmers
regarded the work of the Department of
Agriculture as empty theory and spurned
the advice of what they pleased to term
‘book farmers,” but they now realize
the science of agriculture and the wonder-
ful possibilities for improvement and for
increasing their earning capacity, Such
an awakening is manifest on every
hand in the vicinity of Denison, where
wonderful progress has been made
during the past year. I feel safe in
the assertion that there has _ been
more scientific and methodical work on
the farms about Denision during 1907
than ever before. * * * This is evi-
dence of real prosperity—prosperity so
firmly established that our little city
and the surrounding country hardly
realized the existence of the financial
flurry which so upset conditions through-
out the country.
We regard the work in the interest of
agricultural advancement as being the
most productive effort of this organiza-
tion, and we feel deeply indebted to you
for co-operation, which has made our
work much more effective than it could
have been otherwise. We feel that the
object lessons provided by you last year
were very effective, and the establish-
ment of the thirty demonstration and
co-operative farms planned for the next
year insures even greater progress. Two
of the farmers who operated demonstra-
tion plats the past year under the able
direction of Mr. J. L. Quicksall have sold
all their Triumph seed they had to spare
at $1 per bushel.
We are especially anxious to encourage
the corn growers whom we have suc-
ceeded in so thoroughly arousing during
the past year. I have never known so
much interest in the improvement of
corn as is in evidence here at this time.
*« * * Weare anxious to render any
264
t
(SEPTEMBER, 1908:
possible service that will facilitate your
work in the vicinity of Denison, believ-
ing that your continued co-operation
will assist us in making this the greatest
agricultural section of the Southwest.
Very truly yours,
T. W. LARKIN,
Secretary,
Taylor, La., January 5th, 1908.
DEAR Sir,—Some four years ago I
worked a plat of land by your cultural
method, which gave me much better
results than the usual methods pre-
viously used. I have been following the
same instructions in part for the last
three seasons, and find this method
gives better results, especially the
thorough preparation of the seed bed
and the distance between rows and
plants. I find the crop much easier
worked and the yield better in quality,
as well as quantity; I also have tried to
help a good thing along by showing your
instructions and my crop to others and
by having my tenants work by same.
One of the parties to whom I read the
instructions and showed the crop asked
me to see his crop last summer, saying
he had worked it my way and had the
best crop he ever raised in his life. I
think he had a fine crop for the season.
Respectfully,
W. C. WALL.
Clarendon, Ark., Dee. 20th, 1907.
DEAR S1r,—I took up your plan of
farming in 1906 ina small way with good
results; in fact, was so well pleased
with it that I planted and culti-
vated something like 400 acres this
year. I followed your directions in
preparation and _ cultivation, using
200 pounds of phosphate per acre.
While we had the wettest and coldest
and most backward spring I ever knew,
causing me to plant the greater part of
my crop over the fourth time and as late
as June 9 to 12, then only getting about
half a stand on most of it, and after that
date only had rain enough to keep the
ploughs out of the field a tew hours until
picking time, I am satisfied with the
result, some of it paying me as high as
$30 per acre net rent, the lowest $6 per
acre, averaging about $13 per acre net.
I more than doubled my yield of corn.
I expect to go at it more extensively
next year. I have had my ploughs going
for two weeks, preparing cotton land
for 1908.
Very respectfully,
W. S. JEFFRIES.
a ae oe
Smpr MBER, 1908.]
- experiment.
_ just past,
Stonewall, La., Dec. 13th, 1907.
Dear Sir,—Having spent twenty-five
yearsin paying for cotton lands anda
cotton gin, and otherwise gettiny in
shape to grow and handle cotton to
advantage, we have studied and watched
with deep interest every moment which
was calculated to relieve us from the
ravages of the boll weevil, and now we
write to thank you and Mr. Cowden
(agent) for the work done in this com-
munity in the way of establishing
demonstration farms this year. We
feel sure this is the best manner to
reach most of our people, who have
grown skeptical of book farming, but
are easily convinced by a practical appli-
cation of your methods.
your plans for two years, and think it
our only hope to outwit the boll weevil.
Trusting you may be able to continue
your work in our parish next year.
We are, with regards,
Yours truly,
J. M. & M. G. NELSON.
The Business Men’s League of Helena,
Helana, Ark., January lith, 1908.
DEAR Sir,—Our league has on foot a
movement to increase the production
per acre of cotton and corn in this
section.
Two years ago an experiment was con-
ducted under the immediate care of
Messrs. H. D. Pillow and H. G. Ste-
phens. one of your representatives
having a general supervision of the
No fertilizer was used, but
the cultural methods adopted proved
wonderfully beneficial and a large yield
of cotton resulted. During the season
Mr. Stephens conducted an
experiment upon his own behalf, using
nitrate of soda as a fertilizer for cotton
and cotton-seed meal for corn. He has
made us a report which we will publish,
and that, together with a letter from
Mr. E. D. Pillow, willbe mailed by us to
about 1,000 farmers in thissection, * * *
We would also ask your co-operation
in this matter, and would like to know
if it would be possible to secure the
services of a representative of the Agri-
cultural Department to make a tour on
‘inspection at short intervals for the
purpose of aiding these farmers by way
of instruction and general information.
The experiment would be more apt to
prove profitable if some one would make
the rounds, and letit be known in ad-
- vance that an inspection would be made.
34
265°
We have tried -
Miscellaneous,
Kindly write us fully upon this subject,
and tell us to what extent and in what
manner youcan aid us in this movement.
Yours truly,
H. C. Horwnor.
CONCLUSION.
It has been proved by our co-operative
demonstration work that by following
the instructions of the Bureau of Plant
Industry a good crop of cotton can be
raised in the worst-infested boll-weevil
districts and despite the ravages of this
pest. Itis possible that the future may
discover some better method of meeting
the boll-weevil problems, but experience
has shown thatthe method outlined is
the only safe one at present. The boll-
weevil has now covered a large portion
of Texas, Louisiana, Arkanas, Oklahoma,
and several counties in Mississippi. It
is annually invading new territory with
a column 600 miles long and in numbers
sufficient to cover every stalk of cotton
toa width of 80 miles. A cotton crop
can be produced despite the boll-weevil,
and the sooner American farmers face
the situation the better it will be for all
concerned. To demonstrate the truth
of this theory is one object of the
Rarmers’ Co-operative Demonstration
Work.
In the foregoing pages have heen
mentioned only some of the lines of
demonstration which have been under-
taken for rural uplifting. The results
have far exceeded our expectations, and
the farmers have accepted the work
gratefully and have co-operated to the
best of their ability in every under-
taking. It is along such lines as these
that great economies can be practised and
valuable reforms wrought for the better-
ment of rural conditions and for solving
the problems of the farm.—JU. 8. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin
319, April 6, 1908.
PASSIFLORA FCITIDA.
The use of this plantas a covering for
the ground to: keep down weeds—especi-
ally lalang or illuk grass—is rapidly
spreading in the Malay States. As a
good many people take for granted that
it does not grow in Ceylon, it may be
well to point out that it is one of our
commoner weeds. It is a native of
America, introduced long ago into
Ceylon and Malaya, and is every where
common in Ceylon, especially in the dry
country. Itis easily known, being a smail
whitish passion-flower with the flower
surrounded by moss-like much-divided .
OEE eee ee
Sn Se a ee ee
ty
Se Re eT set On eR ee
Se ae eee
Miscellaneous.
LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE.
XXXII.
HEVEA: (PARA RUBBER.)
CULTIVATION, DISEASES, SEED, WC.
Vitality of Para seeds. Str. Bull. I.
1903, p. 228.
Packing seed for travel. Bull. Jard.
Col,, Sept. 1903, p. 236.
Para rubber in Ceylon. ‘‘T.A.” June
1904, p. 820.
Commercial utilisation of seeds of the
Para rubber tree. Imp. Inst. Bull.,
March 1904, p. 22
Para rubber soe and oil. Str. Bull:
Feb. 1904, p. +
Manuring Pa do.
p. 405.
Caterpillars, and white ants. Malay
Bull. I
Arden’sreport. Ind. Gard., Feb. 1903,
p, 125.
Notes on/Arden’s report. Str. Bull.
IT., 1908, p. 42.
Experiments at Singapore. Planting
Opin., 1908, p. 374.
Termes Gestroi. Str. Bull., Dec. 1904,
p. 477.
Ceylon Para rubber.
1907, p. 262.
Para rubber from Mergui. ‘“T,A.”
June, 1908, p. 516.
The exportation and _ packing of
Hevea seeds. ‘‘T.A,” July, 1906,
p. 24.
Exporting seed of Para rubber. Do.
Aug., 1906, p. 129.
Die Frage der Ueberfuhrung der
Heveasaat. Tropenpfl. 1906, p. 597.
Para rubber seed oil. Str. Bull., June
1907, p. 177.
Para rubber seed: weight of seed,
cotyledons and shell. Str. Bull.,
1907, p. 383.
Wright: the Science.of Para rubber
cultivation. ‘‘T.A.” July, 1906, p. 3.
Notes on the cultivation and manu-
facture of rubber. Do. p. 22
Rubber at Henaratgoda. ‘ T.A.”
1906, p. 104.
Pollarding and thumbnail pruning
rubber trees. Do. p. 108.
Wright: Para rubber : distance and
interplanting. Do. Jan. 1907, p. 2.
“Wickham: the cultivation of the Para
rubber tree. Do. Dec. 1905, p. 784.
Rubber growing in Ceylon. Do.
p. 741,
Oct. 1904,
“TA,” May,
266
Ve ae
i)
(SEPTEMBER, 1908.
Wide planting of Para rubber. ‘‘T.A.”
July, 1907, p
Rubber cultivation in Burma. Do
June 1907, p. 345.
Rubber planting in Ceylon. Ind.
Journ. Aug. 1907, p. 214.
The rubber industry in Ceylon. Do.
Sept., 1907, p. 823.
Manuring rubber plantations. Do.
July. 1907, p. 153.
The importance of manuring rubber.
“T.A.” Nov., 1907, p. 158.
Huber : iA Sevinemeneas Para 1907.
The proper distance for planting
Hevea. ‘'T.A,” Apr., 1908, p. 301.
Mann: The cultivation of Para rubber
in N. K. India. ‘“T.A.” Dee. 1907,
p. 395.
Two enemies of Hevea. Str. Bull.,
Aug. 1907, p. 251.
Notes on Termes Gestroi and other
eeu antes. Str. Bull., May 1906, p.-
Some diseases of rubber plant Do.
p. 169.
HEVBA :
TAPPING, COAGULATION, TRADE, &C.
Preparing Para ae in Ceylon
“T.A.” May 1908, p. 726.
Para rubber in Selangon Str. Bull.,
1908, p. 316.
Para rubber collecting at Soebang,
Java. Do. Keb. 1904, p. 51.
Rubber notes. Do. Oct. ,1904, p. 412.
Tapping experiments at Singapore.
Do, 1908, p. 42.
Holloway’s method of preparation.
Rev. Cult. Col. 1903, p. 311, Agr.
News II., p. 265.
Fs bts sPara Rubber. Str. Bull.
» p. 108.
Para Rubber. Kew Bull., 1906, p. 241.
Rubber tapping in the Botanic Gar-
dens. Str. Bull., 1903, p, 354.
Para rubber extraction. Ind. Gdng.,
Jan. 1904, p. 10.
Notes on Hevea brasiliensis. ‘'T.A.”
Nov. 1904, p. 295.
Experimental tapping of Para rubber
Trees in the Botanic Gardens,
Pipeopore: Str. Buil., 1904, pp. 339,
Methods of tapping rubber trees and
collecting ‘latex. Do. 1904, p. 380.
Tromp de Haas. Results of the ex-
perimental tappings of Hevea brasi-
liensis. Do. 1905, p. 285.
Report on the experimental tapping
of Para rubber trees: in Botanic
Gardens, Singapore, for 1904. Do,
Nov. 1905, p. 424,
NT > Ae
nett os tat
SEPTEMBER, 1908.]
267 Miscellaneous.
Les procedés de travail du _caou- CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN
tchouc * d’Hevea ,cultivé. Journ. INDIA.
d’Agr. Trop., Aug. 1905, p. 239.
Uitkomsten van dein 1905 verrichte
Aftappingsproeven met Hevea bra-
stliensis in den cultuurtuin te
Tjikemeuh verkregen. Korte Ber.
Bzg. 1906, 17.
Experiments in Tapping (Singapore).
“'T,A.” Sept-, 1907, p. 166.
Experiments in tapping at Henarat-
goda. Do. p. 169.
Rubber tapping on Kepitigala Estate
Ind. World, Jan., 1906, jp. 107.
Saignée et observation des Heveas au
Jardin d’esais de_ ‘T'jikeumeuh.
Journ. d’Agr. Trop. Jan., 1906, p. 9.
Rubber tapping demonstration at
_ Henaratgoda. ‘“‘T.A:” Dec. 1906,
p. 460.
Het aftappen der Para-boomen. Ind,
Merce., Dec. 1906, p. =1J.
Second annual report on the experi-
mental tapping of Para rubber
trees in the Botanic Gardens,
Singapore. Str. Bull. V., p. 489.
The spiral system of rubber tapping.
“T.A.” Nov., 1905, p. 641.
The quality of eastern plantation
Rubber. ‘T.A.” July, 1907, p. 4.
Willis: The tapping of rubber.
“TA.” Auga, 1907, p. 94.
ee tapping. Do. Nov. 1907, p:
13.
The frequent tapping of rubber trees:
Do. Oct. 1907, p. 248.
Rubber tapping, &c. Do. 244.
Distribution of the proteid in Para
rubber. Spence. L’pool, Univ. J.
C. R. 1907,:and 1908.
Tapping patterns—the chain gamma.
Str. Bull. 1907, p. 387.
Para rubber’ from Mergui, Burma.
Bull. Imp. Inst. 4, 1907 p. 371.
Tapping experiments on Rambong
and Para. Str. Bull. 6. 1908, p, 1338.
Observations sur la saignée de
VHevea. Journ. d’Ar: Trop., April,
1908, p. 106,
Para naturel et Para de plantation:
opinion d’un manufactureur. Journ
d’ Agr. Trop. Feb., 1908, p. 33,
Petch: The second annual report on
the experimental tapping of Para
rubber trees in the Botanic Gar-
dens, Singapore. ‘“T.A.” Dec., 1907,
p- 391.
Base tapping of rubber trees. “T.A.”
Supp.,' Dec.,}1907, p..124.
Para’ rubber}; from Mergui.
June, 1908, p, 516.
oA.
The co-operative movement in India is
the subject of an enthusiastic article in
the Hconomic Review (Rivingtons), con-
tributed by Mr. Henry W. Wolff, whoisa
recognised authority on the question.
Mr. Wolff is critical as well as eulogistic,
but he closes his paper with the predic-
tion that ‘with well-regulated pro-
gress the co-operative banking intro-
duced during Lord Curzon’s viceroyalty
appears destined to be remembered,
rightly, as one of the greatest among
many blessings that British rule has
conferred upon India.” He does not,
however, overlook the fact that this
particular blessing has been rendered
necessary, to a large extent, in order to
counteract a grave wrong which British
rule, unintentionally no doubt, inflicted
upon the cultivators by insisting upon
the payment of Government rent in
money instead of in kind. The result
has been that the ryot is worse off when
his crops are most plentiful, and prices
consequently low, than is when his
crops are a comparative failure ; and the
good seasons which ought to have lifted
him out of debt have only plunged him
deeper in the bog. Indebtedness is now
his normal condition. Hencesome means
of rescuing him from this miserable and
helpless plight became one of the crying
needs of the situation, and the Govern-
ment did nothing more than recognise
their own responsibility for the im-
poverished state of the ryot when they
entered upon a series of experiments for
his deliverance. The grant of takavi
loans was one effort in this direction, but
the Government cannot afford to finance
all the cultivators of India; and, even if
they were able to do.so, the takavi
system does not teach self-help and is not
calculated to help the ryot to stand on
his own feet. Mr. Wolff calls ita ‘‘ spoon-
feeding practice,” in which there is no
training to business habits. Aftermany
sporadic attempts to find a self-maintain-
ing system of rural banking, the Govern-
ment in 1904 passed the Co-operative
Credit Societies ’ Act, which was intended
to render possible in India the applica-
tion of the principles of co-operation
which Schulze Delitzsch and Reffeisen
had successfully put into practice in
Germany. There was’ good reason to
hope that the Indian peasant would take
kindly to co-operative institutions, for
in his struggle with the money-lender he
had already evolved nidhis and akharas,
which are co-operative societies of a
somewhat crude type. This expectation
has been fulfilled in a very gratifying
way during the few years in which the
iA
a ae i yh
Miscellaneous. 268 [SEPTEM BR,
Act has been in operation. As Mr. root principles. Happily [we jaye eer 4
Gourlay stated in the paper which he
prepared for the Industrial Conference
held at Surat at the beginning of this
year, there are now 785 rural credit
societies, which have a capital of eleven
lakhs. And the movement is constantly
extending. Assoon as the ryots begin
_ to understand what co-operation means,
they appeal to the zemindar or the
missionary to help them in forming a
society, and almostevery society estab-
lished tends to bring others into exist-
ence. That difficulties would arise was
inevitable. Considerable skill and
atience are required to acclimatise in
ndia ideas made in Germany. How
numerous the problems are may be seen
by referring to the proceedings of the
Second Conference of the Registrars of
Co-operative Credit Societies. There is,
for instance, the question whether the
Societies should have the power of
recovering debts by summary procedure.
Lord Curzion’s Government deliberately
withheld this power on the ground that
a wisely conducted Society will not make
a bad debt calling for summary recovery.
Mr. Wolff applauds this decision, but
Mr. Campbell, the Bombay Registrar of
Co-operative Credit Societies, is strongly
in favour ofsummary procedure. Again,
there is the question of area. How far
should a Society extend its operation?
Should different castes have their own
Societies? Then we have questions as to
the objects for which loans can be legiti-
mately granted. Isit right to lend’ for
marriages? Mr. Wolff holds that as
marriage expenditure appears to be
necessary in India, loans should be
granted, since it is well that those who
incur this expense should be kept out ot
the usurer’s. grip. But prudently
managed Societies will avoid loans of
the kind, and it is a moot point whether
they are in any case desirable. There
are more fundamental! ditficulties. Mr.
Wolff complains thatthe Actis defec-
tive, because it makes an arbitrary and
illogical distinction between urban and
rural banks, as if locality affected prin-
ciples. He insists that there are two
essentially different systems, one being
that of a bank whose share capital is
held by its members, and the other that
of a society which borrows money on the
strength of the unlimited liability of the
members. Inthe latter type unlimited
liability is an indispensable feature.
“You cannot blend the two systems,”
writes Mr. Wolff; ‘* you cannot take a
little from one and a little from the
other and compose amixture.’ Unfor-
tunately a blend has been frequently
attempted because thuse who | have
organised Co-operative Societies are
inadequately acquainted with their
Director _of Credit Societies in Bengal —
Mr. W. R. Gourlay, whom Mr. Wolff
eulogises as ‘‘a thoroughly competent
man” who has studied the Raffeisen
system in his own home. This being the
case, we hope that Mr. Gourlay will not
be removed from a postin which he will
be able to put co-operation in Bengal on
a thoroughly sound footing.—Indian
a griculturist, June, 1908, Vol. XXX.,
o. 6.
CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT SOCIETIES.
REPORT ON THE WORKING IN THE
MADRAS PRESIDENCY IN THE 15TH ©
MONTH ENDING 380TH JUNE, 1907.
During the period under report, thirty-
six new societies were registered. Of
these twenty-four were rural and
twelve were urban. All the rural
societies were based on the _ principle
of unlimited liability. Most of the
new societies were started in districts in
which similar institutions were already
in existence. The aggregate number of
members rose from 2,733 to 6,439, O€
thisnumber 31 per cent, were agricul-
turists, and 37 per cent. were those who
partly followed agriculture and partly
other occupations. Besides the paid-up
share capital of these societies, fixed
deposits were borrowed on interest from
5 to9 per cent. More than two-thirds of
these deposits were contributed by the
members themselves. The amount lent
by Government was nearly as much as
the share-capital and fixed deposits of
these societies.
Certain concessions. granted by the
Madras Government have raised the
prestige of these societies in the eye of
the public and have created a feeling of
confidence and security. The annual re-
ports of the societies with the registrar’s
audit reviews thereon are published in
the District Gazettes, and are supplied
free of charge to all rural societies.
Remittance transfer receipts are issued
at par, so that remittances can he sent
without extra charge. The societies’
strong boxes can be kept in Government
Treasuries for security.—(Kditor).—A are
cultural Journal of India, Vol. III.,
Part I., January, 1908.
THE INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVE-
MENTS INTO INDIAN AGRICULTURE.
. By D. CLouston, B.Sc.,
(Deputy Director of Agriculture, Central
Provinces and Berar.) a
_ Government has organized during the past —
few years a strong department for the —
ee
scientific investigation of Indian Agriculture,
with the object of ascertaining the lines
upon which improvement is practicable, A
staff of specialists, highly trained in the
agricultural sciences, is employed both in
the Imperial and Provincial departments,
whose research and experimental work have
already shown that many important impove-
ments can be effected. These results are
placed before the public in the reports and
other pulications issued from time to time,
but such literature fails to reach the mass of
Indian cultivators. It is, therefore, an
essential function of the department, no less
important than scientific investigation, to
devise methods whereby experimental results
of proved value can be introduced into
ordinary farming practice by the Indian
cultivator. The methods to be employed in
bringing experimental work of proved value
to the notice of the cultivator, so as to secure
its adoption in ordinary farming practice,
will necessarily vary in different parts of
India in accordance with the varying local
conditions, such as the system of land tenure,
the standard of farming attained by the
cultivators, the social condition of the rural
community and the like. It may be of
interest to give an account of the methods
that have been tried in the Central Provinces,
and of the lessons learnt from the successes
and failures that have resulted.
In the Central Provinces the villages are
held by landowners, whose proprietorship is
clearly recognized, though their rights of
ownership are subject to the rights of occu-
pancy of their tenants. Both proprietor and
tenant are given security of tenure in the
land, with the object of encouraging each to
make the best possible use of it, This system
has given a number of village proprietors
who often cultivate large home-farms—in-
telligent farmers, who are willing to test
improved methods and to lay out substantial
capital sums, if they are convinced that an
adequate return is likely to be secured.
Amongst the tenantry there is also a sprink-
ling of men who cultivate large holdings and
employ large capital; and such men are
even more numerous in the rich province of
Berar, where the ryotwari system of tenure
prevails. The difficulties in | introducing
improvements are, therefore, not so great as
in a tract where the land is parcelled out
into minute holdings, and where the capital
at the disposal of each holder is extremely
limited, for there are numbers of cultivators
ready to expend some hundreds of rupees
upon a new implement, an improved method
of cultivation or the like, provided they are
convinced that the outlay will give a sub-
stantial return. The standard of farming
attained in different parts of those Provinces
varies considerably, but it is on the whole
inferior to that of most other parts of India,
so that there is much more scope for improve-
ment than in provinces where cultivation
ts SEPTEMBER, 1908. ] 269
Miscellaneous.
date donald 07 20a
has already reached a high level. In the
Central Provinces, as a rule, the land is
plentiful and intensive cultivation is but
little practised ; in Berar, on the other hand,
the great boom in the cotton trade has
enormously increased the demand for land,
with the result that grazing areas have been
curtailed and the standard of cultivation has
reached a much higher level. Good culti-
vators are found, as exceptions, among all
the different castes. The best cultivators are
the hereditary cultivating castes such as
Kunbis, Powars and Lodhis. Contrasted
with these may be mentioned such castes as
Gonds and Chamars, The former live a
contended but unenterprising life in the hilly
jungle tracts of poor soil, Satisfied with a
low standard of comfort, they are for the
present so inacessible and primitive, as
to be altogether outside the sphere of the
department’s influence. The Chamars, who
form the bulk of the cultivators in the
Chhattisgarh rice country, though inferior
cultivators, enjoy a lazy and stoical content
which is opposed to everything an agri-
cultural department can teach in the way of
progress. Contrasted with these again may
be mentioned the educated Brahman culti-
vator of Berar who, after having made
his fortune at a profession or trade, has
purchased land on which he is anxious to
experiment with anything from tree cottons
to steam ploughs. The kind of improvements
necessary, and the lines to be followed in
introducing them among cultivators, can
only be satisfactorily determined after
studying all these conditions as they obtain
in the different tracts. In the more back-
ward parts, it is often some means of
demonstrating better tillage methods that
has to be considered; the Chhattisgarhi,
for instance, has yet to learn the very
elements of his art, i.e., to cultivate his land
properly, to conserve the manure already at
his disposal, and to sow his crops efficiently.
In more advanced tracts, on the other hand,
what is necessary is to organize a system of
seed farms from which supplies of pure and
improved seed can be obtained, to introduce
new and improved varieties of seeds, to teach
definite but simple methods of preventing
and remedying insect pests and of supple-
menting the present supply of manure.
Every scheme for demonstrating the results
of experimental work to the ordinary culti-
vator must, then, be based on a knowledge
of the different tracts and of the people and
their needs.
Wherever possible, oux teaching should be
in the concrete. This can best be done by
means of demonstration farms. On these
farms many experimental results of proved
value can be demonstrated on a practical
scale, so as to secure their application to the
general practice of farmers. Experimental
work should never be attempted on these
farms ; first experiment, and then demon-
i
i
y
ee a ee ee ee
Miscellaneous. 270
strate the results if they are of any practical
value, should be the rule. To do this
effectively, an experiment station has been
located in each well-defined agricultural
tract, and the experimental programme is
based on a knowledge of the agricultural
requirements of the tract which it represents.
The demonstration farm has an entirely
different purpose, and serves as an object-
lesson to introduce the ordinary cultivator
to incorporate into his farm practice the
teaching of the station. No difficulty has
been found in inducing a cultivator to lend
a suitable piece of land. This should not be
larger than the purpose demands, and which
the assistant in charge can efficiently manage;
a small area carefully cultivated is much
better than a larger area _ inefficiently
managed. In some cases, with a thoroughly
keen and efficient cultivator, it is safe
to rely upon him to supply the bullocks,
labour and other requirements, but in
most cases it is much better for the
assistant to be as independent as possible of
local assistance and to supply him with his
own bullocks and implements, and with funds
to employ the requisite labour; otherwise
the demonstration plot is apt to be neglected
by the cultivator until the rest of his land has
received his attention. An agreement is
made with the cultivator for the use of his
land, either by payment of a rent or by a
share of the produce. Several demonstration
farms started in these Provinces have failed
to answer the purpose for which they were
intended. In some cases they have failed, as
they tried to demonstrate what remained to
be proved, e.g., that cotton and juar can be
profitably grown in the rice tract. In other
cases the failure was due to bad management,
the assistant in charge having insufficient
practical experience of cultivation, even if
possessed of fair theoretical knowledge. This
is the greatest difficulty that the department
has to cope with at the present time ;
assistants are employed who have not been
brought up on the land, and who are not,
therefore, in sympathy with their work.
Even when supervised by more highly quali-
fied men, their work is not always satis-
factory, for, not knowing when the simple
cultural operations are properly performed,
their supervision is futile. In the past, for
lack of sufficient supervision, these men have
been left to do things on their own initiative,
and the result has been that under their
management demonstration farms have some-
times failed in their purpose owing to small
mistake in practical working. No assistant
should be given a demonstration farm until
it is certain that he has a thorough practical
knowledge of the work entrusted to him.
With more careful supervision and reliable
experimental results to work upon, the de-
monstration farms started in Chhattisgarh
last year proved successful. The objects
aimed at were (1) to substitute the system of
transplanting paddy for the present broad-
[See a di
[SEPTEMBER, 1908.
cast sowings, (2) to induce cultivators to
utilize to the best advantage the irrigation
water lately made available by the construc-
tion of Government reservoirs, (3) to grow a
second crop after early and medium paddy,
and (4) to demonstrate the method of eradi-
cating kans grass by means of Ransome’s
turnwrest plough. A distinct measure of
success has been achieved, and the malguzars
and cultivators concerned, who at first were
apathetic, are now most anxious that these
farms should be continued in their villages
for another year, so that they may learn still
more of the new methods being taught by
the agricultural department, whilst applica-
tions have been received from several villages
to start similar farms. The department has
thus gained their confidence in its desire to
benefit them and in its power to do so. The
out-turns of paddy from the transplanted
fieids of the demonstration farms and from
the adjoining fields of the cultivators, sown
broadcast, are shown below :—
Out-turn of paddy in
lbs. per acre.
Transplanted Broadcasted
by the by
Department. Cultivators,
Jageshwar Farm 3,940 2,450
Jawaibandha Farm ... 1,690 600
Kholar Farm 2,880 AOD
Even this large increase due to trans-
planting does not fairly represent the total
value of this demonstration work to the
cultivators, for they also followed our
example and irrigated their paddy for the
first time this year. The cultivators of the
villages concerned have thoroughly appre-
ciated the value of these farms, and the agri-
cultural department has risen considerably
in their estimation, so that this year we
confidently hope that hundreds of acres will
be transplanted where transplanting was un-
known before, and this in a tract where the
cultivators are notably lazy and slow to
adopt improvements. They have already
followed our example in transplanting small
areas and in irrigating their wheat. The
success of these farms was due to the fact
that the scheme was carefully devised and
the work efficiently supervised by a thorough-
ly practical superintendent under proper
control. The results obtained appeal all the
more to the cultivators, seeing that the
manure and implements, with the exception
of the turnwrest plough used for eradicating
kans, were exactly the same as those used by
themselves, so that the results are due to one
varying factor in each case.
Seed farins and seed selection form a part
of the work of the agricultural department
which readily recommends itself to the culti-
vator. The cotton seed farms established in
these Provinces have been successful. The
cultivators recognize the advantage of using
good seed, and a few have already started to
SEPTEMBER, 1908.} p
imitate the seed farms in giving more atten-
tion to the cultivation of the plot intended
for seed, to the spacing of the plants, to the
selection of the seed and to the ginning of
the cotton. They show, too, a preference
for certain strains of seed. In one case the
proprietor has taken into his regular employ
the assistant who was in charge of the seed
farm. After two or three years’ careful
supervision it will be possible to withdraw
the agricultural assistants in charge of these
farms, and to leave the owners to manage
them as private seed farms. The department
will still continue to supply the owners with
selected seed for each yeats’s sowing and to
give them the benefit of its advice. The
owners will be made to feel that they and the
department are working in co-operation for
the common weal. They will be requested
to inspect the experimental stations from
time to time and to see the whole scheme of
seed selection carried on at these centres,
while officers of the departinent will inspect
and advise them in the management of their
seed farms. In the course of a few years it
is not too much to expect that in these
Provinces there will be several private seed
farms where pure and improved cotton seed
can be obtained, and where, too, the use of
new manures and new varieties of cotton
tested at the experiment stations can be
demonstrated to neighbouring cultivators.
The agricultural stations themselves also
serve the purpose of demonstrating to the
ryots of the tract experimental work of
proved value, including the use of improved
agricultural machinery. The usefulness of a
station in this respect depends very largely
on the superintendent in charge. A practical
man, who shows tact and sympathy in
welcoming visitors, will induce many to come
to the station. A visitor generally comes
with the intention of seeing one particu-
lar experiment, or it may be one particular
machine in which he is interested. It is advi-
sable, therefore, to concentrate his attention
on the results of one or two experiments
in which he is specially interested, rather
than to confound him by attempting to
explain all the lines of work in progress. If,
as a member of one of the District Agricul-
tural Associations, he has been entrusted
with one of the co-operative experiments
being carried out by his association, he is
anxious to compare the results of the station
with his own, and he will often declare with
some degree of pride that the crop at the
station falls short of his own. This depart-
ment always holds the meetings of the
District Agricultural Association at the
stations in the case of districts in which
stations have been established. In other
districts such meetings will be held ata
suitable demonstration or seed farm, when-
ever it is available. When the meetings are
held at the stations, arrangements are made
to work suitable foreign agricultural machi-
nery andimplements, 'The members are also
271
Miscellaneous.
shown such of the experimental series as
are likely to be of some educational value
to them. At other times leading cultivators,
who have been paying special attention to
one particular crop or manure, are asked to
visit the station to compare their results
with those obtained there. By paying
attention to such points as these, much can
be done to make an agricultural station
popular, and to rouse the interest of the
better class of cultivators in its work,
A Cattle-breeding Farm run up by the
Agricultural Department can also be made a
most useful object-lesson in the improvement
of a breed by selection, The cultivator re-
cognizes that the scheme for the improve-
ment of his animals is based on the same
principle as that for the improvement of his
seed, and that in each case the aim is to
produce the best of its kind. The work of
the Nagpur Cattle-breeding Farm is duly
appreciated, and the demand for the loan of
bulls far exceeds the supply available for
distribution, On the other hand, the
Hoshangabad Cattle-breeding Farm has not
been so successful, because the stock is
not of the best quality and of the exact
stamp desired by the cultivators. It was
started without sufficient inquiry into the
local conditions and without sufficient effort
to secure the right type of animal. Reli-
gious sentiment, combined with a knowledge
of the fact that his cattle are deteriorating
in quality, induces the ryot of the Central
Provinces to look with favour on any scheme
that makes for the improvement of his stock.
The demand for agricultural assistants as
managers of Court of Wards estates effords
another opportunity of bringing the results
of the experimental work of the stations to
the notice of cultivators. But as in the case
of demonstration farms, it is essential to
frame a complete scheme for such work
which the manager should not be allowed to
exceed, to decide what improved methods of
tillage, what manures, what system of seed
selection and the like should be permitted
with due regard to the local conditions,
Here, again, the great difficulty is to secure
competent candidates for such posts. In
some cases the managers supplied for such
estates by this department have proved
unsatisfactory, being unpractical, lacking in
initiative and therefore incapable of per-
forming satisfactorily the duties of an inde-
pendent charge. Their one idea is generally
to imitate the experiment stations, particu-
larly in purchasing foreign agricultural
machinery at an extravagant cost. They
lack the money-making instinct of the true
farmer. In future this department will
supervise the work of all its assistants thus
employed, and advise them to follow the
teaching of the stations only as far as it is
applicable to estates run on commercial lines.
By exhibiting agricultural machinery and
farm products at shows, fairs and exhibi-
Miscellaneous.
|
tions, the work of the department can be
brought to the notice of a large body of
cultivators who are not otherwise accessible.
By combining popular lectures on the exhi-
bits with practical demonstrations of each,
much good work can be done. This requires
to be arranged on a systematic plan in order
to secure that the exhibits and lectures are
suited to the tract served by the show. The
exhibits of farm produce should be neatly
arranged in sufficiently large quantities to
allow of their being handled by interested
parties. It must always be remembered that
nine-tenths of the cultivators never read,
and that their minds are not trained to
assimilate abstract ideas, They are children
of nature, and as such get all their impres-
sions from the concrete. The exhibits should,
therefore, be arranged so as to be an intelli-
gible and instructive lesson to the ordinary
illiterate ryot. The lecturer should, there-
fore, carry with him a small travelling
museum of exhibits to illustrate his lecture.
This department has started on these lines
to prepare lectures and exhibits suitable for
the different tracts. The more important
shows and fairs of each tract will in future
be attended by the superintendent of the
station of that tract, or by some higher offi-
cial. The superintendent will be supplied
from head-quarters with a copy of the
lectures that are to be delivered and the
necessary museum of exhibits to illustrate
the same. In the cotton tract the latter
includes bolls of the different varieties of
cotton recommended for the tract mounted on
cardboard together with those of the varie-
ties already grown locally; on a second sheet
the lint is mounted so as to show their
relative lengths ; on a third is shown the life-
history of the stem borer and an actual
plant killed by the same, with the help of
which the lecturer will explain the remedies
and method of prevention, Cotton boll-
worm and cotton wilt disease are similarly
illustrated. The artificial manures recom-
mended for cotton are also exhibited along
with bags of uncleaned cotton to show the
relative outturns of unmanured land and
land to which these fertilizers have been
applied. At exhibitions the exhibits would
be more varied and on a much larger scale.
And many of the experiments that have
given useful results at the stations can be
graphically illustrated there by pot cultures.
(To be concluded.)
AGRICULTURAL SAYINGS IN BENGAL,
By JAMINI MOHAN GHOSH, B.A.,
Mymensingh.
Every country has its sayings, and it is
the fitness of things that as one of the
foremost agricultural provinces in India,
Bengal should possess a wealth of agri-
cultural folk-lore.
272
eee Api.
Like other folk-lores of Bengal, these agri-
cultural syaings are attributed to Khana,
amythical lady, who is said to have been
gifted with supernatural astrological know-
ledge. The reason of enshrouding them
with legendary mystery, so common in this
country, may be to render a religious
sanction to them, so that they may be
scrupulously observed by the intensely reli-
gious peasantry of this country. These
sayings are mostly in the form of couplets,
dealing with the various aspects of cultivation,
and are represented as being addressed by
Khana to her father-in-law, Baraha. Never-
theless, they very often betray in their
language and observations, the rhymer to be
no other than a tiller of the soil. For who but
a cultivator would characterise the ‘‘uncertain
heaven” with patches of clouds, as a field
‘broken up with axe and spade,” or would
consider it ‘‘a favour of Luxmi (goddess of
Fortune) to have the compound of his house
filled with water gourd and cucumber” and
feel ‘‘her presence when his thatched roof is
covered with leaves of water-melon.”
That the true cultivator must needs labour
on his own soil is expressed in the saying -
that ‘‘he who himself works or employs
labourers gains heaps, and he who takes
umbrella on his shoulder (i.e,, supervises the
labourers in his fields) gains half, while the
cry for want of rice rends the house of him
who asks questions (of his labourers) remain-
ing idle in his house.” Neither should one
have partners in his field, for ‘‘only father
and son should plough one’s field, failing
which take only one’s own brother.” Again,
says another proverb, ‘‘he who having oxen
does not plough suffers misery for ever.”
Rain is an important factor in the agri-
culture of India. Andit is, therefore, only
proper that in Bengal, where there is practi-
cally no irrigation, a large portion of agri-
cultural sayings should relate to rainfall.
Rain from about the middle of November
to the middle of January is very injurious to
the ripening paddy crop, and hinders the
gathering, drying and threshing of the crop,
so run the couplets,—‘‘If rain falls in the
month of Agrahayan (middle November to
middle December) the king himself goes
a-begging” (signifying famine). Also, ‘‘if
it rains in Pows(middle December to middle
January), even the husks bring money (so
great is the scarcity),”
On the contrary, rain is very welcome
from February to April,as the ploughing and
sowing season commences, and a moist soil
is easy to be ploughed up, so goes the
proverb :—‘“‘If there be rain during late Magh
(i.e., early February) the holy land is of the
blessed king” (meaning there is the indi-
cation of a prosperous season), and also ‘‘if it
rains in Chaitra (middle March to middle
April) there will be growth of paddy.”
SupTemBer, 1908.]
_ Again, small millets are helped by a shower
in late February or early March, and we
have “‘if it rains in Falgwn (middle February
to middle March) Chena and Kaon (small
millets) grow twice.”
Drought in late May and early June assists
the young seedlings of paddy to grow instead
of being swamped by rain, but during next
two months, i.e., the rainy season, we must
have rain for them, as also for sowing late
paddy in the high lands; this is expressed in
the familiar sayings :—‘‘(If there be) any
drought in Jaistha (middle May to middle
June) and shower in Ashav (middle June to
middle July) the earth cannot bear the
burden of crops.”
During the rainy season, an easterly wind
would sometimes disperse a gathering cloud,
and without rain there is very little prospect
of a good harvest, so ‘‘if there be easterly
wind in Ashar and Sraban (the rainy season),”
the cultivator is advised to ‘thang up his
plough and go to commerce.”
Rain is very much appreciated by the
peasants in Kartic (middle October to middle
November), and is known in these parts as
Katian. It helps the ears to come out, and
is very necessary for the development of the
corn, and ‘‘Khana says that a little rain in
Kartic (gives) twice paddy.”
Now, having completed the cycle of sayings
on the effect of rainfall throughout the
various months of the year, we shall give
some of the sayings on the signs of rain,
How far they are predictive I have not been
able to test, and I give them for what they
are worth. But in some of them at least,
there is some truth as in the fact that ‘*when
the frog croaks incessantly, know it will rain
soon,” but with this is coupled the rather
incredible saying in which ‘‘ Khana says that
if it blows north-east on the first day of the
year, there will be (ample) rain.”
The ninth day of the new moon in Ashar
(i.e., late June) is regarded as a very signi-
ficant day by the cultivators, and vain or
drought on this day is believed to give the
forecast for the year. Says Khana, ‘‘Father-
in-law, what’s the need of calculating, for
if on the ninth day of the new moon in
Asha, it rains heavily, herons will walk
over) midocean (meaning there will be
drought), if on the other hand there be a few
drops of rain, fishes will abound even in
the mountain (7.¢., there will be heavy rain
throughout the year), also if it drizzles the
earth will shake under the burden of crops,
but if the sun (after the day’s labour) takes
his throne smiling (i.e., if there be a cloudless
afternoon) the cattle of cultivators will be
sold in fairs” (meaning a very bad year for
them), The rainbow is also supposed to give
indications for the year, and we have ‘if
there be rainbow on the west (sky) there
will be drought throughtout the year, while
53)
a
273
Miscellaneous.
if there be a rainbow on the east there will
be storm and rain,”
A writer in an Indian agricultural paper
vouches for the accuracy of the saying
that ‘‘if the days be cloudy and the
nights starry, these are the signs of drought,”
also that, ‘‘the easterly wind in Bhadra
and Aswin (middle August to middle October)
brings a downpour,” so the cultivator
is advised to ‘‘go home after cutting through
the ail” (to prevent the field from being
flooded and the standing crop being injured).
The halo round the sun or the moon is also
supposed to be an indication of rain, and we
have that ‘‘if the halo be distant, rain is
imminent, while if the halo be nearer, it
means flood.”
T now conclude these sayings on the signs
of rain, with the one which foretells
‘*drought or excessive rain in a month
having five Sundays.” There are others on
the subject which seem to be even more
vague and arbitrary than even some of the
preceding ones.
Paddy being the staple crop, receives the
greatest attention in these sayings, and so
we have the favourable circumstances for a
good harvest summed up ina single couplet
thus :—‘‘If (the fields) are full (of water) in
Cancer* and dry up in Leo, also if they are
filled to their ears in Virgo, and if it rains
without wind in Libra, then where will ye
keep your paddy?” (so abundant will be the
harvest).
The lowlands, specially in Eastern Bengal,
are inundated by the overflowing of rivers
during the rainy season. The early inunda-
tion is also a very vital factor to agriculture,
as it leaves behind a deposit of silt. A high
and sudden rise of water will destroy the
standing crops, while a low and slow rise
is beneficial for the development of the
plants. Andso ‘‘the first rise of water in
Baisakh makes the aus paddy grow twice.”
The indications of inundation seem rather
queer, thus “if itis warm in Pouws, cold in
Baisakh, the pits will be filled in by the
first part of Ashar, and Khana says, ‘‘O my
husband, there will be no water in Sraban
and Bhadra.” Also, ‘if during mid Ashar
southerly wind blows, there will be flood
during the year.” But the queerest of all is
that which would foretell a good harvest
of paddy from a good harvest of mango, and
also a flood from a good season of tamarind,
Conditions of soil and of climate differ
very much with different places, yet the
above may be taken to represent fairly the
circumstances for a good harvest in a
normal year. But it would be absurd to lay
down for the whole of Lower Bengal and for
high and low lands as well that a cultivator
* In the Hindu astrology, months often go by the
name of the signs of the Zodiac,
Miscellaneous. 2
would be ‘‘happy and prosperous in husban-
dry and also gain honour if he plants paddy
within five days of the month of Ashaz.”
Neither can it be advised with certainty to
‘*plant as much pulses as one can from the
fourth of Bhadra to the fourth of Aswin.”
Also there is much truth when ‘Khana
would advise a son of the peasant to sow
mustard seeds during the latter part of saat,
i.e., maiddle September to middle October).
Also ‘‘he who without transplanting chillie
seedlings in Bhadra, ov Aswin spends his
time in sleep and inthe Kartik and Agra-
hayan (i.e., the next two months) transplant
the old seedlings, will not have to fill his
stores of chillies, as those plants will die of
fungus diseases.”
Again, among the sayings on the prope
time of planting is one which advises a
husbandman to ‘‘plant turmeric in Baisakh
or Jaistha, throwing away pieces and dice,
to hoe the soilin Ashar and Sraban and to
make it thorough in Bhadra, (otherwise)
says Harth, ‘what yield can I give, if
planted on any other rule.’ ” Also, ‘* if you
don’t plant Ol (Amorphophallus companu-
latus) in Flagwn, then there will be topsy-
turvy in the end,” so also Patal (Trichosan-
thes disica, Roxb.) planted in Flaguwn gives
twice the crop.”
The sayings on the planting of bamboo are
rather interesting. Thus we have ‘‘O brother
cultivator plant bamboos eight cubits apart
at adepth of one cubit, and after planting
three hundred and sixty clumps of them, lie
ye peasant, on your bedstead.” Preswnably
one or two bamboos from each clump, would
enable him to provide for his daily necessa-
vies throughout the year. But the reckless
cutting of bamboos would destroy a clump,
soaman wishing to preserve his bamboos
must be ‘fas stiff (sparing) as the twig of a
bamboo,” for the coconuts of the spendthrift,
and the bamboos of the miser do not run
short throughout the year.” Wholesale
destruction is also reprehensible in the case
of plantain, which is also a very important
plant, as its flower, leaves and even the
trunk are of everyday necessity in a house-
hold. The leaves serve the purpose of plates
and are largely utilised during feasts even
in the houses of the rich, while the flower
and the trunk are cooked up for meals.
Nevertheless, the ‘leaves must not be cut oft
as soon as planted,” for that would injure the
plant, and it is the peasant’s interest to save a
valuable plant ‘‘that would provide him
with cloth and food.”
Ploughing is begun on auspicious days, and
the Hindu cultivator consults the village
astrologer before beginning to plough his
fields anew, Many stringent rules have.
been laid down for it. Thus, ‘‘Hear cultiva-
tors, says Khana, when you go to your
fields with plough, seek out an auspicious
moment for that, also let not have any
untoward news on your way, next ascertain
td
4 {SEPTEMBER, 1908.
f
¢
7
the directions and begin ploughing from the
east, then will your whole labours be ful-
filled without fail.” The cultivator, also,
should not ‘‘take to his plough on the new
and the full moon, for then his misery would
last for ever, his bullocks will have gout,
and he will not have food in his house.”
That different crops would require different
degrees of preparation of the soil is laconi-
cally summarised in a single couplet. Thus
the radish requires a thoroughly prepared
soil, so “‘sixteen ploughings,” are laid down
for it, and ‘‘half of that for cotton,” a tap-
rooted plant. But paddy having crown-
roots, ‘‘half of that,” 7.e., four plough-
ings would suffice for it, while ‘‘the betel-
vine (would grow) without any ploughing.”
Also ‘‘the soil for sugarcane should be
thoroughly pulverised,” which requires a
great deal of labour, so ‘‘let him who has
grandsons, great-grandsons cultivate sugar-
cane.” Again, the soil for Man (Arum
_indicwmn) is prepared by a spade, while
ploughing is required for preparing a soil
for til (Sesame indicum).
That some plants would thrive in light,
while others would require shade, has not
also been lost sight of in these sayings.
Khana would say ‘‘Paddy in sunshine, and
betel-vine in shade (thrive); while ‘* though
the Ol in shade would ich the mouth, it
would do no other harm.” But it is to be
doubted whether ‘‘the potatoe would circle
round the plant (i.c., abound) if planted near
a bamboo clump.”
Next we come to the sayings on the soil.
Different crops require different soils, so we
have ‘‘sandy loam for aus paddy, and clayey
loam for jute.’ Again, says Khana, ‘‘Hear
me, O son of a peasant, plant Patal on the
sandy soil, for that will bring to your desire’s
end,” Also ‘‘if you plant Kachiw on the river
bank, it will grow three cubits deep under
ground.”
The rich soil of Lower Bengal, fertilised
for the most part by an annual deposit of silt,
requires very little of artificial manuring for
the staple crops; besides in India, manuring
has not been systematised and its utility is
not so very well understood as in Kurope and
America, so there ave practically no sayings
on the manures for field crops. Nevertheless,
there is some very practical and sound advice
in these sayings; thus ‘if one scatters ashes
in a Kachw field,” Khana says, ‘* there will be
no end of them” (?.e., it will give plenty of
yield). In the case of bamboo it is advised
**to loosen the soil in Flagwn, to put (fresh)
earth (at the root) in Chaitra, for ‘ with such
treatment,’ says bamboo, ‘I grow soon.’”
Also ‘‘Hear ye! son of a cultivator! put the
husks of paddy under a clump of bamboo, for
if husks be put at the foot of a bamboo two
Kurs of land will be covered by the clump.”
Water in which fishes have been washed is
said to be good for water-melon, while
‘chillies thrive in paddy-lands,”
SEPTEMBER, 1908. |
While concluding ow: observations -on
these ‘‘rudely cavoll’d chiming phrase, in
uncouth rhymes, we cannot but admire them
for the broad commonsense, and the keen
observative nature they sometimes display.
These also give an insight into the character
of our peasants. Though prejudiced and
imbued with a firm belief in fatality which is
ingrained in an oriental nature, they have
sense enough not to be solely guided by
these sayings, however oracular they may be
represented. No cultivator would hopelessly
give up his plough, though in the coming
Bengalee year ‘‘Saturn is the king and Mars
_ his minister, and in vain would one hoe and
_ plough,” rather should he join ia the pious
prayer of our fathers in the holy Rig Veda,
“Sweet be our crops, sweet be our cattle,” —
Agricultwral Jowrnal of India, Vol, ITl.,
Part IT., April, 1908. ’
Ee ts
AGRICULTURAL BOARD.
MINUTES OF THE 418T MEETING.
(Ceylon Observer, Aug. 3rd.)
PAPERS ON “THE VILLAGE CULTI-
VATOR AND PADDY CULTIVATION”:
AND: ‘VERMIN DESTRUCTION.”
The monthly meeting of the Ceylon Agri
cultural Society was held in the Council
Chamber on the 3rd August, 1908, under the
presidency of H. HE. the Governor.
AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION.
¥
Dr. WILLIS, in submitting the Report of the
Special Committee on Agricultural Instruc-
tion, said:—The Committee had. met on two
or three occasions and had discussed the
~ matter very fuily; had also paid a visit to the
School Garden at Mirigama. The school in
that district was, he added, one of the best
within easy reach of Colombo. The Report
was as follows :—
- -ReporT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL
GARDENS AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION :
APPporInrTED BY THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL
Soctety, &c., &c.
é
1. We recommend that the Director, Royal
Botanic Gardens, by whose Department the
School Gardens are now worked, be requested
to apply to Government for the following
‘additions to his votes, viz., (a) Rs. 1,000 under
the head of implements, to permit of the
extension of the scheme to a larger number
of Government and Gyrant-in-aid Schools ;
(b) Rs. 1,000 under the head of prizes, in order
to give greater encouragement to teachers
in charge of School Gardens ; (¢) Rs. 1,000 for
providing a special course of lectures in
Nature Teaching to be delivered annually to
teachers at the Training College, on similar
lines to the lectures to teachers on Sanitation,
which are given annually at the Medical
College.
h
275 Miscellaneous,
2. That Dr. Willis and Mv, Lock be asked
to prepare a Manual giving materials for
lessons on Nature Study, to be translated into
Sinhalese, for use by teachers in the lower
standards of Vernacular Schools, and that
Mr, Drieberg be asked to prepare an Agri-
cultural Reader suitable for Ceylon, to be
translated into Sinhalese for use in the upper
Standards.
3. That in certain schools where special
facilities favour this departure, more definite
agricultural teaching (illustrated by practical
experiments) be provided for boys in the fifth
and higher Standards, and that, with a view
to assisting and encouraging their work, the
Agricultural Society and local authorities be
asked to offer prizes for competition among
the boys.
4, That the course for teachers at the
Training College be expanded so as to include
instruction in Nature Teaching, and that as
soon as one is available, a suitable man be
appointed to carry on regular instruction in
the College and act as an organising inspector,
5. That a School of Agriculture be started
at Peradeniya, as soon as practicable, with a
view to undertaking the Training of Agricul-
tuval Instructors, and when this is done that
a practical course in the vernacular, consisting
chiefly of field work, should be combined
with it for the benefit of candidates nominated
for Village Headmenships, twenty-five to be
trained at one time for a period of one year,
The Committee desires to express their
thanks to Mr, E. Evans and Mr. W. A. de
Silva for their valuable suggestions.—(Signed)
J. HARWARD, JoHN C. Wiis, S. D. BANDA-
RANAIKH, P. ARUNACHALAM, S, C. OBE YESE-
KERE, H. Marcus FERNANDO.
A. POINT OF ORDER.
The COLONIAL SECRETARY:—Before any
member moves the adoption of the Report,
may [ask whether it is any part of the pro-
vince of the Society to recommend the
expenditure of Government money. No one
cowd have a greater sympathy than I have
with agricultural instruction throughout the
schools of the Colony. Ithink that a system -
of instruction such as is already now being:
inaugurated and now in progress is very
much needed in an agricultural colony such
as ours, and that the benefits likely to accrue
from it should probably be very great. At
the same time I may make it clear that it is
for this Society not only to suggest expendi-
ture but even to name the amount which it
considers should be provided, if the Society
was itself a contributor to that expenditure—
it would certainly be absolutely within its
rights; but when itis being startlingly gener-
ous with other people’s money, we must begin
to question how far it is justified in the action
it takes. I would ask the members to bear
that in mind before they adopt the Report of
the Special Committee,
Miscellaneous. 2
A. SUGGESTION,
H. E. the GovERNoR:—As the Colonial
Secretary has raised a point of order, [ think
it right to say that he is perfectly correct.
In the same way as in the Legislative Council
Unofficial Members cannot propose a money
vote, neither is it in the province of the Agri-
cultural Society to propose a definite ex-
penditure to the Government. I may say in
connection with the three heads which have
been read out by the Director of the Botanic
Gardens, it will be a matter of consideration
for the Society before such a recommendation
is made to the Government to say whether
such expenditure can be defrayed out of the
annual vote already given by Government.
(H. E. was understood to say that this might
be done by a re-distribution of the amounts,
Continuing, H. E. said: Having answered the
point of order, | would like to hear any other
remarks. As regards the Report itself I have
not seen it at all, but have only just heard it
read. Iam not, therefore, proposing to make
any remarks upon it, as I think the generally
broad interests of agricultural education in
this Colony have already been enunciated from
this chair, and need not, therefore, be
duplicated. I can only say, when the Report
is submitted to me, it shall receive every
attention and show how far it goes in the
direction which I hope agricultural instruc-
tion in this Colony will take.
THE COMMITTEE’S IMPRESSION,
The Hon. Mr. OBEYESEKERE :—The Com-
mittee, I think, Sir, were under the impression
that it was quite legitimate for them to make
any suggestion to promote agriculture. If
think it was with that view that they did it.
IT am of the opinion that the annual vote
is Rs. 30,000, and in the same way an addi-
tional amount may be voted for purposes
which they feel necessary. It is under that
impression that the Committee have made
the suggestion—merely a suggestion and
nothing more; Government may act upon it
or not. Iam of the opinion that they think
and firmly believe that Government ought
to come to the rescue of this Association
in a matter where they feel their funds are
not sufficient to meet a particular course of
action.
H. KE. the GOVERNOR :—I am obliged to the
Hon, Mr. Obeyesekere for stating that it is
only a suggestion. At the same time the
suggestion should have taken the form,
possibly, whether Government could not give
some additional help instead of specifying
sums of money for definite objects. I repeat
still again it will be for the Society to see
whether the Rs. 3,000 cannot be met by the
ordinary vote which Government gives to
them.
[ The Hon. Mr. OBEYESEKERE pointed out
that the Committee, to save time, made a
proposal.
fi. KE. the Governor:—I have given my
decision on the subject.
A paper by Mr. A, Dissanaike, Mudaliyar
and retired President V. T., entitled
THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR AND PADDY
CULTIVATION
was read by the Secretary. (Vide page, 128.)
At the conclusion of the paper,
The Hon. Mr. OBEYESEKERE said:—The
suggestion of this paper appears to me, if
carried out, to revive the paddy tax that has
been abolished. No doubt it can be put to
very effective use as pointed out by the
writer, but the question is whether we would
be justified in re-imposing a tax which has
after due deliberation been abolished.
The Hon. the COLONIALSECRETARY:—In this
connection, Si, | may perhaps be telling mem-
bers of the Society what they already know.
But it has been brought to my knowledge on
several occasions that one of the most un-
popular acts of this Government was the
abolition of the paddy tax. It was deeply
felt and believed that the payment of that
tax was something which had become sacred
from antiquity; and it was only the other
day that I was reading a remark in the
journal of a Government Agent to the effect
that villagers have complained to him that
they have never had any good crops since
that tax was abolished (laughter), and I
believe that this is not a solitary instance.
The SECRETARY here read an extract from
a letter from a gentleman on the subject,
who could not attend that day’s meeting, and
did not wish that his name should be known.
THE GOVERNOR’S REMARKS.
H. E. the GovERNOR:—The paper, which
has just been read, is a very interesting one,
coming as it does from a distinguished Sinha-
lease. It deals with one of the matters
which I have lately been discussing in Durbar,
both with the upcountry Chiefs and the
lowcountry Chiefs, and it provides in itself
a text for rather lengthy remarks with
which [am not now going to trouble you.
I should like, however, just to point out
that the Mudaliyar has made use of one or
two excellent ideas. One is that part where
he talks about lands being acquired for
tankage, in which he says thatthe labour
must be supplied by the field owners or
cultivators. He then goes on to say that it
should be the care of the people, with the
help of the Government, to devise the best
means to remedy the evils arising from these
causes. (Hear, hear.) Members of this Society
know that personally one has a very strong
feeling that Government should assist those
who assist themselves (hear, hear,) and I feel
sure in this matter of irrigation and of village
tanks—and I speak especially of the latter as
against the large monuments of which we
have a few throughout the country. I
speak especially of village tanks: that any
6 (SEPTEMBER, 1908. a
— a
ity
- SEPTEMBER, 1908.]
ee
x
WRAY
plan by which the people will come forward
as a community and approach Government
with a view of getting Government help,
will meet with every consideration. The
idea of the Mudaliyar is that any outlay,
which may be incurred, should be defrayed
by their giving a tithe of their crops; and I
would, in connection with that, and the
remark which has fallen from the Colonial
Secretary and the Hon. Mr. Obeyesekere,
like to point out that the proposal is entirely
a different matter froma tax on paddy. The
Tax ON PADDY
came into the Government coffers. This
would be a voluntary contribution from the
people themselves for work for their direct
benefit, and be expended upon them; and it
is, therefore, no more a resuscitation of a tax
than it would be if they put money into a
fund for the holding of Agricultural Shows
on their own which they hoped would benefit
themselves. As regards the amount of one
tithe, it is very possible, under such circum-
stances as these that it might not be suffici-
ent to cover the expenditure, and it is no
doubt known to some of the members that
in various portions of the Colony we are now
opening up paddy fields upon what you
might call an extension of Sir Henry Ward’s
system; by which the people pay, on the
share principle, one-fifth of their crops, whe-
ther big or small, on the termination of which
they keep their titles.. A somewhat similar
system may be held in this case also; and I
say particularly that one tithe might not be
sufficient in some circumstances. Seeing
that the Mudaliyar has suggested, and, I
may say, with some show of reason, that the
headmen who are engaged in the business
should also be remunerated for their trouble.
In connection with what has fallen from the
Colonial Secretary as regards the abolition
of the paddy tax in 1893, that it has been
mentioned to me several times that one of
the drawbacks of the abolition of that tax is
that the headmen no longer care a rap for
paddy cultivation in their districts, although
formerly they used to do so. Where the
headmen have given out the seed themselves,
they have been particularly interested ; but
as a rule they do not take an interest as
regards the paddy cultivation of their district
as they did in the past. As regards the
second column of the paper, where it is pro-
posed that there should be advances made to
cultivators, and that there should be eventu-
ally organised Agricultural Banks, I may say
that these remarks are not only fully appre-
ciated by me, but they are remarks very
similar to those which at the present moment
are before the Secretary of State. As no
reply has come to my Despatch, it would be
irregular of me to give it to you.
My Ippa
is to advance to the cultivator, on easy terms
and on the security of his lands, his seed
paddy, and the agricultural implements suit-
277
Miscellaneous.
able for his purposes in carrying out any
scheme. There should be as little Govern-
ment interference as possible. The people
themselves should, as far as possible, ad-
minister the machinery. In districts where
there is a branch of the Agricultural Society
IT would leave the administration to a
Committee consisting of the chief revenue
officer, as Chairman, with the nominated
members of the Province on the Agricultural
Board, and with them I would associate the
Gansabawa or Village Committee. In the
case of any Government contribution to a
fund, I would propose that, after payment of
expenses, including loan, interest, and sinking
fund, any balance should be paid to the
credit of the District Committee to form the
foundation of small agricultural banks for the
promotion of different forms of agriculture.
Continuing, His Excellency said: I venture
to express the hope that the Mudaliyar will
favour us with further remarks on _ this
subject, after he has considered it with other
Mudaliyars in the lowcountry. A further
paper would not only prove of interest to the
Society itself, but of great value to his
Sinhalese compatriots. (Hear, hear.)
Mr. A. F. West, Acting Government Kn-
tomologist, read a paper on
‘*“VERMIN DESTRUCTION, ”
after which His Excellency invited discussion,
which was not forthcoming,
NOTES AND QUERIES.
By C. DRIEBERG.
B. G. P.—The latest invention in the
way of a white-ant destroyer is a con-
trivance consisting of an air-pump con-
nected by a short length of rubber-hose
with afurnace. By working the pump
a continuous blast of air is delivered
_ into the furnace, entering beneath and
escaping through a pipe near the top, to
which is attached a flexible iron hose.
A charcoal fire is first started in the
furnace, and, by pumping, got thorough-
ly air tight. A powder is thensprinkled
over the fire and the lid closed.’ By con-
tinuing the pumping avery hot cloud of
poisonous smoke is driven out through
the flexible iron hose, the end of which
is inserted into the white-ant ‘‘nest”
and the smoke thus driven in. The
appliance is reeommended by the Govern-
ment Entomologist, who is using one at
Peradeniya, and will no doubt be ready
to give any further information with
eet to it to any one applying to
im.
M. H.—The incubator at the Stock
Garden has only been started lately,
but it has done well so far, and hatched
out a first brood of chickens early this
Miscellaneous
month. The Government Veterinary
Surgeon has kindly helped with his ad-
vice, andIam sure he will gladly tell
you what ought to suit your require-
ments if you consult him.
TreRMITES ATTACKING YOUNG COCONUT
PLANTS.—I note that you have tried
saw-dust and salt, and also planting of
Colocasia antiquorum in the same hole
as the nut, but having not found either
satisfactory, I shall be glad to hear
later how the application of a coat
of tar to the seed-nuts has answered. I
would advise you trying castor cake
when planting out. White-ants object
to it strongly, and it will benefit the
young plants. If you can get Margosa
poonac you will find it even more effica-
cious.
Tomato DisEASE.—The black spot
fruit disease is caused by a fungus (Cla-
diosporium lycopersici). The spores
gain entrance into the fruit through
minute cracks or punctures on the skin.
The use of raw manure likely to prove
too forcing and cause cracking should
be avoided, as also excessive watering.
Allow the plant free ventilation and
spray at intervals with Potassium sul-
phide solution, made by dissolving one
ounce of the sulphide (liver of sulphur)
ina quart of hot water; then make up
to two and a half gallons with cold
water. Give the plants liquid manure.
PouLtRY FANciIER.—The usual way of
testing eggs is by holding them in a suit-
able appliance against the light of
a candle. If fresh, the egg will appear
quite clear and almost transparent. If
incubation has begun, a dark spot will be
visible which increases with length of
incubation. A rotten egg appears dark
in colour. Another method is to place the
egg inasolution of salt (2 oz.) in water
(1 pint). If new laid, the eggs will sink
to the bottom; if one day old, it
will sink below the surface but not
to the bottom; if three days old it will
stand just below the liquid; if over three
days it will float on the surface; if
two weeks old only alittle of the shell
will go below the liquid. The older the
egg the lighter it is, and hence the less
will it sink in the solution.
Vv. P.—The “Aerator” is stocked by
Messrs. Brown & Co. For garden work
youcould get nothing better for keeping
the surface soil loose and free of weeds.
The price is somewhere about Rs. 7:50.
The ‘Planet Junior” machine is intended
for rather more extensive work ; but all
these appliances are calculated to help
jn keeping soil in tilth—-a condition
rarely seen in Ceylon.
2
"8% [SEPTRMBRR. 1908.
SUGAR-CANE VINEGAR.—A lady corres-
pondent writes from upcountry inquiring
where she could get some of this vine-
gar, having read about it in Miss
Gordon Cumming’s work on Ceylon, from
which the following passage is taken :—
“‘Possibily some of the many victims
of jungle fever in other lands may be
disposed to try the simple remedy des-
cribed ina letter tothe Editor of the
Ceylon Observer. The writer states
that his stalwart brother had from
repeated attacks of fever dwindled to a
mere skeleton, when a fakir came to
his tent and offered to permanently cure
him. His materia medica were of the
simplest, consisting only of a flat piece of
iron and a bottle of sugarcane vinegar.
The former was made red-hot, and the
vinegar was poured over it—the patient
inhaling the fumes. This operation
was repeated only a second time, and
from that day forward, in the thirteen
years up to date of the letter, the sufferer
never had a return of fever, and quite
recovered his health.” I have succeeded
in procuring some of this vinegar from
Mr. D. A. Jayasinghe, sugar planter of
Nagoda, in Galle District. Will any
one who could furnish further testi
mony as to the efficacy of the treatment
referred to kindly doso ?
Gorrespondence,
ROSELLE: ITS CULTURE AND USES.
Kudat, B.N. Borneo, 20th July, 1908.
Sir,—Referring to the article on
“‘Roselle: Its Culture and Uses” in
“1 A. & Mag.” for April last, on page
316 reference is made to the cultivation
of the plant in India for fibre. Could
you kindly inform me what the yield
per acre of fibre averages, the valne per
lb., and the method and cost of treating
it.
As itis very difficult to place a new
fibre on the market, I should be glad to
know whether it has been under cultiva-
tiou for any length of time, what quan-
tities are produced, and where it is
chiefly sold.
I presume the machinery for extract-
ing the fibre could be obtained in Caleutta,
if not at Colombo,
Yours faithfully.
PLANTER.
[Watt, in his Dictionary of Economic
Products of India, says :—
Fisre.—The stems yield a_ good,
strong, silky Fibre, the Roselle Hemp of
Commerce, obtained by retting the t wigs
when inflower. The process is deser ibed
_—
SEPTEMBER, 1908.]
as follows in a statement from the
Nellore. District of Madras: ‘‘ After the
plants are supposed to be properly dried,
they are made into bundles and soaked
in water, in which state they are allowed
to remain for a period varying from 15
to 20 days. After that time the bark is
separated by the hand, and well washed
to free it from any impurities ; ; itis then
allowed to dry, and becomes available
foruse.” It isemployedby the natives for
the purposes of cordage, being twisted
intoa ropeof varying thickness called
nilaka. The thinner varieties of rope
are substituted for tape and rattaning
for cots, the thicker is generally employ-
ed as a strong rope for agricultural
purposes, tying upcattle, &c. The fibre
is also said to be employed in the manu-
facture of gunnies in certain districts of
Madras.
LIOTARD (Paper-making materials of
India) mentions the Roselle as yielding
a fibre likely to be valuable to paper-
makers, but no account exists of its
actually having beenso employed. On
the whole, considering the easy growth
ot the plant and the cheap rate at which
it could be procured, the fibre seems
worthy of more attention than it has
hitherto received.—KED. |
MALAY RUBBER GROWERS’ ASSO-
CIATION: MR. W. W. BAILEY’S
REVIEW.
DEAR SirR,—I have toad with much
interest Mr. W. W. Bailey’s letter to the
Singapore Free Press of April 10th last,
inserted in your issue for May.
Although agreeing, for the most part,
with what Mr. Bailey writes about
practical Hevea planting in general and
thumb-nail pruning in particular, I must
take exception to what he says about
keeping an estate ‘‘ perfectly clean from
the day itis burned off.” Asa planter I
of course admit that this is the cheapest
way of working an estate, but whether it
will prove to be the most successful in
the long run I very much doubt, more
especially on steeper country. On low-
lying flat estates such as obtain in most
parts of the Straits, of course, the loss of
soil caused by wash is reduced to a
minimum, but on steeper estates the
policy of keeping the hillsides perfectly
bare and thus exposed to the full force
of the sun’s rays and to the heavy tro-
pical rains seems to me a suicidal one, to
say nothing of the loss of organic
matter to the soil through want of weed-
growth. Is it not better to pay more for
weeding during the first few years until
the trees close up and render this work
superfluous than to run the risk of im-
poverishment of the soil through un-
necessary wash? Are we not living on
our capital, as it were, by taking every-
279
Miscellaneous.
thing from the soil in this way and
returning nothing to it? When in
Ceylon last yearI sawa Hevea estate,
planted on a very steep hillside, kept
perfectly clean in this way, but without
even terraces or trenches to retain the
soil, and it was pitiful to see the loss of
humus taking place through wash. I
cannot believe that any saving in
weeding during the first few years com-
pensates in any way for this loss of soil.
Surely also the physical condition of the
soil and its consequent ability to retain
moisture in an easily available condition
is improved by mulching ?
I need hardly add thatIam no advo-
cate of allowing the young trees to be
stifled by lalang or other harmful weeds.
On the contrary, lam strongly of opinion
that lalang and all other noxious weeds
should be eradicated at all costs from the
very start, but surely there are many
other growths which not only do no
harm to the Hevea, but on the contrary
protrect the ground from sun and rain
and, on being cut down at regular
intervals, eventually add to fertility of
‘the soil. On many tea estates here in
Java, where wash is almost impossible
owing tothe very elaborate system of
drains and trenches, the ground is seldom
kept weedless, but onthe contrary good
kinds of weed are encouraged for use
as green .aanure. Besides Crotalaria,
which suffers much from insect plagues
in this countrv, I am planting between
the rubber with greater success a variety
of Indigo named Tephrosia, which by
its quick, low, spreading growth soon
covers the ground and is very effective
in preventing weed. It seeds very free-
ly which makes its propagation easy and
rapid. It dies off, I believe, within the
year but sows itselfagain so that, once
established, the cost is merely nominal.
That this or any other growth will kill
off well-established lalang Ido not for
% moment maintain, but, once the lalang
has been got out, Tephrosia makes the
keeping of itin hand mere child’s play,
whilst the fertilising properties of the
Indigo tribe are too well known to eall
for further comment.
Probably interplanting with catch-
crops is an even better method of cul-
tivation than theabove, but leaving that
entirely out of the question for the
present, 1 think, Sir, that where opinions
so widely differ as to the value of abso-
lutely clean or practically weedy gar-
dens, it would be of great value to
plantersif you would give us the benefit
of your weighty opinion on the subject,
even at the risk of baing accused of
offering ‘‘ bad scientific advice.”
Tam, dear Sir,
Your obedient servant,
CLEVELAND HARRINGTON,
280 Ree 1908,
MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. i
(From Lewis & Peats Monthly Price Current, London, 12th August, 1908.)
QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATIONS
ALOE, Soccotrine cwt*|Fair to fine +1858 a 908 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.)
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common to good -.120s a 828 6d Borneo pL good 6d a 2s 2d
ARROWRKOOT (Natal) Ib.|Fair to fine Liozd a 4d ave Low, White red Laurea]
BEES’ W ; cwt. enang 4 s a 2s
le See ,, {Slightly drossy to fair ...|£6 10s a £612s6d] | Mozambique Hane to fine red Ball .../2s6d a 8s 6d
Bombay bleached _,, |Fair to good £7 10s a £7 12s 6d ausage, fair to good .. is éd a 3s 4d
# unbleached,, |Derk to good genuine ../£515s a £6 10s Nyassaland Fair to fine ball 23 :da 2s 4d
Madagascar it Dare to good palish |£67s6d a £6 12/6 Madagascar Majunge & hikeoaled ts a aa 2d
2, Fo ,», {Crude nom. S +-|Is a 1s
See) eh tam Fair average quality .. /162s 6d Niggers, low to good ../6da2s 1d
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb| Goed to fine bold 1s 10d a 2s New Guinea Ordinary to fine ball ..lis6éda2s 6d nom
Middling lean Is dda ls 7d INDIGO, KI. Bengal Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a 3s lod
Tellicherry Good to ine bold -./2s ae 6d a Ordinavye ea uae Be aa a as a
Brownis ls 6d als 9% Ss a 8s
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair bold|is 9d a 28.94 nom. Oude Middling to fine "2s 6d a 2/8 nom.
Ceylon. Mysore ,, |Sml) fair to fine plump |1s 5da 3s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah 2s 3d a 2s 6d
Malabar... |Fair to good 1s a a 1s ian ed i ordi sD = Be. aes a8
Seeds Vhs 7 als 10 ‘ n s 5da 2s 4
Long Wild,, |Shelly to good ../6d ais 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang Pale reddish to fine [1s 5d a 1s 10d
CASTOR OIL, Caleutta,, |Ists and 2nds .. {8d a 34d per Ib. >/Ordinary to fair 1s 2d als 6d
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt.|Dull to tine bright —_.../208 a 25s uy ” » good pale |is 1d a1s6d
5 .— Tb. OLANES, cwt
Geolen ras Crown, Renewed oe ag Madras Spblep oa anae ic re a rs od
f od a s9sa
Red cae Stem 1jd a 44d" Bombay» (Bhimlies 5s a 5s 6d
Renewed 38da 5id Rhajpore, &e. 43 9s a 5S
Root 1jda 4d Bengal ,, (Calcutta ds ads 3d
CINNAMON, Ceylon Ists|Common to fine quill |7idals 3d NUTMEGS— Wa Repco. Is 4d a 1s bd
per Ib, 2nds i ut a ais 2d Bombay & Penang ,, |{10'S {0 Coie bid a ae
3ords 7 i ais S € 4 7a a
Ane i iB 5d a sid NUTS, ARECA emi Ordinary to fair fresh |1é6s a 18s
Chips, &c..|Fair to fine bold 25d a 34d NUX VOMICA, Cochin |O'dinary to good 93 a 11s 6d
CLOVES, Penang Ib.|Dull to tine bright bold|9d a 11d per cwt. eee ” ” 7s 6d a 7s 9d
Amboyna ..|Dull to fine 73d a 8d Madras |.” » 7s 9da 9s
Ceylon mi i a 7da 8d OIL OF ANISEED _,, |Fair merchantable | [4s 5d
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright 43d CASSIA a According to analysis |4s6da4s 9d
Stems ..|Fair 2d LEMONGRASS | ;, |Good Savon ae ie
COFFEE NUTMEG if ReneS. HO RW a2
Ceylon Plantation ,, |Bold to fine 110s a 116s CINNAMON Ordinary to fair sweet |24d a 1s3d
Medium to good 80s a 100s CITRON ELLE Bright & good flavour [ls
Native Good ordinary nominal ORCHELLA WEED—cwt),,. ¥
Liberian 5, |Fair to bold 425 6d a 46s 6d Ceylon - Mid. to fine not woody...|10s a 12s 6d
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ,, Special Marke 78s a 908 | Zanzibar. ” |Picked beret eee nom.
ed to goo TUS a 77s | 9 * ”
Native Estate 5, [Ordinary to red 50s a 748 /PEPPLR— (Black) Ips
Alleppee & Tellicherry|Fair + [3hd
COLOMBO ROOT », |Middling to good 12s al5s Ceylon », o fine bold heavy ../3d a 4d
CKOTON SEEDS,sift. cwt,|Dull to fair 273 6d a 32s 6d Singapore i ny at [8d
CUTCH Fair to fine dry 21s a 23s nom. | Acheen & W. C. Penang Dull to fine [BA _@ 39d
GINGER, Bengal, ’ rough,, Fair 30s nom. | (White) Singapore », |Lair to fine dc ../4gd a 8d
Calicut, ON A,, |Small to fine bold 72s 6d a 853 » |Fair NY ke .. [od
»» {Small and medium 48s a 65s Pen ng », [Fair sed
Cocbin RaWER ,, Common to fine bold |32s 6d a 35s 'PLUMBAGO, hag ewt,|Fair to fine bright bold 35s a 45s nom.
Small and D’s 338 |Middling to good small|25s a 40s
Japan ** [Unsplit 288 chips |Dull to Ane bright 15s a 30s
@UM AMMONIACUM,’ |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright 78 a 158
ANIMLI, Zanzibar ,’ |Pale and amber, str. srts./£16 a£1910s |SAGO, Pearl, large ...|Dull to fine si .|148 a 15s 9d
» _ little red|£13 a £15 | medium ..| ,, 7 14s a 163 6d.
Bean and Pea size ditto|75sa £14 small i 14s a 15s
Fair to good red sorts |£9a £12 SEEDLAC ewt, Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 a£6 nom.
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£6 10s a £8 SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b.|Good to fine bold green ae a7d
Madagascar ,, |Fair to good palish .,.|£4 a £8 10s Fair greenish da 4d
Ay red ..|£4 a £7 10s Commonspeckyand small id a2d
ARABIC F.I. & Aden ,, Ordinary to Rood pale 25s a 32s 6d SHELLS, M. o’PEARL—|
Turkey sorts ,, 32s 6d a 5Us Egyptian cwt.|Small to bold .. 65s a £5 10s
Ghatti ,, |Sorts to fine pale ...{1L7s a 42s 6d Bombay af ” ee 25s a £5 1s
Kurrachee ,, [Reddish to goed pale ...|20s a 30s nom. Mergui Fe, are --|24a 27
Madras », |Dark to fine pale ...|158 a 25s Manilla 5 Fair to good -|£4 5s a £7 15s
ASSAFCKTIDA ;, |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 10¢s Banda 5, [Sorts -|25s a30S nom.
com. stony to good block!|25s a 75s TAS Calcutta... Mid.to fine b’k not stony|11s a 12s
KINO » |Fair to tine bright éd als wt. Madras |Stonyand inferior ..|/4sa 5s
MYRRH, picked » |Fair to fine pale £5 a £6 TORTOISESHELL—
Aden sorts ,, |Middling to good 55s a 708 Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. |Small to bold «- [12s 230s
OLIBANUM, drop » |Good to tine white 45s a 658 Pickings .. [6s a 228
Middling to fair 30s a 40s TURMERIC, Pengel ewt,|Fair 17s
eas ” comes good pale 10s a 22s 6d padres Fr Haney fair to fine bold 19s a 22s
ng 9 ou
INDIA RUKBEK lb. Tine Bara Hin ve canes isa oe Chenin ” Finger CO ae ae
Ceylon, Straits, 2 Ceara ” 2 43 2d 2 Bulbs w- {138
Malay Straits, ete. Crepe ordinary to fine... 4s 1d ads ad VANILLOES— Ib.
Fine Block 4d Mauritius ...\ 1sts/Gd crystallized 3} a8hin|7sa 14s
Scrap fair to fine ‘los 4d a2s 9d Madagascar ... } 2nds| Foxy & reddish 3448 ,,|/6s a 10s
Assam Plantation 3s 4d Seychelles...) a3rd.| Lean and inferior [5S a 68
Fair II to good red No.1)2s a 2s sd VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright . [28 9d a Ys 100
Rangoon a x 2s 2d a 2s 4d WAX, Japan, squares |Good white hard + [538 ;
THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE
Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8.
No. 3,]
SEPTEMBER, 1908.
[ Vol. ITT.
THE FUTURE OF RUBBER.
WITH OVER 400,000 ACRES NOW PLANTED IN SOU-
THERN ASIA, HOW MANY TONS SHOULD BE
PRODUCED BY 1914 anD 1920?
In 1903, Mr. Donald Mackay at our request,
made an estimate of the rubber trees growing in
the Malay States and Straits Settlements. He put
the total at 3 millions of trees with only 100,000
then 5 to 6 years old, the rest from 4 years to a
few months. Now, if they have all survived, the
whole 3 millions should be either yielding latex
or getting ready very shortly to doso. It is
from this number of trees that the current
year’s export of probably very near 3 million lb.
(1,300 tons) of rubber is being harvested. How
many rubber trees had Ceylon in 1903? Pos-
sibly about a million of all ages, chiefly new
planted, for we could not make out that there
were then more than 70,000 five to six years old,
These are now ten to eleven years old and give
much of the rubber that goes to make up the
350 tons or 794,000 lb. that may possibly be
shipped from Ceylon this year. Altogether we
count on 350,000 trees this year as yielding more
or less of latex. This ought to be nearly
doubled next year with 650 tons—and so on, say,
until by 1914, trees growing over 150,000 acres
(said to be planted up last year) should be giving
10,000 tons. This is counting on 20 million trees
being then available and averaging 1{ Ib. per
tree. Inthe same year the Malay Peninsula
should be good for at least 16,000 tons and the
rest of Asia (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, India and
Burmah) for 6,000 tons-—or 32,0c0 tons in all;
and by 1920 this should be doubled if moderate
expectations are realised even if the price goes
down to 3s., aye, or 2s. perlb. Itis extremely
interesting to remember that Mr. H. K. Ruther-
ford. in January, 1905, estimated that there
should be Larvested in 1910 from ‘planted ”
trees in Asia about 3,520 tons (8,000,000 lb.) If
Ceylon gives 1,200 tons two years hence, Malaya
36
= : =
should certainly be good for more than the
balance of 2,320 tons, For 1911 Mr. Ruther-
ford’s estimate was 13 million lb. or 5,800 tons
and Ceylon should be good for nearly 2,000 tons
of this from the 25,000 acres planted up to 1904,
For 1912, Mr. Rutherford estimated 22 millions
lb, or 9,820 tons of Ceylon which should contri-
bute 3,500 tons gathered from trees growing over
40,000 acres, dating from 1905 and previous
years. Curiously enough Mr. Carruthers puts
the Malay States down for 5,425 tons at 1 lb. a
tree or 8,215 tons if 14 ]b.atree in 1912 To
turn to the planted extent atthe present time,
here is the best information available :—
Ceylon - 180,000 acres,
Malay Peninsula 150,000
Java 58,000
Sumatra 23,000
Borneo - 7,100
India and Burmah - 28,000
- 446,000
For 8. Asia =
Mr. Carruthers’ returns at the end of 1907
pointed to 150,0C0 acres as then planted in the
peninsula. The recent Java Congress gave us
58,000 acres; but much of this is the planting
of ficus by Government. Sumatra’s is a safe
estimate on good authority. Messrs. Figgis &
Co, of London put Borneo at 10,000 in January
last: we think this too high. Travancore had
13,000 acres planted Mr. Drummond
Deane reported some time ago, and from one
division of Burmah we hada return of 4,500
‘racres That leaves 10,500 acres for the rest of
Southern India and other divisions of Burmah.
Make an ample allowance for failures, and yet it
must be owned that, from 1914 onwards, this
‘‘ planted area” should mean many thousands of
trees in rubber. Then we have to take into
account planting in Mexico, in Central and
South America, in some parts of Africa and in
some of the islands of the seas. Mexico owes
much to American enterprise and capital, and
yet Dr. Olson-Seffer with his 95,000 acres must
be confounding Jand, taken up for rubber, with
when
282
the extent actually planted. Messrs. Figgis &
Co.7 months back put 20,000 acres planted in
Mexico, Nicaragua and Honduras, We now give
Mexico alone credit for 25,000 acres. Alto-
gether the attempt to work out a record for the
world results in a tota] of 534,550 acres. For
the details see the pages of the ‘‘ Ceylon Hand-
book and Directory ”’ just published. It will be
extremely interesting now, year by year, to watch
how the exports of the plantation product deve-
lop and how they compare with the estimates
which will be found in the ‘* Ceylon Handbook
and Directory ” and elsewhere,
THE CEYLON PLANTING INDUSTRY.
35,000 ACRES CACAO: 8,350 CARDAMOMS ;
1,200 OF CAMPHOR.
There is not much to be said about Cacao:
our returns from estates for the current
period show about 1,000 acres added to plan-
tations during 1907-08 and 2,000 additional of
cacao and rubber: whether due to clearings dur-
ing 1907-8 or of earlier date, it is impossible to
say. The total works out to 29,354 acres and, with
5,700 acres added for native gardens, 35,000
may be taken as representing the industry in
the present year. It looks, too, as if an era
of alternate good and poor crops were setting
in. Thus 1905 gave an export of 69,463 cwt; in
1906 only 54,020 cwt. were shipped ; 1907 gave
a bumper return of 92,511 while we suppose
60,000 to 65,000 ewt. are all that can be looked
for this year ?
Cardamoms reached a maximum export of
995,680 lb. in 1904 when 9,300 acres were under
cultivation. Now there are 1,000 acres less and
the shipments this year are not likely to ex-
ceed 600,000 to 650,000 Ib.
Weare only at the beginning of an industry
in the growing of Camphor trees, of which the
regular planting has in two years extended from
142 to 45] acres; but judging by the seed used
and knowing that there is no means of tabu-
lating the trees planted along the boundaries
and roads of a large number of estates, we
feel sure that there must be the equivalent of
1,200 acres under this new product. Writing
in January, 1907, Dr. Willis estimated 900
acres for camphor and we know that there have
been more than 300 acres planted since.
CINCHONA IN CEYLON.
Poor OLp CincHona—once represented by
millions of trees covering thousands of acres
in Ceylon, which gave 30 million lb. of bark
for exportation in two seasons, twenty-two
years back—is now represented in our Directory
by ‘‘173 acres,” the export last year being 235,000
lb. and this year probably about 20(,00u Jb.!
How are the mighty fallen! But in Java the
industry has gone ahead in spite of attention
to coffee, tea and rubber, so that the yearly
harvest is now from 18 to 20 million lb. of much
richer bark than ever Ceylon produced ; and so
The Supplement lo the Tropical A griculturist
Java rules the world’s markets. The yield from
the Government Gardens in India is falling
off: only 437,000 lb. of bark was exported in
1907-08 against 916,000 lb. two years before ;
but some is, of course, kept for local manu-
facture. India now imports over 80,000 lb. of
quinine a year and the consumption cannot be
under 100,000 lb. We cannot say what Ceylon
imported last year of quinine, no separate
account being keot at the Customs,
PLANTING RESERVES ON ESTATES.
We sometimes hear the cry that there is very
little room for the expansion of planting now
in Ceylon, even if it were desirable to cultivate
anew or old product. But few people think
of the very considerable reserves in private
hands, and of a number of properties abandoned
in coffee days and never since taken up. This
accounts for the fact that only 1,722 plantations
are entered as ‘‘ cultivated” out of 2,083 estate
properties entered in the Directory, The total
acreage of the latter is 944,403 against 614,022
acres in cultivation. This leaves reserves of no
less than 330,000 acres. Of course, a great deal
of this is comparatively useless patana and waste;
but we may safely calculate that at least 100,000
acres would come under the designation of good
forest land in private hands ready to be developed
into clearings of tea or any other product that
may offer due encouragement. In certain dis-
tricts it is extremely interesting to notice the
diversity of products engaging the attention of
the Superintendent—as when cacao is conjoined
not only with rubber, but with pepper, nutmegs
and vanilla ; while croton oil nut trees, coca and
kola are interesting minor additions in other
cases. The Sinhalese—in the Kegalla and Matara
districts especially—if they were true to the
tastes of their forefathers, ought to be great
cultivators of the pepper vine; for the Dutch
derived very considerable quantities of this
spice, Which they considered decidedly superior
in its Ceylon growth, from what are now our
Southern and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. The
Dutch even considered pepper a more suitable
and valuable product than coffee to grow in
Ceylon, two hundred years ago.
TEA IN JAVA.
In our issue of May Mr Hugh Tomlinson,
of Bandoeng, Java, wrote giving us_parti-
culars of the prize Java estate, Malabar,
which produces tea at a cost of 24d per lb.,
netting 34d profit, and which paid a_ divi-
dend last year of 80 per cent—Directors,
besides, getting the equivalent of 343 per cent., -
and the Manager (by way of commission) of 144
per cent. He said these figures were excep-
tional; but other estates run on Dutch (as
against Ceylon lines) shewed nearly as wonder-
ful results. The average (7th year, from seed)
was in this case 1,559 1b. per acre, while 2,124%
acres averaged 1,082 lb. made tea. We at the
time questioned if there were, or were likely to
be, many Malabars in Java; though we confessed
that country’s volcanic soil was'not to be found
in Ceylon. Mr Bingley wrote us fully (on
ind Magazine of the Ceylon Ayvicullural Society.
June 8th) in a letter published in July issue
furnishing authentic particulars for nine typical
estates, the best of which only gave one-third
the yield and profit of Malabar, and the average
was 476 lb. per acre. He compared Java and
Ceylon methods, too, with much to advance in
favour of the latter ; and said if there were any
estates in Java even approaching Malabar, he
did not know them. This has roused Mr Tom-
linson again; and inithe letter we print hereafter
he promises to give us figures for four or five
estates in different districts, each with acreage
in bearing producing 900 lb. per acre. Mr
Tomlinson suggests to us methods of editorial
courtesy, in whichhe is asking a little too much:
Mr Bingley gave tabulated figures at once, of
typical estates, when taking a different view
from Mr Tomlinson. The latter is only now about
to produce such figures, instead of backing up
with them, in the first instance, his statement
about ‘‘other estates.” We shall certainly be
glad to publish the figures wlien they arrive.
Mr. Tomitnson’s LETTER,
Bandoeng, 27th July, 1908S.
Srz,--I only heard from Mr Bingley, during
the races here last week, that he had written
you a letter on ‘‘Tea in Java.” Yesterday I
managed to procure a copy of the number in
which his letter appeared. If I had seen this
earlier, there would not have been this delay
in my reply.
Dealing with Mr Bingley’s letter first—I
cannot understand Mr Bingley when he writes
that he does not know of any other estates
shewing ‘‘nearly as wonderful results as Mala-
bar.” The wonderful part about Malabar is of
course the crop per acre, (the financial results
are the outcome of a very conservative policy
in the past) and I hope shortly to be able to
supply you with the figures of four or five
estates all situated in different districts and all
more or less young, whose gardens in bearing
are producing 900 lb. per acre.
I have re-read my former letter ard fail to
see where I suggested that Java methods are
superior to Ceylon—I merely stated that the
estates giving wonderful results were run on
Dutch lines—that, and nothing more. I| have
only had the pleasure of visiting one Ceylon
estate, (in the Kalutara district), so I cannot
speak with much confidence about Ceylon, but
apparently cultivation and manufacture here
have to be suited to conditions entirely different
from those prevailing in the English colony; c.g.
it would be hard to find a planter here who
would plant Wild Manipuri tea seed, as that
_jat, suitable in Ceylon, is unsuitable here, whilst
in manufacture few estates wither more than
20 to 35 per cent. against the 40 to 45 per cent.
usual in Ceylon, I believe. Mr R C Wright,
when he was actively planting here, with all
his Ceylon experience and who was to teach
Java planters something, managed with some
regularity to be near the bottom of the list at
the sales. From what I saw, I certainly agree
that with the material at his disposal the
Ceylon planter performs miracles, but that
Ceylon methods ought to be transferred here in
globo, 1 beg leave to doubt; though, if modified
the same could be applied with advantage. None
283
of the foregoing alters the fact that many Java
soils are giving more wonderful results so far
as tea is concerned than those of any other
country, which was all I wished to draw your
attention to originally. For results from a
small acreage, I may tell you that I have seen a
field of 80 acres which last year produced
1,900 lb. per acre.
As to the available land being limited, Mr
ROC Wright only told me this spring that during
his visit he had been offered over 50,000 acres of
really first-class land.
Turning to your Editorial—surely it had been
more courtesus to have offered me the chance of
proving the statements which made an impres-
sion ‘‘ requiring correction” ?
I must apologise for the length of this lotter,
but { did not consider it fair to myself to wait
until 1 had collected the information I require,
without letting you know that I will prove
what I state. In conclusion I cannot help re-
marking that it is amusing to find Mr Bingley,
at this time of day, championing Ceylon.—I am,
Sir, yours faithfully.
HUGH TOMLINSON.
TEA NOTES.
“Versa Mare”—Who can tell us about the
enormous trade in South American States over
this peculiar form of so-called tea? In 1880, it
was estimated that 60 million lb. of ‘“‘maté” tea
was consumed in South America—half of this
in Argentina ; and that Brazil supplied half or
30 million lb, But we now find that in 1906, Brazil
exported no less than 57,796 tons of “ Yerba Maté”
valued at £1,846,301. A trade which now amounts
from Brazil alone, to 130 million Ib. of maté tea
is worth looking into, even though the Brazilian
Customs valuation seems to be about 34d a lb.
Teas DRiINKiNG IN BuRMA.—It will be interest-
ing to tea planters to note some figures on
tea-drinking in Burma given in the seventh
triennial report just issued on Burma’s
trans-frontier trade. Taking the population
of the province as at the last census, the
quantity of tea consumed annually is about 2 lb.
per head of population. The advance in the
consumption of wet or pickled tea was 398,000 lb.
During the financial year 1907-8 the quantity ot
pickled tea imported from the Northern Shan
States was 16,359,878 lb., and dry tea 2,477,952
lb. besides 1,389,U00 lb. imported by sea. The
wet or pickled tea is considered a luxury by the
Burmans.—Statesman, Aug. 13.
FIBRES.
Sips. Fipre,—A Bengal sample of sida fibre
(a variety of the Sinhalese Bevila) recently sent
to London was submitted to commercial experts,
who described it as a beautiful specimen of fine
silky, well-grown fibre, very white in colour, free
of root, strong and well prepared, They stated
that it could probably be used for mixing with
silk; but, even if only employed for the finest
purposes to which jute is applied, it would sell
very readily in large quantities at from £25 to
£30 per ton (with *‘ good” to “fine” jute at
284 The Supplement to the
£16 to £25 per ton.) The experts also stated that,
in their opinion, the cultivation of this plant
could be encouraged with advantage, as
there would be a very good market for the
fibve.—Indian Trade Journal, Aug. 13.
A New Fisre.—‘‘ Mr Charles A White, F.R.H.S.
a native of Australia, and at present manager of
an estate in Central Africa, has made an acciden-
tal discovery that may prove of immense benefit
to Australia. Requiring a rope one day, he was
surprised to find that a native servant had im-
provised one from the fibres of a plant with
which he was well acquainted, but of the valu-
able properties of which he had no knowledge.
In the course of a letter to the Minister for
Agriculture (Mr Perry) Mr White says he has
known the Asceplias semilunata (the plant re-
ferred to) to havea wide geographical distribu-
tion—-he has seen it growing in Western Austra-
lia, South Africa, Rhodesia, German Africa,
Portuguese Africa, Uganda, and in theCongo
country. Nobody seemed to be aware of its
great market value. in its habits it does not
object to abundant rain, and itis also drought-
resistant, growing on the Equator 6ft. in height
in stony ground. By the same mail Mr Perry
received from Mr White a parcel of seed anda
hank of fibre. It is of fine colour, about four
feet in length, and very tough. The fibre was
submitted to a well-known firm of rope-makers
in the city, who pronounced it equal to the best
manila, and worth £35 a ton in Sydney if sup-
plied in lengths of not less than 4ft. Hach seed
carried a down tuft, more silky than kapok, and
this down the African natives use for bedding.
Mr Perry has taken steps to have the seed
tested in Sydney and different parts of the
State, to ascertain if it can be grown success-
fully under New South Wales conditions. Mr
White advises that it may be sown broadcast,
like wheat, and he is very confident that it will
do excellently in Australian soil.”—Sydney Mail.
‘CAMHERSTIA NOBILIS.”
There is a good example of this handsome
tropical tree in the Aroid house (No. 1) at Kew
where it has been for at least 30 years. Until
about 10 years ago it was planted ina tub, but
since then it has been in the open border the
soil in which receives a certain amount of heat
from the boiler chamber immediately below.
This plant is 25 feet high and has a stem
6 inches in diameter with loosely spreading
branches. It has flowered more or less freely
every year since it was planted out, and this
year it has been exceptionally foriferous,
varrying 82 large pendulous racemes of bright
scarlet and yellow flowers which were at their
best early in June. Aimherstia was first intro-
duced from Burma into English gardens through
Chatsworth about 60 years ago, and was first
flowered in a garden at Kaling in 1849. The
Kew tree is probably about 40 years old. In
Burma there are trees 40 to 50 feet high and
when in flower they are said to be magnificent,
and one of the features of the Royal Botanic
Garden at Calcutta is an avenue of these trees.
The flowers are used by the Burmese in con-
nection with their religious ceremnonies.—W. W
—Kew Bulletin, No. 6, 1908.
Tropical A griculwrist
PINEAPPLE CULTIVATION IN
SINGAPORE,
The cultivation of pineapples in Singapore
island has taken larger dimensions than before.
Large tracts of country formerly occupied by
secondary growth are now cleared and covered
with pineapples. Great quantities of pines have
been also brought into Singapore from the
islands around. The result of this immense crop
has been that pineapples have been selling in
town for a cent a piece and upcountry at 6 for
a cent; that is, about 20 for a penny. The tinning
trade is now apparently entirely in Chinese
hands, It is satisfactory to see in many of the
pineapple fields coconuts or rubber being
planted, as pineapple culture is by no means
good for the land.—H.N.R.—Stravts Agricultural
Bulletin for August.
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE IN
NYASSALAND.
(Year ended 3lst March, 1908.)
RUBBER,
j OTIS Doe
ee Ne tS | Lapp’ ries Mee ia
District. Variety. Be Bo aes ha
58 ag z ae
4a qc oO SS
Lower Shire Ceara 20
West Shire do 524
Blantyre do 965) 10 40 c
Castilloa 25 — = os,
Landolphia Large acre-
age — a =
Mlanje Ceara 62 50 72 76
Zomba do 637
Chikala, do 280
Upper Shire do 124
West Nyasa Funtumia 1
Ceara 3
Castilloa 25
Para 124 = mb [=
Landolphia Large acre-
age ? locwt. 10cwt.
North Nyasa Ceara 100 - = -=
TEA,
p Estimated
District. Acres Acres in Crop 1907, crop 1908,
planted. bearing. tons, tons,
West Shire 3 _ = =“
Mlanje 513 53 24 9}
Totals 516 53 25 y
—Nyasaland Gazette, May 30.
Wesr Arrican Maize.—Sir Alfred Jones, pre-
siding at the monthly meeting of the Liverpool!
Chamber of Commerce yesterday, stated that
the cultivation of maize in West Africa had
been most successful. Three crops a year could
be obtained, and he was convinced that Africa
would be the greatest maize-growing country
in the world. Maize shipments from Lagos were
going to be immense. Already small white maize
was being sold in Liverpool at six guineas a ton,
or 10s more than was being obtained in Ham-
burg. As to the Canadian cattle embargo, he
said the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce had
always been in favour of the removal of the
embargo, —London Limes, July 29,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agrwultural Society.
COTTON OIL IN LONDON.
The market for cotton oil has shown some
weakness in London, where the prices were
rather higher than in Huli, and about 15s. has
been lost. In Hull the value has remained
steadier, the fluctuations moving within a limit
of 5s. per ton, and closing as we write at the
price of June 30. The demand has remained
steady, but there has been no very active trade,
and little of interest to the speculator. It is
rather difficult to see what there is to ‘* go for ”
in cotton oil just now, consequently spocula-
tors are few and tke trade is largely in the hands
of producers and consumers. Had the imports
of seed kept up, it is possible that we might
have been seen cheap cotton oil during the pre-
sent year; but the failure of India to maintain
the promise of large supplies and some falling
off in the quantity rceeived from Egypt have
naturally steadied the market and presented
any fall. That the consumption is much less
than it was is apparent when the following
statistics are studied :—
1904, 1905. 1906. 1907. 1958.
Imports to
June 30. 24,949 309,216 355,708 425,144 340,507 tons.
Price of oil,
July 1. £17 10s. £16 20s, £19 7s, 6d. £29 10s, £22 10s,
It will be noticed that comparing midsummer
prices of 1907 with those of 1908 there is a fall
of about 25 per cent., while, at the saine time,
the supplies are shorter by just 20 per cout. We
may probably reckon that the actual demand
for cotton oil is not more than two-thirds of
what it was at this time last year. So far as
imports of cotton oil are concerned the figures
for the six months are practically the same as
they were last year, so this tactor need not be
taken into account,—Jronmonger.
SIZE OF RUBBER-SEED.
The Ceylon circular on the effect of tapping
on seeds by Messrs. Macmillan and Petch is
very interesting, especially asit does not seem
to be borne out at all by the phenomena here.
It is stated that it is obviousthat the seeds of
the tapped trees were smaller than those of un-
tapped trees. Nowthe seeds from the trees in
the Singapore Botanic Gardens vary consider-
ably. Wehave trees that before they were
tapped produced ridiculously small but quite
ood seed, and trees that were younger and
hed never been tapped produced very large seed.
The size of the seed of the oldest trees, which
certainly have not been heavily tapped, though
for some years they were occasionally tapped
are decidedly small. But the amouut of tapping
they had about once in five or six years could
hardly so affect them. Further small-seeded trees
ss far as has been seen keep true whatever the
ieason may be and regardless of whether they
aave been tapped or not. The earlier years of
huiting trees seem always to produce large seed
wth the exceptions of the specially small seeded
trees, all of which however that I know of are
over 20 years old.
I am moro inclined to think that with trees of
normal size average seed the early fruiting gives
large seed, getting a little smaller in later years,
while some trees give small seed from the start.
—H.N.R.—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for Aug,
285
BUKIT RAJAH ESTATE AND ITS
TAPPING METHODS.
I shall never forget my visit to Bukit Rajah.
the tapping is the best I have seen in so far that
the cambium has only rarely been cut. I have,
when visiting estates, usually challenged the
superintendent to find me a tree, tapped for at
least a year, which has not been injured. [ have
been over a large number of estates, but it was
on Bukit Rajah that I saw the first perfectly
tapped tree, free from even a trace of a wound.
Au ordinary tree has the knife along some part
of it about 400 to 500 times per year, assuming
thero are ten tapping lines; no wonder the
cambium is touched once or twice during these
operations. An ordinary gouge is used for tap-
ping —an implement surpassing all others for
simplicity and cheapness, and yet one with which
an unlimited amount of damage can be done.
Yet if was on a property where the gouge was
used that | saw tapping second to none ; which
proves our oft-repeated contention that success
depends on the man using the knife, and not on
the implement itself. 1 kept my eyes open when
going over the clearings and the sections planted
with coconuts, Rambong rubber and coftee, and
concluded that the rubber crop alone for the
current year should not fall far short of 200,000
lb, It is obvious that this property will soon
outriin many others in yield of rubber.
Tapping is usually done on the _ half-her-
ring-bone system, only the leading trees being
tapped on the full-herring-bone system. The
bark below 5 feet has lasted four years, and
the renewed tissue is often quite as thick as
the original or primary bark. It is antici-
pated, however, that the trees will be tap-
ped from 6 to 9 feet before the renewed bark on
the basal section is touched. Hach tree is tapped
every alternate day for three months and then
rested two months. The trees are not tapped
until they girth 20 inches a yard from the ground.
Some parts of Bukit Rajah have been planted
20 by 20, 30 by 15 and 15 by 15 feet. I saw some
trees planted in March, 1904, which were 20, 25
and evon 29 inches in girth. Many of the five-
year-old trees planted 15 by 15 feet, had a girth of
26 inches, This property, in virtue of the widely-
planted trees now two, three, four, five, six and
ten years’ old, must rise in value in a very short
time, The view from the bungalow of the manager,
Mr C T Hamerton, is very impressive, between
2,000 to 3,000 acres of planted rubber trees be-
longing to Bukit Rajah alone being visible.
The factory is well equipped with up-to-date
washing rollers, a Passburg vacuum drier, and an
oil engine. Mr. Hamerton is curing rubber
for several small estates in the district, a fact
from which one may glean the capacity of the
machinery already in the factory. H. W.
—India-Rubber Journat, June 29,
_Bic Rusrer Trees: Correction.—By an ac-
cidental misprint the height of the big tree No. 2
in the last Bulletin is given as 54. feet, this
should be 84. The picture in that Bulletin of the
rubber tree is that of this tree No. 2.—Ed,—
Straits Agricultural Bulletin for August.
[See page 199 last month—A, M, & J, F.]
286
MALAYA RUBBER EXPORTs.
The exports of rubber from Malaya for the
seven months of 1908 are as follows :—
Exported Previ- Total for
in July. ously. 7 months.
1908. Ib, 1908.
Perak .«, 32,827 189,633 222,460
Selangor _...164,428 866,567 1,030,995
Negri Sem-
bilan ..» 28,847 325,958 354,805
Total ...226,102 1,382,158 1,608,260
The following are the corresponding figures
fur last year (July and first seven months) :—
Exported Previ- Total for
inJuly. ously. 7 months,
1907 Ib. lb. lb.
Perak . 16,034 98,591 114,625
Selangor ... 59,206 554,324 613,530
Negri Sem-
bilan... 45,848 208,610 254,458
Total...121,088 861,525 982,613
The net increase for the F.M.S. is 725,647 lb-
or by 74 per cent ; while Ceylon increased by 42
per cent only! Ceylon Rubber Exports for 1908
to Aug. 3rd were 365,3141b. as against 256,762 lb.
to same date of 1907. In this connection we
have slightly different figures from Messrs. Bar-
low & Co’s report dated Singapore, 31st July,
and comparison with Ceylon, as follows :—
Exports Para Rubber from 1st January to
3lst July, 1908:—
From Singapore. Penang.
Ib. lb.
(Lo July 13th) b.
Yo United Kingdom 959,949 467,733
», The Continent 50,181 74,000
», United States 400 _
» Japan 5,048 _—
,, Australia 13,569 —
Ceylon 136,219 46,922
Total lb. 1,165,366 588,655
For the same period, 1907 723,701 76,961
Ss 1906 320,397 45,909
_ Exports from Ceylon Ist January to 20th
July, 1908 :—
Yo United Kingdom 216,856 Th.
», Continent 22,178 ,,
», United States 98,138 |,,
», Australia 12,834 ,,
», India 896 ,,
Total 350,897 ,,
For the same period, 1997 240,719 Ib.
a is 1906 154,276 ,,
MR. HERBERT WRIGHT ON HIS TOUR
IM SUMATRA,
The cultivation of plants in Sumatra is limited
to the Icw-lying lands near sea-level, and
thereby resembles Malaya and differs from Java,
Ceylon, and Southern India. The soil is very
similar to that in Java, being light, fertile, and
mainly of volcanic origin. Vos never see any-
thing resembling the stiff blue clay of Malaya or
the rocky slopes of Ceylon; everywhere the soil
is finely divided and porous, and grows most
magnificent crops. The sugar of Java, and the
tea.and cacao of Ceylon, are replaced by exten-
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
sive plantations of tobacco in Sumatra. Exactly
why Java takes so ravenously to sugar and
Sumatra to tobacco, though each country could
grow both products very well indeed, is difficult
to explain. The only product which is com-
monly grown on EKuropean plantations in Java
and Sumatra, to a large extent, is coffee. In
both the coffee estates are being rapidly
interplanted with Para and Ficus rubber trees.
RaMBonc RUBBER,
I have seen more Ficus elastica (Gutta Ram-
bong) in Sumatra than in all the other countries
put together. Large estates exist each with
thousands of mature trees. Planting on old
tobacco and lalang lands is still going on, and
every campo-eng is planted with this species
and no other. You may keep near civilised
areas within reach of the train, or you may
travel into the interior, where only Batoks have
their villages; everywhere you will meet with
Rambong trees, many of them of enormous size.
The trees are not only growing; they are being
tapped, and most of them over seven years
appear to be yielding over 1 lb. of rubber
yearly. From my experiences in the Dutch
East Indies, and especially in Sumatra, my
respect for Rambong trees has been changed.
Ino longer despise that species on account of
its poor yielding qualities. If I could only feel
certain of a remunerative price for the pure raw
rubber, I might be tempted to plant 1t in dis-
tricts too dry for Para Rubber. Where Ficus
plantations exist alone and there is plenty of
forest suitable for Para, it would be sheer waste
to neglect or fell the Ficus trees. I would only
recommend the removal of Rambong trees when
they interfered with the natural growth ef
adjacent Para trees. The fact that eight-year-
old trees in Sumatra have given 14 lb. of dry
rubber per tree, costing 40 guilder cents (8d) to
collect and deliver at the factory, should not be
forgotten by Para enthusiasts.
Para CULTIVATION.
Para rubber cultivation in Sumatra was not
commenced in earnest much before 1906, and I
do not think manufacturers can expect many
tons of rubber from that island before 1913 or
1914. A few estates, such as those owned by
the Langkat Sumatra, United Sumatra, Sumatra
Para, and Amsterdam-Langkat Companies,
possess several thousands of old or. tappable
trees. Most estates, however, consist of coffee
interplanted with Para, or old tobacco lands
planted up with Hevea, during the last two or
three years. There are very few estates consist-
ing of Para trees alone; in this respect Sumatra
comes into line with most other countries.
Most people have the idea that phenomenally
rapid growth is to be seen in Sumatra, the Para
trees being reputed to increase in girth atthe
rate of six inches per year. I should put the
circumferential rate of growth in Sumatra at
six, fiveand four inches respectively, on lands
included in the three categories enumerated
above. It is very dangerous to generalise in this
way, especially when the trees are scattered over
the Serdang, Langkat and Asahan districts, but
{ think the above conclusion will be found to be
approximately correct in most instanees,—Jndia-
Rubber Journal, July 27.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
PRUNING OF CAMPHOR.
Naduvatam, Aug. Ist.
‘Dear Str,—Has Mr. Bamber, or any other
Ceylon authority, considered the result of
manipulating the camphor bush, in accordance
with the proposed method of taking branches
and twigs at frequent intervals ? With respect
to the tea bush, as only the three leaves at the
end of branch or twig are removed from the bush,
the stem does not develop into any tree-like
girth, but can easily be renewed. The growth
of the camphor tree is, however, different ;
namely, much more rapid, and its tendency to
form stems of great thickness very decided.
I, therefore, fear that by cutting away branches
and twigs from the camphor bushes frequently,
we should soon have nothing left but a
number of hardened thick stems which would
send out only a very feeble growth of weak
twigs. How would Mr. Bamber guard against
such an undesirable result ?—Yours Peiehtally,
{All Mr. Nock says about Pruning in his
pamphlet is as follows :-—
“The first clipping, to shape the bush, might
take place in the tifth year—though Camphor has
been obtained from bushes only 24 years old—
and as only young twigs and leaves are required,
should be scraped up and placed round the trunk
to rot (and so benefit the tree) if too woody.
When the bushes become too high or unwieldy
to be effectively clipped, one-third of the estate
should be pruned or coppiced in three successive
years, thus maintaining yield each year, though it
would not take so long to again come into bear-
ing.” Mr. Nock, we now learn, does not think
thereneed beany fear of camphor bushes ceasing
to yield through being continually clipped. He
seen them, after the fifth clipping, looking per-
has fectly vigorous and sending out fresh strong
‘shoots. Ifthey begin to get ‘‘crow-footed” and
shut up, the thing would be to cut again below the
original cuts, -An 8-year-old tree at Hakgala,
sawn off at ground level has—Mr Nock tells us—
sent up dozens of strong branches and the plant
is now bushier than ever. He thinks that con-
tinuous clipping will necessitate the application
of manures aftera time.—A.M.&J.F.]
PROVINCE WELLESLEY AND ITS
PRODUCTS: AND SUGAR IN PERAK.
lt is evident that the comparatively limited
division of the Malay Peninsula officially con-
nected with Penang is not to be left behind in
the cultivation of new as well as old products.
The island of Penang comprises an area of 107
square miles and Province Wellesley on the
mainland does not include more than 288
square miles, Not much score here, one would
think, when contrasted with the 26,000 square
miles comprised within the Free States. And
yet, given a province of 180,000 acres, nearly
all of which is rich cultivable land, it will
be seen that its planting importance, if once
fully developed, might be very considerable. In
the past, sugar has been the most import-
ant product from Province Wellesley and it
requires rich, easily worked land to grow
this staple. The profitable days of sugar
in the Malay Peninsula are well-nigh over
1
287
—the tendency is not to extend, but to con-
tract cultivation and to intermix if not super-
sede cane with other and more promising pro-
ducts. In this way groves of the coconut palm
are found where once cane sugar was cultivated;
considerable expanses of tapioca and eveniot
indigo are seen on old cane-fields ; and last but
not least, rubber trees are freely dotted over the
land, getting on very well with tapioca and
forming boundaries if not interplantings with
other products. The future of Province Wel-
lesley and Penang, from a planting point of view,
would seem to rest with the coconut palm and
Para rubber, and of both it is quite possible we
may learn of a very appreciable acreage yielding
good and profitable returns before many years
are out. With us, coconut palms require at
least 7 to 8 years to come into real ‘‘ bearing”; but
on favoured plantaticns in Province Wellesley
one if not two years are saved, and a palm may
beas advanced there at five, as itis here at seven
years, In the same way with rubber, Para trees
are being systematically and profitably tapped
at 5 to 5 years, with results that in Ceylon
could scarcely be equalled at 6} to 7), years, ex-
cept in specially favoured situations. It will
be interesting to watch the futureof both pro-
ducts in this long-explvited division of the
Peninsula ; and while there is very little, if any,
Crown reserve land available for would-be in-
vestors, we may congratulate the shareholders
in the ‘ Bertam” §. S. Rubber Company on
their fine property—extending altogether over
15,000 acres, nearly all available for cultivation
and of which only a limited proportion has as
yet been opened with coconuts and rubber.
Province Wellesley and its Products will be
more and more heard of, as time runs on,
Here is the list of estates appertaining to
the two Companies with which the Hon, Mr.
Turner is specially identified as Managing
Director. It will be observed that in the
‘ Penang ” Company, there are seven properties
comprising altogether 23,099 acres, of which
11,3U5 are in cultivation made up as follows :—
Sugar 3,130 acres
Coconuts 2,085 a
Rubber 6,090 rs
Total .... 11,305 Bs
The full table is as follows :—
Estates BELONGING TO THE PENANG Staar
Estates Company, LimIrep,
state Area of Nature Area in
Estate of Culti- Cultva-
Acres. vation. tion
Acres.
Caledonia Sugar 3,130
Caledonia 12,607 Rubber 2,848
Caledonia Coconut 980
Golden Grove 2,165 Coconut 258
Talie Ayer 1,654 Rubber 1,369
Selaba 2,600 Rubber 1,265
Strashmashie 2,933 Coconut 847
Rubber 363
Sabrang 640 Rubber 200
Johore 500 Rubber 45
Total 23,099 11,305
Next we have four properties of the ‘“ Straits
Sugar Company, Limited,” all situated in Perak
comprising 15,421 acres, of which 5,578 acres are
288
cultivated, having
Sugar and Rubber
Coconuts
Rubber alone BOL ATG) 1th
Sugar, however, will probably be gradually
superseded altogether in favour of the other
products, the conditions not being so favourable
as on Caledonia where the cultivation and
manufacture may be expected to continue for
many years. The Perak properties, before many
years are over, may be expected to fall under
Rubber and Coconuts if prices donot go below
certain standards.
The ‘ Perak ” table is as follows :—
Estates BELONGING TO THE Straits SuGAR
3,750 acres,
712,
Co., Lrp.
Area of Nature of Area in
Estates. Estate. Cultivation. Cultivation.
‘ Acres. : : Acres.
, 3,478 Sugar & Rubber 2,100
. { Gedong Coconut 204
“4! HaiKee 622 do do 418
5 1 Rubana 4,883 Rubber 1,116
& | Nova
{ Scotia 6,4294 Sugar & Rubber 1,650
15,412 5,578.
NATIVE AGRICULTURE AND TILLAGE
If there is any word, the full signiticance of
which is not yet understood by the native culti-
vator, it is Tillage. His agriculture for genera-
tions past has consisted almost exclusively in the
growing of an irrigated crop in which tillage isat
a minimum and irrigation is depended upon to
save him the maximum of labour, For such
crops there was in ancient times ample tank
supplies of water, and in the conservation and
distribution of this water the ancient Sinhalese
wereapparently expert. But the day of unlimited
tank irrigation is done and it will surely be
wise to limit the area of rice to such lands as
offer special facilities for its cultivation, and
replace it elsewhere by crops (such as Indian
Corn, the Sorghums, &c.) which can do without
much water. It was stated at the Agricultural
Board (by Dr. Willis, we believe) thatin Ceylon
an unnecessarily large amount of water is used
in the irrigation of rice fields. This is very likely
the case, and the supply can possibly be utilised
to much greater advantage: that is, over wider
areas. But at present weare not so much con-
cerned with the regulation of the existing water
supply, as with the question of imducing the
native cultivator to grow crops (and learn to
row them well) that are not likely to fail him.
We have already mentioned Indian corn or
Maize as acereal worthy of his atttention, and
one which has proved its value as a wholesome
and nutritious food crop in North America, South
Africa and elsewhere. It is said that the natives
will not take to Indian corn asa diet. If that is
so then there is ample scope for the Agricultural
Society to use its influence in popularising the
cultivation and consumption of this grain, parti-
eularly in districts where irrigation facilities
are scanty and the rainfall deficient. Indian
corn is, to a considerable extent, grown in the
Nuwara Eliya, Badulla and Kuvrunegala dis-
tricts ; and there is no reason why, if it suits one
sectionof the native population, it should not
suit another.
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriewltwrist.
But the cultivation of all dry land crops,
whether Indian corn or the different varieties
of millet that are usually grown, is carried on
according to a rude and wasteful system—a relic
of barbarous times—known as ‘‘chena.” This,
system might have answered in days of old
when there was an unlimited extent of fresh
areas, and lands could be left to lie fallow
for long periods. But the time has come when
it must give place toa better scheme. The ques-
tion will naturally be asked, is it possible to
carry on continuous cultivation of the areas
known as ‘‘chena lands.” Undoubtedly, but
only on the following conditions :—(1) That the
crops must be rotated, (2) that seeds should
be sown in drills, (3) that the soil should be
properly tilled, and (4) that the land should
be periodically manured.
By rotating, we mean, that the area culti-
vated should grow a succession of crops, so
that a cereal will recur after, say, two other
crops, one of which may be a ‘‘root’”” crop, and
the other a Jeguminous crop. For the con-
venience of the cultivator, his whole land need
not be devoted to one crop at a time, but
equally divided between the crops ot the
rotation, e.g., if he is adopting a three-course
rotation into three equal sections, one of
which will always carry a grain crop and the
other two each of the alternative crops. The
object of sowing seed in drills is to facili-
tate weeding and tilling during the growing
period, operations that can never be satis-
factorily carried on where the seed is sown
broad-cast or irregularly distributed.
Tillage, as has already been remarked, is
what the cultivator least understands. It would
exceed our limits of space to go fully into a con-
sideration of the importance of tillage in agrir
culture, suffice it to say that it helps to maintain
the fertility of soil and conserve the moisture
in it. As a preparatory to cultivation, land ~
must be thoroughly and deeply worked, but
while the crop is growing itis necessary that the
top layer should be constantly stirred to bring
about the condition known as a ‘fine tilth.”
This is the secret of dry-land cultivation,
and if only the Sinhalese cultivator will make
up his mind to follow this system, all his ap-
parently insuperable difficulties will disappear
as mist before the wind, and he will discover—
to his surprise—that it is possible to satisfact-
orily raise crops under what are generally con-
sidered the most unfavourable conditions.
Manuring is another neglected item in native
agriculture, and the cultivator has yet to learn
to look upon his land as a bank from which he
cannot continue to make withdrawals without
also making deposits. The Tamils of the North
offer an admirable example to their Sinhalese
neighbours, in that they utilise every avail-
able form of waste organic matter and green
manure to enrich their lands. Given proper
attention to the general principles enunciated
under the above four heads, the condition of
the ‘‘ goiya ” should be materially altered for
the better ; and it is for those whose business
it is, to utilise every means in their power to
educate him to a recognition of what is expected
of him—not as an old-time but an up-to-date
cultivator in order that he may not continue
in the precarious position in which his laisse
faire style of living has placed him,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
TEA PACKING AND DESPATCHING.
The first question that arises is: Are you
going to bulk or not? Wesay decidedly, Yes,
of course. There are gardens that pack atew
chests daily (yesterday’s manufacture.) The
idea of not leaving tea about to deteriorate is
an excelleut one and daily packing dispenses
with bins—but there we think the advantages
terminate. You showld have
WELL CONSTRUCTED BINS
suitable for packing a break of one grade of
bulked tea when packing. The work is more
uniform, simpler and consequently better done
and you can invoice, number and mark for
despatch right away. For a grade of tea the
smallest break will be twenty full chests, twenty-
five medium chests and thirty small or quarter
chests, so if you are in. a small garden you
must have six bins 5 ft. by 5 ft. by 5 ft. to hold
the minimum, break, each with sloping seg-
mented bases well lined with zinc in which tea
will keep quite unimpaired for at least a week.
So don’t hesitate; the system has so many
advantages. The tea is put into this bin daily
in small quantities, is removed by single door
in the base, is fired in dryers and again col—
lected for packing, a process that amply bulks
sn all breaks.........
The first preliminary to actual packing is a
GOOD SOUND FINAL DRYING
of the tea in hand. We favour acontinuous auto-
dryer with an automatic spreader and this
especially for final firing (as the last drying pro-
cess is termed,) as they must do more even and
regular work than is possible with any hand-fed
machine. . . Well, raise your heat till your ther-
mometer registers 180° Fahr. with fan going and
fan inlet apertures half-open, for Souchongs and
Pekoes, and just closed for Brokens and Fan-
nings. Put on your fastest web speed, and let the
spreader do its own work... Properly fired
tea at this stage acquires a malty aroma, which
when once inhaled can never be forgotten. The
first tea that comes over is not expected to be
properly fired. You put on your fastest speed
merely to fill your dryer; this full, check your
speed till the tea catches the malt. (e.g. aroma),
the correct term to use, and keep the speed so
that the slight increase in this direction loses the
malt. This speed will vary agood deal, depend-
ing entirely on the amount of moisture contained
in the tea under treatment and the height of
the local atmospheric dew point. Having ac-
quired the malt, your tea will have acquired all
essential briskness, The maximum of briskness
marks the malty aroma, and, as_ previously
stated, is only suitable to teas having no pre-
tensions to quality.
We have been told that all teas should be
packed cold; and if thisis not done, the teas
sweat, This is quite incorrect. Always pack
warm, and if your teashave been fired in ac-
cordance with our instructions, they can con-
tain no moisture, and therefore cannot sweat,
or deposit moisture by condensation on the
inner side of the lead casing, so proceed fear-
lessly. Only neglected teas can sweat and these
are distinctly out of our province,
There are two | é
‘ METHODS OF PACKING
in genera] use, for the one where the chest is
37
289
removed from the packer and put on the scale
when the nett tea (plus tare) is weighed into
the chest, the chest is shaken till the last of the
tea is put into it. The weighment of netts can
proceed much more rapidly without constant
adjustment of the odd ounces of tare on the
scale. It would further, in the case of Venesta
chests, which tare very accurately, dispense in
cases of emergency with the taring of the chests
before filling. The receptacle for making the
nett weighments referred to should of course
be of metal, As regards the most suitable
chests for the shipment of teas to the various
markets, chests of the Venesta type, despite
their extra cost, will assuredly become the chests
of the future. A metal chest would be the acme
of perfection, but of those put on the market
up to date all seem defective in one point or
another. To explain
THE OBJECT OF TARING
forthe English market we must glance at the
procedure when the package reaches England.
On receipt in England the package or chest is
weighed for gross weight and in this weighment
all ounces over the even pound ignored. The
gross weight of all packages from, say, 129lb. Loz.
to 129lb. 150z. is reckoned as 129lb. Having
weighed the gross the tea is turned out and
the empty chest is weighed.for tare, In this
weighment all ounces in excess of the
even pound below 8 ounces are ignored but
8 ounces and over are reckoned as another full
pound, hence a tare of 27 1b. 7 oz, is reckoned
as 27 lb., buta tare of 27 lb. 8 oz. and up is
28 lb. Over and above all this a draft of 1 lb.
is deducted. Now let us see how the matter
works out.
The first is an example of wrong taring:—
Garden Weighments. London Weighments, London
actual, allows.
Gross 127-15 Gross 127-15 Gross 127
Tare 27-15 Tare 127-15 Tare 28
Nett 100-00 Nett 99
less draft. less draft,
You should by taring carefully on the garden
with dry shooks get the following results :—
Gross 127-7 Gross 127-5 Gross 127
Tare 27-7 Tare 27-5 Tare 27
Nett — _ 100-0 Nett _ 100-0 | Nett 100
The object of taring is to avoid the loss as
shown above and careful taring materially helps
this result. Remember the tares of your box
in London must be under the half pound or you
will lose a pound of tea on each chest. Dougall
does it with wooden chests—more power to
him, as also the Southerner, but the latter with
Venestas. In these weighments your invoice
is ignored.
THEA,
—Indian Plunters’ Gazette, Aug. 8.
ss
TEO-NON, A NEW RUBBER TREE
FROM TONKIN,
(Bleekrodea tonkinensis, Dub, & Eberh.)
Orto Starr.
In the July number of last vear of the Buéletin
Economique, published by the Director of Agri-
oulture, Forests and Commerce of Indo-China
(pp. 576-585), Dr, Th, Eberhardt, Inspector of
Agriculture, gave a detailed account of the oc-
currence of a valuable rubber tree in Tonkin,
290
known to the Thos people as ‘‘Teo-non,.” At the
time it was not possible to define the systematic
position of the plant beyond its affinity with
Ulmaceae, Since then, however, it has been re-
cognised asa member of the genus Bleckrodea
(Moraceae) and has been described as B. tonkinen-
sis by Dubard and Eberhardt in Compt. Rend, Ac.
d. Sc. Paris, vol. CXIV., Oct. 1907, p. 631. ‘The
examination of a few branchlets of the plant,
recently received at Kew from Dr. E, Perrot,
has confirmed the conclusions of the authors as
to its affinity and specific distinction. The genus
Bleekrodea has so far been known only from two
species, one a native of Borneo (B, insignis, Bl.)
and the other of North-West Madagascar (B.
madagascariensis, Bl.) It has already been de-
scribed by Blume as laticiferous,a character very
general in Moraceae, but, so far as we know, there
18 no evidence of the presence of caoutchouc in
the latex of the two species recorded by him. On
the other hand, B. tonkinensis is stated to be very
rich in caoutchouc and in this respect reminds
us of another Moraceous genus, Castilloa.
The occurrence of a rtubber-yielding tree in
the forests of Tonkin was recorded as early as
1905 in a report by the Commanding Officer of the
Cercle of That-Khe in the province of Bac-Kan.
According to him it was known as ‘ May-ten-
nong,’ and attained: a height of 10—12 m. with a
diameter of 40 cm. The latex was abundant and
was collected by the natives, whose attention
seemsto have been directed to thetrve quite re-
cently and accidentally; in fact they used it only
as an admixture to increase the bulk of rubber
collected from other sources, Last year, how-
ever, Dr Eberhardt wascommissioned to investi-—
gate the properties of the tree on the spot and
the conditions under which it grows. The follow-
ing is the essence of his report.
The tree occurs practically all over the province
of Bac-Kan (north of Hanoi,and half way between
this town and the Chinese frontier), and in the
adjoining southern parts of the Cercles of Bao-
lanc and Cao-bang; but Dr Eberhardt is inclined
to believe that it will be found throughout the
mountainous districts to the north-west of the
delta of the Red River and in the Laos country.
In the province of Bac-Kan, it prefers hilly
ground witha subsoil of calcareous schist and a
deep covering of humus, which, however, must
be fresh and well aérated and free from stagnant
water. where the soil is charged with clay, the
‘teo-non’ disappears completely, giving way toa
vigorous growth of bamboos. It grows gregari-
ously and may constitute as much as 40 percent
of the vegetation. Itisa rapid growing, much
branched tree and attains a height of 12 to 15 m.
The bark is thin and white, the wood white,
soft and useless for soe and carpentry. The
mode of collecting the latex employed by the
natives is very crude and wasteful. It consists
in tapping the tree near its base by as many cuts
as possible so that the normal flow of the latex
is scon interrupted, whilst at the same time the
tree is rapidly exhausted. Moreover, the pro-
duct becomes in this way much contaminated
with impurities. The latex is collected in the
hollow joints of bamboos and carried to the
nearest village or to some water-course where
the contents are poured into a pot containing
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
water which is then heated to boiling point.
Thus treated it forms into cakes, the impurities
nearly always gathering in the centre. There
are two seasons for collecting the latex, one be-
fore, and the other towards the end of the rainy
season. The natives, however, generally confine
their efforts to the latter time, when the flow is
much more abundant. This is due to the in-
creased activity of the organism and to the pre-
sence of a greater quantity of water in the latex,
so that finally the amount of caoutchouc
obtained is after all not greater at the
end than just before the beginning of the
wet season. Similarly the trees on the outskirts
ofa ‘teo-non’ wood yield less but more concen-
trated latex. At the end of May Dr. Eberhardt
obtained from a single tree of 20 cm. in diameter
as much as 480 grammes of latex; but he thinks
that in the autumn this tree might well have
yielded 600-650 grammes. He recommends tap-
ping at the base of the trees as the latex taken
from the young parts does not coagulate. In
this respect the ‘ teo-non’ behaves like Ficus
and Castilloa.
Dr. Eberhardt obtained 676°6 grammes of
caoutchouc’ per kilogramme (or 67'6' per cent)
from two litres of latex. The best method of
inducing coagulation was by means of sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids; acetic acid seems to
impair the natural cohesiveness of the caout-
chuue globules. Heating directly over
fire results in an inferior product; as it has
to be continued until the serum is completel
evaporated when a succession cf thin and toug
skins is formed which do not adhere to each
other. On the other hand, the hot water bath
gives excellent results, The treatment with
sulphuric acid, however, seems to be by far “the
best process and the caoutchouc thus obtained
is of first-rate quality, very strong (nerveux),
resistant and elastic. Mr Cibot, an expert in Am-
erican rubber and in the rubber industry gener-
ally, states that the ‘ teo-non’ rubber is equiva-
Jentto Para and practically indistinguishable
from it. A native-made cake of ‘ teo-non ’ rubber
was, infact, awarded a gold medal at the Hrench
Colonial Exhibition at Marseilles in 1906, inspite
of Hi usual impurities present in the native
article.
A score of young plants are at present in culti-
vation in the Botanic Garden at Hanoi. Only
one member of the small sub-tribe Fatoneae, to
which Beekrodea belongs, has been found up to.
the present in India, viz. : Pscudostreblus indica,
Bur,, a small tree of the Khasia Hills ; but be-
tween them and Tonkin, there must be many
localities where ‘ teo-non ’ could be grown with
success if it should be found that itsnatural ares
does not extend into British territory.
Of three branchlets received from Dr Perrot,
two possess only male clusters, the third only fe-
male cymes with or without rudiments of male
flowers. Dr Eberhardt, on the other hand, says
that the male and female inflorescences alter-
nate, whilst his and Dubard’s description in the
Comptes Rendus, 1.c., admit male and mixed
clusters on the same branch,—Kew Bulletin,
No. 6, 1908.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society
REMINISCENCES OF AN EX-CEYLON
PLANTER.
Planting in Guiana.
British Consulate, Paramari, June 23rd.
The “Ceylon Handbook & Directory” for
1907—8, is most interesting, and must be of very
great service to all: who have anything to do
with Ceylon, whether in the way of administra-
tion, business, or in ordinary daily life, it sooms
to include everything ; and I have studied it,
and continue to doso with very great interest.
Yes, things have changed since I left the
island. Of my old Matale North and West
friends, I find only Keith Rollo, Wm. Milne, J
R Martin, A L French, and F H Davidson, to all
ef whom I send my most kind regards. So far
as I remember the only Ceylon men I have met,
since I left are: Alexander Ashmore, Wrightson
of the P W D, and Henry Brown (of Rusiya-
gama) who called on me in Mombasa years ago,
on his way to Nyassaland.
1 should much like to visit Ceylon again : I
always look back with pleasure to my planting
days there.
Planting here is very different; to begin
with, the land is almost a dead level, the
water having to be kept off by dams and
sluices. All the transport is done by river, the
rivers are many and great. (It is possible to go
from British to French Guiana by boat, without
landing, or going on to the sea.)
You ask about the cacao industry in this
Colony. Well, there is nothing very encourag-
ing to relate. Cacao has for many years been
the staple product of the Colony. I have before
me the record of the exports from 1816 to the
present date. The maximum was reached in
1895 with 4,556 tons, the minimum in 1904,
with 854 tons. This year (1904) should be kept
out of sight when considering the general state
of the industry, as there were special circum-
stances ; estates which were at that time in no
way affected by the disease, which has crippled
the industry, that year gave very short crops.
The exports for the three following years, 1905-7,
were 1,681, 1,480 and 1,625, respectively.
As I think; [told you in a former letter,
the falling-off of the crop is mainly due to
a disease which appeared some years ago in
the Saramacca District, becoming serious about
the year 1898. From there it spread to
the other districts. The disease locally
goes by the name of ‘Krulloto,” (or Witch
Broom.) Various causes are given, but my own
opinion is, that it is due to under-cuitivation,
insufficient drainage and insufficient light ; but
this theory is, I know, not generally accepted
by the Planters, and others. But whatever may
be the cause, the disease exists, the trees die,
and there is no sign that the disease will even-
tually die out of itself. The ‘‘Krulloto” does
not necessarily itself kill the trees, but
weakens therm and renders them liable to the
attacks of other diseases.
The Chaetodiplodia attacks trees which have
been weakened and rendered more or less leaf-
less by the Krulloto, The fungus attacks the
291
twigs, and grows with
great rapidity towards the stem, and
eventually kills the tree. With the Chaetodip-
lodia appears, more especially in the dry wea-
ther, Thrips, which, if their attacks cortinue,
render the trees leafless, and still more suscep-
tible to the Chaetodiplodia.
tips of the leafless
Experiments are being made by the Agricul—
tural Department on a few plantations, witha
view to stamp out the disease, and, so far as one
can see at present, appear to be satisfactory. The
treatment consists of lopping the trees, leaving
only the trunks and stumps of the primary
branches. The cuts are immediately tarred,
all the débris collected, and destroyed by
fire, and the lopped trees thoroughly syringed
with a solution of sulphate of copper. The re-
sult has been that, in almost every case, where
the treatment has been properly carried out,
the trees have thrown out « quantity of new
healthy wood, which in due course produces
large numbers of healthy pods.
The hardening (‘‘ Versteening”’) of the pods,
which on the untreated fields amounts to some
50%, appears, on the treated fields, to be less
than 1%; while in the latter case, the total
number of pods is much greater.
It is estimated, and the estimate does not
appear to de over-sanguine, that the increased
production will within two years more than
cover the cost of the treatment, and the crop
lost by lopping. It is impossible at present
to say whether the improvement will be per-
manent ; but if the treatment is properly carried
out on all the plantations, and followed up
with proper cultivation, there is every reason to
believe that it will be so.
The hopes of the Colony now hang on Bananas.
In 1906 an Agreement was entered into between
the Colonial Government, and the United Fruit
Company, of Boston, U.S.A.—the former under-
taking that within 3 years from the date of the
Agreement, 3,000 Hectares should be planted
up with ‘Gros’ Michael” Bananas, with the
aid and under the supervision of the Govern-
ment; the latter undertaking to buy all the
fruit produced on that area, of a certain stan-
dard, at fixed rates.
Four steamers have been specially built by the
Royal Dutch West India Mail Company for the
service,and commenced running weekly in March
last. So far, owing partly to the planters being
unwilling to carry on the cultivation in accor-
dance with the instructions of the experts, the
yield has been very short, and the steamers have
taken less than one fifth of the expected mini-
mum number, but the quality of the fruit has
been very favourably reported on in New York,
Now, however, that the planters are beginning
to realize that treir own methods are not per-
fect, and as more fields are coming into beariug,
it may be hoped that before this time next year
the exports may exceed 20,000 bunches a week.
The steamers calling alternately at Trinidad and
Barbados, make the trip in 9} days.
Some Rubber, Hevea brasiliensis, has been
put in,and is doing weil, but at present the area
under cultivation is not important,
292
The waat of the Colony is population, the
total, exclusive of aboriginal Indians, and
‘Bush Negroes,” was at the end of 1906, $1,237.
The labour for the Plantations is almost en-
tirely drawn from British India, and the Dutch
East Indies. There are at present some 21,000
British Indians here. Many of these at the
termination of their term of indenture, commute
their right to a return passage, and take up
land, they hold at present some 30,000 acres;
they are doing well, and will eventually prove
an immense benefit to the country. Compara-
tively few Creoles, of African descent, are
employed on the plantations.
J. R. W. PIGOTT.
THE GCAMPHOR WAR.
As long as they endure, monopolies generally
rove very profitable to those who control them.
ut they have one inherent weakness. Though all
the sources of supply of the article are subject to
control, it is yet possible that the monopoly
may be completely broken down by the discovery
or Invention of a substitute which can enter the
same field ata lower price and meet the same
wants. And this weakness is common both to
accidental monopolies, such as lac and jute in
India, and to artificial monopolies which depend
upon State control or the machinations of finan-
ciers to be effective. The modern chemist may
not have substantiated the claims of the philoso-
pher’s stone, but he tends to play an increas-
ingly important role in commercial enterprise,
and fortunate and few are the industries which
can afford to disregard the synthetic menace.
India is, unhappily, familiar with synthetic
indigo, and German chemists are reputed to be
evolving a synthetic substitute for lac. But
threatened monopolies are safe so long as the
substitutes, whether natural or artificial, can
only be produced ata price which is higher
than that ofthe article they seek to compete
with. The recent history of camphor illustrates
this in a very remarkable way.
The world’s supply of camphor is abouteleven
million pounds per annum, and almost the whole
of it is obtained from Formosa and Japan; a
comparatively small quantity being supplied by
China and other countries. Formosa is the
greatest producing country. For a hundred
and fifty years the Chinese held a camphor
monopoly in that island and punished the eva-
sion of it with death; and yet this monopuly
failed and was revoked in 1868. When, however,
Formosa fell to Japan as a resultof her war with
China, the camphor monopoly was revived
under what had all the appearance of being very
favourable circumstances. Under this arrange-
ment, the output is regulated by only granting
a certain number of licenses for the manufacture
of crude camphor, which is sold to the
Government at a fixed rate. The license holders
are vot permitted to produce refined camphor,
which is the exclusive right of the State. Ar-
rangements were next made with a London firm
to place the camphor on the market, and the
immediate result was that the price was forced
up from about 50s. to 400s. per cwt. The inev-
itable compet ition at once commenced and
‘amongst the
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
COMPETITORS WHO RUSHED IN TO | HARE
inthe handsome profits of camphor manufac-
ture was Ceylon, who took up the cultivation of
camphor trees on a somewhat large scale, and
China which began to tap sources of supply that
had hitherto been altogether ee lator
The Japanese camphor monopoly came into
force in August, 1899 ; and in the following year
a process was patented by the Ampére Electro-
Chemical Company of New Jersey tor the manu-
facture of camphor from oil of turpentine.
Three years later the Port Chester Chemical
Company was formed and.joined in the synthetic
trade. Other companies quickly followed, and
at the present time the synthetic article is
manufacturedin England, America, Germany,
France and Switzerland. Inappearance synthe-
tic camphor is identical with natural camphor
and chemically they are the same. The enly
distinguishing characteristic is that synthetic
camphor has no action on polarised light.
This, however, is only a technical difference
and of no practical importance. Like most
new ventures, the synthetic industry had a
struggle for existence for several years, and
the volume of output, which was chiefly
absorbed by manufacturers of celluloid, was
not sufficient to affect the price of natural
camphor, which continued to rise and fall in
sympathy with the demand. The crisis, however,
was reached last year when the demand for
camphor was so great that the Monopoly put
up their prices. Evidently the synthetic fac-
tories and Chinese manufacturers had been
lying in wait for this move; and,as soon as it was
made, they flooded the world’s markets with their
respective products. When the Monopoly real-
ised the exact state of affairs, they brought
their prices down to the level of their com-
petitors, who again dropped theirs and once
more took the lead. Rate-cutting has been the
order of the day ever since. It is evident, how-
ever, that there isa limit beyond which rate-
cutting cannot go, if camphor is to be sold at
a profit, and this limit has, we. ‘believe, been
reached. It should be understood that the
prosperity of the synthetic product depends
absolutely on the price of turpentine; and in
an article in the Indian Trade Journal of De-
cember 26th, 1907 (page 700), we endeavoured
to show how India might participate in the
camphor profits by supplying, as she is able to
do, a much larger quantity of turpentine to the
synthetic camphor factories, At the time the
present demand for turpentine by the paint,
varnish and other trades is so extensive that it
has outrun the supply, with the result that syn-
thetic camphor could not be sold in the London
market at the end of June last for less than 1s.
9d. per lb, but this may be compared with the
price (58. 2d. per |b) which refined camphor was
fetching in some markets last year. On _ the
same date the Formosan Monopoly were selling
camphor at Is. 3d. per lb. The immediate effect
of this large difference in price will be to run the
synthetic camphor out of the market tempora-
rily ; and, if the price can be maintained at this
level sufficiently long, compel the closing of the
factories where it is now prepared, unless some
cheaper base for the manufacture of synthetic
camphor has been discovered meanwhile, It
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society,
may cost the camphor Monopoly some thousands
of pounds to accomplish this task; but, when
it is accomplished, they will be in the enviable
position of being able to recoup themselves by
the simple process of enhancing the price of
natural camnhor. Both the natural and synthe-
tic articles enter so largely into the celluloid,
explosive, medicinal, disinfectant and a host of
other industries, that the commercial fight to
a finish now being waged between the mono-
polists in the Far East and the scientists of the
West will be watched with more than ordinary
interest.—Indian Trade Journal, Aug. 6.
SAMOAN GOPRA AND Cocoa.
CoMPARISON WITH CEYLON.
By far the most valuable export of the Samoan
group of islands in the Southern Pacific is copra,
or the dried pulp of the coconut, and next in
value and importance come cocoa and kawa,
the latter being a root of medicinal value. We
learn from the Consular report on this district
just issued, that during the year 1907 the ex-
port of copra greatly diminished, and that its
price at Apia, the capital of Upolu, the princi-
pal island, fell from £17 per ton to £12 and even
lower. The export, in fact, amounting to 5,400
tons, was only about half the quantity shipped
in 1906, partly owing to the lower prices now
being paid, and partly to a stringent, though
necessary, law made by the Government, for-
bidding the working-up of unripe ruts with
good copra, and making the sale of such inferior
qualities punishable, both buyer and seller
being liable. At the same time, we read that
owners of suitable Jand are now paying much
more attention to this industry than was for-
merly the case. The Government have for some
years past required the heads of each Samoan
family to plant 50 coconuts yearly on their land.
Moreover, the coconut tree on these islands has
the advantage of being free from any noticeable
disease, such as is common to specimens in the
Fiji, the Philippine, the Caroline, and other
groups of islands in the Southern Seas. But
while the copra export showed signs last year
of diminution, the export of cocoa is rapidly
increasing, and may some day amount to 700 or
800 tons. Dr, Preuss, a well-known authority,
writes :—
The planters can therefore expect that Samoan cocoa
will maintain its good price, especially as in_nearly all
the large producing countries, Ecuador, Brazil, Trinidad
and West Africa, varieties are cultivated which are of
imferior quality to the Samoan cocoa, whilst in British
and Dutch India, where good varieties are also culti-
vated, the culture of cacao is not extending owing to
numerous pests.
The cocoa export for 1907, amounting to 115
tons, is nearly double that of the previous year,
and at the end of that year as high a price as
£110 per ton was paid in the London market.
The cacao, or seed of the cocoa, cultivated in
Upolu is of two species, Criollo and Forastero,
and the good reputation of Samoan cacao is due
to Criollo, this species having been introduced
artly from Ceylon in 1883 and partly from
ava in 1884. The same authority writes :—
This cacao represents one of the first varieties in the
world, especially when not mixed with Forastero, In taste
it excels Ceylon and Java Criollo and most of the varieties
of Central America, with white nibs, which in many cases,
though fetching high prices on account of their light colour,
have a somewhat grassy and expressionless taste, which
202
we
cannot be said of Samoan Criollo, The taste of well-pre-
pared Samoan cacao is mild, but at the same time vigorous,
The aroma is fine, allhough not very strong,
The other important export, kawa, is at pre-
sent only cultivated by the natives, and at the
present price paid, 1s per lb, gives the grower
a good return.—Economist, June 27.
RICE-GROWING A NEW AND IMPORT-
ANT INDUSTRY IN BRITISH GUIANA.
AN EXAMPLE TO CEYLON.
A very notable illustration of how a Crown
tropical Colony for a long time entirely depend-
ent on imported rice can begin and extend a
successful local industry in rice-growing, is
afforded by Brtish Guiana of late years. For
many years this Colony imported all the rice—
from Bengal or Burma—to feed its labouring
population, chiefly East Indian coolies. Many
of these, after their indentures expire. elect to
remain in the Colony in place of being shipped
back. In this way out of a total population of
about 315,000, of whom immigrants make up
138,000, and of these not more than 65,000 are on
the sugar or other estates. To feed these
labourers up to eight years ago as much as
25 millions Ih. weight of rice was imported ; but
this fell in 1907 to 6 millions of lb.—not because
there was less rice required, but on account of
local production. We do not have statistics
earlier than for 1898-9, and in that year there
were 6,477 acres cultivated which yielded 6,374
tons of paddy equal to 4,653 tons of rice. (This
bears out our contention that in weight, 2 bushels
of paddy are equal to fully 14 bushel of rice.)
By 1902-03 the acreage had increased to 16,628
yielding (nearly a ton an acre) or 16,522 tons of
paddy equal to 12,138 tons of rice) while in
1906-07 there were no fewer than 26,567 acres
under paddy cultivation giving 30,152 tons of
rice. Asa consequence, importation is practi-
cally ceasing altogether ; indeed last year over 4
million lb, of rice was exported from the Colony
to the other Guianas and part ofthe West Indies.
The Board of Agriculture had interested itself
in a series of yield experiments to discover the
yields of different varieties of rice, and strange
to say, the opinion was expressed that the
varieties Nos, 4 and 6 (‘Ceylon Upland Rice”)
‘‘were very suitable for local trade” and ‘No. 6
gave the highest mean yield of the varieties
tested.” Manurial plots were also tried and
carefully reported on, and experiments in differ-
ent modes of planting showed the superiority
of single plants in holes by themselves. Now,
here is a new and important industry fully
established in a tropical Colony within a few
years, and not only so but Jamaica, Trinidad
and St. Lucia seem best to copy the example of
British Guiana. There is surely encouragement
here to do much more in Ceylon than has ever yet
been attempted. A change of seed is of great
importance, and if seed supplies are made avail-
able without the intervention of usury, and if
all the officers of Government from the Agent
downwards, in each province or district, manifest
a direct interest in the improvement and exten-
sion of the great rative rice-growing industry,
we feel that a great change for the better might
be effected in Ceylon sain the next five years
204
ANIMALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE HE-
VEA RUBBER PLANT IN CEYLON.
(A PERADENIYA CIRCULAR. )
At the present stage of the cultivation of this
product in Ceylon we have comparatively few
animal pests to combat. The plant is to a very
large extent self-protected from insect attack
by the presence of the viscid caoutchouc-
producing latex, which constitutes its great
value. The most vulnerable part of the plant—
its ‘‘ Achilles heel ”—is the root system, and
it is here that we find its more important
enemies. Many of the insects included
in the following catalogue are but doubt-
ful pests, and others are not enemies at
all. But in the present state of our knowledge
I have thought it advisable to notice every in-
sect that isin any way associated with the plant.
The various pests and negative species will be
noticed insections dealing with (I.) the roots ;
(1I.) the collar and stem; (II1.) the branches
and young stems of seedlings; (LV.) the leaves
and terminal buds ; and (V.) latex and prepared
rubber.
I.—ENEMIES OF THE Root SystTEM.
(1) ‘‘ Cockchafer Grub” (Lepidiota pinguis,
Burm.).—It is in the larval or grub stage
that these insects are so destructive. The
larva is a large white fleshy grub with
al reddish head and strong biting jaws.
There are six well-developed legs near
the anterior extremity. The anterior half of
the body is strongly wrinkled, the hinder part is
smooth and swollen and curved round towards
the head. When full-grown the body measures
about three inches in length. The time occupied
in the larval stage is not known, but the growth
of the grub is probably slow, aud it may be more
than a year before it attains its full size. It then
constructs an earthen cocoon, in which it turns
into a reddish pupa, and after another probably
somewhat lengthy period appears as a winged
beetle. The adult insect is of a’ dull brown
colour with a covering of grayish scaly hairs ;
and has a total length of rather more than two
inches. The beetle flies at dusk and lays its
eggs just below the surface of the ground. The
newly: hatched grubs burrow down into the soil
and attack the roots of the neighbouring plants.
The insect by no means confines its attention to
Hevea plants. Itis probably more or less omni-
vorous. It was at one time a notorious coffee
pest, andis now a serious enemy of cinnamon in
the low-country. [ts appearance in large numbers
in rubber clearings is probably dueto the facility
with which the beetle is able to deposit its
eggs in the newly-turned soil immediately sur-
rounding the plants. The clean weeding of
clearings also tends to concentrate the grubs at
the roots of the rubber plants. If there is an
insufficiency of food at one spot, the grubs will
come up tothe surface and wander to neighbour-
ing plants. Specimens of injured plants that have
been submitted to me show the tap root eaten
clean offto within an inch of the surface of the
soil. One correspondent informs me that he has
lost 3,000 plants in a single clearing, and has
extracted five or six grubs from each hole. Ihave
not received any reports of damage to older trees.
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
Treatment,—Dead or dying plants in a clear-
ing should be pulled up and examined. If the
roots show signs of having been attacked by an
insect, it will almost certainly be the wore of
either cockchafer grubs or termites. In the
former case the roots will have been bitten off
clean. The work of the termites, on the other
hand, is usually recognisable by the core of the
root or stem being left, while the outside part
is eaten away. Ifthe damage is attributable
to cockchafers, further search should be made
for the grubs in the soil at the roots of this and
the neighbouring plants. Whena plant shows
signs of distress, the damage has usually gone
too far to secure that individual ; but damage to
the remaining plants may be prevented by
forking in either nitrate ot soda or ‘‘ vaporite’”
The former is a well-known fertiliser, and has a
marked effect in ridding the soil of insects.
‘‘ Vaporite” is a patent insecticide placed on
the market by the Strawson Company, and is
specially designed for subterranean insects, I
have made some experiments with this mixture,
which show that it is rapidly fatal to cock-
chafer grub. A number of the grubs were
buried in the soil of pots containing growing
Hevea plants. Half of these were treated with
‘*vaporite” (3 oz. to each pot) the other half
being left: as controls. Within two hours the
grubs in the treated pots had come to the sur-
face, and they were all dead, by the next
morning. The grubs in the other pots remained
below. Similar results were observed in a field
experiment. The grubs very quickly came to
the surface and died or crawled away from the
neighbourhood of the ‘‘ vaporite.”
‘* Vaporite”” has a strong odour of carbolic
acid and gas lime. lt is claimed by the patentees
that the powder “gradually evolves a noxious
vapour which fills the interstices of the soil,
from which the insects cannot escape, and are
consequently cestroyed. The development of
vapour is slowly promoted by the influence of
the soil and remains in force for a long time
probably two to six months.’ To protect rub-
ber plants in a clearing, from 1 to 14 oz. should
be forked or dibbled in at a distance of about 6
inches from the stem. It should not come into
direct contact with the roots.
Nitrate of soda has also been reported upon
very favourably, one correspondent writing that
the grubs quickly deserted the holes treated with
this substance. The nitrate should be applied at
the rate of from 1 to 2 oz. for each plant, accord-
ing to size.
The grubs of several other smaller cockchafers
attack the roots in a similar manner. They are
all very similar in appearance, and will respond
to the same treatment.
(2) Termites (White Ants),—Complaints have
been made from time to time of damage to the
roots of young plants by white ants. The insects
have been found apparently in flagrante delictu ?
But it is extremely doubtful if we have really
any termitesin Ceylon that attack healthy living
plants. In every case that has been examined
the roots are found to be invaded by some
parasitic fungus, and it is practically certain
that the white ants came on the scene only
after the death of the affected parts. If at any
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
time termites are found to be doing real damage
to the roots, the application of ‘‘ vaporite ” will
soon drive them away.
(3) Longicorn Beetles.—A few instances have
come to my notice of the destruction of a
Hevea tree by the work of the grub of some
longicorn beetle in the root.’ This grub is an
elongate worm-like creature of a whitish colour
with a reddish brown head, immediately behind
which the body is distinctly swollen. It tunnels
into the tap root and bores upwards into the
stump, causing the tree to snap off at or below
ground level. It is impossible to determine the
particular species; but the adult insects would
probably be targish beetles with very long
jointed antenne. Any beetles of this descrip-
tion that may be found frequenting the rubber
clearings should be treated as potential enemies.
lt will be practically impossible to detect the
presence of the grub in the root before the
damage is done.
{I.—Tuz Corian AND SremM.
Termites (White Ants).—Many stems riddled
by white ants have been received for report. In
every case it was evident that the termite attack
was of a secondary character. The parts had
been dead for a considerable time, and there
were abundant signs of fungus disease (ot several
kinds) in the tissues.
A single instance of a colony of Termes inanis
inhabiting the hollow stem of a treehas come to
my notice. The insects were devouring the
wood inside, but left the bark above. The his-
tory of this tree was as follows:—The original
stem had been broken off by the wind and had
subsequently thrown up several strong suckers.
The termites were occupying a cavity in the old
stem at the base of the suckers. At my recom-
men‘lation as much of the pest as_ possible was
scooped out, and the cavity was flooded with
naphthalin dissolved in petrel. This treatment
proved successful and the termites vacated
the tree.
The ‘‘ Gestroi Ant ” (Termes gestroi) has fortu-
nately not been observed in Ceylon. It is said to
be a serious pest in the Federated Malay
States, and to be responsible for the death of
many well-grown trees. Mr E V Carey asserts
(Agricult, Bull. of Straits, No. 6, March, 1902)
that they can be driven away by digging to a
depth of 2 or 3 feet for 10 feet round the affected
tree. Flooding the land (when practicable) has
also been suggested, but [ have no records of the
results of such treatment.
The common mound-building termites (Z'cr-
mes redemanni and 7. obscuriceps) sometimes
construct galleries and screens of earth over the
stems of living rubber trees, but this need cause
no alarm if the tree issound and healthy. They
merely eat off the functionless dead outer sur-
face of bark, leaving the stem smvoth and clean.
As soon as they have cleaned off the dry outer
bark, theinsects will desert thetree of their own
accord. Butif their presence on the stem is
considered undesirable, they may be prevented
by sprinkling the soil around the base of each
tree with a mixture of refuse petroleum and
water, as ibe ishing by a writer in the ‘‘Indische
Mercuur” of July 30, 1907. About 1 part of the
oilto 20 of water are shaken up together and
sprinkled on the soil. This plan has been adopted
in Java, where it issaid to be quite successful,
295
(2) Bark-cating Tineid Comeritis pieria,
Meyr.).—The caterpillars of this little moth
feed on the outer bark of living rubber trees,
but seldom penetrate far enough to cause any
flow of latex. They conceal themselves beneath
ascreen composed of fragments of bark and
their own excreta fastened together with silk
web. The insect can scarcely be called a pest,
as it does little or no appreciable damage. ‘The
silken galleries can be easily brushed off by hand
(3) Boring Bect'es (Xylopertha mutilata.
Wik., —I have frequently received dead stems
of H)-vea riddled by neat round holes of about
one-teenth of an inch in diameter. On splitting
the stem asmall dark brown cylindrical beetle
isfound in each gallery. It is ofa cylindrical
form, rather more than a fourth of an inchin
length, and tbe hinder part of the body is
abruptly sloped off, as if it had been cut off
with a knife. The front is rounded and
roughened like a rasp. This beetle has been
observed only in dead or diseased wood, and
cannot be held responsible for the original in—
jury. Appearances are deceptive in this as
in many other occurrences. The top of a fine
Hevea tree may be found to be dead and riddled
by these beetles ; and it is only natural that the
insects should be credited with the injury. But
one fact will show that the attack must have
been of a secondary nature. The entrance tothe
burrow of Xylopertha will be found to be either
clear or (in still weather) marked by projecting
columns of powdered wood, which crumbles at a
touch. This could not have occurredif latex had
been present at the time of attack. In that case
the fragments would have been agglutinated to-
gether and would have formed irregular conglo-
merations outside the tunnels. The same and
allied species haveattacked dry sections of rub-
ber stems exposed in the verandah of the
laboratory.
Various small Scolytidw (allied te but quite
distinct from the ‘‘Shot-hole Borer” of tea) are
often found in the dead stems, often in company
with the Yylopertha. In every case that has
come to my notice there is abundant evidenge of
the previous existence of Diplodia or some other
parasitic fungus. Inone instance it appeared at
first sightas though the beetles had really pene-
trated the living bark. [here was an extensive exu-
dation of latex at the spot, and some of the beetle
holes were actually plugged with coagulated
latex. This led the superintendent of the estate
to believe that the latex was actually exuding
from the perforations made by the beetles ;
but a careful examination proved that the
latex had issued from cracks above the injured
part and had flowed over and into the perfora~
tions, Several of the insects were found en-
tangled in the clot of latex, killed in their
endeavour to force their way out through the
obstruction. In this case the sequence of events
was probably as follows :—A small area of bark
had been attacked by Diplodia ; boring beetles
had attacked the diseased spot ; the living bark
above the dead patch became fissured and
exuded latex, which flowed over the dead area,
imprisoning the insects,
It is quite possible that small boring insects
may gain an entrance into the exposed wood
or depleted bark after a severe tapping, and that
296
this may cause exudation of latex when the
cells become turgid once more. But the re-
appearance of the latex will itself be the best
cure, and will almost certainly kill the intrud-
jng insects.
(4) Bark-eating Beetles (Viwchoytpu verruci-
collis, Gahah).—his beetle has the reputation
of damaging the stems of young Hevea trees by
eating away the bark. Specimens of the injured
stems showed irregular patches of the (still
green) bark destroyed, in some cases completely
ringing the tree. The beetles themselves have
been captured at work. It was noticeable, how-
ever, that no latex had exuded trom the wounds,
and where the whole plant was submitted for
examination the roots were found to be attacked
by a fungus (Solty yodiptodia elastice.) The pro-
bability therefore was that the attacked plants
were diseased, and had ceased tu produce latex
before the advent of the beetles. To put the
matter to the test, | obtained “numerous living
specimens of the beetles and confined them ina
cage, together with a living healthy young tree.
I watched one individual climb up the stem and
fix its jaws in the tender bark. ‘The first punc-
ture resulted ir a bead of latex, which adhered
to the mouth parts of the beetle, and evidently
proved very distasteful to it. The insect
immediately abandoned the attack and wandered
off, doing its best to remove the sticky fluid.
Other individuals made similar attempts to
feed, but were promptly refused in the
same way, nor could they be induced to repeat
the experiment. After a week’s confinement
without other food, they still refused to touch
the living bark ; but when removed to another
cage containing fresh branches of Cassia, they
greedily fed upon the bark. They were also
tried with tea branches, but this was not alto-
gether to their taste. They fed only sparingly
upon the outer layers of the bark. .
This insect is one of the Longicorn (or Jong-
horned) Beetles. It measures an inch in length,
and is of proportionately stout build. The
colour ranges from olive brown to pinkish,
variegated with darker markings. Another
smagler species of Longicorn (Niphona, sp.) has
been accused of similar injury, but it is prob-
ably as innocent of the originalattack. As
both these beetles may possibly be destructive
to the bark of Jess well-protected plants, it
will be advisabie to treat them as potential
enemies, and to collect and destroy them when
found congregated on the stems of the trees.
(5) Click Beetle Alaus speciosus, Linn.).—Speci-
mens of this handsome species have been re-
ceived with the report that they were found
clinging to the stem of a Hevea tree, upon the
bark of which they were supposed to have been
feeding. Some ot the living beetles were im-
prisoned with several healthy sections of rubber
stem, but after three weeks’ confinement no at-
tempt had been made to attack the bark, and
in the meantime one of the insects had died of
starvation,
(6) Porcupines, rats, hares, &c., are sometimes
very troublesome in rubber clearings. Porcu-
pines in particular can be extremely destructive,
tearing off and devouring the juicy bark at the
base of the trees. It is noticeable that many
mammals seem to relish and to be capable of
‘of planting.
Lhe Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist.
digesting the rubber latex. Several mixttirés
have been put upon the market designed as
deterrents to such attacks. They are all rather
dangerous to young plants while the bark is
still green, but can be safely applied on older
bark. But the only sure method to prevent
attack is to enclose each individual stem in
a cylinder of wire netting until they are old
enough to take care of themselves. The syste-
matic trapping and poisoning of porcupines
will greatly lessen the evil.
IJ1.—BrancHES AND GREEN STEMS.
(1) ‘‘ Cut Worm” (Agrotis segetis, Schiff.).—
A few instances of damage to young plants
by ‘* cut worms” have been reported. But
this insect does not appear to be nearly so
troublesome with rubber. as with the seedlings
of many other plants. If necessary, injury
could be prevented by mixing a small quan-
tity of ‘‘ vaporite ” with the soil (1302. to the
square yard) before putting in the seed.
(2) Locusts (various species of Acriditda).—
I have received specimens of young rubber
plants said to have been killed by small
locusts. The bark was gnarled and completely
eaten off in parts. The insect (an apterous
species) were found clinging on to the damaged
stems. The insects disappeared with the advent
of heavy rains. The usual treatment is to dis-
tribute poisoned baits amongst the plants to be
protected. The best of these is compounded
of 1 part Paris green, 2 parts salt and 40
parts cffresh horsedung, with sufticient water
to make the mixture soft without being sloppy.
(3) Shot-hole Borers (Scolytida, various spp.).
—I have never yet seen a vigorous plant, with
its laticiferous system in working order,
that has been injured by these insects. But
there is no doubt that there is a critical period
after transplanting, especially in the case of
plants transported from considerable distances,
when they are specially liable to attack. The
nender bark has become partially dry, and yields
to latex when wounded. If unmolested such
plants might recover, but they are not suffi-
ciently vigorous at the time to withstand the
attack of these borers.
Some ‘‘vaporite” dusted on the surface of the
soil around each plant (leaving a clear space of
a couple of inches from the stem) might deter
the attack, as it gives off an unpleasant odour of
gaslime. But the best safeguard is to ensure
the vigorous condition of the plants at the time
If plants have to travel for any
distance, the roots and lower parts of the stems
should be dipped into a thick mixture of cow-
dung and water immediately after removal
from the nursery.
(4) Pith Borers,—The ends of stumped plants
are very frequently tunnelled by various small
bees and wasps, which habitually choose such
situations for the construction of their nests.
Various species of Ceratina fill these tunnels
with cells containing a mixture of pollen and
honey. But the wasps store their cells with
paralysed insects clestined for the nourishment
of their young Zrypoxylon intrudens provides
small spiders, and Stigius niger employs aphi-
des for the purpose,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
When a plant is stumped, the cut end usually
dies back to the next node, from which the new
shoots will be produced. Itis the dead pith in
this dry portion that attracts the insects. They
will not coramence burrowing into the living
sappy stems, nor will they enter by any buta
cut or broken surface. It is possible that the
excavation ofthe centre of the dead part may
lead to an extension of the decay, but this has
not been proved. Any possible danger from this
cause may be prevented by stumping the plant
immediately above the node, leaving, say, half-
an-inch to prevent chance of injury. There
would then be little or no dead wood to attract
the insects. Where this precaution has not been
taken, the terminal dead parts should be cut or
broken off as soon as they are thoroughly dry.
(5) The deserted tunnels of these wasps and
bees are sometimes tenanted by a species of
Thrips, which has consequently been regarded
with suspicion. But this particular species is
quite harmless, and may indeed be a friend
rather than an enemy. It is an insinuating
little creature, and penetrates into the galleries
of the ‘‘Shot-hole Borer’ in tea, where it is
believed to attack the young larvz of the beetle.
(6) I have on more than one occasion re-
ceived reports of reputed damage to rubber
plants and stumps by Dragon flies, which are
said to be found perched on the ends of the
stumps engaged in sucking the sap. This is, of
course, an error of observation. Dragon flies
are purely insectivorous, and, far from occasion-
ing any injury, should be regarded as_ highly
beneficial insects. They are fond of taking up
their position on any vantage ground, from
which an uninterrupted view is obtainable on
all sides. This will account for their presence
on the end of the rubber stumps. From such
a perch they would be ready to pounce upon
any smaller insect that might come within
their range of vision.
(8) ‘‘ Black Bug” (Lecanium nigrum, Nietner).
—This common and almost omnivorous scale
bug occasionally occurs on the terminal branches
of the Hevea plant. On young plants it will be
sufficient to rub off the scales with a piece of
sacking. On older plants it can be checked by
spraying with MacDougall’s solution (in the pro-
portion of 1 lb. to 5 gallons of water).
LV.—Fo.Liage and TERMINAL Bups,
(1) ‘* Spotted Locust” Aularches mititaris, L.)
-——This conspicuous locust has occasionally been
known to attack the foliage of young rubber
plants, but such an occurrence appears to be ex-
ceptional. Though the locusts are sometimes
present in enormous numbers on cacao estates
interplanted with Hevea, they usually ignore
both the cacaoand the rubber, confining their
attentions to the foliage of the shade trees.
Several smaller species of acridiid grasshop-
pers are sometimes destructive in young nurse-
ries, defoliating the seedlings. Poisoned baits,
as recommended in section I{I. (No. 2), should
be employed to check this pest.
(2) Two plant-sucking bugs (the ‘‘ Rice Sap-
per,” Leptocorisa acuta, Thunb, and Callicratides
rama, Kirby) have been credited with injury to
the foliage of Hevea seedlings in the nursery,
38
297
The plants submitted as specimens were minu-
tely punctured, but the punctures were not of
insect origin at all, being caused by a spot fun-
gus, At the same time it was proved (by keeping
the insects in captivity) that the Leptocorisa
will puncture the soft parts of the stem, causing
the terminal shoot to wilt and droop. Damage
from this cause can be prevented by lightly
sweeping a butterfly net over the surface of the
growing seedlings. The insects will fall into the
net and can be destroyed by hand.
(3) ‘‘ Scale Bugs” (Coccide).—Only two species
(Lecanium nigrum and an undescribed species
of Mytilaspis) have been observed upon the
leaves, and these in such very small numbersas
to be practically negligible.
(4) Leaf-euating Caterpillars.—There is no
single species that has a preference for
the foliage of Hevea brasiliensis,—The
few that have been’ recorded are mere
casual visitors ; but every caterpillar found
actually feeding upon the plant must be regarded
as a potential enemy and destroyed at sight.
“* Tussar Silkworm” (Anthereea paphia, Linn.).
—A large and conspicuous green caterpillar,
with two rows of orange-tipped tubercles on
the back. If a diet of rubber leaves would
add elasticity to the secreted silk, it might
be of advantage to. raise’ silkworms on spare
rubber foliage, but such a result is extremely
problematical.
‘‘ Large Bagworm” (Clania variegaia).—The
caterpillar conceals itself in a tough silken
case intermingled with pieces of leaves and
fragments of stick.
(5) ‘‘Pigmy Rose Beetle” (Cingala tenella,
Blanchard).—Specimens of this tiny beetle were
submitted to me, together with leaves from
young plants upon which they had been feeding.
The latter showed numerous small irregular
perforations. On arrival the insects were all
dead, and so firmly glued to the leaves by
coagulated latex that it was impossible to remove
them without the loss of most of their limbs.
V,— ANIMALS AFFECTING THE LATEX AND
MANUFACTURED RUBBER,
I have very few records under this section,
but one of them is of some interest.
(1) ‘Slugs’? (Lima, sp).—A correspondent sent
me specimensof a slug with the complaint that
these animals visited the recently-tapped rubber
trees and lapped up the remains of the latex
left in the wounds, with the result that the
amount of scrap rubber was considerably re-
duced. Some of these slugs were confined ina
cage, together witha small saucer of fresh latex,
Its presence was almost immediately scented
out by them. One of them drank for about ten
minutes with no subsequent derangement of its
digestive organs,
Quicklime is a recognised deterrent against
slugs, but in this climate would: become
slaked too rapidly to be of much practical
use. Many slugs have the power of shed-
ding off obnoxious material with a copious
secretion of slime, but this power is weakened
with each repetition of its exercise and
requires time for recuperation. A sprinklin
of ‘‘vaporite” around the base of the tappe
298
trees would probably prove an_ eftective
obstacle ; but unless the animals are present
in very large numbers, hand picking would be
the most economical and practical treatment.
(2) ‘‘ Book-lice” (Psocide).—On the arrival
in Colombo of a shipment of sheet rubber
from the Federated Malay States, it was found
to be swarming with minute insects, which
proved to be a species of Psocus. The rubber
had evidently been packed before it was quite
dry, with the result that the surface was
covered with mould. [It was upon this superficial
fungus that the insects were feeding.
KE. Ernest GREEN,
March 14, 1908. Government Entomologist.
‘(PARA RUBBER BY HERBERT
WRIGRT.””*
The third edition of Mr. Wrights well-known
book has just left the Ceylon Observer press.
It is now a handsome, portly and very
complete volume of over 300 pages, giving all
the information required by the planter, the
capitalist and all interested inrubber. This
edition is profusely illustrated (over 90 full-
page illustrations) clearly printed on good paper
with wide margin; and with a fullindex. The
book contains 21 chapters and the headings of
each will indicate the contents :—
History of Para Rubber in the East ; Botany
of the Para Rubber Tree; Climatic Conditions
for Para Rubber; Cultivation of Para Rubber
Trees ; Para Rubber Soils and Manuring; Tap-
ping Operations and Implements; How to Tap
Para Rubber Trees; Where to ‘lap; When to
Tap ; Yields of Para Rubber ; Effect of Tapping
on the Trees ; Physical and Chemical Properties
of Latex; The Production of Rubber from
Latex ; Drying of Rubber ; Physical and Chem-
ical Properties of Rubber; Purification of
Rubber; Vulcanisation and Uses of Rubber ;
Kinds of Para Rubber; Diseases cf Para Rub-
ber Trees ; What to do with the Seeds; Esti-
mates of Rubber Planters: Costs of Planting
Rubber in Ceylon, Malaya, Java, South India
and Borneo.
Finally, we may quote Mr. Wright’s preface:—-
I am writing these notes while enjoying a tour
through Ceylon, Malaya, Java and Sumatra
under conditions which might lead the average
man to go into some little detail regarding
rubber trees and their cultivation in the Hast.
But the sizeof this book has already greatly
exceeded the dimensions originally anticipated
and [ do not therefore propose to write any-
thing beyond an explanation of why this edition
* “ Hevea Brasiliensis” or Para Rubber its
Botany, Cultivation, Chemistry and Diseases by
Herbert Wright, a.R.c.s., F..s., late Controller,
Government Experiment Station, Peradeniya,
Ceylon ; Editor, ‘‘The India Rubber Journal ”
and author of ‘‘ Rubber Cultivation inthe Bri-
tish Empire,’”’ ‘“‘Science of Para Rubber Culti-
vation,” ‘Theobroma Cacao,” etc. Third edi-
tion. With plates and diagrams. Colombo:
Messrs A. M. & J. Ferguson. London: Messrs
MacLaren & Sons. 1908. [Copyright in Great
Britain,] Price R7°50 (or 10s.)
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
is being printed. The first practical work on
Rubber cultivation for Planters in the Hast was
compiled py the Hon. Mr. John Ferguson,
C.M.G., in 1883. Some 700 to 800 Planters read
that work and not afew planted rubber ; with
what wisdom and foresight recent events have
shown. In 1905, while I was Acting Director of
the Peradeniya Department, Mr. Ferguson
suggested that I should write a book on ‘‘ Para
Rubber ” ; an application was duly forwarded to
Government and their permission to compile
and publish the book was granted. In the pre-
vious edition, written long before the Ceylon
Rubber Exhibition, I pointed out that the in-
dustry, as far as growers were concerned, was
in itsinfancy. ‘lhe present edition has been
compiled in consequence of the many advances
which have been recently made in methods of
cultivation and tapping, coagulating, and curing
operations. have, since I retired from the
Ceylon Service, had signal opportunities of
studying the rubber industry from many points
of view; the wider knowledge thus gained
prompted me to give a more detailed account of
essential operations as carried out by rubber
collectors in all parts of the world. I again
express my gratitude to Planters and Officials in
the tropics, to manufacturers in Europe, and to
the proprietors of the ‘‘ India- Rubber Journal”,
forthe information which they have kindly
placed at my disposal. Without their assistance
the present compilation could not have been
published.
H. W.
May, 1908.
The volume is strongly bound in red covers
and weighs2 lb. 120z., the price being R7‘50 or
10s. Altogether the third edition should hold
the field for a long time to come.
RUBBER IN ANGOLA. —
There is about to be a new development in
the supply of indiarubber. The Portuguese
province of Angola, though rich in forests of the
rubber tres, is a source of annual loss to the
Government of Portugal, owing chiefly to failure
of capital to work the forests, and the formid-
able competition of the Congo. The Portuguese
Government has determined to make an effort
to secure something from the great riches in
rubber of Angola. It has accordingly accepted
the offer of a group of Belgian capitalists who
have applied for a concession to work the dis-
trict of Lunda, the richest part of Angola, and
situated on the border of the Congo. The Bel-
gian financiers offer to halve the profits with the
Portuguese Government, and further pledge
themselves to export all their rubber by the port
of Lunda.—Indian Planters’ Gazette, Aug. 22.
CEYLON PLANTING INDUSTRY.
AND CEYLONESE PROPRIETARY OF ESTATE,
Few have any just idea of the very consider-
able stake the people of Ceylon and Southern
India have in our Planting Enterprise—not
simply because of the employment it affords,
but as a means of investing their savings or in-
herited capital, Among proprietors of tea,
cacao, rubber or other regular plantations en-
tered in the Directory, there are'no fewer than
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
15 Burghers, 146 Sinhalese,!32 Tamils, 20 Moor-
men or Malays, 17 Chetties and 3 Parsees; and
they own between them some 82,000 acres of
which 42,350 are in cultivation. Of course,
this is altogether apart; from the very exten-
sive ownership of members of nearly all these
races of coconut, other Palm, Fruit, Vegetable
and Rice-growing properties in the lowcountry
—over large expanses of which there is scarcely
a single representative of the colonist class.
As regards the Planting industry in tea, Wwc.,
we believe our calculation, made many years
ago, still holds good that from every acre fully
cultivated, as many as four to five natives of
Ceylon or Southern India derive their means
of subsistence. A cooly an acre for estate
purposes is the common reckoning ; but most of
these coolies provide for dependents in children
and old people, and then we have to count ia
the artificers, domestic servants, cartmen,
boutique-keepers, railway men, all who work
in tea stores or tea offices in Colombo. Sweep
utterly away the tea aud rubber-growing in-
dustry of Ceylon—and quite two or three mil-
lions of people (big and little, old and young)
in Ceylon and Southern India would find their
means of subsistence disappear! We have only
to think of the scores, almost hundreds of towns
and villages which have;come into existence
in our ;‘‘hill-country” since old George Bird,
Wm. Rudd, Robert Boyd Tytler and their
confreres first felled forest for coffee some 70
to 80 years ago!
RUBBER IN THE SANDWICH ISLANDS
Hawait AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
In the summer of 1906 attention was called to
the existence of two grovesof rubber trees on
the island of Kauai, each containing about 100
individual trees. One of these groves, at Koloa,
was planted in 1893, and seed from these trees
was planted at Lihue in 1899, so that the two
groves are, respectively, 13 and 7 years old.
These trees are of the Ceara variety, which is
being extensively planted in these islands. It
was at once suggested by some of the planters
interested in rubber cultivation that this
station make
A TAPPING EXPERIMENT
to determine the amount and quality of rubber
obtainable, Asthis station had no funds, work
was not begun until January 1, 1907, when the
B P Bishop estate (Limited), and Mr George N
Wilcox each contributed $200 to assist the work.
The first work done was on a few isolated
trees from 4 to 10 years old on the experiment
station grounds in Honolulu. Three months
were devoted to laboratory investigations in re-
gard to the behaviour of the latex under different
coagulents. Some preliminary work was done
to determine the form of tapping tools and me-
thod of tapping.
In April, a satisfactory method having been
worked out, the special agent, accompanied by
Mr Q Q Bradford, farm foreman, went to Lihue.
The management of the Lihue plantation lent
299
the station hearty cooperation, erecting a small
shed in the rubber grove and providing enter-
tainment and horses for the use of our foreman.
The Lihue grove of 7-year-old trees occupies ar
old taro patch inthe bottom of a gulch. Sur-
rounding it is a planted forest several hundred
acres in extent, A living stream of water runs
through the middle of the grove and the land is
quite swampy. ‘The trees vary greatly in size,
from 6 inches to 30 inches in circumference of
trunk, at 3 feet from the ground, No care ap-
pears to have been given the trees during the
entire period of their growth. Some of the
trees show a clear, straight trunk, 30 feet in
height; others fork near the base. It was found
that only about 70 trees out of the full
number, 110, were suitable for tapping, owing
to their size or shape.
A SET OF RUBBER TAPPING KNIVES SUCH AS
ARE USED IN CEYLON
for work on Hevea had been purchased, but it
was soon found that these were entirely unsuited
for thin-barked trees like the Ceara, and con-
siderable work was devoted to making a form
of knife which would be satisfactory. After
many experiments the system of tapping de-
cided upon was the half herringbone, with one
vertical cut and laterals a foot apart extending
half around the tree. Where the full herring-
bone system was employed it was found that
only the uppermost and lowest laterals yielded
a full flow of latex. Two experiments were out-
lined, one to tap every day, the other alternate
days.
The Ceara latex coagulates almost at once
when the channels are made. We therefore
adopted a method of trickling water over the
cut surfaces, and soon found an addition of am-
monia retarded coagulation and continued the
flow until the feeding area was practically ex-
hausted. The mixed water and latex iscol-
lected at the foot of the tree. The tapping was
begun at 5 o’clock a.m. Two trees averaging 28
inches in circumference were tapped for nine
consecutive days, with the full herringbone
system from the ground to 5 feet, there being
five laterals 1 foot apart. These two trees
yielded 8 ounces of dry rubber in nine days.
Two other trees were tapped on alternate days
for a period of two weeks and yielded 4 ounces
of dry rubber in that time,
Work was begun at Koloain May. The trees,
44 inches in circumference and 13 years old at
the time tapping was begun, were almost bare
of leaves, the resting period being about ended.
Two of these 13-year-old trees were tapped every
day for nine days and yielded 12} ounces of dry
rubber. It was not considered advisable to tap
alternate days on account of the leafless con-
dition of the grove.
In Junea number of 4-year-old trees at Koloa,
averaging 19 inches in circumference, were
tapped every day for 9 days, yielding only 4
ounce of dry rubber. These troes were entirely
bare.
This tapping work has been very sugges-
tive, and there are many points that have arisen
which we shall endeavour to work out during
the coming year, The Cearatrees seom to be
very susceptible to the atmospheric and other
300
conditions, at least as far asthe flow of latex is
concerned. The flow is apparently greatest in
the early morning at about sunrise. The amount
of sunshine received by the tree apparently has
some influence on the amount and flow of latex.
These experiments are only in the preliminary
stage, and it is too soon to draw conclusions,
but if any results can be predicted the indica-
tion very strongly suggests the value of daily
tappings rather than tapping the tree at longer
intervals. Trees tapped late in the forenoon,
at midday, orin the afternoon, yield almost no
latex. At about sundown there is apparently
an increase of tension and the latex flows more
freely.
Four-year-old trees at Koloa yielded at the
rate of 10 ounces of dry rubber per tree per
annum, supposing it possible to tap every day.
Seven-year-old trees at Lihue yielded at the rate
of 10 pounds per tree, while 13-year-old trees at
Koloa yielded at the rate of 15 pounds of dry
rubber per tree. Neither the Koloa nor Lihue
trees were in good condition at the time of
tapping. Thoseat Lihue arein a swampy loca-
tion, where the ground is always saturated with
water. Those at Koloa are in amuch drier
location, but have been choked with guava and
lantana and overrun with vines. Allthe tap-
pings were made while the trees were just en-
tering their period of rest or during the time
when bare of leaves. Nevertheless, the results
are encouraging. The indications are that the
Ceara rubber tree will grow in almost any loca-
tion in these islands, from sea level to 2,000
feet, and wherever the conditions are sufficiently
favourable to permit the attainment ofa trunk
diameter of 7 or 8 inches these trees will yield
an enormous quantity of rubber of most ex-
cellent quality.
The quality of the rubber has been good. The
variations in quality apparently depend more
upon the coagulating medium than upon the
character of the latex itself, although in this
respect there is wide variation. A great many
experiments have been made with various me-
thods of coagulating the latex, but itis too soon
to announce results. The best qualities thus
far produced have been made by neutralising
the ammonia in the latex and coagulating by
adding a hot concentrated solution of ammo-
nium sulphate to which a small amount of
formalin has been added. Other coagulents that
have been experimented with are acetic acid,
sulphuric acid, tri-chloric acid, formic acid, sea
water, ammonium sulphate, various copper and
other mineral salts, sodium sulphate, etc. A
very excellent quality of rubber may be sepa-
rated out by simply churning the mixture of
water and latex. Sulphuric acid gives good
results, provided but little more than enough
to neutralise the ammonia in the mixture is
used. An excess of sulphuric acid apparently
causes deterioration in the quality of the rubber,
A large collection of rubber plants and mis-
cellaneous economic plants has been set out on
the clearings above the 1,000-foot level. These
were all grown by us in our greenhouses from
seeds purchased from dealers in tropical seeds
and plants.—Annual Report of the Hawaii Agri-
cultural Experiment Station for 1907.
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
RICE CULTIVATION IN SIAM.
GovERNMENT Errorts TowARDS AN IMPROVED
QUALITY.
The Ministry of Agriculture in Siam, it is
satisfactory to note, is taking an active interest
in the rice-growing industry of the country of
late, which is bound to lead to very excellent
results. It is stated that a prize of ticals 400
will be awarded for the best rice produced in
each of the monthons, at the Exhibition which
is to be held in January or february next ;
and a special prize will be given for the best
rice of all the provinces grown this year. Be-
sides those, there will be also prizes offered for
second and third qualities. The best rice pro-
duced will be reserved for the seed of the har-
vest of next year, and foreign rice will be
imported for this purpose also. In this way,
says a Bangkok exchange, the quality of rice
grown in Siam can be greatly improved, and the
present departure on the part of the Ministry
of Agriculture, in holding annual exhibitions of
the grain, and offering prizes for the best pro-
duced, should prove a very powerful incentive
to the paddy planters of the country to strive
and produce good crops. Already a spirit of
emulation has taken hold of the farmers, many
of whom have even in the present year secured
a better class of seed than formerly. There is
much room for greater diligence and skill in the
cultivation ; the present attention devoted to
the industry by the authorities will insure great
improvement both in the quality and quantity of
rice produced in Siam.—Straits Times, Aug. 20.
TREATMENT OF LATEX IN THE
PREPARATION OF RUBBER.
REMOVING THE ENZYME BY HEAT.
And Raising Prices by 4d per Ib.
The process of treating rubber employed
by such planters as Mr. Lenox Conyngham,
who has secured prices for Wariapolla bis-
cuits pence in advance of other marks, did
not remain a secret for very long. Mr. Kelway
Bamber—who first (in Ceylon) formulated
valuable ideas on the subject, ideas which
Mr. Conyngham adapted in a process of his
own—has made known for the benefit of
rubber-planters generally some ways by which
the enzyme may be killed and the quality
of the rubber vastly improved—the heating
methods used getting rid of the element
subject to oxidisation, which involves deteri-
oration of the rubber. The details were contri-
buted by Mr. Bamber to ‘Straits Agricultural
Bulletin” (August) and we reproduce them
hereafter with additional remarks. With the
careful adoption of these methods, we hope
to see the distance that plantation rubber
keeps ahead of ‘‘ Fine Para” being slightly im-
proved in the near future.
[By Mr, M. Ketway BAmMBER.]
A point of considerable importance in the
manufacture of Plantation rubber is to obtain,
not only purity, but constant uniformity in
the finished froduct. At present there are al-
most daily variations in appearance, due to
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
causes which cannot easily be overcome, such
as weather, age of trees being tapped, and the
bringing of new trees into bearing, all of which
affect the colour and clearness of the dried
rubber. The discoloration is due to oxidation
of soluble organic bodies allied to tannin in the
latex water, by means of an oxidising enzyme,
and isintensified by a warm temperature and
exposure tothe air. Thorough washing of the
freshly coagulated caoutchouc will remove much
of the soluble matter with the enzyme, but it
is difficult or impossible to remove it all, and
other means have to be adopted to prevent the
darkening on drying which almost invariably
occurs. Thisis done by destroying the enzyme
by means of heat before oxidisation occurs,
with the result that the rubber dries of a clear
pale yellow colour, and of perfect uniformity
from day to day. The
HEATING CAN BE DONE IN DIFFERENT WAYS
before or after coagulation:—
lst. By passing steam into the bulked latex
until the temperature reaches 80° C or 167° F,
and maintaining this temperature for 15 minutes
or longer, according to the thickness of the
rubber. ®
2nd. By immersing the biscuits or sheets
etc., in water of the temperature for some. min-
utes immediately after passing through the
above rolling machine; then re-rolling to the re-
uisite thinness, and immersing again for a
shorter time to ensure destruction of the
enzyme.
3rd. Hot water can be employed in the wash-
ing machine, and if necessary, steam heated
rollers as well.
Heating while coagulating most nearly re-
sembles the method of making hard para, but the
other method gives excellent results.
To insure the best product cleanliness in all
stages of collection and manufacture is abso-
lutely essential, and if the loss in the value
from want of simple precautions in prepar-
ation was more fully realised on the estates,
much greater care would be exercised. Many
samples of excellentrubber appear on the Lon-
don market, but from want of uniformity, and
perhaps the presence of some slight impurity,
they do not realise, by some pence per lb., the
value they otherwise would.
Rubber made by this process, hasalready been
sold on the market, and realised a premium of
up to about 4d. per lb., over ordinary good bis-
cuits which indicates that the process can be
successfullyapplied on the estate. It still re-
mains to be proved whether the rubber is
stronger than that manufactured by the ordinary
method, and Messrs Gow, Wilson & Stanton,
Ltd.,are now having it tested by manfacturers to
determine this point, but as the process re-
sembles in some points the manufacture of fine
hard Para, there isreason to expect some im-
provement in the physical properties in addition
to the other advantages obtained. In order
TO SECURE THE BEST RESULTS
from the process, the latex must be strained free
from solid impurities, and all vessels kept per-
fectly clean. No time must be lost in putting
therubber into the hot water after rolling or
pressing, and the sheets or biscuits must be kept
301
separate and constantly moving for a sufticient
length of time for the rubberto acquire the ne-
cessary temperature throughout. In‘all stages of
the preparation the rubber must be protected
from dust and other impurities.
M Ketway BAMBRR, F.I.C , M.B.A.C., &C.,
C/o. Messrs Gow, Wilson & Stanton, Ltd.,
13, Rood Lane, E.C.
With regard to the above instructions, which
have been largely circulated from London, I
found on visiting several estates that the
process was rarely carried out properly,
In several the water was barely lukewarm;
in. others, and where the correct tem-
perature might have been employed to start
with, it was only maintained so for a few
seconds as the immersion of several thick sheets
of cold wet rubber rapidly reduced it. The
rubber wasrarely immersed for the correct time ;
in fact, it was frequently only in the water for
a fewseconds. It is absurd to imagine that
good results can be obtained by such methods,
and if the process is to be successful at all, the
instructions must be carefully and thoroughly
carried out. On only one estatethat I visited
was this being done, and the result was ex-
cellent in every way and in no factory have I
ever seen amore uniform outturn of the palest
crepe and sheet. In addition to treating the
sheet or crepe by this method, é.e., immersion
after rolling once or twice, the scrap on the
trees should be collected immediately it has
coagulated and immersed in water at 170°-180°
F. so as to prevent darkening and it can then
be rolled and manufactured in the usual way.
—M.K.B.—Straits Agricultural Bulletin, August.
A NEW USE FOR LALANG.
Thus Jn Tinland:—It may not be generally
known that lalang played an instructive Govern-
ment function at the Agri-Horticultural Show.
It is a positive fact that the pillows supplied to
those favoured Government visitors at the Vic-
toria Institution, catered for at the rate of $7
a day, were stuffed with lalang. This is per-
haps the first instance on record of that useful
grass being devoted to domestic purposes. We
understand patent rights are being applied for
this product, but whether it carries comfort
rights is questionable. None of the lalang pil-
lows formed an exhibit at the Show.—Malay
Mail, Aug. 17.
SISAL FIBRE CULTIVATION IN INDIA,
An Indian planter writes on the subject of
sisal fibre cultivation in India that although
agaves and nettles thrive tolerably well all over
Kastern Bengal an extensive tour in those dis-
tricts has demonstrated that the best are pro-
duced in the calcareous country stretch-
ing slong the cliff formation from the eastern
end of the Garo Hills on the extreme west to the
Loobah River on the east. As this stream is
reached the strata twist abruptly to the north,
and perceptible differevceis at once apparent in
the plants, although the cursory tourist might
not observe it. Within the boundaries men-
tioned he states sisal fibre at two years old at-
tains a height of seven to ten feet, the leaves
302
when ripe averaging six feet in length. Roughly
the area most suitable for raising this and other
fibre plants may be put down at 800 square
miles as the limestone formation runs back
into the hills some ten miles «n an average.
Sisal from its size it may be stated requires
a field toitself, andthe presence of lime in the
soil will be found to greatly stimulate its
growth. The planting of sisalin [ndia lately
has been fairly extensive, from this however it
cannot be expected that the abnormally high
prices which characterised the market for the
fibre a year or two ago wili be maintained.
Those who have planted sisal in South West
Sylhet would have done better, the writer thinks,
to have made their plantings under the northern
hills where in his opinion the soil is more suit-
able for the plant’s best cultivation. The
Assam Valley proper he points out is deficient
in calcareous formation (except in the extreme
north-east corner near Syddia where limestone
crops out, and does not therefore come up to
the same mark in fibre producing plants as the
Southern Valley) patches of rhea, or ramie, put
down here are, however, said to look promis-
ing. Inthe Sylhet district there are celebrated
orange groves situated in the detritus, attrited
from the stone mingled with leaf soil from
the upper forests, and the adaptability of
the spaces between the orange plants for the
raising of rhea is often referred to as presenting
a good opportunity for cheap and successful
culture. Numerous salt springs abound thus
providing an inexpensive means of getting rid
of part of the tenacious gums. Fermentation
setsin the hot weather im about forty-eight
hours so this process would require watching as
if the steeping is carried too far discolouration,
as wellas brittleness, is set up. The native
owners of these orange groves make use of all
fibre-yielding plants, but only in the rough, and
it is stated wouldbring in bundles toa central
factory, but preparation for the market would
have to be undertaken by some permanent
hands. Attempts are being made in Assam to
reintroduce the genuine Musa textilis, or
Manila hemp. The closest approach to this
fibre is found in the still dense forests of the
Namba Jairang, and in the more inaccessible
forest of Janitia in North East Sylhet, where
the fibre is coarser, and less flexible. Those
essaying present operations are very sau-
guine of success, and the climate and
soil of the habitat of the plant have been
very carefully studied. There are many fibre-
yielding plants whose product is of superior
quality, however, and unless the Manilla one
can be successfully introduced it is hardly worth
while devoting much attention to the plantain,
which is much more valuable for its fruit.
THE SisaL INDUSTRY OF THE CaIcos
forms the subject of a most readable report
recently prepared by the Commissioner of the
Islands, the Hon. F H Watkins. The first year
in which any sisal fibre approached on two occa-
sions since. In 1906, when a consignment of
the value of £50 was shipped. In 1894 the value
of the exports rose to £420, and three years later
to £2,539. The yearin which the greatest ship-
ments have been made, so far, was 1899, when
the exports reached the value of £7,494. This
figure has been, however, approached on two
The Supplement to the Tropical A griculturist
occasions since. In 1906, the quantity of fibre
extracted was 219,365 lb. and the value of
the exports £5,605. The area under cultivation
with sisal in the Caicos Islands is estimated at
about 3,200 acres, while the industry gives em-
ployment to about 300 people. A further area
of 1,000 acres in Kast Caicos is to be planted in
the near future, while it is mentioned that
several thousand acres, suitable for sisal culti-
vation, exist in the different islands, but are
awaiting development. Two Companies were
formed at an early stage of the industry to carry
on planting operations. In addition there
exists a considerable number of small growers,
many of whom are extending their area as
rapidly as their limited means will allow. The
soil of the Caicos Islands is very shallow,
droughts are of frequent occurrence and the
bulk of the population were previously entirely
dependent for a precarious livelihood upon salt-
raking or sponge collecting. In regard to the
cost of clearing land and planting it with sisal,
it is stated that in some places £1 an acre with
an additional $d. for each plant set out, forms
the average expense, but in other cases £1 10s.
is generally paid for an acre fully planted 44 by
4) feet. ‘The average daily wages for a man in
East Caicos are 2s 3d , fora youth 1s 6d., and
for a woman is. The life of the sisal plant in the
Caicos Islands may be put at about eight
years, at the end of which period replanting
must take place. ‘The first crop of leaves
may be gathered three or four years after
planting. An acre of land should yield an
annual average of from 685 to 9001b. of fibre.
At at an average cost of 6 cents per lb., of
£28 per ton) (present price is about £32
per ton) this would give a return of £10
per acre per annum, At the close of his
report, Mr. Watkins mentions the fcllow-
ing three conditions, the existence of which
is essential to profitable results in sisal culti-
vation:--(1) Capital, on account of the some-
what expensive machinery for extractirg the
fibre, and the length of time which must elapse
before a return is made. (2) A large area of
land, especially where the soil is poor, to main-
tain the cultivation in regular succession.
(3) An abundant and cheap suprly of labour.
—Indian Planters’ Cazelte, Aug. 22
RUBBER IN TRAVANCORE,
FINE MEASUREMENTS AND YIELDS.
Mr J A Richardson read to the recent
U.P.A.8.I, meeting the following interesting
account ot the rubber industry of 'Travancore:—
The rubber planting industry of Southern
India has made rapid strides during the last few
years and South India as a rubber-producing
country will in the near future take a very
important place. It has already been proved
that Para rubber (I am now speaking of Travan-
core and Cochin) can be brought to the tapping
stage in ifs fifth year if we are to go by girth
moasurements. In this ccnnection I should
like to draw attention to a statement made
by Mr. C KH Welldon, a Ceylon planter, read
and printed inthe July Chronicle, as follows :—
‘‘Mr C E Welldon, a Ceylon Planter, consid-
ers that four-years-old Rubber trees in Java
and the Straits Settlements are practically
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Sociely.
equal and that they are both equal to 5 and
5% year trees in Ceylon. On account of the
soil and the absence of droughts the yield in
Java (especially) and the Straits should, this
gentleman thinks, exceed that of Ceylon or
South India,’'
From this statement he would seem to infer
that Ceylon and South India are on a par as re-
gards growth, which we in Southern India are
not prepared to admit. We consider our growth
to be very fine indeed, in proof of which we have
the following measurements taken by Managers
of some ten estates in Travancore and Cochin :—
6 years. 4 yoars. 3 years 2 years,
32 19°04 12"10 B52
These are the averages of the returns sent ia.
I do not suppose they have taken their worst
trees, but the fact that we have such trees, |
think, is proof that we have growth that is
second to none.
The biggest measurements sent in, although
only of individual trees, are worth mentioning,
and are as follows :—
6 years, 4 years. 3 years,
33°75 23°25 19'5) 12°50
These are all Para rubber. I have received
measurements of four year old Castilloa as 32
inches and two year old Ceara at 274. J may
mention that the four year old Castilloa has been
tapped and I have with me samples of biscuits
as well as Para biscuits from both low and high
elevation rubber. I have also some photo-
graphs which are interesting. lL have also
received arecord of the tapping of 7 Para
trees 12 to 15 years old which during the last
3 months have given a yield of 28 tb. of dry rub-
ber, an average of 4 lb, each.
I do not think there is any doubt about the
yielding powers of our rubber, as our fine soil
which has already shown its effect in the matter
of growth must also tell on the outturn of rub-
ber and healthy and rapid renewal of bark.
Mr. WinpiE—confirmed generally Mr. Rich-
ardson’s statement.—M. Mail, Aug. 19.
2 years,
TROPICAL AGRICULTURE: CEYLON
AND INDIA.
[Extracts from a Report by Mr. H. Newport,
Instructor in Tropical Agticulture, Kamerunga. }
It wil] be remembered that last year Mr. H
Newport, on recovering from a_ serious illness,
was granted leave of absence for three months
to regain his health by a visit to Ceylon and
India. During his absence Mr. Newport has
been busily engaged in inquiring into the
various phases of tropical agriculture as they
resent themselves in the countries mentioned.
e writes :—
In Ceylon, on my way to India, I called on
the Honourable Hugh Clifford, Chief Secretary
tothe Government of Ceylon, and had an inter-
esting conversation with him, chiefly in re labour
for tropical industries. This gentleman kindly
gave me a letter of introduction to Dr. Willis,
of Peradeniya Royal Botanic Gardens, Kandy,
and I accordingly proceeded to Kandy by rail
and by trap to Peradeniya. Dr. Willis kindly
gave mea good deal of his time, and conducted
us over the grounds, especially the experimental
portion of the gardens, across the river, to which
ordinary visitors are notadmitted. A description
of the Botanical Gardens, magnificent and com-
308
plete as they are, would be out of place in this
report ; the experimental section, however, was
replete with interest. Hxtensive experiments
were being conducted with many tropical pro-
ducts, particularly in connection with cocoa,
rubber, coffee, coconuts, &c. Especially notice-
able were the fine buildings in the Experimental
Station, including laboratory, experiment rooms,
drying rooms, large stores, power house, and
complete machinery for the drying or prepar-
ation of products suchas cocoa, coffee, rubber,
&c.; for crushing and even distilling oils, from
heavy oils such as castor oil to volatile oils such
as citronella or lemon grass. Recordsand museum
specimens were in the Director’s office buildings.
Similar ample storage and drying rooms for
tropical products, especially in districts with
heavy rainfall, are very necessary and requisite,
though at present, in this country, largely con-
spicuous by their absence. Complete machinery
also for artificial drying with hot air and fans,
&c., as well as for preparation in marketable
quantities, is a great desiderata, and would be
invaluable in this country for purposes of com-
plete and practical demonstration in encourag-
ing the establishment of tropical industries.
With regard to machinery for rubber, I am re-
porting especially and separately.
In these experiment plots, which in them-
selves must cover well over 100 acres, especial
attention is paid to matters of culture as well as
numerous methods of harvesting the products.
In Southern India [ was fortunate in being
able to meet Sir Frederick Nicholson, 1.¢.s.,
K.C.M.G., the greatest authority on agriculture
in the Civil Service of India, who also gave me
a great deal of time and a fund of information
on cultural matters.
On the Shevaroy Hills, in the Presidency of
Madras, [ also met Mr A G Nicholson, one cf
the most successful planters of Southern India,
and the first to undertake the cultivation of
rubber on a practical scale. Mr A G Nicholson
very kindly showed me over several of his es-
tates, especially that of ‘‘ Hawthorn,” from
which his Para rubber biscuit obtained a first-
prize gold medal at the recent Rubber Exhibi-
tion in Ceylon.
In Madras [ carried a letter of introduction to
the Hou. J N Atkinson, 1.¢.s., and was intro-
duced by him to the Director of Agriculture, and
also to the Director of the Horticultural Soc-
iety’s Gardens. Over these latter magnificent
gardens I was thus enabled to see, under the
most favourable circumstances, and found the
rubber experiments most interesting, especially
in connection with the giant vreepers—species
of Landolphias.—To arrange to go over
RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN CEYLON,
and to see the inner workings of factories, &c.,
is no very easy matter, and correspondence in an
effort to obtain this privilege took some time.
Returning from India to Ceylon, however, I
interviewed the manager of Messrs. Walker
Sons and Company, agricultural implement and
machinery manufacturers, of Colombo, Ceylon.
This gentleman was most courteous and kind,
affording me considerable information regarding
rubber-tapping and other implements, and intro-
ducing me to Mr. Michie, the firm’s engineer.
Mr. Michie is the inventor and patentee of
numerous machines, appliances, and implements,
304
and is himself interested in rubber culture. He
took me over Messrs Walker and Sons’ extensive
workshops, where I was especially interested
in the various rubber machines in course of con-
truction and completed Mr. Michie kindly in-
troduced me to Mr Golledge, owner (sic) of one of
the largest estates in the island, thus enabling
me to see the rubber machines actually at work.
Mr. Golledge’s estate is at
GIKLYANAKANDA,
whence I proceeded by rail to Takura (sic); thence
by trap. This estate had the most complete and
up-to-date machinery and appliances for rubber
manufacturing, and by Mr. Golledge’s kindness
I was enabled to see the complete processes, from
tapping the trees and collecting the latex to
packing the dried rubber for export to the Con-
tinent. The principal machines required for
proper rubber treatment are the washing
machine and the coagulating machine. Matters
relating to the construction, working, prices,
&e., of which I fully investigated, and in a
separate report propose to submit suggestions
to the Department regarding the obtaining of
either full-sized or reduced models of which,
for use and demonstration in this country.
I may here note that while great strides
have been made in the matter of culture and
preparation of rubber, and in connection with
many other important tropical products, I
was agreeably surprised to find the Depart-
ment’s work in tropical Queensland was in
many respects as advanced and up to dato
as [foundit there. Of course, in extent, owing
to want of labour in field culture, and through
waut of room, machinery, and financial support,
itis on a far smallér scale here. The line of
work, also, as was to be expected, in many res-
pects materially differed, as the objects aimed
for in the experiments varied; but in many
directions similar work, with but slightly differ-
ing results, had been simultaneously carried out.
In tapping rubber on the estate above-men-
tioned, the ‘‘Michie-Golledge”’ knives were,
I found, universally used. This knife is a
collaborated invention of the two gentlemen
above referred to. Many varieties of knives
are used in different parts, and some
estates use several different kinds. Messrs
Walker Sons, and Company have a most
complete collection of tapping appliances, in-
cluding knives, among which is one—the “‘Pask-
Holloway ”’—the collaborated invention of Mr
GW Pask, recently of Melbourne, and one of
the first to plant rubber in North Queensland
(Castilloa, at Stratford, Cairns), and Mr Hollo-
way, a well-known and large estate owner and
planter in Ceylon.
The cultivation and production of plantation
rubber is, in the opinion of the best authorities
in Ceylon, going to become a large and valu-
able industry. The industry is receiving the
most careful consideration of experts in every
branch, and all possible assistence from the
Agricultural Department of the Government.
Space will not permit of my referring in this
report to many tropical industries observed in
their various aspects and trials and experiments in
quired into and noted. I would especially remark,
however, that experiments and trials of North
Queensland samples of cotton in South India
and Ceylon have not been universally successful,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist.
A new product, called ‘‘Cocotine,” was noted,
manufactured by a simple process at Pondi-
cherry from coconut oil, that appeared to me
might be of use in this country, where but little
use is made of the coconut, and copra as a
marketable product is almost prohibitive, owing
to the high rates of labour.
This ‘‘ Cocotine” is in substance a thickened
oil, prepared by having certain chemical ele-
ments in the natural oil, which cause it more or
less quickly to become rancid, removed or
counteracted. Cocotine is largely coming into
household use in India and Ceylon as a cook-
ing medium, being more satisfactory than any
of the ordinary cooking oils, cheaper than most,
and materially cheaper than lard or butter.
I obtained one sample tin, which I submit
herewith for the inspection of the Department. .
I would suggest that it be submitted to the
Government Analyst, with a view of ascertain-
ing the chemical treatmentto which it has been
submitted or that may be required to make it
here, and the probable cost of so doing. A large
market exists in the East for this commodity,
and, in view of the comparatively high cost of
land here, probably a large demand would soon
result within the Commonwealth.
The tins, such as submitted, are'’sold in
Ceylon at 45 cents, equal to 7 1-5d, and in South
India from 7d to 8d according to distance from
cities and cost of transport.
I found a new variety of tinned milk to be
largely taking the place of the old Swiss con-
densed milk. The thickened and sweetened
condensed milk has a flavour that is disliked by
many, also the mixing necessary before use can
be made of it—mixture possibly with impure,
or, at any rate, unsterilised, liquids, renders it
undesirable for many purposes.
The kind of milk I found to be replacing this
milk on the market is known as ‘‘sterilised
milk,” and is put up in tins ina manner similar
to condensed milk. The ‘‘Ideal” is perhaps
the most popular, and next to it a brand
known as ‘Dahl’s”; the former is a
Swiss, and the latter a Norwegian, pro-
duction. Stone and Sons’ Diamond Reef
Brand (also Norwegian) is being largely used
in Ceylon. This milk requires no mixing, and
on merely piercing the tin can be poured out
and used as it is, [t has no peculiar flavour, and
is with difficulty distinguished from fresh cow’s
milk. The price is about the same as for con-
densed milk—viz., 5d to 7d per tin, retail, ac-
cording to locality. I obtained samples of ‘Ideal’
and ‘Diamond Reef’ brands, sold respectively at
6 2-5d. and 7 1-5d per tin in Ceylon, and which
1 submit for the information of the Department,
thinking that if not already known (I have never
seen or heard of it here) these samples may be of
interest and use, in view of the stimulus that is
being given to the manufacture of tinned milk
in Queensland.
I also saw and made inquiries concerning
various economic plants and trees that would be
of value to this country, among them _ the coco-
nut palm that comes into bearing in three years
from seed. This is to be found in cultivation by
the Maharajah Bobili, of Vizagapatam but [
regret I had neither time nor opportunity to
obtain plants or seed.—Queenstand Agricultural
Jowrnal, for April.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
TAPIOGA CULTIVATION.
INTERESTING INFORMATION FOR PLANTERS,
Practicability of Combining with Para Rubber.
(Written for the ‘* Straits Times” by H. Mathieu.)
The importance, for the planter of Para Rub-
ber, coconut or of any other culture of slow
growth, of finding a product which will give him a
prompt return and one remunerative enough to
allow him to use his land during the first years
of unproductiveness, and to reimburse himself,
in part at least, of the capital which he has
sunk in it, is self-evident. From past experi-
ence, we see that, of the three staples—gam bier,
pepper and tapioca—which have been culti-
vated on a large scale in Malaya by the Chinese,
the last is the only one which has, throughout,
maintained itself. Whereas the fluctuations of
the market and over-production seem to have
at times discouraged the planter of pepper and
gambier, the planter of tapioca has steadily held
his ground and more than made the two ends
meet, while in good years, when prices rule
high, he piles up money. It is, therefore, quite
natural that our attention should be drawn
anew to the cultivation of tapioca and to the prac-
ticability of combining it with Para Rubber,
Tapioca has a bad name; and it is true that
the sorry aspect of an abandoned field of
manioc, overgrown with lalang is not, at first
sight, a tempting one. It is true, also, that
Government does not welcome its cultivation,
and will only tolerate it as a catch-crop, for a
permanent cultivation, and that only on condition
that not more than three crops shall be taken
from the ground. It is, in fact, labelled a ‘‘rob-
ber” crop, namely, a crop which takes away all,
leaving nothing behind, and we can well under-
stand the little enthusiasm of the majority of
planters to take up a cultivation reputedly ex-
hausting and baneful to the land,
CHANGED OPINIONS.
In my Planter’s Manual, I have, somewhat
hastily, adopted the same view, and been. led
by it to depreciate tapioca as a catch-crop for
rubber, At that time (1906) it was true, and,
until quite recently, the difficulty of recruiting
labour made it quite idle, in my opinion, to
discuss the question of catch-crops of any kind,
Planters had not even enough hands for the
requirements of upkeep and weeding of their
rubber, and it is well-known that some estates
have suffered severely from this scarcity.
Since then, however, thanks to the happy
action of Government, these difficulties are
being overcome gradually, and the steady cur-
rent of immigration which has now set in
from India seems likely to meet the require-
ments of the future. This great obstacle to
the adoption of catch-crops for rubber
having been disposed of, it has occurred to
me that the time has come to look into the
question more closely ; and, in view of the
fact that tapioca cultivation is now, on a
fairly extensive scale, carried on in Malacca
at Diamond Jubilee Estate and at Bukit
Asahan, and in Johore at the Jomentah Estate,
I propose to examine ‘what there is in it.”
39
305
Moreover, it appears to me that a gap is
to be filled here, for, notwithstanding that
manioc is grown at the four corners of the
globe, there is, perhaps, not one cultivation
for which the sources of information are so
meagre. The United States Department of
Agriculture has, I believe, made exhaustive
research on the subject, and the Government
of Jamaica has also made instructive experi-
ments; but we do not know their results.
I would single out, however, a report which
appeared in the Agricultural Review of the
Philippines under the name of Mr E Cope-
land, and which is replete with useful informa-
tion, based upon accurate observation and know-
ledge of the subject. I have drawn largely for
facts and figures on Mr Copeland’s report.
SweEEr AND Bitter VARIETIES.
Tapioca (Manihot utilissima), obi cayn in
Malay, is a shrub of the family of Euphor-
biaccea, which include also Ceara Rubber
(Manihot Glaziovii), native of Tropical America,
which was introduced in India and Malaya by
the early Portuguese. Like all the plants which
are largely cultivated over wide and varied
areas, manioc, to adopt its common name, offers
a great many varieties, which have been classed
into two great groups of bitter and sweet. But
in reality, these varieties have but little fixity,
and they are rather the result of surroundings,
their character varying with climate, soil and
the cultivation given them. Certain varieties,
sweetin Jamaica, have become bitterin Florida,
while bitter varieties have lost of their bitter-
ness by transplantation to new countries. This
bitterness is due to a poisonous juice, white
and milky, found in the thick skin of the roots,
which is no other than cyanhydric acid, known
more commonly under the name of prussic acid,
the active principle found in the leaves of the
laurel tree and in many other plants. Mr B J
Eaton, Government Analyst of the FM §, has
obtained it from the seeds, the leaves and twigs
of the Para Rubber tree. The acid is also found
in fleshy parts of the roots, but in much
reduced quantities and volatility causes its com-
plete elimination during the successive pro-
cesses of washing, drying or heating which the
roots undergo during their conversion into
starch either for domestic use or industrial use.
Some varieties, also, are more early than others,
and Mr, Moorhouse. Manager of Diamond
Jubilee Hstate, Malacca, tells us of one variety
which attains maturity in ten months, but he
does not give us the yield in starch.
PROPAGATION,
Although manioc often seeds, the mode of
propagation universally adopted is by slips
obtained by cutting into sections the stems
of the preceding crop. These slips, which
should be taken preferably from. the lower
to the middle part of the stem, and be
from 6 to 8 inches long, are stuck in the
ground, slanting, in lines as described later ;
the undeveloped buds or so-called eyes will soon
throw out shoots which develop into long, fleshy
tubercles which form the roots of the plant,
Roors or Tusercies.—The roots are the
useful part of the plant. From them is ob-
tained, in a ratio of one-fifth or even one-
quarter of their weight, that excellent farina
306
80 appreciated by European consumers, and,
what is no less important, so much in demand
in commerce, for the manufacture of alcohol
and of glucose, used in breweries, distilleries
and confectioneries, and for the makirg of
sizing used in the textile industries.
CLIMATE.
Manioc grows well only in tropical re-
gions. It thrives best in an even temperature
ranging between 70 and 90 Fahrenheit. It
is, nevertheless, cultivated outside of these
regions, notably in Florida, but for fear of
frosts, which would be fatal to it, planting
and harvesting have to be done within limits
of time which do not allow the tubercles
attain their full growth nor maximum of starch.
It canbe planted in all seasons, but in com-
mon with all young plants, it likes moisture
at the start, and the best season for planting
it would be a little before the end of the rainy
season. After that, manioc can stand drought
very well, and there is not much to fear from
droughts such as we get in Malaya. It likes plenty
of sun and light; it does not grow well with
shade around or above it. Yet a warm atmo-
sphere tempered by occasional showers is favour-
able to the growth of the tubercles and gives
them succulence, whereas too much dryness
would tend to render them more fibrous, which
occasions more wastein the process of extrac-
tion of the starch.
From what has just been said the climate of
Malaya, with its uniform range of temperature
and its well distributed rainfall, can be consid-
ered as an ideal one for manioc, and there is no
cause for surprise at the huge crops which have
been obtained of 25 tons of roots per hectare.
DIFFICULTIES OF SoIL.
Sort.—Manioc, like all other plants with
starch-forming roots, takes more from the atmos-
pheric air than from the soil, and it, therefore,
prefers light and friable soils to heavy clay soils,
which cannot suit it unless they have been
drained thoroughly and broken up by the plough,
or, if the plough is not employable, as isthe case
in new clearings of forest land, by a deep tilth
with the changkol.
Here a question presents itself. Given that we
are considering manioc only asa catch-crop for a
permanent arboreal cultivation such as rubber,
coconut and such like (since it is only as such
that Government allows it), how are the vary-
ing requirements of these cultivations to be
reconciled ?
In the case of the coconut, the question is
solved, the requirements of both coconut and
manioc being identical. But Heveadoes not
thrive in light soils of a sandy character ; it
wants rather a clayey, firm soil.
The answer to the question is that argillous
coils, except when too low, too compact, and
undrainable (in which case they will suit neither
one cultivation nor the other), one very much
benefited by tillage and, their texture being
finer, they become, when divided, more pene-
trable to air and heat ; and they, henceforth,
offer all the advantages of lighter soils, with
a greater abundance of mineral elements which,
generally, are wanting in sandy soils. In these
conditions, they are capable of giving very high
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
yields of manioc. This much said, it should be
stated that the work of tilling a heavy soil is
expensive, involving ploughing and cross plough-
ing, or double changkoling if the plough is not
employable. Moreover, unless the ground is
kept mellow, the pulling of the roots, at harvest-
ing, is more difficult than in light soils. Manioc
does not require much nitrogen, which enters
only for asmall partin the composition of the
starch—a hydro-carbon. Morecver, as observed
previously, it draws the greater part of its sub-
stance (carbonic acid, hydrogen, and oxygen)
from the air. Properly speaking, therefore, it
can hardly be said to be an exhaustive crop.
But no matter what crop we raise, it will leave
the soil the poorer if raised on the method
followed formerly by the Chinese, a method
which consists in extracting crop after crop off
the same land, without manuring or rotation,
and then, leaving the land a sporting ground
for rank vegetation of lalang. The fairest ‘‘alma
mater” willrun dry under such treatment, and
Government are doing right in checking the
extension of such cultivation in the Federated
Malay States. At the same time, lalang soil is
often not so hopeless, as it looks, and many a good
crop of tobacco or tapioca has been raised off
well-tilled lalang fields.
Laying Out THE Estate.
After the forest has been cut down and burned,
the ground cleared,and the roadsand drains estab-
lished, as shownin the Planter’s Manual, the land
is divided into fieldsa hundred feet broad by 1,v00
feet long, giving a superficies a little over two
acres and a quarter. Round each field a small
ditch, one foot-and-a-half broad and deep, is dug
which will serve the double purpose of carrying
the superfluous water to the roadside drains and
of apportioning each field. As a first prepara-
tion of the land, it is not necessary (unless it be
lalang land, when the whole surface will have
to be ploughed) to till the whole of the field
the first year ; this would only hasten the ap-
pearance of weeds, which, on the contrary, will
be retarded if the land is left unbroken, for the
live roots of the primitive jungle preserve the
virginity of the land. But it is indispensable
that the strip of land on which the manioc is to
be planted shall receive a very thorough chang-
koling. By means of a measuring tape, each
field is divided accordingly into strips 5 feet
broad, which is the space to be given between
each row of manioc. Half of each strip, namely
two-and-a-half feet on which the manioc is to be
planted, isto be changkoled deep ; the other
half will be left untouched, except for the cutting
down of any bushes that spring up. We shall thus
have per field, 1,000 feet long, and 200 bands 24
feet broad well changkoled, alternating with 200
bands 24 feet broad, left as they are. This, finally,
will give us a superficies of tilled land of 50,000
square feet which, at a price of fifty cents per
thousand square feet, will bring the cost of
tilling to $25 per field.
CUTTINGS.
Porrine IN THE CuTtinas.—After the fields
have been hoed, each coolie. is supplied with a
string, 10) feet long (the width of a field),
attached at each end toa pointed stick 5 feet
long ; on the string, at every 23 feet a strip
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
of white cotton cloth is tied. The string will
thus have forty strips, which will mark the
place where one cutting of manioc is to be
put in the ground.
The coolie pushes one of the pointed sticks
in the’earth in the middle of the first strip of
hoed land, and, unrolling the string, he walks
to the other side of the field, puts up his other
stick, and, making the string taut, drops a
cutting of manioc at every strip of cloth. Then,
measuring with his stick a distance of 5 feet,
he gets his second line in the middle of the
second strip of hoed land ; he drops another lot
of cuttings, and proceeds onwards until he has
completed fifty rows, or the quarter of his field.
Coming back to the point he started from,
he puts each cutting in the ground, the head
end up, and in a slanting position, which
facilitates the straight growth of the bud which
is to form the stem. Thecoolie will thus have
planted fifty rows of forty cuttings, namely
2,000 cuttings, and the rest of the field will
be furnished in the same way, as much as
possible, after rain.
PLANTING OUT HEVEAS.
Hoxes ror Rosser TrEees.—The time has
now come to make the holes which are to
receive the Heveas. It would, perhaps, be more
regular to plant the Heveas before the manioc,
and, in this matter, the planter will be guided
by circumstances, but, as the cuttings of manioc
are all the better fur being planted fresh, whilst
the young rubber can remain in the nursery
for a while longer without in the least suffer-
ing for it, it will generally be found more
convenient to proceed as I here show. We
Shall have to throw away 4 cuttings of manioc,
at half of the holes made, so as to leave 5
feet free to each hevea; but that is a very
small matter. The holes shall be made 20 feet
from one another, on rows 174 feet apart, the
first row of holes starting from the second
strip of untilled land. On this strip, and well
in the middle of it, we trace our first line of
5 holes; the first hole at 10 feet from the
small drain to tae right of the field. The
field being 100 feet broad, we shall have 5 holes
20 feet apart. ‘The second line, 173 feet further,
is the same as the 5th row of manioc, The
third line, 174 feet further, will fail between
the 8th and 9th row of tapioca, and so forth.
Where the lines of Hevea and Tapioca are the
same, we shall have to throw away, as just
stated, 4 cuttings for each hole,—or per row
of 5 holes, 20 cuttings. Each field (1,000 feet
long) will contain 57 rows of Heveas 17}
feet apart, 4.€., 57x5=285 Heveas. Where
the rows of Hevea fall in between the
rows of tapioca, we shall only have to throw
away 2 cuttings for each hole. We shall thus
have to. sacrifice 20 young manioc on 29
rows, 7.€., 5830 and 10 on 28 rows, %.e,, 280—in
all 860 per field. So that, finally, our field of
1,000 x 100 feet will contain 285 Hevea (=125
per acre) and 7,140 manioc plats. (200 rows
of 40, less 860).
CULTIVATION.
When the planting is finished the ground
must be kept free from weeds. It has been
well said that a weed is a plant which grows
where it is not wanted. Everything that is
307
not manioc or Hevea must be suppressed from
our fields. ‘Two months after planting, the
rows should receive a light banking up, that 1s
to say, that the earth on each side is scraped
and ridged up at the foot of the young plants
to aheight of 3 or 4 inches; later on, this
should be repeated at least once, and just
before harvest, if the state of the fields allows
it, the plough should be passed in between the
rows. The aim of cultivation, over and above
checking the growth of weeds, is to obtain a
soil as free and as mellow as possible, for it is
only by this means that the plants will be able
to give thick roots, and it is easy to understand
that this willnot be attained if the earth is
allowed to press too hard round them. More-
over, the looser the earth is kept, the easier
will be the pulling ofthe roots at harvest time
and the less risk of breaking them. If left to
itself, especially in very rich soil, the manioc
will develop stout and tall stems at the expense
of the roots. To check this, it is usual, on some
estates, to cut offthe top at a height of 5 to 6 feet.
HARVESTING.
When used for food, the yams may be con-
sumed between 8 to 10 months. They are then
tender and very mealy, and may be accommo-
dated in many ways—fried, baked or wasted; or
simply boiled, after peeling, with a pinch of salt,
and eaten with a little grated coconut and sugar,
a form in which I often have it on my table. But,
at this period, the yams are very far from having
attained their full development, and, as regards
the yield in starch, which is the object which
more particularly interests large growers of
manioc, itis pretty certain that there is great
advantage in retarding the harvest to a later
period. This comes out clearly from the follow-
ing figures, obtained in Jamaica from five diffe- ‘
rent varieties :—
Starch per acre, inlb. At 12 mths., At ‘8 mths.,
Variety. 1906. 1907.
No. 1 5,322 7,102
No. 2 4,107 12,632
No. 3 2,388 8,894
No. 4 2,384 8,927
No. 5 we 5,636 16,813
These figures go to show that in all cases, save
by putting off the harvesting to the eighteenth
month,and,if we put against this increase of yield
the expenditure of upkeep incurred during the
six months of waiting, we shall find this expen-
diture much more than covered by the amount
ofstarch produced in the interval. The practice
of Chinese planters, who, as a rule, do not
harvest before the sixteenth to eighteenth month
is, therefore, fully justified. This applies, how-
ever, to the first crop only ; if a second crop is
raised off the same ground, it matures more
quickly, and a third crop will be earlier still,
being ready for harvesting in 10 to 11 months;
but the yield of flour in both cases is much less
than in the first crop. If manure is used, the
yield of flour will be considerably increased in
these later crops.
Harvesting MerHops.
Harvesting is done by pulling up the roots,
In very light soils this can be done by hand
after partly uncovering the roots, by a strong
tug, but, where the soil is heavy, a lever will
have to be used. A simple and effective one can
308
be made out of a wooden stick 5 to 6 feet long,
curved at one end; the curved end is introduced
between the roots, and, by pressure on the
other end and a few strong shakes, the yams are
lifted. A stone or the blade of a changkol is
laid below the fulcrum to prevent its sinking in
the earth. If pieces of roots are broken in the
lifting, they must be dug out with the changkol.
Before the lifting, the stems are cut down and
dropped between the rows; they will supply
cuttings for the next planting, and the leaves
are left to rot on the ground. Before loading
the yams on the carts which are to convey them
to the factory, the cooly shakes off the earth
adhering to them.
YIELD In YAmMs.
In the experiment referred to above, in
Jamaica, the weight of roots dug up per acre
was also given, as follows, in tons :—
Variety No.1 13°3
1/4 No.2 114
* No. 3 11°4
» | No.4 11°4
a No. 5 iL
sje ots LLB
Leaving aside experimental results, which
cannot be consdered as normal, we shall content
ourselves with yields obtained in practice by
large known estates, notably in Java: they will
do to show that manioc cultivation is a hand-
somely paying proposition. In Java, 25 tons
of roots are obtained currently from one
hectare, which is equivalent to 10 tons per
acre. The same figure is given as normal by
Mr E Copeland, in the Philippines. Mr Moor-
house, Manager ot the Diamond Jubilee Estate,
Malacca, puts at 150 piculs of yams the crop of
one acre (1 picul=1334 pounds). Ten tons per
acre is also given asa Ceylon crop. But as we
are dealing more particularly with the Straits
Settlements and F.M.S., we shall be safe in
‘ adopting Mr Moorhouse’s figure of 150 piculs as
the normal crop of one acre, under good manage-
ment and under fair average conditions of soil
and climate.
YIELD IN STARCH.
The yield in flour depends upon several
factors—soil, climate, cultivation and method
of extraction. Hence the impgrtance of a
well-equipped factory and up-to-date machi-
nery. With such a mill, 20 to 25 per cent.
of the weight of the roots is obtainable. As
much as 30 per cent. has been extracted, and
Mr Copeland considers this figure as obtainable
commercially in the Philippines, but from figures
collected from Ceylon, Johore and Malacca, and
which we have before us, we incline for the safer
figure of 20 per cent. It is on this figure we shall
base our estimates.
EXTRACTION OF THE STARCH.
To extract as much as possible of the starch,
and to obtain it clean and white, the estate must
have an abundant supply of clear, running water.
The factory must, therefore, be on or in close
proximity toa stream, and a dam established to
store the water for use when wanted. Where
possible, itmay supply the water-power for
the factory. Mxtraction includes thefollowing :
(1) The weighing of the roots on arrival at the mill, so as
to make sure that the work of extraction is carried on
with completeness, and, also, where the work of the fields
is done on contract, to apportion each coolies’ crop;
(2) Cutting off the tops of the yams and giving them a
first steeping to get rid of the greater portion of the dirt.
Crooked roots should be broken at the angles as they will
pass more readily through the washer jj
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist.
(3) Putting through the washer ; 5
(4)°Slicing, or grinding or rasping the roots to a finely
divided pulp ;
(5) Separating the starch from the pulp ;
(6) Exhausting the waste pulp by pressure ;
(7) Settling in tanks and repeated washings and clean-
ings of the starch in fresh water ;
(8) Draining and drying the flour in the sun or in ,heated
pans ;
(9) Manipulation of the flour into pearl or flake tapioca.
As will be seen, although simple enough, the
extraction of the flour necessitates a good many
handlings, but it will be found that much may
be done, in most installations, to save labour,
either by mechanical transporters or by so coup-
ling the machines that the pulp passes by its
own weight from one to the next.
A second method of treatment of the roots
should be here mentioned, as it appears
applicable where the supply of water is not
abundant. So far as we understand it, the roots
are put in heaps, well wetted with water, and
left to undergo a beginning of fermentation,
for from 4 to 6 days, according to the tem-
perature, when the thick skin becomes easily
detachable with the hands, leaving the starchy
flesh white and clean, which can be passed
direct through the rasper or through rollers,
and the resulting pulp washed in the ordinary
way. According to Mr. de Kuiff, who adopts
this method, there is no loss either of quantity
or quality of the starch. As we have not seen
it in operation, we can say no more; but it
is conceivable that, if the fermentation is
carried too far, a risk exists of a partial de-
composition of the starch granules and a begin-
ning of alcoholic transformation. If this can
be safely guarded against, and if the product
does not suffer, there appears to be much in this
method to recommend it.
MACHINERY.
Description oF Macatnery.—Methods of
work and types of machinery differ in various
countries and from estate to estate, and, in
the following descriptions, the writer is only
giving what he considers to be a serviceable
equipment. More up-to-date machinery no
doubt exists, andif we had the privilege of peep-
ing at some of the great starch-making works of
Germany, we would probably know a good deal
more than we do; but, on the other hand, it must
be remembered that we are dealing with tapioca,
not as a staple crop, but as a catch crop. The
putting up of a very expensive plant might de-
feat the object of the rubber planter, which is
to get out of tapiocathe wherewithal to feed and
stretch out his rubber estate to the tapping
stage. A plain, workable installation will, under
the circumstances, be considered adesideratum,
and that is what we here propose. After weigh-
ing, the yams may be peeled and then taken
direct to the washer, or put, as they are, to
steep in wide-meshed baskets of wire-nettin
lying in a tank half full of water. Most of the
dirt is thus detached: the baskets are then
lifted from the tank by means ofa pulley and
transported onrails to the washer, wherein the
roots fall through a hopper.
THe WASHER.
The WaAsHer is a cylindrical drum, the sides
of which are formed of perforated galvanised iron
sheets, detachable, and joined by means of bolts
to wooden laths, They can easily be replaced
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
when worn by use. The drum, 10 to 12 feet long,
revolves slowly, receivirg its movement direct
fromthe motor. Water, brought from an adjoin-
ing cistern, by a pipe with spraying spouts, plays
constantiy over and on the sidesof the drum,
The washer is lying at a slope, and the roots
pass of themselves to the lower part of the drum,
whence they fall, clean and free of earthy
matter, into the same basket which brought
them. The basket, now full of clean roots, is
hoisted up by means of pulleys to a plattorm
some 15 feet above, where the roots are emptied
by tilting the basket.—A more thorough cleaning
might, perhaps, be obtained by the adoption of
a type of cleaner similar to that in use in
certain preserve factories at Home, and
wherein, on the axis of the drum and concentric
to it, a beater, with four paddles, is fixed.
The paddles run through the length of the
drum, slightly spirally, with a very long thread.
This beater is so geared that it revolves 15
times faster than the drum, and the paddles,
being provided at their extremity with a small
broom, the roots receive 4 brushing at each
revolution. At the same time, the helicoidal
contour of the beater causes the roots to ad-
vance automatically to the end of the drum.
THE GRATER.
THE GratER.—From the platform on which
they were emptied the yams fall through a
hopper on to a grater, which consists of a
wooden roller with sharp short spikes, which
revolves before a concave surface also with
spikes, the whole supported by a wooden frame
closed on all sides, except in front, where
a trough or drawer receives the pulp as it falls
from the roller, a jet of water playing meanwhile
on the roller to carry away the pulp. Itis well
to note here that the cells containing the
granules of tapioca are very small, and that upon
the complete breaking and tearing of these cells
depends the perfection of the extraction of the
flour. For that reason, we give our preference
to grating over crushing with rollers, because,
in our opinion, the disintegration is more com-
plete when combined, as will be seen below,
with strong pressure.
A grater of the model we have just described
18 inches long and 8 inches in diameter, will
treat 6 to 8tons of roots daily, but it may be
made of large dimensions for larger quantities.
THe SIEVE.
THE SIEVE OR STARCH SEPARATOR.—From the
Grater, the pulp is brought or falls into a hopper
which leads it to the sieve or starch separator,
a hexagonal or octagonal cylinder 14to 16 feet
long, covered with fine brass wire gauze,
and lying ata slope. This cylinder revolves
slowly and water is kept running on it.
The separation of the starch is thus effected,
the starch grains passing through the meshes
of the gauze into a tank below, while
the vegetable and fibrous waste is dis-
charged at the lower end of the cylinder, to be
further exhausted by being passed to a strong
press whence it comes out as cake for pig food
or manure. After the starch has subsided in the
tank for 24 hours, the water is drawn off by
means of a syphon, fresh water brought in, and
the starch beaten to a cream is conveyed by
gutters to the washing tubs
309
WasHinG Turs.—These tubs are made of stout
boards, 6 to8 feet in diameter and}4 feet, high.
The starch is allowed to settle at the bottom,
the water drawn off by syphon, fresh water ad-
mitted, andthe stuff is stirred and beaten again.
This process of alternating, settling and stirring
is repeated every day for 5 or 6 days, when, the
water being finally removed the starch remains
clean and white; the top layers, more or less
discoloured, can be scraped off and put through
a further washing. As much water is used in
these operations, the floor should be concreted
and slightly sloping to allow the water to run off
quickly.
DrYING OF THE STARCH.
The starch, cut up in blocks, is next taken to
be dried. When the climate allows it, this may
be done in the open, on cemented barbecues, cov-
ered with a moveable roof, on rails, which, by
means of a tackle, may be drawn out or in for the
night, or when rain threatens. But modern fac-
tories are, besides, equipped with sets of large tin
pans, slightly concave, which are heated below,
from a brick flue, with a wood fire. In other fac-
tories, steam-heated kilns are used, and, lastly
desiccators, wherethe drying is rapidly completed
If tapioca flour is required, the starch is taken
from the cleaning vats to racks, to drain; it is
there cut up, crumbled with the hands or wooden
rakes, and then brought to the pans where it is
kept stirred constantly, over a gentle fire for a
quarter-of-an-hour. Care must be taken that it
does not turn into paste, which would make it
worthless. I[tcan then be submitted to stronger
heat, and the drying can be quickened either by
steam or in the desiccator. The flour is then
ready for packing.
The forms of tapioca knownas ‘‘pear!” tapioca
or ‘‘flake” tapioca are the result of a special mani-
pulation in which the Chinese are adept.
Mr. Copetann’s Pkocgss.
Mr. Copeland describes the process used on
some plantations, somewhat in the following
terms (we have not the exact text before us):—
‘‘The tapioca is produced by pressing, rolling
and shaking the starch, still wet, insmall round
pellets, obtained by forcing them through a
sieve on to a piece of cloth, which is kept con-
stantly agitated. These pellets are then rolled,
or fall of their own weight, on to an iron plate
which also is kept shaking, and heated to a
temperature of about 100 degrees centigrade.
The heat causes a partial conversion of the
starch into sugar, swells the pellets which take
a gelatinous aspect. The product is called
‘‘pearl” tapioca. Ifthe pellets are only 1 milli-
metre to 1.5in diameter, it iscalled seed tapioca;
if 3 millimetres, ‘‘medium pearl ;” if 5 milli-
metres, ‘‘bullet pearl.”
“Flake tapioca is heated and changes its com-
position inthe same way, without being pre-
viously put into pellet form.”
Use or tHE Wastr.—As we have said, the
waste left after exhaustion of the starch can be
used as pig food or as manure. As a forage for
working cattle, horses or bullocks, its nutritive
value is doubtful, as it contains very little nitro-
genous matter (only 1°39 per cent.) according to
the analyses of Mr Boname of the Agronomic
310 The Supplement to the
Station of Mauritius. Tapioca cake is, there-
fore, to be given as forage only after mixing with
grains or with green leguminous plants. As for
the pig, wholives only for the purpose of putting
on fat, it is an’ excellent food and Chinese
farmers will pay up to 3U cents a picul for it.
TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL Usxs.—Under the
different designations of Brazilian Arrow-root
(an usurped name) ; of cassava or tapioca flour,
pear! tapioca, etc., manioc, as everybody knows,
plays a great part in the trade of food stuffs,
Nourishing and easy of digestion, it gives us
excellent soups and puddings; it enters into the
composition of several patent and milk foods,
and it is known all the world over in the
form of biscuits. It is even found in the
trade returns of Smyrna (see American Con-
sular Reports) for 300 tons for the fabrication
of Rahat Lakoum (Turkish Delight). But,
important as this trade is, it is not
there only that lies the strength of tapioca and
its sure commercial value; itis asa source of
industrial starch that tapioca takes rank among
the most important staples of commerce.
OTHER USES.
In the distilling for alcohol and in the manu-
facture of glucose, which is almost universally
used by brewers, distillers and confectioners,
tapioca starch has its place marked among the
other starches. It is used by cotton printers as
a stiffener for certain colours and mordants. I[t
is still more in request for cotton spinners, who
used it, in preference to other starches, for
sizing the yarn, especially when fine fabrics are
required. Before weaving, the yarn is sized,
which causes the loose ends of the fibres, com-
posing the yarn, to adhore and unite in form-
ing a Strong and even thread. Tapioca starch
penetrates the fibres more completely than
potato or maize starch, which form more like an
outside coating to the thread, making it stiff
ani thick and unsuitable for the making of a
viess 21 anifoem warp.
MarkeT or Taproca.—As a result of this large
demand, the market for tapioca is always a firm
one. The shipments of the ports of Singapore
and Penang in May and June, 1908, amounted
to 5,417 tons and the ‘‘Singapore Market Re-
port” records the following prices (per picul) for
the month of June :—
Highest price. Lowest price
Tapioca Flake Small $6°90 ... 5°77: fair
Tapioca Pearl Small 5°65... . 4°90 fair
Tapioca Pearl Small Sx75u ts, 18420 hne
Tapioca Pearl Medium 6°30 5°05 fair
Tapioca Pearl Bullet 3 7375
The following estimate only aims at giving an
approximate cost ofthe work reckoned on a daily
wage of 40 cents per day, but Chinese labour
will be found more profitable if employed on
contract or by results, and locai conditions pre-
vailing inthis or that region, will, in many
cases, allow of a reduction of expenditure on
several of the items therein mentioned.
ESTIMATES.
Estimate of Costs and Returns of 1,000 acres of tapioca
interplanted with Para-Rubber. The Hevea are planted
20 feet by 17.’ 6”='20 trees per acre allowing for drains.
The Tapioca planted 5 feet by 2.’ 6”—3,000 plants per
acre allowing space round the Hevea.
1st year (1909) 300 acres (block A) are planted up.
2nd year (1910) 350 acres (block B) are planted up.
8rd year (1911) 350 acres (block C) are planted up.
Tropical A griculturist
(1909) FIRST YEAR (block A) 300 acres dols,
Purchase of land: 1,000 acres at dols. 20 20,000
Engagement of 250 coolies at dols. 6) per head
(dols. 30 recuverable) 15,000
Felling, burning, stacking, dols. 10 per acre on
300 acres 3,000
Roads and drains, dols.10 per acre on 300 acres 3,000
fapioca cuttings, 1 million at 10 cents per hundred 1,00
Hoeing, 300 acres in alternate strips 24 feet broad
(1 acre costs dols, 24-2..—300 acres at dols. 12
per acre . 3,600
Weeding, Cultivation, banking up, dols. 10 per acre 3,000
Salaries: Manager and Assistant 6,000
Salaries : 2 Conductors 1,440
Salaries: Hospital Dresser $40
Buildings: 2 Bungalows 1,400
Buildings : 10 Coolie lines 2,000
Buildings : Hospital 800
Tools, transports, Medicines, barbed wire, and
contingencies 7,000
Expenditure : tapioca dols, 68,080
Rubber : 45,000 stumps at 30 dols. 7,000 dols 1,350
Nurseries for 19101911: Making bed 300
15,000 seeds at dols. 5 per thousand 750
Lining, holing and filling up at dols. 3 per
acre 900
Planting out and filling up at dol. 1 per
acre 300
3,600
Total Expenditure 1st-year, 1909 dols, 71,680
SECOND YEAR (1910) Block B 350 acres —————
The same expenditure as 1909 dols. 71,680
Less: Purchase of land _ dols, 20,000
Less: Engagement of 50
coolies less at dols. 60 3,000
Less: Bungalows and
hospital 2, 00
Less: Tapioca Cuttings 1,000
Less: Rubber Stumps and
seeds 2,100 28,300
duls. 43,380
Plus: on 50 acres (350 instead of 300):
felling
Plus: burning at dols.10 per acre,
Roads and drains dols. 10
Plus: Hoeing dols. 12 Weeding
dols, 10—dols. 42 per acre on 50 2,100
Plus: 850 acres (plot A) weeding 3,000
Plus: Building : factory (wood and
ruberoid concrete floor) ?,0°0
Plus: Building Drying shed brick
flue heating pans 2,500
Plus: Machinery: Washers, Separa-
tors, Press-Motor 12,000
dols. 64,980
Lifting the crop off 300 acres, dols. 4
per acre 1,209
Carting the crop off 390 acres, dol. 1
per acre 300
Handling and manipulation of
tapioca in factory 9,000 piculs at
0°25 cents 2,259
Wages, Engine room 1,800
Gunnies 10,000 at 20 cents 2,009
Freight, export duty 2} per cent, com-
mon brokerage at L*>0 par picul on
9,000 piculs 13,500
Expenditure on tapioca: dols. 83,030
Rubbar : Lining, holing and planting
50 acres at 4 200
Rubber: Upkeep of drains and roads
650 acres at 3 1,950
__
Total Expenditure (1910) dols. 88,180
Crop: Rlock A first crop, 300 acres at
3) pikols,=9,000 piculs at 6= dols. 54,000
Expenditure end of 2nd year dols 159,860
THIRD YEAR (1911) Block C 350 (acres
--the same expenditure as in 1909
Less: Machinery and_ buildings
dols, 16,500
dols. 88,180
16,500
dols. 71,680
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
Plus: Lifting crop off 350 acres more
cartage at dols, 4 1,400
Plus: Handling and manufacture of
tapioca in factory on 7,600 piculs
more (16,50 9,000) at 25 cents 1,875
Gunnies 8,000 more at 20 cents 1,600
Freight Export duty etc., at dols. 1.50
on 7,500 piculs more 11,250
Expenditure on tapioca dols, 87,805
ehbers Upkeep of rubber 1,000 acres
at dols. 3 3,000 ;
Yotal expenditure (1911) -— dols. 9,805
Total expenditure end of 3rd year
Crop 3rd year: ’nd crop off Block A
20 piculs (reduced) per acre on 30U
dols. £50,665
acres: 6,000 pkls.
1st crop off Block B 30 piculs per acre
on 350 acres: 10,500 pkls.
16,590 pkls,
14,500 piculs at dols. 6=dols. 99,000
FOURTH YEAR (1912) 1,000 acres are
planted up. Expenditure the same
as in 3rd year: ,
Less: felling, burning, stacking, etc.
on 350 acres at 42 per acre (see
above)
dols, 90,805
14,700
dols, 76,105
Less Engagement of coolies 100 at 60 6,000
dols, 70,105
Plus: Rubber increase of upkeep
dols.5 per acre on 1,000 acres
bringing the upkeep to dols. 8 5,090
_ dols. 78,105
Plus 1,000 piculs more, Lifting and manipulation 650
freight etc. 1,500
Total Expenditure (1912) dols. 77,255
Crop 4th year:
2nd Crop Block B
20 piculs off 350 acres = 7,000 piculs
1st Crop Block C
30 pikols of 350
acres 19,500 piculs
17,500 ,, at dols, 6-dlols, 105,000
Firrn Year, 1913—
Upkeep 350 acres tapioca Block C dols, 3,500
Cropping, last crop off Block C
and cartage dols. 4 per acre 1,400
Handling and manipulation of
tapioca 7,000 piculs 25 cents 1,750
Gunnies 7,900 at 20 cents 1,400
Freight, Export duty etc. at
dols. 1.50 per picul on 7,000
piculs 10,350
Expenditure on tapioca 18,400
Rubber: Upkeep 650 acres rubber
at dols, 25 16,250
Total Expenditure 5th year dols. 34,650
—_—_—_——
Crop 5th year: 350 acres at 20
piculs = 7,000 piculs at doJs.6 dols. 42,000
Recaputulation ;
lst year Expenditure dols, 71,630
2nd year WE 83,180
3rd year ay 90,805
4th year A 77,255
5th year 3 34,650
Total Expenditure 5 years
including cost ofland __ dols. 362,570
* Crops,
1910, 2nd year 9,000 piculs dols, 54,000
1911, 3rd year 16,500 piculs » 99,000
1912, 4th year 17,500 piculs »» 105,000
1913, 5th year 7,000 piculs », 42,000
dols, 300,000
Recovery 50 per cent. of ad-
vances to coolies at dols.
15 per head on 600 coolies — dols. 9,000
Incoming dols. 309,000
EXCESS OF EXPENDITURE
OVER INCOME dols. 53,570
Against this Balance of expenditure dols.
53,570. We have the following asscés, put at a
very conservative figure :—
300 acres (Block A) of Para Rubber
5 years old at dols. 650 per acre =
350 acres (Block B) of Para Rubber over
over
dols, 195,000
4 years old at dols. 450 per acre = y», 157,500
3850 acres (Block C) of Para Rubber over
3 years old at dols. 250 per acre = 5, 87,500
dols, 449,000
» 15,000
Bungalows, factory, hospital and machinery
Value of assets : dols, 455,000
With a full force of trained labour and a
prospective crop, before the year is out, of 20 to
3” pounds of rubber per acre on 300 acres.
Singapore, August 18, 1908,
—Straits Times, Aug. 25.
CRITICISM : AND REPLY.
(To the Editor, ‘Straits Times.’’)
Singapore, Aug. 26.
Siz,—Mr Mathieu puts some rather astonish-
ing figures into his estimates, and it would be
interesting to have details as to how ‘‘ handling
and manipulation” can be done for 25 cents per
picul.—I am, yours, etc.,
J, WINTER,
—lIbid., Aug. 26.
Singapore, Aug. 27.
Str,—Mr Winter’s remark is right. The
handling and manipulation of Tapioca cost more
than 25 cents per picul. As it happens, this and
two other errors had been noted on the proof
sheet, but to follow it up right through to the
end of the Estimate would eee required some
hours, and these I had not at my disposal, as a
,ewspaper is timed to appear at its appointed
hour. I[ had, therefore, to let go the figures as
they stood on the proof sheet, reserving the
correction for the revised copy which is shortly
to appear in pamphlet form.—I am, yours, etc.
E. Martaievu,
—Ibid., Aug. 27.
CASHEW NUTS.
As the result of an enquiry as to the quantity
and value of the exports and imports of cashew
nuts (kaju badam), from and into India during
1907, we find, says the Indian Trade Journal,
thatthe total quantity exported amounted to
over 8,507 cwts. valued at a little more than
R2 lakhs. Bombay’s share was 8,201 cwts.
valued at R199,662, Madras coming next with
about 304 cwts. valued at R5,674. The imports
during the year amounted to only 9 cwts. valued
at R83. Figuresfor Bengal are not available,
while Eastern Bengal and Assam and Burma
are not represented at all. The chief ports that
carried on the export were Bombay, Karachi
Tuticorin, Calicutand Cochin, and the chief cus-,
tomers were France and the United Kingdom.
3l2
AMERICAN VIEW OF PLANTING
RUBBER.
(To the Editor, ‘‘India-Rubber Journal.”)
Dear Sir,—I notice in your issue of June
29th that Messrs. Gow, Wilson and Stanton,
Ltd., have offered a prize valued at 25 guineas
for ‘‘the most economical and complete process
for preparing plantation Para from the latex,
which will give the best and most uniform pro-
duct.” Now this is moving in the right direc-
tion, especially when attention is given to uni-
formity ; if the plantation Para lacks anything
at all, it certainly lacks uniformity.
Writing as a manufacturer, and as one who
has made and is making an exhaustive study
of crude rubber on behalf of a very large cor-
poration, I feel quite within bounds when I
say that plantation rubber, so far, has been ex-
tremely unsatisfactory to anyone who wishes to
use it in large quantities.
Is it not strange that plantation rubber pro-
duced _ by scientific (so we are told) men, should
be so lacking in uniformity, when that gathered
by natives on the Amazon is the reverse ? Oh,
well, says Mr. Plantation Man, there are rea-
sons for that! We know that, we are painfully
aware of it ; but why don’t our scientific friends
do away with them ? We find that there are
vases being delivered which plainly show mani-
pulation. Now, Sir, if the producer of crude
rubber thinks that he can tone up an inferior
grade by adding a certain quantity of superior
quality, he is woefully mistaken. He is simply
spoiling the good with bad. By all means grade
the rubber, but first and foremost have an AI
quality which must never vary in any particu-
lar, have a uniform shade, a uniform sheet, pan-
cake or whatever shape you like, and last but
not least, a uniform method of coagulation.
Under these conditions we ought, when we buy
At Plantation, to know just what we are going
to get.
In Canada, wheat, barley, cheese, apples, etz.,
are inspected by Government officials ; one is
liable to very heavy penalties if he ships a
quality other than that marked on the case.
lt would be extremely detrimental to the
country at large should our reputation be bad
for these products. Should the same not apply
to Ceylon rubber ? Yours truly,
A. D. THoRNTON,
The suggested “faking” of the rubber is an
accusation which we find it difficult to accept.
Our recent experience in the East did not reveal
a single case of deliberate adulteration of plant-
ation rubber; on the contrary, every planter
appeared to be taking the greatest pains to
prepare his rubber in order that it would come
second to none in point of quality. If definite
proof of adulteration on plantations can_ be
brought forward, we shall be prepared to deal
with the matter promptly in these columns.......
Distinctive differences in the same sheet of
rubber are not commonly met with, and we are
left to conclude that in this case reference is
possibly made to consignments of scrap and
bark shavings which may have been worked up
into crepe. If sheets or biscuits are referred to,
the estate mark on same would be of service.
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
STANDARDISATION OF PLANTATION RUBBER.
It is possible that many samples, prepared
experimentally by new methods, with the object
of improving the finished product, have arrived
in a condition which might give rise to suspicion,
and the accusation of ‘‘faking”; but such lots
should be rightly regarded ina different light.
It would be a pity, even in the present advanced
state, if experiments were discouraged, and
current modes of coagulating, curing, drying,
etc., became too firmly fixed. The Eastern in-
dustry has only just indicated its potentialities,
and any experiments having for their object
the improvement in quality and keeping proper-
ties of plantation rubber should not be discarded.
The cry of many parties in Europe is for stand-
ardisation, or uniformity, in order that more
direct and valuable comparisons can be made of
the same product from different estates; but
that achievement is not intended to imply that
attempts at improvement are to be for ever
stopped. ...... The value of different tests, the
method of cutting samples, the limitations con-
cerning the use of various substances are all
points upon which a diversity of opinion is freely
expressed. This subject will be treely dis-
cussed at the forthcoming Rubber Exhibition.
—India Rubber Journal, Aug. 10,
COMBINATION OF RUBBER FACTO:
RIES IN JAPAN.
Co-operation with Britain and France.
The Canadian Department of Trade and Com-
merce publishes a report by the Canadian Trade
Comuissioner at Yokohama to the effect that
a representative of a French syndicate is nego-
tiating to bring the rubber factories in Japan
into co-operation with certain large manufac-
turing concerns in Great Britain and France.
The intention isto supply the local markets,
and eventually secure the export business to
Corea, China, India, Siam and the Straits Settle-
ments At present, the Commissioner states,
there are six companies engaged in the rubber
industry in Japan. So far, the quality of rubber
goods manufactured by these factories has not
been first-class, but, nevertheless, the productis
replacing the imported article. The local product
has not altogether met with the approval ofthe
public, on account of its weakness and inability
to stand wear. One or two of the establish-
ments, however, have made changes in basis of
the material from which their goods are manu-
factured, charging a considerably increased
price, and have placed articles on the market
quite equal to the best of the kind that have
been imported.—Board of Trade Journal,Aug. 20.
‘‘PASPALUM DILATATUM”’ EXPERI-
MENTS GIVEN UP IN MADRAS.
°
The Board of Revenue, having come to the
conclusion that experiments in the cultivation
of Paspalum Dilatatum are not likely to yield
satisfactory results in this Presidency, has dir-
ected that they be abandoned.—M Mail, Sept. 5.
(‘L061 ‘AUVOAaaT NMOG aadg)
‘GNV1 STEVOINYINN NO Y3ssEnd VWeVsd :
‘818 WD ALA ‘SUMMA “0 “£ fiq 0"U
a Se
0 me OS
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
AND
MAGAZINE OF THE
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
eee
Vou. XXXII,
COLOMBO, OCTOBER 15rx, 1908,
No. 4.
ae
Cleanliness of Cultivation.
A great deal of nonsense, or of irrele-
vant matter, is uttered on this topic.
Really what it comes to is whether
complete cleanliness, or clean weeding,
is worth while. The question has been
brought into great prominence by the
enormous expenditure on weeding in-
curred upon many rubber estates, on
which clean weeding is often costing
two or three times as much as on a tea
estate, where the cost is already heavy
enough in all conscience.
For places where machinery can be
used to weed, there is little dovbt that
clean weeding is cheap and effective, but
less as weeding than as tilth. Where
the ground is kept well tilled, the weeds
do not spring so vigorously, the soil
remains moist, and renews its water
supply from below. Whereas in the
southern part of Ceylon, the soil is not
tilled, its water supply would seem to
come mainly from above, and a short
drought soon makes itself felt. Water
evaporates more rapidly froma hard soil
than from a tilled soil. This is a point
which seems very difficult of comprehen-
sion in this country,
Where the land is covered with such
permanent crops as tea, leaving too
little room for machine tillage (even if
such were possible on the hilly and
rocky ground of much of the planting
country), the best thing is probably to
grow selected weeds. These may with
great advantage belong to the family
Leguminoss, for then they improve
the contents of the soil in nitrogen.
Such are Crotalarias, Parochetus, Des-
modium, and the rest, They should be
cut at the flowering stage, and the cut
stuff used as a mulch. Other green
manures are such things as Passiflora
foetida, a common (American) weed in
Ceylon, which will, it appears, grow
very well flat on the ground and thus
keep down other weeds, while being itself
easily rolled up. It must, however, be
pointed out that more water evaporates
from a soil covered with plants than from
a naked tilled soil, so that in dry places
the clean weeding is probably the better,
We have for years maintained that
machinery must sooner or later replace
much of the hand labour now being
done inj Ceylon, and there is no doubt
Se ee. eae es
acme oe
314 [OctopER, 1908:
that it can be used with advantage on,
at any rate, low-country ° places. The
Experiment Station in the North-Central
Province isacasein point. Solong as
we had to employ mamoty labour, the
weeding cost Rs. 4an acre a month, for
weeds grow there in a way not often seen
in the south, and coolie labour is poor
and expensive. Now that the land is
tilled with American machinery, the
cost of weeding has gone down to 43
cents a month. For half what it costs
in South Ceylon we can notonly keep
the ground free of weeds, but also keep
it in good tilth to a depth of 8 inches, so
that it needs no artificial watering for
most crops. This is a subject of such
great importance to agriculture in
Ceylon, that we shall return to itata
later date, and give illustrative photo-
graphs. There is no doubt that such
tools asthe disc-harrow and the culti-
vator could be used in most low-country
places in Ceylon. Persons who have
only seen them in shops say that they
want elephants to draw them, but ours
(6 feet wide) are drawn easily by two
bulls. Stones can be removed as come
upon, and their removal will benefit the
land, though it may make the first treat-
mentexpensive. It is quite possible that
ploughing with a good plough, which
completely inverts the soil turned, may
prove disadvantageous except at long
intervals, though it is the most effective
way of destroying weeds on weedy land.
Disc-harrows and_ cultivators, which
merely stir the soil, may prove best, and
in any case the plough need be used
only to get the soil into a condition in
which the other machines can be used,
Our ploughs can only do one-third of an
acre a day each, while the disc-harrow
and the cultivator can each do four acres.
In such soils as that in which most of
the rubber in the Malay States is grow-
ing, clean weeding with the aid of
machinery would cost but little, and
would keep the ground well tilled, a con-
dition which would likely react upon
the growth of the trees, and in any case
would enable catch crops to be grown
upon the land. In a report written in
1904, we called attention to this feature
of the Malayan soils, but, so far as we
are aware, no one has made any move
towards putting our recommendations
into actual practice.
Keep the top soil well tilled, and the
rain will soak in better, the lower soil
will remain damper, and the bacteria
that are essential to plant life will not
be killed by the sun’s rays, while at the
same time the soil will be properly
aerated, and roots can grow better.
ner ll i il
315
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE TAPPING
OF HEVEA.
(Observations sur las Saignee de l’Hevea.
Journ. d Agr. Trop., April, 1908, p. 106.)
ABSTRACTED BY R. H. Lock.
After several years of trial and experi-
ment both by practical and scientific
men, there still exists considerable
difference of opinion as to the most
rational arid economical method of tap-
ping cultivated Hevea trees.
The rapid increase in the area culti-
- vated with this product makes the sub-
ject an important one.
The effect of tapping depends upon the
physiology of the particular species
tapped and the effect upon the future
life of the tree may be different in
different cases. It has been shown that
damage to the cambium is much more
prejudicial to Hevea than the mere
removal of latex.
What is required is a simple and prac-
tical method which will reduce to a
minimum the time required for the
recovery of the tree, andat the same
time assure a large yield andalow cost
of manipulation.
According to Dr. Willis’ tapping
should not be started until the tree
measures 18 inches in girth from
the ground, and_ should then only be
done lightly. Johnson and Wright
increase this minimum size to2 feet or
more in circumference.
Attention is always paid rather to the
size of the tree than toitsagein these
cases.
The time required for the renovation
of the bark is putatfour years by Wright
and at from two years to twenty-eight
months by Willis, according to the opi-
nion of various planters.
Tapping every other day is regarded
by Wright, Carruthers, Ridley and Pit
as better than daily tapping, the ques-
tion of a longer intervalis still under
discussion.
Dr. Willis has recorded the remark-
able fact that left-handed cuts yield
more rubber than right-handed.
Further research is required to deter-
mine whether tapping should be adjusted
to the wet and dry seasons of the year,
or simply carried out at regular
intervals.
Tromp de Haas, after a visit to the
plantations of Ceylon, has published
observations from which the notes con-
stituting the remainder of the paper are
chiefly taken.
Descriptions are given of the herring-
bone method, and of the half spiral
employed at. Culloden, with tapping
alternately to the right and to the left.
Pit in Java is said to have obtained
good results with what is described as a
quarter-spiral—a series of separate cuts,
the distribution of which is not fully
described.
A diagram is also given of the longi-
tudinal series of V cuts employed by
Holloway on Kepitigalla.
No decision is arrived at with regard
to the respective merits of these several
methods, though it is pointed out that
the full spiral is the most likely to affect
the vitality of the tree.
SOMETHING DOING IN MEXICO.
There is reason to believe that Mexi-
can exports are beginning to include con-
siderable rubber obtained from planted
trees. It is true that these trees for the
most part were planted primarily for
the purpose of shading cacao or coffee,
but the same was the case with the
first trees that yielded commercial rub-
ber in Ceylon. They are planted trees,
and the rubber is a plantation product
just as much asif the original idea had
been to form plantations of rubber. And
if these trees yield rubber, why should
not those trees which were planted for
this purpose and no other prove equally
productive on attaining the proper size,
as they are beginning to do in Ceylon ?
The quantity of plantation rubber pro-
duced in Mexico thus far cannot be
stated so accurately as in the case of the
Ceylon product, but some figures on this
subject printed in another column appear
worthy of confidence. The Mexican
representative of an important New
York firm states that their purchases of
locally produced rubber for export have
increased from 7,000 pounds seven years
ago to 182,219 poundsin 1907. Heis con-
vinced that not over 4,000 pounds of this
was “‘ wild” rubber. Besides, he credits
the other merchants in the same town
with buying half as much more. Sup-
posing the situation to beas stated by
this merchant, the plantation rubber
Gums, Resins: BAL
shipped last year from one Mexican town
amounted to about 267,000 pounds, with-
out reference to what may have been
done in other parts of the republic.
Now, this is more rubber than was
shipped from Ceylon in any year
pirior to 1906. It is more than was ship-
ped from Malaya in any year before that
date. Itis more than all the rubber,
of whatever kind, shipped from Mexico
in the fiscal year 1897-98, and it has come
about so quietly that most persons who
read these lines probably will be sur-
prised. Yet these figures are larger
than those from the Far Hast which first
gave a ‘‘boom” to rubber planting over
there, and led to the formation of some
of the most prominent plantation com-
panies that have been capitalized in
Eneland.
One hundred and eighty tons or so of
rubber, considered alone, is not of much
importance ; considered as the product
of planted Castilloa trees in Mexico, and
evidence that such trees can be cultivat-
ed profitably, itis a matter of very real
importance to the owners of several
millions of planted trees who have been
waiting for assurances that their money
has not been thrown away. We hope
that this latest intelligence will encour-
age more plantation managers in Mexico
to get in readiness to do some systematic
rubber tapping on a_ liberal scale.—
India Rubber World, Vol. XXXVIIL.,
No. 4, July, 1908.
CHARA OR MANICOBA RUBBER,
II.*
OF COLLECTING THE RUBBER.
Having finished the operations just
explained in the opening of the hole, and
. the fixing of the receivers, &c., the work
consists of simply filling the receivers
with pure water or with the solution
which you had to employ. Continuing
thus, making the cuts quickly, substi-
tuting the water or solution when neces-
sary, every morning or as early as pos-
sible, while the temperature is still low,
make the “taps” as explained working
several at the same time; continue this
work up till 9 or 10a.m. on hot days.
In the afternoon it is customary to
continue the collection by new ‘‘taps,” it
is found more convenient, only in the
morning, leaving the collection of the
rubber, after several ‘‘taps” every two
days, according to the process which has
been adopted. :
MANNER
* Translated from Bolition: see de Agricultura,
& ,, Bahia 11, 2, August, 1903. We are indebted
for the translation to Mr. D, 4. Wetherall —Ep1ror,
After the ‘‘tap” is made, after a short
delay the milk runs and after a while
coazulates and closes the cut ; this time is
more or less prolonged, according to the
different causes, such as temperature,
repressing of the milk, &c.
necessary, clean off the coagulated rub-
ber from the cut so as to have a fresh
discharge of milk.
After some amount has accumulated
in the basin it should be collected, then
tap again and place new water or soiu-
tion in the basins. This rubber is taken
to the house still wet and placed in the
press, according to the process for mould-
ing and uniting the different fragments,
and thus enabling the rubber to be deli-
vered to the market ina neat manner,
—slabs of 1 centimetre thick are best so
as to avoid fraud.
UsE OF THE PRESS IN THE PREPARATION
OF THE RUBBER FOR DELIVERING
TO THE MARKET.
Owing to the rapid coagulation of the
milk and to the slight sweating, frac-
tionizing the collection, the use of presses
cannot be dispensed with so as to
unite the fragments in a body more
voluminous and endowed with advanta-
geous condition. By any of the pro-
cesses employed, the rubber obtained is
taken to the press still wet and fresh,
because in this state it is easier to unite
under the compression of the press.
Auy system of press may be employed,
so long.as its compressing powers are
sufficient, so that it can unite the frag-
ments in one solid body. Cylinders of
iron covered with wood may also be
employed, or even of wood with a grada-
tion in order to compress the rubber to
the thickness required.
Usk oF SMALL Cups OR BASINS: HOW
THEY SHOULD BE MADE AND WHICH
ARE PROFITABLE.
Itis impossible to dispense with the
small cups. When a superior product is
required these small cups have to be
made according to the process whieh
practice proves to be the best to be
adopted.
If adopting the alum the cups cannot
be made of iron, nor of any metal
attached thereby; neither ean “‘ tapping”
be done with a steel instrument, because
it blackens the product.
Also the form and material in which
they have to be manufactured differ;
when they are destined for use on the
branches they must be made of light
material, if they are for the roots then ©
y
they may be made of heavy stuff.
Should it be
- aie
ee
a
‘
’
’
t
¥
sett Ate gti
PP BL a ps. 3
the roots, cups of
ep Re Ne ae ee TE ee
HiKNS Y
nies é f i d
DctosuR, 1908.]
- According tothe above, we must use
for the extraction of the milk from
raw clay, which
although they improve the product, still
are liable to erack and allow part of
the milk to escape, and deposit itself
in the soil.
For the use ot extraction by the
roots, the best cups or basins should be
those of clay baked and glazed inside,
which stops the filtering through of
the water or solution employed. They
should affect the form of a semi-cir-
cumference, ten centimetres in diameter
(4 inehes) offering the greatest surface
at the part which has to remain
adherent to the root to permit of several
cuts being made. To where the cups
or basins adhere perfectly to the root,
it is necessary at the point of junc-
tion to place clay plaster to fasten the
cups to that part.
The caps can be made of zine sheet.
A cow’s horn ean also be used. The
cups for the extraction from the branches
should he as deep as a glass.
We will now treat of a part no less
- important,—knowing the mean produc-
tion from a tree in a wild state, and
advantages of culture of Manicoba.
MBEAN PRODUCTION OF RUBBER PER
TREE.
Collecting carefully and separately the
production obtained from fourteen trees
was found, to give the mean of 57°73
grains per plant.
Afterwards taking another production
of ten trees the mean was 77:15 grains
per plant. ;
We found one tree whose production
taken by itself attained 197'50 grains.
According to these results obtained
under the irregular conditions of the
dry and bad season, it is seen that the
mean is not disappointing ; it should also
be noticed that those trees submitted for
the test, in the majority had already
suffered from previous tappings.
PRODUCTION OF A TREE IN ITS WILD
STATE UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS.
Taking into consideration the dry and
bad seasons and the losses in the extrac-
tion, it may be safely estimated at 100
grains the mean of production of one
tree in its wild state, during the time it
is undergoing tapping.
* * * a * * *
THE MANICOBA AS PRODUCER OF
FORAGE.
The seeds constitute a food, liked by
cattle, and of great alimentary power
from the richness of fat materials, and
37
Saps and Fxuudations
can be ground to produce a rich forage,
superior perhaps to the flour of the seeds
of cotton and other similar seeds,
THE TIME WHICH PASSES FROM CULTURE
TO PERFECTION.
It appears to us that the Manicoba has
a rapid growth, principally at the com-
mencement of the development; we
believe that from the 4th to the 5th year
it ean produce, but the maximum of
production is during the 8th year for-
ward, as with the cocoa and other plants.
* * * * * *
AUGMENTATION OF THE PRODUCTION OF
RUBBER IN MANICOBA DURING THE
EXTRACTION OF THE MILK.
Manicoba is educated in its production
of rubber or of milk, in the same manner
as the breasts of animals are habituated
to give the maximum production of milk;
during our labours we observed the
augmenting in the production of milk,
after repeated taps, the fact is known to
all the extractors of rubber from Mani-
coba.—Bulletin of the Department of
Agriculture, Jamaica, Vol. VI., Pts. 2 &
3, Febuary and March, 1908.
REMARKS ON THE CULTIVATION,
PREPARATION AND YIELD ©
OF MANICOBAS.
By Ava. CARDOZO.
(Abstracted by R. H. Lock.)
The author uses the term Manicoba to
include Ceara rubber, and it is with this
product that the paper chiefly deals, only
a brief reference being made near the end
to the true Manicoba varieties in the sense
in which that term has hitherto been
used in the 7. A. and Mag. of C.A.S.
Reasons are given for the comparative
_ failure of Ceara rubber as an agricultural
crop. The chief of these are :—
(1) The lack ofa satisfactory method
of extracting the latex.
(2) The large proportion of badly
yielding trees which are often
found in plantations.
It is stated that only 15 or 20 % of the
seeds of any variety will yield good trees,
so far as yield of rubber is concerned.
It is impossible to tell which seeds will
yield good trees before they are sown, but
a choice may be made of these seedlings
which grow most rapidly, with a large
main axis, and produce a thick latex,
oqaque and not sticky.
In order that the latex may be readily
extracted, the trunk must be verticle, and
branching must not begin too close to
the ground.
Gums, Resins,
A distance of at least 15 feet between plant succeeds well enough, and on drier
the trees is recommended in good soil.
Wind belts are strongly advocated, to
be pee ene as soon as the clearing is
made.
In 1906 Mr. Cardozo obtained 1,161 qr.
of dry rubber from a group of four trees in
ninety-two tappings. In 1907 the same
four trees yielded 1,231 qr. in sixty-one
tappings. A fairly marked increase, but
this rate of tapping is regarded as too
severe for trees seven years old.
Tapping should not be begun before
the 8th year unless the tree is at least
2 feet in girth.
The arrangement of the laticiferous
vessels in Ceara shows that it is impos-
sible to obtain a large quantity of latex
at one tapping. Tapping must be re-
peated as trequent intervals. I6 is
found that twice as much latex is obtain-
edin the morning asin the afternoon,
and the work of tapping should therefore
be confined to the fovmer period.
The method of tapping adopted was to
make a series of horizontal incisions
1 em. in length at intervals of 5 to 7 em.
in a verticle direction. The drops of
latex run down the trunk and are caught
in a little gutter placed near the base
of the tree.
Two opposite areas are tapped on one
day. and a pair of intermediate faces on
the next, and when the original area is
again reached, the cuts are made between
the old ones.
. Some notes are given on the difference
between Jéquié Manicoba and Ceara.
The former germinates in 9-18 days
without any necessity for filing the seeds,
It is less variable in its vegetative
growth than Ceara.
The latex makes its appearance later.
The leaves are more liable to be eaten
by locusts.
The greater value of Manihot dicho-
toma (Jequie Manicoba) is primarily asso-
ciated with the thicker bark as compar-
ed with Ceara.—Journal @ Agriculture
Tropicale, June, 1908, p. 1638.
CEARA RUBBER IN THE DRY
ZONE OF CKYLON.
By J. C. WILLIs.
Manihot Glaziovii is a native of the
Ceara province of Brazil. a hilly region
with a climate apparently not unlike
that of north Ceylon, and a rainfall of
about 45 inches (about equal to that at
Jaffna). In wet southern Ceylon this
318
: a)
Me vine
2 f, WS .
a)
[Ocronur, 1908)
places like Pallekelle, grows like a weed.
This species has been given a trial on
the Experiment Station at Maha-iluppa-
lama, 11 miles from Kekirawa on ‘the
road leading to Talawa Station. The:
first lot (Shown in the first photo) was
planted on unirrigable land, locally sup-
posed to be only fit for chena, but
really witha good soil. The seed was
sown in February, 1907, and the trees
planted out 10 feet by 10 over five acres
in August, 1907. In August, 1908, the
ground was all but covered, the sky
being only visible between the trees in
places. The growth was very uniform
and good, and the trees akout 9 feet
higk. Taking two central rows of
the trees, and measuring the girth at
3 feet from the ground, it gave the
in inches—First row
73, 5k, 7S, 82, 53, 8, 6, 74, 54, 5, 63, 6, 44 6.9,
if, 6, 8, 74 3) Th, Gy.9s 75 Obs Os Ontae
6, 6,7. Second row
t+, 62, Yt, 72, 8, 74, 94, 8, 10, 9,
Oh) Ds Ys Bt; 43, 4, 67, 4, 73, D5 Ths We 63, y
5 8, 82, 83, 6,7, 7,9. ‘This gives an f
average girth of just over 7 inches for 78
consecutive trees chosen at random. :
The trees are growing vigorously and $
their latex runs freely, though of course ;
they are as yet much too youngto tap. . Hy
®
1, 5,
’ 6g,
The second photograph shows trees
from seed of February, 1908, planted out
about four months ago as shade for
cacao, on irrigable land with rather
better soil. These are growing even
better, but no measurements were taken. q
The finest Ceara rubber trees in the }
island are probably some growing about ;
ten miles south of Trincomalee bay, and
there is little doubt that this species
will prove well suited to the dry zone. 5
As it will grow on unirrigable land there
is plenty of country now available for it.
ar a
CAMPHOR PROSPECTS.
The Indo-Huropean Commercial In-
telligence of Bombay is worthy the
attention of those interested in camphor,
as the issues from June onward contain
very useful articles on the cultivation
and preparation of this drug. We still
maintain, in spite of adverse opinions,
that this industry is worthy of much
more notice on the part of all planters
and landowners to cultivate it success-
falls, either extensively cr on a small
scale.
Our contemporary maintains that a
move has been made in Japan to enable
alocal Japanese concern to secure the
C8061 ‘ANVOUdTA NMOQ adaag)
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the Governor-General of Hormosa
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OcropEr, -1908.]
camphor monopoly at present farmed
out to Messrs. Samuel, Samuel & Co.
This monopoly will expire by the end of
March next, and the idea is abroad that
is
looking out for a powerful native combin-
ation to take itup, thus giving all the
profits to Japanese individuals. The
annual output of Formosan camphor is
estimated at 50,000 piculs, of which 40,000
are handled by Messrs. Samuel, Samuel
& Co., and 10,000 sold by the Japanese
Government amongst the camphor-refin-
ing concerns in Japan.
We are also reminded that the Chinese
originally owned the Formosan forests,
and their Government adopted harsh
measures to secure the monopoly. They
also state that the term ‘‘ camphor” is
always understood to apply to the well-
known laurel, or Japan camphor, the
product of the Cinnamomum camphora,
an evergreen of the Lawrace family.
The camphor, however, referred to in
the earlier Chinese and Arabian writings
was probably another variety known at
the present time as Borneo camphor, or
‘‘borneol,” the product of the tree
Dryobanalops aromatica, small quan-
tities also being derived from the
tree Blumea balsmaifera. ‘‘ Borneol ” is,
however, almost entirely consumed in
the Kast.
Messrs. Schimmel & Co., quoting the
German Consul at Kobe, give the
Japanese Customs’ statistics to show as
near as possible the total annual pro-
duction of Japan-cum-Kormosa, which
are. otherwise unobtainable, as the
Japanese Bureau of monopoly carefully
avoids publishing the details of its
statistics. According to Schimmel, the
exports were :—-
Kobe
Formosa, (Japan). Total.
1904 ... 24,034 31,408 = 55,442 piculs.
1905 ... 22,480 BASE 4 OTT 53
1906 ... 21,774 26,565 = 48,339 ,,
The Chemist and Druggist reckons
that the world’s demand for camphor is
8,000,000 kin, or 16,600,000 lb. (the total
export of camphor and oil (?) from Japan
and Formosa in 1906 is placed at 5,544,000
kin, or nearly 70 per cent. of the world’s
consumption, if this estimate is correct),
of which 70 per cent. is employed in
celluloid manufacture, 2 per cent. in gun-
cotton works, 15 per cent. for disinfect-
ing and deodorising purposes, and 13
per cent. for medicinal preparations.
According to German returns, that
country is the largest importer, receiv-
ing 1,018,400 kilos in 1905, valued at
4,560,000 marks (1 mark = Is. roughly);
and 890,200 kilos last year, valued
at 5,786,000 marks. As the total value
319
Saps and Fxudations,
of the Formosa-cum-Kobe exports in
1906 was placed at 5,850,000 yen, or
11,700,000 marks, it can be roughly
estimated that the German consumption
is equal to half greater than Japan’s
output.
On the other hand, the American
Consul in Formosa (Mr. J. H. Arnold)
speaks of the island as supplying 75 per
cent. of the world’s requirements, the
remainder coming from Japan and
China. He estimates the Formosa out-
put for 1907 at 5,000,000 kin.
Whatever the figures are, however,
the fact still remains that the world’s
production of camphor is far and away
behind the world’s requirements, and,
therefore, in these days of competition
it behoves planters to look seriously into
the matter and see whether it will not
pay them, even when the prices fall, to
take up the cultivation of the drug ona
large or small scale, not for its immediate
a but as a nest-egg for some future
ate.
Although, as we showed in our former
articles, it used to be estimated that
Japanese and Chinese could afford to
sell camphor ata figure far below the
price at which it could be produced else-
where, it is as well to note that experts
in all parts of the world are giving
their serious attention to its production.
On the Mediterranean coast, we hear
that the French are trying to acclimatise
the tree, which, it is said, grows well in |
those parts, and prceduces leaves yielding
the drug in commercial quantities suffi-
cient to pay the cost of production and
extraction. Some ef those interested in
this idea even claim that the camphor
may replace the olive, owing to its
giving a bigger profit. Hlsewhere (Mr.
Ridley at the Straits Settlements) we are
told that it is said to do anywhere in
Italy except in the neighbourhood of the
Alps. The Ceylon Agricultural Society
urges its cultivation (see Tropical Agr- -
culturist, July, 1907), saying that since
the Royal Botanic Gardens show a way
in which it can be multiplied locally,
planters are rendered less dependent on
the Japanese for seeds or cuttings.
‘“‘ Amongst neglected industries in this
State,” writes the Queensland Agricul-
tural Journal for November, ‘“‘may be
included camphor’ production. The
camphor laurel grows so well, not only
on the coast, but on the tableland, that
some think it would be a very paying
speculation to plant forests of this tree.
The arguments are, that the tree thrives
in most parts of Queensland, that it
requires no attention, that camphor is
exceedingly high in price, that large
Gums, Resins,
quantities are used in the manufacture
of smokeless powder, and that the Japan-
ese have the monopoly of the produc-
tion in Formosa.” According tothe
Chemist and Druggist, only about 2 per
cent. goes in gun-cotton, and no mention
being made of smokeless powder, it is
either included in this 2 per cent. or is
too small a quantity to be placed separ-
ately. As to the price, that is bound
to come down, and the sooner the better ;
but at present it shows no chance of
dropping below a profit unworthy of
being earned by a Huropean. The T’ro-
pical Agriculturist does state in the
July issue, already referred to, that the
demand would be almost entirely met if
Ceylon were to plant 25,000 acres with
this product. This does not seem a very
large area, but we cannot say off-hand
what the annual production per acre is
supposed to be. he same journal, in
February, stated that the principa! diffi-
culty in Ceylon was lack of experience
in the distillation. As with the sugar
output in India, this may perhaps
reduce the output by half.
Dr. Ridley, in the Straits Agricultural
Bulletin for June, reports that in Cali-
fornia (U. S. A.) the tree seems to do
well, and experimental returns show
that the camphor produced is purer than
the Japanese. In Tonkin it justifies the
most sanguine expectations, and the
Journal WAgriculture Tropicale for
November
camphor experiments in Tonkin. Even
in England the tree flourishes. ‘The
finest tree I have ever seen,” continues
Mr. Ridley, ‘‘ was one in Cornwall, near
Fowey. One would, therefore, hardly
expect that the tree would thrive in the
Tropics so near the Equator. However,
several planters in the Peninsula are
trying it. Mr. Larken notes that in
Johore the seeds took a morth to come
up, but all are starting.” In the Straits
Botanic Gardens, camphor plants have
been growing for many years, but have
made very little growth, and still re-
main bushes of no great size, which have
never flowered or fruited. They have
all been planted in stiff clay ; perhaps in
the hill regions, where the soil is lighter
and more friable, they would do
better.
320
gives full details of the |
F Wie Raa dt
(OCTOBER, 1908.
We have already mentioned an
attempt made in the Federated Malay —
States to propagate camphor. The
American Bureau of Plant Industry
speaks well, not only of the camphor
trees in Michiganand Florida, but also of
the quality of the 30 lb. of camphor
obtained. Mr. Hutchins, in his report
on the Kenia forests
Africa, calls attention to the ‘‘Ibean
camphor tree,” many specimens of which
are of enormous size, 120 to 130 ft. high.
Mr. Hutchins does not say, however,
that camphor has actually been isolated
from this tree, and detected.
Experimental plantings have been
carried on in Hawaii,.and, according to
the Journal d@ Agriculture Tropicale, the
tree has becn acclimatised in Algiers for
along time. Here the C. canvphora is
grafted on the poorer yielding Camphora
inuncta, in order to increase the returns,
which from the single species was con-
sidered a poor one, only ‘65 per cent,
against 112 to 1140 per cent. from the
grafted tree.
Meanwhile, it must be remembered that
the Japanese are not idle. Whilst Dr.
Willis, in Ceylon, talks of 25,000 acres,
Schimmel reports that the Japanese
Government are making serious efforts
to improve the cultivation bothin Japan
and Formosa, and that a large sum
granted by the Japanese Parliament for
forestry purposes will be used exclu-
sively for camphor plantations. Accord-
ing to the Chemist and Druggist, there
are in Japan over 400,000 acres of land in
private hands, on which it is hoped to
plant 361,470,000 trees, while they talk of
planting 1,176,810,000 trees on some
1,300,000 acres of Government land.
These 1,500,000,000 trees, it is reckoned,
will yield 10,844,000 kin* of camphor, and
4,337, 640 kin of camphor oil. ve 1904-5,
8,750,000 trees were planted, so the above
stupendous cultivation would take some
time. Whilst it would yield 10,000,000
kin of camphor, the present world’s
consumption is returned as_ being
8,000,000 kin. Lower prices and increased.
population can, of course, increase the
demand to any point.—Tvropical Life,
Vol. [V., No. 2, February, 1908.
* 1 Kin=10°6 lb. 4,000,000 =2,400 tons,
in British Hast -
ye
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_—
win»
Sty, nl RE
Si
ym
a ee ee
Oc
TOBER, 1908. |
821
DRUGS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS.
FERMENTATION OF TOBACCO.
The particulars given below on the
fermentation of tobacco leaves are taken
from Bulletin 15 of the Hawaiian Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, a pamphlet
issued to show the possibilities of tobacco
growing on a commercial scale in Hawaii,
and also to give information as to the
best methods of carrying out the various
operations connected with the prepar-
ation of the crop. They form a continu-
ation of the notes on harvesting and
curing the leaves that appeared in the
last issue of the Agricultural News.
After curing has taken place, the tobacco
should be sorted in lots of thick, thin,
and medium leaves respectively. The
different grades are then tied up into
bunches containing from fifty to a
hundred leaves, and in order to undergo
the process of fermentation these
bunches are piled up into heaps on the
floor of the room specially provided for
the purpose.
_ The fermentation should follow imme-
diately after the grading and sorting
process, as the tobacco is then in the
best condition. A much better fexment-
ation can be secured immediately than
after a delay of weeks or months. The
tobacco is taken from the sorting room
to the fermenting room. If the tobacco
is in proper condition when it is placed
in the pile—that is, if the leaf contains
20 to 25 per cent. of moisture—a rise in
temperature will begin at once. The
heap of fermenting tobacco leaves should
‘be covered over with a tarpaulin or
rubber blanket, excluding all air and
retaining all moisture. No weight
should be applied. When the building
of the fermenting heap has been finished,
the temperature of the room should be
heated to from 85° to 95°, and should be
kept at that figure until the pile of
fermenting tobacco reaches the same
degree of heat. As the temperature in
the pile of tobacco increases above 90°
the air temperature should be permitted
to remain about 10° lower than the
increasing temperature of the pile. The
higher the temreratures in the ferment-
ing pile the darker the colour of the
finished leaf. Under no circumstances
must the temperature of the fermenting
tobacco be permitted to rise above
136° F. Assoon as the temperature in
the middle of the pile, which is the
hottest, reaches 100° F., the pile should
be torn down and re-arranged on the
floor near by. The leaves that pre-
viously formed the bottom, sides, and
tops are placed in the centre of the new
pile, while the leaves that werein the
centre of the first heap, become the out-
side, bottom, and top of the second pile.
This process should be _ continued
throughout the various re-arrangements
of the pile. An important point is to
maintain a constant degree of humidity
in the fermenting room, Theairin the
fermenting room should never be per-
mitted to become dry, but should always
show from 85° to 90° of humidity, irres-
pective of the temperature.
In the first stages of fermentation,
large quantities of ammonia are set free,
and there is a considerable evolution of
ammonia throughout the whole ferment-
ation process. As soon as the ferment-
ation is complete, the tobacco is ready for
the final sorting.
A second fermentation takes place in
the bale. It is a slower one and the
temperatures do not rise very high, but
it seems to be quite important in fixing
character in the leat. This second
fermentation mellows the tobacco and
tends to improve the aroma. The bales
should be placed in the warehouse for at
least six months before selling. The
warehouse should be clean, dry, and
cool, and no other goods stored with the
tobacco.—Agricultural News, Vol. VIL.,
No. 161, June, 1908.
4)
322
[OcroRER, 1908.
EDIBLE PRODUCTS.
TEAS FROM NATAL.
In an article on ‘The Tea Production
of the British Empire” in this Bulletin
(1904-2-206), reference was made to the
tea industry of Natal anda table was
given showing the areas of land under
cultivation and the quantities of tea
produced during the years 1880-1902.
The introduction of tea into Natal
took place in 1877, when seed was for-
warded from Calcutta and was planted
as soon asitarrived. The varieties in-
troduced were ‘Assam Indigenous”
from the Rookang Estate, and ‘ Assam
Hybrid” from the Longeeburr Estate.
The former has been found to be the
more suitable, as it produces more leaf
and yields a manufactured tea of
superior quality. After various dis-
appointments and _ discouragements,
owing to losses caused by drought and
the attack of insect pests, no serious
attempt was made to extend the culti-
vation until 1881. Since this time the
area under cultivation has gradually in-
creased untilit now amounts to about
4,000 acres and yields annually 2,000,000
lb. of the manufactured article.
The samples of Natal tea which are
the subject of this report were taken
from specimens exhibited in the Natal
Court of the Imperial Institute and from
supplies forwarded to the recent South
African Products Exhibition in London,
The latter specimens were transferred
to the Imperial Institute at the close of
the Exhibition, and are now shown with
other samples in the Natal Court,
At the request of the Natal Govern-
ment achemical examination of repre-
sentative samples has been carried out
in order that a comparison of Natal teas
rath Indian and China teas could be
made.
The results of the examination are
shown in the following table, which in-
cludes for comparison the corresponding
figures obtained at the Imperial] Institute
for Indian and Cuina teas and also for
Ceylon green teas:
Percentages calculated on
material dried at 1002 C,
oO Es . xt
= S zg S
Kstate, Description, pa Paes ‘D a
ee pl 3 g
By seh 1S iS) a
Natal Teas —
Kearsney Grade 1* 91 58 2671 39 78
oH) Grade 2* 76 56 288 3°6 6°3
» Grade 3* 74 52 274 81 67
aa Grade 4* 87 59 25°0 3°4 6°8
x Flowery Pekoe 7.6 51 not determined 770
os Broken Pekoe 69 5°8 not determined 73
Barnsdale Pekoe 5°96 58 26'2 4°38 10°5
Clifton Pekoe 6.2 4°8 31'4 notdeter- 13:0
mined,
Barnsdale Golden Pekoe - 5°5 5°5 23°0 4°4 115
oA Flowery Pekoe 61 5'3 27°0 4°2 116
Aroma Pekoe Souchong 71 5°5 24°3 40 10°4
Be Tine Natal ,, 80 50 20°9 APL ey ROFL!
Burrow
Green Souchong 77 «5:2, 3370 44 10°8
Average CE ais! Ge Oye 40 9:2
Indian Teas (13 samples)
Maximum 78 69 35:2 41 chit
Minimum 64 54 27°4 3°6 69
Average TL GO MBL. 3'8 9°2
China Teas (8) samples—
Maximum 92 8°2 °27°2 37 93
Minimnm 71 60 19°0 2°6 3°3
Average 82 6S 24°3 3°0 52
Ceylon Green Tea—
No. 1 67 2°6 24°56 2°9 14°5
No. 2 62 50 35°0 2-9 16°6
Average 6°5. 3:8) 29:7 29 15°6
CONCLUSIONS,
A consideration of the foregoing analy-
tical figures shows that these Natal teas
may be divided into two groups, which
differ considerably in composition: (1)
those from the Kearsney Estate, and (2)
those from all other sources.
The specimens from the Kearsney
Estate, grades 1 to 4, were all good black
looking teas, concaining from 3'1 to 3'9
per cent. of caffeine and from 6°38 to 7:8
per cent. of tannin. The other two speci-
mens of ‘“‘ Flowery Pekoe” and ‘Broken
Pekoe” from the same source also con-
tained a low percentage of tannin, viz.,
7:0to 73 percent. These figures must
be regarded as very satisfactory, since
the average percentage of caffeine (8°5)
is only a little below the amount present ~
in the Indian teas examined, and on the
** These four samples were taken from speci-
mens in the Natal Court of the Imperial Insti-
tute; the remainder were from the South
African Products Exhibition.
+ ‘Extractive matter” or ‘‘extract” is the
percentage dissolved by treating a given quantity
of the tea with one hundered times its weight
of boiling water, and allowing it to infuse for
ten minutes,
+ Determined by Procter’s modification of
Léventhal’s process.
ee ee ee ee
im
Cy we
le i CEI 6 tat aye oR
— OcToBER, 1908.]
other hand the average of tannin (7 per
cent.) is considerably lower. In respect
- of the percentage of tainnin these teas
' from the Kearsney Estate are intermedi-
ate between the Indian and China teas.
The amount of extractive matter is also
less than in the Indian teas, and approx-
imates to that of the China samples.
As is well known, it is the caffeine to
which the valuable stimulating proper-
ties of tea are due, whilst the pre-
sence of much tannin is generally consi-
dered to be detrimental.
The other group of Natal teas, compris-
ing all the remaining specimens, is char-
acterised by unusually high percentages
of caffeine and tannin. The amount of
caffeine ranges from 4:0 to 4°8 per cent.,
with an average of 4:3 per cent., whilst
the percentages of tannin vary from 10:1
to 13:0 with an average of 11°1 per cent.
The abnormal amount of tannin (13 per
cent). present in the Pekoe tea from the
Clifton Estate is probably due to the
fact that the sample had not been pro-
perly fermented, and was more or less
green. Sofaras the amount of extrac-
tive matter is concerned, this group
agrees closely with the Kearsney teas.
The difference in the figures furnished
by these two groups of specimens is very
striking, and may be due to some modi-
fication in the processes of manufacture,
It was to be expected that Natal tea
would show a general similarity to
Indian tea, since the original seed was
obtained from Assam. This similarity
can be seen in the figures for the major-
ity of the specimens and in the average
results, but in the case of the Kearsney
teas the small percentages of extractive
matter and tannin approximate more
nearly to those obtained for China teas.
These results show that the cultivation
of tea in Natal and its preparation
deserve very full study with a veiw to
the production of a tea of characteristic
quality. The best of these teas combine
the qualities of the teas of China and
India.— Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
Vol. VI., No. 1, 1906.
THE SOY BEAN AS A FORAGE CROP.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
ORIGIN,
The Soy Bean (Glycine hispida), previ-
ously, but incorrectly, called soja
bean, is a leguminous plant, native of
south-eastern Asia. De Candolle says
that it originally occurred in the wild
state in the region ‘‘trom Cochin China
to the south of Japan and to Java.” It
328
Rdible Products,
has been cultivated from very ancient
times, and in some countries, notably
Japan, it is a very important food
plant, and its cultivation has reached
such an advanced stage that innumer-
able varieties and forms have been
developed. Professor Rein says it is
the most important Jegume in extent
of varieties, uses, and value grown in
China or Japan. ‘It is supposed to have
been used for food in China even before
the time of Confucius. Although it has
been grown in China and Japan for such
an extended period, its cultivation seems
to have spread very slowly to the sur-
rounding countries. Its introduction
into India seems to have taken place in
comparatively modern times. More
recently it was brought to Europe,
where it was grown in botanic gardens
for more thana hundred years without
attracting attention asa plant of much
economic importance. Aiton says in
his Hortus Kewensis that it was first
brought to England in 1790. In 1875 Pro-
fessor Haberlandt began an extensive
series of expriments with this plant in
Austro-Hungary, andinawork published
in 1878 he gave the results of his studies
and strongly urged the cultivation of
the soy bean as a food plant for both
man and beast. Although he succeeded
in exciting a great deal of interest in its
cultivation while making his experi-
ments, and distributed a considerable
amount of seed, very little seems to
have come of it; forat his death, which
occurred in 1878, the interest flagged,
and the soy bean has failed to obtain
the place as a staple crop which he
prophesied for it.
In our own country the soy bean has
been grown for a great many years,
chiefly in the South, but it is only within
the last fifteen years that it has received
much attention as a forage crop. Recent-
ly it has been the subject of considerable
experimentation at a number of the ex-
periment stations, and its great value
as acrop has been very clearly demon-
strated
The term ‘“‘soy” applied to this bean
is derived from a Japanee word ‘“‘ shoyu,”
denoting a certain preparation from the
seeds which is a favourite article of diet
in that country. The term “soja” is
often used in connection with this plant,
but Professor Georgeson, who spent
some time in Japan, and who, since his
return to this country, has experiment-
ed extensively with this plant, says :—
The term soja, often applied to this
bean, is. misleading, inasmuch as the
species named by Siebold and Zuccarini
(Glycine soja) is not cultivated there
(Japan), or at least rarely cultivated,
Edible Products.
though wild in the south; and later this
species was confounded with the culti-
vated species, G. hispida, Moench.,
whence the origin of the term soja as
applied to the cultivated bean.
Recent works on Japanese botany seem
to substantiate this position, though it
is still a matter of doubt as to what
botanical name probably belongs to the
cultivated species.
The soy bean is an erect, annual plant,
with branching, hairy stems, trifoliate,
more or less hairy leaves, rather incon-
spicuous pale lilac or violet coloured
fiowers, and broad, two to _ five-seed-
ed pods, covered, like the stem, with
stiff, reddish hairs. The seeds vary in
colour from whitish and yellowish to
green, brown, and black; and in shape
from spherical to elliptical and more
or less compressed. nder favourable
conditions the plant may reach a height
of 4 feet or more. In Professor Haber-
landt’s experiments in Austro-Hungary
the plants bore about 200 pods and 450
seeds each, and though thisis probably
considerably above the average, it
shows them to be remarkably prolific.
The fact that the flowers are self-polli-
nated makes the yield entirely inde-
pendent of insects, and renders the soy
bean free from an important obstacle
in the way of the introduction of many
legumes into new regions. A crop of
seed is insured wherever conditions are
to allow the plants to make the proper
vegetative growth and reach maturity.
VARIETIES,
The different varieties of soy bean are
distinguished largely according to the
colour, size, and shape of the seed, and
the time required tor the plants to reach
maturity. They also differ more or less
in the habit of growth and in the
character and degree of the hairiness of
the various parts of the plant. The
names applied to the varieties here in
the United States usually refer to the
time of reaching maturity and the colour
of the seed; as, for example, “Early
White.” ‘‘ Medium Late Green,” ‘‘Medium
Black,” ete. The early varieties gener-
ally fruit heavier in proportion to the
size of the plant than the later ones,
and hence are better to grow for seed,
while the medium or late varieties are
better for forage on account of the larger
yield of fodder that may be obtained.
The ‘“‘Harly White” soy bean is an
excellent variety to grow when a crop
of seed is desired, particularly in the
North, where the growing season is
likely to be short. It is not a good
variety to grow for hay or soiling, how-
324
ae al ae
athe ee hiitauee aa bs
ant MO yaar ee
ve,
‘[OctorER, 1908.
ever, on account of the small size of the
plants and a tendency to drop the leaves
early. ‘‘ Medium Karly Green” is one of
the best varieties to plant for hay, as it
yields heavily and retains its leaves well.
For soiling or for ensilage ‘‘ Medium
Early Green, ‘‘Medium Karly Black,”
or the ‘‘Late” green or black varieties
may be used, according to the length of
the season and the time at which the
crop is to be used. In the New England
States the ‘‘Medium Early Green”
variety is generally preferred, while in
the Central States ‘‘Medium Harly
Black” seems to be the favourite, In
the South the ‘“‘medium” or “late”
varieties are used, some preferring one
and some another. For green manuring
the large medium or late varieties are
best; ‘‘ Medium Late Black” being excel-
lent for this purpose.
CONDITIONS OF GROWTH.
It is believed that in Japan than in
northern climates, soils of a _ rather
strong character are best adapted to the
soy bean. It is usually sown about the
end of May, and when used for hay is
cut early in August. In both Europe
and America it has been found to thrive
best on soils of medium texture that
are well supplied with potash, phos-
phoric acid, and lime. It succeeds very
well, however, on comparatively light
soils, often giving an abundant crop on
soils too poor to grow clover. Professor
Haberlandt found that good results
could be obtained in Kurope on a very
great variety of soils, and similar results
have been obtained in the United States.
Professor Georgeson has obtained fairly
good results in Kansas on very poor soils,
and under very adverse conditions as to
the moisture. In South Carolina the
soy bean gives excellent crops on sandy,
limestone, or marly soils, and also on
drained swamp or peaty lands that are
well marled. Experiments in hoth
Kurope and America show that the soy
bean possesses excellent drought-resist-
ing qualities, enduring dry weather
much better than the ordinary field or
garden beans.
The soy bean requires about the same
temperature as corn. Professor Haber-
landt found that the earlier varieties of
soy bean would mature in Kurope rather
farther north than the earlier varieties
of corn. Inthe United States the rela-
tion of the soy bean to temperature has
not yet been thoroughly tested, but it is
very likely that the northern limit will
be found very near to that of corn. ©
Professor Brook says that the earlier
sorts will mature in Massachusetts with
as much certainty as will the earlier
varieties of corn. As a general thing,
he OcroRER, 1908. }
ih
by =
the soy beanis not so easily injured bY
frost as the common field
or garde
varieties of beans, and hence it can b®&
lanted earlier in the spring and can also
ike left in the field later in the antumn.
At the Kansas Station, soy beans
planted on the 25th of July on poor soil
survived several light freezes and, when
cut on the 17th of October, had matured
a fair crop of seeds.
While the soy bean is possessed of
excellent drought-resisting qualities, it
‘at the same time seems to be able to sur-
vive a period of excess of moisture better
than the cowpea or even corn. Mr.
Robert C. Morris, of Illinois, reports, as
an instance in his own experience in 1896,
that, after standing in water for three
weeks in July, the soy beans recovered,
while corn and cowpeas under the same
-econditions were permanently injured.
The upright, bushy habit of growth
gives the soy bean a great advantage
over the cowpea during wet weather
and makes it easier to handle at harvest
time.
METHODS OF CULTURE.
In a general way, the same methods
of culture may be recommended for the
soy bean as would be given to the
ordinary field beans. The soil should be
well prepared, so as to affcrd a good
root bed, and should be left smooth and
free from clods in order to facilitate the
cultivation and harvesting of the crop.
If the soil is lacking in potash and _ phos-
phoric acid, these should be supplied to
secure the best results, From experi-
ments carried on at the Massachusetts
Hatch Experiment Station, it is probable
that for this crop the potash can be best
supplied in the form of the muriate.
Under ordinary conditions it is not
likely that there will be any necessity
for using any nitrogen-containing ferti-
lizer, as sufficient of this element is
usually present in the soil, and, like
other legumes, this plant assimilates the
free nitrogen of the air. In experiments
with this crop where nitrogen has been
supplied to the soil in various forms, it
has been found that there was but very
little gain in the yield, andin but very
few instances was this sufficient to pay
for the extra fertilizer used.
Although soy beans may be planted
quite early in the season, the best results
will be obtained if the seeding is post-
poned until the ground has become
thoroughly warm; and incase the earlier
varieties are used, a fairly good crop of
forage or even of seed may be obtained
if the seeds are not planted until the
earlier small grains, such as rye and
barley, have been harvested, It may
82
5 Edible Products.
thus be possible to obtain two crops
from the same field in a single season ;
one of small grain, and the other of soy
bean, and yet to leave the land in better
condition than if the second crop had
not been grown. Another practice is to
drill the beans in between the rows of
corn after the last ploughing; they are
also sometimes planted between the
hills in the row, as are field beans. The
best method of seeding will depend some-
what upon the kind of crop which it is
desired to harvest. If the soil is good,
and a crop of hay or green fodder is
desired, good results may be obtained by
sowing broadeast or with a grain drill.
If, however, a crop of beans is desired, it
is best to plant in drills from 2to3 feet
apart, according asthe soil is light or
heavy.
There is considerable difference in the
amount of seed sown per acre in the
various parts of the country; some
farmers sow only about half a bushel per
acre, while others prefer a bushel or even
more. The proper amount will neces-
sarily vary somewhat, according to the
method of seeding and the character of
the soil. Asa rule, when grown for seed,
from one-half to three-fourths of a
bushel per acre will be ample. When
put in with a grain drill or sown broad-
cast, a greater amount of seed will be
required ; but in any case it will hardly
be necessary to use more than one bushel
per acre. Of course, less seed will be
required when the grain drill is used
than when the seed is sown broadcast,
and as a rule better results will be
obtained. When planted for beans
enough seed should be used to give an
average of five or six plants per foot in
the row. If nothing better is at hand
for planting the seed, an ordinary grain
drill, with enough of the holes stopped
up to give the desired distance for the
rows, may be used. For example, if the
holes are 8inches apart, number 1 may
be left open, numbers 2, 3, and 4 closed,
number 5 open, ete., and the rows will
be 82 inches apart, or, ifa lese distance
is desired, number 4 .aay be left open
and number 5 closed, and the rows will
be 24 inches apart. In very light soil the
latter distance would probably he best,
but in heavier soils the former would be
preferable.
When the seed has been drilled in
rows close together, or has been sown
broadcast, very little cultivation will be
necessary. It will sometimes be found
advisable, however, to cultivate the
drilled field soon after planting, as in
case the land is very foul, the weeds are
liable to get such » start that they will
interfere with the growth of the young
Edible Products. 326
soy plants. For this purpose use a
light harrow. When grown for seed,
thorough cultivation should be given,
at least while the plants are young.
As arule, cultivation should be shallow
and frequent if the best results are to
be obtained. When the ground is in-
clined to pack or bake, it should be
stirred after each rain, but care should
be taken not to work the field when the
plants are very wet from rain or dew.
If the drills have not been made too far
apart, it will be found that the plants
will soon shade the soil sufficiently to
keep the weeds in check and to keep the
surtace in good condition, so that much
cultivation will be necessary. In fact,
on good soil very fine crops have been
obtained with but a single stirring of
the soil after the seed had been planted.
Asa rule, this crop will require a smaller
amount of cultivation than corn.
HARVESTING.
Thetime for harvesting the soy bean
crop will necessarily depend somewhat
upon the use for which the crop is in-
tended. From the analyses given in the
following table it will be noticed that
the plants, cut when the pods are well
developed, contain larger amounts of
_erude protein and fat than those cut at
early stages. But from feeding experi-
ments it seems likely that more of the
plant will be eaten if cut in the earlier
stages, and hence it is doubtful if very
much is gained by the latter cutting.
Considering palatability and _ digesti-
bility as well as chemical composition, it .
is probable that the best forage will be
obtained by cutting just as the pods are
forming.
COMPOSITION OF THE SOY BEAN AT
DIFFERENT STATES OF GROWTH.
= : ie eS Has?
Sasa oo =) GBVdeg
A= Bo y a) a2 BE Bo
Water-free bstance. o% § 2 = 3 of e236
Smo S83 oe SORA
eT cee | wibeh Ps SZ s253
fe : ae eetey ifs, phic)
Protein 12°84 3-38 | 14°41 14°43
Fats ba a 2°57) 0°80 3°78 3°85
Nitrogen-free extract 50°(5 9°25 46°83 55°70
Crude fibre .. 27°31 81°34 28°20 20°38
Ash . 7°23, 5'23 678 5°64
If the crop is to be used for soiling
purposes, cutting can begin when the
plants are in early bloom and can be
kept up until the pods are beginning to
ripen, though the length of the season
will vary somewhat, according to the
different varieties, some being better for
this purpose than others. If the crop is
to be cured for hay, it may be cut when
the plants are in full bloom or the pods
beginning toform, but this will also vary
according to the variety grown, since
some of the varieties begin to drop their
hf ve Rey
leaves much earlier than others, and it
is quite important that as many of the
leaves should be saved as possible. It
will be noticed from the preceding table
that in the stalk of the plant the per-
centage of protein and fat is very low,
and that of the crude fibre is very high ;
hence the most important of the food
elements are found in the leaves,
When the crop is to be preserved in
the silo, it will be best to cut it at about
the same stage as when used for hay.
However, the plants can be eut at a
later stage for the silo than for hay,
since they are preserved in a much more
palatable condition than when cured as
hay, and the cutting necessary in pre-
paring for the silo leaves the plant in
condition to be more easily masticated
by the animals.
Because of its coarse habit of growth
the soy bean is somewhat difficult to
cure satisfactorily in moist climates. A
good plan to follow in curing is to allow
the plants to lie in the swath or wind-
row until well wilted (but not until
they begin to become brittle), and then
gather into small piles. Care should be
taken to see that these piles are so con-
structed as to admit of thorough venti-
lation to the very centre, in order that
the plants may not mold and spoil.
The hay should be handled as little as
possible in curing and carrying to the
barn or shed, in order that the leaves
may not be broken off and lost.
Under ordinary conditions the earlier
varieties will mature in 75 to 90 days
from the time of planting. Itis possible,
however, and often even desirable, in
harvesting the crop for seed to cut be-
fore the pods are entirely mature. If
they become too ripe, they are liable to
burst open in drying and carrying to
the machine, and thus a portion of the
seed may belost. Some growers recom-
mend cutting for seed when the pods are
only about half mature. This is undoubt-
edly a good practice if the straw is to
be used for feeding purposes, as in that
ease it will contain a larger amount of
digestible nutrients, and will be much
more palatable than if allowed to stand
until the pods are thoroughly mature.
In harvesting a crop for the seed, the
plants may be pulled by hand or cut
with ascythe or mower and gathered
into small piles, which should be rela-
tively high and of a small diameter, so
that the plants may dry out readily.
Thrashing can be done with a flail or
with the thrashing machine. Very good
results can be had with common grain
thrashers by taking out a portion or all
of the canvas and substituting blanks
[OcToRER, 1908.
OcroBER, 1908.]
YIELD.
The amount of forage obtained from
the soy bean will, of course, vary wide-
ly, according to the conditions under
which the crop is grown. Under favour-
able conditions as much as 12 or 13 tons
of fresh fodder may be produced per
acre. In the New England States,
under the ordinary farm conditions,
yields of from 9 to 12 tons per acre are
reported from the medium early varie-
ties. The early varieties yield, as arule,
a less amount of forage. Inthe South,
where the later and coarser varieties
are grown, larger yields may be obtain-
ed. But in some parts of the South
the yields have been so light that the
crop hasbeen regarded as an unprofitable
one to grow, and in some parts of colder
Northern States the season is too short
for any but the very earilest varieties,
and these often fail to matureseed. At
the South Carolina Station, yields of 2
to 24 tons of cured hay per acre are
reported, and similar amounts have been
obtained in many other portions of the
United States. In Japan, the earlier
varieties are said to afford on an average
from 14 to2tons of well-cured forage
per acre. At tbe North Carolina Sta-
tion, in an experiment in which the soy
bean andthe cowpea were grown un-
der similar conditions, a yield of nearly
2+ tons of well-cured hay was obtained
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE
327
Edible Products.
from one acre of soy bean, while from
one azre of cowpea alittle less than a
ton was secured,
Under ordinary conditions 25 to 40
bushels of seed per acre will be an
average yield. If the conditions are
very favourable, the’ yield may reach
100 bushels. On the other hand, drought
‘and poor soil may reduce the yield to 15
bushels or even less. In the experiments
by Professor Georgeson, mentioned inthe
preceding pages, a yield of over eight
bushels per acre of well-cleaned seed
was obtained from a field planted after
a crop of rye had been harvested. In
this case the beans were cultivated
but once, and grew under very adverse
conditions of both soil and climate.
When it is remembered that this was
the second crop from the land that
season, and that the beans brought $2
per bushel, it will be seen that the
crop was a profitableone to grow. :
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION,
The following tables on the chemical
composition of the various parts of
the soy bean used for feeding purposes
have been aranged with great care, to
show as far as possible the latest and
best results obtained by experimenters
in the United States during the course
of their studies of this plant :—
Vv
ARIOUS KINDS oF FoRAGE MADE
FROM THE SoY BEAN,
| Coo As
| Fresh or air-dry substance, Saree
Wiss | es
| ® | |
} Ps | 2 Al 3
& eee iss a8
JA 7 | 3S ae qj |v Fal gq 5 ®
Soy-bean Forage. 4s 3 % Ee Ea 3 eae one
WS MASE On ah Meee be rea OWN esl oles Oh ye
[i ai | ned ey et ey eet ag ea la, li Bete lice
Fodder (early bloom to early seed)! 18 |76°5) 3°6| 1.0 10°1) 6:5) 2:3|15-3| 4:1 |43-0|27-6 [10-0
Soy-bean hay (Japanese) «| 1 /16°0]16-9] 2-2 /23°1/35°9) 5-9/20-1| 2:6 27-5 /42-7| 7°0
Soy-bean hay (Mass) 4 |12°1|14-2| 4-1 |42°2 (21-1) 73/162] 4°7|46'8 124-0] ...
Soy-bean straw (Mass) ... w) 8 |LU4] 4:9] 1-9/87°8'37°6) 6:4) 5:5] 2-2/42-7 142-4
Soy-bean straw (hulls and vine
after thrashing) .| 1 | 5°27} 4:0] 0:8/86°0 49-5 3-9 [4:25 10-85 [38-2 [52-6] 5°3
Soy-bean seed Wy 8 10°83 34-0 |16-9 28'S) 4-8) 4-7 388-1 |18-9 32-21 5-4| 5:3
Soy-bean meal in 2 |10°4/36:0|18-9 27°0 | 2:6 | 5-1 |40°2/21-0 30-2! 2:9] 5°7
Soy-bean ensilage ne 1 (74-2) 4:1] 2:2) 70) 9:7! 2-8)15-7| 8:7 27-0 /37°6|11°0
Corn and Soy-bean ensilage 4 |76°0) 2:5] 0-8 11-1} 7-2| 2:4 |10-4} 3'3/46-3 130-0] ...
Millet and Soy-bean ensilage 9 (79-0! 2:8; 1:0| 7:2) 7:21! 2:8 |18°3’ 4°8/34:3 [34°38
Water-tree sub-
If the preceding analyses are compared The green fodder has much the same
with those of other leguminous crops, composition as red clover, being slightly
it will be seen that the soy bean ranks lower in crude protein and higher in
high from a chemical point of view. crude fibre. Inthe two most important
Edible Products.
substances, crude protein and fat, the
soy bean is considerably richer than the
cowpea. The hay also shows a rela-
tively high fat and protein con-
tent. The only available analysis of
soy-bean ensilage shows it to agree
very closely in composition with red
clover ensilage, being higher in crude
fibre and fat, and lower in extract
matter. Krom the analysis of the beans
it will be seen that these are about two-
fifths protein and one-sixth fat, with
but very little fibre present, making
them almost as rich in crude protein as
the best cotton seed-meal, with a higher
percentage of fat. They contain three
times as much crude protein and nearly
three anda haif timesas much fat as
oats ; nearly three and one-half times as
much protein and about three times as
much fat as corn, and almost twice as
much crude protein and over twelve
timesas much fat peas; allof which
shows them to form one of the most con-
centrated of our feeding stuffs.
The accompanying table gives an
excellent comparison of the yield and
composition of soy bean and fodder corn
under similar conditions, and shows how
admirably the one supplements the other
when both are used in the feeding ration.
At the Massachusetts Hatch Station,
Longfellow corn gave an average yield
ot 16 tons of green fodder per acre, and
medium early green soy bean gave a
328
[OcroBER, 1908,
little over 10 tons. The soy bean, cut
when the pods had formed but not
hardened, afforded a little over 30 per
cent. of dry matter, and Longfellow
corn, cut when the ears were glazed,
gave a little less than 28 percent. The
total amounts of the various food con-
stituents produced ‘by each crop on an
acre of ground may he seen by the
following table :—
TortaL AMOUNTS IN PoUNDS oF FooD
CONSTITUENTS PRODUCED ON AN
ACRE OF LAND BY Soy BEAN
AND FODDER CORN.
Flesh Fatand heat producors.
Crops. formers:
Protein. Crude fat. Fibre. Extract
matter.
Green soy bean .. 1,167°2 23°4 1,418'1 2,430°9
Longfellow fodder
corn Me SMOICD) 290°1 1,626°0 5,616°8
DIGESTIBILITY.
The chemical analysis alone will not
prove the feeding value of a forage crop.
Other points must be considered, one of
the most important of which is the per-
centage of digestibility of the various
nutrient substances found in the plant
at the time it isfed to the animal. As
yet very few experiments on the digesti-
bility of the soy bean have been carried
outin the United States, and of these
the greater part has been made at the
Connecticut (Storrs) Experimeut Station.
Sheep have been used in most of the
tests. |
DIGESTIBILITY OF SoyY-BEAN FORAGE.
Soy-bean forage. pengiee
Soy-been fodder Sheep
Soy-bean mealand timothy hay do.
Soy-bean meal alone (calculat-
ed from the above mixture)
Soy-beans (seed) Ks
Soy-bean pods te ig do.
Soy-bean straw do.
Soy-bean hay... do.
: Goats
Soy-bean ensilage Chobits
Corn and soy-bean ensilage ...| Sheep
Barnyard millet and soy-bean
ensilage do.
Comparison of the preceding percent-
ages with those of the clovers, cowpeas,
alfalfa, and other legumes shows that
the soy bean stands well as to its digesti-
bility, especially as regards the more
important nutrient substances.
O.
.{(Ruminants
Ce a)
a F Bs Qs
A q m ) qo
gs| 3 on) 5 | eel g
Seis, | 3 182 1 BUG ae
tal Meta 2 15S Of) <
7, Oy ia 4
Shand
8: | 75°1 | 54:0 | 73°2 | 47:0 | 64:5 | 189
8 | 77:7 | 7°36 | 662 | 613 | 69-1 | 471
8 | 85°38) 84:9] 734] ... | 78:0 | 21°3
2 | 87:0) 94:0} 62:0] ... Bai0 sl Ieee
2 | 44:0 | 57:0) 73°0| 51:0 | 63:0) ...
4 | 50:0 | 60:0 | 66°0 | 88:0 | 55°0
6 | 70:0 | 80°0 | 67:0 | 56:0 | ...
2 11760 | 72:0 | 52:0) 59'0 | ar
2 | 55:0 | 49°0 | 61:0 | 48°0] 1. oo
3:0) $65°0. | '82°0 | 75:0/)/ Gai0") aie Ae
4 | 57:0! 72:0! 59:0 ' 69:0! ... ee
The following rough computation will
give an idea of the amount of digestible
matter in the forage raised on an acre
planted to this crop. Under ordinary
farm conditions the yield of green
fodder usually ranges from 6 to12 tons
ey Mey,
y Aer
‘pI ec alanes
‘Mie
'
OcTOBER, 1908. |
peracre. Taking 8tons as an average
yield, the amount ot dry matter will be
about 2 tons, of which about 54 per cent.
is digestible. This will make the
digestible matter raised on an acre of
ground amount to nearly ;, tons. Of
this amount about one-sixth is protein
or muscle-making material, and about
three-fourths crude fibre and other fat-
forming substances. ‘
Soy-bean meal has a high percentage
of digestibility. It contains almost two
and a half times as much digestible
protein and over five times as much
digestible fat as the common roller-
process wheat bran, and its digestibility
is decidedly higher in everything but
the fat than that of cotton-seed meal.
VALUE AND USES AS A SOILING CROP.
One of the most important uses of the
soy bean is for green forage. The great
variation in the season of maturity of
the various varieties makes it possible
to have a succession of forage lasting
throughout a great part of the summer
and autumn. Wherever tried it has prov-
ed a most valuable forage for milk pro-
duction. At the Massachusetts Station
soy bean fodder gave excellent results
in every combination tried. | — | 10°80 | 33°98 | 16°85 | 28°89 4‘79 4°69 |} 38:10 | 19:00
Comparatively little information i thelarge amounts of protein and fat
available concerning the chemical char-
acter of the different constituents of the
soy bean. According to the Japanese
investigators, the bean contains on
an average 7°5 per cent. of nitrogen—
69 per cent. being albuminoid nitro-
gen, exclusive of peptones, Ol per
cent. amide nitrogen, and 0°3 per cent.
nitrogen of peptones. Osborne studied
the nitrogenous constituents of white or
kidney beans. He found that they con-
tained on an average 23'5 per cent. of pro-
tein, made up of phaselin and phaseolin,
The percentage of protein in the soy
bean is much higher than this, and it is
not improbable that it differs materially
in chemical character. According to
Japanese authors, the soy bean contains
no starch. No statements have been
sound concerning the character of the
at.
The’fact is well recognized that beans
of all kinds are valuable food because of
which they contain. In order that the
nutrients may be available, the beans
must be cooked or prepared in some way
so that the cell walls may be broken
down and their contents readily acted
upon by the digestive juices. What is
true of beans in general is especially true
of the soy bean. Though it is eaten
more extensively in China and Japan
than in any other countries, so far as
can be learned, it is never eaten there as
a vegetable, but more or less complex
food products are prepared fromit. At
least five preparations are commonly
made in Japan from the _ soy bean.
These are natto, tofu, miso, yuba, and
shoyu.
Natto is prepared by boiling the beans
in water for tive hours to render them
very soft. The hot massis then wrapped
in small potion in straw, and the bundles,
securely tied at both ends, are placed in
a cellar in which a fire has been kindled.
i
{OCTOBER, 1908.
i
ay
ay,
ci,
OcrosuR, 1908.)
The cellar is then closed for twenty-four
hours and the cooked beans allowed to
ferment in the warm, moist atmosphere.
The fermented product is a thick, viscid
pees, and has a peculiar but not putrid
odour.
Tofu, or bean cheese, is prepared as
follows :—The beans are soaked in water
for about twelve hours, and crushed
between millstones until of a uniform
consistency. The ground material is
then boiled with about three times its
bulk of water for about an hour, and
filtered through cloth. The filtrate is
white and oqaque, having somewhat the
appearance of milk. It has, however,
the taste and smell of malt. This milky
liquid, to some extent, resembles cow’s
milk in composition, asis shown by the
following table :—
COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF
Soy BEAN MILK AND Cow’s MILK.
: Soy Bean Cow’s
Constituents. milk. Salil
Per cent. Per cent.
Water ... 92°53 86°08
Albuminoids 3:02 4:00
abe i ssc is PAA 3 3°05
Fibre 0:03 =
Ash ifs fea O41 0°70
Nitrogen-freeextract,in-
eluding earbohydrates 1°88 —
Milk Sugar aes ve 5°09
The protein in soy bean is preceipi-
tated by adding the mother liquor
333:
Edible Products,
obtained in the manufacture of salt from
sea water, which contains considerable
magnesium chloride. The precipitate is
filtered off and formed into cakes with
the hands. It is eaten in the fresh state
or frozen. In the latter case it loses
part of its water.
Miso is prepared from cooked beans
which are rubbed to a thick paste and
fermented with rice wine ferment.
Miso is of two kinds, white and red, and
to some extent resembles tofu.
A sort of film forms on the surface of
soy bean milk which in appearance
suggests cream. This material is some-
times prepared in quantity by evapor-
ating the milk, and when dried it is used
as an article of food under the name
of yuba.
Shoyu is a sauce prepared from a
frozen mixture of cooked and pulverized
soy beans, roasted and pulverized wheat,
wheat flour, salt, and water. The mass
is fermented with rice wine ferment in
casks for from one and a half to five
years, being very frequently stirred.
The resulting product is a moderately
thick brown liquid. In odour aud taste it
is not unlike a good quality of meat ex-
tract, though perhaps a trifle more
pungent. Under tke name of soy sauce
it has been known in India, and to some
extent in Europe, for many years.
The composition of each of the above-
gescned foods is given in the following
table :—
COMPOSITION oF Foop PRODUCTS MADE FROM Soy BEANS.
Boy Besrifood| water. | Protein. | Hat, | trees | Fibre Ash
products. ater, rotein. : ae . ;
| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Fresh tofu 89:00 =| = 5:00 S402 0 2°00 “en 0°50
Fresh tofu 89°29 4°87 act 4°35 os 0°48
Frozen tofu .. 18°70 48°50 28°50 2°60 be 1:70
Natto 15°32 41°42 23°65 15°05 1-48 3°08
Yuba 21°85 42°60 24°62 _ 7:65 ae 2:82
White miso 50°70 5°70 24° 40 12°60 6°60
Red miso 50°40 10°08 18°77 8°25 12°50
Swiss miso 12°53 | «26°48 1391 19-54 141 | 26°18
Shoyu O3°29 1 1) 8:31 Ae 5°10 | 19-45
Shoyu 67°42 7°37 4:06 17°47
It will be noticed that most of these
soy bean products are fermented; that
is, they are prepared with the aid of
micro organisms. The cell walls . and
other carbohydrate material are broken
down and the cell contents rendered
more accessible to the digestive juices,
and at the same time peculiar and
pleasant flavours are developed. The
special micro organisms used in the
preparation of these foods have been
studied in recent years. The manu-
facture of these products is of very
ancient origin, and affords an interest-
ing practical illustration of the use of
bacteria for economic purposes.
Edible Products.
Though these soy bean products are
prepared chiefiy in Japan and other
eastern countries, their manufacture has
been attempted to some extent in
Switzerland and elsewhere.
The statement is frequently made that
the Japanese live almost exclusively
upon rice, eating little or no meat. It
is not, however, generally known that
the deficiency of protein in the rice is
made up by the consumption of large
quantities of shoyu, miso, or other soy
bean products. It is stated on good
authority that these products actually
take the place of meat and other nitro-
genous apimal foods in the Japanese
dietary. They are eaten in some form
or other by rich and poor at almost
every meal.
Alarge number of dietary and diges-
tion experiments have been made in
Japan in which soy bean preparations
formed a considerable part of the
food consumed, although no _ experi-
ments have been made, so far as can be
learned, in which such preparations
were eaten alone. Generally speaking,
the nitrogen was well assimilated. For
instance, when 12 grams of nitrogen was
consumed daily, the dietary consisting
of bean cheese and rice, only 0:1. gram
of nitrogen was excreted in the feces.
When 18:9 grams of nitrogen was con-
sumed daily, in a dietary of bean cheese
and barley, only 1:14 grams was excreted
in the feces. According to the author,
in a dietary containing a large amount
of been cheese, 90 per cent. of the protein,
89°9 per cent. of the fat, and 14°5 per cent.
of the crude fibre are digestible. The
general opinion of Japanese investiga-
tors and others familiar with oriental
dietetics is, that the protein in articles
of food prepared from soy beans is ina
very available form, and that these pre-
parations are most valuable foods.
Bean sausages in considerable variety
are prepared in Germany, and formed
part of the ration of the German soldier
in the Franco-Prussian war. So far as
can be learned, these are always made
from ordinary varieties of beans and
not from soybeans.
Since soy beans contain no starch,
they have been recommended as food
for persons suffering from diabetes. A
soy bean bread is manufactured for this
purpose in Paris.
Under the name of coffee beans, soy
beans are eaten to some extent in
Switzerland as a vegetable, and dried
and roasted are also used as a coffee
substitute. Their use for this latter
purpose is not unknown in America.
The attempt has recently been made by
{Al
i ack Ph
ary yy 5
Aye 9
334 [Ocrosmr, 1908. —
certain dealers to place the soy bean on
the market as a new substitute for
cotfee and to sell it under other names at
an exorbitant price,
Bulletin No. 98 of the North Carolina
Experiment Station recommends soy
beans as a palatable vegetable when pre-
pared as follows: Soak the beans: until
the skins come off and stir in water
until the skins rise to the surface and
then remove them. Boil the beans with
bacon until soft, season with pepper,
salt, and butter, and serve hot. If the
beans are green the preliminary soak-
ing may be omitted. No other references
to the use of soy beans for human food
in the Unitea States have been found.
—U. 8S. Depuriment of Agriculture, Far-
mers’ Bulletin, No. 58.
COCONUT OIL IN THE STATES.
According to the Oi, Paint, and
Drug Reporter, the continued quiet in
the New York Market for coconut oil
has had a depressing effect, yet both
Ceylon and Cochin, all things taken
into consideration, have held their own
fairly well, the wonder being that, with
so many natural conditions against it,
the market has not gone much lower.
Starting in January, Ceylon oil was
barely steady at 7} cents, and there
was little support from buyers who
have been particullarly shy this year in
the matter of contracts. It has been
a hand-to-mouth business, and what
little stock there is is in the hands of the
importers. Gradually the market weak-
ened under the pressure of compettion,
and the lack of interest shown, until
Ceylon oil was freely offered at 63 cents.
The depression is not wholly due to
quiet times, but to excessive production
of raw material at primary points.
Seldom indeed has so much copra been
produced as isshown by present_ stocks.
It is estimated that there has been an
out-turn of 370,000 tons all told, of which
200,000 tons are credited to Java and the
Dutch East Indies, 60,000 tons to the
Straits Settlements, 70,000 tons to the
Philippines, and 40,000 tons to Ceylon.
In comparison with other years the
excess has been remarkably heavy. In
1905 there were produced, all told,
286,000 tons, and during that year prices
held fairly steady, fluctuating only
between a low price of 6} cents and a
high of 6? cents. In 1906 the out-turn
was 290.000 tons, butit was a prosperous
year for the oil trade, and the market
showed unusual strength towards the
end. Starting in January at 6% cents,
there was a steady advance until at the
OcTOBER, 1908. } 93
‘close of December Ceylon oil was held
‘at 93 cents.
The yield of coprain 1907
was only 237,000 tons, and prospects
favoured high-priced oil. The strength
developed late in the preceding year
was easily maintained until the record
price of 10 cents was reached in March.
Since then, however, the course has
been ever downward, which lends col-
our to the belief that prices must have
been more or less fictitious. Be this as
it may, coconut oil has been steadily
declining. and by last December had
dropped fully 3} cents from the high-
level mark. At the close the local mar-
ket was quoted at 7} cents.
The present year, with its heavy
estimated production of copra and gen-
eral lack of demand, does not promise
great things. Starting at 7} cents,
Ceylon oil was gradually forced down '
until in Februray it sold on spot at 67
cents. In March the big fire in Mar-
seilles destroyed some4,000 tons of copra.
Under ordinary circumstances this
would likely have proved sufficient to
bring about an advance, but it had no
effect on the market at this time. In
fact, oil during the month of March
sold down to 64 cents. The present price
is 62 cents, and with no buying support,
and a heavy copra crop, the trade
might be excused for wondering whether
we are to havea recurrence of the low
prices of five years ago, when Ceylon
oil sold between 5 and 5? cents.—Tropical
Life, Vol. IV., No. 6. June, 1908.
COCONUT-PLANTING: TERRITORY
OF PAPUA.
(From Particulars supplied by Mr. N. R.
ScHRODER to “ Dalgety’s Review.”)
The interest which is being aroused
in the Commonwealth at the present
time by the possiblities of the territory
of Papua for coconut and rubber culti-
vation has induced Mr. N. R. Schroder,
of Milne Bay, Papua, to send us some
particulars of the former industry,
which we have pleasure in publishing
for the information of any intending
planters.
The territory is situated outside the
hurricane zone, has an agreeable climate,
and a plentiful rainfall (except in the
dry belt of the Central Division). Thus,
the planter has every advantage which
Nature can bestow to render his enter-
prise successful.
The soil is considered equal in richness
to any in the world, and our correspon-
dent’s experience leads him to express
5 Edible Products.
it as his opinion that, in the course of a
few years, when Australia has realised
what a valuable asset she possesses right
at her very doors, Papua will have
become the most prolific and richest
exporter of tropical products outside of
Ceylon. Labour is plentiful and cheap,
and land easily obtainable on the most
liberal terms.
A good deal has been written on the
subject of coconut-planting during the
last few years, mostly by people in India,
but comparatively little has been said
by those conversant with the conditions
obtaining in the South Sea Islands and
British New Guinea to help intending
planters who may be thinking of taking
up land in Papua,
With regard to choice of land for culti-
vation, if no island is available, and land
is taken up on the mainland, it should
be as flat as possible. If a river or two
run through the property, so much the
better. They will help to irrigate the
land, and coconut require a great deal
of water (running, not stagnant); if
there are any swamps they must be
thoroughly drained before any planting
is attempted.
After land has been taken up, the next
step is to obtain labour to cultivate it.
Boys” may be had from the local
recruiting vesseis at from £1 15s. to £2
per heed (for one-year boys). These
figures refer to New Guinea. In the
Solomon Islands the rate is from £4 to
£6 per head for three-year boys. The
food of these labourers consists of rice,
sweet potatoes, with meat twice a week.
They also get a tobacco allowance of,
say, two sticks per week. Their only
requirement in the matter of clothing is
one Lava-lava every three months, and
one blanket per boy per annum.
There are many ways of clearing land,
but the following method has been found
the best. After the forest has been cut
down, lop off all the branches of trees
and then run a fire through. After this,
stack all unburnt timber around stumps
and big logs, and fire once again. Do
this twice so as to leave as little dead
timber as possible on the plantation,
The timber, if left to rot, will in time
manure the ground, but this method
entails the harbourage of an immense
number of grubs and beetles, and these
insects, breeding rapidly, leave the old
logs and take up their residence in the
young sweet coconuts, causing untold
damage. By firing the ground tho-
roughly these insect pests are kept within
bounds.
Edible Products.
NURSERIES.
If there are no plantation near where
seed nuts may be obtained, great care
must be taken in the selection of nuts
for planting. Itis better to depend on
the natives for them, and to go per-
sonally and buy them, inspecting the
coconut-trees, and picking the nuts
therefrom, taking particular care that
the tree is not too old or too thin or too
tall, but a young, vigorous, solid, and
stout tree; also seeing that the nuts it
bears are plentiful in number, and of a
good shape. They should not be long
and narrow, but round, with little husk
and plenty of milk. Open them and
note how thick the flesh is. Do not
always choose the big-looking nuts, as
they may have a very large husk and
yet be small inthe nut proper. Take no
nuts from yellow-looking trees. The
dark-green trees are the best.
Having gathered all the seed nuts
required, make a nursery, hoeing up the
ground toa depth of about 1 foot, and
removing all weeds. In setting the seed
coconut cover about two-thirds of it.
laying itatan angle of about 45 degrees
in the earth, covering lightly with leaves.
When the young trees have reached a
height of 12 or 18 inches transplant to
the plantation, being careful to_pick
out all the healthiest and to condemn
the weak ones. This will be in about
three months after the setting in the
nursery.
From the foregoing it will be seen that
it is advisable to get the nursery going
early, soas to be ready to plant out
when land has been cleared and got
ready to receive the young plants. No
time is, therefore, lost by this arrange-
ment. Advantage should always be
taken of a downpour of rain, and plant-
ing out should be undertaken imme-
diately the ground is sufficiently mois-
tened.
In transplanting, a sharp knife should
be used in order to slice the roots off
close to the husk. Holes should be dug
about 2 feet in depth and 2 feet in dia-
meter, and the nut planted therein
about 9 inches below the surface, a fill-
ing of 9 inches of surface mould being
placed at the bottom of the hole. The
nut should then be completely covered.
Keep a ring of about 12 feet in diameter
around each plant, and the intervening
ground well hoed and free from weeds,
because the roots require a great deal of
air and light during the first three years
of the plant’s existence.
The lining out of nuts should be done
very carefully, so that the trees are in
line both horizontally and traversely,
336
[OCTOBER, 1908.
and so that they are not more than 30
feet apart. No other ‘trees*should be -
planted in between. Some planters have
planted 33 feet apart, and are now
putting rubber between the rows. This
is considered a mistake, as both classes
take a great deal out of the ground, and
asthey attain to maturity their roots
will become interlocked. Thus they will
be fighting for supremacy beneath the
surface, and are bound* to eripple each
otherin the long run. If itis desired to
cultivate both classes of trees, Mr.
Schroder’s advice is to. strictly plant
them apart.
Insect PEsts.
Beetles will, of course, be found on
every plantation, however well kept it
may be; but the clearing of the land of
all dead timber will make the number
very much less than if the logs were left
to rot away on the ground. More beetles
have been found in the coconut-trees
planted on the outskirts of a plantation
where the bush is rubbing shoulders, so
to speak, than in the plantation itself,
whence all dead timber has been
removed.
There are several kinds of beetles ini-
mical to coconuts. The big ‘‘Rhino-
ceros”’ species seems to do most damage.
This beetle grows to a length of 2 inches
and a girth of linch. It burrows a way
through the young trees right into the
soft heart. It does not require much
imagination to estimate the damage this
pest can cause. The tree willlook quite
healthy, new shoots will spring out, and
coconuts appear ason any other tree,
but the nuts will never ripen—as soon as
the flesh begins to form in it the nut
will drop off.
Until the beetle has been got out of
the tree, the planter need not look for
any return for all his work and outlay
of money ; for the creature will continue
to eat its way upwards towards the new
shoots, and all the nuts will be affected
the same as the first. This beetle, how-
ever, can be extracted by an easy
process.
Procure a wire about 8 feet in length,
with a handle at one end and the other
end twisted corkscrew fashion. Now,
look under the leaves and you will notice
that the cloth around the tree appears
as if it had been chewed by a rat; pull it
away and the beetle’s hole will he
visible; then push the wire up as far as
it will go, twist it round, and in nine
instances out of ten you will succeed in
extracting the beetle. Dust the leaves
near the trunk with Paris green, also
putting Paris green in the hole. This
will destroy any eggs the beetle may
Ocrosur, 1908.}
have left behind. A boy can be taught
this method, and in a very little time he
will become ‘quite an expert. It is well,
however, to give him a tin and to make
him bring the capiured beetles to you.
It will be a matter of surprise what
a large number he will find on a
plantation where the logs have heen
left to rot on the ground between the
trees.
Another small beetle which is very
plentiful attains a length of half an inch
but is very thin. It has a light-brown
head and a dark body. This insect enters
very young trees and feeds on the leaf that
is just forming. Trees that are infested
with this pest are easily distinguishable,
for dry spots appear on the leaves. The
presence of the beetle does not kill the
tree, but retrads its growth consider-
ably. Wood ashes or Paris green is an
effective remedy; open out the new
leaf very carefully and dust in the
same manner as for the ‘‘ Rhinoceros”
beetle.
The grub isanother source of annoy-
ance tothe coconut-planter. He enters
the tree from the roots and works his
way upwards, His presence can be
detected by the grating sound which
he makes. When the sound has been
located a hole should be cut in the
tree and the grub extracted. Fortun-
ately, this pest is seldom met with,
and visitations are rare from it in
Papua.
If the plantation be near the sea-front,
all intervening timber should be cut
away right down to the water’s edge, as
the coconuts require plenty of air, and
the salt sea breeze is very beneficial to
them. Seaweed, too, makes an excel-
lent manure, and helps the young
nut considerably. It may be remarked
here that the first two flowers should
Be cut off, as this strengthens the young
ree.
ESTIMATE OF EXPENSES AND RETURNS:
For the further guidance of intend-
ing investors, a table is append-
ed which gives approximately Mr.
Schroder’s idea of the expenses incurred
in runnirg two plantations of 1,000
acres, and of the profits to be derived
thereform.
This estimate, our correspondent men-
tions, is based upon a very low price for
the product—viz,, £10 per ton. Copra
he putsdown at £16 per ton in Sydney ;
but £10 he considers a bed-rock figure,
below which the market is very unlikely
to go for many years.
43
337
Edible Products.
EXPENSES FOR THE First YEAR—AREA
PLANTED, 500 ACRES.
ES
Manager 800
Assistant Manager 200
200 boys 900
Tools 125
23,000 seed nuts (imported) 231
Food for boys.. 150
Incidentals a 100
Recruiting, tobacco, “medicine,
blankets ae 500
Returning boys 100
Manager’s and Assistant’ s house .. 250
£2,856
SECOND YEAR—AREA PLANTED,
3800 ACRES.
£.
Manager 300
Assistant Manager 200
150 boys 595
20,000 ee nuts 140
Food for boys nd 125
Recruiting, tobacco, medicine,
blankets a 40C
Returning boys 75
Incidentals 100
£1,935
THIRD YEAR—AREA PLANTED,
180 ACRES.
£.
Manager 300
Assistant Manager 200
boys 450
11,000 seed nuts 77
i Recruiting, &e. 350
Incidentals 100
Food for boys 75
Returning boys 50
£1,602
FourRTH, FIFTH, SIXTH, SEVENTH,
AND EIGHTH YEARS. 2
Manager 300
Boys 450
Tools 50
Recruiting, &e. 350
Food 15
Returning boys 50
Incidentals Be ABH 100
Two Native Overseers ... 48
£1,428
SUMMARY.
£.
Hirst year 2,856
Second year 1,985
Third year ... 1,602
Roun fifth, sixth, seventh, and
eighth years “ 7,115
£13,508
Edible Producis, 338 — [OcroRER, 1908. a
‘EXPENSES PER YEAR 1,000 ACRES
FULLY PLANTED AND BEARING.
&.
Manager Ast ay 300
Two Native Overseers... a7 48
Boys’ wages ... ce 450
Freight to Sydney, £1 10s. per ton 984
Insurance, commission, 5s. per ton 164
Incidentals ... ane ape 100
Imports ae on ‘ies 100
Recruiting and returning boys, &c. 300
£2,446
1,000 acres, bearing 53 trees to
one acre.
=53,000 trees in all at
60 nuts on each tree (low estimate)
8,180,000 nuts in all
5,000 nuts to one ton copra
636 tons copra per year
£10 per ton Sydney price
£6,360 income per annum
TorsaL INCOME, EXPENSES, AND Net In-
COME 1,000 ACRES, FULLY BEARING.
£&
Income AS te 6,360
Expenses Ps fa 2,446
Net Income ued £3,914
During the first six years there is no
income to speak of, with only a little
during the seventh and eighth years.
It is in the early stages, says Mr.
Schroder, all expenses and hard work;
but, with the exercise of economy, a
1,000-acre plantation ought to be
brought to maturity for £18,500.—
Queensland Agricultural Journal, Vol.
XX. Part 6, June, 1900.
COCONUTS IN PORTO RICO.
It is believed that there are good pros-
pects of profit in connection with the
coconut industry of Porto Rico, and the
report of the Experiment Station of the
island (1907) states that coconut planta-
tions are increasing in number, while in
addition a good deal of general planting
of coconut trees is also being "done. The
accompanying notes are taken from the
report :—
Efforts have been made by officers at
the Experiment Station to obtain some
data in regard to the number of fruits
a tree will bear during the year. Though "
many countings have been made, the e
variation has been found to be so great
that as yetitis impossible to give any
accurate figures. Trees have been ob-
served bearing as many as 225 nuts at
one time, anda crop of from 125 to 159 ,
nuts has been found very common in ‘
the section where the coconut trees
appear to flourish best. Most authors
reporting on this subject give an
average of 120to 125 nuts for the whole
year, but from data gathered here it
would seem as though there is a higher
average in the better coconut sections of
Porto Rico.
Cultivation, fertilization, and seed
selection are found to have an
important infiuence on the rapidity of
development of a coconut plantation, as
well as on its productiveness. Krom
data obtained it can be strongly recom-
mended to those starting new groves
that they look carefully to the physical
condition of their soil, the selection of
their seed, and the cultivation and ferti-
lization of the trees. By paying atten-
tion to these points they may gain from
one to three years in the development of
the plantations.
Thus far none of the dreaded coconut
diseases have been observed or reported.
There are some minor “diseases present
in the groves, but they are almost
entirely due to neglect of the trees and
are not to be feared by the careful
grower.—A gricultural News, Vol. VIL.,
No, 161, June, 1908.
GUAVA JELLY.
The fact that guava fruits decay so
readily on reaching a stage of ripeness
renders their shipment on a commercial
scale to outside countries almost impos-
sible. The culture of the guava, how-
ever, need not be the less remunerative
on this account, since well-prepared
guava jelly finds such a ready market
in all countries where it is once known,
that its production may well become a
substantial source of profit. This ques-
tion is referred to in the course of an
article ‘“‘Some opportunities in Sub-
tropical Fruit Growing,” that appeared
in the Yearbook of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, 1905, and which contains
/
— OctonrR, 1908.]
the following account of the methods
employed in Florida in the preparation
of jelly and other guava conserves :—
The guavas are picked up every morn-
ing and taken to the factory, where
they are weighed, and later sorted to
remove any bad fruits that may have
been delivered. The guavas are turned
into a boiler for preliminary cooking,
after which the juice is filtered through
aheavy, coarse fabric, which prevents
any of the pulp from passing through.
The juice is afterwards bottled or put
into jars, sterilized by means of heat,
sealed, and kept in these vessels until
the jelly is wanted on the market. The
quantity desired is then taken from the
containers, sugar is added. and the
juice is boiled long enough to give the
proper colour, when it is placed in the
jelly containers and sent to the market.
The fancy product is§put up in glass jars,
sealed and labelled Properly, while the
cheaper grades are placed in paper boxes,
in which form the jelly is sold as cheap
as 29e. per lb. retail.
In addition to guava jelly, another
product is sometimes made that resem-
bles the jelly in firmness, but which
might be briefly described as jellied
marmalade. This preparation is known
by several names, as guava cheese,
guava paste, ete. It is moulded in
various cubical or oblong shapes and
wrapped in oil paper. The formulas for
making it are very numerous, but in
general it is composed of the best of the
guava pulp, containing sufficient juice
to cause it to become firm like jelly when
properly cooked with the _ requisite
amount of sugar. In addition to jelly
and cheese, wine and vinegar are also
made from the guava, both of which are
said to be excellent.
Canned guavas are rarely seen outside
of the guava belt, but they make a fine
appearance and are delicious. To pre-
pare them for canning, the firm, ripe
truits are chosen, pared and quartered,
and then treated like any other fruit.
The more fastidious housekeepers choose
the thick-meated guavas, and in addition
to paring the fruits. they also remove
the seeds. The fruit that has become
too ripe to make good jelly, or is not
firm enough for canning, may still be
used for marmalade. [Kor immediate
table use, sliced guavas with sugar and
cream make an excellent dessert.
The Monserrat Preserving Industry
Company, whose products were referred
toin the Agricultural News, Vol. VII,
p. 52, make a speciality of guava con-
serves in different forms.— Agricultural
News, Vol. VIL, No. 161., June, 1908,
9
We
Edible Products,
MISCELLANEOUS HKCONOMIC
PLANTS.*
By J. C. WILLIs.
J, ABERIA.
Aberia, often united to Doryalis, is a
genus comprising some ten or eleven
species found in Africa (West, South,
and Abyssinia) and in Ceylot, but not in
South India (one of many things that
mark the former connection of Ceylon
with Africa). In most English botanical
text-books it is placed in the family
Bixineze, but in more modern classifica-
tions is placed in Flacourtiaceze.
The only Ceylon species, A. Gardneri,
Clos., called by the Sinhalese Ketambilla,
is a tree 16-20 feet high, much branched,
with male and female flowers on
separate trees. The pale purple fruit is
globular, about an inch in diameter,
with a velvety hairiness. It is found,
but not commonly, in the neighbourhood
of Kandy, Hanguranketa, Maturata,
Wilson’s Bungalow, and elsewhere from
1,000 to 4,000 feet elevation. Its greenish
flowers come outin June, and the fruit
is usually ripe in August. Plants are
sometimes for sale at Peradeniya at
25 cents each.
The fruit of this plant is eatable and
has quite a pleasant acid flavour, but a
great objection is the hairy skin, and it
is better made into jelly. Trying an
experiment in the manufacture of this the
other day, we found that eighty fruits
weighed 2 lbs. They were covered with
water and then boiled down to 2% Ilbs.,
to which 3 lbs, of sugar was added. This
was perhaps a little too much, but made
a distinctly good jelly, with a magni-
ficent colour. The jelly has proved of
much use in cooking with plantains.
The fruit is also said to make good tarts.
There is no information forthcoming
regarding the West African and Abys-
sinian species, other than that the fruits
of the latter are edible, but of the South
African species it is recorded that
A. rhamnoides and A. rotundifolia,
known as Zuurebesjes or Kaffir plums,
form a good jelly, while A. Caffra, the
Kei apple, is a popular eating fruit in
Natal. This species was long ago (at least
as early as 1884) introduced into Ceylon,
and planted at Peradeniya and Hakgala.
It has not yet fruited at Peradeniya,
but at Hakgala atree borea few fruit
in 1889 and until 1904, when it died.
There is another tree there, about
17 feet high, that has not yet fruited.
* In this series of papers I propose to give
the results of the examination and arrange-
ment of our departmental files which is now
going on as time permits, —J. C. W
Fidible Products. 840
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOW-
LEDGE OF CACAO FERMENTATION.
The following paper has been compiled
from the Dutch, by the acting Curator,
Government House Gardens, A. Fred-
holm, Esq. It is of considerable interest
to Cacao planters, and explains much that
was previously mysterious in the ‘“ Rule
of Thumb” methods so generally adopted
in carrying on the Fermentation of
Cacao.
There is still, however, the fact that the
quality of Cacao, though improved by
fermentation, depends more upon the
special variety cultivated, than upon
any method of fermentation which can
be employed.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF
THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO,
By Dr. J. SAck
In Bulletin No. 10 of ‘‘Inspectie van
den Landbouw in West Indie” issued
from Surinam, January, 1908, appears an
article by Dr. J. Sack entitled, ‘‘ Con-
tributions to the knowledge of the fer-
mentation of Cacao” recording some
useful researches. The following is a
brief synopsis of Dr. Sack’s work :—
After showing in afew concise para-
graphs, treating of the various modes
of Cacao-curing in vogue, that little
change has taken place therein since the
first shipment of Cacao was made from
Surinam to Holland in 1733, he suggests
that by the aid of scientific investigations
the curing may be improved so as to pro-
duce an article of higher market value.
The way to obtain this desirable end is
obviously by studying the fermentation
process by which the curing is done.
Before entering upon a description of
the process itself, he asks and replies by
means of experiments to three questions
regarding the nature of, and the condi-
tions needed for, fermentation.
. Question I.—Is the fermentation of
Cacao a Chemical or Biological process ?
In order to demonstrate whether the
fermentation is the result of purely Che-
mical reactions taking place among the
constituents of the pulp and the kernel
without the intervention of bacteria,
fungi or other organisms, Dr. Sack takes
four equal measures of Cacao numbered
1, 2, 8, and 4. Numbers 1 and 2 were
treated in the customary curing manner,
to number 3 was added formaldehyde,
and to number 4 chloroform, both pre-
parations destructive to life while not
nfluencing chemical activities. Flermen-
ation is always accompanied by rise of
emperature. In numbers 1 and 2 the
[OcTOBER, 1908.
temperature rose from 28°C. to 40°, in
numbers 3 and 4 it remained at 28°C,
Nos. 1 and 2 were now in their turn
treated with chloroform, with the result
that fermentation ceased shortly, reduc-
ing the temperature to 28°C.
This experiment establishes the fact
that the fermentation of Cacao is prima-
rily not a chemical but a _ biological
process.
Question 1I.—Is the free access of air
necessary to the fermentation process >
Four cylinders provided witha drainage
tube were made, and in each was placed
four kilograms of fresh cacao beans.
Two were so constructed that air could
freely circulate among the beans, the
other two were completly sealed. In
the two first cylinders the normal fer-
mentation preceded, in the two which
were air-tight the beans rotted.
Result.—F ree access of air necessary
during the fermentation process.
Question I1I.—Is the rise of temper-
ature caused by changes in the sugary
contents of the pulp?
The sweet taste of the pulp, as well as
the strong odour of vinegar given out
during the curing, points to the presence
of sugar in the pulp. Two lots of beans
were put to ferment. From one the pulp
was removed through washing, the other
lot retained the pulp. The unwashed lot
fermented, the washed failed to ferment.
After addition of syrup to the washed
beans, fermentation began.
These experiments proved that the
sugar in the pulp is essential to the fer-
mentation and the incidental rise of
temperature.
Dr. Sack goes on to discuss the fermen-
tation process itself. He divides his sub-
ject in two parts, viz., the fermentation
of the pulp which he ealls externa] fer-
mentation, and the fermentation of the
kernel the internal fermentation.
The external fermentation he describes
asfollows:—As soon as the beans are
heaped for fermentation microscopic
organisms, which have the power to con-
vert the sugar contained in the pulp
first into alcohol and subsequently into
vinegar, enter the mass. The change
from sugar to alcohol is caused by
fungi by which sugar in the presence of
water is changed into alcohol by setting
free oxygen, a well-known process. The
changing of the alcohol into vinegar he
considers an oxidation process caused
by bacteria and gives chemical formula
C2,, He O+02 = Cz Hi OF + He O. The
process requires free access of air and
during it heat is developed.
.
:
'
OcToRER, 1908.|
' The internal fermentation shows as
follows :—So long as the seed remains
alive, no chemical process seems to take
place, but, as soon as dead, such process
sets in. The temperature developed by
the fermentation of the pulp causes the
death of the contents of the kernel.
He made the following experiments to
establish the temperature at which
death took place. Tosecure for the ex-
periments well germinating and uniform
seeds special care was taken. ‘Ten seeds
were exposed for three hours to a tem-
perature of 43° C., all germinated. After
an exposure lasting six hours four ger-
minated but with unhealthy looking
sprouts. When exposed nine hours one
germinated. Of ten seeds which were
exposed for six hours to a44 C. tem-
perature none germinated.
As the temperature usually developed
during the external fermentation reaches
- 45° C. and is continued for at least four
days, it is fairly certain that all the
seed-germs are killed and the internal
fermentation has set in.
- The next, investigate the change of
colour taking place in the kernels. The
change from purple in the unfermented
bean to brown in the fermented appears
to be the result of some agent or agency
present in the kernelitfself, as no direct
“connection seems to exist between the
two (external and internal) fermenta-
tions. This agent is an enzyme, and a
series of experiments are conducted to
prove this assertion. A comprehensive
understanding of the subject can be
gained by noting the result of these ex-
periments without going into detailed
descriptions of them.
If kernels are finely pulverized the
change of colour takes place, free access
of air being essential.
Tf the kernels are previously steeped
in boiling water no colour-change occurs.
If to the steeped mass some unsteeped
kernels are added the colour changes.
The enzyme manifests the greatest
activity ata temperature ranging from
45°C. to 60°C. (optimum temperature).
Through the usual method of washing,
filtration and alcoholic precipitation a
culture of the enzyme was made. From
one kilo of beans about one-half gram of
culture was obtained.
When some of this enzyme-culture was
added to a quantity of pulverized beans,
which had been immersed in boiling
water, colouring took place in one hour.
When the temperature of the mass
was for five minutes raised to 100°C. (a
temperature at which enzymic activities
ddl
Edible Products.
generally cease) it retained its original
colour.
The chemical process occasioned by
the enzymic is explained thus :—
The beans contain a glucoside Cacao-
nine Osco Hgs Ois Na, (Hilger) and a large
percentage of water. During fermen-
tation oxygen is taken up. The result
of the fermentation is Theobromine,
C; Hs O2 Na. dextrose Co Hiz Os and
cacao red C17 H22 Or,
Ceo Hsg O15 Na +8 He O + 250 = C7 He
O2 Na + 6C¢ HizO6 + Ci7 Hye Org,
One molecule of Cacaonine, § molecules
of water and 24 molecules of oxygen are
thus converted into one molecule of
Theobromine, six molecules of dextrose
and one molecule of cacao red.
Theobromine is an alkaloid which im-
parts to Cacao its pungent and bitter
taste. Cacao red has been considered
the ingredient from which Cacao derives
its characteristic smell and flavour. Dr.
Sack by confirming Hilger’s and Lazarus’
work proves the fallacy of this sup-
position; Cacao red being a perfectly
tasteless and colourless powder.
As unfermented Cacao beans give no
scent in cooking, it is evident that the
scent is acquired through some product
of the fermentation. Some pulverized
fermented Cacac was distilled and re-
distilled with steam, anda volatile oil
called cacao-oil produced. This oil
possesses the scent and the flavour
pecular to cacao. It is present in small
quantities, 20 kg. of Cacao yielding only
lee. of the oil.
In closing Dr. Sack sums up the con-
tents of his paper :—
“While curing Cacao fungi enter the
pulp, setting up an alcoholic fermenta-
tion through which the sugar of the
pulp is split up into alcohol and oxygen ;
the alcohol is by admixture of the
oxygen of the air further oxydized
forming vinegar, during which process a
considerable amount of heat is developed.
This constitutes the external fermenta-
tion. When the temperature reaches
about 45° C, the germinating powers of
the seeds are destroyed. As soon as this
takes place the internal fermentation
sets in, which is an enzymic fermenta-
tion process causing the Cacaonine to
be split up into Theobromine, Acetrose,
Cacao red and Cacao-oil.”
The aim of Cacao-curing is threefold:
To remove the useless pulp, thereby
insuring the ‘‘ keeping” of the Cacao;
to produce theobromine, which gives to
Cacao its stimulating properties; and to
generate Cacao-oil which makes the
Cacao palatable.—Bulletin, Botanical
Departinent, Trinidad, No. 58, April, 1908.
Edible Products.
NUMBER OF PODS PRODUCED BY
TREES ON A CACAO ESTATE.
Following article 846 on the crop of a
single tree, published in April, 1907, a
leading planter has favoured the De-
partment with an account of a crop
for 1907, calculated by the number of
pods taken from (12) selected trees grow-
ing on four different sections of his
estate.
The actual number of pounds of Dry
Cacao cannot be accurately estimated,
as the size of the pods is not given, but
as it is seen that the 95 pods give 19 lbs.
of wet cacao, it allows 5 pods to the lb.
of wet cacao—and deducting 62°5 per
cent. forloss in curing, it would show a
return of some 24 lbs. of dry cacao per
342
[Ocrormr, 1908.
tree for selected trees on this estate.
As the accuracy of this calculation de-
pends upon a single weighing, further
experiment is necessary to correctly cal-
culate the weight of dry cacao to be
taken from any certain number of pods.
It is evident, however, that trees giving
a certain return of 3242 pods in one
year, are not uncommon, and the problem
should be capable of solution, which
would convert the trees now yielding
only a single pound of dry cacao per
annum, into trees yielding at least 10 to
15 lbs. of dry cacao.
If trees bearing over 800 pods per
annum were propagated by budding or
grafting, it is certain that larger yields
might be confidently expected. As an
officer of long experience I am convineed
that it can be done.—WHO WILL MAKE
THE HNDEAVOUR?
YIELD OF TWELVE Cacao TREES, DIEGO MARTIN WARD.
Pods Harvested from March 1st, 1907, to February 29th, 1908.
No. of Trees. | Total per
oe ara Picking.
1) ate aS Re ales: |.°9: |) 10 '|aam tes
3rd January, 1907 ..., : 9 | 12/15 [18 5 | 18) 17 | 15 | 29| 24] 138] 6 166
2nd April, a of 10 1/12 518) 29) Sie aaa | 7.) 18. ees eleeeae 202
DAE! ,, cs is Tb Ws Plece Mes lin sed ess ATCT Mae Pe f 64
23rd May . 92) 21 83) 64 864) ARG! TE) 414 Osean 134
27th June es ...|46| 4/16]16| 83] 5 | 30 | 84 | 10) 11 | 24 | 42 321
22nd July ss oe) BOM 71 Sl BO 27st es ees oe 13. | Ty Soa eel 249
27th August, B22, eA OMG 3) 90) aaa 226
24th September.,, seb MON DA Of 21) AN GR EMT OS he 0 |!) °4. 0) UNI RS 37
22nd October ,, sl OL CsONl Bylo O 4S era he 1 | 12 Gia 63
12th November ,, ee] Ot 0 1) Aa LZ OM AG G8... «8 ) Oi 99
srd December ., wee LA | 16 123) 4 | 4 MS 1 ).13° | 38 | bales 139
17th “6 3 oc} 82.114 142-0 3) TQ MNSS 4.50: | 41 |) 23a 307
8rd January, 1908 _ ...| 57 | 40 [113 | 11 | 22 | 21 | 85 , 29 | 88 | 84 | 22 | 11 533
9th ‘3 a ..| 25 | 81} 68 }17| 6] 19] 47] 17 | 14 | 75 | 36) 6 351
20th February ., ..| 88 | 10 | 81 | 16 | 18:| 19:1 59.) 28 \ 24 | 84 | 804737 344
Total per trees 1385 |142 1851 |189 [278 |181 [867 [242 [218 /355 |227 260 | 3,045
AVERAGE PER TREE FROM 12 TREES—
253°9 Pops.
The six best trees gave pods as fol-
lows :—
No. 7 367 |)
55
5 A bp a | Average per tree
i Fi eee 995 u from six trees—
ae the Wong | 324°3.
ein 260 J
— Bulletin, Botanical Department, Tri-
nidad, No. 58, April, 1908.
PRICKLY PEAR AS FODDER.
Some time ago, Mr. R. T. Keys, Mus-
wellbrook, wrote on the above subject
to the ‘‘Stock and Station Journal,” and
we drew attention to his remarks, as
some people have a firm belief in the
value of the pear, and not only as a
life-sustainer in dry seasons, but even
as a fattening fodder. Mr. Keys
remarks are as follows :—
By advocating the use of the noxious
weed at this adverse period of our
history, when stock-owners are eager
to discover drought-resisting _ plants,
OcrosEr, 1908.] .
Bas
a ea
much injury may be done to the pas-
toral industry by causing some graziers
to relax their efforts in the eradica-
‘tion of prickly pear, on account of
men of standing hastily giving it a
fictitious value, and mayhap thus cause
valuable properties to be overrun with
the pest ina year or two, and rendered
worthless. In a conversation [ had
with Mr. Maiden, the well-known _ bo-
tanist, and Curator of the Sydney
Botanical Gardens, a year or two ago,
we discussed the question of the utility
of prickly pear for fodder, and he
assured me that analyses by himself
and other scientists has proved beyond
doubt that the earth does not produce
a plant with less nutriment for stock
than the prickly pear, and he accord-
ingly urged every true friend of the
pastoral industry, and consequently
patriotic son of the State, to never
lose an opportunity in helping on the
work of its eradication. ‘‘If” added
Mr. Maiden, ‘‘ you were to put a handful
of pollard into a 400-gallon tank filled
with prickly pears, that small quantity
of pollard would have more life-sustain-
ing nutriment for stock than the whole
of the pears with which it had been
mixed.”
Mr. F. S. Bell, of Pickering, who has
had a life-long experience as a grazier,
recently put the prickly pear to a
thorough test, and no greater object
Jesson was ever given in New South
Wales of its utter worthlessness as
fodder than that which resulted from
the comprehensive experiments of my
esteemed neighbour. Like all stock-
owners, Mr. Bell was severely affected
by the drought, and could have turned
his cattle into a large paddock covered:
with prickly pear; but, having had
forty years’ experience of the plant, he
felt certain that trying to graze stock
upon it would be useless ; but he resolved
to thoroughly test it otherwise, and
prove if it were able to sustain bis
stock, and capable of helping them
through the severely dry time we were
experiencing. He, therefore, had consi-
derable quantities of the prickly pear
plants cut, and went to great expense
in erecting pots in different parts of his
paddocks for the thorough boiling of
the pears. In this way he fed 400
bullocks for nearly three months, but
they did no good on the prepared pear
fodder, became poorer from week to
week, until at last Mr. Bell had to send
them away to the coast to save their
lives.
No better trial of the value of the
pear than the foregoing was ever given
in Australia, and no more experienced
or practical man to deal with the sub-
343
Edible Products.
ject under notice can be found in the
Commonwealth than the gentleman who
made the test. Yet, in the face of this
lifelong experience and complete test,
Mr. Peele will contend that cattle were
fattened at Womblebank on the worth-
less and noxious plants. I might also
be permitted to point out to Mr. Peele,
and anyone who may think with him,
that the Hunter River stock-owners
have had more experience of prickly
pear than the graziers of any other
part of Australia, inasmuch as the
noxious weed was first brought to Scone
in the thirties, and they are unanimous
in condemnation of the pest; a number
of the most experienced of them hav-
ing recently had miles of prickly pear
to put their stock on, had they so
desired, but they sent their cattle to
the coast, knowing that it would be
madness to try and keep them alive on
the noxious plant.
With. regard to the Womblebank
bullock theory, an old Womblebank
stockman who has been recently visit-
ing Muswellbrook has given me what
seems to be acorrect version of the pear-
fattening story, and a very reasonable
explanation of how the fattening of the
stock in question was effected. It appears
that at Womblebank there isan extensive
growth of pears that covers an area of
15 miles, but the vegetable products on
that portion of land do not consist
solely of prickly pears, for an exploration
of the locality disclosed the fact that
it contained patches of good grass 10,
15 and 20 acres in extent, which had
been preserved by the surrounding
growth of pears, that, barrier-like, had
kept cattle out until the great scarcity
of food caused the bullocks to break
through and reach the grass, which
although old and dry, was still nutritious,
and enabled the bullocks to preserve
tbeir condition when stock in other
parts of the run wasted away, the pears,
as explained, therefore getting un-
deserved credit for the fattening result.
I am well aware that Mr. Peele is as
much interested as anyone else in the
welfare of the State, and _ strongly
desirous of promoting the pastoral in-
dustry; but, his ill-advised, though
strong, advocacy of the use of the
prickly pear, by influencing others,
might some day cause an intelligent
Government to take steps to protect
the noxious weed to the general detri-
ment of the landholders of the country.
It is, therefore, to be hoped that he
will discontinue his advocacy of the
use of the pear till possessed of full
information in its regard, and which
J am sure will convince him of its
worthlessness.
Edible Products. 344
I will concede that stock will eat
prickly pear when all edible grass and
serub have failed, and while feeding on
it will require little or no water; but
they will never thrive on it, as has
been conclusively proved by the illus-
trations given.
Anyone who will take the trouble
to open beasts that have been fed on
prickly pear will see the mouths and
entrails penetrated with thorns, and
then realise the cruelty, as wellas the
futility, of giving the animals such
food.—Queensland Agricultural Jour-
nal, Vol. XXI., Part 2., August, 1908.
PINEAPPLE CULTURE. IV.
HANDLING THE CROP.
INTRODUCTION.
The evolution of the methods of pre-
paring pineapples for market has cover.
ed a period of about twenty years-
From a crude beginning the methods
have gradually changed from year to
year, until now the care given to the
handling of the pineapple crop wiil com-
pare favourabiy with that bestowed
upon any other fruit found in our fruit
markets.
At first, pineapples were shipped in
old or disearded barrels with holes
chopped in their staves to ensure ventil-
ation. An old jute sack put over the
top and held in place by the top hoop
served asacover. About 1890 the barrel
crate, 12 by 20 by 386 inches, was in use
and continued to be used until discarded
in favour of the crate, holding approxi-
mately ahalf barrel, measuring 103 by
12 by 36 inches, This crate is still in use.
The crates at first were marked witha
pencil or brush, but finally the rubber
stamp was introduced.
Inthe packing of pineapples in the
early days no wrapping paper was used.
Then common newspapers were used for
wrapping. These were followed by
plain manilla sheets, and finally coloured
and stamped paper came into vogue.
The first pineapples (1885 and_ later)
were shipped by sail boat on the Indian
River to Titusville. thence they were
hauled across to the St. John’s River to
be loaded on the steamer. It was not
util the present territory was opened
up by the railroad that the pineapple
industry took rank among the important
horticultural crops of the State.
PACKING HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT.
The pineapple packing house should
be so arranged as to give every possible
of ie
i, bil
convenience for handling the fruit. The
picking season is usually quite short,
the bulk of the fruit being removed in
about three weeks. During this time
the fruit must be moved rapidly to pre-
vent its becoming overripe, and a con-
veniently arranged packing house goes a
long way in facilitating the work.
As a general principle the fruit should
enter at one end or side of the building,
and as the several steps in the process
of packing are performed, it should be
moved away from the point of entry.
The packing house should be construct-
edso asto render lifting the fruit or
packed crates unnecessary. Plenty of
light, air and good protection against
heat should be afforded. If the house
can be placed close beside a side track,
so as to load the packed crates directly
into the car, it will be found very con-
venient, as well as less expensive.
The packing house need not be expen-
sive, but it should be well and substanti-
ally built. Two convenient houses have
been erected by Mr. C. T. McCarty,
President of the Florida State Horti-
cultural Society, Eldred, Fla. The first
of these is two stories high, 40 feet long
and 20 feet wide, surrounded by a plat-
form 8 feet wide. This platform is pro-
tected on the east and west by 8 feet of
overhanging roof. This gives a protect- -
ed platfor.a 80 feet long and 8 feet wide.
Inside the fruit bin extends along one
side the entire length of the building
(40 feet), It is 3 feet wide, 16 inches
deep, and holds one hundred and twenty
five crates of pineapples when full.
The upper story holds 1,000 crates
made up, and there is sufficient floor
space below to hold 3,500 crates at the
same time, leaving plenty of room for
erate making, packing and heading up.
'The entire east side can be opened up to
admit air and take in fruit. This is
done by a seriesof windows hung on
pulleys and operated from inside. The
fruit is brought from the field in wheel-
barrows. The south end and west side
are provided with six-foot sliding doors.
Sucha packing house can be used in
handling a crop of 38,500 to 4,500 crates
conveniently, and costs $600.
The second house is larger, 50 by 20
feet, two stories high. The roof projects
twelve feet, the platform along one side
only beneath the projection is four feet
wide. The south end is provided with a
six-foot platform. The fruit bin at pre-
sent extends the length of the building,
three feet wide, two feet high from the ~
floor, twelve inches deep, and will hold
one hundred and fifty crates.
[OcrosER, 1908,
:
|
— OcToBER, 1908. |
Just over the fruit bin are eight
windows, four feet by four feet, provid-
ed with shutters. These shutters swing
outward and upward, being held up by
ropes provided for that purpose. The
fruit is brought in from the fields
in wagons, unloaded cn_ the _ plat-
form outside just under the windows
and emptied through them into the
fruit bin inside. In the north end
there are two windows similar to
those over the fruit bin. In the south
there is one window and one sliding door
and two sliding doors and two windows
on the west side. The sliding doors are
six feet, The upper story of the build-
ing gives ample room for crate making
and storage of crate material. It will
hold about 1,500 made-up crates. This
building cost complete about $1,000.
Packing Tables.—These are laced
alongside the fruit bins to hold the
’ erates while they are being packed. A
smaller one sometimes stands between
the packing table and the bin and in
front of the packer to serve as a wrap-
ping. A convenient length for the pack-
ing table is about eight feet. It should
be made twenty-seven inches high and
fifteen and a_ half inches wide.
Nailing Tables.—For placing the heads
on the crates a_ slightly lower table
(twenty-one inches high) of the same
width should be provided.
‘Octorrr, 1908. | 347
either solid or paneled and % of an inch
or 14 inch thick. The top, bottom fand
sides are made of two slates each 5-l6ths
inch thick and 45 inches wide.
Materials required for Spanish Pine-
apple Crate :—
2 heads 12 by 103 inch by 14 inch.
1 partition 12 by 104 inch by 12 or
% inch,
i 8 slates 44 by 5-16ths inch by 386 inches.
These materials are shipped from the
factories or dealers, ‘‘ knocked down”
in bundles and cost about 11°50 per
hundred in carload lots of 1,700,
Fancy Pineapple Crate.—The crate
used in shipping the large varieties of
pineapples, such as Cayenne and Porto
Rico, is different in size and shape
from that commonly used for the
Spanish variety. It measures outside
12} inches wide, 20} inches deep and
24 inches long. The inside measure-
ments are 12 inches wide, 20 inches
deep, 22 inches long. The sides, top and
bottom are each ,;5 inch thick, the
ends are paneled 1 inch thick and no
partition is used.
Materials required for Fancy Crate:
2 heads 12 by 20 inch by 1 inch.
4 slats (sides) 83 by 5-16ths inches by
24 inches. —
4 slats (top andbottom) 43
inch by 24 inches.
These materials cost, knocked down,
about 20°00 per hundred crates.
hy 5-16ths
Paper.—HKach individual pineappie
should be wrapped before placing in
the crate. The paper used for this
should be heavy and glazed. If not
glazed it absorbs moisture and tears
too readily. The size commonly used
in wrapping the Spanish pineapple is
15 by 20 inch, and such paper wili cost
from $1:00 to $1'45 per 1,000, depending
upon the quality. For wrapping fancy
pineapples a sheet about 15 by 18 inches
is in common use.
In the use of paper there is consider-
able room for the ingenuity and _ in-
dividuality of the grower. Various
fancy brands may be used to advantage.
One of the most decided early improve-
ments in the way of paper was a
coloured paper, which for a number of
years was used by a grower of the
Kast Coast. This paper was of a
peculiar and particular colour, and no
doubt had considerably to do with the
prices secured by him in advance of
those received by his neighbours. It
pays to give attention to these small
details, and anything which will add
Kdible Products,
2or3 cents to the value of a package
in the market over what it costs to
put it up should, of course, be under-
taken. By no means. should a. soft,
unglazed paper be used, as it absorbs
moisture readily and tears easily in
consequenee. If coloured paper is used
it should only be of the very best
quality, because if of poor quality and
it becomes moist or wet it may stain
or discolour the fruit.
GRADING.
The grading of pineapples at_ the
time of packing is not a difficult
matter. Specimens injured by rats,
misshappen specimens and crownless
fruits should not be packed unless they
cannot be sold in the local market. Rat-
injured fruit should usually be con-
signed to the cull heap, as an opening
made in the fruit will cause it to decay
and rot prematurely. The abnormally
small specimens should not be shipped.
and it is sometimes questionable as to
whether the 48 size pack should be
used, although they take in the markets.
There is no question, however, that
the small-sized fruit wili count against
the marketing of fair and large-sized
Specimens. :
The fruit in packing should be care-
fully graded as to size. For this purpose
no machinery can be used, the eye
of the packer must be the sole and
only guide. The size for the different
packs of Spanish pineapples are about
as follows :—
18 to the crate, 5} by 62 inches.
24 to the crate, 42 by 4 15/16inch by
52 inch.
30 to the crate, 44 by 5} inch or 42
y 5 35 inch.
36 to the ceate, 44 by 42 inches or
3 43 by 48 inches.
42 to the crate, 3? by 4 ;3, inches or
3% by 4} inches.
48 to the crate,
I 33 by 32
37/6 by 4 inches.
inches or
These dimensions cannot, of course, be
regarded as absolute, but give a fair
indication as to the size of the fruit
for the several packs. The crown of
the fruit is, of course, not included in
the above measurements.
The fruit put into each package
should approach as nearly as possible
a uniform size, It is not a good policy
to put very large and small fruit into
the same package. Occasionally a pack-
age may be packed, however, with two
different sizes in the different apart-
ments, but if this be done the fact should
be indicated on the end of the crate.
Edible Products. 348
PACKING DIAGRAMS.
As in the packing of Citrus fruits, so
in the packing: of pineapples. In order
to fill the crates full of fruit a uniform
size it has to be put in according to dif-
ferent arrangements. Such arrange-
ments are usually referred to as packing
diagrams. These arrangements, or dia-
grams, for the different packs of pine-
apples, are as follows :—
Pack oi 3 layers of 8 each in each end
RSD. Stiars \)0 5). |.) aah,
» 96,3 layers ,,
42,3
29 99 59
99 39
AS.3 —,
The first layer should be placed in the
crate with the crowns away from the
packer, the second with the crowns
reversed, and so on alternating until the
crate is full. Each upper layer should
cover the spaces between the fruit in
the layer immediately beneath. For
many years the packing was done by
each individual grower and, of course,
this holds to a certain degree still,
although the professional pineapple
packer is one of the more recent develop-
ments of the industry.
99 99 39
5
6 39 99 39
7
8
99 9 39
PACKING THE FRUIT.
With one hand the packer draws out a
piece of paper trom the tray, while the
other reaches for a pineapple from the
pile besides him and sets it on the paper.
Then with a roll and a dexterous twist,
wraps the paper about it. The fruit is
then ready for the crate.
Place the different sized fruits in the
crate according to the different packs.
When the crate is completed, the fruit
should not shake or rattle, the whole
package should be perfectly solid. Fill
the crate with all the fruit it will hold
of the particular size being packed,
should be the rule. Select the fruit in
such a way as to fill the crate, don’t
wrap three or four sheets of paper
around a fruit to bring it up to the size.
When packed the fruit should stand
flush with the ends and partitions of the
crate, or a little above them.
HEADING UP,
As soon as the crates are packed they
are ready for the cover. The box should
be placed on a low table, the slats laid
on, nailed at one end, pressed down and
nailed to the partition and the other
head. Four-penny cement coated nails,
running 75,000 to the keg, should be
used. One mancan nail up as quickly
as two or three can pack.
ji,
\
(OcToBER, 1908,
STENCILING.
The marking of the crates may occa-
sionally be left until the day’s work is
done, though in thisas in many other
matters pertaining to the handling of
the crop, train schedules will govern.
The end of the crate should bear the
number of pineapples, the name of the
variety, the name of the consignee and
the consignor and the shipping direc-
tions. When the stenciling is completed
‘the end of the crate will be something
like this :—
80 Red Spanish.
Indian River Pineapples
James Jones & Co.
Boston, 6752
From
C. F. Smith
Jensen, Fla.
Via A. C. D.
If the box contains two different sizes,
the fact should be so indicated on the
end of the crate.
Some growers cover the panel of one
end of the crate with a fancy poster,
which adds considerably to the ap-
pearance of the package. :
Cost OF PICKING ‘AND PACKING.
The cost of picking, wrapping and
packing pineapples, including paper,
nails, crates and all is approximately
twenty-five cents per crate.
SHIPPING.
Pineapples may be forwarded to the
large northern markets by express, by
all-rail freight, or partly by rail and
partly by steamer.
Express shipments would be the ideal
way for forwarding pineapples, as the
fruit could then be allowed to become
more nearly matured before picking,
but the express rates are prohibitive.
In fact, the high rates of expressage have
had much to do with the falling off of
the pineapple industry at various inland
points. Moreover, express shipments
cannot usually be sent through to their
OcToORER, 1908. }
destination in solid cars. Such fruit as
is shipped by express must usually be
transferred a number of times. The
time allowed by train connections for
transferring expressage is usually very
short, consequently the crates receive
extremely rough handling and many of
them are broken.
Since express shipments are out of the
question, the next best planis to ship
by freight in car load lots. This insures
more rapid transportation and cheaper
rates than if smaller shipments are
made. Two or three neighbours may
combine and load a car in case one
cannot do so alone.
All-rail shipments should reach New
York from Fort Pierce, near the northern
edge of the pineappie belt, in five days ;
Boston in six days ; Philadelphia in four
and one-half days. By water from Jack-
sonville the time averages one or two
days longer.
LOADING THE CAR.
A car load is 300 crates, though the car
load rate may apply to 150 crates; the
maximum should not exceed 3860 crates.
In loading the car for all-rail ship-
ments, place six crates across the end on
their flat sides and two and a half to
three inches apart. On top at front
edge of this layer placea slat one-half
inch thick by three inches wide; cut so
as to exactly fit into the car crosswise.
Put one nail through thisinto the slat of
each crate, contiuue this five tiers high
for a 300 crate car and six tiers high for
3860 crate car, placing 150 or 180 crates in
each end of the car, as the case may be.
When the crates are all in, a passage
about two and one-half feet wide is left
in the centre of the car between the
doors. These spaces must be braced to
prevent the crates from slipping and
falling. Across the face of the top layer
at the centre, bottom and top tack a
board 1 by 5 inches, then with short
pieces brace diagonally across between
filling inthe two one-half feet spaces
with sufficient braces to prevent slipping.
It will be noticed that no slats are to be
nailed across the crates except at the
front ends. This leaves the top upper
tier of crates two and one-half inches
higher than those at the back ends of
the car, which will assist, considerably
in preventing shifting.
SHIPPING ROUTES AND RATES.
The shipping routes for pineapples
from the east coast of Florida to the
northern markets are as follows :—
RAIL AND STEAMER.
1. Florida East Coast Railroad and
Ocean Steamship Company.
319
Hdible Products,
2. Florida Hast Coast Railroad and
Merchant and Miners’ Transportation
Company.
3. Florida East Coast Railroad and
Clyde Line Steamship.
4. Florida East Ccast Railroad, At-
lantic Coast Line (Norfolk) Merchant and
Miners’ Transportation Company.
ALL-RAIL.
5. Atlantic Coast Dispatch.
The rates beyond Jacksonville, Fla.,
to New York, Philadelphia and Boston
by routes one, two and three is thirty-
five cents per crate; by routes four,
forty-five and one-half cents, while the
all-rail (A.C.D.) is forty-eight and one-
half cents to Philadelphia, fifty cents to
New York, and fifty-eight and one-half
cents to Boston.
The rates to Jacksonville on the
Florida East Coast Railroad from various
points are as follows :—
Stations. Rates
Roseland to Vero (inclusive) 22 e.
Oslo to Ankona (inclusive) 23 ¢@.
Tibballsto Aberdeen (iaclusive) 24 ec.
Gomez to West Jupiter (inclusive) 25 ec.
Prairie to Hypoluxo (inclusive) 28 «.
Boynton to Deertield (inclusive) 30 c.
Pompano to Dania (inclusive) 82 ¢@.
Hallandale to Miami (inclusive) 338 ¢.
The facilities throughout the pine-
apple belt for loading pineapples could
scarcely be improved upon, sidings and
loading stations are placed so that the
hauls are always short, there being in
some cases fouc or five or more loading
stations in every two or three miles.
MARKETING.
Pineapples are marketed in one of
four ways, either by selling them at the
packing house, by shipping them to a
commission house, selling through an
association, or selling through a broker.
Selling at Home.—lIf the fruit can be
sold ata fair figure at the packing
house, it is usually best to take it. Then
someone else than the grower has
to assume the responsibility of market
fiuctuations and delays in transporta-
tions. Frequently the crop is sold in
advance at a certain fixed rate per
crate. Such contracts usually cover the
fruit harvested within a certain period.
Private Trade.—The private trade in
pineapples has assumed considerable
proportions. To the larger grower this
method of marketing pineapples is not
very inviting owing to the extra amount
of time and care required. But it is
worthy the serious consideration of the
small grower.
KHilible Products, 35
The fruit supplied toa private trade
should be of the best quality, carefully
selected, neatly and tastefully pack-
ed. In dealing with private customers
every effort should be made to give the
same grade of fruit in every order. Uni-
formity is absoluetly necessary in hold-
ing the good-will and confidence of a
private customer.
All packages for the private trade
must usually go forward by express.
Commission Merchants.—The bulk of
the pineapple crop is handled either
directly or indirectly by the commission
merchants. The main objection to the
commission merchant system of selling
fruit is that the grower has to place
himself entirely in his hands. There
seems, however, no way of overcoming
this objection. There are honest men in
the commission business, as large a pro-
portion asin any other line of endea-
vour, and there are always ways and
means for finding out which are the
honest, responsible houses, and which
are not. Select a good house and_ stick
to it. Weknow pineapple growers who
have been shipping every season tothe
same firm for fifteen years and more.
In shipping to commission merchants,
the best policy is to select one reliable
man in each market to which shipments
are to be made, and ship to him alone.
Do not split a shipment in any one
market, sending part of it to one man,
[OcTopER, 1908:
part toanother. It is not fair to the
merchant and will result in loss to the
shipper.
Try to work with the commission man.
If he wants riper fruit, send it to him, if
not so ripe, let him have it. He knows
the market as the grower cannot. Try
to give him what he wants.
Spasmodic Shipments.—A grower ship-
ping to New York learns that pine-
apples are worth more in Boston than
they are in New York. Heships there,
but by the time his fruit arrives, the
price has dropped and _ he gets the same
or less than he would have gotin New
York. The price at which the market
stands when the fruit is shipped is
seldom the exact price at which the
fruit is sold when it arrives. It does
not pay to ship first to one market, then
to another in the hope of getting the
top prices always. Low prices. will
probably be obtained more frequently
than if the fruit is regularly sent for-
ward into certain markets, regardless of
prices. One who ships according to this
rule will usually come out at the end of
the season withmore money to his credit
than will the one who chases about
from one market to another in the hope
of securing the best prices.
The following receipts, taken from the
books of a pinneapple grower, go to
show that there is after all but little
presi in the markets from day to
ay :—
Date Market. Shipment. Net receipts. Average.
May 27, 1904...New York ... 20 crates $35°47 $1:27
29 3 99 ...Philadelphia eee 15 39 20°15 1°34
Juney4,) <4: ).. New Work POON Wes 66°18 1°32
BF Aes, jo 0StON! TOS as 188'56 1°34.
494,45 ose (ee ehiladelphia’.::) 54.05), 99°57 1:86
Pe Sai Area hheL INO We YOLK Win sete cebiee 43°48 161
We i Ook eon ee OSbON! Pee ee 49°50 1°50
Bet Sih ies! bas deh tladelplian 47) 26m). 45°76 1°76
» 18, 1905...Boston pe IQA 169°88 1:80
i 15,0) 4, >. hiladelphial).-2)100))., 194°94 1:95
» 15, ., ...Boston Pay asc ha ing 286°95 1°81
Bob Basi iiss!) «ocd 3OSCON! aD s, 122-85 1:86
pswliZsl).. 44). soNe Ws YOrk ee LOO Is 190-28 1:90
PO a New Wor kia ie LOOM Ws 187°62 1'87
35) 19)" 4, :/.6.ehiladelphiay::. 150) 3, 241°65 161
MP 2Os i! 4h -skvladelphian e.0o0) vis; 155'51 1:03
Select a number of markets, one or
more, as many as can be given a fair
amount of fruit, and ship to them right
along, week in and week out, day in
and day out.
Associations.—If any association can
be formed for the mutual benefit of the
growers it is an excellent thing. Too
frequently, however, they go to pieces
and the work amounts to nothing. The
weak point seems to be that the associ-
ation undertakes to do too much. The
only association known to the writer
which has proved successful is one which
looks to the protection of the grower,
without destroying his individuality
and independence.
Brokerage.—In selling by the broker-
age system, the fruitis placed in the
hands of a fruit broker, who has the
power to sell or consign as he deems best,
a charge of ten cents per crate being
j
|
Pe ee ey
OcTOBER, 1908. | 3561
made for handling. The grower then
turns over the responsibility of market-
ing entirely to another person, The
system possesses no advantages for the
person who teels equal to the task of
marketing his own fruit.—Agricultural
Experiment Station, Florida: Bulletin
No. 84, March, 1906.
_ COWPEAS.
By H. T. NIELson,
Scientific Assistant, Forage Crop Investi-
gation Bureau of Plant Industry.
(Concluded from page 254.)
MowiInG AND THRASHING.
Cowpeas for seed production are
quite satisfactorily harvested with a
mower. A bunching attachment has
been used with excellent results. This
gets the vines out of the way of the
team, thus avoiding considerable loss of
peas through trampling and crushing
by the mower wheels. It also leaves
the vines in a more desirable shape for
curing, they being rolled into small
windrows. The self-rake reaper is a very
satisfactory machine for mowing cow-
peas for seed, accomplishing even better
results than the buncher on a mower,
as the vines are left in bunches of very
convenient size for curing and handling.
The bean harvester has been given
careful trial in harvesting cowpeas for
seed production, but itis not very satis-
factory. Viny peas catch on parts of
the machine and drag badly. There is
also likely to be much soil worked into
the vines, making the further handling
difficult and disagreeable.
For seed production cowpeas should
be allowed to mature a greater percent-
age of pods than when cut for hay.
Half or more should be ripe before mow-
ing, even at the expense of losing a part
of the foliage. The vines should then be
allowed to cure and become thoroughly
dry, after which the thrashing may be
done. The curing and drying may be
done in the swath, cock, stack, or barn,
as desired, weather conditions largely
determining the method to be pursued.
The hay or straw is of better quality if
the curing and drying are done in the
stack or barn, though, of course, the
amount of work required is greater. It
is a common belief that weevils do much
less damage to seeds in the pods than
to the thrashed seeds. On this account
some growers store their crop and
thrash it late, in the winter or early in
Kdible Products.
the spring. However, the unthrashed
material requires much space. for
storage, and there is no effective way of
combating the insects, while in clean
stored seed all insect life is readily des-
troyed by treatment with carbon bi-
sulphide.*
Cowpeas may be thrashed with an
ordinary grain thrasher. In this case
the riddles are adjusted for cowpeas and —
satisfactory screens are provided. The
most essential point in thrashing cow-
peas is to maintain a low and even speed
of the eylinder, 300 to 400 revolutions
per minute, while the rest of the machine
should be adjusted to run at least as
fast as for thrashing wheat or oats.
Some operators prefer to have a greater
clearance between the cylinder and con-
cave spikes than for grain thrashing,
while others do not think this anadvan-
tage. While expert operators sometimes
do very satisfactory work with an ordin-
ary grain separator, there are three
important difficulties encountered; (1)
Too many of the pods pass through with
the straw unopened ; (2) the machine is
easily choked by the tangled vines wrap-
ping around the cylinder; and (8) the
percentage of cracked peas is usually
large.
To overcome these difficulties several
modifications of thrashing machines
have been devised soas to adapt them
for handling cowpeas. One modifica-
tion which has been adopted in several
different machines is the use of two
cylinders. These cylinders are adjusted
to run at different speeds, the front one
slowly, about 300 revolutions per minute,
and the rear one more rapidly, about
450. revolutions per minute, Appar-
ently the only advantage gained by
two cylinders over one is that a
smaller percentage of the unopened
pods pass through with the straw. The
use of two cylinders, however, results in
a somewhat larger percentage of cracked
peas.
A second modification which has been
applied both to machines with one
cylinder and those with two is to
sharpen the spikes on the concaves or
on both the coneaves and cylinders.
This sharpening means bringing the
face of the spike to as nearly a sharp
edge as can be done by ordinary
blacksmithing. The beneficial effect of
sharpening the spikes is very marked,
as the vines pass through much more
readily, there is little tendency to wrap
around the cylinder, the amount of
* For destroying weevils or preventing da-
mage by them, see article on ** Insects Injurious
to Beans and Peas,” in the Yearbook of the
Department of Agriculture for 1898,
SS
Edible Products,
power required is very materially
reduced, and the percentage of cracked
peas is decidedly smaller. The straw
is also chopped, so it is in fine condition
for feeding. A one-cylinder machine
with the spikes sharpened does very
satisfactory work except that a small
percentage of the pods may pass through
in the straw unopened, while by the
use of a two-cylinder machine practi-
cally all the peas are secured.
In a third device all the spikes in
both cylinder and concaves are sharp-
ened, and there is a minimum of
clearance. The concaves are arranged
in two sets, cne of two rows and the
other of three. The two-row set is at
the front of the cylinder ona plane
with the shaft; the other is below the
eylinder and at the back of it about
120° from the first. There isaperforated
web under the cylinder which is hinged
at the three-row set of concaves and
has the front part attached to the
shakers, so that it is worked up and
down by their backward and forward
motion. When the vines come through
the first concaves they drop on the
web, rest momentarily, and are then
picked up by the cylinder again and
taken through the second concaves.
The momentary rest results in rearrange-
ment of the straw, so that it virtually
amounts to passing through a second
cylinder, as in the. two-cylinder
machines. A perforated feeding table is
used to get loose peas to the separating
surface without passing through the
cylinder. This machine is by far
the most satisfactory pea thrasher yet
devised. The number of cracked peas
is very small; the vines are chopped
as fine as if they had been through
a cutting box, and all the peas are
gotten out of the pods, while the
material which can be run through in
a given time is the maximum for
present-day machines and the power
required the minimun.
It is very essential in thrashing
cowpeas that there be sufficient power
to give a uniform speed to the separator.
It is also highly desirable that the
eylinder be kept uniformly full in order
to get the best results, as running
empty means an increase in the number
of cracked peas.
The price of cowpea thrashers now
on the market ranges from 4800 to
$600, exclusive of the engine. If the
peas are stacked or put into a barn
they need not be thrashed imme-
diately, one machine will be sufficient
for 2,000 acres, as the crop from 20
acres can readily be handled in one
day. Asarule, only a moderate acreage
352
bal p68 oo
7, ‘SF y
[OCTOBER, 1908.
of cowpeas for seed should be grown
by any one farmer, as unfavourable
weather may cause great difficulty at
harvest time. It is very desirable to
have enough cowpeas for seed grown
in a community to justify the local
ownership of a thrashing machine.
COWPEAS FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT.
The beneficial results of growing
cowpeas are due largely to the ability
of the plants, like those of alfalfa
end red clover, to take nitrogen from
the air by means of the bacteria
which live in the nodulgs on the roots.
Cowpeas also improve markedly the
physical condition of the soil. This,
taken in connection with their ability
to produce a crop quickly on even
the poorer soils, makes the cowpea
particularly valuable both as a catch
crop and in regular rotations when
utilized either for hay or seed pro-
duction.
At the present time the most popular
rotation for the entire South is one
which allows the largest possible area
to be planted in cotton each year.
A system of cropping which is in
general use is three years in cotton,
the fourth year in corn and cowpeas,
and then three years in cotton again.
This system allows three-fourths-of the
farm to be in cotton each year, and
is applicable to all of the better
agricultural land. On the poorer soils
ot the cotton belt it is likely that
better results would be secured by
growing cotton only two years and
corn and cowpeas the third year. This
would leave two-thirds of the farm for
cotton each year, and would undoubt-
edly be an excellent system of cropping.
The Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station reports an increase in yield in
one case of 696 pounds of seed cotton to
the acre, or 83 per cent. due to ploughing
under acrop of cowpea vines on land
which had been in cotton the previous
season. The Arkansas Agricultural
Experiment Station secured an increase
in yield of 59 per cent. where a crop of
cowpeas had been grazed the preceding
year.
Practically the same plan of rotation
is followed in the sugar-cane districts of
Louisiana. Three crops of cane are taken
off the land, and the fourth year it is —
planted to cowpeas or to corn and cow-
peas. The work stock are fed almost
exclusively on pea-vine hay or are
grazed on cowpeas in the cornfield after
the corn has been gathered. This rota-
tion gives excellent results in the suc-
ceeding crops of cane.
OCTOBER, 1908. |
A rotation of wheat or oats and cow-
reas is giving excellent results in parts
of Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee.
Cowpeas are sown on the land immedi-
ately after the removal of the grain crop
and are utilized for hay or seed or for
asture. Grain is sown again in the
all, this making two crops a year from
the same land. In many instances land-
owners in Arkansas and Missouri have
allowed tenants the use of land free of
charge for producing a crop of cowpeas,
stipulating, however, that the land must
be well prepared. When the soil is
given good preparation before sowing
the cowpeas, it is not necessary to
plough in the autumn for the grain.
The fall preparation usually consists of
disking thecowpea stubble and sowing
the grain with a drill. Occasionally
the seeding is done with a disk drill
without any preliminary preparation.
The increase in yield of wheat due to the
cowpeas is generally given as from 3
to 5 bushels per acre. At the Missouri
Agricultural Experiment Station, an
increase in yield of 63 per ceut. with
oats and 49 per cent. with wheat fol-
lowing cowpeas as a catch crop was
secured. The Arkansas Agricultural Kx-
periment Station reports as the average
of a four years’ test of wheat an in-
crease of 25 per cent. from ploughing
under cowpea stubble the first fall, 39
per cent. from plouging under cowpea
vines, and 42 per cent. where cowpeas
were grown each year as a catch crop
between the wheat crops, only the stub-
ble of the peas being ploughed under.
The increased yield in the latter case
amounted to 70 per cent. in the fourth
season, the yields having gradually
increased from year to year, in addi-
tion to producing a fair quantity of
very nutritious hay each season.
On farms where more or less live
stock is produced. the following three-
year rotation is very popular and is a
good one: first year, cotton ; second year,
corn with cowpeas at last cultivation;
third year, winter oats or wheat, with
a catch crop of cowpeas for hay or seed
after the grain has been removed.
A few striking results due to the
growing of cowpeas are here noted :—
The Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station reports a yield of oats follow-
ing cowpea vines. ploughed under
247 per cent. larger than where German
millet was ploughed under. The Ark-
ansas_ station reports an _ increase
in yield of 63 per cent. on corn where
cowpeas were grazed the season before.
‘Lhe Missouri station increased the yield
of corn 79 per cent. by growing cowpeas
onthe land for two years before plant-
ing the corn. In yield of hay the
45
300
Edible Products.
Arkansas station secured an increase of
116 per cent. on oats following cowpeas
grazed the year before. The Alabama
station increased the yield of sorghum
hay 2:01 ton, or 55 per cents by plough-
ing under cowpea stubble on land where
sorghum was grown the previous year.
These and many similar experiments
conculsively prove that it is much more
economical to use cowpeas for hay or
seed production in rotation with other
farm crops.than to use them for
green manuring. It is only in_ special
cases that it is advisable to utilize cow-.
peas asa green manure. On very poor
sandy land or on stiff, heavy clay soils in
bad mechanical condition a crop of cow-
peas ploughed under will give markedly
beneficial results. Cowpeas give very
good saticfaction as a cover crop in
orchards, for which they find a limited
use. Incase of bad weather setting in
at harvest time it may be desirable to
utilize the crop for green manure, or to
pasture it if the land is of such a nature
as not to be seriously injured by the
trampling of stock.
VARIETIES OF COWPEAS.
There are about fifty varieties of,cow-
peas known, but only a few of the best
of these are extensively cultivated. The
varieties differ in such characters as
habit, size, earliness, prolificness, disease
resistance, and especially in the colour of
the seeds, which are either entirely
white, red, buff, black, or blue, or
variously blotched or speckled. The
varieties are allvery constant in their
seed characters. The variation in vines,
however, is very marked, being influenc-
ed by the time of planting, the nature
of the season, and the locality where
grown. Harly planting on a wet season
usually results in a large growth of
vines. Natural crosses between the
varieties occur under favouring con-
ditions, but they are far from common.
The use to be made of the crop by the
grower should determine largely which
variety to select.
For table use the varieties with white
or nearly white seeds are preferred, as
they make a more attractive dish. The
habit of growth of the table peas is of
little direct concern, and, as a matter of
fact, none of them is very satisfactory
for forage purposes. The _ principal
varieties are the Blackeye, of which
there are several strains, the Brown-eye,
the Lady, andthe Cream. These are
more properly considered vegetables.
Several of the coloured-seeded varieties
are also used as table peas.
For forage purposes the most desir-
able varieties are those which have a
Edible Products:
fairly upright habit, grow to large size,
hold their leaves well, and produce an
abundance of pods. Descriptions of the
most important varieties follow. Of the
numerous remaining varieties none is
grown toa very large extent, and most
of them are disticntly inferior to those
described here.
Whippoorwill.—_The Whippoorwill va-
riety is known: under several other
names, such as Running Speckled, Bunch
Speckled, and Shinney. It may be con-
sidered the standard of all field cowpeas.
Itis suitable either for grain or hay pro-
duction, or both. It makes a vigorous
growth, is fairly erect, and still produces
alarge amount of vine. It can readily
be handled by machinery, which is bring-
ing it more and more into prominence.
The seed is mottled chocolate ona buff
or reddish ground colour.
Unknown, or Wonderful.—The Un-
known, or Wonderful, cowpeais another
field variety which is grown toa large
extent. Itis the largest growing and
most vigorous of the cowpeas, but is
late in maturing, it being difficult some-
times to secure seed of it as far north as
Washington, D. C. The principal objec-
tion to this pea is its light seeding. Itis
_ nearly as erect as the Whippoorwill
variety ; hence, it is quite readily han-
dled by machinery either for grain or hay
production. The seed is large in size
and of a very light clay colour.
New Era.—The New Hra is the smallest
seeded of the cowpeas that have found a
wide use. The seed is bluish in colour,
owing tothe innumeroble minute blue
specks ona gray ground. The New Era
is the most nearly erect of any of the
varieties, rarely having any prostrate
branches. It usually produces a heavy
crop of seed and matures in from seventy-
five to ninety days. It is one of the
earliest of the cowpeas and isthe most
easily handled by machinery. The small
seed is not usually considered an un-
desirable character, as asmaller quantity
is required for seeding than is the case
with other varieties.
Groit—The variety known as the
Groit has been much confused with the
New Era cowpea. In habit the two are
much alike, but the Groit is a little
superior, as it makes a larger growth and
fruits more heavily. The seed is quite
similar to that of the New Era, but has
chocolate mottlings in addition to the
blue specks. It is quite certainly a
hybrid between the New Era and the
. Whippoorwill varieties.
Ivon.—The Iron variety
is coming
rapidly into prominence.
In its habit
354
[OcrosER, 1908)
itis only slightly different from the
Unknown, though it is not quite as
vigorous or as large. It is earlier than
the Unknown and the seed, though
nearly the same colour, is much smaller
being but very little larger than that
of the New Era. The characteristic of
the Iron cowpea which has been instru-
mental in bringing it into prominence is
its resistance to wilt and to root-knot
caused by cel worms. Itisthe only one
of the cowpeas which has been found to
resist these diseases. Where they are
prevalent in the soil, the Iron cowpea is
the only variety which can be success-
fully grown, and since the diseases are
spreading the distribution of the Iron
cowpea is also increasing. Regardless
of its resistance to these diseases it is a
valuable variety under nearly all condi-
tions, being vigorous, prolific, and quite
erect. Theseed is hard and retains its
vitality better than that of most varie-
ties. It will lie in the ground through
the winter and germinate the next
spring. This variety and the Unknown
hold their leaves better than any others.
Clay.—The Clay cowpea is more vari-
ablein its habit than that of the foregoing
varieties. It is the most pronounced
trailor of any of the peas grown quite
largely, and is consequently in very —
slight favour where the pea crop is
handled by machinery. The plants are
very vigorous but low growing, and
they usually seed sparingly. Since seed
is such an important item at the present —
time, a variety which has but poor fruit- —_
ing qualities is not apt to remain ~—
popular, even though it may be har- —
vested readily by machinery. The seed
is of the same colour as that of the Un- i
p
4
Se a ee ee
known and Iron, butis intermediate in
size and flatter and longer.
Black.—The Black cowpea is used to a
considerable extent in the sandy coastal
plain soils of Virginia and North Caro-
lina. On heavy clay land this variety
makes a very heavy growth of vine, but
produces very little seed, whileon the
sandy lands it grows more bushy and
fruits quite heavily. It also finds some
demand in the sugar-cane section of
Louisiana, where itis grown with corn
in rotation with sugar cane. Where
other varieties thrive the Black is not a
favourite. The seeds are quite large and
entirely black.
Taylor.—The variety called Taylor has —
larger seeds than any other cowpea.
The seeds have nearly the same mark-
ings as those of the New Era, though the
ground colour is somewhat lighter. The —
Taylor cowpea has met with consider-
able favour in Maryland and Delaware,
where it is erroneously called the. Gray
ee an
2
Ocrosnr, 1908.}
A
Crowder, but outside of this region does
not seem to be a very valuable variety.
In most cases it is too much of a trailer
to be desirable. It also has a tendency
to drop its leaves earlier than any of the
other varieties except the Black.
Red Riper.—The Red Ripper is a valu-
able pea, as it makes nearly as large a
growth as the Unknown, or Wonderful,
and is excellent for growing in corn. It
is very late, usually maturing but a
small number of peas at Washington,
D. C. It is difficult to procure seed of it
in quantity on account of its light yield.
The seed is dark red and about the same
size as that of the Whippoorwill variety ,
SUMMARY.
(1) The cowpea is the best legume for
the entire cotton belt, and can_be pro-
fitably grown much farther north. Itis
especially suitable for combined hay and
seed production or for hay alone.
(2) To make good cowpea hay requires
careful handling of the crop. The plant
should have made its growth and have
at least the first pods ripe when the
mowing isdone, Uniformity in matur-
ing is essential in getting the best
results. The use of a tedder is very
helpful. The serious loss of leaves can
be avoided by not handling the hay
when the leaves are dry and _ brittle.
The curing is best done in small cocks,
and the hay is ready for the stack or
barn when no moisture can be wrung
from the stem by twisting it with con-
siderable force.
(8) Cowpeas for hay production are
very advantageously grown in mixture
with sorghum, Johnson grass, or soy
beans. The yield is thus increased, the
quality improved, and the curing more
easily done. Cowpeas give very good
results when grown with sorghum in
cultivated rows, and are very commonly
planted in corn and used for grazing
or ensilage.
(4) Pasturing cowpeas is not the most
economical practice, but itis frequently
resorted to because of the small expense
it entails. Cowpeas are especially suit-
able for grazing hogs.
(5) Cowpea hay is very nutritious. It
is nearly equal to wheat bran as part of
p ration. [t is satisfactory for work
855
Edible Products.
stock and for beef or milk production,
and it gives good results when fed to
poultry. The grain is a rich feed, ex-
cellent for poultry but little used for
other feeding. Cowpea straw is an ex-
cellent roughage and nearly as valuable
as the hay.
_ (6) Cheaper cowpea seed will result
in the much more extensive growing of
the crop. Harvesting for seed .can be
done most cheaply by the use of machin-
ery. The crop should be cut with a
mower or self-rake reaper when half or
more of the pods are ripe. When
thoroughly dry the thrashing may be
done with an ordinary grain separator
with some modifications, with a two-
cylinder cowpea thrasher, or with a one-
cylinder special machine which has all
the thrashing spikes, sharpened in addi-
tion to having ingenious devices which
makeit the most satisfactory thrasher
for handling cowpeas.
(7) Cowpeas add nitrogen to the soil
and improve its mechanical condition,
They are most profitably grown in rota-
tion with other crops. The following
rotations are good ones :—
(a) Cotton, three years ;corn and cow-
peas fourth year ; and then cotton again.
This is all right on the better soils of
the South, but the cotton should be
planted only two years in succession on
the poorer soils,
(6) Wheat or oats with cowpeas each
season after the removal of the grain
crop, the land being seeded to grain in
the fall, making two cropsa year from
the same land.
(c) Cotton, first year; corn and cow-
peas, second year ; winter oats or wheat
followed by cowpeas as a catch crop,
third year; and then cotton again.
(8) The most valuable varieties are
the Whipporwill, the Unknown or the
Wonderful, the New Era, and the Iron
for field purposes; and the Blackeye
for table use.
_ (9) The Iron cowpea is practically
immune to the two serious diseases,
wilt and root-knot, which attack the
other varieties more or less. It alone
should therefore be grown wherever
these diseases are ‘prevalent.—JU. S.
Department of Agriculture, Farmer's
Bulletin 318, April 4, 1908.
306
[OcTOBER, 1908.
TIMBERS.
WHAT FORESTRY HAS DONE.
The following extracts are reprinted
from Circular 140, Forest Service,
‘U.S. Department of Agriculture :—
INTRODUCTION.
Many people in this country think
that forestry had never been tried until
the Government began to_ practise it
upon the National Forest. Yet forestry
is practised by every civilized country
in the worid, except China and Turkey.
It gets results which can be got no other
way, and which are necessary to the
general welfare. Forestry is not a new
thing. It was discussed two thousand
year's ago, and it has been studied and
applied with increasing thoroughness
ever since.
The principles of forestry are every-
where the same. They rest on natural
laws, which are at work everywhere
and allthe time. Itis simply a question
of how best toapply these laws to fit
local needs and conditions. No matter
how widely countries may differ in size,
climate, population, industry, or govern-
ment, provided only they have forests,
all of them must come to forestry some
time as a matter of necessity.
The more advanced and progressive
countries arrive first and go farthest in
forestry, as they do in other things.
Indeed, we might almost take forestry
asa yardstick with which to measure
the height of a civilization, On the one
hand, the nations which follow forestry
most widely and systematically, would
be found to be the most enlightened
nations, On the other hand when we
applied our yardstick to such countries
as are without forestry, we could say
with a good deal of assurance, by this
test alone, ‘‘ Here is a backward nation.”
A singular and suggestive exception
is England, which, though provided
with mountain and heat lands capable
of producing a large part of the wood
for home consumption, has, with strange
indifference, been leading all nations in
volume of wood imports and depending
mainly upon foreign sources for_ her
supplies. England has hitherto been
able to count with certainty upon out-
side aid from such near neighbours as
Norway and Sweden. This policy has
seemed satisfactory to the people in
spite of the examples of a more provi-
dent policy afforded by rival nations
almost at her door. The geographical
and economic position of the country
has permitted the Government, for the
time at least, to ignore measures found
necessary for the public welfare in other
countries of the same rank.
The countries’ of Kurope and Asia,
taken together, have passed through
all the stages of forest history and
applied all the known principles of
forestry. They are rich in _ forest
experience. Their lessons of forestry
were brought home to them by hard
knocks. Their forest systems were
built up gradually as the result of
hardship. They did not first spin fine
theories and then apply those theories
by main force. On the contrary, they
began by facing disagreeable facts.
Every step of the way toward wise
forest use, the world over, has been
made at the sharp spur of want, suffer-
ing, or loss. As a result. the science
of forestry is one of the most practical
and most directly useful of all the
sciences. It is a serious work, under-
taken as a measure of relief, and
continued as a safeguard against future
calamity.
Roughly, those countries which to-day
manage their forests on sound principles
have passed through four stages of
forest experience. At first the forests
wereso abundant as tobe in the way
and so they were either neglected or
destroyed. Next, as settlements grew
and the borders of the forest receded
farther and farther from the places
where wood was needed and used, the
question. of local wood supplies had to
be faced and the forest was spared
and even protected. Third, the increas-
ing need of wood, together with better
knowledge of the forest and its growth,
led to the recognition of the forest
as a crop, like agricultural crops, which
must be harvested and which should
therefore be made to grow again. In this
stage silviculture, or the management of
the forest so as to encourage its continued
best growth, was born. Finally as
natural and industrial progress led
to measures for the general welfare,
including a wiser and less wasteful
use of natural resources, the forest was
safeguarded and controlled so as to
yield a constant maximum product year
after year and from one generation to
another. Systematic forestry, therefore, _
applied by the nation for the benefit of
the people and practised increasingly by
farsighted private citizens, comes when
the last lesson in the school of forest
experience is mastered.
OCTOBER, 1908,]
The United States, then, in attacking
the problem of how best to useits great
forest resources, is not in the position of
a pioneer in the field. It has the ex-
perience of all other countries to go
upon. Thereis no need for years of
experiment with untried theories. The
forest principles which hundreds of
years of actual practice have proved
right are at its command. The only
question is how should these be modified
or extended to best meet American con-
ditions. -In the management of the
National Forests the Government is not
working in thedark. Nor isit slavishly
copying Kuropean countries. It is put-
ting into practice, in America and for
Americans, principles tried and found
correct, which will insure to all the
people alike the fullest and best use of
all forest resources.
In the following short history of what
forestry has done in other countries, it
will be possible to give only the chief
facts. Yet even in this incomplete
review two things stand out with strik-
ing clearness. Oneis that those coun-
tries which have gone farthest in the
practice of forestry arethe ones which
today are most prosperous, which have
the least proportion of waste land, and
which have the most promising futures.
The other is that those countries which
spend most upon their forests receive
from them the greatest net returns.
SWITZERLAND.
In Switzerland, which has 2,000,000
acres. or 20°6 per cent. of its area, in
forest, the communal forests are the
largest, and make up 67 per cent. of the
total; the cantons own 4°5 per cent.,
and private persons own 28°6 per cent.
The communal holdings are constantly
growing by the purchase of private
lands. The general government, or
Bund, owns no forests. From $6,000,000
to $8,000,000 worth of wood (800,000 tons)
and wooden-ware are annually imported.
This comes mainly from Austria-Hun-
gary, southern Germany, and France.
The State forests yield about 64 cubic
feet per acre, the corporation forests
42 cubic feet ; the average yield of both
together is about 45 cubic feet. The
average wood growth per acre has been
estimated to be 50 cubic feet. In the
State forests of Berne the figures show a
growth of 50 cubic feet for the plateau
country, 73 cubic feet for the middle
country, and 75 cubic feet in the Jura.
Wood prices, which are higher than in
Germany, have been rising for forty
years.
The expenditures in forest manage-
ment vary greatly among the Cantons,
307
Timbers,
ranging from $1'50 to $7 per acre. The
net annual returns range from ‘$3 per
acre in the forests where least is ex-
pended, to $8 or $9 per acre in the city
forests, where most is expended.
Forest regulations came very early j
Switzerland. The first'forest Yad
of Berne was issued 600 years ago. The
city forest of Ziirich, famous as the
Sihlwald, has been managed under a
working plan since 1680, and is today one
of the most perfectly managed and
most profitable forests in the world.
It yields, on the average, a clear annual
profit of $12 per acre. From time to
time, as the evidence shows, the . Swiss
people stood in dread of a timber famine.
Ordinances were passed forbidding the
reduction of the forest area, the makin g
of clearings, and the exportation of
wood from one Canton to another. In
the middle of the eighteenth century, as
modern industrial life began, various
Cantors sought to follow the ,examples
which Berne and Zurich had set in
forestry. A severe flood in 1830 brought
home eee need of more vigorous measures
in guarding against torrents.
floods of 1834 and 1868 further pee
the lesson. An investigation of Swiss
forest conditions was ordered by the
Bund in 1857, and the same year pro-
vision was made for an annual appro-
priation of $2,000 to the Swiss Forestry
Association for engineering and reforest-
ing work inthe Alps. In1871 the Bundes«
rath was empowered to carry on this
work, with an annual appropriation of
$20,000 After the flood of 1868, $200,000 of
the collections made foc the relief
of the sufferers was devoted to refor-
estation. In 1876 the Bund assumed
supervision of the water and forest
police in thehigh Alps above a certain
elevation, and undertook to give aid in
the work of engineering and reforesting
for the control of the Alpine torrents.
Since 1898 the Bund has supervised all
this work, and in 1902 the present policy
was firmly fixed by a revision of the
existing law.
All the Swiss forests comprised in the
Bund are now classified as protection
and non-protection forests. Whether
public or private they are all controlled
by the government. In _ protection
forests all cuttings must be such as to
preserve the protective value of the
forest cover intact, and for this reason
clean cutting is usually forbidden. In
such forests stumpage sales are forbid-
den, and all wood must be filled and mea-
sured under the direction of a forest
officer. _ Otherwise privately-owned
protection forests are supervised in the
main as are those publicly owned. Non:
Timbers, 858
protection forests are also subject to a
number of regulations. When they
are in private hands clearings may be
made only with consent of the Canton,
logged areas must be reforested within
three years, and existing forest pastures
must be maintained.
Where protection forests can be creat-
ed by planting, this may be ordered,
and where forests are converted to
farming land or pasture an equal area
may be ordered reforested. Where
barren groundis required to be forest-
ed for protective purposes, the Bund
assists by paying from 30 to 50 per
cent. of the cost. Between 1876 and
1902, 16,000 acres were reforested at a
cost of $1,000,000, in round numbers, the
Bund having paid one-half.
Grazing hasbeen regulated for centuries.
In protection forests it is entirely prohi-
bited ; but on all the rest of the forests
great success has attended the efforts of
the forest service to safe-guard both pas-
turage and the forest by supervision and
range improvement. Despite differences
in local conditions, the experience in
Switzerland in forest grazing is there-
fore, strongly in support of the policies
which are directing the efforts of our
own Forest Service. Indeed, the experi-
ence of all Europe shows the necessity
of controlling the public range.
To sum up, forestry in Switzerland,
where every foot of agricultural land
is of the greatest value, has made
it possible for the people to farm all |
land fit for crops, and so has assisted
the country to support a large popula-
tion, and one that is more prosperous
than would be the case if the valleys
were subjected to destructive floods.
In a country assmall as Switzerland,
and one which contains so many high
and rugged mountains, this is a service
thebenetits of which cannot be measured
in dollars. It is in Switzerland also,
in the Sihlwald, that forestry demon-
strates beyond contradiction how great
ayield in wood and money it may bring
about if applied consistently for a num-
ber of years.—The Hawaiian Forester
and Agriculturist, Vol. V., No. 5., May,
1908.
(OcTOBER, 1908.
}
x
4
ri
i
-
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yy Apa
Wea seAe
- OcToBER, 1908.|
309
HORTICULTURE.
THE WATER HYACINTH.
By J. C. W1L.Is.
A little over a year ago I received an
unpleasant surprise, finding that a
number of plants of the Water Hyacinth
(Hichhornia crassipes) had been im-
ported into Ceylon. I recomme nded that
they be at once destroyed, this being
one of the most troublesome weeds in
the world, but this was refused on the
ground that the plant (which is quite
true) was one of the most beautiful
that could be grown ina house in this
country.
The plant was established, and given
toa number of residents. Whenever I
discovered it, I urged upon the owner,
usually with success, the necessity of
destroying it, anda few months ago I
thought that the matter was ended.
Now, however, I find the plant in
new places, and it is, I believe, even
being hawked in Colombo. As itis not
parasitic, it cannot-be included under
the Pests Ordinance, and as_ the
plants had actually been imported, their
introduction could not be prevented
under the other Ordinance, that of 1901
against importation of Pests, though
further introduction will be prevented
under this Ordinance.
Hichhornia crassipes is a member of
the little family Pontederiacec, and is
itself a South A:nerican plant, as are so
many of the most beautiful tropical
flowers. From South America it was
first introduced to Flordia, where it has
become a_ terrible weed. With _ its
bladder-like leaf staiks (by which and
by its blue or whitish flowers it may be
instantiy recognised) its floats in the
water like the water lettuce of Colombo
lake, and multiplies with great rapidity.
I have myself crossed wide rivers in
Florida where no water could be seen
for the masses of this plant. In many
places steamboat traffic has been greatly
interfered with.
I have also seen the plant in Java,
where it covers the canals and is a
common weed} in the paddy fields, and it
has recently become so troublesome in
Australia that most strenuous laws have
had to be passed for its extirpation,
involving considerable trouble and ex-
pense to landowners.
Weeds do not, as a rule, spread till
they have been some time in Ceylon,
but already grave risk is being run that
this plant should escape into the rivers,
lagoons or paddy fields. Kvery one who
has it in his possession should immedi-
ately destroy it by fire—not by throw-
ing it away—and impress upon anyone
whom he may find in possession of it to
do the same. If it be allowed to be dis-
tributed about as at present, it is sure,
sooner or later, to escape into a river
or ela, and may spread mightily and
cause much trouble and loss.
360
[OcTOBER, 1908.
PLANT SANITATION.
A SUGGESTION FOR WEED
SUPPRESSION.
By ALFRED J. Ewart, D. Sc., Pu. D.,
E.L.S.,
Government Botanist.
At some recent prosecutions under
the Thistle Act at Leongatha the Police
Magistrate, Mr. G. Read Murphy, offered
a series of prizes to the children bringing
the largest numbers of Ragwort, a plant
with which the district is infested, to
the head teacher of the _ local State
school. As the result, the head teacher
writes to say that so far 19,9438 plants of
ragwort have been brought to him, and
that over 12,000 were brought in during
the first four days. Apparently the
idea has been very successful, and the
children have for the time being cleared
the district, more or less. of plants of
ragwort of appreciable size.
There can be no doubt that the same
idea might be extended to other districts
infested by proclaimed weeds with great
effect, although itseems hardly fair to
throw a new burden on the already
heavily-laden shoulders of the _ local
teachers. If the fines obtained as the
result of prosecutions were devoted in
some suitable fashion as rewards for
their destruction, the good done by the
Thistle Act would be greatly increased,
and an order authorizing Police Magis-
trates to devote the fines inflicted to
that purpose would be of great value.
The money would then be retained and
utilized in the districts affected, where
it is usually most needed, instead of
being lost to it.
The good effects of utilizing the
services of the childrenin the manner
above indicated are two-fold. In the
first place everyone who has had any-
thing to do with children and with plants
knows how strong the natural des-
tructive tendency of children is, and
how much. damage it can cause when
uncontrolled. By directing this destruc-
tive tendency into proper channels we
give their natural faculties full play, and
divert them from the useful shrubs,
trees, birds, nests and the like on which —
they might otherwise be exercised.
After atime the child should come to
regard certain plants as he does _ snakes,
1.€., as something to be destroyed on sight.
When he comes to man’s estate and has
land of his own, proclaimed plants will
not be likely to thrive upon it. It is
from an educational point of view, and
by inculeating the spirit that certain
plants, like certain animals, are natural
though insidious enemies of man, that
the idea of offering rewards to school
children for their destruction is likely to
prove of most use.
Nevertheless in France, and in other
countries also, the services of children
have been largely utilized to keep down
or suppress plant or animal pests, and
the direct good effects of children
scouring the highways and byways for
weeds are not to be under-estimated.
It is along roadsides that the problem
of weed suppression is most difficult, and
itis also along the roads that weeds
spread most readily from one district to
another. Ihave estimated that a plant
of ragwort allowed to flower freely ina
newly-cleared district may, under
favourable conditions, succeed in estab-
lishing 500 offspring besides being itself
perennial. The 20,000 plants of ragwort
collected and destroyed by the school
children in a short time at Leongatha,
and at an unfavourable period of the
year, represent a potential 10,000,000
plants in the following season. Fair-
sized plants of ragwort run about 10 to
the pound when thoroughly dried, so that
10,000,000 plants represent not far short
of 500 tons of organic matter which, in
the form of sheep or mutton, would be
of considerable value, instead of a dead
loss to the district.—Journal of the
Department of Agriculture of Victoria,
Vol. VI., Part 8, August 10, 1908.
a
[>
:
’ bees to settle down in.
+)
CTOBER, 1908.]
361
LIVE STOCK.
BEE NOTES.
(A, P, GOONETILLEK A)
ip
Of honey bees, there are four varieties
intheIsland. (1) Meemessa (A pis indica),
(2) Bambara (Apis dorsata), (8) Dandu-
wel messa (Apis florea) and (4) Kana-
miya messa or the stingless bee (Meli-
pona irripenis). Of these only the first
can be hived in a box-hive with frames,
since it alone builds a number of combs
parallel to each other and naturally in
eavities. The second and the third
species build a single comb on branches
of trees and overhanging rocks, in the
open air, but never ina cavity, hence the
difficulty in rearing them in box hives.
The last-named, though it builds its comb
in cavities, does so in the form of a mass
which shows no normal cell structure;
they can be hived in a bottle covered
with paper to keep the inside dark. The
attempt to cultivate unicomb bees in
hives is not to be recommended, as the
mere fact of their building only one
comb, and that too generally in the open
air, makes cultivation according to
present methods impracticable, since the
single comb cannot be removed without
removing the brood at the same time.
The rearing of the stingless bee will not
prove profitable as its capacity for
storing honey is very limited.
Apis indica, the bee which admits of
cultivation as a hive bee, is, asa general
rule, distributed all over the Island.
Though .apparently all swarms belong
to original stock, one swarm differs very
much from the other in temper, &c.
often occurs that while one lot is as
vicious as wasps, another is as gentle as
Carniolars. The ordinary way of keep-
ing bees in earthernware pots is objec-
tionable, besides being risky and little
remunerative. To attract a swarm it is
usual to fumigate a pot with some resins
and leaveitona tree fora stray swarm of
After they do so
no notice is taken of the hive till it is
time to take the honey. The combs can-
not be taken out and examined, the bees
swarm at their own sweet will and the
. bee-keeper cannot come to their rescue
when they dwindle down for want of
food or to queenlessness, or again owing
to being harrassed by an enemy.
The advantages of the modern hive
are numerous:—The frames are remov-
able, so are the top and bottom boards;
46
the hive is easily cleaned; food can he
provided when necessary; swarming can
be controlled; queens can be bred, &e.
In fact, with the modern hive the bee-
keeper could get the bees to work almost
as he pleases. The honey extractor ren-
ders it possible to extract the honey and
save the combs to be refilled,
An authority on bee-keeping writes :—
‘‘Bees can be bred as certainly as poul-
try; many of the ills and accidents
which bee-life is liable to can be success-
fully dealt with and bees can be fed on
substitutes for honey and pollen, so
insuring their existence in due number
irrespective of their natural food sup-
plies, and a large number during the
season when honey is plentiful. The
invention of queen-cages, smokers, nuclei,
the system of artificial swarming, sec-
tional supers, &c., has made bee manage-
ment easier, simpler and also more cer-
tain in its results; whereas the old
system was one barbarous to bees, less
productive, precarious and not admit-
ting of expansion beyond the limits of
an industry to be pursued by the peas-
antry on a small scale, while the new
system has made it easier to keep bees
on a large scale as a remunerative
employment. Bee-keeping is not an
industry which can be profitably pur-
sued without any capital at all, nor is
it an industry which yields large profits
without labour, knowledge or expe-
rience; but if started with very trifling
capital and working expenses, the
capital may be rapidly increased as ex-
perience is gained, by the mere invest-
ment of the income and the natural
increase of well-cared-for bees; the
return for the capital is as certain and
relatively much greater than in any
other rural industry.”
In countries such as America and Aus"
tralia which had no indigenous bees,
bee-keeping has progressed by leaps and
bounds and the industry gives good re-
turns. Ceylon has its own honey bees
and there is no reason why we should
notimproveit as an honey producer. My
experience of the Italian bee is that it
has not yet found suitable pasturage
in the Island, especially in the low-
country. Buckwheat and alfalfa are
now grown to some extent and should
meet this difficulty. The chief recom-
mendation of the Italian bee is its
gentleness, and the ease with which it
could be handled and managed; but in
time there is no reason why our indi-
pone bee should not become as tract-
able.
:
Live Stock.
SOME SOUNDS OF THE BEE.
The following interesting little article,
from the pen of a former reader of and
contributor to, the pages of the B. B. J.,
appears in the current issue of, the
South African Poultry Journal, just
received :—
“To distinguish all the sounds of the
bees would require a sense of hearing
keener than that possessed by human
ears, but even the dullest ear, after long
listening, becomes familiar with many
bee-notes, and finds meaning in what to
the novice is nothing but a bewildering
confusion of sound.
“In practical bee-keeping there is
nothing the beginner will find of greater
service than to learn to interpret these
various sounds from the everyday happy
hum of the bees in the flowers, varying
as it does in intensity and eagerness,
but expressive always of satisfaction
and delight, to the strange peep-peep of
a princess in her, as yet, unopened cell.
‘When the weather is warm and
honey plentiful each bee leaves the hive
with a flourish ‘ Whizz, I am off’ ! excla-
mation; or isita hymn of gratitude for
a new day and its sunshine ?
‘The nooday play-spell is a living
song of gladness—an ariel dance in which
the young bees join and learn the joys
of flight—a thorough ventilation and
refreshment of the hive, but often a
source of consternation and alarm to
the beginner in bee-keeping, for he is
sure that in all this uproar his bees are
swarming or robbing or doing something
dreadful, until he discovers itis only
play andthat each hive repeats this
performance at the same time every
day. To the uninitiated the noise is
suggestive of swarming, and he watches
with some concern until the bees have
gone back and the usual quiet is
restored.
**One of the most interesting sounds
is the ‘ call of the queen’ or the ‘call of
the home ’—the sound that when aswarm
is being hived leads them up the entrance
in such unerring lines.
** All these are sounds that one is glad
to hear, but there are unpleasant sounds
as well—the sound of the robber, the
high angry note of an enraged bee, the
bee that has a grudge against you and is
determined instantly to pay it off.
bee ‘calls out’ when it is being captured
or crushed and a queen when she is
frightened. Bees annoyed by ants call
in distress and spit at their tiny tormen-
tors, like defiant kittens. The wail ofa
queenless colony is easily known, and
362
[OctoBER, 1908.
utterly sad, though most pathetic and
pitiful of all is the sound of bees that
have lost themselves in the rain or
darkness.”
(The writer of the above, Miss Mary
Ritchie, is now science mistress at a
college in South Africa, and will be
remembered as an esteemed contributor
to our pages a year or two ago.—EDs.)
—British Bee Journal. No, 1289. Vol.
XXXV., March 1907.
KISH-INSECTS.
Fish-insects are too well known to
Anglo-Indians to need description. We
all have seen the flat, scaly, shining
creature, over an inch in length, which
is found lurking among papers that
have lain undisturbed in some out-of-the-
way place. We have remarked its fish-
like shape and noticed its three long
caudal stylets.
Fish-insects belong to that primitive
order of the hexapoda called Thysanura.
These creatures have no wings, but
many of them can run with great rapi-
dity. Their life historyis simple. They
undergo no metamorphosis. They pass
through no larval stage. The young
ones are miniatures of their parents.
The other Thysanura is divided into
two sub-orders, popularly knownas the
spring-tails and the bristle-tails. Fish-
insects belong to the latter sub-order
and to the family Lepismatide.
Fich-insects are not by any means con-
fined to India. They appear to be found
all the world over. As longagoas 1665,
R. Rooke, a Fellow of the Royal Society,
gavea graphic account of the creature.
He describes it as ‘‘small, white, silver
shining worm or moth, which I found
much conversant among books and
papers, and is supposed to be that which
corrodes and eats through the leaves and
covers. Its head appears big and blunt,
and its body tapers from it towards the
tail, smaller and smaller, being shaped
almost like a carrot.........00 It has two
long horns, before, which are straight,
and tapering towards the top, curiously
ring’d or knobb’d and bristled much like
the marsh weed called horse’s tail.........
the hinder part terminated in three
tails, in every particular resembling the
two longer horns that grow out of the
head. The legs are seal’d and hair’d.”
Everybody knows how rapidly books,
papers and photographs deteriorate in
this country unless they receive constant
attention. Anglo-Indians, with one
accord, blame the fish-insects for thi
damage. It is true that no one has eve
OcTorrr, 1908.)
_ eaught a fiish-insect in flagrante delictu.
But that is not surprising, for the fish-
insect is a creature of the night, coming
out from its lair, like rats and _ black-
beetles, only when the lights are extin-
guished. There is, however, strong cir-
cumstantial evidence against the fish-
insect; he is always to be found near
the place where the offence has been
committed.
The men of science equally with ‘the
manin the street” shares Mr. Rooke’s
view that fish-insects are injurious to
books.
Mr. Bladesin his work, entitled ‘‘ The
Enemies of Books” writes: “ thereis, too,
a small silvery insect (Lepisma) which I
have often seen in the backs of neglect-
ed books, but his ravages are not of
much importance.” The American En-
tomologist Packard states that the
Lepismatide# are sometimes injurious
to papers and books.” According to
him Lepisma domestical has injured
books in the library of Wellesly College.
The Anglo-Indian eritomologist, Mr.
K. P. Stebbing, believes that the fish-
insect ‘‘ perhapsdoes the most damage
in libraries and to pictures. In the
latter it apparently feeds upon the
saccharine matter used in mounting
the picture in its frame,”
Sir J. EH. Tennent, however, holds a
very different opinion of fish-insects,
believing them to be most useful crea-
tures. Hedescribes them as ‘‘foes who
ursue and feed greedily upon” the
Hasdesof minute insects which destroy
books. He adds ‘‘instead of their
services bring gratefully recognised
these insects are popularly branded as
accomplices in the work of destruction.
One of these ill-used creatures is a tiny
tail-less scorpion (Bhelifer), and the
other is the pretty little silvery crea-
ture (Lepisma), called by Europeans the
fish-insect. Like the Chelifer, it shuns
the light, hiding in chinks till sunset,
and is actively engaged throughout the
night feasting on the acari and _ soft-
bodied insects which assail books and
papers. There are thus two opinions
regarding the character of the _fish-
insect. Oneis that the fish-insect is a
hexapod without guile, a poor dog who
unjustly has been given a bad name;
the other is that the fish-insect is the
arch-enemy of our books and _ pictures.
It behoves us to decide which of these
two is the true one, for upon the result
arrived at our policy towards the fish-
insects should depend.
I gave some attention to the subject
nd have held each view in turn. At
ne time I was orthodox in the extreme,
368
Live Stock.
then I became heterodox and was in-
clined to side with Tennent; more
mature experience has, however, con-
vinced me that the fish-insect is no
friend to man. Let me recount the
reasons for these changes of opinion.
One day I discovered in an old box,
which contained neither books nor
paper nor indeed anything but dirt, a
fish-insect. It is true that it was not
of the ordinary species. Its body was
black with the exception of a white
band running transversely across the
hinder part of its back. As the old
box was in an empty room, this dis-
covery seemed to show that some fish-
insects, at any rate, can get along
without paper or books.
On a subsequent occasion in Madras,
I saw a dark-coloured fish-insect emerge
from a crack between the bricks and
the lintel of a gate in a compound
wall. It is fairly obvious that that
particular fish-insect did not feed upon
paper.
Then again, the fish-insect is obviously
not the cause of those round holes
often found in the leaves and covers
of books. Some of these excavations
are nearly an inch in length. The
mouth of the fish-insect is not an in-
strument capable of boring such a
tunnel. Nor is the shape of the tunnel
that of the Lepisma’s body.
I then determined to capture some
fish-insects and keep them under obser-
vation. This resolution seemed to have
the effect of producing a dearth of
fish-insects in a locality where previously
they had appeared to be exceptionally
abundant; many days elapsed before I
managed to secure one. If any person
desires to ridehis house of Lepismatidse
I advise him to make a collection of
them. They seem as difficult to collect
as five-pound notes. Having at last
secured my fish-insect I placed him in
a square cigarette box, with a paper
of a book, which was already, riddled
with holes that were the handiwork
of some insect. [ selected a book of
this description, as I am assured that
the paper which helps to form most
of our modern books is loaded with
lead and other impurities to such an
extent that the life of the book-worm
is now scarcely worth living. The
fish-insect did not appear to be
enthusiastic over the paper. I had
him in that box for three weeks dur-
ing which the paper remained altogether
unaffected. On the second day of his
captivity | introduced into his cagea
dead mosquito which did seem to
excite his curiosity. Later I actually
Lave Stock.
saw him with the corpse of the mosquito
in his jaws. After that I used almost
daily to put into his box some small in-
sect which I had previously killed.
On the twentieth day he was as lively,
as hale and hearty,- as when he was
first captured, and as I have said before, -
the piece of paper was not touched.
After I had had him for about ten
days I placed in his box a piece of the
paper which makes the foundation of
the back of a book, but the fish-insect
did not take the least notice of it.
When it ran over it, it did not stop
to investigate.
On the twentieth day I caught a
second fish-insect, a smaller one than
my first capture, and introduced it
into the box. The two creatures ignored
one another so long as I observed
them. A fish-insect abhors the light;
it is therefore difficult to observe his
habits. Although these insects took no
notice of one another while I was
watching them, they must have played
high jinks after my back was turned.
It happened that 1 did not close the
box tightly, the consequence was that
my fish-insects had disappeared by the
next morning. There had_ probably
been an elopement during the night ;
I went to England on leave shortly
after that. On returning to India I
was posted to Lahore where fish-insects
seem to be unusually scarce. Hence
my researches were ata standstill for
a long time, during which I held a
good opinion of the fish-insect, going
so far as to make the following public
declaration : “I believe that the fish-
insect does prey upon the insects which
attack books, also upon any soft-bodied
creatures he is able to catch. It is
possible that he does soil and stain
books when he is lying up in them
during the day. This I believe is the
worst that can be said against him.”
But, alack, and alas! I have since been
disillusioned. Iam onceagain among the
company of the orthodox. It happened
364
[OcToRER, 1908. q
in this wise. Last July I went for ten
days to Mussoorie, where I was given a
dressing-room which contained anything
from twenty to a hundred fish-insects. I
had not been three days in the place,
before [noticed that the label on my
bottle of quinine tabloids was growing
beautifully less. Some tissue paper that
my wife had put on a shelf became liter-
ally riddled with holes in an incredible
short space of time. The same fate over-
took some muslin which had never been
used. The fish-insects also played havoc
with some new hats that had come out
from Home and were being stored up for
some great occasion. The tule in the
hats was the attraction; it was this
that rapidly became riddled with holes;
no other parts of the hats were touched.
_ The Mussoorie fish-insects also did con-
siderable damage to the covers of some
books which were bound in what
publishers describe as “linen.”
The glaze on these proved the attrac-
tion. In order to keep out the fish-
insects my wife’ placed quantities of
naphthaline and black pepper in her
boxes, but this seems to attract rather
than repel the hardy creatures! The
above-enuimerated articles alone were
touched. It is evident that whatever
the fish-insect may eat in the way of
insects, it is injurious to the covers of
books if these contain any kind of glaze.
lt does not do much damage to the
leaves of books, even when these are.
glossy, because it cannot get at them.
Anything starchy appears to be parti-
cularly palatable to fish-insects.
ee
a Fa ee a ee ee Se
There are, of course, many species of _
fish-insects, some of whichare probably
purely insectivorous, and hence not to
be regarded as pests. But the common
fish.insect—the Lepisma domestica—of
India is assuredly not a creature to be
encouraged.—(D. D. in the Indian Field.)
—Indian Forester, Vol. XXXIV., July,
1908, No. 7.
Mic,
OcrorER, 1908.)
365
SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE.
PLANT EXCRETA.
Popular opinions generally have some
foundation in fact, whether or not they
may seem reasonable on a careful an-
alysis. It is said that certain plants
poison the land and this has led to the
belief that certain plants will excrete
matter into the soil that will be in-
jurious to other plants. Referring to the
eurrent belief, Prof. Clinton D. Smith
recently answered a correspondent in
the Country Gentleman to the effect
that the probable reason of the lack of
fertility in certain soils, once fertile, is
notso much the lack of plant food, or
soluble plant food, as the presence in
the soil of certain bodies, partly known
and probably others unknown, which
are poisonous to the growing crop. Itis
also believed that the source of these
poisonous bodies is the previous crop, or
crops. A German scientist, after a
series of extensive experiments, believes
that plants excrete potash, as certain
ripe crops contained a great deal less of
it than the same crops when sending
forth vigorous shoots in the early part
of their growth.
On the other hand, the investigations
in plant physiology during the last ten
years have led to the present belief that
the plants are much like any other
animal possessing life, but, by their
method of life, are ordinarily held in
situ, growing in the land just as oysters
and sponges do in the sea. These living
things, growing in the land, are presumed
to take their food, water and oxygen
through the roots and are presumed to
exhale any resulting excreta through
their leaves. The carbonic dioxide, or
carbonic acid coming from the leaves of
plants is presumed tobe similar to the
carbonic acid exhaled from animal
lungs. If these conclusions be correct
and if every plant or sponge is buta
humbler member of the great living
animal world, we can see at once that
we have yet very much to learn con-
cerning plant biology. If with our quick
American appreciation of new ideas, we
take hold of thi s matter in earnest, a
Wwe now seem to be doing, the benefit to
the agricultural interests of the United
States will be large, far beyond our
present comprehension.
We who live in the alluvial country,
with low lands necessitating careful
drainage, can quickly perceive that if
sugar cane is an air-breathing plant, as
it must be, andif the air it breathes
must be inhaled through its roots before
it can be exhaled by the plant through
its leaves, the earth in which the cane
plant grows must be permeated hy
atmospheric air sufficiently to give the
plants their necessary oxygen. The
sugar cane isnot an aquatic plant. It
cannot get its oxygen out of the water
as fishes do, and, on the other hand,
water in undue quantity drowns these
dry-land plants,
It is less than twenty-five years ago
that Helriegel brought out in Germany
and definitely formulated the now
generally accepted theories of the value
of leguminous plants, such as cow peas,
alfalfa and clover, in fertilizing land by
the accumulation therein of nitrogen,
which nitrogen is secreted from the air
by the bacilli that make the roots of
these ; plants their habitat. The Old
Roman and Greek world knew the
advantage of leguminous plants in a
rotation of crops, but never ascertained
the reason why such plants were so
valuable as a fertilizing agent. In plant
physiology we understand that until
within ten years it was thought that
plants exhaled carbonic acid and inhaled
oxygen and all this through the leaf
system. This belief is now apparently
dissipated and we find the plants lining
up with the rest of the living things of
the world, inhaling their oxygen and
ingesting their nutriment through one
set of organs and exhaling any necessary
excreta through other organs. As to
the excreta of plants in the soil and the
poisoning of the soil therewith, we are
still very much in the dark, as all this
world seems to indicate.—The Louisiana
Planter & Sugar Manufacturer. Vol,
XXXX, No 25, June, 1908.)
En REE PS, 2 SO a aes
Si Se
. ¢ Lh —
[OCTOBER, 1908,
366
MISCELLANEOUS.
LITERATURE OF ECONOMIC ee liane i cacn ae arene ies
BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE. foe Aur 1908, 6 ee ne
XXXIV. Landolphia rubber vines. ‘T.A.”
5 soba Aug. 1907, p. 98.
KICKXIA.—-see FUNTUMIA. MANIHOT.
LANDOLPHIA.
Warburg in Tropenpfl. July 1899,
p. dll.
Pierre, see Bot. Centr. 82. 1900, p. 337.
Hallier, see do. 85, 1901, p. 170.
Notes sur un nouvelle Landolphia
de l’ Etat Independant du Congo
(L. Laurentii De Wild.) Rev. Cult.
Col. 1901, p. 229,
Ueber der Stampfianze des Donde—
kautschuks und ihre praktische
Bedeutung. Tropenpfi. 1901, p. 403.
Getrocknete Landolphia-rinde. do.
p. 443.
L. tenuis: petite liane 4 caoutchoue
de Madagascar. Rev. Cult. Col.
1902, p, 298.
Busse: zur Kenntniss der
kanischen lLandolphias.
Jahrb. 32, p. 163.
Multiplication de la liane’ caout-
chouc, owariensis. Journ. @
Agr. trop. 1903, p. 99.
LL. Kirkii.—Hooker’s Icones. 2755.
L. Petersiana do. 2756.
L. Thollonii et L. parvifolia: contri-
butions 4 la connaissance de I ori-
gine du caoutchouc des _ herbes.
Rev. Cult, Col. Feb. 1904, p. 57.
Rubber of L. Kirkii from Amatonga-
land, i lan Imp. Inst. Bull. June
1904, p. 9
Dawe: ee rubber, its col-
lection and preparation. ‘‘T.A.”
June 1904, p. 825.
Sur quelques Landolphias nouvelles
de Madagascar. Bull Jard. Col.
July 1904, p. 107.
The rubber of L. Petersianatrom the
East African Protectorate. Bull.
Imp. Inst. Jan. 1905, p
Einiges ueber Landolphia. Tropenpfi.
9, 1905, p. 712.
Vegetation et rendement du L, Thol-
lonit. Jour. d’Agr. trop. 5. 1905,
p. 327.
Cultivation of aya rubber.
Chron. 1906, p
History of a aba creeper in trop-
pical Africa (LZ. Dawei). Ind.
Journ. May 1906, p. 514.
Ostafri-
Engler’s
Gard.
(Ceara or Manicoba rubber).
eecuenting Opinion, 25 Feb. 1899, p.
Cultivation du caoutchouc de Ceara
au Congo francais. Rev. Cult. Col.
Oct. 1899, p. 219.
An Opportunity for our Indian For-
ests. Ind. Agric. Sept. 1899, p. 279.
M. Glaziovii in Deutsch Ost- Afrika.
Tropenpfl. July 1899, p. 335.
Uses of M. Glaziovii. Ind. Gard. 12.
7. 1900, p. 20.
Ceara rubber tree do, 30. 8. 1900, p. 189.
Le Manihot. Rev. Cult. Col. 1903, pp.
343, 361.
peed and bad Cearas. ‘*T.A.” 1904,
p. 8.
Gruber: see Ber. L. F. Deutsch Ost-
Afrika II. p. 121.
Tropenpfi. 1904, p. 455,
Le Manicoba. Bull. Jard. Col. 5,
p- 298.
Ceara rubber in Ceylon.
3. 1906 p. 172.
Untersuchungen iiber die Gewinnung
des Kautschuks von Manihot Glazi-
Mies Der Pflanzer 1905, p. 305, 1906,
p. 33. -
Zwei Gutachten iiber der Kautschuk
von Manihot Glazovii Tropenpfl.
1906, jp. 20.
The cultivation of Ceara rubber:
Trop. Life, Nov. 1906, p. 165.
Do. May
Ind. PI. 10.
Bons et Mauvais Cearas.
1906, p. 134,
Ceara rubber in Ceylon. ‘‘T.A.” Mar.
1906, p. 101.
Untersuchungen iiber die Gewin-
nung des Kautschuks von M. Glazi-
ovit. Der Pflanzer 3, 1907, p. 49.
Die Anzucht und kultur des M. Glazi-
ovii in Kibwezi, B. H. A. Notizbl.
Berlin LV. p. 263.
Die VW. Glaziovit Kultur in Madagas-
car. Tropenpfl. 1907 p. 244.
Le caoutchoue de Ceara «4 l’exposi-
tion de Ceylon. Journ. D’Agri.
trop. 1907, p. 71.
‘Critique du M. Glaziovui in Annam.
do. 73.
ati
; OCTOBER, 1908. |
Oil from the seed of the Céara rubber
tree analysed. “‘T.A.” June 1007,
Dp. 303.
Ule: Vorliufige Besvhreibung von
drei Manihot Arten. Notizbl. -
Berlin, 1907.
Zimmermann, Hinige neue Kauts-
chuk—liefernde Manihot— Arten
Der Pflanzer Aug. 1907, p. 167.
Jequié Manicoba and its allies. Kew
Bull. 1908, p. 59. “*T.A.” May 1908,
p. 412,
Seq uié Manicoba rubber. Agr. News,
IV. 388: “ T.A.” Apr. 1908, p. 298.
Ceara or Manicoba rubber. Jam.
Bull. 1908, p. 1.
New species of Manihot and their
importance. (Trans. by Lock from
Der Paauzer) TA.” Man 1908, p. 198,
Les nouveaux Manicobas de Bahia
et de Piauhy. Journ. dAgr. trop.
31. 8. 1908, p. 65.
Johnson: Ceara rubber in Portuguese
East Africa. Bull. Imp. Inst. 4
1907, p. 401.
Chevalier: Un nouveau Manihot a
caoutechouc. Journ. dAgr. trop.
Dec. 1907, p. 356,
Neue Manihot—Arten und _ ihre
Sess Tropenpfl. Dec. 1907,
A propos du M. Teissonniert A.
Chev. Journ. d’Agi. trop. Apr.
1908, p. 110.
Le Sisal, coagulant du latex de
M. Glaziovit do. p. 128
Observations sur le culture, l’exploi-
tation et le rendement du Mani-
coba. do. June 1908, p. 163,
Ueber Anzapfungsversuche von M.
Glaziovit in Togo. Der Pflanzer.
Apr. 1908, p. 36.
Untersuchung von Manihot—Kauts-
chuk. do. p. 39.
Ceara rubber. ‘*T,A.”, Suppt. Dec.
1907, p. 121.
Ceara or Manicoba rubber. T.A.”
June 1908, p. 518.
MARSDENIA.
Le M. verrucosa ou Bokalahy de
Madagascar, et son Caoutchouc,
Rev. Cult. Col. VI. 1900, p. 293.
M ASCARENHASIA,
Les Mascarenhasias & caoutchouc de
Madagascar. do. 1899, p. 297. See
Comptes Rendus, 20, May 1899.
367
Miscellaneous.
Jumelle : Recherches sur lextraction
du caoutchouc des écorees et la
coagulation des latex dans les
Mascarenhasias. Le Caout. et la
Guttap. Aug. Sept. 1965.
Le genre Mascarenhasia. Bull, Jard.
Col. July 1906, p. 59
Jumelle: Le polymorphisme des
Mascarenhasias del’Ambongo et du
Boina. Bull. Jard. Co 1-7. 1907,
p. 283
Stapf: Mgoa rubber in British Kast
Africa. Kew Bull. 1907. T. A. Feb.
1908, p. 102.
Ueber die Kautschukgewinnung von
Mascarenhasia and Cryptostegia-
arten. Der Pflanzer, 1907, p. 145.
MEXICAN RUBBER.—See CASTILLOA.
ParA RUBBER.—See HEVEA.
PARAMERIA,
Une liane a caoutchouc de I Indo-
Chine. Bull. Ke. Indo-Ch. 1901, p. 371.
Latex and rubber ot Paramerna
glandulifera from India. Imp. Inst.
Bull. 1907, p. 14.
PARTHENIUM (Guayule)
Der Guayule und seine wirthschaf-
tliche Bedeutung. Tropenpfl. 9.
1905, p. 283,
The Guayule rubber of Mexico. Imp.
Inst. Bull. 1906, p. 114.
The Guayule rubber plant. Ind.
World. July &e. 1905, pp, 335,
367, &c.
The Guayule factories of Mexico.
do. July 1906, p. 329.
Caoutchoue de Guayule. Journ. d’
Agr. trop. Dee. 1905, p. 368.
The use of Guayule rubber. T. A.
Dee. 1906, p. 457.
Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand und
die Aussichten der Guayule in-
dustrie. Tropenpfl. 11. 1907, p. 449.
The Guayule rubber of Mexico.
Trop. Life Dec, 1906, p, 181.
The Guayule interests. Ind. World,
Aug. 1907, p. 382.
Guayule rubber. Ind. Journal Sepc.
1907, p. 305.
Guayule rubber Kew Bull. 1907, p.
285. T. A. do. p. 103.
Le caoutchouc de Guayule. Journ.
d Agr. trop. Sept. 1907, p. 259.
Guaywe rubber. Str. Bull, 1907, p. 385.
Oe paige
Miscellaneous. 368 OcToBER, 1908. —
Ross: Der anatomische Bau_ der Ueber das Vorkommen von Kauts-
mexicanischen Kautschukpflanze chuk bei Hinigen ostafrikanischen
Guayule. Ber. D. Bot. Ges. 26, ’ Gymnosporia-arten. Notizbl. Ber-
1908, p. 248. lin V. 1908. p. 64.
Guayule rubber. Kew Bull. 1908 Le Plec taneia elastica ou Pies annee
955! ‘ liane & caoutchoue de Madagascar.
Bacon. Joure. dAgr trop. Apr. 1908, p.
SAPIUM. 125.
Notes surleS. biglandulosum (review The native rubber trees of British
to date). Rev. Cult. Col. 1900, p. 14, Guiana. Journ. B. A., Brit. Gui.
See R. B. G. Perad Circ. 1899, No, 14. T. A 1908, pp. 805, 415.
Kew Bull. 1890, p. 149.
Sago.
A t de S. biglandul .R
TERT Te geal gine ak Ne a See Malay Bull. No. 4, 1895.
Sapium spp- Hooker’s Icones VII. Preyer in Tropenpfl, 1901, p. 354.
2647 seg., 2677 seg. See Tropenpfi. 1901, p. 213.
Sapiumstylare do. 2757. Cycead Sago. T. A. June, 1906, p. 385
The ‘‘ Virgen ” rubber of Colombia. The Sago palm. Journ. B. A. Brit.
Ind. Journ. Aug. 1906, p. 244. Gui. Jan. 1908, p. 18. T. A, May, 1908.
A new source of Amazon rubber. Ind. p. 433.
World, Aug. 1905, p. 365. SA MALGDOOL.
SUNDRY GENERA. See Schimmel’s Reports, especially
; ; j : that for April 1900, p. 40, where is a
pea ene papeD haat map of the Sandalwood districts.
Neue Kautschukbiume (Alstonia) Rudolf, Sandalwood and Sandal-
aus Neu—Caledonien. Tropenpfl. ee aaa oul harmacy 12,
1903, p. 526. ;
Kautschuk von Clitandra Kilimand” Tate oS, at ae wuts
ieee NV aco fl, 6. 1902, p: )
UN Ad hae anid P Sandalwood-oil do. 11.8) 16n0h wereee
Les Bois de Santal en Indo-Chine.
'
.
}
}
Kine neue Kautschuk—liefernde
Liane, Clitandra Simone. Notizbl. Ppt ie. doc eae :
Berlin IV, 1905, p. 169. Barber. Spike disease in Coorg. Ind. f
Guis caoutchoutiferes d’Amazonie Forester, 29. p. 21. N 7
Journ. d’Agr. trop. May. 1906, p. Butler. Spike disease in Coorg. do.,
131. Suppt. . :
de Wildeman: Le Periploca nigres- Treatment of the Sandalwood tree :
cens, plante 4 caoutchouc. Journ. do. p. 113, !
d@Agr. trop. 6. 1906, p. 363. Notes on Sandalwood. do. 30, 1904,
A new rubber tree, Palo Amarillo. pp. 18, 248 t
Kew bull. 1907, p. 294. Das Santalholz. Mitth. Amani No. i"
Rubber from a_ tuber at last. 33. ;
Str. Bull. A ug. 1907, p. 252. Barber. The study of Sandalwood ~
Arbre A caoutchouc dit Nong Giot seedlings. Ind, For. 30, 1904, p. 546.
dans le cercle de Caobang. Bull. Sandalwood at Kurnool. do. 1906,
Ec, Indoch. 1907, p. 703. p. 893.
Une nouvelle liane a caoutchouc du Barber. The haustorium of Santa-
genre Bousigonia do. p. 706. lum album. Mem. Dpt. Agr. India
Nouvelles observations sur l’arbre I. 1.
a caoutchouc du Tonkin (Teo-nong) Sandalwood-oil. Parry. Chem. and
do. p. 798. Drug. 28. 3. 1908, p, 489.
Determination de larbre a caout- The characters of essential oil of
chouc du Tonkin, Teo-nong, Bleek- East Indian Sandalwood. Chem.
rodea tokinensis Dub-et Eberh. and Drug. Sept. 1907, p. 448.
Goes seat Sansevieria.
Another new _ indiarubber tree, , wis,
Bleekrodea tokinensis. T. A. Mar. Preyer. Die Sansevieria-taser Beih.
1908, p. 208. z. Tropenpfi. I. 1900, p. 18. :
A new rubber tree (Huphorbia ela- Sansevieria fibre. Ind. Gard. 26. 4. —
stica) Kew Bull. 1907, p. 109. 1900, p. 275.
Ocroser, 1908.)
Greilach. Zur Anatomie des Blattes
von Sansevieria, und ueber die
Sansevieria-faser—Oest. Bot. Zeits-
chr. LI. 1901, p- 152. Bot. Centr. 87,
p. 240,
Sansevieria cultivation in Selangor.
Str. Bull. II. 1903, p. 220.
Arden. Murva fibre. T. A. Sept.
1903, p. 188.
The bowstring hemp. Ind. Pl. and
_ Gard. 12, 9. 1903, p. 181.
La fibre tessile Sansevieria. Boll.
Eritrea II. 1902, p. 269.
Murva fibre from the Straits Settle-
ments. Imp. Inst. I. 2. 71,
Die Sansevieren von Deutsch Ost
oe Der Pflanzer 1905, pp. 264
Aufbereitung der Sanseviera—blat-
ter. Tropenpfl. 1905, p. 584.
Bericht uber eine im Autftrag Der
Kaiserliches Governements unter-
nommene Reise in die Sansevieria-
gebietebei Voi (Britisch Ost-Africa),
Der Panzer III. 1907, p. 90.
Essai de multiplication de la Sanse-
vieria et du Sisal parle bouturage
des feuilles. Journ. d’Agr. trop.
June, 1908, p. 167.
Sapindus
Seifenfrucht. Tropenpfi. 1907, p. 287.
Sapodilla
The Zapote tree and chicle gum. T.
A. Sept. 1906, p, 229.
Sarcolobus
S. globosus. Ridley in Str. Bull. II.
1903, p. 223.
Satinwood
Broun. Satinwood.
May, 1899,
Templer, Satinwood. T. A. Jan.
1907, p, 26
Schleichera
Schleichera fat. Ind. Agr. May 1906:
p. 182.
Schleichera or Kusam oil and fat. T.
A. Oct. 1906, p. 3809,
Senna.
The Senna industry (South India).
Ind. Agric. 1902, p, 210.
Ind. Forester,
Sesame.
Sesame. Queens]. Agr. Jl., Dec. 1898,
p. 423,
Thoms. Prufiing der Sesamum aus
Byer Tropenpii. II. Beih. Z. B. C.8.
p. B
Ueber das Sesamum, Beih. Z. B, C, 9:
p. 313.
47
369
Miscellaneous,
La culture du Sesame. Rev. Cult.
Col. Dec. 1903, p. 387.
Sesamum in Burmah. Ind. Agr. Jan.
1908, «‘T,A.” Apr. 1908, p. 319.
Shade Trees.
Str. Bull. No. 8. Dec. 1898, p. 221.
Zizyphus Joazeiro. Tropenpfl. 4, 1900,
p» 299.
Manurial value of shade trees.
Bull. 1901, p. 347.
Le Rorako (Parkinsonia aculeata)
comme arbre d’ombrage & Java.
Journ, dAgr, trop. May 1907,
p. 157.
Shellac.
Wattin Chem. and Drug. Nov. II,
1907, p. 775.
Shorea.
The seeds of S. robusta as a famine
food. Agr. Ledg. P. Series
81, 1904.
Development of salin volume and
money value. Ind. Forest. Records
I. 2. 1908.
Trin.
A JOURNEY TO CEYLON, INDIA AND
BURMA.
By D. SANDMANN (DEUTSCHES KOLONIAL
BLATT, 1907.)
REVIEWED By J. C. WILLIs.
The author made a tour of three months
in the Kast to study the general agricultural
conditions, with a view to determining the
best methods of handling such matters in
German colonies.
After a good general description of the
island, including the povery of the soil, the
author remarks ‘‘ The good climate, the cheap
labour, good connection with the world’s
warkets, and last but not least the correct re-
cognition of the world’s different needs, has
contributed more than the natural conditions
of the soil, to the development of Ceylon.
He gives a good account of the Peradeniya
department and its organisation for the
assistance of agriculture, the Agricultural
Society.
A full account is then given of rubber
planting, coconuts, &c.,
THE VILLAGE CULTIVATOR AND
PADDY CULTIVATION.
A. DISSANAIKE MUDALIYAR,.
[Laid before the Board of Agriculture
Meeting of 5th Uctober, 1908.]
In my previous paper I referred to the diffi”
culties experienced by paddy cultivators as
the result of uncertain rainfall as well as
Miscellaneous.
their strained circumstances and_ inability
to combat the many evils arising therefrom.
The ordinary villager is not a man without
energy and intelligence, and he is able and
willing to work if there is a way of getting
help to overcome the difficulties with which
he is beset. As there are no friendly associ-
ations or companies in existence among the
people to carry on Agricultural or Industrial
work, what is to be desired is a fund, to
be created by themselves which will enable
them to carry on paddy cultivation and
other agricultural pursuits. Paddy culti-
vators, being generally a poor and neglected
class of people, require help in carrying on
this most important industry, and the only
way the people can help themselves is by
a voluntary cess. In this the Government
can help by recovering a share of the produce
of their paddy lands to be spent upon im-
provements in paddy cultivation. This
would enable the cultivator to get monetary
help in times of need—a thing which the
people have not been able to do except on
the most ruinous terms.
Paddy cultivation has been the main in-
dustry in this country for thousands of years
past, and the payment of the tithe as royalty
existed from time immemorial. The people
were used to it, and never grumbled at
having to pay it. The Portuguese historian,
Captain John Robiyro, in his ‘‘ History of
Ceylon” states that ‘there is no nation which
so highly venerates its King as the Sinha-
lese.” Itis equally true that the Sinhalese
held this tax as something sacred to the
Sovereign. In the early days it was taken
in kind and continued during Dutch rule
and even at the commencement of the
British Government. The tax came to be
regarded unfair, methods subsequently adopt-
ed in levying it proving a harass to the
cultivators. Renting out crops by Govern-
ment resulted in many cases before Courts
between the renters (generally strangers)
and the cultivators. ‘The renting system
was given up in 1881 and _ commutation
introduced; but this proved still more
vexatious, many of the small holdings of
the people falling under the hammer in
default, until in 1893 it was abolished.
The people everywhere are agreeable to the
tithe and, I believe, there is a general im-
pression that paddy cultivation was more
prosperous during the days of the tax than
now. This may be attributed largely to the
attention which the headmen paid to the culti-
vation and the crop. Another reason is that
the people act freely regardless of others,
whereas paddy cultivation should be carried
on systematically and with mutual under-
standing and co-operation. The revival of
the tithe would not be imposing a land tax
but a voluntary contribution by the people
for their direct benefit.
Isuggest the necessity of having a Tithe for
_ the advancement of the industry—revival of
30
{OcrozER, 1908. am
a custom the people are used to—not th |
resuscitation of an abolished Tax, ,
The cultivators all over the Island have no
repugnance to paying the tithe, and they will
be the more willing to pay it, when itis known
to be used for their own benefit. The proceeds
of the sale shall be applied to necessary im- -
provements in cultivation, the remainder
credited to the District Committee. The
cultivators are often obliged to attend to
other agricultural pursuits during times of
recess in order to provide for themselves and
families when they are actively engaged in
paddy cultivation. This fund shall be of
great service at such times, and turn them off
the money lenders on exorbitant interest.
Loans might be given on joint security where
necessary, and such privileges granted will
afford them much relief and comfort. When —
the fund has increased by yearly contri-
butions to a big capital, Government would
be better placed in initiating large and useful
irrigation works with the co-operation of the
people. JI have so far pointed out the de-
sirability of having a fund for the cultivators,
and how it can be conveniently formed out
of the produce of the lands.
Whether the levying of a tithe is effected
by a special Ordinance or by special Rules
framed to be worked under the Village Com-
munities’ Ordinance, or the Paddy Cultivation
Ordinance, the fund shall be administered by
Village Committee members, selected by the
cultivators and presided by the chief Revenue
Officer of the District as Chairman, all act-
ing under the presidency of the Government
Agent or the Asstistant Government Agent.
When any necessary work has to be effected,
the Village Committee can discuss the matter
and report their views to the Government
Agent or the Assistant Government Agent,
who can, with the consent of a reasonable
majority, take action. The co-operation of
the Irrigation Department in such cases may
be availed of, and the work done under its
supervision, the cultivators supplying all such
labour as they can render according to the
quota assigned to each by the proper officer,
necessary expenses being met out of the fund.
I consider, from my long experience as a
District Mudaliyar, the procedure above to
be the best; this opinion is held by other
native chiefs of long service as also by land-
owners of experience.
It is for the Government to consider the
further utilization of the Irrigation Depart-
ment so as to make its usefulness and advan-
tages widely extended. Every Province is
understood to possess an Irrigation Instructor
or Adviser, whose special duty is to see that
the cultivators conform to the rules on the
improved methods of cultivation, with a
small staff to inspect the works. ;
In districts where the Paddy Cultivation —
Ordinance is in force and worked upon, a —
class of petty headmen called Vel-Vidanes —
are generally taken from the ordinary classes, —
!
“a
It would prove better to let the selection
of these officers to the Village Committees,
who should have control of the general
management of cultivation, such as fixing
sowing time, weeding, fencing, selection of
seed-paddy or its distribution to cultivators,
raising and repair of ridges of fields, upkeep
of village tanks, if any, &c. Special rules,
where necessary, might be enforced.
The assessment of the paddy crops for the
levying of the tithe may be done as in former
days by employing Comisteer Appus or Com-
missioners, the local headman of the division
certifying as to the correctness of the
wattores (lists of land with an assessment of
the crops).
The mode of recovering the tithe, whether
in kind? or by renting the crops should, I
think, be left to the Village Committees,
It is important to consider the advisability
_of employing some methods of education and
instruction on the improvement of fields,
e.g., by observing systematic rotation of
crops, trying new kinds of paddy, introducing
improved implements, transplanting, and
manuring suitable to various soils. These
improvements will be best effected by asso-
ciating the Village Committees with the
Agricultural Society.
Assuming that the management of paddy
cultivation and the carrying out of the
different improvements suggested are con-
ducted on lines indicated above, and under
the supervision of the Agricultural Society,
and that Agricultural Shows are arranged,
after harvest times, it would be a good plan,
when the cultivators bring their paddy, to
award prizes for the best quality and yield.
I have borrowed the idea from Japan, where
the modus operandi is described in the
following passage from ‘‘Dai Nippon” by
Henry Dyer, c.E., M.A., D,SC :—
**The time of the annual payment of the
rice at the Collectors’ store-houses, where
each farmer’s rice was submitted for in-
spection, instead of being an occasion of
sorrow and irritation, was more like that of
‘a fair where each vied with the other in
presenting for official inspection the best
return of rice, It was always a source of
mortification for any one when his rice was
rejected or declared improperly cleaned for
the market, Prices were awarded for the
best quality and yield, which stimulated the
farmers in its production. The tax rice
was regarded as a precious thing not to be
defiled,”
Transplanting of paddy is seldom or never
resorted to in most of the districts, as is done
in India, where it is extensively carried on.
Some years ago, when [ was Mudaliyar of the
Gangaboda Pattu of Galle, I tried transplant-
ing, on a small scale, in one of my lands and
had a return of about fifty-fold. It is to be
hoped that cultivators would more extensively
adopt it. As a start, rewards might be
ov)
Miscellaneous.
offered to those who undertake it according
to the extent planted and the success
acheived, till the people get used to it and
appreciate it. Such awards, of course, will
have to be paid out of the common fund, J
learn some of the branches of the Agricultural
Society are already doing this.
There is another side of the question to be
faced if remunerating minor headmen is
going to be adopted. ‘There is a general
dislike on the part of the people to associate
the headmen with any new scheme brought
forward for their benefit. The present
headmen, it is an unpleasant fact, are not as
respected and obeyed as a decade ago; but it
is for the Government to consider whether a
general reform of the headman system, and
whether the present number may not be con-
siderably reduced. Some of the native chiefs
are of opinion that it would be extremely
difficult to raise funds to pay headmen, as a
rule, and that the selection and remuneration
of field-headmen be left to the discretion of
respective Committees. Ifitis held, however,
that half the money should go to the Head-
men’s Fund or to Government to enable it to
form a scheme for remunerating headmen
there will still be one-half the proceeds to be
dealt by Village Committees or District
Committees. This might not be sufficient
unless the Government extended help by
grants to cover half the expenses incurred for
village works, irrespective of such labour as
would be supplied by the cultivators. In
cases where any irrigation works, such as
village tanks, anicuts, &c., have to be put up,
estimates should be furnished by officers of
the Irrigation Department.
Where funds are not available to give
loans to the cultivators when necessary,
Government shall have to be appealed to
supplement any deficiencies, by occasional
advances, until the fund increases,
It might be well to direct parties seeking
loans first to lay their cases before a
President of V. T., and where there is no
President, before the Chairmen of Village
Committees, who, after recording necessary
evidence, should forward it to the Govern-
ment Agent or the Assistant Government
Agent, with his own recommendations. In
cases where payment is not prompt, the
recovery might be effected through the
Village Tribunal, by any person so authorised.
Referring to the remarks which fell from
His Excellency the Governor on the last
occasion, that one tithe might nol be sufficient
in some circumstances, I beg to state that
it is the opinion of very many that the
paddy cultivators will be inconvenienced by
giving another tithe, and that they would
gladly consent to such a cess when the
working of the scheme proves successful,
and when they see that the benefits they
receive will be more than ample compen-
sation, Any proposal to increase the rate at.
Miscellaneous, 372
the commencement would be looked on with
. disfavour by the generality of the people,
The Government has with great liberality
caused the restoration of large Irrigation
Works, and thereby saved parts of the coun-
try from disastrous crises. We find already
the beneficial results of such works in
enhancing the food supply in those districts,
and averting famine and epidemics. Large
expenditure has been incurred by the Govern-
ment in schemes of restoration and in
opening up new irrigation works. There
still remain, however, enormous tracts of
land suitable for paddy cultivation, which in
the olden days of the Sinhalese kings were
fully utilized by means of various devices and
contrivances for irrigating.. The revival of
Sir Henry Ward’s Minute for extension of
paddy cultivation augurs well for the future.
But the extension of these irrigation works
would be like asking people to occupy empty
palaces, if they were not at the same time
provided with the means of obtaining the
necessary funds which are beyond their
reach. When the people have no means to
carry on effective works on their own lands,
they cannot be expected to do pioneer work
and undertake new enterprises without
adequate support. It is quite possible that a
fund created for the people on the lines
above suggested might, in course of time,
grow into such proportions as would enable
the carrying out of large and important
enterprises.
A, DISSANAIKE,
Mudaliyar.
_ which are sometimes left useless in a village,
THE INTRODUCTION OF IM-
PROVEMENTS INTO INDIAN
AGRICULTURE.
By D. CLouston, B.Sc.,
(Deputy Director of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and Berar.)
(Continued from page 268.)
Certain kinds of demonstration work can
be effectively carried out by means of an
itinerary staff. Here, again, the work is
most sure to prove futile unless precautions
be taken to employ the right class of men
for the work and to make all thearrangements
beforehand, by fixing definite centres and —
definite dates for the demonstrations, and by
Securing the assistance of the District Officer
in intimating the same to the cultivators.
Good work has been done on these lines by
demonstrating the method of pickling juar to
prevent smut. The assistants deliver short
addresses at each centre, in which they
explain the advantage of using this fungicide,
and then proceed to give a practical demon-
stration of the method of applying it to the
seed, Several cultivators are thoroughly
taught the process, and are then given free
of cost sufficient copper sulphate required to
pickle the quantity of juar seed which each
intends to sow. About 8 ewts. of copper-
sulphate were given out in this way last year
or sufficient to pickle about 200,000 lbs. of
seed.
The department has successfully demon-
strated this process for several years, and its
advantages have been so fully recognised that
it has become a regular practice in certain
parts of the juar tract. Successful work on
similar lines has been done by sending
assistants on tour with selected new machines
and implements, which we believe to be
suitable for the tract. Here also it is neces-
sary to frame a definite programme with
fixed centres, such as large villages where
bazaars are held, where the assistant can stay
and work his machines for some days, rather
than wander about to a new village each day.
In this way a considerable demand has arisen
for some useful machines, such as winnowers
and fodder-cutters. A register of purchasers
should be maintained, and the department
should ascertain from time to time whether
the machine is working satisfactorily and
should assist in effecting any necessary
repairs. Failure has resulted in some cases,
where the purchaser has not known how to
work the machine properly, and it is now the
practice to try and induce a purchaser to
send a man to the agricultural station to be
taught the practical working of the imple-
ments that he desires to purchase. ‘This is
very necessary in the case of foreign ploughs,
not because the plough is unsuitable, but
because the purchaser has not learnt the
proper method of working it.
The school gardens should, to some extent,
at least, be the means of bringing the young
mind into touch with nature, and of arousing
his interest in plant-growth. Nature study
should form a fundamental part in the edu-
cation of every child so as to teach him to
observe closely and to reason accurately —
from data gained by observation. Nature ~
study brings the child face to face with real
things, and tends in this case to give his |
mind an intelligent bent towards cultivation
and for the assimilation, later, of such useful
scientific work as the stations may turn out —
for his farm practice. As the success of the —
scheme depends very largely on the teachers ~
in charge, they are put through a six months’
course at the Agricultural College, where
they are taught the rudiments of theoretical —
agriculture in the class-room and on the
Nagpur Farm, sufficient to enable them to
teach intelligently the agricultural lessons
included in the School Readers. The system
of elementary rural education has a most
important bearing on the future of agricul-
tural improvement. es
OcTORER, 1908, |
An important departure was made six
years ago by starting at the Nagpur Agri-
cultural College a one yeai’s course in
practical agriculture for training the sons of
farmers. The teaching is given in the verna-
cular, and is almost wholly practical work
on the farm with a minimum of lectures and
book-work. At the outset it was found
very difficult to attract the right stamp of
student, although scholarships were freely
given by the District Councils. Some of the
students were the sons of petty traders or
officials who had failed in other attempts to
earn a livelihood, who had no connection
with, or liking for the land, but who hoped
ultimately to get some employment and at
least to be supported in the meantime by
scholarships. The importance of careful
selection of the students cannot be over-
estimated. A few sons of cultivators were
-attracted with a real desire to learn some-
thing connected with their profession, and in
such cases some measure of success has been
secured, as was shown by an enquiry into the
work that they were doing in their villages
after they had left the College. One im-
portant lesson learned is, that it is most
desirable to try and keep in touch with the
students after they have finished their course;
to encourage them to write and explain what
they are trying, to advise them upon any
difficulties that they experience, and to visit
them in their homes when occasion offers.
Some are the keenest members of their
District Agricultural Association.
By personal intercourse between officers
of the department and leading cultivators,
much can be done to increase their con-
fidence in the department and their inter-
est in the work of the stations. Requests
for information and advise should be en-
couraged in every possible way, for amidst
much chaff there is often a little good
grain. Everything possible should be done,
also, to get District Officers to co-operate
with the department in carrying out its
demonstration work in the districts. If the
department is doing its duty, there will be a
large amount of unofficial correspondence
between its officers and cultivators and the
district staff.
The formation of agricultural associations
has proved a most useful means of getting
the best class of cultivators to co-operate
with the department. In the Cential Pro-
vinces the district is the best unit for which
to form an association. Hach district should
have its own association, the members of
which should be the leading cultivators, and
afew Government officers who are keen on
agricultural improvement, the District Offi-
cer being President. In forming such an
association, considerable discretion is neces-
‘sary in order to secure as members the right
type of men from among the cultivating
class. The men selected should be cultivators
who take an intelligent interest in super-
B18
Miscellaneous.
vising their own cultivation, and who are
willing to undertake actual tests of suggested.
improvements. They should be men of
sufficient intelligence to understand simple
instructions and to carry them out. The
number of members should not be large, but
each should be a willing worker and not
merely atalker. The District Agricultural
Associations started in these Provinces six
years ago, have in most cases made satis-
factory progress. Among the members will
be found the most progressive farmers in
each district, men who are anxious to learn
and to experiment. The meetings, which
are held twice a year to suit the kharif and
rabi seasons, are attended by the Director or
one of the Deputy Directors of Agriculture.
The results of the past season’s test are
discussed and a programme arranged for the
next seasons’s work. An officer of the Agri-
cultural Department usually delivers an
address describing such experimental work
of the stations as may be of some practical
use to the members. The members are asked
to give their own experience on the particular
subject dealt with. New manures and new
varieties of seed recommended by the stations
are distributed free of cost to the members
willing to test them, and they are requested
to report the results obtained at the next
meeting of their association. To facilitate
the writing of this report, forms are fur-
nished, in which the member enters his
observation as to the growth and yield of
each variety tested, the increase due to the
manures and the like. Leaflets written in
the vernaculars, giving directions as to how
the manure is to be applied and how to grow
the crop that is to be tested, ave also distri-
buted. The members then carry out these
experiments in their several villages. This
kind of co-operative work has not yet had
time to produce results of much value, but we
believe that it may prove most useful as a
means of demonstrating to the more back-
ward cultivators the use of new methods,
new varieties of seed and new manures; and
the plots on which they are successful, in the
case of trials with a new variety, may well
become centres for the distribution of the
seed to neighbouring cultivators. Indeed,
the District Agricultural Associations have
proved to be much the best means of distri-
buting new and selecled seed which generally
receives a fair trial by the members. An
instance of successful work in this line is the
introduction of the variety of early ripening
fwr grown in the south of the Provinces to
the northern districts, as it escapes the frost
which sometimes causes great loss to the late
ripening variety locally grown, Seed distvri-
bution has largely increased of late, and
there is a large and increasing demand by
cultivators for improved seed which the
department is endeavouring to meet.
An agricultural paper published in the
vernacular can be made a most useful method
Miscellaneous.
of disseminating among its readers important
experimental results obtained at the stations.
It should be up to date, thoroughly practical,
and should deal with the immediate needs
and interests of the cultivator. It should
contain popular statements of the work of
of the station, with directions to enable culti-
vators to apply them in their practical work
onthefarms. Purelyscientific articles should
never find a place in its pages, for the culti-
vator does not understand them. In editing
such a paper for distribution among cultiva-
tors, the translation from English to the
vernacular requires to be carefully made.
If the work is left to a man who has not been
brought up on the land, he often fails to give
the meaning of the information of which
you wish to convey, and, being ignorant of
local agricultnral terms, he gets over the
difficulty to his own satisfaction by a free use
of Sanskrit which is unintelligible to the
villager. The language must be that of the
people and not of the court. Such a paper
can also be made a most useful medium
for advertising improved strains of seed,
agricultural machinery and other things for
sale at the stations, while by introducing a
‘query and answer” column the readers are
encouraged to ask the department for
advice which, when given in this way, often
saves the trouble of having to reply in the
same strain to several different individuals.
The Agricultwral Gazette published monthly
in Hindi, Marathi and English in these Pro-
vinces, has been a decided success. There
are already 2,500 subscribers, but this is no
measure of the circulation of its contents as,
in villages in which only one Gazette is
received, it is the common practice for the
Pandit of the same to read it out to his
fellows. With the increasing number of
persons taught to read and write, there is a
great dearth of reading matter in the village,
so that a monthly magazine is a real boon to
many.
These in brief are the steps that are being
taken to get the results of the stations’ work
incorporated into the general farm practice
of the cultivator. What is required at pre-
sent is steady work in these lines, perfecting
them from time to time in accordance with
the dictates of a fuller experience. The
work is yet in its infancy, and the diffi-
culties in the way of rapid progress are
great owing to the paucity and inefficiency
of most of the existing agricultural assist-
ants. The better prospects that are now
offered to men entering the department
should attract men of the right type who,
having been brought up on the land, under-
stand the need of the cultivator and how to
meet them; and who, moreover, inherit as
by instinct a sense of the dignity of labour,—
Agricultural Journal of India, Vol. IIl.,
Part II., April, 1908.
374
[OcToBER, 1908
sift
CASSAVA. MANIOCA OR TAPIOGA,
By J.C. WiLus.
Cassava is the produce of a South
American species of Manihot (the genus
that includes the Ceara rubber). It is
a matter of dispute whether it is of
two species, M. utilissima the bitter,
and WM. aipi the sweet, cassava, or
whether the latter is only a _ variety
of the former. The former has the
fruit capsule winged, the latter not.
Most of that grown in Ceylon, to
which it was introduced from Mauritius
by the Dutch Governor Van der Graat
in 1786, is apparently the sweet kind.
There are numerous varieties known
in South America. but comparatively
few in the Hast, though the plant is
now grown everywhere and is forming
a more and more important article of
food. In many parts of South America,
cassava takes the place held by potatoes
in Ireland.
Though everywhere cultivated in the
tropics for local use, it is grown for
export purposes mainly in Brazil and
the Straits Settlements, both countries
exporting tapioca, and Brazil also
cassava meal (Brazilian arrowroot).
The plant requires a good soil, not
too heavy. preferably a sandy loam,
well tilled to some depth. The climate
should be a damp and _ fairly uniform
one, with a mean temperature of at least
77° for the bitter variety, though the
sweet will stand a lower temperature.
In a very dry climate, the roots tend
to get woody. The plant does best on
the whole within reasonable distance
of the sea. Rain is wanted for at
least the first two months of the
growth, but after that is not necessary,
especially if the soil be kept tilled.
In the Straits Settlements, enormous
areas of land have been spoiled by
clearing forest for this crop, and then
abandoning the land after a few years,
when it has grown up in illuk grass
Imperata). This is no longer permitted,
and more permanent crops have to be
put on the ground with the tapioca.
If the plant were made to take the
place of the ‘‘ roots” in a rotation, there
need be no fear of exhausting the soil.
Ifthe soil is not virgin, manure is
usually applied in South America, and
sometinies the land is green manured.
Catch crops, such as maize or hill paddy,
are often grown, or the cassava is grown
among plantains, coconuts, or other
more permanent crops.
The plant is put out about (3 to4 feet
apart as stem cuttings about a foot long,
J
ii
j
OcrowHR, 1908.)
lanted standing vertically or on a slope.
hese are covered with buds which
rapidly come out and give rise to stems.
Often these are pruned down to three.
They grow toa height of 5-10 feet, and
the roots swell out into the large tubers,
which may beas many as 60n a plant,
18 inches long, and 20 lbs. in weight,
though smaller figures than these are
the rule. Sweet cassava gives smaller
returns than bitter.
The tubers are ripe for gathering in
about 6-12 months. Natives often leave
them too long in the ground. An aver-
age good yieldis said tobe10 tons an
acre, but smaller figures are probably
commoner. Wild pigs are often very
troublesome (as they are to Ceara rubber)
by digging up the tubers.
The tubers having been gathered
should at once be put through whatever
process it is intended to subject them to,
as they undergo various’ changes.
Hydrocyanic acid is said to develop toa
greater extent after they are dug up.
There isin any case so much of this
poison inthe bitter variety that it is
extremely dangerous to eatit till it has
been boiled, or better, roasted. The
sweet variety contains the acid mainly
inthe rind, which must be taken off,
but is said to develop it in the inner
parts as soon as dug up.
The valuable constituent of the
root is the starch, which may be used in
various ways. The roots may be eaten
like yams, as is done in Ceylon and else-
where; starch (cassava starch or Brazili-
an arrowroot) may ibe made directly
from them, or the starch may be made
into tapioca; orthe roots may be cut
and dried in slices, and exported to
Kurope, where the starch is prepared ;
or finally they may be made into glucose.
It would lead too farto go into the
details of all these processes. The manu-
facture of tapioca will be described in a
circular to issue in afew days from my
Department, The history of this manu-
facture is interesting. Until some time
ago it was in the hands of Chinese, who
made the tapioca in a very primitive
way. Then Huropeans took it up and
successfully competed with the Chinese,
and finally Chinese capitalists took up
the Huropean methods and machinery.
The manufacture of the actual starch
requires capital, and in making it Ceylon
would have to meet the competition of
the United States with good machinery
and skilled labour.
The remaining way is_ the one which I
would recommend tor Ceylon, viz., the
315
Miscellaneous:
making of sliced and dried cassava root.
The root should be cut into slices about
# inch thick, and dried in the sun on
mats, care being taken to keep off dust.
For this there is a good market in
Europe among calico printers and others,
and I would recommend that the Society
experiment with a trial consignment.
PROGRESS REPORT XLI.
Membership.—The last meeting was
held on August 8, since when the follow-
ing new members have been_ enrolled :—
Capt. T. Montgomery (Fiji), C. J.
Marzetti, J. B. Ratnayake, W. A. Asher,
C. F. S. Jayawickreme, J. Coryton
Roberts.
Inspection Tours.—The organizing
Vice-President and the Secretary have
since last meeting visited Jaffna, Balalla,
and Pilessa. Dr Willis also visited
Mahailluppalama, and Mr. Drieberg
Lower Dumbara and Nuwara Eliya
districts. Mr.. Wickremeratne, Agricul-
tural Instructor, has been in Uva and
Katugampola hatpattu, and Mr. L. A. D.
Silva, Agricultural Instructor, in Sabara-
gamuwa and the Ambalangoda district,
and Mr. S. Chelliah, Agricultural In-
structor, in Uduppiddi, Valveddi, Karana-
vavay including akamam, Tanakkara-
kurichchi including Kalluvam, Kerudavil,
and Tondamannar districts.
Branch Societies.—The Wellaboda
pattu (Galle) Branch held a meeting of
the Working Committee on August 22,
when a paper on the ‘‘ Co-operative
Bank System carried on locally with
income derived from Coconut Trees”
was read by Mr. ,C. D. S. Wickrema-
suriya, It was resolved to obtain per-
mission from the District Road Com-
mittee to use Ambalangoda resthouse
compound for holding the next Show in
December, ona date to be fixed later,
and to ask for the services of an Agricul-
tural Instructor to hold demonstrations
and give instructions in the method of
transplanting paddy.
The Dumbara Association held a
meeting on July 30. It was resolved to
send tobacco, arecanuts, and cardamoms
to the Mysore Dassara Exhibition to be
held in October; to amalgamate the
funds of the Society with those of the
Co-operative Credit Society, so that
more funds may be available for the
purpose of lending; to inquire from the
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society,
on what terms Government will be pre-
pared to lend the services of a tobacco
Miscellaneous.
expert with a view to _ instructing
tobacco cultivators in curing tobacco for
the European market. The question of
opening a manure store and bank was
discussed, but a decision was postponed
till next year.
A Committe meeting of the Co-opera-
tive Credit Society was held on the same
day, and the proposed amalgamation
of funds was approved. In addition to
the paddy bin at Madugoda it was
resolved to erect another at Mediwaka.
The President announced that several
planters of the district had expressed
their desire to join the Society, and it
was resolved to send out circulars to
intending members.
The Jaffna Society held a meeting of
Committee on August 8. Asumof Rs. 4
was voted for an experiment with arti-
ficial manures in paddy cultivation, the
Agricultural Instructor being respon-
sible for its supervision.
The Rayigam Korale Branch, thanks
to the efforts of the Assistant Gover)”
ment Agent and the Mudaliyar, is alive
to the possible improvement in the
present methods of cultivation, and it is
gratifying to kuow that transplanting
of paddy is to be taken up energetically
in the korale.
The Experimental Garden at Bandara-
gama has been fenced and cleared, and
about half the entire extent planted
with fruit trees, pineapples, and vege-
tables. The fruit trees, including about
200 oranges, appear to be doing well.
The pineapples, which cover nearly half
an acre, are also coming up fairly well.
The vegetable section, apart from the
ground planted with sweet potatoes and
cassava, isas yet inconsiderable. Alto-
gether a fair start has been made with
the garden. Better progress would
have been made by this time but for a
boundary dispute which delayed the
fencing.
Transplanting in Paddy.—The follow-
ing communication has been received
from the Secretary, Wellaboda pattu
(Galle) Society, dated September 5:—
‘*T have the honour to submit below
results obtained by the use of Messrs.
Freudenberg’s special fertilizers (and
transplanting) :—
Ordinary Special Special
Manure. Mixture. \. ixture.
Broadcast. Broadcast. Trans:
planted
Date of sowing 29-3—8 29—3—8 z9—3-8
Extent 3 acre 3 acre 2 seers
Quantity 4 bushed % bushed 3 seer
Average height of
plants 3 to 34 ft. 5 to 6 ft. 52 to 7 ft,
Average number of
shoots 4to6 6to9 10 to 12
Harvest 6-fold 18-fold 40-fold
Kind of paddy Muttusamba Muttusamba Carolina
Average number of
ears 6 to 8 16 to 21 20 tio 25
376
R, 1908,
‘This land is marshy ground, and is
situated about a quarter mile to the
south-east of the Weragoda Experi-
mental Garden.”
Report by Mudaliyaliyar, Wellaboda
pattu (Galle), dated August 20, 1908, on
a field cultivated by Mr. J. F. de Livera
of Delduwa :—‘‘In my opinion the trans-
planting was not sufficiently methodical.
The necessary distance from one plant
to another had not been observed.
Hither on account of deep planting or
not draining the patch properly the
bushes were not large enough. How-
ever, the cultivation as a first attempt is
satisfactory, and it will, Iam sure, show
a good yield. The greater credit in this
instance is the bringing under cultiva-
tion of a patch of waste land subject to
be flooded by brackish water.”
Paddy Experiment at Minneriya.—
Reference has previously been made to
this experiment conducted under the
supervision of Tank Guardian Mr. G. W,
[OcTOBE
Perkins. Mr. Perkins reports :—“A
species of paddy ealled ‘kallunda’ (4
months paddy) was sown and _ trans-
planted, as per your’ instructions
received from time to time, about
the end of May last. The trans-
planting had to be done by men ot
accustomed to the work, thereby taking
several days to complete the acre. The
field will be reaped about the end of this
month, and is admitted by all as quite
good. The transplanting was delayed
owing to insufficient hands for the work.
Out of the plants there are clusters from
26 to 35 from each seed. The plants are
also more sturdy than those of the
adjoining fields. A good deal of damage
was done to the fields by buffaloes. One
good thing that my experiment will do
for Minneri will be that some transplant-
ing will take place every year in future,
forthe landlord who gave me permission
to work his field has decided to have one
measure transplanted out of each portion
he gives the goiyas to cultivate. He has
about 24 goiyas under him, and requires
119 bushels of seed paddy. He is con-
vineed of the tremendous saving in seed
paddy.” A report on the result of the
harvest is expected shortly.
Agri-Horticultural Shows.—Three Vil-.
lage Shows were held in the North-
Western Province, at Kuliyapitiya,
Balalla, and Pilessa on August 15, 22, and
29. The drought that prevailed through-
out these districts during the preceding
five or six months somewhat marred the
success of the shows, but the gatherings
on all three occasions were good, and ~
the villagers seemed to take a keen —
interest in the proceedings, while the ~
prize-winners went away well pleased. af
The Government Agent, Director of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, and the Secre-
tary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, who
were present, took advantage of the
- oceasion to speak to the people.
The
value of holding Shows where the actual
cultivators come to the front—instead
- of being kept in the background as is
not be over-estimated ;
generally the case at town shows—can-
these village
_ exhibitions, small as they are, are well
ealculated to encourage the cultivator
to put forth his best efforts in showing
what he is capable of producing in the
way of agricultural and garden produce,
The Kegalla Show, which was fixed for
September 25 and 26, was postponed at
the last moment owing to the failure of
_ year.
the monsoon rains. It is intended to
hold the Show in June or July next
Kandy Agri-Horticultural Show.—
This show has been fixed for August,
1909, during the time of the annual
Perahera. At a meeting held. on
September Ist, a representative Show
Committee was elected, with His Hx-
‘cellency the Governor as President, and
the Hon. the Colonial Secretary, the
General Commanding the Forces, the
_ Planting Representative, and the Chair-
- man of the Ceylon Planters’ Association
_as Vice-Presidents.
and Jaffna,
Lee
Nuwara Eliya Show has been fixed
for Easter Monday.
Indian Shows.—Exhibits of arecanuts,
cardamoms, tobacco, and jaggery were
sent by the Branch Societies at Dumbara
Mudaliyar Wirasingha of
Rayigam korale, and Mr. J. J. Van
Starrex of Matale, to the Mysore
Industrial and Agricultural Hxhibition
which was to open at the end of
- September.
The Nagpur Exhibition (Central Pro-
vinces and Berar).—The Secretary of the
- above exhibition has written asking for
the Society’s co-operation, and arrange-
ments are being made to get together a
small collection of exhibits to be sent
thither. Exhibits will be received up to
October 30, and the Exhibition will be
opened during November and December.
Intending exhibitors who are prepared
to send in exhibits of tea, rubber, tap-
ping implements, vanilla, pepper, carda-
moms, coir, fibre, or desiccated coconuts
are requested to communicate with the
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society,
~ without delay.
i
Paddy Cultivation and Manuring in
the North.—The Society’s Agricultural
Instructor has undertaken an experi-
ment in the manuring of paddy on
behalf of the local Society, while several
landowners are trying Freudenberg’s
48
377
Miscellaneous.
special mixture on their fields. On land
hitherto used purely for dry grain culti-
vation experiments are being tried with
hill paddy.
Importation of Vegetable Seeds.—A
supply of vegetable seed has been
received from England, and is being dis-
tributed among the several applicants
who have booked in advance.
Orange and Mango Grafts—Grafted
orange and mango plants—balance out-
standing from a previous order sent to
India—were received in September and
distributed.
Manure for Oranges.—Messrs. Freu-
denberg & Co. are recommending the
following mixture:—2 lb. groundnut
cake, 2 lb. bone meal, 21b. steamed bones,
2 lb. potash—8 lb. per tree, together
with cattle manure.
Manure for Tobacco.—The following
manure mixture is recommended for
tobacco :—400 1b. groundnut cake, 100 Ib.
nitrate of soda, 100 lb, ordinary super.
phosphate, 100 lb. nitrate ot potash,
100 lb. slaked lime—800 lb. per acre.
Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. report :—
“The mixture cannot be termed a cheap
one at Rs. 117, less 5 per cent. per tonf. o,r.,
Colombo, but as quality plays an impor
tant rolein tobacco growing we cannot-
make a modification in the composition
of the ingredients. If the manuring
should be undertaken with a view of
obtaining only quantity ard not quality
at lowest possible cost we can recom-
mend :—200 Ib. fish, 300 lb. groundnut
cake, 100 lb. ordinary basic slag, 200 Ib.
kainit. The cost is Rs. 73:50, less 5 per
cent.”
Dindigul* Tobacco Seed.—A supply of
this variety was imported from India,
and is being tried at Jaffna, Ulapane,
Dumbara, and the North-Western Pro-
vince.
Cotton Seed.—Messrs. Nieland & Wil-
son have been good enough to supply
Sea Island cotton seed for growing in
the Jaffna District.
Well Boring.—Messrs. Brown & Co.
furnishes the following information
regarding tube wells :—‘‘ The wells con-
sist of a tube, having the bottom portion
perforated round the sides with small
holes through which the water perco-
lates and rises in the tube. At the bot-
tom of the tube, in order to facilitate
its being driven, a point is fitted at the
extreme end of the tube, and a suitable
head is fitted to the top to enable the
tube to be driven into the ground with-
out injury. The necessary force is
applied by means of a driving apparatus,
one of which can of course be used for
any number of wells, and as each length
Miscellaneous.
of tube is driven into the ground,
another length ds serewed on until water
is reached, when an ordinary pump head
and handle is fitted to the piping, and
water is pumped in the usual way.”
Resthouse Gardens.—Among resthouse-
keepers who are interested in the upkeep
of gardens are those in charge of the
Kurunegala and Polgahawela resthouses.
At the former place English vegetables
have been successfully grown. at the
latter place, efforts are being made to
establish fruit trees as well as a vege-
table and flower garden.
Demonstrations in Transplanting
Paddy.—Mr. L, A. D. Silva, Agricultural
Instructor, was sent to the Ambalangoda
district, at the invitation of the local
Society, to give instructions in trans-
planting paddy in connection with a
programme of experiments to be tried
in Wellaboda pattu under the supervision
of the vidane arachchies and headmen.
The necessary instructions were given
atl4 centres. The Instructor will again
visit the district at the time of trans-
planting. Similar demonstrations will
be held in the Tebuwana district, from
where the Assistant Government Agent,
Mr. J. Conroy, writing on September
ll, says.—“I am arranging with the
Mudaliyars and Irrigation Headmen to
have the system of transplanting paddy
tried in various parts of this district
during the coming season.”
White Ant Exterminator.—Mr. A. H.
Bury, of Orange Hill, Ragama, reports
that he has discovered a very effectual
remedy for exterminating the white
ant. He says:—‘‘ The remedy is applied
by hand, and can be done by any
cooly. Asa preventive two applications
per annum are necessary; cost about
Rs. 2 per acre. No injury whatever is
done either to roots or stumps, and
the substance is procurable locally very
cheap.”
Eri Silk Cocoons (further report by
Professor Dunstan) :—The sample con-
sisted of about 73 lb. of pierced cocoons,
and, as recommended in the previous
report dated September 30, 1907, the
brick-red cocoons had been eliminated,
leaving only the white which are
much more readily bleached and dyed.
Apart from this difference in colour
the cocoons were similar to those
previously examined. The cocoons have
been submitted for valuation to a silk
expert, who confirms the opinion
expressed in the previous report, that
it is inadvisable to encourage efforts
to wind or reel eri cocoons, but they
could be carded and spun. He states
that woven cloths of great strength
and durability could be made from
yarns spun from eri silk, and that if
378
Wry a
the cocoons could be sent over in
sufficient quantities, there would he
a great demand for them by the spun-
silk manufacturers of this country.
He values these white cocoons at about
ls, 6d. per pound. Samples have also
been submitted to manufacturers on
the Continent. One firm stated that
the cocoons appeared to be suitable
for the manufacture of waste silk, but
they were not prepared to give a
definite opinion without trial. Before
carrying out any experiment, however,
they would require assurance that
large and regular supplies of the cocoons
would be available. A second firm to
whom samples were referred to did
not supply more definite information. © —
It appears certain that these white
eri cocoons could be utilized for the
production of spun-silk, and if large
quantities can be supplied it would be
dssirable to forward a trial consign-
ment for sale.”
Agricultural Implements and Appli-
ances:—The disc plough brought out
by Mr. M. Kelway Bamber some time
ago, and which has been on view at
the Government Stock Garden, is being
sent up to Maha-illuppalama at the re-
quest of the Superintendent of the Experi-
ment Station, but proves to be too heavy
for bulls. Similar types of machinery of
American make are answering well on
the same land. The Director of the
Royal Botanic Gardens reports that the
land at Maha-iluppalama has been
brought into sucha state of tilth that
crops are now almost independent of
irrigation water for their actual growth.
60 acres have been cultivated in cozonuts,
cacao, rubber, cotton, ete., for 6 months
atacost of oneand a half inches of
water from a 625-acre tank. The culti-
vators of the district are said to be
amazed atthe results of tillage as carried
on by the Superintendent.
Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., have in-
troduced a special light iron plough in-
tended for rice cultivation. One maybe
seen at the Government Stock Garden.
They are shortly expecting further im-
proved types from England and India;
when they are received it is intended to
hold another practical demonstration of
implements.
The ‘‘Soil Aerator,” introduced by
Messrs Brown & Co., is a handy and
effective tool which should be found in
use in every flower and vegetable gar-
den.
Through the courtsey of the Director
of Agriculture, Central Provinces, India, —
a cheap and usefulappliance for detach- —
ing seeds of Indian corn has been secured, —
The use of this wlll be demonstrated at_
future shows. ei
{OcTOBER, 1908: —
ee ee a ee ee nS
‘Octozmr, 1908.]
Experiment in Continuous Cultivation
of Chena Land.—The Secretary has
drawn up the following memorandum in
connection with the proposal :—Cotton
can be grown in chenas with the use of
manure like any othercrop. It is best
planted in a rotation, %.¢., ina_ regular
succession of different crops which grow
and feed differently. Ifthe same crop
is grown continuously on the same land
there is a greater tendency to exhausta-
tion of the soilthan if grown in a rota-
tion. The reason why there is less ex-
haustion by growing a regular suc-
cession of crops is that some crops take
up more of one kind of food than
another. Again, some crops’ are
shallow-rooted, others are deep-rooted,
and plant food is thus procured from
different depths of soil when different
crops follow one another. Lastly, there
are some crops which exert a_ special
fertilizing action on the soil that others
cannot exert, andthesemust, whenever
possible, be grown ina rotation. This fer-
tilizing property is possessed by legumi-
nous or bean-bearing crops such as mun,
ulundu, kollu, rata-tora, dc. When the
erop from these is taken the foliage
and roots should be worked into the
land, for they add a great deal of ferti-
lity to the soil. A four-course rotation,
if it could be adopted, would be most
satisfactory, 1.e., the land must be divid-
ed into four equal parts, and each of the
four selected crops grown in succession,
thus :—
1. Cotton Legume Grain Maioc
2. Legume Grain Manioc Cotton
3. Grain Manioc Cotton Legume
4, Manioe Cotton LegumeGrain
In this case the land should be manur-
ed after the manioc and before the
cotton. If a four-course rotation is
found to be impracticable a three-course
one consisting of cotton, grain, and
legume can be selected, thus :—
1. Grain... Cotton Legume
2. Cotton ... Legume Grain
38. Legume... Grain Cotton
Here, the land should be manured for
cotton. If the rotation is reduced to a
minimum of twocrops, consisting only
of cotton and grain grown alternately
on two sections of the land, then, in the
absence of a fertilizing crop, both
should be manured. Where cattle
manure is difficult to get and folding
of cattle on the land is not practicable,
there should be a liberal use of green
manure. For this the foliage of wild
trees and plants can be used. The
best leaves for this purpose are those
of leguminous weeds (such as pila, nil-
awari, and andanahiriya, &c.); but
failing these the leaves of keppiliya,
adatoda, tarana, or any plant may he
379
Miscellaneous.
employed. Another matter to which
attention must be given is proper
tillage. In the preparing of the land
it should be dug or ploughed to a
good depth, say 12 inches. Then in
sowing sow in rows, and do not fear
that you will get a smaller crop by
doing so. Let cotton be placed 4 ft.
by 2ft. apart, mun 2ft. by 2 ft., dry
grains 12in. by 6in., manioc 4 ft. by
6 ft. The interspaces will admit of the
crop being properly weeded and atten-
ded to. The surface soil must be kept
constantly stirred, so that it will always
be loose to a depth of three or four
inches. This preserves the moisture
in the soil and enables the plants to
get their food more easily and to thrive
better. By carefully attending to the
above details the fertility of chena
lands can be maintained, and _ there
will be no necessity for abandoning
them on the plea of exhaustion, and
going on to fresh areas. If possible a
record of the rotations adopted each
year should be kept by the headmen,
and some kind of encouragement given
to those who continue cultivation on
the same land by adopting an intelligent
system of rotation and tillage with a
view to preserving fertility,”
With the co-operation of the Govern-
ment Agent, North-Western Province,
it is intended to start an experiment
in that Province, probably in the
Katugampola hatpattu, and place it in
charge of an Agricultural Instructor,
Work done by Instructors.—The Tamil
Instructor, Mr. S. Chelliah, in engaged
in the Northern Province in experi-
mentally growing paddy with a view
to finding a suitable variety to replace
dry grains in one part of the rotations
at present practised in the north ; also
a number of millets imported by the
Society as likely to prove suitable in
the dry country. Mr. Chelliah is
demonstrating the possibility of more
effectual tillage with the use of imple-
ments kindly loaned by Messrs. Walker,
Sons & Co., and Mr. A. E. Rajapakse,
Mudaliyar, and also (as already stated)
trying the effect of artificial manure
on paddy.
Of the two Sinhalese Agricultural
Instructors, Mr. Wickremaratne has
made a detailed tour through the
villages of the Province of Uva and
held meetings and demonstrations with
the help of the Ratamahatmayas who
have rendered much assistance at the
request of the Government Agent of
the Province. Very full reports have
been submitted to the Organizing Vice-
President who considers them usefui
records for future work. Mr. Wickre-
maratne was unfortunately temporarlly
Miscellaneous.
incapacitated by a sharp attack of
malaria while in the Bintenne country,
but is now at work again in connection
with the cultivation of chena Jand.
Mr. L. A. D. Silva has been working
on similar lines in the Province of
Sabaragamuwa, through which he has
made a detailed circuit. He has since
been employed in giving instructions
in the transplanting of paddy.
With the sanction of the Director,
Royal Botanic Gardens, the Foreman
and Seedsman at the Government Stock
Garden is about to visit the Kegalla
District to start bee-keeping at two
- schools where swarms have already
been secured. Improved hives have
been provided from the funds voted
by the Society for this work.
Application jor Seeds and Plants from
abroad.—A number of applications have
been received for seeds of paddy, cacao,
shade trees, leguminous plants, «&c.,
from Manila. Jamaica, Sumatra, the
Solomon Isles, Mozambique, Papua, and
Washington.
Indian Corn and Cluster Sweet
Potatoes.—An order has gone forward
for these with a view to introducing
them to local growers if found suitable
to the localities in which the crops are
raised.
Rice Hullers.—Messrs. Jossop & Co.,
Calcutta, have forwarded for the infor-
mation of the Society circulars dealing
with hand power rice hullers and ‘‘ ele-
mininators.” They report well of the
machines. The eliminator has _ the
capacity to deal with the output of about
four hullers, and is valued at Rs. 249,
less 10 per cent. discount; the huller and
aspirator, dealing with 60 to 80 lb. per
hour, is Rs. 350, iess 10 per cent. dis-
count,
Apiculture.— Mr. Chas. Gray of Coo-
noor, writing on Sepetember 12, says :—
‘“T note in your report of the Ceylon
Agricultural Society. in the June num-
ber of ‘T. A’:, that apiculture is being
largely taken up. Itis possible that a
large quantity of propolis is removed
from the hives of the Italian bees.
May lask if you can procure some for
me? Iam prepared to buy it by the
pound, up to a certain limit. a
mention that I have been a subscriber
to your journal for some years past.
I refer to this asI see you object (and
rightly too) to help persons who can
benefit from the excellent work done by
your Society, and for a small sum, and
yet will not join as members.”
Tobacco Committee-—The report of the
_. proposed tobacco experiment in grow-
ing and curing tobacco for the foreign
market will be presented by the Sec-
380
information on the subject,
I may .
retary to-day, and a resolution em- —
bodying the recommendations therein —
made will be duly moved. ‘a
Sprays for Plants.—Sample lots of
Cooper’s VI. and V2, solution for insects
and fungi on plants have been received
and are being given atrial, so far with
excellent results. Further details re-
garding these preparations will be given
in a later report.
C. DRIEBERG,
Colombo, October 5, 1908. Secretary.
NOTES AND QUERIES.
By C. DRIEBERG.
H. EK. A.—The subject of alkaline soils
and the means of improving them came
up before the Board not long ago, You
will find Mr. R. W. Smith's paper and
Dr. Willis’ remarks reproduced in the
pages of the Magazine of the Ceylon
Agricultural Society for June last. The
memorandum below, which gives further
is taken
from a circular issued by the Central
Agricultural Committee of Madras :—
*“As may be seen from one of the
Agricultural Ledgers on ‘ Reh,’ a cer-
tain Moahmedan agricultural officer in
Northern India converted worthless alka-
line land into fertile land by enclosing
it witha fence and manuring it plenti-
fully by picketing onthe land a very
large number of milch cows purchased
for the purpose, the milk of the cows
being sold daily and the cows themselves
being sold after a short period when
the land had been materially improved.
Plentiful addition of green manure
would have the effect. The fencing of
alkaline land, so that it became covered
with thick natural herbage, which
would otherwise have been grazed by
cattle, has also led to the material im-
provement of such land in Northern
India.”
Again, from Balfour’s ‘‘ Cyclopzedia of
India” it may be seen that crude nitrate
of lime, called chikna kalar, may be
applied with benefit to alkaline land;
indeed, it is asovereign remedy, im-
mediate and certain in its effect on
alkaline land. If the refuse scrapings of
raw hides (Tamil javuvu) available at
tanneries or margosa or other oil cake in
fine powder be mixed with powdered
limestone and kept well exposed: tothe —
air under shelter for about a year or
longer, being frequently stirred, nitrate —
of lime will be plentifully formed. —
Under the head ‘‘ Manure” the process —
of deriving nitrate of lime from the —
careases of dogs which are killed in —
towns is explained. Again in the Kistna —
and Godavari deltas, alkaline land is re- —
claimed by the plentiful addition o
-Ocronsr, 1908:]
- stomach derangement.
Ny sta Chg hag ik Sap ALS ahaa il a i eg
certain kinds of padw mannu, which
are probably rich in nitrate of lime.
« Alkaline wetland may be improved
by leaving the straw of a paddy crop
uncut and ploughing it in under water,
asis done in the Kistna and Godavari
deltas, no water-rate being charged
by Government on certain conditions
being fulfilled. In thi# connection, the
Trichinopoly Agricultural Association
might use gypsum (Tamil, karpura
silasittu) which may be had for the
picking in practically unlimited quant
ities at the Uttattur beds. They should
be applied after being powdered, at the
rate of 2oré8tons per acre, on all alka-
line land which is ascertained by analysis
to contain more than one-fifth per cent.
of sodium carbonate.”
B. pE A.—The murunga (Moringa
pterygosperma) is called the horse radish
tree because it has properties similar to
that of the horse-radish. The bark of
the roots is what is usually used in
“Drum sticks”
is another name for the fruits. Murunga
is not leguminous, but Katurumurunga
(of which the flowers and leaves are
eaten, but seldom the pods) is.
F. D.—Basic slag isa by-product in the
manufacture of steel, in which lime, a
base, is largely used and forms a com-
pound with the phosphorus invariably
present in the’ iron ore—separating as a
slag, hence the name.
G, P.—Margosa poonac, referred to in
my last notes, is the refuse cake after
the extraction of oil from the seeds.
The tree is known in Sinhalese as Ko-
hombo, in Tamil as Vampadam, and
botanically as Azadirachta indica. In
India it is called neem. The refuse
cake has been put torward as a cure
for Betel-vine diseases.
A. W. A.—Thanks for the litchi seed. I
will distribute them asrequested. The
tree is rather a shy bearer in Ceylon, and
I have only heard of fruiting trees in the
Matale and Peradeniya districts. Those
who have grown litchi sucessfully in
Ceylon may be inclined to give their ex-
perience of cultivation. In Calcutta the
fruits are plentiful in season, and when
fresh have the same strong ethereal
odour as our mora (Nephelium longana).
_ Para Rupper.—Re packing of rubber
seed the following account of a method
adopted by Mr. H. N. Ridley, F.R.s.,
Director of Botanic Gardens, Singapore,
in sending seed toa great distance, will
be read with interest :—‘‘ The seeds were
packed in biscuit tin boxes with burnt
rice husks 600 seeds in one box; the
boxes were not soldered. The tins were
then packed in a wooden box, 8 to 10
tins in a box, The burnt rice husk is
381
Miscellaneous.
obtained from the rice mills where the rice
is husked, the fine powdered husk is burnt
at the mills and we obtain it from them.
It is then in the form of a very fine
powdery charcoal, very tight. We have
found this far the best packing material
for rubber seed and always use it now.”
Correspondence,
CLEANLINESS OF CULTIVATION.
Maskeliya, 5th September, 1908.
Sir,—In an interesting article in your
last issue entitled ‘‘ Agriculture in Japan,’
the authoy, in describing the methods of
the cultivators, says, ‘‘ Weeds are not to
be seen at any time, and all stones are
removed, so that ‘every square inch
(of the soil)may play its part.’”
Our system of cultivation in Ceylon
inciudes the former, 1.e, ‘‘clean weeding,”
but such a thing as removing stones
from the soilis not thought of, at least
not generally.
There are favoured districts and
estates with soil comparatively, if not
entirely, free from stones, but there are
very many estates with both the surface
and the sub-soil full of stones. I know
of fields of Tea where it is next to impos-
sible to drive a digging fork in any-
where without coming in contact with
a stone, big or small. Now, most plan-
ters must have observed that although
one usually finds good Tea in rocky
fields, in stony fields the Tea is poor,
the g reason probably being that the
root of the bushes do not get free play
in the soil, the stones embedded in it
tending to choke the efforts of the roots
to seek fresh food, and so preventing full
development of the bushes. If the root
growth is retarded, the development of
the bush must also be retarded.
The removel of these stones cannot
but be beneficial to the Tea, especially if
some covering or mulching, with prun-
ings or other green stuff, be given to the
surface afterwards. The bigger stones
could be made use of for terracing, an
excellent thing inland subject to wash,
and the smaller stones for laying on the
top of the prunings or mulching to keep it
in its place. An opinion from on agricul-
tural expert would be interesting, and
helpful to the ‘‘Tea Farmer” in his efforts
to make the most of his stony land.
Yours faithfully,
R. MActurg,
[There can be little doubt that it
would ultimately pay an estate to spend
a little money on removing stones, but
the ground should then be kept properly
Miscetlaneous.
tilled, or planted with green manures.
So longas the surface of the ground is
hard, water evaporates more freely from
it, and the effects of a drought are
sooner manifest. Our leader this month
deals with this quesition.—ED., |
STRAWBERRY GROWING AND
GARDEN NOTES.
Nuwara Eliya, 7th August, 1908.
Sir,—As strawberries are now being
grown in Nuwara Eliya, Isend you some
Garden Notes on their culture which
may be of service for your magazine.
Yours faithfully,
H. F. G. WEBSTER.
GARDEN NOTES.
The planting of strawberries so soon
as the young ones are rooted suggests
the question of distances apart to set the
plants. The usual distance adopted by
regular growers is half a yard from
plant to plant and two feet six inches
from row to row, as we mentioned last
week. But amateurs may make the
most of the land they devote to straw-
berry culture by placing the rows only
two feet apart, and setting the young
plants as closely together as one foot
apart. he space thus alloted will
suffice for the first season. For the
second season every alternate plant in
each row should be removed when the
first fruiting is over. Thus the straw-
berry plants will enjcy a space of two
feet every way from their neighbours,
in their second and third years. In
removing the surplus plants care must
be taken not to injure the roots of those
destined to remain. The strawberry,
like many other plants, sends fine roots
far afield in search of food to maintain
itself and the numerous family it hopes
to bear and bring up. These fine, far-
reaching roots contribute greatly to_the
support of the crop. They should be
guarded from injury and_ spared
serious disturbance. For this reason
digging with the spade between the
rows of strawberries is bad policy at all
times. The stirring of the surface of the
soilis of advantage to growing crops,
but this should be done with the fork.
With carea fork may be so used in
strawberry beds as to do no injury to the
roots, or so little that the advantage of
aerating the soil more than atones to
the plants. In planting young straw-
berries, the roots, with the ball of earth,
should be placed as deep as they well can
be set without covering the heart of the
plant. Water must be plentifully given
_at first planting; afterwards only very
moderate watering is desirable until the
382
has been completed, the surface should
{OcroBER, 1008, 3
plants have rooted. After the planting
be kept free from weeds and stirred.
Runners must be removed until the
time come round again to encourage the
formation of some to make new plants.
But it is advisable not to cut off the first
runners from young plants too promptly.
By allowing theirst runners to form a
second joint or bud before cutting them
off an advantage is gained. The young
plant forbears from producing super-
abandant foliage whilst occupied in send-
ing outits earliest runners. When the
runners are removed, they may be cut
off close to the plants from which they
spring. The selection of strawberries is
a matter of some bewilderment to
growers, especially where no previous
experience exists of the suitability of
kinds to the soil. Strawberries have
marked partialities of their own. In
land that is uncongenial, they make
their grower sensible of their dissatis-
faction. But the production of different
kinds in great variety has been specia-
lised by notable raisers like Messrs.
Laxton Brothers, who devote sixteen
acres to the culture of young strawberry,
plants, at their Bedford nurseries. It is
possible now to make choice from nearly
one hundred excellent kinds. When a
plantation is not a complete success, a
change in the varieties planted should
be tried by obtaining young plants in
pots this month from the nurseries. If
a grower has room for only one variety,
the Laxton should be tried. This hand-
some strawberry was produced about
three years ago by a cress between
‘Royal Sovereign” and ‘Sir Joseph
Paxton,” both notable strawberries and
popular favourites with growers. It
was the result of eight years’ watchful-
ness and selection. Upon its exhibition ~
on the show table in 1901, the Fruit Com-
mittee of the Royal Horticultural Society
at once unanimously awarded it a first-
class certificate, a distinction of which it
has since proved itself well worthy. It
is a sturdy grower, with thick glossy
foliage and a strong leaf stalk. Its
strong constitution gives it an advantage
in poor soils and adaptability to many
soils. It produces profusely very large
strawberries of dark bright colour,
conical shape, and of/ fine rich flavour. —
Itisanearly strawberry. Where the —
Laxton fails, its half-parent Royal
Sovereign may succeed. This straw-
berry bears fruit of glossy bright scarlet
colour, with firm white flesh, very —
delicious in favour. It also is early in
fruiting. A later variety is Climax, —
which bears fruit of large size and
shining crimson hue; its flavouris rich
and suggestive of vintage. In shape it —
is elongated, like a filbert ; itis of hardy
By,
~ [OcroBeR, 1908,
constitution. Fillbasket is another good
late strawberry, bearing fruit shaped
like an inverted pear, bright glossy
scarlet in colour. Its flesh is juicy,
sweet, and luscious, but firm and solid.
Trafalgar, a rounder shaped strawberry,
isa good variety. It fruits very late,
and its fruit has a flavour of the pine,
piquant and pleasant. It is a free-grow-
ing plant. Latest of All bears large
fruit of fine flavour to the latest day one
ean reasonably expect to gather straw-
berries. In the suggestions we have
given for land preparation for straw-
berries, we have had in view chiefly the
circumstances of the amateur grower.
The grower for market, who produces
strawberries on a great acreage, does
not, it is true, prepare his fields in such
elaborate fashion. Itis not practicable,
in the present scarce condition of rural
labour, to cultivate a wide extent of
land by spade or fork industry. The
plough must suffice in such cases, but
the professional grower takes care to
eultivate strawberries only .on land
specially suitable for the crop. The
amateur desires to grow strawberries
wherever his garden may chance to be
placed, hence the desirability of the
amateur expending extra cultivation on
his strawberry beds of limited extent.
A comprehensive view of the disas-
trous effect of the bitter Spring weather
of 1903 upon our British fruit crops, is
presented by a tabular statement just
published in the Gardeners’ Chronicle.
Totalling the whole of the kingdom, we
find from the tables given, that out of 267
reports on apples, no less than 248 are
adverse. From England, Wales, Ireland,
and the Channel Islands, not a single re-
ort records a crop over average. Scot-
and only yields two such reports.
Pears are even worse. Not one over-
average report has come in from any
section of the Kingdom, and only seven
cases report an average result. Of these,
six are in Scotland. Plums tell the same
doleful tale. One single over-average
erop alone is recorded. In England
there are 176 under-average to one
average. Cherry reports are some-
what less monotonously gloomy. There
are five good crops and 67 average ones
to 176 bad results. Peaches and apri-
cots run neck-and-neck in a race to
disaster. Only one over-average crop
of peaches is reported, and two of
apricots. he under-averages are 147
and 137 respectively. Strawberries, as
might be expected, have done the best.
Ina bad fruit year they come out with
74 over-average and 150 average crops
out of 262 reports, an unexpectedly
favourable result, Currants and other
small fruits, taken as a whole, do not
383}
Miscellaneous.
show nearly so well. ‘*‘ Never,” writes the
Editor, ‘‘ since wehave madea practice
of recording the condition of the fruit
crops, a period of nearly forty years,
have we had occassion to present so
disastrous a record. From John o’Groats
to the Land’s End, from Galway to
East Anglia, the tale is the same, With
the exception of strawberries and small
fruit, the words ‘total failure’ best ex-
press the condition of affairs.”
If the fruit crop has mocked our pains
the vegetable department of the garden
has given us some returns for the
labour expended uponit earlier in the
year. Mostof the usual Summer crops
have madea fair show of plenty. The
hard skin-surface of the beds, induced
by the alternate rain-beating and sun-
baking, has been a bane; but for this
the Dutch hoe is the effective antidote in
the hands of the industrious cultivator.
The month of August is the chief time
of preparation for Autumn, Winter, and
Spring crops of vegetables, Plantlets,
already raised from seed and not plant-
ed outin July, will require to be got
into their permanent quarters, and
many seeds must be sown at suitlable
dates for various crops. Garden culture
differs from farm cropping in the per-
petual succession which demands atten-
tion. Whilst we are in the time of
greatest plenty, we must be laying out
our plans for the next crops on penalty
of finding our results fall behind the
measure of success obtained by provi-
dent and foreseeing growers.
The crops to be planted out include
the later stocks of Winter greens, such
as borecole or kale, broccoli, cabbage
for coleworts, and endive. The ground
for these crops will have been prepared
some time ago, except for broccoli, which
grows hardiest, is most valuable, and
gives the best returns when grown in
very firm, wundug soil, not freshly
manured. To make the holes a crowbar
is used, and the plants are planted very
firmly. For the others, the land
ought to have hada generous dressing
of good, natural manures, thoroughly
incorporated with the lower spit of
earth. A little extra manure is given
to the surface soil, and the whole made
firm before the planting is done. Plenty
of space should be allowed between the
plants, which should be put in very
firmly:
The frequent sowings of seed to be
made tothe end of August, and even
later, involve careful attention to ap-
propriate dates. This is more of import-
ance now than 1n thecase of Sprng sow-
ings. A week too soon may mean the
running to seed of the plants. A week
Miscellaneous. Se
too late may mean lack of size when
the plants come _ to maturity, As
seasons vary in different districts, the
cultivator will do well to be neigh-
bourly. The lessons learned from the
ascertained custom of successful local
growers willl be found very useful.
Subject to such revision, it is well to
sow in the first week of August the
principal Autumn sowing of early mar-
ket cabbage: early Horn carrots for
Spring use ina warm, sheltered ~ situ-
ation; corn salad for Winter supply ;
endive and white stone turnips for
Winteruse. In the middle of the month,
early York and red cabbages may be
sown; cauliflowers in a situation where
they can be protected during the Winter;
lettuce also ina sheltered situation for
standing the Winter; onions and spinach.
The crops to be sown towards the end of
the month will include a small sowing
of onions for succession. As onions fur
Winter and for drawing young are a
very valuable crop, everything pos-
sibleshouldbe done to make it a succe sae hh
With good soil and good seed little
difficulty should be experienced. In —
cold wet soils care should be taken to —
sow none but the hardiest varieties. —
Hor August-sown vegetables generally
care should be taken to prepare the site
well, but, at the same time, to guard
against over-manuring. This is apt to
foster rapid and succulent growth, and
to unfit the plants for the ordeal of hard
weather they may have to encounter
later. Strong aud sturdy plants will
be needed to stand the Winter if
we have a _ severe one, and_ showy-
looking weaklings will fare badly. The
crops to be August-sown for Winter or
Spring use may include white or silver-
leaved beet, American cress, borage,
tuberous-rooted chervil, mustard and
cress successionally, Buda kale, Brussels
sprouts for transplanting in Spring,
black.and white Spanish radishes also
early white and scarlet turnip-rooted
radishes.—Home paper.
PRO AMY ST eon
R, 1908.]
Minutes of the Board of Agriculture.
MEETING OF OcrosER 5ra, 1908.
The 42nd meeting of the Board of
Bee aealuce was held at the Council
ake at 12 noon on Mouday, the 5th
October.
_ His Excellency the Governor presided
There were also present :—The Hon’ble
Me H. L. Crawford, the Houn’ble Mr.
John Herguson, Sir Solomon Dias
Bandaranaike, Drs. J. C. Willis and H. M.
‘Fernando, Messrs. J. Harward, A. N.
Galbraith, R. H. Lock, G, W. Sturgess,
Francis Daniel and Mr. ©. Drieberg
(Secretary ).
‘ As Visitors:—Messrs, Ediard Cowan
and Alex. Perera.
BUSINESS.
1. Minutes of meeting held on August
8rd were read and confirmed.
2. Progress Report No. XLI.
Beecisrot
Dr. Willis drew attention to the re-
“ference (on page 8) to the work going on
it Mahailluppalama, and remarked that
the statement made was apt to mislead
‘the reader. He went on to fully explain,
with the aid of photographs, the results
of cultivation by labour-saving imple-
ments. It was decided to add an ex-
nlanatory note by Dr. Willis to the
.
Progress Report.
was
f° 3. Statements of expenditure for
August and September were tabled.
4. The Hon’ble Mr. Crawford moved
(the Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson seconded) :—
“That Rule 3 be amended to read; ‘'The
Board shall meet for the despatch of
business on the first Monday of every
_ month.’”—Carried.
CSS ge
2
veg
es
2
5. Mr. Harward, D. P. I., moved (the
Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson seconded) :—‘* That
asumof Rs. 500 be voted for the (ex-
tension of School Gardening during this
year.’’—Carried.
6. Dr. Willis moved (Sir Solomon Dias
Bandaranaike seconded) :—‘* That pro-
vision be made for the employment of
two more Agricultural Instructors—one
forthe Sinhalese Districts and the other
for the Tamil Districts.”— Carried,
7. The Secretary read the Report of
the Tobaceo Committee (which had not
yet received the approval of the Govern-
ment Agent, Northern Province), and the
Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson moved (Mr. Francis
Daniel seconding):—‘‘That a sum of
Rs. 27,500 out of the balance estimated
to be in the hands of the Society, be
reserved for an experiment in the grow-
ing and curing of ''obacco for the foreign
market.”—Carried.
8 Dr. Willis read a paper entitled
“Cassava Cultivation as a Local In-
dustry.”
9. The Government Veterinary Sur
geon read a memo. on Castration of
Cattle,
10. Mudaliyar A. Dissanaike’s paper
on ‘*The Village Cultivator and Paddy
Cultivation,” which had been previousi y
circulated, was taken as read.
1l. A financial statement for 1907,
drawn up by the Society’s Auditor, was
presented, and was ordered by H. E. the
President to be printed and circulated
for the information of menabers.
12. His Excellency concluded the
meeting by thanking the writers of the
papers on behalf of the Board.
C. DRIEBERG,
Secretary, C. A. S.
MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS. — MORE SD
(From Lewis & Peat’s Monthly Prices Current, London, 9th September, 1908.)
QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY, QUOTATIONS.
—
ALOK, Socotrine _ cwt-|Fair to fine oe (858 a 908 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.)
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, |Common t
é vON ; 5 6 ay d to fire red 9 i$
VKOOT (Natal) Jb.| Fair to fine -- | gda4d Java Goo ‘ 3 159d a2s6d
aE WAX) ( pags Penang 1 «w white to prime red|}, 44 a Ys 3a_
Zanzibar Yellow __,, |Slightly drossy to fair .. |£6 7s 6d a £6 10s Mozambique Fans tufme red tall...) séd ats 54d
Bombay Verched —_,, |Feir to gerd ) e7 lus a £7 12s 60 PAUSE AL, iat 1 gocd .-pstduss3d
sh unbleached ,, |Di rk to good gepniniel: £5 1s a £6 5s Nyassaland Fy LORE e nie ree 28 doe 2s4d
Madayascur oy jtalk to grou palis ZOE a £6103 Mz dagascar Majunga é& blk coated .. bari 2d
OAMPHOR,* Hy ryrosa ,, |( rude
lair average quality ...)15fs Nizpets, ew lo pod. led a 98
China 9» i Oidinary t fine ball
MOMS. Malabail |Gced to fine bold ts 10d a 28 New Guinea ene Payee ts Oda oe
aon ade Middling lear isédalséd INDIGO, KI. Bengal [hipping mid tage violet sid ads ud
Be lerenum (peta e iehean aaa, ea Crdinary to middling oda aye
Mangalore ,, \Med brown to fair holdls + 3s Cudes Mide Hin: tofine))” 95 61a e naa
Ceylon. Nysore ys [Xmi N fan
» |Fair to ,ood . fiséda 1s 7d i! Low to ordi ary Is 6d a 28 20d
Be Bete : petda.as 1 Side to fie Maaras eds oes,
ong Wild”,, shelly to good efbd # Is 9 MACE, Bombay & Penan ae : ls bdaisi0d —
CABIOR ork Coletta” lists and 2nds o[3d a 84d per tb. (Uidinary tofair
CHILLIES, Zanzi ar cwl]! ull 10 fine bright oe (ZES & SUS ve ” » 200d pale
s : K.—- Ib. ABOLANES, cwt
pein sa Crown, Renewed (3fda7d Madras UG and Coconada
tt Org. Stem |¢d acd Bombay ,, ubblepore
5 Red Org. Stem |1;d a 44d Lhimlies
Renewed 3d a 64d yhhajpore, &c.
hut ida 4d Bengal a Cale utia :
CINNAMON,Ceylon Jstricommon to tine quill |tsdals 5d NUTMEGS— Yb. |.4’8 bo 57's
per lb, 2nd ” ” 74d a 1s 4d Bombay & Penang ,, |!10's to 65's
- 3rds ie ee bid als 160’s to 1185's
4ths ms i bda 9d NUTS, ARFCA cwt,|\)dinary to fair fresh
Chips, 6¢..lFair to fine bold 24a a sid NUX VOD 1CA, Cochin |Urdinary to goca
GLOVES, Penang Ib.1 wl) to tne bright boldj10d a 11d per c vt. Benpal ” i,
. Atvboyna ~~ --|Dull to tine ida bd Mecsas 3
Ceylon ° fn Pie ida 8d OIL OF ANISEKD _ ,, [Fair merchantable |
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright = |4:d CASSIA ») {according to analysis
Stems e|bair zd LEMONGRASS i Maman
SOF FRE NUTMEG * |liugy to x
i Ceylon Plantation cwt.|pold to fine Mos a 1128 CINNAMON ” ordinary to fair sweet
MY Meri uinito good sts a 1088 cl) RONEILE PT bright & good flavour
Native Good ordinary i ORCHELLA WEED—cwi|, .
Liberian » |Fair to lola Roni) seated Ceylon if Mid. to tine not woody:
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., Special Mats 78s a 208 Zanzibar. Pill icked Ae
1. ed to goo $8 a778 oy 4
Nativestate 5 Ordinary to red 50s a. 748 PEPPER- (Black) Jb.
. Alleppee & Tellicherry |Fair é «- {33
COLOMKO ROOT » {Aliddling to good ifs alfs Ceylon ,, Lo fine bold heavy ..|:
CKOTON SEEDS, oft. wl ull to fair vs €d a 828 €d Singapore Pas a : eee
cuich hat? » |Fair to fine dry 21s u Yeo nom, | Acheen & W. C. Penang|!'ull to tne Eat? WAH
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, [Fair 20s nom. (White) Singapore ,, {lair tu fine or
Calicut, Cut A ,, |snall to fine bold 728 tU w dbs Siam » {tair Be eve eee foc
B&C,, pall and medium 488 a 608 Penang »» |bair aS Bene ie }
Cochin Rough ,, (cmmon to fine bold [313 a 36s PLUMBAGQ, lump cwt.Jeir to tine bright bold|35s a 458 nom,
small and D’s 338 viddling to good smali|25s a 403 ,
Japan » |Unsplit “ts chips oull tofne bright | ..|l5sa 30s
@UM AMMONIACUM ,, [>m. blocky to fair clean) 5s a ¢0s dust ndinary to fine bright]’s a 15s
ANIMI, Zanzibar ,, |P: Je and ambe ane ae £16 A£191C8 SAGO, Pearl, large «ej ull to fine 2 ia Vee i
” *9 ittle red}oi3 a 115 nedium . » 2s 6da 15s
3ean and Pea size ditto ae revel small aN i & lisa 13s
i iv te geodied sits [po a £12 SEEDLAC ewt.|O:dinary vo gd, soluble |£5 a6 nom.
Med. & bold glassy sorts|26 10s a £8 SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b./Good to fine bold giee) jid a7d ;
Madagascar ,, |Fair to good palish ...)£4 a £8 10s Fair greenish da 4td
svaBIC F.1,& Aden ,, |Ordinary
Turkey sorts ,,
Gatti ,, [Sorts to fine pale ...\\7s a 4¥s ou nom. Bombay 4, | 5 on
Kurrachee »» |Reddish to good pale ...):0s a sus wi Mergui im Ai co tne a0 é
Madras », |Park to fine pale ...J1;s a 25s M:mlla ,, |Fair to good +-|84 5s a £7 15s
ASSAFGTIDS », \Clean fr. to gd. almends}|35. a jus Banda Sorts .
KINO b.
MYRRH, picked cewt.
Aden sorts ,,
OLIBANUM, drop ”
pickings ,,
siftings 5, |Nlightly
INDIA RUKBER Ib. /\Fine jaa bis. & sheetsas y4d Cochin __,, |Finger *
Ceylon, Straits, 5 Ceara ,, a 4 244 Bulbs
Malay Straits, ete. Crepe ordinary to fine..|4s 2d a4s 3d VANILLOES— Tb.
Kine Block [is 43d Nauritius .. Ists|Gd crystallized 34 a8} inléga, 188
Scrap fair to fine --28(d a8s Moacougasear ... } 2nd:|Foxy & reddish 34a 153 a 9g
Assam » ~|Plantation 48 4d Seychelles irds|.eon ond inferior
Fair 11 to good red No.1/2s a 2s 17d VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright
Rangoon p »» 2s ida 28 4d WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard
von. stony to go d block! 5s a 75s
Fair to fine bright
lair to fine pale
NMiddling to good
Good to fine white
Midaling to fair
Low to good pale
384a [Ocror
ee ee
a
t's
0 good eelYUs a 828 6d Rorneo Cemmon to good Gd a. 2s 2d
to fine plump |is.da 3s 6d Mid. topoed Kuipoh 93a avs éd
i red
»j£4a £7 10s
to good pale
258 a 3vs 6d nom.
32s 6da fUs
Commonspeckyand small|1. da 24d
SHELLS, M. o’PFARIL—
Feyptian cwt.|Smallto bold ..
J i ae "1958 aa ‘4
TAMARINDS, Calcutty,, |\ id.to fine b’k not stonyl;}s ayes ZO
er owt. Madras |Stony and inferior
TORTOTISESHEL) —
Zanzivar, & Bomlay }b. |Small to bold
foul to fine
Do. yy |bulbs
THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE
Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the 6. A. 8.
Comertep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON.
No. 4,]
OCTOBER, 1908.
{Vou. IIT.
DESICCATED COCONUT MANUFACT-
URE IN CEYLON AND NEW
SOUTH WALES.
Amongst the new industries which have gained
a footing in Australia, asa result of the measure
of protection afforded under the new tariff—
without which their successful continuance
would not have been possible—is one for the
preparation of desiccated coconut. The new
venture, which, under the trading style of Meg-
gitts Limited, has its headquarters at Parra-
matta, New South Wales, is already in full
swing, finding employment for 100 hands.
Apart altogether from any political senti-
ment, the locally manufactured article is
likely to have the support of Australians by
reason of the fact that in the course of
its preparation hygienic requirements are
complied with to an extent that is quite
beyond the reach of manufacturers in Ceylon
and other countries where the employment of
cheap black labour renders it impossible to guar-
antee these essentials. The importance of this
aspect will be recognised when it is remembered
that a considerable proportion of the desiccated
coconut consumed in Australia is eaten practi-
cally in its raw state, large quantities being used
thus in the manufacture of confectionery. Those
who are competent'to express an opinion assert
that in quality, flavour, and colour there is no
question as to the superiority of the Australian
product, So encouraging has been the support
accorded the new concern that the output of
the factory is now about five tons per week, and
it has been found necessary to arrange for an
extension of the present plan in order to cope
with the demand. The coconuts used are
being obtained from the South Sea Islands,
New Guinea and Java, every precaution being
taken, of course, to assure a supply of none but
fresh nuts. The objection has been urged that
the industry cannot possibly hope to flourish in
49
Australia because the necessary freshness of the
fruit cannot be guaranteed ; but this supposed
bar disappears before the explanation, that
under existing conditions the coconuts used
in Ceylon and other producing centres are
stacked for at least a month after being picked
to allow the flesh to ‘‘set,” a process which
is necessary prior to manufacture. In the case
of the Australian-made article the nuts are
on the machines at’ Parramatta within four or
five weeks of their being picked, and on some
occasions it has been found necessary to hold
back the nuts for a time in order to have
them in ausable condition, owing to the fact
that in a cooler climate they do not mature
as rapidly as in warmer temperatures. Not-
withstanding the very low basis of values now
ruling in the East—due, no doubt, toa world wide
depression in the market for this commodity—
theAustralian product is being supplied at nearly
03d. per lb. under the cost here of imported
desiccated coconut.—Melbowrne Age, Aug. 6.
A CEYLON MANUFACTURE'S VIEWS ON
THE ABOVE,
With reference to the above article published
in the Melbourne Age regarding the mannu-
facture of Desiccated Coconut in New South
Wales, one of our representatives was accorded an
interview with a Ceylon manufacturer of that
product, who stated that he had no fear of New
South Wales proving any serious competitor to
the Ceylon industry.
“The suggestion in that paper,” he said,
“that we do not take sufficient sanitary precau-
tions with the manufacture of our produce, be-
cause, employing coloured labour, we are unable
to, is nonsense,
THE GREATEST CLEANLINESS
is maintained through the whole process of
manufacture and clean water is so freely used
that dirt or uncleanliness in the finished article
386
is practically impossible. The details of manu-
facture are more or less secret, but I may tell
you this, that while the nut is being handled
it is constantly in water, and on leaving the
water it passes into the machinery and is
then untouched by hand until it is turned out
a snow-like mass of finely cut or powdered
dry coconut. The nut has to be stelled and
the brown skin pared off—that is the only
work done by hand, and, as I say, water is
freely used and the whole oval kernel under-
goesa thorough washing tefore passing into
the machinery—where does this process fail
in “hygienic requirements?”
‘‘Then the Australian article is not superior
to the Ceylon product ?”
“Tt cannot be. If you saw the care wtih
which the dried or desiccated nut is watched
at the mills you would realise that the process
of manufacture can hardly be improved upon,
even in Ceylon where we have been working
for years. Moreover, currents of fresh dry
air pass through the factory, where everything
is kept scrupulously clean, and the high tem-
perature employed in the desiccators would
render perfectly innocuous any stray microbes.
And finally, before being carefully packed in
‘‘orease-paper’”’ in lead-lined chests, the piles
of snow-white nut are aera turned over and
the smallest specks of even slightly discoloured
nut are picked out. Any one can eat Ceylon
desiccated nut raw without any fear at all—
I have eaten quantities—and the slur on our
produce in that Australian paper is unfair
and untrue. Of course, it was inspired by
some interested person, but such remarks as
that will only redound to the hurt of the
person himself.
CEYLON’s COMPETITORS.
“And you fear no competition?” ‘ Well,
there tis such a demand for good Ceylon nut,
and it has such a firm hold in Europe, America,
Canada and elsewhere, that we can stand a
lot of competition. Besides this Australian
concern gets the nuts from the South Sea
Islands, and they are so liable to typhoons, etc.,
which destroy the crops, as was experienced a
couple of years ago, that from time to time
coconuts there are scarce and prices of copra go
up very high, and the price of nuts follows; and
if the mills there had no nuts—well, I leave
the rest to you!” )
“¢ Does any other country produce desiccated
coconut” ?
‘““Well, a Jamaica concern commenced work
and did something a few years ago; but if they
are still working, it must be in a very small
way. Inthe United States are several mills ;
they get nuts from the West Indies and mix
up potato and cassava with the coconut, and
sell a curious mixture as ‘desiccated coconut’ ;
but their trade is limited and they have to de-
clare that it is a mixture they are selling.”
So the famous Ceylon desiccated coconut
still leads the way.
CEYLON vs. AUSTRALIA.
Colombo, Sept. 4th.
Dear Srr,—Your article ve the Australian
“‘ Desiccated Cokernut” industry is interesting,
but it would be still more so if you told us what
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist.
the amount of the Import Duty is that enables
the Australian-made product to be sold at, you
say, $d per lb. under cost of Ceylon Cokernut.
—I am, yours, &c.,
COKERNOUT.
[The duty, we learn, is 2d per lb. which leaves
2d per lb. to cover the extra cost of labour, &.
—Ebp., C. V.] i; ;
September 5th.
Dear Sir,—With reference to the extract from
the Melbourne ‘‘Age” of 6th August last on the
subject of ‘‘ New Industries Established,” I have
only to remark with regard to Desiccated Coco-
nut manufactured in Ceylon—which articleis—or
was until our great Commonwealth of the South
commenced to ‘stagger humanity ” with her 5-
ton-a-week Parramatta output——practically the
only country producing it :—Our enterprise was
started about 1885, or say a couple of decades
ago. In1898 Ceylon exported about 13,040,554
lb. only, while this year of grace, i fancy we will
not be much short of 27,000,000 1b., while Aus-
tralia has to 24th August taken some 594,648 lb.
or little over a month’s Parramatta Factory out-
put; so that, while we are suffering from over-
production here, which is the *‘ real cause ”
of our extremely low. prices during this
year—all 1 can say is, if our gum-sucking
friends of the South do not increase their popu-
lation in all its branches, and the confectionery-
sucking olive-branches in particular, they too
are bound, if Parramatta nut industry lives
another few months, to suffer from the same
complaint. I fail to see where the political
sentiment comes in nor even the hygienic re-
quirements the writer in the ‘‘ Age” alludes to,
but I question the superiority of their white
workers over our Sinhalese. It would be absurd
for an Australian to attempt to form an opinion,
but I know that black cooks are prized very
much in America, it being a well-known fact
that they are cleaner than the whites in many
respects. The writer in the ‘“‘ Age’ does not say
so, but I conclude the nuts for manufacture are
obtained in the husk ; that is, they have to take
them just as they are packed. Now this must
entail a very heavy toll for rejections of bad and
immature nuts, and spoilt ones during the
voyage in the hot hold of a ship. This period,
the writer in question tells us, is from four
to five weeks, practically the same time our
nuts in Ceylon require tor pee prior to
being husked for desivcating ; in other words,
their nuts wither in the ship-hold, whereas
ours mature on the ground in open air or
in well-ventilated sheds, so that what he calls
the ‘‘set” is nothing more or less than the
withering or maturing. In Ceylon the seller
of green nuts in husk generally allows the
buyer 5 per cent for rejections, but this toll
often runs to10per cent, so that with this charge
and the great cost of labour in Australia, and
the great heat the desiccating white men must
endure in Summer, it is very questionable if the
concern can be made to pay; however, itseems that
the Australians like the article raw, so perhaps
by educating the people in that direction, the
Parramatta general output of 537,600 lb, might
be doubled—so as to meet the great Australian
consumption of say 1,000,0001b., about which
figure or little over it reached last year, The
and Magazine of the Ceylon A gricullural Society.
Ceylon product. is finding its way rapidly into
new countries and I fancy that with an export
a few years hence of say 30,000,000 lb. I should
not think manufacturers in Ceylon have very
much or anything to fear from this great
Southern Cross bogie. Judging from what
white labour cost me in Australia as compared
with Ceylon, we need have no fear atall. We
can put it in Colombo for less than $d per lb.,
and in some cases, as low as 2% cents, so that if
they can put it in Sydney at double that with
nuts as cheap as ours, they should have a
look in; buta local consumption of 1,000,000
lb. only, as at present, should certainly
not require very much fresh plant for the
Parramatta Factory to enable its owners to
supply the requirements of New South Wales
and other States. I suppose that as they have
protection just now, the promoters do not
contemplate such a contingency as an export
duty being imposed, in the event of there being
a change in the Government, on shipments to
New Zealand, ctc.
Sept. 4th.
Dear Sir,—We must stick up for our local in-
dustry, now verging on 30,000,000 lb. per annum,
This year will, I think, reach 27,000,000 lb. (or
say 7,000,000 lb. over 1906), of which one manu-
facturer does about 1-8th himself, viz., 25,000
cases of 130 1b. nett each =3,250,000 lb. I only
wish it were going to a better market.
It seems they (at Parramatta, New South
Wales) are at present employing 100 workmen
(white) and are actually turning out 15 cases per
diem, or 5 tons per week, while the manufacturer
here (above alluded to) is cutting 50,000 to 60,000
nuts and turning out 140 to 150 cases per diem.
Ifthey export to the United States, New Zealand,
&c., then the Government will be sure to put on
an Export Tax. We can lay 1t down in Colombo
at 3 cents per lb.. Can they do that? No.
It appears to me they have forgotten the cloth
in cutting out their coat, z.¢., the demand ; for,
as you know, all Australia does not take more
than 1,200,000 lb. per annum just now (it was
1,021,083 Ib. in 1906). As IL wrote today, it
is to be hoped they do not muzzle the ox ; but
if they do not, and their 100 workers eat as much
of it per head as our people do, their outturn of
nut in pounds per nut desiccated will be very
poor; and, besides, it seems they eat it raw.
If what they say is true, their nuts and labour
must cost less than ours—and if so, their suc-
cess is assured; but from my experieuce they
will want a much greater demand than there 1s
at present, even if they supply ‘‘all Australia.”
They tell us a lot, but not one word as to size
and cost of nuts, small as compared with ours,
and average rate of wages, including super-
vision ; this must be high, with only 15 cases
per diem—and that, too, by 100 workmen !
They lay stress on their nuts, while taking a
month to get to Parramatta, being worked up
‘** fresher ” than ours, which we have to keep al-
ways exactly the same time before working, 1.¢.,
for ‘maturing ” or what they call the ‘‘set,”
Since writing yesterday I find, on looking at
the cutting from the Age, that they employ 100
387
people daily ; and putting that at 5s per day, in-
cluding supervision, &c,, it comes to 3}d_ _— cts.
or say au 1 He aw)
per Ib. on the 5-ton or 90-case weekly out-
put; and putting nuts at, say, 3°70 cts per
nut with 3 nuts to the 11b., desiccated
nut ibs 3c veo) 1110
Packages same as ours ... 1°50
making a total cost per lb. of 31°10
100 people to turn out 15 cases per diem is a ‘‘ bit
thick.” They would probably eat a good lot of
the 15 cases, and it does not do to muzzle the ox
either here or in Australia ; besides they seem
to like it raw there.—Yours faithfully,
DESICCATOR,
THE RESULTS OF MANURING TEA
WITH MUSTARD MEAL,
have been so successful, says the Indian Planters’
Gazette, that it behoves planters to give an ap-
plication of this a trial on all old and backward
parts of their gardens. Exhaustive experiments
have been conducted by the Scientific Officer
attached to the Indian Tea Association which
leave no manner of doubt as to the recuperative
qualities of mustard seed meal judiciously ap-
plied.—M, Mail, Sept. 9.
WASTE OF COCONUT HUSKS.
In Durcs Hast Inpizs anp SINGAPORE.
_The Registrar of Imports and Exports at
Singapore (Mr. A. Stuart) states that enormous
quantities of coconut husks are thrown aside
after extracting the kernel and thousands of
tons lie rotting in such places as the Natunas
and Anambas Islands, as well as in other parts
of the Dutch Indies and even in the Malay
Peninsula, owing to the absence of machinery
to deal with he fibre.
OIL-CAKE,
Mr. Stuart thinks the United Kingdom
should provide a fair market for the oil-cake—
the refuse of copra after extraction of the oil—
which finds its way to the Continent in large
quantities. —Board of Trade Journal, Aug. 27.
GINGHONA AND TEA IN JAVA,
Mr, F L Upjohn of the Upjohn Co., New
York, who recently returned from a _ tour
round the world, states in the Pharmaceu-
tical Era that the idea prevalent in some
quarters that the cinchona trees in Java
are being rooted up to make room for tea
plants is entirely erroneous. ‘* While tea culture
inJava is undoubtedly on the increase,” he
says, ‘‘it does not conflict with the production
of cinchona, but rather with that of coffee,
which is a dying industry in Java. Coffee is
really a thing of the past in the island, as the
growing of tea has proved to be cheaper and
more profitable. Cinchona is allowed to grow
from five to seven years before the bark is gath-
ered, Trees are at their best at about seven
years. Then they are rooted up, and the bark
stripped from the roots as well as from the
trunk and main branches of the tree,”
388
WEEDING IN PARA RUBBER
GULTIVATION.
BY J. B. CARRUTHERS.
Mr. J. B. CarrRuTHERS—oN CLEAN WEEDING
ror Russer Esrates—writes an interesting
article; we reproduce it in full hereafter from the
Straits Agricultural Bulletin. The views he
puts forward will be found amplified in
his Administration Report, which has been
ready a good many weeks, we understand,
but not turned out with great celerity by the
F. M. 8. Government Printer. He emphasizes
the necessity of conserving everything one can
in the soil that will be useful to rubber—a
forest tree, and not a shrub or bush, like
coftee and tea which may be affected by the
consumption of soil nutrition by weeds and
perhaps require less assistance in root growth.
He is advocating the green manuring policy
which Mr. Bamber has done for Ceylon, for
some time—but in an even more emphatic
way ; Mr. Carruthers is revealing himself (after
his observations in Malaya) as an out-and-out
opponent of clean weeding, and a counsellor
to Britishers—
They change their skies above them
But not their hearts, that roam—
to lay aside their prejudices, or knowledge of
home farming ideals, and recognise the forestry
work involved in rubber-growing, and the im-
mense need of conserving moisture, and prevent-
ing wash, exposure to sun, and loss of nutrition.
We commend his remarks to local planters, espe
cially those whose rubber is set onsteep land.
MR. J. B. CARRUTHERS’ VIEWS.
Rubber cultivation in the East is a comparati-
vely new industry and has not the advantages
of long experience to help in deciding as to the
best and most economical modes of cultivation.
EXPERIENCE GAINED 1N GROWING COFFEE, "EBA,
cacao, &C.,
has been used in determining methods
for the conduct of a rubber estate and
it is perhaps natural that a successful tea or
coffee planter should cling to those which he
has found of value in his previous agricultural
experience, In the same way the methods used
in the cultivation of tea, ccffee, &c., were to
some extent the results of experience gained in
England and Scotland in the growing of turnips,
wheat, cabbages, &c., in a temperate climate,
The desire to retain his own methods in a foreign
country, even when those methods are suited
specially to his home land, 1s a British charac-
teristic. Forms of Government, clothes, games
and other habits of life are introduced into
countries where the climatic conditions are very
different from that of his own country.
In agriculture this characteristic has led in
some cases to improvements in native methods
of cultivation but has also frequently caused the
adoption of methods admirable in Europe but un-
suitablefor tropical and sub-tropical climates, In
the case of weeding, the practice which obtainsin
the cultivation of cereal crops ina northern
country cannot be of great value in deciding
what should be the method adopted in growing
trees as a permanent cultivation, in a country
where the temperature and moisture are always
favourable to rapid plant growth, where the sun
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
is so powerful as to dry up all moisture from
the surface layers of the soil, and where the
rain often descends so heavily that in one day it
may pour on the earth as much as in six months
in England.
In rubber cultivation it is advisable to attack
the question without preconceived ideas and to
use only the experience of conditions similar to
those under which the rubber is to be grown.
THE RUBBER PLANTER’S OBJECT.
The object of the rubber planter is to produce
healthy vigorous rubber trees containing large
supplies of latex as quickly as possible. The
climate in Malaya is for such a purpose ideal:
sunshine and rain and a moist atmosphere of an
equable temperature—the conditions aimed at
in aforcing house. The soil cannot be described
as rich, though it is physically good and allows
the passage of water and air—both of which are
necessary for vigorous root action. Various
writers on the subject of growing rubber have
recommended the use of shade trees for grow-
ing young rubber and used as an argument the
fact that wild rubber trees in Brazil grow in
dense shade, yet those who have seen the
healthy rapid growth of para rubber trees grown
in the open in Malaya and observed their height
and girth are satisfied that such conditions are
suitable, probably the most suitable, for the
vigorous growth of young rubber.
The conditions to be aimed at for the portion
of the plant above ground are an equable, moist
climate witha temperature not too high for the °
healthy growth of the piant cultivated. These
conditions we have all the year round in Malaya,
THE CONDITIONS TO BE DESIRED FOR ROOTS
are briefly;—a soil so constructed physically
that it is not too loose to retain the water,
necessary for growth, and yet not so close as to
become water logged and prevent the access of
air, which is also necessary, the soil must pos-
sess a sufficient amount of nutritive substances
for the formation of plant tissue. The soil must
be moist and shaded, for these are the conditions
under which the formation of plant food in the
soil takes place. ‘he conditions present for the
development of roots of rubber trees can be and
are very largely dependent upon methods of
cultivation ; and it is not difticult to see that the
methods at present adopted are not calculated to
produce the best results and are at the same
time costing a large sum of valuable labour.
The coffee or tea planter in Ceylon and Malaya
is a firm believer in clean weeding and has per-
haps never seriously considered whether this
method is suited to all cultivations in all cli-
mates. Weeding is practised in the corn fields
and gardens of Britain ; therefore it should be
used in the plantations of the Hast,
CLEAN WEEDING :
is good farming. A good farmer at home is
known by the freedom of his land from weeds
ergo a good planter in the East must show bare
earth between his plants. But the conditions in
the two cases are totally different : little or no
harm is done in Britain by exposing the soil tothe
sun and rain; incalculable harm is done by expos-
ing good friable soil in the tropics to baking
sunlight and downpours of rain, The cultivations
are different and the growth of cereals, roots or
other temporary crops in England can have
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
little to teach usin regard to methods to be
employed in rearing forest trees in the tropics.
Bacteria which are largely responsible for the
continuous supply of plant food to the roots
cannot exist inadry baked soil and the roots
themselves cannot live under these conditions.
MALAYA SOILS AND DRAINAGE.
The soils in Malaya are physically excel-
lent in their structure, though not chemi-
cally very rich, and possess the requisite
amount of plant food for para rubber cul-
tivation. Many places require little or no
artificial aids to get rid of excess of water—
the structure allowing water to percolate freely
while not being too loose to partially retain it.
Drainage is a factor, the importance of which
the planter has learnt by experience. If the
soil is water-logged and consequently not
sufficiently aérated rubber roots will not grow
vigorously. He has still to learn the advantages
of protecting his soil from sun and rain or
rather the disadvantages of exposing it to these
inimical influences. His drains are made chiefly
to decrease the loss of surface soil after rain
but if he will cover his land with a beneficial
weed the only drains that will be necessary will
be those on flat land which prevent the land
becoming waterlogged. Nearly all the expenses
of draining are thus saved and a sum of from
$1/- to $4/- per acre in order to permanently
establish a protective plant which will
obviate the necessity for drains on sloping
land and at the same time
ENCOURAGE THE ROOT GROWTH
of his rubber trees, can readily be afforded,
especially as it meansa cessation of all expense
in regard to weeding or attending to drains.
Millions of dollars have been spent on keeping
the land on which rubber is growing exposed
and probably three quarters of the labour force
have been used in carrying this out. Hundreds
of thousands of tons of top soil, which can never
be replaced and the value of which as plant food
is immense have been washed offclean weeded
estates. Is this expenditure of money and labour
and sacrifice of top soil necessary in order to get
the most rapid and vigorous growth of rubber
trees ? Thisis a problem which any planter can
solve himself. Let him the next time he is
opening a clearing
SOW OR PLANT A SELECTED GREEN MANURE
Crotalaria, Mimosa (sensitive plant) Vigna,
Desmodium, &c., or even Passiflora foetida
(passion flower) directly the burning is finished
and see that it is established so that the ground
is never exposed to the sun and therich top
soil which is left behind when jungle is burnt
is not immediately washed off. Let him plant
hisrubber in this and compare its height and
girth and general vigour with the growth of
rubber trees of equal age in his clean weeded
clearings and I have no doubt that he will be
convinced that the labour and money spent on
clean weeding is not a sound commercial invest-
ment, If he establishes his selected plant at
once, there is no fear of lalang that bugbear of
the rubber, getting admission.
During the past three years I have been
making observations as to rubber which for
various reasons has been allowed to remain in
weeds or has had other plants growing with it
which tend to protect the soil from sun and
389
rain. In cases where the weed is lalang the
benefit of the protection of the soil is to a great
extent counteracted by the damage done by this,
the worst of all the weeds of Malaya.
LALANG
forms a close mat of roots which absorb a great
deal of rain and dew, the leaves of the plant
do not protect the soil nearly as well as almost
any other plant, being all arranged vertically
and thus giving as little shade as possible. [
have found the surface temperature in lalang to
be some 8 to 10 degrees higher than in other
weeds, sensitive, plant, passion flower, &c., on
similar soil. Even where lalang is the weed, the
hindrance to rapid growth of the rubber is not
so marked as believers in clean weeding would
expect. No serious planter would allow if he
could avoid it the invasion of lalang ; but looked
at purely from acommercial aspect, the position
in regard to lalang on many estates is that the
rubber trees have been checked in their growth
compared with weeded trees about }; that is
to say a five year old tree is only equal to a four
year old tree which has been tended, but the
cost of the weeding during the three years of
the tended tree has been from $3 to $60 per
acre, and it is a question whether the hastening
by a year of the tree’s growth is worth the cost
paid for it. With other weeds the advantage of
covering the soil usually balances the dis-
advantage caused by the weeds taking moisture
and plant food from the soil at the expenses,
the rubber roots. To take exact instances,
AN ESTATE IN PERAK
planted in rubber was owing to want of
funds abandoned for five years and allowed
to grow up in belukar. When cleared up only
8 per cent. of the trees were missing and the
remainder showed excellent growth and are to-
day at eleven years old giving 4 1b, of dry rubber
per tree per year though they have been tapped
some years. There are many thousands of acres
of rubber in the Malay States and the Colony
under Tapioca the cropping of which takes more
plant food out of the soil than almost any known
cultivation and even with this tax upon the soil
the rubber trees benefiting from the shading of
their roots are growing not very much less
vigorously than their neighbours with no com-
petitors but with their root areas exposed to
sun and rain.
To put it briefly the policy of scrape, clean,
expose, let in sun and rain should be
EXCHANGED FUR THE POLICY OF PROTECT, COVER,
RETAIN,
prevent the baking of the sun and the washing of
the rain. Without any detriment to the rubber
this method of cultivation reduces more than
considerably the cost of bringing a rubber estate
into bearing.
This question was dealt with in my annual
report for 1907 published in this Bulletin for
September of that year and has been further dis-
cussed at length in my report for this year about
to be published. It is of so much practical
importance that no excuse is needed for its
reiteration in order to urge the planter to give
the whole matter serious consideration and—
what is still better—to carefully try the effect of
green manure or cover plants as against the
more usual method of bare soil.—Straits Agri-
cultural Bulletin, for Sept.
390
CASSAVA CULTIVATION IN CEYLON.
of special interest to learn, as we do from a
Jaffna paper, that it is the intention of
some leading gentlemen of Jafina to float
a Joint Stock Company to undertake agri-
cultural operations in the Northern Province.
The immediate object of the Company 1s to en-
courage the cultivation of Cassava in Jaffna by
importing machinery and converting the root
into tapioca in large quantities for export to
Europe. This is considered to be the only means
in the existing circumstances, of preventing the
over-production of tobacco in the District and
of introducing another remunerative industry
here. The capital of the Company will be
R200,000 divided into 2,000 shares of R100 each.
The capital required for the tapioca business
not being large, it is the intention of the pro-
moters of the Company to call upon the share-
holders to pay only about R30 per share; the
balance will not be required till the Company
undertakes other agricultural and industrial
operations on a gigantic scale. The preliminary
arrangements for the formation of this Company
are In the hands of Mr. William Mather, the
founder and Managing Director of the Jaffna
Commercial Corporation.
CASSAVA AS FAMINE FOOD.
By F. Boorn-TuckEr.
While travelling in Travancore last January,
I learned from inquiries that the high prices
of rice and other staple grains had reached even
this distant and comparatively isolated corner
of India. Yet the people seemed unusually
prosperous and well-fed. Famine, I was told,
had been unknown for the last thirty years, in
the sense in which it afflicted other parts of
India. Droughts there had been, and scarcities,
and high prices, but the population by famine
deaths, were things unknown to the present
generation. My informants pointed to the
familiar. Cassava plant, a plot of which was at-
tached to every cottage home and the cultivation
of which had now become practically universal,
Each acre could produce from five to twenty
tons of the tuber, so that a small patch would
supply an entire household with food and render
them independent of the fluctuations of the
grain market. The rains may fail and rice may
be dear, but there is always an abundant supply
of the drought-resisting ‘‘Marachini” to fall
back upon. We were the guests of a retired
Travancore Judge, and were thus in a good posi-
tion to gain the most reliable information possi-
ble. Specimens of the. raw tuber were shown
us, and in different fomms it was included in the
generous diet which ozir kind hosts had provided
for us. What struck me, however, most of all
was the Jndianisation of the Cassava in Travan-
core. To persuade Indians to take to tubers as
astaple article of diels had always appeared to
me an almost hopeless; task, As a mere ‘‘bonne
bouche,” appetiser, o r addition to their veget-
able curries, or as an: enforced but disliked ‘‘der-
nier ressort” in case o f actual famine, its popu-
larity would be limite d and there seemed little
hope of securing for it a’ place amongst the
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
staple foods of India. Here in Travancore,
however, a simple device had been adopted
which, I could see at a glance, placed Cassava
amongst the front rank foods of India, and gave
her the entrée to all castes and classes of the
people. The roots had been boiled, cut and sun-
dried for purposes of preservation. The next
step was an easy one, to reduce it to powder
with an ordinary rice-pounder or country hand-
mill. It then made a delicious and tasty flour,
very wholesome and capable of being mixed
with other forms of flour.
The next inquiry was naturally in regard to
PRICES,
and here I was glad to find that it had not so far
been affected by famine conditions. In ordi-
nary seasons the price of the sun-dried product
ranged in various localities from 20 to 40 seers
per rupee. Cassava land, [ was told, rented as
high as R25 per acre and brought in an income
to the cultivator of from R100 to R150. Hence
t was a profitable crop to the agriculturist, and
with a wider market would become still more so.
The next difficulty was the question of
TRANSPORTATION.
It was obvious that unless the new food could
be carried at a reasonable rate, it would be im-
possible to deliver it in the famine regions at
such a price as would enable it to be of any use
to the people. Another more serious difficulty
to overcome was the univereal incredulity on
the part of all concerned (outside Travancore
itself) as to the willingness of the people to take
to any kind of new food. However, persistence
and enthusiasm ina cause, regarding the ulti-
mate success of which I entertain no shadow of
doubt, has enabled us ina large measure to
overcome the initial difficulties. The Jeading
Railway Companies have consented, at least
temporarily, to admit the new intruder to the
same privileges as other staple articles of
the people’s diet, instead of placing it on
the shelf among luxuries denied to all but the
rich and well-to-do. In this we have received
some assistance from Railway Board. In regard
to the circulation of the new food, I have con-
sulted freely with Indian grain merchants.
Indeed, it has been here that I have received
the largest measure of co-operation and_ sup-
port, the importance of which it is impossible to
exaggerate. I have felt from the first that if we
could create a demand for the article on the part
of those who had their fingers on the pulse of
the food supplies of India, success would be
assured. They would see to it that the agri-
culturists of India were made acquainted with
the merits of Cassav2, and would make suitable
arrangements for a supply commensurate with
the demand. Calling personally on some of the
leading merchants of the bazaar, I showed them
Cassava, both in its
SUN-DRIED FORM AND WHEN REDOCED TO FLOUR.
They liked the taste and appearance, experi-
mented with a small quantity and then ordered
several maunds for further trial. They then
tasted it by itself and also when mixed with
other kinds of flour. So satisfactory was the
result, that I have already received orders fora
supply of about 1,000 maunds, and have been
asked to make arrangements for a regular and
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
steady supply of the article. Im addition to
this,. spontaneous requests have been made by
these merchants for full information as to the
cultivation of Cassava and forasupply of cutt-
ings, with the assurance that a considerable
amount of land will be planted with it during
the present season. Being anxious to spread
THE EXPERIMENTAL OPERATIONS
over as wide an area as possible, we have tried
the Cassava in our Salvation Army Boarding
Schools for boysand girls not only in Travan-
core, where it is already known and liked, butin
the Deccan and the Punjab, with the result that
the children have taken readily to it, and have
asked for it to be made a permanent part oftheir
bill of fare. Arrangements have also been made
for planting Cassava on our Farm Colony in Guja-
rat ‘near Ahmedabad, and also at Ahmednagar,
Bareilly, and other places where we have land,
with a view to exploiting it in the various
neighbourhoods. One hundred maunds of the
Cassava have been ordered by the Famine Com-
missioner of the U P for experimental use at the
poor houses in Gonda and Bahraich, the labour
of the women being utilised to reduce it to
flour by means of the ordinary chakki. The
district officers report that there has been no
difficulty in getting the people to adopt it as
part of their diet
It may, therefore, be fairly assumed that
Cassava in its sun-dried and flour form has now
MADE A SUCCESSFUL DEBUT
both asa Famine fighter and as a permanent
and popular article of diet in India. The impor-
tance of this it seems difficult to exaggerate:—
1. Cassava will grow in almost any part of
India, and is already to be found in districts so
widely separated and differing in climate as
Nepal, Darjeeling, Assam, Bengal, Madras and
Travancore.
2. The root will resist drought and can be
left in the ground a considerable period after
maturing, without requiring to be rapidly and
simultaneously harvested, and is immune from
the attacks of white ants.
3: Inits sun-dried form it will keep for a
year and is very convenient for transportation
and cannot be mixed with deleterious articles, «
4, Itiseasily cultivated and is a very pro-
fitable crop.
5. Countries where it is well known and
largely grown, such as South America, Hast and
West Africa, Madagascar, etc., while liable to
droughts and scarcities, are said t6 be absolutely
immune fromthe ghastly death-roll and depo-
pulation, which so frequently accompany Indian
families.
6. In its flour form the universal prejudice
against the use of tubers is dealt with and over-
come.—Agricultural Journal of India, July.
PLANTING IN JAVA AND SUMATRA.
TEA— COFFEE—CINCHONA—RUBBER—CAMPHOR
—TOBACCO—SUGAR,
It may come as a surprise to our readers, as it
did to us, to learn that in the opinion of a plant-
ing authority well acquainted with Java, there
are no great areas of forest land suited for tea,
coffee or cinchona now available in that island,
391
for the capitalist or would-be planter. One rea
son for this is that the Dutch Government, in
carrying out their admirable surveys, have made
considerable reservations on official account
which they rigidly maintain, In some cases this
is In consequence of a policy of Forest conser-
vation ; in others, to have land for future coffee
gardens under official control; and in still others
with reference to possible requirements of
native cultivation to which, with so large a
population, the Java authorities very properly
give their constant and serious consideration.
But it must not be inferred from a limit being
placed to possible ‘‘ concessions” of land for
the different objects of the planter, that the out-
turn of produce in any one case has reached its
maximum. There are large forest reserves in
private hands which could be transformed into
tea, cinchona or coffee fields inthe hillcountry
according as encouragement offers from the
markets of the world. For the present, prob-
ably, Java has reached a limit in the produc-
tion of cinchona, simply because with an
outturn of 17 to 18 millions lb. of rich bark, it
not only rules the world’s cinchona and quinine
market, but fully supplies the demand. All
the bark coming from South America, or
produced in British India now, is of compara-
tive insignificance. It isa positive delight to
ay one who recalls (as we do) the days of
ciuchona in Ceylon, to watch the luxuriant
growth of Calisaya-Ledgeriana trees in the rich
soil of Java on hillsides at 3,000 feet above
sea-level ; and to learn the high percentage of
quinine got from the bark, which in the case
of carefully selected and grafted trees—of which
there are many bordering the tea-fields, —may
go.up to8or 10percent. In this culture there
can be no question of the immense debt which
the Java cinchona planter owes to Dr. Treub
and the great Scientific Department over which
he presides. It was by continuous analysis of
bark and selection of seed at the Buitenzorg
Gardens, that the planters were enabled even-
tually to secure cinchona trees vastly superior
to the best ever grown by the Ceylon or Indian
planter. Further, the establishment of quinine
manufactories in Java greatly strengthened
the position of the local planters and prevented
any monopoly being organised in Europe or
the United States. Nevertheless, at the present
time, the margin of profit to the Java cinchona
planter is low—very low in his estimation. So
much so that in the case of his older trees, he
is often inclined to cut down, root out, harvest
all the bark and, after digging up the land, to
plant it with tea. Where the work is carefuly
done, tea grows well under such circumstances.
Still there are extensive and very flourishing
clearings of young Ledgers and _ high-class
Hybrid cinchona to be seen on hill plantations
in Java even at the present time, and the
planters, of course, live in hope of the market
taking a turn and giving them a higher quota-
tion per unit of their product. The freer distribu-
tion by all civilised Governments of the great
prophylactic among their tropical subjects must
lead to an increased consumption of quinine;
and if opium should be gradually given up
in Southern China and other divisions of the
Far East, there can be no doubt that much
quinine would be required to take its place
392
among a people very liable to fever at certain
seasons. Opium is often taken to mitigate
the effects of fever; but it is never the
cure or prophylactic that quinine is, and
very often demonstrates how tne remedy may
be worse than the disease. If the produc-
tion and import of opium could be altogether
stopped in China, there can be no doubt that
that country would require an immense quant-
ity of quinine to the great benefit of the mass
of its people, who would then substitute the
bark tonic for the insidious poppy-product.
*Long, therefore, may the cinchona industry
in Java flourish.
The next planting industry in which the old
Ceylon resident visiting Java should feel a
special interest is coffee; for, again owing to
the aid of science and experimental gardens,
in Java coffee has now been established as u
permanently safe pursuit for the intelligent
tropical planter, who has the suitable climate
as well as land tor this product. The fungus
which ravaged coffee in Ceylon, Travancore and
other parts of Southern India, between 1869
and 1885, leading to the absolute extinction of
a great industry, did not fail to reach Java, and
from 1883 onwards for some years, there was
a steady falling-off in production ; but experi-
ments with different species have resulted—not
only in the experience that coffee robusta, though
liable to hemileia vastatriz, does not perma-
nently suffer from its invasion when grown
under shade--but in the discovery of a hybrid
coffee that in respect of this fungus is practic-
ally immune. Java, therefore—although it will
never approach Brazil--has recovered its posi-
tion as a producer of coffee, its annual crops
running up to close on 1,500,000 cwt. of late
years. Nevertheless, terrible blunders have
been made in Java in planting coffee where it
could not be profitably grown; and that, too,
by a group of planter-proprietors which in-
cluded some among the ablest and shrewdest
of colonists who ever came to Ceylon. It isa
matter of notoriety how, some years bark, a
district in East Java was invaded by ex-Ceylon
men, who took up land for coffee and spent
their money liberally--with very inadequate, not
to say unsatisfactory, results. flad it chanced
that tea or rubber had instead been exploited
in suitable situations, in those years, how
different would have been the return for the
capital invested ! But how much more often
has the same lesson been taught in Ceylon
itself, of land being planted with a product for
which it was quite unsuited ? Again, in the
case of East Java, it is probable that by degrees,
rubber and other products may take the place
of coffee : indeed, this transition has already
been effected over a considerable area.
Of far greater interest to Ceylon at present
is it to learn of Tea cultivation and production
in Java; for, gradually but surely, there 1s the
likelihood here of a rivalry that may to some
extent affect markets now occupied by Indian
and Ceylon teas, Tea planters in Java have,
so far, not been indebted so much to their
scientific department as have their brethren
interested in Cinchona and Coffee. In many
cases, the cultivation of tea and cinchona go
together. But they have learned much from
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
the experience gained in India and Ceylon in
respect of jat, modes of planting, pruning and
reparation. There are many exceptionally
arge plantations with first-class factories
thoroughly well-equipped ; and though there is
only one ‘*Malabar ’—a uniquely rich undulat-
ing plateau at 5,000 feet—yet there are many
luxuriant gardens yielding fairly good teas up
to the best average crops per acre that are
gathered in Ceylon, from 500 to 8001]b. per
acre. A finer cover or better jat of tea in many
cases one could not wish to see. The exten-
sion of this cultivation must come chiefly from
the planting of reserves already in private
hands ; and, indeed, thereis at present a good
deal of young tea yet to come into bearing.
With these facts in view, it is not surprising
that a steady increase in the total crop of
Java tea is expected for some years to come,
and that there should be the prospect of a
growing export to the Australian Colonies in
return for an import trade in stock, provisions,
cold storage, &c., which is growing up, through
the establishment of a direct line of steamers
between Melbourne and Sydney and Soerabaya
and Batavia.
RUBBER PLANTING IN SAMOA.
The large results which have been attained
with hevea culture in Ceylon, the Malay States,
and the Straits Settlements, have induced the
planters of Samoa to turn their attention to
rubber planting, and it is expected that within
a few months 300,000 hevea trees will be planted
out in the island. The importation of 100,000
hevea plants into Samoa from Ceylon as so-
called ‘‘stumps” has been a complete success.
The difficulty in obtaining hevea plants has been
solved. How it will stand as regards disease,
especially the Limumea, and what yield the rub-
ber will give in Samoa, cannot be forecasted.
According to the report of Mr. Acting Vice-
Consul! Trood on the trade of Samoa, just issued
(No. 4017, Annual Series) there are three. large
rubber plantations now in existence in Samoa,
The first has several thousand acres, the second
$00 acres, of which half are cultivated; and
the third, 350 acres in rubber and cacao,
and 100 acres in rubber solely. All promise
excellent results when tho trees are ready for
tapping. The great advantage which Samoa en-
joys over the adjacent islands is that it is sub-
ject to hurricanes only at extremely long inter-
vals. here has been no severe storm since 1889,
and.even if a hurricane should take place within
the next few years, it is pretty certain to be
followed by a period, varying from 25 to 30
years or more, during which there will be no
gale worth mentioning. The rubber tree has no
very great power of resistance against storms,
and Dr. Preuss, who has been making a study of
the question of rubber-growing in Samoa, sug-
gests that the plantations should be provided
with wind breaks, for which purpose the Ficus
elastica is best suited. This tree grows quickly,
spreads out widely, and forms a full thick crown.
It has great resisting powers against wind, and,
besides, gives a yield of first-class caoutchouc,—
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, July 17.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 393
YIELD AND GROWTH OF RUBBER ON
MEXICAN PLANTATIONS.
Our readers will not require telling that the
native rubber tree of Mexico is the Castilloa,
and that it requires in many ways different
treatment to the Para rubber tree. Methods
of cultivation are different and methods of
collecting the latex also differ to an important
degree. For example. the recommended method
of planting Castilloa is to sow the seeds at
stake in small mounds, seven seeds or so to
the mound. The mounds are spaced at a dis-
tance of seven feet in rows twelve feet apart.
This allows for a very large percentage of
failures, and thinning is carried on year by
year until at the end of the sixth year from
planting there are approximately 600 trees
to the acre. The best 400 trees are allowed to
remain permanently and are not tapped before
they have rooted 26 in. or 28 in. in circum-
ference, The remaining trees are tapped to death.
Differences from the Eastern practice in con-
nection with rubber collection arise from the fact
that while Hevea gives a small amount of latex
at each tapping, say two or three times a week,
Castilloa does not respond to such methods,
but gives a considerably larger amount at each
tapping when tapped from one to three times a
year. This is not to say, however, that the total
yield from Castilloa is as good as that from Para.
So far there are little data to go on regarding
the average yield of Castilloa rubber, but it
may be pointed out that in a supposititious
instance where two trees, one of Para (on an
Eastern plantation) and the other of Castilloa
(in Mexico), are producing the same amount
of rubber annually, the cheaper coolie labour
of the Eastern estate would be offset by the
necessity of employing more tappers. Labour
being one of the largest items in estate ex-
penditure, this is a levelling factor of the first
importance ; according to the Mexican view.
In many cases extremely low figures are
given as the cost of producing rubber in Mexico;
for example, in two reports before us the
figure of 15 cents (74d.) per lb. is quoted, but
others give 25 cents (1s. 1d.) and 23 cents (114d.)
On tho well-known La Zacualpa Plantation,
No. 1, 40,600 1b. of ‘‘ refined” rubber was col-
lected by means of 257,760 different tappings
at_a cost working out at 71 cents per lb.
Adding approximately 8 cents per lb. for
maintenance and general expense of market-
ing, etc., this makes a total of 15 cents per lb
as the cost harvesting and marketing. The
average was about 2°25 ounces per tree for each
tapping, but it is not stated how often each
tree wastapped. | . 46°78 9°43 = 9°62
» 1] Tyearsold | Kwai, G.H.A. 38°14 | 13°51 = | cue
96 t| 10 years old Me 46°39 | 11°76 = 6-OL
A. dealbata — Mer eee | 17-42 | 6°54 a 11:15
| .E.A. |
” — | 3 18°51 | 10:96 — | 12°86
29 = | ” 18°48 10°55 — 11:92
t+ Probably all var. mollissima. {=A. decurrens, var. mollissima.
MARKETING OF WATTLE BARK.
There has, since its introduction, always
been a good demand for wattle bark in
the European tanneries, but for several
years previous to its commercial pro-
duction in Natal, English tanners had
begun to revert to older and better
known tanning materials, owing to the
cay of the Australian sup-
ply.
The chief consumers of wattle bark
areGermapy andthe United Kingdom,
but it is difficult to obtain trustworthy
statistics showing the relative amounts
imported by each country.
The following table showing the ex-
ports of wattle from Australia up to
1904, is taken from the third edition of
Maiden’s pamphlet on Wattles (Sydney,
1906), the market prices in 1906 being
£6 10s. to £8 per ton for good bark
from A. decurrens, and over £8
for South Australian bark from A.
pycnantha.
Dyes and Tans. 424 (NOVEMBER, 1908,
AUSTRALIAN EXPORTS.
rony (|New South! y:.,..:, | Queens- South | Western P
Yeai Wales. Victoria. land. Australia. Australia. Tasmania.
1898 tons 835 2,620 12 8,206 — 5,892
3,805 17,478 59 62,1382 | -- 31,017
1899 tons 872 3,097 1 8,953 — 5,187
£ 2,040 22,772 5 69,985 _ 13,042
1900 tons 463 1,560 = 8,386 = 4,742
£ | 2,983 11,688 — 68,782 — 29,405
1901 tons 29 2,581 15 | 7,974 -~ 4,983
211 20,966 300 | 67,601 = °2,173
1902 tons 184 3,896 15 | 7,702 -— 5,765
£ BAO 32,907 98 68.856 — 40,190
1903 tons | 382 3,477 177 6,669 188 4,618
£ | 2,812 28,576 661 65,062 859 32,843
1904 tons 3878 =| —S«5 122 715 | 1205 5,059 4,301
£& 3.194 | 41,816 2,685 59,902 32,876 30,506
Owing to the custom of classing all
tanning barks together, it is impossible
to provide figures for the last two
years from the official Commonwealth
trade returns, and it should be pointed
out that the figures in the foregoing
table probably include interstate trade,
as total Australian exports of ‘Tanning
Bark” in 1904 were only 12,599 tons,
valued at £938,927. This rose in 1905 to
25,514 tons, valued at £189,699, but the
increase was no doubt due to ‘ mallet
bark, ” which has been exported in
large quantities in recent years.
South Australia’s exports in 1890 were
4,444 tons, valued at £56,006, but in
1904, although risitig to 7,205 tons, the
total value was only £59,902. This
decrease in value is due mainly to a
general fall in prices, and not to a
decrease in quality.
Tasmanian exports dropped during
the same period from 11,008 tons to
4,301 tons. The Victorian exports fell
in the same period from 5,659 tons to
5,122 tons. The corresponding figures
for Natal, given inthe following table,
are also taken chiefly from Maiden’s
pamphlet (loc. cit.).
NATAL EXPORTS.
Year.| Tons, | Value. |Year, | Tons, | Valu
ue. (ees
1898 | 9,427 | 30,929 | 1903 | 12,1385 | 70,581
1899 | 11,070 57,885 | 1904 | 15.819 92,911
1900 | 8,900 | 46,479 | 1905 | 17,513 | 102,666
1901 | 13,771 | 69,850 | 1906 | 15,00u £9,443
1902 | 15,537 | 74,554 |
This shows on the whole a consider-
able expansion. Recently there has been
a decline, for instance, in the price of
bark, and though this may be due in
part to the competition of other tanning
materials, ithas been suggested in Natal
that the confidence of consumers of
Natal bark may have been shaken by
the export of ‘‘ weathered” bark, and
also of blue wattle bark, which is poorer
in tannin, and to combat this and other
difficulties a Union has been formed to
provide for a “‘ mark ” for standard bark,
which will be a guide to buyers.
During the last few years the imports
of wattle bark into the two chief Euro-
pean ports of discharge (London and
Hambarg) have been as follows (Natal
Agric. Journ. 1907, 10, 1188; and Year
Book of the Manchester, Liverpool, and
District Tanners’ Federation, 1906 :—
| London (including bark in tran-| Hamburg.) »
| sit.) (all sources
Year,| from
From Natal,| From Australia, Natal,
| Tons Tous, Tons,
1900 | 7,827 1 642 =
1901 | 11,634 1,448 =
1902 | ~ 11,232 2,813 6,000
1903 | 10,649 2,350 5,250
1904 13,671 3,136 7,950
1905 | 11,914 | 2,059 8, 100
1906 | 8,461 — 8,300
In 1866 the United Kingdom’s consump-
tion was esti.aated at 2,500 tons (Loc. cit.),
so thet Hamburg probably received
about 6,000 tons by transhipment from
London. In 1906 the United Kingdom
imported roughly about one-third of the
world’s production of wattle bark.
. NOVEMBER, 1908. ]
Russia, Austria, and Belgium all take
a fair amount ot wattle bark, Russia
especially using Natal bark. Ln 1906, Sid
tons were exported to fussia, and as
trade improves, it is hoped that more
will be taken.
At present the United States takes
very little wattle bark, and none is
produced there. There are signs, how-
ever, that the United States is willing
to directly interest itself in the ques-
tion, although it is probable that few
parts of the country, except those in
the extreme south, are sufficiently free
from forest to make the culture of
wattle trees profitable. (JU. s. Dept.
Agri. Bull. No. 51, Part {V). Lt is
worth noting, however, that an experi-
mental plantation has been in existence
for a number of years in the Hawaiian
Islands.
To be saleable in the United Kingdom,
wattle bark must be in good condition
and well harvested. The best prices are
only obtainable for barks which arrive
undamaged by weather or by wet pack-
ing. It is stuced that the proportion
of damaged bark shipped from Natal
has been unusually large of late, and
allowances up tu several pounds per
ton have had to be made.
In Germany, most of the imported
bark is made into extract, and does not
go direct into the tanning pit. As a
result, weathered and damaged bark
is more readily saleable there than in
the United Kingdom.
WATTLE BARK EXTRACT.
Of late years the use of bark ex-
tracts has largely taken the place of
ground barks for tanning purposes.
Hxtracts are preferred by tanners,
since they are quicker and more regular
in their action, and there is practically
no waste in their use. Quebracho, valo-
nia, oak bark, sumac, and mangrove are
all largely utilised in the form of liquid
and solid extracts, and their application
in this form is being greatly extended
year to year.
Besides these advantages to the tan-
ner, it is clear that advantage also
accrues to the producer, since he is
able by this means to utilise materia!s
deficient in tannin, and is able to com-
pete in distant markets otherwise closed
to him by reason of high freights.
These considerations have been of
late the subject of much discussion in
54
Dyes and Tans.
the wattle-producing countries, and
notably in Natal. The Union already
referred to appears to have decided
that the best chance for the expansion
of the industry lies in the direction of
manufacturing extract in the centre of
production of the bark.
MANUFACTURE OF WATTLE BARK
EXTRACTS.
Tanning extract can be placed on the
market in either the liquid or solid
form. Where it is possible to concen-
trate the extract sufticiently without
decomposition, it is more advantageous
to prepare the solid extract, since this
is cheaper to pack and to transport.
The process of making extracts resolves
itself into several sections which may
be considered seriatim.
Leaching.—This is the technical term
describing the process of dissolving
the tannin out ofthe bark. For this
purpose the latter is ground to a fine
powder to facilitate extraction. The
system oi ‘leaches” or extractors now
cousidered the best admits of continu-
ous working. Pits, or tabs sunk in
the ground, and built in series of ‘‘ bat-
teries ” of six to eight, are packed with
the ground bark, and the liquor obtain-
ed by percolation with water in one pit
is used to extract the bark in the next
leach, and so on until a strong liquor.
is obtained. Continuity of action is ob,
tained by keeping a high head of wate
or spent liquor in the end vat by means
of a series of vertical pipes. The spare
vat may be heated by steam if re-
quired.
Wattle bark is best extracted at a
temperature of about 60, beginning cold
and raising the temperature gradually.
The following table, taken from Proctor’s
Principles of Leather Manufacture,
shows the percentage of tanning matter
and the amount of colour (as measured
py Lovibond’s tintometer) obtained by
extracting Natal wattle bark so long as
any colour or tannin could be ob-
tained.
The object of the extract manufacturer
should ve to remove the maximum
amount of tannin and the minimum
amount of colouc in the minimum of
time and with the least possible quan-
tity of water, since the water will later
on have to be evaporated. The results
recorded in the following table clearly
indicate waterat about 60 C. as giving
the best results when all these _ re-
quirements are taken into consider-
ation,
Dyes and Tans.
426
(NOVEMBER, 1908.
Temperature Colour of 3 per cent.
at which ex- | oN Percentage | Solution in 4 inch cell. ten eeniege
traction is | Tannin. | rp, ea of Tannin on = on maxi-
conducted. annin. "maximum. Red. Yellow. mum.
°C. Per cent. | Per cent. Degrees | Degrees.
15 202 | ALG 66°2 2°6 | 4: 51°1
15-30 29:0 9°8 90°6 3°0 4‘1 54.2
30-40 30°1 9°8 94-0 3°0 4°4 56°5
40-50 30°2 9°8 94-4 31 5-0 61°8
50-60 30°4 10°4 95:0 3°9 6°5 79°9
60-70 31°5 10°6 98-4 4:2 6°5 816
70-80 32°0 10°8 100°0 4:2 70 85°5
80-90 30°8 11°2 96°2 49 74 93°8
90-100 30°1 118 94.0 53 7'8 100°0
boiled 29°4 12°0 91°8 57 7:2 98°4
Decolorisation.—As in the case of most
extracts, it is probable that wattle
extract will generally be improved by
decolorisation. The agent usually
employed for this purpose is dried
blood, but plates of blood-albumen,
alumnia, and casein are also occa-
sionally used.
The blood or albumen is dissolved in
a little water, added to the vat liquor
obtained as described above, and well
mixed. On raising the temperature to
70 degrees C., the albumen coagulates
and carries down much of the colouring
matter, which is allowed to settle,
after which the clear liquid may be
drawn off for evaporation.
Decolorising always occasions a certain
loss of tannin, and for this reason is
dispensed with when not absolutely
necessary. Sulphurous acid is fre-
quently used to “ brighten” tan liquors,
but its use should be unnecessary in
preparing wattle bark extract; it is
said to be disadvantageous in various
ways.
Concentration of the Liquor.—The
liquors from the leaches or decolorising
vats are concentrated by evaporation.
Up to a certain stage it is possible to
use for this purpose ‘‘spray” machines
of the Yaryan type, which concentrate
the liquid with as little access of air
and atas low a temperature as possible.
This result is obtained by passing the
liquid into copper tubes working under
reducing pressure and kept at_ the
required temperature. The fluid is
immediately converted into spray and
swept forward into a separating cham-
ber. In this way the liquid can be
concentrated up toa specific gravity
of 1'1 to 1:2 without having been heated
above 70° C. The final evaporation of
the extracts is conducted in ordinary
vacuum pans. It must be understood,
of course, that in all stages of its
manufacture the extract must be kept
from contact with iron. The apparatus
is usuaily constructed of wood and
copper.
In the foregoing account of extract
manufacture an outline of the process
only has been attempted, and for
fuller details both of the process and
of the plant required. Prof. Proctor’s
handbook already referred to might
be consulted with advantage.
Considerable quantities of wattle
extract are already manufactured in
Australia for its preparation, chiefly
from branch bark, which is too small
to pay for stripping. A fluid extract
is prepared which contains 60 per cent.
of water and about 388 per cent. of
soluble tannin. Practical experiments
are also being conducted in Australia
with a view of the preparation of a
tanning extract from wattle leaves. It
is probable that where wattle bark
extract manutacture is contemplated
it would be advantageous to adopt the
plan of building a central extract
factory, conveniently situated with
respect to a group of plantations, the
produce of which could be worked up
in the factory. This plan has _ been
worked successfully in Germany in the
manufacture of beet sugar, and more
recent instances of its success are the
central ginneries for treating seed
cotton in West Africa and the West
Indies and elsewhere.—Bulletin of the
Imperial Institute, Vol. VI. No. 2, 1908.
NOVEMBER, 1908:]
427
EDIBLE PRODUCTS.
MILO AS A DRY-LAND GRAIN CROP.
SUMMARY.
Milo is one of the durra group of. sor-
ghums, closely related to white durra
(Jerusalem corn”) and to brown durra.
It is probably of African, perhaps Egy p-
tian, origin, and was introduced into the
United States between 1880 and 1836.
Milo is recommended as a short and
suitable name for this crop. It is com-
monly known as dwarf milo, yellow
milo, and milo ‘‘ maize.” The last name
confuses it with corn.
There is only one variety handled by
the seed trade. Whatissold as “dwarf”
milo is ordinary milo grown ou the drier
plains, where for lack of moisture it is
low in stature. There is a true dwarf
milo, but itis not yet generally sold on
the market.
Ordinary milo stools freely at the bise
and branches freely above, is tall and
rather stout, and is not uniform in
height orin time orripening. The heads
are mostly pendent. Asa crop it is diffi-
cult to handle rapidly and satisfactorily.
Improved or selected milo has to a
large extent been prevented from sucker-
ing and branching, is low and rather
slender, is uniform in height and ripen-
ing, and has its heads mostly erect. It
may be handled easily by machinery
and is fitted for harvesting with headers.
Milo is widely grown in Western
Texas and adjacent parts of New Mexico,
Oklahoma, and Kansas. It is well suited
to the entire southern half of the Plains
region below 4,500 feet elevation. It can
probably be profitably grown as far
north as South Dakota and westward in
Colorado and New Mexico to elevations
of about 6,000 feet; likewise in the
Great Basin region.
The soil requirements of milo are much
the same as those of corn. The land
should preferably be fall ploughed and
well prepared in spring to hold moisture
and destroy weeds.
In general, milo should be sown about
three weeks later thancorn and after all
danger from frost is past- Milo may be
listed or sown at the surface as_ local
conditions require. The seed is sown by
means of special sorghum plates used in
either the corn planter or the lister
planter.
The best rate of planting for highest
grain yields lies probably between 4
and 6 pounds to the acre, depending
somewhat onthe character of the soil,
the average rainfall, the length of the
season, and the cultivation given. Four
pounds to the acre has given the best
results in the Texas Panhandle. The
rows should be about 34 feet apart and
the stalks 6 to 8 inches apart in the row.
The cultivation of milo is essentially
the same as that for corn.
Harmers should carefully select their
own seed of milo, especially where it is
not yet a staple crop. Selection is
usually made for (1) earliness, (2) drought
resistance, (3) higher yields, (4) unifor-
mity, (5) freedom from suckers and
branches, and (6) erect heads. The yield
and value of the crop can be greatly
increased by such means. Select enough
forasmall seed platif time lacks for
more extensive work. Interest the farm
boys in this work.
Harvesting is usually done with a
corn binder or by cutting the heads by
hand. Ordinary milo cannot be headed
by machinery because of the pendent
heads. Our improved milo with erect
heads may be cut with a grain header
or witha row header. A good adjust-
able kind of row header is much needed.
Thrashing is done with a grain separ-
ator. Slowing the cylinder and removing
the concaves or part of the concave and
cylinder teeth will prevent cracking the
seed.
Yields vary from 25 to55 bushels of
seed to the acre. The yields in the
Panhandle of Texas average about 40
bushels to the acre. As tilage methods
and the crop itself are improved the
yields should be increased,
Milo is used mostly as a feeding grain
on the farms. It may be fed as thrashed
grain, in the head or in the bundle. The
grain is preferably cracked or ground
before feeding, except for poultry. The
heads may also be ground. Milo is
entering more and more into the produc-
tion of chops and poultry foods.
Milo, like other sorghums, may become
poisonous in the green state, especially
when checked or stunted in growth.
The principal insect enemies are the
chinch bug, aphides or plant. lice, fall
army worm, and sorghum midge. The
last may totally prevent seed production
in the Gulf region.
Milo is entirely free from the kernel
smut and the head smut of sorghum.—
S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers’ Bull., June, 1908, No. 822.
[The sorghums, though a little culti-
vated in the dry zone of Ceylon, are
worth more attention.—ED. }
Edible Products.
BREAD-FRUITS OF THE TROPICS.
(Illustrated.)
By H. F. MAcMILLAN.
The name “bread” is applied to vari-
ous tropical fruits, and sometimes to
stems and tubers which furnish food to
the inhabitants of the country in which
they grow. It signifies the importance
of the article as a source of nutriment
rather than any resemblance to what is
generally called bread by other races.
Thus the Bread-fruit of Ceylon is Arto-
carpus nobilis or “ Del,” which is indi-
genous to the Island; that of the South-
Sea Islands, Artocarpus incisa or ‘ Rata-
del,” Sinh. ; of Tropical Africa, Treculia
africana; of Nicobar Islands, Pandaniaus
Sera, & species of screw-pine with
huge globular pendant fruits. The
* Bread-fruit ” of Northern Australia is
Gardenia edulis, whilst the ‘‘ Native-
bread” is Adylitta australis, and the
‘**Tartar-bread,” Crambe tartarica, asea-
kale with a fleshy root, Then there is
the ‘‘ Bread-nut” (Brosimum alicastrum)
of South America, the ‘* Kaffir-bread”
(Hucephatartos sp.) of South Africa, and
the ** Bread-root” (Psoralea esculenta) of
North America.
For tropical countries the most valu-
able of these is the real Bread-fruit of
Malaya andthe South Sea Islands. So
struck was Captain Cook, the explorer,
with the importance of this fruit to the
natives, that be induced the British
Government to send an expedition tothe
Pacific Islands to procure and transport
young plants to the West Indies. The
first attempt was frustrated owing to
the mutiny of the crew of the ship
‘*Bounty” under Lieut. Bligh, but a
subsequent attempt proved successful,
and the bread-fruit tree has become tho-
roughly established in the West Indian
Islands and many parts of South Ame-
rica. The tree was introduced and.estab-
lished in Ceylon before the British occu-
pation (1796). Its value was at once ap-
preciated by the natives, who have
planted it in their gardens and com-
pounds throughout the low-country.
Being especially adapted to the sea
coast, it is seen in the most luxuriating
state near the sea, in the moist districts,
The genus Artocarpus contains other
species which furnish nutritious fruits.
Among these is the jak-fruit (Artocarpus
integrifotia), which is a household word
and a standard article of food with the
working classes in the Eastern tropics.
Taking the species in alphabetical order,
the first of importance is i—
Artocarpus incisa, the _ bread-fruit
proper, known also as the ‘Tahiti
bread-fruit.” In Ceylon it is known as
**Rata-del” to the Sinhalese, and “ eera-
428
[NovEMBER, 1908.’
pilakkai” to the Tamils. It is in regard
to foliage one of the handsomest of
tropical trees. Growing to a height of
forty to fifty feet, it bears very large
shining leaves, which are deeply cut
into lobes, as indicated by the specific
name. ‘The fruit is oval or round in
shape, and about the size of a musk-
melon. Two or three fruits are borne,
more or less erect, in a cluster at the ends
of the young stiff branches. The fruit
of the best varieties contains no seed,
the whole interior consisting of a solid
mass of fleshy pulp. This, when sliced
and roasted, is said to resemble the
crumb of a new loaf. It is much
esteemed as a vegetable for curries,
and may also be prepared and used in
various other ways. Firminger, who
partook of the fruit in Ceylon, when
sliced and fried, considered it to be
“hardly distinguishable from an excel-
lent butter pudding.” It can therefore
be understood why it forms the prin-
cipal diet of the natives of the South
Sea Islands. The fruit should be picked
for use when it is full-grown and has
not commenced to ripen, the latter state
being indicated by a softuess of the
pulp; the green colour of the fruit is
constant. The tree thrives up to 1,500
teet in the moist, hot districts of
Ceylon, more especially in proximity to
the sea. It is propagated by suckers from
the roots. also by gootee or layering.
Artocarpus integrifolia, jak-fruit;
known to the Sinhalese as ‘t kos” and to
the Tamils as “ pilakkai.” This common
but useful tree hardly needs introduc.
tion. Though met with in a naturalised
state in Ceylon, it is not indigenous
here, having been originally brought
from Southern India. Thatit has now
been introduced and established in
every tropical country is only what
is to be expected. The enormous fruit,
which may weigh anything up to 112 lb.,
is borne on the trunk and older branches,
sometimes at the base of the trunk or even
under the ground surface. It is usually
oblong and irreguiar in shape, though
sometimes almost perfectly round or oval.
The rind, which remains green, consists
of somewhat hexagonal knobs, charac-
teristic of all fruits of this genus. ‘The
jak-fruit is a familiar object in the
moist low-country of Ceylon. The pulp
forms an important article of food with
the natives, whilst Kurcpeans also relish
it when cooked in curries. When ripe
the whole truit has an overpowering
odour, and, untortunately, the stronger
the smell, the better the quality of the
fruit; to those who relish the latter, how-
ever, the odour is not objectionable.
The edible pulp which fills the interior
consists of a solid mass of. white: or
cream-coloured flakey substance, which:
_
Photo by H. F. Maemillan,
2, ARTOCARPUS INCISA: FRUITING BRANCH
SHOWING LEAVES AND FRUIT IN SECTION.
Photo by H. F. Macmillan,
3. ARTOCARPUS NOBILIS: INDIGENOUS BREADFRUIT OF CEYLON.
NovEMBER, 1908.]
is cooked and prepared in various ways,
and sometimes eaten raw. It is sold in
pieces in the bazaars at a few cents each,
The seeds, which are of the size and
form of dates, are roasted and esteemed
in curries, etc. They are both tasty and
nutritious. There are numerous varie-
ties of jak tree, differing chiefly in the
shape and flavour of the fruit. In Cey-
lon there is the variety called ‘‘vela,”
distinct by its comparatively soft rind
and pulp; also *‘ waraka,” distinguished
by a firmer fruit. Of the latter there
are sub-varieties; as ‘“ kuru-waraka,”
with small roundish fruits; and ‘ peni-
waraka,”. which means honey-jak, the
pulp being sweet. A distinct variety
called the ‘‘Johore jak” may be seen
growing on Mr. Wright’s estate at Miri-
gama. It bears hairy leaves and small
fruits which have a most overpowering
odour, suggesting that of the durian
fruit. This is considered one of the
sweetest varieties of the jak-fruit.
Artocarpus Lakoocha, known in India
as the ‘“‘ Monkey-jak.” This is an erect
tree with oblong entire dark-green
leaves, which are about eight inches
long and four broad. It is a native of
Bengal, and its fruit is said to be some-
times eaten and relished. The fruit is
roundish or oblong in shape, of the size
of an orange. The tree flourishes at
Peradeniya, and in Southern India up
to 4,000 feet.
Artocarpus nobilis.—This is the indi-
genous bread-fruit of Ceylon, known to
the Sinhalese as ‘‘del.” ‘‘gan-del” or
* wal-del,” and to the Tamils as “ asini-
pilakkai.” It is a handsome tree, usually
growing toa height of about 50 feet, but
sometimes to a much greater height. It
hasa spreading habit with a round head,
and bears large leathery leaves which are
wavy at themargin. The fruitis like a
thick coue, six to eight inches long; it is
commonly eaten by the natives, being
cooked and used as a_ vegetable for
curries, ete. It contains several round
white seeds, of the form of large peas,
which are roasted and eaten. The tree
is confined to Ceylon, and grows in the
moist low country up to 2,000 feet. It
isreadily propagated by seed, and is well
worth cultivating as a handsome shade
or timber tree.
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC
PRODUCTS.
By J. C. WI.is
2, Bassta.
Bassia is a genus of the family Sapo-
tacere, to which belong Payena and
Palaquium, which yield gutta-percha,
and Mimusops which in its South
429
Edible Products.
American species yields balata, and in
its Ceylon species is the palu. There
are about thirty species, chiefly in the
Indo-Malayan region. Of these five occur
in Ceylon; the commonest is B. longi-
folia, L., the Mi (Sinh.) or Illuppai (Tam.),
which also occurs in South India. The
other four are found only in Ceylon:
one is common, the others rare.
Bassia longifolia, L., the Mi or Iluppai,
is common in the forests of the dry zone of
Ceylon, but is rare, and perhaps always
planted, in the wet districts. It isa large
much-branched tree, which for a few
days inthe dry season is bare of leaves,
but is soon covered with the yellowish-
pink young foliage.
The flowers have a strong and un-
pleasant odour of mice; they come out
from February to May. Their petals
contain alarge quantity of sugar, and
they are collected and dried and sub-
sequently eaten. They aresaid to be
mildly laxative.
The tree also occurs in Mysore, Mala-
bar, the Anamalai hills, and the Circars.
It yields an inferior gum known as
elloppa, used in Madras asa remedy in
rheumatic affections. The leaves and
bark, and the juice of the bark and
young fruit are also used medicinally,
and are said to be astringent and emol-
lient. The bark is also used as an astrin-
gent tonic in Ceylon.
The ripe seeds yield an oil known in
Ceylon as Mi-tel, whichis used here in
cooking and as anapplication in skin
diseases. The oil is yellow and semi-
solid, and is used in India for burning,
soapmaking, and as an adulterant for
ghee. The cake left after expression of
the oil is baked, and used as a_hair-
wash, having good detergent properties.
The cake is known in the north of Uey-
lon as arappu, and is exported from
Jaffna, &c., to India, In 1905, 105 ewt.
were exported, valued at Rs. 567.
The timber is pale reddish brown in
colour, hard and heavy, and lasts well,
especially under water, where it is com-
paratively free from the attacks of
Teredo. Itis used for carts, furniture
and bridges.
Bassia latifolia, Roxb., the Mahua,
Mhowra, or butter tree of India (IUuppi,
Tam.), which occurs from the Central
Provinces to the Western Ghats and
Burma, is one of the most valuable
Indian trees. It occurs in gregarious
forests, usually mixed with sal. It
thrives on dry stoney ground, and a
most unusual drought is required to
check its bearing. It is nowhere plant-
ed, but is carefully protected and
preserved, and in many districts is the
most common tree.
Edible Products.
The tree drops its leaves in February
and remains naked till April. The
flowers appear in March and April, and
as they fall the tree comes out in the
pretty coloured young foliage.
The tree yields a valueless gum. and
the bark is used in dyeing to mix with
other matreials when a dark or black
colour is wanted. Sankernath (in Ind.
Forester, 1906, p. 399) deseribes the col-
lection of the latex, but finds that an
average yield of about 25 tolas (1 0z.)
only can be expected a year, and the
guttapercha produced is but of poor
quality, if not actually valueless.
The succulent flowers are one of the
most important minov food supplies of
India. They have a very disagreeable
smell of mice, but are none the less
eagetly collected. The ground is clear-
ed under the tree, and the flowers
carefully collected before they drop. In
many places the petals only are taken
and the pistil left to ripen to a fruit, .in
others some only of the flowers are
collected. A tree will yield 200--500
lbs. of flowers in a year. The flowers
are dried on mats in the sun when
they whither to half their weight and
get a brownish red colour, A hundred-
weight of the dried flowers sells at from
four annas toarupee. The merchants
often give a handful of salt and8 or
10 lbs. of rice fora maund. Two maunds
are said to be enough to feed a family
of five for a month, and are usually eaten
mixed with sal seeds and sometimes
rice; sometimes they are pounded into
flour together with other seeds.
The flowers are also popular with
animals, and during the mahua season a
considerable number of these are shot
under the trees at night.
From the flowers a spirit is distilled,
called daru, which though it has an
unpleasant smell at first, afterwards
comes to resemble frish whisky. The
Bhils get eight bottles of weak spirit from
sixteen seers of dried flower soaked in
water and then distilled 4-5 days (or 8-10
if old). About 1888 a considerable export
of these flowers’ went on to Marseilles, but
the French Government, finding that
they were used for the preparation of a
cheap brandy, stopped the import. An
Italian in Bengal took a patent for a pro-
eess which eliminated the smell, and
commenced to make spirit on «a large
scale, but the rum merchants of Calcutta
succeeded in getting a prohibitive duty
imposed.
The seeds ripen about three months
after the fall of the flowers, and yield a
valuable oil. The kernels are removed
from their skin by bruising, and the oil
430
[NOVEMBER, 1908.
obtained in the cold by pressure. In the
Central Provinces the kernels are
pounded and boiled and then _ pressed.
The oil thus obtained is semi-solid ; it is
used for lighting, for cooking, and to
adulterate ghee, as well as in making soap.
For the last-named purpose it is coming
into demand in Kurope, and it is said
that the average price given for the seed
in Bombay is Rs. 4°50 a hundredweight.
Demands have lately come to Ceylon for
this seed from soapmakers in England.
600,000 cwts. were exported from
Bombay in 1901-2.
This tree grows at Peradeniya, to
which it was introduced a long time ago.
Two good specimens may be seen near
the Laboratory, and the Tamil coolies
gather the flowers with avidity in the
season.
Bassia butyracea, Roxb., the Indian
butter tree, is a native of the lower
Himalayas, from 1,000 to 5,000 ft. The
flowers are not eaten, but make a syrup
which is boiled down to sugar. From
the seeds an oil (phulwa oil) is expressed,
which is inodourous, of the consistency
of lard, and does not become rancid so
early as that of the preceding species.
Other species, e.g., Bassia pallida, Burch,
yield inferior guttaperchas.
To sum up, the Ceylon species might
be better utilised as a source of oil for
soap, and if the opposition of makers of
other spirits could be got over, this and
others might be used as sources of
alcohol.
PARA GRASS (PANICUM MOLLE).
We have recently received quite a
number of inquiries regarding Para
grass. This interest has been no doubt
largely stimulated by the publication of
articlesin the Lowtsiana Planter and
Sugar Manufacturer, and the daily
papers that have given attention to
these articles. Wearetherefore prompt-
ed to give the experience that the HKx-
periment Station at Baton Rouge has
had with this grass.
We present herewith a photograph of
this grass at the Experiment Station at
Baton Rouge, taken on the 20th of
August, 1908. This isthe second year’s
growth on this plot. Seeds were ob-
tained from Professor S. M. Tracy, of
the United States Department of Agri-
culture, early in the spring of 1907, and
planted in a very rich soil which is
inclined to hold moisture better than the
average soil of the bluff lands. The
grass grew rapidly fiom the beginning
and sent out very long stems that re-
NOVEMBER, 1908. ]
mained prostrate on the ground almost
to the end of the stem until late in the
season. Only a portion of the plot was
mowed, the remainder allowed to mature
its seed and the seed allowed to drop on
the ground. Fearing that the plant
would be exterminated by the winter
treeze, as the stems were all on the
surface of the ground, aturn plough was
used in bedding the rows, covering the
stems toadepth of about two inches,
so as to protect a lot of them from the
freezes during winter.
During the winter of 1907-8 the plants
were almost completely exterminated,
notwithstanding this protection. In
the early spring a few straggling plants
came out from the stems that had lived
through the winter, and a moderately
good stand was secured later from
germinating seed. The grass has not
grown quite as vigorously during 1908 as
it did in 1907, notwithstanding the ex-
cessive rainfall that we had this summer.
The erect stems and the standing
portion of the prostrate stems have
reached a height of two and a half feet
at the present time, and [ judge would
make about a ton anda half of hay to
the acre if harvested. Ido not think it
would have made more hay than this at
any time last year.
The stems are very coarse and woody,
and, consequently, difficult to cure. We
have saved samples of this hay both
years, and, while not having a sufficient
quantity to make a feeding test of it, to
all appearances itis a poor quality of
hay. I present herewith analysis of a
recent sample made iu this laboratory
by Mr. J. EK. Halligan :—
Protein 1°41
Carbohydrates, 13°38
Water, 73 50
Dry basis— Water free,
Protein, 5°33
Carbohydrates, 50'49
Fat, 0°6) Ash, 9°38
Fibre, 8°62 Fat, 2:29
Ash, 2°48 Fibre, 32°53.
It will be seen that this hay contains
less than half as much protein as Les-
pedeza, and only a= slightly higher
carbohydrate content. The fibre is
rather high. It contains two-thirds us
much protein as Johnson hay and about
four per cent. more carbohydrate.
As the plant is grown here it would be
difficult to harvest as hay. The stems
running on the greund, taking root at
every joint, would make it difficult to
rake the hay without pulling up a lot
of the green stems that would be mixed
with the harvested hay, which, of
course, would be undesirable.
_As the results of two years’ observa-
tions, it is my opinion that this grass
431
Edible Products.
has absolutely nothing to recommend it
to the planters of Louisiana as a hay
crop to be planted on soils or ordinary
drainage. We have not yet experi-
mented with it long enough to tell of
its worth in wet places or in lands sub-
ject to overflows. During the month of
May we transplanted a quantity of the
grass to the margins of a small bayou
that runs through the pasture at the
Experiment Station, and this planting
was just becoming established when the
high water came and the pasture was
submerged for a period of about six
weeks. After the water subsided the
grass was still living, but of course had
not grown any during the period of
submergence. While Professor Tracy
thinks that the grass has given satis-
faction asa grazing grass in Texas, and
says that it will withstand tramping of
the animals that are grazing on it, I do
not believe that ~ would hold good in
Louisiana.
The expressions in the papers of
apprehension regarding this grass be-
coming a pest comparable to Johnson
grass may be well founded for the
extreme southern portion of the State,
but not for the latitude of Baton Rouge
or further north. I am confident that
the average winter at Baton Rouge will
exterminate the grass if it is not pro-
tected in some way, either by ploughing
or by the warmer atmosphere adjacent
to a body of water.—Louwisiana Planter
and Sugar Manufacturer, Vol. XLL,
No. 9, August, 1908.
[This is the Mauritius or water grass of
Ceylon—-Panicum Muticum—the stand-
by of stall-fed animals (especially mileh
cows) in the low country. It is, of
course, quite unsuitable for hay, but as
a succulent tood for animals getting a
nitrogenous cake it has its value.—
UC. DRIEBERG. |
THE TAX ON CITRATE.
On several occasions we have men-
tioned the Italian Government Bill pro-
moted to protect the Sicilian lemon-
industry by the imposition of an export
tax on citrate of lime and concentrated
lemon-juice, and we reported a fort-
night ago that the Bill had passed. It
appears to be a hasty and ill-advised
piece of legislation, which has been pre-
sented without a full study of the facts,
and was rushed through Parliament
during the last few days of the Session.
In some quarters it is regarded as a
political move in order to appease the
Sicilian voters; while others say ,that
pressure has been put on the Government
Edible Products.
by the syndicates of manufacturers and
speculators in citrate of lime, who have
large stocks that have heavily depreci-
ated in value. The Act creates a body
called the “Camera Agrumaria,” or
Chamber for the Citrus-industry, which
will practically have a monopoly. The
chamber has to sell the goods deposited
by the producers for their account
against a commission of 2 per cent. and
is exempt from the tax, whereas the
goods which are sold outside the chamber
are to pay the tax. At the present time
only citrate of lime and concentrated
lemon-juice are required to pay the
duty, which is variable and may reach
ainaximum of about 25 per cent. of the
value, but the duty may be extended by
royal deeree to other citrus products,
including lemon oil. Much doubt pre-
vails in Messina as to whether the
Chamber will be able to work success-
fully ; indeed, some believe that the
scheme will be unsatisfactory to every-
body, especially to owners of lemon-
orchards, who believe it will be the
means of advancing or keeping up the
price of lemons. But there are views to
the contrary. No artificial means is
likely to improve the lemon-industry,
which is at present suffering from over-
production. The chief interest of the
new law to makers, dealers, and con-
sumer of citric acid is that the duty on
citrate and juice is equal to 120 lire per
pipe of juice, or, say, £5 per pipe or 3d.
per lb. on citric acid. Payment of the
tax will eventually fall on the consumer,
for the narrow margin of profit on
which citric-acid makers work pre-
cludes the possibility of their bearing it.
The duty will come into force in Septem-
ber. Makers complain of the instability
of the market price of citrate of lime
and the uncertain and frequent fluctu-
ations, whereby they are unable to
ascertain with any degree of accuracy
the prices and extent of their contract
business. English makers have been
compelled to restrict their bnsiness on
this account, and with the new duty in
sight the future course of citric acid is
quite uncertain. It has been stated that
the Italian Government intend to in-
terest themselves in the mauufacture of
citric acid, and with that object a sum
equivaient to £8,000 is at the disposal of
the Italian Minister of Agriculture for
the erection of 1 factory. Thereappears
to be uncalled-for animosity in Sicily
against all makers of citric acid, and it
iseven alleged that they are respon-
sible for the present crisis in the citrus-
industry. Probably that is the reason
they wish to undertake the manufacture
of citric acid themselves.—Chemist and
Deugotst Vol. LXXII., No. 1487, July,
e
432
[NovEMBER, ‘1908.
SUMATRA TOBACCO:
HISTORY OF ITS GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT.
PIONEER WoRK IN THE SEVENTIES.
(Written for the Straits Times)
By E. MATHIEU.
It was in 1864 that Mr. Niewenhuis, a
Java planter, raised the first crop of
Sumatra tobacco, and in 1865 that 150
bales of that crop reached Europe. Its
qualities were recognised at once, and
the price paid for it averaged 1 florin 49
per halt-kilo.
Other pioneers soon followed in the
footsteps of Mr. Niewenhuis. Of this
period, the usual tale is recorded of
misery, sickness and death, which is the
inevitable prelude of the opening up of
a new tropical country to cultivation;
and, when we see the rich plains of Deli
of the present day, it is hard to realise
that this smiling land, not more than
forty years ago, was an almost impene-
trable block of jungle and forbidding
swamps, a wild land haunted by wild
beasts.
But, early in the seventies, important
companies, such as the Deli Maatschap-
pij, with huge capita}, and a host of pri-
vate planters stepped in, aud set them-
selves in earnest to the work of felling
the forests, of draining the swamps and
laying down the crops; roads were made
connecting the estates with the little
port of Labcean. A new port was estab-
lished at Belawan, and, in 1884, a well-
appointed railway was opened, quicken-
ing the life of the country; so that, in
less than twenty years, this land, where
“the hand of man had never set foot”
as the humorist puts it, had blossomed
out into a chess-board of highly-culti-
vated domains with rich creps of the
finest tobacco ever grown.
RECORD OF PROGRESS.—Excepting the
Federated Malay States, there is, per-
haps, not one Colony which can show
such a brilliant record of progress as
that made by that small strip of country
comprising the Sultanates of Deli, Lang-
kat and Serdang. This progress is not
the result of a bloody war, such as marks
the birth of most Colonies; it 1s a tale of
conquest of wild nature by the sheer
determination of the planters them-
selves, absolutely unaided by Govern
ment. A generous soil and a propitious
climate were on their side, it is true; but
it wanted somethi,.. more than that to
bring about the signal success achieved
by Sumatra tobacco throughout the
world at large. It wanted the un-
November, 1908. ]
surpassed experience of the Dutch as
planters; their capacity for organising
and handling native and Chinese labour,
and, lastly, the thoroughness of their
methods which have raised tobacco-
growing to the plane of a highly special-
ised and intelligent cultivation.
Deli planters realised from the start
that, for the profitable cultivation of
tobacco, there is only room for a product
of marked characteristics, and qualities
answering the well-defined requirements
of the trade for its different: purposes.
It is no use, for instance, forthe planter
to strive to supply a tobacco that will
answer, to take an extreme case, at the
same time the purposes of a cigar wrap-
per, and those of a pipe or chewing to-
bacco. The qualities required for each
type exclude each other. He shorld aim
at excellence in the type of tobacco for
which his soil and- climate are most
suited, and, to reach the standard of
excellence, he should be well in touch
with the market and informed as to the
actual demands of the day.
A WRaApPER LEAF.—In fact, a high
grade of tobacco of any class can be
grown only bya _ specialist. He must
know precisely what field practice, what
methods of planting, of harvesting, of
fermentation will produce the best re-
sults towards the end he is working for,
whether it be fineness of aroma, or the
size and weight of texture and lightness
of leaf. This practical knowledge should,
moreover, go hand in hand with a close
attention to the researches of scientific
investigators. which have already done
much of value to elucidate the actions of
various manures on the qualities of the
leaf, the facts which govern the evolu-
tion of colour, of flavour and aroma
during cultivation and fermentation,
and also the life habits of the insect
pests and the nature of the diseases to
which, from seed to staple, tobacco is
subject.
Deli planters, having recognised the
capacity of their land to grow a wrapper
leaf of very high quality, have stopped
at nothing to maintain it or even to im-
prove it. As the demands of trade and
of fashion became more exacting, they
altered their modes of cultivation, of
harvesting and of fermentation. From
broad planting, they resorted to closer
planting ; abandoning their former prac-
tice of cutting the whole plant, they
have now adopted the plucking of the
leaves one by one, which entails an
enormous complication of the work, to
be understood only when we consider
that each coolie has to handle, one by
one, at least 180,000 leaves. A a result of
59
433
Edible Products.
these improvements, the cost of produc-
tion of one pound of leaf, which ould
formerly be grown for 75 cents of a
florin, has now risen to something like
one florin.
APPLIED SCIENCE.—It can be truly
said that the whole course of cultivating
and curing tobacco leaf for wrappers is
a system of applied science, compared to
which other branches of Agriculture
and preparation of vegetable products,
with perhaps the exception of such in-
tensive culture as the Paris ‘‘ marai-
chers” and such like, is simple and easy.
It hag, in fact, reached such a degree of
minuteness that it appears almost
perfect, and yet, it is doubtful if we
have seen the last of improvements.
Such a highly specialised industry, con-
stituting, as it does, a virtual monopoly,
can hardly stand still in the face of the
brilliant results achieved within late
years by the planters of Florida and
Carolina from Sumatra seed.
If the accounts which we read are not
over-hopeful, the tobacco which they
now produce is of such fine qualities
that New York brokers declare that it
cannot be told from the imported
Sumatra leaf, and they predict, as a
result, a complete revolution in the
tobacco industry of their country.
Already at the Paris Exposition of 1900
some specimens of this tobacco, ex-
hibited by the Owl Commercial Com-
pany, had been adjudged a higher order
of merit than the Sumatra exhibits, as
they were found thinner and more
elastic,
We may take it for granted that the
Florida growers will not stopin their
endeavour to improve still further their
crops, which have now become so valu-
able that many go the length of shading
their land under cheese cloth, or under
thin pine slats. It is stated that some of
these crops yield 80 per cent. of wrapper
leaf, and that the best among them are
of such a fine quality that 200 leaves go
to the pound, two pounds covering 1,000
cigars; and, in the 16 inch size, it takes
25 leaves more to make up a pound
weight than it does of the Sumatra leaf,
A TELLING TEstT.—I believe there isa
tendency among some of the Deli
planters to think lightly of these efforts
of the Florida planters, and that their
confidence in the superiority of the Deli
product remains unshaken ; but this may
turn out to be a mistake, and in this con-
nection, the following anecdote tells a
plain enough tale.
A friend of mine, formerly a well-
known Deli planter, who went to the
Edible Products,
States in 1904, brought back with him
some Florida wrapper leaf tobacco, and
on his return to Holland invited some
friends, five innumber, some of the best-
known tobacco-men among them, to see
the tobacco side by side with another
lot of Sumatra tobacco. The Florida
bundles, being of different make and get-
upthan the Deli tobacco, were opened
and put up in the same way as the
Sumatra samples, namely, tied with
‘‘Keelit Kayce” and a special knot made
to,them for identification, Then Florida
and Sumatra bundles were mixed _ to-
gether ; the windows were wide open
and the room afforded a very good light
which would render plainly visible any
real difference, The tobacco experts were
then admitted, and, to cut the story
short, no one succeeded in spotting the
Florida from the Sumatra bundles.
The moral of this is that the last word
has not yet been said in the matter of
tobaceo cultivation, even in Deli, and
that, with the help of the duty of 31°85
(U.S. currency) per pound, the day may
not be far off when the large shipments
of Sumatra leaf tobacco to the States
may cease and be supplied by the home
grownarticle. Up to the present, so far
aslam aware, the quantities of shade-
grown tobacco have not been sufficient
to influence the market; but, as time
goes on and the growers gain experience,
which they are fast doing. we may soon
hear more of the matter. A parcel of
134 bales of Connecticut shade-grown
tobacco, from Deli seed, realised, in 1905,
an average price of $1°26 (U.S. currency)
per pound; the highest pvice being $1°75
and the lowest, for short sized, second
quality leaf, 835 cents per pound.
A Goop SMOKE,—We ¢an all tell good
butter from bad. Flavour, odour, fresh-
ness, fineness of grain, at once differen-
tiate the good article froma bad one.
But who can say what a good tobacco is ?
“Hodge” puffs at his church-warden
filed with a nondescript mixture and
says ‘‘that’s foine.”
‘*Hans” smokes his cheap, full-bodied
cigar, and beaming, exclaims ‘* schmeckt
shon.”
“ Jacques” pulls away at his coarse
and. ill-flavoured ‘‘caporal” and finds it
** chic.”
The street-urchin picks up a cigarette
end from the gutter and pronounces
it ‘‘nobby.’
Which goes to prove that, in the
matter of tobacco, tastes differ. But,
notwithstanding this diversity, certain
types of tobacco have found favour
generally among smokers, and are re-
454
[NOVEMBER, 1908.
cognised as standards by the trade for
their individual characteristic qualities.
Of such are the Cuban tobaccoes for
their richness of aroma, and the Sumatra
tobaccoes for their delicate texture.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE CIGAR.—A cigar
consists of :—
1. A filler or inner core which is com-
posed of two or three pieces of tobacco
leaf rolled with the fingers in the form
of a short rod. For the best cigars,
Cuban tobacco is used, selected for
its flavour and aroma, although some
very good brands are turned out which
have no connection at all with Cuba.
Sometimes the filler is made up of two
or three kinds of tobacco, blended to
produce acertain strength and aroma
required to obtain a specified brand.
2. A binder—an oblong strip of leaf
of the length of the cigar which en-
wraps the core and slightly overlaps.
3. The outer cover or wWwrapper—a
strip cut to a definite pattern and
dimensions, wound spirally round the
cigar, beginning from the burning end
down to the mouth end, where it
neatly finished to a fine point.
THe PERFECT WRAPPER LEAF.—
1. It should be light in weight. The cigar
manufacturer, who pays 1 florin 50, or
2 florins a halt-kilo likes to have as many
leaves as possible for his money; and,
other qualities being equal, he will
naturally prefer the tobacco which gives
him the most wrapping material for the
same weight.
2. Its flavour should not be too strong
or too marked, so as not to veil the
aroma of the filler.
3. It should be without holes or spots.
4. The midribs should be very thin so
as to minimise waste.
5. The texture of the leaf should
also be very thin, silky, and elastic so as
to form a smooth cover.
6. It should not be strong in nicotine
as, in the tact of smoking, it comes in
coat with the tongue and with the
ips.
7. It should burn well, without crepi-
tation, and consume itself into a white,
pearly and firm ash, which will not
easily drop off.
8. It should be bright in tone and
slightly glossy, and, in regard to
colour, meet the demands of the trade
and the caprice of fashions.
9. Its size should be 12, 14 or 16
inches, which prove to be the most
suitable sizes for the requirements of the
manufacturers and those entailing the
least waste.
NOVEMBER, 1908. ]
10. The lateral veins should neither
be spreading at a right angle nor at
too acute an angle from the midrib, and
they must be equidistant, 15 to 2
inches at the base on either side of the
midribs.
p. 523
Sugar (Cane): General .—
W. C. Stubbs, Sugar cane.
Rouge 1897. See Bot.
1899, p. 869.
Kriiger, Das Zuckerrohr und _ seine
Kultur. Magdeburg 1899; rev. in
Ind. Mere, 18, 2. 1899,
Baton
Centr. 77.
Miscellanecus.
Tiemann, Zuckerrohr-Kultur, Fabri-
kation und Statistik. Berlin, 1899.
Suck, die geographische Verbreitung
des Zuckerrohrs. Beih. Z. Tropenpfl.
1900.
industries of the West
Ind. Agric. 18, 1900, p, 255.
de VIndoch. 1. 6.
The sugar
Indies.
See Bull. Econ.
1900, p. 266.
See Queensl.
ference).
Die chemische Selection des Zuckers.
Ann. Buitenz. 2. III. 1901
Agr. J]. July 1900 (con-
Hybrid sugar canes. Agr. News 9. 5.
1908, p. 145.
Hybridization of the sugar cane.
Lewton Brain in W. Ind. Bull. IV.
1903, p. 63.
Bud- AL ee in the sugar
do. p.
Me oeution of cut sugar cane. Agr.
Ledg. Indust. Series, 2.
Sugar in Jamaica. Bull.
March, 1904.
Invoer en fabrikatie van geraffineerde
suiker in British Indie, Oost Azie,
en Australie, in verband met de
fabrikatie van geraffineerde suiker
op Java. Prinsen Geerligs in Ind.
Mere. 1905, p. 47.
Die Zuckerproduktion des
Ind. Mere. 26, 12. 1905, p. 895.
Raising pedigree sugar canes. Agr.
News V. 1906, p. 1”.
Many papers in W. Ind. Bull. VI. 4.
De suikerproductie van Formosa.
Ind. Mere. 18. 9. 1906, p. 633.
Sugar exper iments in British. Guiana.
Agr. News, 28. 7. 1906, p. 225.
The polarimetric determination of
sucrose. W. Ind. Bull. VII. 1906,
p- 182.
See Bulletins, Hawaiian Sugar Expt.
Sta.
cane.
Jamaica
Welts.
See Mededeelingen, Java Sugar
Expt. Sta.
The sugar industry in India. Trop.
Life 1906, p. 169.
Barber, the origin of new sugar canes
by bud variation. Agr. Jl. Ind.
I. p. 285.
The sugar industry. Queensl. Agr.
Jl. Nov. 1906, p. 2383.
The sugar industry of the Philip-
pines. ‘‘T.A.” Aug. 1906, p. 166.
Sugar cane growing in Trinidad. do.
p. 167
Sugar growing in Java. do. Mar.
1906, p. 175.
472
Sugar Cane:
. ne
“a
tNowadeteme 1908. cs
Improvement of the sugar vege
of Mysore. Lehmann in Agr. J 1.
India II. p. 54.
Barber. Sugar cultivation in the
Godaveri delta do. p. 33.
The sugar industry in the United
Provinces. do. pp. 15, 90.
Share system in cane cultivation in
Fiji, Hawaii, and Mauritius. W.
Ind. Bull. 7. 1906, p. 311.
Improvement of the sugar cane by
selecuion and hybridisation do.
p. 3845
The selection of sugar cane cukeines
Agr. Jl. India II. p. 198.
Sugar industry in Mysore.
Live Aug. 1907, p. 121.
The identity of sugar canes in Dema-
rara. Agr. News, June 1907, p. 194.
Sugar notes. do. July 1907, p. 211.
The sugar industry in China. Louis.
Planter, 7 Sept. 1907, p. 158.
Java’s success in cane sugar. do. Nov.
1907, ‘‘T.A.” Feb. 1908, p. 128.
Growth and examination of seedling
canes, Trin. Bull. July 1907, p. 239.
Sugar in Perak. “T.A.” Suppt.
Sept. 1908, p, 287.
Varieties cf sugar cane, and_manu-
rial experiments in British Guiana,
W. Ind. Bull. 9. 1908, p. 1.
Handbook voor de suikerrietcultuur.
Amsterdam 1905, onwards.
Trop.
Cultivation.—
Des ameliorations 4 apporter dans les
colonies frangaises & la cultivation
delacanue a sucre. Rev. Cult. Col.
VI. 1900, p. 65.
Cultivation of sugar in Bombay
Presidency. Agr. Ledger, Agr.
Ser., 25.
Emploi des feuilles de cannes pour
la nourriture du betail Rev. Cult.
Col. 20. 11. 1899, p. 307.
Sugar cultivation in Bengal. Ind,
Agr. 2. 7. 1900, p. 221.
Sugar in the South Arcot district.
Ind. Gard. 6, 9. 1900, p. 166.
Sugar as an aid to Indigo. do. p. 193
seg.
Sugar cane experiments at Barbados.
W. Ind. Bull. I. 1900, p. 355.
Note sur la cultivation de la canne a
sucre au Tonkin. Bull. Ec. Indoch.
1901, p. 118
Sugar cultivation. Ind. Agr. Nov.
1905, p, 345,
The Samalkota sugar farm, Barber
in Agr, Jl, India I, p, 44,
Manuring sugar. do p. 18.
NOVEMBER, 1908.]
Cane Planting in Queensland. Louis.
Planter, July 1907, p. 34.
Sugar cane planting in Martinique.
do. Sept- 7. 1907, p. 146,
Sugar cane experiments at Barba-
does. W. Ind. Bull. 9, 1908, p. 39.
Do. at Leeward Islands, do. p. 68,
Sugar Cane Diseases.—
See Trin. Bull. 1899, p. 187.
Diseases of sugar canes. Barber’s
reports. See Madras Govt. G. O.
279, 28 Apr. 1899, and 422, 3 July
1899.
A sugar cane pest in Madras, Ind.
Agric. I. 1, 1900, p, 15, and _ p.48,
Diseases of sugar cane in Bengal.
Agr, Ledger, Disease series, 5,
Le borer et la canne & sucre aux
Antilles Francaises— Rev. Cult. Col,
Aug. 1901, p. 87.
Fungus diseases of sugar in Bengal.
venote Agr. Ind., Bot. Series I.
3. 1906.
Sugar Cane Manufacture, &e.
Diffusion process of extracting sugar
from cane. Agr, Ledger, Indust,
Series, 3, 1903,
Native methods of sugar manu-
facture. Ind. Agric, Oct. 1905,
p. 314.
Verpakking van suiker, Ind. Mere.
18. 9. 06, p, 634.
Recolte mécanique de la canne a
sucre, Journ, d’Agr, trop. Feb.
1906. p. 35.
Sugar making in South India. “‘T. A.”
July 1906, p, 78.
Fermentation changes occurring in
Muscovado sugars, W. Ind. Bull.
VII. p. 226.
Modern methods of sugar extraction.
Tro. Life. Feb. 1907, p. 18.
See W. Ind. Bull. 8. 1,
Jamaica Rum do. p. 120.
Sugar manufacture in India.
Agric. 2. 3. 1908, p, 94.
The central sugar factory at Antigua,
W. Ind. Bull. 9. 1908, p, 79.
Observations on the work of sugar
cane mills and the deduction to be
drawn therefrom, do. p. 85.
Sunflower.—
Helianthus annuus. Agr. Ledg. V. P.
Series 100, 1907.
Ber owen oil, Ind. Agric, 2. 3. 1908,
p.
The Sunflower. Natal Agr. Jl. Apr,
1908, ‘‘T.A,” Sept. 1908, p. 213.
60
Ind,
473
Miscellaneous,
Sweet Potato.—
Cultivation of sweet potatoes. ‘‘T.A,”
Oct. 1901, p, 228.
Cultivation of sweet potatoes. Ind,
Gard., Oct, 1901, p. 308,
Recent experiments with sweet
potatoes. W. Ind. Bull. II. p. 298.
Ueber den Kultur der Bataten auf
den Azoren. Tropenpfl. 1902, p. 285.
Sweet potatoes. Agr. Mag. Aug.
1903, p. 11.
‘Manuring and storage of sweet
potatoes. W. Ind. Bull. III. p. 206.
Experiments with sweet potatoes at
Barbadoes. W. Ind. Bull. V. p.'41.
Sweet potatoes. Agr. Gaz. N.S. W.
Aug. 1904, p. 778.
Sweet potato trials.
1904, p. 275.
The sweet potato.
1905, p. 299.
Proef met Batatenvarieteiten. Teysm.
1907.
Sweet potatoes.
Jam. Bull. Dee.
Ind. Agric, Oct.
U.. 8S. ‘Dpt. Agr
Farmers’ Bull. 324. 1908.
Synuphonia.—
Symphonia globulifera. Tropenpfi.
July 1899, p 339,
Tabernaemontana.—
T. Donnell-Smithii in Kamerun. do.
9. 1905, p. 464,
Tacea.
T. pinnatifida, die stiirkemehlreichste
Knollenfrucht der Erde. do. 9.
1905. p. 120.
Tamnarind.—
See Agr. News 1903, p. 310.
Hiniges iiber Tamarinden. Tropenpfl.
10. 1906, p. 679.
The uses and composition of
Tamarind seeds. Agr, Ledger, V.
P. Series 101, 1907, ‘*T. A.” Feb. 1908,
p. 140.
Tans and Tanning. Miscellaneous.—
Tari pods (Caesalpinia digyna ) as
a tanning agent. Agr. Ledger V.
P. Series 50, 1899.
Xylia dolabriformis. Agr.
Forest Series 4, 1899.
The Tanning industry of South
India, Ind. Agric. 1. 6. 1900, p. 181.
Les écorces tannantes de l’Inde et
del’ Indo-Chine. Bull. Ee. Indoch.
1900, p. 681. Rev. Cult. Col. 1900,
p- 753.
Ledger
Miscellaneous.
Madras tanning industry. Ind Agr.
May 1908, p.-)146.
Tanning and Tanning materials. ‘‘T.
A.” July 19038, p. 1.
Tanning materials (with analyses).
Rep. Calif. Univ. Exp. Sta. 1898-
1901, Pt. II p. 255.
Culture des Acacia et leur produc-
tion en Taniu. Rev. Cult. Col. June
1904, p. 331.
Die Kultur einiger Sumach-arten.
Mitth. Amani 30, 1904.
Quebracho wood in Argentina.
Hour. Board of Agr. Dec. 1904.
p. 562.
Report on tanning materials.
Jamaica. Jam. Bull. 1906, p. 121.
Statistics of tanning materials.
Jamaica. do p. 124
De Looistoffen: botanisch-chemische
monographie der Tanniden (with
literature lists d.) Bull. Kol.
Museum Haarlem, 35, 1906, 39, 1908.
Tanning materials from India, the
Colonies, and other sources. Bull.
Imp. Inst. 5, 1907, p. 348.
Analyses de plantas taniferas. Bull.
Sao Paulo 9, 1908, p. 181.
Taraktogenos.—
T. Kurzii (Chaulmoogra). Agr. Led-
ger, V. P. Series 92, 1906.
Tea: General.—
Report on Tea culture in Assam, 1898,
The Geography of Tea. McEwan,
Plant. Opin. 138. 11900, p. 31. ‘T.
A.” Mar. 1900, p. 585.
Kochs, Ueber der Gattung Thea
und den chinesischen Thee. Engler’s
Jahrb. 27, 1900, p. 577.
Tea in Transcaucasia. KE. O. Report
on Agriculture in Transcaucasia,
1899.
THE CEYLON CHAMBER OF
COMMERCE.
(Extracts from the Report of the Com-
mittee for the half-year ended 30th
June, 1908.)
Your Committee beg to submit their
Report and Accounts for the half-year
ended 80th June, 1908.
GENERAL MEETING.—The last half-
yearly general meeting of the Chamber,
the Minutes of which follow the Report,
was held on 25th February.
The following are the principal subjects
of interest which have occupied the
474
‘ 1 : Wie ead
attention of your Committee during the
period under review :—
EstTIMATE OF TEA EXPORT FOR 1908.—
The Estimate of Tea Exports adopted
by the Chamber for the current year
was 182,000,000 lbs., and as 96,399,778 lbs.
were exported during the first six
months of the year, itis expected that
this estimate will be realised.
EXPORT OF TEA FROM NORTHERN INDIA
TO CEkYLON.—Your Committee were ap-
proached by the Indian Tea Association
who asked for assistance in ascertaining
the destination of Indian Teas tran-
shipped in Colombo, the exports entered
from Calcutta and Chittagong to Ceylon
having increased from 30 lbs. in 1905 to
6,122,000 in 1907. A considerable quantity -
of tea thus exported is transhipped on
through Bill of Lading in Colombo
Harbour, and it is not possible to obtain
statistics in Colombo as to the destina-
tion of such teas. ‘
With regard to Indian Teas shipped to
Colombo for subsequent re-shipment,
the following recommendation was made
by the Principal Collector of Customs,
and merchants have been requested to
enter on their transhipment entries the
weight and port of destination of all
teas :—
Each shipper should state the weight
and ultimate destination of his teas on
his transhipment application. The tran-
shipment clerk in charge of the Ware-
house will enter in his register, in
columns added for that purpose, the
weight and ‘destination of the tea, taking
his information from the applications.
A monthly statement of such teas can
then be drawn up on record kept.
SALE OF RUBBISHY TEAS IN COLOMBO
Hargsour.—This subject first occupied
the attention of your Committee in 19038-
1904, when representations were made
to Government by the Chamber, support-
ed by the Planters’ Association and the
Colombo Tea Traders’ Association.
The subject was again brought up for
discussion through a letter from the
Colonial Secretary, stating that His
Excellency the Governor invited the
Chamber to give the question further |
consideration ; and your Committee are
accordingly continuing their investi-
gations,
CEYLON TEAS BLENDED IN FRANCE,—
.The attention of your Committee has
been drawn to the sale in France of
packets containing Ceylon Tea blended
with Annam Tea and _ labelled ‘Pure
Ceylon Tea.”
Having ascertained that there is alaw —
in France rendering illegal the sale of
produce under labels which misdescribe
(NOVEMBER, 1908.
BP Rp I
)
-
Novewuser, 1908.]
the contents and the origin of the
produce, your Committee requested the
Government to take steps, through the
Secretary of State for the Colonies or
otherwise, to have the sale of blended
teas labelled Pure Ceylon stopped in
France.
REJECTION OF CEYLON GREEN TEAS
BY THE AMERICAN CuSTOMS.—The rejec-
tion by the United States Customs
authorities of certain Ceylon Green Teas
has received considerable attention from
the Planters’ Association, and was before
the Chamber last year. The subject was
brought to the attention of your Com-
mittee by a communication from the
Government asking for information re-
garding the teas thus rejected.
Your Committee were able to report
that in their opinion the teas rejected
were, asa rule, Gunpowders made from
Fannings and Dust and improperly
described as Gunpowders, and that Gun-
powders manufactured from whole leaf
were not rejected.
CEYLON ImMpoRT Duty ON INDIAN
Tra.—Attention is directed to the corres-
pondence between the Government and
the India Office. Your Committee, it
will.be seen, were not in favour of any
modification of the present restrictions
on the import of tea into Ceylon, as the
Government were unwilling to grant
preference to Indian Teas over those
from China, Japan and Java.
INTERNATIONAL RUBBER EXHIBITION.—
Your Committee have taken an active
interest in the forthcoming Rubber Ex-
hibition in London, where itis hoped
that Ceylon will be adequately repre-
sented. A Special Committee was
formed of members of the Chamber,
the Pianters’ Association and the Govern-
ment Officials, under whose direction a
large and representative exhibit is being
got together frcm all rubber-growing
districts of the Island, and will be
forwarded to London, where’ the
arrangements arein the capable hands
of the Ceylon Association in London.
Towards the expenses of the exhibit the
Government have liberally contributed.
Mr. F, M. Simpson, having been
ordered home for a change by his medi-
cal adviser, was granted six months’
leave from April last, and during his
absence the Secretarial duties have
been undertaken by Mr. Ivor Hthering-
ton.
TRADE REPORT.
TEA.—The total exports of both Black
and Green Tea amounted to 96,399,778 lbs.
compared with 96,866,437 lbs. for the
‘same period last year,
ee.
475
Miscellaneous.
The figures show a decrease for this
year of 466,659 lbs :—
January to January to
June, 1908, June, 1907.
Black Tea.,.94,027,143 lbs. 94,210,493 Ibs,
Green Tea,,, 2,872,635 ,, 2,655,944 ,,
96,399,778 lbs.
96,866,437 Ibs.
The increase was principally in ship-
ments to Russia, India, and the Contin-
ent, while Australian shipments fell off
to asmall extent. The quantity offered
in Colombo at Auction has exceeded that
pe last year to date by about 44 million
S.
PricEs.—The average of teas sold in
Colombo was 893 cts. compared with 40
cts. for the same period in 1907. During
the months of January and February
the average was 2 cts. orso above last
year, but during March and April it
‘ranged from 2 cts. to 4 cts. below, while
in May it regained the lead, falling back
again in June.
Good Fannings and Dusts continued in
very strong demand during the first
three months of the year, and the fine
descriptions realised extreme rates
though they fell in value later.
Quality was about fair on the average,
and there was an absence of ‘‘ rubbishy ”
teas, the plucking on the Estates having
been apparently carefully done. During
May and Junethe usual large propor:
tion of plain and poor liquoring teas
made their appearance, but in spite of
this, lowcouuntry Pekoe Souchong kept
up to 33 cts. until the end of May and
only fell below 30 in June. Itis worthy
of note that this product has kept its
position weil in the face of the fact that
trade has been so universally restricted.
DISTRIBUTION.—The Russian hkuyers
werea feature in the market, while
buyers for the United Kingdom and
other countries were general, though
Aurtralians showed a slight falling off.
GREEN TEAS.—The quantity of green
teas was much the sameas last year, and
the quality generally has been satisfac-
tory, but prices have ruled considerably
lower owing to an absence of orders.
RUBBER-—This year’s exports show
a large increase over those during the
same period of 1907, the quantity being
338,411 lbs. against 242,370 lbs. last year,
an increase of 96,041 lbs. The shipments
for January to June, 1906, were 122,284 Ibs.
The two largest buyers are the United
Kingdom and America, and both these
countries show large increases over last
year, Germany comes next in order,
Miscellaneous. 476 g
slighty ahead of Australia, and then
Belgium.
The improvement in manufacture is
quite noticeable over last year, and
Ceylon estates are now turning out
excellent quality rubber. During 1907
estates were manufacturing Biscuits and
Sheet, whereas this year the grades
more indemand are Crépe of all des-
criptions. In COrépe form the rubber
is more easily prepared, and, as a rule,
better dried than Biscuits and Sheet.
Fine pale qualities of Crépe have
generally been selling at slightly higher
rates than the same quality Biscuits
and Sheet. Lower grades of Crépe,
when well washed and dried, show much
better rates than as formerly sent down
as Serap rubber.
Prices have dropped considerably
from last year and show a fall of from
Rs. 3:80 to Rs, 2°80 for Biscuits and Sheet,
and from Rs. 8to Rs. 1'80 for Scrap.
PLUMBAGO.—For the first six months
of 1908 the exports of this mineral show
a very considerable falling off in quan-
tity, compared with the same period of
1907, the decrease being over 7,500 tons
(nearly 60 per cent.). This was no doubt
chiefly due to the financial crisis in
America, shipments to this country being
over 5,900 tons less than in 1907, while ex-
ports to the United Kingdom and all
other countries have also been on a
reduced scale.
The following are the actual figures
and their distribution :—
1908, 1907,
To United Kingdom ...cwts, 76,143 92,367
», America Leon 26 LL 165,319
», Germany sees 59. £0,904 57,219
» Belgium ae OU seO 45,852
,, Other Countries ... ,, 6,283 8,330
215,077 369,087
The market has been extremely dull
and prices have in consequence been
weak and irregular. With such a pro-
nounced decrease in the demand miners
have found it difficult to dispose of their
plumbago, and many _ pits have been
closed down temporarily, prices offered
in numerous cases not covering cost of
production.
PRopUCTS OF THE CocoNuT PALM.—
The following figures represent the ship-
ments for the first six months of 1908 as
compared with those for the correspond-
ing period of 1907, viz sai,
1907.
Japuary January
to June, to June,
Coconuts nuts 9,657,762
Desiccated Coconuts lbs. 11,661,240
nuts 5,730,976
lbs. 9,889,618
Coconut Poonac cwts, 110,717 cwts. 73,377
Copperah 194,958 134,619
Coconut Oil " 248,285 4, 163,285
el
(NoVEMBER,
from which it will be seen that every
item shows a substantial increase, not-
ably Nuts, Poonac, Copperah, and Coco-
nut Oil. Itis gratifying to know that
the scare about the Coconut Stem Disease
has virtually passed away, it being now
recognized that the disease is not a new
one, that it does not do so much harm to
the trees as was at first reported, and
that it yields to treatment when taken
in time.
Coconut OIL was in good demand
throughout the half-year, the United
Kingdom, America and India as usual
being the largest buyers. It is worth
noting that notwithstanding dulness
of trade in America, the United States
took ewts. 57,676 of our Coconut Oil
during the first six months of 1908 as
against only cwts. 35,530 in the same
period of 1907.
Prices on the whole have shewn com-
paratively little fluctuation during the
period under veview. The price at the
beginning of January was Rs. 3867'50 per
ton, and at the end of June Rs. 355 per
ton. Inthe end of January the maxi-
mum price of Rs. 385 was touched, while
the Jowest point reached was Rs. 340.
The average price for the six months
was in the region of Rs. 350 per ton, or
fully Rs. 200 per ton below the average
of the first six months of 1907.
CoPpPpERAH.—The supply of this articl
has been ona liberal scale as is evidenced
by the heavy shipments of both Oil and
Copperah. Belgium and Italy have
taken rather less Copperah in 1908 than
usual, but the shipments of Copperah to
Germany, Denmark and _ Russia are
nearly double those in the correspond-
ing six months of 1907. Prices have ex-
perienced no violent fluctuations, the
highest price obtained for Estate cured
Copperah being Ks.58°25 per candy, which
is Rs. 27 per candy less than the highest
point touched in the first six months of
1907. Large supplies from Java, the
Philippines, &c., have tended to keep
prices at a low level.
Poonac shipments have naturally
followed Coconut Oil as far as quantity
is concerned. Prices have been steady
throughout, and as usual the whole of
the production has gone to Belgium and
Germany.
DESICCATED COCONUT AND CocoNnuTSs,—
In the former the exports have been on
a comparatively restricted scale; while
the export of nuts in the period under
review was nearly double that of the
same period in the previous year.
In the case of Desiccated Coconut the
price at the beginning of the year stood —
g
~
1908,
.
a
ihe
— . - P or
‘+ eee
le <
‘ ;
:
NOVEMBER, 1908]
at 17 to 18 cents per lb., whereas at the
end of June it was down to 138} to 14
cents.
CINNAMON.—There was a decrease in
the exports for the period under review
of 173,951 Ibs. Quills and 105,963 lbs.
Gripe compared with the first six months
fo)
The prices for the former article have
been steadily declining, dropping from
47 cents for ordinary assoi1tment, which
_was the quotation at the commencement
of the year, to 48 cents per lb.-at the
close of the half-year underreport.
The rates paid for Chips, though lower
compared with those during the corre-
sponding period of the preceding year,
have gone the other way, advancing
from Rs. 51, being the lowest rate paid in
January, to Rs. 58:25 per Candy, the
highest figure ruling at the end of June.
An interesting feature is to be found in
the distribution. Germany, which has
been our best customer for a number
of years, has had to cede the first place
to America with 303,800 Ibs. Quills,
Germany beingsecond with 268,142 lbs.,
followed by Spain asa good third with
225,436 lbs. Germany is still leading with
regard to Chips, having taken 805,756 lbs.,
the United Kingdom ranging second
with 223,035 lbs., and Belgium third with
210.112 lbs.
Cocoa.—Crops during the period under
review have been very short and poor
in quality. The exports for January
to June were about 28,538 cwts., against
60,661 cwts. for the same months in
1907. Ofthis quantity about 70 per cent.
was shipped to the United Kingdom.
The demand has been poor, and prices
shew a distinct falling off from those
ruling in the first-half of 1907.
CARDAMOMS,.—On comparing thisyear’s
output for Cardamoms against 1907, one
is forcibly struck by the large decrease
in this product, due partly no doubt
to the drought experienced. The total
number of lbs, up to 80th June, 1907,
amounted to 433,159, and this year only
327,835 lbs., a shortage of 105,324 lbs,
The market has been, if anything,
rather lower in price than that of the
previous year.
India has been our largest buyer,
taking about 50 per cent. of the total
output and showing an increase over
their last year’s demand.
CITRONELLA O1L.—At the commence-
ment of the period under review the
market stood at 42 to 46cents per lb.
and rose to 44 to 48 cents by the end
477
Miscellaneous.
of January. The advance was main-
tained during February until 68 to 75
cents was recorded at the beginning of
March, at which the market was steady
until April, when it declined again to
65 to 70 cents.
In May rates rose to 75 to 78‘and to
88 to 90 at the beginning of June,
falling later to 65 to 68, at which the
market stood atthe endof June. The
exports during thesix months were
673,748 Ibs. as compared with 682,540 Ibs.
for the same period of 1907.
At the suggestion of the Ceylon
Agricultural Society a meeting of those
interested in this article was held at
the commencement of the year, at
which the question of adulteration was
discussed, and it appeared that the
prevailing opinion was that Schimmel’s
test as generally applied was sufficient
to meet the present purposes of both
exporters and importers.
THe COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF Exports
FROM JANUARY TO JUNE.
1908. 1907. 1906.
lbs. lbs, Ibs.
Black Tea ..» 94,027,143 94,210, 493 89,533,47
Green Tea 2,372,635 2,655,944 1,577,1766
Rubber 338,411 242,370 122,284
cwts. cewts. cwts.
Coffee ae 372 1,635 6,485
Cocoa 28,588 60,661 41,808
Ibs. lbs. lbs.
Cardamoms 327,835 433,159 384,982
Cinnamon Bales 1,090,940 1,264,891 1,207,389
Cinnamon Chips 1,304,370 1,410,333 1,251,256
nuts. nuts. nuts.
Coconut ... 9,657,762 5,730,976 8,870,091
lbs. Ibs. Ibs.
Desiccated
Coconut... 11,661,240 9,889,613 8,700,403
cewts. ewts, ewts.
Coconut
Poonac 110,747 73,376 99, 265
Copperah 194,958 134,619 169,049
Coconut Oil 248,285 163,285 223,701
Ibs. Ibs. lbs.
Citronella Oil... 673,743 «682,540 560,296
Cinchona 144,886 150,287 153,038
cwts. ewts, ewts,
Plumbago 215,077 369,087 369,947
IMPORTS.
Pikce-Goops TRADE.--During the past
twelve months the demand for Piece
Goods has varied considerably.
“
EXPERIMENT PLOTS.
The ‘‘American Farmer” says that
down in Oklahoma farmers are forming
“acre clubs,” each member taking 1 acre
for an experimental crop, doing his best
with it, and, when the season is over,
reporting his experience, inclusive of
mistakes, and describing his methods.
This is the most practical form of agri-
cultural education, ard the plan might
well be adopted elsewhere. Few far-
mers are so. skilled in agricultural
science that they cannot learn some-
thing from their associates. The Okla-
homa plan isa kind of extension of the
experiment station, a reproduction in
miniature of the individual farm of the
principles governing the stations. It is
amost excellent idea, and, if gener-
ally carried out, will prove of great
educational benefit.
(If the same plan were adopted by the
. farmer members of Queensland Agri-
cultural Associations, the educational
benefit would no doubt be universally
recognised.—Ep,. “Q. A. J.” ) Queens-
land Agricultural Journal, Vol. XXI.,
July, 1908.)
NOTES AND QUERIKS.
Papaya.—The demand for papain, or
dried papaw juice, is steady if it is not
increasing. According to Merck’s Re-
port (May, 1908) the substance known as
papayotin, is prepared from it by a
special process of purification, and hastwo
to three times the therapeutic activity of
papain. Both were till lately employed
to further digestion in the alkaline
intestinal juice, as pepsine is only active
in acid gastric fluid. Favourable results
have been reported of the trial of papa-
yotin in cases of cancer. A new papa-
yotin preparation, “pepsorthin” is re-
commended as a digestive as well as
gastric and intestinal disinfectant.
F. bE. M.—The Society. is just about
to issue a leaflet containing definite in-
structions in the matter of transplanting
paddy. Copies of these could be had
on application to the Secretary. Some
think that the preparation of the field
in this method of cultivation presents
difficulties. This is not the case, and
indeed the only difference between
this and the ordinary method of culti-
vation is that a well-prepared nursery
about ;'; the extent of the land to be
sown must be prepared, and sown
about a month before the transplanting
has to be done,
480¢e
.7 inches in circumference,
Miscellaneous’
LIGHT AMERICAN MACHINES.—In reply
to enquiries about the disc harrow
and cultivator, referred te in the last
issue’s leader, Dr. Willis is good enough
to state that these implements are to
be obtained from Messrs. Frost & Wood,
Smith’s Falls, Ontario, Canada. If
would of course be necessary to plough
the land first to render it loose enough
for these machines to get a start, after
that they alone need be used, After
the rains are over in the North-Central
Province, say in February, they could
be seen at work at the Experiment —
Station, Maha-illuppalama.
BITTER GOURD.—Mr. M. G. Perera
Horticulturist of 145, Bambalapitiya, hag
grown this fruit, known botanically as
Momordica charantia, and used as a
vegetable, to extraordinary perfection.
A specimen forwarded to this office
was found to be 14 inches long and
beaten this ? Has\suyoae
MANGO WEEVIL.—The Director of the
Colombo Museum has been good enough
to refer me for an account of this
interesting insect to Lefroy’s “ Insect
Pests of India.” In the beetle stage it
is found hiding in the bark of the tree
and here remains till the advent of
the truit season, when it lays its eggs
in the flowers or young ftruit. The
grub, which is subsequently hatched out
appears to develope at the same rate
as the fruit. I¢ burrows in the kernel
of the seed as the mango grows, and
pupates inside the fruit as it ripens
becoming a beetle, which, when the
mango is dead ripe, is ready to emerge
from the stone and eat its way through
the pulp. It thus happens that when a
ripe mango is cut the weevil walks out
of the seed. These weevils are very
common in the North of the Island. The
remedy, according to Lefroy, is to
destroy all infested fruit and also to kill
the weevils found in the bark after the
fruiting season. As the weevils some-
times also occur on the ground, the soil
should be thoroughly cultivated under
the Hea eon them. Itis further
suggeste at the bark of
should be washed wi me ores
th a strong soluti
2 10n
GUGUL.—This is a gum resin
as Indian Bdellium) produced be
samodrendron Mukul, a close ally of
B. Berryi, the common fence-plant of
the North, known as Mul-kilivai. Gugul
is highly esteemed for its medicinal
properties, and is found in local bazaars
under the name of cugu =
dummala, dete
ae Bs # rh 24
480f {NOVEMBER, 1908. _
Correspondence,
MANGOES IN CEYLON.
Jaffna, 26th October, 1908.
Sir,—With reference to the article
‘*Mangoes in Ceylon,” by Mr. H. F
Macmillan, which appeared in your issue
for August, 1908, I beg to point out
that his statement that one hundred trees
can be grown in an acre of land is quite
incorrect—a full-grown mango tree in
Jaffna covers an area of about 400
square yards, and therefore the highest
number of trees that can be grown in an
acreis only twelve. Further, his estimate
of 1,000 fruits as an average crop per
tree is also questionable. Mangoes do
not bear fruits regularly every year,
for a shower of rain in January-
February generally results in total
failure.
The kind called “Jaffna Mango” was
introduced into Jaffna from Colombo,
sixty years ago, by the late Mr. Dyke. I
presume that “Jaffna Mango” is a
corruption of the words “‘ Japan Mango,”
and I believe that this type of mango
was introduced into Colombo from
Japan. To settle this question, I would
suggest your ascertaining from the
Agricultural Department in Japan whe-
ther mangoes of this type are to be found
there in large numbers.
I am, Sir,.
Yours sincerely,
(Sgd.) C. M. SINNAY AH,
Mudaliyar.
[The mango only occurs inIndo-Malaya.
Japan is too cold for it.—EHd.]
THE FRUIT GARDEN.
Sir,—l am sending a cutting from
“The Garden” of September 12, 1908,
and would suggest its reproduction
in the 7. A., as it may prove useful to
intelligent fruit growers.
Little is understood locally of pruning
in any form.
The only plant which appears to be
subject to root-pruning is the Vine in
the North. -
Perhaps some of your readers will be
able to give their experiences of the
operation if they have practised it,
Yours truly,
GARDENER.
THE ROOT-PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES.
In the culture of hardy fruits there is
no operation capable of producing such
good results as root-pruning when the
task is intelligently and properly carried
out, but where the work is performed
in a haphazard manner much more
harm than good is frequently done. At
the outset it may be as well to briefly
consider what root-pruning is and for
what purpose it 1s adopted. The opera-
tion itself merely consists of shortening
back all large, straight roots which have
a tendency to go downwards in the
soil, but the object of the work will need
more explanation. It frequently hap-
pens that when young fruit trees have
been planted a year or two they com-
mence to grow at a tremendous rate,
shoots several feet long being produced
in one season. This may at first seem
very satisfactory, but when the owner
looks year after year in vain for flowers
and the subsequent fruit he is inclined
to think, and rightly so, that something
is wrong. What is happening in such a
ease is that the tree is devoting the
whole of its energies to the formation
of wood, and no fruit is the result. It
is in such instances that root-pruning is
required, the idea being to give the tree
a check and thus induce it to form less
wood and more flowers.
The best time to carry out the work
is the end of September, and it does not
matter in the least whether the leaves
have fallen from the tree at that date
or not. In the cace of trees of manage-
able size, say, those which have been
planted three years, it frequently hap-
pens that lifting them and replanting
them immediately will suffice, the break-
ing of a certain number of roots in the
operation being a sufficient check. With
older and better established specimens,
however, the above system will not
answer, and more elaborate methods
have to be adopted. The general prac-
tice is to measure a_half-circle round
the stem of the tree and some distance
away. The distance will vary according
to the size of the specimen being dealt
with, but a good general rule is to make
the line one-third the distance from the
stem as the tree is high. Thus, if a tree
is 9 feet high the half circle line should
be made 3 feet from the stem, or in
similar proportion. The idea of only
going half-way round the tree at one
operation is that this will probably
srove sufficient to bring the tree into
earing;if not,
two years hence.
the other half is done
.
.
0
NOVEMBER, 1908, |
A trench 12 inches to 18 inches wide is
next taken out to a depth of one foot
or more so as to reach all the lar ge roots,
these being severed close to the inner
side of the trench. A sharp knife must
be employed, and the cut should be
made from below in an upward yet slop-
ing outward direction. When 12 inches
or 18 inches down it is a good plan
to tunnel under the mass of soil and
roots towards the bole of the tree, sever-
ing all large roots encountered in the
course of the work. This tunneling is
probably of more benefit than anything
else, as the roots found thus are usually
those which take a straight downward
course.
To fill up the trench will be the next
task, and this requires some _ care.
Where it is easily procured good fibrous
loam of a rather heavy character is best,
andif Plum, Cherry or other stone fruit
trees are being dealt with, the addition
of some old mortar, or lime in some
other form, will be highly beneficial.
4809
The tunnel under the ball of soil and
roots must be filled in, taking care not
to leave any hollow spaces and making
the new soil firm, then fill in the trench,
and make this firm also, so that the new
roots which penetrate shall have an
opportunity of becoming fibrous.
Many amateurs, and even some pro-
fessionals, expect to see a good crop of
flowers and fruits the spring and sum-
mer following the root-pruning and as
a result of the work. This is quite
impossible, because any flowers to open
next spring are already formed in the
bud, hence it is obvious that the oper-
ation can have no influence over the crop
the summer following the autumn in
which the work was carried out.
Growth should, however, be less
vigorous, and a tree root-pruned in the
autumn of this year should, as a result,
produce flowers and fruits in 1910.—
The Garden, Vol. UXXII., No. 1921.
September, 1908.
480h . Nova
MARKET RATES FOR TROPICAL PRODUCTS.
(From Lewis & Peat?s Monthly Prices Current, London, 14th October, 1908.)
= rears
QUALITY. QUOTATIONS. QUALITY. QUOTATION
ALOE, Socotrine cwt-/Fair to fine «./9CS a@ 958 INDIARUBBER.(Contd.)| _,
Zanzibar & Hepatic ,, [Common to good ..[20s a 82s 6d Korneo Common to good 6d a 2s 2d
ARROWKOOT (Natal) Ib.|Fair to fine ..)28d a.4d Java, Good to fine red -jls 9d a 2s 6d
BEES’ WAX, cwt. Penang Low white to prime red ‘ls 4d a 2s 3d
Zanzibar Yellow __,, |Siightly drossy to fair .. |66 5s a £6 7s 6d Mozambique Fair to fine red Ball _...!256d a 3s éd
Bombay bleached _,, |Fuir to good 2710s a £7 12s 6d Sausage, fair to good ..|2s5 6d a 8s 5d
A unbleached,, |Dsrk to good genuine ../£510s a £6 2s 6d Nyassaland Fair to fine ball 28 8da 2s
Madagascar * |vark to good palish |£65s a £610s Madagascar Fr to fine pinky & whitells 10d a 2s 2¢
CAMPHOR, Formosa ,, |Crude nom. Majunga & blk coated ..|ts a is 8d
China ,, \Fair average quality .. /15Us nom. Niggers, low to good ..|édva 2
CARDAMOMS. Malabarlb|Gocd to fine bold 1s 10d a 28 New Guinea Ordinary to fine ball . ieee 6d ne
Middling lean is6dalssd |INDIGO, KI. Bengal [Shipping mid to gd violet|3s 5d a8s ld
Jellicherry Good to fine bold .. {28 a 2s 6d Consuming mid. to gd.|3s 1d a 3s 4d
Brownish Is 6d als 9d Ordinary to middling 2s aoa 3s
Mangalore ,, |Med brown to fair bold|2s a 3s Oudes Middling to fine
Ceylun.- Mysore 45 Small fair to fine nium 1s 5da 8s 6d Mid. to good Kurpah I
Malabar. Fair to good 1s 6d a 1s 7d Low to ordinary ls 6d a 2s 2d =~
Seeds .. is 7da is 9d Mid. to fine Madras /1s da 2s 4d_
Long Wild”,, [Shelly to good ..(6d a 1s 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang Pale reddish to fine d
CAS OR OIL, Calcutta ,, {ists and 2nds ..(3d a 34d perlb, {Ordinary to fair ls 2d als 6d
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwt. Dull to fine bright +.J208 & 303 Java ” » good pale {isldals 6d
5 A BARK.— lb. MY i
Deny Crown, Renewed 3gd a 7d (recuse ewHUG and Coconada
Org. Stem 2d a, 6d »» |Jubblepore
Red Org. Stem /lid a 47d Bhimlies
Renewed 3d a bid Bengal Rhajpore, &c.
’ F Root 1g ae 4d ; NUTMEGS— W Caleuvtas
NNAMON, Ceylon Ists|Gommon to fine quill |834a1s 5c ; 64's to O7’s
cl ver le aude c : 3 eg ida 1s.44 | Bombay & Penang ,, 10's is Gos _
3rds 63d als ’s to 115’s
4ths Bayete’. sda 93d NUL VORICE, Cockt'|Ordinary to fair fresh
Chips, &c..}Fair to fine bold 2d a 34d ochin |Ordinary to good
CLOVES, Penang b.JDull to tine bright bold|10d a 1s per ewt. Bengal ” a:
Amboyna —.-|Dull to fine 73d a 8d Say Forres Madras) 4, 2%
Ceylon 5 i i ida sd e ioe i NISEED _,, Bair merchantable ;
Zanzibar Fair and fine brigh a3d a 53a vat », |According to analysis
Stems wie Soe Mladen 4 LEMONGRASS, (Good flavour & colour
Ue Plantation cwt.|Bold to fine Vos a 112s CINNAMON ‘ aaitbes A sweet
Medium to good 30s a 108s ORCHELLA WE Bright & good flavour
Native Good ordinary nominal Ceyl EED—cwt i :
Liberian », |Fair to bold 425 6d a 468 6d pte obs + |Mid. to fine not woody...
COCOA, Ceylon Plant. ., |Special Marks 758 a 908 Zanzibar. », |Picked clean flat leaf ...
Red to good 68s a 748 » _Wiry Mozambique] ,,
Native Estate —_, |Ordinary to red 408 a 65s PEPPER—(Black) . Ib.|., 5
ae Alleppe i air
COLOMBO ROOT Middling to good l5sai7s 6d Ceslon cere RCH SHS, ,, vo fine bold heavy » Re
CROTON SEEDS sift. ewt. Dull to fair 278 6d a 32s 6d Singapore “ +» [3d
cUTCH Fair to fine dry 21s a 23s nom. | Acheen & W: C. Penang Dull to fine. 1.) ane
GINGER, Bengal, rough,, [Fair 30s nom. | (White) Singapore Fair to fine .. «(4gda 8d
Calicut, Cut A,, |Smallto fine bold 728 6d a 85s Siam » |Fair : toe »» [bd
B&C,, |Small and medium 48s a 65s Penang ”” [Bair i
Cochin Hen », {Common to fine bold 323 6d a 35s PLUMBAGO, lump cwt.\Fair_ to fine bright pola 358 a 45s no)
,, [Small and D’s 33s Middling to good small|25s a40s
Japan * |Unsplit 278 - chips Dull to fine bright _ ..|15sa 30s
GUM AMMONIACUM ” |Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s dust Ordinary to fine bright|7s a 1s
ANIMI, Zanzibar ’’ |Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £18 SAGO, Pearl, large .,.,Dull to fine -. .[l4sa 16s
» little redj/£13 a £15 medium ..| 9 ” 12s 6da 15s
Bean and Pea, size ditto|75sa £13 small aa lisal3s
Pair to good red sorts |£9a £12 SEEDLAC ewt. Ordinary Yo gd. soluble |£5 a£6 nom
Med. & bold Blass sorts|£6 10s a £8 SENNA, Tinnevelly 1b. Good to fine bold green|5d a7d
Madagascar , |Fair to good palish .../£4a £8 10s Fair greenish 34d a 43d
rp sored £4a £7 los Commonspeckyand small|1id a 23d
ARABIC E.I.& Aden ,, |Ordinary to good pale 25s a. 32s 6d nom. |SHELLS, M. o’PEARL—
Turkey sorts ,, | 32s 6d a 50s Bgyptian cwt.|Small to bold .. 65s a £5 10/
Ghatti ,, ports to fine pale ...|L7s a 42s 6d nom. Bombay i ” fe 3
Kurrachee ,, |Reddish to good pale ...|208 a 30s a Mergui Ee % “59 ao «+ |26 2/6 a £7
Madras », \Dark to fine pale .,.|158 a 25s pe Manilla k Fair to good - (£4 10s a £7
ASSAFCETIDA ,, |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|$53 a 100s ‘Banda Sorts nol
com. stony to good block!25s a 75s pate! Caleutti,...|Mid.to fine bY'k not stonylils a12s
KINO lb.|fair to fine bright 6d als ercwt. | Madras |Stonyand inferior ..
MYRRH, picked | ma abe Hermes ee pale £5 a £6 TORTOISESHELL— z + a >
» |Middling to good 558 a 708 & Bomba _ [Small to bo 08 79
OLIBANUM, drop» |Good to fine white (458 a. 55s egies ecm bay Ib Pickings 7/88 6d a
aoe iddling to fair 30s a 40s TURMERIC, Bengal cwt.|Fair 8s
pickings ,, |Low to good pale 10s a 22s 6d EGS i Finger fair to fine bold 19s 228
siftings ,, |Slightly foul to fine |llsa 15s Do, 2 {Bulbs [prighs 16s a 178
INDIA RUBBER Ib. /|Fine Para bis. & sheets|4s 734 Cochin ©” |Finger 16s
Ceylon, Straits, », Ceara ,, 4s 72d ” 'Bulbs «(188
Malay Straits, etc. Crepe ordinary to fine.. 4s 5d adsod VANILLOES— tb.
Fine Block ..(48 11d Mauritius ...) Ists|Gd crystallized 33 a85 injésa -
Scrap fair to fine *"]3s 2d a 8s 5d Madagascar ... } 2nds}Foxy & reddish 3} a 9s
Assam Plantation 38 5d Seychelles srdg| ean and inferior w/48 a 5S
Fair II to good red No.1|2s a 2s 11d VERMILLION .. i.e, pure, bright 2s
Rangoon . a 2s 2da 2s 4d MWAX, Japan, squares \Good white hard wp2S
THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE
Tropical Agriculturist and Magazine of the C. A. §
Compitep By A. M. & J. FERGUSON.
—= = eS
No. 5,]
NOVEMBER, 1908.
(Von. III.
CHILLIE-GROWING IN NATAL.
Catcu-Cropr ror TEA.
We present our readers this month with a very
practical article from the pen of a Natal planter,
who has previously written to us7e tea growing in
the Garden Colony, on the cultivation of Chillies
asa catch-crop for tea. We feel sure that the
facts he presents will come with the interest
of novelty, and the attraction of what appears
to be ‘ta good thing” and profitable, to low-
country planters in charge of tea fields here who
would be only too glad to know ofa suitable,
quick-growing and easily handled catch-crop.
That there is a wide local demand is obvious
from the fact that the Sinhalese grow chillies
so widely, though in their own desultory way,
for personal consumption and for very small
‘wholesale’ disposal to boutiques; but added
testimony is borne by the Ceylon Customs re-
turns. In spite of there being a duty of Rl per
ewt., 1907 showed an import of 73,125 cwt., value
R952,906, or slightly more than for 1906,
quantity 70,748 cwt. and value R919,744, This
year the import for eight months (to end of
August) is somewhat less than to same date last
year—44,385 cwt. (agaicst 51,687) and value
R525,706 (against R673,502). Perhaps the cul-
tivation of chillies locally has already extended ?
Have any European planters taken it up so far?
THE RESULTS OF A PLANTER’S
EXPERIENCE.
[By Wiiuram A, GILBERT.)
(Special to the “Ceylon Observer and Tropical
Agriculturist.”’)
The cultivation of the chillieis carried on to
some extent in Natal, and perhaps your readers
would be interested in the way itis conducted,
and be tempted thereby to put my remarks to
some practical use and benefit.
Some grow it as an exclusive crop by itself,
but I have fonnd it,
61
IN CONJUNCTION WITH TEA GROWING,
a very lucrative catch crop, yielding hand-
some profits; while it has proved not in the
least bit detrimental to young ‘tea, among which
I plant it. The long red chillie is the best
variety, undoubtedly ; ithas a fine rich colour,
is easy to grow and manipulate, and commands
the highest prices,
The seed, taken from selected pods, should be
sown about the beginning of winter—in Natal
about June—into nursery beds, by sprinkling
evenly over the beds, which should, for con-
venience, be traversed by pathways 4 feet apart,
They should be composed of rather a light, but
rich loam, and if the soil be at all stiffa little
river sand mixed in will give it the desired
friability. After sprinkling, the seed should be
covered — just covered and no more—witha sifter
mixture of leaf mould and decayed manure,
Then over all, a layer of grass, or palm leaves
spread, so as to keep the moisture from eva-
porating too rapidly. In about a fortnight’s
time the seedlings will make their appear-
ance, and a day or two after that the
grass or leaves should be removed, or the
plants will grow twisted. Plenty of water is
necessary to ensure healthy vigorous plants,
and when making the nursery, choose a well
sheltered site, close to water. As soon as the
plants are 2 or 3 inches high, thin them out
and prevent crowding as much as possible,
as they havea great tendency to get ‘‘ drawn,”
The early spring rains—in this Colony about
October—is the best time to put out into the
fields the young chillie plants, which should
by now be 10 to 12 inches high. Holes should
be cut 9 inches cube and the best distance
apart is4 feet. If the chillies are to be grown
with tea, plant them in the same row as the
tea, between the plants, and leave the space
between the rows free. Some put the plants
between every four tea plants in a quincuns ;
482
and when the chillies grew up. the weeders
got so confused with the lines that much time
was lost. If the plants are placed
IN THE SAME ROWS AS THE TEA
it gives much more freedom for efficient working.
The chillie plant being of so sappy and frail a
nature, [ have found it best to plant two plants
together in the same hole. They form a larger
and denser bush and are not easily blown over
by strong winds, of which chillie trees cannot
stand much.
Before planting, the plants should have their
roots well trimmed and their tops cut off, and
always select a dull, wet day for this work.
They strike root very easily, and in two weeks’
time; or in less, with favourable weather ; they
get fully established and sprout out vigorously.
No further attention is necessary except, of
course, an occasional weeding, until the fruit
ripens which it should do in 5 to 6 months after
planting. :
In India the usual way
TO CURE THE PODS
is by spreading and drying them in the sun. This
process however has been found to bleach the
fruit. This impairs to a large extent the
pungency, and the value is thereby consider-
ably reduced. The way [ cure is by
EVAPORATING IN A HOUSE
by heat. My curing house is 30 feet long x 12
feet broad and built with brick walls and fitted
with air-tight doors and windows and close
fitting iron roof. Except for a vent to allow
moisture to escape along the ridging there should
be no other aperture. I have
AN UNDERGROUND FLUE,
starting at one end of the building where
there is a furnace built in, large enough to take
a log about 4 feet long and 12 to 18 inches
diameter. The flue commencing underground
rises gradually in its course round the inside of
the room—mine is 2 ft. from, and parallel to the
wall and then terminates in a chimney stack, the
same end as the furnace. The stack should be
about 18 feet to 20 feet high and be fitted with a
damper to regulate heat. Over the flue I have
racks erected, capable of carrying a series of
removable trays which are placed 6 inches
above one another and there are 6 trays to
each section. My house contains 250 trays
which are 4 feet long by 18 inches wide and
having sides 2 inches deep. The bottom of the
tray is composed of fine wire gauze. Thereis a
passage 4 feet wide in the centre of the
room between the racks for the attendant to pass.
When the fruit is
RIPE IT SHOULD BE A DEEP RUBY
colour, Orange-colour pods should not be
picked as they are unripe, and turn pale in
colour during desiccation. The chillies should
be picked without stalks, and then spread evenly
over the trays. A brisk heat is now kept up
night and day at about 125 degrees and the
chillies occasionally turned over by the attend-
ant. In three days’ time the chillies will be found
to be quite dry, when all broken small or dis-
coloured fruit must be carefully removed by hand
to be packed and disposed of as a inferior
quality. There is only 3 to 4 per cent of these
off-coloured fruit, so the trouble is not much.
When 4 sufficient quantity of the dried chillies
is accumulated, they
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
SHOULD BE PACKED IN BALES,
The way I adopt is very simple and etfective, I
first have all the chillies that are to be packed,
heaped overnight and a little water sprayed on
to the heap which is immediately covered over
by sacks. This will tend to make the skin of
the fruit pliable andis not likely to break up
when subjected to pressure. It will be thought
that damping the chillies will cause mildew ;
but it has absolutely no injurious effect and
soon dries off in the bale. For the baling pro-
cess, I have a strong wooden box, well put
together, with one side hinged. Any size or
shape can be used; but it is best to make your
box to the size of gunny bag most easily
procured. The bottom of the bag is squared
and sewn ; this is easily done by Ata tige the
bag on to a square piece of board the breadth
of your bale, which is nailed on toa pole fixed
in the ground and of a convenient height. The
loose pointscan then be drawn together and
sewn down. The bag should now be placed
into the bale box and the open end be fixed by
catches that have been previously fitted on the
four sideson the top of the box.
The chillies are dropped ina little by little,
while a cooly treads them firmly down over a
small square board, When the bagisfull enough
the ends of the bag are drawn together square,
and sewn down exactly asthe other end. The
bale can then be taken out after unbolting the
side of the box, and it will assume a very neat
appearance. The most useful weight is 100 lb.
nett to a bale, but this can be regulated to
local conditions, The stencilling denoting name
of estate, grower, quality and quantity should
be neatly done, for nothing is so unsightly as
a smudge.
If the chillies are intended for export, it is
advisable to send your bales down to any coast
firm who has a large hydraulic baling machine,
and get the bales re-pressed, two together and
bound with iron strapping. This will save ocean
freight as space will be economised by the
tighter package.—Chillies have been
KNOWN TO BEAR FOR 5 TO 6 YEARS
in succession ; but after the 2nd year they
deteriorate in size and pungency, and it is ad-
visable to put in fresh plants. After the first crop
the trees should be pruned down to 9 in, from
the ground, A vigorous growth will result
and if the season is good, a very heavy crop
to follow, Asa catch crop in tea, two years
is usually as long as it is wanted, for the
young tea will have grown sufiiciently by then
to be left alone.
Like everything else, chillies are apt to be
overdone ; but for those who go in for the
crop on the right lines, a good market is always
available. As a by-product the chillies (with
all the seed removed) can be ground into
Cayenne pepper and bottled into glass castors.
These find a ready sale at the grocers.
The dried product is largely in demand in
this Colony among the Indians, and although
a vast quantity is imported from India, the
coolies prefer the desiccated Colonial article,
because it is richer in colour and more pun-
gent and less in price than the oversea article
which is mostly sun-dried and very inferior in
quality. There is also a
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
GOOD MARKET AT HOME AND ON THE CONTINENT
for chillies and good samples are eagerly
bought up by condiment, pickle and sauce
manufacturers. Up to the present time I
have had no difficultly to dispose of my
crop, which is usually a large one, but growers
must not forget that the present time is different
to the ‘‘ good old days,” and the public expect
a great deal for their money. Only the best
variety should be grown, and planted on good
rich soil, carefully cultivated andthe curing
done properly, so that absolutely a first-class
article is produced, while the get-up of the
packages or bales must be especially neat and
attractive. This | contend is half the battle
of the producer of any crop.
F. M. S. RESIDENT GENERAL’S
REPORT FOR 1907.
EXTRACTS.
AGRICULTURE,
The Director of Agriculture, in the course of
his remarks on the working in 1907 of the
Agricultural Department, calls attention to the
fact that ‘‘ The conditions for rapid growth are
almost uniquein Malaya—viz., alternating sun-
shine and rain with an equable temperature and
a moist, humid atmosphere.” According to the
Director the land in cultivation at the end of
1907 was :— 4
Perak 114,969 acres
Selangor — 92,072 ,,;
Negri Sembilan 38,299 ,,
Pahang 16,423
Total 261,763 =,
The following observations by the Resident
of Selangor regarding rubber cultivation in that
State are of interest :—
‘The returns of rubber exported during the year show a
total of 1,193,751 pounds, as compared with 681,040 pounds
in the preceding year. Fifty-nine thousand seven hundred
and fifty-eight dollars was paid as export duty. The fall in
the market price of the product which occurred towards
the end of the year, though causing a depreciation for the
time being in the value of shares, had no material effect
upon the progress of estate development. I understand
that in a few instances contemplated extensions were
stopped pro tempore, but for the most part the contidence
of estate proprietors in the future of the undertaking re-
mains unshaken Ls a fluctuation in values attributed to
causes which can have no permanent effect upon the suc-
cess of theindustry. Atthe time of writing there is no
indication of any pause or hesitation in the process of
development.”
Coconuts.—The acreage under coconxts in-
creased by seven per cent. Of the 7,500 acres
newly opened, only some 650 acres were planted
by Europeans. The total value of the coconut
plantations is put by the Inspector at $22,000,000.
The exports of copra he puts at 55,421 pikuls.
CorrE£.—There was a small increase in the
area planted with coffee, 10,833 acres as com-
pared with 9,708 acres at the end of 1906,
Taproca.—Some 10,000 acres were under
tapioca, In connection with this form of culti-
vation, experiments were made as to manuring.
FORESTRY AND RUBBER EXPERIMENTS,
From the Conservator’s report on the work-
ing of the department for 1907 it appears that
at the close of the year the area of reserved
forests in these States was 682 square miles
(436,710 acres), equivalent toabout 24 per cent.
483
of the whole area of these States. When the
further 440 square miles, which it is intended
shall be reserved, are added to this, the per-
centage will be raised to 45 per cent., a still
somewhat disproportionate area. In Perak, of
the 106,145 acres which it is proposed to re-
serve, 31,145 acres were being surveyed during
the year. The Trolak gutta-percha area was
divided up into 47 blocks of about 40 acres each
and surveyed. In Selangor the Rantau Panjang
extension, the Sungei Lalang reserve and the
Kanching reserve, 37,915 acres in all, were sur-
veyed. The Kuala Selangor-Klang protective
belt was surveyed by the Revenue Survey De-
partment, and this area of 23,826 acres has been
constituted a Forest reserve. In Negri Sem-
bilan the Tebong reserve, 25 miles of the
Pertang reserve, and 124 miles of the Bukit
Térip reserve were demarcated by the Forest
Demarcator. In Pahang, also, the Forest
Demarcator finished the Baloh reserve and de-
marcated 25 miles of the Rotan Tunggal reserve.
The quantity of timber felled and burnt by
planters in opening up new areas for rubber and
coconut planting must be very large. No account
‘of itis available, but 64,881 acres are said to have
been alienated for this purpose during the
period under review, and on this land there
must have been standing timber of a useful
character of not less than 50 tons to the acre.
The plantation at Pondok Tanjong, a plantation
of chengal and merbau
MIXED WITH RUBBER,
was carefully looked after and much improved
during the year. This resulted in heavy expen-
diture, an expenditure of close on $21,000. The
proceeds of the rubber collected and _ sold
yielded an almost equal amount. It was noted
that the chengal and merbau appear to grow
more quickly than in heavy forest. The small
plantation of
PARA AND RAMBONG RUBBER NEAR TAIPING
also gave good returns and left a balance of
some $2,000 over and above expenses.
The casvarinas planted in1906 in abandoned
mining land near Taiping did fairly well. A
further 10 acres were planted inthe abandoned
mining block at Rassah in Negri Sembilan and
failures in the 30 acres previously planted were
replaced. A large proportion of the casuarina
seedlings planted out at Serendah in Selangor
failed, while nearly all the tembusu succeeded.
The plantation on the Circular Road at Kuala
Lumpur was keptup during the year and
weeded, blanks being supplied with tembusu.
Drains were made through the plantation by
the local staff. Nurseries of tembusu, senna,
molabira and rotan sega were prepared.
Cultural operations were carried on as usual,
In the Trolak reserve 686 acres were cleared of
undergrowth in order to benefit the young taban
trees; the area treated in this manner now
totals 1,544 acres. In the Rantau Panjang
reserve in Selangor 12 blocks of taban, of 80
acres each, were attended to. In the Weld’s
Hill reserve at Kuala Lumpur afew acres were
planted up in lines with merbau, anda great
deal of attention was given to the three-year-old
taban, Inthe Waterfall reserve at Taiping in
484}
Perak all big trees other than gutta-percha were
ringed and have since died. The area contain-
ing taban is 62 acres, the trees in which show
great progress and rapid growth. Hxperiments
in tapping some selected trees were made with
satisfactory results.
W. T. Taytor, Resident-General, Federated
Malay States. Kuala Lumpur, 20th August,
1908.—Selangor Government Gazette, Sept. 11.
UGANDA RUBBER AND CACAO
ESTATES GO.
A New Fiere.
A correspondent writes:—Few are aware that
two well-known Western Australians have been
haif over Africa. Mr C B Carey, a native of
Bunbury, has been in Equatorial Africa for some
years; he has been overland in charge of trans-
ports from Mombasa to the West Coast, and
is thoroughly conversant with several native
Janguages. Mr Carey now holds a very impor-
tant position in German Equatorial Africa,
under the Government, and has acquired the
German language. MrChas. A White, F.R.H.S.,
formerly forest officer for Coolgardie in the early
days, and brother to Cr. Shirley White. of
Subiaco, has travelled from the Cape to the Vic-
toria Falls, Portuguese East Africa, German
Territory, Zanzibar, Madagascar, and British
Kast Africa, along the Equator to the Congo.
Mr White is a planter and naturalist, beside
possessing a good practical knowledge of prus-
pecting, and was botanical collector for the late
Baron Von Mueller in Wostern Australia, but
is at present manager of the Uganda Rubber and
Cacao Estates, Ltd., at Jinja, near the Ripon
Falls in Uganda. Mr White states that he has
discovered a very valuable fibre known to the
natives as ‘‘Kafumba,” but botanically known
as Asclepias semilunata, and valued in London
at £40 a ton, Samples sent by Mr White to the
Minister for Agriculture in New South Wales
were shown to Mr Thorpe, of the firm of For-
syth and Co., Sydney, who have offered to pur-
chase any quantity at £35 a ton, which was also
offered by James Miller and Co,, Ltd., of Mel-
bourne. Mr White has now sent a quantity of
seeds to various parts in Australia, and states
that he is confident it will grow and thrive in
many parts of Western Australia. A sample of
the fibre is now in the possession of Messrs. C
and H J Locke, furniture warehousemen, of
Fremantle, also a small quantity of seed for ex-
periment. The fibre is of superior quality, and
needs no cultivation after the seed is sown till
uprooted. The plant is an annual, and attains
a height of 6 to 8 feet.—West Australian, Sept. 12.
COST OF JEBONG RUBBER
PRODUCTION.
Assam Rubber Proprietor’s Statement Denied.
An Assam proprietor of rubber in the F.M.S8.
recently made some remarks about the cost of
production in this country. His observations,
which have been reproduced in the Straits Press,
have induced Mr. B C N Knight, of Jebong
estate, to write to our Taiping contemporary
as follows :—
The Supplement to the Tropical. Agriculturist
Sir,—I read with interest Mr. Rose’s remarks
to the Ceylon Observer on the cost of pro-
duction of rubber in the F.M.S. Mr. Rose states
that in 1906, he told me rubber should be pro-
duced for 6d alb. and that I oughtto be able
to produce on Jebong, at most, at 9d. Ihave
never had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Rose
during his visits to the F.M.8., I would also
like to know where Mr. Rose obtained his
figures, saying, at the present time, Jebong was
producing at 9d. Up to August 31st (after charg-
ing half salaries to capital account) the cost
is 37 cents per lb. f.o.b. Penang (about 104d).
I disagree with Mr. Rose that he wil! be able
to produce rubber for 6d alb. unless the pre-
sent rates of pay were reduced considerably,
and every tree being tapped is 12 years old and
over. The cost of tapping alone on 10 to 11
year old trees, including cups and knives, can
be done for 13to 16 cts. per lb. dry rubber; 6
to 8 year old trees I don’t think can be done for
under 20 cts. with tappers at 40 cts. per diem,
which is the rate of pay in Perak. I write this
letter in order that shareholders in Jebongand
others shall not be misled with the statements
made by Mr. Rose which are inaccurate.—Malay
Mail, Sept. 23.
[We gave Mr. Rose’s statement as made to
us, to the best of our recollection. —Ep. C.0.]
THE DEMAND FOR QUININE IN INDIA.
at the present time is exceptionally great, and
the stock would soon be exhausted if it were not
replenished from Kurope. Private importers
are known to have sent urgent indents home.
Fortunately manufacturers and chemists are
over-stocked in England, prices are low, and
ample supplies are available. One large firm
has been quoting at 7}d.to 8d. per ounce, or
the equivalent of between
EIGHT AND NINE RUPEES PER POUND,
which contrasts in a remarkable way with
the price quoted by the Government quino-
logist in India, fifteen rupees per pound.
We would suggest that at the present time,
when malaria has to be fought against all over
Northern India and in Bengal,a big reduction
in price should be made. Ten rupees per pound
when 500lb. are taken, and even lower rates for
still larger quantities, might be instituted. In
many instances it is found that the people pre--
fer their quinine in tabloid form, and it should
be possible in future years to arrange for im-
ports in this shape. The expense will be slightly
more, but the effects likely to be gained will
justify the additional outlay.— Pioneer, Oct. 3.
There is reason to hope that in the near
future perhaps two or more Rubber Estates may
be opened up in the district, There is plenty
of excellent land and it is a pity to see it, with
the many advantages it has, lying idle.—B.N.B,
Herald, Oct. 1. : ' }
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. ©
THE EASTERN RUBBER INDUSTRY.
MR. HERBERT WRIGHT'S HXHIBITLON
LECTURE.
The text of the lecture by Mr Herbert Wright,
delivered at Rubber Exhibition on Wednesday,
16th Sept., was as follows :—
A few month ago I had an opportunity of
visiting the islands of Ceylon, Java, and
Sumatra, and also of travelling through parts of
the Straits Settlements and federated Malay
States. The main objects of the tour were to
see what changes had recently occurred, in con-
nection with Hlanting developments, to note the
methods adopted in cultivation and preparation,
and to determine the actual conditions of estates
in those areas. Apart from investigating points
of importance to planters in every day life, I had
in view the fact that many rumours were current
to the eftect that estates had been seriously
overtapped, that others had been allowed to be-
come smothered by weeds, and that some proper-
ties, in unhealthy districts, had been abandoned
on account of the prohibitive expense incurred
in managing them. In several cases the rumours
had some foundation, but after seeing thousands
of acres of all ages in the countries mentioned,
Lcould only conclude that many of us, in Lon-
don, and elsewhere, had been suffering from an
attack of ‘‘nerves” in the early part of the
ear. Most managers in the Hast have now
earned to look forward to a selling price nearer
2s 6d than 6s per lb for their rubber; as they are
generally interested in their work and have their
own money at stake there appears to be little
reason to anticipate anything except economical
management in the future. When an industry,
Jike that of Eastern plantations, is in its in-
fancy, one may naturally expect new ideas and
inventions at every turn and that many brilliant
achievements as well as miserable failures will
be chronicled during the first ten years of its
existence.
THE CONDITION oF PLANTATIONS.
The details of my observations regarding the
condition of the estates have been given to you
elsewhere and I need only dwell upon the more
important points, viz., tapping methods, modes
of preparing rubber and the distances adopted
in planting in various countries,
TAPPING OPERATIONS.
First, let us deal with tapping. Phenomenal
yields of from 4to7lb. per tree were recently
recorded from sections of well-known Malayan
estates and rumour had it that many trees had
been too vigorously tapped. True, the primary
bark had, in some instances, been excised far
too rapidly and tapping operations had neces-
sarily to be stopped on the trees so treated
until a definite programme was formulated.
But they were the exceptions on the plan-
tations 1 visited. The fault appeared to lie
in the lack of organisation, no definite scheme
of removing the bark at specified periods and
rates having been adopted and no thought given
to the time required for the renewed bark to
mature. It should be remembered that the future
plantation yields must be obtained from the
secondary, tertiary, and subsequent renewed
485
bark tissues ; what they will give we cannot de-
finitely say, especially from trees whare the bark
has been completely stripped in one year and the
available renewed bark is young and soft.
From measurements and experiments made in
Ceylon and Malaya it was obvious that the
secondary bark often acquired a thickness equal
to that ofthe original or primary bark long be-
fore the latex was sufliciently concentrated ; if
such bark is tapped a low percentage of rubber
will be obtained therefrom, though the waste of
living cells willbe large. An interval of three or
four years should be allowed on most estates be-
fore the secondary bark is tapped if permanency
in output is desired. Para rubber treescan thrive
under adverse conditions, but the treatment
meted out to them is often a very exacting one.
Very frequent tapping does not necessarily in-
crease the total yield ; and it should be remem-
bered that the longer the barkis allowed to
remain on the tree, within limits, the higher
will the percentage of caoutchouc be inthe latex
and the more vigorously will the trees grow,
Most estates are tapping on the half-nerring
bone system, each area being tapped once every
alternate day. On a few plantations tapping
every day is indulged in; and on a few others
the interval between successive operations is
longer than two days. I believe Dr Tromp de
Haas may now be able to give us the benefit of
his advice on this subject, as a result of
the tapping experiments he has been carrying
out at Buitenzorg, Java, but which were not
completed at the time of my visit.
Furure YiELpDs,
The yields of rubber obtained varied consider-
-ably, but the average leads one to anticipate that
with careful tapping mature estates should give
something near 300 lb. of dry rubber per annum,
per acre. Many planters have already largely
exceeded that estimate, and even on closely—
planted estates 300 Ib. per acre have been
obtained annually for each of the last few years.
Such a yield is in excess of that which [ pre-
viously anticipated as the probable return, and,
if extensively realised, will materially affect
planters, investors and manufacturers in the not
very distant future. The subjects of tapping
and yields require to be seriously considered ;
in my opinion, too much thought cannot be
given to organisation of tapping operations,
training of tapping coolies, and perfecting the
implements used. A well thought out system
of tapping willsave much trouble in the future.
Consideration of this subject leads us on to
that of the means adopted in preparing raw
rubber from the latex obtained by tapping.
PRODUCTION OF RUBBER FROM LATEX,
The production of dry rubber from latex in-
volves straining, coagulating, washing or rolling
and drying processes. On the majority of
Eastern estates the coagulation period extends
from the evening of one day to the morning of
the next ; washing is done in a few minutes ;
drying may take several weeks or even months.
Vacuum driers are being taken up and success-
fully worked by planters who understand the
mechanism of the apparatus; by such means
drying is effectedina few hours instead of weeks,
486
Rapidity in effecting coagulation is
generally desirable from the planters’ point
of view ; in several instances the change
was completed within twelve to thirty
minutes from the moment the latex arrived
in the factory, thus saving a great deal of
time when compared with the more general
methods on the majority cf other estates.
On plantations where rapid coagulation was
effected and vacuum driers used, the latex col-
lected in the morning was converted into dry,
hot rubber before the end of the day’s work,
This rapid conversion of latex into dry rubbber,
was with one exception, only sesn on properties
where vacuum driers were in use. The excep-
tion was on Gikiyanakanda, Ceylon, where Mr
Golledge, by means of very simple apparatus,
succeeded in turning out dry rubber within
twelve hours without the use of any appliance so
complicated as a vacuum chamter.
On nearly every estate coagulation was effected
by means of acetic acid; instances were, how-
ever, met with where planters, in order to over-
come the reputed objections cf certain manu-
facturers against the use of chemical reagents,
had allowed the latex to ferment and coagulate
without the addition of any reagents. Needless to
add, the Para rubber so prepared had a most
diabolical, putrid smell, and clear, white, mother
liquor was Bains thrown away as waste though
it contained large quantities of rubber. Several
planters, with a view to obtaining uniform pale
rubber, were steeping the greatly-coagulated
and rolled rubber inhot baths and using only
hot water between the rollers, So much then
for the more important processes on the planta-
tion. Now let us discuss that very debatable
subject, viz :—
DisTANCE IN PLANTING.
I visited rubber estates varying in age from
three months to thirty years, examined rubber
trees on alluvial, rocky, gravelly and swampy
soils and walked many miles over flat and hilly
estates ; I now hesitate, more than ever, to give
any specific recommendations as to the best
distance to adopt in planting Para rubber
estates. Each property requires special con-
sideration and the planter on the spot is
generally the person best qualified to ad-
vise onthis point. Estates were seen where
the trees were planted 10 feet apart, that
distance ‘ providing more space for roots
and branches than the rubber trees will ever
require ; on other properties a distance of 15 by
30 feet had been covered in eight years, and it
would even have been better if the trees had
been thinned out many years ago to prevent
present overcrowding. But such a difference
in distance means a large difference in the
number of trees on even a small estate.
Most people think it reasonable to pay more
for a property with a half a million than for
one with only 50 thousand trees, especially
when the plants are on the same estate and
of exactly the same age. To prove that every
tree on a widely-planted estate (30 by 30 ft.)
is worth ten on the closely-planted property
(10 by 10 ft.) may be a little difficult though
it is more often than not, quite a safe asser-
gion to make,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
The value of a rubber estate is not determined
alone bythe number of trees but by theavailable
bark for tapping and the recuperating powers of
the trees. What the widely-planted estates
lack in number, they generally make up in
increased thickness and area of bark. Closely-
planted Para trees are characterised by long,
spindly stems, thin bark, low yield of rubber
per square foot of bark excised and slower bark
renewal, The trees on widely-planted estates
have usually short and thick stems, thick bark,
and renew their tissues rapidly. 1n a general
way one may say that the thinner the bark the
higher is the cost of rubber production on the
estate. All that I wish to say now is that ifa
soil is so poor that a distance of 10 by 10 feet is
ample for the trees, I would not care to invest
money init. If funds are forthcoming and one
is prepared to wait for many years before re-
ceiving a substantial return on his capital outlay
he might plant Para trees even 30 feet apart and
be acting wisely; 20 by 20 and 30 by 15 feet ap-
peared, however, to be gaining favour in the rich
soils of Klang, Java and Sumatra, where finan-
cial as well as forestry considerations were kept
in view.
Sufficient has now keen said to indicate the
general estate methods adopted today in the
East. We can now consider how much money
a been invested and what has been obtained
or it.
CaritaL INVOLVED.
Planting developments have not stopped and
appreciable increases in estate acreages can be
expected during the next few years, especially
in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and New Guinea, as
wellasin Western areas. But for the purpose
of this discussion I wish you toassume that
only 350,000 acres now planted, or are about to
be planted, in the East are of any consequence.
Suchan acreage means that you have,on the
general basis of each acre costing only £30 per
acre when in bearing, the equivalent of
£10,500,000 already earmarked. Add to this the
higher cost incurred on many -properties, the
money locked up in unplanted land which often
forms a large part of many Eastern estates, that
invested in plantations in Africa, West Indies,
Tropical America, etc., and you arrive at a sum
quite large enough to arrest the attention of
inanciers in this and other parts of the world.
What the total capital invested in Eastern rub-
ber plantations alone will be ten years hence, I
leave you to predict,
LatEst PLANTEDACREAGES.
Though I have mentiond 350,000 asa num-
ber representing the acreageeplanted in the Kast
it is as well to bear in mind that the most
recent returns show that there is a prospect of
the total being much nearer half-a-million than
the above figure, if all the rubber yielding
species are considered and account is taken of
planting operations to which may companies
have committed themselves. Messrs. A M & J
Ferguson, Colombo, recently gave the following
estimate of planted acreages :—Ceylon 180,000
acres; Malaya, 150,000; Java, 58,000; Sumatra,
23,000; Borneo, 7,000; India and Burma, 28,000;
or atotal of 446,000 acres up to date. It must
not be expected that the whole of the lands
planted will come into bearing, though, from
«=
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
what I saw there can only be a very small num-
ber of real failures, except someting remark-
able happens. We can state that we have, asa
result of recent planting activity, a very sub-
stantial acreage of sturdy, healthy, living rubber
trees.
Wuar Prantation May Do.
Having thus satisfied ourselves that the Has-
tern plantation industry is not a myth let us
think what it really represents and compare the
potentialities of the new enterprise with the
accomplishments of the old. Most people know
that the world’s output of raw rubber for last
year was approximately 67,000 tons and that
actual shipments from Para, to Europe and
America, for the year 1907-8 were not less than
36,470 tons, valued at about £350 per ton or over
£12,500,000.
Now I want you to fix that amount of Brazi-
lian rubber—36,470 tons—in your minds and
see how gradually it has been obtained. We
have the figures showing what has been exported
from Brazil from 1827 to 1907-8. It has taken
80 years to raise the Brazilian output from 50 to
36,470 tons. In the first thirty years, 1827 to 1857,
Brazil raised its :output to 1,800 tons; the Hast
promises to get near that total this year. But think
of the handicap. Brazil started with its dense
forests, indigenous trees, over many square miles
of territory ;,the East commenced with a couple
of thousand seeds secured by Wickham in
1876, had to rear them into seed bearers, and
to wait for public interest to be aroused in
the cultivation. In fact the 1908 exports from
the East only represent the KEscLr or INQUI-
SITIVENESS on the part of a few planters who
ut Para seeds out because the trees might
e useful in later years. The results obtained
indicate the potentialities of the thriving,
though young, plantations and the future pros-
pect can no longer be disregarded.
If there be any who still regard the Hastern
plantation industry as something not worthy
of their consideration, let them remember
that, on very moderate estimates, the trees
now planted in a small fraction of the little
island of Ceylon should, when mature, an-
nually yield more than the average annual
output from the whele of Africa. Further
more, it can be taken for granted that, ex-
cept something unforeseen happens, we shall
have annually as much rubber from the Hast as
we have in the past received from Brazil.
Every Eastern estate represents a centralised
mass of trees from which supplies of rubber can
be more rapidly and economically drawn than in
any other part of the world. Every tree is under
the personal supervision of trained European
agriculturists and can receive daily attention ;
from past experiences one feels justified in an-
ticipating success,
DEcLINE IN INFERIOR RUBBERS.
From these facts it will be clear that the pot-
entialities of the Eastern industry alone are such
that when the rubber is arriving in fair quantity
other rubbers of an inferior kind will feel the
inch. In Ceylon, Malaya, Java, Sumatra,
orneo, and Samoa, Para rubber trees are mainly
487
cultivated, though the Dutch and German colo-
nies have achieved some success with species
of Ficus.
Para rubber is acknowledged to be superior to
most other kinds. We have been assured by
some of the most prominent British manufac-
turers that, if we can supply them with Para at
2/6 per lb. they will use it in preference to
most African and inferior American grades. This
appears a fitting opportunity to ask continental
and American manufacturers at this Exhibition
whether they share in that view. Ifso, you can
predict the fate of inferior grades yourselves,
With such a change—decline in Africans
and ine cease in Eastern Para—must come others
in the eommercial centres now dealing more
or less assclusively in either of these grades.
As fars to Great Britain is concerned, London
appear East be one of the coming centres for the
sale oferpooern Para, when compared with that
of Livindical. Our continental friends can, per-
haps, in thte to us the changes likely to be in-
duced in their respective centres by the same
causes.
CONSUMPTION.
There is on getting away from the fact that
the condition of affairs must materially change
when Eastern Para has caken its proper place.
In addithere wilthe decline in inferior grade
rubbers there will. in consequence of the more
reasonable price for raw rubber, be a stimulus to
consumptiion ; many anticipate that the increase
in consumption ‘will at the least off-set the in-
crease from Mexican plantations, In many parts
of the world there are indications of new open-
ings for the rubber tracdleand even though the
annual consumptin is at present very consi-
derable, further progress in that direction is
expected
Thecondition of Kastern estates, the yielding
capacity of the acreages now planted, and the
interes{ in this comparatively new and profitable
industry.
Raw RuBBER PRICES.
In this brief sketch of the position of the
Eastern plantation industry, I hope, I have
brought home one point, viz., that we are on the
eve of a great change, not only in planting but
also in important commercial centres. The
final results will, as in all other commodities,
be determined by the values ruling for the
raw article. A continuance of 2/6 per lb. ror
plantation rubber, will, toa large extent, place
the world’s power in Kastern plantations, for
against that price but little African and
American rubber can be exported under ex-
isting circumstances. At that price and with
yields only equal to those obtained up-to-date,
planters and others engaged in plantations will
secure a very handsome profit. Should con-
sumption and prices increase beyond what we
anticipate, those connected with plantations
will be in a stillhappier position. In the mean-
time they can rest assured that there is a
healthy demand for raw rubber which is not
likely to die away, and that only good manage-
ment on the estates and at home is required to
bring the enterprise to a successful issue,
488
RUBBER IN MALAYA.
(From Mr. J. B. Carruthers’ Report.)
The rapid progress of the rubber industry in
Malaya continued during 1907, and at the end
of that year 45,764 more acres of rubber land
had been planted, an increase of about 46 per
cent on the total of the previous year. The
number of acres of planted rubber on the 31st
December, 1907, being 179,227. The number of
trees in 1906 was under 13,000,000 and in 1907
27,558,400, a large acreage being planted closer
than before. The output of dry rubber increa-
sed by 144 per cent ; 1907 showing an export of
2,278,870 lb or 1,017 tons, as against 935,056 lb or
417 tons, inthe previous year. Morethan seven
times the amount of rubber was exported in
1907 than two years before in 1905.
RusserR Sravistics, Manaya, UP TO THE 3ls7
Drc , 1907.
Federated straits
Malay Settle-
#States, ments & Johore. Total.
sedah. ;
No of estates 287 65 13 355
Acreage 1n a? sage
possession{/41 2,210 116,549 96,849 625,608
Acreage planted|
up to 3ist Dec., ‘ ls °
1907 126,235 _42, 866 10,126 179,227
Acreage planted
during 1907 i) 40,473 9,344 5,764 55,581
No of trees
planted up;
to 31st Dec., ; : be ateoes
1907 ,19,628,957 6,787,216 [11,142,196 + 27,553,369
RueBer IN FepERATED MAuay States.
At the end of 1906 there were 1n the Federated
Malay States 85,000 acres, at the end of last
year 124,580, an increase of about 46 per cent.
There were 10,745,000 trees planted in 1906, and
nearly twenty million in 1907. The output of
dry rubber was nearly doubled, showing
1,028,792 lb., or 459 tons, in 1906, and 1,984,285
lb., or 885 tons, in 1907, an increase of 93 per
cent. Since January, 1906, the amount of
rubber planted has been trebled, and the whole
of that large acreage is in a healthy and vigorous
condition.
Rosser Srarisrics, FEDERATED Maway STATES,
Ur tro THE 3lst DECEMBER, 1907.
5 ae oe f
Sp 4 ES gs 2
8 5 aye) By 2
& Si iBes &
3 zB a
No. of estates 124 114 34 15 287
Acreage in possession 194183 141032 59631 17364 412210
Acreage planted up to
3ist December, 1907 61552 46167 17656 860 126235
Acreage planted during
1907 19135 16050 4945 193 40743
No. of trees planted up
to 31st Dec., 1907 9648093 6648957 3165388 166590 19628957
In 1897, rubber estates were less than 350
acres in extent, 10 years after they had increased
by 360 times. In 1902 less than 7,500 acres had
been planted, five years after 17 times that
amount was under rubber. Nearly all of this
land was virgin jungle previously to its being
planted with rubber, which had to be cleared
before any planting operations could be begun.
Nine-tenths of the whole acreage has been
cleared and planted by the younger generation
of planters, who deserve the greatest credit for
the excellent way in which their work has been
carried out, The difficulties under which most
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
of them have opened up their estates have been
many and various: bad conditions of health,
both for master and cooly, and _ steadily rising
price of labour owing to local conditions,
Yirtps or Dry Russer Per TREE.
The average amount of dry rubber is over the
whole Peninsula 1 lb. 12 0%. per tapped tree,
exactly the same figure as was recorded for last
year. This is most encouraging, as the number
of trees which are being tapped for the first
time far exceeds those already tapped, es-
pecially in Selangor, where the average is 1 lb.
7 oz. per tapped tree.
Experiments are being carried on in various
parts of the Peninsula: Perak, Selangor and
Negri Sembilan, in regard to yields of compara-
tively old trees which have not previously been
tapped. In Krian these experiments have been
carried out for nearly four months, only half the
tappable area of the trees being used and space
being left so that more than three years
will elapse, with continuous tapping every
other day, before the healed surface will be
again reached. The figures for one year will be
published in next year’s report, but as far as
they have gone the yields average more than
2 lb. per mensem per tree. The trees are planted
widely apart round the edges of a graveyard
and are about 17 years old.
There is as yet not sufficient evidence as to
what yields may fairly be expected over large
areas of trees from 10 to 20 years old, but all the
data which we have atpreseut points to the fact
that estimates or prophecies of probable yields
at these ages will be amply confirmed.
COMPARATIVE TABLES OF RUBBER CROPS,
MALAYA, 1906 AND 1907.
No. of trees Rubber Average
State. tapped yields Ib. yield yer
06. 1907. 1906. 1907. tree, 1907.
lb. Ib. Ib. oz.
- -Selangor 364638 772656 620033 1131086 1 Pa
2 | Perak 67710 132556 94848 272804 2 1
= + Negri
5 | Sembilan 91410 240401 «146891 «586864 2 7
Pahang = _ _ _ _
_. {Malacca a7000 12455 al2060 23490 1 14
%. 4 Province
n Wellesley 20076 48000 a13560 82131 1 11
Johore 48350 94159 47724 182495 1 15
Total 599184 1300227 935056 2278870 1.12
In Province Wellesley is included one estate in Singapore,
one estate in Penang and one in Kedah,
aThese figures are approximate.
GAMBIER CULTIVATION IN WEST
SUMATRA.
The Netherlands India Government has taken
steps to encourage gambier-growing among
the Malays of West Sumatra by giving ad-
vances to the cultivators without charging
interest. At present the export of the article
there averages 12,000 piculs a year against 70,000
piculs in the Residency of Rhio. This Rhio
gambier is grown by Chinese and has a good
name in the market as dyeing and tanning
material. The Government has been advised
to engage Chinese planters from Rhio to teach
the Sumatra Malays how to grow gambier
for the Huropean and American markets. The
Malay gambier is grown only for the local
market for consumption along with betel leaf,
--Malay Mail, Sept. 19.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
CLEAN WEEDING ON RUBBER
ESTATES.
Mr. Carruthers Criticised,
Mr. A. B. Lake, a prominent Malaya planter,
takes Mr..Carruthers severely to task for advoca-
ting the avoidance of clean weeding on rubber es-
tates, as enabling better growth as well asa saving
in expenditure oflabour. Mr. Lake not only con-
demns the F. M. 8. Director for not having
pointed to any one estate where the system has
been long tried and found a success, but goes
so far as speak of Mr. Carruthers having had no
practical experience at all. Asa planter, perhaps
not; but from planters—and Malaya planters,
too—he must have obtained his views, after
using abundant opportunities as Director of
Agriculture for seeing a good many estates
throughout the Maley States. We cannot re-
call Mr. Carruthers’ having counselled Ceylon
planters to leave weeds alone, among rubber
(the bulk of which was very young when he was
here) or any other product. However, as to
the point itself Mr, Lake writes in a convinc-
ing style--we reproduce the letter--and we
will be interested to read the Malaya official’s
reply. We notice that at the P. A. M. meet-
ing it was suggested Mr. Carruthers should be
asked to value estates with a view to loans to
planters, District Oflicers having reported some
estates, when not clean-weeded, as abandoned.
(To tHE Epitor, ‘‘MaAtay Matt.” ]
Dear Sir,—Having just read an article en-
.titled ‘‘Clean weeding of rubber clearings” in
your yesterday’s issue, I send you a belated
article addressed to the Editor, The Agricultural
Bulletin, which I wrote 3 weeks ago, but never
sentin. It is but a very general reply to an
article headed ‘‘ Weeding in Para rubber culti-
vation,” as an answer in detail would have taken
up too much space. My letter is as follows :—
I have just read an article by Mr J B Carru-
thers on ‘t Weeding in Para rubber cultivation”
in your September number, in which he holds
up to contumely clean weeding. I feel impelled
to join issue with him, as his article, being very
plausible, may do an incomparable amount of
harm. I do not believe that the Planters ofthis
country are as a body incapable of looking after
their own interests; they are all willing to accept
good advice, and any new system, which can be
shown to bea commercial success. But they will be
very ill-advised if, at the instigation of a gentle-
map who has after all no practical experience,
they abandon old methods for new without proof
that the new system is superior to the old,
Have we any proof at present, which would
warrant this change? I say most emphatically
“no”; that one estate had the luck to grow up
in ‘‘beluker” and not lalang is no proof.
Mr Carruthers tells us the ground should be
moist—and shaded. I grant him he is theor-
etically right, and Iwill grant him that he is
practically right when he can show me one
hundred acres of eight-year-old rubber treated
according to his system which can compare
favourably in yield and cost of bringing into
bearing with a like area of clean-weeded rubber.
Mr Carruthers assumes that the planter believes
62
489
in clean weeding for clean weeding’s sake; it is
not so, but that he knows that on an estate clean-
liness is far above godliness, where expenditure
is concerned (clean weeding is cheap-weeding).
That many estates have to pay large sums
for weeding is no proof that properly
selected estates (no kampong land, and laid out
on the rectangle) cannot be weeded cheaply if
kept clean from the burn.
It really passes my understanding how Mr
.Carruthers can state that ‘‘without any detri-
ment tothe rubber this method of cultivation
reduces more than considerably the cost of
bringing a rubber estateinto bearing”: any non-
resident reader would imagine that Mr Car-
ruthers could point to an estate where his sys-
tem of cultivation had been tried for years and
found a success ; whereas in fact it is a theory
put forward by a well-meaning, but, I fear,
misguided man. Itis, I think, much to be re-
gretted that one holding the high official posi-
tion of Mr Carruthers should actually ventilate
in print such unproven theories, and it is with
the feeling that it is someone’s duty to point
outthat in this year of grace they still are
theories, that I have ventured to put pen to
paper. Yours, etc., B. Lake,
Batu Unjor KHstate, Klang, Oct. 4th, 1908.
PLANTING IN TRAVANCORE.
RUBBER AND TEAi
Woe call attention to a chatty letter from our
old friend, Mr. Drummond-Deane, on _ this
page. He gives a good deal of information
in regard to the progress of Rubber, which is
satisfactory, and indicates a new Limited Com-
pany for the two products as in course of
promotion—one which, we think, ought to take
and do well, having regard to the statistics put
forward,
(From an ex-Ceylon Planter.)
Sept, 29 ‘Rubber ” is really doing very well
indeed, and though little is said or written on the
subject, it will, I venture to think, assert itself in
the nearfuture. I am thinking of patting these
places and two rubber places into a Company, and
if it goes through, Mr, T C Owen will be a Dir-
ector, and, probably, Messrs. Rowe, White &
Co. will be Agents. Certain people have the
refusal up to 30th November. The capital to be
£60,000 with an issue of £55,000—on which it
is estimated the tea will at once pay a 5 per
cent dividend and continue to do so, while the
rubber comes into bearing. The lands consist
of tea: Stagbrook, Hope and Maymolly estates
in Peermade 1,167 acres, of which 687 are in
bearing and 124 immature tea and 356 reserve
lands. Eldorado Rubber Estate :—
1904... 45 acres. | 1907 ... 108 acres,
1905.,,.3:31 160) 5, W908) 0 9 201 45
1906 .., 345 ,,
678
Roserve land,..136
Total,,.S14
490
Kokay-aar estate, rubber :—
1908
234 acres.
\ Reserve ... 1a
Total ... 346,
Eldorado and Kokay-aar estates join each
other and both are within three hours’ rido
of Stagbrook. We have nothing wonderful in
growth, but it is even and good.
Our best ‘‘ Hevea” 4-year old trees in August
measured 22 inches girth, 3 feet from ground ;
the best 3-year old trees 143 to 14% inches 3 feet
from ground, Our best Castilloa trees, Mexican
variety, 4-year old, measure 32 inches 3 feet from
ground, We have some3,000 trees of this variety
as boundaries between the forest and the Hevea
fields of rubber. A few trees of this sort we
tapped and made a few biscuits as a curiosity
for the Exhibition. { did not care to tap the
young Hevea trees.
I am fairly well, but shall be glad of a trip
home as it is over 10 years since I had a trip.
My son is in charge of Eldorado, and will
relieve me as Manager of the whole group if
I get away; but I want to remain here to see
the Company started, should it be subscribed,
and then hope to get home early next year.
RUBBER TREES IN COLOMBO.
October 17th.
Six,—As so very much interest is being evinced
in rubber, I feel something should be done to
enable visitors to Colombo to know where they
can see rubber trees, especially as there are, at
least, three very fine ones in this City.
1. The Ficus Llastica, or Rambong in the garden
of the Royal College, which can be seen from the
right-hand side of the road leading from Norris
Road to St. Sebastian Hill.
2&3. In ‘‘Marandahn House,” 2nd Division,
Maradana, a largeand a small Hevea B asiliens s
or Para, both of which have ‘herring bone ”’ in-
cisions. It will be interesting to know from Mr.
Charles Mackwood how much Jatex was obtained.
4. Asmall Para tree in the Victoria Park, near
the Band-stand, showing V-shaped incisions.
5 & 6. Two Para trees on the right-hand side
of Skinner’s Road South, nearly opposite its
junction with Silversmith Street and at the turn
to *‘Paradise Villa.” There are some small
Para trees in the garden of the Lady Have-
lock Hospital.
A few days ago I was looking at the tree in
the Royal College, aud could not help thinking
what a very fine one it was—as fine as those at
the entrance to the Royal Botanical Gardens,
Peradeniya. It must be the oldest Rubber Tree
in the East. It would be worth keeping photo-
graphs of this, and the two largest Para trees,
and specimens of the tatex of both varieties, in
the Colombo Museum. I remember there was no
difficulty in the latex of the two trees in the
garden of the Colombo Academy coagulating, the
balls being very resilient. As a Dutch Governor
resided on St. Sebastian Hill, I think it the
oldest in the Hast. a
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
VALUATION OF RUBBER ESTATES.
A SLIDING SCALE.
Upcountry, Oct. 15th.
DEAR Sir,—In your evening contemporary
(15th June last) there appeared a paragraph on
the Value of Rubber Estates in the Klang
District of Selangor. A gentleman is alleged
to have valued rubber at 18 months of age
at £30 sterling per acre, rubber one year old
at £25 per acre and so downwards. This
valuation included plants in nursories, buildings
and tools, and had regard to draining and the
richness of the soil, etc.
I am not aware whether these figures would
be accepted as suflicient in Ceylon, and, in
any case, there seem to be no authentic data
of this kind to go upon, nor do any of the
gentlemen experienced in rubber appear as
“Valuators ” in your Directory.
Is there any kind of accepted sliding scale
on which the value of rubber property can
be calculated, having regard to the mere age
of the trees and the price of rubber? Such
a valuation would be useful for general pur-
poses, though it could only be an approximate
one, as the considerations of the growth of
the plants, the soil, buildings, environment,
accessibility, etc., must necessarily be the work
of an expert Valuator, to whom, as of course,
no one should grudge his reasonable
FEES.
WANTED :
RUBBER FROM ENGLISH PLANTS.
Satisracrory Resutts or Tests or SAMPLES,
Dr. Docherty and Mr. Alsebrook, of Burton,
who claim to have discovered a method of mak-
ing on sound commercial linesfrom plants grown
in the district, a material equal to the best
Para rubber, have received the results of the
tests by a firm in the North of England. Their
samples, which have been vulcanised—the only
process for which Dr. Docherty and his part-
ner had not the necessary apparatus—were re-
turned as perfect samples of rubber. The pro-
duct, it is said, stood well the stringent. test of
vulcanisation, the samples returned being of
fine texture, resilient, flexible, and capable of
hard wear. At first the experts suggested that
the invented material in its raw condition was
undesirably dark, but this the inventors have
rectified by extracting the darkening element
and leaving it the required light-grey colour,—
L. & C. Express, Sept. 25.
VITALITY OF THE CLOVE TREE OF
ZANZIBAR.
From the current number of the Agricultural
Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States
we learn that the cultivation of the clove tree
was abandoned in Singapore about the year
1860 and that the trees succumbed to a red spot
fungus which attacked the leaves. The writer
describes ‘‘a very old tree” in the Singapore
Botanic Gardens which has been gradually
dying for some years and another tree growing
under a laree Para rubber tree which “has, as
far as I have known, never flowered.” The “ very
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
old tree” does not date back as far as 1860 and
hence would be several decades younger than
many of the clove trees in the Weti district of
Pemba where our oldest trees are to be found.
A red spotted fungus is found upon the leaves
‘of our trees, but it is quite harmless even to
check the growth of the clove trea here, The
vitality of the clove tree in these islands is quite
extraordinary when one remembers it is an
exotic plant. Save where the trees have been
killed outright, even the late drought seems to
have done little harm, the plantations abound-
ing with new growth.—Zanzibar Gazelte. Aug. 29,
THE RUBBER INTEREST IN MALAYA.
In moving for increased representation of
Malaya Planters in the Straits Legislature Mr
C LGibson, at the P. A. M. meeting of Oct.
5th, brought forward the following figures :—
1. CaprraL INVESTED.
(Very incomplete—rubber only.)
Paid up F,M.S. dols, 21,483,353
Straits (Colony) 3,734,160
Johore 1,942,543
dols, 27,160,056
say dols. 30,000,000 probably all in 3 years £3,500,000
2. AcREAGE UNDER RUBBER.
(Exclusive of Johore and the Colony.)
At end of 1907 Rubber 126,235 acres
Coffee 10,833 ,,
Sundries 24,695 ,,
161,763
Of above, rubber in 1907 alone, 40,473 acres, i.e, 1-3 in
single year.
3. Export RusBBEk FROM F, M.S. ONLy.
(Not including Johore and Colony.)
0) 1,028,792 lb. =460 tons.
1907
6 mos, 1908
to 81st Dec. ; say 1,300 tons,
4. Duty Pap.
(F.M.S. only.)
1906 dols. 50,023
1907 97,750
6 mos. 1908 52,000 to 31st Dec., say dols. 115,000.
Depreciated market first six months; now rising,
5. As Empnovers or Lapour
and so contributing indirectly, but still considerably to the
Revenue. Malay Peninsula, 75,000.
F. M.S. Total Labourers end of 1907, 58,000, of which
Tamils and Javanese =55,000 ; large increase 1908.
6. Vatur or Rupper Exrortep.
(3 States as per declaration Government Gazette.)
1906 dols, 1,855,436
1907 3,882,000
6mos. | 1908 2,080,000
EXPORT OF CAMPHOR FROM
FORMOSA.
The following particulars as to the distribution
of the camphor exported from Formosa in 1907
are given by British Consul Chalmers :—
To Havre, London
and Hamburg, To America, To Madras, ‘otal.
lb. lb. lb. Ib.
2,452,933 1,635,300 33,333 4,121,566
Of this amount 1,079,733 lb. (1,046,400 Ib. for
America and 33,333 lb. for Madras) were shipped
by local steamers from Keelung for tranship-
ment at Kobe. Thus no camphor was ultimately
destined for Japan. Itis reported that there
491
has been a large increase in the camphor mana-
factured by the camphor monopoly in 1907 as
compared with 1906, the figures being 5,388,918
lb., as against 4,040,838 Ib,, an increase of
1,348,080 lb. By the latest returns the produc-
tion of camphor oil shows an increase of over
85 per cent in 1907, being 6,710,390lb., as against
3,610,645 lb, in 1906. Hitherto all the camphor
oil has been shipped to Kobe to be converted
into refined camphor, but
A REFINERY IS TO BE ERECTED
in Taihoku, the capital of Formosa, at
a cost of about £14,000, and in future the cam-
phor will undergo the necessary process there.
It is said that a new method of distillation has
been recovered, and that by this method as well
as by the saving of expense in transport a con-
siderable economy will be eftected.—Indian
Trade Journal, Oct. 8.
RUBBER TANNED LEATHER.
A new syndicate has established a factory
and is placing upon the market a new form
of leather, for which there seems to be a big
future. It is an .old saying that ‘‘nothing
wears hike leather,” while rubber manufacturers
are equally confident respecting the wear-
resisting properties of good india-rubber; but
when we get a satisfactory combination of the
two materials the problem of wear-resisting pro-
perties seems to be still further advanced towards
the attainment of a perfect material. Although
new in this country, this material has been
manufactured in Australia from the beginning
of the present century, and some very excellent
results obtained.
The leather is submitted to a tanning process
of the chrome variety, which preserves it; rubber
solution is then worked into the interstices,
rendering the hide thoroughly waterproof, The
elasticity of the rubber permits of the perfect
flexibility which is unobtainable in ordinary oak
bark tanniug. We inspected a number of skins
of various animals treated by this process, and
were astonished at the extraordinary toughness
of some of the skins, especially of rabbit, goat
and sheep skins.
It is impossible to forecast the many uses for
which this process may be available. ‘Tests have
been made for motor tyres, soles for boots and
shoes, pump washers, machine belting, miners’
boots, etc., and we feel certain that the multi-
tude of articles that can be made of rubberised
leather will, in time, create a further demand
for rubber for use in connection with the leather
trade for articles now made solely of leather.
As an instance of the possibilities of this mate-
rial, we would suggest that suitable waterproof
gloves could be made for motorists, tramway
drivers, electricians, etc.
We feel sure that this material will prove
useful for motor and cycle tyres, as it is almost
impossible to puncture it, and itis much more
resilient and waterproof than ordinary leather,
Those interested in this trade should apply to
the Rubber Tanning Syndicate, at Finsbury
Pavement House, London, E.C.—Jndia-Rubber
Journal, Sept. 21.
492,
“PURUB’—A NEW METHOD OF
COAGULATION.
By Dr. Frank.
It is a well-known fact that hydrofluoric acid
is wonderfully efficient in preserving plant-saps,
and thatis also has the power of killing the wild
yeast in the fermentation process without in
any way influencing the alcoholic fermentation.
Furthermore, the fact that this substance acts
in extreme dilution induced Sandman to experi-
ment with hydrofluoric acid. The results are
extremely satisfactory, since all the advantages
of the smoking process are secured, while the
drawbacks of this method disappear. The pro-
cess is carried out in the following manner :—
The hydrofluoric acid comes on the markets
as ‘‘Purub,” in a condition enabling it to be
easily shipped. The latex is strained through
a cloth to remove the mechanical impurities
and, if necessary, diluted to prevent spontaneous
coagulation. The working charge is about 2 or
3 litres. To 1 litre latex is added a mixture of
50 grs. water and 5c. c. Purub solution, After
adding the diluted Purub the mass is stirred
and then allowed to stand. The rubber which
has separated out soon begins to collect asa
compact mass on the surface of the almost clear
liquid. The coagulated mass is removed and
washed. It is then either pressed in the pri-
mitive manner with a wooden press or else rolled
out. The resulting strips can then be pressed
into blocks inthe wet state, or after superficial
drying, and are then ready for shipment. The
quantity of latex per charge is limited only by
the size of the vessels employed and the
means at hand for manipulation. It is readily
seen that in this manner a workman is
capable of working upa large amount of latex
in five hours without exerting himself to any
extent, and without being in the least incon-
venienced. Ontheother hand, an industrious
workman is scarcely able to work up more
than 20 litres of latex in five hours by. the
smoking method,
The results so far show that rubber obtained
by the Purub process has not the least ten-
dency to ferment or decompose. The rubber,
furthermore, is in a good state, physically and
is very easily worked up. These properties
are easily explained if one studies the state-
ments made above. Any bacteria liable to cause
decomposition are killed, and their re-forma-
tion prevented. The adhering of the particles
takes place under conditions which effect the
tompletest distribution of the antiseptic, since
no sudden coagulation is brought about, The
manipulation of the process is simple.
It seems only necessary to mention the ob-
served fact that the rubber obtained by the
Purub method vulcanises exceptionally quickly,
so much so that the sulphur is in complete
combination with the rubber before it com-
bines with any litharge present in the mixing.
—India Rubber-Journal, Sept. 21.
FROM A BIG RUBBER DISTRICT.
A proprietary planter writes to us :—
“ We have been very interested to hear of your
Senior’s enterprising trip to Sumatra and Java,
of which, no doubt, we shall read more soon
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
in the Observer. The only fear is, it may
disgust him to compare what he has seen
there with the somewhat poorer growth of
rubber in Ceylon. But as my argument always
was when in olden days in Dikoya, I heard
invidious comparisons made with Haputale :
‘Wish them joy in their better luck as long as
it does not interfere with you, and you can make
£5 an acre out of your coffee instead of £10 !’—
and the worst I can say here of our holding
is, that if prices keep reasonably near pre-
sent quotations we are likely in this part of
the world to realise the former anyhow,
and possibly something better. I find in
exposed parts, wind the worst enemy, which,
no doubt, will yield to abundant plantings of
albizzias, &c., and the system of cultivation
adopted has a tendency, probably, to retard
the growth of the trees in their early stages—
though, looking ahead, its advantages over clean
weeding can hardly be questioned. I have trees
‘ 2 years and 9 months old from seed’ up to 19
and 20 inches in circumference at foot--and alas!
some not 6 inches! We mean to cultivate fairly
liberally--the benefit of which should show
in a year or so. My question is: will 300 acres
of rubber suffice to give a moderate income
permanently? The ‘fiver’ willamply content me,
and looking at things squarely I do not see
that it is too much on the unit to expect! The
trend of present industry and requirements
seems to me to point imperatively to the rapidly
increasing rise of rubber, such that, if no
adequate substitute is found, the natural sup-
ply will hardly be able to do much more than
keep pace with it in the future. Let us hope
so—plenty of labour: no fatalities ; and rubber
pavement universal.”
TEA CULTIVATION IN NYASALAND
PROTECTORATE.
The report for 1907-8 on the Nyasaland Protec-
torate, recently issued by the Colonial Office,
gives the following details respecting the culti-
vation of tea in that Protectorate :—
The cultivation of this product is still con-
fined to the Mlanje district, where the soils
and climate are well suited to its growth. There
are now 516 acres under tea, and this area is
being increased yearly. The crop for 1907-8 is
stated to have been 24 tons, and 9% tons are
estimated for the present year. Much of the
tea at present produced is consumed in the
country. Tea cultivation is not taken up with
eagerness by planters, as a period of five or
six years has to elapse before any return is
made on the capital expended.
It is well known that the quality of tea im-
proves as the bush matures, and those who
tasted the locally-grown and manufactured
article three years ago, now report that a great
improvement has taken place in the quality.
Tea cultivation requires a good deal of capi-
tal, but it is understood that it can be pro-
duced in Nyasaland at a cheaper rate than is
possible in India or Ceylon. As soon there-
fore, as Nyasaland tea obtains a footing on the
London market, it should draw attention to
that country as a possible field for the invest-
ment of capital,--Board of Trade Journal, Oct.1,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
TEA SEED: ITS SELECTION AND
GROWTH.
For choice, tea seed should be selected, not
from plots that have been left for seed, but from
seed gardens that have been planted with the
sole object of raising seed, and that have never
been touched by knife or sullied by vicious deep
hoe. We havein our mind’s eye a seed garden
that answers to all requirements essential to a
hybridised initiative plant. It hes inthe Mikir
hills and is entirely isolated from contact with
any plant devoted to commercial purposes. The
smallest mature plant on this property is not
less than twenty feet in height, and the highest
nearly forty. The seed from this plantation is
invariably sound and is instrong demand. The
area bears some koroi trees which are the re-
mains of the original forests, and it is under
these the largest and most exuberant plants
are found. This is, in our opinion, the most
thorough example of what aseed garden should
be ofall the seed gardens and plots we have
been privileged to visit. It is essentially an
ordinated forest of tea, with little or no under-
growth and thin interposing grass; practically
free from 90per cent. of the blights prominent
in cultivated areas of tea. It is cleared in Oc-
tober each year, by a very perfunctory clod hoe,
to facilitate the collection of the seed, but
otherwise left to nature. All high class plant is
delicate, and will not flower or set such good
seed, if touched by knife or hoe except on
strictly protective lines. The higher the
class of plant, the longer it will take to reach
maturity and to seed; but it bears some
immunity from blights under all circum-
stances, and herein lies the crux of the whole
question : the yield of tea given by the high
class plant is superior in quality to that ren-
dered by any hybrid, no matter how robust. We
have experimented crucially on this point, and
we are quite satisfied that tea manufactured
from Lushai or Assam indigenous will command
six pies more thanthat manufactured from ad-
jacent areas of hybridised plant. The same
should apply to Nagaplant, but we cannot speak
decidedly of Manipuri. The greater the differ-
ence in the class of plant, the greater the differ-
ence in the quality, buik for bulk, and the larger
the size of the leaf the greater the yield in con-
tiguous areas. A garden of inferior hybrid is,
prima facie, handicapped, both in quantity and
quality when compared with some of marked
superiority in class of plant. A good manager
will make satisfactory profits off a well
equipped hybrid garden, but a fool can scarcely
make a mistake on an underpowered garden of
high class plant. We do not for a moment lose
sight of the value of soil and climate, but in-
sist that the initiative of quality in plant is a val-
uable asset in the balance sheet of any estate.
IN ABSOLUTELY SOUND SEED
the exterior brown integument or capsule should
always adhere tothe seed. In all cases where this
follicle fails to attach itself to the seed, the
germination is more readily affected by cli-
matic influences and subterraneous blights
(and there are many such). Heavy seeds is
not ipso facto good seed, any more than light
493
seed is de facto bad. A large percentage of
sound seed plucked in a dry December, though
light, has the follicle adhering to the seed,
and all this—if not carelessly treated—is cer-
tain of germination. Of one hundred seeds
shelled and planted, fifty of which had the
follicle adhering and of which fifty were
without this protection, forty-nine of the first
category threw up healthy plants, while only
two of the latter showed above ground at
all, and one of these failed to reach matu-
rity. The percentages of unshelled seed under
these headings is difficult of estimation, as
cracking and replacing the fragments be-
comes essential ; but in this phase the for-
mer gave an effective of 94 pér cent. while
the latter showed orily 42. If each garden
could set apart a small area of the very best
plant procurable for the purpose of propagating
on bigh class hybrid, the standard of plant on
individual gardens would undoubtedly improve
slowly and steadily. The plea of the
ADVISABILITY OF INTERCHANGE
of seeds, on the basis of a similar status
adopted with regard to cereals, applies
but in an extremely modified form to
the tea industry, as it is never, except possibly
(and that remotely) in the case of transplants,
planted on the same area and soil, and the
variation in surroundings and soil, between
a seed garden and its proximate culti-
vated area, is quite sufficient to foil the most
minute statistician, in appreciation ofa valid
and tangible depreciation in the areas devoted
for comparison on the issue of mutation of seed
alone. We must make it quite clear as to, what
we look upon as the essentials of a good seed
garden, and to do this, we cannot do better than
postulate the steps requisite to the effective
development of such an area. The best indige-
nous seed should be procured and if possible
from two or three sources, and this should be
most carefully germinated and planted in shaded
nurseries, not less than twelve inches apart,
shade being essential to the class of plant we
have premised. Indigenous plant is shy of
setting either flower or fruit and this can only
be induced by assisting nature in her own
methods, viz., by natural shade from selected
trees, of which Albizzia stipulata and Leguminosa:
generally are types, and by the most careful ap-
plication of well-tried manures, in very moderate
quantities, and without in any way injuring the
root processes. The seed garden referred to is
never cultivated in the ordinary acceptance of
the term, but despite this the branches have at
times to be supported to facilitate the collection
of the seed. One peculiarity seems worth men-
tioning, that in this small forest of tea, only six-
teen acres in extent, there were no less than
nine swarms of bees and the proprietor consi-
dered these a necessary adjunct for success for
free fertilisation. Should indigenous seed not be
selected, but a high class hybrid be decided on,
absolute isolation becomes imperative, and the
best sites for selection undoubtedly lie at the
bases of valleys in the adjacent hills. A site for
a seed clearance should have a warm, equable
temperature and be well protected on the north
and east, as well as screened onthe west,—Indian
Planters’ Gazette, Oct. 17.
494
JAVA’S NEW ‘‘ COFFEA ROBUSTA
DISAPPOINTING.
Coffee-growing has long been in a bad way
in Java, owing to the ravages of disease among
the plants, and many planters in despair have
abandoned their estates or have turned to rub-
ber. But the hope of others rose high on the
discovery of a variety of the berry known as
Robusta, which was reputed to be both good
and disease-proof. Those who took to the new
kind of coffee, however, find disappointment
again dogging them. Brokers in Holland who
tested samples of it report that the coffee is
inferior in quality. It can only come into de-
mand when there is a lack of better kincds,—
Straits Times, Oct. 14.
THE LANTANA PEST.
A vigorous letter onthis subject appears
in this issue. The exact value or curse of
lantana is arguable: but it would be an
excellent thing if a rule could be brought
in to the effect that all occupied land should
be kept clear of undergrowth, including Lan-
tana. The P W D, Local Boards, and village
Committees might set the example and clean
up road reservations, which are often—even
about Colombo—in a very dirty condition, There
is nothing that strikes the traveller in India
more forcibly than the clean condition in which
land is kept there.
Oct. 16.
Dear Sir,—You did sonobly in the Opium
Question. Now, will you help inthis matter ?
You, dwellers in the metropolis, cannot imagine
the nuisance and expense this shrubis to out-
side dwellers.
It was, I understand, first introduced into
Ceylon from Australia by Lady Horton 75 years
ago, who had it planted in Government House
‘gardens. And now it has spread till it has
become the scourge of the country. Whole
villages are eaten up by it, grazing destroyed,
paths obliterated, small garden crops overcome ;
a dense jungle of it grows up on all sides, every
season increasing in area by mighty strides,
fcom each new crop of blossom and seed. What
is to be done? The natives will sit quietly in
despair and see their land eaten up unless
stimulated to do something from outside.
Can Government at least not insist that its
C®cwn own Sands shall not be the grand breed-
ing-beds of this pest, whence the seed is borne
onall sides to be the devastation of small
private holdings ?
I speak feelingly. It is vain for me to go to
the expense of clearing my land when the
adjoining Crown land is one dense jungle of
lantana whence all the seed will be carried to
my newly-cleared land by the first wind.
lf onall Government grounds the lantana
were at least cué down close tohe ground and
burned once or twice a year, it could be not only.
very quickly done, giving work to the un-
employed, but literally at the expense of only
one or two rupees per acre. This, though not
clearing the roots, would prevent the spread of
blossom and seed,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
Having looked to the cleansing of its waste
lands, could not Government require that all
occupiers of premises belonging to Government
Schools, Post Offices and Dispensaries should
keep their land clear and that all officials of
every grade, including village headmen? That
all these be required to keep land and gardens
in their own immediate occupation clear; and
that headmen be instructed to direct the atten-
tion of all villagers under their control to this
matter. P. W. D. Inspectors and Irrigation
Officers to see that streams are clear of this
overgrowth. In this district every watercourse
runs through and is overhung by a dense jungle
of it. It is a rank feverish plant, and if the
overworked officials named cannot see to it, the
creation of Inspectors to deal with this pest
would surely be worthwhile. Unless we all pull
together, public bodies and private individuals’
vast tracts of land will be not only useless them-
selves, but breeders of devastation to all grazing
and small crops.
Villagers are mostly very poor and seldom
have time, money nor inclination to labour at
this nuisance after their ordinary daily toil is
over. Butif every man and boy would do what
he can, by arming himself with a stout stick and
slashing off blossom and seed as he went to and
from to work, a great deal could be done towards
keeping paths clear, and preventing increase,
This seems like a suggestion to ladle out the
ocean with a spoon ; but what is to be done ?
The 5th of November is approaching. Can
schoolmasters. not tell their boys of the vast
bon-fires English Jads make at this season, and
send or take out companies of energetic school-
boys aad get them to make huge bonfires of the
pestilent growth.
I trust the ‘‘ Times of Ceylon” and all other
local papers, English and vernacular, will copy
this letter, and that my crude suggestions may
produce other and better ones. Could we not
forma ‘‘ Lantana Extirpation League” and give
prizes or do something ?
Here, Mr. Editor, is a Christmas Competition
ready to your hand : R5 for the best suggestion.
—Carried out by Christmas. Othee suggestions
earnestly solicited. If we let it alone for an-
other 75 years, Ceylon will be one huge jungle
everywhere outside a town.—Yours truly,
ANTI-LANTANA.
INTERNATIONAL RUBBER
CONFERENCE,
Mr Kelway Bamber on the Rubber Industry
in the East.
At the International Rubber Conference in con-
nection with the International Rubber and
Allied Trades Exhibition at Olympia, in London.
Mr M Kertway Bamser lectured on ‘ The
Cultivation and Preparation of Rubber in
the East.” Sir Henry Blake presided over a
large audience. The lecturer reminded all in-
terested in the Industry more haste less speed,
and the cheapest and most rapidly grown and
manufactured rubber was not necessarily going
to prove the most profitable in the long run.
Eastern Planters and manufacturers had to pro-
duce rubber that would
and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
STAND EVERY COMMERCIAL TEST,
and they could not afford to run the risk
of putting on the markets of the world an in-
ferior article that would not stand test of time
and wear. Results had already shown that plan-
tation rubber properly prepared from latex of
mature trees was equal to the best Para, and
for certain purposes superior, But it was not in
variably the case that the rubber was properly
prepared, and therefore those concerned must
neglect no chance of remedying errors, and
profiting by the experience, which it was hoped
would be largely gained from the present instruc-
tive Exhibition. As regards soil the Rubber
plant had a great power of adaptability though
rich alluvial soil suited it best. In Malaya
where tho soil was mostly alluvial the growth of
para was very rapid when once the land had been
drained, and a height of l2to 14 feet and girth
44 to 5 inches after ayear’s growth were common
and these dimensions were frequently exceeded.
In all cases, however, the Para evidently did
best where the soil was rich in decomposed
humus (not peat) and with a fairly high per-
centage of nitrogen. In Ceylon most of the
rubber was first planted on Ravines on tea
estates, and the shade of the tea bushes pro-
tected the soil from too much exposure to the
sun. In Malaya in the same way rubber was
planted with Liberian coffee, and the shade
given by the latter’s dense growth protected the
soil from the tropical sun. Tho lecturer exhi-
bited on the screen photographs of various
trees growing on estates inthe Hast, and culti-
vated with and without catch crops, and also
with various green manures, which he thought
showed convincingly that clean weeding was
not essential to procuring excellent growths of
rubber. He did not, however, advocate allowing
grasses to run riot but rather growing a crop of
such a habit as could be kept under control. With
regard to lalang grass, which caused much
trouble on many estates, he mentioned that the
passion flower had been found to be efticacious
in destroying this pest at small expense and he
ventured to think that the passion flower would
ultimately prove the salvation of many estates
that had not sufficient capital to warrant large
expenditure otherwise required for eradicating
the lalang. Much money had been uselessly
expended in clean weeding. There were several
indigenous plants such as Crotalaria, Mimosa
and Desmodimus which could be grown in
many instances in such a dense manner that it
was impossible for any weeds to grow between
them.
ALL THESE PLANTS WHICH BELONGED TO THE
LEGUMINLOS@
and greatly benefited soils and rubber by their
growth, were under perfect control, and easily
eradicated. The alluvial flats of the
Federated Malay States required an enor-
mous amount of draining, costing large sums
of money, and even then much water re-
mained in the subsoil. Here, the growth of
a luxuriant green crop with a branching and
deep root system had the further important
advantage of removing by evaporation through
the leaves much of this sour sub-soil water, which
was unfavourable to development of the rubber
tap root on which the stability of the trees
during heavy winds largely depended, It has
495
been clearly proved that the baking of the sur-
face by the sun did notdry soil or subsoil so
completely as did a growing leaf crop. But
apart from these considerations there were
other and more important ones of the question
of the humus, and the hygroscopic power of the
soil by which the future flow of the latex would
be influenced te a large extent. The
GROWTH OF GREEN CROPS IN PLACE OF CLEAN
WEEDING
has also long been advocated by Mr Carruthers,
the Director of Agriculture in the F.M.S., and
it seemed that clean weeding would soon be
abandoned on many estates and become a thing
of the past. The lecturer alluded to the ad-
vantages often to be obtained by the cultivation
of catch crops where the soil and other conditions
were favourable. Mr Bamber dealt very fully
with the question of tapping and, efter describing
the methods in general use, he referred to the
basal V. system as the cheapest and probably
the best, both for economy of bark and for
strength of latex. He especially emphasized the
bearing which this method of tapping would
have upon the labour question, but pointed out
that the successful adoption of this would de-
pend to sone extent on soil conditions. He
DEPRECATED THE TAPPING OF TREES TOO YOUNG
giving five or six years as a minimum ageand he
insisted on the need of the greatest care both
in field and factory to get pure latex and free
from any mechanical mixture, and also on the
necessity of economy of bark in tapping opera-
tions. A falling off of the percentage of
caoutchouc to below the payable minimum in-
dicated the need for resting the tree, and this
was a point to which planters should give more
attention. He compared Brazilian and Eastern
methods of tapping to give a possible explana-
tion of why Brazilian Rubber had _ greater
tensile strength which he ascribed to the
greater maturity of the globules in the Latex.
With regard to renewal of bark he pointed out
that the bark had now been renewed two or
three times the yield from which was as great or
even greater than fromthe original, thus show-
ing the permanency of rubber production might
from this point of view be reasonably assumed.
Reference was made to
PRACTICE OF BRAZILIAN TAPPERS
who invariably make one or two gashes in the
treesabout 3 ft. above the tapping area before
they commence to tap, as they believe without
these they could not obtain maximum crop.
The idea underlying the practice was one which
he thought might be commended to considera-
tion of planters in the Hast. Proceeding next
to deal with methods of manufacture Mr. Bam-
ber urged the need for obtaining uniformity in
colourand appearance. Palerubber produced by
THE DESTRUCTION OF OXYDASE BY HEAT
was generally approved by manufacturers ; many
German. and other firms had declared that the
demand for it would be practically unlimited if
ample supplies could be relied upon to reach the
market, The lecturer specially referred to the
necessity of using only the purest water in the
factories. Importance of not too rapidly drying
rubber was borne out by lecturer whose views
on this point were more or less confirmed in
subsequent discussion, Nett results, he said,
496
had been obtained fromthe quickly dried pro-
duct which were far from satisfactory and he
expressed belief that although it was impossible
to say definitely which was the best method of
drying there was reason to believe that too rapid
and complete drying would be found a serious
mistake, and that they might be sacrificing
some strength, elasticity and lasting power by
the process.
Mr. Bamber mentioned also that Continental
buyers seemed strongly in favour of rubber
being exported in block from 1 inch to 14 inches
thick and about a foot square.
RUBBER GROWERS AND MANUFAC-
TURERS’ BANQUET.
REPORT OF PROCEEDINGS.
Av OtymptrA, THURSDAY, 24TH SeEpT., 1908.
At the above dinner,
Str Henry BLAake—proposed the Loyal
Toasts ; and then, again rising, proposed the
Rubber Industry. He said he must congratu-
late this assemblage on the great success of
the first International Rubber and Allied
Trades Exhibition ever held. They had got
together planters, growers and others interested
in rubber from all parts of the world. He
hoped to see the day when rubber would be
reduced—he would not say to what price in
the presence of those who were interested in
getting as much as possible for the material
they produced. His view was. that if rubber
was considerably cheaper, it could be put to
such multifarious uses—one alone being the
paving of streets, of which in London alone there
were 5,000 miles—that the bogey of over-pro-
duction need not to be considered at all. He had
hoped to see more manufacturers present, and
felt sure that at the next Exhibition in 1910
this would be the case. He had not hearda
single complaint nor of a discordant note,
and he had never had experience of any
Exhibition conducted with so much success,
and he congratulated the Organising Manager,
Mr. Staines Manders, on the result of his
labours, He invited his hearers to drink to
to the great industry whose interests they
were all endeavouring to promote. (Loud and
continued applause).
Mr. J. Lovpon SHanp—in responding to
this toust, said that he found himself in a
osition which no planter cared to be, viz.,
ie was a substitute.
MR. RUTHERFORD
would have replied for the great industry he
that moment represented ; but as he .-
HAD TO DEPART FOR BRITISH COLUMBIA
the following morning, it was impossible for him
to be present. He would, with permission of
the President, read a letter addressed to that
gentleman by Mr. Rutherford, which would
explain matters :— ue
Oxford Court, Cannon Street, E.C., 21st Sept., 1908.
Sir Henry A. Blake, G.C,M.G.
Dear Sir Henry,—I regret exceedingly my inability to be
present at the Rubber Growers’ and Manufacturers Banquet
on Thursday evening as I am on the eve of leaving for British
Columbia. As Chairman of the Rubber Growers’ Associa-
tion I would like to convey to you on behalf of the members
of that body, their great appreciation of the keen interest
you have taken in making the Exhibition a success. From
the inception of the idea of the fultilment lof its purposes
we owe you much for the personal efforts and enthusiasm
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
you have shewn in everything that could further the in-
terests of the Rubber Industry. I feel convinced that the
interchange of ideas among experts, growers, and manu-
facturers which has taken place will prove of the greatest
possible advantage to us as growers, and that the work
of this Exhibition will bear profitable fruit in enabling us
to avoid mistakes in curing through imperfect knowledge.
From a Grower’s point of view if the Exhibition had no
other result than shewing us how we could so improve
the treatment of our Rubber as to meet entirely the re-
quirements of manufacturers that gain alone would be
sufficient to justify the holding of such an Exhibition. I
trust we shall have the advantage once again of your leader-
ship in the Exhibition proposed to be held two years’ hence
by which time great strides will undoubtedly have been
made in all branches of the Industry.—Yours very truly,
(Signed) H. K. RUTHERFORD,
Chairman of the Kubber Growers’ Association.
Colonel BoswortH—then proposed
THE VISITORS.
It afforded him great pleasure to propose this
toast on this unique occasion, viz. at the first
International Rubber and Allied Trades Exhi-
bition ever held. Men of science, planters,
manufacturers and others had assembled from
every corner of the globe, tolearnand teach.
He warmly welcomed the visitors from every
part of the Empire, from across the Atlantic,
and from other great nations of the world.
These meetings did more for the goodwill of
mankind than any Peace Conferences. He
specially welcomed the representatives of the
tachnical press, who, with a loud voice and
letters which remain, expressed themselves as
clelighted with the treatment received at the
hands of the Committee, particularly with the
facilities accorded them for obtaining infor-
mation with reference to the conferences. The
toast was received with much enthusiasm.
Mr. Louis Horr—of the Hurburg and Vienna
Rubber Works—responded in the following
terms: MrChairmanand gentlemen, itaffordsme
great pleasure and I regard it as a great honour
to have been asked to reply to this toast, but
I trust you will be indulgent to me, if, in my
attempt to address you in English I should not
perhaps succeed in conveying my thoughts in
adequate and appropriate terms. However,
wishing to be understood by all assembled at
this festive gathering, I held it best to use the
language of the country where we the visitors
from abroad have met with so cordial a welcome,
and with such kind and sumptuous hospitality.
And now permit me first of all to express
my thanks and those of the visitors for the
kind words of welcome addressed to us by Sir
Henry Blake, our worthy Chairman, In doing
so most heartily, I feel that I cannot do better
than echo the words he has so eloquently spoken,
being convinced that this Exhibition will be of
immense benefit and far-reaching consequence
for the industries interested in the Rubber
Trade. I am sure that [ but express the senti-
ments ofall the visitors assembled here, when
I say that this first Exhibition of its kind has
emphatically demonstrated tothe whole world
the importance of our industry, and when we
think of the enormous amount of labour, of
trouble, and of sacrifices that was necessary to
avert the danger of the want of raw material
with which our industry was threatened, we
cannot but
ADMIRE AND APPLAUD THE FAR-SIGHTED POLICY
OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT;
for we must not forget that it was the british
Government which wisely initiated and sub-
sequently supported the first practical attempts
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
at the establishment of Rubber Plantations in
the Island of Ceylon. We are thus now enabled
to look forward with confidence that there need
henceforth be no fear of their being insuflicient
raw material for the ever growing wants of our
industry. For that industry, developed as it
has, with rapid strides, is ever developing, will
continue to develop, and will constantly extend
to fresh branches of trade and manufacture.
Consequently its wants will likewise be con-
stantly on the increase. That being so, the
system of establishing and fostering fresh plan-
tations wherever the soil and the climate ave
suitable for the cultivation of rubber, should be
extended and promoted by all Governments.
The work should be approached with zeal and
alacrity alithe more because it is sure to pay.
Expressing my personal opinion I venturs to
say that
WE CANNOT GET RNOUGH RAW MATERIAL,
and thatthe more its production is increased,
the more fields will be opened up for the use of
Caoutchouc. Why it would not in the least sur-
prise me if with the cheaponing of rubber, it
would eventually provide material for the pay-
ing of our streets. Owners of plantations must
not be discouraged if the yield of profits does
not realise their expectations. We all know
that there are ups and downs in every trade
and every industry, but I am firmly convinced
that with increased production and greater ex-
perience in the means of obtaining raw rubber,
THE COST OF CULTIVATION WILL VERY
MATERIALLY DECREASE,
so that the economy on Rubber Plantations will
result in satistactory returns to all concerned.
In connection with this, here, allow me to give
expression of my special thanks to Mr. Backle-
ton for his efforts to awaken among those in-
terested in that culture the idea of this exhibi-
tion. Hehasthereby induced me to come to
London, The entire international industry bas
a great interest in this show, and itis the first
time where those interested in our branch have
come from al! parts of the globe to meet and to
exchange their views. I hope that there may
again be occasion before many years have passed
tor the holding of a second similar exhibition.
Such a future Exhibition will, 1 believe, arouse
even greater attention than the present one, in
consequence of the undoubtedly great success of
this show. In conclusion, Sir, I will, with your
permission, call upon the visitors to rise in their
places, and drink the health of the Committee,
aud especially of that of Sir Henry Blake, our
Chairman. (‘‘ Hip, Hip, Hurrah.”)
Mr. N H Witt—Commissioner for Amazonas—
also responded. He said: Sir Hepvry Blake and
entlemen, to me falls the agreeable task to join
Mr. Hoff in the response for the feast which
Colonel Bosworth so kindly offered to the
visitors. May f ask for your kind indulgence if
my words do not come up to what sentiments
it is my desire to express to you.
1 AM ONLY A RUBBER MAN,
not one of those who have to do with Plan-
tation Rubber, and whose life—from what I
can hear and make out—is all sunshine; but one
of those who had during the greater part of
their life to deal with hard cure Amazonas rub-
ber, a life full of work and trouble but of very
63
497
few dinners and after-dinner speeches, I have
often thought whether hard cure rubber was not
calledso by the fact that it isso very hard to
make money withit. Well, here I standbefore you
REPRESENTING MY FRIENDS ON THE AMAZONAS
where this hard cure rubber comes from, to
convey to you their heartiest thanks for the
kindness and hospitality shown to their repre-
sentative. Many yearsago onthe great Amazon
river, with its immense tributaries only canoes
were being used ; occasionally a sailing vessel
would connect its different townships. British
enterprise sent over from Hurope a big fleet of
river steamers which ply now on the mighty
viver and connects its remotest parts with the
rest of the world. British enterprise and energy
again established first a rapid over-sea com-
raunication. The Booth Steamship Co, takes
away the richos the tropical forests produce and
brings back in return the goods manufactured
by Europe and the United States in its fine
fleet of steamers; when trade developed,
British enterprise laid a sea cable down to
Para and connected later ali Para with Manaos
by a cable laid down in the bed of the Amazon.
I hope the time will also come when British
and other foreign capital will partake in get-
ting the produce out of these wonderfully vast
and rich forests to a larger extent than has
been the case so far. Now, as for rubber
YOU SAID—WHY SHALL WE NOT CONQUER
NATURE ITSELF
and the wild growing rubber trees ; why not
plant and cultivate them and collect rubber
from these plantations in the same way as we
collect tea, coffee and other tropical produce ?
But hardly had you succeeded to some extent
in doing so, when you said in true Enelish
goodfellowship and liberality, let us invite all
the nations of the world interested in rubber
growing, let us tell them our experience and
have an exchange of ideas, let us have an In-
ternational Rubber Exhibition from which all
the worid may derive a benefit. So we have
come from all parts of the tropical world and
you have received us with open arms and
made us feel at home amongst you. Great has
been the benefit we have derived from this In-
ternational exchange of ideas and we leave
you a good deal wiser than wo came, Allow
me, Sir Henry Biake, and gentlemen, to thank
you most heartily on behalf of my friends on
the Amazonand myself for your kindness and
hospitality.
Mr. BuckLETon—proposed
Tus TecwnicaL Pruss,
whose valuable work everyone recognised, and
whose good-will towards this Exhibition had
been so amply demonstrated.
Mr. H CU Pearson—responded, He really
thought that on the whole the Technical Press
worked for the good of the industries they
represented. The day of the blackmailing
technical press was nearly past and an honest
endeavour was made by them, speaking generally,
to uphold the interests of those for whom they
wrote, whilst also taking care to preserve their
own, Personally he was extremely proud of
this Exhibition, (Loud applause.)
498
Mr. Norman GRIEVE--proposed the
HEALTH OF THE CHAIRMAN.
He expatiated on the extraordinary interest
Sir Henry Blake had taken in every detail of
the work, which had been extremely hard, and
emphasised the gratitude felt’ by everyone con-
nected with the Exhibition, from the highest
to the lowest, for his invaluable support. A
little movement had just been set on foot, (but
unfortunately too late to execute it that evening)
by which it was
INTENDED TO PRESENT SIR HENRY WITH A SLIGHT
MEMENTO
of this exhibition (loud applause) which would
be valued, he was sure, not because of its
intrinsic worth, but because of the good-will
which impelled those who had undertaken this
pleasurable duty to see it through. The in-
scription would be something like this:—
‘*Presented by a number of those interested to Sir
Henry Klake, G.C.M.G., President of the 1st Rubber and
Allied Trades Exhibition held in Englind, at Olympia,
in September, 1908, as a memento of their appreciation
of his services on that occasion,”
In conclusion, he asked everyone to stand and
drink the health of Sir Henry Blake, which
was done amidst loud and continued cheering,
cheers being also given for Lady Blake.
Sir Henry Blake’s Reply.
Sir Henry Brake—on rising—received an
ovation. He had not words in which to ex-
press his appreciation of the reception of this
toast, and particularly the reference to his
dear wife Lady Blake. He thanked them from
the bottom of his heart, and if by any effort
on his part the great Rubber Industry could
be helped, no man would be more pleased than
he. He again thanked them for the cordial
way in which his name had been received.
(Loud cheers.)
Sir Henry-—-again rising—said he must pro-
pose a toast which did not appear on the list,
viz., that of
COLONEL BOSWORTH, THE CHAIRMAN OF THE
EXECUTIVE COMMITTRE; AND MR A, STAINES
MANDERS, THE ORGANISING MANAGER.
They allknew how those two gentlemen had
worked for the good of the Exhibition, and they
must be proud of the success which had attended
their eftorts. Mr Staines Manders was one of
the most energetic men he had ever known, and
he proposed their health jointly. (Cheers.)
CoLonEL BoswortH—thanked those present
for the kind way in which they had received the
toast. If the work had at times been a little
hard, it was a labour of love, and more than com-
pensated by the acquaintances and sometimes
friends he had made during the Exhibition.
Mr A Sraings ManpEerRs—expressed his
gratitude for the way in which the toast had been
received and said that he claimed to have done
very little himself, and in his opinion most of
the credit was due to the various Committees,
who had worked in many parts of the world,
and whom he had never seen and probably
never would see. He certainly had been busy
during the Exhibition, so much so that he never
had time to properly look at the exhibits, but
he hoped to do so before the Exhibition closed.
It afforded him great pleasure to state that every
exhibitor had expressed his deep appreciation
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
of the way in which the Exhibition was con-
ducted, the benefits they had derived from*sit,
and, that many of them had intimated their
intention of participating in the Exhibition of
1910, and on that occasion taking largely in-
creased space, He again thanked them for
their assistance in carrying out his duties.
THe MENv.
The ‘‘Menu Du Diner” was as follows :—
Hors d@uvres a la Bamber—Consommé Olympia,
Créme du Hevea—Turbot Coagulation—Para Ham in
Substitute Jelly—Saddle of Mutton, Netherlands—
Poularde de F.M.S., Salade Coeur de Latex—Poires &
la Bresil, Friandises en Formaldehyde—Plantation Des-
sert—Café Mexico.
GUAVAS.
were never so plentiful and cheap in Rangoon
as they are at present. They come in from all
parts of the railway by car loads and also by
boats and steamer from Twanteand Kunyangon.
The price ranges from R3 to R5 per thousand.
Before the railway was opened they fetched
from 12 annas to R1-8 per hundred. Of late
years extensive gardens along the railway line
have been planted with them. ‘he cultivation
of guavas suits the Burmese, for the trees,
uaolike tho orange or durian, require no watering
or manuring. The fruit would no doubt improve
if the trees were watered and manured and a
little more care taken in the cultivation. There
are trees in gardens in the suburbs of the town
thirty years old and still bearing. In the dis-
tricts, 8 or 10 years is thought the limit of age
for guava trees and many die off after producing
fruit for 3 years.—Rangoon Gazette, Oct. 19.
REPORTED WHITE ANT CURE.
At least one competitor is forthcoming for the
handsome reward offered for the extermination
of white ants. The solution in question has been
tested by a planter and the result proved satis-
factory. The rubber tree on which the experi-
ment was tried was badly attacked; after the
application of the solution the ants were rapidly
killed off. Some considerable time afterwards
there was no sign of their re-appearance. An ex-
periment was made on affected roots with equal
success; the solution preserves the bark from
certain pests which attack it, No figures have
been given shewing the cost.—Malay Mail, Oct 19.
DISCOVERY OF NEW RUBBER-PRO-
DUCING PLANT IN MEXICO.
The Mexican Herald of 21st September re-
ports the discovery of a tree, called the palo
amarillo, which, according toa report by experts
appointed by the Mexican Government, will
take the placo of the guayule as arubber-
producing plant. It is said that the present
known supply of guayule will be exhausted
within seven years. I'he new discovery grows
wild in large numbers throughout Mexico and is
stated to yield 10 per cent of rubber and 40 per
cent of varnish and soap material, whereas
guayule yields about 8 per cent of rubber and
no by-products. A company has been formed
at New York, with a capital of 20 million dol-
lars, to work the palo amarillo._-Board of Trade
Journal, Oct. 8.
and Magazine of ihe Ceylon Agricultural Society.
WEEDING v. CROTALARIA FOR
RUBBER.
Some InreREstTING Points Discussep.
Mr W RB Rowland writes from Perhentian
Tinggi as follows :—
In his paper on ‘‘ Weeding in Para Rubber
Cultivation” in the September issue of the
Agricultural Bulletin the Director of Agricul-
ture, F: M. §., has touched upon a subject which
has not received anything near the amount of
attention it deserves. I have nothing to say
against Mr Carruthers’ theory of green manures ;
that, on the contrary, I believe, that, if Mr
Carruthers during the term of his office in the
F.M.S. had done nothing beside impressing
uponthe planters the desirability of modifying
this one branch of rubber estate cultivation,
this would be sufficient to make his name great
and to have it blessed by every man who has a
cent invested in rubber—if not now, certainly
a few years hence. The Director of Agriculture,
however, makes one mistake, which, in a scien-
tist is only natural : he gives to the delighted,
weed-ridden planter a theory, without sufficient
practical advice to make the theory a complete
success and disappointment will, in many in-
stances, be unavoidable.
Returning to the severely censured coffee
or tea planter of Ceylon and Malaya, my
personal experience for 13 years enables me
to speak of the latter only; from occasional
VISITS TO THE PRINCIPAL PLANTING CENTRES
OF CEYLON
I have, however, like probably most other
visitors, come away with the impression that
the men who have left such marks on a4
country as the old coffee and tea-planters did
there must have been something more than
mere hard plodding, unthinking drudges; tea
planting more particularly has developed into
such a fine science that I cannot help thinking
that men who have been successful in that
branch of tropical agriculture cannot have
gone on weeding merely because it had become
a time-honoured practice.
With all the heavy indictment of ‘‘weeding” I
would yet callit the young planter’s school of
discipline ; it isthe most severe test for a man’s
zeal, thoroughness and organising ability ; there
areno two interpretations of the term ‘’clean”
fora field, and there is nothing easier for a
manager or V A than to inspect and controla
clean-weeded estate and its superintendent.
With an as yet insufficient supply of labour in
many districts it is often impossible for even the
best man to keep a whole estate perfectly clean,
more particularly during the wet months; but
then heas weil as his V A will see ata glance
where the evil lies. This latter fact will, no
doubt, for ever andin aii cultivations reserve
to ‘‘weeding” the position of one of the most
important items in an estate’s expei diture.
I say ‘‘ in all cultivations,” and no doubt
FOR RUBBER CLEAN WEEDING Is AN ABSOLUTE
NECESSITY,
That rubber grows in weeds cannot be doubted;
in some districts I have seen it doing admirably;
’ but I have no hesitation in saying that it would
grow better without them. Virgin jungle soil
499
will during the first years neither become baked
nor, with a little draining, lose through wash
enough to hinder the development of the trees
which, without weeds to feed on their food, will
soon enough reach that stage where shade and
falling leaves will do away with both evils. To
get our trees into that condition is no doubt the
aim of the planter as well as_ the capitalist and
the latter more particularly will probably much
rather spend alittle more on his estate if he
can count upon getting queer returns,
As to lalang being allowed in any rubber
clearing, the Director of Agriculture certainly
does not take a_ sufficiently serious view of
this. To state that atree in lalang is handi-
capped to the extent of } of its growth
is certainly optimistic ; I know and could
show many instances where lalang has, on
very fair soil, not only checked the growth of
Para rubber toa far larger extent, but practic-
ally stopped it ; this refers to trees which were
surrounded by lalang at an early age, later on the
tree is, no doubt, able to hold its own better.
As regards the growing of tapioca and other
catch-crops with a view to making weeding un-
necessary, I am inclined to think that a green-
manure which reduces the cost of weeding and
simultaneously enriches the soil, is, for most
men of ordinary expectations, quite good enough
and that those who expect too much—viz., no
weeding-bill, a tapioca-crop and a fine rubber—
may yet come to thing that ‘‘give” is better than
“take” when it comes to soils like ours of by no
means great fertility.
The doctrine of clean-weeding for rubber was
not only generally established, but also well-
founded when the Director of Agriculture be-
gan to preach green-manure; it is certainly his
merit to have brought up the topic andI would
nut wonder if a few years hence he is for that
called the greatest benefactor by planters as
well as capitalists.--Malay Mail, Oct. 15.
GREEN MANURING IN TEA GULTURE.
——s
(Special for the Statesman.)
The recent study of the manurial require-
ments of the tea bush, at Heeleaka Experi-
mental Station and on private estates, has
shown that the yield and health of our tea
bushes can be materially increased and improved
by a judicious use of greon-manures,.... It is
still a mvot point, however, whether the burial
of green-manures improves or lowers the quality
of our teas. ,.. The burial of prunings has been
condemned because of the risk of spreading
blights, but now that trenching 1s coming more
into vogue this risk can be greatly minimised y
burying the prunings deeyly. Large quantities
of green-manure might also, on many gardens,
be brought in from adjacent jungle and put in
trenches either along with cattle-manure or
with a sprinkling of basic slag.
An endeavour should be made to get jungle
as succulent as possible to ensure its rapid
decomposition and incorporation with the soil,
Unfortunately large quantities of succulent jun-
gle cannot always be had when labour is avail.
able, but when it is borne in mind that green
manure is equal weight for weight to cattle.
manure it will be found, in many cases, advisable
to go further atield for this valuable material,
500
The hoeing-in of green-manure acts bene-
ficially in many ways.,.. The essential con-
ditions necessary to be effective are plants that
will grow quickly so as to interfere as little as
possible with cultivation, that will give a large
crop of vegetable matter, and that will pene-
trate deeply into the subsoil, ... The crops
that so far have given the best results are mati-
kalai (Phaseolus mungo), dhaincha (Sesbania
cannabina), arahar dhal (Cajanus indicus), and
Crotolaria striata.
Dhaincha has come greatly into favour re-
cently and shares with mati-kalai honours for
first place: in the estimation of many planters
dhaincha is the more suitable plant as it grows
and gives a good crop on land where mati-
kalai proves a failure. One point in favour of
mati-kalai is that it is very rich in nitrogen.
Beneficial results have been obtained by
growing arahar dhal on land from which old
bushes have been uprooted and replanted with
youg tea; the texture of the partially exhausted
soil has been greatly improved, and the burial
of organic matter and ready available plant-food
has given the young bushes their needed start.
Crotolaria striata proved a failure as a green
manuring crop at Heeleaka, but good results
have in many cases been obtained by sowing in
June and hoeing-under in November.
Wild leguminous plants are found in all tea
districts and in selecting any for green-manuring
preference should be given to those growing
luxuriantly in the neighbourhood.
Bogga medeloa (Tephrosia candia) is now
grown very extensively on light soil and has
proved of great value: large quantities of suc-
culent shoots are cut from the plants and buried
at each round of hoeing.
It is a perennial, but in scme districts the
plants die when only two years old,......
When the great improvement that can be
effected in the tilth and fertility of tea soils by
the addition of organic matteris taken into
consideration it is difficult to understand why
up-to-date planters goin for green-manuring on
80 small a scale,
Of course, there is the all-important question
of labour, but few estates are so short-handed
that they could not annually hoe organic matter
into, at least, one-sixth of their area under tea,
—Statesman, Nov. 1. THEA,
FORESTS AND RAINFALL.
USEFUL FACTS FOR THE TROPICS.
There is always a suspicion of a Forest Officer
magnifying his office when he attempts to show
the great and beneficial influence of Forests on
Rainfall. Forty to fifty years ago, there was a
school that insisted that forests directly at-
tracted rain-clouds which would otherwise pass
over without precipitation ; and so warnings
were frequent as to the evil effects of the denu-
dation of forest anywhere in hill or low country.
Our reply was that the attraction lay in the
mountain ranges, and that a difference of 50 to
80 feet in the trees which grow on their sides
and summits could make little or no difference.
At the same time, we fully admitted the serious
risk which attended heavy falls of rain on cleared
land, tending to sudden floods and later on to
a want of the water supply which would have
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
gradually, but surely, run down from forest-
covered land. Tneremedy to a considerable ex-
tent came when clearings got well covered with
coffee, tea and cacao-bushes, and still further
when tillage allowed the rainfall to penetrate
properly into the soil. Neverthless, there is much
to be said for the Colonial Office rule that no
more forest land should be alienated in Ceylon
from 5,000 ft. above sea-level upwards, more es-
pecially with reference to the conservation of
the actual rainfall in these regions. But that
does not affect the argument for utilising to some
extent the wide extent of cultivable land be
tween Dimbula and Haputale without at all cut-
ting down any forest; for the anomaly of a first-
class railway running through some 15 miles of
waste land without producing any development
or deriving any traffic, cannot continue for
ever. Itisall right so long as the Colony is
otherwise abundantly prosperous and there is
no difficulty in making both ends meet. Should
that difficulty ever arise, waste land suited to
profitable cultivation will not be allowed to
remain idle even in the higher regions along
the Railway. But this is all aside from the
matter we wish to put before our readers
today. It is to draw attention to a new and
striking view of ‘the effect of forests on rain-
fall,” which we find described in the Indian
Forester for the present month. It is based on
investigations made by French scientists which
demonstrate that in an average forest the area
of the leaves is at least ten times the area of
the ground which supports the forest. It is
further asserted that as all rainfall is directly
dependent on evaporation for its supply, and
as the amount of water evaporated from a given
area of leafsurface is sixty times the quantity eva-
porated from a free surface of water, —it follows
that the amount of moisture given off, under
similar conditions, from an acre of forest is 600
times the amount evaporated from a free sur-
face of water of the same area. ‘The proportion
of land to water on the world’s surface is as 1 to
3 and 1-4th of the land area is supposed to be -
under forest and then it follows that from 1-16th
of the globe’s surface under forest, 50 times as
much water is evaporated as from the water sur-
face of the world! From this it is scientific-
ally inferred that the rainfall of the world is
chiefly dependent on its forests, and, therefore,
of course, a new and vastly increased Importance
is given to the work of afforestation, more espe-
cially in countries (like India) which are liable
to famines due to failure of rainfall—although it
has yet to be shown that the ways of the Mon-
goons correspond with the attraction offered by
forest-covered tracts of country.
NIGERIAN REPORT ON MALAYA,
(Colonial Office Journal October.)
On the subject of the cost of plantations, an
interesting report by Mr N C McLeod, Deputy
Conservator of Forests in Southern Nigeria,
based on a visit made to the Hederated Malay
States, has been laid before the Legislative
Council of Southern Nigeria. Mr McLeod states
that rubber is being grown in the Federated
Malay States on land previously under some other
crop or in fresh clearings, In the former case
a
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
the planter merely puts down his stumps or seedl-
ings at any interval he fancies between rows of
coffee, cocoa or sugar cane, and, as the rubber
trees grow older, gradually removes the original
crops, thus affording more growing space to the
rubber. The Paratree inthe Federated Malay
States is propagated by seed from trees at least
eight or ten years old. Large quantities of seed
are sent abroad which are obtained from trees
of younger age, but the planter in the Peninsula
prefers seeds from mature trees for his own use.
Mr McLeod thinks that rubber plantations in
Southern Nigeria would be very profitable, His
calculation is as follows :—
“‘In the Malay Peninsula the average wage of
a coolieis 27 cents per diem, which is equivalent
in English money to 74d., or about thesame rate
at which labourers by the month are paid in
Southern Nigeria, so that figures given by Mr
Arden (pages 84-86, Johnson’s book on Para) for
opening up and maintaining a plantation in the
Federated Malay States may be taken as a very
fair guide.
‘‘Inthe Federated Malay States, Para trees
became productive in five years. but I propose to
allow seven years inthe case of Southern Nigeria.
“* Cost of opening up 500 acres and maintaining
till plantation is productive :—
‘* First year $25,275
‘ For next six years
at $9,900 $59,400
** Total Ree $84,675 or £9,878 15s.
“ Allowing compound interest at 4 per cent
on expenditure from the first year to the end of
theseventh, would bring the total up to £12,694,
If the treesare planted 2u ft. by 20 ft. z,2., 108 to
the acre, and the average yield per trea be taken
as J41b por annum (6 months tapping), the yield
would he (500 by 108 by 13 lb.)—
‘Selling price at 2s 6d per lb.
500 by 108 by 13
—— = £10,125
be
—
‘‘ If plantation expenses, cost of manufacture
of rubber and freight to Europe, be put down at
£2,125 per annum (a very high figure), a hand-
some profit of £8,000 would result.”
This calculation is pretty much in accord with
the usual estimate of £20—30 as the cost of
bringing a rubber estate to the productive stage
per acre. Inthe Federated Malay States it is
generally found that one coolie is required for
two acres while the trees are growing and one to
each acre when they are producing. Labour is
the principal item, and the cost and scarcity of
labour is likely to prevent cultivation in Rhodesia
andthe ‘Transvaal. In West Africa there isa
great field, but the climatic conditions are un-
suited to the private settler, andthe work will
be left to thenative growers and to companies
and syndicates which can acquire large areas
and organise industry. The treatment is often
slovenly, and the impurities found in West Afri-
can rubber affect the price unfavourably.
The figures taken by Mr McLeod in the above
calculation seem to be on the safe side. He gives
108 trees to the acre, but 120 can easily be grown;
and a yittd of 14 lb per annum per treo, wherdéas
o0l
2 lb are frequently obtained from a mature tree.
The other crops which can be obtained while the
rubber trees are growing, such as cassava, tapioca
or ground-nuts, may also be taken into account.
RUBBER IN NIGERIA : CURIOUS
VALUING.
Upcountry, Oct. 30th.
Dear S1r,—In your issue of the 27th instant
is an extract from another paper on the subject
of Rubber planting in Nigeria which a Deputy
Conservator of Forests avers can be carried on
in that Colony at about thejsame outlay as tin
Malaya. This gentleman estimates that 500
acres of Rubber ia bearing can be worked, and
the produce also placed on the European market
for R64 per acre !
But the mere tapping and curing of Rubber
costs in Malaya from 66 cents to 84 cents of a
rupee per lb; and, taking the Conservator’s own
figures of 162 Ib of Rubber per acre, the cost of
collecting, curing, etc, must run to at least R107
per acre! Suthat this sum multiplied by five-
‘hundred must necessarily;be"deducted from the
enchanting round figures of £8,000 perannum
rofit, which the Conservator promises the
igerian planter !
Surely such estimates tmust lead many people
ignorant of ‘‘ Rubber” to rush for shares among
the over-capitalised
“WILD CATS
(Certainly the report should have been
‘‘edited”” by an expert before being offic
published.—Eb., C.0.]
LIFE ON A TOBACCO ESTATE iN
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO.
An experience extending over 20 years of the
Tobacco Estates of this country, and the little
insight of their working, I have been able to
glean from time to time during my frequent
visits as Magistrate and Protector,emboldens me
to hope that a brief resumé of them may not be
without interest to some of your readers.
As the first streaks of early dawn begin to
make their appearance, this is at 5-30, the Opas
(Estate Policeman) sounds the “tong tong,”
which is a piece of the trunk of a tree hollowed
out and suspended from a beam, and when struck
emits a hollow resonant sound which can be
heard at a great distance; it awakens the
coolics to the consciousness of another day’s
work fast approaching, as at 6 o’clock the tandils
(Chinese foremen) and Mandores (Malay fore-
men) come and call them out to work the nature
of which varies according to the season.
_ When the heavy rains are over, that is to say
in February or March, the jungle has to be
felled and burned; this, when thick virgin jungle
is being cleared, is very heavy work. Tobacco
being a very exhausting crop, it cannot be plan-
ted on the same land a second time, until after
the lapse of 7 years, it will thus be seen that new
estates have to look forward for some years to
this recurring hard work before they can hope
to go back to their original lands ; when that
can be done, this preliminary work is much
easier. The burning finished, the resultant wood
ash supplies a valuable adjunct in the form of
sulphates,
502
In addition to avery favourable climate and
soil, one of the advantages of growing tobacco
here is that no manuring is required, the aro-
matic principles, on the preseuce of which the
value of the tobacco chiefly depends, can only
be properly developed in the plant by the agency
of high temperature and moisture. The soil is
of a light friable sandy nature, rich in vegetable
mould, and is supplied with the other necessary
chemical constituents, viz : potash and lime, by
the burning of the jungle and the blending of
the wood ash.
The next operation is the changkoling (turn-
ing over) of the soil, digging up the roots and
piling them together ; these in their turn have
to be burnt; during this time the coolies are
also preparing seedlings, which are planted in
beds 3 teet by 18 feet, carefully shaded, and
watered twice daily; at the expiration of 45
to 50 days these young plants (called bibits)
are ready for planting out; they are placed
18 inches apart in rows running parallel to
each other at a distance of 36 inches, when
this has been done they are shaded from the
slanting rays of the sun by shade planks (small
square slips of wood) which, after ten days,
are taken away and the ground on either side of
the plants earthed up in the form of ridges, about
6 inches high; at this stage the weaklings are
plucked out and stronger fresh bibite substituted.
Much now depends on the weather, as the
burning is delayed and hindered by heavy rains,
so the growth of the young plants is fostered,
or retarded, by frequent hght rains, or the
absence of them.
The principal growth of tobacco is accom-
plished in the hottest weather, and in a period
of about 8 to9 weeks during which time the
cooly has to watch his plants carefully and
see that no grubs are feeding on them;
these are the scourge of the plant, and
eat large holes in the leaf thereby greatly
depreciating its market value; suckers, small
shoots growing from the stem of the plant
just above the leaf, also commence to appear,
these have to be taken off, as they retard the
development of the leaf.
A good average tree consists of about 30 leaves
but trees have been known to yield over double
that number. When they have arrived at matu-
rity and attained a height of about 6 feet ‘‘pick-
ing’ begins, the lower leaves being taken off
. first ; about this time the tree is also ‘topped’ i.e.
the flower—which is small and ofa pale pink
colour—is plucked off, allowing the top leaves
to develop and ripen, and in about 15 days the
tree can be cut, then it is hung up in the dryin
shed and after 25 days the leaves are picke
from the stem and bundled, the stem is then
thrown away. Meanwhile the lower loaves have
been taken into the shed, where they are sewn
in strings of 50, and then hung up to dry in re-
gular rows on a frame work of sticks, these again
after 20 to 25 days drying are bundled in fifties,
put in baskets, and carried to fermenting shed,
where they are placed in small ‘banks’ that is
heaps of say 6 feet by 10 feet and3 feet high
and containing about 1,000 lb. Fermentation
then commences, and later these banks are
paired, that is two or more joined together,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agricultwrist
and made into a larger heap, and so ott.
The turning over and_ blending is for
the purpose of setting a uniform heat and tem-
perature, the fermentation continues until a
temperature of 50 = Centigrade or 1220 Fahren-
heit is reached by which time the stable (bank)
will have reached a weight of about 40,000 lb
and eventually attains a temperature of 600 to
640 Cent. = 1400—147° Fah.
Then sorting the leaf commences, a most im-
portant and intricate work, always entrusted to
to the best and most experienced coolies, over-
looked by the manager and senior assistant.
First of all thecoolies sort the leaves by quality,
viz: light and dark shades, and broken leaf,
these again are divided up into about 20
different shades of colour such as dark, brown,
green, and yellow leaves, not spotted, and the
same colours but spotted, these are best quality,
and roughly speaking are sorted into 8 to 12
shades, then there are the rough, coarse, and
much spotted leaves, besides broken leaves; the
latter are sorted separately as ‘“‘much broken”
and ‘little broken,” all colours, after this they
are again sorted into lengths, a full sized
leaf being over 2 feet in length. 12 inch
and over are known as first length, 9 to
12 inch as second, 6 to 9 inch as third, and
under 6 inch as fourth length ; these are then
bundled 25 leaves together and brought to the
receiving room, where they are carefully in-
spected by 10 of the most expert coolies specially
paid for this work, and overlooked by an ex-
perienced European, badly sorted bundles reas
opened and rejected and the leaves returne
to the cooly to be again sorted and remade,
All the accepted bundles are then placed in
heaps preparatory to being ‘‘ baled,” that is
packed under pressure in matting, each bale
averaging 80 kilos or 1771b. English, which
are carefully marked and numbered, and are
then ready for shipment. I will endeavour to
send for your next issue some details of the
life of the workers on these estates.
W. H. P.
—British North Borneo Herald, Oct. 16.
TAPIOCA CULTIVATION.
— ——
‘Tapioca, Manioca or Cassava’ is the sub-
ject of the Royal Botanic Gardens Circular for
October, No. 13~a copy of which has reached
us today—being valuable notes by Mr Kelway
Bamber on the cultivation and preparation of
the above-named tuber. We quote two para-
graphs of interests as follows :—
‘In Java, the cost of harvesting and drying
is only 22 cents per picul, and_the dried product
sells at from $1°40 to $1°72 per picul, leaving a
profit of atleast $1°20 per picul. The yield in
Java is 28 piculs per acre, so that the profit
amounts to about $39°20, or £4. 6s. sterling
per acre.
“The dry climate prevailing in the Jaffna Dis-
trict, and the difficulty of getting an ample sup-
ply of pure soft water, except from tanks at
certain seasons, makes the latter process more
promising, and a few easily conducted experi-
ments would soon indicate how far the Jaffna
Tamil could grow the product ata profi ja?
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 503
SYNTHETIC RUBBERS i HAVE MET.
(By Henry C. Pearson, Editor, ‘India
Rubber World,” New York).
[Publishea by permission of Mr. A. Staines
Manders, Manager of the International Rubber
and Allied Trades Exhibition, London. The
article is copyright and will appear in the
Rocords of the Conference, to be published
shortly at 5s. 6d., which will contain over thirty
papers read at the Conference. ]
A great many years ago, the whole scientific
wrisslel which was neither very large nor very
scientific, spent a whole lot of time searching
for the philosopher’s stone, which, if I re-
member rightly if properly approached would
turn most anything into gold. We laugh at such
childish folly today, and spend our time hunt-
ing for a philosopher’s stone which shall turn
everything into Rubber. The transmutation of
caloids is the dream of the chemist as well as
the Experimentor, The only trouble is they
don’t transmute.
If he were correctly quoted—
PROFESSOR WYNDHAM DUNSTAN
in 1906 went on record before the British Asso-
ciation that Synthetic Rubber would be an
accomplished fact within the year. Hxactiy
where it would break out he did not indicate,
nor whether it would be characterised by mild
or virulent symptons. 1 should like to say
ersonally that my acquaintance with synthetic
Rappers of certain sorts dates back to many
years.
It goes without saying that whena man really
discovers synthetic Rubber, he is more or less
secretive about the materials of which the
artificial gum is made; indeed that constantly
growing class of discoverers whom newspapers
introduce to us from time to time are the most
secretive men I have ever met. It was nearly
25 years ago that I was first brought into con-
tact with a gentleman who was apparently an
honest blunt hard-working experimenter, who
in a private room behind locked doors showed
me a small sample of what appeared to be dry
fine Para Rubber. It gave outa faint odour
of winter green, which he explained was added
to it to destroy an odour that might lead some
imitator to a knowledge of ingredients used
in its manufacture. He assured me earnestly,
calling upon the Creator of real Rubber to be
his witness, that it was wholly an artificial pro-
duct, and contained no atom of Caoutchouc ;
further than that, in a burst of confidence he
agreed to let me see some of the materials from
which the product was made. With much
secrecy we crossed the city, let ourselves into
the basement of his house, which was part
workshop and laboratory, where I was shown
agum, which I partially identified as Kauri
and a grease which looked like cocoa-butter.
There was a faint smell of bisulphide of carbon
in the air, aud he acknowledged that he used
this solvent at a certain stage of the process
and upon heating and the addition of a secret
material, rubber appeared floating upon the
liquid,
While we were talking, an eminent and some-
what grasping capitalist appeared, claimed;he
was there by appointment, which I did not
believe then, but do now, and at once went into
executive sessions with the inventor, leaving
me on the outside. It was a bitter blow to
thus have
MILLIONS TORN 80 RUDELY FROM MY GRASP,
articularly as I had mentally already squan-
dered several hundred thousand pounds. How-
ever, I was out and had to make the best of
it. As for the gentleman who was in, just
to complete the story, it might be well to add
that he erected a specious factory in which were
strange machinery secret rooms, glass floors and
other unusual and expensive paraphernalia; and
for a number of.years paid, while the inventor
toiled, until one day the building was closed
and has remained so up to the present time.
From that day to this neither the Capitalist
nor the Inventor could be induced to say a
word about their experiments or why they
failed, I fancy the reason the Capitalist would
not talk is because he lost a great deal of money
through the venture ; and the only reason the
Inventor doesn’t talk is because he is dead. In
the bottle marked A. is a sample of this type of
synthetic rubber.
One of the Presidents of the United States
had a relative who had a little money and was
anxious to make more. He therefore intrusted
some £8,000 of it intothe hands of a cultured,
gentlemanly, persuasive chemist, who had
brought to him some twenty pounds of what
appeared to be high grade rubber, which the
chemist, by the use of many technical terms
wholly incomprehensible to the ordinary busi-
ness man, assured him was an entirely synthetic
production. Theeight thousand pounds went
tor the equipment ofa little factory near New
York City ; the erection of a secret room from
which day light was excluded and only a certain
shade of red lignt allowed to illumine and _ in-
cidentally some very excellent champagne sup-
pers at New York’s most expensive hosteleries,
It was just about as the initial investment was
about exhausted that the matter was brought to
my attention, and in this way. With great
secrecy
A 10, 20 OR 50 MILLION DOLLAR COMPANY
was projected and all the machinery for
selling much stock was secretly set in mo-
tion. One of the wealthy men approached, had
a lawyer wbo knew something about rubber and
was very much of an investigator, he came to
me first to size up the probabilities and to out«
line a method of investigation. The first move
was to insist that the rubber be made in his
presence. This was agreed to, but the Inventor
stipulated that no Chemist be present. The
Lawyer was then given a list of ingredients
which he was to purchase and carry to the fac-
tory. These amounted to about twenty pounds
There is at the present time in the United
States a factory in a prosperous town, with a
high fence round it, with guards in evidence
night and day, where a little old man is at work
trying to do on a commercial scale what ho
alleges to have done in the laboratory, and that
is to produce synthetic rubber from certain oils,
504
He has been at it some three years, is backed by
very heavy capitalists, further than this, a very
distinguished American Chemist and physicist
who is miles above any suspicion of either
collusion or lack of knowledge, has possession
of the formula and under the inventor’s guidance
made the gum himself and says over his own
signature that the product is real synthetic
ribbon he said this some three years ago, and
his verdict resulted in the erection of a factory
and the attempt to get out a commercial pro-
duct. Without cataloguing the many delays
that had followed the erection of the factory-
due to the lack of purity of material, the im-
possibility of getting certain machinery, un-
fortunate breakdown etc.
I wanted to say that if this is real
synthetic rubber the inventor has gone far
beyond anything that synthesis was hereto-
fore been able to accomplish; for he has
REPRODUCED ABSOLUTELY UP RIVER FINE PARA
not only in textures, colour, compounding capa-
city, and vulcanising ability, but he has suc-
cessfully imitated the peculiar smoky smell in-
dividual in that type of rubber. Itis to be
hoped that when he gets to making different
kinds of rubber on a large scale, and begins
to manufacture synthetic Africans he will not
insist upon reproducing their smell. In the
jar marked C isthe synthetic para of the smoky
smell. I hope you don’t think that Yankees
are the only ones who indulge in synthetic
‘* pipe dreams.”
In an English paper of September 4th I read
that Synthetic Rubber is now being made at
Burton-on-Trent and is called Burton Rub-
ber. I have not seen it; nor do [I know
the chemist, who may be the most honest
and capable man on the face of the earth, but
if he can make synthetic rubber commercially,
WHY DOES HE SEEK NEWSPAPER PUBLICITY
instead of making and selling the product? [fhe
found nuggests of gold in his backyard, would
he write 7he Times pages of argument to prove
they were really gold ?—or would he quietly dig
them up and put them into circulation? Just
what base he works from is difficult to tell, but
from his published formula the compounds
would seem to be equal parts of Old Burton Ale
and offensive smell.
In the bottle marked B. is what was given
me as a sample of partially synthetic rubber
made along lines which appeared tobe new. As
you all know the latex of a young Castilloa tree
contains a great deal more resin than the latex
of an old tree. The gum in the young tree
containing about 40 per cent, while that in the
mature tree about 7 per cent.
The theory of the producer of this semi-syn-
thetic Rubber was that the tree in maturing
turned its own resins into rubber. That by
proper treatment of this resinous latex, the
inventor could do just what nature did. I
could not see at the time that he did
it and certainly the sample on_ exhibition
does not prove his claim. When I first put it
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
in the bottle it was very resilent, but contained
40 per cent of resin.
Of course you are all aware of
PROFESSOR TILDEN’S EXPERIMENTS IN
BIRMINGHAM,
where he succeeded in producing minute particles
of India Rubber from Terpenes. These results
are of high scientific value but itis a question
if they will ever be of the slightest commer-
cial value, because it is going to be easier and
cheaper to produce rubber latex bearing a
large percentage of India Rubber, than to pro-
duce vegetable oils containing very minute
qualities of India Rubber.
It is impossible to consider a subject like this
without coming in touch with a great variety of
substitutes for rubber that have been and still
are in use toa certain degree in rubber manu-
facture. The rubber manufacturers know of
course, but none of these are in any way real
substitutes for the crudegum. They can be used
in connection with India Rubber and often times
add certain qualities to the compound thatare of
value, but there are very few places where they
can be used alone in place of rubber. The most
widely known of these are
THE OIL SUBSTITUTES
which are so common that they need no expla-
pation as regards their manufacture or use.
There are also certain of the natural hydrocar-
bons such as mineral rubber, which are of defi—
nite use in adding certain quantities to many
lines of rubber compounding.
There is just one word of caution that the
honest producer of a rubber assistant should
have or else he will deceive himself, and for a
time deceive others. Suppose he is able to pro-
duce a fairly tough substitute that mixes well
with rubber and is in no way harmful, indeed
under test the vulcanised product containing his
assistant is stronger than the same vulcanised
product without it. He at once believes that he
has a wonderful product and perhaps he has, but
he has’t proved his case by such atest, In
fairness to himself and manufacturer,
he should test not against a compound
of pure gum and sulphur, but against com-
poundsthat certain earthy matter or matallic
oxides that we all know add toughness to rub-
ber compounds ; and if his is better or cheaper,
it is of value; otherwise not.
It has occurred to me that in bringing some
of my samples of rubber assistants here and
calling your attention to them, it might stimu-
late an interchange of ideas, both on the subject
of synthetic rubber and rubber substitutes,
which will be more valuable than a prolonga-
tion of this paper of mine. Frankly it’s a sub-
ject I don’t know much about, and—even when
am ina room full of Rubber experts—I don't
feel a bit isolated by my ignorance.
Every industry has its trials, and every manu-
facturer could easily state his ideas, of perfect
bliss in the absence of such trials. I fancy the
rubber man’s Utopia would be—cold water vul-
canisation—no trade discounts,and the ability to
produce synthetic rubber from sea water and air,
™,
a
\
ae
Vide page 522. Photo by H, F. Macmillan.
ANTHURIUM PANDURIFOLIUM.
vale Sees
TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST
AND
MAGAZINE OF THE
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
——
Vou. XXXI,
COLOMBO, DECEMBER 15rx, 1908,
No. 6.
Our Circulation.
While the circulation of the T,A. is
rising, it is not rising so fast as the
amount of planting enterprise in the
Tropics, and we should be glad of sug-
gestions from our subscribers as to fea-
tures that might be included.
We propose in this number to start a
column upon cookery of vegetable pro-
ducts, and shall be glad of articles from
ladies dealing with this subject. There
can be no doubt that a great improve-
ment is possible in general cookery in
Ceylon.
Wealso propose to increase the cor-
respondence by the insertion of a certain
amount of the departmental correspon-
dence carried on at Peradeniya, giving
the letters and our replies, of course
with the names of the writers concealed.
We shall also be glad of original
papers under any of the heads already
existing, as well as Poultry Notes,
Notes on Gardening, Shikar Stories, &e.
It must be clearly recognised by the
public that it is absolutely impossible
for the Editor, even with the assistance
of the whole staff of the Botanical
Department, to write original matter,
or even to translate foreign papers,
enough to fill more than a small pro-
portion of so bulky a periodical as the
T.A., and that most of it must be ‘* paste
and scissors.” Many people who com-
plain of the absence of original matter
would be surprised if they were to
measure the amount actually contained
—enough to more than fill most of the
rival journals of other count ries.
506
i
GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS.
THE COLLECTION OF PARA
RUBBER ON THE AMAZON, AND
ITS FUTURE.
(By D. SANDMANN, in Der Tropenfian-
zer, SEPTEMBER, 1908.)
ABSTRACTED BY J. C. WILLIS.
(Continued from page 411.)
The smoking usually takes the serin-
guero 1-2 hours, so that his day’s work
is 6-7 hours.
The patrao, or possessor of aseringal,
supplies his labourers with all that they
require, and a store is kept on the
place, in which the goods are sold at
cost price, plus a commission of 10-25%
and heavy freight charges. The serin-
guero has to buy all that he wants, in-
cluding tools, collecting tins, &c., from
the patrao. Figures are given showing
that the tools, &c., average 3800 milreis
(£30, most of the advance), while he will
consume (on the Solimoes river, say)
about 1,200 milreis worth of provisions
in his 6-7 months work. The food also
is of poor quality, and often damaged
by the climatic conditions, being full of
grubs.
In payment for the food the seringuero
gives rubber. The conditions on which
this is furnished differ, but in general
(1) the rubber is bought by the patrao
at about one-third below market price
in Manaos, or
(2) the rubber is sold, and the pro-
ceeds, less 35 kilos. per estrada, given to
the seringuero, or
(8) the rubberis sold and 85-90% given
to the seringuero,
On the lower Amazon, especially on
the islands, each seringuero hires two
estradas with about 8 acres of land on
which he plants and hunts, and a water-
surface for fishing, and pays about 30
milreis amonth. The return per estrada
is about 320 kilos borracha fina and 15
kilos sernamby, and the rubber is
generally sold to the patrao.
The average return of the work of a
seringuero is 350 kilos borracha fina and
50 kilos sernamby. but it varies from
100 to 1,000 kilos (1 kilo=2; lbs.). Asa
normal estrada one may take one with
120 trees of 35 cm. (13? inches) in diameter.
On the average 5 litres of milk are
obtained daily. or 42 grams a tree. In
144 days about 700 litres of milk are
obtained, yieiding 400 kilos of rubber.
This is rather less than would be obtain-
ed on an estatein Ceylon with trees of
the same size, and the treatment on the
estate is more rational.
The rubber asit accumulates is shipped
down river by the patrao, and sold in
Manaos or Para. It loses weight as it
travels, It is divided into three chief
grades: borracha fina, interfina, and
sernamby, to which is sometimes added
borracha fraca for the more brittle
rubber obtained from other species of
Hevea.
The testing is troublesome. Two men
put hooks into the central hole and
draw the rubber apart, and it is divided
with a sharp knife. If uniform and
elastic, itis fina, but if there are bad
spots, interfina, which sells at 200-800
reis a kilo less, while sernamby (scrap)
sells at 1,700-2,200 reis less. The difference
in price is greater in Brazil than in
Europe or America, and on this the
merchant makes his profit.
The rubber is packed for export in
chests of about 3 cwt.
PROSPECTS OF THE CULTIVATED RUBBER.
After a discussion of the area under
rubber in the tropics, Herr Sandmann
goes on to deal with the Ceylon figures,
and takes the area at certain dates,
with the export six years later, arriving
at the following figures of yield for the
bearing trees :—
1903 0°321 Ib.
1904 0-515
1905 0-843
1906 1°165
1907 177
and he calculates that a_ ten-year-old
tree, at 200 to the acre, will yield 3 lbs.
Atthis rate rubber is already over-
planted, for there are now perhaps
550,000 acres in it, which at even 3 ewt.
to the acre, means 80,000 tons, against a
present consumption of 68,000 tons, half
of which is from Brazil.
Calculating on the annual rise of the
consumption, he reckons that serious
overproduction will begin in 1913,
Many people claim that rubber pro-
duction on the Amazon will cease as the
price falls, but against this many set
the fact that it increased with the low
prices of 1900-01, for then the food
materials of the workers, instead of
being carried up river, were planted on
the spot, while the seringueros worked
harder to get enough rubber to make up
»)
for the fall in prices,
[DEcEMBER, 1908.
2 6 0°107
i 0 tas 280 cups to the lb
36 0°150
[The number of ' cups in a pound is
taken as 224 up to Ils 8d; and at 280 above
that price. Thecost is of course taken
without milk and sugar.]
Edible Products. 5
Cost OF TWENTY CUPS OF TEA ON THE
ABOVE BASIS.
Price Cost of
per lb. 20 Cups
s. d. d.
1 4 1°42 )
1G 1:60 | 224 cups to the Ib,
1 8 178 J
2 0 1:70
2 z ae 280 cups to the lb,
3 6 3°00
Such differences in the cost of a cup of
tea cannot be of importance to anyone
directly they know how trivial they are.
Tf an individual drinks three cups a day,
it would take him about ninety days to
consume one pound, and therefore
nearly three months to spend the extra
cost cf 8d. for 2s. as compared with Is. 4d.
tea. For an average family of five
persons, it would cost less than a pound
a year to drink the better tea. ‘his is
on the assumption that children drink
as much tea as adults, which is, of course,
not the case. That poverty is not a bar
to the use of fine tea is to be seen in the
West of Ireland where everyone is
struck by the magnificent quality of the
tea sold. In the relatively better off
districts in Ireland also, very much
better tea is consumed than in similar
parts of England and Scotland. The
table above shows that the Irish are
better informed than we are.
At one time we were told in every
paper and on every hoarding that Is. 9d.
was the price of the finest tea. Now
we are informed that ls. 4d. is the
outside limit for tea, and on a similar
foundation, or rather want of founda-
tion, there is no reason why ls. should
not be called the finest tea. To those
acquainted with the trade such state-
ments can hardly be characterised
politely, as they are so entirely in-
accurate. We have taken one absolute
proof quite at a hazard, namely, the
bonded prices fetched at the Indian
public sales. As everyone who attends
the sales knows there are constant sales
of fine parcels at 2s., 2s. 6d., or even
3s. 6d. per pound in bond, and in the
particulars below it will be seen that
as much as 4s. 4d. was fetched.
The statement that the finest tea can
be retailed at the advertised prices is
in fact grotesquely opposed to the facts.
Nevertheless, it does an infinity of harm,
It degrades the trade by exalting com-
monress and putting down quality.
It prevents any pride being taken in
his trade by the distributor, and renders
the sale of fine tea very difficult, either
for wholesale or retail dealers. Of
44
"2
[DECEMBER, 1908.
course in a similar way the _ skilled
planter on good soil in India and
Ceylon, who picks and cures carefully,
reaps no adequate reward for his labour,
as alltea more and more approximates
to one price, and it becomes easier in
the long run to go in for quantity and
to pay no attention to quality.
Is the tea trade to continue to take
its debasement and degradation lying
down, or will it at length take action?
The only method to cure the evil is
by counter-advertisement, and this must
bea joint or combined effort, because
the individual retailer cannot afford to
compete in mammoth expenditure. No
trade he could possibly do would repay
the cost. It follows, therefore, that if
a counterblast is to be issued it should
bea joint one and directed simply to
the point that fairly good tea cannot
be bought under Is. 6d. per lb. retail, fine
tea under 2s. or 2s. 6d., and the finest
under 3s. or 3s. 6d. In such a scheme of
general advertisement the Indian and
Ceylon growers might well play a pro-
minent part with their teas. What is
the use of spending large sums on the
development of foreign markets, when
the main market, the home one, which
is already fully developed, is being
vitally injured every day, from the
producer’s point of view? Unless some
scheme of joint counter-advertisement
can be started, in order to bring the
truth about tea before the public, the
state of the trade must continue to
steadily deteriorate.—Produce Markets
Review.
SWEET POTATOES,
INTRODUCTION.
With the passing of each year the
sweet potato is becoming of greater im-
portance as a commercial truck crop in
the United States. Duringa long period
it has formed one of the _ principal
sources of food forthe people of the
Southern States and ot Tropical America.
Asa commercial truck crop the sweet
potato would be included among _ the
five of greatest importance, ranking
perhaps about third in the list. Asa
food for the great mass of the people
living in the warmer portions of our
country the use of this crop is exceeded
by hominy and rice only. In many of
the islands of the Pacific, especially in
the Philippines, the sweet potato is
the principal vegetable food for large
numbers of the lower classes, at certain
eT being almost the only food avail-
able.
ee ee ee
et
PROP OR st i, WA
DECEMBER, 1908.]
The sweet potato industry in this
country is readily divided into two
classes of production: (1) For home use;
and (2), for market. A quantity suffi-
cient for home use can be grown under
awide range of conditions, while pro-
duction on a commercial scale is some-
what restricted by climate and soil and
also by market and_ transportation
facilities. The larger eastern markets
are now well supplied, but there are
sections where the people have notas
yet become accustomed to the use of
sweet potatoes in large quantities. The
field for the production and use of
sweet potatoes is very broad, and this
crop promises to become of more general
farm importance.
In view otf the constantly increasing
interest in sweet potatoes, it is the
purpose of this. bulletin to give simple
cultural directions covering their pro-
duction both for home use and for
market, including the soil and its
preparation, the propagation of the
plants, planting, harvesting, storing, and
marketing, together with the uses of
sweet potatoes for stock feeding and
for similar purposes.
The sweet potato is of a tropical
nature, its original home probably being
the West Indies and Central America.
The true sweet potato, as we have it
growing in the United States, belongs
to the morning-glory family, its botanical
name being Jpomeea batatas. Through-
out the Southern States the sweet pota-
toes having moist flesh are commonly
known as ‘‘yams,” and those having
dry flesh as sweet potatoes. The name
‘“‘“vyam” is misleading, and properly be-
longs toa distinct class of plants that
are confined almost entirely to the
Tropics.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED.
The climatic requirements for the pro-
duction of sweet potatoes on a com-
mercial scale are (1) a growing period of
at least four and a half months without
frost; (2), warm nights and abundant
sunshine during the day; and (3), a
moderate rainfall during the growing
period.
Where irrigation is depended upon
for the supply of moisture, the greatest
quantitly of water should be applied
between the time the plants are set in
the field and the time when the vines
practically cover the ground. If too
much water is applied during the latter
part of the season the result may be an
abundant growth of vine and a small
yield of stringy potatoes. For some-
time before harvesting the crop the
water should be withheld altogether, in
order that the rootsmay ripen properly.
69
545
Hdable Products.
CHARACTER OF SOIL ADAPTED TO
SWEET POTATORS.
Sweet potatoes thrive on a moderately
fertile sandy loam which does not con-
tain an excess of organic matter. They
are frequently grown upon almost pure
sand, especially where the sub-soil is a
yellow clay. Soils containing consider-
able calcium or underlain with lime-
stone are well adapted to the growing
of the crop. The sweet potato is excep-
tional in that a fairly good crop can be
grown upon soils that are too poor for
the production of the majority of farm
crops. Sweet potatoes yield a fair crop
on the ‘‘ wornout” tobacco and cotton
lands of the South, especially when used
in a rotation including some leguminous
crop for increasing the humus in the
soil. Like many other crops, the sweet
potato thrives on newly-cleared land,
but the crop should not be planted con-
tinuously in the same place. With the
sweet potato, as with other crops, rota-
tion is the keynote of success.
Good drainage is essential, the original
idea of planting upon high ridges being
for the purpose of securing better drain-
age. The surface soil should extend toa
depth of 6 or 8 inches, and the subsoil
should be of such a nature that it will
carry off excessive moisture without
leaching away the fertilizers applied to
the land. Too great a depth of loose
surface soil or an alluvial soil having no
subsoil will produce long, irregular
potatoes that are undesirable for market-
ing. Planting upon land having a loose,
sandy surface soil underlain by a well-
drained clay subsoil will tend to produce
the type of rather thick, spindle-formed
potato that commands the highest price.
The depth of ploughing is a prominent
factor in the preparation of land for
sweet potatoes, and on soils of too great
depth before the subsoil is reached very
shallow ploughing should be practised,
leaving the soil tirm beneath, against
which the roots must force their way.
If the surface soil is of insufficient depth,
it should be gradually increased by
ploughing a little deeper each year or by
subsoiling in the furrow behind the
regular turning plough.
FERTILIZERS FOR SWEET POTATOES.
As already noted, the sweet potato
will thrive on soils that are only moder-
ately fertile. The root portion of the
plant is the part having the greatest
value, though the foliage and vines have
some value as foods for certain kinds of
stock. It has been found that an ex-
cessive amount of organic matter in the
soil will frequently produce an abundant
growth of vines at the expense of the
roots. It hasalso been noted that the
Te’ Cae, Dee
Edible Products. 546 [DecEMBER, 1908.
potatoes will be small and the yield
unsatisfactory on soils that do not
contain sufficient organic matter to
produce a fair growth of vine.
USE OF STABLE MANURE.
The use of stable manure as a fertilizer
for sweet potatoes is recommended on
lands that are deficient in organic
matter. Heavy applications of fresh
manure to sweet potatoes shortly be-
fore planting the land will stimulate not
only the growth of weeds but also of
the vines at the expense of the roots.
Well-rotted stable manure may be used
at the rate of 10 to 15 cart-loads to
the acre, spread broadcast or beneath
the ridges and harrowed into the soil,
but it is always well to apply the
manure with the crop grown the pre-
vious season. By this method the man-
ure will become thoroughly incorporated
with the soil and become somewhat
reduced before the sweet potatoes are
planted upon the land.
Stable manure will be found most
beneficial on worn-out soils, but on the
more fertile soils its use should be
restricted and the method of application
carefully studied. In some sections
where the organic matter in the soil is
insufficient all kinds of vegetable mat-
ter, including manure, pine needles,
corn fodder, straw, and stubble are
turned into the land to bring up the
fertility. The sweet potatoe vines will
go alittle way toward keeping up the
organic matter in the soil, but have a
souring tendency and should be ac-
companied with a moderate application
of lime or plaster.
Leguminous plants grown as cover
crops or in the rotation will serve to
keep up theorganic matter in the soil
the same as stable manure. Sweet
potatoe growers are coming to realize
the value of crimson clover for use in
the rotation in which sweet potatoes
are grown. If the land is planted to
corn, crimson clover may be sown in
the alleys at the same time the corn
receives its final cultivation. This will
provide a covering for the land during the
winter, and as the crimson clover starts
into growth quite early in the springa
heavy crop is produced by the time it is
necessary to plough theland for sweet
potatoes. ,In order to secure the best
results the crimson clover should be
turned under not later than the ap-
pearance of the first blooms; if allowed
toremain longer the stems become
tough and do not decay quickly enough
to be of benefit to the sweet potato crop
which follows,
USE OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
The sweet potatoe is one of the few
of our crops that thrive equally as well
(or better) upon commercial fertilizers
as upon stable manure. A fertilizer for
use in the majority of sweet potato
lands should contain 3 to 6 per cent. of
nitrogen, 6 or 7 per cent. of phosphoric
acid, and 8 to10 percent. of potash.
Every grower should make a study of
the requirements of this soil and apply
the fertilizer that will give the best
results. Many growers purchase the
ingredients and mix their own special
fertilizers, or use a standard fertilizer
as a base and increase the percentage
of certain elements by adding high-
grade elementary ingredients. Some
soils require that certain elements
should be ina more available form than
others; in the case of nitrogen it is
often desirable to have a portion of that
contained in the fertilizer quickly avail-
able and the remainder more slowly
in order to feed the plants throughout
the season.
A mixture adapted to the growing of
sweet potatoes on most soils may be
made by combining the following :—
200 pounds of high-grade sulphate
of ammonia, 25 per cent. pure.
200 pounds of dried blood, or 800
pounds of fish scrap.
1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, 11
per cent pure.
400 pounds of high-grade muriate
of potash, 50 per cent. pure.
This mixture contains approximately
4-25 per cent. of nitrogen, 6°6 per cent. of
phosphroic acid, and 10 per cent. of
potash. Nitrogen in two forms is pre-
sent, the dried blood being quickly avail-
able and the sulphate of ammonia more
slowly, becoming available later in the
season when ,jthe potatoes are forming.
Experience has demonstrated the ne-
cessity of having an abundance of
potash in the fertilizers used for sweet
potatoes. In experiments with fertili-
zers for this crop an increased yield of
from 40 to 60 per cent. has been noted
on plots where a liberal application of
potash had been made in comparison
with plots to which no fertilizer was
applied. In most cases the highest
yield is secured where a complete, or
balanced, fertilizer is used.
QUANTITY AND TIME OF APPLYING
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
The quantity of fertilizer that may be
profitably applied willbe governed en-
tirely by local conditions. Many growers.
wld
a
——
ere en ee
p. 68.
Le Voandzobary ou Vouandzu.
Jard. Col. 1907, p. 38,
Walking Sticks.—
Details of commercial requirements.
See Report Natal Gardens, Jan.—
June 1901, p. 14.
Weeds.—
Nutgrass—Cyperus rotundus, L. Mai-
Bull.
denin Agr. Gaz. N.S. W. Dee. 1898.
Illuk or lalang grass. ‘*‘T.A’”? May
1906, p. 328,
Willow.—
Willow culture for India and Ceylon:
Macmillan in Ind. Gard. 12. 7. 1900»
jan al
The Cricket-bat willow. Kew Bull.
Ximenia.—
Das Ol] von Ximenia americana:
Der Pflanzer 29. 8. 1908, p. 204
xXylia.—
Xylia dolabriformis, Iron-wood of
Pegu. Agr. Ledger, Forest Series
4, 1899
Yams (Dioscorea).—
Dioscorea Daemona Roxb. Ind. Mere.
98, 1. 1899, p. 55.
Sur Sena plate du Japon (D. japo-
rica, Thunb). Rev. Cult. Col. 1902,
p- 297.
73
577
Miscellaneous.
Famine foods: D. Denton a: Journ,
Bombay N. H. Soe. 14. p. 772.
wan Harris in Tataies Bull. 1906,
p
Yautia,—
The yautias or tanniers, of Porto
Rico. Bull. 6, Porto Rico Exp, Sta,
1905. ‘*'T.A.” Oct, 1907, p. 285, Nov.
1907, p. 368.
Vlang-ylang.—
Oil of ylang-ylang. Ch, & Drug. 8. 3:
1902, p. 388.
See _Schimmel's reports, April 1902,
Oultevation of ylang-ylang. Ind. PI.
and Gard. 6, 2. 1904, p. 98.
Essential oil of ylang-ylang. se Ae
Sept. 1907, p p- BPH
La culture de l’Ylang-Ylang. Journ.
d Agr. trop. June 1908, p. 171.
Zacaton.—
Die Zacaton-wurzel. Tropenpfi. 1906.
p. 369,
VALUE OF SODIUM TO PLANTS.
Osterhout (in Univ.
Publications : Botany, vol. 3, p, 331, 1908)
followiug up previous papers, makes
out that the presence of a small quantity
of a soda salt is of use in protecting
a plant against the otherwise harmful
apo of other salts that may be present.
— D.
of California
NOTES AND QUERIES.
By C. DRIEBERG.
M. B.—Chicks do not require to be
fed till they are thirty-six hours old, and
it is a mistake to feed them earlier,
MARKET GARDENER.—As aruie, cab-
bages should be given a liberal dressing
of dung, with 3 to 4 ecwt. superphos-
pate, and an equal quantity of kainit,
Then, when the plants are well establish-
ed, a little nitrate of soda may be
given to each.
J. G.—The average yield of manioc
in the United States is given as5 tons
of roots per acre. In Ceylon the aver-
age must be a good deal higher, say 8
to 10 tons per acre, though no reliable
figures are available.
Fruit FARMpeR.—-If you plant your
pine shoots 20” by 24’, you will plant
12,000 plants per acre. As _ regards
manure, thougha fair amount of nitro-
Miscellaneous.
gen and phosphoric is required, a liberal
supply of potash is most essential for
good quality fruit; but avoid the
chloride, as chorine is found to have a
very bad effect on pines. Phosphoric
acid is preferably given as bone-meal or
Eramined bone dust, and not as super.
Nitrogen is bestas an organic manure,
An average fertilizer should contain
5 % nitrogen, 4 % phosphoric acid and
10 % potash.
G.—The ‘devils’ grass” of the West
Indies is Cynodon dactylon, the ‘‘ dhoob”
of India and “ Arugam pillu” of the Cey-
lon Tamils—one of the most valuable
of our natural fodder grasses and very
suitable for lawn making. It is_impos-
sible to say how it came to be called by
such a hard name in the West!
F. P.—Argemone meaicanais the name
of the weed which is more commonly
known as Mexican poppy. It is not
spreading to any great extent, as far
as I know. It is said to be one of the
few weeds without any redeeming
feature, so it must not be spread.
B.—It is very unusual for the bread-
fruit--the edible species—to fruit with
seeds, but there are quite a number
(about twenty) of trees, bearing fruits
with seeds in the Weragoda Experi-
mental Garden.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
MINUTES OF 48RD MERTING.
The 48rd meeting of the Board of
Agriculture was held at the Council
ree on Thursday the 8rd December,
1908.
His Excellency the Governor presided.
There were present the Hon’ble Mr.
H.L. Crawford, the Hon’ble Mr. Bernard
Senior, Dr. Willis, Dr, H. M. Fernando,
Messrs. J. Harward, C. J. C. Mee, Tudor
Rajapakse (Mudaliyar). H. J. Peiris, G.
W. Sturgess, W. A.de Silva, J. D. Van-
derstraaten, L. W. A. De Soysa, and
Secretary.
As Visitors, Capt. Curling, Messrs‘
J. S. McCall, Albo Guy, F. C. Roles, and
Alex. Perera.
BUSINESS.
ij. Minutes of the meeting held on the
5th of October were read and confirmed.
2. Progress Report No. 42 was adopted.
8. Statements of Expenditure for
October and November were tabled.
4. Mr, W. A. de Silva read a paper on
“Native Agriculture and how it might
578
(DECEMBER, 1908.
be improved,” which was commented on
by His Excellency the Governor, Dr.
Willis, Mr. McCall and Mr. Roles.
5. Papers by Mudaliyar Dissanaike on
“Loans to Paddy Cultivators” and by the
Secretary on ‘“‘ Recent researches regard-
ing the germination of the coconut and
the deterioriation of its products ” were ¥
taken as read, and, on the invitation of
His Excelleney the Governor, Mr. J. D.
Vanderstraaten read a note on ‘‘ The
Relation of Weather to Crops in the
Coconut Palm.”
This terminated the proceedings.
‘C. DRIEBERG,
Secretary, C. A. S.
CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
PROGRESS REPORT XLII.
Membership.—Since the last meeting
of the Board the following members
have been errolled :—R. C. Proctor, V.
M. Muttukumaru, S. Namasivayam, S.
Subramaniam, J. C. Mitchell, H. C.
Paterson, Edward Kynaston, V. Muda-
liyar Chittampalam, Chinnatambiar
Chelliahpillai, G. C. Ganapathipillai, V.
Valayetham Pillai, andS. N. Veluppillai.
Branch Societies.—The Wanni. Hat-
pattu Branch reports a scarcity of seed
paddy owing to drought, and endeavours
are being made to get suitable varieties
from the North-Central Provinee. A
meeting of this branch was held on
November 1, when it was decided to
hold a Show at Balalla next June.
The Wellaboda Patlu Branch held a ;
Committee meeting on November 11, —
when it was resolved that a general ;
meeting be held on November 27, to 4
consider a set of rules prepared with ‘
a view to starting a Co-operative Credit |
Bank. The annual Show and Fair at
Ambalangoda was fixed for December
19 at 2 P. M.
Wellaboda Pattu Co-perative Credit
Bank.—The objects of the Bank are
stated to be—to lend money for agricul-
tural purposes, e.g., supply of manure,
cattle or poultry, implements, seed
paddy, vegetable and other seeds, or
plants required by those engaged in
cultivation on easy terms, and to faci-
litate sale of agricultural produce. The —
capital is to be Rs, 4,000, made up of
Rs. 10 shares. ad
y
DECEMBER, 1908.]
Agri-Horticultural Shows.--The follow-
ing is a list of Agri-H orticultural Shows
to be held next year as far as arranged :—
Branch Society. Probable Date.
Hanguranketa .. January or April
Welimada ... March
Nuwara Hliya . Easter Monday
Mannar .. April 30 and May 1
Negombo .. May
Mirigama (School
Garden Show) ... May
Rayigam Korale ... May 24
Puttalam ... May 24
Galle .. June 23 to 25
' Jaffna ... June
Wanni Hatpattu at
(Balalla) .. June
Delft (at Jaffna) ... Inco-operation with
Jaffna
Colombo ... June (4th week)
Telijjawila . July 17
Kandy .. August
Harispattu (at ... In co-operation with
Kandy) Kandy
Dumbara (at . In co-peration with
Kandy) Kandy
Kegalla .. September 25 and 26
Kurunegala (3 or 4
atvillage centres) No date fixed
Wellaboda Pattu)
Galle) ... December. 20 and 21
Nagpur Exhibition (India).—The
authorities in India having expressed
a wish that samples of our chief agri-
cultural products be shown at the
Nagpur Exhibition, which opened on
November 12, the following exhibits
were procured and forwarded through
the courtesy of the exhibitors :—
Cacao (raw and manufactured), C. C,
Barber, The Grove, Ukuwela.
Cardamoms, James Westland, Mousa-
kande estate, Gammaduwa,
Cardamoms, Thirty Committee of the
Ceylon Planters’ Association, Kandy.
Cinnamon, A. E. Rajapakse, Mudaliyar,
Katunayake.
Cinnamon bark oil, Jacob de Mel,
Colombo.
Citronella oil, Government Agricul-
tural Chemist, Colombo.
Citronella oil, Bopagoda Agricultural
Society, Akuressa.
Coconut, desiccated, D. L. Wije-
wardene, Loo Mills, Mirigama.
Coconut, desiccated J. D. Vander-
straaten, Kandawella Mills, Negombo.
Coconut oil, Freudenberg & OCo.,
Colombo.
Coconut poonac, Freudenberg & Co,.
Colombo.
Coconut fibre, Freudenberg & Co.,
Colombo.
Coconut matting, Freudenberg & Co.,
Colombo,
576
Miscellaneous.
Rubber, J. F. Elford, Culloden estate,
Neboda,
Rubber, Chas, Northway, Elpitiya.
Rubber tapping knives, Brown
Davidson, Talawakele.
Tea, Ceylon Tea Growers’ Association,
Kandy.
Vanilla, James Westland, Mousakande
estate, Gammaduwa.
Mysore Exhibition.—At this Show
held in October last the Dumbara Agri-
cultural Society was awarded a medal
for an exhibit of locally-grown tobacco.
Transplanting in Paddy Cultivation. —
At Telijjaiwila transplanting was carried
on in a field at Maragoda, close to the
main road from Matara to Akuressa.
This field was specially selected owing
to its poor soil, which never yields
more than four-fold under ordinary
methods of cultivation. The sowing
extent is 18 kurunies, and plants from
2 kurunies’ extent sufficed for trans-
planting. The yield was 690 kurunies.
The land belongs to the Vidane Arachchi
of Pahalawalakada who took great
interest in the experiment, and is help-
ing the boys of Dampella and Paraduwa
Government schools to prepare’ beds
for transplanting this harvest. The
. results will, it is hoped, induce others
to take up transplanting on an extended
scale.
In the Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) trans-
planting is being carried on in fourteen
different divisions under the supervision
of the Vidane Arachchies.
The Kalutara Totamune Mudaliyar
has undertaken cultivation with trans-
planting at Bombuwela.
Similar demonstrations are being con-
ducted by the Mudaliyar of Rayigam
Korale, in six Vidane divisions.
The Minneri Experiment.—Mr. T. B.
Minneriya, Korala of Inamaluwa district,
Minneriya, reports as follows on the
experiment started by Mr. G. W. Perkins
of the Irrigation Department :—‘‘The
plants reached a height of froni 3} to
4 feet, and in comparison with the
surrounding fields this portion was the
best in appearance and in every other
respect. The number of seeds in each
ear averaged 150 to 200, and the yield
for the 38} measures transplanted gave
about 40 bushels (366-fold). I ought to
mention that the transplanting was
somewhat delayed for want of labour,
and some damage was done to the paddy
by fly as well as by cattle.”
Experimental Gardens.—The Kegalla
Garden is making progress. oe . oe 6d Borneo eae) Coron re good 9d a 2s 9d
ARROWKOOT (Natal) 1. Fair to fine rgd a 4d aye Low white to prime rediis gq a tg
sy WAX, cwt.) enang ; C
BER azibar Yellow ,, |Slightly drossy to fair .. |e6 53 a £678 6d Mozambique g eee a; a eal Bas ee
Bombay bleached _,, |Fair to good £7 10s a £7 12s 6d aia a all good ..' 3s 6d a 4s 6d
», _unbleached,, |D. rk to good genuine ../e5 10s 2 £6 2s 6d) Nyassaland Fr to fine pinky & whiteljeod age
ame en ee aa to good palish £628 6d a £6 10s Madagascar Majunge: SE eee «198 3d a os 9d
» Be ” : an . lggers, ls a 2s 9d
1 ,, |Fair average quality .. tne F
Cc Rea ntoaists Malabar Gocd to fine bold tanoaaies New Guinea Oren ay etd toeaetale He nae oe ae
Middling lean Is 6da ls 8d INDIGO, EI. Bengal Consuming mid. to gd on
Tellicherry | Good to fine bold .|sarat2s ed rales . 20 §G.)3s 1d a 3s 4d
Rronmieh = Matt FB petary be midalee 2s 9d a 3a
Mangalore ,, Med brown to fair bold|gs a 3s Qudes Middt ees aie 2s 6d a 2/8 nom. —
Ceylon; Mysore — ,, /Small fair to fine plump jis Fda 3s 6d Low to Porat is a 5 28 Of
Malabar... woes good ” ia ad a Fa i a to Anes Magvas 1s Bda 2s 4d
, Shall * jis 8da 1s Pale reddish to fine
Long Wild ”,, Shelly to good --l6d als 9d MACE, Bombay & Penang/Ordinary to fair is bd als nod
CASTOR OIL, Calcutta,, |Ists and 2nds --|3d a 34d per Ib, od pales eae
CHILLIES, Zanzibar cwb.|Dull to fine bright +-/258 a 80s Java He 78 P Is 1d a 1s 6d
SINCHONA BARK.- 1b. po ah MYRABOLANES, cwt|UG and Coconada 58 a 5s 6d
Ceylon ai Ones bien orcas Bombay », [Jubblepore 5s6da 5s 9d
Red Org. Stem lid a 4d 4 Bhimlies 588d a 7s
Renewed sda sid Rhajpore, &c. 53a 68
Root lgda 4d Bengal - pence i 5sa5s 6d
CINNAMON,Ceylon Ists|\Common to fine quill |gidais 5d NUTMEGS— ea acy 57's 1s 4d a 1s 6d
per Ib, 2nd i ” 7hd a 1s 4a Bombay & Penang ,, | sos to Vis BT |,
3rds i 4 ; : q 3
oe 2 t Baal ae NUTS, ARECA ewt,|Ordinary to fair fresh |14s a 16s :
Chips, &c.,|Fair to fine bold 24d a 34d NUX 'VOMIGA, Cochin |Ordinary to good 93a 11s 6d nom, —
eS, Penang Ib.|Dull to fine bright bold/104 a 1s per cwt. Bengal % 2” 7s a 78 6d
CLOVES, 8
Amboyna {Dull to fine da 8d Madras a ” 78s 8da 8s 6d
Ceylon . 9) ie 7d a 8d OIL OF ANISEED _,, ee eee i og ie
Zanzibar Fair and fine bright ad a 5 CASSIA ae BO é 8 a4s9
Stems [Fatt ae LEMONGRASS —s, [Dfety fo white Hid a 2d
eS 7 NUTMEG A as
COFFEE A . » |Ordinary to fa: t
; t.|Bold to fi CINNAMON pena: ir sweet |2id a 1s
Ceylon Plantaion CW" Medium to good A PREaITTORE oC LERON ELLE ., (Bright & good flavour fis
i Good ordinar i RCHELLA WEED—cewt|,,. . '
seats Mijlraax'tosnold y MAR desied Ceylon nt nt ey ne not woody.../12s 6d a 18s
COA, Ceylon Plant. ., Special Marks 74s a 90s Zanzibar. 5, |pieke clean at leaf ...{nom.
co » Ley Red to good 68s 2,748 a wiry Mozambique] ,,
Native Estate —_,, [Ordinary to red 40s a 65s eee eed at ieltichersy Bait ... faa
COLOMBO ROOT e Middling to good 15s .a17s 6d | Ceylon », Lo fine bold heavy .. aoe 4d
SEEDS,sift.cwt.|/Dull to fair 278 6d a, 82s 6d Singapore cool ree peo ge 7%
pao N ig ‘ » {fair to tine dry 21s a 23s ‘mom, Acheen & W. C. Penang Dull pow ene + w(tad a 34d
GINGER, Bengal, rough, Fair sostriomt (White) Singapore ,, re to fine an ../46d a 8d
Calicut, Cut A ,, Sen to ine bold 72s 6d a 85s eee 5 rae aD siieboee pe
B , small and medium 48s a 658 enang ’ * Prato 50 seule
Cochin Rough ** Common to fine bold {32s 6d a 35s PLUMBAGO, lump ewt. Fair to tine bright bold|36s a 458 nom, —
” ISmall and D’s 338 Middling to good small|25s a 40s
Japan ,, |Unsplit 278 chips Dull to fine bright _ ../153 a 30s
TONIACUM » Sm. blocky to fair clean|25s a 60s nom. dust Pedinary, te fine bright|7s a 16s
6UM AMMO spar »» {Pale and amber, str. srts.|£16 a £18 SAGO, Pearl, large Pe ear UC. a «(148 a 168
ANIMI, Zanzibar zy little red|£13 a £15 medium ..| 9 ” vs ae ae
Bi and Pea size ditto|75 12 small veel Ie Ee
Pele ts abcd aeteoecaiea eee SEEDLAC Cee Ordinary to gd. soluble |£5 £6 nom.
Med. & bold glassy sorts|£7 2 £8 15s SENNA, Tinnevelly Ib |@00d to fine bold green/od_a7d
Fair to good palish £4a£8 10s Fair greenish 34d a 43d
Madagascar 4, ss ered “l24 a £7 los Commonspeckyand small/igd a 23d
Ordinary to good pale|25s a 3¥s 6d nom.|SHELLS, M. o’PEARL—
NO & ann ” PMCBIs a 50S * “Egyptian ewt.|Small to bold... 65s a £5 10/nom
urkey Sorts +5 |Sorts to fine pale _ ..,|178 242s 6d nom, Bombay _,, D rie 35s a £5 10s
poe h »» |Reddish to good pale .,.|209s a30s Mergui »lrait to geod eRe eee
Monae ee ” Dark iP fine poze ...{L58 a 25s < Manilla » |Sorts £00 - Fe pore! 10s
et » |Clean fr. to gd. almonds|85s a 100s anda, ; . ee 125s a30S nom —
ASSAFQSTIDS +», |com. stony to good block|Z5s a 75s TAMARINDS, Calcutta., |Mid.to fine b’k not stonyli1g 12s
KINO 1b} Fair to fine bright 6d a 93s ercwt. | Madras |Stonyand inferior —.-/4s.a 53
MYRRH, picked cwt |Fair to fine pale 90s a 100s TOR TOISESHELL— Small
Aden sorts ,,!|Middling to good 52s 6d a 658 Zanzibar, & Bombay Ib. |p"); to bold --\83 6da 27s
OLIBANUM, drop » |Good to fine white [45s a 55s Reine - (6s 6dal8s 6d
Middling to fair 30s a 40s TURMERIC, Bengal ewt.|Fur 118s
pickings ,, |Low to good pale 10s a 22s 6d Madras ,, |Hinger fain to fing bold}igs a, 228
siftings ,, |Slightly foul to fine |Llsa 15s Bee as, BRU [bright}i6sa 17s
INDIA RURBER lb. ;|Fine Para bis. & sheets|5s 8d Cochin ,, Bulbs -- {168 ie
Ceylon, Straits, ,, Ceara ,, pec bs\sd ulbs +» (138 b
Malay Straits, etc. Crepe ordinary to fine. .|5s 4d a 5s 9d VANILLOES— lb. : : 3 a
Fine Block _. (58 9d Mauritius .. ists|Gd crystallized 3} a8} in|6sa13s 6d
\Scrap fair to fine 8s 8d a4s Madagascar ... 2nds|Foxy & reddish 3a ,,/58 299 _— fe
Assam Plantation 4s 3d _ Seychelles ...J drds|/Lean and inferior (48 6d a 53 6d
Fair II to good red No.i|2s 6d a3sid [VERMILLION .. Fine, pure, bright . 28 9d a 2s 106
2s 8d aes WAX, Japan, squares Good white hard oo 523 y*
Rangoon
as ”
of
e
THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE
Tropical Agricutturist and Magazine of the 6. A. §
CompiLED By A. M. & J. FERGUSON.
No. 6,]
DECEMBER, 1908.
[Vou. III,
PARA RUBBER PRODUCTION IN
BRAZIL.
PROSPECT OF PRICE RISING ABOVE
PLANTATION RUBBER!
The thanks of the whole rubber-planting com-
raunity are due to the ex-Chairman of the
Planters’ Association, Mr. Jas. R. Martin, for
the important information he makes public
elsewhere, with reference to the present con-
dition of Para rubber production in Brazil.
His correspondent has travelled in most tro-
pical countries and his opinions are conse-
quently of the greater value; but itis to be
noted that he does not know the methods ot
preparing the Ceylon—or rather the plantation
—product generally, Hence we need not lay tou
much stress on his emphasizing the superiority
of the smoking method. The merits of the latter
are, of course, well-known. While more im-
purities are retained in the process of smoking
the latex-covered ladle (after dipping in the
vessel holding the latex collected) and turning it
over and over, above a fire, till a ball is for-
med, it is undeniable that nerve, strength and
elasticity are retained to the full in that
process, But there seems tous to be mort
value in what is said about plantation rubber-
growers being in too great a hurry to get
their produce to market. Itis these growers,
we read, that tend to weaken the reputation
of plantation rubber and to reduce the premium
on the latter—ouce from 6d. to 7d.—above fine
Para ; this premium is now only lid. and—ac-
cording to the expert—is rapidly vanishing. It
is altogether a novel doctrine to be told that
before long we may find a premium placed
on Brazil Para rubber; although it was well-
known that the manufacturer could hardly do
without it—the great age of the trees tapped
jn Brazil lending increased quality in every
respect for which rubber is bought by the
makers of enduring rubber goods, As far as
74
the immediate situation goes, it is netice-
able that the Brazil output has fallen from
37,850 tons in 1906-7 (Para 31,537 and
Caucho 6,313) to 36,680 in 1907 (Para 29,725—
a drop of 1812 tons or nearly 6 per cent—and
Caucho 6,955, a rise of 642 tons) ; but though a
little less is expected for 1908-9, confidence is
returning and the collection will be more easily
financed than has been possible of late. It
is amusing to hear of the cost of production
(including export tax, about 6d to 7d) being
as much as 3s per |b., when in the Kast
the aim is not to exceed from 1s 6d to Ys
and certain estates are known to keep
down to or below the shilling. The view that
if rubber fel) to 2s or 2s 6d, the Amazon rubber
would be knocked out of the market, at once
rises in recollection ; and it is satisfactory to
find Mr, Martin’s friend deals with it. He says
the cost of production in Brazil would certainly
come down, in a life-and-death struggle: ex-
port tax would be reduced or possibly be
remitted for a time, business would be done
on a cash basis, and imposts (which exist but
are not specified) would no longer be tolerated.
And on the other side of the scale—supposing
we are looking at fine Para and planta-
tion weighed in the opposing balances—we
have the deliberate opinion, and it is one which
deserves careful attention, that if planta.
tion rubber should ever be selling at 28 or
2s 6d a lb., that is below /alf what it is fetch-
ing just now, «a swfficiently large premium
will be put on Para rubber to allow of it being
gathered at a profit, A partner in a big rubber-
buying house had told them that customers
complained of late of the rapid falling-off in the
plantation quality—owing to this forcing of pro-
duction (from too young trees 2) in order to
pay early dividends. ‘‘It would be a catas-
trophe if at this date Ceylon rubber ‘“—and the
same applies, perhaps, in less degree to Malaya—
‘* were to get a bad name.” The warning thus
586 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
delivered against too early tapping is a timely
one ; and coming, as it does, amidst other
information calculated to make the rubber-
grower beware of what he is doing in the
tapping line, it is of enhanced value. We trust
it will be heeded everywhere and the fair name
of the Ceylon product preserved.
IMPORTANT INFORMATION.
Hylton, Matale, Nov. 15th.
Dear Sir,—I enclose extracts from a letter
from a friend at Manaos which aro, I think, of
general interest. My friend has travelled in
most tropical countries and is interested in
Ceylon Rubber. The warning he gives as to
the tapping of young rubber trees, most of us
know now, is sound.—Faithfully yours,
JAS. R. MARTIN.
(Eztracts.}
For the last two years the output of rubber
from the Amazon district has been:
Para rubber. Caucho. Total tons.
1906-7 31,537 6,313 37,850
1907-8 29,725 6,955 36,689
For this year 1908-9, an amount the same
as last year, or perhaps a little less, is ex-
pected. As you know, everything in this in-
dustry is done on credit system, and the recent
slumps in rubber disorganised things; but with
the better price, confidence is returning. Opi-
nions as to the expansion of output from the
Amazon basin are conflicting. One authority
told me that it had nearly reached its maxi-
mum; another, that it would expand indefi-
nitely. It isnot true that the rubber getherers
destroy the trees, The trees yielding Uaucho
are certainly cut down, but as you will see,
Caucho forms only a small part of the output.
The Hevea trees are merely tapped, and not
seriously injured. For instance, in the yearly
output is included about 1(,000 tons from the
Islands near the mouth of the river. These
trees are tapped year after year and it 16
evident they must be well taken care of.
For some months in the year the Amazon
valleys are always flooded, and the _ trees
stand—some of them—many feet deep in
water, That is the secret of their ferti-
lity. No doubt, for trees such as ours,
standing on high land, a heavy rainfall, added
‘to a rich soil, may make up for some of this,
but 1 fancy that
CEYLON TREES WILL ALWAYS HAVE TO BE MORE
LIGHTLY TAPPED
than those of the Amazon. The system of
smoking the rubber seems to be bettor than
that of chemical treatment, which I believe is
adopted in the East. A relative study ofthe
two methods seems advisable, but not knowing
what the plantations method is I have not
been able to enquire fully into the matter. The
cost of producing Para rubber, including an
export tax of about 20 per cent is evider tly not
much, if anything, under 3/a lb. At asuper-
ficial glance it looks as if—were rubber to fall
permanently to 2/ or 2/6—this industry could not
live. Ina life and death struggle cost of pro-
duction would certainly come down. ‘he tax
would be greatly reduced; business would be
done on a cash basis; and imports that are
now levied on the industry, and on those en-
gaged in it, would no longer be tolerated. Still,
you have the personal factor to reckon with.
The bad climate, the heavy death rate, can
only be made tolerable to the rubber gatherers
by luxuries and a big wage. Cut off these,
and your workers will probably return to their
homes in other parts of Brazil—while there is ro
local population to speak of.
On the other hand, I have come to believe
that Para rubber, with all its’ impuri-
ties, is probably a better article than the
plantations will ever produce, I~ under-
stand that many manufacturers cannot
do without it—and I believe that in time
to come, should plantation rubber be selling
at 2/ or 2/6 a |b., a sufficiently large premium
will be put on para rubber to allow of it being
gathered at a pri fit. Of course I may be wrong,
and have no expert knowledge to guide me.
travelled out, however, with a partner ofa big
rubber-buying house, he assured me that para
rubber will not be knocked out of the market,
and that many of his customers will take noth-
ing else. His interests, no doubt, are largely
bound up with the Amazon, but his arguments
seemed sound. He did not run down plantation
enterprise, but pointed out its weak spots. He
particularly said, over and over again that the
plantations, in order to pay dividends, and keep
their promises to shareholders about the yield,
were forcing things, and doing very great harm
to their prospects by putting out weak rubber.
He pointed out that—for this reason—the pre-
mium of 6d or 7d alb., which used to exist on
plantations rubber, had already almost run off,
and that his firm had received complaints from
customers, as to the rapid falling off in the plan-
tation article. —— he specially instanced as an
offender. This man’s firm —— are very leading
people in the rubber market, and no doubt you
will give these statements due considera-
tion. It would bea catastrophe if at this date,
Ceylon rubber were to get abad name,....
If shareholders are led to expect such big
yields, and if—to keep to promises, or for stock
market purposes—they try and rush things,
tapping too soon, and too often, there is going
to be much trouble.
This is an extremely hot place, and not attrac-
tive. Para [like better. The river here, 1,000
toiles from the mouth, is over 14 mile wide.
RUBBER PRICES.
In contrasting the prices. of Para and Planta-
tion rubber, the amount of moisturein the former
must always beremembered. It is equal to from
20 to 25 per cent. and as this is of no value to the
purchaser he is, of course, paying by that percen-
tage more for Parathan the actual prices quoted.
Thus if Para is sold at 48. per lb., as compared
with Plantation rubber (properly prepared) that
rice is really equal to 5s. per Ib. of the drier
lantation product.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
A ROOT DISEASE OF PARA
RUBBER TREES.
By W J GaLLAGHER, M.A., GOVERNMENT
Mycotocist, F.M,S8.
A fungus, which attacks the roots of Para
Rubber trees with fatal results, appears from
the number of communications received by the
Department of Agriculture to be fairly common
at present over this Peninsula. It 1s doubtful if
there is an estate free from it, as its presence,
even when it has killed trees, often remains
unsuspected.
The disease is seldom distributed over an
entire estate, but is confined to limited areas in
which at first a tree here and there is attacked.
Half-a-dozen or more vacancies may often be seen
together when, owing toa misconception of the
cause of death or for other reasons, no preven-
tive measures were taken on the death of the
first tree. The trees succumbed one after an-
other as the disease spread. The ‘supplies’
were failures too; plauted in a. soil full of
threads of the fungus they were soon
attacked by it and either never “ struck”
or died shortly after doing so, On these infected
areas the mortality is-often as high as thirty
trees per acre. but for a whole estate the yearly
average is probably not a tree peracre. 1 have
seen only one particularly bad instance , in 400
acres of trees 24 years old,
ABOUT FIVE PER CENT HAD DIED,
and two dead trees were never adjacent. The
incidence is heaviest on peaty soils, and where
there has beena bad burn. The disease occurs
among trees of from fifteen to thirty months old.
LThave not noticed it on trees older than two-and-
a-half years. Nursery plants of a few months
old may be attacked, and will quickly succumb
‘ifa source of infection is at hand,
SvMPToMs.
The disease is not discovered, as a rule, until
the tree isdead. The first symptoms are some-
what as follows:—The leaves of a healthy-looking
tree suddenly became brown, first round the
edge and specially at the tips, and the entire
leaf soon loses its natural colour: this is
a sign that something has interfered with the
water supply to the parts ebove ground ; it is
due to the “ringing” of the tap root by the
fungus. Little orno latex will flow in response
to a wound in the stem. Occasionally the leaves
fall off, but generally before this happens the
tree is blown down. Sometimes a healthy-looking
tree falls over, the leaves remain greon, and the
plant apparently continues to grow, If the roots
are examined al! will be found to be dead except
one or two lateral roots which still supply the
necessary nourishment ; and it is only a question
of days or at most weeks until these are k'lled.
Owing to the destruction of some of the lateral
roots by the parasite a tree frequently loses
its firm hold in the soil andis shaken about by
the wind causing a cup-shaped deprossion
round the collar. ‘This may go on for many days
before the tree shows any other signs of the
disease, but it is a pretty sure indication of the
presence of root disease, and the ‘‘shuck” tree,
as planters term it, should be. treated as
587
infected and incurable. The following ex-
tracts taken at random from letters sent into
the Department from different districts give an
idea of the unformity of the symptoms as
observed by planters :—
A. “The first signs are the leaves turning a metallic
colour, drooping, and then falling off. It does not show
until the tr es are practically dead, the high lands seem as
subject to it as tho valleys or flats, estate virgin jungle.”
B. ‘' The diseased plants are scattered over the estate,
but in one instance four or five were together. The leaves
generally become a rusty colour from the bottom upwards,
there is no inclination to topple over except where white
auts have eaten the roots, grouud well drained, plants from
one-and-a-half to two years old, estate virgin jungle.”
C ‘In sporadic instances over the planted area well-
nurtured trees (mostly eighteen months old) have suddealy
died back, ten cases on 300 acres in the last six months;
this in itself is not serious, but one has to look to the
future, especially as fungus seems to be the cause.”
D ‘On this estate there is somewhat heavy mortality
among trees of 20-80 months old, the disease is especially
rapid as noted above ground, trees appyar * shuck ;’ leaves
erumple and in the cuurse of a day or two fall off, sick-
ness attacks not in isolated cases but inclumps of adjacent
trees. The tap root seems to be first attacked. ‘The
neighbouring estite in same lie of country seems to be
free of the disease.”
BK ‘About a dozen have died out on 26 acres, each root
has a white thready growth on it, virgin jungle, other
trees healthy looking, those that have died have been in
different parts of the land.”
F. ‘ITsend some of the dead trees. They wera sixteen
months oldandgrewon fivt well drained land, the trees
were together. but neighbouring plants look quite healthy.”
When a tree, which has been killed by this
root disease, is pulled up, the cause of death is
at once apparent. In many places there is a
cobweb hke felt of whitish fungus, but in parts
the fungus threads (mycetia) are closoly aggre-
gated in straw-coloured strands, like stout cord,
stretching somewhat irregularly over the surface
of the root,
If incisions are made in the tap root and stem,
a discoloration of the wood will be observed in
the former, but in the latter except occasionally
for a little way above the collar.
METHOD OF ATTACK.
Some planters maintain that the tap root is
first attacked. Considering the method of
planting and for various reasons this seems
unlikely ; as far as I have seen the lateral roots,
and only those near the surface, are the first
to suffer. The deeper lateral roots, or at least
their extreme ends, are mostly free trom fungal
threads even when the tap root is already
covered with them. Often the tap and Jateral
roots over one side only have been choked by
the mycelia, the lateral roots on the other side
being free, In such cases the side on which the
diseased roots lie is always next a jungle stump.
On different occasions | have traced the myce-
lia along lateral roots to decaying jungle stumps.
It may be taken as pretty certain that these
stumps and logs are the original source of
trouble, It is mostly impossible to identify
them, but on more than one occasion | have
found Meranti (Shorea sp.) and Merbau (Ajzzelia
palembanica) offenders. The lateral roots of the
para tree spread so fast that in a year or little
more all jungle stumps are in contact with them.
Buta root may be attacked before reaching an
infected stump as the fungal threads can travel
for some distance through the soil.
The only occasions on which I found nursery
plants attacked was when the nursery had
been badly cleared and old stumps had
been left in it, In many of these nurseries tha
588
respective managers had not suspected the pre-
sence on their young plants of anything ini-
mical. They were all quite healthy in appear-
ance, but would have succumbed when planted
out, and each diseased plant would have served
as a centre of contamination from which healthy
plants would have been infected.
IDENTIFICATION OF FuNGUS.
Fructifications (fruits), such as the usual
‘* bracket mushrooms” found in abundance on
the dead logs and stumps of a clearing, have not
been noticed in association with this disease,
nor has it produced spores (seeds) notwithstand-
ing numerous infection experiments and long
continued cultures in various nutrient media
in the laboratory; consequently it is impos-
sible to give it a scientific name, an
omission which from the ° planter’s point
of view is not of much moment. It is
possible that a “bracket” fructification is
formed, and it may be discovered when the life
history of the parasite is more fully investigated.
The planter will then know the cause of the ill
health or death of a tree when he notices the
‘* brackets” on adjoining dead wood. On the
other hand the fruits may be so small as to be
invisible to the naked eye; and they may be
found on the living plant only or on dead wood
only,
This parasite appears to belong to the dan-
gerous class of facultative parasites; that is it
can live on dead wood (saprophyte), and if need
be on living wood (parasite).
Fomes semitostus, a‘ bracket” fungus, has
been reported asa source of root disease here
and in Ceylon. IJ have found it on oniy two
occasions, and have not been able to connect it
with the disease under discussion.
REMEDIAL MEASURES.
‘Though cure is almost impossibie prevention
of further infection is fairly easy. Owing to the
absence of seeds (spores) infection must take
place underground, and only when a para root
is in contact with a jungle stump or log support-
ing the parasite. J'he under-ground strands of
threads of many fungi, such as 4yaricus melleus,
a dangerous parasite on oak trees in forests of
the temperate zone, travel for considerable
distances through the soil, but seldom at as
great a depth as twofeet. The present fun-
us appears to have such a capacity in only a
limited degree. I have never found strands
more than a foot from a piece of root or decay-
ing log ; but the soil of arubber clearing, es-
pecially when it is peaty, is full of roots and all
kinds and sizes of decaying wood. The spread
of the disease is likely tu be much slower than
with those which attack leaves or other above-
ground parts, where wind, animals and human
agencies assist the dissennnation of spores. On
the other hand living in the soil secures it from
the destructive influences of sunshine and, in our
climate, of drought.
Tn many cases where close planting has been
followed, managers pay no attention to trees
dying here and there over the estate, looking
on it rather as a premature removal of what
may have to be cutout later on. Such in-
difference is not wise, and may have costly
results, Except when stagnant water is the
source of chi the death of a young tree is,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
according to my experience, generally due to
root disease, which can be easily identified
by the planter who is on the look out for
it. If preventive measures are not taken the
disease spreads and adjacent trees begin to die
off. It is impossible to be too insistent upon
the importance of treating every diseased tree
as a possible centre from which maby more
trees may be infected.
As already mentioned the planter’s efforts
must be directed to prevention. The diseased
area must be isolated, and precautions taken
against the possibility of the disease spreading.
Attempts to cure are hardly practical, if in-
deed cure is even possible, An application of
lime to a tree but slightly attacked may some-
times be successful. Lime is alkaline and an
alkaline medium of this kind is not encourag-
ing to the growth of fungi. It is advisable and
beneficial to fork in unslaked lime round the .
trees adjacent to one already killed by the fungus.
The planter must aim at
1. Starving the fungus by isolation and re-
moving all wood on which it may live.
oD
2, Killing it by exposure to the sun and by
applying lime.
The diagram on this page indicates the
methods to be followed, and which have been
carried out with success by several planters. The
® ® ® @ 8
cs) &
® e
9 @
@ ® ® @ a
black lines represent trenches : the dots trees ;
the one within the inner circle representing the
tree on which the disease has been discovered,
the others are to all appearances healthy, If
several adjacent trees are dead or known to be
diseased then the
INNER TRENCH MUST BE MADE 10 ENCLOSE THEM,
The trenches should be 14 foot deep and 9 to
12 inches wide. The earth taken out should be
thrown to the inside of the trenches. The area
enclosed by the inner trench should be turned
over to a depth of two feet on three or four
occasions at intervals of a fortnight, and roots,
branches and wood of all kinds collected and.
burned along with the dead tree. There are
usually large logs which cannot be burned with-
out endangering neighbouring sound’ trees,
Such logs should at: least bo scorched and then:
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
piled up on their ends. The entire tap root of
the dead tres must be taken out. There is no
occasion at this stage to leave a large hole where
the treegrew. It is advisable, though. to dig
out of the earth for a radius of a foot and toa
depth of two feet deep round where the dead
root was, and to burn all roots and pieces of
wood turned up so that the bed for a new supply
may be clean, The hole should be filled up
again, care being taken not to fill in bits of wood
so plentiful on every clearing. If the hole is
left open, a certain area on which the excavated
soil lies will escape being turned over. The
circular trench should be cut carefully and as
narrow as possible otherwise the earth taken out
of it will cover the inside area so heavily that
the ‘‘turning over’’ will not go down deep enough.
Lime should be liberally applied and covered
over at the first digging; it should be also
scattered in the trenches, which must be kept
cleared out to the proper depth; all logs or roots
crossing them must be cut through. The object
of the trenches isto prevent the fungal threads
‘ from spreading as they are not, as faras my
observations go, to be found at a greater depth,
except on tap roots, than one-and-a-half or at
most two feet. The inner trench isto prevent
infection of the ring of trees adjacent to the
diseased one, but as they may be already infected
the outer trench is dug; only a few may be in-
fected, consequently radial trenches are made
as well. In practice it will be found impossible,
owing to the intervention of huge logs and
stumps, to dig trenches as regular as_ the figure
indicates; the planter must use his discretion as
to where he will cut them; knowing their object,
he will have no difficulty in selecting the best
positions. The stumps near the dead tree
should be removed if possible; at least the soil
should be cleared away round their roots as deep
as the trenches, and an attempt made to burn
them: even if they are not consumed completely,
the fungus will be burned off. Their lateral
roots should be cut off and destroyed. Jt would
be well to
ISOLATE ALL JUNGLE STUMPS WITHIN THE
TRENCHES,
These precautions must be carried out to
their fullest if the disease is to be eliminated.
Many planters are dissatisfied unless they
are given a. simpleremedy which can be applied
in a few minutes to a diseased tree. The pre-
ventive measures here suggested require some
labour, especially since dead trees generally
occur singly and widely apart. For this reason
and perhaps because they are not in the routine
of work they are postponed, not carried out in
their entirety, or totally neglected. Experience
shows there is no saving in abridging the pre-
ventive methods recommended, but in the enda
distinct loss. More trees die down and longer
trenches must ultimately be dug at greater
jabour cost than if the full directions
had been followed when the first dead
tree was noticed. When unavoidably the
lines of the scheme cannot be fully followed,
the inner trench at leastshould be made and
the work recommended to be done within it car-
ried out. This curtailment must not be taken
a8 recommended except in special circum-
stances, and only as an irreducible minimum,
589
Owing to the amount of dead wood in and
on the surface soil of an ordinary estate and to
the length to which the lateral roots of para
trees so quickly spread, there is
LITTLE USE IN MERELY TURNING THE FUNGUS
COVERED ROOTS
of the dead tree up to the sun and dig-
ging a hole about two feet square and two
feet deep for a new ‘‘supply.” Notwith-
standing advico to the contrary this is too often
done. The old roots and dead wood around are
most likely supporting the fungus, and as soon
as these are reached by the young roots of the
‘‘supply ” infection occurs, and ina couple of
months there is need to put in another ‘‘supply.”
The presence of root disease on a tree may be
detected two months or more before it drops its
leaves or is blown down: if it is shaken, it will be
found to be markedly loose in the ground. Once
a case of this disease has been noticed in a field,
agood coolie might test the trees, say, once every
week or fortnight, marking those he noticed loose
for a closer examination by the manager, If the
soil is carefully cleared away a little round a
suspected tree the fungal threads will be noticed
on one or more roots if root disease is present.
When the tap root is not attacked, it may be
possible to kill the parasite by cutting off and
burning the diseased lateral roots and forking
in plenty of lime round the tree. Itis safer and
surer to take out the tree and proceed inthe way
recommended above, as the source of the trouble
is probably stiil existent on some neighbouring
stump. I think that the idea of examination,
by a coolie might be extended further and a
periodical examination, say once a month, made
of all trees from one to three years old,
With regard to the
PUTTING IN OF THE ‘* SUPPLIES,”
this is dependent somewhat on the season,
but at least eight or ten weeks should elapse
before replanting. The trenches should be left
open about three months; if any of the suspected
ring has been infected, it wili probably show it-
self before that time, but it would be wise to
make an examination by clearing away the soil
from the root to a depth of a foot or so when the
fungal threads will be seen if the tree is infected.
The upper six to ten inches of the tap root are
first attacked.
On account of the large continuous areas under
rubber and our uniformly moist climate, an ap-
parently insignificant disease may easily become
epidemic if not grappled with in time, Planters
should therefore
IMMEDIATELY REPORT UNHEALTAINESS
among their plants. Diseased specimensshould
be sent and full information given. Unfor-
tunately letters usually tell little more than that
the plant died. It 1s better to err on the side of say-
ng too much; nothing should be omitted because
it seems trifling to the writer, it may instead
be of considerable aid in diagnosing the disease
or suggesting remedies. To help planters in
describing diseased plants an
‘INFORMATION FORM ’
has been drawn up and this form will
be sent free to any planter. The Form is not
meant to be exhaustive but rather to aid the
planter in recording his observations; and
590
mention of special circumstances or points
of interest in connection with a disease
should not be omitted because they do not
come within the answers, but should be inclu-
ded as useful additional information. It is advis-
able for a planter to describe the most con-
venient way of reaching his estate from the
nearest railway station jn case an officer
may have to make investigations on the spot.
Usually too little material is sent, and that in
a bad condition. Specimens should not be sent
in small envelopes as is too often done; in this
way they arrive too dry or shrivelled up, and the
quantity is usually too small. Moist specimens
should be carefully packed in a ventilated box ;
so should pieces of stem, branch or root. Leaves
should be put out flat between sheets of news-
paper cut to a convenient size and protected by
cardboard on the outsides. Leaves should not
be sert alone, bub with twigs.
It is undesirable to send specimens in bags,
as is frequently done. A stem or root should be
fixed in a box by screwing a nail through one
end of the box and into the wood of the plant.
Specimens such as leaves and pieces cut out of
root or stems, besides being forwarded in a dry
state, should also be sent 1n alcohol—one part
ordinary whisky or arrack added to two parts
water, using if possible a fairly wide-mouthed
but not necessarily large bottle: the cork should
be sealed.
Itis best nottosend aspecimen which has been
dead for along time: on these numbers of diffe-
rent post mortem fungi and bacteria are usually
to be found, and the real source of trouble can
seldom be separated. Specimens should if pos-
sible be sent which contain more sound than
diseased tissue: the boundary line between these
two is the most useful for work in the laboratory.
—Straits Agricultural Bulletin for November,
ROOT DISEASE OF PARA RUBBER:
AND BURNING OF TEA PRUNINGS.
When we published the Malaya Mycologist’s
lengthy article on Root Disease of Para rubber
in the F.M.S., we asked if Mr. Petch would say
how far the same disease had spread in Ceylon
in the 2} years since the Ceylon Government
Mycologist’s circular on the subject appeared.
Mr. Petch has courteously replied and his letter
is reassuring, as regards spread, though eradi-
cation appears difficult.—He supports, too, the
burning of tea prunings—dealt with in our
columns.
Note from the Mycologist.
Peradeniya, Nov. 18th.
Srr,—The root disease caused by Fomes semi-
tostus is still confined to the areas in which it
first appeared. It is proving rather difficult
to exterminate on closely planted estates where
the cost of removing jak stumps is considered
prohibitive. It is scarcely possible to criticise
the F.M.S. account until moreis known about
the fungus. , :
I am glad to see that the idea of burning
prunings has obtained another adherent,—
especially a chemist, for the chief objection to
the practice is based on chemical considerations.
Mr Green’s recommendation was withdrawn
because of the ‘‘ loss of nitrogen” bogey. When
we know (a) how much nitrogen is removed in
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
the prunings, and (b) what percentage of this
becomes available when buried, we shall be
able to decide whether its. value exceeds the
value of the bushes killed by root disease and
injured by shot-hole borer.—Yours faithfully.
T. PETCH.
MR. KELWAY BAMBER AND THE
RUBBER EXHIBITION.
Mr Kelway Bamber, Government Analyst,
who recently left for the Rubber Exhibition in
London, returned to Ceylon recently via Bombay.
Seen by an Observer representative Mr Bam-
ber, explained that his reasons for returning
via Bombay and Tuticorin were partly that he
wished to meet some friends and partly with the
object of making some studies of the cotton
and grain growing fields in Southern India.
In reply to questions Mr Bamber said that it
was probable that the knowledge gleaned would
be useful in connection with experiments con-
templated in Northern Ceylon.
A Fine RussBer EXuIBITION.
Mr Bamber said that he could not at present
discuss the Rubber Exhibition fully. Stress of
work was one reason and the fact that he had to
make a Government repurt on the subject was
another,
‘‘It did an enormous amount of good,” he
remarked. ‘‘ Many people had not the slightest
idea of the methods of manufacture and the
various form of manufactured rubber. The
keenest interest was shown by great numbers of
people, who patronised the Exhibition,”
‘“Ceylon ? Well, I can only say just now that
Ceylon made an excellent show. I don’t care
to make comparisons, but the Ceylon article
was well-represented.”
“One of the disappointments to us was that
there was not a Manufacturers’ Conference, at
which, it had been hoped, we should have had
an opportunity of thoroughly understanding the
manufacturers’ point of view. However, this
could not be arranged, and instead we simply
‘met’ the manufacturers as the next best
thing to a conference, and got their views on.
various aspects of requirements and kindred
subjects,”
“Generally there was a large number of
enquiries as to methods of manufacture, and
the lectures, which were of a high class
standard, were well attended and thoroughly
appreciated.”
“Which do you think were most striking in
their standard of excellence ? ’
‘« | prefer not to say,” Mr Bamber replied.
‘‘Tt would scarcely be proper, since I was in-
cluded amongst the lecturers, But Ceylon
people will have an opportunity of judgiug for
themselves. They will all be published and |
made available, together with the discussion on
each subject.”
‘‘With regard to the question of striking ex-
hibits, and comparative shows, I will only say
that the Rosehaugh Company’s stalls were fine.
It was the general impression of manufacturers
that the Rosehaugh clear blocks, were about
the best,”
M r Bamber would say no more. He was about
afteran interview
to depart for Peradeniya,
with H.E. the Governor.
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
NEW SYSTEM OF TAPPING.
Hevea AND Crara,
Messrs. Lee Hedges & Co. have issued a cir
cular on this subject from which we quote :—
Colombo, Nov. 12th, 1908.
‘Ag a result of continuous experiments for some
time past, a new system of extracting latex from
Rubber ‘Trees (more particularly Hevea and
Ceara) has been evolved for which the following
are the chief advantages claimed.
1. Cost of Plant does not exceed that of any
other method in vogue.
2. Extreme simplicity, obviating the neces-
sity for trained labour.
3. By adopting this system it is possibie to
secure from Young Trees (3 years old and up-
wards) which cannot under present conditions
be profitably tapped—a remunerative yield at a
low cost not possible by any other known method,
and with little or no damageas compared with
the best and most careful tapping practised
hitherto with skilled labour.
4, Larger yield per cooly. One cooly, man
or woman, cancover at the very least twice as
much ground as by any other method. Conse-
quently, less than halfthe labour is needed to
secure more than the same quantity of latex
from any given number of trees. In some in-
stance3, as much as‘3 times the ordinary yield per
cooly has been secured with ease, in less time.
To sum up the main advantages are :--
. Simplicity.
. Reduction in cost of production.
. Little or no damage to the trees.
. Reduction in ‘labour force required.
Quicker and increased returns.
Dr. J C Willis, Director of the Botanic Gar-
dens, Peradeniya, was invited to investigate the
system and express his opinion thereon—which
he has done in the following letter which we
are permitted to quote :—
“J have this morning seen 25 trees tapped by
Mr——’s new method, and 25 of about the same
size tapped in double basal Vs. The latter will
have to be pared tonight. The yield in the
former case wasexactly double of thatin the
latter, viz: 17 ounces of rolled wet sheet against
84 ounces, and was obtained in about 2/3rds of
the time.”
“T consider that the new method, if used to
secure the same, ora moderately greater yield
per tree, is less harmful to the trees, especially
in the hands of an inexperienced cooly, than the
existing methods of tapping by v’s. spirals, or
herring-bones, and. itis well suited to young
trees.”
“ Considering that 25 trees in 100 minutes
with one cooly yielded milk that gave 170z. wet
sheet (12 0z. dry) I see no need for any exces-
sive tapping. 3 tappings of a week each, with
intervals between provided thatthe yields are
approximately constant should yield as much or
more than by the existing systems.” (Signed)
Joun C W111,
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,
27th October, 1908.
It is proposed to make known this system on
payment of a Fee...
Oe to
591
Messrs BF L Clements and Joseph Fraser,
whose opinions as practical Planters and Visit-
ing Agents, itis thought will be geuerally ac-
ceptable, were invited and have kindly con-
sented to act in this matter, and it is understood
that all those subscribing will abide by their
decision,
Directly a sufficient amount of support is as-
sured, Messrs Clements and Fraser will make a
practical test of the system under any conditions
they may wish toimpose and in the event of
their verdict being favourable full particulars
and information, with a practical demonstration
of the process if desired, will be given to all sub-
scribers. Should however their opinion be ad-
verse the deposits will be at once returned as
mentioned previously.
Wo may mention thatthe planter on whose
behalf this proposal is made, has fixed, as a
minimum limit of subscriptions, what must be
considered as a very modest aggregate amount,
in view of the benefits to be derived by the adop-
tion of his idea, not the least of which will be
the greatly reduced labour force as compared
with that at present required.
RUBBER SEED FOR OIL MANU-
FAGTURING PURPOSES.
Now that the demand for rubber seed is
diminishing, or rather the supply growing
more abundant, growers may be thiuking of
utilising what seed they have, to obtain the by-
product of oil. Any such should first read the
letter we guote from the Malay Mail. It is
argued, with figures, that the production of
rubber seed oil is far less profitable than Mr
Carruthers has made out. The demand for
rubber seed according to the Singapore Botanic
Gardens—has not decreased at al] in the tropics
generally. Our remark on the natural decrease
of demand of late, hasreference rather to Ceylon
itself. In‘this connection it is of interest to read
of recent success obtained by Singapore Gardens
with seed sont so far afield as British Guiana,
and the methods pursued in packing it.
(To the Editor, ‘‘Malay Mail.’’)
Sir;—In his Report for 1907 Mr. Carruthers
states ‘‘that a profit per acre, after paying all
expenses for picking, husking, etc., of at least
$5 to $8 may be earned by estates with trees
in full first bearing.” This statement—coming
from an authoritative quarter—should have been
supported by figures, as in the event of its
proving illusory it can only lead to disappoint-
ment and loss, through money being wasted
on machinery. Indeed a plant for crushing
rubber seed has already been imported, and
is likely to prove a white elephant to the pro-
prietor, as 1 contend that, under conditions
obtaining at present, it will not pay to pick
the seed for shipment to Europe # neither is
local crushing likely to prove remunerative.
In support of my contention I will give
figures which have been carefully worked out,
and which I think are correct. The quantity
of rubber seed obtainable per acre cannot be
592 The Supplement to the
verified, the data on this subject being scant
and unreliable, but my assumption of a produc-
tion of 50,000 good seeds per acre is probably
near the mark. (
For a cheap-priced article a low rate of
freight to Europe is a sine gua non, and so long
as linseed—against which rubber seed would
primarily compete—can be shipped from Indian
and Argentine ports at freights ranging from
10/ to 20/ per ton, our ‘‘ conference controlled ”
ports must necessarily be completely out of the
running. Inthe ordinary course Port Swetten-
ham, owing to its proximity toa large number
of estates, would be the principal shipping port,
and, as compared with current rates of freight,
it is very unlikely that a cheaper rate than 50/
per ton would be quoted for decorticated rubber
seed, measuring 60 c. ft. to the ton.
Roughly 250,000 seed are required to make
up the weight of one ton; but as the husk,
which contains nooil and is of no value, is of
equal weight with the kernel, 500,000 seeds
will have to be treated to make up one ton of
decorticated seed. Assuming that my estimate
of 500,000 seeds as the yield of one acre be
correct, it follows that 100 acres will yield 10
tons of decorticated seed.
The averaye price of linseed in London is
about 40/ per quarter of 4101b or say £11 per ton
ex quay, equal to about £10 cif. Itis claimed
that rubber seed oil andcake are equal to the
linseed products, but even if this were correct—
which, especially as regards the cake, is open
to doubt—no crusher is likely to pay the same
price for a new article, as he would for such a
well-known commodity as linseed. Inany case it
is quite certain that rubber seed will always be
worth at least £1 per ton less than linseed.
Taking therefore £9 c.i.f. as the probable value
of rubber seed, the yield from 100 acres would
be £90. Deducting £25 for freight from Port
Swettenham to London from the above amount,
will leave £65 or $559 as the nett selling price.
From thissum the following charges will have
to be deducted :—
Cost of picking and carrying to estate Sheds
4 ets. o/o 5A $2 0
Decorticating 20 tons at dols 7 per tun 140
Gunnies for packing seed for shipment a Qt
Packing, weighing, carting to station dols 4
per ton Bry , : 49
Railway freight, say 20 cts per picul a 31
Shipping charges, commission, brokerages,
insurance te f 80
Total 518
This would leave the planter a profit of $41,
equal to 41 cents per acre, and barely sufficieat
to pay for supervision.
Tt must also beremembered that a large labour
force of women and “chokras” would be re-
quired for picking and handling the seed, pro-
bably not less than 150 for about three months
on athousand acre Estate and these can be far
more profitably employed elsewhere.— Your,ete.
R. G, PauMeEr.
Brieh Estate, Perak, Oct. 31st, 1908.
—Malay Mait, Nov. 4.
CEYLON RESULTS.
We have authentic figures of a: Ceylon experi-
ment in extracting oil from Rubber seed. It took
750,000 seed to give 8 cwt. of oi], worth about R140
Tropical Agriculturist
—a sum which did not, in the planter’s and mer-
chant’s opinion, make the game worth the
candle, Atarupee per 1,000 seed, the return
would have been five times as much. As 1t
stood, expenses and trouble were not considered
to be much more than covered by the R140
netted.
RUBBER PREPARATION.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS.
By Mr. John Parkin, M.A.
The International Rubber Exhibition, re-
cently held in London, may be looked upon as
marking the close of the first decade of the
rubber planting industry. ‘Ten yearsago there
was practically no plantation rubber on the
market. No recognised method of tapping the
trees or of preparing the commercial article
from the latex had been introduced. Every-
thing was in the initial stage. To one who had
a little share in launching this new tropical
enterprise on its successful career, the Exhibi-
tion came as an agreeable surprise. Enthu-
siasm was rekindled—so nauch so that I have
had the audacity to take up my pen and write
upon some matters affecting the preparation and
quality of plantation rubber. It seems fitting
at this period to pause and consider how far
perfection has been attained in these respects.
DEFECT IN PLANTATION RUBBER.
Having in mind the fine samples of plantation
rubber displayed at the Exhibition, it might be
thought that planters had weli-nigh reached fin-
ality in its preparation. The beautiful-looking
pale crépe, clean sheets and biscuits, and trans-
lucent blocksseem to the eye all that could be
desired. What a contrast to the dark, watery,
often dirty and malodorous native-collected rub-
ber ! Yet appearances are often deceptive. The
quality isnot quite so good as might be expected.
Though plantation rubber has frequently ob-
tained a higher price per lb. than the best Para,
yet I beliove it to bea fact that the latter, if as
pure and free from moisture, would command a
better figure in the market, as it possesses
tougher qualities. Fine Para, then, has some-
what superior properties to the first. grade plan-
tation rubber hithertosupplied. To what, it may
be asked, is the defect in quality of the latter
due ? Does it reside in the latex itself, or is it
owing tothe method of preparation ?
PosstBLE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
Climate may possibly have altered the charac-
ter of the latex. For instance, an increase in
resin might becaused. A poorer rubber would
be the result. Analyses of samples do not,
however, favour this idea, though I am not
aware that any exhaustive and exact compari-
sons between the resin-contents of these two
kinds of ruabber—native and plantation Para—
have been made. :
AGE OF THE TREE2.
The age of the trees is perhaps more likely
than climate to affect the composition of the
latex. Most of the plantation rubber is as yet ob-
tained from trees 6 to 10 years old. Presumably,
the native Para is chiefly collected from thicker
and so older trees. It would be interesting to
and Magazine uf the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
abmit for testing purposes samples of planta-
tion rubber, prepared, of course, in the same
way, from trees of various ages. Personally,
I should be rather surprised to find any marked
difference in the quality of the rubber drawn
from 10 year old trees as compared with that
from 20 year old ones, all other conditions
being equal. It is, of course, true that
the latex from the shoots and leaves of
Hevea does not afford good caoutchouc, but this
comes from the laticiferous vessels formed in
primary growth. In the secondary growth
whereby the stem increases in thickness, the
new laticiferous vessels which are continually
being formed, contain probably from the begin-
ning good caoutchouc. On this assumption,
then, as soon as the few primary laticiferous
vessels dry up and become obliterated by
the expansion of the stem, the latex will give
rubber of full quality, and continue to do so.
Wounp RESPONSE.
It has been suggested to me that the in-
feriority of plantation rubber may be due to the
over rapid formation of latex through excessive
response to wounding. That is to say, the glob-
ules, arise so fast that they have not time to
mature into proper caoutchouc. This possibility
does not appeal to me. Though the physi-
ology, or shall I say, pathology, of wound res-
ponse is still imperfectly understood, yet the
phenomenon can hardiy be due to a rapid for-
mation of new laticiferous vessels near the
place of injury, for it is noticeable often after
the lapse of 24 hours, a time too short one
would imagine, even in the tropics, for a large
addition of new tubes. It is more likely occa-
sioned by an abundant infiltration of water into
the neighbouring intact tubes, as well as perhaps
into those which have been served, but have
stopped bleeding through being plugged with
hardened latex: On re-opening the wound, the
greater turgidity of the vessels and their more
liquid contents results in a much more copious
flow of latex. Itisa recognised fact, I believe,
chat the latex from rewounding is thinner, con-
taining a lower percentage of caoutchouc, than
that issuing from first cuts, but the weight of
rubber obtained is greater, owing to the much
increased flow. Exact experiments, however, do
not seem to have been conducted to show the
relation of rubber-weight to latex volume from
a continuous series of tappings. A too frequent
tapping may result inavery watery latex, which
is not economical tocollect, Handy means have
been devised for rapidly estimating the percen-
tage of rubber ina sample of latex. With these
planters could be guided. If the caoutchouc fell
to, say, below 10 percent, then the tapping should
be disccntinued, or the interval between suc-
cessive tappings extended.
But to return to the main point. Though it
seems improbable that the quality of the caout-
chouc should be affected detrimentally by
climate, immaturity of the tree or excessive
tapping, yot these possibilities should not be
disregarded, but be made the subject of deci-
sive experiment.
MopDE or PREPARATION.
Probably the defect in plantation rubber is
largely due to the mode of preparation. It
seems doubtful if the method of pulling and
stretching the rubber clots into the crepe form,
%
593.
or of pressing them into thin sheets or biscuits
is a good one, A maximum amount of surface is
thus exposed for oxidation, and further, perhaps,
the vigorous manipulation itself hasan injurious
effect on the elastic property of the rubber.
Consequently the block form adopted by some
planters seems preferable. But to produce.dry
blocks which will not mould or purify, the
rubber must first be obtained in thin sheets in
order to be thoroughly dried, and these after-
wards pressed into blocks, fhe supposed evils
arising from thin rubber are thus only partly
obviated.
CurED Buiock RuseEr,
Hence recourse must be had to the complete
process devised at’ the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Ceylon, nearly ten years ago, viz., coagulation
by means of acetic acid with the addition of a
preservative such as creosote. Block rubber can
thus be made which need not be dry and yet
will not mould. A sample of rubber thus pre-
pared was shown on the Ceylon Government
stall at the recent exhibition and manufacturers
were said to have pronounced it to be the
kind of raw material they desired.
Rubber probably preserves its good qualities
better in the presence of a certain amount of
moisture.
These considerations, then, point to the plan-
tation rubber of the future being compressed
direct from the clots into blocks of uniform size,
and of a thickness bordering on an inch, which
will allow the buyers to see at a glance that
they are free from impurities, and also permit the
superfluous water to evaporate fairly readily.
Block rubber thus prepared should be sub-
mitted in quantity to the manufacturers to be
vulcanised and tested, so as to see how it com-
pares with the best native Para, Inall tests of the
commercial value of raw rubber, the final appeal
mustalways be to the manufacturer; thechemist
alone is not sufficient. Let us hope thereare
English firms enterprising enough tocarry out
these tests and so assist the planters, especially
seeing that this new tropical cultivation is almost
wholly due to British endeavour,
SMOKING Process.
The defect in plantation rubber as hitherto
supplied has aroused incertain minds the idea
that a smoking process based on the native
method in use in the Amazon valley should be
adopted, Though probably rubberas good as the
best native Para might be produced by it, yet I
think it would have distinct disadvantages from
a planter’s point of view. A considerable waste
would be likely to ensue in the manipulation.
Even if that drawback was removed, the rubber
obtained would be dark in colour owing to the
smoke, whereas the manufacturers are greatly
attracted by the lightly tinted plantation
rubber now on the market. This kind
allows articles to be made which are almost
transparent, a distinct advantage in certain
cases. Its quality is also more easily judged.
Pale rubber seems, at the moment, destined to
supersede the dark kind.
Acetic Acip PRocgss,
One advantage of the acetic acid process ig
that, if the reagent is carefully used, every par-
ticle of caoutchoue can be extracted from the
latex, The liquid which is left behind should
594
be clear. If it shows much turbidity, then it
means that acertain amount of caoutchouc is
being lost, and this is owing to the addition of
two little or too much acid—a point upon which
managers of estates should keep their eye.
Formic Acip.
Formic acid has been suggested in more than
one quarter as a substitute for acetic acid.
may say that I have never experimented
with this reagent, but it does not recom-
mend itself to me for two or three reasons.
It is more expensive and an unpleasant subs-
tance to handle. Itis alsoa stronger acid, and
so presumably more care would have to be ex-
ercised in the amount requisite. Acetic acid has
this great advantage that the quantity necessary
can be considerably exceeded without ill effects,
whereas with a stronger acid a slight excess
means incomplete coagulation—and so waste,
Dark RUBBER.
The question of the dark colour often assumed
by plantation rubber has recently received the
attention of Mr Bamber, who has shown how it
may be avoided. If the clots resulting from acid
coagulation be dippped in hot water, the darken-
ing is permanently prevented. The heat destroys
the special ferment, oxydase as it is called,
which in the presence of oxygen brings about
this change ot colour. Dr. Spence, of the Bio-
Chemical Department, Liverpool University,
has also been investigating this matter and has
come to similar conclusions.
Hor Acip TREATMENT.
In my experiments on Hevea latex, in 1898-9,
L was never troubled by the rubber clots dark-
ening through this cause, but then most of the
rubber samples were prepared by hot and not
cold acid treatment. Unless there is some
serious objection to the hot treatment, it seems
preferable, for the coagulation is brought about
quicker and at the same time the oxydase is
destroyed ; further, any foreign particles, such
as fragments of bark, float to the top during
the heating and can readily be skimmed off.
Let me draw attention here also to the import-
ance of thoroughly washing the spongy clots of
rubber so as to remove all trace of acid.
PRotTEID IN RUBBER.
The coagulation of Hevea latex is due, as is
now generally admitted, to the presence of a
smal! quantity of soluble albuminous (proteid)
matter which, on the addition of a slight amount
of acid, comes out of solution and draws itself
together into a clot, entangling in its meshes
the globulesof caoutchouc. A spongy mass of
rubber is the result. The wet clot soon moulds
and purifies, owing to the proteid it contains.
The addition of creosote prevents this, as it is
detrimental to the growth of moulds and _ bac-
teria, Castilloa rubber prapared by creaming or
centrifugalisation will not mould as it is tree
from proteid.
The question arises, is the quality of rubber
altered by the presence of tais small amount
of coagulated proteid ? To ascertain this, rub-
ber would have to be prepared free from pro-
teid and compared with a sample made in the
ordinary way. No rubber, as yet, has been
directly prepared in Ceylon, or the East
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
enerally, from Hevea latex from proteid, The
atex will not cream, neither will it undergo
centrifugalisation in a separator.’ Mr Biffen,
however, appears to have centrifugalised this
latex in tropical America, judging by the ac-
count in his paper on ‘‘Rubber Coagulation,”
published in 1898, It was tried in Ceylon
without success. Perhaps it might be worth
while to attempt the separation in a machine
revolving more rapidly than 6,000 revolutions
per minute, If separation resulted, then rubber
free from proteid could be prepared and com—
pared with the coagulated kind and also with
native Para. Thus some light would pro-
bably be thrown on the effect of proteid on
the quality of rubber. At any rate, this
problem could now be studied in the case
of Castilloa rubber. The presence in caoutchouc
of a little proteid may have a beneficial effect
on its properties.
It would also be interesting to know whether
the rubber of Castilloa would be equal in
quality to that of Hevea, if both were of an
equal degree of purity. Castilloa contains, as
a rule, more resin, and this, of course, lowers
its quality. But if the resin were removed,
would its caoutchouc then be equal in quality
to that of Hevea ?
CENTRIFUGALISATION,
To return to the question of centrifugalisa-
tion, little appears to have been heard of this
process, since it was boomed ten years ago.
It certainly seemed a promising method for
Castilloa latex. It may, of course, be in use
in the plantations of this tree in Mexico,
from which, judging by reports, a quan-
tity of commercial rubber may be coming
in the near future. Perhaps centrifugalisa-
tion is a wasteful method. A certain number of
the caoutchouc globules may remain in suspen-
sion, just as in milk separation all the fat
globules are not removed, if otherwise the fluid
remaining would be clear.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.
An easy way of preparing rubber from Hevea
latex is by the addition of a small quantity of a
solution of corrosive sublimate (mercuric chlo-
ride), ‘The rubber clot is not only formed but
“ cured ” at the sametime, as this reagent is one
of the strongest antiseptics known.
Of course, an obvious and serious objection
to this treatment isthe very poisonous character
ofthissalt. Still it might be interesting to
know the manufacturers’ opinion of a large
sample of rubber so prepared. tu
ConcuupDING REMARKS.
By way of concluding these considerations, it
seems abundantly evident that in spite of the
success already achieved by the rubber-planting
industry, the time has not yet arrived for mana-
gers. of estates to settle down to any one stereo-
typed or rule-of-thumb method of rubber pre-
paration. This is still in the experimental stage.
Directors of companies and those responsible
for estate supervision and control must be ever
on the alert to try and adopt, if necessary, new
methods, when brought to their notice by com-
petent persons, Ifthey fall too early into one
rer
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society
groove, they may find their article commanding
a less price in the future than that obtained by
the up-to-date producers. Once the rubber from
an estate becomes branded as inferior, it will be
difficult for it to gain the respect of the market
even when its quality is improved.
Estates, however, in these matters of rubber
preparation should endeavour to move forward
as much as possible in conjunction, so that a
rubber as uniform as possible in quality and
shape may be placed on the home market. Uni-
formity combined with first-rate quality and
purity should be the aim.
[We welcome this contribution from Mr, John,
Parkin, M.a., who ten years ago, in Ceylon, con-
ducted some. valuable experiments in con-
nection with tapping Hevea trees and coagula-
tion of various latices. Mr. Parkin was one of
the first to note the wound response in Hevea ;
his results largely influenced the methods
adopted in the Kast, and our only regret is that
he could not be prevailed upon to return to
Ceylon and continue his useful work.]—Jndia
Rubber Journal, Nov. 2.
NOTES ON JAVA.
A RECENT TOUR BY OUR “SENIOR.”
The following is the continuation of some
Wayside Notes on a Trip through Java made by
our Senior.
Something has to be said of our railway jour-
ney from Soekaboemi—a lovely mountain town,
2,000 feet up—to Maos almost on sea-level close
to the Indian Ocean, and on the South-western
side of one of the narrowest portions of the
singularly long but comparatively very narrow
slip of an island that Java is. While double the
area of Ceylon and much more than double in
extreme length (over 600 miles) Java is at some
points not more than 40 miles in breadth. The
railway from Batavia via Buitenzorg and on by
Soekaboemi to Bandoeng passes through some
of the finest mountain scenery in the island.
The line never rises much above 3,000 feet; but
there are ‘smoking’ or dormant
VOLCANOES
within ken all the way, and while some of these
close by do not exceed Pidurutalagala’s 8,000
feet,—farther away, we have many rising far
above our highest in Ceylon, to 10,000 and
12,000 feet above sea-level and marked by all
that attractive outline peculiar to volcanic
ranges. The smoking or active craters are
supposed to bea safeguard against sudden
eruptions, as enabling so much gas, &c., to
escape. But one cannot forget ‘‘ Krakatoa” to
the North of Java, with its terribleconsequences,
crowned by the loss of 35,000 lives at the least;
nor an eruption in Java itself so recent as 1901
which cost nearly 200 lives. A considerable
tunnel separates the plains or valleys of
““Soekaboemi” (“desire of the world”!) and
Tjiandjoer, noted for its far-extending luxuriant
rice-fields, cultivated with a care as regards
seed, transplanting, &c., quite unknown in
Ceylon, From this point, there is an interesting
595
excursion to Sindanglaya, where there is a hill-
residence of the Governor-General, Gardens and
other attractions; but we do not leave our
railway carriage and note on the main line as
we continue some
WONDERFUL SCENERY
in hills, rivers, waterfalls and ravines crossed
by viaducts, and altogether this mountain
railroad is a credit to its Engineers. From
summit level and minor stations we now descend
to the plateau at Bandoeng 2,350 feet above
sea-lovel. This plateau is surrounded by most
picturesque mountain peaks and ranges rising
from 5 to 8,000 feet. In one direction, ‘the
five-topped mighty Malabar mountains (summit,
7,650 feet)” are pointed out, chiefly interesting,
because here lies—also on an upland plateau—
the far-famed
MALABAR TEA PLANTATION
which gives the heaviest crops per acre of any
tea plantation in the world, and the produce of
which secures wonderfully good prices in the
London market. I ought to have noted earlier,
about passing on horseback through a succession
of long-established prosperous tea gardens, as
well managed now, with up-to-date machinery,
and with as good teaas many in the higher
districts of Ceylon,
““ BANDOENG ”
is a considerable town, the capital of the Fre-
anger Regencies, with broad streets and many
comfortable villas; a great training school for
Javanese teachers; while here in July, there is
a great gathering from far and near for the
annual races, where Englishmen are, of course,
well to the front, and specially, as represented
by public-spirited Mr. Bingley and his ponies,
and where every one says the great crowds of
neatly-attired merry-makiny natives are always
as extremely well-behaved as they are attractive.
There is something very interesting about the
Javanese: their features and appearance are
tar more of the Hindu and Aryan, than of the
Malay, type; but unquestionably the substi-
tution of Mohammedanism for idolatry has
strengthened their character and made them
as a race more self-dependent and industrious,
than are Hindus or Sinhalese as arule, Such
is our thought from our reading, as well as from
some, though very limited, observation. At
Bandoeng, Mr. Tomlinson happened to join our
train, and was full of information as to our
surroundings, Malabar and other tea districts.
We had previously learned much trom
DurcH FELLOwW-TRAVELLERS
—sugar, tea and coffee planters; and now a
fine handsome Austrian busily engaged with
coconuts and rubber, in a southern division,
introduced himself and was full of interesting
talk. ‘Where had he learned about systematic
coconut planting ou a big scale?’ ‘Oh, from the
Ceylon Coconut Manual’; and so for Rubber,
he had got a copy of one of the early editions
of ‘‘ Ferguson's All About Rubber,” going back
to the ‘eighties.’ It was very amusing to note
his interest when he discovered that he was
talking to the responsible Compiler himself!
and it was very difficult to decline his pressing
hospitality as that of many other planters,
596 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
Dutch and other nationalities, during our far
too short excursion. (In the Malay States,
too, we came across several who had got
their planting literature from Ceylon, and who,
after Liberian coffee failed, wisely went in for
Coconuts and Rubber.) We can quite believe
that in the
Ricu Soin or JAva
in favourable situation, the coconut palm must
flourish exceedingly; but our Austrian friend
gave us figures tor the crops from his early
bearing palms which we would rather not
repeat until he has had some more experience
on a wider scale. Solitary palms well looked
after often develop heads of nuts that are out
of all proportion to the return from any appre-
ciable acreage. Bandoeng struck us as avery
busy prosperous place, and for an hour we
continued to pass through picturesque country
till we got to Tjitjalanka, in the neighbourhood
of which are extensive swamps unsurpassed for
snipe shooting in the proper season! Then
on to Tjibatoe we had magnificent mountain
scenery, and at Padalarang there is a change to
another line made by any who want to visit the
pretty little town of
GAROET
—the centre of fourteen volcanoes of which
‘“Golnoeng Goentoer” (Thunder Mountain) is
chief, A great eruption took place here in 1772
(from Papandajan, 8,000 feet) when 3,000 people
perished. Form another active crater near by
an eruption took place in 1882, but did not
cause much damage. Following the main line
we now begin to descend rapidly, and from
Tjamis to Bandjar we enter on quite different
country—lowlands and much of it uncultivated
because deemed feverish and unhealthy by the
people. It is here, however, that enterprising
Java, Straits, and Ceylon planters have taken
up land on a considerable scale for
‘* RUBBER,”
and soon (10 minutes) after leaving Bandjar
Station, having been apprised beforehand and
the train travelling slowly, we had a very good
passing inspection of four of these large blocks
of Syndicate’s or Company’s land and some
extensive fields of rubber and also one or two
with coconuts. These were in order on the
left, A block to take up which a Syndicate had
just been formed. Thé part we saw over was
being cleared up and some portions indicated
how heavy this work could be. On the right of
the railway line and touching it was the block
of the
‘““Anves RUBBER COMPANY”
shewing a splendid growth of rubber, the fields
clean with a border of forest that indicated
how rich the soil must be. The lay of the land
appeared to be all that could be desired.
Farther on, on the left was the ‘‘Langen Rubber
and Coconut” property, chiefly belonging to
Straits shareholders; while opposite this, on
the right of the railway is the ‘‘Straits-Java”
Rubber Company’s block. There is a little
railway station in Langen which will serve for
all four properties, and the river Tjidandoey
runs round some of the properties. There were
evidences of a Jarge labour force being at work,
and no doubt justice will be done in developing.
and keeping clean the cultivation in this
district. The country thence continued flat and
rather marshy and uninteresting, until we came
on rice cultivation in the neighbourhood of
Maos, our terminus for the night—since there is
no night travelling on Java railways, Here at
MaAos
it can be decidedly warm, being nearly on sea
level with a short branch railway to the port of
pinlatiep, But a sea-breeze prevailing, we
found the Government Hotel, with its many
rather small bedrooms wondertully cool, and
the catering by the ex-military Dutchman in
charge, very fair. Two trains stop over ‘here
for the night, and they often deposita consider-
able number of hungry passengers, for whom a
good dinner and early tea (the start being soon
after 6 a.m.) are provided withthe accommo-
dation at wonderfully moderate rates. "We had
the pleasure on this last section up to Maos, and
on next day, of the company of the
CoMMERCIAL AGENT
for the Orient of the Australian Commonwealth
Government. Mr. Sinclair, of Scottish extrac-
tion born in Victoria, has travelled much and
observed closely both in the West and- Hast;
but his duties now are chiefly connected, with
Cochin China, Siam, Malaya, Sumatra, Java and
Netherlands Indies generally as well as the
Philippines, and undoubtedly trade is develop-
ing between all these countries and Australia.
In no land does Mr. Sinclair take so much in-
terest as in Java, and he became as enthusiastic
over the industry and comfort of the people and
the prosperity of planters and merchants as
Miss Marianne Nortu
became over its natural attractions, when she
wrote :—
‘Java is one magnificent garden of luxuri-
ance, surpassing Brazil, Jamaica and Sarawak
all combined, with the grandest volcanoes rising
out of it. . . . . . . . . Moreover, tra-
vellers are entirely safe in Java, which is no
small blessing.”
I cannot say if Miss North was thinking of
people or volcanoes in her allusion to safety,
possibly the former in comparison, perhaps,
with Sarawak and Borneo.
After leaving Maos, we very soon entered on
a rich, highly-cultivated and populous country.
The very soil--volcanic ashes full of potash-—
seemed rich enough to be worth shipping to
fertilise the poor rice-fields and plantations of
Lanka. We soon got into a great ™
SugGak AND TOBACCO,
country. The huge Factory chimneys and ex-_
tensive buildings of the former. indicated the
comparatively enormous amount of capital
required for machinery, &c., by the sugar
planter as compared with his neighbours in tea,
coffee, cacao, coconuts or rubber. Clearly Sugar
and Tobacco Planters. are the big men of Java
in capital. The evidences of tobacco growing
were seen in the many large, well- hatched
drying sheds in the middle of extensive fields
for the tobacco leaves to be spread out and
prepared. It seemed as if the villagers grew
and Magazine \of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
and delivered their crops of leaves to Central
Factory Capitalists. Fields with rich crops of
sugarcane were frequently passed and ‘‘ Decau-
ville” tramways indicated that even in Java
expedients to save transport and labour are
quickly adopted. New Sugar factories in
course of erection demonstrated a prosperous
and progressive industry. We did not go on to
the headquarters of the Sugar industry in East
Java and the large busy Port, Soerabaya—more
important commercially than Batavia; but we
saw quite enough up to and around Djokjakarta,
to realise how important is the production and
export of Sugar to the leading division of
Netherlands India.
Our route from
Maos sy Ratt To DsoKJAKARTA
lay through the rich Kedoe district, passing by
many prosperous towns and villages all more or
less connected with flourishing, not to say
wealthy, Sugar and Tobacco growing industries.
There was, of course, at intervals, a good deal
of rice as well as palms, and extremely neat
were most of the native residences we saw, many
like those of our own Kandyans, sheltered
under groves of fruit trees. We had a good look,
too, more than once, at considerable gatherings
of the people for
“Country Farrs,”
where not only produce and manufactures,
but live stock in abundance, ponies specially
numerous, are bought and sold. ‘These as-
semblages are peculiarly after the taste of the
Javanese, and no intoxicating liquor whatever
being consumed, the gatherings are most orderly,
and the people dressed in heliday attire, quite
picturesque. [Mr. Drieberg and the Agricul-
tural Society should see to such ‘‘ Fairs” being
added to Agri-Horticultural Shows and inno-
cent games provided for both throughout our
rural districts. ]
* Dsoksa ”
—to give the capital of the ancient Sultanate
its short name—is a most interesting place, both
historically and naturally. We arrived in the
forenoon and found the representative of the
principal Hotel (‘‘Mataram ”) intelligent and
smart, speaking English well and who at once
pointed out that with the short time at our dis-
posal, we had better start for the
Borro BoEDOER BuDDHIST RUINS
before seeing the city, the Sultan’s Palace and
domain (called Kraton) and the Dutch fortress
Vredenburg. It may at once be mentioned that
successive visits to these proved very interest-
ing, and we wondered what certain Buddhist
Associations in Ceylon would say if they wit-
nessed the way in which very attractive bits of
sculpture, sedent Buddhas, are used as orna-
ments to gardens in this provincial capital,
the grounds of the Dutch Residency, we
think, being especially rich in these statues,
no doubt brought from neighbouring old
temples. The Sultan has some 15,000 retainers
daicl lors about him—and keeps up a semblance
of semi-independence, while occasionally there
are rumours of plots and intrigues (the Chinese
597
being the latest alleged fomeutors*) ; but there
is not the slightest risk of any successful emeute,
even if all the representatives of the old Sultans
or “hiefs were able to come together from their
different districts. Tho Dutch keep a strict
watch cn them al! aud their rules respecting
the Chinese are very strict ; for, though a China-
man may acquire property up to a big planta-
tion; yet to visit the Jatter, or leave the town
in which he is located, he requires a special
“permit,” otherwise no railway ticket would be
issued to him! There is no call for the slightest
sympathy with the Sultans or ex-Rulers. For
their treatment of the original
Buppuaisr AND Hinpu DyNastTIEs
that ruled and administered in this rich divi-
sion of Java, was avything but considerate,
and they ‘‘ converted” the whole body of the
people at the point of the sword—the aban-
donment of Buddha, or Vishnu, Siva, d&c., and
the adoption of Mahomet or prompt extinction,
being the alternatives. I do not say that even-
tually the change was not for the benetit of the
Javanese materially, physically and religiously.
The Sultanates of Djokja and Soerkarta gave
the Dutch ruch trouble in their early years of
possession and their final and proper reduction
was due to Stamford Raffles and his British
troops who established a thorough peace and
settlement for the first time throughout these
South-Western provinces. Raffles and his staff,
indeed, were the first to discover and describe
the great Buddhist and Hindu Ruins within
easy reach of Djokja.
A coupie of hours on a slow train or steam
tramway brought us in the heat of the day to
Moentilan, where we had to engage a pony
carriage (two willing but by no means over-
strong ponies) to take us to the Ruins; buta
ferry had to bo crossed, where a_ substantial
bridge had been carried away by a flood. Our
drive of some miles was through the Highlands
of Kedoe, called the
PARADISE OF JAVA,
Richer, moro highly cultivated or more diver-
sified country could not be desired. From the
eminence on which the vast
Borro-BoEDOER
is situated, we hada viewonall sides of far-
extending plains, here and there diversified with
uplands and forest-clad sections, and it was
quite clear that (as Bulwer Lytton hintsin ‘‘My
Novel” referring to the sites of the old Abbeys
and Monasteries) that the Buddhist Abbots and
Monks in Java, selected the very centre—and a
CHINESE INTRIGUING IN JAVA.—Java has still two
native rulers in vassalage to the Dutch Government and
they keep up great state, respectively, at Diocja and Solo.
the one residing at Solo is now likely to get himself inte
political trouble owing to his having received a visit re-
cently from a Chinese Imperial Commercial Commissioner,
who made a tour in Java. The Ruler showed the Com-
missioner every honour and gave him valuable presents
for the Empress-Dowager of China. Early in August,
news reached Java that the Empress-Dowager would send
a man-of-war there with an Ambassador to bring return
presents to the Ruler, who intends to receive the man, in
right royal style, he Ambassador is expected in Nov-
ember. Among the honours in store for the Ruler is that of
a high class Imperial decoration. The Samarang Locomotief
points out that the Netherlands India Government has 4
voice in the matter, and that the Ruler has no right to
receive Chinese honours and dignities without the con-
sent of tha Governor-General,—Straits Times, f
598°
commanding centre too—of the richest part
of the island, for the site of their princi-
pal and gigantic range of. temples. ‘' This
most remarkable and magnificent monument
Buddhism has ever erected, built in the 8th or
9th century in purely Buddhistic style,”
is estimated to cover the same area as the great
pyramid of Ghizeh.. No mortar or coment ; no
column, pillar or arch used in the building!
In the far distance lay volcanic ranges sur-
mounted by Merapi summit or crater 9,000
feet (on the side of which Mr. Sinclair
had some time before visited a fine coffee
plantation) and Meerbaboe 10,000 teet; and
three more volcanic mountains with their
craters in evidence. Indeed, in clear weather
9 voleanoe tops can be counted and we are
told that on the Dieng plateau—some distance
away—there are ruins of more than 400 Hindu
temples—another authority mentions only six
temples !—and the place has been compared
to the American Yellowstone Park. Great stores
of treasures in gold, silver and bronze found here
are now in. the Batavia Museum. But between
these ranges and the temple area lies many
miles of fertile alluvial or volcanic ash plains
studded with groves of fruit trees and palms,
bananas and vegetables alternating with cereals,
sugar, tobacco ‘‘ every patch of ground being
onitivated like a tulip bed” asthe Dutch guide-
book describes it. No description—and not even
photographs—excellent as some of them are—
give one a proper idea of the Boero- Boedoer won-
derful mass of ruins situated on a terrace 375 feet
in diameter, 97 feet high besides 55 feet of
hillside-bank, with its ornate decorative stone-
work; and yet as something must be said, we
may as well quote what has been penned by
an appreciative American writer as try to re-
produce details from our own recollection and
notes on Boero-Boedoer :—
“The temple stands on a broad piattore and rises frst
in five square terraces, inclosing ga leriss or professional
paths between their walls, which are covered on each
side with bas-relief sculptures. If placed in single line,
these bas-reliefs would extend for three miles. The terrace
walls hold four hundred and thirty-six niches or alcove
chapels, where life size Buddhas sit serene upon lotos
cushions. Staircases ascend in straight lines from each of
the four sides, passing under stepped or pointed arches,
the keystones of which are elaborately carved masks, and
rows of sockets in the jambs show where wo d or metal
doors once swung. Above the square terraces are three
circular terraces, where 72 latticed dagabas (reliquaries in
the shape of the calyx or bud of the lotus) inclose each a
seated image, 72 more suddhas sitting in those inner,
upper circles of Nirvana, facing a great dagoba, or final
cupola, the exact function or purpose of which as key to the
whole structure is still the puzzle of archeologists. This
final shrine is fifty foetin diameter, and either covered a
relic of Buddha, ora central well where the ashes of priests
and princes were deposited, or is a form surviving from
the three temples of the earliest primitive Kast. when
nature-worship prevailed. The English Kagineers made an
opening in the solid exterior, and found an unfinished
statue of Buddha ona platform over a deep wellhole.
James Fergusson calls Booro-Boedoer, the
highest “development of Buddhist art.” Strictly
speaking the Boero-Boedoer—or collection of
Buddhas—is not a building: a small hill has
been cut down and the earthwork surrounded
by masonry, uncemented, unjointed, layer
upon layer. It is supposed to have been built by
some of the first Buddhist settlers from India as
the resting place (dagoba) of one of the rooms
containing a portion of the ashes of Buddha.
InJuly, 1896, the King of Siam spent three days
inspecting these ruins. Climbing to the very top
The Supplement to the Tropical Agrioulturist
by rough stone steps, the view is surpassingly
expansive, varied and beautiful. There is a
good ‘‘resthouse ’’ or hotel close'to the ruins
and now care is taken by the Dutch authorities
as to the conservation and even restoration
(many artificers were at work on certain parts)
of what wasnot so long ago, allowed not only:
to waste, but to be broken up by all who wanted
material or ornaments. On our way back, we
visited nrel,
Tue Tsanpi: MENDOET
temple famous for its huge statue of Buddha,
Il feet high, with highly decorated Bodhisatwa
on each side, 8 feet high, in fact everything
here was on a scaleto sink our Lanka ruins,
temples and statuary into insignificance—save
that not a single outside earthwork dagoba did
we come across—nothing to remind us of the
many gigauticartificial mounds which distinguish
Anuradhapura. Returning to Djokja in time for
‘‘tea”? —aud very good tes is everywhere served
in Java,—the evening drive to the so-called
‘*Water castle,” (Kasteel) to the outside at least
of the Sultan’s elephants and tigers’ stables,
and to the market plave was worthy of note,
Djokja is a very healthy town with a fairly
temperate climate, clean wide roads and many
attractive buildings, fine Club, &c. The paiunt-
ing of sarongsin the cottages of the Javanese
is an industry well worth inspecting in and
around Djokja: we afterwards saw this branch
and many other diversified -native industries
in full detail at an Industrial Exhibition for
Java and its Dependencies, on our return to
Batavia. Our next morning’s excursion was to
the Hindu temples at
BRAMBANAN (PARAMBANAM)
only 40 minutes by train from the town. They
are finely placed on rising ground overlooking
a flowing river and a.wide highly cultivate’
plain ; but the outlook is not so magnificent
as in the case of the rival Buddhist ruins.
Originally it is supposed there were 150 temples
big and little and certainly the heaps of stones
testify to much destruction. Only 6 temples
now stand in a courtyard—three and three.
facing each other; while on a lower terrace
stood the remaining 144 (36 to a side) smaller
temples now demolished.
THe THREE CHIEF TEMPLES
face the Kast—Siva, Brahma, Vishnu—with the
images mors or less preserved. Elsewhere is
an image of Ganesha, the elephant-headed ;
also of Doerga, 6 feet high, with8 arms. The
temples are terraced and the walls shew lewd
scenes in the sculptures, rather a contrast to the
Buddhist pictured galleries at Boero-Boedoer.
The Dutch military keeper told us of certain of
the Javanese coming occasionally to worship,
and make offerings (especially barren women)
and many more out of curiosity (one tribe of
Buddhists is said still to exist in a mountainous
district). Capt. Georee Baker.of Bengal re-
ported on the Parambanam ruins to Sir Stamford
Raffles and declared that he had never in India
met with such ‘‘ stupendous and finished ‘speci
mens of human labour, crowded together inso
small a compass.” Some distance away we
visited another series of ruins connected with
the famous ‘‘ Tjandi-Sewoe” or © A
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 599
YTrousann ‘TRMPLES.
The large inner temple with fine bas-reliefs
in the corridors suffered greatly in the earth-
quake of 1867. In the row of side temples there
are still 25 Buddha images, showiug how much
the two religions got mixed in Java, and,
indeed, two miles from Parambanan there
is a specially beautiful Buddhist temple but
without any image. Our visit had to be a
hurried one, in order to enable us to catch
the evening train back to Maos, from thence
next day traversing the same country upwards to
Bandoeng and then taking a new route back
to Batavia. We had occasion to remark
on the goodness of the cart-roads, so far as
we could see, the abundance of poultry (and
especially of ducks in the lowerlying districts)
and the general look of comfort about the people.
On our return to Batavia, a great
INDUSTRIAL Hx#IBITION
afforded much interest —not the leastimportant
stand being that of a Sinhalese, with his
Assistants (the only representatives we saw in
Java), whose Dutch card is worth reproducing:—
R. P. Punchesingho. Juwelier, Tevens Handelaar in
Edelgesteenten, uit de hand vervaardigde Ceylon-che Rant,
enz. enz Houdt zich beleefd aanbevolen vocr allo svuorien
van Reparaties Van Bijouterien togen billijken prijs,
Kroekoet Huisno, 43, Telophoon No, Batavia.
The well-stocked Museum afforded much of
interest and instruction, and we had further
opportunities of remarking on some of the
splendid parks, buildings, villas and grounds
which distinguish the attractive Veltevreden
division of Java’s capital. Our voyage back
to Singapore in a smaller German steamer
was uneventful, save for accosting as a solid
Dutchman, an indignant Scot all the way from |
Ayrshire to do business in Netherlands India
and then finding we made four at our table:
the head of the. biggest Australian Steam
Shipping Company, hailing originally from
‘Auld Reekie,’ the son of an Aberdeenshire
Peer, and a Highlander from the neighbour-
hood of what Carnegie calls ‘‘the Venice of
Scotland.” In Singapore, we owed much to
the attention and hospitality of our old friend
the Director of Public Works, who will be re-
tiring on pension next year probably. ‘The
Hon, Mr. Atex. Murray
left his mark in Ceylon as one of our most
capable officers, his invention of cement sluices
for village tanks alone saving Government an
enormous outlay from first to last, while his
faithiul exposure of the scandalous case of P.W.
mismanagement (and worse), in Uva, morited
special recognition. A great inconvenience we
found in Singapore was the distance between the
G.P.O. and the Telegraph Office, and very soon
a similar separation of two branches that ought
always to be worked close together will be felt
in Colombo. (Government House, the Colonial
- Secretary’s residence and the Botanic Gardens
occupy splendid sites in Singapore, which again
is favoured in its
RAFFLES LipraRy
co; joined with the Museum.—Our voyage from
Singapore with a pleasant call, at Penang,
meeting old friends was a pleasant one in a good
N.D.L. boat all the way to Oolombo. It only
reraains to be said that ‘‘ five weeks” sufticed
for the round trip to the Malay States, Singapore
and Java and back (against ‘‘ six weeks” for the
round of India in 1901). Of literature regard-
ing Java, there is no lack: the Dutch Royal
Mail Steamer Company besides having well
found, comfortable new vessels are providing
a series of convenient pamphlets for visitors :—
Seven days in Java; and 10, 14 or 21; besides
2 well-illustrated Guide for all Netherlands
India. A little book published in its English
translation in 1897 also purports to be a com-
plete guide and there are guides to Batavia,
Buitenzorg, the Ruins, &c.,—all in English
with fairly good maps. ‘‘ Across the Equator:
a holiday Trip in Java” is the title of a 96
page pamphlet with illustrations by Mr. T H
Reid of the Straits Times just out (July, 1908) ;
but by far the brightest cleverest bit of writin
on that part of the world, giving ‘‘ Notes an
Impressions of a brief Holiday Tour through
Java, the Eastern Archipelago and Siam” was
by the Rev. Geo. M Reith, m.a., Scotch Chap-
Jain, contributed in letters to the Singapore
Free Press and to which the EHditor, our friend
Mr. W Greme St. Clair (now getting on to be
one of the veteran Editors in the Kast), in re-
publishing in pamphlet form, gave the bappy
title of
** A PapRE IN PArRTIBUS.”
This booklet deserves to be revised, brought up
to date, and reprinted ere long, with suitable
illustrations.
‘* LANTANA ’’—A BLESSING OR THE
REVERSE.
We have been surprised that no’ one took
up the challenge recently offered by a corre-
spondentin our columns (November, 1908, p. 494)
as to the spread of lantana being an unmitigated
evil, more especially as in the few editorial remarks
on the subject, the same view was taken. Of
course, this is quite contrary to the old—and
what had for many years become the ‘‘ ortho-
dox”— view ofthe uses of lantana. Old coffee
p'anters of the school of Tytler, Rudd, Wall and
many more always declared that lantana was
an undoubted blessing to the country, because
it ‘‘rushed” in wherever abandoned cultiva-
tion offered scope and the result of a certain
number of seasons of lantana seeding and dying
down was, in avery great measure, to renovate
the soil and after a time to make it fit for cultiva-
tion again. The correspondent, who bemoaned its
invasion of gardens or clearings where it was not
at all wanted, must have to look at this other
view of the matter ; for, on the Kandy side
and in many old districts, not a few object-
lessons of good resulting from the spread
ot lantana, can be pointed out. We are
led to make these remarks by the receipt
of the following very pointed and true re-
marks from a proprietary planter of much
experience North of Kandy. He is good
enough to write :—
‘*T saw somebody in your columns a short time
back advocating a law for eradicating lantana
because ‘it grows over poor villagers’ gardens,
grass land, roads, &c,’ Real reason is they are
COO
too lazy to clear their lands: so why do it for
them? Also in my opinion lantana is one of
the finest things ever introduced! Lb is a per-
fect land preserver and prevents most other
noxious things from growing. | would almost
as soon buy 10-year-old ‘ lantana’ Jand fcr plant-
ing any product, for cardamoms for instance,
as buy forest !” :
—This is a truly valuable bit of planting ex-
perience and should for ever prevent our lan-
tana being spoken or thought of as an unmiti.
gated nuisance, Tt is, indeed, very far from that,
Nov. 24th.
Dgar Sik,—The letter of ‘* Anti-Lantana” and
that of ‘‘ North of Kandy Planter” reproduced in
editorial go to show how apparently diametri-
cally opposite statements can be made by looking
at a subject from diametrically opposite points
of view !
The fact is that lantana forms excellent secon-
dary jungle, and much has been written in the
past on this point : but as we all know, a plant
out of place is a WEED, and as such cannot and
must not be tolerated. 15,83
No sensible man will object to the clearing
away of lantana from road-sides aud similar
situations where itis an unmitigated nuisance
—keeping out light and air, harbourig insects
and fungi, blocking drainage and suppressing
the growth of useful grasses.
I do not find fault with the man who looks
out for lantana land for the cultivation of carda-
moms, &c., or even grows the plant (where
ossible) as 2 renovating rotation crop, but that
is a very different thing from allowing lantana
(or mimosa, or crotalaria—valuable mitrogen-
gatherers) to over-run our highways and by-ways
and invade our gardens.—Yours truly,
BURNING PRUNINGS.
Nov. 20th.
Dear S1x,—One great objection to this opera-
tion is the risk to the tea bushes. Cases are
known where considerable damage has resulted.
—Yours truly, PROPRIETOR
{We understand that the information de-
siderated by Mr. Petch as to how much nitro-
gen is removed in the prunings, &c., has been
fully worked out and 1s in the possession of a
well-known proprietor and V.A., who is also
a member of the Gangaruwa Experimental Com-
mittee.—Ep., C.0.]
CLEAN AND IMPERFECT WEEDING.
A striking illustration of the value of quite clean
weed :-ng is afforded by the case of two Ceylon es-
tates of 600acres each. The one wasclean weeded
at a cost of 50 cents per acre after being at-
tended to fora few years. The other taken in
hand when in a dirty state cost R150 per acre,
and it can easily be seen which is the more
economical—clean weeding from the beginning
‘ or neglect of weeding. In 30 years there would
be a saving of £45,000 through clean weeding.
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist.
WEEDING ’. CROTALARIA.
(To the Editor, Walay Mait.)
Dear Sir,—The experiment mentioned in
your leader of the 30th October, of a planter
who gives the Director of Agriculture ‘‘carte
blanche” to weed his estate for him [i,¢., an
unnamed estate of 900 acres.—Ed. C.0.] will, no
doubt, be followed with great interest by many.
There are, however, a number of cbstacles to
overcome which will be found more difficult than
appeared at first sight. Leaving alone the risk
incurred by a man allowing his estate to be 6
perimented with by a non-planter who has never
before done so ona largescale, leaving also alone
the very difficult position of a scientist and
Government officer embarking on an enterprise
which has, to say the least of it, no precedent—
let us merely assume thatall the preliminary work
on that estate has been done satisfactorily.
You will find that between now and that date
at teast six months will have to elapse before
any results can be shown to the anxiously wait-
ing planter ; all those interested know that this
delay means the spending or saving of many
thousands of dollars.
Having written a good deal about ‘Weeding
v. Crotalaria,” I feel it almost a duty towards
those interested in the question to produce
proofs of my statements. Iam not ina position
—fortunately—to show 900 acres. costing $3
per month ; but Ihave in my charge, out of
1,500 acres, some 300 which at one time, cost
more than that and which, consequently were
put under crotalaria, Ofthe latter I can show
some 23 years old, 4U acres of one’ year andthe
balance varying from eight months downwards.
Contrary to the opinion of the average planter,
as mentioned in your leader, no difficulty has
been found in repeating on a larger scale the
experiments begun on a small one. I feel con-
fident that observations made on 300 acres
would be quite as instructive, if not more so,
than ifmade on four times the area, and 1
therefore have much pleasure in inviting you,
orany gentleman introduced by you or the
Director of Agriculture, to inspect the crotalaria
fields [ can show on my Company’s estates, here
or in Perak.
I was on the point of compiling some data
and figures concerning the best way of plant-
ing, quantity and cost of crotalaria seed re-
quired per acre ; cost of planting and sup-
plying ; weight of prunings obtained during a
given period and extent of area which can be
covered by same; also comparative growth of
rubber and coffee surrounded by crotalaria or
clean-weeded ; but as no doubt these figures,
coming from the Department. of Agriculture,
would be of greater weight, I shall be glad
to allow the Director of Agriculture or a group,
of planters to collect all these data here through
a suitable person appo.nted by them.
In the course of a few weeks conclusive
information could be published which would
settle, one way or the other, the burning ques-
tion of ‘‘ Weeding v, Crotalaria.’’— Yours, etc.,
W. R, Row.anp,
Perhenti:» Tinggi, Nov. 1st.
—Malay Mail, Nov. 3,
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
JODELITE.
A Woop PRESERVATIVE.
On page iii of this issue will be found an
advertisement of Jodelite, a preparation which
has been found by severe tests to be an effective
preventative of dry rot, fungus and the attacks
of white ants, by which in the tropics fur-
niture and wood work generally get so badly
damaged. From hygienic reasons a preparation
which prevents dry rot is greatly to be de-
sired. A bungalow affected by dry rot is gener-
ally regarded as being unhealthy; we have
even’ heard cases of ‘*Ceylon Sore Mouth” or
“Sprue” being ascribed, to the fact that the
patient had resided for a considerable length
of time in a bungalow in which dry rot was
established. Jodelite has been used with
perfect success in remedying damp walls, for
preserving wooden bridges and roofing, fences,
etc., so that it should be of considerable inter-
est to residents in tropical countries, especially
to planters.
PARA RUBBER CROPS.
The proprietor of ayoung rubber plantation
thinks itis quite time that some approximate
estimates for yield per tree, according to size
and age, should be furnished and he accord-
ingly sends us the following table for the pur-
pose of provoking discussion. He writes as
follows :—
‘*W ould enclosed table in the opinion of readers
of your paper more experienced than myself
in the yield of Para Rubber, be at all approxi-
mately correct for the moister lowcountry
districts of Ceylon? I shall be much obliged
if you or they will correct my figures. Of
course, trees vary very much, itis well-known,
in their yield—size for size—and age for age ;
but still taken over a sufficient acreage it
seems to me that useful tables, fixing on an
average, might possibly be formulated respec-
tively for different altitudes and rainfalls for
‘Ceylon Para.’
‘© A table of yield if one at all reliable can be
formylated would be valuable in estimating--
both against value of property and crop. Lucky
men indeed are those with Rubber in bearing,
Likewise the man who read your senior’s book
of 20 years ago, in good time and to such good
purpose.”
The table is as follows :—
_* Para RupekR: AVERAGE YIELD IN PoUNDS
Per TREE.
4 a a H 5 a
4 (4 3 v4 oS Gs]
Oo oO oO Do oO QD
a) a al ved im ma
A a a a | a
~ ~ oe) YY re and
0 o ~ es) 5 >
18 in. at 3 feet. 4 2-3 2-3 2-8 2-3 2-3
Dalia , mean bl 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8
307153. (55 1 11-8 1 13 ipU ane
36 yy ” oF 4 1 1} 2 2
42 5, ” Tie Aue J 2 24 2h
48 4, ” be! =? oo 2h 2% 3
N.B.—Trees of the same size but aged would
yield probably more than younger trees, hence,
up to a point, I adopt asliding scale,”
76
601
We referred the table to an experienced ‘ V.
A.” for his opinion and this is very favourably
and tersely expressed :—
‘‘ This appears quite a fair estimate.”
Another proprietary planter who saw the
table, writes :—
‘*T am afraid my experience is not sufficient
to justify my giving an opinion. We have har~
vested (tapped, I should say) some trees on
but notin sufficient quantity and in too
irregular a system to form accurate data for
publication, There were only some 200 trees
or thereby I planted about 99. We tapped these
two years ago and got about 4 to ¢lb, per tree,
This year we have not tapped, as the small num-
ber made it too expensive, to be worth while and
at the time the estimate for the year was made
out, prices were very low; so we concluded to let
the trees have arun until a larger number came
into bearing. Formy own part [ wished the
planting of Rubber to go on from the time I
commenced, but my opinion was overruled, and
I, having only a third sayin the matter, could not
get my wish. Had planting gone on, we should
have had 400 to 500 acres, to tap or sell about
the time Kepitigalla sold at such a high figure;
butalas: they were not planted! ‘There is a
saying of Mark Twain’s quoted by Rudyard
Kipling in, ‘From sea to sea’ which is,—
‘When you come to think of it, neither reli-
gion, training, nor education avails anything
against the force of circumstances that drive a
man.’ * We have about 1,500 trees at tapping age
now, 101 acres of very good clearings Rubber
alone, and the whole of the Tea with the excep-
tion of about 20 to 30 acres in rubber also.”
PARA RUBBER TREES AND
THEIR YIELD.
With reference to the table of yields appear-
ing above, an experienced rubber planter
writes :—‘‘ I consider that rubber trees 18 in.
in the 8th year should go on_ increasing in
yield from 1°3 lb. to 2 lb. in the 10th year,
those 24 in. should go on increasing in yield
up to 24 lb. in the 10th year, and those 30 in.
up to 2%. From those 36 in., 42 in. and 48 in.
you should get quite 3 Ib. in the l0th year.”
RUBBER IN PERAK: AN ASSAM PRO-
PRIETOR IN GORRECTION.
Doloo, Cachar, Nov. 12th.
DEAR Sir,—Reverting to our conversation
on Tea and Rubber topics when passing through
Colombo last September, I am told you pub-
lished it. 1 donot mind that, if you had given
it accurately ; but from what I can gather irom
those who read the article, I think you rather
hashed it! I manage the Doloo concern, in
ee IRE ONE CT
* May be applied to rubber-planting and its
chances ; but not to life and character generally
—there is such a thing as braving and conquer-
ing circumstanceg and wonderful sometimes, is
aa expuiaive effect of a new affection,”—
pb: C.0.
602
which rubber is doing well; but that concern,
so far as I am aware, has no interest in Rubber
in the F. M. 8. The conversation on cost of
production you refer to as taking place between
Mr Knight and myself, occurred between other
planters and myself as far back as March 1906,
while passing through the States. I have never
met Mr Knight, but his name cropped up in our
conversation when you asked if he were the ex-
pert Ceylon planter sent to Jebong when that
Company was formed.
The figure of cost 9d for Jebong production was
given to me by Mr Lauder Watson, a former
Assistant Manager of Jebong and, I understand,
also a large shareholder. Will you please
publish the correction, lest Mr Knight may be
looking out for me on my next visit to Perak?—
Yours faithfully,
A ROSE.
[We are obliged for the above letter; as
stated when Mr Knight's letter in correction ap-
peared, we reproduced the gist of the informa-
tion given us, as closely as possible. And we
have no re-collection of asking (what we knew
already !) who Mr Knight was.—EHd. C.0.]
EXPERIMENTS WiTH PARA RUBBER
CUTTINGS IN BURMA.
Tavoy, Burma, Nov. 15th.
Srr,—A letter of mine on Para Rubber cut-
tings to the Ceyton Observer &¢T.A.some 8 months ©
or so ago having received undeserved attention,
copied as it was into several papers and
journals as an ‘‘interesting experiment,’ per-
haps the following may further interest your
readers. In June last, onthe 15th—to be exact,
506 woody cuttings were made, and 25 green
sappy ones. The latterall have failed, but of
the former | have 389 plants which, if looked
after in the hot weather, will probably give at
least 350 sturdy plants by next June. [ say “if
looked after,” advisedly, as I have no intention
of doing so, but shall let them rip. The ex-
periment was simply done as an experiment,
and to see if my last year’s success in the
cuttings put down was a flukeor not. Noone
will, or need worry about cuttings, I take it, as
long as seed is plentiful and fairly cheap. In
the field I, three times, reduced double-headed
plants which had been so sent out by
tnistake from the nursery to one leader and
stuck inthe cut-off shoot, ina pit, alongside
a newly planted plant. In all three cases the
shoots have struck and are locking as well as, if
not better than, the plants alongside which
they were put in. I attribute my success in
cuttings to our very heavy rainfall (200 inches)
as Para plants can readily be developed from
cuttings grown entirely in water as hyacinths
are at home, crotons and several other species.
Certainly no credit is due to me: absolutely no
trouble or worry was taken over the experiment,
the cuttings being simply stuck into an ordi-
nary nursery bed and no further attention paid
except the usual weedings by the nursery
coolies.—Yours truly,
J. G. F. MARSHALL,
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION OF
WATTLE BARK—‘‘AGACIA
DECURRENS.’’
New Galway, Noy. 18th.
Dear Sir,—The ‘‘Natal Agricultural Journal”
devotes nearly seven pages of the September
number to theabove subject quoting from, and
commenting on, an article in the Bulletin
of the Imperial Institute; and although
Ceylon is named as one of the bark-
producing countries the information with
regard to ‘‘ Bark extract” for tanning, etc.,
etc., which is so fully given is, I fear, of
very little interest to Ceylon planters at present;
as the cultivation of Wattles, so far as I know,
has. not been taken up on a sufliciently large
scale to make regular supplies of Bark available
in saleable quantities.
The latest recommendation with regard to
Acacia Decurrens is, to plant it in hedges at
intervals through the tea fields, as a source of
green manure supply. If taken in hand at an
early age, it would be quite possible to train
them in bush form by constant clippings which
would produce a valuable mould, and be much
more beneficial to the’tea bushes than frequent
doses of artificial stimulants.—-Yours faithfully.
WATTLES.
RUBBER NOTES.
AREA UNDER INDIA
RUBBER 1N CEYLON.—
While the figures in the Ceylon Directory justify |
the statement that there are the equivalent of
the 180,000 acres planted with rubber in Ceylon,
there are not a few practical men, we find,
who doubt if a certain (even a considerable)
percentage of what has been planted, is des-
tined to come to maturity. Hence the incli-
nation to reduce the estimate to 150,000 and even
still lower.
pilers can only print the figures received from
the several districts, which will be amended
as any portions of rubber succumb or die out.
Tue Root DisEzasE oF Para RuBBER—accord-
ing to Mr, Petch’s Peradeniya Circular of July,
1906—had only been discovered on a few es-
tates in one district in Ceylon. Will Mr. Petch
be so good as to let the rubber-growing com-
munity know now whether the disease has
spread to other districts and shown any new ~
forms of development? If the matter is urgent,
we would be glad, too, to hear direct of new
remedies—or criticism on the Malaya scientific
suggestions we publish. The question is
brought prominently forward by the report in
the Straits Bulletin of what seems to be fairly
extensive trouble on rubber estates in the
F.M.S. The complaiats sent in have not been
in few or confined localities. We trust that
Mr. Petch may be able to reassure us as to
the area over which the same disease (caused
by the Fungus Fomes semitostus?) has been
making its appearance during the past 24 years.
RuspserR IN Eucatyprus.—The white coating
on the young leaves of Hucalyptus corymbosa,
says Henry G. Smith in a communication tothe
New South Wales Royal Society, yields to ether
0°84 per cent of elastic substance and wax, the
7s
Still, of course, Directory com- .°
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
latter amounting to 0°224 per cent. The elastic
substance was found to be a good form of caout-
chouc. Although no white coating can be de-
tected in the adult green leaves, caoutchouc can
be obtained by five minutes’ contact with ether.
As the species descends, as in Z. cinerea E, pul-
verulenta, E. globulus, etc., the ratio of the
amount of wax increases, and in the several
species last mentioned the white pulverulent
appearance is due to a comparatively large
amount of this wax, together with the elastic
substance. The collection is too costly for the
rubber to be of commercial value.—Chemist
and Druggist, October 24.
TEA AND SHOT-HOLE BORER:
We are pleased to have the following intorma-
tion from one who sees much of our tea country
in the course of his duties :—‘‘ I do not think shot-
hole borer is more serious than it was five years
ago, although a possible larger acreage is infected.
It varies with the season and to a certain
extent with shade conditions. On well culti-
vated estates the effect does not appear to
be serious so far as the crops are concerned,
but on places that have run down it un-
doubtedly still further reduces yield.”
A Remepy IN A New Beerite to BE IMPORTED.
. We have received information as to shot-
hole borer doing considerable injury to tea
in districts around Gampola and to have
invaded the Kelani Valley. But we believe
it is little known in the higher districts. It
seems that although Mr, E. E. Green (who, it
must be remembered, is a practical planter as
well as scientific Entomologist) at first re-
commended ‘‘the burning of prunings,” he
afterwards withdrew that recommendation in
favour of burying and manuring ;
has been matter of actual experience—we
learn on good authority—that the borer
keeps clear of, or does not at all like, tea
that has been rendered vigorous by manuring.
But the latest remedy talked of, is a beetle dis-
covered in Saxony, Germany, and we understand
the P, A. Committee have gone so far as to
authorise a certain expenditure, to enable Mr,
E. E. Green (now at home) to come back via
Saxony and to carry with him to Ceylon a
colony of beetles, provided he 1s satisfied that
their introduction while proving actively ini-
mical to the ‘‘borer,’’ may not be the intro-
duction of an independent beetle pest. Rather
a difficult matter to decide in Saxony, we
should say !
-MANURIAL EXPERIMENTS IN
TEA CULTURE,
The Report of Mr C M Hutchinson, Scientific
Officer to the Indian Tea Association, on the
Heeleaka Experimental Station describing the
investigations during the seasons of 1905, 1906
and 1907, deals in great detail with the effects
of manurial treatment on tea culture and should
rove of much use to planters. It should be
noted that the Heeleaka soils are in an advanced
stage of exhaustion due to some forty years’
and it:
603
growth and cultivation of tea, and the manurial
experiments were carried out on half-acre plots,
which were treated with cattle manure, oilcakes,
and artificial manures. Reviewing the results
of the experiments referred to, Mr Hutchinson
arrives at the following general conclusions :—
(1) Oilcake, as a means of renovating old tea on
such light soils as that of Heeleaka, is the most
economical in use of any manure tried; (2)
mineral manures, such as superphosphate,
sulphate of potash, and nitrate of soda, can un-
doubtedly be utilised successfully for the same
purpose, though at a higher cost; (3) nitro-
genous manures, suchas nitrate of soda and
sulphate of ammonia produce a better effect if
used in conjunction with superphosphate and
potash, these latter in their turn being also
dependent for their full effect upon the pre-
sence of adequate supplies of nitrogen; (4)
manures, such as oilcake produce a very much
greater effect if applied in annual small doses
than if put on in the same total amount at longer
_Antervals.—Indian Trade Journal, Nov. 5.
THE MAKING OF TEA CHESTS.
In SoutHerN [np1a: CocHIn CHIEFLY,
The Ceylon papers have recently been venti-
lating the question of the supply of tea chests.
‘A shortage in the imports of momi tea chests
from Japan, which have been in considerable
request of late years, gave rise to the discussion,
anda suggestion has been put forward that
wood should be imported from West Australia
for the local manufacture of the chests. It has
also been suggested that China should be in-
dented upon in case Japan chests cease to be
forthcoming. That there will also be a greatly
increased
DEMAND FOR CHESTS FROM RUBBER PLANTERS
in the near future is anticipated, but these
will have to be of a heavier type than the pre-
sent tea box. Ceylon tea-packers also depend
to some extent upon Southern India for tea
chests. In 1906-07, there were exported from
the Madras Presidency coconut oil casks and
tea chests ofthe value of R1-22 lakhs against
R1‘11 lakhs in the previous year; and of this
total Ceylon’s takings amounted to the value of
R110 lakhs, In 1907-08, the exports decreased
in value to R97 lakh, but Ceylon again took the
greater part, z.¢., to the value of R84 lakhs. The
local requirements of tea chests on the part of
the tea planters of this Presidency must also be
considerable, the area under tea in Southern
India having been gradually extending during
the past few years. Patented and other foreign
boxes, however, are to some extent used owing
to the locally made article being diflicult to
procure. Thereason assigned is that the wood
from which tea chests are manufactured, viz.,
that of the Bombay Malabaricum, is becoming
increasingly scarce,
At one time, the industry of toa chest making
was carried on regularly at various places on
the Malabar Coast; but now it is practically
confined to Cochin, where the required wood
is still procurable in sufficient quantities, Be
this as it may, it would appear that imported
chests are gradually driving the native
604 The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
article out of the market, for Mr C W EH
Cotton, I,C.8., Director-General of Commercial
Intelligence, in his Review of the Trade of
India for 1907-08, mentions that there was in
that year an increase of 14°3 per cent in the
imports of tea chests which increase he as-
cribes to the
PREFERENCE EVINCED FOR FOREIGN BOXES,
because the actual shipments of tea leaf were
smaller in that year than in the previons
one. These tea chests are manufactured exclu-
sively from the wood of the Bonbay Malabari-
cum, or silk cotton tree, known also as the pula
or sim tree. It grows to a height of 100
feet with large girth, the wood being white
when fresh cut, but darkening on exposure.
It isa soft and perishable timber, but beside
being suitable for the making of tea chests, is
also used as’ planking, packing cases, toys,
fishing floats, water conduits and the lining of
wells, The tree takes kindly to almost any des-
cription of soil, and grows easily; so there seems
to be no reason why its cultivation should not
be systematically undertaken in those portions
of the Presidency where waste spaces are to be
found. A product of the tree which possesses
some commercial value is the silk cotton which
surrounds the seed and is commercially known as
simal or red silk cotton. It is used as a substi-
tute for feathers and down and is recommended,
when properly carded, for the filling of quilts,
otc. Italsois said to be better than wool owing
to its being proof against the attack of moths
and other vermin.—//, M, Nov, 17.
TEA IN FORMOSA.
In connection with the statements made
during the last few years that the local authori-
ties in Formosa were instituting reforms in
connection with the tea-growing industry, a few
details recently published as to these suggested
reforms are interesting. The attempt to give a
spurt to the tea trade of Formosa in 1906, the
latest date for which statistics are available,
took the form of a transfer of taxation. The
Formosa local government changed the tea
manufacturers’ tax so asto make it payable by
the exporters instead of by the manufacturers,
as was formerly the case. This tax amounts to
6s. per picul (1334 lb.). In addition to this tax
there is also imposed by the Government an
export tax of 3s 4d upon every 1334 lb. During
1906 the manufacturers’ tax and the export have
brought a sum of £70,000 to the revenue. The
authorities have made attempts to teach the tea-
grower that the application of proper fertilisers
will not only increase the crop but will not in-
jure the flavour of the tea It has also been
suggested to the grower as a wily step towards
decreasing the cost of production, that inferior
leaves, which at one time were almost a dead
loss to the dealers, might be utilised in the
manufacture of ‘tpouchongs” and black teas,
This pouchong tea is an oolong, scented with
the flowers of jasmine and gardenia, etc., and
tinds a market with the Chinese population in
the Straits Settlements, the Philippines,
Hawaii, and also in some part of the United
States, where the Chinese are in considerable
numbers.. In 1906 as much as 4,300,000 1b.
pouchong were exported from Formosa, about
one-half the quantity being the product of the
island. It is now the intention of the authorities
in Formosa to
SECURE A MARKET IN TURKEY AND RUSSIA
for brick and black teas of Formosan produc-
tion. In this manner it is hoped to utilise
the tea dust, which at present finds no market.
The exports of tea from Formosa during 1906
amounted to 21,992,000 1b., valued approximatel
at £700,000, of which the United States took,
17,000,000 lb., against 18,000,000 lb. in 1905.—
H, & C. Mait, Oct. 9.
CULTIVATION UNDER CANVAS.
Topacco More EsPecra.ty.
The use of canvas has revolutionised the to-
bacco industry, and by its assistance tobacco
growers have been ‘enabled to produce. double
the yield from the same ground. As a result of
growing tobacco under canvas tents, the Ameri-
cans, since they took possession of Porto Rico,
have increased the tobacco export five times.
This is partly due to increased acreage, partly
to better methods of curing and manufacturing,
but chiefly because the Americans have taught
the tobacco planters a new trick,
Five years ago no suitable tobacco for ‘‘wrap-
pers,” as the outer covering of cigars is called,
could be grown, but the American has’ shown
what can be done by raising it under thin canvas
cloth. Now the Porto Rico’s tobacco patch
looks like a giant circus-tent covering hundreds
of acres,—Sunday Circle.
FISH PRODUCTS FROM BENGAL.
The establishment of a Fisheries Department,
the formation of a Fisheries Board, and the
purchase of a well-equipped trawler, indicate
the desire of the Government of Bengal to
develop the trade in fish and our knowledge
of new industries connected . therewith. Tho
weekly excursions of the ‘‘Golden Crown”
have already brought to light several residents
in the Bay of Bengal that are new to science,
and it is hoped that, as an important article of:
food, its market price may through this means
be brought within the reach ofall classes, But
the eating of cheaper and better fish and the
storing of new specimens on the shelves of a
museum must not be regarded as the chief
objects of this commendable enterprise. In
other countries of the world the industries con-
nected with fish products and refuse give
employment to thousands of labourers and
realise for the owners thousands of pounds
sterling In India some of these industries have
never been touched, and we may hope that this
recent movement of Government may result in
profitable outlets for capital and employment
for fresh labour.
From an American source we find that fish
materials employed in the arts and industries
may be roughly divided into five classes: (1)
Oils, fats and waxes; (2) fertilisers from ‘refuse ;
(3 skins of aquatic animals and. leathers; (4)
|
and Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society.
shells, scales, bones and ivory substitutes; (5)
glue, isinglass and sponges. The total value of
‘the annual product of these throughout the
world roughly approximates $45,000,000, of
which the United States contribute $11,000,000.
_ Some of the most extensive fisheries of the
world have been conducted for the purpose of
supplying the oil-markets, Whale oil was one
of the first of all oils to achieve commercial im-
portance, and for over a century whale fishery
ranked as one of the principal industries of
America. The seal fisheries of Newfoundland,
Norway and other Northern countries are de-
pending for their prosperity on the oil obtained
from the thick blubber underlying the skins of
the animals. In the various cod fisheries the
rendering of the livers into oil for medicinal as
well as for technical uses is a source of great
profit. .
All varieties of aquatic oils deposit a solid
fat or greaséo known as _ ‘‘foots” or
‘*stearine,” somewhat similar to the tal-
low of sheep and oxen. This is obtained
in the process of refining the oils, and the
yield sometimes reaches 20 per cent. of the bulk
of the crude oil. It issold for a few pence per
pound, and is used as a substitute for tallow
from sheep and oxen in sizing yarns, as emol-
lient in leather dressing and for various other
technical purposes.
Bleaching the various marine oils produces 4
semi-solid fat known as ‘spern-soap,’ ‘whale-
soap,’ ‘menhaden-soap,’ according to the variety
of oil treated. This material is used in smear-
ing sheep, washing fruit trees, and soap manu-
facture. In fighting the mosquito-blight of tea
it has been found by Mr Hutchinson that certain
soap solutions are the most efficacious remedies
known. It would appear that soap made entirely
from fish-oil is probably one of the best for des-
troying the pest in tea gardens,
Fertilisers are made from shells, non-edible fish,
especially the menhaden, and waste portions
of edible species, The quantity of such fertilisers
produced annually in the United States approxi-
mates 420,000 tons worth $2,120,000. This is
capable of great increase especially in the quan-
tity of waste fish employed. Fish is used as
a manure on the Malabar Coast and the plant-
ing districts of Wynaad and Mysore, but hither-
to no such industry has been established in
Bengal. The refuse fish from the ‘‘ Golden
Crown” might be worked up in some central
factory dried and mixed with mineral compounds
to form an excellent concentrated manure for
all kinds of crops.
Leather is made from the skins of practically
all species of fish, but they usually rank as
novelties among fancy leather dressers. Seal
leather is produced in large quantities, averag-
ing in value one anda half million dollars a year.
The hide of the beluga or white whale is one of
the best of skins for leather purposes. It is
sold as porpoise leather, and probably $200,000
worth is marketted annually. Among the
aquatic skins used to a less. extent may be men-
tioned porpoises, sharks and alligators, all of
which are procurable on the Bengal littoral or
in the Bay.
605
Glue-manufacture provides an outlet for the
profitable use of much waste in dressing fish
allied to the cod. The material was formerly
discarded as useless, but now tens of thousand
dollars’ worth of glue for postage stamps, court
plaster, adhesive labels, for sizing straw hats
and textile fabrics are manufactured from fish-
skins. The product is said to be much stronger
and more durable than glue made from the
skins of mammals. At present it may be pre-
sumed that every pound of fish-glue used in
India is imported, while excellent material is
available in the seas surrounding the peninsula.
Isinglass made from the sounds or swim-
ming bladders of sturgeon, hake and cod
is used largely for clarifying fermenting
liquors. A crude form of isinglass, we
understand, is prepared by fishermen on
the Orissa coast, but there is an opening for
a larger industry where a refined article should
be manufactured by some simple process.
These are a few directions for extending the
fish industry which might be followed by the
new Fisheries Dapartment of the Government of
Bengal. It will beimpossible to compete with
temperate countries in their large enterprises,
but in the matter of useful products, as fish oils,
isinglass and fertilisers a commencement might
be made during the present cold weather when
climatic conditions are more favourable than
any other time of the year.— Capital, Nov. 12.
TROPICAL PRODUCTS OF FiJi.
AnD RuBBER CULTIVATION,
The Acting Colonial Secretary at Suva, in his
report on Fiji for 1907, recently published by
the, Colonial Office (Annuag Reports No $580),
states that the cultivation of sugar, copra, ‘and
green fruit (chiefly bananas) at present forms
the staple agricultural industries of the Colony.
There are six sugar mills in operation in the
Colony. The total area of land under cane
cultivation is estimated at 39,464 acres, from
which 584,686 tons of sugar cane were produced
in 1907. The area under coconuts is estimated
at 28,634 acres ; but this represents Huropean
cultivation only, no returns of the ,area culti-
vated by natives being furnished. The total
quantity of copra (the dried kernel of the coco-
nut) exported aueing 1907 was 11,290 tons,
valued at £182,788. The area under bananas and
pineapples was 3,477 acres, but this does not
include native cultivation. Considerable areas
of bananas are cultivated by natives, who sell
their produce to European agents for shipment.
An inspector of fruit was appointed in January,
1907, whose duty it is, under the Fruit Export
Ordinance, to supervise the fruit export trade,
A considerable paprorement in the quantity
of fruit exported has resulted from this ap-
pointment,
There is stated to be a good opening in Fiji
for the cultivation of such minor. products as
hemp, ginger, limes, spices, tobacco, &c. The
cultivation of rubber has hitherto hardly been
attempted, but the results obtained at the ex-
perimental stations, and on at least, two planta-
tions, Jndicate that this valuable product can
606
be successfully cultivated. The growth of the
existing trees shows that conditions are favour-
able to both the Para and Ceara species.
though the trees of the latter variety are more
liable to damage from high winds. Large areas
of land suitablefor rubber cultivation can be
obtained at reasonable rates.—Board of Trade
Journal, Nov. 5.
PACKING PARA RUBBER SEEDS
FOR EXPORT.
The demand for para rubber seeds in different
parts ofthe tropical world has become very con-
siderable of late ; and as the seed of this tree
deteriorates very rapidly after it s ~ipe and soon
loses its germinating power, not easy to
send large quantities over long distances without
a large percentage of losses unless the packing is
done very carefully and the best method adopted.
Numerous experiments have been tried at the
Botanic Gardens here in Singapore from time to
time in order to find the best method of pack-
ing the seed. Judging by reports received from
different parts of the globe, the system we now
adopt seems to be as nearly perfect as possible,
aswill be seen by the following extract from the
‘‘ Report of the Botanic Gardens of British
Guiana for the year 1907-1908 ”:—
“In May 10,800 para rubber seeds were received from the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Singapore, from which 6,956, plants
were raised i.e. 64°4 per cent of the seeds germinated after
being 53 days on the journey.
“In October and the beginning of November 52,000 seeds
arrived from the same place and when sown produced 42,100
plants which gives a germination of approximately 80 per
cent.
‘« These were received packed in one pound biscuit tins
with burnt rice husk. Three tins were then enclosed in a
canvas covering and were within the limit of weight allowed
for by the Post Office, by which means they were sent.
““The importance of obtaining Hevea brasiliensis seeds
by post to avoid as far as possible any delay onthe jour-
ney, as. well as the risk of being heated inthe hold of
a vessel was pointed outin my last report.
“This is further emphasized by the fact that at about the
same time as our own seeds arrived a Water Street firm
sent 10,500 para rubber seeds, packed in six kerosine tins
which had travelled in the ordinary way as merchandise, to
be grown for them at the Gardens. These seeds received
the same careful treatment as our own but produced ‘only
18 plants.’ ”
This is an excellent record for seeds which
were in the tins for over 53 days from the time
of packing until their arrival in British Guiana
and it 1s very doubtful if the
80 PER CENT. GERMINATION
has ever been or ever will be beaten for
a journey of this length. I have seen many
much poorer germinations on estates in the
Peninsula where the seeds were actually grown,
harvested and sown. From this and many
similar results obtained by us in packing para
tubber seeds we have every confidence in re-
commending this system of packing to all who
wish to send seeds over long distances and
obtain the bess results. Equally satisfactory
results have been obtained by using powdered
charcoal as a packing material, but we find
BURNT RICE HUSKS
cheaper and also lighter which is a very
important point in favour of its adoption
when sending seeds by Parcel Post. As
hundreds of thousands of seeds are now being
shipped out of the Peninsula and as particulars
of the best system of packing are constantly
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculturist
being asked for, I give the following particulars
which may be of some value:—Tins 12 in. x 8 in.
x 5in. are used. These are made locally and
cost about 20 cents each. Hach when properly
packed holds 600 seeds and is within the Post
Office regulation weight of eleven lb., for this
class of parcel. In packing the seeds a layer of
burnt rice husk is put on the bottom of the tin
and then alternate layers of seeds and husk are
added _ until the whole 600 seeds have been
packed when the tin will be quite full. A
lid is put on each tin but is not soldered down
as we find that this prevents an excess of
moisture collecting inside the tins and the
burnt rice husk, is thereby kept at the proper
degree of moisture. I should have mentioned
that the burnt rice husk (or powdered charcoal)
should be slightly moistened before packing in
orderto keep the seeds in a fresh healthy state ;
but care should be taken that not too much
moisture is added or the seeds are liable to
germinate and rot on a long journey.
THE DEMANDS
from the British Possessions and other
Colonies in the tropics for para rubber seeds
from the trees in the Singapore Botanic Gar-
dens are steadily increasing. 400,000 seeds will
be dispatched during the present year and many
orders have been refused owing to our inability
to supply the seeds. All our seeds are sent long
distances on journeys of not less than one
month packed as described above and it is
extremely satisfactory to be able to state such
results from this method.—T. W. Matin, Botanic
Gardens, Singapore.—Strails Agricultural Bulle-
tin, for November.
GERMAN RUBBER MAGNATE IN
CEYLON.
VIEWS OF THE PROSPECTS OF THE
INDUSTRY.
EXTREMES IN Prices: 38s. 6D, A GooD
WogkasLe MeEpium.
Increased Qutput will Mean Extended Uses.
Herr A. Prinzhorn, proprietor of an extensive
rubber manufactory in Hanover, arrived recently -
on a visit to Ceylon. He was accompanied by
Mr. Hohlt, Acting Consul for Domingo at) Han-
over, who isalso interested in the Rubber Indus-
try, The two gentlemen were more on a pleasure
than a business trip, but Mr Prinzhorn kindly
accorded an interview to an Observer representa-
tive. He is the Managing Director’ of the
Continental Rubber and Gutta Percha Oo.,
Hanover, which employs some 4,500 men and is
perhaps the largest rubber factory in the world.
Mr Prinzhorn and Mr Hohlt went on _ to
India where they stay for a fortnight, after
which they visit some of the well-known rubber
plantations in the Straits Settlements, and return
to Ceylon with the same object, about the middle
of February. Mr Prinzhorn then hopesto be able
to avail himself of some introductions to Ceylon
planters, given him by Mr Kelway Bamber whom
he met at the Exhibition in London.
es
.
‘
and Magazine of the Ceylon Ayricuttural Society.
Questioned on the latter subject, Mr Prinz-
horn said that there was no doubt the Exhibition
was a good one and would have excellent re-
sults. With regard tothe next one projected
for 1910, it is his personal opinion that it would
be a good move to amalgamate it with the great
World’s Exhibition, instead of having two.
“Para rubber has gone up 60 per cent. since
March,” said Mr Prinzhorn.
“What are the causes?”
“It would be better if you asked me why it
declined previously to then. It was, toa great
extent, due tothe American crisis. The American
factories were working only half-time in many
cases, whereas they are now working full time.
The prite was 2s 9d then,—much too low—
and it is now about 5s which is much too high.
I should think a fair normal figure would -be 3s
6d to4s alb. While it is as high as at present
there is not likely to be any increase in the
uses of rubber.”
‘¢ What will bring the price down ?”
‘* An increased output of Plantation Rubber,
every ounce of which that is sent over to Hano-
ver, sells. Yes, I think the German manufac-
turers like Plantation rubber, We can use
for most of the articles that we manufacture,
though not all. Ithink that the best Ceylon
Rubber is equal to fine para rubber, Ceylon
rubber is liked generally.”
“In what form is 1t preferred 2”
“Well, that is difficult to say, crepe or dry
blocks,”’
‘‘ Well, the present good demand for rubber
be maintained 2”
‘* Yes, I think so, there is every reason for it
doing so. It is partly speculation that causes
the fluctuation in prices, so far as I can see.
‘‘ Tf the output becomes largely increased and
the price comes down, of course, many new
uses for rubber will be practicable and the many
substitutes for rubber which are on the market
will disappear.
‘* Where do you buy your rubber, Mr. Prinz-
horn ?”
‘*T buy in the cheapest market. When I can
get it cheaper in New York, I buy it there ; if
in London, then in London I buy. We use
something like 200 tons of rubber a month
in our factory.”
BASAL RUBBER TAPPING AND
PRICKING.
We are advised by planters in the East that
basal tapping and experiments with pricking
are becoming more general. The basal tapping
allows one to deal with the thickest bark on the
tree and successive tapping lines can be added
as the trees increase in size, so that there will
be a definite number of tapping lines according
to the ages of the trees. Most planters have at
last recognised that they cannot be too careful
in tapping operations and that the best work is
that which removes the minimum quantity of
bark and secures the maximum quantity of
rubber therefrom. The prickers, which were
first inyented, were provided with sharp
607
points ; these were apt to penetrate to the
cambium and raise small pimples on the
renewed bark, In other prickers — the
sharp points have been destroyed and the
laticiferous canals can only be cut by the sides
of each tooth asthe pricker is rotated. The
tendency when using the pricker is to run the
wheel up and down the stem in order to get the
last drop of latex from the bark. This repeti-
tional incision of adjacent areas leads to macer-
ation of the bark and subsequently to a nasty
wound, If the prickeris simply used to give
one downward or one upward stroke very little
harm is done to the trees. The great advantage
of the system of pricking is that latex is
obtained with the minimum destruction of bark,
a point which cannot be too strongly enforced
on the minds of all who supervise such work.
—India-lulber Journal, Nov. 16.
NEW SYSTEM OF RUBBER TAPPING.
Lowcountry, Nov. 27th. °
Sir,—An interesting circular was issued b
Messrs Lee, Hedges & Co., Colombo, which
you published extracts from recently, regard-
ing a new method for tapping rubber trees. The
claims for this new method are great ; one being
that at least six times the ordinary yield has
been obtained and in less time than by the
old methods, Granted that this is so, what about
over-production ?
I am not aware of the method yet. I hope to
be before long, and the offer made is a sporting
one ; but it seems to me that the great danger
of the system is the tapping of young trees, This
isa method brought out by one planter and
boomed by his interested agents; and, of
course, it is nothing to him and them, provided
he gets in the shekels, if immature rubber from
very young trees is placed on the market ; they
have got their boodle, and the good name of
Ceylon rubber can go hang !
Not one, but many planters, scientific men,
and those in the trade at home have all
declared that rubber from young trees ts inferior,
and it is well approved that young trees of three
and four years of age should not be tapped.
Here is an attempt to overturn all this,
Dr. Willis, whose opinion I take it is worth a
good deal, has approved the new system and
allowed his recommendation to be used as an
advertisement. Has the Director given -his
opinion after carefully considering the subject,
and what it may mean if Ceylon as a whole goes
in for tapping young sapling rubber trees—?
Has he examined and tested the rubber obtained
from such young trees, and obtained expert
home opinion on it, and the approval or other-
wise of manufacturers as to whathior such rubber
is of value to them—? Or has he been led to
express his opinion on returns from old trees—?
Dr. Willis says :—
‘It is well-suited to young trees.” That is,
Dr. Willis approves and recommends tapping
young trees, three and four years old. This is
very remarkable, as I—and others I could men-
tion—have understood the Director of Pera-
deniya to be against tapping young rubbers,
608
1 am not criticising in any biased way ; if the
new tapping does prove really valuable and we
can get good merchantable rubber fru: three to
four years old trees, no one will be better
pleased than myself—as I am interested in
young, as well as old, estates. What I want is
that this matter should be discussed—as it does
affect, considerably, the planting interests of
the colony. And I should like to hear what
Dr. Willis may have te say on the subject.—
Yours faithfully,
HERRING-BONES.
RUBBER IN THE COMING AGRICUL-
TURAL EXHIBITION AT PARA.
Sir,—Your readers will be interested to hear
that an Agricultural Exhibition is to be opened
at Para on the 22nd June, 1909, under the aus-
pices of the Syndicato Industrial e Agricola
Paraense. The following exhibits are solicited
for the Rubber Section :—
No. 1.—Tapping Implements. .
No. 2.—Smoking apparatus for india-rubber.
No, 3.—India-rubber blocking presses.
No, 4.—Pails for carrying the latex.
No. 5.—Other materials and accessories for
the smoking of india-rubber.
No. 6.—Cups for the latex.
I extract from the circular issued by the Syndi-
cate the following rules, which show the methods
to be adopted :—
All machinery, implements, utensils, photographs, de
signs, cliches, etc., received by the Syndicate, for the exhi-
bition shall becomeits entire property and the said Syndi-
cate will undertake to make a propaganda of all these
articles gratuitously among the principal agricultural cen-
tres of this State.
The Syndicate undertakes not to sell or dispose of, in any
form whatever, the articles entrusted for its care {for
exhibition. ie i :
I trust that British engineers will be well to
the front atthe Exhibition, and that plant and
utensils similar to those being employed in the
East will be in evidence, Trade in this quarter
will have an important revival, and the market
is not to be neglected,—Yours, etc.,
‘¢ PARAENSE.”
—India Rubber Journal Nov, 16.
THE DACOSTA PROCESS OF RUBBER
COAGULATION, &C.
F.M.S. Commissioner's SUGGESTION.
Sir,—In the Da Costa process, the latex is
coagulated by forcing into it a jet of steam and
smoke, The idea may possible be correct, and
certainly the rubber produced is of an en-
couraging quality ; but it appears tome that the
apparatus by which it is carried into effect is
very inefficient. It is an ordinary vertical steam
boiler, with an arrangement whereby a portion
of the smoke is driven, by means of an injector,
into the latex. I watched the apparatus at work
at the recent International Rubber Exhibition,
and naturally there was little or nosmoke pro-
duced, because a boiler furnace is designed to
produce heat and not smoke, the two things
being inimical toone another. Further, when
visible smoke was given off, it was largely com-
posed of carbon, which appears to give the rub-
ber the curious grey appearance which it has.
Now I would suggest that the only way to carry
The Supplement to the Tropical Agriculéurist
this method into successful effect is to have two
distinct fires, one designed to produce smoke
and the other heat. Under these circumstances
it would be possible to supply a smoke similar
in character to that used in preparing the
Brazilian rubber; that is one containing practi-
cally no free carbon, but large amounts of those
products of the destructive distillation of
vegetable matter, which are required to coagu-
late and cure the rubber. As I am not going
out again to the East, and therefore shall not
have an opportunity of trying this modification
of the process, [ have decided, with your kind
permission, to publish this suggestion, in the
hope that someone may be induced to try it
and report the results. ;
L. Waray.
—India-Rubber Journal, Nov. 16.
USES OF PLANTATION PARA.
(Lo the Editor, ‘‘India Rubber Journal.)
Sir,—In your issue of November 2nd, and
under the above title, Messrs Clayton Beadle and
Stevens, referring to my paper on “‘ The Re-
lation of the Manufacturer to the Consumer,”
say :—‘' The author holds that plantation rub-
bes is deficient in nerve or strength or resiliency
as compared with hard cure.” I must ask you
to permit me to say that it is simply not true
that I have said this or anything of the kind.
What I did say, under a paragraph headed ‘* A
disadvantage of some Plantation Rubbers,” was:
—‘ Although the advantages of plantation
are both numerous and important, there is no
use blinking the fact that much of the plan-
tation rubber now being produced is in one
respect decidedly inferior to the high class wild
product, namely in regard to ‘nerve’ or strength
or resiliency.”
Toargue that because one particular brand of
plantation rubber is excellent and gives results
equal to fine hard cure, that therefore all (or the
great bulk) plantation rubber is equally good, |
is notonly childish, but opposed to the. facts
There is one point on which every manufacturer
with whom I have discussed this question (at
the Rubber Exhibition and elsewhere) is agreed,
and that isthat the plantation product varies
very widely in regard to strength. If mdepen-
dent confirmation of this were required it 1s to
be found, curiously enough, inthe article by Mr
John Parkin, in the same issue of the “ India-
Rubber Journal” as that containing Messrs
Beadle and Stevens’ letter—not to speak of the
opinions which were gathered from manufac-
turers by you, Sir, in reference to this matter,
some little while back. The attitude of your
correspondents reminds me of the patriotic
Scotsman who said: ‘ There’s guid whisky,
and there’s whisky that’s nae so guid, but
there’s nae bad whisky,” but they appear to go
one step further and tosay: ‘‘ There’s no plan-
tation rubber that’s not ofthe highest quality.” I
can only say that I wouldit were so and express
the hope that in time it will be a fact: Meanwhile
I demur to a theory which seems likely to mis-
lead those to whom it is of vital importance to
know the simple truth.—Y ours, etc.,
PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ.
—India Rubber Journal, Nov. 16.
‘ORC
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