1

TURIEY Lake as a UITIT
OF iiJI]VIROin£ilITT,
Eigenniann.

\o\

203

FIRST REPORT OF THE BIOLOGICAL STATION.

Contents. — Directors' First Keport of Biological Station.

Introductory.

Acknowledgments.

Equipment.

Plankton net.

Sounding apparatus.

Additional equipment.

Plan of work.
Part I.— Turkey Lake as a Unit of En^'ironment.

Introductory.

Orientation.

General features.

Size.

Relation of water to outflow and evaporation.

Constancy of Turkey Lake as a unit of environment.

A Preliminary Report on the Physical Features of Turkey Lake — D. C.
Ridgley.

Hydrographic map of Turkey Lake — C. .Juday.

Temperature of Turkey Lake — J. P. Dolan.
Part XL — The Inhabitants of Torkey Lake.

Note on Plankton — C. H. Eigenmann.

General Fauna — C. H. Eigenmann.

Leeches — Mrs. B. C. Ridgley.

Rotifera— D. S. Kellicott.

Cladocera — E. A. Birge.

Decapoda — W. P. Hay.

Mollusca -R. E. Call.

Fishes — C. H. Eigenmann.

Batrachia — C. Atkinson.

Snakes — G. Reddick.

Turtles— C. H. Eigenmann. .

Water Birds — F. M. Chamberlain.

Part III. — Variation.

The study of Variation — C. H. Eigenmann.
Variation of Etheostoma caprodes — W. J. Moenkhaus

lib

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204

TURKEY LAKE* AS A UNIT OF ENVIRONMENT, AND THE
VARIATION OF ITS INHABITANTS.

FiKST KKroKT or tiik Indiana University Biological Station. By C. H.

EUiKXMANN.t

IxTROnucroRY. — At tho J;ist moeting ol the Academy I outlined a plan lor
the future work of the zoiilogioal seetion of the l)i()logical survey of Indiana. It
was, in brief, to study some lake as a unit of environment and the variation of its
inhabitants. This plan has materialized, and I present this as the Biological Sta-
tion's first report.

To seleet a suitable site I visited, in February, 1895, lakes Maxinkuckee, Eagle
anil Turkev. -The lakes were frozen over, and I liad a good long walk over Max-
inkuekee and a sleigli ride over Turkey Lake. Turkey Lake seemed well suited
for a starting point for the work in hand. In March I again visited this lake to
look for a suital)]e laboratory and ipiarters. .\. laboratory was found in a large
boat-house belonging to Mr. T. .]. \'awter, tiie owner of X'awtcr Park. The boat-
house is directly on the water's edge, in a!)out H6° 18^ east longitude and 41° .3.5^
norili latitude. In March the lake was still frozen over with but a narrow rim of
free water near tlie shore. When I again visited the lake, to make the final ar-
rangements, on the 30lh of May, and captured snakes, turtles, frogs, and two spe-
cies of spawning fishes, all witliin a hundred feet of the laboratory door, I was
convinced that no mistake had been made in the selection of a locality. Deep
water near the labora.tory, a spring at the laboratory door, the situation of the
laboratorv nearly equidistant from either end of the lake, high land all about the
laboratorv, the nearness of such large bodies of water as Lake Tippecanoe of an-
other river .system, and a large number of smaller lakelets within a mile of Turkey
Lake, all contributed to make the location selected as near perfect as could be ex-
pected.

'■■The only recorded nnnie of this lake seem to be Turkey. It appears so in the govern-
ment surveys of 1S38, and on all the maps published since that time. I am told that it re-
ceived that name from the fancied resemblance of the general outline of the lake to a
Thanksgiving turkey. During the last few years the lake has been known to those person-
ally acquainted with it as Lake Wawasec, and there seems to be a laudable ambition that
thi.'? latter name should supi)lant the homlier, but more significant, name of Turkey. The
lower lake is locally known as Syracuse Lake.

The following letter was i-eceived from the Director of the Bureau of American
Ethnology : In response to your letter of December 6th last, I beg leave to inform you that
the word "' wa-wa-see," " wa-wa-si " or " wa-wii-sing," signifies " at the bend of a river."

Yours with respect, J. W. Powei.l.

tC'ontributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 14.

205

A twelve- room cottage was rented, in whicli titteen of the members of the Station
besides my family were quartered. While a summer cottage, thus peopled, is
not a good place for consecutive thinking, this experience will also be remem-
bered with pleasure. Most of the students rented a large dining tent and hired a
cook. Others tented and boarded themselves. Their expenses ranged from SI. 25
to S3 per week.

The laboratory was open from .June 25 to September 1.

Acknowledgments. — Mr. T. .T. Vawter, besides placing the boat house at
our disposal, gave us camping ground just back of the laboratory, and assisted us
in various ways, both in fitting up the Station and during the entire summer.

I am under many obligations to the officers of the Baltimore A: Ohio, the
Vandalia and the Michigan Division of the Big Four for transportation over their
lines leading to Vawter Park, and for other favors.

During our stay at Tippecanoe Mr. W. S. Standish assisted us very materially,
lie took the whole party on a tour of general inspection about the lake from end
to end, and placed himself and his st amer at our di>posal during our entire stay.

The Pottawatomie Club granted us tlie use of their reception room, where
some of the lectures were delivered.

Professors Birge, Kellicott and Call have prepared accounts of material col-
lected during the summer.

I must especially thank Dr. .J. C. Arthur, Dr. G. Baur and Geologist Willis
Blatchley, who visited the Station to deliver lectures before the members.

Lastly, J am indebted to Mr. J. P. Dolan, superintendent of the Syracuse
schools. He first directly, and through Mr. Eli Lilly, of Indianapolis, called my
attention to Turkey Lake, met me at Warsaw, and guided me to the lake and over
and around it on my first visit. During the summer he furnished the Station
with a splendid row-boat, and by his knowledge of the lake and its surroundings
and personal acquaintance with the natives contributed much to the success of the
undertaking.

Equipment. — The equipment of the Station consisted of a room 18x30 feet,
with six windows on a hide. In this space the twenty-two members of the Station
were provided with tables. Continuous with this available laboratory space was a
space 18x20, opening by very wide doors to the lake front. This space was util-
ized for storing|apparatus.^TLe apparatus, nearly all furnished by the Indiana
University, was as follows: Compound microscopes (Zeiss), 21 ; dissecting micro-
scopes, 3; microtome, 1 ;*dredge, 1; plankton net, 1; Birge net, 1; dipnets; re-
agents, about 200 bottles; working library, about 200 volumes; Wilder's protected
thermometer, 1 ; bunps, glassware, etc., the usual equipment of a laborat(,iy

206

table.; two l)oats; one sounding machine. The plankton net and sounding appa-
ratus and the method of using them may he described here.

Plankton Net. — An idea of our plankton apparatus and its modus operandi
can be gathered from one of the illustrations. The sounding boat was fitted in
the stern with a swinging derrick. Through the end of this was attached a
pulley, through which the rope supporting the net passed. The derrick was high
enough to allow the net to swing clear of the sides of the boat, so that when a
haul had been made, the net could ])e swung forward over a tray of tubes, ready
to receive the condensed i)lankton. The depth through which hauls were made
could be ascertained either by means of the sounding apparatus or by the direct
measurement of the plankton rope. The plankton net was built essentially as
devised by Ilensen and Apstein, except that the straining net of No. 20 silk bolt-
ing cloth, Dufour's, was permanently attached to the truncated cone of canvas.
The l)acket which receives the plankton was from necessity greatly simplified, but
as no measurements were made with it, and further improvement, both in effi-
ciency and simplicity, have been devised, I will describe this instrument as it will
be made for next summer.

The diameter of the bucket will be made one and one-half inches. Its bot-
tom will be of a sheet of brass or copper, hammered so that it will be slightly
concave or cup-shaped. A hole will be punched from the inside and provided
with a nipide soldered on the outside. The sides of the bucket will be made of
one piece of wire net of the same caliber as the No. 20 bolting cloth of Dufour.*
The upper part of the bucket will consist of a fiat I)rass or copper ring soldered to
the wire sides, and j)r()vided with openings through which the binding screws,
fastening the whole bucket to the net, may pass. Three legs of narrow strips of cop-
per passing from the upper ring along the sides of the bucket, being also fastened to
the bottom, will give rigidity to the sides and form a support for the bucket when
it is being emptied. To the nipple at the bottom of the bucket will be attached
a short rubber tube. The opening in the bottom will be closed with a tight-fitting
rubber stopper, manipulated from above by a glass rod passing through its mid-
dle. The whole cost of the bucket need not exceed S3.o0. The estimate received
on one of Hensen's pattern was $25.

'■■ Only part of the sides were made of the wire netting during the past summer. A
piece of new bolting cloth was found to have 83 per cent, of its surface solid, 17 per cent,
being open for the passage of water. The wire cloth used during the past summer had 77
per cent, of its surface solid, "23 per cent, being open for the passage of water. Repeated
trials of forcing water thick with plankton through the bolting cloth and through the wire
.showed that the wire was under such conditions a more eflfective strainer than the cloth.

207

Sounding Apparatus and Method of Using it. — A flat-bottomed boat
capable of running into shore at all points was manned by three persons. One
who was an expert and steady oarsman at the oars, one in the stern to take notes
and steer, and one in the bow to make the soundings. The sounding apparatus
consisted of a wheel two inches wide with a circumference at the bottom of a tlat
marginal groove of one foot ten inches. ( It had been ordered with a circumference
of two feet.) On the drum was wound 175 feet of tine annealed wire. Tl)is, when
wound, formed less than two layers over all parts of the drum. The weight con-
sisted of a round pebble as large as a list and was tied in a piece of cheese cloth.
This was a very simple and efficient piece of apparatus. The weight, if lost, could
easily be replaced by one of several others carried along, and the wire was found
sufficient for the whole summer's work. The original cost plus the cost incident
to its operation did not exceed $1.50. The wheel was provided with a crank and
being of a definite circumference the depth was measured by the number of turns
it took to raise the weight from the bottom to the surface. This apparatus would
be efficient in any lake of moderate depth. To run a line of soundings the bear-
ing to the objective point on the distant shore were taken from the starting point
with a compass. The oarsman pulled thirty strokes, backed water and held the
boat. A sounding was made in the bow and the depth recorded by the man in
the stern. It was found that with the boat always used for the purpose, manned
as above in calm weather, when all the sounding was done, 30 strokes moved the
boat 300 feet. This method proved entirely satisfactory in short lines a mile and
a half in lengtii. In long lines it proved unsatisfactory.

Additions to the Equipment. \ new laboratory 18x55 feet, two stories
high, will be ready for occupation by June 1 of 1896.

A partial description of new apparatus devised for next summer's work may
be given.

One flat-bottomed boat similar to sounding boat, 12 feet, 2 oars.

One flat-bottomed boat 15 feet, four oars. Plankton apparatus.

Three glass-bottomed galvanized iron boats about 12 inches in diametei' to
explore bottom.

One galvanized iron tul)e 2 inches by 20 feet, glass ends and funnels for fill-
ing or emptying, to determine color of water.

Automatic recording apparatus to observe seiches.

Plan op Work. — It must be understood that the undertaking was quite
expensive both in lime and in money. The Indiana University endorsed the
plans and lent apparatus from the zoological laboratory with the provision that

208

the Station be of no expense to tlie University. At the end of the season the Uni-
versity paid for some of the apparatus specially designed for the Station, which
thus became the permanent property of the University. In order to defray ex-
penses, a series of courses in elementary and advanced instruction were ofTered
and given. Each one of the advanced students and the instructors took charge of
some particular work of the survey. The preliminary reports of some of these,
form part ol this first report. The work was distributed as follows:

C. H. Eigenmann, Director.

W. .T. Moenkhaus, Variations in Etheostoma.
E. SI. Chamberlain, Variations in Lepomis.
.J. H. Voris, Variations in Pimephales

D. C. Ridgley, Physical Survey and Variations in Micropterus.
Bessie C. Kidgley, Variations in Labidesthes.

Thorn. Large, Physical Survey and Variations in Eundulus.

Chancy .Juday, Physical Survey and Planktonist.

Curtis Atkinson, Variations in P>atrachians.

II. G. Keddick, Variations in Pieptiles.

O. M. Meincko, Botanist.

J. P. Dolan. Meteorologist.

The work of but few has progressed far enough to justify even "'forlaufige"
notices. We have but just begun our work, and the Station will remain at least
three years longer at the same place. E.KCursions were made to lakes Tippecanoe,
Webster, and Shoe in the Mississippi basins.

While much of this report is taken up with the physical features of the lake,
and the enumeration of the inhabitants, it must be borne in mind that the phy-
sical studies are merely a means to an end. That however interesting in them-
selves, to us they are only interesting as far as they form part of the environment
of the highest creatures making the lake their permanent home. It may even be
that some of the things considered or to be considered, form in reality no part of
the environment of the vertebrates, /. e., that they in no way affect them, but
this is a matter that must be determined, and for the present we must consider as
manv things as mni/ influence them. The things probably most directly influenc-
ing the higher forms to be found in a lake are light, temperature and food. The
last item is again conditioned as the highest forms are, so that nothing short of a
complete understanding of the conditions will be sufllicient. A lake seemed to me
the ideal place because here the changes due to light, temperature, change of
water or surface are reduced to the minimum to be found in this latitude. A

209

■small lake is better than a large lake, because the unknown elements can be re-
duced to a smaller number.

We have attempted to collect specimens of the higher creatures in such
numbers and sizes, that had we collected all the specimens in the lake, our results
would not be different. How far we have succeeded in this remains to be seen.

The main object of the Station is the study of the variation of the non-migra-
tory inhabitants. I may be permitted to quote here the plan as stated in the
circular if-sued by the Station last spring.

The main object of the Station will be the study of variation. For this pur-
pose a small lake will present a limited, well circumscribed locality, within which
the difTerence of environmental influences will be reducedto a minimum. The study
■will c msist in the determination of the extent of variation in the non-migratory ver-
tebrates, the kind of variation, whether continuous or discontinuous, the quantita-
tive variation, and the direction of variation. In this way it is hoped to survey
a base line which can be utilized in studying the variation of the same species
throughout their distribution. This study should be carried on for a series of
years, or at least be repeated at definite intervals to determine the annual or
periodic variation from the mean. A comparison of this variation in the same
animals in other similarly limited and well circumscribed areas, and the correla-
tion of the variation of a number of species in these areas will demonstrate the
influence of the changed environment, and will be a simple, inexpensive substi-
tute for much expensive experimental work.

For this work the situation of Lake Wawasee, surrounded as it is by other
lakes, some of them belonging to other river basins will be admirably adapted.

In connection with this study of the developed forms, the variation in the de-
velopment itself will receive attention. For instance the variation in segmenta-
tion, the frequency of such variation, and the relation of such variation in the
development to the variation in the adult, and the mechanical causes affecting
variation.

This plan will be modified as our knowledge grows and our cx|)eriences dictate.

PART I. THE LAKE AS A UNIT OF EXVIKONMEXT.

Introductory. — A lake is a depression in the ground filled with water more
■or less stagnant.

A glance at a good map of North America will show the following peculiar-
ities in the distribution of lakes:

L A large number of lakes are found in Florida.
(14)

210

II. A host of them are distributed in northern Ignited States and Canada^
iiulinlin<r tlie trreatest collection of fresh waters on the globe,

III. A good nnmber in the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains.

The remainder of the country from the southern boundary of Georgia to the
northern boundary of Pennsylvania west to the Rockies is practically free from
lakes, except

IV. along either side of the lower Mississippi and Retl Rivers.

These four groups of lakes are due to four different methods of lake forma-
tion, but all four are indicative of the fact that the lake-rich areas have under-
gone recent change.

The first series is due to the comparatively recent elevation of an irregular
ocean floor. The second series is due to the action of ice in the irregular gouging
and irregular dumping of debris. These are all of recent date, probably none of
them being over 10,000 years old. The third series is due to the exigencies of
mountain formations, including in this plication and plication hollows, craters
and lava Hows and the settling of small areas. The fourth is due to the change
of channel on the part of the Mississippi and to the debris brought down by the
Red River which it has deposited at the mouths of its tributaries.*

Of course the lakes of one of these regions need not be all of the same origin.
Small lakelets around Lake Tahoe in the Sierra Nevada are certainly due to the
gouging action of glaciers coming from a steep incline onto a comparatively level
plain. Generally speaking, mountain regions, unless, as in the case of the
Appalachian, they have outgrown their lake stage, contain lakes of the greatest
diversity of origin.

Lakes are of interest to the geologist to determine the particular way in
which a general cause has been modified to produce a particular effect at any
particular lake; to the physicist to account for the various colors, temperatures,
pressures, reflections, refractions, etc.; to the chemist to determine the degree of
concentration of minerals and gases in solution ; they are of interest to the
naturalist to determine the organic inhabitants, their quantity and kind and
their life histories; to the cecologist and evolutionist to determine the geological,
physical and chemical characters in their effect on the organic inhabitants and
these on each other.

Lakes may therefore be studied for other than purely economic interests,
such as water supplies antl highways for commerce or location of summer resorts.

'The facts for the foregoing- havt- largely been dr.nwn from Russell's American Lakes.
Ginn k Co., 1895.

211

Orientation. — A hight of land (morain) extends from the northeastern corner
■of Indiana directly southwest to south of Albion in Noble County, and from here
westward between Turkey Lake and Tippecanoe Lake, then northwest through
Nappanee in Elkhart County to near South Bend. In its range from the north-
eastern corner to south of Albion this ridge separates the Lake Michigan from the
Lake Erie basin. West of this it separates Lake Michigan basin from the Ohio
•basin, and still farther west from the Mississippi basin proper. In the eastern
half of Indiana this ridge is exceedingly rich in lakes. Most of these lie on the
northern side of the divide, but about the headwaters of the Tippecanoe and Blue
rivers many are also found on the south side of the divide. A glance at the map
leaves the impression that this region is low and swampy, while in reality this
"whole region forms one of the highlands of Indiana, a considerable part being
over 1,000 feet high.

Turkey Lake is the most western lake of this series lying north of the divide.

It lies in Turkey Creek Townshii), in the northeastern corner of Kosciusko
County. South of the ridge separating the Mississipi)i and St. Lawrence basins
at this point lie Webster and Tippecanoe lakes, and south of these the Barber lakes
and Shoe Lake. Between the crest of the ridge and Turkey Lake the country is
pitted and grooved. Many of the pits are filled with water, forming ponds of
various sizes. One of these has recently been drained. Many more lakelets are
found about the head of Turkey Lake, but the topography of this region will be
dealt with in one of the following reports. Tliis whole region gives one the im-
pression that it has changed but little since the ice left it.

Gener.\l, Fkatures. — The lake has a general trend from southeast to north-
west. It is divided by a wide stretch of very shallow water, which is fast being
reclaimed by various water plants. A deeper channel extends througli tliis
swampy region, connecting the up])er and lower portions.

The greatest length from the head of Turkey Lake to the end of Syracuse
Lake is five and one-half miles. The width, measured at right angles to such a
line, rarely exceeds a mile. The greatest width is just east of Ogden Point, where
it measures one and a half miles. The length of Turkey Lake from Mineral
Point to Conkling Hill is about four miles. Tlie total shore line is between twenty
and twenty-one miles.

The excellent map prepared by Messrs. Juday and Ridgley, based as it is on
numerous soundings, shows the lake bottom to be of the same rolling character as
the surrounding region. A lowering of the surface of the lake ten feet would
make the long stretch of territory between Syracuse and Turkey lakes dry land,
and make the lake entirely landlocked.

212

Tlu' shiiilarity of tlie lake bottom to the surrounding country, which seems to
have heen little changed by erosion, makes it quite certain that the lake basin is
line to the irregular dumping in a terminal moraine, parts of it containing deeper
kettle holes.

The lake was never much more extensive than now. There are evidences
that the surface was a few feet higher. These will be considered in a later report.
The lake is surrounded by extensive swamps on the east, north, and west; these
MCtically all be covered by water should the surface of the lake be raised
live leet. The hydrographic basin is so small that at present but seven inches of
water are removed from the surface by outHow, while thirty are removed by evap-
oration. The lake having a surface of 5.6 stjuare miles, an increase of this sur-
face by .',,, oi' about one and a third square miles, would be sufficient to allow
all the water coming into the lake to be lost by evaporation e.xcept in wet seasons.
The surface of the lake, therefore, can not have been very much higher than at
pre>cnt il the present preci])itation and evaporation have been constant since the
ice leli this region. The lake has been about six or seven feet lower, having been
rai>cd to its present height by the building of a dam across its outlet. The changes
due to this dam and to the encroachment of plants will be considei'cd in another
report.

.•^i/.K. - The total area now under water is 5.G59722 sipiare miles. This area,
was obtained iiv weighing a sheet of pa[)er of uniform thickness and of the shape
of the whole area to be calculated, and comparing this weight with the weight of
a s<iuare of the same paper covering a square mile. This method is much more
expeditious than calculating such an irregular body as these lakes in the absence
of a planimeter, and (piite as exact. The same method was used in determining
the areas below which there is a certain dei)tli of water, with the following results:

I»eiJth of Area in Amount of Water

Witter. Square Miles. in Cubic Miles.

1-10 feet 3.27777 .00310395

10-20 feet 59027 _ .00167690

20 30 fctt 62500 .00314867

30-40 feel 45833 .00303817

4(1-50 feet 39583 .00337165

50-60 feet 22918 .00231162

60-70 feet 0694 .00082026

5.64576 • .0174712

Error to be distributed . 1396

5.65972

2Vi

Forel (Faune profonde des lacs Suisses, p. 5) proposed to estimate the volume
of a lake by comparing it with a cone whose height is the maximum depth, and
whose base is the surface of the lake. Estimated in this way he found the cone
gave but .67 of the actual volume of Lake Geneva. A similar estimate for Tur-
key Lake will give us .024654 cubic miles, or considerably more than the actual
value. The average depth obtained by dividing the cubic contents by the surface
gives us 16.6 feet. All these measurements were made during the summer of 1895
when the lake was below the average height, so that 17 feet will probably be nearer
the average depth. It will be found that by another method Mr. Eidgley obtained
21 feet as the average depth.

Over half the area contains water less than 10 feet deep. A reduction of
thirty feet below the present level would reduce the lake to a Y-shaped figure ex-
tending nearly from end to end of tiie present lake. One of the horns of the Y
would extend to Crow's Bay, the other to Mineral Point. The base of the figure
would lie to the west of Black Stump Point. Between the horns of the Y we
should have a peninsula ctnitinuous with Morrison's Island, which is the last of a
series of i.slands left in the lake. During the ancient liistory of the lake the laud
about Buttermilk Point was an island, and ridges of land east and west of this
formed the islands. One of these is seen in the illustration. Tlie detailed descrip-
tion of the hydrography of the lake will be given in tiie map and Mr. R dgley's
report.

Relation of Water to Outflow and Evaporatio.v. — Without any addi-
tion to the water of the lake the quantity now in the lake would be suflicient to
supply the present outlet for 26 years.* .

In other words, every cubic foot of water entering tiie lake will remain in it
on an average of twenty-six years, unless removed by evaporation. Ridgiey e.sti-
mates that the iuliow from springs equals the outflow, yet the lake was observed
to fall on an average of one-quarter inch per day, rising of course during rains.
That the outflow will not account for the fall of the lake is sufliciently shown by
the fact that the calculated fall due to the outflow is but .001(5 inches per day.
(See Ridgley's report). The remainder of the fall must be due to evaporation
and seepage, very largely to the former. Attempts wei"e made to estimate the
amount of evaporation from the surface, but they proved failures. It is self-evi-
dent that simply exposing water in an open dish will not answer the purpose of
estimating the amount of evaporation in the lake for the reason that water in a
shallow dish is heated to very different degrees from the water of the lake. An

'•"Base'l on Ridgley's and Juday's estimate of the outflow, and my estimate of the lake's
contents.

214

apparatvis wliich promised to measure the evaporation accurately and at the same
time do several other things was devised, hut it proved a failure because it could
not be well protected in rough weather and still maintain natural conditions.
The apparatus which we hope we shall be able to perfect is as follows:

A glass jar 9 inches in diameter and 12 inches high with a small hole near the
bottom and open at the top is sunk into the lake to within two inches of its top.
\Yhen the water in the jar has reached the level of the lake water a tight rubber
stopper is inserted in the small opening h\>u\ without. Tlie column of water in
such a jnr would be as near as possible under the same conditions as the surround-
ing water, and the fall of the water in the jar, plus the amount of rainfall for the
period, would very closely approximate the amount of evaporation. This apjta-
ratus would also enable one to get at the amount of water received from springs
and other sources aside from rain falling directly into the lake. The amount of
reduction due to outflow from the lake can readily be calculated by observing the
outlet. Mr. Ridgley has estimated it at .0017 inches per day. If at the end of
thirty days there was a diflference between the water in the jar and the water in
the lake, less the calculated reduction of the lake due to outflow, the difference
would represent the inflow from springs and other tributaries during thirty days.

The lake is frozen over about four months in a year. During the remaining
eight months evaporation is going on at a maximum rate of one-fourth inch per
day and a minimun of 0. Taking one-eighth inch per day as the average, we
obtain about thirty inches as the amount of the annual evaporation. At this rate
the lake, if without income, would become dry in twenty-eight years. Four
y«ars would reduce the lake to half its present size.

Outflow and eva2)oration operating together would reduce the level at the fol-
lowinif rate :

Time in Years.

Keduction by
Outflow.

Reduction by
Pwaporation.

Total Eeduction,

3
3

2
2
2

1

1 about

1 ft. 9 in.
4

3 2

4 8
() 8

5 2
17 7

7 ft. 6 in.

7 G

5

5

5

2 6

2 6

9 ft. 3 in.
11 6

8 2

9 8
11 8

7 6
10 1

14

33 2

35

68

215

These figures do not claim any great degree of accuracy; they simply help
to form an estimate of the length of time it would take both the outflow and
evaporation together to empty the lake. But while it would take both the out-
flow and the evaporation fourteen years to empty the lake, one-fourteenth does
not express the per cent, of the water of the lake changed annually under present
conditions. Since the vertical reduction is the same whether the surface is large
or small, it is evident that a much larger amount would be evaporated while the
surface is large. In reality, if a bulk were to be taken from the lake equal to the
outflow, plus the evaporation over the present area, about six years would be suf-
ficient to empty the lake, or, to put it in other words, during average years every
cubic foot of water entering the lake remains on an average six years. During
very wet seasons the amount of loss may reach a much larger proportion of the
whole contents.

Constancy of Turkey Lake as a Unit of Environment. — From the
preceding chapter it must be evident that the conditions in the lake, from month
to month and from year to year are but little changed, that the conditions, as far
as the water is concerned, are remarkably constant, especially if we compare these
conditions to those obtaining in the lower courses of such rivers as the Wabash or
the Illinois.

In the early part of this century a dam was built across the mouth of the
outlet forming an effective barrier to the ingress of fishes from below. The lakes
being at the headwaters, nothing has entered it from above. A few forms were
planted in recent years by Col. Lilly of Indianapolis.

The level of the lake was changed by the building of the dam, and as late as
1840 trees were standing in water six to seven feet deep. Many of the stumps
still remain. Their location and the effect of the dam upon the lake will be dis-
cussed elsewhere.

works consulted.

Agasaiz, A. Hydrographic Sketch of Lake Titicaca. Proc. Am. .\cad. Art
and Sci , XI, 11, 283-292; 1876.

A(/ag.<iz, L. Lake Superior.

Belloc, M. E. Les lacs de Caillaouas et ceux de la region des Gourgs-Blancs
et de Cladabide. Assoc. Francaise 9 Aout, 1893.

Belloc^ M. E. Nouvelles recherches lacustres feites an Fort de Venasquedans
le haut Aragon et dans la haute Catalogne. Assoc. Francaise 9 Aout, 1893.

C'omstoc, C. B. Professional papers corps of engineers U. S. A., No. 24,
Primary triangulations U. S. lake survey. Washington, 1882.

-216

Darix. ]V. .lA Tlie classification of lakes. Supplement in Kussell, 1895.

Evermann, />. II'. The investigation of Rivers and Lakes witli Reference to
the Fish Environment. Bull. V. S. Fish, (omm., 69-73, 1893.

Forbe.<. S. A. Biennial Report Illinois State Laboratory, 1893-94.

Forel, I'\ -1. A Igeuieine Biologic eines Sussvvassersees, in Zacharias die Thier
und Pllanzenwelt dos Siisswassers. Leipzig, 1891.

Forel. F. A. Lo Lcman. Tome premier, 1892; Tome second, 1895. Lau-
sanne.

Le Vonte, John. Physical studies of Lake Tahoe. Overland Monthly, 1883,
1884.

Levettr, G'. M. Observations on the depth and temperature of some of the
lakes of Northern Indiana. Geological Survey of Indiana, 1875.

Rcif/liard, J. E. A biological examination of Lake St. Claire. Bull. Mich.
Fish Comra.

7i(/.<.«t'/, I. f. Lakes of North America. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1895.

Sclif/o, A. Hydrobiologische I'ntersuchungen I. Scdirifte der naturf., Ges.

Danzic/, y. F. Bd. VII, 1143-89, 1890.

T(trr. Balph S. Lake Cayuga a rock basin. Geol. >Soc. Am., Bull., Vol. 5.
1894, pp. 339-356.

Whipple, a. C. Some observations of the temperature of surface waters,
and the effect of temperature on the growth of micro-organisms. J. New Engl.
Water Works Assoc. IX. No. 4.

A Prelimi>arv Report ox the Phv-sical Features of Tlrkey Lake. By
I). ('. RirxiLEV. ■■

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. '

Mo-t of the data on which this i)reliminary report is based were collected
during the summer of 1895 at the Indiana University Biological Station at Vawter
Park, Kosciusko County, Indiana, under the direction of Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann.
I wish to acknowledge the aid of his valuable suggestions, both in the collection
of the data and the preparation of the report. I wish to acknowledge also the

•'Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 15a.

PLATE I.

No. 1.

Indiana Uxivkrsity Biolocjhui, Station.

No. 2

Interior (if the Laboratory.

PLATE II.

No 3.

Vawtf.r Park Hotel iro.m the Lauokatory.

No. 4.

niff?'T.'fygi

Black Stump Poi.nt from the Laboratory. Plankton Boat.

PLATE III.

No. 5.

Looking Toward Ogdkn Point from thk Laboratory. Plankton Boat i.v Forewater.

No. 6.

Ogden Point from Near the Pottawatomie Club-House.

PLATE IV.

No. 7.

Studksts' Cami" in V'awteb Park.

PLATE V.

No. 8.

<

<

■<5

o

o

^ i: M

"^ « <

•x a CO

o
.J
o

■« ■ 3

tn ■<
i'. J 00

a

o «
w a

PLATE VI.

No 9.

West Beach of Morrison's Island.

No 10

Crow's Bay Showing Ick Beaches.

PLATE VII.

No. 11.

^"fT*.

^T

\-<-

Ckdar Point.

No. 12.

Bkach AVe.st of Cedar Poi;;t.

PLATE VIII.

No. 13.

In the Channki, Between Turkey and Syracuse Lakes.

No. 14

At the Head of Syracuse Lake.

217

assistance of Mr. Chauncey Jiiday, Mr. Thomas Large and others in taking the
soundings of the lake; of Mr. .Juday, in making a survey of the shore and for
copies of the accompanying map with which he has furnished me and from which
the rei)ort on the topography of the bottom is largely drawn ; of Mr. J. P. Dolan
for records of daily observations of lake phenomena and for the history of the
lake in years past; of the officials of tiie Baltimore & Ohio Railroad who fur-
nished data with reference to elevations and whose generosity has made it possible
for me to make frequent visits to the lake during the winter.

GENER.\L FEATURES OF THE LAKE. ■

Turkey Lake is made up of two parts, connected by a channel. The channel
is three-i|uarters of a mile in length and from one hundred feet to a half mile in
width. Its depth varies from one to five feet. The part of the Lake north of the
channel is known as Syracuse Lake. It includes an area of three-quarters of a
square mile, which is approximately one-eighth of the area of the entire Lake.
The larger part of the Lake, to the south and east of the channel, may be known
as the main lake.

The general direction of the lake is from southeast to northwest. Its greatest
length is five and a half miles, and its greatest width at a right angle to its length
is one and a half miles. The entire shore line is between twenty and twenty-one
miles in length, and the area of the lake is a little more than five and a half
square miles. Xo very prominent irregularities occur around Syracuse Lake,
while in the maia lake a number of evident indentations are to be found. The
east end of the main lake is made up of three bays. Johnson's Bay, extending to
the north, is one mile long and three-eighths of a mile wide. Ogden Point lies to
the west of the entrance of this bay and Cedar Point to the oa.st. The east end of
the main lake is Crow's Bay, with Cedar Point on its north and Morrison's Island
on its south. Jarrett's Bay extends to the southeast, with Morrison's Island to
the east of its entrance and Clark's Point to the west. In the west end of the
main lake is Conkling Bay, circular in form and with the surrounding maish a
half mile in diameter. It lies south of Conkling Hill. These are the most })rom-
inent indentations. Between the channel and Ogden Point, which are two and a
(piarter miles apart, the shore line curves gently northward three-quarters of a
mile, forming Sunset Bay. Between Clark's Point and Black Stump Point, one
and three-quarters miles to the northwest, the shore line bends southward one-
third of a mile.

218

The following places are located for convenience in referring to different
parts of the shore line and lake: The town of Syracuse lies on the west side of
Syracuse Lake near Turkey Creek, the outlet of the lake. Pickwick Park is on
the north shore of the main lake a half mile east of the channel. Eppert's is
1,000 feet east of Pickwick Park, and nearly a half mile further east is Jones'
Landing. Three-fourths of a mile east of Jones' Landing is Wawasee. Jarrett's
Landing is at the middle of the southern extremity of Jarrett's Bay. Yawter
Park is a half mile west of Clark's Point and directly south of Wawasee. The
laboratory of the Indiana University Biological Station is located on the shore of
the lake near the west end of Vawter Park.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BOTTOM.

The data from which the topography of the bottom has been determined con-
sist of numerous soundings taken throughout the lake between June 29 and Au-
gust 21, 1895. The water was very low during this period. For our purpose we
may consider all soundings taken when the lake had the level of July 6, 1895.
This level has been marked and is used for a bench line from which to read the
fluctuations in level On August 21 the lake had receded 5 inches from this level.
Soundings were taken along 28 lines in the main lake and 4 lines in Syracuse
Lake. These soundings were taken about 300 feet apart along all lines. Where
Tvater deeper than 60 feet was found, numerous soundings were made to determine
the extent of such areas. Below is given the number and location of each line
along which soundings were taken, except No. 3 and Xo. 9 in the main lake,
neither of which was used in drawing contour lines or in comijuting average
•depth.

•219

IN MAIN LAKE.

No. of
Line.

Location.

1
2
4
5
6
7
8
10
11

12
13

14

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

From Biological Station to Ogden Point, Xorth 37° East.

From Ogden Point to east end of Crow's Bay, South 53° East.

From Biological Station to Wawasee, North.

From Wawasee to Black Stump Point, South 52° West.

From Biological Station to Cedar Point, North 64° East.

From Cedar Poiot to Morrison's Island, South.

From Morrison's Island to northeast corner of Crow's Bay, Xorth 8° East.

From south end of Jarrett's Bay to mouth of Bay, Xorth 7° West.

From east margin of Ogden Point to north end of Johnson's Bav, Xorth

1° West.
From north end of .lohnson's Bay to mouth of Bay, South 10° East.
From east side of Ogden Point across .Johnson's Bay, Xorth 60° East.
From middle of east side of .Johnson's Bav, across the Bav, Xorth 79°

West.
From Clark's Point to Morrison's Island, East.
From mouth of Turkey Creek across .Jarrett's Bay, West.
From a point i of a mile west of Biological Station across the lake, Xorth..
From Clark's Point to east side of Ogden Point, X'orth 5^° East.
From [)oint a half mile east of Biological Station, Xorth.
From Ogden Point to Black Stump Point, Xorth 83° West.
Fiom west side of .Jarrett's Bay to Mineral Point, East.
From Clark's Point to east side of .Johnson's Bay, Xorth 30° East.
From north end of Xo. 22 to Ogden Point, South 85° West,
From point one-half mile west of Wawasee across lake. South.
From Black Stump Point, North.
From Eppcrt's South.

One-ipiarter of a mile west of Xo. 26 and parallel with it.
One-quarter of a mile west of Xo. 27 and parallel with it.

IN SYRACUSE LAKE.

No. of
Line.

Location.

From middle of east end of Syracuse Lake, South 80° West.

From point 700 feet southeast of west extremity of Lake, Xorth 70° East.

From a point on nortli shore one-half mile east of west extremity of lake,

South 10° West.
From west extremity of lake, South 80° East.

In the accompanying map, constructed by Mr. Juday, the hypothetical con-
tour lines of the bottom of the lake were drawn from the soundings along the
above mentioned lines, and numerous other soundings taken to determine the ex-
tent of certain depths of water. The contour lines indicate intervals of ten feet

2-_)()

in (leptli. From tlie saint' data were constrncted len vertical sections of tiie
botttun. In constructing tlie vertical sections a i)ase line was drawn from Pick-
wick Park to Mineral Point, and seven of the vertical sections, from "A" to
'•<i " inclusive, were made at right angles to this line at intervals varying from
<)ne-<|uarter of a mile to two-thirds of a mile. Vertical section "H" is a short
distance east of No. 18, " I" is along No. 4. and "J" along No. 25 of the lines
of soundings in the main lake. The remarks on the topography of the bottom
are drawn largely from a study of these contour lines and vertical section.s.

The average dei)th of the lake, found by taking the average for the soundings
at legular intervals of 300 feet along the lines of soundings is 21 feet 6 inches in
the main lake, 13 feet 6 inches in Syracuse Lake, and 20 feet 5 inches for the
entire lake. I»y a different method, as explained in his report, Dr. Eigenmann
has computed the average depth at a little more than 17 feet. The maximum
depth found in the main lake is (iS feet 7 inches, one-quarter of a mile from the
southern extremity of Jarrett's Bay; 1,000 feet northeast of the Biological Station
a depth of t)6 feet 5 inches was found; three-quarters of a mile north and one-
quarter of a mile west of the Station the water is 60 feet deep; and a half mile
northwest of Black Stump Point it is 63 feet 3 inches deep. The deepest water
found by us in Syracuse Lake is 28 feet 10 inches. A depth of 35 feet is recorded
for this lake in the State Geologist's Report for 1875.

An examin.'ition of the contour lines of the map shows that if we consider
water having a depth of 30 feet or more as deep water, we have in the main lake
four areas of deep water varying greatly in size, and connected with each other
by channels.

In Crow's Bay the greatest depth found was 49 feet 9 inches. These waters
enter the main body of the lake through a channel deeper than 30 feet, and 200
feet wide at its narrowest jjoint. This channel flows across the mouth of John-
son's Bay, meeting a short arm deeper than 30 feet from that bay, and comes
within 600 feet of the southeast extremity of Ogden Point. This channel con-
tinues le.'-s than 400 feet wide to a point two-thirds of a mile west of Ogden Point
where it joins the channel deeper than 30 feet from Jarrett's Bay. The deei^est
water in Jarrett's Bay is 68 feet 7 inches, and the area deeper than 30 feet is one-
fourth of a mile wide, extending north beyond the mouth of the bay and to
within 700 feet of its .southern shore. This 30-foot depth joins the main body of
the lake a half mile north of Clark's Point where the channel 30 feet deep is only
100 feet wide. Turning to the west, 1,000 feet northeast of the Biological Station
this channel deepens to 66 feet 5 inches, and widens to a half mile directly north
of the Station. Here it meets the narrow channel 30 feet deep from Crow's Bay.

221

The two channels merge into one and foruj an area of water from 30 feet to (36
feet in depth, one mile in length and with a maximum width of three-t|uarters of
a mile. This area of deep water lies nearer the south shore, its center being one-
third the distance from the south shore to the north shore. Near Black Stump
Point the deep water narrows abruptly from the north, and oOO feet out from
Black Stump F'oint its width is but 200 feet. West of Black Stump Point the
deep water widens abruptly to the north to a width of one-quarter of a mile and
deepens to 63 feet 3 inches. West of this the area of deep water narrows again
and the water having a depth of 30 feet ends one-quarter of a mile southeast of
the entrance to the channel between the main lake and Syracuse Lake.

Between th,3 deep channels from Crow's Bay and Jarrett's Bay the area having
a depth less than 30 feet is one and one-quarter miles long, 1,800 feet wide, and
contains an area one mile long and 500 feet wide over which the water is less
than 10 feet deep.

If the level of the lake were lowered 30 feet there would remain four bodies
of water connected by channels from 100 feet to 200 feet wide and less than 10 feet
■deep. These four bodies of water would l)e: (1 ) a small area in Crow's Bay with
a maximum depth of 19 feet; (2) about one-half of Jarrett's Bay with a maxi-
mum depth of 38 feet; (3) the main body of the lake, its width decreased ahno.st
one-half, and its maximum de])th being 36 feet; (4) a small area northwest of
Black Stump Point with a maximum depth of 33 feet. Lower the level of the
lake 10 feet more, that is, 40 feet below its present level and these four bodies of
water would remain as separate lakes, the connecting channels now Ijeing dry.

Great changes in the shore line will take place if the level of tlie lake be
lowered to a much less extent. By observing the map it will be seen that a low-
ering of the level of the lake to the amount of 10 feet would move the shore line
to the first contour line. This would leave one-half the bottom of Johnson's Bay
dry land; it would move the shore line along Crow's and Jarrett's Bays from 400
feet to 1,000 feet into the lake. Clark's Point would extend 2,000 feet further
north, and the distance between Clark's Point and Ogden Point would be reduced
from 4,000 feet to 1,800 feet. The south shore line from Clark's to Conkling Bay
would be moved northward distances varying from 250 feet at Iron Spring Point
to 1,000 feet along the shore west of Black Stump Point. The north shore line
from Ogden Point to the Channel would be moved sou'hward from 900 feet to
2,000 feet, and at one place — between Jones' l-anding and Black Stump Point —
4,000 feet, reducing the width of the lake at this place from 1 mile to 500 feet.
The Channel between the main lake and Syracuse Lake would be drained, and
the greater part of Syracuse Lake would become dry land.

'222

Judging from the contour of tlu' laiul, tlie level of the lake lias probably
never been more than 5 feet below its present level.

TOI'OGKAPHY OF THK SHOKE.

The shore of 20 miles is about equally divided between dry shores and marshy
shores. The slioros of Syracuse Lake and of the west end of the main lake were
not carefully surveyed, but accurate measurements and notes were taken of the
shore line of the east end of tiic main lake from a point on the north shore three-
eighths of a mile to the northwest of Wawasee, around the east end of the lake to
a point directly south of the starting-point. These data were used in mapping a
ten-foot elevation line around this part of the lake. For this reason the shores of
the east end of the lake ai'e treated more in detail than the others.

The dry shores are composed of sand and gravel. Some are less than 5 feet
high, but more often they are abrupt bluflTs from 10 to 30 feet high, or liills which
ascend rapidly to a lieight of 40 feet. The west, north and northeast shores of
8yracu.se Lake are bluflTs or liills. The east shore is marshy. The shore south of
Turkey Creek, tlic outlet, is also marshy, and these marshes extend along both
sides of the Channel between Syracuse Lake and the main lake. Pickwick Park
is located on a gravelly shore less than 10 feet above the level of the lake. Be-
tween Pickwick Park and Eppert's is the Gordoniere Marsh extending north-
west to the Channel. Pickwick Park and the land to the west of it is sur-
rounded by tlie main lake, the Channel and tlie (Jordoniere Marsh and is known
as British Island. The shore between Eppert's and Jones' is mainly marsh. From
.Jones' one-quarter of a mile east the shore is a bluflT from 10 feet to 15 feet high.
From this point almost to Wawasee the land near the shore is at present a dry
marsh. The blutl' at Wawasee is 15 feet high and extends along the shore 1,700
feet. This bluflT extends back from shore 500 feet where it joins the marsh which
stretches along the shore to Ogden Island, and also to the east to Johnson's Bay.
(.)gden Island, which is surrounded liy the lake only on the southwest side and on
all other sides by marshes, extends a half mile to the noithwest of Ogden Point
and is from 300 feet to 1,000 feet wide. Its gre:iter part is from 3 feet to 6 feet
above the level of the lake, .\bout one-half of that pai-t of the island which
touches the lake is a bluff from 10 feet to 18 feet high. The area higher than 10
feet is 1,100 feet long and friun 175 feet to 400 feet wide. The marsh around
.Johnson's Bay is known as the Johnson Marsh. It skirts the .southeast and east
sides of (Jgden Island, surrounds a piece of timbered land 700 feet in diameter-

223

north of Ogden Island known as Oak Island, borders the bay on the north, send-
ing ofl' a broad marsh across the country to the northeast, and continuing along
the east side of the bay with a width of a half mile, joins a narrow marsh ex-
tending to the southeast. On the east side of Johnson's Bay are two bluffs, one
reaching a height of 23 feet and extending from Cedar Point northwest one-
•quarter of a mile along the shore and having 500 feet for Its greatest width ; the
other is 1,000 feet further to the northwest, and is between 10 feet and 15 feet
high, 700 feet long and 150 feet wide. Lying to the northeast of these bluffs and
-extending between them is an arm of the Johnson Marsh from 50 feet to 800 feet in
width, which joins Crow's Bay just east of Cedar Point. From the northeast cor-
ner of Crow's Bay the bluffs extend south along the east end of the lake for a
half mile. They are from 10 feet to 27 feet in height. The 10-foot elevation line
then leaves the shore and extends almost south to Turkey Creek, leaving an area
of well timbered dry land along the lake with an elevation of from 8 feet to 10
feet and attaining a width of 1,000 feet.

The land on both sides of Turkey Creek, the inlet of the lake, is marshy.
Lying to the north of the mouth of the creek this marsh is 400 feet wide and ex-
tends one-quarter of a mile north along the lake. This marsh is separated from
the marsh along the east margin of Morrison's Island by a shallow channel of
water. The west side of Morrison's Island is a bluff reaching a height of 21 feet.
From Turkey Creek to Buttermilk Point the shore is skirted with marsh from 200
feet to 400 feet wide. Mineral Point is 200 feet from the lake and ascends abruptly
from the marsh to a height of 25 feet. A half mile south of Turkey Creek the
lake is entered by Jarrett's Creek which is the outlet of a chain of small lakes
lying southeast of .Jarrett's Bay. This stream flows through a marsh 400 feet wide,
and all the small lakes are bordered by marsh land. The marsh along the lake
ends at Buttermilk Point, and for a quarter of a mile the shore is dry and
sandy. The land along this shore is not a perpendicular bluff, but rises rapidly
from the lake to the south and reaches a height of 40 feet at a distance of 400 feet
from the shore. The west side of Jarrett's Bay is skirted by a marsh from 150 feet
to 1,000 feet wide. West of the marsh is a bluff from 10 feet to 15 feet high con-
tinuous with the land south of the bluffs of Vawter Park. West from Clark's the
south shore of the lake is a perpendicular bluff reaching a height of 29 feet in
Vawter Park and extending west beyond the point where our survey of the sum-
mer ended. This bluff is cut by a ravine 50 feet wide at the Biological Labora-
tory and by a small stream entering the lake a quarter of a mile west of Vawter
Park. The shore extending west to and around Black Stump Point is from 5 feet
to 15 feet above the level of the lake. The high bluffs from Clark's Point to Black

2-2 i

Stunip Point is liy tar the longest stretch of highland along the shore, being nearly
l\v(^ niik's in length. Conkling Bay (luring the summer months contained an area
of water al)out 300 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, bordered by wide stretches
of mar>h containing a few small pools of very shallow water. To the north of
Conkling Kay, Conkling Hill a.scends rapidly to a height of 40 feet or more. This
hill is conical in shape and slopes to the water on the south and east, and to marsh
and lowland on the north and west.

It will be noticed that the perpendicular bluHs of the main lake face to the
south at .Jones' Lauding; to the southwest at Wawasee, Ogden Island and Cedar
Point; to the west along Crow's Bay and Morrison's Island; and to the north
along Vawter Park. The high hills at .Jarrett's and Coukling's are without pre-
cii)itous shores. .\1! of these blnfl's are bordered by wide areas of shallow water,
and it wiil be noticed that the 10-foot contour line of the bottom does not approach
the shore much nearer than 400 feet, and is usually much further from shore. As
a rule, the bluffs facing to the south and .southwest have a much wider margin of
shallow water than those facing to the west or north.

Wherever there is a long stretch of shore, bordered by marsh, there is no
beach formed, but the muddy bottom of the lake merges into the mud of the
marsh along the shore line, .^long all the dry shores, and along the marshes of
small extent lying between bluffs, the beach is composed of gravel and sand.
This gives a gravelly or sandy beach arouu<l Syracuse Lake, except on the east
and southwest; along the north shore of the main lake, from the Channel to
< )gden Point ; along the east shore of .Johnson's Bay, from Cedar Point northwest
to the extremity of the dry shores; from the northeast corner of Crow's Bay to a
point east of the north end of Morrison's Island; along the south end of Jarrett's
Bay; from Clark's Point along the south shore for a short distance beyond Black
Stump Point. These beaches along the bluffs are formed by erosion and deposit
along the ba.se of the bluffs. The sandy and gravelly beaches along marshes are
found where the adjoining bottom of the lake is composed of sand and gravel.
The-e beaches have most probably been formed by the action of ice.

Around the main lake a number of beach formations of this kind are found.
Fmm Wawasee a half mile west the beach is compo.sed of sand and gravel. It
is about three feet above the water's level, and is higher than the land back of it.
From the east end of the bluffs of Wawasee to the dry land of Ogden Island is a
distance of a half mile, and the marsh along the shore is very little, if any,
higher than the level of the lake. Between the marsh and lake is a beach com-
posed of sand and gravel. This beach is two feet or more above the- level of the
water, and 30 feet wide. The beach along the bluff of Ogden Island is of the-

225

usual formation, but this beach continues along the shore for one-fourth of a mile
beyond the bluff as a very sandy beach a foot or more above the water's level and
50 feet wide; then the beach grows narrower and is on the level of the water, the
sand becomes less plentiful, and the beach is composed of a small amount of
coarse gravel and then merges into the marsh, where the shore line of Ogden
Point turns north. The same formation is found running a short distance north
of the bluffs on the east side of Johnson's Bay.

Between the two bluffs on the east side of Johnson's Bay is a beach 1,000 feet
in length, with the lake on one side and a marsh containing pond lilies on the
other. This beach is from 20 feet to 80 feet wide, 3 feet above the water's level,
and composed of sand and coarse gravel. The margin of the beach further
from the lake is the higher, and is covered with a growth of willows, cedar and
other small trees. Along the lowlands of Crow's Bay is a broad beach composed
of coarse gravel about three feet high and on a level with the land back of it.
Along the south end of the west side of Morrison's Island, which is lowland, the
beach is from 15 feet to 25 feet wide, three feet high, and composed of coarse
gravel. The beaches along marshes and lowland are broader and higher, and
contain much more material than those along bluffs.

The action of the ice is an important factor in the formation of tiiese beaches.
For the explanation of the action of ice on beaches as well as the formation of
ice cracks, I am indebted to I. C. Ku- sell's excellent book, "Lakes of North
America." The lake freezes over and by expansion the ice is pushed up along
the shore carrying sand, gravel and stones with it. Numerous ice cracks form
during the winter and fill with water. This water freezes and pushes the ice still
further up the shore carrying the beach forming material still higher. These ice
cracks are very numerous and may be as much as three inches wide. The amount
of lateral pressure brought to bear on the shores by this means is very great, and
beach ridges are begun and added to each year. The action of the ice in forming
beaches along marshes is very great, while along bluffs it is small. In the first
case no great resistance is met with in expansion, and the material for building
the beach will be carried up to the full extent of the expansion of the ice, while
along the bluffs the ice crowds against the shore and is itself broken at every ex-
pansion. A recent ice formation is evident at the northwest end of the (iordo-
niere Marsh, between the marsh and the Channel. In 1891 this marsh was under
water, but since that time the water of the lake has receded and left the marsh
dry. Separating the marsh from the Channel is a ridge of earth more than one
foot high running parallel with the water's edge. This ridge can be accounted

(15)

226

for by the action of the ice subsequent to the time when the marsh was left with-
out water. Some of the most striking examples of ice action in the formation of
beaches are found along the east side of Johnson's Bay; along Crow's Bay; at
Morrison's Island, where two ice beaches, separated by a few feet, are now cov-
ered by trees; at Clark's Point, where an old beach extending as much as 200
feet from shore is found, and at Black Stump Point.

CHARACTER OF BOTTOM.

In the shallower parts of the lake the bottom is composed of sand, gravel,
and small boulders, except along the low marshy shores, where it is composed of
mud. At several places, both in Syracuse Lake and in the main lake, dredgings
were taken at depths from 25 feet to 60 feet. Here the bottom was covered with
a deposit of marl in which were found many diatoms and shells.

Further investigations will be carried on to determine more fully the charac-
ter of bottom at different depths.

ICE.

For information concerning the freezing of the lake I am indebted to Mr. .J.
P. Dolan, who has given me the history of ice formations as he has observed them
during years i)ast, and he has furnished me with records of careful observations
made since the first formation of ice in October, 1895. These observations, unless
otherwise indicated, are for Syracuse Lake. Ice forms on the main lake at the
same time, but it does not freeze entirely over so soon as Syracuse Lake.

The lake begins to freeze along the edge, except where strong springs enter
near the margin. Information has been obtained concerning the influence of
springs only at Crow's Bay and Vawter Park. Springs are numerous along
Crow's Bay for a half mile and the water along the edge" is kept open after the
lake is frozen over, but I have not yet learned to what extent these springs in-
fluence the freezing of the edge of the lake in this locality. From Mr. Smith
Vawter, who has observed the springs at Vawter Park for a number of years, I
learned that the spring, which is near the margin of the lake and 2{ 0 feet east of
the Biological Laboratory, keeps the edge of the lake open throughout the winter.
If the weather is not severe, ice does not form for 25 feet along the shore, and
from 12 feet to 15 feet from shore. In the severest weather the lake is kept open
for 2 or 3 feet from the margin.

The ice spreads rapidly from the shore towards the center. The lake freezes
ove»- quite rapidly when the general temperature remains below 32° Fahrenheit

227

and there is no accompanying wind. All parts of the lake freeze, except where it
is kept open by springs, but the last place to freeze is a narrow strip from 20 feet
to 30 feet wide, extending from the north end of the Channel to Turkey Creek,
the outlet of the lake. Ice sometimes forms to a thickness of 6 or 8 inches along
the margins of this channel before it freezes over. This is due to a current along
this narrow channel towards the outlet. The ice is always thinner here than,
elsewhere.

Accurate information could not be obtained concerning the exact date of
freezing in 1894, but from Mr. Dolan's observations we can give an accurate
account of ice-formation during the fall and winter of 1895.

The first ice of the season was observed on October 20. The temperature of
the air at 7 a. m. was 28°. A thin layer of ice 4 or ') feet wide had formed along
the edge of the lake. It melted during the day. At 7 a. m. October 30, the
temperature of the air was 26'^, and about one-fourth of Syracuse Lake was
frozen o^^er. Not ((uite all the ice melted, but it all disappeared on the fol-
lowing day. At 7 A. m. November 2, the temperature of the air was 22°. The
mill race was covered with ice three-eighths of an inch thick. Only the edge
of the lake was frozen, as the wind blew during llie night. On November 21,
the temperature of the air at 7 a. m. was 13°, and ice had formed from shore
to shore on Syracuse Lake; at 12 m. the ice was nearly all melted, and at 5
p. M. the lake was free of ice. This was the first date on which the ice ex-
tended entirely across the lake. On November 23, at 7 a. m., the temperature
of the air was 30°. Ice had formed on the mill race, but no ice formed on
the lake, owing to a slight wind. On November 27, the temperature of the air
at 7 A. M. was 16°, and a wide belt of ice had formed around the lake, but it
disappeared on the following day. On December 2, the nigiit was clear and
calm. There was no ice at 4 p. m., but at 7:30 p. m. a thin sheet of ice had
formed and extended apparently from shore to shore. On December 3, Syracuse
Lake was completely covered with ice. The temperature of the air during the
day was 6° at 7 A. m., 16° at 12 m. and 12° at 5 p. m. On December o, the ice was
2 inches thick near shore. On December 7, the ice near shore was 3f inches thick,
and 500 feet out from shore 1] inches thick. I visited the main lake on Decem-
ber 7, and the ice appeared to extend over the entire lake. Warren Colwell had
skated over the lake during the forenoon as far east as Ogden Point. The only
place where he found the lake open was a space about 20 feet square, half way
between Ogden Point and Black Stump Point. Three dozen ducks and mud-hens
had congregated in this open space.

228

The increase and decrease in the thickness of the ice from December 9, to De-
cember 20, are shown in the following table. The measurements were taken 50
feet or more from shore.

On December l.'i, ice cutting for commercial purposes was begun, with the ice
51 inches thick. Last winter no ice was cut until January 1, 1895, when the ice
liad reached a thickness of (i inches. On December 15, the ice had reached a
thickness of 6] inches, after which it grew thinner, owing to the rise in temperature
and the heavy rains. By December 20, the ice had melted so that only slush ice
remained. On the morning of December 21, this ice had drifted to the north and
northeast parts of tlie lake and at 5 p. m. of the same day the ice had all melted.

Mr. Dolan has given me accurate iuformation concerning the ice on the lake
from .January 1, 1895, to March 25, when the ice left the lake. On January 1 the
ice was 6 inches thick and kept increasing in thickness for more than a month.
The maximum thickness, observed by persons engaged in fishing through the ice,
was noted in the early part of February and found to be from 24 inches to 28 inches.
The greatest thickness is found where the ice has been kept clear of snow by the
wind. In January and February the snow lay about nine inches on the level,
but it was drifted in many places on the lake while other areas were without
snow.

In tlie spring the ice sometimes wears into holes out in tlie open lake, and
breaks up in the center of the lake first, the last ice to break being along the shores.
This is the case when the ice goes off in cloudy weather and with heavy rains.
Usually the ice begins to melt along the shore, with some holes further out. A
heavv wind then breaks the ice and carries it ashore. For the past ten years the

229

ice has gone off with a west or southwest wind and has been piled up on the east
or northeast shores.

In the spring of 1895, the ice went off the lake in an unusually short time.
The lake had remained completely frozen over until March 24. During this day
the ice began to melt along the shores. On the morning of March 25, the ice had
melted to a distance of 20 feet from shore. At noon the ice had receded 400 feet
from shore. A heavy west wind was blowing all day, and the cracking of the ice
could be heard. At 3 p. m. the noise caused by the crushing of the ice became
very loud and could be heard for a quarter of a mile. The ice was broken into-
huge cakes. The wind now began to lift the ice and drive it eastward. At 4 p. jvi.
all the ice was piled along the east shore. The height to which the ice is piled
depends on the character of the shore and the strength of the wind. The piles
are not so high along a low marshy shore as along an inclined or abrupt shore.
Occasionally a great sheet of ice is pushed up a smooth inclined surface 6 or 7
feet without breaking the ice to any great extent. An instance of this kind was
observed by Mr. Dolan on the northeast shore of Syracuse Lake last March. No
ice formed on the lake after March 25.

Ice cracks are very numerous from the time the ice forms entirely across the
lake and has attained sufficient stability. They form before the ice has reached
the thickness of one inch. When the first cracks formed in December the ice was
so thin that it sagged slightly along the crack. The water came through the
crack and spread over the surface of the ice sufficiently to melt the small amount
of snow covering the ice, to a distance of 5 or 6 feet on each side of the crack.

The explanation of ice cracks as quoted from Gilbert by Russell in his
"Lakes of North America" is so applicable to the case in hand that I. reproduce
the quotation here :

"The ice on the surface of a lake expands while forming, so as to crowd its
edge against the shore. A further lowering of the temperature produces contrac-
tion, and this ordinarily results in the opening of vertical fissures. These admit
the water from below, and, by the freezing of that water, are filled, so that when
expansion follows a subsequent rise of temperature the ice can not assume its
original position. It consequently increases its total area, and exerts a second
thrust upon the shore. When the shore is abrupt, the ice itself yields, either by
crushing at the margin or by the formation of anticlinals (upward folds) else-
where; but if the shore is gently shelving, the margin of the ice is forced up the
acclivity and carries with it any boulders or other loose material about which it
may have frozen. A second lowering of temperature does not withdraw the pro-
truded ice margin, 1)ut initiates other cracks and leads to a repetition of the

230

shoreward thrust. The }»rocess is repeated from time to time during the winter,
but ceases with the melting of the ice in the spring."

The formation of these cracks is accompanied with noise, and, when the ice
has reached the thickness of four or five inches, the noise resembles the distant
booming of cannon. These cracks may be mere seams in the ice, or they may be
several inches wide. On December 7, I measured a crack three-eighths of an inch
wide in ice one and three-fourths inches tliick. On December 9, Mr. Dolan meas-
ured one two and three-fourths inches wide in ice four inches thick. On the same
day he counted eleven loud report* caused by the formation of ice cracks in five
minutes. They form during all parts of the day and night. They cross the lake
in every direction, and, while the cracks are slightly zig-zag. their general courses
are in straight lines.

The ice is very clear and pure, especially out from the shore, where there is
no vegetation near the surface. Is is used very largely for commercial purpose^,
the ice being cut from about one-fourth of the surface of Syracuse Lake each
year.

INLET.

The only stream flowing into the lake and containing water throughout the
year is Upper Turkey Creek, which enters the lake on the east side of Jarrett's
Bay. During the summer months it was filled with an abundant growth of water
vegetation, and was without any perceptible current. When the water is high
the chain of small lakes lying to the southeast is drained into the large lake
through Jarrett's Creek, entering Jarrett's 15ay a half mile south of Turkey
Creek. During the past summer no water entered the lake from this source. A
small stream one-fourth of a mile west of A'awter Park, and another from the
east side of Johnson's Bay, contribute water to liie lake when the water is high,
but not during the dry summer months. There are no springs around Syracuse
Lake, but springs are found along the margin of the main lake wherever the
shore rises fifteen feet or more and extends across the country as elevated territory.
These springs usually enter the lake near high water mark. This gives springs
along Crow's Bay, Mineral Point, the south and west sides of Jarrett's Bay, and
along the south shore from Vawter Park one mile west. No springs are found
along the bluffs at Jones', Wawasee, Cedar Point, Morrison's Island, or Conkling
Hill, but in each case these highlands are narrow and surrounded by marsh or
lowland. For a half mile along Crow's Bay the bluff is more than twenty feet
high. All along the foo of the bluff the water percolates from the gravel, and
at places it flows from quite strong springs. At Mineral Point there are a number

231

of strong springs. At Buttermilk Point and along the base of the bluffs west of
Jarrett's Bay are a number of springs. The margin of the lake from Vawter
Park one mile west is very springy, but the flow of water is not so strong as along
Crow's Bay. The waters from all these springs show traces of iron more or less
strongly.

OUTLET.

The waters of the lake flow into Lower Turkey Creek through which they
enter the Elkhart River near Goshen, Indiana; then through the Elkhart and
St. Joseph rivers they reach Lake Michigan.

Near the outlet of the lake the creek, during the summer, was about 20 feet
wide and had an average depth of less than 6 inches. The volume of water dis-
charged through the outlet was computed from measurements taken in the creek
and the overflow of the mill race July 18, 1895. The outflow through the creek
was 103 cubic feet, or 7722 gallons, per minute ; through the mill race, 41 cubic
feet, or 307i gallons, per minuto, making a total of 144 cubic feet, or 1,080 gal-
lons, per minute. At the same time the volume of the creek a half mile below
was computed at 1375 cubic feet, or 1,031 gallons, per minute.

By taking the outflow of the lake at 144 cubic feet per minute, finding the
amount discharged in twenty-four hours, and computing the amount the level of
the lake, with an area of 5J square miles, would be lowered by sucli an outflow
with no inflow, we find it to be .016 of an inch. At this rate it would require
622 days to lower the lake one inch. In one year of 365 days, at the same rate,
the level would be lowered 5.84 inches. The inflow, during the summer months,
is almost entirely due to springs, and probably equals the outflow. The lowering
of the level of the lake, during the summer months, seems to be due almost en-
tirely to evaporation.

ELEVATION.

The elevation of the lake above the sea and above Lake Michigan is shown
in the following list of stations and their respective elevations. The list of sta-
tions with their respective elevations above mean tide at Sandy Hook, New York,
was furnished by the General Superintendent of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.
The elevation of each station above Lake Michigan was found by subtracting 582
feet, the elevation of the surface of Lake Michigan above the sea, from the ele-
vation of the station above the sea :

232

ELEVATIONS OF STATIONS ON BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD FROM SOUTH CHICAGO,
ILL., TO PATTON SIDING, IND., THE MOST EASTERN STATION IN INDIANA.

NAME OF STATION.

No. Miles from
(Jrand Central
Station, Chi-
cago.

Elevat'n Above
Mean Tide at
Sandy Hook,
New York, in
l-'eet.

Elevat'n Above
Lake Michi-
gan, in Feet.

STATIONS IN ILLINOIS.

South C'hicago

19

593.0
593.5

598.5

596.5

604.5

617.0

621.5

640.3

640.5

652.0

687.8

748.6 •

786.0

788.8

760.0

718.5

716.0

800.7

859.0

856.0

819.0

853.0

880.0

840.2

869.2

882.2

935.2

923.2

9i'1.6

926.2

970.2

961.2

890.0

871.7

864.2

812.2

849.7

11.0

Rock Island Junction

11.5

STATIONS IN INDIANA.
Whilings

16.5

Ede'einoor .

14.5

Wilsons

22.5

Millers

37

35.0

I>0(k Siding

39.5

Willow Creek

58.3

McCools

58.5

Babcock

70.0

Woodville

105.8

Suman

166.6

Cobnrg

204.0

Alida

57
64
71
79

85

206.8

Wellsboro .

178.0

T'nion Centre . .

136.5

Walkerton

134.0

Tee""arden

218.7

La Paz. . .

277.0

La Paz Junction .

88
96

274.0

Bremen

237.0

Berlinton .'

271.0

Na])anee

104
112
116
120
125

298.0

Milford .Junction . .

258.2

Syracuse

287.2
3' 0.2

Cromwell

353.2

Kimmell

341.2

York

319.6

\lbion . .

135

344.2

Riplev .

388.2

Avilla

145
150
153

379.2

Garrett

308.0

Auburn .Junction

289.7

282.2

St. Joe . .

163

230.2

Patton Sidintf

267.7

233

Syracuse is the station having most nearly the elevation of the surface of
Turkey Lake. The mean level of the lake is about 5 feet below the station at
Syracuse. This gives the lake an elevation of 864 feet above the sea, and 282 feet
above the surface of Lake Michigan.

CHANGES IX LEVEL.

Changes in the level of the lake have been due to three causes : erosion, the
dam which is built across Turkey Creek just below the outlet of the lake, and
climatic conditions.

Old beach formations give evidence that the level of the lake was formerly 5
or 6 feet higher than at present. By erosion the channel at the outlet was cut 10
feet below this ancient level, and the dam has raised the level of the lake 5 feet
to its present level.

The history of the dam as given by an old settler is as follows :

A small dam was built in 1828, to which additions were made in 183L This
dam washed out in 1833, and the present dam and mill race were begun in the
same year. This raised the level of the lake so that timber stood in water 5 feet
deep. Much of this timber remained uncut in 1840, and some was still standing
as late as 1865.

The vertical distance between the level of the water In the creek below the
dam and the top of the waste gate, December 7, 1895, was five feet. This would
be the amount the dam, when in working order, would raise the level of the lake.
The dam is not in use at present and a small portion has been removed, which
allows the water to pass into the creek at a level 16 inches below the top of the
waste gate. This present condition of the dam holds the water of the lake 3 feet
8 inches above the level of the water in the creek below.

The submerged stumps in many jiarts of the margin of the lake is the best
evidence that the dam had the effect of increasing the area of the lake. These
stumps stand at present in water from a few inches to two feet or three feet deep.
Along the margin of Syracuse Lake the stumps are most abundant at the point of
the lake extending furthest west, and on the east shore along the edge of the
marsh. Turkey Creek, from the lake to the dam, is sixty feet wide, and only
twenty feet along the middle is clear of stumps. This was the channel of the
creek before the dam was built, and the stumps now standing in water are the
remains of the timber which grew along the banks of the creek. On the north
and south sides of Buck Island, at the south end of Syracuse Lake, areas of sub-
merged stumps indicate that this island was formerly one hundred feet wider in

234

each direction. On the east side of the entrance of the main lake to the channel
are many submerged stumps. Along Johnson's Bay much timber stood in water,
especially on the east side of Ogden Point and on the east side of the bay just
north of the bluffs. In these localities the stumps are very numerous, and among
the largest in the lake. There are a few stumps along the marsh just east of Cedar
Point. Others are found in the vicinity of Morrison's Island and go to indicate
that this island, before the building of the dam, was a part of the mainland. It
is so represented in the government survey of 1838. On the west side of Jarrett's
P>ay submerged stumps are jiumerous, especially along the southeast corner, where
much small timber is still lying in the marsh at the margin of tlie lake, and at
Clark's Point where many large stumps are found in the water. Submerged
stumps are also found west of Black Stump Point. The elevation of the lake by
the dam, not only increased its area but must have rendered much of the low
level land in the vicinity of the lake marshy, wliich would have been tillable. It
is claimed by persons living in the vicinity of the lake that the dam rendered
four thousand acres of land untillable.

The Huctuations in the level of the lake are caused by climatic conditions,
and vary with the inflow and outflow, rainfall and evaporation. In Mr. J. P.
Dolan's report will be found the record of changes of level as observed during the
pa^^t few months. Annual fluctuations are estimated to be about two and one-half
feet. The level of the lake is usually highest about May 1, after the heavy
spring rains, and lowest in August, although this year it kept lowering until
November 2, owing to the very light rains up to that time. It was then ten and
one-half inches lower than on .July 6. The lake was lower on November 2, than
at anv time since 1871, when the marshes around the lake were drier than in 1895.
Since November 2, the lake has been rising until, on December 25, it was fifteen
and three-<[uarters inches higher than on November 2.

In May, 1891, the lake was higher than at any time during the past twenty
years. The difference between well-remembered high water marks of that time
and the level of November 2, 1895, is four and one-half feet, which is the maxi-
mum fluctuation during recent years. Each si)ring since 1891, has found the
level of the lake lower than during the preceding sjjring. This gradual lowering
of the level of the lake has decreased its area and has shown marked changes in
the marsh land along the margin of the lake. Four years ago the water in Conk-
ling Bay covered an area a half-mile in diameter, now it is reduced to three hun-
dred feet in diameter; a small shallow lake just west of Conkling Bay contained
water throughout the year, now it is dry and growing good crops; fields lying
west ot the channel were almost marsh land, the crops being greatly damaged by

235

water, but during the past two years no difficulty has been experienced in tilling
them; two or three feet of water flowed over the Gordoniere Marsh, which is now
dry with beach lines forming along its margin; and boats were rowed over all
parts of the Johnson Marsh, while at present hardly any of its surface is sub-
merged.

Consult Hydrogbaphic Map Next to Front Cover.

Temperature of Turkey Lake. By .J. P. Dolan.*

In making these observations a Charles Wilder standard, protected, thermom-
eter was employed. They were begun the 13th of July, during which month four
soundings were taken in the deepest parts of the lake from the surface to the
bottom at every five feet. Then on October 5 two records were made at about the
same points, and again on November 2.

September 17 a rain guage was set u^j and from that day to the present a
regular record of temijerature, precipitation, direction of wind and rise and fall
of lake has been kept, but the observations have t)een confined to the northwest
part of the lake; properly, Syracuse Lake.

I. TKUPKRATCRE3 oK TURKEY LAKE, 1^95.

J0LT.

Oct. 5.

Indiana University Biolog-
ical Station.

13th,
10 a.m.

16th,

17th,

8:-li

9:30

a. u.

A. M.

I.U.
Bio.

Stat'n.

23d,

8:45 11a.m.

A. M

Jar-

bett's

Bay.

1:45

p. M.

Nov. 2.

I.U.
Bio.

Stat'n,

11:10

A. M.

Dec.14. Dkc.24

Black
Stump
Point.

10 a.m.

Air

Surface

5 feet-
10 " .
15 " .
20 " ■
25 " ..
30 "
35 " .
40 " ..
45 " .
50 " ..
55 " .,
60 " ..
65 " .,
67>^ " ..

Dejt.

81^
74

Deg.
83>^

10

73 ;

72)^ '

71

68

6j

60

60

59

59

58

58

58

74
74
71
65
'3
62
60
.57

Deg.
78}^
75

74^2
73K2

68)^

Deg.

72
76H

71
70
67K
61>l

o8K

58
58

58
58

Deg.
65

60^^
60
60
59
58^
58 V^
58^4
5li%

58i|
581/1
5814
58^
58

Deg.

61^

m%

.59
59

b»%

58j|

58)4

58)4

58

58

58

58

57K

56^4

mi

Deg.
50
43

43

43
43)4

Deg.
28

34)4
34)4
34>'2

35

35)4
"35)4

''Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 15.

236

VI. SUMMARY OK SOUNDINGS OF TURKEY LAKK.

Difference in De-
gr< cs First 20 ft.

d

O

25 to 30 ft.

d

o

35 to 40 ft.

d

o

%-,
o

o

d

in

lO

o

2

d

8

O

d

o

8

3

o

S

g

S
s

a

'S

o

Ml

I. U. Bio. Station-
July J3

July 1C>

July 23

Oct. 5

Nov. 2, A. M

Nov. 2, p. M

Dee. 14

Dee. 24

Deg

Defc

DeR

DeK

DcK

DeK

DcK

Des

Deg

DeR

DeK

DcK

Deff

Deg

3

3

3

^

2

2

■•■■3

3

2

2

2

2

16

74

58

66

4

4

2

1

2

id''

75"

'57"

69""

6i

2i

6

3

18i

76A

58

67i

2

4

{

2*

60*

58

59}

t>

A

"()

0

0

i

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

b

0

6

0

43

43

Deg

•1.9

66J
65.06

58.84

' Bottom.

11. TURKKY LAKE TEMPERATURES, 1S95.

September ■■..

09

23 24

26

28

29 ! 30

Air

Surface

Bottom

Precipitation

86

4.5

37

55

73

68

&5

68

68

56

69

69

(18

67

(>7

.=,7

.01

1.40

.03

.09

Tot

alin

chesl.S3

October-

9 10 I 11

13

I I
14 15 16

Air

Surface

Bottom

Near shore ■••
Precipitation

56
54
55

58

(58
63
58

68

60iS

56

65

60^

58i

62

57i

56

64

45
56
56i

48

38
55
56

45
53
53J

49

4.5
52
52i
45

40

5U

51

47

54

48
53
53

46
52
52i
50

October 17

18

19 20 I 21

22

23

24

25

26

27

60

60
45
46i
40

48
44
46

28 1 29 i 30

31

Air

Surface

Bottom

Near shore •••
Precipitation

45
51
5U

49

26 28
46

48
40

28

46;

47"
45

40

38

34

34

43

39

44

39

November.

10 11

13 14 I 15 16

Air

Surface, 25 ft
Bottom, 25 ft
Surface near

shore

Precipitation

30
38
43

22
43
43

36

54
43
43

60

4U

42

61
42
41

42

60
43
45

'".02

60
43
43

50

.78

45
43
43

I'.ib"

32
42
44

38

32
"43"

28
42i

26
"43

.02"

"m

237

November

17 18

1

19

20

1

21 22 j 23 24

25

26 27

28

29

30

Air

Surface

Bottom

Surface near

shore

Precipitation

52

434

43

46

34 22

41 1 39

42 , 39

38 34

20

35

33
39
39

35
<■•
=:=

*

35

22
•>

36t

16

■38+

36t

35

36

32
34
35

December

1

3

4

6 7 - .'

1

10

11

1
l: 1 14

1

15

16

17 18

1

a:. 17:30a.m.
-^^^ c5:00p.m.

Surface

Bottom

Near shore ■
Precipitation

.50

6

12

-'-1 '^

12
26
34
35

36
33
33
36
32

28
24
33
35
33

24
18
33
.35
33

28
26
33
36

32
36
34
36

"ii"

18
20
334
35J

2 ' ■..

24

0,0

35
"67"

.4

40
43

-m

35
.13"

45
52
334
35

I'.'is"

December

19

20 21

23

.. (7:30 a.m.
^"^ (6:00 p.m.

52
54
33i
35

1.87"

52

52

35J

37i

43

.96

40
39
37
37

.12"

"38"
58

Bottom

Near shore —
Precipitation

'•' Broken thermometer.

Under ice.

t Common thermometer.

SUMMARY OF TEMPKBATURES.

Septkmber.

October.

Date. Deg. ; Date. Deg.

November.

Date. Deg.

December.

Date

Deg.

Air

Surface, 25 ft
Bottom-

Air

Surface, 25 ft
Bottom, 25 ft

22

86

3

, i^

5

61

22

73

3

63

18

43K

22

69

8

56}^

26

45

19
21

20

54
37
37^

z

>
<5

24

37

19

26

27

16

30

56

31

39

30

34

30

57

31

39

26

36

1 13

7, 8, 9, 10
6, 8, 9, 15, 17, 18, 19

Air

Surface
Bottom

06

662.4

47.8
51.7
51.57

36.7
41.2
41.93

12

2

33

35

311

33||

355s

N. B. — Water general average for three months higher than air.

238

Air.

Surface.

Bottom.

(jrr;in(l ;ivorap:e for four months

42.94

48.37

48.87

From December 3 to noon of tlie 20th the hike was covered with ice. During
this period the surface temperature varied from 33° to 34J° aud the bottom from
35° to 36°.

At 5:00 p. iM. of the 20th, ten hours after the ice started to move in a body
from the hike, the surface showed 35^°, a gain of 2^°; the bottom 37^°, another
gain of 22°, and in the shallow water, fifty feet from south shore, where it had
been 32°, 33°, 33° on the 7, 8 and 9th respectively, it was now 43°, a gain of 10°.

The next day surface and bottom both registered 37° degrees at the twenty-
five-foot station.

The results of these observations are embodied in the accompanying profile
chart, in which it has been attempted to show the absolute and relative move-
ments (if till' air, surface, and bottom of lake at a depth of twenty-five feet.

Temperatures from September Zi to December 23. Broken line, temperature of air;
dotted line, temperature of water 25 feet below surface on the bottom; continuous line, tem-
perature of water at the surface at the same place.

239

(a) A few well-known facts are emphasized, the variableness of the atmos-
phere and the persistence of the water; that water is a poor (6) radiator and an
indifferent conductor of heat, and responds slowly to atmospheric changes.

(d) It shows also that the great volume of Syracuse lake at no time has been
stagnant, but that a condition of activity has obtained throughout the entire period
of observation.

(c) For the four months in which a large number of observations were made
the general average of the water, both surface and bottom, is higher than that of
the air.

.\ difference of 10° between the water one foot deep near the shore and the
gurface mid-lake during a rain the day the ice left the lake, shows that the surface
drainage is no small factor in winter and spring in raising the temperature of
the whole body.

PART II. THE INHABITANTS OF TURKEY LAKE.*

Plankton.

By plankton, Hensen, the author of the word, means everything floating in
the sea and passively driven about by the waves and currents. Haeckel in-
cludes under plankton all organisms swimming in the sea. Haeckel says:
"The totality of the swimming and floating population of the fresh water
may be called limnoplankton." Limnoplanktonic studies have been made when-
ever a collector scooped for protozoa, diatoms or other minute organisms.
Planktonic studies of this sort have been carried on for a long time. Recently
plankton has been studied in a new way, first in the ocean and more recently in
fresh water. This more recent study has been the quantitative and qualitative
estimation of the plankton in a given volume of water. There seem to have
developed in a remarkably short time two schools of planktonists, the one headed
by Hensen asserting that planktonic organisms are uniformly distributed, the
other, headed by Haeckel, being equally sure that planktonic creatures are to be
found in clouds or schools. We are interested in plankton only in so far as it is
part of the environment of the vertebrates inhabiting the lake. That it is not an
unimportant element of the environment is due to the fact that it forms the
primitive food of most of the fishes and that at the most plastic period in the life
of the individual. The amount of plankton, as well as its composition from year

'•'Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 16.

240

to year, is tlierefore of prime importance in the search for tlie causes of the
difiVrences in the same fish in two contiguous lakes or in two successive years in
tlie same lake.

Our plankton apparatus was completed too late to enable us to make any
systematic measurements, especially as our ])lanktonist was actively engaged in
the physical survey of the lake. But plankton was collected and some of its
different constituents will be reported upon.

A good historical account of planktonic studies, as well as exact definitions,
are to be found in the Planktonic Studies of Haeckel, translated by-G. W. P'ield,
and pulilished in Commissioners' Report, 1889-91, U. S. Com. Fish and P'isheries,
pp. 565-641.

In the following sketch several groups of animals are not at all considereds
and others but briefly. The only groups found in the lake of which we approxi-
mate a complete list are the fishes, batrachians and reptiles. Deficiencies will be
removed in sul)sequent reports when a classification of the material into littoral,
bathybial and prlar/ie will also be attempted.

PROTOZOA.

Tlie Protozoa were not represented by a large array of species during the summer.
No detailed work has been done on them as yet, but I want to mention two
characteristic forms.

The most striking Protozoan is Ophruliion. It is found in clumps varying from
microscopic minuteness to the size of walnuts, and in different parts of the lake
the pebbles and exposed parts of clam shells are covered with these colonies to
such an extent as to suggest young lettuce beds.

Ceratium hirndinella is as striking and abundant in the pelaxjic regions as
Ophridiiriii is in the littoral.

In this connection two plants may also be noticed.

Rivuluria is very abundant during tlie whole summer. It is conspicuous in
calm weather, when it rises to the surface. Toward the end of August and in
early September it collects in such numbers as to form large patches and streaks,
forming a true Wa-iHcrhliitlw.

Various forms of Palmella are abundant during tlie whole summer, and in
October, when RIvularia has disappeared, it forms large patches on the surface
forming the WaaserbUithe of the late fall.

241

PORIFERA.
Sponges are not abundant in the lake. They are found in small patches on
boards, sticks and other things near the margins of the lake. They grow much
more luxuriantly in the outlet of the lake where they sometimes form patches
several square feet in extent.

CNIDARIA.

Hydra viridk L. Specimens of hydra were exceedingly rare. On one occasion
a few were taken on a submerged stick near Black Stump Point. .

PLATHELMINTHES.

Flat worms were not systematically collected and none of these collections
have been identified. Of Turbellarians there were several species. Ainia calva is
infested by a tape worm and by a I>iKfonr}nii.

NEJIATHELMIA.

No attempt was made to collect thread worms. Gordiux is exceedingly
abundant on the margins during the latter part of summer. I counted as many
as twelve in the area of one foot square.

ANNELIDA. BY HESSIE C. RIDGl.V.

No Chactopoda were collected.

No systematic attempt was made to get large numbers of leeches, but speci-
mens were preserved whenever found. In the classification 1 have followed
Verrill.

Nephelin quadristriata Grube. Thirteen specimens from Turkey Lake.

Ncphelis fervida Verrill. Fourteen specimens.

Clepsine parasitica Diesing. Three sjiecimens.

Clepsine ornata stellata Verrill. This species was not found in Turkey Lake.
Two specimens were taken in Tippecanoe Lake.

Clepsine ornata ruf/osa Verrill. Four specimens. '

Clcpdne ornata variety d Verrill. Ten large specimens corresponding with
the second specimen described by Verrill were found, most of them on turtles.

Clepsine papillifera Verrill. One specimen.

Clepsine papillifera carin<da Verrill. Three specimens. One of these, one-
half inch long, was found under a stone in front of the laboratory. A number of
young were attached to it.

Clepsine pallida Verrill. One specimen.

Clepsine pallida variety b Verrill. One specimen.

Clepsine eler/ans Verrill. Five specimens.
(.16)

242

KOTIFERA. D. S. KeLLICOTT.

I received in September three vials of plankton, from Mr. Chancey Juday
with the request to report upon the Rotlfera found therein. The vials were
marked and described as follows : "I. Contains plankton caught at the surface
of the water of Wawasee Lake, Indiana, by using a plankton net; taken August
28, 1895; killed in picro-sulphuric acid ; washed in 35 per cent, and 50 per cent,
alcohol and preserved in 85 per cent, alcohol." " II. Depth of haul, 60 feet
(Wawasee) ; depth of water, 65 feet; taken July 20, 1895; killed in Flemming's
Fluid; washed in 35 per cent, and 50 per cent, alcohol, and jireserved in 85 per
cent, alcohol." "III. From Tippecanoe Lake ; depth of haul, 110 feet; depth
of water, 117 feet; taken August 7, 1895; killed in Flemmings's Fluid; washed
in 35 per cent, and 50 per cent, alcohol, and preserved in 85 per cent, alcohol."

I tind that the Rotifera were much better preserved in II and III than in the
lirsl. The illoricate species in I were scarcely recognizable; in fact three species
found in this vial I have not been able to place more nearly than the probable
genus. Those in II and III have all been satisfactorily identified. While the
whole number recognized in these collections is not large some interesting facts
are brought to light. Three species not hitherto reported from this country are
among the number, and others rarely. It is certain that the roiij'eral fauna of
these lakes is rich and will yield many unique forms as a reward to any student
who may be able to work in the region, to take and study them in the fresh state,
and in all their varied relations and situations of residence.

I sliall enumerate, with remarks, the si)ecies found in each haul separately,
although it will cause some repetition, and in the order of Hudson and Gosse's
Rotifera, without citing the bibliography farther than a description where the par-
tial bibliography, however, will usually l)e found.

I.

1. Floscularia mutabilis Bolton. Not infrequent. It is quite unexpected
that a Hoscule should occur among pelagic species, and yet there are four known
species of these Rhizota that cut loose and become sailors. Mr. H. S. Jennings
has found three of them in St. Clair and lakes of Michigan. Of this one he says:
"Very common in to wings from Lake St. Clair, either at the surface or near the
bottom. Hudson and Gosse, I, 56.

2. fEcistea brachiatus Hudson. A large number were found, but it was im-
possible to identify them surely. The tube conforms to the figures and descrip-
tions of that of Brachiatm ; it is cylindrical, smooth, compact, perfectly hyaline,

243

often containing a slight amount of adhering matter, often containing several
eggs, which, however, are not so elongate as the figures represent those of
Brachiutv^s; the long narrow foot and the long non-retractile antenna? agree well
with the type. I am pretty confident that it is Bracliiatu.% yet I am surprised to
find so many of them, or any of them, in a surface tow, as it is evidently norm-
ally anchored ; perhaps they were attached to floating algie which apparently are
not uncommon in the lake. H. and G., I, 83.

3. Philodina megalotrocha Ehrenberg. Numerous. I have often taken it
at a distance from land, particularly in shallow lakes or among floating algte.
H. & G., I, 101.

More than one species of Rotifer which could not ])y any means be identified
were present.

4. Sacculus viridis Gosse. Rare. H. and G., I, 124.

5. Polyarthra platyptera 'YAxrenherg. Many seen. The serrations on the
edges of the broad plates are coarse and more distant than in the tyi)e. H. and
G , II, 3.

6. Dinocharis poeUlum 'Ehtenhevg. One individual. It is a bottom feeding
species and rarely occurs in a surface tow. H. and G., II, 71.

7. Dinoeharis collin.ni Gosse. One. Bottom feeding species. It has not
been observed in this country' before. No species exceeds it in beauty. I conld
not make out the pair of spines on the foot and the edge of the lorica appears to
be set with a row of small spines, rather than being serrate as described and
figured. II. and G., II, 72.

8. Anuroea cocldearis Gosse. Exceedingly abundant. Our form differs
slightly from Gosse's figure since the mesal ridge of the lorica does not extend
straight from end to end, but has a decided angle at each pair of facets, the an-
terior median one is not divided. H. and G., II, 124.

9. Xotholca lon(/i-<pi>ia Kellicott. Not rare. This rotiferon was first known
in the water supplies of cities along the Great Lakes. Soon after it was described
in 1879, it was found in Olton Reservoir, Eng., aud then by Imhof in the Swiss
Lakes. More recently it has been found in lakes of America. Mr. Levic reports
finding the eye spot double, or so far separated as to be regarded as two eyes. I
have seen several in these collections with the same peculiarity.

244

II.

1. Poli/diihra plati^ptera Elirenberg. Few.

2. I'riarthra lonyi.^cta Ehrenberg. Comparatively few in this vial. H. and
G.. II, 6.

3. PliH\ooii)a fenticulare Herrick. Very many. It occurs in the lakes of
Europe. In this country it has been reported only from Lake St. Clair, both in
bottom and surface tows (Jennings). Zocil. Anz., Bd. 10, 577.

4. Brachionii.< niilifans Ehrenberg. Kare. I have found this an abundant
species in ponds of western New York; it is a good sailor, preferring small seae,
however. Authors have recorded the fact that the posterior spines are not in the
same horizontal plane. This seems to be in relation to the habit of always turn-
ing on its long axis as it swims ; they appear to bore their way through the water.
H. and G., Sup. 82.

.5. Anuripa cachlearis Gosse. Many, but far less numerous than in I.
G. Xotholra longi-^pinn Kellicott. More abundant than. in I.

111.

1. .hplanchno priodonta Gosse. Quite numerous. Jennings reports this fine
species as abundant in Lake St. Clair, both at the surface and in deep water. H.
and G., I, 123.

2. Polyurthra plutyptera Ehrenberg. Several found.

3. Triarthra louffiseta Ehrenberg. Numerous.

4. Diai'chisa rah/a Gosse. Only one seen. It appears to agree well with the
figure and description. H. and G., II, 77.

5. Aiiiiriin cochlearis Gosse. Not common.

6. yothoica loiifjii^pcia Kellicott.

Cladocera. a. Birge.

The following letter on the Cladocera of Turkey Lake has been received :
I enclose list of Cladocera in your bottles.

1. Holopcdiuiii yibherum Zad., few; Daphnia hyuiiaa and retrocurva Forbes.
Much ul(/al material, chiefly Clathrocystis.

2. Holopediura yibb&rum D. relrocurva Sida. crystallina 0. F. M., Diaphanosoma
hrachyuruiH Liev.

3. D. retrocurva, extreme form of hemlet, like that of Lake Mendota, Diapjh.
brachyurum. Material looks as if it had been dried.

245

4. D. retrocurva Diaph. brachyurum Ceriodapknia lacmtri< Birge. Leptodora
kyalina Lillj., Holopedmm gibberum, one specimen.

5. Diaph. brackyururn, Sida crystallina, Cer. lacustris.

6. Holo. gibberum, Diaph. brachyurum, D. retrocurva, Algae like No. 1.

7. Diaph. brachyurum, D. retrocurva, Cer. lacu.vtri.% Leptodora kyalina.
Great number of Epiachura lacuMris, far more than I ever saw before.

8. D. retrocurva, Sida cry.<tallina, Diaph., brachyurum.

9. Diaph. brachyurum, D. retrocurva, not an extreme form, Daphnia longiremis
Sars, Sida crystallina, very few.

Most of these species are predictable, that is, they would be found in al-
most any pelagic collection from this general region. I do not think that H.
gibberum has been found so far south as this collection shows it. Cer. lacustris has
not been found outside of Wisconsin before. The specimens are much more thin-
shelled than those which I have seen before. It is remarkable that D. retrocurva
is far more numerous than is D. hyalina. The reverse has been true in all lakes
which 1 have studied, except Pine Lake, Wisconsin. In most of the bottles ex-
amined it was difficult to find D. hyalina, while the other species was quite plenty.
It is to be noted that this species of Forbes is really a variety of D. kahlbergien-
■■iis Sch, but as the form is well marked and the full name intolerably long, I
have quoted it by the varietal name only.

D. longiremis has been found before only in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. In
size, form and shape of head it exactly agrees with my figures and description in
Trans. Wis. Acad.; Vol. IX, p. 299, pi. XI, figs. 4-10.

In all bottles there were many Cyclops and Diaptomua, and in one, as already
noted, large numbers of £/)i>fA«/«.

I should gladly write more, but have been too busy for a longer report. Will
send bottles to Marsh for Copepods and try to get up a full account later.

Very truly,

E. A. BiBGE.

Data of the lots of specimens numbered in the above letter:

I. Taken Aug. 28, 1895, between 1 and 2 p. m., from surface of water. Killed in
picro-sulphuric acid. Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol.

II. Taken June 27, 1895, at 8 a. m. Skimmed from surface of water, using No. 2 Bolt-
ing Cloth. Killed in picro-sulphurieaeid. Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol.

III. Taken Aug. 14, 1895, at 5 p. M. Depth of haul, 60 ft. Killed in picro-sulphuric
acid. Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol.

IV. Taken July 27,1895. Skimmed from surface of water, using No. 2 Bolting Cloth.
Killed and preserved in 10 per cent, formalin.

V. Taken June 27, 1895, at 8 a. m. Skimmed from the surface with a No. 2 Bolting
Cloth net. Killed and preserved in 10 per cent, formalin.

246

VI. Taken July 29, 1895. Depth of haul, 25 ft. Killed and prej^erved in formalin.
VII. Taken July 12, at night. Surface skiniaiing, using a No. 2 Bolting Cloth net.
Killed and preserved in 10 per cent, formalin.

VIII. Taken Aug. 1,1895, at 9 A.M. Depth of haul, 10 ft. Killed in Fleraming's fluid.
Preserved in TO per eent. aleidiol.

IX. Taken Au?. 7,1895, at 4 P.M. Depth of haul, 110 ft. Killed in Flemming's fluid.
Preserved in 70 per eent. alcohol.

I,II,III,IV, V, VI.VII. VIII are from Turkey J.ake or Lake Wawasee; IX is from
Tippecanoe Lake.

Decapoda.

The following crayfishes from Turkey Lake were identified by Mr. W. P.
Hay, of Washington, D. C:

Cambarus blandinr/ii acuius Girard.
Cauibams propiiiguus Girard.
Cambant.'f virilis Hagen.

On a Small Collection- of Mollusks from Northern Indiana. By R. Ells-
worth Call, M. D., Ph. D.

The mollusks herewith reported on were collected by the members of the In-
diana University Biological Station during tiie past summer. The region is
sufficiently well characterized in the report of Dr. Eigenmann, the Director of the
Station, and it is necessary here only to allude to its salient features.

The locality is on the divide separating the drainage areas of the Great Lakes
and the Wabash River. In certain places the two drain.ages are practically
identical and thus aflTord opj)ortunity for the intermingling of the two faunas.
The lakes and streams are all well within the limit of glaciation in former ages
and their beds and shores are boulder-covered or lined. The bottoms of shallower
portions of the lakes are gravelly or muddy, while the deeper portions are either
muddy or sandy. Corresponding with these physical factors are certain features
of moUuscan distribution and modification, which it is the object of these notes to
adduce and emphasize.

UNIONID.'K.

Anodonia decora I^ea. Two specimens of this form were found, l)oth of which
were obtained in Syracuse Lake. The specimens were very much more fragile
and far thinner than is usual for this species, even when secured from lakes and
ponds. The epidermis is quite pale, the lines of growth crowded, and the nacre-
ous deposit very white. Forms from sluggishly flowing streams in southern In-
diana and elsewhere in the Ohio basin are very highly colored, both interiorly

247

and without. As in other members of this family from these lakes the optimum
habitat does not appear to be here. Many of the shells are coated with heavy
deposits of calcareous matter, indicating a chemic condition of the water that is
unfavorable to the normal development of the several species.

Anodonta fermsaciana Lea. One specimen from Turkey Creek ; three speci-
mens from Syracuse Lake.

The resemblance of these shells to the Anodonta suhcylindracea is very marked
indeed. The lake form is lighter both in texture and color than the one speci~
men from the creek.

Anodonta footiana Lea. Three specimens from Syracuse Lake ; one specimen
from Turkey Creek.

The shells submitted are very characteristic of this form, which may noty
ultimately, be separated from Anodonta lacustrifi Lea. Like its congeners from
the same locality the lake form is very pale in color and unusually thin and
fragile. A very interesting fact is illustrated in the littoral distribution of this
species and Sphwrium from the same lake. Those which occur in comparatively
deep water are very much thinner and lighter in color than the shore forms.
Also, those which are found on the northern shores are thinner and more fragile
than those on the southern beach. The reason possibly may lie in the prevail-
ing winds, which are from the northeast. The southern beach is also more
gravelly than the northern. The conditions of environment then, in this case,
favor thicker development of the shell in the forms living on the southern beach;
they need greater powers of resistance, are subjected to rougher conditions of
habitat and this finds expression in heavier secretion of nacreous material. Tlie
shells which live at the lake's bottom are also beyond the disturbing influence of
waves and being deeply imbedded in mud develop to greater size, but with
thinner shells.

Margaritana ccdceola Lea. A single dead specimen, from Turkey Creek.

This specimen is a very characteristic one, the deposit of calcareous matter on
the inner surfaces of the valves being marked; this is a pathologic feature, well
marked in the type specimens which Dr. Lea studied. Tliis form and Jlargar-
itana deltoidea Lea are synonyms.

Margaritana rugosa Barnes. Represented by eight specimens from Turkey
Creek, all of which are characteristic.

Unio coccineus Lea, One specimen, dead, from Turkey Creek.

The nacre of this shell is quite white, a fact true of the majority of shells
which fall under this form, though the type-form was beautifully pink. It is
often found in collections labelled Unio rubiginosus Lea, but is easily separated

248

by tlie characters tif tlio cardinal teeth and the rounded, iionangulate cliaracter
of the posterior slope. In Fnin rnhujinosm there is a well marked ridge extend-
ing ijulte to the posterior margin. The flat and white nacred form also may
occasionally he seen in collections as Uiiio f/ouldianiis Lea, now a wtdl recognized
synonym.

Viii" Jahnlis Lea. Twelve speciiuen.s from Tipjiecanoe Lake.

This is one of the smallest of our r«/o.s. The shells submitted do not pre-
sent any variant features other tli;in tlie very light coloration so characteristic of
all the lake shells which we have seen. Unio lapilius Say is a synonym.

Uiiio 7(66o.s».s- Barnes. This form Is represented by three specimens from
Turkey Creek. These are all much tliiuiier and lighter than the same species
from the Ohio and Waliasli river.s, in both of which it is a common shell. It
seems to be very abundant in certain of the lakes of northern Indiana, notably
Lake Maxinkuckee. The nacre of the.se three individuals is very dark purple.
Similar shells to these probably iiave led to the reference of Unio complanatvs
Solander to the western fauna.

Vnin irl< Lea. Two characteristic si^ecimens from Turkey Creek. Like its
near relative— which Is probably also a synonym — Vnio noiieboraci Lea, this shell
occurs most commonly and abundantly in creeks and otiier small streams. It
most aflfects soft muddy bottoms in rather still waters.

Unio luteolus Lamarck. Ten specimens from Syracuse Lake; seven specitnens
from Turkey Creek.

This species is the most widely distributed shell of the family. It occurs
in every stream, lake and pond In Indiana in which shell life of any sort occurs
at all. It is also the most abundant Unio, and, correlated with abundance and
wide distribution, is a range of variations that are of the greatest import in evo-
lutionary processes. All the shells submitted, particularly those from Syracuse
Lake, are well covered, posteriorly, with carbonate of lime in heavy masses.
The lake specimens also have beautifully marked green rays widely separated
over a polished disk, thus constituting them the form to which Anthony gave the
name of Unio diMans. The epidermis usually has the peculiar coloration of
forms which live in muddy bottoms, though in the lake specimens the epidermis
is, for some hidden chemical reason, quite red posteriorly. This peculiar color-
ation has often been noticed in shells submitted to us from the lake region of
Northern Indiana.

Unio Occident! Lea. Nine characteristic specimens from Turkey Creek. None
present features diflferent from shells found elsewhere in the State.

Unio prenHVJi Lea. One specimen from Turkey Creek.

249

A great many shells of this species have been seen from time to time from
various places in Indiana. Very many of tiiem, as this one well does, pre-
sent a peculiar diseased or pathologic condition of the cardinal teeth not alto-
gether unlike the condition exhibited by the interior surface of Margaritana cal-
ceolu. In this instance the cardinal teeth are nearly destroyed and are represented
by distorted and imperfect vestiges. It would be interesting indeed if the Station,
during the next season, could investigate this phenomenon as a study in the-
physiology of Unio, a field yet uncultiva'ed.

Unio rubif/inosus Lea. Two specimens from Turkey Creek, one of which is
pathologic

These shells are intermediate between T^iiio trifjoiius Lea and typical Unio
ruhiginoms Lea. They are somewhat more trigonal than the latter shells are com-
monly found, and, on the other hand, are less heavy and trigonal than the ponder-
ous river form. The whole group is sadly confused and needs painstaking revision..

CORBICCLAD.E.

Sphcerium rhomboideum Prime. A single specimen only was taken, from Turkey
Lake, in muddy bottom and in comparatively deep water. The specimen is very
much thinner than usual.

Sphcrium solidulum Prime. Ten specimens from Turkey Lake. These are
all smaller than common and quite heavy; they came from the beach at Vawter
Park.

FRESH-AVATER UNIVALVES.

Amnicola porata Say. Eight specimens of this small univalve were obtained
in Tippecanoe Lake. Neither it nor others of the univalves found present any
characters different from shells found in streams throughout the State.

Campeloma decisum Say. Five dead specimens from Turkey Lake.

Campeloma integrum Dekay. One dead specimen from Turkey Creek.

Campeloma riifum Haldeman. About twenty specimens from Tippecanoe
Lake; thirteen, one of which was reversed or sinistral, from Turkey Creek.

There is no difficulty in recognizing these several forms, though tyros an-
nually make the discovery that there are no valid species but one. Campeloma
ruftim differs from both the others constantly by the outlines of the whorls, the
shape and color of the aperture, the pink character of the apical whorls, a feature
which is best illustrated in the very young and which is a constant character, and
in the polished epidermis, which presents a character seen in no other member of
the genus. Reversed forms are not uncommon, but yet may be justly considered

250

rare. The type of the genus is a reversed specimen of Campeloma ponderosum from
the Ohio Kiver, taken by Kafine8(iue near Louisville, Ky.

riiniorbclla ramp(iniil<it(( Say. Very abundant in all parts of Tippecanoe Lake.

HelisDwa tniiilvif Say. Two specimens from Turkey Lake; three specimens
from Turkey Creek. The form submitted from Turkey Creek is a very large one,
and is rather heavy in texture. The species must be very abundant in favorable
localitie.s.

Limnoplii/m humilis Say. Five specimens of this small limnjeid were obtained
along the shores of Turkey Lake.

Lim>i(tp/n/sa caperatu Miiller. A single specimen of this common form only
was secured. It came from Turkey Lake.

Physa anril'arid Say. Four specimens taken alive, entirely white, from
Turkey Lake. This shell is usually honey yellow in coloration, but these speci-
mens were a snow white.

Physa 7///(H« Say. Only two specimens of the "tadpole" physa appear in
the collections, and these came from Tii)pecanoe Lake. It is one of the most
widely distributed and most abundant of the Limna?ida\

Goniobnsi.'t pulchdla Anthony. Nine specimens from Turkey Lake; very
abundant in Tippecanoe Lake, from which many dead specimens were submitted.
This form is widely distributed throughout Indiana. Sometimes associated with it
is Goniolxmii lire-^cens Menke, a form decidedly characteristic of the lake drainage.

Pleurocera sHbulare Lea. Very abundant in Lake Tippecanoe, from which
many dead examples Avere seen.

Ytilvdtd tricarinata Say. A single sj^ecimen from Tippecanoe Lake.

LAND MOLU'^CA.

Lihiax aimpetilria Binney. Four sj)ecimens of tiiis widely distributed form
"were obtained from Vawter Park.

Succined ohli'jito Say. This species is represented by ten alcoholic specimens.
All taken at Vawter Park.

Zonitea arboreits Say. Three alcoholic specimens from Vawter Park.

None of the univalves present features worthy of special mention. The
whole collection is rather the result of incidental work than of careful collecting,
and is to be taken as somewhat indicative of tiic wealth of molluscan life in
favored localities in Indiana. It is submitted as a local contribution, in the form
of a special report, that may iielp to a general knowledge of Indiana mollusks.
Cincinnati, Ohio, Novembers, 1895.

251

The Odonata. By D. S. Kellicott.

I received for identification last fall two small collections of Dragonflies from
Professor Eigenmann. They have been studied and compared with a determined
collection; the following species were included:

1. Caloperyx maculata Beauv. It occurs throughout the Eastern United
States and is usually abundant wherever it is found, preferring shady streams or
rivulets of spring water.

2. Hekeriiia americana F&hr. Several examples of both sexes. This species
extends over a wide eastern range and is represented in the Gulf States by a well
marked form known in the lists as H. basalii^, and on the Pacific Slope by another,
H. Calif orntca. Flies late, often until the middle of October, in Ohio. The
scarlet patches at the base of the wings of the male make it a beautiful and con-
spicuous insect.

3. Enallagma kugeni Walsh. This appears to be a rare species, but has
now appeared in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio.

4. Enallagma signatum Hagen. Extends from the Gulf to Maine.

5. yEschna clepsydra Say. Two males and one female (?) were sent. All the
leschnas fly late in the season. The three species constrida, clepsydra and reriicallis
resemble one another so closely that they are often regarded as one species ; the
females can not be separated by any one as yet.

6. Anax Junius Drury.

7. Tramea lacerata Hagen.

8. Libellula basalis Say.

9. Libellula jndchella Drury.

10. Plathemis trimacidata DeGeer.

11. Celithemis eponina Ttrwry .

12. Diplax t^icina Hagen. This is doubtless the last odonat on the wing in
our latitude. In central Ohio it has been taken pairing and ovipositing as late a&
November 8.

13. Mesothemis simplicoUis Say.
1-1. Fachydiplax longipennin Burm.

I am surprised at the absence of all Gomphines and that so few Agrionines
are present. Collecting in the early summer would doubtless disclose several
species of both groups.

252

Fishes. By C. II. Ek.knmann.

Fishes were collected in much larger numbers than any of the other verte-
brates. They will form the subject of our most extented study of variation. I
present here simply a few dates on the spawning time and the distribution of the
various species in the localities examined. Half of these localities are on the St.
Lawrence side of the divide; the other half on the Mississippi side. To show the
relation qf the fauna to that of the State I present a complete list of Indiana
fishes.

SPAWNING SEASONS.

Most of the tishes spawn in the spring before the Station opened. This was
true of all tn&>|afger species except a few stragglers of Lepomis jmIUcIus.

yotiirm il'ini.-<. This species is common under Ijoards and logs in Turkey
Creek, at Syracuse. Eggs were found in all stages of development the latter half
of June. They are laid in little depressions in the gravel under boards, and are
apparently watched by the adult. The eggs adhere to each other in masses large
enough to fill the hollow of the hand. The eggs are very flabby, the membrane
being not tense, as usual in fish eggs. After hatching the young remain together
in the nest, and if they are uncovered by raising the board they quickly scatter to
hide under another object or under the board again if this has been turned over.
The blastoderm forms a narrow nodule well separated from the yolk by a deep
constriction.

Pimeph(de-< notalm. The eggs of this species are laid on the under surface of
various objects submerged in the margin of the lake to a depth of one or two feet.
The fish is usually found with the nest, and the immediate neighborhood of the
nest is kept clean of weeds and mud. The eggs were found during the whole of
June and the greater part of July. The young swim near the surface and are
very abundant the latter half of June.

Fnndubi.< diaphanns menona. On June 24 eggs of this species were dragged
up by the seine from the grass of the bottom. They are bound together by fila-
ments.

Zyyonecte.s notatuH. Many taken on June 27 in Turkey Creek were with ripe
eggs.

Etheostoma caprodes. This species was spawning on May 30, a single ripe
female was taken al)out June 25.

253

^1

St. Lawrence
Basin.

Mississippi
Basin.

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■ Webster Lake (Below Dam).

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Ammoccetes branchialis L. Brook Lamprey

Ichthyomi/son concolor Kirkland .■"*.

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' rolyodiin spatlntla Walbaum. Spoon-bill Cat ^.

Scupliirhijnchnu platyrhi/nchus Kaf. Shovel-nosed

Sturgeon

. . ip

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Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur. Lake Sturgeon.
^Jbepisosteus oi^seiis L. Common (Jar Pike

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Lepisostem pl<Ui/>-to)nus Rafinesque. Short-nosed
Gar-pike

Lejji.-itiKtcKS trUtfPchus Bloch and Schneider. Al-
ligator (iar

^,<Amia adva L. Bow-fin, Mud-fish, Dog-fish

Iclalurus furcatus Le Sueur. Chuckle-headed
Cat

t

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Ictcdurus puncMus Rafinesque. Channel Cat . . .

Ameiunix lucu.ilri.-' Walbaum. Great Cat-fish . . .
^ Ameiuni.^ nataliii Le Sueur. Yellow Cat .^<<r. .
^^^meiunts nehulosus Le Sueur. Common Bull-
head TTorned Pout

t

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AmeiuTits mekii' Rafinesque

Leptop.'i olimris Rafinesque. Mud Cat

^otiii'itx fiai'u-i Rafinesque -i

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SchUheodes e2;iZis Nelson .

SfhUhfiides miurus Jordan

Srhilhpodefi eleuther)(!< Jordan .

. iSchildeodes gyrinus Mitchill

Schilhcodeii uocturnn.f Jordan and Gilbert

Ictiobm ci/prinetla Cuv. and Val. Common
Buffalo Fish . 'Z

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Ictiobuii uruti Agassiz. Razor-backed Buffalo..

Ictiohus bubalus Rafinesque. Sucker-moutlied

Buffalo

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Cnrpiodes curpio Rafinesque

Cui'Dwde!^ difforniix Cone . . .

Carpiodes velifer Rafinesque. (juill-back

Cychptus elrnu/alus Le Sueur. Black Horse

Ccdostotitua catofitomu't Foster. Northern Sucker . .
Ca(0'<to>nus commersoni La<^pede. Common Sucker,

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,CutoMo)nu.^ ntfjricajis Le Sueur. Hog Sucker ....
—^Erimi/zoii snceti<Ar>hl 0111,11^ ^litchill. Ch

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■Minytrenw .'(ie/«/*o/MKalines(iue. Striped Sucker .

MuKistomu (ini.-iuruin Rafines(]ue. White-nose

Sucker

.:.

Morostoina anreolum Le Sueur

^loxoMmiHt hreviceps Cope

,'

Placoph(tn/ii.r duquesnii Le Sueur

!

Laiidchila lacera Jordan and Brayton. Hare-lip
Sucker

Compostom(( anomaliim Rahnesqun. Stone Roller .

Chrosomus enjthrogaster I\afines(iue. Red-bellied

Minnow

t

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Hi/hof/n<ithni< nitch(tlis A<j;assiz

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Pimephdies promela^ Rafinesque

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_i , Pirnephfilfft nofatfis Rafinpsipip

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' Cliola vi(/ilax Baird and Girard. Bull-head
Minnow

2^o(ropi-^ <ino(/en>is Forljes .

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2^otropi-^ hifremtluf, Cope

: ^oti'opis heterodon Cope

NoUopis microi^tomiis Rafines(jue

NotropiK cuyuyo ^[eek

j^oti'opi< buopi^ fTilbert

'

-Not'oph //M<i.sow/'^s Clinton. Spawn-eater

Notropis uliipplei Girard. Silver-Fin

_J Notropu meyalops Rafinescjue. Common Shiner .

^o/;'OD(.s leiiiniis Porbes

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^otroDis (trioYiiY/itm ('one . . .

Esotropia Ki'dena Cope. Red-fin

2^o(i'orjis ntherinoides Rafinesuue

Notropis (trae Cope

Nolrovis dilectiiM Girard

hiolropix riihi'ifroni' Cope

Pi'icymbu hucratci Cope

Phinichtln/s 'itronnsw^ Mitchill

_

HiihonniA di.'i.-drailiii Kirtland .

HubonsiH amblon?, Rafinesoue .

UhbopHi" sl<>rerifinu--i Kirtland

255

St. Lawrence

Bi.SIN.

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Basin.

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Webster Lake (Below Dam).

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HybojKls imkiuga Jordan and Evermann

Hybopsis ke^luo^ennis Rafinesque.^' Horny Head,
River Chub, Jerker. . tt. tt'.'.T'.

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Hybopsis hyostom Gilbert

■Semotilus alromnculatus Mitchill. Horned Dace,
Creek Chub . . "^rT^

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Phoxinua elongafuK Kirtland

Opsopreodus emiliir Hay

NoteniHjonHS chrysoleucus Mitchill "^

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Hiodon alosoid'^ Rafinescjue

Hiodon lenjiifus Le Sueur. Moon-eve

Clupfd chnjsochloris Rafinesque. Skip-jack

Dorosoma repedianinn I.e Sueur. Gizzard Shad . .
Coregonus (luadrilateralis Richardson

Coregonus elnpeiformis Mitchill

Coregonus labr^oricus Richardson

Coregonus hoyi fiill

Coregonus urtedi Le Sueur

Coregonus artedi sisco .rordaii

t

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ScUvelimis namaycush Walbauni. Trout

Percopsis guttatus Agassiz. Trout Perch

Amblyopsis speUruA De Kav. Blind Fish

Typldichthys subterraneu.^ iy\vs.Y(\

Fundulus diaphamis menoiia Jordan and Cope-
land

t

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Zygonedcs notatus Rafinesque. TopMinnow ....
Zvaonectex disDur Atrassiz v'. . .

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Gambusia patruelis Baird and Girard. Top Min-
now

1

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Umbra limi Kirtland. Mud-minnow, Dog-fishv/
Lucius vermicidatiis Le Sueur. - Little Pickerel \/f

Lucius lucius L. Pike, Northern Pickerel

Luciui< mascjiiinongy Mitchill. Muskallunge ....

AnguiUa unguilla rostrata Le Sueur. Eel

Pygosteus pungitius L. Nine-spined Stickle-
back

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Encalia inconstans Kirtland. Brook Stickleback. .
Lnbidesthes siccnlus Cope. Brook Silverside

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Aphrcdoderus suyonus GWUams. Pirate Percli ...

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256

St.

[jAWRENCE

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Ccntrdrchns macroptcrus Lac^pede

Pomoxis itparoides I^acepede. Calico Bass

J*omoxis <mnnlari.< Ratinesqne. Crappie

"■^ Amhbtplltes rupesti-is Rafinesque. Rock Bass,

Red Eye

,,^Ch<i nob.-yttiis c/ulosns Q'lw. and Val. War Mouth .

— Lep'>iiii.< cynnellnf Rafincsc^ue. Green Sunfish . . .

Lepiimis macrochiri(s Rafinescjue

Lepomis humilis Girard , .

— Lepomis pallidiis Mitehill. Blue S«4ifl«h .'..;...

Lipninis mt'f/alotis Ratinesqne

Lepomis garmani Forbes

Lepomis euryonis McKay

Lepomis heros B. and G. McKay

Lepomis notafus Agass. McKay

— Lepomis (jibbosiis L. Common Sunfish

— Mirropterus dolomieu Lacepede. Small-mouthed

Black Bass

Mic.ropterus salvioides I^ac^pede. Large-mouthed

— Black Bass

Etheostoma pelbieidnm Baird. Sand Darter

Etheostoma asprellus .Jordan

~~~ Etheostoma niyriim Ratinesqne. " .Tohnny "

Etheostoma chlnrosoma I lav

Ethostomo hleanioides Rafinesque. ( !reen-sided

Darter

Etheostoma coplandi .Jordan

Etheostoma histrio .Jordan and Gilbert

Etheostoma shnmardi (iirard

Etheostonui nranidea .Jordan and Gilbert

^Etheostoma caprodes Rafinestjue. Log Perch,

Hog-fish

Etheostoma maeroeephalum Cope

Etheostoma ouaehita' .Jordan and Gilbert

— r Etheostoma asjiro Cope and .Jordan

Etheostoma phojocephalum Nelson

Etheostoma scierum Swain

Etheostoma erides .Jordan and Copeland

Etheostoma variatirm KirtJand

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257

St. Lawrknce
Basim.

Mississippi
Basin.

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Kt/iPdxtnmn intrfp Jordan and Meek.', r

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IJ(hej>Mi)ma acndeum Storer. Rainbow Darter."!'.

Etheostoina arrultum itpertahilc Agassiz

Etheostoma jemid' Jordan and Bray ton

VlJiPfi^iiitrifi t'tKJffii'iitp (Tirard . ...

Eflicostoiiia eo.< Jordan and Copeland

EtheoMoma micropercd Jordan and Gilbert. ....
Perm ifnve<(reiit Mitfhill Yellow Perch *r

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Stisostedion vitreum Mitchill. Wall-eye

SHzostedion canadense C. H. Smith. Sanger,
Sand Pike

Rorcu)^ lineatH.'' Bloch. Striped Bass • ■ • • -^

Eoccus chrysops Rafinesque. White Bass

Momne interrupta Gill. Yellow Bass

Aplodinotm (p-unnien.^ Rafinesque. Fresh Water

t

Coitus bairdi Girard. Miller's Thumb

..

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Lnta lota maeulosa Le Sueur. Burbot

(17)

258

Batrachia. By Curtis Atkinson.

Siren la^rrliiKi Linnaeus. A single specimen of this species was taken in the
seine in the channel. Mr. Dolan secured another late in September, and after-
wards, through his students, secured a nest of eleven, which were uncovered while
cleaning a lot near Syracuse. These had evidently gone into winter quarters.
Five of them are still alive. Turkey Lake is the most northern locality so far
recorded for the siren.

yecturu>t maciilatus Kafinesque. Three specimens of this species were secured.
It is said to be abundant, but no other specimens were noted. On June 28, a
number of eggs were found fastened to the bower surface of a board, which was
well imbedded in the mud of the bank of Turkey Creek. The young were al-
ready quite active in the loose. Habby bags forming their covering.

Amblystoma jeffersoniamnti Green? A single specimen under a log near the
lake.

Bii/o lentigi)Wi<ii.-< Shaw. The ubicjuitous toad was present, but not in great
numbers at Syracuse, Turkey and Tippecanoe lakes.

Acri.< f/r>/lli(!< crepitani< Baird. Abundant along the shallow margins of the
lake among rushes and lillypads. Detailed localities where it was taken are
outlet of String Lakes. Turkey Lake, Syracuse Lake, Turkey Creek, Webster and
Tippecanoe Lakes and Tijipecanoe River.

RaiKi rirescenif Kalm. ^'ery abundant and variable. I am not at all certain
that the varieties described by Cope and Hay are to be found among our material,
but it seems <|uite certain that there is no correlation in the variations of diflferent
parts of the body. If varieties are to be distinguished it must be by separating
them on single characters.

I have made measurements of a number of characters to determine whether
the 120 specimens collected could be grouped according to any of these.

The relation of the tibia in the length of the body gave the length of the
tibia .55 that of the body as the most common relation between the parts.

P'rom this there is a gradual reduction to a length of .49 on the one hand and
an increase to .70 on the other. But .20 of the specimens had the tibia with the
most common length. This character is then perfectly useless in separating
varieties in my specimens.

The same may be said of the length of the head in the length of the body,
.33 is the relation occurring oftenest and from this there is a variation to .20 on
one hand and .27 on the other; .20 of all the specimens have the length of the head
.33 of the length of the body.

25!)

The relation of the fifth toe to the length of the third toe gave a very jagged
curve with the length of the fifth toe .95 of the length of the third as the condi-
tion occurring in .20 of the specimens. From this a very irregular curve extends
to .89 on one side and to 1.00 on the other.

The relation of the diameter of the tympanum to the diameter of the eye
gave the most irregular curve. Thirty-five per cent, of all the specimens had a
tympanum with a diameter equal to .60 of that of the eye. From this we have
a saw-toothed curve to .48 on one side and .70 on the other. A comparatively
large per cent. — 15 per cent. — have a relation of .50. Attempts to get system
out of this curve by breaking it up into age curves did not succeed entirely. But
these separate curves for the different ages show that in the young the tympanum
is comparatively small, and that the peak noted at the .50 mark is due to the
young included in the general curve.

Tlie whole study emphasized the fact that there is little or no coiirdination in
the variation in this frog. Xo two characters, in fact, seem to vary together and
all the specimens may be referred to but one variety.

I have in the following grouping, in the shape of the conventional key, sep-
arated the specimens according to their color patterns. All but one or two of
the combination of patterns contains individuals which have the vomerine patches
of teeth forming a straight line, and others with these patches inclined to each
other at a more or less distinct angle. They clearly show that there is no coordi-
nation in the different parts of the color pattern. Each region varies apparently
independently of the others.

KEY TO THE COLOR PATTERNS.

a. A spot on the nose.

b. Two complete series of spots on the back.
c. Two cross bars on the femur.

(I. Tibia with a mixture of spots and bars. 5 specimens.
bh. Two complete series of spots on the back, with a third broken series
between.
. e. Two cross bars on the femur.

/. Tibia, with a mi.xture of spots and bars. 16 specimens.
/. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the
posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 1 specimen.
ee. Three cross bars on the femur.

(/. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars.
h. Spots on back, many and small. 21 specimens.
hh. Spots on back, few and large. 13 specimens.

260

gi). Tibia, witii a row of spots on the anterior and another on the
posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 9 specimens,
fee. Four or five cross bars on femur.

/. Tibia, witli a mixture of spots and bars. 16 specimens.
('/. Tibia, witli a row of spots on the anterior and another on the
posterior edsj^e, upper surface unspotted. 2 specimens.
aa. No spot on tiie nose.

./. Two series of spots on tlie back.

k. Two cross bars on femur. Tibia, with a mixture of

spots and bars. 4 sj)ecimens.
A/-. Tiiree cross bars on tlie femur. Tibia, with a mixture

of spots and bars. 4 specimens.
f:f:k. Irregular number of cross bars on femur, always more
than three.
/. Til)ia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 2 specimens.
//. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and pos-
terior edge, upper surface unspotted. 2 speci-
mens.
/'/• Two complete series of s})ots on the back, with a third
broken series between them.
m. Two cross bars on the femur. Tibia, with a mix-
ture of spots and bars. 4 specimens.
mm. Three cross bars on the femur.

;/. Tibia, witli a mixture of spots and bars. 11

S])ecinieus.
nn. Til)ia, with a row of spots on the anterior and
another on the posterior edge, upper surface
unspotted. 4 specimens.
mrnm. Four or five cross bars on the femur.

I). Tibia, witii a mixture of spots and bars. 1

specimen.
no. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterigr and
another on the posterior edge, upper sur-
face unspotted. 4 specimens.
String Lakes, Upper and Lower Turkey Creeks, Turkey, Webster and Tippe-
canoe Lakes.

Rana pabMrk LeConte. One at the String Lakes, one at Turkey Lake, five
at Tippecanoe Lake.

261

Rana syhatica LeConte. A single specimen at Turkey Lake.

Rana clamata Daudin. Abundant at Upijer and Lower Turkey Creek, Turkey
and Tippecanoe Lakes.

Rana catenbiana Shaw. Abundant among lily pads, especially in parts of the
lake not frequently visited, Turkey and Tippecanoe Lakes.

Snakes of Turkey Lake. By G. Reddick.

The number of specimens of snakes taken amount to about 225. They belong
to five genera and eight species.

Baacanixm constrictor Linn, is common around Turkey Lake and is the largest
of the snakes found here. This snake is of course no part of the lake fauna. This
snake was also taken at Lake Tippecanoe.

Evtainia sirfalis Linn, is very abundant along the margin of the lake, feed-
ing on frogs and fish. One specimen was secured with a cat-fish spine sticking
through the body wall of the snake.

Young taken from this snake July 17 averaged a slight fraction over seven
inches in length and were almost grown, only a very small amount of the yolk
being left. These young as soon as they were liberated would try to crawl away,
and upon provocation and some without provocation would open their little mouths
and Hatten their heads and strike as viciously as old snakes.

As high as seventy-two young were taken from one snake, and often from
thirty to forty. The average appearing to be between thirty and forty. This
snake was also secured from Tippecanoe Lake.

Eutainia saurita Linn, is not nearly so abundant nor is it nearly so prolific.
Eggs were taken from only three or four specimens, six being the highest number
taken from any one. Specimens of this snake were also taken from the margins
of Lake Tippecanoe.

Eutainia butlerii Cope. Only one specimen of this was taken. It was four-
teen and one-half inches long. This snake is short and chubby and its movement
is very characteristic of it. It does not have the gliding movement of E. saurita
nor the swift but yet very active movement of N. dpedon, but seems rather to
exert a large amount of force to do little crawling. The movement is so charac-
teristic that I believe any one, having once seen the peculiar way in which it tries
to hurry itself away, would ever after be able to recognize it at a distance. No
specimen was taken from Lake Tippecanoe.

262

Natrix Icberia Linn, is rare in Turkey Laice, but common in Lake Tippeca-
noe. Twelve is the highest number of embryos taken from any one specimen.

Embryos taken August 5 contained a considerable amount of yolk; probably
enough to nourish the embryo for a month or more.

Xatrir .vpedon Linn, is the most abundant of snakes found in this region,
but not the most prolific, E. sirtalii^ standing ahead of it. Thirty-four was the
highest number of eggs taken from any one specimen. One snake which was
kepf in confinement gave birth to fourteen young the third week of September.

Among the bullrushes is a favorite abode for this snake, and also under any-
thing whatever that happens to be lying along the margin of the lake, especially
if it happens to be lying partly in the water.

Sistrurus catinaius Eaf. This snake is very common around Turkey Lake
and also around Lake Tippecanoe. Several specimens were secured and others
killed. It lives chiefly in the swamps.

A specimen taken August 6 contained five eggs and the embryos were seven
inches long.

Sloicria dekatji Holb. Only one specimen of this was secured. It was
taken along a highway running by the side of a swamp.

Testudinata. By C. H. Eigenmann.

Turtles are at all times and everywhere abundant. They frequent especially
the shallower portions of the lake. Many specimens of all ages were preserved.
The number of variations in the shields is large. I present here simply a list with
notes on their abundance and breeding habits.

Chdijdra sa-prntina Linnaeus. This species is abundant in Turkey Lake, and
reaches a larger size than any of the others. It is caught for the markets. It is
much shyer than the other species of turtles and is not frequently seen. It inhabits
the shallower muddy parts of the lake, being abundant in the kettle and about
Morrison's Island. No eggs were found.

Trionyj: spiniferns L,eSneur. The soft-shelled turtle is very abundant. It is
the second in size and is caught for the markets. Its round eggs are laid in the
sand and gravel near the water's edge during June and July. On June 26 one
was seen digging a nest in the gravel banks at Syracuse, and on the 27th we
obtained eggs from five nests about Ogden Point and other places about the kettle.
Other fresh nests were found July 9. The time of hatching was not determined.

263

Several empty nests were found in July, but some eggs, examined as late as Sep-
tember 1, contained young which would have been ready to hatch about a month
later. The number of eggs found in several nests was as follows: 9; 12: 17; 18;
27; 32.

Aromochelys odoruta Bosc. This species is abundant, but not conspicuous.
Individuals were oftenest seen the latter part of June and first part of July while
laying their eggs. The eggs are laid in the rotten wood in the tops of stumps
standing in the margin of the lake. The turtles were frequently found in the
tops of these stumps, and some of their eggs wedged as far into tiie rotten wood
as a finger could bore. Rotten logs removed some distance from the water are
also favorable places for egg laying, and in a mucky place of small area at the
edge of the lake 362 eggs were taken at one time. The number of eggs laid by
one individual varies from 4 to 7, this nnmber being usually in a cluster. At this
rate about sixty turtles must have contributed to the nest of 362. AVhile passing
along a wheat field some turtles were seen coming from it, and on inspection it
was found that they had deposited their eggs in the ground in depressions made
by a cow while walking over the ground when it was soft. Still other eggs were
found in bundles of rushes drifted together. An interesting change of habit
seems to have taken place among these turtles during the last fifty years. Before
that time the number of stumps standing in the margin of the lake must have
been exceedingly small. The present large number is due to the rising of the
lake after the building of the dam and the subsequent cutting down of the trees
whose boles had become submerged. The habit of laying eggs in stumps can not
be of much more than fifty years' duration.

The time of laying must be scattered over considerable time, for many eggs
were found hatched in August, while some obtained about then hatched at
various times from September 15 to November 1. These were, however, kept in
a box in a room and therefore removed from normal conditions. The age of this,
as of all other hard-shelled turtles, can be estimated by the lines of growth on
the horny^uticle. The originally exposed part of tiie plate occupies the medio-
cephalic corner of the plate and additions occur as smooth strips along the outer
and posterior margins. The strips are quite distinct in early years, but become
more or less obscure with age.

Chrynenij/x marc/inata Agassiz. This a])pears to be the most abundant turtle of
the lake. How far its apparent abundance may be due to its habits I am unable to
say. It is found floating or quietly paddling along, its head out of the water, but
on nearer approach it always turns tail and seeks refuge in tlie abundant chara
fields or in other hiding places. The chara fields are traversed liy narrow paths

264

ami tunnels made by this turtle. The eggs are laid later in the summer and
farther from the water than those of the other species. Many were leaving the
water in late August; the eggs were found but once.

Malademmys geof/raphica LeSueur. Xext to Chrysemys the most abundant of
the turtles. It goes by the appropriate name of Housetop.

Etny.-f blandini/ii Ilolbrook. Found in moderate numbers in the lake and
along the banks of Turkey Creek.

Clemiiiy.-< guttata Schneider. But two specimens were seen.

Cistudo Carolina Linnanis. (^ne specimen of this species was taken. It, how-
ever, in no sense forms a part of the fauna of the lake.

Water Birds of Turkey Lake. By F. ]\I. Chamberlain.

The following birds were taken between .July 1 and September 1, on or near
Turkey Lake. Only those of more or less aquatic habits are listed :
L ILjdrochdidon nigra L.

2. Bolaitrn.t lentiginostts Montaga.

3. Botaurus erilis Gmelin.

4. Ardea virescens L.

5. Italhis etegans Audubon.

6. R(dlus virgini(ini(s L.

7. GaUinida gateata Lichtenstein.

8. Fidica americana Gmelin.
y. Acliiis macnlaria L.

10. Aegilites vocifera L.

1 1 . Cerylc al(y(/n L.

12. Agelaiui^ phoenicus \^.

13. Clivicola riparia L. ^

14. Cisfothfiru.-< palusfris Wilson.

265

PART III— VARIATION.

The Study of Variation.* By C. H. Eigenmann.

Variation and Its Importance. No two individuals are exactly alike. The
differences of whatever sort, whether in structure or habit, between the individ-
uals of a species, whether these individuals are related to each other as parent
and child, or belong to the same brood, are termed variation.

The whole basis of the Darwinian idea of evolution is this individual vari-
ation. At present we have two estimates of the importance of individual vari-
ation.

I. The individual variations are of the utmost importance, and all species
are the result of natural selection working on the varying individuals of any
species.

II. Individual " variation offers us little hope of learning the real facts of
evolution," "species are not the result of the selection of a few favorable vari-
ations out of a large number of haphazard changes," but to "the orderly ad-
vance (of the mean specific form) towards the final goal, deviating very little
from the direct line."1

We subscribe to neither of these views, wishing to view the facts as they are
presented by the conditions of the environment at Turkey Lake and the lakes in
the neighborhood, in a perfectly impartial way.

The causes of variation are still unknown, though several explanations have
been attempted. This is not surprising since the variations in no species are
sufficiently known to formulate any satisfactory explanation, in fact little has
been attempted but to determine the extent of variation in comparatively few
cases where the variation is great, resulting in the naming ot new varieties and in
the recording of abnormalities. The statistical method of studying vari.-ition is of
the most recent date, but much promises to be done with this method.

DlSTRiBUTiox OF VARIATIONS. Variations are to be found at all times and
at all places where organisms exist. They are found under conditions where the
environment is in a state of stability. The conditions under which the greatest
variability is found tin fishes) are:

1. Wide distribution. .\ large territory is, usually, though not necessarily,
inhabited by more or less stable varieties.

■'Contributions from the Zo ilogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, Xo. 17.

tThis wording is from Scott, but since the paragraphs are selected from isolated parts
of his paper, I do not wish to -convey the idea that they state his views as he would like to
have them stated. The paragraphs state an extreme view.

266

2. iTi-eat physical and climatic differences, even in comparatively narrow
limits. No more striking illustration can be imagined than is offered by the
streams of the Pacific slope of North America, which are inhabited by extraord-
inarv variable species, without stable varieties

3. Amphimyxis has been suggested by Ayres as a condition favoring the
display of great variation.

These are simply statements under whicii variation seems to find its optimum
condition and do not approach any explanation of its causes.

CLA>iSlFiCATiON? OF VARIATIONS. — Students of variation have found it ad-
vantageous to analyze the phenomena, and the result of this analysis has given us
the following classifications:

Continuous variation, including all gradual modifications and transitions.

Discontinuous variation ; any sudden and wide modifications or saltations.

Using other features as the basis of classification, we have :

Meristic variations dealing with the change in the number of successive parts.

Substuntative dealing witli the chemical modifications of parts.

Another classification gives us:

Indeterminate, or fortuitous and aimless variation. This is largely individual
and pertains to series of variations either geographically or geologically.

iJi'tcrminate and adaptive, leading to definite end.

The most essential and at the same time the most difficult to define is the
distinction between —

Ontogenetic variation including all those deviations appearing at any time,
from any cause, during the life cycle of an individual;

Plii/lo(jenetic variations change from the specific characters appearing at some
time in the life cycle of an individual, or better still, a large number of indi-
viduals, reappearing in the next generation, finally becoming hereditarily fixed.

I have in the following directions omitted the use of the terms ontogenetic
and phylogenetic. Recently (Osborn, 1894 , the distinction between ontogenetic
and phylogenetic variation in the study of evolution has been strenuously insisted
upon as the only possible way of determining the value of any given variation in
the process of ev<dution. However, it is certainly intpossible in many cases to
determine whether a given v:iriation is ontogenetic or phylogenetic as defined by
Osborn. To give a concrete case. The ancon sheep of evolutionary classics was
born with short legs. Were they ontogenetic or phylogenetic? Subsequent events
proved that they were phylogenetic, but certainly the short legs in themselves
enabled no one to make the distinction; the hereditary transmission decided the

267

matter. Sports, therefore, of which the ancon sheep was certainly one, may be
phylogenetic. Scott, however, has recently shown, Am. J. Science, 369, 1894, that
many if not most saltatory variations are of an entirely different nature from the
variations that in the past have given rise to phylogenetic series. In a deviation
much less marked, such for instance as the presence of one more than the normal
number of spines in a fin, this ultimate criterion of transmission might fail us
even were it practicable to put it to the test. A surer way of determining
phylogenetic variation is to measure variation in the bulk by means of curves.
If, say one thou.sand individuals of a definite time and place, show in the aggre-
gate a character different from that normal to the species, it is phylogenetic. Such
variations may occur in successive years or at isolated places. The phylogenetic
character is in such a case really made up of a large number of ontogenetic vari-
ations which must also be capable of reappearing; that is, they must also be
phylogenetic. A better way of stating the problem would seem to me to be that:
All variations are ontogenetic, some are at the same time immediately phylo-
genetic and many if not all may become so— a phyletic series. This leaves open
the question of the conditions under wbicli ontogenetic variation becomes phylo-
genetic and ignores the unchanged germ[)lasm theory which from jjurely embryo-
logical grounds is untenable.

The paragraphs pertaining to this subject in the following direction are: 7.
8, 13, 15, 16.

Nearly synonymous terms with ontogenetic and phylogenetic are the terms
variation and mutation as used by Newmayr, Waagen, and Scott. Variation is
here applied to locally different forms, while mutation is applied to the chronolog-
ical changes or "steady advance (of the mean) along certain definite lines." The
latter term may for our purpose be still further restricted by applying it not only
to the changes of the mean in successive geologic periods, but to the changes in the
mean which may occur in two successive years or broods.

To quote Newmayr, pp. 60-61 (from Scott, p. 372), " Weil ein Theil der Merk-
male gleichmiissig nacli einer Richtung im Laufe der Zeit mutirt, zeigen andere
Oharactere regellose Abiinderungen und jede Mutation entwickelt denselben
Varietiitenkreis." Scott illustrates this process by comparing the mutation to the
progress of a cyclone center and the continual circlet of variations to the circu-
lating winds.

268

DETAILED DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND STUDYING SPECIMENS.

The following directions and explanations have been prepared for the students
at the Biological Station for the study of the variation of the inhabitants of lakes
Turkey and Tippecanoe and the small lakelets in the neighborhood.

!. Collect at random all available specimens, to the number of several hun-
dred, the last week in June, in both Turkey and Tippecanoe lakes, keeping the
exact location where each lot of specimens was collected.

It is necessary to collect at random or the personal element of the collector
may become a disturbing factor in determining the variation. The date, which
is not necessarily fixed for any particular week, has been selected because at this
time many very young specimens, but a few weeks old, can be secured. It is
nece-ssary to collect in both lakes at approximately the same date in order to se-
cure corresponding ages.

2. Collect in the same manner and an ecjual number of specimens in each
lake near the end of .\ugufct.

From this second collection the rate of growth and any elimination taking
place early in life may be determined.

3. Arrange the material of each date according to the size, to determine
whether the broods of successive years can be separated.

If specimens have been collected at random and include all sizes this can
usually be done for the preceding few years. Among the older individuals the
gradation in size is usually too perfect to permit any grouping according to age.

4. Determine the variation in two or more prominent characters in each
brood of specimens, keeping the record and labeling the specimens in such a way
that the specimen for any record can at any time be re-examined. Determine at
the same time the sex.

This is by far the m st laborious and time killing operation, but absolutely
essential to determine anything further. The characters measured in fishes can
always be the number of rays in the dorsal and anal fins, and the number of scales
in the lateral line. Other characters will vary with the species, as one species has
one, another a different ciiaracter that lends itself especially to the study of varia-
tion. In reptiles deviations in the number and characters of plates are available
characters for the study of variation. Of course any character can be taken, but
one in which the variation can be numerically expressed and the number be deter-
mined by a simple count instead of a measurement, is vastly superior, since
nothing can be left to the judgment, and the personal element is therefore much
less important.

269

5. Are there external sexual diflferences, and is the amount and extent of
variation different in the sexes?

This determination can usually be left till later; it is introduced here so as
not to mar the sequence of the following points.

6. Is there a successive modification in going, from younger to older speci-
mens indicating a structural modification with age ?

It may be possible with some species, for instance, that the number of rays
increases directly with the age. Should such a case exist it might give rise to
entirely erroneous notions as to the influence or effect of selective destruction.

7. Is the variation of each year grouped about a mean common to all the
specimens, or is each year's variation grouped about a center of its own?

While the idea of the annual variation or the reaction of each brood to a
slightly varying environment was supposed to be a possible element, and suggested
as such in my first announcement of the station,.! was entirely unprepared for the
startling annual variation in such a prominent character as the number of dorsal
spines which has been discovered by Mr. Moenkhaus and reported upon in another
paper.

The neglect of the consideration of the environment during the early period
of development in modifying successive broods in different ways may lead to en-
tirely erroneous ideas of the structural modifications of growth on the one hand,
or the entirely erroneous ideas of the action of selective destruction on the other.
To determine the latter it is absolutely necessary to take individuals of the same
year's broods at successive periods or successive years. Whether as great an annual
riuctuation is present in crabs as has been observed in Etheostoma I can not pi-e-
sume to say. But the entire neglect of this element vitiates the results of Prof.
W^eldoii, of the committee of the royal society for "Conducting statistical in-
quiries into the measurable characteristics of plants and animals," which Mr.
Thistelton-Dyer (Nature, Mch., 1895/ considers to be "among the most remarkable
achievements in connection with the theory of evolution."

I quote from Prof. Weldon to show his methods and results. (Nature, Mch.
7, 1895, p. 449.) "In order to estimate the effect of small variations upon the
chance of survival, in a given species, it is necessary to measure, Jirst, the perc«nt-
age of young animals exhibiting this variation ; secondly, the percentage of adults
in which it is present. If the percentage of adults exhibiting the variation is
less than the percentage of young, then a certain percentage of young animals has
either lost the character during growth, or has been destroyed. The law of growth
having been ascertained, the rate of destruction may be measured, and in this
way an estimate of the advantage or disadvantage of a variation may he obtained.

270

lu order to estimate the effect of deviations of one organ upon the rest of the body,
it is necessary to measure the average character of the rest of the body in indi-
viduals with vai-ving magnitude of the given oigan."

Conclusions reached by an application of these principles to a study of the
shore crab gave as a result that — a. There is a period of growth during which
the frecjuency of deviations increases, h. That in one case the preliminary in-
crease is followed by a decrease in the frequency of given magnitude, in the other
case it was not. c. Assuming a particular law of growth the observations show
a selective destruction in the one case and not in the other.

8. What is the relation of the annual fluctuation (mutation) in variation to
the annual fluctuation in the different elements of the environments?

!>. What is the difference in the variation of the youngest brood early in the
season and late in the season, and what is the difference in the variation in suc-
ceeding years of the same brood? Is this difTerence, if any exists, due to modi-
fications with age or to selective destruction, /. e., has a larger percentage of
individuals with one characteristic been eliminated than of individuals, with
this characteristic slightly different? In what part of the curve of variation
have the greatest changes been produced ?

10. If certain individuals with definite characters seem to survive, can it
be determined in what way this variation brings about the survival?

11. At what age or stage of growth are variations greatest?

12. Can variations arising with age be referred to habits or environment?
lo. What is the relation of sports or saltatory variations to the continuous

"variation numerically?

By saltatory variations are meant all those variations not connected with the
iuean by intermediate steps.

14. Are saltatory characters always bilateral? If not, to what degree are
they bilateral?

The fact that a saltatory variation is confined to one side or is found on both
sides, may enable us to determine whether the deviation began in the germ before
the appearance of bilaterality or is of later origin.

15. In how far is the repetition of a character due to the repetition of the
environment as shown in the correlation of annual fluctuations in environment
with annual variations? See under 8.

Whitman Biological Lectures, 181)4, p. 4: ''An epidemic of metaphysical
physics seems to be in progress— a sort of neo-epir/eiie.-iis. In i)lace of the ris
essendalvf of the old epigenesis. the new epigenesis sets uj) as its letich the m
impres.-ia. The new god is preferred because it works from the outside instead of

271

the inside. It represents tlie sum of external conditions and influences at the
present moment, and is proclaimed all-sufficient for building up organisms out
of isotropic corpuscles. Previous conditions are not, indeed, quite ignored, for
they have resulted in special molecular constitutions called germs, and these dis-
play molecular activities known as metabolism, growth and division. The long
past can bring forth only a molecular basis; a few hours of the present can sup-
ply all, or nearly all, the determinations of the most complex organism. Im-
potent past; prepotent present. We have no longer any use for the 'Ahnengal-
lerie' of phylogeny. Heredity does not explain itself or anything else, and it
detracts from the omnipotence and universality of molecular epigenetics. We
are no better off for knowing that we have eyes because our ancestors had eyes.
If our eyes resemble theirs it is not on account of geneological connection, but
because the molecular germinal basis is developed under similar conditions.
The reason this basis becomes an eye ratlier than an ear or some other organ is
wholly due to its position and surroundings, not to any inherent predetermina-
tions. If the material for the eye and the ear could be interchanged in tlie
molecular germ, that which in one place would become eye would in the other
place become ear, and vice rerxa."

L6. In what characters does the same species in the neighboring lakes difler,
and in what respects does the variation differ in the difiierent lakes?

17. Are variations in one part of the body correlated with variations in
another part of the body?

In many cases this can only be determined by converting the variations in
part into the terms of the variation of another j)art. The method for doing this
has been suggested by Galton, whose method is discussed at the end of this paper.

18. What correlation is there in tiie variation of different species under the
same environment?

As far as I am aware, no systematic studies of this description have been
made. With us this study resolves itself into the determination of whether the
fishes in Turkey Lake all differ from those in Tippecanoe along definite, deter-
mined ways, so that given the characters of a species for Turkey Lake the charac-
ters for the same species in Tippecanoe could be predicted.

Similar but exotic instances are the absence of ventral fins in some of the
fishes inhabiting even widely separated mountain lakes, and the presence of en-
larged scales along the base of the anal in the Cyprinidfe inhabiting mountain
streams of India; or, to come nearer home, the peculiar color patterns of the
fishes in some regions of upper Georgia.

272

Method of Presenting Results?. Results of statistical inquiries into vari-
ation can best be presented by frequency of error curves, and these will be used
wherever possible. The abscissa will in all cases be made to represent the size of
the organ, the ordinate the percentum of individuals having the particular size.

To convert variations in one organ into the terms of another organ the scheme
of distribution will he used with the fornuila given by Galton for comparing one
such curve with another. The process of comparing any curve "a" with any

Q of "a"
curve "b," multiply each of "a's" height by -- — . , ,,

The (^ of any scheme of distribution is one-half the difierence between any two
grades. The same grades in the two curves to be compared being used to determine
their (^ fnr this purpose, 25 per cent, and 75 per cent, are suggested as most con-
venient by Galton.

Ideally the variations occurring in a single organ expressed by a frequency
of error curve, when a large number of individuals have been examined, will
form a symmetrical curve which is called a "normal." 8uch a curve may always
be expected when the material under consideration is of a single origin and has
developed under the same environment. Unfortunately for non-mathematical
evolutionists, the converse does not seem to be the case, for a symmetric curve
may be made n\) of two symmetric curves with axes not far apart, a fact that can
only be determined mathematically. Says Pearson, ''There will always be the
problem: Is the material homogeneous and a true evolution going on, or is the
material a mixture? To throw the solution on the eye in examining the graph-
ical results is, I feel certain, (juite futile."

It is not hoped that the data can l)e treated with the mathematical refine-
ment suggested by Pearson, nor is it probable that such treatment of our material
will become absolutely necessary, since there can be but little question of the
unity of origin of the material in any given small lake.

Wliile usually, as stated above, the curve resulting from the study of a large
number of specimens will be symmetric, it will freijuently be asymmetric. Sam-
ples of the different sort (>f curves actually observed are given.

Asymmetric curves may be the result,

1. Of the selective influence working on one side of a symmetric curve and
be then found in more or less mature S{)ecimens.

2. Of the reaction to a change in the environment and indicative of a muta-
tion or change in the mean specific form.

3. Of the double origin of the material under consideration, and may then
have a great variety of forms, from slightly asymm-etric curve to one with a broad
top or with many peaks.

273

RECENT LITERATURE ON HEREDITY AND VARIATION.

For the older literature, see Davenport, '95, Keeler, '93, Osborn, '94, and
Thomson, of the following list :

Allen, J. A., '94. On the seasonal change of color in the varying hare,
(Lepu.H americanus.) Bull. Am. Mus. YI, pp. 107-128.

'91a. Cranial variations in Neotoma micropus due to growth and individ-
ual differentiation. Bull. Am. Mus., VI, pp. 233-246. 1 pi.

Andrews, E. A., '94. Some abnormal Annelids. Quart. J. Micros. Sci.,
XXXVII, pp. 435-460. 3 pis.

Bailey, L. H., '94. Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. Am Nat.,
XXVIII.

'96. Variation after birth. Am. Nat. XXX, 17.

Bale, W. Platt, '94. Neuter Insects and Lamarckism. Nat. Sci., IV, pp.

91-97.

Bateson, W., '94. On two cases of color variation in Hat fishes, illus-
trating principles of symmetry. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 246-249. 1 pi.

'95. The origin of cultivated cineria. Nature, vol. 52, 29, 103.

Baur, G, '95. The differentiation of species on the Galapagos Islands and
the origin of the grouj). Biological Lectures, 1.S94. Boston, 1895.

Behla, R., '94. Die Abstammungslehre u. die Errichtung eines Institutes
fiir Transformismus. Kiel and Leipzig, 8vo., VII, 60 pp.

Below, E., '94. Artenbildung. durch Zonenwechsel, Frankfurt, 24 pp.

Brooks, AV. K., '95. An intrinsic error in the theories of Galton and
Weismann. Science, I, 38.

Cope, E. D., '89. The mechanical causes of the development of the hard
parts of the mammalia. Jour. Morjjh., Ill, pp. 137-277.

'89. On inheritance in Evolutiijn. Am. Nat., XXIII.

'92. A synopsis of the species of the genus Cnemidophorus. Trans. Am.

Phil. Soc.

'93. The color variations of the milk snake. Am. Nat., XXVII, p. 1066.

'94. The energy ai evolution. Am. Nat., XXVII, p. 205.

'94a. The origin of structural variations. New Occasions, Vol. II, pp.
273-279.

'96. Primary factors of organic evolution. Open Court Publishing Co.,
Chicago.

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VARIATION OF NORTH AMERICAN FISHES. II.

The Vari.\tion of Etheostoma Caprode? Rafinesque in Turkey Lake
AND Tippecanoe Lake.® By W. .J. Moenkhaus.

Introduction.- — In a former paper on the ''Variation of Etheostoma caprodeg
Rafinesque" (Am. Nat.. Aug., 1804), I determined the geographical distribution
of this fish and the geographical variation of its color-pattern and fins.

It was found that this species inhabits practically all the fresh waters of the
Atlantic slope east of the 100th meridian and west of the Alleghany Mountains.
Its northern and eastern limits are the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain ; its
southwestern, the Rio Grande in the extreme southern part of Texas.

The following conclusions were reached among others :

1. Each river system from which specimens were examined jjossesses a pe-
culiar variety. This peculiarity is most striking in the color-pattern.

2. All the variations are continuous.

■■■Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University under the
direction of C. H. Eigenmann, No. 18.

279

3. The variation in the anal rays and dorsal spines are determinate with the
latitude, the southern specimens having a slightly larger number of rays and
spines.

4. The color-pattern variations are determinate, varying through definite
stages from a simple to more complex pattern.

In Table A and B are given the data on the anal rays and dorsal spines.
The localities are arranged in the order of their latitude from north to south.
From these we see that there is both an increase in the average number of rays
and spines and in the number that pi'evails in each case from north to south. In
the anal fin 10 is the prevailing number north, and 11 and 12 south, of the Ohio
River. Fourteen and fifteen are the prevailing numlier of dorsal spines in the
north and 15, 16 and 17 in the south.

TABLE A.

LOCALITY.

X

^

1

.i 1

S^ M

o

o

aj

-2 b

3J O

(U ^

a,—"

.5

5«

X'_-

^.c

a-

o'S

'~ ■T'

o 2

^ " .

>H - .

iC 5

C/ 00 CO

0) to a,

Ji

^<

_= C >-.

a

3

■Z '-' a

— P -^

Y-<

<

^

'^ 1

W CO

';5 ~

Torch Lake, Mich

Cedar Rapids, Iowa

White River, at Indianapolis

Gosport, Ind :

Bean Blossom, Ind

Rushville, Ind

Wild Cat Creek, Ind

Pike Creek, Ind

Illinois

Nipisink Lake, 111

Monongahela River

Hartford, Ky

Green River, Greensburg, Ky

Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky

Little South Fork Cumberland River, Wayne

County, Ky

Eagle Creek, Olympus, Tenn

Obeys River, Elizabethtown, Tenn

Watauga River, Elizabethtown, Tenn

NoBth Fork Holston River, Saltville, Va

Eureka Springs, Ark

Chocola Creek, Oxford, Ala

San Marcos Springs, Tex

7
1
1
5
17
1
1
2

1
2
1
4
3
4

1
2
13
2
1
1
4
2

lOi
12
10
10

10

11
11

10

10^

10

lOJ

lOf

11

11
11

HA

10*
12"

11

1
1
1

3
1

1
2
4

1
2
5
1

3
2

7

i"
i

:280

TABLE li.

LOCALITY.

a;

C

o

Oi

C

S =«

.£: 0)

4)

.- ^

■o«^

;2;x

L.

*''rt

1>

tClr.

—

s- O

S

>'-'

;z;

-<

to I Oi

X

1 «*

0) CD

X - X ^ X

1:^

-= C

I

2"?

O CD

J3 C

0)

X

D as

5 a

Torch Lake, Midi

Cedar Rapids, Iowa

Wliite River, at Indianapolis

(iosport, Ind

Bean Blossom. Ind

Rushville, Ind

AVild Cat Creek, Ind

Pike Creek, Ind

Illinois

Nijiinsik Lake, 111

Miamngahela River

Hartford, Ky

Oreen River, Greensbnrt;, Ky

Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky

Little South Fork Cnmberland River, Wayne

County, Ky

Ean:le ( reek, < )lyinpus, Tenn

Obeys River, Elizabethtown, Tenn

"Watauga River, Elizabethtown, Tenn

North Fork Holsten River, Saltville, Va . . . .

Eureka Springs, Ark

Cbocola Creek, Oxford, Ala

!^an Marcos Springs. Te.x

(

14i

1

14

1

14

0

14i

17

14/.

1

14

1

15

2

14.1

1

15

2

14.^

1

15

4

15

3

15

4

15

1

16

2

1()^

13

ifi/:,

2

15.^

1

16

1

16

4

ioh

2

rsi

The coloi--pattern varies from a probably primitive, simple pattern consisting
of alternate whole and half cross-bars distributed along the entire length of the
body through the pattern consisting of whole, half and quarter bars, having an
incomjdete longitudinal series of lateral spots to a pattern having a very promi-
nent longitudinal series of dark lateral blotches with fine reticulations on the back.
Between these diflferent patterns all stages exist, so that they can be connected by
regular stejis. Those specimens inhabiting the lakes were found to possess a pecu-
liar color-pattern. This was derived from the primitive, simple pattern by sup-
posing the lower part of the whole bars to have become much broader than the
uj)per part, and then to have shifted backwards slightly.

281

This lake variety {manitou, Jordan) is one of the most abundant of the fishes
in Turkey and Tippecanoe Lakes, and upon it the results given in the following
pages are based.

Six hundred specimens, all that were collected from Turkey Lake, and three
hundred of those collected from Tippecanoe Lake, have been examined with a
view, first, of making a comparison of this species in the two lakes, and second,
of determining the range and character of its variation within Turkey Lake itself.
The number of species collected from Tippecanoe Lake is much greater than 300,
but this number was thought sufficient to give fairly good results. The effect of
natural selection will be taken up at a later time.

Etheostoma caprodes has two dorsal fins, the first, a spinous one, well separated
from the second, which is composed of soft rays. The anal fin is composed of two
rather strong spines followed by a number of soft rays. The scales are very reg-
ularly arranged, so that they can be definitely counted along the complete lateral
lines. The number of spines and rays in these tins, and the number of scales in
the lateral line of both sides of the body have been determined. Besides these
characters the presence or absence of scales on the nape has been determined.
These structures have been taken because, with the exception of the last, they
present definite, countable elements, so that in the results the personal factor is
entirely eliminated.

Curves have been constructed to represent the variation in these structures.
In all the curves the horizontal distances represent tiie countable elements, and
the vertical distances the per cent, of specimens possessing these varying elements.

COMPARISON OF TURKEY LAKE AND TIPPECANOE SPECIMENS.

Coloration. — The coloration of these fishes in the two lakes will be taken up
in detail later. The color-pattern of Turkey Lake specimens is, on the whole, of
a more blotched character than that of Tippecanoe Lake specimens, and shows a
slighter affinity to the simple, primitive coloration characteristic of the Wabash
River forms. The connection of Tippecanoe Lake with the Wabash River may
account for this greater affinity.

SquAMATiON OF Nape. — In Turkey Lake the nape is as a rule naked, while in
Tippecanoe Lake it is usually scaled. Table I will bring out the difference.

282

TABLE 1.

fc. 5 cS

o

a

d
U

a o,«

Per cent, of si)tH'irm'ns liaving no scales on iia])e . . . .
Per cent of sijccinieiis liavin^ few scales on nape. . . .
Per cent, of specimens having several scales on nape
Per cent, of specimens having nape thinly scaled. . .
Per cent, of specimens having nape closely scaled . . .

19.32
23.87
28.32
16.67
11.74

Lateral Line. — The specimens of Turkey Lake have ou an average two more
scales in the lateral line. The average number for Turkey Lake is 89.46 for the
left side, 89.74 for the right side; for Tippecanoe Lake, 87.69 for the left side,
87.45 for the right side. Fig. 1 represents the curves for the scales of the right
side. The continuous line represents the conditions in Turkey Lake, and the
broken line those of Tippecanoe Lake. It should be noticed that the entire curve
for Turkey Lake is two units to the right of that of Tippecanoe Lake, showing
that practically all the Turkey Lake specimens have a greater number of scales.
Table II contains the summarv of the counts for the scales in the lateral line.

20

15

10

1

-r

li

'

1

V

>

I

-

■

!

I

\

1

>

■

1

' 1

l\

-

,

r

1

\

s,

— t—

"i

■-1

/

\

\

— '

•

/

>

\

[~

J~'

"^

— 1

1

■r

■^

— 1

1

(

1

"^

1

1

■ •

'

1-

\

k

-

^ \

'

1

\ ^

-~

■v.

i/

/

\

,

S

y

t" ■

y

—

\

'

N

\

-

/

^

-

„

„

1

vk

L±.

L

.^^

Ll

_

80

85

90

Fig. 1.

95

100

TABLE II.

28a

Turkey Lake.

Tipp'cAKOE Lake

Left
Side.

Eight
Side.

Left
Side.

Eight
Side.

Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having

78 scales. . . .

79 scales ....

0.17

80 scales. . . .

81 scales ....

0.17

0.34
0.34
0.34

0.50
1.00

82 scales....

0.17

2.00

Per cent, of specimens having

83 scales

1.37

1.55

2.50

3.50

Per cent, of specimens having

84 scales. . . .

3.44

1.89

7.00

4.50

Per cent, of specimens having

8.5 scales. . . .

3.78

5.17

8.50

11.50

Per cent, of specimens having

86 scales. . . .

b.88

9.30

11.50

13.00

Per cent, of specimens having

87 scales

11.02

10.»i8

15.00

16.50

Per cent, of specimens having

88 scales

12.56

11.55

15.00

13.50

Per cent, of specimens having

89 scales ....

17.72

14.82

16.0(1

16.00

Per cent, of specimens having

90 scales....

12.39

12.93

11.50

10.50

Per cent, of specimens having

91 scales. . . .

8.08

11.03

7.50

4.00

Per cent, of specimens having

92 scales. . . .

6.53

5.67

1.50

1.50

Per cent, of specimens having

93 scales. . . .

5.16

3.62

1.00

2.50

Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having

94 scales. . . .

95 scales. . . .

3.61
2.58

3.78
3.27

0.50
0.50

0.50

Per cent, of sj)ecimens having

96 scales. . . .

1.37

2.41

0.50

0.50

Percent, of sjjecimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Percent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having
Per cent, of specimens having

97 scales. . . .

98 scales ....

99 scales. . . .
100 scales. . . .

1.03
0.17
0.34

0.51

0.34

101 scales. . . .

102 scales....

103 scales....

0.17
0.17
0.17

0.17

Anal fin. — The number of spines in the anal fin varies from the normal in
only nine specimens from Turkey Lake and in six from Tippecanoe Lake. This
variation is always toward a lower number, and extends only through one spine.

Turkey Lake specimens have on an average fewer rays in the anal than
Tippecanoe Lake specimens. The averages are 10.87 for the former, 11.15 for the^
latter. Fig. 2 represents the curves for the anal rays. Here again, and also in
the succeeding curves for the comparison of the two lakes, the continuous line
represents Turkey Lake and the broken line Tippecanoe Lake. Table III gives-
the summary of the anal rays for both lakes.

284

Tlu' prevailing uuinher of rays in botli lakes is II ; 58 per cent, from Turkey
lake, and 50 per cent, from Tipi»ecanoe Lake having that number. The number
of rays in tlie next highest j)er cent, is 10 for Turkey Lake and 12 for Tippe-
canoe Lake, about 27 per cent, in eacii case.

The range of variation is two greater in Turkey T^akc. This may be due to
the greater number of specimens from this lake.

TABLE in.

u a ci

a
a
«

S a, oj

Per cent, of specimens having 7 anal rays
Per cent, of specimens liaviiig 8 anal rays
Per cent, of 6])ecimens liaving ii anal i-ays
Per cent, of specimens having 10 anal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 11 anal rays
Per cent, of sjiecimens having 12 anal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 13 anal rays

Dorsal Spines. — Turkey Lake has on an average more dorsal spines, the
average being 14.52 for Turkey Lake and 14.23 for Tippecanoe Lakes. Fig. 3
represents the curves for this structure. The range of variation is the same, from
12 to 17. Although the average number of spines differs but slightly in the two

285

lakes, the preferences shown for a given number of spines are quite different.
In the Tippecanoe Lake specimens the preference is decidedly for 14. In the
Turkey Lake specimens the preference is for 15, although not so decided. From
Table IV and the curves, it will be seen that the number of individuals in Tur-
key Lake having 14 spines and 15 spines are about the same, 41 per cent, having
14 and 44 per cent., 15, while in Tippecanoe Lake this is not tlie case, 60 per
<;ent. having 14, and only 25 per cent, having 15.

TABLE IV.

From

Turkey

Lake.

From
Tippecanoe

Per cent, of specimens bavins 12 dorsal si>ines

0.32
5.09
41.26
44.22
6.90
0.65

0.38

Per cent, of specimens having 13 dorsal spines

11.24

Per cent, of specimens having 14 dorsal spines. . . ....

60.85

Per cent, of specimens having 15 dorsal spines

25.96

Per cent, of specimens having 16 dorsal spines

Per cent, of specimens having 17 dorsal spines

1.16
0.38

Dorsal Rays. — The average number of dorsal rays for Turkey Lake is 14.87,
for Tippecanoe Lake, 16.40, the latter having on an average almost two more.
The curves are given in Fig. 4. From this and Table V it will be seen that Tur-
key Lake specimens show a decided preference for 15 rays, while the Tippecanoe
Lake specimens show just as decided a preference for 16 rays, 52 per cent, of the

286

specimens having these numbers in both lakes. The range of variation is two
greater in Turkey Lake, from 1'2 to 18 as compared from 14 to 18 in Tippecanoe
Lake. This again may be due to the greater number of specimens.

TAI'.LE V.

3§

o a

a
a

0) ^

o

^

Per cent, of specimens having 12 dorsal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 13 dorsal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 14 dorsal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 15 dorsal rays
Per cent, of specimens having Iti dorsal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 17 dorsal rays
Per cent, of specimens having 18 dorsal rays

Table VI presents all the combinations of dorsal spines and dorsal rays from
both lakes. The spines are represented by Roman numbers and the rays by
Aral)ic numbers. The commonest combination in Turkey Lake is XIV-15 and
XV-15; XIV, XV, occurring most frequently in the spinous dorsal, and 15 most
frequently in the soft dorsal. The per cent, of specimens having these combina-
tions is 22.46 and 24.49 respectively. In Tippecanoe Lake, XIV-16 is the com-
monest combination, XIV being the prevailing number in the spinous dorsal and
16 in the soft dorsal. 32.11 per cent, of the specimens have this combination.

TABLE VI.

287

9 ^

""5

Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.

cent.

cent.

cent.

cent.

Per
Per
Per
Per

of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of sjiecimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens

having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having tlie
having the
liaving the
having the
having the
having tlie
having the
having the
having the
having the
having the
having tlie
liaving the
having the
having the
having the
having the conil
having the

combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
comltinntion
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
comliination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
combination
coml)ination
combination

XII-14.

XII-15.

XII-16.
XIII-14.
XIII-15.
XIII-16.
XIlI-17.
XlV-12.
XIV-13.
XIV-14.
XIV-15.
XIV-16.
XIV-!7.
XIV-18.

XV-13.

XV-14.

XV-15.

XV-16.

XV-17.

XV-18.

XVI-12.

XVI-13.

XVI-14.

XVI-15.

XVI-16.

XVI-17.

XVII-14.

XVII-15.

XVII-16.

XVIII-14.

O.lti
O.K)

0.84
3.71
0.67

0.16

1.01

11.99

22.46

5.74
0.33

0.67

13.51

24.49

5.40

0.84
0.16
0.16
0.16
2.36
3.04
0.84
0.33
0.50

0.16
0.16

0.37
0.37
2.22
5.92
2.59

1.48

20.37

82.11

6.66
1.11

1.85

8.14

14.44

1.48

1.11
0.37

0..37

In Table Vll is given the variation in the two dorsal fins taken together. The
average number for the two fins is 29.21 for Turkey Lake and 30 for Tippecanoe
Lake. In Turkey Lake 36.82 per cent, have the average number; in Tippecanoe
Lake, 41.8 per cent. The range of variation in the fins separately is six for the
spinous dorsal and five for the soft dorsal in Tippecanoe Lake, and seven in each
dorsal fin in Turkey Lake. With an exception in the spinous dorsal in Tippecanoe
Lake the range of variation is, in each case, one greater for the two fins taken
together, than for the fins separately. Although the extent of variation is only
one greater for the two fins together, the per cent, of specimens having the aver-
age number is much smaller than the per cent, of specimens having the average

288

imiuber in the tins separately. In Turkey Lake nearly 37 per cent, have the
average number of the fins taken together, while 44 per cent, and 52 per cent,
liave the average nninber in the spinous and soft dorsal respectively. In Tippe-
canoe Lake 41 per cent. h;ne the average number for l)oth (ins, while 52 per
cent, and (U per cent, have the average nninber in the spinous and soft dorsals-
respectively.

TABLE VIL

.

1 V

1

5:-^

^ OJ

S es

H S ^

as?

a V

a s^

2-^

2 ^^

fo

fe

Per cent, of specimens having 2(5 rays in
Per cent, of specimens having 27 rays in
Per cent, of specimens having 28 rays in
Per cent, of specimens having 29 rays in
Per cent, of specimens having oO rays in
Per cent, of specimens having 31 rays in
Per cent, of specimens having 32 rays in
Per cent, of specimens having 33 rays in

the dorsals
the dorsals
the dorsals
the dorsals
the dorsals
the dorsals
the dorsals
the dorsals

0.37

4.07

28.1&

41.80

22.22

3.33

SUMMARY.

1. This species is equally abundant in the two lakes.

2. The color i)attern of Tippecanoe Lake specimens shows a greater affinity
for the primitive, simj)le Wabash River pattern than does that of Turkey Lake
specimens.

3. In Turkey Lake the nape is usually naked ; in Tippecanoe Lake the
nape is usually scaled.

4. Tippecanoe Lake specimens have a smaller number of scales in the lat-
eral line.

5. The anal spines vary but little, and show the same variation in the two
lakes. .

6. The anal fin is somewhat larger in the Tippecanoe Lake specimens.

7. Turkey Lake specimens have one more dorsal spine.

8. Tippecanoe Lake specimens have one more dorsal ray, 16 rays is the
mean in Tippecanoe Lake and 15 in Turkey Lake.

9. The combinations of the dorsal spines and rays are determined by the
numbers that prevail in the fins separately.

289

10. The range of variation in the total number of dorsal spines and rays
combined is one greater than the variation in the fins separately.

11. The number occurring most frequently is 29 in Turkey Lake and 30 in
Tippecanoe Lake.

12. The preference shown for a given number is less decided for the two
dorsal fins taken together than for the dorsal tins taken separately.

13. The variation is in all cases continuous.

THE VARIATION IN TIRKEY LAKE.

Many of the facts on the extent and character of the variation of the 600
specimens from Turkey Lake, taken as a whole, have been given in the pre-
ceeding.

The lengths of the 600 specimens from Turkey Lake were measured and upon
comparison were found to fall into three quite distinct groups. Fig. ;i represents
the curve for all. Each of the smaller horizontal distances represents one mm.
and each of the larger verticle distances one per cent. The sizes ranged from 27
mm. to 102 mm. The first group ranges from 27 mm. to 60 mm.; the second from
60 mm. to 80 mm., and the third from 79 mm. to 103 mm. The three curves of
Fig. 5 represent these three groups. I have watched the growth during the first
summer, and know the first curve to represent the first summer's fish. The second
curve in all probability represents the second year's fish, and the third curve, those
three years old and over. The growth, thus, is most rapid during the first sum-
mer, the rate of growth decreasing each year after. The lish reaches practically
its full size the third year, though the more gradual slope to the right of the last
curve shows that it does not cease growing entirelv.

290

llavini; i^nniped tlieni iiUo throe (Ictiniti' ages, a summary of tlie eharacters
f(ir eaeli was made, ami nirves coiistrueted. Fig.s. 6, 7, S ami !• represent the
curves for tliese eharacters. In all the curves constructed for these ages, the contin-
uous line is for the third year specimens, the Imikcn line for the second year
specimens and the dotted line for the first year specimens.

Lateral Link.— Behiw is the table of the average numher of scales in the

lateral line of the three ages.

1st i/ear. 2d year. 3d i/ear.

Right side 87.84 90.80 88.39

I^ef, side 8-S.OO 89.80 88.78

From this it is seen that the lirst and tliinl year specimens are most nearly
alike. The second year specimens have about two scales more. By reference to
the curves, Fig. (i, and Table VIII below, it will be seen that the great bulk
of the specimens of all three ages have from So to 92 scales. The increased
average in the second year is due to a larger per cent, having 98, 94, 9") and 96
scales than in the first and second years.

20

15

J L i_

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Fig. 6.

291

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292

.Vn.vi. Fin. Five oul of Ilii tirsl vcai spociiuens liave one anal spine; ti oul
of 236 of tlie second year, and 3 onl of 24(5 of the oldest specimens.

Tile averajje number nf anai rays are 10.5(5 for the first year, 10.74 for tlie
second year and 11.00 for {hv third year siieriinens.

The curves in Fig. 7 and Tahle IX, below, show tliat tlie anal fins of the first
and second year specimens more nearly resemble each other. All three ages show
a preference for 11.00 rays. The percent, of specimens having this number are
51.69, 52.53 and 61.60 for the first, second and third year specimens respectively.
The percent, of specimens having 10 rays is reduced from 36.43 in the first year to
2K.57 in the third year, and the per cent, of those having 12 rays is increased
from 5.09 in the first year to 20.10 in the third year. There is a very evident in-
crease in the number of s])ines with the age.

The extent of variation of the second and third year specimens is the same.
The first year specimens, altiiough only half as many, exceed the other ages two
ravs in the extent of variation.

TABLE L\.

First
Year.

Second
Year.

Third
Year.

Ppr r*ont (tf sitpcimons hiivinf? 7 anul rtivs . ,

0.84

Ppr cpnt of KiiPf'iincns hriviii*>" H a.nRl rjivs . . .

0.42

1.69

32.19

52.53

13.12

Ppr ppiit (if Knpriinp!i*< liMviiip* !) uniil riivs . .

5.09

36.43

51.69

5.09

0.84

0.82

Per cent, of specimens having 10 anal rays

Per cent, of specimens having 11 anal rays

Per cent, of specimens having 12 anal says

Pf>r fpnt of snecimens bavinj? 1.3 anal ravs

20.57

61.60

20.16

0.82

'293

Several important facts brought out by the preceding comparison are worth
consideration.

1. No two of the ages here compared are alike in all the characters.

2. In the anal tin and soft dorsal there is a definite increase in the number
of rays with the age.

3. Variation of this nature is not present in the other structures.

4. The extent of variation in the different ages is about the same.
Dorsal Rays. — The average number of dorsal rays are 14.57, 14.76 and 14.98

for the first, second and third year specimens, respectively. There is a slight in-
crease with age. The summaries for this structure are given below in Table XI,
and the curves in Fig. 8. The prevailing number of rays is 15 for all three ages,
the per cents, being 53.39, 52 53 and 55.69 for the first, second and third year
specimens, respectively. The per cent, of specimens having 14 rays decreases from
40.72 in the first year to 22.35 ir. the third year specimens, while the per cent, of
specimens having 16 rays increases from 3.3S in the first year specimens to 16.73 in
the third year specimens. The extent of variation is from 12 to 16 in the first
year, from 12 to 17 in the second year and from 13 to IS in the third year speci-
mens. As in the anal fin there is a tendency toward a greater number of rays as
the fish grows older.

294

TARI.F XI.

First
Year.

Second
Year.

Third
Year.

Per tent, of specimens having 12 dorsal rays

Per cent, of specimens having 13 dorsal rays

Per cent, of specimens having 14 dorsal ravs

0.84

1.69

40.72

53.39

3.38

0.42

2.96

30.50

52.53

11.48

0.84

' " 1.21
22.35

Per cent, of specimens having 15 dorsal rays

Per cent, of specimens having Ui dorsal rays

Per cent, of specimens having 17 dorsal rays

55.69

16.73

3.25

Per cent, of si)cciiiipns liavinL!' IS dorsal ravs . . .

0.40

DoRSAl. Spines. — The averages for this structure are 14.69 for the first year,
14.39 for the second and 14.65 for the third year, the first and third years being
almost identical, and the second year having a fewer number. Fig. 9 represents
the curves for this structure. The curves of the first and third years are almost
identical, both showing a i)reference for 15, with about 35 per cent, for 14. The
second year shows as decided a preference for 14, about 35 per cent, for 15. This
structure varies from 13 to Hi in the lirst year specimens, from 12 to 17 in the
second year specimens and from b'i to 17 in the third year specimens. Table X
contains ihv summaries for this structure.

TABLE X.

295

First
Year.

Second
Year.

Third
Year.

Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.

of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens
of specimens

having 12 dorsal spines,
having 13 dorsal spines,
having 14 dorsal spines,
having 15 dorsal spines,
having 16 dorsal spines.
having 17 dorsal spines.

1.69

38.98

50.00

7.62

0.84
8.47
49.14
35.16
5.50
0.42

3.65

36.17

51.62

8.13

0.40

The first and third year specimens resemble each other very closely in regard
to the scales in the lateral line and the dorsal spines. In these characters the
second year specimens show a decided difference. These have on an average two
more scales in the lateral line, and have 14 as the prevailing number of dorsal
spines instead of 15, the number in the first and third year specimens.

Several explanations might be suggested to account for a part or all of the.se
differences.

The explanation suggesting itself most readily is that an additional spine and
ray are added during the life of the individual. I have gone over all the specimens
carefully with this point in view, but find no evidence either of the splitting of a
ray or spine, or of the new growth of these, except at the anterior of the dorsal fins.
Here may be found numerous instances of shorter spines and rays from two-
thirds to one-fourth the normal length. But among so many specimens it is en-
tirely probable that these spines and rays would be found in every possible stage
of growth. But this is not the case. The spines and rays, although sometimes
only one-fourth the full length, are always strong and suggest aborted rather than
immature structures. Besides, if this were the case, we would expect to find the
tendency toward a lower number of spines, and rays very decided in the first
year specimens. While this condition is true in the dorsal and anal rays, it is
decidedly not true in the dorsal spines, where the characters in the first years are
almost identical with those of the third year.

Natural Selection. — The principle of natural selection, the influence of
which upon this species I hoped in the onset of this work to find, can not be
applied in explanation of the diflference in the number of scales and dorsal spines
without serious objections. If natural selection were the determining factor in
producing these differences, we should expect all the variations graduated with
the age. We would expect to have a narrower range of variation as the specimens

296

grow older. XeilluT of these eonditions obtain. There are neither 18 dorsal rays
nor 13 anal rays represented in the second year specimens; and in the first year
specimens 17 dor.-^al rays are not represented. In the dorsal spines where the
difference is most pronounced we have in the first year specimens the exact
duplicate of that of the third year specimens, while the second year specimens
are quite different. The scales in the lateral line present the same difliculty.

Annual Variation. — The explanation that seems to meet all the conditions
most satisfactory is that the species varies with the varying conditions of successive
years.

The diflerence in the dorsal spines of the difl'erent ages accounts thus for the
abnormality of the curve for the dorsal spines of all the Turkey Lake specimens,
Fig. 4. The 600 specimens for which the curve is constructed is a composite lot
of three age varieties.

This conclusion, however, should be held with some reservation. It will be
noticed that nearly all the curves of Figs. 7, 8 and 9 are abnormal curves, which
may possibly be due to the presence of local races in the lake. While this may
possibly be the case, it is not at all probable, because, in the first place, the
curve constructed for the dorsal spines of 100 specimens of three year olds,
taken within a distance of 100 yards along the shores where the conditions were
undoubtedly uniform, gave a curve identical with that for all the three year
olds. In the second place, the second and third year specimens are found in
about equal abundance together, and since these were promiscuously preserved it
is altogether probable that from any given locality, an equal number of each age
was taken.

The sex has been determined in all, and a summary shows that the sexes do
not differ in the characters entering into the above considerations.

INDEX.

ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, 5.
Act to provide for publieation, 4.
Alternating i-urrent dynamos, 79.
Arkansas, relief map of, 56.
Arthur, J. C, 100.
Atkinson, Curtis, 258.

BACTERID AND GRAPE SUGAR, 85.

Batrachia of Turkey Lake, 258.

Benton, Geo. W., 9 I.

Bigney, A. J., 106, 108.

Biological Station, first report of, 20."^.

Birds of Indiana, 162.

Birds of Wi, bash County, 148.

Birge, A., 214.

Bitting, A. W., 135, 168.

Botanical literature in State Lil)rary. 102.

Burrage, Severance, 49, 99.

Butler, A. W., 31. 162.

CALL, R. ELLSWORTH, 109, 136, 246.

Camphoric acid, 89.

Chamberlain, F.M., 264.

Chara fragilis,95.

Cladocera of Turkey Lake, 244.

Committees of Indiana Academy of

Science, 13.
Corn smut, fungicides for, 96.
Coulter, Stanley, 169, 18:^.
Cunningham, Alida M.. 198.

DAVIS, B. M., 45.
Dennis, D.W., 44, 95.
Dolan, J.P.,235.
Dubois County, fishes of, 159.
DufiF, A. Wilmer, 58, 77, 83, 84.

EARTHQUAKE, the Charleston, Mo., 51.
Eigenmann, C. H., 204. 2.52, 262, 265.
Environment, Turkey Lake a unit of, 209.
Eroding agencies, some minor, 54.
Evermann, Barton W., 126, 1:>1.

(20)

FERMENTATION, ratio of alcohol to

yeast, 92.
First report of Biological Station, 203.
Fishes of Dubois County, 159.
Fishes of Missouri basin, 126.
Fishes of Turkey Lake. 252,
Foley, Arthur L., 67.
Fungicides for corn smut, 96.

GOLDEN, KATHERINE E.,46,92.

Golden, M. J., 48. 100.

Goldsborough. W.E.,79.

Goss,W.F.M..75.

(J rape sugar, effect on bacteria, 85.

Gravitational attraction, A. W. Duff, 58.

H.EMAGLOBIN,106.

Heat, effect of on muscle, 108.

Hopkins seaside laboratory, 45.

INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ac-
tive members of, 19.

Indiana Academy of Science, by-laws of, 17.

Indiana Academy of Science, committee
of, 13.

Indiana Aeaiiemy of Science, complete list
of officers, 14.

Indiana Academy of Science, constitution
of, 15.

Indiana Academy of Science, fellows of, 18.

Indiana Academy of Science, non-resident
members of, 19.

Indiana Academy of Science, present offi-
cers of, 12.

Indiana Academy of Science, work and
purposes of, 7.

Indiana, a century of changes, President's
address, 31.

Indiana birds, 162.

Indiana mollusca, 135.

Indiana orchidacese, 198.

Indiana parasites, 168.

•298

Indinn^t phanerogams, 169, 183.

Indiana University Biological Station, 204.

Infei'tion by bread, 46.

KELLICOTT, D. S., 242,251.
Kettle holes, ").5.
Knipp.Chas.T.,62.

LINEAR ASSOCIATIVE ALCEBKA,

Peiroe's, 59.
Liquids, surfat-e tension of. 67.
Loeoniotive furnaees. 05.
Lyons, Robert E., 85, 88.

MEMBERS OF THE INDIANA ACAD-

emy of Science, 18.
.Microscope slides, 105.
.Milk inspection, 90.
Missouri basin, fishes of, 126.
Moenkhaus.W. J., 159,278.
-Mollusks from Northern Indi;iii;i, 216.

NEWLIN, C. E., 42.
Newson,T. F.,51.
Nciyes, Mary Chilton, 66.
Noyes, W. A., 89.

UDUNATA OF TURKEY LAKE, 251.
Officers of Indiana Academy of Science,

12, 14.
Oncorhyncus nerka (red fish), 131.
Orchidaceaj in Indiana, 198.

PARASITES IN INDIANA, 168.

Parvus group of Unionidas 108.

Peirce's linear associative alfrebra, 39.

Permeability, measurement of, 83.

Phanerogams of Indiana, 169, 183.

Phcnyl-compounds, 88.

Photo-micrography. 48.

Physical features of Turkey Lake, 216.

Pleodoriiia californica, 99.

President's address, 31.

Proceedings of the 11th annual meeting, 30.

Program of 1895, Christmas meeting, 24.

Protoplasm, circulation of, 95.

Purdue, A. II., 51.

REDDf -"K, a., 261.

Redfish in Idaho, 131.

Rei>ort (first) of Biological Station, 203.

Ridgley, D.C., 216.

Rotifera of Turkey Lake, 242.

SANITARY SCIENCE, 49.

Scovell, J. T., 54, 55, 126, 131.

Shaw, James Byrnie, 59.

Skew Surfaces, 3d and 4th'degree, 57.

Snakes of Turkey Lake, 261.

State Library, botanical literatuie in, 102.

Stauffer, E.P., 64.

Strains in steam machinery, 75.

Stuart, Wm., 96.

Surface tension of liquids, 67.

TESTUDINATA of Turkey Lake, 262.
Turkey Lake, as a unit of environment. 20ii.
Turkey Lake, il ustrations of, 216, 217.
Turkey Lake, inhabitants of, 239.
Turkey Lake, variation in, 265.

ULREY, ALBERT B., 147,148.
Unconscious mental cerebration, 42.
Unionid;e, jiarvas group of, 108.

VARIATION of a standard thermometer, 63.
Variiition of Ethiostoma caprodes, 278.
Variation, the study of, 265.
Viscosity, em irical formula for, 84.
Viscosity of a polarized dielectric, 77.

WABASH COUNTY, birds of, 148.

Waldo, C. A., 57.

Wallace, William 0.,148.

Water birds of Turkey Lake, 264.

Wood shrinkage, 100.

Work and jiurposes of Indiana Academy of

Science, 7.
AVright, John S., 102, 105.

XANTHIUM,1G0.

YOUN(J'S modulus, 66.

295 0

i