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WCMC Biodiversity Bulletin No. 2

Tropical Montane Cloud
Forests: An Urgent Priority
for Conservation

By World Conservation Monitoring Centre
Mark Aldrich, Clare Billington, Mary Edwards and Ruth Laidlaw

SUMMARY

Tropical montane cloud forests (TMCFs) are high on the list of the world’s
most threatened ecosystems. In order to achieve the conservation of
remaining areas there is an urgent need for information on the location,
extent, protection status, biological importance, socio-economic conditions
and current threats on a site by site basis. This report describes a first phase
of work on the development of a globai database and draft directory of
Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Interim results and conclusions are
provided from a global overview of the information gathered to date. It
concludes by recommending a series of activities to be undertaken in a
further phase of work.

INTRODUCTION

Tropical montane cloud forests (TMCFs) are high on the list of the
world’s most threatened ecosystems, and it is widely believed that the
majority of those which remain are small areas or remnant fragments
of their original extent. The situation is critical - James Luteyn, a
botanist with the New York Botanic Garden states that “some 90% of
mountain forests have disappeared from the northern Andes’, whilst
attention has been focused on the plight of tropical rain forests of the
Amazonian basin (Wuetrich, 1993). Immediate action is required to
achieve the conservation of remaining TMCFs before any more of
these rare and valuable habitats are lost for good.

Much of their value is related to their unique characteristics of
biodiversity and endemism and the functions that they provide. In
addition to having a wealth of biological diversity which has been
previously undervalued, TMCFs possess a very high proportion of
endemic species, and probably many more as yet unknown to
science. Many TMCF areas serve as refugia for endangered species
which are being marginalised by the transformation and/or
destruction of ecosystems at lower elevations. Furthermore, the
hydrological role of TMCFs through their water stripping function WORLD CONSERVATION
gives them a value in terms of water resources that is quite distinct MONITORING CENTRE
from other forests or types of land use (Stadtmuller, 1987, quoted in

Hamilton ez al. 1993). Leaves and branches of tree
crowns intercept wind-driven cloud moisture,
which drips to the ground, resulting in the addition
of water to the hydrological system. As a result
TMCFs play an important role in watershed
protection by maintaining ground cover, thus
minimising soil erosion and providing a regular
and controlled supply of water to communities
living downstream.

If managed sustainably, TMCFs can provide a
valuable range of other services to local
populations living in or adjacent to the forest. As
well as being a source of fuelwood and small
dimension timber, they may provide a range of
non-wood forest products including honey,
medicinal plants and bushmeat.

However, despite their considerable value, these
fragile habitats are under increasing threat from a
wide range of sources. In particular, human
population pressures have forced the conversion of
more marginal and previously less accessible areas
for both subsistence and cash crops. Many areas
are under pressure from encroachment by live-
stock or have already been cleared to provide new

grazing land. In many areas the exploitation of
fuelwood and non-wood forest products has
reached unsustainable levels resulting in
irreversible damage to the forest habitat. The same
is true for hunting or capture of fauna (for sport,
subsistence or commercial trade), tourism and
recreation. Plans for new road building projects
threaten many remaining TMCFs along with
mining and geothermal development schemes,
many of which are well established.

DEFINITION

Hamilton et al. (1993) acknowledge that “clear
definition of tropical montane cloud forest is
fraught with difficulty’. Despite having a number
of key recognisable features, these vary greatly
from one area to another, and this, combined with
an enormous range in the terminology used to
identify TMCFs leads to considerable confusion.
At a Tropical Montane Cloud Forests Inter-
national State-of-knowledge Symposium and
Workshop held in Puerto Rico in June 1993, a
synthesis working definition was developed which

Box 1. Synthesis Working Definition

Hamilton, Juvik, and Scatena (from Hamilton et al, (1993));

“The tropical montane cloud forest is composed of forest ecosystems of distinctive floristic and
structured form. It typically occurs as a relatively narrow altitudinal zone where the atmospheric
environment is characterised by persistent, frequent or seasonal cloud cover at the vegetation level.
Enveloping cloud or wind-driven clouds influence the atmospheric interaction through reduced solar
radiation and vapour deficit, canopy wetting, and general suppression of evapotranspiration. The net
precipitation (throughfall) is significantly enhanced (beyond rainfall contribution) through direct
canopy interception of cloud water (horizontal precipitation or cloud stripping) and low water use by the
vegetation.

In comparison with lower latitude tropical moist forest, the stand characteristics generally include
reduced tree stature and increased stem density. Canopy trees usually exhibit gnarled trunks and
branches; dense compact crowns; and small, thick and hard (sclerophyll) leaves. TMCF is also
characterised by having a high proportion of biomass as epiphytes (bryophytes, lichens and filmy ferns)
and a corresponding reduction in woody climbers. Soils are wet and frequently waterlogged and highly
organic in the form of humus and peat (histosol). Biodiversity in terms of tree species of herbs, shrubs
and epiphytes can be relatively high (considering the small areal extent) when compared with tree
species-rich lowland rain forest. Endemism is often very high.

TMCF occurs on a global scale within a wide range of annual and seasonal rainfall regimes i.e.
500-10,000mm.year). There is also significant variation in the altitudinal position of this mountain
vegetation belt. For large, inland mountain systems, TMCF may typically be found between 2000-3500m
(Andes, Rwenzoris), whereas in coastal and insular mountains this zone may descend to 100m (Hawai'i).
Under exceptionally humid marine, equatorial conditions, a TMCF zone may develop on steep, small
island mountains at elevaitons as low as 500m or even lower (Kosrae in Micronesia and Gau in Fiji).”

has been used as a guide for the purposes of the
current project (Box 1).

DEVELOPMENT OF A GLOBAL
DATABASE

The need for information

To date, at the global level, relatively little is
known about the whereabouts, extent and
condition of the remaining areas of TMCF. In
particular, detail is required on the protection
status, biological importance, socio-economic
conditions and current threats on a site by site
basis. Although in some cases detailed
information exists for specific sites, it is widely
scattered and often not generally available.

In response to these issues, the TMCF Symposium
in Puerto Rico was organised with the aim of
drawing together information on the global extent
of TMCFs. In addition to producing regional maps
showing general concentrations of TMCF, and a
list of sites by region and country, the participants
made a series of recommendations concerning
general and specific research needs.

As a priority, they recommended that relevant
information should be collected and analysed in a
co-ordinated way in order to improve under-
standing of these ecosystems, and to ensure that
reliable information is made available to a range of
users for effective decision making. They also
proposed the development of a standardised
methodology and format for collecting informa-
tion, through a world-wide inventory of TMCFs,
with textual, numerical and spatial data stored ona
centralised database at the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre (WCMC).

METHODS

Database Design

Following a review of the types of information
available which contained descriptions of TMCF
sites, a draft framework for recording data in a
database was developed. A set of draft materials
were then sent to a core group of contacts with
experience and/or knowledge of cloud forest
issues, for comment. These materials included a
proposed structure for recording both summary
and more detailed information, along with a

detailed national map designed to facilitate the
addition of cloud forest sites. Having reviewed the
range of responses from the core group, the
database layout was designed.

A new recording facility to store data on TMCFs
was added to the existing Protected Areas database
at WCMC. This includes the ability to link cloud
forest sites to protected area records. Based on the
database layout, blank summary site data sheets
were designed for collecting information. The
Geographic Information System (GIS) database
was also prepared to receive site locations where
available.

Information Gathering

A pilot information gathering exercise began with
sets of materials being sent to more than 40
contacts in South and Central America. Each set
included a country map, copies of the blank
summary site sheets, and a photocopy of the
synthesis working definition developed at the
Puerto Rico Symposium, accompanied by a letter
of explanation. In practice the results from this
exercise were poor, although in a minority of
cases, sets of completed site sheets were returned
along with maps on which the location of cloud
forest sites had been marked. At this point it was
decided to complement the information received
with material gathered from a comprehensive
review of information available through research
at WCMC.

Data were recorded on a site by site basis where
available. However the amount of detail was very
variable between sites, so it was decided to group
sites into sub-national regions (often mountain
ranges or islands, but in some cases single, isolated
mountain peaks). Descriptive information from
the sites in a particular region was compiled into a
summary paragraph for the region, which was
entered into the database in a memo field.

Compilation of a draft directory

Following an intensive period of research and
compilation, a draft directory of TMCFs has been
produced. It is intended to distribute it to all
contributors and a number of other contacts in hard
copy form. In addition the material will be made
available on the WCMC Internet Web Site.

A global directory has been compiled, consisting
of sections on each of the major tropical regions,

Africa, Latin America and south-east Asia, which
contain a chapter on each country included. Each
chapter begins with a national overview, map and
summary table showing the main sub-national
cloud forest regions and sites identified with
latitude and longitude co-ordinates where
available, along with an indication of which sites
have an element of formal protection (this refers to
sites classified as meeting IUCN Management
Category I-VI criteria). This is followed by
summary paragraphs describing each of the
sub-national regions in terms of location,
biodiversity, conservation status, and giving
details of the values of the TMCF sites in the area
and the pressures currently faced. An example
chapter is shown in the Annex along with map 4.

RESULTS

Global Overview

A total of 605 TMCF sites in 41 countries have
been identified to date (see Tables 1 to 4). These
are marked on maps 1-3 which show the
distribution of montane cloud forest sites in the
three tropical regions. The highest concentration is
found in Latin America, where 280 sites (46%) are
found in only 12 countries, the majority in
Venezuela, Mexico, Ecuador and Colombia. In
south-east Asia, 228 sites have been identified in
14 countries principally in Indonesia and Malaysia
and to a lesser extent in Sri Lanka, Philippines and
Papua New Guinea. In Africa, 97 sites have been
recorded in 21 countries, with many cloud forests
found on relatively isolated mountains which are
scattered across the continent.

Details of the size of particular cloud forest sites
have been difficult to obtain, except where the
information has been supplied by local experts. In
any case, the actual extent of cloud forest itself as
distinct from the surrounding or adjoining forest
type is very difficult to determine, even on the
ground.

An initial assessment of the values of cloud forests
shows that the majority of areas are exceptionally
important habitats for endemic and _ other
threatened species of flora and fauna, including
many important tree species and plant such as tree
ferns Cyatheaceae and orchids Orchidaceae.
Large numbers of bird species and mammals such
as the spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus and
howler monkeys Alouatta spp. are dependent on
cloud forest habitat for their survival. In addition
these forests have a high socio-economic value to
local populations principally as a source of
fuelwood, building materials and food amongst
others, but also on a larger scale for watershed
protection and climate regulation. At the same
time, overcutting for fuelwood, clearance for
agriculture, encroachment by grazing animals and
the spread of fire from grass-burning of adjoining
areas were identified as amongst the major
localised threats to these fragile ecosystems and
their inhabitants. In addition many areas are under
pressure from mining companies and large-scale
road building projects, often against the wishes of
local people.

Globally from the information gathered, just under
half the sites identified have an element of
protection by being within protected areas
classified as meeting IUCN Management
Category I-VI criteria. Others may be under less
formal protection as private reserves or in
collaborative forest management agreements,
although this information is not available at this
stage. In south-east Asia, 50% of sites identified
are within IUCN protected areas, while Latin
America has 44% (Central America has only 30%,
while South America has 47%), and Africa has
39%. However, despite the fact that cloud forests
in these areas are legally designated as
“protected”, in practice many are under pressure
from the threats described above and are
continuing to become more fragmented, and in
some areas completely lost, at an alarming rate.

TABLE 1: SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Total number of regions and sites per Country, with the number of sites protected.

Country

Total No. of CF regions*

Total No of CF sites

Total No of sites with
protection

| Australia

1 2

| Brunei Darussalam 1 5
| Cambodia I 1
| China 1 1
1 3

| Indonesia 12 66
Lao PDR 0 0

| Malaysia 24 54
| Myanmar 1 1
Papua New Guinea 3 28

| Philippines 14 32
| Sri Lanka 2 33
| Thailand 1 1
| Viet Nam 1 1
| 63 228

TABLE 2: AFRICA

Total number of regions and sites per Country, with the number of sites protected.

Country Total No. of CF regions* Total No of CF sites mae ate wes

| Angola 2 10 0
| Burundi 2
| Cote d'Ivoire 1
Cameroon 5
Equatorial Guinea 1
2

4 fet 0

| Guinea 1 0

| Kenya 4 15 12

| Liberia 1 1 0

| Madagascar 3 4 2

| Malawi 3 3 3

| Mozambique 5 [ 5 0

| Nigeria 3 3 2

Reunion 1 2 0

Rwanda 3 4 2

|_ Sao Tome and Principe 1 1 0

Sierra Leone 2 2 1

| Tanzania 3 ul 2

| Uganda 4 4 3

6 10 5

57 97 38

TABLE 3a: CENTRAL AMERICA

Total number of regions and sites per Country, with the number of sites protected.

Country Total No of CF regions* Total No of CF sites Toe ee vals
Belize 1 1 1
Costa Rica 4 14 10
El Salvador 1 13 3
Guatemala 5 12 6
Mexico 6 64 7
Panama 8 16 9
Total 25 120 36

TABLE 3b: SOUTH AMERICA

Total number of regions and sites per Country, with the number of sites protected.

Country Total No of CF regions* Total No of CF sites eee ian an
Bolivia 3 7 6
Brazil [ 2 6 7
Colombia 8 28 14
Ecuador 10 35 10
Peru 5 18 8
Venezuela g) 64 Le 31
Total 37 160 76

TABLE 4: GLOBAL TOTALS

Total number of countries, and sites per country, with the number of sites protected.

Total No of sites with

I Region Total No of Countries Total No of CF sites protection
Asia 14 228 114
Africa 21 97
Central America 6 120
South America 6 160
Global Total 41 605 264

*The term CF region refers to a sub-national grouping of cloud forest sites (see the section on
Information Gathering for more details).

CONCLUSIONS

The production of this draft directory as the first
output from the TMCF database at WCMC
represents an important initial stage in the
development of a standardised methodology and
format for collecting information on TMCFs on a
site by site basis. It is hoped that WCMC can
continue to provide a focal point for information
exchange, through further data gathering and
dissemination in a subsequent phase of work.

Whilst the database provides the best available
information on the location and status of TMCFs,
considerable work is required to develop the level
of detail on a site by site basis. As indicated in the
global overview the current level of detail varies
considerably depending on the types of
information available, but more importantly on the
level of input from those with a detailed
knowledge of a particular area. In order to produce
a more comprehensive information base, the
collaboration of regional and national cloud forest
contacts should be encouraged. Such a relationship
must be mutually beneficial, and should be
developed by expanding the existing number of
contacts by activating a contact network and the
facilitation of regional workshops attended by
local experts from all sectors. In addition
collaboration with related conservation initiatives
such as the Mountains Programme of the
IUCN-WCPA (World Commission on Protected
Areas) must be sought.

It is also important that the information available
should be disseminated as widely as possible. In
particular it should be made available to a range of
users at the policy and decision making levels.
This should be done by distribution of this
directory in hard copy form and on the World
Wide Web. In addition to making the information
available and increasing awareness of the issues, it
will also be possible to encourage readers to
review the existing material, and provide feedback
and more detailed information where possible.

As the detail of the information improves it will be
possible to develop more detailed analyses to
determine the gaps in protection and priority areas
for conservation using criteria developed at
regional and national levels. This would also be

assisted by the development of a number of
selected local case studies looking at particular
issues in more detail, perhaps in collaboration with
existing field projects. In addition priority sites
where further research or development work is
urgently needed should be identified.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FURTHER WORK

A detailed funding proposal is currently being
developed at WCMC for a subsequent phase of
work, based on the conclusions above and the
recommendations of a number of cloud forest
experts from whom advice has been sought. The
main activities are listed below.

I. Workshops:

Following an initial management advisory
workshop, to determine data, technology and
information needs and set work priorities, a
series of similar regional meetings will be
held with regional and local experts.

ii. Expand the information base:

Expand on the information compiled under
Phase I, to produce a more comprehensive
coverage of site des- criptions, to fill
information gaps and to _ consolidate
information on bound- aries of cloud forests
and protected cloud forests.

iii. Function as a global focal point for
cloud forest work:

Function as a focal point to facilitate
information and expertise exchange, by
activating a cloud forest network initially
from those contacts already identified, and an
e-mail discussion group. Also act as a
repository for information collected under
detailed local cloud forest case studies,
passing on knowledge to others. Enhance
local scale projects by providing a global
context for cloud forest conservation.

iv. Establish Conservation Priorities:

Undertake analyses, in collaboration with the
Mountains Programme of IUCN-WCPA and
others, to determine gaps in cloud forest
protection and to identify priorities for
conservation planning.

V.

Distribute Data Effectively:

Improve the distribution of data via a number
of different media such as CD-ROM, over the
Internet and with the production of a Cloud
Forest Handbook.

Vi.

Assist in an awareness campaign on the
threatened status of cloud forests:

Promote the importance of cloud forests to a
wider audience by assisting in a campaign
proposed by Dr. Larry Hamilton and
IUCN-WCPA with support from Netherlands
Committee for IUCN and WWF, by
producing information papers, a colour
posters and other material suitable for media
coverage.

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WORLD CONSERVATION
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ANNEX

ECUADOR

The majority of montane cloud forests in Ecuador are found along the Andean Cordillera which run the
length of the country, with a small number on the west coast in the Cordillera de la Costa. These forests have
very high endemism of both fauna and flora, and perform an important watershed protection function.
However, they are under severe pressure from the rapidly increasing population in the Interandean valleys,
which provides fertile soils and an hospitable environment. The main pressures are from agricultural
encroachment, grazing, hunting and cutting for fuelwood. Almost all the natural forests of the central valley
have been removed and only 4% on the west Andean slopes remain (Dodson and Gentry, 1991). With regard
to cloud forest, in the main Interandean valley only a few highly disturbed patches remain on the inner
slopes. On the Pacific slopes cloud forest exists between 1500 and 3500m, particulary in the north. Eastern
slopes are relatively undisturbed although under increasing threat (Harcourt and Sayer, 1996). Some forests
are within legally protected areas, but remain vulnerable to pressure for clearance. Much of the cloud forest
remains in isolated patches which are not protected, while others have been secured under private or
community ownership, as reserves, whilst more secure protected area status is sought.

References
Barnett, A. 1988. Rio— Mazan A People’s Forest. The Ecologist Vol. 18, No. 2.

Dodson, C. and Gentry, A.H. 1991. Biological extinction in western Ecuador. Annals of the Missouri
Botanical Garden 78: 273-295.

Downer, C.C. 1996. The mountain tapir, endangered ‘flagship’ species of the high Andes. Oryx, Vol 30, No 1.

Harcourt, C.S. and Sayer, J.A. (Eds.) 1996. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: The Americas.
Simon and Schuster.

Horwell, D. 1988. Galapagos: the enchanted isles. Dryad Press, London.
Mansour, J. 1995. Parks in peril source book. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA.

Parker T.A. and Carr, J.L. [Eds] 1992 Status of forest remnants in the Cordillera de la Costa and adjacent
areas of south-western Ecuador (Rapid Assessment Program). Washington, D.C.: Conservation
International.

Toyne, E.P. and Jeffcote, M. (1996) Notes on cloud forests in Southern Ecuador (unpublished).

Wege, D. and Long, A.(1995) Key Areas for Threatened Birds in the Neotropics. BirdLife Conservation
Series No. 5. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

Zorrilla, C. (1996) Notes on the Intag Cloud Forest Reserve (unpublished).

ECUADOR: CLOUD FOREST SUMMARY

Protected
Cloud Forest Region Cloud Forest Site Yes/No?
Cajas Mountains Rio Mazan 2°49°S/ 79°07 W No
Chilla Mountains Buenaventura 3°40’°S/ 79°44" W No
Manu Forest / No
Cordillera Occidental Atacazo 0°22’S/ 78°36" W No
Cotacachi-Cayapas 0°35’N/ = 78°25°W Yes
Intag 0°36’N/ 78°20’ W No
Volcan Pichincha 0°06’S/_ 78°35" W No
Cordillera Oriental Podocarpus National Park 4°08°S/ 78°58" W No
Sangay 2°00’S/ 78°20’ W Yes
Zapote Najda Mountains 3°01'S/ 78°38’ W No
Cordillera de la Costa Machalilla 1°39’S/ 80°41’ W Yes
Cordillera del Condor Chinapinza 3°59°S/ 73°34" W No
Shaime 4°22°S/ 78°39" W No
Galapagos Islands Fernandina 0°21’S/ 91°32’ W Yes
Isabela 0°48°S/ 91°07 W Yes
Santa Cruz 0°37’S/ —-90°2 W Yes
Orientales Cordillera Real de los Cayambe-Coca 0°01’S/ = 77°49" W Yes
Andes Cerro Mongus 0°21‘N/ = 77°52?W No
Cordillera de Guacamayo 0°29°S/ 78°00? W No
Playon de San Francisco 0°30°N/ =77°40°W Yes
Volcan Sumaco 0°34°S/ 77°38 W Yes
Saraguro Cuesta de Cafiabrada 3°32’S/ 79°22’ W No
E] Quingueado / No
El Sauce 3°45’°S/ 79°20’ W No
Huashapamba 3°38’S/ 79°17 W Yes
Ingapirra 3°42’S/ 79°13’ W No
Ofiacapa/Hifiufia 3°41’S/ 79°12? W No
Santiago 3°48’°S/ 79°17 W No
Torré 3°38’S/ 79°13’ W No
South and West Loja Province Alamor 4°00’S/ 80°00’ W No
Angashcola 4°34S/ 79°22” W No
Celica 4°07°S/_ 19°58’ W No
Lagunillas 4°47’S/ 79°22" W No
Sozoranga 4°20°S/ 79°48" W No
Vicentino 3°ST'S/ = 79°ST W No
Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of CF Sites with
CF Regions = 10 CF Sites = 35 an element of protection = 10

* ‘Protected’ refers to sites classified as meeting IUCN Management Category I-VI criteria

CLOUD FOREST REGION SUMMARIES
Cajas Mountains

In the Andes of southern Ecuador, the Cajas Mountains are to the north-west of the town of Cuenca. The
topography has largely resulted from extensive glaciation, with U-shaped valleys, moraines and numerous
“boxed” glacial lakes, from dammed river valleys (“Cajas” meaning caja or box). Cloud forest is found in
the Protected Landscape (IUCN Category V) of Cajas National Recreation Area and the privately owned Rio
Mazan reserve. The montane cloud forest zone from 2800-3400m consists of woodland containing typical
cloud forest species such as Myrtus and Podocarpus, grasslands and some areas of chaparral (dominated by
scrub species, as climax woodland does not form as a result of overgrazing and fire management). In Mazan
there is a huge diversity of orchids and fungi, with many species recently new to science (Barnett, 1988).
Both areas contain threatened bird species, including the grey-breasted mountain toucan Andigena
hypoglauca, and mammals including the northern pudu Pudu mephistopheles. Careful management is
required to maintain the recrea- tional benefit of these areas to the people of the region whilst protecting the
rich biodiversity. A land use zoning approach has been used in Cajas to achieve this. The forests are
particularly important for watershed protection following widespread timber extraction in the area. The Rio
Mazan reserve was purchased by the people of Cuenca in order to protect their water supply and wildlife
(Barnett, 1988).

Chilla Mountains

Unconfirmed reports suggest that there are large tracts of cloud forest in these mountains which are in E] Oro
Province (pers.comm, Paul Toyne, 1996). Manu forest is one such area, along with Hacienda Buenaventura
which is 9km west of Pifias at 900—1050m. Covering c.3000ha, two-thirds is cattle pasture, with humid
cloud forest in patches across the rest, which at present is protected (Wege and Long, 1995).

Cordillera Occidental

Located in North-West Ecuador, the Cordillera Occidental is the western half of two parallel rows of peaks
and ridges which form the northern end of the Ecuadorian Andes. Many of the higher peaks reach almost
6000m with connecting ridges at 4000m. The cordillera contains five main areas of cloud forest which, in
general lie between 1500 and 3000m. These range from unprotected areas on the ridge crests of Volcan
Pinchincha and Atacazo, to the legally protected privately owned land of the Intag Reserve, and on Cerro
“Golondrinas (both described further below), and areas within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Strict Nature Reserve.
In addition there is protection forest on the western slope of Volcan Pinchincha. Despite the area being a
distinct phytogeographic zone (Myers, 1988 in Harcourt and Sayer, 1996) with a particular abundance of
endemic epiphytes, the Cotacachi-Cayapas Reserve is the only large conservation area protecting the moist
forests in western Ecuador. In unprotected areas much of the natural vegetation has been completely cleared
as a result of burning and grazing.

Cordillera Oriental

Part of the main Andean range in Central Ecuador, this Cordillera has cloud forests in the High Andes zone
which is characterised by deep, steep-sided valleys, abundant cliffs an many rocky jagged peaks. Due to its
elevation (1000-5140m) the area has a subtropical and temperate climate despite being in the tropics.
Important areas of cloud forest are found in Sangay National Park, which is dominated by the Sangay
Volcano at 5140m, and in the to-date unprotected Zapote Najda Mountains to the south, where a large tract
of temperate cloud forest remains on the eastern side. In Sangay, montane rain forest occurs below 3750m on
the wetter eastern slopes. The upper half is of low stature, c.5m and is dominated by Nuerolepsis spp. and
associations of Myrtus communis. Below 3000m a 12m canopy dominated by Weinmannia spp and
Oreopanax spp develops. Ferns, epiphytes and orchids are abundant. The fauna of the area is not well
studied, but thought to be species rich. Sangay is an important habitat of the endangered mountain tapir
Tapirus pinchaque which depends on cloud forest for shelter, but is rapidly declining throughout its range

(Downer, 1996). These forests are also important in protecting the upper watersheds of many rivers, as
run-off and erosion is substantial due to the steep terrain and high rainfall. However in the south of Ecuador,
cloud forest on this mountain range lacks high elevations and snowy peaks resulting in differences in the
fluvian network and paramo ecosystem compared with mountains in the north. Without run-off from snow
melt the rivers are fed from subterranean springs formed from rainwater filtered through the forest floor. The
Podocarpus National Park (described below) was established for the protection of large areas of natural
cloud forest which protect and regulate the water supply in at least four regionally important catchments.
Unprotected cloud forest is found on adjoining ranges at Angashcola and Lagunillas.

Podocarpus National Park

The park covers 146,000ha and has very irregular topography covering altitudes from 950m to 3700m (90%
above 1500m), and has a wide range of vegetation types. It still retains large tracts of undisturbed forest,
continuous from upper tropical to temperate zones. This is the only large remaining tract of continuous
Andean forest in Ecuador. Montane forest is dominated by Podocarpus trees (Romerillos spp.) which are the
only genus of conifers native to Ecuador. Many threatened mammals have beer recorded in the park,
including mountain lion Felix concolor, and it is one of the richest areas in the world for birds wih a total of
600-700 species including the bearded guan Penelope barbata and white-breasted parakeet Pyrrura
albipectus. The two main pressures on the park are mining activities and colonization along the western and
north-western boundaries, and there is some hunting and illegal extraction of orchids and medicinal plants
(Mansour, J. 1995).

Cordillera de la Costa

The Cordillera de la Costa runs up the northern half of Ecuador’s western coast. These coastal and foothill
forests ranging from sea level to 800m are of great biological importance due to the large number of species
and high levels of endemism they support (Parker and Carr, 1992).

Machililla National Park, the only national park in Western Ecuador, is found in the middle portion of this
mountain range. It covers small but very important areas of fog and dry forest, the most biologically diverse
area being Cerro San Sebastian, where small patches of fog forest remain on the mountain peaks. There are
other remnants of fog and cloud forest on the low hills along the coast, which include Cerro Mutiles (fog
forest, relatively dry), Cabecaras de Bilsa (very wet, cloud condensation), Cerro Pata de Pajaro (fog/cloud
forest) and Manta Real (cloud forest). With an average lower limit of clouds between 500m and 600m,
moving upward to peaks at 800-1000m, the cloud forests in this region are at significantly lower altitudes
than in other parts of the Andes. However the forests are very wet all year round, receiving water from fog
drip and cloud condensation. Trunk climbers, epiphytes and mosses are profuse and diverse. Locally
endemic and threatened tree species are present, including Caryodaphnopsis theobromifolia and Carapa
guianensis as well as truly montane Andean genera. Mammals found in the area include the endangered
mantled howler monkey Alouatta palliata, jaguars Panthera onca and white-fronted capuchin Cebus
albifrons, and there are many species of bat, some typical only of undisturbed forest (Parker and Carr, 1992).

In Machililla, as with most of the forests in this area, the main pressures are timber harvesting, small-scale
agriculture, livestock grazing and hunting by the local human population. The large proportion of land area
under private ownership within the park is also a problem. In addition to being the last remaining habitat for
local endemic and threatened species, many of the forests fulfill an important watershed role. All of these
remnants require improved protection with the involvement of local residents in sustainable management
programmes.

Cordillera del Condor

The Cordillera del Condor run up the south-eastern boundary with Peru. Cloud forest is found on ridges
close to Chinapinza and Shaime at elevations of 1700 and above. These areas are not protected, but are
adjacent to the eastern boundary of Podocarpus National Park and it has been proposed that they should

become part of a buffer zone. This would reduce the current pressures of agricultural encroachment, gold
mining and other development, and offer protection to the Shuar Indians who live in the area.

Galapagos Islands

The Galapagos Archipelago is found in the east Pacific Ocean, 1000km west of mainland Ecuador. World
famous for their endemic fauna and flora, the islands form a National Park and Biosphere Reserve. An
unusual form of cloud forest is found between 1500m and 1700m on the mountains and volcanoes of the
larger islands, principally Isabela, Santa Cruz and Fernandina. In the dry season (as opposed to the hot
season), caused by the Humboldt

current, a temperature inversion causes cloud to form. When these are blown towards land, and forced to
rise, a persistent drizzly mist or “garua’ envelops the highlands. This provides sufficient water to support
permanent vegetation - only found on these islands (Horwell, 1988). Characteristic species include Scalesia
spp. Psidium galapagenium and Pisona floribunda.

Orientales Cordillera Real de los Andes

The eastern Cordillera Real de los Andes run the length of the country. In the north the area has steep rugged
slopes with deep, narrow valleys in between. Cloud forest is found between 2000 and 3500m. In addition to
the Cayambe-Coca Strict Nature Reserve, areas of cloud forest are found in the protection forests on the
slopes of Volcan Sumaco and at Playon de San Francisco, on a side spur Cordillera de Guacamayo, at
Hacienda Aragon, and on Cerro Mongus to the north, all of which are not protected. The main tree species
include members of the genera Guarea, Nectandra, Cedrela and Eugenia. The highly adundant and diverse
fauna includes mammals such as the spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus and margay Oncifelis wiedii. Birds
include the andean condor Vultur gryphus and andean cock-of-the-rock Rupicola peruviana. On Sumaco
vegetable cultivation by the increasing human population is posing a serious threat.

Saraguro

To the south of the Cajas Mountains, there are a number of cloud forest fragments surrounding the city of
Saraguro in Loja Province, which include the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Cordoncillo. These areas,
including El] Sauce, Ofiacapa/Hifiuiia, Ingapirra, Huashapamba, Torré, Cuesta de Cafiabrada, Santiago, El
Quingueado are essen- tially fragments although ongoing analysis of aerial photographs suggests they are
linked by corridors of hilltop forest (Toyne, pers comm, 1996). Generally found between 2400 and 3200m,
all have similar vegetational composition with slight differences due to aspect and altitudinal variations. The
area is important for threatened avifauna including the red-faced parrot Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops,
golden-plumed parakeet Leptosittaca branickii and the bearded guan Penelope barbata. Only Huashapamba
has some protection, as a Community Forest jointly owned by three Saraguro Indian communities. However
the pressures on these forests for fuel and construction wood, and grazing by these communities are great.

South and West Loja Province

West of the Eastern Andes, a number of important, unprotected cloud forest fragments are found in the
south-west of Loja Province. Most are confined to inaccessible steep ravines at altitudes between 1200 and
2000m, slightly lower than found on the Eastern Andean slopes. The areas, including Alamor, Angashcola,
Cordillera de Celica, Lagunillas, Sozoranga and Vicentino (2500-3100m) vary in size from tiny patches of
less than 10ha, to larger blocks of several hundred hectares. At Angashcola and Lagunillas threatened bird
species include the recently described chestnut-bellied cotinga Doliornis remseni along with populations of
the threatened mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque and spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus (Wege and Long,
1995). The main pressures on the unprotected sites come from hunting and periodic burning of the lower
slopes. Little is known about the other sites except that they are an important habitat for some of Ecuador’s
threatened bird species (Wege and Long, 1995)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruijnzeel, L.A. and J. Proctor (1993) Hydrology and Biogeochemistry of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests:
What do we really know? In Hamilton ef al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests — Proceedings
of an International Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May—5 June 1994, East-West Center,
Honolulu, Hawai’i, USA. Pages 25-46.

Doumenge, C., D. Gilmour, M. Ruiz Perez, and J. Blockhus (1993). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests:
Conservation Status and Management Issues. In Hamilton et al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud
Forests — Proceedings of an International Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May—5 June 1994,
East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai’i, USA. Pages 17-24.

Hamilton, L., J.O. Juvik, and F. Scatena (1993). The Puerto Rico Tropical Cloud Forest Symposium:
Introduction and Workshop Synthesis. In Hamilton et al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests
— Proceedings of an International Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May—5 June 1994, East-West
Center, Honolulu, Hawai’i, USA. Pages I-16.

Kappelle, M. and N. Zamora (1995). Changes in Woody Species Richness along an Altitudinal Gradient in
Talamancan Montane Quercus Forests, Costa Rica. In Steven Churchill et al. (1995) (Eds) Biodiversity
and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests, 135-148. New York Botanic Garden, USA.

Lawton, R. and V. Dryer (1980). The Vegetation of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. Brenesia 18:
101-116.

Long, A.J (1993). Restricted-Range and Threatened Bird Species in Tropicai Montane Cloud Forests. In
Hamilton et al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests — Proceedings of an International
Symposium at San Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May—5 June 1994, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai’i, USA.
Pages 47-65.

Ohsawa, M. (1993). The Montane Cloud Forest and its Gradational Changes in Southeast Asia. In Hamilton
et al. (1993) (Eds) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests — Proceedings of an International Symposium at San
Juan, Puerto Rico, 31 May—5 June 1994, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai’i, USA. Pages 163-170.

Richards, P.W. (1966). The tropical rain forest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Stadtmuller, T. (1987). Cloud Forests in the Humid Tropics. A bibliographic review. United Nations
University, Tokyo, and CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.

WCMC (1997). A global directory of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests (Draft). Aldrich, M., Billington, C.,
Edwards, M., and Laidlaw, R. (Eds). World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Unpublished. 268pp.

Whitmore, T.C. (1984). Tropical rainforests of the Far East. 2nd Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Whitten, A.J., Damanik, S.J., Anwar, J. and N. Hisyam (1984). The Ecology of Sumatra. Gadjah Mada
University Press.

Wuetrich, B. (1993). Forests in the clouds face stormy future. Science News 144(2):23.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre

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service on the internet through cooperation with major forest data holders worldwide.

Mapping Forest Extent: The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests WCMC, in collaboration
with IUCN-The World Conservation Union, has gathered national mapped forest data and worked
these data into regional coverages and a global coverage of the remaining tropical moist forests. The
data are published in The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests and maintained on WCMC’s
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World Forest Map In collaboration with WWE Forests For Life Campaign, WCMC has compiled
the first global map of temperate and tropical forests. The map, which shows how much of the
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Tropical Montane Cloud Forests WCMC is compiling a global database on the location, extent,
management, conservation status, and threats to Tropical Montane Cloud Forests.

The Information Officer

World Conservation Monitoring Centre

219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0DL, UK
Tel: ++ 44 1223 277314; Fax: ++ 44 1223 277136
E-mail: info@wemce.org.uk
http://www.wemc.org.uk

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded by the Government of the Netherlands through the Tropical Rainforest Programme of
the IUCN Netherlands Committee. The production and publication of this report was supported by the
Forestry Research Programme of the Department for International Development (formerly the ODA).
Particular thanks are due to those who commented on a draft layout for the database and on types of
information to be collected, as well as giving advice and guidance during this phase of work. They include
Sampurno Bruinzeel, Rainer Bussmann, Charles Doumenge, Willem Ferwerda, Don Gilmour, Larry
Hamilton, Mark Jeffcote, Jim Juvik, Maarten Kappelle, Mariella Leo, Adrian Long, Chris Sharpe, Fred
Scatena, Ed Tanner, Paul Toyne, Peter Weaver, Tim Whitmore, and Jan Wolf.

Grateful appreciation is also expressed to a number of people who have contributed to the compilation and
production of the draft directory. To Heather Cross for her great efforts in editing, reviewing and production,
and to James Culverwell and Sam Kanyamibwa (Africa), Ruth Laidlaw (Central America and South-East
Asia), Miguel Morales (Mexico) and Chris Sharpe (Venezuela) for their help in'writing and researching.
Also to Tim Quinton for his work on the database and Mary Edwards for map production. Finally to Clare
Billington, Willem Ferwerda, Larry Hamilton, Richard Luxmoore and John Palmer for their advice and
encouragement along the way.

© The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1997

For further information please contact:

The Information Officer

World Conservation Monitoring Centre Tel: +44 (0)1223 277314
219 Huntingdon Road Fax: +44 (0)1223 277136
Cambridge CB3 0DL e-mail: info@wemce.org.uk