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OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

DAVIS

\y GC^GA^C/I^I/

TURNER ON BIRDS

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TURNER ON BIRDS:

A SHORT AND SUCCINCT HISTORY

OF THE

PRINCIPAL BIRDS NOTICED BY PLINY AND ARISTOTLE,

FIRST PUBLISHED BY

DOCTOR WILLIAM TURNER,

1544-

EDITED,
WITH INTRODUCTION, TRANSLATION, NOTES, AND APPENDIX,

BY

A. H. EVANS, M.A.

CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

CAMBRIDGE :
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1903

LIBRARY

.laSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS

PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

PREFACE.

IN translating this treatise it has been thought
advisable to adhere as closely as possible to the
original text of Turner, though in many places a more
modern style of phraseology would doubtless have
better pleased the ear of the non-scientific reader.

Not a few difficult points of interpretation have
arisen in the course of the work, and the Editor
welcomes this opportunity of expressing his gratitude
to Professor Newton and to Mr R. D. Archer- Hind
of Trinity College for the invaluable help that he has
received from them in elucidating the hard passages
and in revising the proofs. The Editor's thanks are
also due to the Syndics of the University Press for
undertaking the present publication.

9, HARVEY ROAD,
CAMBRIDGE.
July, 1903.

NOTE.

It may be remarked that the pages of Turner's work are not
numbered in the original; but, for convenience of reference, the
pagination is marked in the margin— the numbers being included in
square brackets.

INTRODUCTION.

WlLLTAM TURNER, author of the rare treatise here re-
published, was a native of Morpeth in Northumberland and is
supposed to have been the son of a tanner of that town. By
the aid of Thomas, the first Lord Wentworth, he was enabled
to enter Pembroke Hall in the University of Cambridge, where
he graduated B.A. and was elected a fellow of his College
in 1530. At Pembroke he became acquainted with Ridley
(who instructed him in Greek) and Latimer, two of the most
earnest advocates of the Reformed doctrines, which he him-
self, both then and afterwards, strenuously embraced ; but
there is no need to dwell upon his theological views or the
polemical works in which they were set forth.

While at Cambridge Turner was a zealous student of
botany, and in 1538 published a Libellus de re herbaria.
About two years later he left this University for Oxford, and
soon after suffered imprisonment for preaching without a
licence. On his release he quitted England, and travelled
by way of the Netherlands and Germany to Italy, attending
the botanical lectures of Luca Ghini at Bologna, where, or at
Ferrara, he took the degree of M.D.

Thereafter he proceeded to Switzerland, forming a close
friendship with the great naturalist Conrad Gesner of Zurich,
Professor of Medicine and Philosophy in the School of that
city, who held him in high esteem, and with whom he after-
wards kept up a correspondence. He seems to have been at
Basel in 1543, but early in 1544 he was at Cullen (Cologne),
where he published not only the present work — dedicated

viii Introduction

to Edward Prince of Wales (afterwards King Edward the
Sixth) — -but also edited the Dialogus de Avibus of his friend
Gybertus Longolius of Utrecht, who died the preceding year.
He pursued his botanical studies in several parts of Germany,
as well as in the Netherlands, including East Friesland, for
he became physician to the Count of Emden, and visited the
islands of Juist and Norderney lying off the coast of that
province.

On the death of King Henry the Eighth he returned to
England, becoming chaplain and physician to Lord Protector
the Duke of Somerset ; but he lived at Kew, where he
established a botanic garden. He was, moreover, incor-
porated M.D. of Oxford, and was appointed a prebendary
of York. In 1550 the Privy Council sent letters for his
election as Provost of Oriel College in Oxford, but the post
had been already filled, and a similar disappointment awaited
him in regard to the Presidency of Magdalen College in the
same University. He then applied to Sir William Cecil for
leave to return to Germany, but was soon after consoled by
being appointed Dean of Wells, and, having in 1551 published
the first part of his New Herbal, was during the next year
ordained priest by his old friend Ridley, then Bishop of
London.

On the accession of Queen Mary Turner had to vacate his
deanery, and betook himself for safety once more to the
Continent, visiting Rome and several places in Germany and
Switzerland. When Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne he
returned to England, and recovered his deanery, to which
was attached the rectory of Wedmore in Somersetshire ; but
in 1564 he was suspended for nonconformity and seems to
have come to live in London. In 1557 he had addressed
a letter on English Fishes to Gesner, which was included
in that naturalist's Historia Animalium; and in 1562 he
published the second part of his Herbal, which he dedicated
to Lord Wentworth, the son of his original benefactor. On
the /th of July 1568 Turner died at his house in Crutched
Friars in the City of London, and was buried in the church of
St Clave, Hart Street.

Introduction ix

Turner married Jane, daughter of George Ander, Alder-
man of Cambridge, by whom he had issue Winifred, Peter and
Elizabeth.

It must be understood that, his scientific work apart,
nearly the whole of Turner's life was spent in religious
controversy, and he published a considerable number of
polemical works, the titles of which may be seen in the
bibliography appended to the excellent ' Life ' prefixed to
Mr Jackson's facsimile reprint of the Libellus de re herbaria'*',
whence all the particulars above given are taken. Other
lists of Turner's works may be found in Cooper's Athenae
Cantabrigienses (I. pp. 257 — 259) and the Dictionary of
National Biography (LVII. pp. 365, 366).

Turner's object in writing the present treatise is fully set
forth in his ' Epistola Nuncupatoria ' prefixed to it. While
attempting to determine the principal kinds of birds named
by Aristotle and Pliny, he has added notes from his own
experience on some species which had come under his
observation, and in so doing he has produced the first book
on Birds which treats them in anything like a modern
scientific spirit and not from the medical point of view
adopted by nearly all his predecessors; nor is it too much
to say that almost every page bears witness to a personal
knowledge of the subject, which would be distinctly creditable
even to a modern ornithologist.

This knowledge is especially evident in his account of the
habits of the Hobby (p. 19), Hen-Harrier (p. 19), Water-
Ousel (p. 23), Moor-Buzzard (p. 33), Osprey (p. 37), Godwit
(p. 45), Wheatear (p. 53), Sandpiper (p. 57), Fieldfare (p. 59),
Cuckoo (p. 69), Black-headed Gull (p. 77), Black Tern
(p. 79), Swallows (p. 101), Cormorant (p. in), Shrike (p. 119),
Redbreast and Redstart (p. 157); while his keen eye for
distinctions is shown in his descriptions of the Black Cock
and Grey Hen (p. 43), Godwit (p. 45), Tree-Creeper (p. 53),

1 Libellus de re herbaria novus, by William Turner, originally
published in 1538, reprinted in facsimile, with notes, modern names,
and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin Daydon Jackson, F.L.S.
Privately Printed. London: 1877.

a 5

x Introduction

Doves (p. 59), Lapwing (p. 77), Nutcracker (p. 95), Reed-
Bunting (p. 103), Kites (p. 117), Bullfinch (p. 161) and others.
He is most careful to tell us whether he observed the various
species in England or abroad and their comparative abund-
ance, and to note the breeding of the rarer species, such as
the Spoonbill (p. 151), and Crane (p. 97) within our islands—
that of the Crane being of special interest ; the whole account
of the Cuckoo (p. 69) is also most noticeable, as is that
of the curious Walt-rapp (p. 95) of which Gesner writes as
follows:

GESNER De Corvo Sylvatico1 (p. 337).

AuiS, cuius hie effigies habetur, a nostris nominatur uulgo
ein Waldrapp', id est coruus sylvaticus...Sunt qui phalacro-
coracem hanc auem interpretentur, quoniam & magnitudine
& colore fere coruum refert: & caluescit, ut uidi, cum adultior
est. Turnerus Aristotelis coruum aquaticum & Plinij phala-
crocoracem, & coruum syluaticum nostrum auem unam esse
arbitratur, tertium genus graculi. Coruus syluaticus Helue-
tiorum, inquit, auis est corpore longo et ciconia paulo minore,
cruribus breuibus, sed crassis : rostro rutilo, parum adunco
(curuo) & sex pollices longo : alba in capite macula, & ea
nuda, si bene memini....Sic ille.

Doubtless Turner's work is not free from errors, as in the
case of the very old story of the breeding of the Bernicle-Goose
(which, however, he was most loth to credit even when assured
of its truth by an Irish Divine), in his confounding of the
Onocrotalus with the Ardea stellaris and the Cornish with
the Alpine Chough ; yet these are but small blots on a very
excellent treatise, which compares most favourably with other
writings of his time.

It is quite evident from various passages that Turner was
acquainted with Aristotle's works in the original Greek, and
especially with his History of Animals •; but he preferred
quoting that author from the Latin translation of Theodorus

1 Conradi Gesneri Tigurini medici & Philosophise professoris in Schola
Tigurina Historic Animalium Liber III. qui est de Auium natura/ Tiguri
apud Christoph. Froschovervm, Anno M.D.LV.

Introduction xi

Gaza of Thessalonica, the most celebrated Scholar of his day,
who, fleeing from the sack of Constantinople, played a con-
spicuous part in the rise of the " New Learning," and after a
course of teaching in Rome, entered successively the service
of the Popes Nicholas the Fifth and Sixtus the Fourth,
eventually dying in poverty in Lucania about 1484.

Exact transcription of a text was considered by no means
necessary in those days: consequently we find many obser-
vations and explanations inserted in the text of Aristotle
and Pliny, which had no place in the original1.

Besides referring to Gesner, Turner mentions other learned
men by name and occasionally quotes from their works;
while his pages also inform us of many places that he visited.

The following excerpts from Gesner not only give in-
stances of correspondence between him and Turner, but also
shew that the former was accustomed to correct the latter
from his wider knowledge of Ornithology.

De Branta vel Bernicla... (p. 107).

Ide [Turnerus] post librum suum de avibus publicatum,
in epistola ad me data, Berniclas siue Brantas (inquit) ex
putridis nauis malis fungorum more nasci, minime fabulosum
esse doctorum & honestorum uirorum oculata fides mihi per-
suasit. Branta anserem palustrem ualde refert : his tamen
notis ab eo differt. Branta breuior est, a collo quod rubescit
nonnihil, ad medium usq,, uentrem, qui candicat, nigra est.
anserum more segetes populatur. In Vuallia (quse pars est
Angliae) in Hibernia & Scotia aues istae adhuc rudes & im-
plumes in littore, sed non sine forma certa & propria auis
passim inueniuntur. Et rursus, Praeter brantam aut berniclam
est alia auis, quee originern suam arbori refert acceptam.
Arbores sunt in Scotia ad littus maris crescentes, e quibus
prodeunt ueluti fungi parui, primum informes, postea pau-
latim integram auis formam acquirunt, perfectae tandem
magnitudinis illae, rostro aliquantisper pendent, paulo post
in aquam decidunt, & turn demum uiuunt. Hoc tot tantaec^
integritatis uiri affirmauerunt ut credere audeam, & aliis cre-
dere suadea. Haec ille. Eliota Anglus &c

1 The precise references to Aristotle and Pliny are now supplied, from
the texts of Aubert and Wimmer, and Sillig respectively.

xii Introduction

De Vulpansere (p. 1 56).

Chenalopex (inquit Turnerus Anglus) ab ansere & uulpe
nomen habet...

Et rursus in epistola ad me, Vulpanserem Angli vocat a
Bergander, nidulatur in cuniculoru foueis more uulpium, anate
maior, minor ansere, alis ruffis. Eliota Anglus...

De Pygargo (p. 199).

Pygargum (inquit Turnerus) literatores quidam inepte
trappum a Germanis dictum (tardam, uel bistardam) inter-
pretantur. Sed pygargus Anglorum lingua, nisi fallar, erna
vocatur, an erne. Ego ernam audio dici genus aquile quod
apud Frisios ad Oceanum Germanicum per hyemem degat,
colore nigro, quod cornices quaedam ut ex escarum eius re-
liquijs uictitent sequantur. Pygargus est forte quam Anglice
dicimus ringetayle, Eliota. Sed Turnerus ringtalum Anglis
dictum ab albo circulo caudam circumeunte, buteone mi-
norem, subbuteonem Aristotelis esse suspicatur. Quod si
minor est buteone, non poterit esse pygargus.

De Caprimulgo (p. 235).

[Having quoted Turner] Idem postea in litteris ad me
missis, caprimulgum se uidisse scribit prope Bonnam (Ger-
manise ciuitatem ad ripam Rheni, supra Coloniam) ubi a
uulgo appellatur Naghtraiien, id est coruus nocturnus. Nos
auis illius quae Argetin^ vocatur NacJitram, corrupto forsan
nomine, alibi Nachtrap, effigiem infra ponemus cum historia
nycticoracis.

De Cardnele (p. 235).

...Auis Aristoteli thraupis, OpavTrls, dicta a Gaza carduelis
conuertitur : quod & Hermolao probatur. Turnero quidem
non assenserim, qui chloridem nostram (Grunting uulgo
vocant) thraupin esse conijcit.

De Rala terrestri (pp. 481 — 482).

...Perdix rustica vel rusticula Plinij (inquit Turnerus in
epistola ad me) ab Anglis vocatur rala. Est autem rala
duplex, altera cibum e ripis fluminum petit, altera degit in
ericeto in locis sylvestribus. Aquaticam illam Coloniae diu
alui, & male uolare deprehendi, & egregie pugnacem. Ro-
strum & crura erat rubra, plume; multis maculis respers?.

Introduction xiii

Montana vero ilia & syluestris crura habet multo breuiora
aquatili, & plumas undic^ magis cinereas, sed rubra interim
crura habet & rostrum, auis utrac^ apud nos regium epulum
(real Itali regium vocant, Galli royal, & forte hinc ductum
est raise vocabulu. a colore crurum forte erythropus merit)
vocatur. Hsec ille.

De Cinclo (p. 592).

Turnerus cinclum auem Anglice interpretatur a water
swallow, (quasi dicas hirundinem aquaticam,) Germanice eiu
Steinbcisser, (sed nostri aliam aue, coccothrausten nostrum,
Steinbeisser appellant.) Auicula (inquit) quam ego cinclum
esse puto, galerita paulo maior est, colore in tergo nigro,
uentre albo, tibiis longis, & rostro neutiquam breui. Vere
circa ripas fluminum ualde clamosa est & querula, breues &
crebros facit uolatus. 1[ Huic Turneri descriptioni cognata
uideri potest merula aquatica nostra : magis uero ilia, quam
circa Argentoratum Lyssklicker appellant : quam non similem
modo Turned cinclo, sed prorsus eandem esse conijcio, cuius
figuram sequens pagina cotinet.

De Motacilla quam nostri albam cognominant (p. 593).

Turnerus in libro de Auibus Cnipologon Aristotelis (id
est culicilega interprete Gaza) hac auem esse putat... [quo-
tation].... Sed postea in epistola ad me, Culicilegam Aristotelis
(inquit) in terra Bergensi uidi, tota cinerei fere colons est, &
speciem habet pici Martij, ilia uero quam culicilegam esse
putaba, est uariola nisi fallor.

De Nycticorace (pp. 602 — 604).

TURNERUS in litteris ad me missis caprimulgum auem se
uidisse scribit prope Bonnam (Germanise ciuitatem ad ripam
Rheni, supra Coloniam,) ubi a uulgo appellatur Naghtrauen, id
est coruus nocturnus. Nos in praecedente pagina effigiem
adiecimus auis quae circa Argentoratum, ut audio Nachtram,
alibi Nachtrab nominatur. quae tamen nec^ caprimulgus neq>
nycticorax mihi uidetur. [The figure is of the Night-Heron,
unmistakably.]

De Onocratalo (pp. 607 — 608).

Onocrotalus Machliniensis, quse Vogelhain a Brabantis
uocatur, quinquaginta annis, ut ipsi ferunt, Machliniae uixit,
cygno maior est. penne. foris albicant, in fundo uero rubrum

xiv Introduction

quiddam ostendunt. collum duas spithamas longum est, aut
paulo longius, rostrum, quod rubrum habet, dodrantali longitu-
dine est & quatuor uncias longius, & in fine hami propemodum
more incuruum & uersus finem latius latiusq^ proturbinatur.
crura anserinis similia, breuia, nimirum pro magnitudine tanti
corporis : in pectore magnum habet ueluti sacculum protube-
rantem Alis est longissimis, & ipsis in summa extremitate
nigris, Guil. Turnerus in epistola ad me

Bononiae uisus est mihi onocrotalus (uerba sunt ex epis-
tola Angli cuiusdam amici ad me) plumis cinereis tectus,
cygno maior, palmipes, capite mergi, rostro quatuor palmas
fere longo, & in fine adunco, collo deplumi, amplissimo, ut
anatem deuorare posset. Captam aiebat in lacu Benaco....

Solis uictitat piscibus, & bis tantum anno bibit. Tur-
nerus... Pisces praesertim anguillas auidissime uorat botaurus
auis, Turnerus. idem amicus quidam de onocrotalo ad me
scripsit. ego onocrotalum quidem hoc facere non dubito : de
botauro dubitari potest, praesertim cum multi etia non indocti
cum onocrotalo eum confundant.

De Per dice (p. 644).

...Quae Aristoteles & Ouidius de perdice scribunt, omnia
nostrae perdici uulgari conueniunt, nempe uolandi nidulandiq.,
ratio, astutia, circa prolem solicitudo, corporis grauitas, &
uocis stridor, a quo etiam nomen accepisse uidetur, Turnerus
in epistola ad nos.

The 'Avium praecipuarum...Historia) was reprinted by
Dr George Thackeray, Provost of King's College, Cam-
bridge, in 1823; but the reprint is as rare as, if not rarer
than, the original. Two copies are in the Library of
King's College.

The following is a list of the Birds determined by Turner.

ALAUDID/E. Alauda arvensis. ALCEDINID^E. Alcedo ispida.

Lerk or Laverock. German Kynges fissher. G. Eissvogel^

Lerch, p. 80. pp. 18 — 22.

A. arborea. Wodlerck, p. 80. [Turner recognised two kinds

A. sp. ? Wilde Lerc or Heth of Kingfishers described by

Lerk. G. Heid Lerch, p. 80. Aristotle and Pliny, but

Galerita cristata. [No English does not state what they

name.] G. Copera, p. 80. are].

Introduction

xv

ANATIDJE. Anas boscas. Duck,

pp. 22, 48.
Anser (2 species.) Gose. G.

Ganss, p. 22.
Bernicla leucopsis. Brant or

Bernicle Gose, p. 26.
Cygnus olor. Swan. G. Swdn^

p. 120.

Marecapenelope. Wigene, p. 48.
Nyroca ferina. Pochard, p. 48.
Qtterquedula crccca. Tele, p. 48.
Tadorna cornuta. Bergander,

p. 24.

ARDEID^:. Ardea sp. ? (white).
Cryel or Dwarf Heron, p. 38.
A. cinerea. Heron. G. Reyger,

p. 36.
Botaurus stellaris. Bittour, But-

tor, Buttour, or Myre Dromble.

G. Pittour, Rosdont) pp. 38, 40,

122.

CAPRIMULGID^E. Caprimulgus
europceus. [No English name],
p. 48.
GERTRUDE. Certhia familiaris.

Creper, p. 52.

CHARADRIID^E. Charadrius pluvi-
al is. Pluver. G'. Pulver, p. 132.
Vanellus milgaris. Lapwing. G.
Kywit, pp. 76, 174.

Ciconia alba. Stork.
G. Storck, Sax. Ebeher, p. 54.
Cinclus aquaticus.
Water-Craw, p. 22.
COLUMBID^:. Columba sp. ? Dove.
G. Taube, Sax. Ditve, p. 59.
[Venice Dove, p. 62.]
C. anas. Stocdove. G. Holtz-

taube, p. 60.

C. palumbus. Coushot or Ring-
ged Dove. G. Ringel Taube >
p. 60.

Turtur communis. Turtel Duve,
p. 60.

CORVID^E. Corvus corax. Raven.

G. Rabe, p. 64.

C. cornix. Winter Crow, p. 64.
C. cor one. Crow. G. Krae,

Kraeg, p. 64.
C. frugilegus. [No English

name], p. 64.
C. monedula, Caddo, Chogh,

Ka. G. Dol, Sax. Alke, p. 92.
Garrulus glatidarius. Jay. G.

Mercolphus, p. 144.
Nucifraga caryocatactes. [No

English name.] G. Nous-

brecher, p. 94.
Pica rustica. Py, Piot. G.

Elster, Atzel, pp. 142, 144.
Pyrrhocorax graculus. Cornish

Choghe. G. Bergdol, p. 90.

[Confounded with P. alpinusJ]
CUCULID^:. Cuculus canorus. Cuk-

kow, or Gouke. G. Kukkuck,

p. 66.
CYPSELID^:. Cypselus apus. Chirche

Martnette. Rok Marti nette.

G. Kirch Swalbe, pp. 100, 102.
C. melba. Great Swallow. G.Geyr

S-ivalbe, p. 102.

FALCONID^:. Actipiter nisus. [No
English name], p. 66.

Aquilayp. ? Right Egle. G. Edel
Arn, p. 36.

Astur palumbarius [?] Sparhauc.
G. Sperwer, p. 18.

Buteo vulgaris. Bushard, p. 16.

Circus cEruginosus. Balbushard,
p. 32.

C. cyaneus. Hen-Harroer, Ring-
tale, p. 1 8.

[Turner calls the male Hen-
Harroer, the female Ringtale,
erroneously considering them
two species.]

Falco czsalon. Merlin. G. Smerl,
p. 1 6.

XVI

Introduction

FALCONID^E. F. subbuteo. Hobby,

p. 18.

Gypaetus barbatus [?]. [No Eng-
lish name], p. 128.
Haliaettis albicilla. Egle or

Erne. G. Am, Adler, p. 30.
Milvus ater. [No English

name], p. 116.
M. ictinus. Glede, Puttok, or

Kyte. G. Weye, p. 116.
Tinnunculus alaudarius. Kastrel,

Kistrel, or Steingall, p. 166.
FRINGILLID^E. Carduelis elegans.

Goldfinche. G. Distelfinck,

Stigelitz, pp. 40, 50.
C. spinus. Siskin. G. Zeysich,

Engelchen, p. 108 (cf. p. 50).
Emberiza citrinella. Yelovvham,

Yovvlryng. G. Geelgorst, p.

1 06.
E. miliaria. Bunting. G. Gerst-

hammer, pp. 134, 158.

E. sch&niclus. Rede Sparrow.
G. Reydt Muss, pp. 102, 134.

Fringilla Calebs, Chaffinche,
Sheld-appel, Spink. G. Buck-
Jink, p. 72.

F. montifringilla. Bramlyng.
G. Rower t, p. 72.

Ligurinus Moris. Grenefinche.

G. Kirsfincke, pp. 104, 106.
Linota cannabinat Linot. G.

Flasfinc, pp. 50, 158.
Passer domesticus. Sparrow. G.

Musche, Spats, Liiningk, Sax.

Sperlingk, p. 132.
Pyrrhula europcea. Bulfinche.

G. Blodtjinck, p. 160.
Serinus canarius. Canary Bird,

p. 1 08.

GRUID.E. Grus communis. Crane.
G. Kran, Kranich, pp. 94, 96.

HlRUNDINID^. Cotile riparia.

Bank Martnet. G. Uber
Sivalbe, Speiren, p. 102.
Hirundo rustica. Swallowe. G.
Schwalb, Sax. Swale, pp. 96,

100, 102.

. Comatibis eremita. [Red-
cheeked Ibis]. G. Waltrap,
pp. 92, 94.

E. Lanius excubitor. Schric,

Shrike, or Nyn Murder. G.

Nuin Miirder, Neun Murder,

pp. 116, 118, 168.
Lanius minort [No English

name], p. 168.
LARID^E. Hydrochelidon nigra.

Stern, p. 78.
Larus sp. ? [Grey Gull.] Se Cob

or See Gell, p. 78.
L. sp.? [White Gull.] White

Semaw. Se Cob or Seegell. G.

Wyss niewe, pp. 74, 78.
L. ridibundus. White Semaw

with a blak cop, pp. 74, 76.

MEROPID^E. Merops apiaster.

[No English name], p. 112.
M OTAC I LLI D.E. A nth u spraten st 's.

Titlyng, p. 68.
Motacilla lugubris or M. alba.

Wagtale. G. Wasser Steltz,

Quikstertz, p. 64.

ORIOLID^E. Oriolus galbula. Wit-
wol. G. Witwol, Weidwail,
Kersenrife, pp. 148, 172, 174.

OTIDID^E. Otis tarda. Bistard
or Bustard. G. Trap or Trap
Ganss, pp. 130, 166.

PANDIONID^E. Pandion haliaetus.
Osprey. G. Visharn, pp. 34, 36.
Parus cceruleus. Non.
p. 132.

Introduction

xvn

. P. major. Great Tit-

mous, or Great Oxei. G. Kol-

meyse, p. 130.
P. palustris or P. ater. Less

Titmous. G. Meelmeyse, p. 130.
PHALACROCORACID^E. Phalacro-

corax carbo. Cormorant. G.

Ducher, p. no.
P.graculusJ Douker (pt), Loun,

Ducher (pt.), p. 176.
PHASIANID^E. Attagen [possibly

Bonasa sylvestris, the Hazel

Grouse], pp. 42, 44.
Gallus ferrugineus (domesticus).

Cok, Hen. G. Han, Hen, Sax.

Hon, p. 82.
Numida meleagris. [No English

name?] Kok of Inde? pp. 82,

86, 140.
Pavo cristatus. Pecok. G. Pffaw,

Sax. Pagelihi, p. 136.
Perdix cinerea. Pertrige. G.

Velt hbn, Kaphbn, p. 138.
Phasianus colchicus. Phesan. G.

Fasant, Fasian, p. 140.
PHCENIX. [No English name],

p. 140.
PICID^E. Dendrocopus major?

Specht, or Wodspecht. G.

Elsterspecht, pp. 146, 148.
Gecinus viridis. He whole, Hu-

hol, Raynbird ? G. Griinspecht,

pp. 88, 112, 114, 146, 148.
lynx torquilla. [No English

name], pp. 146, 148.
Picus martins. [No English

name]. G. Craspecht, p. 148.
PLATALEID^E. Platalea leucorodia.

Shovelard. G. Lefler, Loffel

Ganss, pp. 38, 150.
PODICIPEDID^E. Podidpes minor,

Douker (pt), Ducher (pt), p.

176.

PROCELLARIIDyE. PtlffinUS sp. ?

Bird of Diomede, p. 70.

PSITTACID^E. Parrot. Popinjay.

G. Papegay, p. 150.
RALLID^E. Crex pratensis. Daker

Hen, Rale (?) G. Schryk,

S eric a, pp. 70, 128, 140.
Fulica nigra. Cout, pp. 32, 76.
Gallinula chloropus. Mot Hen or

Water Hen. G. Wasser Hen,

p. 170.
Porphyrio ccelestis. [No English

name], p. 152.

SCOLOPACID^. Actitis hypoleuca.

Water Swallow. G. Steynbisser,

pp. 54, 56.
Limosa belgica. Godwitt or

Fedoa, p. 44.
Scolopax rusticula. Wodcok. G.

Holtz Snep/. pp. 42, 86.
Totanus calidris. Redshanc, p.

102.
SITTID^:. Sitta ccesia. Nut-jobber.

G. Nushakker, Meyspecht, p.

162.
STRIGID^E. Asio otus. Horn Oul.

G. Ranseiil, Schleier Eul, p.

130.
Bubo ignavus. Lyke Foule. G.

Schuffaitss, Schiiffel, Kautz,

p. 46.
Strix stridula (?) Owl, H owlet.

G. Eul, Sax. We, p. 120.
STRUTHIONID^E. Struthio camelus.

Oistris. G. Strauss, p. 164.
STURNID^E. Sturnus vulgaris.

Sterlyng. G. Star, Stbr, p.

164.
SULID^E. Sula bassana. Solend

Guse, p. 28.
SYLVIID^E. Accentor modularis (?)

Hedge-sparrow, or Dike Smou-

ler. G. Grassmusch, Koelimtssh,

p. 136.
Daulias luscinia. Nyghtyngall.

G. Nachtgal, p. 108.

XV111

Introduction

Erithacus rubecula.

Robin Redbreste. G. Rotbrust,

Rotkelchen, p. 154.
Pratincola rubicola. Stonchatter

or Mortetter. G. Klein Brach-

vogelchen, p. 158.
Kegulus cristatus(t\ [No English

name.] G. Gold Hendlin, pp.

154, 1 68.
Rutidlla phccn 2 cunts. Rede Tale.

G. Rotstertz, p. 154.
Saxicola cenanthe. Arlyng, Clot-

burd, Smatche or Steinchek.

G. Brechvogel) p. 52.
Sylvia atricapilla (?). [No Eng-
lish name.] G. Grasmuklen,

p. 44.
6*. rufa ? Lingett. G. Graes-

musch, Grassmusch, p. in,

[cf. P- 136]-

TETRAONID^E. Coturnix commu-
nis. Quale. G. Wachtel, p. 62.
Lagopjis mutus. [No English
name], p. 104.

L. scoticiis. (?) Morhen, p. 86.

Tetrao tetrix. [No English

name], p. 42.

TROGLODYTID^E. Troglodytes par-
vulus. Wren. G. Kuningsgen\
Zaunkiiningk, p. 152.
TURDID^:. Turdus iliacus, mu-
sicus, viscivorus. Thrusche,
Thrushe, Throssel, Mavis, or
Wyngthrushe. G. Drossel,
Durstel, Weingaerdsvoegel, pp.
170, 172.

T. merula. Blak Osel or Blak-
byrd. G. Merl, Amsel, p. 114.

T. pilaris. Feldfare or Feldefare.
G. Krammesvbgel) Wachholter-
vogel, pp. 58, 170. [Confounded
with Mistletoe Thrush?]

UPUPID^E. Upupa epops. Howpe.
G. Houp, Widhopff, p. 174.

VULTURID^E. Vultur sp. Geir.
G. Geyr, p. 176.

AVI V M

PR AEG I PV

ARVM, QVARVM

APVD PLINIVM ET ARI-

ftotelem mentio eft, breuis &

fuccinfta hiftoria.

Ex optimis quibufque fcripto-

ribus contexta, fcholio il/u

Jlrata & aufta.

Adieftis nominibus Grtecls, Germanicis
Britannicis.

Per Dn. Guilielmum Turnerum, artlum £sf Me-
dicines doflorem.

Colonicz excudebat loan. Gymnicus^
Anno M. D. XLIIII.

itrodiiction

L. scoticus. (?) Morhen, p. 86.
trao tetrix. [No Englis
p. 42.

Troglodytes pa
i. Kuningsgi

DE HISTORIA AVIUM.

Epistola Nuncupatoria

[P. 3] Illuftriffimo VValliae principi, Eduuardo
filio haeredi, fereniffimi & potentif-
fimi Henrici VIII. regis Anglias,
Franciae, & Hiberniae, Guilielmus
Turnerus S. P. D.

RUDENS admodum, &, fi quid ego intel-
ligo (illuftriffime princeps) neceffaria im-
primis regij prophetae fuit admonitio, qua reges,
principes & iudices terrse, ut intelligerent, &
eruditionem confequerentur, admonuit. Nam
ut fummus ille reru architectus Deus optimus
maximuscj*, caput fuper omnes reliquas corpo-
ris partes in homine, qui perfectiffime in fe
[p. 4] Reipublicae fimulachrum gerit, collocauit, &
omnes quinq* fenfus fimul in eo repofuit,
ut pro reliquis omnibus mebris (quibus folus
ta6lus eft conceffus) uideret, audiret, guftaret &
odoret, & eorum faluti confuleret : ita principem
Reipublice, corpori ex multis memb-ris conflato,
ueluti caput praefecit, ut prudentia, eruditione,
& fenfibus fuis non tarn exterioribus, qua inte-
rioribus, totius Reipublicae commodis & faluti
profpiceret. In pedibus uifum, in tibijs audi-
tum, in manibus olfactum, in brachijs odoratum
nemo requirit: fed hacc omnia in capite requi-
runtur.

Epistle Dedicatory

To the most illustrious Prince of Wales,
Edward, son and heir of the most serene
and mighty Henry VIII, King of Eng-
land, France and Ireland, William Turner
wishes long life and health.

EXCEEDING wise, and if I understand aright,
necessary above all things, most illustrious
Prince, was the warning of the royal prophet, in which
he admonished kings, princes, and judges of the earth
that they should have understanding and seek learn-
ing. For, as that architect supreme of the universe,
God most good and great, placed the head above all
the remaining parts of the body in man, who in him-
self shews forth the image of a most perfect State,
and stored up in it all the five senses at once, that it
should see, hear, taste, and smell for all the remaining
members (to which touch alone has been allowed),
and should consult for their well-being ; so he hath
set the Prince, as it were a head, over the State,
a body welded together of many members, that he
should provide for the advantage and well-being of
the whole State by his wisdom, learning and senses,
not so much external as internal. No one demands
sight in the feet, hearing in the legs, smell1 in the
hands, or smell in the arms ; but all these things are
necessary in the head.

1 This should probably be "taste" (gustum).

4 Epistola Nuncupatoria

Quum igitur tot fenfus in capite uni tantu
corpori prefeclo requirantur : quot fenfus, quan-
tum fapientiae & eruditionis ab eo capite exi-
[p- 5] guntur, cui plus quam trecentorum milium
corporum praefeclura committitur ? Quod fi
quis forfan refpondeat, non in principe, fed in
ijs folis, qui illi a confilijs funt, eruditionem &
prudentiam requiri : hunc ego dignum cenfere,
qui pro tali refponfo, omnibus fenfibus, excepto
taclu, orbatus in media fylua uepribus & fpinis
denfa, caueis & foffis formidabili, quatuor du-
cibus comitatus ftatueretur, nobis diclurus, nu
proprijs malit uti fenfibus an alienis ? & num
tutius illi fit, ducum fuorum incertorum fenfibus,
an proprijs duci ? & qua ratione caecus & furdus
odoratu & guftu deftitutus ipfe, ceci'ne an ui-
detes fui fint duces, dignofcere poffit ?

In confiliarijs fummam prudentiam & eru-
[p. 6] ditionem non uulgarem requiri, non diffiteor :
uerum non in ijs folis, nam fi illi, qui principi
funt a confilijs, ad tempus bene confulant, &
poftea in ipfius perniciem male fuadeant, ut
Abfaloni Achitofelem feciffe legimus : quomodo
perniciofum illortim confiliu ipfe fubodorabitur
& depraehendet, nifi eruditione & prudentia con-
filiarios fuos aut fuperet, aut faltem sequet ?
Quare no in confiliarijs tantum, fed in principe
ipfo eruditio & fapietia requiruntur. Non de-
funt, qui fatis effe principi exiftimant, quo caete-
ris mortalibus praeftet, fi regio ueftitu, diuitijs,
copijs, fcite pulfando teftudinem, & tela dextre
uibrando, fubditis fuis preluceat : uerum fortif-
[p. 7] fimi quiqj & fapientiffimi reges longe diuerfum

Epistle Dedicatory 5

Inasmuch therefore as so many senses are requisite
in the head, which is set over one body alone, how
many senses and what a wealth of wisdom and learn-
ing are demanded from that head, to whom more than
three hundred thousand bodies are given in charge ?
But if any should chance to answer that learning and
wisdom are needed not in the Prince, but only in
those who are his councillors, I should consider it
fitting that he for such a reply should be set, accom-
panied by four guides, in the midst of a wood tangled
with briers and thorns, and dangerous with its pits
and ditches, deprived of all his senses, except that
of touch, and should tell us whether he preferred to
use his own senses or those of others : or whether it
would be safer for him to be led by the senses of
his doubting guides or by his own ; and in what way
he, being blind and deaf, and destitute of smell and
taste, could determine whether his guides were blind
or able to see.

I fail not to confess that the highest wisdom, and
learning of no common sort, are requisite in coun-
cillors, but not in them alone ; for if they who are
the advisers of the Prince, give good counsel for
the time, and afterwards prompt him ill to his de-
struction, as we read that Achitofel did in the case
of Absalom, how shall he smell out and detect their
fatal advice, unless he either excels or at least equals
his councillors in learning and wisdom ? Wherefore
not only in councillors but in the Prince himself are
learning and wisdom requisite. There are not want-
ing those who think it enough for a Prince, as matters
in which he should surpass other mortals, if he out-
shines his subjects in royal garb, in riches, in resources,
in cunningly striking the lyre, and in skilfully throwing
the spear; but all the bravest and wisest kings have

6 Epistola Nuncupatoria

fenferunt. Na Mithridates rex Poti & Bithy-
nie, fe regnorum fuorum caput effe intelliges, et
tot corporibus, quot preerat, unica uernacula
fuam lingua minime fufficere, uiginti duas
linguas getium, quas fub ditione fua habuit, ita
perfecle didicit & percalluit, ut uiginti illarum
gentium uiris fine interprete prompte refponde-
rit, & fua cuique lingua non fecus atque gentilis
fuiffet, locutus fuerit. Ide rerum abditas natu-
ras ita peruefligauit, & in re medica ita foeliciter
fuit uerfatus, ut aduerfus lethalia uenena anti-
dotum, quod hodie etiamnum ab eo nomen
fortitum, Mithridatium appellatur, fuo Marte
inuenerit. Alexander ille Macedonum rex, tarn
[p. 8] naturae quam fortunae dotibus iure fufpici-
endus, tanto bonarum artium & philofophiae
potiffimum ftudio flagrauit, ut etia in zelotypiam
quandam literariam incident. Nam is cum
omnem prope Afiam armis & exercitu teneret,
ubi primu Ariftotelem libros fuos de ausculta-
tione phyfica inuulgaffe acceperat, in tantis
negocijs cum Ariftotele, miffa ftatim epiflola
de editis libris, his uerbis expoftulabat : Quod
difciplinas d/cpoa/xartfcas edidifti, non recle fe-
cifti. nam qua alia re caeteris praeftare poteri-
mus, fi ea, quae abs te accepimus, omnium pror-
fus fuerint communia ? Quippe ego doctrina
anteire malim, quam copijs atqj opulentijs. Haec
Alexander.

Diuino approbatus oraculo rex ille Dauid,

Epistle Dedicatory 7

thought quite differently. For Mithridates, king of
Pontus and Bithynia, understanding that he was the
head of his domains, and that his native tongue alone
was by no means sufficient for the numerous bodies, over
which he reigned, learned so perfectly and understood
so thoroughly the twenty-two tongues1 of the nations,
which he had under his sway, that he gave immediate
answers to twenty men of those nations without an
interpreter, and spoke to each in his own tongue just as
if it had been native to him. He also so thoroughly
traced out the hidden natures of things, and occupied
himself to such good purpose in the science of medi-
cine, that he discovered by his own exertions an
antidote to deadly poisons, which even to-day is called
Mithridatium, a name derived from him. The great
Alexander, king of the Macedonians, rightly renowned
as much for the gifts of nature as for those of fortune,
burned with so great a zeal for the noble arts, and
philosophy in particular, that he even descended to
a sort of literary jealousy. For though he was
holding almost all Asia by force of arms and his
troops, when first he heard that Aristotle had made
public his books ' De Auscultatione Physica,' in the
midst of such great concerns he expostulated with
Aristotle in the following words, a letter having been
at once sent off concerning the publication of the
books: "In that you have published your teachings
called aKpoa^ariKol you have not done rightly ; for
in what other thing shall I be able to excel the rest,
if those things, which I have heard from you, become
henceforth the common property of all ? For I should
prefer to stand first in learning rather than in re-
sources and wealth." Thus said Alexander.

The great king David, approved by the voice of

1 'Duas' is perhaps a misprint for 'duarum.'

8 Epistola Nuncupatoria

[p. 9] qui & propheta fuit diuino numine adflatus, atqj
ideo qd regi maxime neceffariu foret, cogno-
fcens, ante omnia literas, nempe facras expetiuit,
ut fibi teperare non potuerit, quin diceret, Bene-
diftus es domine, doce me iuftificationes tuas,
in uia mandatoru tuoru deleclatus fum, ficut in
omnibus diuitijs : in mandatis tuis exercebor, &
confiderabo uias tuas. Reuela oculos meos, &
confiderabo mirabilia de lege tua. Bonitate &
difciplina & fcientiam doce me : ego autem in
toto corde meo fcrutabor mandata tua. Nifi
quod lex tua meditatio mea eft, tune forte perif-
fem in humilitate mea. Quam dulcia faucibus
meis eloquia tua, fuper mel ori meo. Bonum
mihi lex oris tui fuper milia auri & argeti.

[p- I01 Lucerna pedibus meis uerbum tuum, & lumen
femitis meis. Declaratio fermonum tuorum il-
luminat, & intelleclum dat paruulis. Haclenus
rex Dauid, & pace & bello omnium regum il-
luftriffimus.

Rex Solomon huius films, omniu, quos un-
qua terra genuit, fapientifs. cuius unius autori-
tati plus tribuendum eft, quam fexcentis adula-
toribus diuerfum fuadetibus, cum totius orbis
conditor & omnium bonorum largitor Deus
pater, illi, quod fibi optimum, & ex ufu fuo
maxime fore iudicaret, ultro offerret, & pofcenti
mox fe daturu promitteret, ad hunc modum, ut
diuinae literse teftantur, refpondit. Nunc domi-
ne Deus, tu me regnare fecifti feruum tuum pro
[p- IJ1 Dauide patre meo, ego autem fum puer par-
uulus, & ignorans ingreffu, & introitu meu : &
feruus tuus in medio eft populi, quern elegifti,

Epistle Dedicatory 9

God, who was moreover a prophet filled with divine
inspiration, and therefore well aware of what was
especially necessary for a king, sought before all
things learning, and that of course divine, so that he
was unable to restrain himself from saying " Blessed
art thou, O Lord, teach me thy righteousness, I have
delighted in the way of thy commandments, as in all
riches : in thy statutes will I exercise myself, and
I will consider thy ways. Open thou mine eyes,
and I will consider the wonderful things of thy law.
Teach me goodness and instruction and learning ; but
with my whole heart will I examine thy command-
ments. Unless thy law had been my meditation,
then should I perchance have perished in my low
estate. How sweet are thy sayings to my mouth,
better than honey to my lips. The law of thy mouth
is a good to me beyond thousands of gold and silver.
Thy word is a lantern unto my feet, and a light unto
my paths. The telling of thy discourses giveth light
and understanding to babes." Thus far king David,
the most illustrious of all kings both in peace and war.
King Solomon, his son, the wisest of all that
earth ever bore, to whose single authority more
weight is to be given than to six hundred flatterers
persuading to a different course, when God the Father,
maker of all the world and giver of all good things,
of his own accord offered to him what he should
judge to be best for himself and for his greatest
advantage, and promised that he would grant it at
once on his request, replied in this manner, as the
Scriptures testify. " Now, O Lord God, thou hast
made me, thy servant, to reign in the room of David
my father, but I am a little child, and know not my
coming in and entering ; and thy servant is in the
midst of the people whom thou hast chosen, an in-

io Epistola N lineup at or ia

populi infiniti, qui numerari & fupputari non
poteft pre multitudine. Dabis ergo feruo tuo
cor docile, ut populum tuum iudicare poffit, &
difcernere inter bonum & malum : quis enim
potefl iudicare populum iftum, populum tuum
hunc multum ? Hue ufq$ Solomon, qui in phi-
lofophia tarn diuina quam humana ita non
multis poft annis profecit, ut de flirpibus a
cedro ufq$ ad hiffopum difputauerit, & de beftijs,
uolucribus, reptilibus, & pifcibus differuerit

Quare, prudentiffimi quique principes, &
[p. 12] fortiffimi, no fatis habebant, fubditos fuos di-
uitijs, honoribus, ueftitu, inceffu, & bellica gloria
excellere, nifi literis, linguis, philofophia tarn
diuina quam humana infuper multum fupera-
rent, & a tergo relinqueret. Quod pater tuus
omnium regum, qui hodie uiuunt, eruditiffimus,
fatis ut regem tantum decet, intelligens, & cui
Reipub. gubernaculum committitur, quam necef-
faria literae & philofophia fmt, prudenter fecum
perpendens, liberos fuos femper eruditiffimis
quibufque praeceptoribus commifit. Duci enim
Richmundiae, piae memoriae, fratri tuo Geor-
gium Folberium praeceptore olim meum, uirum
infigniter doclum, et mirum recle inftituendae
iuuentutis artificem, & tibi nuc uirum longe
[p- 13] doctiffimum (uti audio) praefecit.

Qua de caufa, illuftriffime & optime prin-
ceps, fapietiffimorum & fortiffimorum regum
exempla fecutus, atq* potentiffimi & eruditiffimi
patris tui confilio obtemperans, qui te ad me-
liores imbibendas literas, nunquam non inuitat,
incitat & hortatur, dum aetas tua adhuc tenera

Epistle Dedicatory 1 1

numerable people, a people which cannot be numbered
or counted for their multitude. Thou shalt give
therefore to thy servant a heart that may be taught,
that he may be able to judge thy people, and to
discern between good and evil : for who is able to
judge this people, this great people of thine ?" Thus
far spoke Solomon, who not many years afterwards
so excelled in philosophy both divine and human
that he disserted about plants from the cedar even
to the hyssop, and discoursed of beasts, birds, reptiles,
and fishes.

Wherefore all the most wise and brave Princes
have not considered it sufficient to surpass their sub-
jects in riches, honours, garb, gait, and warlike glory,
unless beyond this they excelled them far in learning,
tongues, and philosophy both divine and human, and
left them in the rear. And this your father, the most
learned of all the kings who are alive at the present
day, well understanding, as becomes so great a king,
and one to whom the helm of the State is entrusted,
wisely pondering in his mind how necessary learning
and philosophy are, always committed his children to
the care of the most learned of instructors. For
over your brother the Duke of Richmond, of pious
memory, he set Georgius Folberius, once my tutor,
a man of remarkable learning, and a wondrous
handicraftsman for rightly instructing youth, and now
over you (as I hear) a man by far the most learned
of all.

Wherefore, most illustrious and worthy Prince,
following the steps of the wisest and bravest kings,
and yielding to the advice of your most powerful
and learned father, who so constantly invites you to
the draught of superior learning, spurs you on, and
exhorts you, while your years are yet tender and

12 Epistola Nuncupatoria

eft, & literaru capaciffima, omne genus bona-

rum literarum obuijs ulnis amplectere, difce, &

imbibe, & exantlati in bonas literas laboris olim

te minime poenitebit. Sed ut ad propofitam

metam minori cum negocio poffis peruenire,

libellum De hiftoria auium, in quo Latinis

nominibus Grseca, Germanica & Britanica in

[p. 14] gratiam tuam appofui, ex Ariftotele & Plinio,

& optimis quibusq* fcriptoribus contexui. Hunc

ego nominis tui celebritati dedico, & dono : etia

atq$ etia te obteftans, ut hoc meum qualecunq*

munufculum aequi boni'q* confulas. Quod fi te

facturum intellexero, & hunc libellum figuris &

auium moribus, & medicinis auclum, & de

herbis alium etiam librum, breui, uolente Deo,

in lucem emittam. Vale. Dominus lefus

te nobis fanftiffimis moribus

inftitutum, & optimis lite-

ris imbutum, quam diu-

tiffime inculumem

conferuet.

Coloniae 5. Idus Februarij,
Anno M.D.XLIIII.

Epistle Dedicatory 13

most amenable to learning, embrace with open arms
every kind of noble literature, learn and drink it in,
and hereafter you will surely not repent of the labour
expended upon this noble literature. But that you
may be able to reach with less trouble the goal that
is laid before you I have compiled from Aristotle and
Pliny and all the best writers this little book on ' The
History of Birds,' in which I have placed for your
pleasure the Greek, German, and British names side
by side with the Latin. This I dedicate and offer
to the glory of your name : again and again praying
you to receive this little gift, such as it is, with fair and
favourable consideration. And if I understand that
you will do this, I will shortly, God willing, bring to
the light of day a further edition of this little book
with figures of the birds, their habits, and curative
properties, as well as another book on plants. Fare-
well. May the Lord Jesus preserve you as long as
possible unharmed to us, trained in most holy ways
and filled with the best of learning.

Cullen [Cologne]. February pth, 1544.

[p- 15] De decem generibus Accipitrum.

ARISTOTELES1.

Buteo. A CCIPITRUM genus praecipuum Buteo

J~\_ eft, Triorcha2 a numero teftium nuncupa-

Aefaio. tus : fecundum aefalo, tertium circus. Stellaris
autem, palumbarius, & pernix3 differunt. Ap-
pellantur fubuteones, qui latiores4 funt : alij

Percae percae & fringillarij uocantur : alij leeues5 & ru-

Frmgiilarij. betarij, qui abunde uiuunt6, atque humiuole funt.
Genera non pauciora quam decem effe accipi-
trum aliqui prodiderunt, quae modo quoq* ue-
nandi7 inter fe diffident. Alij enim columbam
humi confidentem, rapiunt, uolantem non appe-
tunt : alij fuper arborem, aut tale quid con-
fcendentem, uenantur : fin humi est, aut uolat,
[p. 1 6] non inuadunt. Alij neq* humi, neq* in fublimi
manente, adgrediutur, fed uolantem capere co-
nantur. Fertur etiam a columbis quodqj ac-
cipitru genus cognofci. Itaqj cum accipiter
prouolat, fi fublimipeta eft, manent quo confhi-
terunt loco : fed fi humipeta qui prouolat, eft,
non manet, fed continue auolant.

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 128—130.

2 Aristotle has simply Kparia-ros pev 6 Tpiopxns.

3 Other readings are Trrepi/Js, nepvys, Trrepvys.

4 Instead of TrXarurepoi, some texts have TrXaruTrrepot, which
would make better sense and mean 'broad-winged.'

6 Xflot, or according to another text eXeioi.

6 The word ew^tcoraroi here, and corresponding expressions
throughout the passages quoted in this book, might possibly
mean that the birds in question have no particular faults, or are
of ordinary respectability. Gaza, however, followed as usual by
Turner, seems to have interpreted the word rightly here.

7 These three words are not found in Aristotle.

Of the ten kinds of Accipitres.

ARISTOTLE.

THE chief kind of Accipitres is Buteo, which from
the number of its testicles is named Triorcha,
y£salo is the second, Circus is the third. Again
Stellaris, Palumbarius, and Pernix differ. Those which
have more breadth are called Subuteones ; other kinds
are named Percae and Fringillarii ; others Laeves and
Rubetarii, which get their living most easily, and fly
near to the ground. Some have asserted that there
are no fewer than ten kinds of the Accipitres which
differ from each other in their several modes of
hunting. For some sorts seize a Dove when sitting
on the ground, but do not touch one flying ; others
seek their prey when perched upon a tree, or such
like, but if it be on the ground or flying do not attack
it. And others seize it neither on the ground, nor
when resting aloft, but strive to catch it flying.
Moreover it is said that each kind of Accipitres is
recognised by Doves. So, when the Accipiter comes
forth, if it be such as hunts on high, they stay where
they have settled, but, if that which comes be such
as takes them on the ground, they stay not, but forth-
with fly off.

1 6 Accipitres

PLINIUS1.

Accipitrum genera fedecim inuenimus. Ex

Circus. ijs circon claudum altero pede, profperrimi

tpecuarie, augurij nuptialibus negocijs, & fpecuniariae rei2.

Triorchen a numero teftiu, cui principatum

Buteo. in augurij s Phcemone dedit : buteone hunc

appellant Rom. Aefalona Graeci uocant, qui

folus omni tepore apparet. Caeteri hyeme

Cymindis. abeunt. Nocturnus accipiter cymindis uocatur,

[p- J7] rarus etiam in fyluis, interdiu minus cernens :

bellum internecinum cum aquila gerit : cohse-

rentescj* faepe prsehenduntur. Hsec Plinius.

Quanquam A riftoteles decent effe accipitrum genera
tradat, & Plinius fedecim : neuter tamen horum h&c
ita dtftinxit genera, & defcripfit, ut procliue fit leflori
fuum cuique peculiare nomen ex illorum prczfcriptis
imponere. Quare a me nemo horum exaftam differ en-
tiam, & cuiufque nomen Britannicum aut Germanictim
cum Latino & Grceco coniunEtum, itire poterit exigere.
Ego tamen, quod nomen Britannicum, cuiq; Latino
imponedum effe cenfeo, letJorem minime celabo.

Buteo. Buteo rpLop^r)^ Greece diflus, Anglorum busharda

eft, nijl fallar : nam miluo magnitudine cequiparatur ,
femperq-, ipfe cernitur, qualem Ariftoteles ocJauo libro
de hijloria animalium bitteonem defcribit.

Aefalo. \io-d\wv, quoniam iuxta Plinij fententiam omni

tempore apparet, & inter minores accipitres fola merlina
fiue fmerla, femper adpareat, rnihi A nglorum merlina,
& Germanor. fmerla effe uidetur.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. viii.

2 If the reading pecuarias is accepted, the meaning would
appear to be 'for cattle breeding.'

Accipitres 1 7

PLINY.

Of Accipitres we have found sixteen kinds. Circus
among them, halting in a foot, of lucky omen in
nuptial affairs and money business. Triorches next,
to which Phcemone1 gave the foremost place in
auspices, named from the number of its testicles :
the Romans call it Buteo and the Greeks ^Esalon :
it is the only kind which may be seen at every time.
The rest leave us in winter. An Accipiter that flies
by night is called Cymindis ; it is rarely found in
woodlands, in the day it scarce can see : it wages
deadly warfare with the Aquila, and they are often
captured clinging to each other. So far Pliny.

Though Aristotle may set forth that there are ten kinds
of Accipitres, and Pliny that there are sixteen, yet neither
of them has distinguished or described the kinds so that it
may be easy for a reader to apply to each its proper name
from their accounts. So no one can in fairness claim from
me their exact difference, nor yet the British or the German
name of each, together with the Latin or the Greek equivalent.
I will, however, surely not conceal from you, my reader,
what I think to be the British name, and to which Latin
name it ought to be applied.

Buteo, called in Greek rpiopxr)?, if I do not err, is the
Buzzard of the English, for it is compared with Milvus as
to size ; moreover it is seen at all times, and is such a bird
as Aristotle makes his Buteo in the eighth book of the
1 History of Animals.'

AtVaXw^, since in Pliny's judgment it appears at every
season, and among the smaller Hawks the Merlin or the
Smerl alone seems to appear2 at all times, is, I think, the
Merlin of the English and Smerl of the Germans.

1 Phcemone, called 'Daughter of Apollo,' was a priestess at Delphi.
(See Pliny Hist. Nat. ed. Hardouin : Lipsias, 1791, Index Auctorum,
p. 340.)

2 This seems to be the force of the subjunctive here, if it is not an
oversight.

T. 2

i8

A ccipitres — A Icedo

nus.

Fringilla-
rius.

Rubetarius.

[p. 1 8] Accipitrem palumbarium ideo Anglorum fparhau-
Palumba- cam, & Germanorum fperuuerum effe puto, quod pa-
lumbes, columbos, perdices & grandiufculas aues infe-
quatur.

Fringillarium Anglorum hobbid effe conijcio. Eft
autem hobbia accipiter minimus, coloris cceteris nigri-
oris. In capite duos habet nigerrimos in pallido neuos.
Galeritas & fringillas plerumq; captat, in excel/is ar-
boribus nidulatur, & hyeme nufquam cernitur.

Rubetarium effe credo accipitrem ilium, quern Angli
hen harroer nominant. Porrb ille apud noftros a dila-
niandis gallinis nomen habet. Palumbarium magni-
tudine fuperat, & coloris eft cinerij. Humi fedentes
aues in agris, & gallinas in oppidis & pagis repente
adoritur. Prceda fruftratus, tacitus difcedit, nee iin-
quam fecundum facit infulttim. Hie per humum om-
nium uolat maxime.

Subbuteonem effe puto, quern Angli ringtalum appel-
lant, ab albo circulo, qui caudam circuit. Colore eftmedio
inter fuluum & nigru, buteone paulb minor, fed multb
agilior. Prcedam eodem modo, quo fuperior captat.

[p. 19] DE ALCEDONE.

A.\Kva)i>y alcedo, Anglice the kynges fifsher, Germa-
nice e^n eijwogel.

ARISTOTELES1.

Alcedo non multo amplior paffere est, co-
lore turn uiridi, turn cceruleo, turn etiam leuiter
purpureo infignis : uidelicet non particulatim
colore ita diftinfta, fed ex indifcreto uarie re-
fulgens corpore toto & alls & collo, roflrum
fubuiride, longum & tenue. Alcedonum 2 quo-

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 85.

2 Hist. An. Bk vill. 47.

Subbuteo.

A ccipitres — A Icedo 1 9

The Accipiter palumbarius1 I take to be the Sparrow-
Hawk of the English and the Sperwer of the Germans,
since it preys on Doves, Pigeons, and Partridges and the
bigger sorts of birds.

The Fringillarius I guess to be the Hobby of the English.
Now the Hobby is a very little Hawk of darker colour than
the other kinds. It has upon the head two spots of deep
black on a lighter ground. It catches for the most part
Larks and Finches, nests on lofty trees, and is not seen in
winter anywhere.

The Rubetarius I think to be that Hawk which English
people name Hen-Harrier. Further it gets this name among
our countrymen from butchering their fowls. It exceeds the
Palumbarius in size, and is in colour ashen. It suddenly
strikes birds when sitting in the fields upon the ground, as well
as fowls in towns and villages. Baulked of its prey it steals
off silently, nor does it ever make a second swoop. It flies
along the ground the most of all.

The Subbuteo I think to be that Hawk which English-
men call Ringtail from the ring of white that reaches round
the tail. In colour it is midway from fulvous to black ; it
is a little smaller than the Buteo, but much more active.
It catches prey in the same manner as the bird above.

OF THE ALCEDO.

rA\KV(w, alcedo, in English the kynges fisher, in German
eyn eissvogel.

ARISTOTLE.

The Alcedo, not much larger than the Passer, is
remarkable for being in its colour green and blue,
and even slightly purple, not, that is to say, in sepa-
rate parts, as if it had the colour perfectly distinct,
but variably shining over every part alike of the
whole body, with the wings and head. The beak
is greenish, and is long and thin. The tribe of

1 Later authors are probably more correct in applying this name to the
Goshawk, which suits even Turner's account better.

2 2

2O A Ice do

que genus aquas adamat, quod duplex eft :
alterum uocale, harundinibus infidens, alterum
mutum, quod ampliore corpore eft . utrique dor-
fum cceruleum. Sed alcedo apud mare quoque
uerfatur.

PLINIUS \

Ipfa auis paulo amplior pafcere2, colore
[p. 20] cyaneo, ex parte maiore, tantum purpureis &
candidis admixtis pennis, collo gracili ac pro-
cero. Alterum genus earum, magnitudine dif-
tinguitur, & cantu. Minores in harundinetis
canunt. Halcyonem uidere rariffimu eft, nee
nifi Vergiliarum occafu, & circa folftitia, bru-
mam'ue, naue aliquando circumuolata, ftatim in
latebras abeuntem. Fcetificant bruma, qui dies
Halcionides uocatur, placido mari per eos &
nauigabili, Siculo maxime. In reliquis partibus
eft quidem mitius pelagus. Siculu utiq* tracla-
bile. Faciunt autem feptem ante brumam die-
bus nidos, & totidem fequentibus pariut. Nidi
earum admirationem habent, pilae figura paulu
eminente, ore perquam angufto, grandium
[p. 21] fpongiarum fimilitudine, ferro intercidi non
queunt, franguntun^ i6lu ualido, ut fpuma arida
maris. Nee unde confingantur inuenitur. Pu-
tant ex fpinis aculeatis, pifcibus enim uiuunt.
Subeunt & in amnes. Pariunt oua quina.

1 Hist, Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxii.

2 Lege 'passere.'

A Ice do 21

Kingfishers, of which there are two sorts, is fond of
watersides : one is a vocal bird, which sits on reeds,
the other, which is of a larger size, is mute. The
back is blue in both. The Kingfisher, however, also
haunts the sea.

PLINY.

This bird is little bigger than the Passer, for the
most part blue in colour, with the wings alone of
purple mixed with white, and with a long and slender
neck. Each of the two kinds may be distinguished
by its size and voice. The lesser sing in reed-beds.
It is very rare to see the Halcyon, and this occurs
only towards the setting of the Pleiades and near the
solstice or in winter-time, when, after circling round
the ship awhile, it hurriedly departs again to its
retreat. They breed in winter, at the season called
the Halcyon days1, wherein the sea is calm and fit for
navigation, the Sicilian sea particularly so. Elsewhere
indeed the ocean is less boisterous. The Sicilian is
certainly gentle enough. Now these birds build their
nests in the seven days before the winter solstice,
and hatch out their young in the seven following.
Their nests compel our wonder, of a ball-like shape,
with a small jutting part and very narrow hole,
like sponges of great size ; they cannot be cut open
with an iron tool, but may be broken by a vigorous
blow, as dry sea-foam2 may be. It is not known
of what these are composed. Some think of pointed
bones, since the birds live on fish. They also dive
in rivers, and lay five eggs each.

1 For the origin of this ancient tradition, the reader may be referred
to any work dealing with Greek mythology.

2 By 'dry sea-foam' Pliny probably meant masses of whelks' eggs.

22 A nas — A user

Prater h<zc duo ab Arijlotele & Plinio defcripta
genera, auem noui, qua fi alcedomim generibtis non Jit
adfcribenda, fub quo genere contineatur, prorfus nefcio.
Ea ftttrno paulb minor eft, corpore toto nigro, excepto
uentre albo. Caudam habet breuiufculam, roftrum
alcedone paulb breuius. Ante uolatum, alcedonis more
crebrb nutat, & in uolatu gemit: uoce alcedone ita re-
fert, tit, niji uideas, alcedonem ejfe iurares : in ripis
fluminum, non procul a-mari uidi, alias nufquam. pif-
ciculis uiflitat ut fuperiora alcedonum genera. Nidum
huius nunquam uidi. Morpetenfes, apud quos auem

a uuater uidi, cornicem uocant aquaticam.
crauu.

DE A NATE.
N^rra, anas, Anglice a duck, Germanice et)U enbt.

PLINIUS1.

[p. 22] Anates folse, quse'que funt eiufdem generis,
in fublime fefe protinus tollunt, atqj e uefligio
coelum petunt, & hoc etiam ex aqua.

DE ANSERE.

X^i/, anfer, Anglice a gofe, Germanice e^n gang.

A riftoteles Jimul & Plinius duo prczcipua anferum
genera faciunt : hie anferem in maiorem & minor em t
ille in domitu et feru diuidens. Sed Plin. prater hczc
duo anferum prcecipua genera, Penelopes* et chenalopeces ,
ut unus texttis habet, &, ut alius habet, chenalopeces , &
chenerotes anferini ejfe generis tradit. Prior lectio Jic
habet,

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxviii.

2 Judging from p. 148 of the original work the singular of
this word is ' Penelops,' and it is probably by mistake that the
Wigeon has been called Mareca penelope.

Anas — Anser 23

Besides the two kinds thus described by Aristotle and
Pliny I know of a bird, of which, if it should not be properly
ascribed to the Kingfisher tribe, I really cannot say under
what head it ought to go. It is a little smaller than
a Starling, with the body wholly black, except for a white
belly, and it has the tail comparatively short, the beak a little
shorter than the Kingfisher. Before a flight it dips repeatedly,
after the manner of the Kingfisher, and cries out as it flies ;
it is so like the Kingfisher in voice that, if you did not see
it, you would swear it was a Kingfisher. I have observed
it on the banks of streams not far from the sea-side, but
nowhere else. It lives on little fishes, like the aforesaid kinds
of Kingfishers. I never saw its nest. The inhabitants of
Morpeth, where I saw the bird, call it a water craw1.

OF THE ANAS.
NiJTra, anas, in English a duck, in German eyn endt.

PLINY.

Anates only, and birds of like kind, rise in the
air at once, and make straight for the sky, and that
even from the water.

OF THE ANSER.

XT^, anser, in English a goose, in German eyn ganss.

Aristotle agrees with Pliny in making two chief kinds of
Geese, the latter separating them into the greater and the
less, the former into tame and wild. But Pliny tells us that
besides these two chief kinds of Geese, there are of the
Goose kind Penelopes and Chenalopeces, as one text has it,
as another goes, Chenalopeces and Chenerotes. The first
reading stands thus : —

1 The bird meant is undoubtedly the Water Ousel or Dipper (Cinclus
aquaticus], which still goes by the name of Water Craw in the north of
England. It is curious that Turner should never have seen its nest when
he was in Northumberland.

24 Anser.

Anferu generis funt Penelopes, & quibus
lautiores epulas Britannia non nouit, chenalo-
peces, anfere fere minores. Altera fie habet:
Anferini generis funt chenalopeces & quib9
lautiores epulas Britannia no nouit, chenerotes1.

Pofterior lectio mihi magls approbatur, nam &

nos una aue locupletat, et penelopes anatini potius $

[p- 23] anferini generis eruditis effe uidenttir. Sed quce'nam iftce

aues, & quibus nominibus apud noftrates appellantur,

dicere tentabo. Chenalopex, ab anfere et uulpe nomen

habet, & Latine a Gaza uulpanfer dicitur. Noftrates

a bergander. hodie bergandrum nominat, anate longior & grandior

uulpanfer eft, pectore ruffefcente, in aquis degit, & in

cuniculoru foueis. interdum & in excelfarum rupium

cauernis (imde forte nomen ab Anglofaxonibus, noftris

patribus fortitus eft) nidificat. Nufqiiam alias uul-

panferem uidi, niji in Tami/i fluuio. Aiunt tamen

freqttetem ejje in infula Tenia uocata, & illic in fcrobi-

bus cuniculorum nidulari. Moribus admodum uul-

pinis eft. nam dum teneri adlmc pulli funt, Jl quis

eos captare tentet, prouoluit fefe uulpanfer ante pedes

captantis, quajl iam capi pojjit, atq; ita allicit ad fe

capiendam hominem, eoufq', dum pulli effugiant : tum

ipfe auolat & reuocat prolem. Chenerotes qiicenam aues

Jint, puto paucijfimos hodie effe, qui nouerunt. Neq\

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxii.

Anser 25

" Of the Goose kind there are Penelopes and
also Chenalopeces, the latter generally smaller than
a Goose ; and Britain knows no richer feast than
these."

The second runs : —

" Of the Goose kind are Chenalopeces and Che-
nerotes, Britain knows no richer feast than these."

To me the latter reading most approves itself, for it
both makes us richer by one bird, and the Penelopes seem
to our learned men to be of the Duck tribe rather than of
the Goose. But I will try to say what these birds are and
by what names they go among our countrymen. The Chena-
lopex1 takes its name from the Goose and the Fox, while
it is called by Gaza Vulpanser in Latin, though our people
nowadays name it Bergander'2. It is longer than a Duck
and bigger, with a ruddy breast. It lives upon the waters
and in coneys' burrows. At times it even nests in holes of
lofty rocks (whence possibly the name was first allotted to
it by our ancestors the Anglo-Saxons). I have nowhere else
seen the Vulpanser save upon the river Thames. Neverthe-
less they say that it is plentiful upon the isle which is called
Tenia3, and that it breeds in coneys' burrows there. In
habits it is very like a Fox, for, while the young are still
of tender age, should any one attempt to capture them, the
old Vulpanser rolls upon the ground before his very feet4,
as if she could be taken there and then, and thus allures
the man to follow her, until the young are able to escape ;
then she flies off and summons back her brood. I think that
there are very few men now who know what sort of birds the

1 Turner's bird was undoubtedly the Sheld-Drake (Tadorna cornuta),
notwithstanding the fact that the name Chenalopex has been conferred
on the so-called 'Fox-Goose' of Africa.

2 The Sheld-Drake is still the Bargander or Bergander of some
districts of England ; possibly the correct spelling should be Burgander,
i.e. Burrow Duck. The word seems to have nothing to do with Berg = a
mountain.

3 Possibly St Mary's, or even Coquet Island.

4 The Sheld-Drake does not usually behave thus.

26 Anser

ego, hcet Britannus, chenerotes noftros fatis noiii : na
prceter duo Ariftot. genera, anferu adhuc duo genera
noui in Britdnia, ad quoru neutrum Jl chenerotes per-
tinedt, chenerotes mihi penitus ignotos effe ingenue fa-
tebor. Prior anfer a nojlris hodie brdta & bernicla
uocatur, & fero anfere minor eft, pec~tore aliqub ufq;

[p. 24] nigro. Ccetero cinerio, anferum feroru more uolat,
ftrepit, paludes frequetat, & fegete depopulatur. Caro
huius paulb infuauior eft, & diiiitibus minus appe-
tita. Nidum berniclce, aut ouum nemo uidit: nee
mirum, quum ftne parentis opera berniclcs ad hum
modu fpontaneam habedt generation^. Quum ad cer-
tum tempus, malus nauis in mari coputruit, aut tabula,
aut antemice abiegnce, inde in principio ueluti fungi
erumput: in quibus temporis progreffu, manifeftas
auiu figuras cernere licebit, deinde pluma ueftitas,
poftremb uiuas & tiolantes. Hoc, ne cid fabulofum
effe uideatur, prceter comune omniu gentiu littoraliu
Anglice, Hibernicz & Scotics, teftimoniu Gyraldus ille
prceclarus hiftoriographus qui multb fcelicius g_ pro
fuo tempore Hibernics hiftoriam confcripfit, no aliam
effe berniclaru generation^ teftatur. Sed, quum uulgo
non fatis tutu uideretur fidere, et Gyraldo ob rei rari-
tatem non fatis crederem, dum hcec, qua nunc fcribo,
meditarer, uirum quendam, cuius mihi perfpec~lij]ima
integritas fidem merebatur, profejftone Theologum, na-
tione Hibernum, nomine Octauianil, confutui num
Gyraldum hac in re fide digmtm cenferet ? qui per
ipfum iurans, quod profitebatur euangelium, refpondit,
ueriffimum effe, quod de generatione hznus auis Gy-

[p- 25] raldus tradidit, seq; rudes adhuc aues oculis iddijfe, &
manibus contreflajfe : breuify ft Londini menfem unum
aut alteriim manerem, aliquot rudes auiculas mihi
adueflas curaturu. Ifta berniclce generatio no ufq\ adeo

A user 27

Chenerotes are. And, though I am a Briton, I am not quite
sure about our Chenerotes ; for as yet, apart from the two
kinds that Aristotle gives, I know two sorts of Geese in
Britain and will frankly own that, if the Chenerotes are not
to belong to either of them, they are quite unknown to me.
The first Goose by our people nowadays is called the Brant
and Bernicle, and is a smaller bird than the Wild Goose, with
the breast partly black. The rest is ashen grey. It flies,
gabbles, haunts swamps, and devastates green crops, like the
Wild Goose. Its flesh is somewhat strong, and is the less
sought after by the rich. No one has seen the Bernicle's
nest or egg, nor is this wonderful, since Bernicles without
a parent's aid are said to have spontaneous generation in
this way : When after a certain time the firwood masts or
planks or yard-arms of a ship have rotted on the sea, then fungi,
as it were, break out upon them first, in which in course of
time one may discern evident forms of birds, which afterwards
are clothed with feathers, and at last become alive and fly.
Now lest this should seem fabulous to anyone, besides the
common evidence of all the long-shore men of England,
Ireland, and Scotland, that renowned historian Gyraldus1,
who composed a history of Ireland in much more happy
style than could have been expected in his time, bears witness
that the generation of the Bernicles is none other than this.
But inasmuch as it seemed hardly safe to trust the vulgar and
by reason of the rarity of the thing I did not quite credit
Gyraldus, while I thought on this, of which I now am
writing, I took counsel of a certain man, whose upright
conduct, often proved by me, had justified my trust, a theo-
logian by profession and an Irishman by birth, Octavian by
name, whether he thought Gyraldus worthy of belief in this
affair. Who, taking oath upon the very Gospel which he
taught, answered that what Gyraldus had reported of the
generation of this bird was absolutely true, and that with
his own eyes he had beholden young, as yet but rudely
formed, and also handled them, and, if I were to stay in
London for a month or two, that he would take care that
some growing chicks should be brought in to me. This
curious generation of the Bernicle will not appear so very
1 Giraldus Cambrensis, Topographia Hibernica Distinctio I. cap. xv.

28 Anser

prodigiofa illis uidebitur, qui quod A riftoteles de uolucre
ephemero fcripfit, legerint.

De ephimero autem Ariftoteles^ libro quinto de
hiftoria animalium ita fcribit. Hyppanis fluuius
apud Cymerium Bofphorum fub folftitio, defert
ueluti folliculos acinis maiores, quibus quadru-
pedes uolucres erumpunt : quod genus animalis
in poftmeridianum 2 ufque diei tempus uiuit &
uolat : mox defcendente fole, macrefcit &
languet3: deinde occidente, moritur, uita non
ultra unum diem protra6la : unde ephemerum,
. id eft, diarium 4 appellatum eft. Hec Ariftotel.

Quce fi uera funt, & tdto philofopho digna, fupe-
rioris aids generationi non parum fidei adftruent.
a folend Alter anfer, de quo promift me dicluru, marina

[p. 26] aui's eft, ex uenatu pifcium uicJitans, magnitudine
fuperiore anfere paulb minor: anferem tamen uoce
& forma per omnia refert, nidulatur in mari Scotico,
in rupibus excel/is, infulce Baffi, per antiphrafim, opi-
nor, ditlcz: nee alias ufpiam in tota Britannia. Hie
tanto amore fuos pullos profequitur, ut cum pueris per
f unes in corbibus ad auferedos eos demiffis, acerrime
non Jine uitce periculo conjlic~tetur. N ec Jilentio prceter-
eundum eft, ex adipe huius anferis (eft enim infigniter
adipofus] unguenttim a Scotis ad multos morbos utilijji-
mum fieri, quod cum commageno a Plinio 5 ce/ebrato,
meritb bonitate & remediorum numero poteft certare.
lam quu anferum genera, licet diligentif/ime inquires,
apud Britannos plura inuenire non pojfim, chenerotes

1 Bk v. 107.

3 These two words are not in the original Greek.

4 This explanation is not given by Aristotle. We have here
an instance of the insertions common in old authors, which will
not be noticed hereafter in each case, as being too numerous.
Another instance is found with regard to ' Albicilla ' (p. 30).

5 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxii.

Anser 29

marvellous to those who may have read what Aristotle
wrote about the flying creature called Ephemerus. Now
Aristotle writes thus of the Ephemerus in the fifth book of
his History of Animals : —

"The river Hyppanis1, near the Cymerian Bos-
phorus2 when the solstice is nigh, brings down small
pouches, as it were, each larger than a grape, from
which four-footed flying creatures burst ; a sort of
animal which lives and flies until the afternoon of the
same day, but presently at the sun's going down
withers and languishes, and finally, at the sun's setting,
dies, lasting no longer than a single day, whence it
is called Ephemerus, that is, the creature of a day."
Thus Aristotle writes.

Now if these things are true, and worthy of the great
philosopher, they will impart no little credibility as to the
generation of the aforesaid bird.

The second Goose, of which I promised I would speak,
is a sea-bird, which lives by hunting fishes, somewhat less
in size than the Goose given above ; and yet in voice and
aspect it recalls the Goose in every way ; it nests within the
Scottish sea, upon the lofty cliffs of the Bass Isle — so called,
as I opine, by an antiphrasis3 — and nowhere else in all
Britain. This bird looks to its young with so much loving
care, that it will fight most gallantly with lads that are let
down in baskets by a rope to carry them away, not without
danger of its life. Nor must we fail to mention that a salve,
most valuable for many a disease, is made by Scots from
the fat of this Goose (for it is wonderfully full of fat) which
may deservedly rival the Commagenum vaunted much by
Pliny, in its virtue and the number of its cures.

Now since, though searching with the greatest care,
I cannot find any more kinds of Geese among Britons,

1 Now the Bog.

2 Between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea.

3 As if the derivation was from the French <foy = low.

3O A quila

(qui ab amore mihi nomen habere uidentur), aut ber-
niclce ant Baffani anferes funt, aut mihi prorfus ignoti.

DE AQVILA.

aero?, aquila, Anglice an egle, Gennanice eitt aw,
ober em abler.

ARISTOTELES1.

Aquilarum plura funt genera. Vnum, quod
[p. 27] pigargus ab albicante cauda dicitur, ac fi albi-
cillam nomines. gaudet hec planis, & lucis et
oppidis. Hinnularia2 a nonnullis uocata cog-
nomine eft. montes etiam, fyluam^, fuis freta
uiribus, petit, reliqua genera raro plana & lucos
adeunt.

Pygargus, qnum Jit primum aquilarum genus,

Germanorum literatores turpiter errant, qui pygargum

fuum trappum faciunt, qui apud Ariftotelem tetrix,

& Plinio tetrao eft, ut poftea docebo. Pygargus A nglo-

an erne. rum lingua, nifi fallar, erna uocatur.

DE PLANGA AUT CLANGA EX ARISTOTELE3.

'Alterum genus magnitudine fecundnm &
uiribus, clanga4 aut planga nomine, faltus &
conualles, & lacus incolere folitum, cognomi-
ne anataria5, & morphna, a macula pennse,
quafi neuia6 dixeris, cuius etiam meminit Ho-
mer, in exitu Priami 7.

[p. 28] PLINIUS8 DE MORPHNA SIVE PLANGA.

Morphnos, quam Homerus & percnon uocat,
aliqui & plancum & anataria, fecuda magnitu-

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. in. 2 vefipo$6vov = fawn-slayer.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 112.

4 For 7r\ciyyos some texts have ir*hdvos. The word 'clanga'
does not seem to be represented in the Greek.

5 vrjTTo(f)6vos = duck-slayer.

6 This explanation is not in Aristotle.

7 Iliad, Bk xxiv. 1. 316. 8 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii.

Aquila 3 1

the Chenerotes (which seem to me to get their name from
"love"1) are either Bernicles, or the Geese of the Bass, or
are decidedly unknown to me,

OF THE AQUILA.

aero?, aquila, in English an eagle, in German ein arn, or
ein adler.

ARISTOTLE.

Of Aquilae there are several kinds. One which
is called Pygargus from its whitish tail, as though
you were to name it Albicilla, loves plains, groves,
and towns. For by-name it is called by certain Hin-
nularia. It even seeks the mountains and the wood,
relying on its might. The other kinds seldom ap-
proach the plains artd groves.

Now, seeing that Pygargus is the first kind of the Aquilae,
the German scribblers err disgracefully, who reckon it their
Trapp, which is the Tetrix in the works of Aristotle and
the Tetrao of Pliny, as I shall shew afterwards. Pygargus,
if I err not, in the English tongue is called an Erne.

OF THE PLANGA OR CLANGA, FROM ARISTOTLE.

Another kind, second in size and strength, by
name Clanga or Planga, generally haunts glades and
valleys and lakes. It has the by-name Anataria, and
Morphna from the marking on the wing( as though
you should say spotted. Of this Homer makes men-
tion in the scene of Priam's death.

PLINY ON THE MORPHNA OR PLANGA.

Morphnos, which Homer also calls Percnos, some
name Plancus and Anataria, second in size and

1 A very doubtful derivation.

32 Aquila

dine & ui, huiccj* uita circa lacus. Ifla circa
ftagna aquaticas aues appetit mergetes fe fub-
inde, donee fopitas laffatascj* rapiat. Spedlanda
dimicatio, aue ad perfugia littorum tendente,

t in deie- maxime fi condenfa harundo fit: aquila finde
ic~tu abigente ala, & cum appetit in lacus
cadente, umbramcjj fuam nanti fub aqua a littore
oftendente : rurfus aue in diuerfa, & ubi minime
fe credat expectari, emergente. Haec caufa eft
gregatim auibus natandi, quia plures fimul non

t hoftem infeftantur: refperfu pinnaru fhofbe obcaecantes.

alias abudat.

[p. 29] Saepe & aquilse ipfse non tollerantes pondus
apprehenfum, una merguntur. Haec Plinius.

Omnia, qua Ariftoteles & Plinius percno Jiaclenus
tribuerunt, Anglorum balbushardo conueniunt, Jl folam
magnitudinem exceperis, qua Jl alia adfuerint, hie for-
tajfis non oberit. eft autem ilia, qitam anatariam effe
conijcio, auis buteone maior & longior, neno albo in
capite, colore fufco proximo, ad ripas fluininum, ftag-
norum et paludium femper degens, uiuit ex uenatu
anatum et gallinannn nigrarum, quas Angli coutas
nominal. Venationem hanc, cuius meminit Plinius,
inter aquilam iftam (Ji aquila dicenda Jit) & aues
aquaticas, non folum ego f&pijjime uidi, fed infiniti
apud Anglos quotidie uident. Si qua terra porti-
uncula fuper aquas inter arundineta emineat, in hac
folet nidum facere, ut quoniam uolatu non admodum
ualet, a prceda non procul abjit. Aues fubitb adoritur,
& Jic capit. Cuniculos ijla interdum etiam dilaniat.
Nunc an ifta anataria Jit nee ne, doc~lis itiris iudi-
candum propono.

Aquila 33

strength ; it passes its life round lakes. By pools
it chases water-birds, which dive from time to time,
until it catches them sleepy and weary. The con-
test is a sight to see, the quarry seeking refuge
on the shore, chiefly where reeds are thick, and
thence the Aquila drives it away with a stroke of
the wing and plunges in the lake as it swoops from
above, shewing its shadow to the bird as it swims
under water from the shore. Again the latter tries
a different place and comes up where it thinks that
it will least be marked. This is the cause of birds
swimming in flocks, for they are not molested when
in companies, and blind their enemy by splashing with
their wings. The Aquilae themselves, moreover, often
are immersed, not being able to support the weight
that they have clutched. Thus Pliny.

All things that Aristotle and Pliny have attributed to
the bird Percnos so far well agree with the Balbushard of
the English1, if one may except its size alone, and if the
rest be present, that perhaps should not stand in the way.
Now the bird which I apprehend to be the Anataria, being
bigger and longer than the Buteo, with a white patch upon
the head, and nearly fuscous in colour, always haunts the
banks of rivers, pools, and swamps ; it lives by hunting
Ducks and those black fowls which Englishmen call Couts.
The conflict of which Pliny makes mention above between
this Eagle (if it should be called an Eagle) and the water-birds
I have seen often, and not I alone, but countless Englishmen
witness it daily. If anywhere a little space of ground rises
among the reed-beds, there the bird is wont to make a nest,
that, since in power of flight it is not very strong, it may
not be far distant from its prey. It suddenly attacks birds,
and thus takes them. It also sometimes butchers coneys.
Now whether this may be the Anataria or not I put it to the
learned to decide.

1 The Bald-Buzzard or Marsh-Harrier (Circus ceruginosus}.
T. 3

34 Aquila — Haliaetus

DE TERTIO GENERE EX ARISTOTELE \

Tertium genus colore nigricas, unde nomen

[p- 3°] accepit, ut pulla & fuluia 2 uocetur, magnitu-

dine minima, fed uiribus omnium preftantiffima.

Haec colit montes & fyluas & leporaria cogno-

minatur.

PLINIUS3.

Melasnaetos. Melaenaetos a Graecis dic~ta, eademc^ ualeria,
minima magnitudine, uiribus praecipua, colore
nigricans : fola aquilarum foetus fuos alit, caeterae
fugant : fola fine clangore, fine murmuratione.

DE QUARTO GENERE EX ARISTOT. 4

percno- Quartum genus percnopterus ab alarum

pterus. notis, capite albicante, corpore minore, quam
caeterae adhuc dictae, hsec eft. Sed breuioribus
alis, cauda longiore, uulturis fpeciem hec refert.
Subaquila5, & aquila montana cognominatur. In-
[p. 31] colit lucos, degener, nee uicijs caeterarum caret,
& bonorum, quae illae obtinent, expers eft :
quippe quae a coruo, caeteris^ id genus auibus
uerberetur, fugetur, capiatur. Grauis enim eft,
ui6lu iners : examinata 6 fert corpora : famelica
femper eft, et querula, clamitat, & clangit.

DE HALITE TO.

Haliczetus Greece & Latine, Anglice an of prey,
Germanice ett

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 113.

2 Aristotle has merely: KoXflrat Se fj.e\avdfros KCU \ayw(p6vos.

3 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii.

4 Hist. An. Bk IX. 114; a very free version.

5 Some texts read yviraUros for i

6 Lege ' exanimata.' Aristotle has T<I

A quila — Hali&etus 3 5

OF THE THIRD KIND FROM ARISTOTLE.

The third kind in colour is blackish, whence it
has received its name, so that the bird is called Pulla
and Fulvia, in size the least of all and yet chiefest
in strength. It haunts mountains and woods, and is
called also Leporaria.

PLINY.

The bird called Melaenaetos among the Greeks,
which is the same as the Valeria, is very small in size,
but chief in strength, in colour blackish : of the Aquilae
this kind alone fosters its young, the others drive them
off : it is the only one without a scream, without a softer
note.

OF THE FOURTH KIND FROM ARISTOTLE.

The fourth kind, called Percnopterus, from having
spots upon the wings, is whitish on the head ; it has
a smaller body than the other sorts spoken of hitherto.
But with its shorter wings and longer tail it has the
aspect of a Vulture. It is called besides Subaquila
and Mountain Aquila. It dwells in woodlands, an
ignoble bird, not lacking the bad qualities of others,
but void of the good that they possess. For it is
beaten, put to flight, and caught by the Raven and
by other birds like that. Further it is unwieldy,
sluggish to get food, and carries off dead bodies ; it
is always ravenous and querulous ; it cries continually
and screams.

OF THE HALLEETUS.

Haliaeetus in Greek and Latin, in English an Osprey,
in German eyn visharn.

3—2

3 6 Haliaetus — A quila — A rdea

PLINIUS1.

Supereft Haliaeetus, clariffima oculorum acie,
librans ex alto fefe uifoc^ in mari pifce, prseceps
in eu ruens, & difcuffis pe6iore aquis rapiens.

ARISTOTELES 2.

Haliaeetos, hoc eft, marina aquila, ceruice
[p. 32] magna & craffa, alis curuantibus, & cauda lata
eft. Moratur haec in littoribus & oris. Acci-
dit huic faepius, ut quum ferre, quod ceperit,
nequeat, in gurgitem demergatur.

Haliceetos apiid Anglos hodie notior eft, quam
multi uclint) qid in uiuarijs pifces alunt: nam pifces
omnes breui tempore aufert. Pifcatorcs noftrates efcis
fallendis pifcibus deftinatis, Jialiceeti adipem illinunt,
aiit iminifcent, putantes hoc argumento efcam efficaciore
futuram, quod haliceeto fefe in aere librdte, pifces quot-
quot fiibfunt (iiatura aquila ad hoc cogente, ut cre-
ditur) fefe refupinet, & uetres albicantes, ut quern
liberet, eligeret, exhibedt.

DE AQUILA VERA EX ARISTOTELE 3.

Sextum genus gnefmm, id eft, ueru germa-
gie numc^ appellant. Vnu hoc ex omni aquilarum
German. genere, ueri incorruptiA ortus creditur. Maxi-

eyn edel arn. ° . MI

ma omnium aquilarum haec elt, maior etiam
[p. 33] quam offifraga 4 : fed caeteras aquilas uel fefqui-
altera portione excedit, colore ruffa eft, con-
fpeclu rara.

DE ARDEA.

e/3ft)5fco?, ardea, Anglice an heron. Germanice etyn
re^qer.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. iii.

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 115, a free version.

3 Hist. An. Bkix. 116.

4 Gaza translates ^vj\ by ossifraga, but it is very doubtful
what bird the ossifraga really was. Possibly it should be identi-
fied with the Lammergeier (cf. Prof. Newton, Diet. Birds, p. 660).

Haliceetus — Aquila — A rdea 3 7

PLINY.

The Haliaeetus remains, with eyesight of the keen-
est, poising itself aloft when it spies fishes in the sea
below, then dashing headlong on them and securing
them, the waters being parted by its breast.

ARISTOTLE.

The Haliseetos, that is to say Sea Eagle, has
the neck both big and thick, bowed wings, and
a broad tail. It bides upon the sea-coast and the
shores. It often happens, when it cannot lift what
it has taken, that it is submerged beneath the tide.

The Osprey is a bird much better known to-day to
Englishmen than many who keep fish in stews would
wish ; for within a short time it bears off every fish.
Our anglers smear or mix their bait with Osprey's fat,
arguing that thus the bait will prove more efficacious from
the fact that, when the Osprey hovers in the air, whatever
fishes be below turn up and shew their whitish bellies (as it
is believed, the nature of the Aquila compelling them to
this), that it may choose that one which it prefers.

OF THE TRUE AQUILA FROM ARISTOTLE.

The sixth kind men call Genuine, or true and
thoroughbred. Of all the various kinds of Aquilae
this is the only one that is believed to be of true
and unstained origin. This is the largest of all
Aquilse and bigger even than the Ossifrage, for it
surpasses by one half as much the other Aquilse ;
in colour it is reddish brown, but it is rarely seen.

OF THE ARDEA.
o9, ardea, in English a heron, in German eyn

reyger.

38 Ardea

ARISTOTELES1.

Ardearum tria funt genera, pella, alba, ftel-
laris, piger cognomine. Pellse coitus difficilis
eft : uociferatur enim, & fanguinem ex oculis
(ut aiunt) emittit cum coit ; parit etiam segre

Pella. fummocj* cum dolore. Pella fagax 2 & ccense

gerula eft, & operofa 3. Agere interdiu folet :
colore tamen & prauo & aluo humida. Reli-
quarum duarum, alba colore eft pulchro, & coit,
& nidulatur & parit probe, pafcitur paludibus,

Stellaris. lacu, campis & pratis. Sed ftellaris piger cogno-
[p- 34] minata, (in fabula est, ut olim e feruo in auem
tranfierit) atque, ut cognome fonat, iners ocio-
facj* eft. Phoici appellatae4, peculiare prse cae-
teris eft, ut oculos potiffimum appetat5. Petit
lacus & fluuios ardea 6 & albardeola, quae mag-
nitudine minor eft, roftro lato, porreclxxj*.

Pella apud A nglos in exceljis arboribus, no procul

a ripis fluminnm crefcentibus nidum facit. Superior

The blue pars corporis cyanea eft, inferior autem nouihil can-

heron. dicat, uentris excremetis liquidioribns imiadentes fe

fubitb aquilas, aut accipitres abigit, & fe ita defendit.

Vidi & Jiuiiis generis, licet raras, albas, qua neque

corporis magnitudine, neqne figura, fed folo colore, a

fnperiore diftnlerunt. Vifa eft etiam alba cum cyanea

apud A nglos nidulari, & prolem gignere. Quare eiuf-

dem effe fpeciei,fatis conftat. Albardeolarn, quce Greece

a cryel heron XevrcepwSios dicitur, femel tantuni in Italia nidi, pella

or a duuarf ^lultb minor eft, & hominis confpet~lu no perinde atq;

a myre cceriilea fugit. Hdc ft no uidiffem, Angloru shoue-

dromble.

2 Hist. An, Bk ix. 93.

3 Aristotle's word is eVaypos1, which Sundevall renders by the
Swedish equivalent of ' forages round the fields.'

4 Hist. An. Bk IX. 94.

5 This seems to mean that the (f>a>v£ eats other creatures'
eyes, for Aristotle says : /idXto-ra yap eo-nv o0$aA/zo/3dpo$' ra>v
6pvi6(*)v.

6 Hist, An. Bk vm. 46.

Ardea 39

ARISTOTLE,

Of Ardeae there are three kinds, Pella, Alba, and
Stellaris, but the last has the by-name of Piger. The
coupling of Pella is difficult, for it screams while it
couples and (they say) emits blood from its eyes : it
also brings forth painfully and with extreme distress.
The Pella is sagacious, quick at getting food1, and
always busy. It is wont to be astir by day ; yet it
is mean in colour, with the belly wet. Of the re-
maining two the Alba, fair of colour, couples, nests
and brings forth well ; it feeds in marshes, on a lake,
in fields and meadow-ground. But the Stellaris, by-
named Lazy (in the fable it is said of old to have
been changed from a slave to a bird), as its by-name
imports, is slow and indolent. The bird called Phoix
has beyond all others this peculiarity that it especially
attacks the eyes. The Ardea and the Albardeola,
which is of smaller size and has a broad and elongated
bill, seek lakes and rivers.

The Pella builds its nest in England on the lofty trees
that grow not far from the banks of streams. The upper
part of the body is blue, the lower is, however, somewhat
white. It routs Eagles or Hawks, if they attack it suddenly,
by very liquid mutings of the belly, and thereby defends
itself. Of this kind I have seen some white, though they are
rare, which differed from the aforesaid neither in their size
nor shape of body, but in colour only. Furthermore the
white has been observed in England to nest with the blue,
and to bear offspring. Wherefore it is clear that they are
of one species. I have only once seen — and that was in
Italy — the Albardeola, which is called Xeu/cepeoSto? in Greek ;
it is much smaller than the Pella and by no means shuns the
sight of man so much as does the blue. Had I not seen it,
I should have declared the Albardeola to be the English

1 That is, for its young.

4O A rdea — A urivittis — A ttagen

lardam albardeold effe iudicaffem. Stellaris eft, qua
[p- 35] Angli buttourum, aut bittourum, & Germani pittourum

abuttour & rofdommum nominant : nam aids eft toto corporis

em pittour. 7 , •; / • / • • /- • / • • /- •

ein rofdo. habitu ardeis reaquis ftmihs, ex pifcium uenatu ad

ripas palladium & amnium uiuens, pigerrima & ftoli-
dijfima, ut quce in retia ab equo faclicio agi poteft
facilime. Colore eft fere, quantum memini, phafiani,
roftro limo indito, afininos ronchos uoce refert: cculos
hominum auidijfimc omnium aiiium appetit. Quare
ft quid impediat, quo minus ftellaris effe pqffit, (quod
Phoix. mi/ii nondum cernere datum eft} phoica effe oportebit,

quam A riftoteles oculos maxime appetere teftatur, quan-
quam & cater ce ardece idem facere fcepe uif&funt,

DE AVRIVITTE.

Xpfo-oyLttVpt?, no ut quidam codices habent, pvo-o/nrj-
rpiis, auriuittis, Anglice a gold finc/ie, Germanice ei)ii
biftelftucf, ober e\)u fttgelt^.

Auriuittis. Auriuittis una eft ex auiculis, qua carduorum

femine uictitanP, & uermes etiam oblatos, non attingunt.
Alij goldfincam, aut difteluincam, fpmum, alij cardue-
lem effe uolunt. Sed ft quis, ex fpiniuoris prceter Jianc
aliam aurea uitta redimitam oftederit, cui magis auri-
uittis nomen competat, quam huic, opinionem meant
facile patiar explodi, alioqui non ttideo, quin digna fit,
qua probetur.

[p. 36] DE ATTAGENE.

Array T)P, array as, attagen, attagena.

A ttagen, ut fcribit A riftoteles, gallinagini fimilis
eft color e. Attagenam uarijs diftinctam ejfe maculis,
Ariftophanes* his uerfibus teftatur :

Si quis ex uobis erit fugitiuus atq\ uftus notis,
A ttagen fane apud nos uarius appellabitur.

1 Aristotle's groups of Birds are as follows: (i)
(crooked-clawed) ; (2) o-KcoA^Ko^uya (worm-eating) ; (3) a<av-
6o(f>dya (eating thistle seeds) ; (4) o-Knrocfrdya (? grub-eating) ;
(5) Tre/jio-repoeifi?) (dove-like) ; (6) <r\;t£o7ro§a (cleft-footed) ;
(7) (rreyavoTToda (wholly webbed) ; (8) /3ape'a (heavy, i.e. ground
kinds). A few Birds, however, can hardly be placed under any
of these.

2 Ave.s, 11. 761—762.

A rdea — A urivittis — A ttagen 4 1

Shovelard1. Stellaris is that kind which Englishmen denomi-
nate buttour or bittour, and the Germans call pittour or
rosdom. Now it is a bird like other Herons in its state
of body generally, living by hunting fishes on the banks
of swamps and rivers, very sluggish and most stupid, so that
it can very easily be driven into nets by the use of a stalking
horse. So far as I remember, it is nearly of the colour of
a Pheasant, and the beak is smeared with mud ; it utters
brayings like those of an ass. Of all birds it aims at mens'
eyes most readily. Wherefore if anything hinders this kind
from being the Stellaris (which is not yet given to me to see)
it ought to be the Phoix, inasmuch as Aristotle testifies that
it aims chiefly at the eyes, though other Ardeae also often
seem to do the same.

OF THE AURIVITTIS.

XpucroyiuT/K? (not as some texts have it pva-ofjLtjTpijs),
aurivittis, in English a gold finche, in German eyn distel-
finck or eyn stigelitz.

The Aurivittis is one of the small birds that feed on
seeds of thistles, and do not touch worms even when offered
to^them. Some will have it that the Goldfinc or the Distel-
vinc is but the Spinus2, some the Carduelis. But if anyone
can shew another of the thistle-eating birds save this, girt
with a golden band, to which the name of Aurivittis is more
fitting than to this, I gladly will allow my opinion to be
ignored, but otherwise, I do not see why it should not be
worthy of approval.

OF THE ATTAGEN.

'Arrayrjv, arrdya^, attagen, attagena.

The Attagen, as Aristotle writes, is like the Gallinago
in colour. And Aristophanes bears witness in these lines
that the Attagena is marked with varied spots: —

" If any of you be a runaway and branded with the
marks, he shall assuredly be called with us the spotted
Attagen."

1 That is, the Spoonbill of modern books (Platalea lencorodia], while
the buttour is of course the Bittern (Botaurus stellaris]

2 Turner himself considered Spinus to be the Greenfinch (cf. p. 85 of
the original).

42 Attagen

PLTNIUS1 DE ATTAGENE.

Attagen maxime lonius celebratur, uocalis
alias, captus uero obmutefcit, quondam exifti-
matus inter raras aues. lam & in Gallia Hi-
fpanicuj* capitur, & per alpes.

PETRUS GvLLius2.

Attagen, eft perdice paulo maior, uerficolo-
ribus pi6ta plumis in dorfo, & color ruffus eft,
uefcitur grano, breuibus eft alis, & puluera-
tor eft.

Falluntur igitur Britannici ludimagiftri, qui fun

Wodcoccum attagenem faciunt, qui foils uefcitur uer-

mibus, & grana nunquam attingit. An attagenes apud

[p- 37] Anglos inneniantur ncc'ne, multum fane ambigo. nam

qni attagenem defcribunt, marem a fcemina non fepa-

rant. nnde colligo eundem fuiffe color em ^ & eandem

figurant marls & foemince. C&ternm in hoc auium

genere, quod apud nos ad attagenis formam proxime

accedit, mas a foemina ita differt ut duornm generu

iftiufmodi reru inperito uideri pojjint, Vtranque

tamen auem defcribam.

Mas gallo domeftico paulo minor, tot us niger eft,
except a ea parte caudce, quce podicem tegit> ea enim alba
eft. Cceteru nigredo Indus nonniJdl fplendefcit, ad enm
fere modum, quo columborum nigrorum torques circa
colla fplendefcunt. ad uiriditatem igitur proxime ac-
cedit. in capite rubrum quendain Jiabet^ fed carneiini
cirru, & circa genas duos habet uehiti lobos rubrost
& eos carneos. Foemina tot a maculis diftinc~ta eft, &
a perdice, nifi maior effet, & ruffa magis, cegre dignofci

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlviii.

2 Petrus Gyllius was the author of the work De vi et
natura Auinialium etc. Lugd. Bat. 1533.

Attagen 43

PLINY OF THE ATTAGEN.

The Attagen is most renowned as an Ionian bird ;
it usually is noisy, in captivity however it is dumb.
In former times it was considered rare, but now it
is taken in Gaul, in Spain, and on the Alps.

PETRUS GYLLIUS.

The Attagen is rather larger than the Perdix, and
is marked with particoloured feathers on the back, in
colour it is reddish, and it feeds on grain. It has
short wings, and rolls itself in dust.

Accordingly our British schoolmasters are wrong who
make their Woodcock the Attagen, which lives only on
worms and never touches grain. Indeed I seriously doubt
whether Attagenes be found in England or not, for those who
give descriptions of the Attagen, do not distinguish the male
from the female, whence I infer that they have the same
colours and are like in form. But in the kind of bird which
with us comes the nearest to the Attagen in form, the male
differs so greatly from the female that they might appear to
be of separate kinds to the man inexperienced in things like
this. Nevertheless I will describe each bird.

The male1 is somewhat less than a domestic cock and
is entirely black, save that part of the tail which overlies
the vent, for that is white. Moreover the black colour of
the bird is somewhat glossy, very nearly as the collar round
the neck of our black pigeons is. So it approaches very
near to green. Upon its head it has a red but fleshy sort
of comb2, and round its cheeks two red lobes as it were
and those fleshy. The hen is wholly marked with spots,
and, were she not a bigger bird and more rufous, could
scarcely be distinguished from a Partridge. Both frequent

1 Turner here undoubtedly refers to the Blackcock (Tetrao tetrix).

2 The Blackcock has two erectile patches of red skin over the eyes,
which in the breeding season even reach above the top of the head ; and
the word ' cirrum ' must be taken to mean such a patch here.

44 A ttagen — A tricapilla

pojfit. In defertis facts & plants, erica potiffimum
conjitis, ambo degunt. grano uefcuntur, et fummis
ericce ger minibus. Breues Jiabens alas, & brenes fa-
ciunt twlatus. Hcec auis, fi attagen no fit, gallina
uidetur ejfe Varronis riijlica. Erafmus in Adagio,
Attagence nouilunium, aitagenam anem paluftrem facit,
& narijs maculis diftinttam. quod fi fatis exploratum
[p. 38J mihi effet, Anglorum goduuittain,fiue fedoam, attage-
nam ejfe, indnbitanter auderem adfirmare. Eft autem
ipfa gallinagini ita Jimilis, ut nifi paulb maior effet,
& pettoris color magls ad cinereu uergeret, altera ab
altera difficulter pojjit diftingui. uiuit in locis palujlri-
bus, et ad ripas fluminu. roftrum habet longuni, fed
capta triticum non fecus atque columbi, comedit. triplo
pluris quam gallinago apud nos uenditur, tantopere
eins caro magnatiim palatis arridet. harum Ji nentra
Jit attagena, attagenani nufquam nidi.

DE ATRICAPILLA.
M.e\avKopv<f)os, atricapilla, Germa. ut creditur,

et)n grafmuften.

ARISTOTELES1.

Atricapillam etiam plurima edere aliqui re-
ferunt, fed poft Africam ftrutionem. lam uel
decem & fepte oua atricapillae reperta funt. fed
plura etiam quam uiginti parit, & numero im-
pari femper, ut narrant. Nidificat ea quoqj in
arboribus, & uermiculis alitur. Proprium huius
[p- 39] & lufciniae praeter caeteras aues, ut linguae fum-
mae acumine careant. Ficedulae & atricapillae2
uicibus commutantur. Fit enim ineunte au-
tumno ficedula, ab autumno protinus atricapilla,

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 88.

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 256—257.

Attagen — Atricapilla 45

waste open places, and especially those covered with heather.
They feed on grain and on the topmost buds of heather.
They have short wings and take short flights. This bird,
if it be not the Attagen, appears to be Varro's Gallina
rustica. Erasmus in his proverb of " the Attagena's new-
moon" makes his Attagena a marsh-bird, marked with
varied spots. If this approved itself sufficiently to me
I confidently would venture to affirm that the Attagena was
what the English call the Godwitt or Fedoa1. Furthermore
the bird is so much like the Woodcock, that, if it were not
a little larger, and did not the breast verge upon ash-colour,
the one of them could hardly be distinguished from the
other. It is found in marshy places and on river banks.
The beak is long; but in captivity it feeds on wheat, just as
our Pigeons do. With us it sells for thrice as much again
as any Woodcock, so much does its flesh tickle the palates
of our magnates. Of these two, if neither be the Attagena,
then I have nowhere seen the Attagena.

OF THE ATRICAPILLA.

Me\aytc6pv(f>o<;y atricapilla, in German, as is supposed,
eyn grasmuklen.

ARISTOTLE.

The Atricapilla, as some report, lays the most
eggs of all, next to the Struthio of Africa. No fewer
than seventeen eggs of the Atricapilla have been
found, but it lays even more than twenty and, as
some narrate, in number always odd. It also nests
in trees and feeds upon small worms. It is peculiar
to this and the Luscinia beyond all other birds that
they have no point to the tip of the tongue. Fice-
dulae and Atricapillae change in turn. For when
autumn sets in the bird becomes a Ficedula, from
autumn onwards it becomes an Atricapilla, nor is

1 See Prof. Newton's Diet. Birds, p. 248.

46 Atricapilla — Bubo

nee inter eas difcrimen aliquod, nifi coloris &
uocis eft. Auem effe eandem coftat, quia dum
immutaretur hoc genus, utruque confpe6tum
eft, nondum abfolute mutatum, nee alterutrum
adhuc proprium ullum habens appellationis \
Hsec Aristoteles.

Atricapillam in Anglia nunquam nidi, neq, fcepius
in hita quam femel, idq\ in Italia in domo Ducis Ferra-
rienjls. Eamfy mihi uir ntrinfq, linguce no uulgariter
doc~tus, D. Francifcus, dud a facris concionibus exlii-
buit. Angloru lingettce, & Germanornm grafmufcho >,
quod ad corporis magnitudinem attinet, fimilis erat :
fed atrnm habebat caput, & reliqunm corporis colorem
magis ad cinerium uergentem.

[p. 40] DE BVBONE.

Bua?2, bubo, Anglice, alyke fonle, Germanice eV)n
fc^uffauf / e^n fc^iiffel / e\)n fauft.

ARISTOTELES 3.

Bubo e noftuarum genere eft, & nocluae
fpecie quidem fimilis, fed magnitudine non minor
quam aquila.

PLINIUS 4.

Bubo funebris, & maxime abominatus, pub-
licis prsecipue aufpicijs, deferta incolit, nee
tantum defolata, fed etiam inacceffa : noclis
monftrum, nee cantu aliquo uocalis, fed gemitu.
Volat nuquam quo libuit, fed tranfuerfus au-
fertur. Hec Plinius.

Hanc atiem femel Venetijs iujla aquilcz magnitn-
dine uidi, fed crura erant paulb breuiora quam aquilce
crurafolent effe. Ccetera aquilce fimilis erat.

1 Aristotle has eKare'/D<» I8i6v rt inrrjp^fv ovdev according to
one text. He has no word to represent ' appellationis.'

2 Or Epvas. 3 Hist. An. Bk VIII. 39.
4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xii.

Atricapilla — Bubo 47

there any difference between the two, save that of
colour and of voice. That the bird is the same is
evident, since, while this kind is undergoing the
change, each of the two is seen, not fully changed
as yet, and neither having so far any proper name.
Thus far Aristotle.

In England I have never seen the Atricapilla, nor yet
but once in life, and that in Italy within the house of the
Duke of Ferrara. And Don Francisco of the Holy Council
of the Duke, a man uncommonly well versed in both the
tongues, shewed it to me himself. The bird was like the
English lingett and the German grasmuschen, so far as size
of body went ; but it had a black head, and the remaining
colour of its body verging more to grey.

OF THE BUBO.

Btw, bubo, in English alyke foule, in German eyn schuf-
fauss (eyn schiiffel), eyn kautz.

ARISTOTLE.

The Bubo is of the race of Noctuae, and is in
aspect very like a Noctua, but not less than an
Aquila in size.

PLINY.

The Bubo is a fatal bird, of evil omen beyond
other sorts, especially at public auguries ; it lives in
desert places, and not merely those that are un-
peopled, but those also hard of access : monster of
the night it utters not a song, but only a groan. It
never flies where it intends, but is borne off aslant.
So Pliny says.

This bird I saw at Venice once, of a full Eagle's size1,
its legs, however, were a little shorter than an Eagle's legs
are wont to be. But it was like an Eagle otherwise.

1 Turner probably meant the Eagle Owl (Bubo ignavus}.

48 Bosca — Caprimulgus

[p. 41] DE BOSCA.

Bofca, aids eft aquatica, anati fimilis, fed minor.
Quum multce fint aues aquaticcs anati fimiles, fed mino-
res, lit ftmt, teles uocatce ab Anglis Vuigene & pochards,
earn puto bo f cam ejfe, qua proxime ad magnitudinem
& fimilitudinem anatis accedit. Hoc quum pocharda
faciat, illam Arijlotelis effe bofcam iudico.

DE CAPRIMVLGO.
Caprimulgus, al^o6r)\a^.

ARISTOTELES \

Caprimulgus, auis eft montana, magnitudine
paulo maior, quam merula, minor quam cuculus,
moribus mollior. Parit duo oua, aut tria cum
plurima. Sugit, caprarum ubera aduolans, unde
nomen accepit. Cum uber fuxerit, extingui,
capram(^ excsecari aiunt, parum clare interdiu
uidet, fed noclu perfpicax.

PLINIUS 2.

[p. 42] Caprimulgi appellantur grandiores merulae
afpeftu, fures nofturni, interdiu etiam uifu
carent.

Cum ejjfem apud H elite tios, fen em quendam con-
fpicatus, capras pafcentem in montibus, quos herbas
qucerendi gratia afcenderam, rogabam num auem no-
uijfet merulce magnitudine, interdiu ccecam, noc~tu per-
fpicacem, qua caprarum ubcra noctu fugere foleat, unde
capra poftea ccecce euadunt ? qui refpodit, fe in Helne-
tiorum montibus ante quatuordecim annos, multos ui-
dijfe, & mnltas iniurias ab ipfis paffum, ut qui feme I

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 109.

2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xl.

Bo sea — Caprimulgits 49

OF THE BOSCA.

The Bosca is a water fowl, like to a Duck1, but smaller.
Since there are many water fowls like to the Duck, but
smaller (as there surely are), called Teles, Wigenes and
Pochards by the English, I believe the Bosca to be that which
comes nearest the size and likeness of a Duck. And since the
Pochard does so, I decide that it is Aristotle's Bosca.

OF THE CAPRIMULGUS.
Caprimulgus, alyod^Xo?.

ARISTOTLE.

The Caprimulgus is a mountain bird, in size
a little bigger than the Merula, less than the Cuculus ;
in disposition it is milder. It lays two eggs or three
at most. Flying to the udders of she-goats, it sucks
them, and thus gets its name. They say that the
udder withers2 when it has sucked at it, and that
the goat goes blind. By day the bird sees dimly,
but quite well at night.

PLINY.

Caprimulgi, as they are called, look bigger than
a Merula, and act as thieves by night ; by day they
even lack the power of sight.

When I was in Switzerland I saw an aged man, who fed
his goats upon the mountains, which I had gone up intent on
search of plants : I asked him whether he knew a bird of
the size of a Merula, blind in the day-time, keen of sight at
night, which in the dark is wont to suck goats' udders, so that
afterwards the animals go blind. Now he replied that he
himself had seen many in the Swiss mountains fourteen years
before, that he had suffered many losses from those very

1 That is, the Wild Duck (Anas boscas).

2 This rendering appears much preferable to translating this word 'the
goat dies,' as, judging from the punctuation, some would have it.

T. A

50 Caprimulgus — Car due Us

fex capellas a caprimulgo occacatas habuerat. ccetern
nuc omnes ad unum ab Heluetijs ufque ad inferiores
Germanos, ubi Jiodie non folum capras lac~te priuant &
occcecant, fed & ones infuper occidunt, auolaffe. Nomen
aids qncerenti, paphum, id eft, facerdotem did refpodit.
Sed iietulns ille mecu forte iocatns eft. Ego uerb, fi-
ne iocatns fuerit, fine ferib locnttis, aliud Germanicu
caprimulgi nomen qua quod me docuit ifte, non teneo.

51 qm Jint, qni meliiis & aptius nomen in proptn
habeant, proferant.

DE CARDVELE.

Cardttelis,Ji Gazce credimus, Greece OpavTrls dicitur,

43] & inter fpiniuoras auiculas A riftoteles recenfet. Nee

phira de carduele apnd Ariftotelem lego. Plinius1 fcri-

bit cardneles auiitm minimas imperata facere, nee noce

tantum.fed pedibus & ore pro manibns.

Prceter aniculam illam fpiniuoram aurea uitta
redimitam, aliam noui fpiniuoram colore uiridem, quce
non fecus atq; auriuittis roftro e dnabns Jitnlis nicijjlm
afcendentibns & defcendentibiis , cibum ex una, & potu
ex altera defnmit. Quin & hoc facit miliaria, quam
linotam noftrates appellant. Eade qnoq; hominc qnid-
nis cdtante, uoce imitatnr. Quare no fola ilia, quce
Greece 6 pawn Is, & Latine Theodoro cardnelis dicitur,
imperata facit) & roftro & pedibus pro manibns ntitnr.

Dic~tu mihi difficile iddetnr, qnam'nam e tribus,
qnum omnes illce carduornm femine nefcantiir, Plinius
cardnelem fecerit, nu thranpin aut acanthin, ant chry-

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlii.

Caprimulgus — Car due Us 51

birds ; so that he had once had six she-goats blinded
by Caprimulgi, but that one and all they now had flown
away from Switzerland to Lower Germany, where nowadays
they did not only steal the milk of she-goats, making them go
blind, but killed the sheep besides. And, on my asking the
bird's name, he said that it was called the Paphus, otherwise
the Priest. But possibly that aged man was jesting with
me. Yet whether he was jesting, or spoke gravely, still
I have no other German name than what he gave to me for
Caprimulgus. If there be any then who have in readiness
a better or a fitter name than this, let them produce it.

OF THE CARDUELIS.

The Carduelis, if we believe Gaza, is in Greek called
Aristotle also numbers it among small thistle-
eaters1. I find in Aristotle nothing more than this about
the Carduelis. Pliny writes that Cardueles, smallest of all
birds, perform set tasks, and not in song alone, but with their
feet and beak in place of hands.

Besides that thistle-eating little bird2 adorned with band
of gold I know another thistle-eating sort, in colour green3,
which with its beak takes up its food from one of two small
buckets moving up and down alternately, its water from
the other, as the Aurivittis does. The Miliaria moreover
does the same, which bird our countrymen call Linot.
Furthermore it mimics with its song a man when singing
anything. And so it is not only that one kind, in Greek
called dpavjris and in Latin named by Theodorus4 Carduelis
that performs the tasks that it is bid, and uses beak and
feet in place of hands.

It seems to me then difficult to say, since all three birds
feed upon thistle-seeds, which of them Pliny meant by
Carduelis, whether it should be the Thraupis, or the Acanthis,
or the Chrysomitris. And should it be the Thraupis, as

1 See p. 35.

2 The Aurivittis, p. 35.

3 Probably Turner means the Siskin (Carduelis spinus\

4 Theodorus Gaza.

4—2

5 2 Car due Us — Cceruleo — Certh ia

fomitrc. Si thraupin, ut Gaza credit, auis ilia aureis
plumis carduelis non erit: nam ilia apud Ariflot. no
QpavTrls, fed Chryfomitris eft. Qucend igitur auis
carduelis Jit, non audeo prommciare.

DE CCERVLEONE.

Kvavos, cceruleo, Anglice, a clotburd, a fmatche,
an arlyng, a fteinchek, German, etytt bred? uocjel.

[p. 44] ARISTOTELES \

Coeruleo maxime in Scyro2 colit, faxa amans :
magnitucline minor quam merula, maior paulo
qua fringilla : pede magno 3 eft, fcandit4* faxa :
colore coeruleo : roftro tenui & longo : crure
breui, fimiliter ut pipo eft.

Cceruleo, Ji ea Jit auis, quam conijcio effe, in cuni-
culorum foueis, & fub lapidibus in Anglia nidulatur, &
in hyeme non apparet.

DE CERTHIA.
ARISTOTELES 4.

Certhia, auicula eft exigua, cui mores au-
daces, domicilium apud arbores, ui6lus ex coffis,
ingenium fagax in uitae officijs.

Auis eft qucedam, quam Angli creperam, id eft,
reptitatricem nominant, quod fuper arbores femper repat,
quam certhiam effe credo. Ea reguto paulb maior,
pecJore pallido, ccetera fufca & maculis nigris diftincta

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 97.

2 Another reading is Nio-vpw.

3 /ifyaXoTrous, but some read p

4 Hist. An. Bk IX. 92.

Car due Us — Coeruleo — Certhia 5 3

Gaza believes, that bird with golden feathers will not be
the Carduelis, for with Aristotle that is not the Opawjrls,
but the Chrysomitris, Therefore I dare not pronounce what
bird the Carduelis is.

OF THE CCERULEO.

o9, coeruleo, in English a clot-burd, a smatche, an
arlyng, a steinchek, in German eyn brech vogel.

ARISTOTLE.

The Coeruleo chiefly dwells in Scyros and loves
rocks ; in size it is a little smaller than a Merula,
a little larger than a Fringilla : it has large feet, and
climbs on rocks : in colour it is blue : the beak is
long and thin : the legs are short as in the Pipo.

The Coeruleo1, if it be the bird which I conjecture, nests
in rabbit holes and under stones in England, and does not
appear in winter.

OF THE CERTHIA.

ARISTOTLE.

The Certhia is a very little bird of bold habits ;
its home is upon trees, its food is grubs ; it shews
wise instinct for the needs of life.

There is a certain bird which Englishmen call Creeper,
that is Climber, for it always climbs about on trees : this
I believe to be the Certhia. It is a little bigger than
the Regulus, having a whitish breast, the other parts dull
brown, but varied with black spots; its note is sharp, its

1 Whatever bird Aristotle's may be, Turner's is certainly the
Wheatear. Belon and Gesner seem to think that the former is the
Blue Thrush, but Sundevall is certainly wrong in suggesting that it is
the Wall-Creeper (Tichodroma murarid].

5 4 Certh ia — Ciconia — Cine his

[p- 45] eft, ^loce acuta eft, & roftro tenni, & leidter in fine adunco,
nunquam qniefcit, fed femper per arbores picorum more
fcandit, & cojfos e corticibns eruens, comedit.

DE CICONIA.

TleXapyos, ciconia, Anglice a ftork, Germanice etylt
ftorcf, & Saxonice ei)it ebefyer.

Ciconia, nt Germanis aids eft notiffima, ita Bri-
tannis meis pier if q\ omnibus tam ignota eft, quam
quce omnium ignotijfima. Nee minim, qnum nufquam
in infula noftra nifi captiua Ciconia nideatnr. Apud
Germanos in fnmmis teclis, aliqnando in ipfis fnmmis
fnmarijs nidulatur. Auis eft medics magnitudinis inter
gruem & ardeam, pennis albis & nigris diftincla : crura
longa habet, roftrum grninam,fed rubrnm & craffuin :
circa lacus & paludes degit, ranas, bnfones, angnes, &
pifces comedens.

PLINIUS DE cicoNiis1.

Ciconiae, quo'nam e loco ueniant, aut quo
fe referant, incompertum adhuc eft. E longin-
quo uenire, non dubium, eodem, quo grues
modo, illas hyemis, iftas seftatis aduenas. Abi-
[p. 46] turae congregantur in loco certo : comitatae^, fie
ut nulla fui generis relinquatur, nifi captiua &
ferua, ceu lege prsedicla die recedut. Nemo
uidit agmen difcedentium, cum difceffurum ap-
pareat, nee uenire, fed ueniffe cernimus. Vtrum-
que no6lurnis fit temporibus. Ciconiae nidos
eofdem repetunt, & genetricum fene6lutem
educant.

DE CINCLO.

K/7/cXo9, r; <7etcro7ri'y/9, Anglice a uuater fuuallouu,
Germanice etytt fte^nbiffcr.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxiii.

Certkia — Ciconia — Cinclus 5 5

beak is slender and is slightly hooked towards the tip ; it
never rests, but is for ever climbing up the trunks of trees
after the manner of the Woodpeckers, and it eats grubs,
picking them from the bark.

OF THE CICONIA.

lleXo.^709, ciconia, in English a stork, in German eyn
storck, and in Saxon eyn ebeher.

The Stork, though one of the best known of birds among
the Germans, is to nearly all my countrymen of Britain as
unknown as the most unknown bird. And little wonder
since a Stork is nowhere to be seen, save as a captive,
in our island. With the Germans the bird nests upon roofs
or even chimney tops at times. It is a bird of middle size
between a Crane and a Heron and distinguished by feathers
of black and white : it has long legs and a beak like
a Crane's, but red and stout ; it lives near lakes and marshes,
eating frogs, toads, snakes and fishes.

PLINY ON CICONIA.

From what parts the Ciconiae may come, or whither
they betake themselves, is not yet ascertained. It is
indubitable that they come from far in the same
manner as the Grues, but the former arrive in winter
and the latter in summer. When ready to depart these
birds collect at some fixed place, and after gathering,
so that none of their tribe, unless a prisoner or a
slave, is left behind, they disappear, on an appointed
day, as if by law. No one has ever seen the whole
array in very act to go, though it may haply shew
itself when ready to depart ; nor do we view it
coming, but when it has come. Both these events
take place at night. Ciconiae seek the same nests
again, and tend their parents in old age.

OF THE CINCLUS.

Kt7«rXo?, rf o-eicroTrvyfc, in English a water swallow, in
German eyn steynbisser.

5 6 Cinclus — Chalcis

ARISTOTELES '.

Cinclus ex mari & fluuijs uiclu petit, aflutus
eft, & captu difficilis : fed captus, omnium maxi-
me mitefcit. Lefus hie eft, incontinens enim
parte fui pofteriore.

Auicula, qua ego cinclu effe puto, galerita paulb

maior eft, colore in tergo nigro, uentre albo, tibijs

longis, & roftro neutiquam breui: uere circa ripas

[p- 47] flnminuni, ualde clamofa eft & querula, brenes & crebros

facit uolatus.

DE CHALCIDE.
ARISTOTELES 2.

Chalcis raro apparet, montes etenim incolit.
nigro colore eft, rnagnitudine accipitris, quern
palumbarium nominant : forma longa ac tenui,
lones cymindem appellant, cuius Homerus
etiam meminit in Iliade cum dicit :

Chalcida dij perhibens^ homines dixere cymindem 3.

Sunt, qui eandem hanc aue non aliam effe
atque ptyngem uelint. Interdiu minus apparet,
quia non clare uidet, fed noclu uenatur, more
aquilae : pugnat uero cum aquila adeo acriter, ut
fsepius ambae implexse, deferantur in terram4,

6 uiue a paftoribus capiantur. Parit hec oua
duo, & faxis fpelunciscj* nidulatur.

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 76.

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 79 — 80.

3 Iliad, Bk xiv. 1. 291. 'Perhibens' is a misprint for
'perhibent.'

4 Aristotle has not these five words.

Cinclus — Chalcis 5 7

ARISTOTLE.

The Cinclus seeks its food from the sea and from
rivers. It is cunning and is hard to catch, but grows
the gentlest of all birds when caught. It is more-
over maimed, being without control over its hinder
parts.

The little bird which I believe to be the Cinclus1 is
a little bigger than the Galerita, with black colour on the
back, and a white belly ; while it has long shanks and a bill
by no means short : in spring it is exceeding clamorous
and querulous about the banks of rivers, where it takes
short and incessant flights.

OF THE CHALCIS.
ARISTOTLE.

The Chalcis is not often seen, for it haunts moun-
tains. It is of a black colour, and of the size of the
Accipiter which they name Palumbarius. Its form is
long and slender ; the lonians call it Cymindis. Of
it furthermore Homer makes mention in the Iliad,
wherein he says :—

The Gods know it as Chalcis, men say Cymindis.

Some there are who would make this very bird
none other than the Ptynx. By day it shews itself
but little, since it does not see clearly, although it
hunts by night, after the manner of the Aquila ; yet
with the Aquila so keenly does it strive, that frequently
both birds fall to the ground clutching each other,
and are caught alive by shepherds. It lays two eggs,
and nests in cliffs and caves2.

1 Turner evidently means the Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypo-
leucus).

2 Sundevall says that Kiilb thought that this bird was the Hawk Owl,
but himself refers it doubtfully to the Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus],
which however is not a night bird and does not live on hills. Belon and
Gaza thought that it was an owl of some kind.

58 Collurio — Columbi

[p. 48] DE COLLVRIONE.

Ko\\vpld)v, collurio, Anglice, a feldfare aut a felde-
fare. Qnibnfdd German. etyii frammejuogd.

ARISTOTELES 1.

Collurio ijfdem, quibus merula uefcitur,
magnitudo eius eadem quae fuperioribus, id eft,
uireoni & mollicipiti 2, capitur potius hyberno
tempore.

Auis, quam colhirionem effe puto, turdum mqgni-
tudine csquat^ fed caudam Jiabet longiorern, & magis
mobilem, & pectns niacnlofum. In ceftate apud nos ant
rarb ant nunqnam nidetur : in Jiyenie nerb tanta copia
eft, nt nullins anis maior Jit. baccis aquifolice arboris,
forbi minima, & Jimilium arbornm nefcitur. gregatim
nolat, & inter uolandzim obftrepera eft.

DE COLVMBIS.

HepKrrepd, columba, Anglice a doue> Germanice etyn
taitbe. Saxonice ei)it buue.

ARISTOTELES 3.

Columbacei uero generis plures fpecies funt.

Liuia. Eft enim liuia a liuore di6ta, diuerfum certe a

columba genus, quippe minor quam columba
fit, & minus patiens manfuefcere : liuet enim
plumis, & pene nigricat, & pedibus rubris fca-
brofiscjj eft. Quas ob res, nullus id genus cel-
lare alit. Maximo inter hec genera funt corpore

Palumbes. palumbes. Secundum magnitudinis locum ui-

Vinago. nago obtinet, paulo maior quam columbus 4 eft.

Turtur. Minimum ex his turtur eft. pariunt columbae
omnibus anni temporibus, pulloscjj educant fi
locum apricum habeat & cibum. Sin minus,

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 99.

2 These five words are not represented in Aristotle.
Moreover the TrdpdaXos is here omitted, and is placed later
(p. 107 of the original work), but there seems to be some doubt
as to the correct reading in the Greek.

3 Hist. An. Bk v. 43. The readings vary in places, but the
rendering is decidedly free.

4 Gaza and Turner make indiscriminate use of ' Columbus '
and 'Columba' for the same kind of bird.

Collurio — Columbi 5 9

OF THE COLLURIO.

^, collurio, in English a feldfare or a feldefare.
According to some Germans eyn krammesvogel.

ARISTOTLE.

The Collurio feeds on the same meat as the
Merula. Its size is that of the aforesaid kinds — that
is, the Vireo and the Molliceps — it is caught chiefly
in the winter time.

The bird which I consider to be the Collurio equals
a Thrush in size, but has a longer and more flirting tail, also
a spotted breast. Rarely or never is it seen with us in
summer : yet its plenty is so great in winter that of no kind
is there more. It eats the berries of the Holly, the Least
Service, and like trees. It flies in companies, and on its
flight is very noisy.

OF DOVES.

Hepiarepd, columba, in English a dove, in German eyn
taube, in Saxon eyn duve.

ARISTOTLE.

Of the Dove-kind, however, there are many sorts.
For first there is the Livia, named from its livid
colour, which is certainly a different kind from the
Columba, inasmuch as it is smaller and less ready to
be tamed : and it is livid in its plumage, verging upon
black, and has moreover red and roughened feet.
Wherefore nobody keeps this kind in cotes. Of great-
est size among the several sorts are the Palumbes ;
the Vinago holds the second place herein, a little
bigger than the Columbus. The smallest of them
is the Turtur. The Columbae breed at all times of
the year, and rear their young, if they have but
a sunny place and food. If otherwise they breed

60 Colum&i

seflate tantummodo foetant. Sed proles prae-
ftantior uere eft, quam autumno, deterrima aefta-
te, & omni tempore calidiore.

De ijfdem in alio libro J ad hunc modum fcribit,

Alia frugibus uiuunt, ut palumbes, co
[p. s°] lumbus, uinago, turtur. Vifuntur femper co-
lumbi, atque palumbes, fed turtur aeflate tantii,
hyeme fe condit, latitat2 enim fuo tempore.
Vinago autumno & confpicitur, & capitur, cui
magnitude maior, quam columbo, minor qua
palumbi eft.

Liuia. IleXaa?, qu<z liuia Latine dicitur, eft fylueftris ilia

columba, qtiam Angli a ftocdoue, & Germani etytt l)ol{$
taube nominant.

Palumbes. <J>arra, Latine palumbes fine palumbus, dicta ab

Anglis a coushot a ringged done, & a Germanis etyll
ringet taube appellatur. Hcec longe aliter atqne liuia
nidulatur. Nidificat autein liuia in cauis aliquando
arboribtts, interdum & in templorum muris. Palumbes
uerb in condenfa hedera, aut fuper ramum arboris ex
pauculis ligniculis tranfuerjim pofitis, tenuijfimum
nidum conftruit. Quod ft quis mihi parum hac in
re fidat, torquatos columbos esse palumbes ueterum,
A riftotelem diligentius legat, & Martialem 3 poetam de
ijfdem ita fcribentem audiat,

[p. 51] Inguina torquati, tardant kebetantqi palumbi

Non edat hanc uolucrem, qui uolet effe falax.

Politianus* de palumbis ita fcribit :

Dum fua torquata repetunt dic~tata palumbes.

Turtures in Ger mania funt multb frcquentiores qua
Turtur. ^ Anglia. Turturem Angli & Saxones communi

uocabulo turtel t>uue nominant.

1 Hist. An. Bk vm. p. 45.

2 The Greek is 0a)XeI yap. But how far Aristotle referred to
birds ' hibernating ' is very doubtful.

3 Epigr. Lib. xin. Ixvii.

4 A poet and scholar of the Renaissance.

Columbi 6 1

only in summer. Yet in spring the young are better
than in autumn, they are worst of all in summer and
at every hotter season.

Of the same he writes in another book after this
manner : —

Other birds live on crops, as the Palumbes, the
Columbus, the Vinago and the Turtur. The Columbi
and Palumbes may be always seen, the Turtur only
in the summer. In the winter it lies hid, for it con-
ceals itself at the due time. But the Vinago is both
seen and caught in autumn, of which bird the size is
greater than that of the Columbus, but less than
that of the Palumbes.

?, which in Latin is called Livia, is that dove of
the woodlands which the English name a stocdove, and the
Germans eyn holtztaube.

O«rra, in Latin Palumbes or Palumbus, is called by
Englishmen a Coushot or a Ringged Dove, and by Germans
named eyn ringel taube. It nests far otherwise than does
the Livia, for that bird sometimes breeds in hollow trees
and sometimes even in the walls of churches. But the
Palumbes builds a nest of the frailest of a few small twigs
laid crosswise in a mass of ivy or upon a bough. Now
in this thing if there be anyone who places little confidence
in my opinion that our collared doves are the Palumbes of
the ancients, let him read with greater care his Aristotle
and give ear as well to Martial the poet writing thus of
the same birds : —

Ringed doves make a man's loins slow and dull ;
Who would be lusty should not eat this bird.

Politian writes of the Palumbi thus :—

While ringed doves seek again their accustomed haunts.

Turtle Doves are much more plentiful in Germany than
in England. English and Saxons in common call it turtel
duve.

6 2 Columbi — Co turn ix

Vinago. OiW?, quce Latine uinago dicitnr, mihi nunqua

Jiaclenus uifa eft, nee quid habeat nominis apnd noftros,
aut apud Germanos camper turn Jiabeo. Vidi tamen
Venetijs columbos hijs noftratibus fefquialtera portione
maiores : fed hos non uinagines fuijfe credo, fed colnm-
bos e Campania ad Venetos adueclos, ubi P limns co-
lnmbos fcribit effe grandiffimos.

DE COTVRN1CE.
°PTV£> coturnix, Anglice a qnale, Germanice e\)n

PLINIUS1.

Coturnix parua auis, & cum ad nos uenit,
terreftris potius quam fublimis. Aduolant &
h^ fimili modo, quo grues & ciconiae, non fine
[p. 52] periculo nauigantium, cum appropinquauere ter-
ns. Quippe uelis faepe infidunt, & hoc Temper
noclu, merguntcj? nauigia. Coturnicibus, uera-
tri, fiue ut alij legunt, ueneni : femen gra-
tiffimus cibus. quam ob caufam eas damna-
uere menfae, fimul^ comitiale propter morbum
defpui fuetum, quern fol^ animaliu fentiunt
praeter hominem.

Quce, qnnm ita fe habeant, demiror qnis mains
genius Britannis meis in mentem immifit, ut eas
tantopere in delicijs habeant, quum tot malis, ueneno
fcilicet, et comitiali morbo, i liar ft caro Jit obnoxia. Co-
turnix per did Jlmilis eft: fed multis partibus minor.
Coturnix^ ut fcribit Arijlot. hoc Jibi peculiare & pro-
prium uindicat, ut & ingluuiem, & gulam prope uentri-
culum amplam & latam habeat.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxiii.

Columbi — Cotnrnix 63

?, in Latin called Vinago, has never met my eye up
to this time, nor have I yet found out what name it bears
among our countrymen or among Germans. But I have seen
doves in Venice half as big again as those of our own land,
although I do not think that they could be Vinagines, but
birds brought to those parts out of Campania, where Pliny
notes the Doves to be exceeding large.

OF THE COTURNIX.

oprvj;, coturnix, in English a quale, in German eyn
wachtel.

PLINY.

The Coturnix is a little bird, and, when it comes
to us, keeps on the ground Tnore than aloft. Yet
it flies hither just as Grues and Ciconise, not without
danger to sea-faring men, when they approach the
land. For these birds often settle on the sails, and
that always at night, and so sink ships. The seed
of Veratrum, or, as others read, Venenum, is a very
grateful food to the Coturnices, and for this cause
men have condemned them for the table ; further-
more it is the custom for them to be spurned on
account of the falling sickness, to which, they alone
of animals, save man, are subject.

Now since these things are so, I marvel much what evil
genius put it into the mind of my fellow Britons to esteem
them thus among their delicacies, when their flesh is liable to
ills so many, namely poison and the falling sickness. The
Quail is like the Partridge, although many times smaller.
As Aristotle writes, it claims a property peculiar to it of
having both crop and gullet large and wide near to the
stomach.

64 Cornix — Corvus — Culicilega

DE CORNICE.

Kopwvr), comix, Anglice a crouu, Germanice etyn
frae, & etylt fraeg. Cornix auis eft omniuora, nam carnes,
pifces, & grana inter dum nor at, circa littora mar is, &
ripas fluminum multinn uerfatur, ut ea animalia, qua
[p- 53] unda eiecit, tangat. Cornix tota nigra eft. & media
magnitudine inter monedulam & con mm.

Eft & marina quczdam comix, quam aliqui hy-
bernam cornicem uocant, capite, cauda, & a Us nigris,
ccetera cineria: an hanc aliquando uiderint Ariftoteles
& Plinius, dubito: nam de ea nufquam mentionem
fecerunt. Supereft adJmc & alia comix graniuora,
roftro albo, ccetera nigra. Hac (T7r€p/jLo\oyov, id eft,
frugilegam Ariftotelis Longolius effe coniecit.

DE CORVO.

K6pa%, cornus, Anglice a rauen, Germanice etylt rabe.
Coruus, quum Jit auis cornice maior, tota nigra &
carniuora, omnibus fatis notus eft. Corui locis arclio-
ribus & ubi fatis pluribus non Jit, duo tdtum incolunt,
& fuos pullos cum iam poteftas uolandi eft, primum nido
eijciunt, deinde regione tota expellunt. Parit cormis
quatiwr aut qiiinq;.

DE CVLICILEGA.

~Kvi7ro\6yo<;, culicilega, Anglice a uuagtale, Ger-
manice etyn nniffcv ftel^. ei)n qiiiffter^.

ARISTOTELES \

Culicilega, magnitudine eft quata fpinus,
[p. 54] colore cinerea, diftincla maculis, uoce parua,
quse & ipfa lignapeta2 eft.

Culicilegam effe iudico auiculam, quam aliqui mota-
cillam nuncupant. eft autem ilia albo & nigro uarie

1 Hist. An. Bk viu. 44.

2 The Greek is eo-rt Se KOI TOVTO ^V\OKOTTOV.

Corn ix — Corvus — Culicilega 6 5

OF THE CORNIX.

7, comix, in English a crow, in German eyn krae
and eyn kraeg.

The Crow1 is an omnivorous bird, for it eats flesh and
fish and sometimes grain ; it much frequents sea-coasts and
river-banks, that it may there obtain those animals which
the tide has thrown up. The Crow is wholly black and is
midway in size between a Daw and a Raven.

There also is a certain Sea Crow, which some call the
Winter Crow2, with black head, tail, and wings and the
remainder grey : but whether Aristotle or Pliny ever saw this
bird I am uncertain, for they have not mentioned it in any
place. There still remains another Crow3, a grain-eater, with
white beak, but black otherwise. Longolius conjectured this
to be Aristotle's 0-^6/9^0X0709, that is frugilega.

OF THE CORVUS.

Ko/oaf, corvus, in English a raven, in German eyn rabe.

The Raven, inasmuch as it is bigger than the Crow, quite
black, and a flesh-eater, is sufficiently well known to all.
In places with less space, and where there is not room for
many, Ravens dwell only in pairs, and, when their young
have just gained power of flight, the parents first banish
them from the nest, and later drive them out of the whole
neighbourhood. The Raven has a brood of four or five.

OF THE CULICILEGA.

Kz/iTToX^o?4, culicilega, in English a wagtale, in German
eyn wasser steltz, eyn quikstertz.

ARISTOTLE.

The Culicilega is a bird of the same size as the
Spinus, ash-coloured, and marked with spots : its voice
is poor ; moreover it pecks wood.

The Culicilega I judge to be that little bird, which some
name Motacilla, inasmuch as it is variously marked with

1 The Carrion Crow (Corvus corone).

2 The Hooded or Grey Crow (Corvus comix).

3 The Rook (Corvus frugilegus).

4 Sundevall thinks that this bird is Certhiafamiliaris.

T- 5

6 6 Culicilega — Cuculus

diftinEla, cauda longa, quam femper motitat. degit pluri-
mum ad ripas fluminum^ ubi mufcas captat & uermi-
cu/osy quin & aratrum uermiurn caufa fequitur, quos
uerfat & exhibet aim gleba aratrum.

DE CVCVLO.

Kd/c/cuf, cuculus, Anglice a cukkouu, & a gouke,
Germanice etyn fuffucf.

ARISTOTELES1.

Cuculus ex accipitre fieri, immutata figura,
a nonnullis putatur : quoniam quo tempore is
apparet, accipiter ille, cui fimilis eft, non afpi-
citur. Sed ita fere euenit, ut ne caeteri item
accipitres cernatur cum primam uocem emifit
cuculus, nifi perquam paucis diebus. Ipfe
autem breui tempore eftatis uifus, hyeme no
[p. 55] cernitur. Eft hie neque aduncis unguibus, ut
accipiter, neq$ capite accipitri fimilis : fed ea
utraque parte columbum potius quam accipi-
trem repraefentat. Nee alio quam colore imi-
tatur accipitrem, nifi quod maculis diftinguitur,
ceu lineis, cuculus uelut punc~tis. Magnitude
atq* uolatus fimilis accipitru minimo, qui magna
ex parte non cernitur per id tempus, quo cu-
culus apparet. Na uel ambo una uifi aliquando
funt. Quin etiam ab accipitre interimi2 cuculus
uifus eft, quod nulla auis fuo in genere folet
facere. pullos cuculi nemo ait fe uidiffe. parit
tame, uerum non in nido, quern ipfe fecerit, fed

1 Hist. An. Bk vi. 41—44.

2 Aristotle has

Culicilega — Cuculus 67

black and white, and it has a long tail, which it is always
jerking. It mostly haunts the banks of rivers, where it
catches flies and little worms ; moreover it follows the
plough for the sake of the worms which are turned up and
laid bare with the clod.

OF THE CUCULUS.

KOKKVJ;, cuculus, in English a cukkow, and a gouke, in
German eyn kukkuck.

ARISTOTLE.

By some the Cuculus is thought to come by
change of form from an Accipiter1, since, at the
season when the former appears, the Accipiter which
it resembles is not seen. But commonly it so falls out
that the other Accipitres are likewise absent when
the Cuculus utters its earliest cry, save for a very few
days. Further the bird itself is only seen for a short
time in summer ; it is not observed in winter. Nor
has it the claws hooked as an Accipiter, nor yet a
head like an Accipiter : but in both of these parts it
counterfeits a Columbus rather than an Accipiter. In
naught but colour does it imitate the Accipiter, except
that in its marks, it is distinguished as it were by
lines, the Cuculus by spots. The size and mode of
flight are like those of the least of the Accipitres,
which for the most part at the time wherein the
Cuculus appears, is not to be observed. Yet on
occasion both have been seen at once. The Cuculus,
moreover, has been known to be struck down by the
Accipiter, which thing no bird is ever wont to do to
one of its own kind. Nobody says that he has seen
young of the Cuculus, and yet it breeds, although
not in a nest which it has made itself: but sometimes

1 Such a tradition is still common in many parts of this country and
on the Continent.

68 Cuculus — Crex

interdum in nidis minorum auium, & oua, quae
aliena reperit, edit : maxime uero nidos palu-
[p. 56J bium petit, quorum & ipforum oua efu abfumit,
fua relinquens : parit maiori ex parte fmgula oua,
raro bina. Curucae quoque in nido parit, fouet
ilia & excudit & educat. Quo quidem praeci-
pue tempore1 & pinguis & grati faporis pullus
cuculi eft. Genus eorum quoddam nidos facere
procul in petris excelfis, praeruptiscj? affolet.

Cuculum hie nobis fatis graphice depinxit Ariftoteles,

Curuca a fi curucam eadem diligentia defer ipfiffet, non fidffet

titlyng. kodie tarn omnibus fere incognita qua nunc eft. Ego

fufpicor Anglorum titlingam effe curucam Ariftotelis.

Nam nullam auem in uita frequentius cuculi pullum

fequentem, & pro fuo educantem, quam illam obferuaui.

Eft autem ilia lufcinia minor, fed eadem corporis figura,

colore fubtiiridi, culices & uermiculos in ramis arborum

fettatur, rarb humi conftftit, hyeme non cernitur.

BE CRECE EX ARISTOTELE2.

[p- 57] Sed cu omnibus quaterni digiti fmt, tres
parte priore habentur, unus parte pofleriore
pro cake, ut tute fit, qui minutus ineft ijs, quae
longa habent crura, ut in crece euenit3. Eft4
autem crex moribus pugnacibus, ingenio ualens
ad uiclum, fed caetera infcelix.

Eft auis qucedam apud Anglos, longis cruribus,
ccetera coturnici, ni/i quod maior eft, ftmilis, quce in
fegete & lino, iiere et in principio czftatis non aliam

1 This apparently means 'when in the nest.' How then
does Aristotle say that 'no one has ever seen the young'?
The passage may be an interpolation, as may be another which
follows referring to Hawks. If so, the fact of nesting on rocks
may also refer to Hawks, and be a further interpolation.

2 Hist. An. Bk n. 46.

3 ' ut...evenit.' These words are not in Aristotle.

4 Hist. An. Bk ix. 91.

Ciiculus — Crex 69

in the nests of smaller birds, and it devours the eggs
of the others that it finds. It mostly seeks the nests
of the Palumbes and eats those birds' eggs, leaving
its own behind. For the most part it lays a single
egg or rarely two. It also lays in the Curuca's nest,
and that bird sits upon the eggs, hatches and rears
the young. And at that time indeed the offspring of
the Cuculus is both particularly fat and of a grateful
flavour. A certain kind of Cuculus is wont to make its
nest far off on steep and very lofty rocks.

Here Aristotle has portrayed the Cuculus to us most
graphically, and, had he described the Curuca in the same
careful way, it would not at this day have been so little
known to almost everyone as now it is. The Curuca of
Aristotle I suspect to be the Titling1 of the English. For
I have observed no other bird in life more frequently than
this following the Cukkow's young and rearing it, as though
its own. Now it is less than the Luscinia, but with the same
figure of body, and in colour somewhat green ; it hunts for
gnats and little worms among the boughs of trees. It seldom
settles on the ground, and is not seen in winter.

OF THE CREX FROM ARISTOTLE.

But seeing that all birds have four toes each, three
are directed forwards and one backwards by way of
a heel, for safety's sake ; the last is very small in
such as have long legs, as happens with the Crex.
Further the Crex is of pugnacious habit, clever in
procuring food, but of bad omen otherwise.

There is a certain bird in England with long legs, otherwise
like a Quail, except that it is bigger, which in spring as well
as early summer makes no other cry among the corn and flax

1 It is impossible to say with certainty what Turner's ' Titlyng ' was ;
but probably he meant the Tree- Pipit, which he confounded with the
Titlark.

70 Crex — Aves Diomedece — Ficedula

habet uocem, quam crex crex: hdc enim uocem femper
ingeminat^ quam ego Ariftotelis crecem ejfe puto.
Angli auem illam uocant a daker hen, Germani etyn
fcfyrtyf. nufquam in Anglia niji in fola NortJiumbria
uidi & audiui.

D£ DlOMEDEIS AVIBUS EX PLINIO \

Nec Diomedeas praeteribo aues. lubacata-
ractas uocat, & eis effe detes, oculoscj* igneo
colore, caetera cadidos trades. Duos femper
[p- 58] ijs duces, alterum ducere agmen, alterum co-
gere. Scrobes excauare roftro, inde crate
cofternere, & operire terra, quae ante egefta
fuit, in his foetificare. Fores binas omniu fcro-
bibus, orientem fpeclare, quibus exeant in
t occafum pafcua, f occidentem, quibus redeant. Aluum
exoneraturas fubuolare femper, & contrario
flatu. Vno hae in loco totius orbis uifuntur, in
infula, quam diximus nobilem Diomedis tumulo,
atque delubro, contra Apulie oram, fulicarum
fimiles. Aduenas barbaros clangore infeftant.
Graecis tantum adulantur, miro difcrimine, uelut
generi Diomedis hoc tribuetes, aedemcj^ eius
quotidie pleno gutture madetibus pennis per-
luunt.

DE FICEDVLA.

[p. 59] SftfaTu?, ficedida Latine (lifla, non eft Germa-
norum fneppa, quce locis gaudet humidis, & folis uer-

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xliv.

Crex- — Aves Diomedece — Ficedula 71

than crex crex, and moreover it repeats this sound incessantly;
I think that it is Aristotle's Crex. This bird the English call
a Daker Hen, and the Germans eyn schryk1. I have not seen or
heard it anywhere in England, save in Northumberland alone.

OF THE AVES DIOMEDE.E FROM PLINY.
And I will not omit the birds of Diomede2, which
Juba calls Cataractae, telling us that they have
teeth and fire-coloured eyes, but otherwise are white.
They always have two captains, one to lead the
band, the other to bring up the rear. These birds
dig furrows with the beak, then cover them with
wattlework, and hide this with the earth thrown out
at first ; in these places they breed. Each furrow
has two openings, one facing east, by which they
may go out towards their feeding grounds, the other
facing west, by which they may return. They always
flutter out to disburden the belly, and against the
wind. In one place only of the whole world are they
to be seen, namely that island which we have set
down as famous for the tomb and shrine of Diomede,
over against the shore of Apulia. They are like
Fulicae. Strangers who come there they attack with
clamour, only on the Greeks they fawn, with wonderful
discernment, paying as it were this tribute to the race
of Diomede, and every day they purify his shrine
with brimming throats and water-laden wings.

OF THE FICEDULA.

Sv/caX/9, in Latin called ficedula3, is not the sneppa of
the Germans, which delights in wet localities, and feeds only

1 Schlegel (Vog. NederL n. 60) says that the Dutch schriek is the
Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus), but Turner evidently means the Corn
Crake (Crex: pratensis). Naumann (Naturg. Vog. DeutschL ix. p. 496)
gives Schrecke as a local. name for the Corn Crake.

2 Apparently Shearwaters of some species are meant. For the story
see any work on Mythology.

3 For the supposed change of Ficedula into Atricapilla, see p. 39.

7 2 Ficedula — Fringilla — Montifringilla

mibus itefcitur : fed auiciila Ger manor um grafmufcho
Jimilis , ficubus & uuis uiclitds, ut pulchre his uerfibus
Martialis1 teftatur:

Cum me ficus alat, & pafcar dulcibus uuis,
Cur potius nomen non dedit inia mihi?

DE FRINGILLA.

S-Trtfa, fringilla, Anglice a chaffinche, a sheld appel,
afpink, Germanice etyn bucfyfmf.

Fringillce, autore Ariftotele, ceftate tepidis locis, &
hyeme,frigidis degunt, & inde puto apud Latinos nomen
accepiffe, quod in frigore plures conuolantes apud nos
cernantur, quam ceftate. Pafcerem magnitudine cequat,
uarijs coloribus, albo nempe, uiridi & ruffo diftinfta eft.
mar is peftus rubefcit, fce.mince pallefcit: can tat mas
primo uere. Nidulatur fringilla in fummis fruticum
ramis, aut arborum infimis, nidumq-, intus ex lana,
forisq; ex mufco facit.

DE MONTIFRINGILLA.
Opoo-Tuf???, motif ringilla, Anglice a bramlyng, Ger-
manice etyn ronjert.

ARISTOTELES 2.

[p. 60] Montifringilla fringillae fimilis eft, & magni-
tudine proxima : fed collo cceruleo eft, & in
montibus degit, unde nomen accepit.

Auicula, quam ego montifringillam ejfe credo, frin-
gill<z magnitudine & corporis figura Jimilis eft: fed
mas in collo plumas habet cceruleas, quas no ceqzie
prompte in fcemina deprcehendas. Roftrum luteum eft,
& alee uarijs coloribus, albo, nigro, & luteo nimirum
diftinguutitr, ut auriuittis. Vox illi infuauis & ftri-
dula eft.

1 Epig. Lib. XIII. xlix.

2 Hist. An. Bk vin. 41.

Ficedula — Fringilla — Montifringilla 7 3

on worms1; but is a little bird like the grasmusch of the
Germans, living- upon figs and grapes, as Martial prettily
bears witness in these lines : —

Since the fig gives me nourishment, and I feed on sweet grapes,
Why has the grape not rather given me a name ?

OF THE FRINGILLA.

^TTi^a, fringilla, in English a chaffinche, a sheld-appel2,
a spink, in German eyn buchfink.

Fringillse — on Aristotle's authority — in summer haunt
warm places, and in winter cold ; and thence I think that
they received their name among the Latins3, for when it is
cold more are seen flocking round us than in summer time.
In size the bird equals a Sparrow and is marked with various
colours, namely, white and green, and russet. In the male
the breast is ruddy, in the female pale. The male sings
in the early spring. The Fringilla nests upon the highest
boughs of shrubs or on the lowest boughs of trees, and
fashions its nest inwardly of wool and outwardly of moss.

OF THE MONTIFRINGILLA.

'Opoo-Trtf?;?, montifringilla, in English a bramlyng, in
German eyn rowert.

ARISTOTLE.

The Montifringilla is like the Fringilla, and similar
in size, but with a blue neck ; and it lives in mountains,
whence it has its name.

The little bird which I believe to be the Montifringilla,
in size and shape of body is like the Fringilla, but the male
has blue feathers upon the neck, which one cannot perceive
so quickly in the hen. The beak is yellow, and the wings
in truth are marked with various colours, yellow, black and
white, as in the Aurivittis. Its note is unmelodious and
grating.

1 See p. 35.

2 Shell-apple, or Apple-sheiler is still a Northumbrian name for the
Chaffinch. The word * sheld ' may mean ' parti-coloured.'

3 Here Turner's mistaken etymology (Fringilla afrigore) is evident.

74 Florus — Fitlica

DE FLORO EX ARISTOTELE\
Anthos, fiue florus, uermibus pafcitur, &
magnitude illi, quanta fringillae eft. uiclitat
circa aquas & paludes, & ei color pulcher eft,
& uita commoda, odio equum habet, pellitur
enim ab equo pabulo herbse, qua uefcitur.
Nubeculans, nee ualens oculorum acie eft,
quippe qui uocem equi imitetur, atque aduolans
[p. 61] equum fuget : fed interdum excipiatur occi-
daturcj? ab equo. In aegithum florus tantum
odium gerit, ut ne mortuarum auiu fanguis
poffe mifceri dicatur.

DE FVLICA.

}LeTr<f)os,ftilica, Anglice a uuhite femanu miitk. a blak
cop. Germanice, etyn ft>tyf mett>e.

Recentiores Greed, qui poft Ariftotelem fcripferunt,
larum & cepphum eandem auem fecerimt, lit Erafmtts
in Adagio, \dpos /centos, ex Arijlophane1 & eius inter-
prete oftendit. Ariftoteles nerb duas facit diuerfas aues
libro de hiftoria animalium oflauo his uerbis, eari 8e
Xa/)o? 6 Xeu/co? KOI /ceTrtyos. lam qua nam ratione
autores iftos concilie, nefcio, niji dicam poet as rerum
peculiares & proprias notas, & difcrimina, philofophis
multb negligentius obferuantes, aues corporis figura,
natalibus, & ui£lus ratione fi.miles, licet manifeftis notis
differentes,eafdem aues feciffe, quas feueriores philosophi
ad amujfim omnia expendentes, in diuerfas fpecies dif-
tinxerunt.

Sed inter huius cetatis grammaticos, non minor eft

opinionum uarietas de fulica, qu&'nam ilia Jit, qudm

[p. 62] inter Grcecos de nomine controuerjia fuit. Simt enim

1 Hist. An. Bk vm. 41 and Bk ix. 18, 22, freely rendered.

2 Pax, 1. 1067. By 'interpreter' is evidently meant the
Scholiast, who says that the Proverb is used of those who
promise much, and perform little.

Flo rus — Fulica 7 5

OF THE FLORUS FROM ARISTOTLE.

The Anthos, that is Florus, feeds on worms ; its
size is that of the Fringilla. It gets victual round
waters and marshes ; its colour is fair, and its life
easy to it. It holds the Horse in hatred, inasmuch
as it is driven by the Horse from the grassy pastures
where it feeds. It is purblind and nowise keen of
eyesight, while it imitates the neighing of the Horse,
and flying at it puts the Horse to flight, yet sometimes
it is caught and then killed by the Horse. The Florus
has so great a hatred of the ^Egithus that it is stated
that the blood of these two birds, even when dead,
cannot be mixed.

OF THE FULICA.

KeV^o?, fulica, in English a white semaw, with a black
cop, in German eyn wyss mewe.

The later Greeks, who have written after Aristotle, have
made the Larus and the Cepphus the same bird, which fact
Erasmus in his Proverb Xa/oo? KCTT^O^ shews, from Aristo-
phanes and his interpreter. But Aristotle in the eighth book
of his History of Animals keeps the two birds distinct, using
the following words: — "There is the \dpos that is white, also
the /te7n£o9." Now in what way to reconcile these authors
I know not, unless I say that poets who observe more
negligently than philosophers the peculiar properties of
things, and their diversities, have made these birds the same,
which are alike in form of body, breeding-time, and way of
feeding, although differing in manifest respects, whereas philo-
sophers, more strict than they, gauging all things exactly,
have distinguished them as different kinds.

And yet there is not less diversity of opinion among
the critics of our day about the Fulica, and what that bird
may be, than there was controversy among the Greeks about
its name. For there are teachers of a sort1 in Lower

1 ' Literatores ' is here apparently used in a somewhat scornful sense.

7 6 Fulica

in inferiori Germania literatures aliqui, qui fulicam
kyuuittam fuam ejfe uolunt, ex eo forfan opinionem fuam
adftruentes, quod apud Plinium fulicce cirrum tribui
Angloru legerint. Eft autem Germanorum kyuuitta cornice
apuumga. minor, plumis fere uiridibus, et nigris per to turn dorfum
et caput et collii : uentre albo, longa, & femper erec~la in
capite: crifta plumea, alis obtufeoribus, & inter uo-
landum magnum ftrepitum edentibus, unde & uannellus
a barbaris dicitur: aquis uermium gratia, quibus folis
uiclitat, appropinquat, fed ipfas non ingreditur, in
planis & in locis erica confttis, plurimum degit. Ad
depopulandum uermes, noftrates in hortis fcepe ahmt.

Sed hanc effe fulicam non patitur, quod Vergilius
de fulica Georgico rum primo 1 ad hunc modum fcribit :

lam Jibi turn curuis male temperat unda carinis,
Ciim medio celeres reuolant ex cequore mergi^
Clamoremfy ferunt ad littora^ cumfa marines
In ficco ludimt fulicce.

Hinc fatis liquet kyuuittam non effe fulicam, quum
non Jit auis marina nee aquatica. Non defunt qui
fulicam gallinam illam nigram aquaticam, alba in
fronte macula, effe uolunt. Sed ifti Vergil, et Arifto-
[p. 63] telis autoritate facile err or is conuincuntur, quorum alter
auem facit marinam, alter, nempe Ariftoteles lib. oflauo
hiftoricz animalium, apud mare tiiuere teftatur. Quare
quum paluftris ilia gallina neque auis Jit marina, neq;
apud mare uictum pet at, fed in ftagnis, paludibus, &
recentibus aquis perpetub degat : nee Vergilij fulica, nee
Ariftotelis ^eV(/)09 effe poterit. Sed iam reftat, ut quam
auem fulicam effe iudicem, ojhndam.

Eft auis marina, magnitudine monedulce, fed alis
acutioribus & longioribtts, colore tota albo, excepto nigro,
quern in capite gerit cirro : roftro etiam & pedibus
puniceis. Hanc ego fcepe in mari nauigans, ex eo

1 Lib. i. 1. 360—3.

Fulica 77

Germany, who will have it that the Fulica is their Kywit,
possibly resting their opinion on what they have read in
Pliny of a tuft being attributed to the bird Fulica. The
Kywit of the Germans is, however, smaller than a Cornix,
with the plumage almost green and black on the whole back
and head and neck, the belly white, a long and always
upright feathery crest upon the head, and somewhat rounded
wings, which during flight make a great hurtling, whence it
is even named by foreigners Vannellus. It approaches waters
for the sake of worms, on which alone it feeds, but does not
enter them. It mostly lives in open country, and in places
overgrown with heather. Our people often keep this bird in
gardens, to destroy the worms.

And yet what Vergil in this manner writes in the first
book of his Georgics of the Fulica will not permit this bird
to be his Fulica : —

"And now the waters scarce restrain themselves from the ships'
curving keels, while the swift Mergi wing their way once more out of the
Ocean's midst, bringing their noisy voices to the shore, and while the
Fulicae, frequenters of the sea, disport themselves on land."

Hence it is clear enough that the Kywit is not the Fulica,
since it is not a sea-bird nor a water-bird. There are not
wanting those who would have that black Water Hen, with
a white frontal patch, to be the Fulica1. But on the strength
of Vergil and Aristotle such are easily convicted of mistake,
for one of these makes it a sea-bird, and the other, namely
Aristotle in the eighth book of his History of Animals, bears
witness that it lives about the sea. Wherefore, since that
Marsh Hen is neither a sea-bird nor seeks its food about
the sea, but constantly haunts pools, and marshes, and fresh
waters, it can neither be the Fulica of Vergil nor the /ce-Tr^o?
of Aristotle. But it still remains that I should shew what bird
I judge the Fulica to be.

There is a sea-bird2, like a Daw in size, but with the wings
sharper and longer, wholly white in colour, save for a black
patch which it bears on the head, and with the beak and feet
of purplish red. I often, journeying upon the sea, have had

1 I.e. the Coot (Fulica atra).

2 The Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus).

/ 8 Fulica — Gavia

tempore, quo hiftoriam animalium Arijlotelis legeram,
conftderaui, tti prcefertim, quando uel deficiente uento,
uel flante contrario, emijfa anchora, uentum fequundi-
orem quiefcentes expeclauimus. H<zc Jlatim foluta an-
chora, gauijs comitata aduolat, ex purgamentis nauis
eiectis, efcce nonnihil Jlbi promittens, diutino clangore
defatigata, tandem keph profert, ut lari cob. unde a
noftris marini cobbi dicuntur. Fieri poteft, ut in fuli-
carum genere qu&dam Jint cinerece, licet Plin. tibi ex
autoritate lubce Diomedeas aues, fulicis Jimiles albas
effe tradit, uidedtur fulicas omnes albas facere, warn
[p. 64] non de eo, quod rarius, fed frequentius accidit, in genere
loquuntur clajjici fcriptores. Niduldtnr lari & fulicce
in eifdem locis^ in exceljis nempe petris, & marinis
rupibus.

DE GAVIA.

Aa/)o?, gauia, a fe cob or a feegell.

Gauiarum duo genera Arijlot. facit: alterum
album, quod apud mare, alterum cinerium, quod circa
lacus & fltiuios ui£lum quczrit. Gauiam albam a fulica
parum differ re arbitror, folo nimirum cirro et rojlro.
Gauia cinerea, qucz ad flumina & lacus afcendit, que-
rula femper & clamofa eft. pifciculos captat & uermes
ad ripas lacuum. huius generis eft & alia parua auis,
noftrati lingua fterna appellata, qticz marinis laris ita
ftmilis eft, ut fola magnittidine & colore ab illis differre
tddeatur : eft enim ifte larus, marinis minor & nigrior.
Tota ceftate tarn improbe clamofa eft, quo tempore par-
turit, ut iuxta lacus & paludes degentes, immodico cla-
more tantum no obtundat. hdc ego fane auem effe credo,
cuius improba garrulitas adagio, Larus partzirit, locum
fecit, uolat fere perpetub fuper lacus & paludes, nunqud
quiefcens, fed prcedcz femper inhians. Nidulatur hcec
in denjls arundinetis. Marince gauia in petris &
rupibus maritimis nidificant.

Fit, lie a — Gavia 7 9

this bird in mind, from the time that I read Aristotle's
History of Animals, and then especially when through the
wind failing or blowing contrary, the anchor being dropped,
we have been calmly awaiting a more favourable wind. The
anchor being weighed this bird immediately flies to us in
the company of Gulls, promising something to itself by way
of food out of the refuse cast forth from the ship ; at last
exhausted by its constant cries it merely utters " keph," as
Gulls cry " cob." And hence they are called Sea-Cobs by
our countrymen. It may be that some of the race of Fulicae
are grey, though Pliny, when on the authority of Juba
he relates that the birds known as Diomede's are white
like Fulicae, seems to put down all Fulicae as white ; for
classical authorities speak not in any class of what more
rarely, but of what more frequently occurs. Gulls nest in
the same places as do Fulicae, forsooth on lofty crags and
rocks about the sea.

OF THE GAVIA.

A«po9, gavia, a se cob or a see-gell.

Aristotle makes two kinds of Gaviae, one white, which
seeks its food about the sea, the other grey, which seeks it
round the lakes and rivers. Now I think that the white
Gavia differs but little from the Fulica, only indeed as to
the hood and beak. The grey Gavia, which comes up to our
rivers and lakes, is always querulous and full of noise. It
catches little fishes and eats worms upon the banks of lakes.
There is another small bird of this kind, called Stern1 in local
dialect, which is so like the sea Lari that it seems to differ
from them only in its size and colour; for it is a Larus,
though smaller than the sea Lari and blacker. Throughout
the whole of summer, at which time it breeds, it makes such
an unconscionable noise that by its unrestrained clamour it
almost deafens those who live near lakes and marshes. This
I certainly believe to be the bird whose vile garrulity gave
rise to the old Proverb " Larus parturit." It is almost always
flying over lakes and swamps, never at rest, but always open-
mouthed for prey. This bird nests in thick reed-beds. The
sea Gaviae breed on crags and rocks about the sea.
1 The Black Tern {Sterna nigrd).

80 Galeriia

[p. 65] DE GALERITA.

K6pv8o$, r) tcopv&aXos, Ang. a lerk or a lauerock,
Germa. etyn lerd). Plinius naturalis hiftorice undecimo
libra, galeritam Gallico uocabulo, poflea alaudam ejfe
dic~tam oflendit. quare galeritce potius uocabulo, quam
alaudce Latinis utendum effe ex autoritate Plinij cenfeo.

ARISTOTELES DE GALERITIS'.

Galeritarum duo funt genera : alterum ter-
renum criftatum, alteru gregale. nee fmgulare
more alterius, uerum colore fimile, quaquam
magnitudine minus, & galero cares, cibo uero
idoneu, galeritse nunqua in arbore confiftunt,
fed humi 2.

Prius hoc A riftotelis genus uariam habet in uarijs
regionibus crtftam, alicubi femper apparentem : in alijs
locis talem, ut pro arbitratu fuo pojjit erigere aut depo-
nere, quu una eademq-, Jit utriufq-, auis magnitudo. &
galeritam hanc maiorem, Angliproprie lercam nominant.
a uuilde A Iterum genus A ristotel. a noftris fera alauda, a

lercoraheth Qermanis fafo (ercb nominatur, in plants & locis erica
lerk.

r 661 ^onjitis, & ad ripas lacuum, uermium caufa, quibtis

uittitat, magna ex parte degit. Duplo fere fuperiore
minus eft, & roftro tenui, & carne longe fuauijjima.
a uuodlerck. Supereft tertium galeritce genus, Germanis copera, a
IdgiJJima crifta, tit arbitror, ita dic~tum, A riftoteli plane
incognitum: nam prius A riftotelis genus effe non poteft,
quia minor eft quam ut illud effe pofjit : minus autem
illud genus effe non poteft, quia galerum habet, qui
A riftotelis pofteriori generi deeft. Quare galerita ifta,
Ariftoteli fuit incognita. Et cum Colonienfes aucupes
coperam (qtice medics eft magnitudinis inter Arijlotelis

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 101.

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 66.

Galerita 8 1

OF THE GALERITA.

, 77 Kopv$a\os, in English a lerk or a laverock,
in German eyn lerch.

Pliny, in the eleventh book of his Natural History, has
shown us that Galerita1, taken from a Gaulish word, was
called Alauda afterwards, wherefore I think that on Pliny's
authority the name of Galerita should be used by those
who write in Latin rather than Alauda.

ARISTOTLE, OF THE GALERITA.

Of Galeritae there are two kinds, one is a crested
ground-bird, but the other lives in flocks, not singly
as the former. Yet in colour it is similar, though of
a smaller size, and not having a crest. Moreover it
is fit for food. The Galeritae never sit upon a tree,
but always on the ground.

The first kind given by Aristotle has in different lands
a different crest, in one place always evident, elsewhere such
that the bird can raise or lower it at will, although the size
of either is one and the same. This larger Galerita English-
men call the Lerc proper, while Aristotle's second sort is
by our countrymen named a Wilde Lerc, and by the Germans
a heid lerch ; this for the most part lives in open country,
and in places overgrown with heather, and on banks of lakes,
for the sake of the worms on which it feeds. This bird is
smaller by nearly one half than the aforesaid, with a slender
beak, and flesh by far the sweetest.

There still remains a third kind of Galerita, the Copera
of the Germans, thus named I believe from its very long
crest, and certainly unknown to Aristotle, for it cannot be
his first kind, inasmuch as it is smaller than that bird can
be ; likewise it cannot be the smaller sort, because it has
a crest, which is not present in the latter kind. Wherefore
this Galerita was unknown to Aristotle. And since the fowlers
of Colonia [Cullen] with one accord assure us that the Copera
(which is midway in size between Aristotle's crested Galerita

1 Galerita is usually supposed to have some connexion with the Latin
galea = a helmet.

T. 6

82 Galerita — Galli et Gallince

galeritam criftatam, & non crijlatani) concordibus ad-
firment fuffragijs, hanc nulld habere peculiarem canti-
unculam, fed inepte alt arum, quibuscum uiffiitat, aidum
uoces referre, adducor plane ut credam hanc effe recen-
tiorum Grcecorum corydon, cuius in fequenti adagio
mentio eft evd/j.ov<risl KOI Kopv&os (frQeyyercu, & in
hoc uerfu :

el KVKVW Bvvarai KOpvSos 7rapa7r\r)(Tiov abeiv.

Nd galerita maior, pulchre & fuauiter cantat, &
minorem cantu non minus ualere tradunt aucupes. Hcec
igitur quum uoce nihil pof/it^fed inepte tantkm aliarum
uoces, fuo garritu mentiri, recentiorum Grcecorum erit
corydos.

[p. 67] DE GALLIS ET

ga Hints.

h\eKTa>p,gallus, Anglice a cok, Germanice et)tt f)an.
AXeVropt?, gallina, Anglice a hen, Germanice, etyn fyen.
Saxones dicunt e^n ()on.

VARRO2 DE RE RUSTICA LIBRO TERTIO.

Rufticse Gallinae rufticse, funt in urbe rarse, nee fere

manfuete fine cauea uidentur Romse, fimiles

Villatic^. facie non his uillaticis gallinis noilris, fed
Africanis afpeftu, ac facie incontaminata. In
ornatibus publicis folent poni cum pfiticis ac
merulis albis, item id genus rebus inufitatis.
Neque fere in uillis oua ac pullos faciunt, fed
in fyluis.

Africang. Gallinae Africanae, funt grandes, uariae, gib-

Meleagrides. berae, quas Meleagrides Graeci appellant. Hae

nouiffimae in triclinium ganearium introierunt,

[p. 68] e culina propter faftidium hominu. Venerunt3

propter penuriam magno. De tribus generibus,

gallinae faginantur maxime uillatice. Eas in-

1 Undoubtedly the reading should be : — eV a/zouo-ots- = among
those with little voice. Both these proverbs are to be found in
the Adages of Erasmus, Chil. II. Cent. ii. 92.

2 Bk III. cap. ix.

3 No doubt a misprint for ' veneunt' = are sold.

Galerita — Galli and Gallince 83

and the non-crested) has no song of its own, but feebly
imitates the notes of other birds with which it feeds, I am
assuredly led to believe that it must be the Corydos of the later
Greeks, of which mention is made in the proverb below : —

'Ez>a/LtoL><rt9 /cat 6 /copvSos QOeryyerai,
and in this verse : —

el KVKvqy Svvarai, Kopvbos 7rapa7r\rjcri,ov a&eiv.
For the larger Galerita sings fairly and sweetly, and the
fowlers say that in its song the smaller kind is worth no
less. Wherefore the third kind, since it has no power of
voice except feebly to imitate the voices of the others by a
twitter of its own, will be the Corydos of the later Greeks.

OF THE GALLI AND GALLING.
, gallus, in English a cok, in German eyn han.

, gallina, in English a hen, in German eyn hen.
The Saxons say eyn hon.

VARRO, IN HIS THIRD BOOK DE RE RUSTICA.

The wild Gallinae are rare in a city, and are
scarcely seen at Rome tame, unless in a cage : they
are not in appearance like the Gallina^ of our country-
houses, but in look recall the African, and have the
face unmarked1. During public festivities these birds
are wont to be exhibited with Psitaci, white Merulse,
and other unfamiliar kinds of that description. They
do not usually lay their eggs or hatch their young at
country-houses, but among the woods.

The African Gallinse, which the Greeks call Mele-
agrides, are big, speckled, and hunch-backed. They
have been the last to enter the dining room of eating-
houses from the kitchen through people's fastidiousness.
And from their rarity they have advanced to a great
price. Of the three kinds those of the country-house
are chiefly fattened. These they keep shut up in

1 It is impossible to reconcile the statements of Varro and Columella
as they stand. Various alterations of the text, which is possibly unsound,
have been suggested.

6—2

84 Galli et Gallince

cludunt in locum tepidum & anguftum & tene-
brofum, quod motus eariim & lux pinguedini
inimica, eleclis ad hanc rem maximis gallinis,
nee continue his, quas Melicas appellant falfo,
Callus me- quod antiqui ut thetim thelim dicebat, fie Me-
bau^cokor dica Melica uocabant. Hae primo Medice di-
a cok of cebantur, quia ex Media propter magnitudinem
erant allatae.

kynde.

COLUMELLA \

Gallinaru ali9 funt cohortales, alie ruftice,

Cohortalis. alie Africane. Cohortalis eft auis, quae uulgo

Ruflica. per omnes fere uillas confpicitur. Rustica,

quae non diffimilis uillatice, per aucupem deci-

[p. 69] pitur, eacj* plurima eft in infula, qua nautse in

Liguftico mari fitam, produclo nomine alitis,

Africana. gallinaria uocitauerunt. Africana eft, quam

plerique Numidicam dicunt, meleagridi fimilis,

nifi quod rutilam galeam, & criftam capite gerit,

quae utraque in Meleagride funt coerulea.

PLINIUS 2.

Simili modo pugnant Meleagrides in Boe-
Africae. otia. Africae, hoc eft gallinarum genus gibbe-
rum, uarijs fparfum plumis, que nouiffime funt
peregrinarum auium in menfis receptae, propter
ingratum uirus : uerum Meleagri tumulus no-
biles eas fecit.

ARISTOTELES 3.

[p. 70] Item Hadrianae paruo quidem funt corpore,
fed quotidie pariunt. Ferociunt tamen & pul-
los faepe interimut. Color his uarius. Oua4

1 De re rustica, Lib. vin. cap. ii.

2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxvi.

3 Hist. An. Bk vi. i.

4 Hist. An. Bk vi. 5.

Galli and Gallince 85

a warm, narrow, and dark place, for exercise and light
hinder the fattening. The largest birds are chosen
for this purpose, and not always those which men
mistakenly call Melicae, because the ancients, as they
used to say Thelis for Thetis, also used to call
Medica Melica. At first they were called Medicae
because on account of their size they were brought
hither out of Media.

COLUMELLA.

Of Gallinae some are court-yard birds, others again
are wild, others are African. The court-yard bird is
that which commonly is seen at nearly every country-
house. The wild sort, which is not unlike that of
the country-house, is trapped by bird-catchers. It
is abundant in the island lying in the Ligurian sea,
which sailors, lengthening the bird's name out, have
called continuously Gallinaria. The kind from Africa,
which many call Numidica, is like the Meleagris,
save that on its head it bears a helmet and a crest
of red, but in the Meleagris both of these are blue1.

PLINY.

In a like way the Meleagrides fight in Bceotia.
The Africae, that is a hunch-backed kind of Gallinae,
are sprinkled here and there with variegated feathers ;
and they are the last of foreign birds to be received
at table, on account of their unpleasant flavour : but
the tomb of Meleager has ennobled them2.

ARISTOTLE.

Likewise the Hadrianic birds are small indeed in
body, but they lay their eggs daily. Yet they are
fierce and often kill their chicks. They are of varied

1 See Art. Guinea Fowl in Prof. Newton's Diet. B. p. 399.

2 The reader may here be referred to any work relating to mythology.

86 Galli et Gallince — Gallinago

alia Candida funt, ut columbarum & perdicum,
alia pallida, ut paluftrium, alia punftis diftinfta,
ut Meleagridum & phafianorum.

In pattcis iftis, quos recenfui autoribus, no pauccz
funt de rebus, quas tractauere, cotrouerficz. Varro
primu gallinas rufticas non uillicatis^ fed Africanis
Jimiles ejfe fcribit. Columella ante rnjlicam non dif-
Jlmilem effe uillaticcz tradit. Varro Africanas, me-
leagrides facit, quod & Plinius etiam facere uidetur.
Columella autem uarijs notis Africanas a meleagridi-
bus dijlinguit. Ariftoteles Hadrianas gallinas facit
uarias, ut Plinius itidem facit, & paruo corpore. Varro
Africanas, quas non alias ejfe conftat quam Hadri-
anas, uarias & grandes facit. Verum tanta autorum
inter fe dijjidia componere, penes me non eft. Sed quid
de generibus iftis fentiam, paucis aperiam. Gallina
apud nos ruftica nufquam reperitur, Jl gallina ilia,
quam morhennam uocant non Jit, quam uarijs de caujis
[p. 71] ante attagenem effe conieci. Columellce meleagrides
a kok of uidentur illce ejfe aues, quas nonnulli pauones Indicos
m appellant: nam illas paleis* & criftis cceruleis effe, in

confeffo eft.

DE GALLINAGINE.

K<TKa\w7ra%, gallinago, Anglice a imod cok, Ger-
manice e^n f)d^ fnepff.

ARISTOTELES 3.

Gallinago per fepes4 hortorum capitur, mag-
nitudine quanta gallina eft, roftro longo, colore
attagenae, currit celeriter, & hominem mire dili-
git. Hsec in arbore nunquam5 fedet, & humi
nidulatur.

1 A misprint for ' uillaticis.'

2 Perhaps the reading should be galeis, cf. p. 69, 11. 6 — 7.

3 Hist. An. Bk IX. 102. 66.

4 Aristotle has in addition — epKeo-t = in nets.

5 Hist. An. Bk ix. 66.

Galli and Gallince — Gallinago 87

colouring. Of certain kinds of birds the eggs are
white, as those of Columbae and Perdices, others are
pale, as those of marsh-birds ; others marked with
spots, as those of Meleagrides and Phasiani.

In those few authors, whose works I have scanned, not
a few of the things which they have treated are disputable.
First Varro tells us that the wild-bred Gallinae are not like
those of country-houses, but the African ; while Columella
states that the wild sort is not unlike that of the country-
house. Varro makes the Africanae to be the Meleagrides,
which Pliny also seems to do. Yet Columella separates the
Africanae from the Meleagrides by various characters. And
Aristotle makes his Hadrianic fowls of various colours, as
does Pliny also, and of little size. But Varro makes the
Africanae big and of varied colours, though it is quite clear
that they are nothing but the Hadrianic birds. But after
all it is not in my power to adjust the mutual differences
of authors, when so great ; and yet in a few words I will
disclose what I think of these kinds. The wild Gallina is
not found with us in any part, if it be not that which they
name Morhen, and this I formerly conjectured to be the
Attagen for several reasons. The Meleagrides of Columella
seem to be those birds which some call Indian peacocks1,
for they are admitted to have wattles and blue crests.

OF THE GALLINAGO.

'AcrAraXtoTraf 2, gallinago, in English a wod cok, in German
eyn holtz snepff.

ARISTOTLE.

The Gallinago is taken among the hedges of our
gardens ; it is of the size of a Gallina, but has a long
bill, and the colour of the Attagena : it runs with
speed, while it is wonderfully fond of man. This bird
never sits on a tree and it nests on the ground.

1 Turner was, of course, wrong in his conjecture.

2 Turner makes o-KoXo-rrag the same as do-KaXo>7ra£.

Gallinago — Colius, sive Galgulus

Gallinagines apud noftrates nunquam, nijl hyeme
uidentur, quare de prole & modo nidulandi, nihil habeo,
quod died. Capitur apud Anglos diluculo potiffimum
& crepufciilo in fyluis, retibus in loco arboribus uacuo,
fufpenfts, & ueniente aue demi/fis.

DE COLIO, SIVE GALGULO1, UT VERTIT GAZA,
EX ARISTOTELE.

[p. 72] Galgulo magnitude quanta fere turturi eft :
color luteus, lignipeta hie admodum eft, mag-
na'que ex parte macerie2 pafcitur, uoce emittit
grandem, incola maxime Peloponefi hec auis eft.

Omnia, quce Ariftoteles hactenus colio, fine galgulo
tribuit, Anglorum huhulo, & Germanorum grunfpecJito
(Ji incolam maxime effe Peloponefi exceperis) conue-
niunt. Nam turturem fere magnitudine cequat, ligni-
peta eft: maceriem conttmdit, & uocem grandem emittit.
Sed nihil hie definio, fed inquiro tantum. Galgulus
Plinio icleros Greece dicitur, & Ariftoteli.Ji Theodoro
fidimus, etiam /ceXeo?. Quanquam mihi textum Gree-
cum confulenti, alia auis /coXto?, & alia /ceXeo? nidetur :
nam /coXio? ecrrt ^fXo/co?ro9 <r(f>o$pa, Kal vefjuerai eVt
T&v gv\a)v ra TroXXa. Id eft> colitis eft lignipeta ualde,
& magna ex parte ad ligna pafcitur, o JJLGV yap /ceXeo9
Trapa Trora/jiov olicei Kal XoXyLta?3, quce uerba Theodorus
circa fruteta & nemora reddidit fed recJe'ne an fecus,
docJis iudicandum relinquo. Vidi in Alpibus abieti
inftdentem auem, magnitudine turturis, itiridibus uel-
uti macnlis in luteo diftinttam, quce tota corporis effigie
[p. j-^picti Martium retulit, fed caput reliquo corpori {fecus

1 Hist. An. Bk vni. 44.

2 Possibly a misprint for ' materie.'

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 22. In his errata Turner alters \6\p.as to

-, but evidently he means

Gallinago — Colius or Galgnlus 89

Woodcocks are never seen with us save in the winter,
wherefore I have naught to say about their young or mode of
nesting. They are chiefly caught in England in the woods
at daybreak and at dusk, by means of nets hung in some
place devoid of trees, and dropped when the bird comes.

OF THE COLIUS, OR GALGULUS, AS GAZA RENDERS
IT, FROM ARISTOTLE.

Of the Galgulus the size is almost that of the
Turtur : it is yellowish in colour, and hacks timber
very much, and for the most part feeds on trees : it
utters a loud cry. This bird is mainly an inhabitant
of the Peloponnese.

All that Aristotle has so far attributed to the Colius
or Galgulus is in agreement with the Huhol of the English
and the Grunspecht of the Germans (if one may except its
being chiefly an inhabitant of the Peloponnese). For it is
nearly equal to the Turtle-Dove in size ; it hacks the timber,
hammers rotten wood, and utters a loud cry. But I give no
decision here, I only ask. The Galgulus of Pliny is said to be
called the Icteros in Greek, and if we trust to Theodorus [Gaza]
is also the /ceXeo<? of Aristotle. Though, on consulting the
Greek text /co\tbs seemed to be one bird, and KeAeo?1 another,
for the reading was : — #0X^09 ean gvXo/coTros a(f)6Spa, KOI
ve/juerai ejrl r&v %v\wv ra TroXXu. That is, the Colius is
especially a wood-hunter and for the most part feeds on
wood, o jjbev jap /eeXeo9 Trapa Trorafjuov ol/cei KOA, Xo^yLta9,
which words Theodorus renders " around the thickets and
the groves," but whether rightly so or otherwise I leave
to be decided by the learned. In the Alps I saw sitting
upon a fir a bird of the size of a Turtle-Dove, marked as
it seemed with green patches on yellow, which to me in the
whole aspect of the body called to mind the Picus Martius,
save that its head was like in colour to the rest of its body

1 Turner appears to have had a text with the word KcXebs in one place
instead of

9O Colius, sive Galgulus — Graculi

atq\ in pico Jit) colore fuit fimile, tibijs fttit breuibus, et
capite erecJo, & roftro longiufculo. An hcec galguli
fpecies fuerit, nihil ftatuo, fed fniffe fufpicor.

DE GRACVLIS.

Erafmus in eruditiffimo adagiorum opere, quoties
KO\OIOS occurrit (pccurrit aiit non raro]graculum reddit.
TJieodorum Gazam hac in re, licet alias lib enter, minime
fecutus, qni KO\OLOV femper monedulam nertit. Ego
quoq; hac in re Erafmum potius quam Gazam, uarijs
de caufts, imitari decreui :

ARISTOTELES SECUNDUM TRANSLATIONEM

Monedularum tria funt genera : unum, quod
graculus uocatur, magnitudine quanta cornix,
roftro rotundo, rutilo. Alterum, lupus cogno-
minatum, paruu & fcurra. Tertium, quod fa-
miliare, Lydiae ac Phrygiae terrae, idem^ palmi-
pes eft.

[p. 74] Primum graculonim genus, quod Greed /copafclav
iwcant, Plinio Pyrrhocorax eft, Anglis a cornish choghe,
Germanis e^n ber^bol, cornice paulb minor eft, roftro hiteo,
paruo, & in fine nonnihil adunco, frequens eft in alpibus,
& apud Anglos in Cornubia, uocem habet monedula
acutiorem, & magis querulam. Secundum genus \VKQ<S
Kai /So)yLtoXo^o9, Greece dictum, Latinis proprie mone-

^ quali monetula a moneta dicitur, quam fola
Monedula.
Plin. li. 10. auium, ut inquit Plinius, furatur. Aurum non omnia

tria genera fur antur, fedfecundum genus tantum, quare
1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 100.

Coitus or Galgulus — Graculi 91

(otherwise than it is in Picus), and the legs were short,
the head was upright, the beak rather long. As to whether
this may have been a kind of Galgulus, I do not certify,
but I suspect it to have been.

OF THE GRACULI.

Erasmus in his very learned work on Proverbs, as often
as tco\oio<> occurs (and it occurs not seldom) renders it by
Graculus, in this thing following by no means Theodorus
Gaza — though at other times he does so freely — who in every
case renders /coXoto? by Monedula. And in this thing I also
have determined for divers reasons here to imitate Erasmus
rather than Gaza.

ARISTOTLE ACCORDING TO THE TRANSLATION OF

GAZA.

Of Monedulae there are three sorts : the first,
which is called Graculus, in size as big as Cornix
with a curved red bill. The next, also named Lupus,
small, and a mimic. The third, which is well known
in Lydia and Phrygia, is web-footed.

Now the first kind of Graculi, which the Greeks call
/copa/cias, is the Pyrrhocorax of Pliny and the Cornish Choghe
of Englishmen, eyn bergdol of the Germans. It is a little
smaller than the Cornix, with a yellow bill1, not large, and
somewhat hooked towards the tip, it is abundant in the Alps
and in Cornwall in England. It has a sharper and more
querulous cry than the Monedula. The second sort called
Xu/co? and /3o>yu,oXo%o<? in Greek, is by the Latins strictly
named Monedula, as if it were Monetula, from the Moneta
[money] which alone of birds, as Pliny says, it steals. The
three kinds do not all steal gold — only the second does —

1 Here there is an evident confusion between the Chough (Pyrrho-
corax graculus) with its red bill, and the yellow-billed Alpine Chough
(P. alpinus].

92 Graculi

fecundum genus folum erit monedula, de cuius furaci-
tate pulchre etid his uerfibus fcribit Ouidius^:

Mutata eft in auem, quce mine quoq; diligit aurum,
Nigra pedes, nigris uelata monedula pennis.

Moneduld Angli uocat, a caddo, a chogh or, a ka.
Germ, etyn bo(, & Saxon, etyn alfe. Multb minor eft
pyrrhocorace monedula, & in fyluis nidulatur, & in

Phalocro- cauis arboribus, & in templorti turribus. Tertium genus,
corax.

Ariftoteles 8 libro hiftorics animalium* ita defcribit:

Palmipedum grauiores circa lacus & amnes
uerfantur, ut anas, phalaris, urinatrix. Ad hec
[p- 75] bofca fimilis anati, fed minor, & qui coruus
appellatus eft, cui magnitude quanta ciconiae,
fed crura breuiora, palmipes natanscj? eft, colore
niger, infidet arboribus & nidulatur in ijs. Hec
Ariftoteles. Conms ifte, nifi fallar, Plinio phalacro-
corax eft, & Heluetiorum Vualtrapus, de quo Plin. ad
hunc modum fcribit* : lam & in Gallia Hifpaniac^
capitur attagen, & per alpes etiam, ubi & pha-
lacrocoraces, Balearium infularum peculiares :
ficut & alpium pyrrhocorax. Et alibi de eodem*:
Qua^da animalium naturaliter caluent, ficut
Phalocro- flruthiocameli, & corui aquatici, quibus apud

corax .i.

coruus cal- Graecos nomen eft inde.
uus.

1 Metamorph. Lib. vn. 11. 467—8.

2 Bk viil. 48.

3 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlviii.

4 Op. cit. XL cap. xxxvii.

Graculi 93

wherefore this second kind alone shall be Monedula ; more-
over Ovid happily describes its thievish habits in the
following lines : —

Was changed into a bird, which even now loves gold,
Monedula the black of foot, in plumage black arrayed.

The English call the Monedula a Caddo, Chogh, or Ka ;
Germans eyn dol ; and Saxons eyn alke. The Monedula
is much smaller than the Pyrrhocorax, and nests in woods
and hollow trees and towers of churches. The third kind
is thus described by Aristotle in the eighth book of his
History of Animals : —

Of web-footed birds the heavier haunt lakes and
rivers, as the Anas, Phalaris, and Urinatrix. Add to
these the Bosca, which is like the Anas but smaller,
and that which is called Corvus, whose size is that
of a Ciconia, but it has shorter legs ; it is web-footed
and a swimmer : black in colour, it perches on trees,
and nests in them. So far Aristotle.

Unless I err, this Corvus is the Phalacrocorax of Pliny
and the Swiss Waltrapus1, of which Pliny writes after this
fashion : —

Further, the Attagen is caught in Gaul and Spain,
and even on the Alps, where Phalacrocoraces also are,
proper to the Balearic isles, as the Pyrrhocorax is
to the Alps.

And in another place of the same bird : —

Some animals are naturally bald, as Struthiocameli
and Corvi Aquatici, whence is their name among the
Greeks.

1 Mr Rothschild identifies this bird with Comatibis comata = C.
eremita (L.), no doubt rightly. See Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, XII. p. 56.
Novitates Zoologies, 1897, p. 371, and Pliny, Lib. X. cap. xlviii.

94

Graculi — Grus

Graculus
nucifrag9
eyn nouf-
brecher.

lam ut fciatis qtialis'nam auis Jit Heluetiorum
Vualtrapus, quam conijcio phalacrocoracem effe, & ter-
tium genus graculi, aids ejl corpore longo, & ciconia
paulb minor e, crnribus breuibus, fed crajfis, roftro
[p. 76] rutilo, pariim adunco, & fex pollices longo, albam quo-
que in capite maciilam, & earn nudam, niji male me-
mini, habuit. Si palmipes fit, & interdum natet,
indubitanter tertium graculonnn genus ejfe adfirma-
rem: uerum licet auem in manibus habuerim, an
palmipes fuerit nec'ne^ & caluus, non memini: quare
donee ifthczc certius nouero, nihil Jlattiam.

Prater hcec tria graculorum genera ab Arijlotele
defer ipta, noui & qua j turn genus, quod in alpibus
Rheticis ttidi, Arijlotelis lupo minus > nigrum & albis
maculis per totum corpus, more fturni diftinc~tum, gar-
riditate fuperiora genera multum fuperans, femper in
fyluis & montibus degens : cui Rheti nucifragce nomen,
a nucibus quas roftro frangit & comedit, indiderunt.

DE GRVE.

os, grus, Anglice a crane, Germanice e^n
fran / ober e^n frarttc^.

ARTSTOTELES \

Alia de ultimis prope ueniunt, ut grues
faciunt, quae Scythicis ad paludes Aegypto2,
unde Nilus profluit, ueniunt : quo in loco pug-
[p. 77] nare cu pygmeis dicuntur. Non enim id fabula
eft, fed certe genus turn hominum turn etiam
equorum pufillum, ut dicitur eft, deguntcj? in ca-
uernis, unde nomen troglodytse, a fubeundis
cauernis accepere. Grues3 etiam multa pru-
denter faciunt : loca enim longinqua petunt, fui
commodi gratia, & alte uolant, ut procul profpi-

1 Hist. An. Bk vin. 75—76.

2 A variant reading is ra ara> rfjs Alyvirrov.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 70.

Graculi — Grus 95

And now, that you may know what sort of bird the
Svvitzers' Waltrapus may be, which I conjecture is the Phala-
crocorax, and the third kind of Graculus, it is a bird long
in the body, which is rather less than that of the Ciconia,
and the legs short but stout, the bill reddish, a little hooked,
and six inches in length — further it had a white spot on the
head, and that, unless my memory fails me, bare. If it be
web-footed and swim at times, I should affirm that it un-
doubtedly was the third kind of Graculus; but, though
I have myself had the bird in my hands, I do not now
remember whether it was web-footed or not, nor whether
it was bald. Wherefore I will determine nothing, until I shall
have a surer knowledge of these things.

Besides the said three kinds of Graculi described by
Aristotle I know a fourth, which I have seen upon the
Rhaetic Alps, smaller than Aristotle's Lupus, black and
marked with spots of white on the whole body, as a Starling
is ; it far surpasses all the above-named kinds in chattering ;
it always lives in woods and mountains. Now to this the
Rhetians have given the name of Nucifraga, from the nuts
which it breaks with its bill and eats.

OF THE GRUS.

o9, grus, in English a crane, in German eyn kran,
or eyn kranich.

ARISTOTLE.

Others come almost from earth's utmost parts,
as do the Grues, which come from the Scythians
to the Egyptian marshes, whence the Nile flows
forth : in which place they are said to fight with
Pygmies. And this is no mere fable, but assuredly
there is, as it is said, a dwarf race both of men and
horses, and they live in caves, whence they have got
the name of Troglodytae, from dwelling in caves.
The Grues furthermore do many things with prudence,
for they seek for their convenience distant places, and
fly high that they may look out far, and, if they shall

96 Grus — Hirundo

cere poffint, & fi nubes tempeftatem'ue uiderint,
conferunt fe in terra, & humi quiefcut. Ducem
etiam habent, & eos, qui clament, difpofiti 1 in
extreme agmine, ut uox percipi poffit. Cum
confiftunt, caeteri dormiunt, capite fubter alam
condito, alternis pedibus infiftentes. Dux de-
tec~to capite, profpicit, & quod fenferit, uoce
fignificat.

Pipers. Vipiones Plin. dicuntur minores grues & iuniores,

[p. 78] ut pipiones iuniores dicuntur columbce. Apud Anglos

etiam nidulantur grues in locis paluftribus, & earum

pipiones fcepijjime uidi, quod quidam extra Angliam

nati, falfuni effe contendunt.

DE HIRVNDINE.

XeXiScwz', hirundo, Anglice a fmiallouue, Germanice
e^n fcfywalb. Saxonibus eft et)n [male.

ARISTOTELES2.

Hirundo carnibus uefcitur, bis in anno parit,
& tota hyeme latet. Omnino ratio brutorum,
magna refert uitae humane fimilitudinem ma-
giscjj in minori genere, quam in maiore. uideris
intelligentiae rationem, quod primum in auium
genere hirundo in effingendo coftituendocj* nido
ofhendit, confingit implicito luto, feftucis ad
normam lutariae paleationis, & fi quado luti
inopia eft, fe ipfa madefaciens, uolutat in pul-
[p- 79] uerem omnibus pennis. Stragulum etiam facit
more hominum duriore primum fubijciens, &
modice totum confternens, pro fui corporis
magnitudine.

1 'dispositi' is here apparently attracted to 'qui.'

2 Four passages are incorporated in Turner's selection : —
Hist. An. Bk vm. 39, Bk vi. 36, Bk vm. 107 and Bk ix. 51, 52.

Grus — Hirundo 97

have seen clouds or a storm, betake themselves to
earth, and take rest on the ground. They have a
leader also and those who, disposed at each end of
the band, may call out, that their voice may be per-
ceived. The others sleep when they alight, with the
head hidden underneath the wing, standing alter-
nately on either foot. The leader gazes round him
with uncovered head, and by his cry gives notice of
whatever he perceives.

The smaller, that is younger, Cranes are called by Pliny
Vipiones, as young Doves are known as Pipiones. Cranes,
moreover, breed in England in marshy places, I myself have
very often seen their pipers1, though some people born away
from England urge that this is false.

OF THE HIRUNDO.

XeTuScbz/, hirundo, in English a swallowe, in German eyn
schwalb. Among the Saxons it is eyn swale.

ARISTOTLE.

The Hirundo feeds on flesh, and lays eggs twice
a year, for the whole winter also it lies hid. The
way of brutes upon the whole bears a marked like-
ness to the life of man, and more so in the smaller
than the larger kinds. One may observe the under-
standing way which the Hirundo foremost in the
ranks of birds shews in the constitution and con-
struction of its nest. It builds it by applying mud
to straws, after the rule of daub and wattle work,
and if there ever be a scarcity of mud, it wets itself
and rolls itself in dust with all its feathers. It
moreover makes a bedding after the manner of men,
first laying a foundation of the harder stuff below,
and moderately covering the whole in proportion
to its size.

1 Young pigeons are still called Pipers in England.
T. 7

98 Hirundo

PLINIUS 1.

Hirundines luto confhruunt, fhramento robo-

rant. Si quando inopia eft luti, madefa6lum

Hirundinum multa aqua pennis puluerem fpargomt. Ipfum

pnmu genus. . . ,' ' 11M , . n . ,

uero nidum mollibus plumis noccisq* confternunt,
tepefaciendis ouis, fimul ne durus fit infantibus
pullis.

Secundu. Alterum genus eft hirundinum rufticarum &

agreftiu, quse raro in domibus, diuerfos figura,

fed eade materia nidos confingunt, totos fu-

pinos, faucibus porreclis in anguftum, utero

[p. 80] capaci : mirum qua peritia occultandis habiles

pullis, & fubfternendis molles.

Tertium. Tertium hirundinum genus eft, quae ripas

t in terra excauant, atque ita t internidificant. Non fa-
ciunt hae nidos, migrate^ multis diebus ante, fi
futurum eft, ut auftus amnis attingat.

DE APODIBUS, EX ARISTOTELE 2.

Nonnullae aues depedes3 funt, quae ob earn

rem apodes a paruitate pedum nuncupantur.

quod genus auiculae, pennis plurimum ualet,

ficut & caetera quoque prope fimilia, ut pennis

praeualere, fie pedibus degenerare uidentur. ut

hirundo & falcula fme riparia4. Haec enim

omnia, & moribus, & uolatu, & fpecie proxima

[p. 81] inter fe confpiciuntur. Apparet apes omnibus

Riparia fme anni temporibus : riparia aeftate tantum cum

falcula , . rr • o o •

imber incelfit : turn enim & apparet & capitur.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxiii.

2 Hist. An. Bk i. 10.

3 KctKoirodes in the Greek.

4 These two words are probably interpolated.

Hirundo 99

PLINY.

Hirundines build nests of mud, and strengthen
them with straw. And if there ever be a scarcity
of mud, they sprinkle a good store of water from
their feathers on the dust, which is thus moistened.
The nest itself they further line throughout with soft
feathers and wool, to thus keep the eggs warm, and
also that it may not be too hard for the young chicks.

There is another sort of the Hirundines of the
country and the fields, which rarely build their
nests in houses, different in shape, but of the
same material, and facing wholly upwards, having
entrances prolonged into a strait with a capacious
belly l ; it is wonderful how skilfully they are adapted
for concealing young, and soft for them to lie upon.

There is a third kind of Hirundines which bore
in banks, and thus breed within holes. These make
no nests, and migrate many days before, if it be likely
that the stream in flood should reach them.

OF THE APODES, FROM ARISTOTLE.

Some birds are weak- footed, and for that reason
from the smallness of their feet are known as Apodes.
This kind of little bird is very strong upon the
wing, just as some others that are nearly like it
seem to lose in strength of foot proportionately as
they gain in power of flight, as the Hirundo and the
Falcula, in other words Riparia. For all these in
their habits, flight, and look seem very near each
other. The Apes may be seen at all times of the
year, but the Riparia only in summer, when the rains
begin : for then it is both noticed and is caught. In

1 Pliny evidently refers to Hirundo rnfula, which builds a flask-
shaped nest against a cliff.

7—2

i oo Hirundo

Apodes. deniq* rara hsec auicula eft. Apodes *, quos aliq
cypfellos uocant, fimiles effe hirudinum, iam
dictum eft : baud enim ab hirundine difcerni
poffunt, nifi quod tibijs funt hirfutis. Nidum
fpecie ciftellae2 produ6lse logius fictae ex luto,
imo aditu dato ar6liffimo faciunt, id(j3 locis
anguftis3, intra faxa & fpecus, ut & belluas, &
homines poffmt deuitare.

PLINIUS 4.

Apodes. Plurimu uolant, que apodes uocatur, quia

caret ufu pedum. Ab alijs Cypfelli appellantur,
hirundinum fpecie. Nidificant in fcopulis. Hae
[p- 82] funt, quse toto mari cernuntur : nee unquam
tarn longo naues, tamcj* continuo curfu, rece-
dunt a terra, ut non circumuolitet eas apodes.
Csetera genera refidunt, & infiftunt : his quies
nifi in nidis nulla : aut pendent, aut iacent.
Hattenus P Unites & Ariftoteles,

Arijloteles tria tantilm hirundinum genera facit:

domefticas, apodes, & falculas. Plinius autem qua-

tuor genera facere uidetur : domefticas, rujlicas, apodes

& riparias. Quod ft uerum fit, hirundines do-

mefticce., fanguinolento pe£lore nobiles, erunt primmn

genus. Secundum genus maxima illce & nigerrimcs

hirundines gregatim plerumqi uolantes, facere uidentur.

Tertium genus, hirundines qua in funnnis trirribus &

altis templorum fenejlris nidulantur, efficiunt. Qitar-

tum genus riparice fine falculce erunt. Quod fi ifta

diuifio parhm arrideat, ad primum genus referantur

Hirudines hirundines illce in domibus rujlicorum fempcr nidifi-

domeflicg. cantes, quce a reliquis generibus, duce fanguinolentce

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 108.

2 Kv^f€\eo-iv is the word in Greek.

3 o-rfixo ; another reading is crr€yvw = under cover.

4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxix.

Hiritndo 101

short this little bird is rare. The Apodes, which some
call Cypselli, are like Hirundines, as has been said
before, for they are not to be distinguished from the
Hirundo, save by having hairy legs. The nest which
they construct looks like a little basket formed of mud
somewhat drawn out, an entrance of the straitest
opening beneath ; and this they place in cracks within
the rocks and caves, that they may avoid both beasts
and men.

PLINY.

The birds which, because they cannot use their feet,
are called Apodes, live chiefly on the wing. They
are named Cypselli by some, in aspect they are like
Hirundines. They nest in crags. These are they
which are seen on all parts of the sea, nor do
ships ever leave the land upon so long or so con-
tinuous a course but that the Apodes still fly around
them. The other kinds alight and settle, but for
these there is no rest save in their nests alone, they
either hang or lie. So far Pliny and Aristotle.

Now Aristotle makes only three kinds of Hirundines,
those of the house, the Apodes and the Falculae. Yet
Pliny seems to make four kinds, those of the house, the
Rusticae, the Apodes, and the Ripariae. If that be true,
our House Swallows, well known from their blood-coloured
breast, will be the first-named kind. Those very large and
black Swallows, that mostly fly in flocks, appear to form the
second kind. Those Swallows which make nests upon the
tops of towers, and in lofty church windows, constitute
the third. And the Ripariae or Falculae will be the fourth.
But should the said division not approve itself, then to the
first-named kind may be referred those Swallows which in-
variably build on the houses of the country people. Two
patches of a blood colour, which one may see on each side

1 02 fliwmdo — Hamatopus — Junco

maculce, quas utrinque in pectore nideas, diftinguunt,
quod Ouidius1 his uerfibus pulclire ojlendit:

[p. 83] Alter a tec~ta fubit, nee adhuc de peclore cadis
Exceffere notce, Jignataq; fanguim plunia eft.

Hoc prinmm genus Angli a fuuallouu nomindt
& Germani etyn fcfyttnilb.

Apodes. Secundum genus faciunt apodes tarn maiores quam

miiiores. maiores uoco maximas illas hirundines, gre-
gatim & altius cczteris uolantes, quce in arbore, more
kirundinum aliarum nunquam confiftere uifuntur. mi-
nores uoco, qua in fcopulis, templorum feneftris ceditiori-
bus & fummis tnrribns nidos figunt. Maiores Germani
uocant getyr fwalben, A ngli the great funallouues. Mi-
nor es A ngli uocant rok martinettes or chirche martnettes,
Germani uocant fivc^) fwalben.

Falcula fme Tertium genus, quod in ripis nidulatnr, Angli a

riparia bank marine?, Germani etyh iiber3 ftvalbe, aut fpetren

nominant.

DE H^MATOPODIBUS, EX PLINIO 4.

Roflrum & praelonga crura rubra haemoto-

podi5 funt, multo Porphyrione minori: quaquam

[p. 84] eadem crurum altitudine. Nafcitur in Aegypto.

Infiftit ternis digitis, prsecipuum ei pabulum

mufcae. Vita in Italia paucis diebus.

Eft apud Anglos in locis paluftribus auis qutzdam
longis & rubris cruribus, noftra lingua redfhanca dic~ta,
citi an defcriptio h&motopodis Pliniani conneniat nec-
ne> qui apud Anglos degunt, inueftigent & examinent.

DE IVNCONE.

^XoivLfcXos, iunco, Anglice a rede fparrouu, Ger-
manice ct)ii m)bt muf. Funco, ut fcribit Ariftoteles oc~tauo
hiftorioe animalium, & capite tertio, ad ripas lacuum &
fluminum uic~litat, & caudam frequenter motitat, & ex
eodem conftat, auem effe paruam : nam turdo minorem

1 Metam. Lib. VI. 11. 669 — 70. 2 A misprint for 'martnet.5

3 A misprint for ' ufer.' 4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlvii.

6 Another reading is ' Himantopus,' but the Stilt-Plover has
not a red bill.

Hirundo — Hcematopus — Junco 1 03

of the breast, distinguish these from the remaining sorts, as
Ovid prettily sets forth in these verses :—

"The other haunts our roofs, nor have the marks of slaughter yet
departed from its breast, and its plumage is stained with blood."

The English call this first kind a Swallow, and the
Germans eyn schwalb.

The Apodes, the greater and the less, compose the second
kind. I call greater those very great Swallows that fly in
flocks, and higher than the rest, which are never observed
to settle on a tree, after the manner of our other Swallows.
I call less those which fix their nests to rocks, lofty church
windows and the tops of towers. The greater kind the
Germans call geyr swalben, and the English the Great
Swallowes ; but the less the English call rok martinettes or
chirche martnettes, the Germans kirch swalben.

The third kind, that which breeds in banks, the English
name a bank martnet, the Germans eyn ufer swalbe or speiren.

OF THE H^MATOPODES, FROM PLINY.

The Hsematopus has its bill and very long legs
red, and is much less than the Porphyrio, though of
the same height of leg. It is native in Egypt. It
stands on three toes to a foot ; flies are its favourite
food. It lives in Italy but a few days.

There is in marshy places in England a certain bird with
long red legs, called Redshank in our tongue, but whether
the description of the Haematopus of Pliny agrees with this
or not let those who live in England seek out and enquire.

OF THE JUNCO.

2%otW;Xo?, junco, in English a rede sparrow, in German
eyn reydt muss.

The Junco, as Aristotle writes in the eighth book of his
Historj' of Animals, and in the third chapter, lives on the
banks of lakes and streams, and flirts its tail continually ;
and it is clear from him that it is a small bird, for he makes

1 04 Jitnco — L ingu lac a — L agopus — L igit, rinus

facit. Ego igitur quum nullam aliam nouerim aui-
culam, iuncis & harundinibus infidentem^ prater An-
glorum pafferem harildinarium, ilhtm iunconem effe
iudico. Auis eft parua, paffere paulo minor \ carida
longiufcula & capite nigro. ccetera fufca.

DE LINGULACA, EX ARISTOTELE1.

Lingulaca, quae Graece yXwrrts dicitur lin-
[p. 85] guam exerit longam, unde nome habet, una
eft e coturnicum ducibus, formam habet auium
lacuftrium.

DE LAGOPODE EX PLINIO 2.

Praecipuo fapore lagopus eft : pedes leporino
uillo ei nomen hoc dedere. Cetero candide3,
columborum magnitudine, non extra terrain4,
in qua nafcitur, earn uefci : quando nee uiua
manfuefcit, & corpus ocoife, ftatim marcefcit.
Eft & alia, nomine eodem, a coturnicibus mag-
nitudine tantum differens, croceo tinclu cibis
t gratiffima. "faptiffima. Huius Jioc uerfu Martialis* meminit:

Si meus aurita gaudet lagopede Flaccus.

DE LIGVRINO SIVE SPINO.

A/cavdis, fpinus, ftue ligurinus, Anglice, a grene
finche, ut conijcio, Germanice^ ei)U fir^ftncfc.

ARISTOTELES 6.

[p. 86] Ligurini, & uita & colore ignobiles funt, fed
ualent uocis amoenitate7, & ex auium albo funt,
que carduorum femine uefcuntur8. Florus, fpi-
nus, & aegithus, odium inter fe exercet. Spinus
etiam bellum cum afino gerit.

1 Hist. An. Bk vm. 83.

2 'Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlviii.

3 After ' dedere ' substitute a comma for the full stop.

4 Pliny seems to have written ' facile ' here, in addition.

5 Epigr. Lib. VII. Ixxxvi.

6 Three passages are here combined: — Hist. An. vm. 42,
ix. 22, IX. 92.

7 The words of Aristotle are (pavr/v /neVroi \iyvpav e^

8 See p. 35.

Junco — L ingulaca — Lagopus — L igurinus 105

it less than a Turdus. Therefore, since I know no other little
bird which sits upon the rushes and the reeds, save the Reed
Sparrow of the English, I believe that kind to be the Junco.
Now this bird is small, a little smaller than a Sparrow, with
a longish tail, and a black head. The other parts are brown.

OF THE LlNGULACA, FROM ARISTOTLE.

Lingulaca, in Greek called yXcorris, puts forth
a long tongue, whence comes its name ; it is one of
the leaders of Coturnices, it has the form of a lake-
haunting bird.

OF THE LAGOPUS, FROM PLINY.

The Lagopus is in flavour excellent, its feet shaggy
as in a hare have given it this name. Otherwise it
is white, in size as the Columbi ; it is not eaten
except in the land of which it is a native, since it
is not tameable while living, and when killed its flesh
soon putrefies. There is another bird of the same
name, differing but in size from the Coturnices, most
excellent for food with yellow saffron sauce.

Of this Martial makes mention in the following verse : —
If my Flaccus delights in the eared lagopes.

OF THE LlGURINUS OR SPINUS.

'A/cavOls, spinus, or ligurinus, in English a grene finche,
as I suppose, in German eyn kirsfincke.

ARISTOTLE.

The Ligurini, commonplace in mode of life and
colour, yet excel in pleasantness of song. And they
are of the list of birds which feed on thistle-seed.
The Florus, the Spinus, and the ^Egithus shew
mutual dislike. The Spinus wages war moreover
with the Ass.

io6 Ligurinus sive Sfonus — Lutea

Spinum Ariftotelis grenefincam noftram effe arbi-
tror: nam ilia inter fpinas plurimuni degit, & ex
herbarum feminibus uic~titat. Atiis, quant fpimtm effe
iudico, magnitudine pafferem cequat, tota uiridis eft,
prcefertim mas in hoc genere, foemina fere pallida eft.
uefcitur carduorum maiorum femine & lapparum, ut
auriuittis minorum, nidulatur in ramis falicu aut pru-
norum fylueftriu. cantat aincene, & tibuui & potii e
Jittdis haurire non recufat.

Sed obijciet mihi forfan quifpiaui, Jianc colore uiridi
adeoq; amoeno, non poffe fpinnm effe, quem Ariftoteles
colore ignobilem effe tcftatur. Sciat uelim, qui hoc
mihi obijcit, eundem A rijlotelem uiridem colorem dam-
nare^ etiam in aue, qnce tota uiridis eft, & a uiriditate
nomen accepit. Verba Ariftotelis^ Jicec funt: Vireo2,
qui totus uiridis eft, docilis & ad uite munera
[p. 87] ingeniofus notatur, sed male uolat, nee grati eft
coloris. Hac A riftoteles.

DE LVTEA.

XXft)/)ef9, hiteus Jiue lutea, Anglice a yelouu kam, a
youulryng. Germanice etyn geelgorft.

ARISTOTELES.

Luteus a colore partis fuae inferioris pallido
diclus, magnitudine alaudae eft. Parit oua qua-
tuor aut quinque. Nidum fibi ex fymphyto
ftirpitus euulfo facit. Sed ftragulum fubijcit ex
lana & uillo.

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 98, 89.

2

Ligurinus or Spimis — Lutea 107

I think that Aristotle's Spinus is our Grenefinc, for it
lives for the most part among thorns, and feeds upon the
seeds of grasses. The bird which I believe to be the
Spinus in its size equals a Sparrow, and is wholly green,
and in this kind the male especially, the female being some-
what pale. It feeds upon the seeds of bigger thistles and
of burdocks, as the Aurivittis does upon the smaller ; and it
nests on branches of the willow or wild plum. It is a pleasant
songster, and does not refuse to draw its food and water up
in little buckets.

But some one may perhaps object to me that this bird
with its green and somewhat pretty colour cannot be the
Spinus, inasmuch as Aristotle testifies that it is common-
place in colour. I should like the man who thus objects
to me to know that Aristotle equally condemns green colour
even in a bird which is entirely green, and from its greenness
has received its name. These are the words of Aristotle : —

" The Vireo, which is entirely green, is singled
out as easy to be taught, and clever for the business
of life ; but it flies badly and its colour is un-
pleasing."

So far Aristotle.

OF THE LUTEA.

XX&^eiV, luteus or lutea, in English a yelovv ham,
a yowlryng, in German eyn geelgorst.

ARISTOTLE.

The Luteus, so named from the pale colour of its
lower parts, is of the size of an Alauda. And it lays
four eggs, or even five. It builds itself a nest of
comfrey torn up by the roots, but spreads within
a covering of wool and hair.

1 Aristotle in his History of Animals mentions three birds,

, and ^Xeope^y : but Turner's quotation with regard to xAeopevy is
found in Aristotle under xXcopts in a passage (Hist. An. Bk ix. 83) where
there seems to be no alternative reading.

io8 Lutea — -Luteola — Luscinia

A uicula, quam luteum effe credo, paffere paulb maior
eft. Marts pectus & neuter lutea funt : foemince uerb
peElus hiteuni, & uenter pallidus eft, in capite dorfo
& alts, pennis fufcis lutece intermifcentur. Roftrum
utrique firmum & breue, in quo tttbercttm quoddam
dentem mentiens, reperias, pr<zter uermes, hordeo &
auena libenter uefcitnr. Cauda hums auiculce longiuf-
cula eft, & frequenter nw titans.

DE LVTEOLA.

X\o)/H9, hiteola, Anglice a Jiskin, Gennanice etyn
[p. 88] je^(t($, quibusdam etyn engel^en.

Luteola, lutea fuperiiis defcripta, multb minor eft,
& color e ad uiriditatem magis tendente, pectore luteo
eft, & roftro longiufculo, tenui & acnto, auriuittis fimili,
duas habet maculas nigras : alterant in fronte, alterant
fnb mento, cantillat -non infnaniter. Kara apud
Anglos hczc eft, nee ttfpiavi fere alibi quam in caueis
cernititr. Seme I tamen in Cantabrigiam's agris uidiffe
recordor. Huius generis funt, quas Anglia aues cana-
rias no cat.

DE LVSCINIA.

At8&)f, lufcinia^ philomela, Anglice a nyghtyngall,
Germanice e

ARISTOTELES \

Parit lufcinia seftate quinqj aut fex oua,
conditur ab autumno ufq^ ad uernos dies, lufci-
nia2 canere folet affidue diebus ac noclibus
quindecim, cum fylua3 fronde incipit opacari.
dein canit quidem, fed non affiduo, mox adulta
eftate uocem mittit diuerfam, no infuper ua-
[p. 89] riam, aut celerem 4 modulatamcjj, fed fimplicem,

1 Hist. An. Bk, v. 31.

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 255.

3 Aristotle has opos (mountain) here.

4 Or Taelav = harsh.

L utea — L iiteola — L uscinia 1 09

The little bird, which I believe to be the Luteus. is some-
what bigger than a Sparrow. It is yellow on the breast and
belly in the cock ; but in the hen the breast is yellow and
the belly pale. Yellow are mixed with dark feathers upon
the head, back, and wings. In each of them the beak is
short and stout, and on it one may find a sort of knob
that simulates a tooth. Apart from worms it eats barley
and oats freely. The tail of this small bird is rather long
and is in constant motion.

OF THE LUTEOLA.

XXcopt?, luteola, in English a siskin, in German eyn zey-
sich, or of some eyn engelchen,

The Luteola is much smaller than the Lutea above de-
scribed, and with a colour tending more to green. It has
a yellow breast, a longish, slender, pointed bill, like that
in Aurivittis, and two spots of black, one on the forehead,
one beneath the chin ; it warbles with some sweetness. In
England it is rare, and scarcely to be seen elsewhere than
in cages. Yet I remember having seen it once among the
fields of Cambridgeshire. Of this kind are those which
England calls Canary birds1.

OF THE LUSCINIA.

'AySoov, luscinia, philomela, in English a nyghtyngall, in
German eyn nachtgall.

ARISTOTLE.

In summer the Luscinia lays five or six eggs,
but from autumn it lies hid continually until the days
of spring. Now the Luscinia is wont to sing in-
cessantly for fifteen days and nights, when woods
begin to become dark with foliage. Later it sings
indeed, but not incessantly, then in the height of
summer it gives forth a different note, not varied
over and above, or quick and modulated, but a simple

1 Gesner, the first to describe the Canary-bird, states that Turner
informed him of it.

no Luscinia — Mergus

colore etiam immutatur, & quidem in terra
Italia per id tempus alio nomine appellatur,
apparet non diu, abdit enim fefe & latet.

A riftoteles prceter unam notam nullam oftendit pe-
culiar em, qua ab alijs auibus lufcinia differret, ea
autem eft quod lingua fummcz acumine careat. Quan-
quam & hoc etiam cum atricapilla commune habet.
Colore lufcinia, & carports magnitudine auiculam illam
proxime refert, quam Angli lingettam, & Germani
Graefmufch. pafferem gramineum nominant. Paffere paulb minor
eft, & tenuior, & longiori carports figura, color pefloris
fere cinereus eft, ccetera fubfufca.

DE MERGO.

AiQvia, mergus, Anglice a cormorant, German, etytt

budget.

ARISTOTELES \

Mergus marina auis eft, ex pifcium uenatu
uiftitans, fubit tame altius in fluuios. Mergus
[p. 90] & gauia 2 faxis maritimis oua bina aut terna
pariunt. Sed gauiae aeftate, mergi a bruma,
ineunte uere. Incubant more caeterarum auium,
fed neutra earum auium conditur.

Mergus. Mergus, auis eft magnitudine fere anferis pulla,

roftro longo & in fine adunco, palmipes eft, & corpore
graui, forma carports aui fedenti, erecta eft. Plinius in
arboribus nidulari fcribit, at A riftoteles in faxis mari-
timis. Quod uterq-, aut uidit, aut a referentibus au-
cupibus didicit, fcripto mandauit. Et ego utrumque
obferuaui, nam in rupibus marinis iuxta hoftiu Tines
fluuij mergos nidulantes nidi, & in Northfolcia cum

1 Hist. An. Bk I. 6; Bk vill. 48, freely rendered.

2 Hist. An. Bk v. 30.

Luscinia — Mergus 1 1 1

sound. It also changes colour, and during that time
is known, at least in the land of Italy, by another
name ; it is not seen for long, since it conceals itself,
and so lies hidden.

Aristotle provides no special mark, save one, by which
the Luscinia differs from the rest of birds, and that is that
it lacks the point at the tip of the tongue. Though even this
it has in common with the Atricapilla. In colour and in size
of body the Luscinia comes nearest to that little bird which
Englishmen call Lingett and the Germans Grass-Sparrow.
It is a little smaller than a Sparrow and more slender, with
a longer shape of body, and the colour of the breast is nearly
grey ; the other parts are brownish.

OF THE MERGUS.

KWvia, mergus, in English a cormorant, in German eyn
ducher.

ARISTOTLE.

The Mergus is a sea-bird, and it lives by hunting
fishes, yet it makes its way somewhat far up the
rivers. The Mergus and the Gavia lay two or three
eggs each upon rocks in the sea, the Gaviae in summer
and the Mergi when the spring arrives after the
solstice. They incubate like other birds, but neither
of these birds conceals itself.

The Mergus, a sad-coloured bird, is nearly equal to a
Goose in size, with the bill long and hooked at the end ;
it is web-footed, heavy in the body, and the attitude is
upright in the sitting bird. Pliny writes that it nests on
trees, but Aristotle says on sea-rocks. What each man saw
or learnt from the reports of bird-catchers he has set down
in writing. And I have observed both birds myself, for
I have seen Mergi nesting on sea-cliffs about the mouth
of the Tyne river, and on lofty trees in Norfolk with the

1 1 2 Mergus — Merops

ardeis in excelfis arboribus. Qui in rupibus viaritimis
nidificant, ex prceda marina fere iiiuiit, qui uerb in
arboribtis, amnes, lacus, & fluuios, uictus caufa petunt.

DE MEROPE EX ARISTOTELE1.

Merops. Sunt, qui meropes genitorum fuorum feneftu-

tem educare conformant, uicemcj* reddi, ut pa-
[p. 91] rentes non modo fenefcentes, uerum etia cum
iam datur facultas, alantur opera liberorum :
nee matrem aut patrem exire, fed in cubili
manentes, pafci labore eorum, quos ipfi genue-
runt, enutrierunt, educarunt. Pennae huius
auis inferiores pallide funt, fuperiores coeruleae
funt ut halcyonis : poftremae pinnule rubre
habentur. Parit fex aut feptem aeftate in prae-
cipitijs mollioribus, intra uel ad quatuor cubita
fubies, terree etia cauernas fubiens, cunabula
facit.

PLINIUS2.

Nec uero ijs minor folertia, quae cunabula in
terra faciunt, corporis grauitate prohibente fub-
lime petere. Merops uocatur, genitores fuos
reconditos pafcens, pallido intus colore penna-
[P. 92] rum, fuperne cyaneo, priori fubrutilo. Nidi-
ficat in fpecu, fex pedum defoffa altitudine.

Meropem ingenue fateor me nnnquam uidiffe, nee
quequam couenijfe, qui aliquando uiderit. Tametji non
fum nefcius apud Germanos, grammaticos non indocJos,
effe, qui grunfpechtum fuum> meropem ejfe doceant : fed
Ariftotele & Plin. reclamantibus. Picus uiridis nidum

1 Hist. An, Bk ix. 82, freely rendered.

2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxiii.

Mergus — Merops 1 1 3

Herons1. Such as make their nests on sea-cliffs generally
live on prey from the sea, but such as breed on trees seek
rivers, lakes, and streams to get their food.

OF THE MEROPS, FROM ARISTOTLE.

There are some who insist that Meropes foster
the old age of their parents and thus* take their turn,
so that the parents not in age alone are nourished
by the labour of their offspring, but as soon as power
is given to these : that neither does the mother-bird
fare forth nor yet the father, but they stay within
a resting place and are fed by the aid of those which
they themselves have bred, nourished and reared.
The plumage of this bird is pale beneath, but blue
above like that in Halcyon : the pinnules at the end
of the wings are reckoned red. It lays six or seven
eggs in summer in the softer banks, and makes its
nurseries by boring into these for quite four cubits,
and it also uses hollows in the soil.

PLINY.

Nor truly is less skill shewn by those birds which
make their nurseries in the soil, since the weight of
their bodies hinders them from mounting to a height.
The kind called Merops feeds its parents in retreat ;
the colour of its feathers underneath is pale, the upper
surface blue, the former being somewhat red. It
breeds within a hole, bored out six feet in depth.

In fairness I admit that I have never seen the Merops,
nor have I met anyone who ever saw it. Still I am not
unaware that there are not unlearned schoolmasters among
the Germans, who would teach us that their grunspecht is
the Merops, though against the sense of Aristotle and Pliny.

1 Compare with this Sir T. Browne's Notes and Letters on the Natural
History of Norfolk (ed. Southwell) p. 11 (1902).

T. 8

1 1 4 M crops — Merula

Jibi roftro fuo in arboribus facit : nbi enimpicus arbor em
tundes, illam ex fono fnbcanam effe deprcehendit, in-

Jlante tempore partus, earn in qua poftea nidulaturus eft,
rojlro perforat. Nnlla ufpiam arbor tarn alta eft, quam
impediente ulla corporis grauitate, non uolatu traijcere

pojjit. Penn(B huius qnoqne fuperiores funt uirides,
inferior esq;y niji male memini, Lntece aiit faltem pallidce

funt, qnare qunm merops proJiibente corporis grauitate,
in fublime petere, atq-, ideo in arboribus nidnlari non

pojfit, & fnperne colore fit cyaneo, Germanonim picns

uiridis, quern Britanni a faciendis foraminibns, hnho-

Meropem lam nominant, merops Ariftotelis & Plinij effe non

non effe poterit.

Germano-

rumgrun- DE MERVLA.

fpechtum.

KoTTTu^o?1, merula, Anglice a blak of el, a blak byrd,

Germanice ei)U rnerl, aut ei)n amfel.

[p. 93] ARTSTOTELES2.

Merularum duo funt genera : alterum ni-
grum & uulgare: alterum candidum, magnitudine
quidem compari, & uoce fimili, fed circa Cyle-
nam Arcadie familiare, nee ufqua alibi nafcens.
Eft etiam ex hoc genere, quse fimilis nigrae eft,
fed fufca colore, & magnitudine paulo minor,
uerfari hsec in faxis & tectis folita eft, nee
roftrum rutilum, ut merula habet. Merula3
etiam & colore, & uoce per tempora immutatur.
Nam ex nigra redclitur rufa, & uocem emittit
diuerfam. Strepitat enim per hyemem, quum
per aeftatem tumultuans cantet.

PLINIUS4.

Merula, ex nigra ruffefcit, canit seftate,
[p. 94] hyeme balbutit, circa folftitium muta, roftrum

1 A misprint for

2 Hist. An. Bk IX. 95.

3 Hist. An. Bk IX. 254; freely rendered.

4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxix.

Merops — Menla 1 1 5

Now the Green Picus makes itself a nest with its own bill
in trees : for when a Picus hammering on a tree discovers
by the sound that it is hollow at the core, the breeding
season being close at hand, it bores that with its bill in
which it afterwards intends to nest. There is not anywhere
a tree so tall which this bird cannot reach by means
of flight, for any weight of body that it has. Its plumage
is moreover green above and, if my memory serves me,
yellow underneath, or pale at least. Since then the Merops,
hindered by its weight of body is incapable of rising to
a height, and thus of making nests in trees, and has blue
upper parts, the grunspecht of the Germans, which the
Britons from the holes it makes call huhol [that is, Hew-
hole], cannot be the Merops known to Aristotle and Pliny.

OF THE MERULA.

ROTTING?, merula, in English a blak osel, a blak byrd,
in German eyn merl or eyn amsel.

ARISTOTLE.

Of Merulae there are two sorts, one black and
common, and the other white, of equal size indeed
and having a like voice, but which is well-known
round Cyllene in Arcadia, and not bred elsewhere.
There is of this kind another also, which is like the
black, but dull in colour and a little less in size. It
usually haunts rocks and roofs, but has not the bill
ruddy like the Merula. The Merula in colour and
in voice moreover changes with the season, for it
turns from black to rufous, and utters a different cry.
For it chatters in winter, but sings lustily in summer1.

PLINY.

From black the Merula turns rufous, in summer
it sings, but in winter it babbles, and about the solstice

1 The readings in Aristotle differ considerably. * Sings lustily ' may
go with 'in winter.'

8—2

1 1 6 Merula — Milvus — Molliceps

quoqj anniculis in ebur transfiguratur, dutaxat
maribus.

DE MILVO SIVE
miluio.

LKTIVOS, mihtus, Anglice, a glede, a puttok, a kyte,
Germanice etyn tt>etye.

PLINIUS 1.

Milui ex accipitru genere funt, magnitudine
differentes. I idem uidentur artem gubernandi
docuiffe, caude flexibus, in coelo monfhrante
natura, quod opus effet in profundo. Milui &
ipfi hybernis menfibus latent, non tamen ante
hirundines abeuntes. Traduntur & folftitijs
affici podagra.

ARISTOTELES2.

Milui pariunt bina magna ex parte, inter-
dum & terna, totidemcj* excludunt pullos. Sed
[p- 95] qui Aetolius 3 nuncupatur, uel quaternos ali-
quando excludit.

Duo miluorum genera noui, mains & minus: mains
colore propemodum ruffo eft, apnd Anglos frequens, &
infigniter rapax. Pneris hoc genus cibnm e manibns in
itrbibus & oppidis eripere folet. Alterum genus eft
minus, nigriits, & urbes r anus frequent ans. Hoc genus
ut in Germania fczpiffime, ita in Anglia mmquam me
uidiffe recordor.

DE MOLLICIPITE.

MaXa/coKpavevs, molliceps, Anglice a shrike, a nyn
murder, Germanice e^n nittn murber.

ARISTOTELES 4.

Molliceps eodem in loco Temper fibi fedem
flatuit, atque ibidem capitur. Gradi & cartila-

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. x.

2 Hist. An. Bk VI. 38.

3 Other readings are mywAtos- and

4 Hist. An. Bk IX. 98.

Merula — Milvus — Molliceps 1 1 7

it is dumb. In yearlings furthermore the bill puts on
a look of ivory, provided they are males.

OF THE MILVUS OR MILVIUS.

, milvus, in English a glede, a puttok, a kyte, in
German eyn weye.

PLINY.

Milvi are of the race of Accipitres, though differing
in size. They seem, moreover, to have taught man-
kind the art of steering, by the turning of the tail,
nature thus shewing in the sky what might be useful
in the sea. Milvi lie hidden in the winter months,
yet not until Hirundines depart. They are reported
also to be affected with the gout about the solstice.

ARISTOTLE.

Milvi lay for the most part two eggs each, but
sometimes three, and hatch as many young. But
that kind which is named /Etolian at times lays even
four.

I know two sorts of Kites, the greater and the less ; the
greater is in colour nearly rufous, and in England is abundant
and remarkably rapacious. This kind is wont to snatch
food out of children's hands, in our cities and towns. The
other kind is smaller, blacker, and more rarely haunts cities.
This I do not remember to have seen in England, though
in Germany most frequently.

OF THE MOLLICEPS.

Ma\a,KOKpavevs, molliceps, in English a shrike, a nyn
murder, in German eyn nuin murder.

ARISTOTLE.

The Molliceps invariably takes its stand in the
same place, and thereat it is caught. It has a big

1 1 8 Molliceps

gineo capite eft, magnitudine paulo minor qua
turdus, ore firmo, paruo, rotiido, colore totus
cinereo depes1, & penis inualens eft, capitur
maxime no6lua.

Mollicipitem effe arbitror auiculam, quani Germani

nuinmurder non fine caufa nominant. Porrb ut omni-

[p. 96] bus perfpicuum fit, qucz'nani & qualis ilia fit, formam

aids & mores quanta licebit compendia perjlringam.

Magnitudine, minimum turdorum genns cequat, e lon-

ginquo contcplanti, tota apparet cinerea. Propins autem

infpicienti, mentum, pec~lus & neuter alba apparent, ab

utroqne ocnlo ad collnm nfque, longa & nigra macula,

fed nonniJiil obliqna porrigitur. Capite tarn grandi efl,

nt ani triplo maiori (inodb roftrnm longins & mains

ejfef] proportione fna fatis refponderet. Rojlro nigro

eft, & mediocriter breui, & in fine adunco, fed omnium

firmijfimo & fortijfimo efi, utpote quo mamim femel

meant duplici chirotheca munitam,fauciauerit, & aui-

um ojfa & capita confringat & conterat quam ocyf/inie.

Ala utraque nigra tota efi, nifi quod alba linea graudi-

ufcula, mediam utrinque alam tranftierfim difiingat.

Caudam piece fimilem habet, logiufculam nimirum, &

uariam. Tibias & pedes pro ratione corporis omnium

minimos, & eos nigros habet. Alas liabet breues, &

iieluti per falttis furfnm atque deorfnm nolitat. Viuit

ex fcarabeis, papilionibus, & grandioribus infectis : fed

non folis ifiis, nerumetiam, more accipitris, auibus.

Occidit enim regulos,fringillas, & (quod ego femel nidi}

turdos. Tradunt etiam aucupes kanc picas quafdam

[p- W^fyluefires inter dum iugulare, & cornices in fugam adi-

gere. Aues, quas occidit, non unguibus, ut accipitres,

uolando perniciter adfequitnr, fed ex infidijs adoritur,

& mox (quod iam fcepius expertus funt] ingulum petit,

Offifraga & cranium rofiro comprimit & confringit. Offa com-

f/eius^lli' minuta & contufa deuorat: & quando efurit, tantos

magnitude carnis bolos in gulam ingerit, quantos ric~lns oris an-

adeffet. guffta potefi capere. Prceter morem etiam reliquarum

Nam nee & J , , . 7

moribu9, nee auium, quando ubenor prczda contigtt, nonmkil in fu-

1 CITTOVS. Another reading is

Molliceps 1 1 9

and gristly head, and is a little smaller than a Thrush
in size ; the bill is strong but small, and curved ; in
colour it is wholly grey, while it is weak-footed and
feeble on the wing, it is caught chiefly by the Noctua.

The Molliceps I think to be that little bird which Germans
call nuinmurder, not without a cause. Further that it may
be quite clear to all which and what sort of bird it really is,
I will touch on its form and habits as compendiously as
may be. In size it equals the least of the Thrushes, and
to one observing from afar seems wholly grey. And yet,
to one inspecting it more nearly, the chin, the breast and
belly appear white, and from each eye there reaches to the
neck, although somewhat oblique, a long black patch. It
has so big a head that (were the bill longer and larger) it
assuredly would answer in proportion for a bird of thrice its
size. The bill is black and moderately short, and hooked
at the tip, but is the stoutest and strongest of all, so much
so that the bird once wounded my hand, although protected
by a double glove, and very speedily it crushes and breaks up
the bones and skulls of birds. Each wing is wholly black,
except that a white line of some size marks transversely the
middle of the wing on either side. The tail is like that of
a Pie, that is to say, longish and particoloured. Of all it
has the shortest legs and feet proportionately to its body,
and these parts are black. It has short wings, and flies as
if by bounds upwards and downwards. It lives on beetles,
butterflies, and biggish insects, and not only these, but also
birds after the manner of a Hawk. For it kills Reguli and
Finches and (as once I saw) Thrushes ; and bird-catchers
even report that it from time to time slays certain woodland
Pies, and can put Crows to flight. It does not seize the birds
it kills with its claws, after a swift flight, as Hawks do, but
attacks them stealthily and soon (as I have often had ex-
perience) aims at the throat and with its beak squeezes and
breaks the skull. Then it devours the crushed and bruised
bones, and when anhungered crams into its gullet lumps of
flesh as big as the gape's narrowness can take. Again,
beyond the habit of the rest of birds, when prey happens
to be more plentiful, it lays by some for future scarcity.

I2O Molliceps — Noctiia — Olor

colore ab ea turam penurid reponit, Mufcas enim grandiores &

multum

abludit.

multum infecla iani capta in aculeis & fpinis arbuftorum figit

fufpendit: omnium auium facilime cicuratur, &
manfuefac~la> carnibus alitur, qiuz fi fuerint Jicciores,
aut prorfus exangues, potum requirit. In A nglia fce-

pius quam bis nunquam nidi, in Ger mania fcepijjime.
Nonien huius apud noftros neminem inueni, qni nouerit,

prater Dominum Francifcum Louellum, tarn animi
quam corporis dotibus equitem auratttm nobilijjfimum.
lam Jl cui mollicipitis Arijlotelis defcriptio huic non
uideatur per omnia conuenire, tyrannorum albo ad-

fcribat, aut auem oftendat, cui defcriptio melius competat.

DE NOCTVA.

FXauf, no£lua, Anglice an ouul, or an houulet,
[p. 98] Germanice etyn eul & e\^n u(e Saxonice.

ARISTOTELES \

Noftuae, cicuniae2, & reliqua, qu^ interdiu
nequeunt cernere, no6lu uenando cibum fibi
adquirunt : uerum non tota nofte id faciunt,
fed tempore uefpertino et matutino. Venantur
autem mures, lacertas, uerticillos, & eiufmodi
beftiolas. No6luam3 caeterse omnes aues cir-
cumuolant, quod mirari uocatur, aduolantescj*
percutiunt4. Qua propter aucupes ea conftituta,
auicularum genera multa & uaria capiunt.

DE OLORE.

Ki>/<;i>o9, olor, Anglice a fuuan, Germanice etyn fn.>an.
ARISTOTELES 5.

Olor. Olores palmides6 funt, apud lacus & paludes

uiuentes, qui nee probitate ui6lus, morum, pro-

[p. 99] lis, feneftutis uacant 7. Aquilam fi pugnam

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 122.

2 Apparently a misprint for cicumae, said to mean 'horned
owls.' Aristotle has vvKTiKopaKfs which he identifies in Bk vni.
84 with torot.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. u.

4 Aristotle has n'XXouo-i = pluck it.

5 Hist. An. Bk ix. 78.
0 That is, palmipedes.

7 Aristotle has ei>/3i'oroi de KCU evrjdcis KOI evTewoi KOI fv

Molliceps— Noctua — Olor 1 2 1

For it impales and hangs the bigger flies and insects on the
thorns and spines of shrubs, so soon as they are caught :
of all birds it is tamed most easily, and when accustomed
to the hand is fed on meat, and, should this happen to be
somewhat dry or altogether bloodless, it requires drink.
In England I have never seen it oftener than twice, although
most frequently in Germany. Among our people I have
found no one who knew its name, except Sir Francis Lovell,
that most noble knight, endowed with equal gifts of mind
and body. Now if Aristotle's description of the Molliceps
does not appear to any one in all points to agree with this
let him ascribe it to the list of the Tyranni, or shew us a bird,
which the description fits better than this.

OF THE NOCTUA.

r\ai>g, noctua, in English an owl or an howlet, in German
eyn eul, and in Saxon eyn ule.

ARISTOTLE.

The Noctuse, Cicumae and the rest, which cannot
see by day, obtain their food by seeking it at night :
and yet they do not do this all night long, only at
eventide and dawn. They hunt moreover mice, lizards,
and scorpions, and small beasts of the like kind.
All other birds flock round the Noctua, or, as men
say " admire," and flying at it buffet it. Wherefore
this being its nature1, fowlers catch with it many and
different kinds of little birds.

OF THE OLOR.
KVKVOS, olor, in English a swan, in German eyn swan.

ARISTOTLE.

Olores are web-footed, and they live on lakes and
marshes ; they get food with ease, are peaceable,
prolific and attain to a great age. They repulse the

1 Or, possibly, ' the bird being set down on the ground.'

1 2 2 Olor — Onocrotalus

cceperit, repugnantes uincunt. Ipfi tamen nun-
quam, nifi prouocati, pugnam inferunt. Canere
foliti funt, & iamiam morituri. Volant etiam in
pelagus longius, & iam quidam cum in mari
Africo nauigarunt, multos canentes uoce flebili
& mori nonnullos confpexere.

Si qnis o lore in uunquam n icier it, & ex hac Arijlo-
telis defcriptione 11011 fails qualis fit aids didicerit, fciat
auem effe albam, anfere multb maiorem, forma tamcn
& uic~tn femilem, pedibus /rigris, & roftro parum turbi-
nato, colore rntilo, in cuius finnma parte, qua capiii
committitur, nigerrimum tuberculum, atque idrotnnduin^
& in roftrum fefe infleclens, exiftit.

DE ONOCRATALO.

Onocrotalus. Stint hodie 11011 parum multi eruditione inter
otnnes confpicui, qui grandifonam illarn lacnftrem auem,
Anglis buttoram & Germanis pittonrum, & rof dom-
inant nocatam, Onocrotalum effe contendant. Qtiorfi
[p. 100] ego fent entice lubens fubfcriberem, (pulchre enim cum
uoce auis nominis etymologia connenit:} nife Plinij
autoritas de onocrotalo ad hunc modum fcribentis, uon
diffiiaderet. Onocrotali, inquit, olorum fimilitu-
dinem habent, nee diftare uidentur omnino, nifi
faucibus ipfis ineffet, alterius uteri genus, hue
omnia inexplebile animal congerit, mira ut fit
capacitas, mox perfe6la rapina, fenfim inde in os
reddita, in ueram aluum ruminantis modo refert.
Gallia hos feptentrionalis, proxime1 oceano mit-
tit. Hcec P Hums'1.

1 This should apparently be ' proxima/ as some texts have it.

2 Hist, Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlvii.

I

Olor — Onocrotalus \ 2 3

Aquila successfully, should he begin a fight ; and yet,
unless provoked, never induce the fight. These birds
are wont to sing even when just about to die. They
also fly afar over the main, and men ere now, who
have been sailing on the African sea have met with
many singing mournfully and seen some of them die.

Should any one have never seen a Swan, nor learnt
sufficiently what sort of bird it be from this account of
Aristotle, let him know that it is a white bird, much bigger
than a Goose, though like in form and feeding; with black
feet, and a bill hardly spindle-shaped1, reddish in colour;
on the highest part of which, where it adjoins the head,
stands forth a very black and rounded knob, sloping towards
the bill.

OF THE ONOCROTALUS.

There are many to-day conspicuous among all for learning
(to no small degree who maintain that the loud-sounding
lacustrine bird, called Buttor by the English, and Pittour
br Rosdomm by the Germans, is the Onocrotalus. To whose
opinion I would willingly subscribe, (the more so as the
etymology of the bird's name agrees well with its voice,)
did not the authority of Pliny writing of the Onocrotalus
after this manner dissuade me therefrom.

The Onocrotali, he says, have a similitude to the
Olores, and they do not seem to differ in any way,
save that there is a kind of second belly in the very
jaws. Herein the insatiable animal crams everything
at once, so marvellous is its capacity, and presently,
the plundering complete, it gradually returns all to the
mouth, and thence transfers it to the real belly in the
manner of a ruminant. Northern Gaul, where nearest
to the ocean, sends us these. So far Pliny.

i ' This passage is not easily rendered, as it is difficult to see what
Turner intended by ' turbinato.' Turbo is a conical shell, spindle and so
forth; but it is hard to say how a Swan's beak could be considered either
conical or spindle-shaped.

1 24 OnocrotaliLs

Nunc panels auem illam uobis depingam, qua
onocrotalum effe affeuerant. Aids eft tota corporis fi-
gura Ardece ftmilis. longis cruribus, fed ardece breui-
oribus* longo collo, & mire plumofo, & roftro nee breui
nee obtufo. caput pennce tegunt nigerrimce. reliquum
uerb corpus, fufcce & pallidce maculis nigris denftjjlmc
refperfce. Pedes habet longijjimos, nam inter extremos
nngues medij digiti pedis unius & calcis eiiifdein,

[p. \o\~\fpithames longitttdo intercedit. Vngues habet longiffi-
mos, nam ille, qni calcis uicem in anibus gerit, longi-
tudine fefquiunciam fuperat, quare ad fricandos denies
noftrates utuntur, & argento inferunt. Medins digitus
utriufque pedis ^ qui cceteris longior eft, nnguem habet
portentofum, nempe dentatum & ferratum, non fecus
atqne pec~tunculorum teftce f errata funt, ad lubricas
anguillas, quas ccepit1, retinendas, a natnra proculdubio
ordinatum. Cauda illi breuijjlma eft, et ftomachus
capaciffimus, quo ingluuiei loco ntitur. Ventriculum
non cceterarum auium uentricidis, fed canino ftmilem
habet, & eum grandem & capacem.

Sed ne cui falfa ejfe nideantur, qnce de hac aue iani\
fcripft, ant ex aliornm relatu potius quam certa experi-
entia didiciffe nidear: dum prima huins libri folia
adhnc fub prcelo effent, auem mihi hanc contemplanti,
fecantiq,, & nu tales haberet uentriculum & ftomacJium,
quales Plinius illi tribuit, inueftiganti: aderant uir
eruditijfimus , & abftrufiormn natnrce arcanorum ftudio-
JlJJlmus inueftigator loannes EcJitJtius, Medicus apud
Colonienfes celeberrimus : Cornelius Sittardus, Medi-
cincz prima laurea decoratus. M. Lubertus Eftitis,
artitim liberalium profeffor, ambo fimplicium medica-
mentorum pulcJire gnari, & ad miraculum ufque ftndi-

[p. 102] oft : & Conradus Embecanus uir non uulgariter doffius,
et Gymnicance officince caftigator injigniter diligens,
cum alijs aliquot bonarum artium ftudiofts, qui me
nihil de hac aue hie fcripftffe teftari poffunt & uolunt,
quod cum illis omnibus non niderim. Ad ripas la-
cuum & paludium deftdet, ubi roftrum in aquas in-

1 A misprint for ' cepit.5

Onocrotahis 1 2 5

Now in a few words I will portray to you that bird
which they assert to be the Onocrotalus. In general make
of body it is like the Heron, with long legs, though shorter
than that bird's. The neck is long and marvellously thick
with plumes, the beak is neither short nor blunt. Very black
feathers clothe the head, but on the body generally they
are dusky and pale, and most thickly sprinkled with black
spots. It has very long feet, indeed there is a span's length
from the claw-tips of the middle toe of either foot to the
heel of the same. It has very long claws, for that which
serves in birds the purpose of a heel exceeds an inch and
a half in length, on which account our countrymen use it to
pick their teeth, and mount it in silver. The middle toe
of either foot, which is longer than the rest, has a prodigious
claw, that is to say, toothed and serrated, not unlike the
shells of little scallops are, doubtless contrived by nature
to retain the slippery eels, which the bird catches. The tail
is very short, the gullet most capacious, and it uses it in the
place of a crop. It has a belly not like that of other birds,
but like that of a dog ; it also is large and capacious.
But lest what I have written thus far of this bird seem
false to anyone, or lest I seem to have learnt the above
from the reports of others rather than from sure experience :
while the first pages of this book were still at press, and
while I was examining the bird and was dissecting it, and
taking note whether it really had a belly and a stomach
such as Pliny had assigned to it, there were assisting me
Joannes Echthius, a very learned man and a most zealous
student of the more abstruse secrets of nature, a physician
much renowned among the men of Cullen : Cornelius
Sittardus decorated with the highest laurel-wreath of Medi-
cine : Marcus Lubertus Estius, professor of the liberal arts,
both excellently skilled in that of simpling, and wonderfully
earnest, and as well as these Conradus Embecanus, a man
well-informed in no common degree, and a remarkably careful
corrector in the printing-house of Gymnicus, with certain
others versed in learned arts, who can and will bear witness
to the fact that I have written nothing here about this bird
which I have not observed in company with all of them.
It sits about the sides of lakes and marshes, where putting

1 26 Onocrotalus — Ortygometra

ferens, tantos edit bombos, lit ad miliarium Italicum

facile pqffit aitdiri. Pifces & prcefertim anguillas

uorat aiddi/fime, nee ulla aids eft, excepto mergo, qiice

ifta uoracior eft. Nunc quid Jimile Jiabet ifta cygno ?

NiJiil plane, quod fe oculis confpiciendum offerat. Et

Moifes Leuit. undecimo capite, proxime cygnnm inter

immundas aues onocrotalum recenfet. Vnde non im-

meritb fufpicio quibufdam orta eft in Gallia, ant ludcza

auem forma olori ftmilem alicnbi poffe reperiri. Quod

ft nufquam talis inneniatnr: probabile eft, aut Plin. a

mendacibus relatoribus fnis effe falfum, aut ea, qu<z de

ftmilitudine inter onocrotalum & cygml tradidit, non

de corporis fed nods ftmilitudine intellexiffe. Nam &

olores interdum bombos emittunt ruditui aftnino non

dijfimiles: fed breues, & qua longe audiri non poffunt.

Veritm ft hanc meant interpretation^ uarice, reconditczq;

eruditionis uiri, fids fnjfragijs minime approbauerint,

[p. 103] hanc faltem Ariftotelis ardeam ftellarem ejfe mecum

Onocrota- confentient. Nam prceter ccetera, quce fuperius attigi,

dl^Todif" Arifl°teles in fabula fuiffe oftendens, ardeam ftellarem

di(flia, ar- ex ferno auem fuiffe f attain, opinioni mece multum

deam, effe patrocinatur. Vt fugitiuorum enim feruorfl po ft fugam
ftellarem , , „- . , . „ . . . f £ J . .,

apud Ari- deprcehe forum, cutis, loris.flagns, mrgis, & fcorpionibus

flotelem. icla, uerberum uibicibus, tota macitlofa redditur : ita
hidus aid s plumes nigris u,bique maculis.fed potijjimum
in tergo, diftinttcs & ueluti pitturatcs, ferui flagris
ccefi cut em proxime refer fit. 'Quam rem fabiilcz occa-
ftonem dediffe ex Jwc colligo, quod fabularum uariarum
autor Arijfophanes1 % de attagene aue, quod ad pluma-
rum colores attinet, hide fimilima, ad Jiunc modum
f crib at:

Si quis ex uobis erit fugitiuus atq; uftis notis,
Attagen is fane apud nos uarius appellabitur.

DE ORTYGOMETRA EX ARISTOTELE 2.

Ortygometra, id eft, coturnicu matrix, auis
eft forma perinde ac lacuftres. Cruribus ideo

1 See p. 36.

2 Hist. An. Bk viil. 83, freely rendered, and interpolated.

Onocrotalus — Orfygometra i 2 7

its beak into the water it gives utterance to such a booming
\ as may easily be heard an Italian mile away. It gorges
j fishes and especially eels most greedily, nor is there any
;.i bird, except the Mergus, that devours more. Now what
^resemblance has it to a Swan? Distinctly none that brings
M itself in view before our eyes. Now in the eleventh chapter
1 of Leviticus Moses enumerates the Onocrotalus next to the
Swan among the unclean birds. And a suspicion has arisen
thence, not undeservedly, within a certain class, that some-
where within Gaul or Judaea a bird of Swan-like form may
possibly exist. If such, however, nowhere can be found, it
seems likely that Pliny either was deceived by lying story-
Itellers or he understood that which he has related of the

^similarity between the Onocrotalus and Cygnus to refer to

a resemblance not of body, but of voice. For even Swans
utter at certain times booms not unlike the braying of an
ass : but short, and which cannot be heard afar. However
if men of deep and varied learning by their votes shall not
approve this rendering of mine, at least they will agree with
me that the said bird is Aristotle's Ardea Stellaris. For
to omit the rest, which I have touched upon above, that
author certainly gives countenance to my opinion when he
shews a tale to have existed that the Ardea Stellaris from
a slave was turned into a bird. For as the skin of an
absconding slave, caught subsequent to flight, stricken with
thongs, whips, rods and knotted ropes, becomes all mottled
with the wales of stripes, so too the feathers of this bird
are marked, and painted as it were, with mottlings of black
in every part, though chiefly on the back, and thus may well
recall to us the skin of slaves cut up with whips. And that
this thing gave rise to the aforesaid tale, I gather from the
fact that Aristophanes, author of various plays, writes of
the Attagen, a bird very like ours so far as colour of the
feathers goes, to this effect : —

" If any of you be a runaway, and branded with the marks, with us
assuredly he shall be called the spotted Attagen."

OF THE ORTYGOMETRA FROM ARISTOTLE.
The Ortygometra, that is, dam of the Coturnices,
in form is much like marsh-birds. Certain birds are

1 2 8 Ortygometra — Ossifraga

longis aues quaedam innituntur, quod earum
uita fit paluflris.

[p. 104] Ortygometram aliqui eandem ejfe auem cum crece
et cychramo uolunt. Sed Ariftoteles, peculiare capu
creci donauit, et octauo libro hiftoria animaliuni, cychra
mum a matrice, quam ortygometram uocat, his uerbis
dijlinguit. Coturnices (inquif) cum haec adeunt
loca, fine ducibus pergunt : at cum hinc abeunt
ducibus lingulaca, oto, & matrice, proficifcuntur,
atque etiam cychramo, a quo etiam reuocatur
noclu, cuius uoce cum fenferint aucupes, in-
telligunt parari difceffum. Hcec ille.

Fieri igitur non poteft, ut matrix & cychramu:
eadem auis Jit. Aliqui ortygometram effe uolunt Ger-
manorum fcricam, & A nglorum daker hennam, quorum
ego fenteutia accederem, Ji crecem eandem cum ifta,
euincerent.

DE OSSIFRAGA.

ARISTOTELES \

Offifrage magnitude maior eft quam aquilae,

color ex cinere2 albicans. Probe3 & fcetificat, &

[p. 105] uiuit, ccenae gerula & benigna eft. Nutricat

enim bene, & fuos pullos & aquilae. Cum

enim ilia fuos nido eiecerit, hsec recipit eos, ac

educat.

PLINIUS 4.

Quidam adijciunt genus aquile, quam bar-
batam uocat Thufci offifragain.

1 Hist. An. Bk vm. 39.

2 Apparently a misprint for ' cinereo.'

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 123.

4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii.

Ortygometra — Ossifraga 129

I perched upon long legs because their life is passed in
' \marshes.

ILJ Some will have Ortygometra to be the same as Crex
/• and Cychramus. But Aristotle has attributed a peculiar

' sort of head to Crex, and in the eighth book of his History
of Animals distinguishes his Cychramus from Matrix, which

j-yhe calls Ortygometra, in the following words : —

nz Coturnices (he says) when they come to these places
it travel without guides : but when they go away set out
chWith the Lingulaca, the Otus, and the Matrix as their
it guides, and also with the Cychramus, by which they
oiare moreover summoned back at night. And when

the fowlers have heard its cry, they know the birds'

departure is at hand.
Thus he writes.

Therefore it is impossible that the Matrix and the Cy-
chramus should be the same. Others will have the Orty-
gometra to be the Scrica of the Germans and the Daker Hen
of the English, and I should accede to their opinion, if they
could but prove the Crex to be the same as this.

OF THE OSSIFRAGA.

ARISTOTLE

In size the Ossifrage is greater than the Aquila, its
colour whitish grey1. Both in breeding it is comely
and in way of life, it brings food home and is kindly.
For it rears its own young with care, besides those of
the Aquila. F"or when the latter has cast its progeny
out of the nest, the former takes them to itself, and
brings them up.

PLINY.

Some there are who add that kind of Aquila,
which the Tuscans call a bearded Ossifrage2.

1 See p. 36.

2 Possibly Pliny means the Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbafrts}.

T. Q

1 3 o Otus — Otis — Part

DE OTO.

WTO?, otus, Anglice a horn onl, Germanice ctyn
vanfeul / ober et)n [deleter eu(.

ARISTOTELES \

Otus nocluae fimilis eft, pinnulis circiter
aures eminentibus, prseditus, unde nomen acce-j,
pit, quafi auritum dixeris. Nonnulli ululam eu(t
appellant, alij afionem2. Blatero hie eft &•.
hallucinator, & planipes : faltantes enim imita-''
tur. Capitur intentus in altero aucupes3, altero
circumeunte. r

[P. 1 06] DE OTIDE EX PLINIO 4.

Tetraonibus proximal funt, quas Hifpania
aues tardas appellat, Graecia otidas, damnatas
in cibis. Emiffa enim offibus medulla, odoris
taedium extemplo fequitur.

DE PARIS.
s, parus, Anglice a tit monfc, German.

ARISTOTELES5.

Parorum tria funt genera : fringillago, quae
maior eft, quippe quae fringillam aequet. Alter
monticola cognomine eft : quoniam in montibus
degat, cui cauda longior. Tertius magnitudine
fui exigui corporis difcrepat, quanquam caetera
fimilis eft. parus'5 plura oua parit.

Fringillago. Primum parfi, A ngli iiocant tJie great titmous or the

great oxei, Germani et)U folmetyfe.

Parus me- Parum fecundnui, Angli the lefs titmous nominant.

dius. Germanici ct)U meelme^fe.

1 Hist. An. Bk VIII. 84. very freely rendered.

2 Aristotle has ' wKTiKopciKa,' instead of ' ululam ' and
' asionem.3

3 A misprint for ' aucupe.'

4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxii.

5 Hist. An. Bk viii. 40.
c Hist. An. Bk ix. 88.

Otits — Otis — Part 1 3 1

OF THE OTUS.

o)ro9, otus, in English a horn owl, in German eyn ranseul
'or eyn schleier eul.

1 ARISTOTLE.

The Otus is like a Noctua, furnished with little
tufts sticking out near the ears, whence it has got its
name, as though one should say "eared." Some call
it Ulula, and others Asio. It is a babbler and a mis-
chievous rogue, and is a mimic too, for when men dance
it imitates their ways. It is caught while intent upon
one of two bird-catchers, the other circumventing it.

OF THE OTIS FROM PLINY.

Next to the Tetraones come those birds, which
Spain calls " Aves tardas " and Greece " Otides,"
condemned as food for man. For when the marrow
issues from the bones, disgust at the smell follows
there and then.

OF THE PARI.

al<yida\o<s, parus, in English a titmouse, in German eyn
meyse.

ARISTOTLE.

There are three kinds of Pari : Fringillago bigger
than the rest, for it is equal to a Fringilla. The next
Monticola by name, for it inhabits mountains, has
a longer tail. The third kind differs in the size of its
small body, though not otherwise unlike the rest.
Parus lays many eggs,

The first Parus the English call the Great Titmouse or
Great Oxeye, the Germans eyn kolmeyse.

The second Parus the English name the Less Titmouse,
the Germans eyn meelmeyse.

9—2

1 3 2 Part — Pardalus — Passeres

[p. 107] Parum tertiitm, Angli nonnam a fimilitudine quam\
Parus mi- Cnm iielata monacha habet, nominant.

Nidulantur part in cauis arboribus, uefcuntur noni
folum uermibus,fed & canabino feinine, & micibus,quas\
roftris fuis acutioribus folent perforare, & nucleos eruere ;j
Sceuo duo prior a genera multum delettantur. Parus\
maximus inennte ftatim nere cantiunculam quandam,
breuem, nee admodum iuctindam exercet, alias mutus}
Jiuic pecJus luteum eft, intercurfante linea nigra maiuf-
cula. Cceterorum corpora albo, nigro, pallido, & cyaneo
coloribus diftinguuntur.

DE PARDALO.

Pardalns, Angl. (ut creditur} a pluuer, Germa.
e^n puluer.

ARISTOTELES1.

Pardalus etiam auicula qusedam perhibetur,
quse magna ex parte gregatim uolat, nee fingu-
lare hanc uideris, colore tota cinereo eft, magni-
tudine proxima mollicipiti '2 eft : fed pennis &
pedibus bonis, uocem frequentem nee grauem
emittit.

[p. 1 08] ^? auis Ufa pardalus fit quam effe fufpicor, celer-
rime ctirrit, & fibilum, queni paftores & aurigarum
pueri labijs porrcclis cdunt, uoce iinitatur. Pennas
habet ad cinereum colorem proxime nergcntes, qnarum
Jingulce fingulis flauis maculis funt refperfce, & ea
anicnla, quam mollicipitc ejfe conijcio, tnultb maior eft,
Fieri poteft, ut eius auis plures fint fpecies.

DE PASSERIBVS.

crrpovOos, paffer, Angli. a fparrouu, German, etyn
mitfc^e ober et)ii fpiig. Quidam c^n lunin^f, Saxones ci)U
fperlingf uocant.

Pafj'er, author e Ariftotele*, puluer at & lauat, et
auis eft omnium falacifjima. Et quanquam Ariftoteles
ujium tantum pajferum genus fecerit, tria tame genera
ejfe conftat, qucz nunquam nouit, & quce recentiores

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 99.

2 Aristotle has fKfivois, referring to the \\»pi<ov and the

u.a\(iKOKpavfvs.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 260, Bk v. 8.

Pari — Pardalus — Passer es 133

The third Parus the English name the Nun from the
'resemblance that it bears to a veiled sister.

The Pari nest in hollow trees, they feed not only on
worms, but on hempseed and nuts, which they are wont to
.bore with their sharp-pointed beaks, and thence extract the
.kernels. The two former kinds are very fond of suet. The
Greatest Parus, when the spring arrives, at once utters a
sort of little song, short and not very pleasing, it is dumb
at other times ; its breast is yellow with a somewhat big
black line running along the middle. Of the other kinds
the bodies are diversified by white, black, grey, and blue.

OF THE PARDALUS.

Pardalus, in English (as is believed) a pluver, in German
eyn pulver.

ARISTOTLE.

The Pardalus again is held to be a certain little
bird, which for the most part flies about in flocks, and
cannot be seen solitary ; it is wholly grey in colour,
and in size comes nearest to the Molliceps : but it
has strong wings and feet, and utters a frequent but
not deep-toned cry.

If that bird be the Pardalus which I suspect, it runs very
swiftly, and by its cry mimics the whistle which shepherds
and post-boys make with pouting lips. It has the feathers
almost ash-colour, each sprinkled with one yellow spot, and
is much bigger than the little bird which I suppose to be
the Molliceps. It well may be that there are several kinds of
this bird.

OF THE PASSERES.

crTpouflo?, passer, in English a sparrow, in German eyn
musche or eyn spatz. Some call it eyn liiningk, the Saxons
eyn sperlingk.

The Passer, Aristotle says, both dusts itself and washes,
and is of all birds most wanton. And though Aristotle has
made only one kind of Passeres, yet it is clear that there are
three kinds, which he never knew ; but which the later

34

Passeres

Paffer tor-
cjuatus.

Paffer mag-
nus.

Huic mol-
licipitis apud

[p. 109]
Ariflotelem
defcriptio
magna ex
parte con-
uenit.
Paffer tro-
glodites.

Greed inuenerunt. Primum korum trium eft paffev
torqiiatus, a communi paffere, no folfi torque albo, fet
& uoce, & mo do nidificandi differes. Hoc genus in
G er mania frequens eft, fed apud Anglos rarnm. Se
cundus paffer magnus Aucluario dicitur, & in fummL
arborum ramis plerumque folet federe. Jiunc uarijs d\
caufts Anglornin buntingam, & Germanorum Gerft-\
hammeram ejfe fufpicor. Tertius paffer Ariftoteli \
incognitas, eft paffer trogloditcs, apud Paulum Aegi-
netam, & Aetium celeberrimos medicos, multum cele-
bratus. Qualis autem ilia aids fit, ex Paulo & Aetio,
quorum defcriptiones mox fubijciam, omnibus facile
patebit.

PAULUS A.EGINETA DE PASSERE
TROGLODITE.

His accedit laudatiffimum remedium troglo-
dites. eft autem pafferculus omnium auium
minima, ea fola excepta, que regulus appellatur,
hoc enim folo paulo maior eft, eicj? fimilis : co-
lore inter cineriu & uiride, tenui roftro, in muris
maxime & in fepibus degens.

AETIUS.

Troglodites eft pafferculus minimus, iuxta
fepes & muros uiclum quaeritans. Eft4? hoc
animalculum omnium auicularum minimum, ex-
[p. uojcepta ea, quae regulus appellatur, fimilis autem
regulo in multis, praeterquam quod in fronte
auricolores pennas non habet. Eft aute tro-
glodites paffer regulo paulo maior & nigrior,
caudam43 femper fubreclam, & albo colore
retro interpunclam habet. Magis item garrulus

Passeres \ 3 5

eks discovered. First of these three is Passer torquatus,

ering from the common Passer not alone in its white

ar, but also its note and mode of nesting. This kind is

ntiful in Germany, but rare among the English. The

ond Passer is called in the Supplement1 the Great, and

the most part it is wont to sir on the top boughs of trees.

r several reasons I consider this to be the Bunting of

; English and the Gersthammer of Germans. The third

asser, unknown to Aristotle, is the Passer troglodytes, fully

^cognised by Paulus yEgineta and Ae'tius, doctors of great

,nown. And so what sort of bird it is will easily be seen by

veryone from Paulus and Ae'tius, and their descriptions

will forthwith add.

PAULUS ./EGINETA- OF THE PASSER TROGLODYTES.

There is a remedy most highly prized besides
these, namely Troglodytes : this is nothing but a little
Sparrow, the least of all birds, with the exception only
of that kind which is called Regulus. It is a little
bigger than that bird alone, and similar to it : in
colour between grey and green, and with a slender
bill. It lives chiefly in walls and hedges.

AETIUS*.

The Troglodytes is the very least of Sparrows,
seeking for its food near hedges and near walls.
This little animal moreover is the smallest of all little
birds, except that which is called Regulus, while it is
like the Regulus in many ways, save that it has not
golden-coloured feathers on the forehead. The Passer
troglodytes is a little larger arid blacker than the Re-
gulus ; it always has its tail cocked up, which is spotted
behind with white. Likewise it is more noisy than the

1 It seems impossible to ascertain what this Auctuarium was.

2 A medical writer of ^Egina, whose chief work was De Re Medico,
Libri Septetn.

3 A Greek medical writer of Amida in Mesopotamia who wrote

11

36 Pas seres — Pavo

quam regulus eft, & fane iuxta fummum alae

\

lineamentum cinerij amplius colons. Breues
item facit uolatus, naturalem autem uim omnino
admiratione dignam habet.

NiJiil eft in hac defer iptione, quod non ad amujfim
auiculce conueniat, quam Angli pafferem fepiarium,
Colonienfes aucupes koelmufflium nominant. Sed quo-
niam tarn in Ger mania quam in Anglia uarijs nomi-\
nibus appellatur, & non omnes eum ex uno nomine
agnofcunt, omnia eius, qua noui nomina, ut omnibus \
innotefcat, fubijciam. '\

Vocatur apud Anglos an hedge fparrouu, hoc eft
paffer fepiarius, & a dike fnwuler, /we eft, in fepibus
[p. in] delitefcens. Vulgus Colonicfe hunc paffer em eyn grafs-
imifc/i appellat. uern peritiores quiq\ aucupes eyn koel-
mufc/i, hoc eft, paffer em in foraminibus & cauernis
degentem, nuncupant. Hie Germanos monitos uolo,
quil duce fint aues, grafniufclii, fua lingua uocatce,
illd fold effe trogloditen, qucz per totum annum regulo
fimilis cernitur, & non illam, quce circa fauces plumofa1
ineunte ftatim hyeme difcedit. Nidum huius pafferis
femel humi faclnm inter urticas uidi, & pullos ante-
quarn uolare poffunt, reliclo nido, inter Jierbas fruticesq-,
reptitantes, fcepius obferuaui: uermibus pafcitur, &
paulb ante uefperum folet impenftus ftrepere, & omnium
fere auium poftrema dormitum petit.

DE PAVONE.

Taa)v, pauo, Anglice a pecok, Germanice ei)n pffauv
Saxonice e\)n pageliin.

PLINIUS2.

Pauo gemmantes laudatus expandit colores,

aduerfo maxime fole, quia fie fulgentius radiant,

fimul umbrae quofdam repercuffus caeteris, quae

[p- II2lin opaco clarius micat, conchata quaerit cauda,

omnescj? in aceruum contrahit penarum, quos

1 This is probably a misprint for some other word.

2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xx.

Passer es — Pavo 1 3 7

Regulus, and certainly towards the upper border of the
wing the colour is more nearly grey. And though it
takes short flights, its natural energy is worthy of all
admiration.

In this description there is nothing that does not agree
exactly with the little bird, which Englishmen name Passer
sepiarius, the bird-catchers of Cullen the koelmusch. But
inasmuch as both in Germany and England it is called by
various names, and all men do not recognise it by the same,
I will subjoin those of its appellations which I know, that so
it may be known to all.

By the English it is called a Hedge-Sparrow, which
is the same as Passer sepiarius, and also a Dike Smouler,
one, that is, hiding itself in hedges. The common people
of Cullen call it eyn grassmusch, but those who know
better and fowlers name it eyn koelmusch, that is, a Sparrow
dwelling within holes and caverns. Now here I wish the
Germans to be warned, that since there are two birds called
grasmusch in their tongue, the Troglodytes is that kind alone
which throughout the year is noticed to be like the Regulus
and not that which is feathered round the jaws, and goes
away so soon as winter comes. Of this Passer I once met
with a nest built on the ground among nettles and I have
often seen young having left the nest before that they
could fly, creeping among the grass and shrubs. It feeds
on worms, and it is wont a little before evening to cry out
with not a little vehemence ; it goes to roost almost the last
of all the birds.

OF THE PAVO.

Tacov, pavo, in English a pecok, in German eyn pffaw, in
Saxon eyn pageliin.

PLINY.

The Peacock is admired for setting forth his jew-
elled colours, generally counter to the sun, since thus
they shine the brighter, while with concave tail he
gains certain reflexions of the shade for other feathers
which shine brighter in the dark, and at the same

1 3 8 Pavo — Perdix

fpeclare1 gaudet oculos. Idem cauda annuls
uicibus amiffa cum folijs arborum, donee renaf-
catur iterum cum flore: pudibundus ac mcerens
quaerit latebram. Viuit annis uiginti quinque.
Colores incipit fundere in trimatu. Ab autori-
bus traditur non tantum gloriofum animal, fed
maleuolum, ficut anfer uerecundum. Pauones
in capitibus fuis ueluti crinita habent arbufcula.

DE PERDICE.

HepB^, perdix, Anglice a pertrige, Gennanice etyll
ttelt fyirn/ aber et)n rapljon.

ARISTOTELES 2.

Perdix auis eft pulueratrix, & non altiuola,
& eadem non in nido fed in condenfo frutice
[P. 113] aut fegete prolem fuam munit. Aues enim gra-
uiores nidos fibi non faciunt, ut coturnices & per-
dices, & reliquae generis eiufdem. Quibus enim
uolandi facultas deeft, ijs nidus non prodeft :
fed fa6la in aprico3, area, (alibi enim nufquam
pariunt) atque materia ut uepribus4 quibufdam
congeftis, quoad accipitrum & aquilarum iniu-
riam deuitare poffmt. Oua edunt, & incubant,
mox ciim excluferint, protinus pullos educunt.
propterea quod nequeunt fuo uolatu ijs cibum
adminiftrare. Refouent pullos fuos fub fe, ipfae
ducendo more gallinarum, & coturnices & per-
dices. Nee eodem loco pariiit & incubat, ne
quis locum percipiat, longioris temporis mora.

1 A misprint for ' spectari.'

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 260, 59—61.

3 There is a reading Xa'o> besides r)Xi'o>.

4 Aristotle has aKavddv nva KOI V\TJV, so no doubt ' ut ' is
a misprint for 4et.' Gaza has 'ut.'

Pavo — Perdix 1 39

time draws into a cluster all the eyes upon his feathers,
which he is well pleased should be admired. The same
bird, having lost his tail, when the trees shed their
leaves by annual change, ashamed and sorrowing
seeks a hiding place, until it once more grows to-
gether with the flowers. He lives for five and twenty
years, and in the third begins to shew his colours. He
is reported by authorities to be an animal not only
proud but also ill-disposed, just as the Goose is bashful.
Peacocks have on their heads as it were a bush of hair.

OF THE PERUIX.

rie/jStf, perdix, in English a pertrige, in German eyn velt
hon, or eyn raphon.

ARISTOTLE.

The Perdix is a bird that dusts itself, and flies
not high1 ; moreover it finds safety for its young not
in a nest, but in thick shrubs and corn. For birds
of heavy body make no nest, such as Coturnices and
Perdices, and others of like sort. For to those kinds
in which facility of flight is wanting, there is small
advantage in a nest ; but in some sunny place (for
they breed nowhere else) a space is cleared and sticks
and a few briars are collected there sufficient for them
to avoid attacks of Accipitres and Aquilae. They lay
their eggs and sit ; so soon as these are hatched, they
lead their young away forthwith because they cannot
supply food to them by means of flight. Both Cotur-
nices and Perdices cherish their chicks beneath them,
themselves leading them in the same way as hens lead
theirs. They do not lay and incubate in the same
place (year after year), lest any one should find it
through the length of time for which they sit. Should

1 See p. 35.

1 40 Perdix — Phasianus — Phcenix

Cum ad nidum quis uenando accefferit, pro-
[P. ii4]uoluit fe perdix ante pedes uenantis, quafi iam
capi poffit1, atque ita ad fe capiendam hominem
allicit, eoufque dum pulli effugiant, turn ipfa
uolat, & reuocat prolem. parit oua non pauci-
ora quam decem.

Eft & alia auis, qua perdix ruftica dicitur, Anglis
rala dicta, cuius his uerfibus Martialis*1 meminit:
Ruftica ftim perdix, quid refert Ji fapor idem ?
Charior eft perdix, Jl faptt ilia minus.

DE PHASIANO.

Pliafumus, Anglice a phefan, Germanice ei)ll fafant/
ofcer etyn faftan.

PLINIUS3.

Phafiani geminas aures ex pluma fubmit-
tunt, fubriguntcj?. quae ueluti cornicula appa-
rent.

ARISTOTELES4.

Phafianorum oua punclis diftinfta funt ut
meleagridum, puluerant ut gallina^ & perdices.
[p- "5] Phafiani a pediculis infeftantur, & nifi inter-
dum puluerent, eifdem interimuntur.

DE PHCENICE.

PLINIUS5.

Aethiopes atque Indi difcolores maxime &
inenarrabiles ferunt aues, & ante omnes nobilem
Arable phcenicem : haud fcio an fabulofe, unum
in toto orbe, nee uifum magnopere. Aquilae
narratur magnitudine, auri fulgore circa colla,
caetera purpureus, coeruleam rofeis caudam pen-

1 Aristotle has &>s eV/X^Trroy oyo-a, which means 'as if disabled.'

2 Epigr. Lib. xin. Ixxvi.

3 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xlviii.

4 Hist. An. Bk vi. 5, Bk ix. 260, Bk v. 140.

5 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. ii.

Perdix — Phasianus — Phoenix 1 4 1

any man when hunting come up to the nest, the Perdix
casts herself before the hunter's feet, as if she could be
caught at once, and thus attracts the man to take her,
till the chicks escape, whereon she flies off and recalls
her brood. She lays no fewer than ten eggs.

And there is yet another bird, which is called Perdix
rustica : it is called " rale " by Englishmen, and of it Martial
makes mention in the following lines :—

I am a country partridge, but what matters it so that
the flavour be the same ? The partridge is the dearer, if it
tastes less well1.

OF THE PHASIANUS.

Phasianus, in English a phesan, in German eyn fasant or
eyn fasian.

PLINY.

The Phasiani lower and erect two ears of feathers,
which look like small horns.

ARISTOTLE.

Of Phasiani the eggs are marked with spots, like
those of Meleagrides ; they dust themselves, just as
Gallinse and Perdices do. Phasiani are a prey to lice,
and if they do not sometimes dust themselves, are
killed by them.

OF THE PHCENIX.

PLINY.

The ^Ethiopians and Indians tell of birds of very
varied colouring and indescribable, and of the Phcenix
of Arabia, most noteworthy of all : I know not whether
falsely, that there is but one in the whole world, and
this not often seen. It is declared to be of the size
of an Aquila, with golden sheen around the neck,
but purple otherwise, varied with roseate feathers on

1 The text here given is probably corrupt, which makes the rendering
uncertain.

1 4 2 Phoenix — Pica

nis diftinguentibus, criftis faciem caputcj* plu-
meo apice honeftante. Primus atque diligen-
tiffimus togatorum de eo prodidit Manilius,
fenator ille maximus, nobilis, doftore nullo,
autor eft, neminem extitiffe, qui uiderit uefce-
[p. 1 1 6] tern. Sacrum in Arabia foli effe, uiuere annis
660. fenefcetem cafia thuriscj? furculis con-
ftruere nidum, replere odoribus, & fuperemori.
Ex offibus deinde ac medullis nafci primo ceu
uermiculum, inde fieri pullum.

DE PICA.

Kirra, pica, Anglice a py, or a plot, Germanice etytt
elfter/ ober etyn afcel.

ARISTOTELES '.

Pica uoces plurimas commutat, fingulis enim
fere diebus diuerfam emittit uocem. Parit oua
circiter nouem numero. Nidum in arboribus
facit ex pilis & lana, glandes cum deficiunt,
colligit, & in repofitorio abditas, referuat.

PLINIUS 2.

Minor nobilitas, quia non ex longinquo
[P- TI7] uenit, fed expreffior loquacitas certo generi
picarum eft, quam pfitacis eft. Nee difcunt
tantum, fed diligunt meditantesc^ intra femet,
cura atq? cogitatione, intentionem non occultant.
Conftat emori uiclas difficultate uerbi, ac nifi
fubinde eadem audiant, memoria falli, quserentes
mirum in modum hilarari, fi interim audierint id
uerbum. Nee uulgaris ijs forma, quamuis non

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 81.

2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlii.

Phoenix — Pica \ 4 3

a tail of blue, tufts beautifying the face, a feathery
crown the head. First of our citizens and with great
care Manilius wrote of it, that noted senator, of such
high birth ; of his own knowledge he asserts that nobody
exists who ever saw it eat. He says that in Arabia
it is considered sacred to the sun, and lives for
six hundred and sixty years. When it grows old it
makes itself a nest with cassia and twigs of frank-
incense, this nest it stores with scents and on the
top it dies. Then from its bones and marrow is pro-
duced what seems a little worm, but afterwards be-
comes a chick.

OF THE PICA.

Ktrra, pica, in English a py or a piot, in German eyn
elster or eyn atzel.

ARISTOTLE.

The Pica oftentimes changes its notes, for almost
every day it utters different cries. It lays about nine
eggs. It makes a nest in trees, of hair and wool, and
when acorns grow scarce, it gathers them and keeps
them hidden in store.

PLINY.

Less fame, because it does not come from distant
lands, though more distinct loquacity characterizes a
certain sort of Picae than the Psittaci. Not only do
they learn, but they delight to talk, and meditating
carefully and thoughtfully within themselves hide not
their earnestness. They are known to have died
when overcome by difficulty in a word,* and, should
they not hear the same things constantly, to have
failed in their memory, and while recalling them to
be cheered up in wondrous wise, if meanwhile they
have heard that word. Nor1 is their beauty of an

1 Or perhaps, ' their form is not commonplace, though not showy to
the eye.'

1 44 Pica

fpec~tanda, fatis illis decoris in fpecie fermonis
human! eft. Verum addifcere alias negant
poffe, quam quae ex genere earum funt, quse
glande uefcantur, & inter eas facilius, quibus
quini funt digiti in pedibus : ac ne eas quidem
ipfas, nifi primis duobus uite annis. Nuper et
adhuc tamen rara ab Appennino ad urbem
[p. n8]uerfus cerni coepere picarum genera, quae longa
infignes cauda uarise appellantur, proprium his
caluefcere omnibus annis cum feratur rapa.

Plinius duo picarum genera facere uidetur: pofterius
hoc genus Plinij, picarum genus effe uidetur, quod
pajfim in Germania & Anglia longa cauda prceditum,
oua & pullos gallinarum populatur. A Hud genus piece,
tarn longa cauda ornatum, quam hoc eft, non noui.
nojlra quoque pica uulgaris caluefcere quotannis folet.
Alterum autem piece genus diu fane dubitaui quod nam
effet, & adhuc non fatis tcneo. Cum effem in Italia ad
ripam Padi, ambulantibns miJii, & itineris met comi-
laia An- tibus, auis qucedam piece fimilis, lingua Britannica

glorum, iaia, & Germanica mercolphus appellata, confpicicndam
mercolphus ... ..

Germanoru. fefe commoaum obtulit, anus nomen Itahcum quum

a monacho quodam, qui turn forte aderat, percontarer,

picam granatam did refpondit. Qua re cum apud

Italicum etiam uulgus non folum priftince linguce

Romance, fed & rerum fcientice, non obfcura uejligia

adJmc fuperejfe deprcehenderem, fuborta eft mihi hinc

fufpicio, auem hanc e generibus picarum ejfe, & quod

[p. \\sj\fcirem eandem, alter a uulgari pica, multb exprejfius

Hanc mea humanas uoces imitari, ita fufpicionem meam auxit,

Perottus1 ut Parum abfai guin credam hanc effe alter ius generis

cofirmat, picam, nam & glandibus uefcitur magis omnibus alijs

i Probably Reader in Greek to Edward VI. (cf. Diet. National
Biogr. XLV. p. 21).

Pica 145

ordinary sort, though not considerable to the eye ; for
them it is enough honour to have a kind of human
speech. However people deny that others are able to
learn, save those belonging to the group which lives
on acorns — and of these again those with the greatest
ease which have five toes upon each of their feet : nor
even they except during the first two years of life.
Of late, however, and as yet infrequently, towards
the city from the Appennines there have begun to be
observed some sorts of Picae which being remarkable
for the length of their tails have been called "variae."
They have this special mark that they grow bald in
every year when rape is sown.

Of Picae Pliny seems to make two kinds : this latter kind
of his would seem to be that Pie which here and there in
Germany and England plunders both the eggs and chicks of
fowls, possessing a long tail. I do not know another kind of
Pie provided with a tail so long as this. And furthermore
our common Pie is wont to grow bald every year. Now
what the second sort of Pie might be I doubted very long,
nor have I yet grasped it sufficiently. But when I was in
Italy upon the banks of the Po, and while my fellow-
travellers and I were walking out, a certain bird like a
Pie, in English called a Jay, in German mercolphus, offered
itself conveniently for observation. Thereupon I asked a
certain monk, who then by chance was present, its Italian
name, and he replied to me that it was called the Seed Pie1.
When therefore I perceived that with the common people of
Italy not only patent traces of the old Roman tongue still
actually existed, but also of things scientific, a suspicion
rose within me that this bird was of the group of Pies ;
moreover, since I knew that the same imitated human tones
much more correctly than the other Pie, which is the commoner,
so much was I confirmed in my suspicion that I can scarcely
refuse to credit that this Pie was Pliny's second kind, par-
ticularly as it lives on acorns more than any other bird.

1 Ghiandaja is the modern Italian name, derived from 'glans' = an
acorn.

10

146 Picus Martins

DE PICO MARTIO.

a rayn Apuo/eoXavrTT;?, picus martius, pipo> iynx, torquella,

byrde. turbo, Anglice & Germanice a fpecht, etyll

ARISTOTELES \

Alia culicibus2 gaudent, nee alio magis quam

uenatu culicum uiuut, ut pipo turn maior turn

minor, utrumque picum martium uocant. Si-

miles inter fe funt, uocemcj* fimilem emittunt,

Galgulum fed maiorem, quae maior eft. Item KO\LOS\ cui

mterpretatur magnitude quanta turturi fere eft, color luteus,

Gaza. i- • i • i

hgnipeta hie admodum eft, magnaq* ex parte

more picorum ve^trai eVt TWV f^Xw^, quod eft,

id eft, umit ut interpretatur Gaza, ex macerie uiuit : uocem

ad hgna. . . ' . „ , ., , .

[p 120] emittit magnam, incola maxime Peloponefi hie
eft.

Obferua tibi Ariftoteles dno tantum picorum genera
facit, ibidem ilium galgalum defcribere, & ubi tria
facit, eundem omittere,

ARISTOTELES4 LIB. 9. CAP. 9. DE HISTORIA
ANIMALIUM.

Alauda gallinago, & coturnix nunquam in
arbore confiftunt, fed humi. Contra atq$ picus
martius, qui nunquam humi confiftere patitur.
Tundit hie quercus, uermium & culicu caufa,
quo exeant : recipit enim egreffos lingua fua,
quam maiufculam, & latiufculam habet. Scadit
per arborem omnibus modis : nam uel refu-
pinus, more ftellionu, ingreditur. Vngues etiam
habet commodiores quam monedula5, ad tuti-
[p. 121] orem arborum reptationem, his enim adfixis
afcendit. Sunt pici Martij cognomine, tria
genera : unum minus quam merula, cui rubidae

1 Hist. An. Bk vm. 43—44.

2 Gaza translated Aristotle's o-Kvfy by culex ( = gnat). Most
probably it may be used for various small winged creatures.

3 There is another reading, xtXeoy.

4 Hist. An. Bk ix. 66—69.

5 KoXoios may be a misreading here and below for Kf\ebs} but
this seems doubtful.

Picus Martins 147

OF THE Picus MARTIUS.
, picus martius, pipo, iynx, torquella, turbo,
in English and in German a specht, eyn specht

ARISTOTLE.

Some birds delight in grubs, and as a rule live on
no other prey, as do the great and little Pipo, both of
which people call Picus Martius. Resembling one
another they utter like cries, although the greater
has the louder cry. Again there is the /coXios, the
size of which is, nearly as may be, that of the Turtur,
and its colour yellowish. It pecks wood freely, and,
as the Pici do, lives for the most part on the trunks,
that is, lives on the wood1, as Gaza renders it : it
utters a loud cry, and is especially a resident in the
Peloponnese.

Note that, when Aristotle only makes two sorts of Pici,
in that- passage he describes the Galgulus, when he makes
three, he does not mention it.

ARISTOTLE BOOK 9, CHAP. 9, OF THE HISTORY OF

ANIMALS.

Alauda, Gallinago, and Coturnix never alight on
trees, but always on the ground. It is however other-
wise with Picus Martius, which never can endure
sitting upon the ground. It hammers oaks for worms
and grubs, that they may shew themselves, and when
they issue forth it takes them on its tongue, which
it has somewhat long and broad. It climbs about
a tree in every way, for it even walks upside down,
after the way of Lizards. It has claws better
formed for creeping safely on the trees than even the
Monedula, and climbs with them stuck in. There
are three sorts of birds that have the special name of
Picus Martius, one less than a Merula, which has some

1 Cf. p. 88.

10 2

148

Picus Martins

aliquid plumae inert. Alteru maius quam me-
rula : tertium non multo minus quam gallina.
Nidulatur in arboribus turn alijs cum oleis.
Pafcitur formicis & coffis. Cum coffos uenatur,
tarn uehementer excauare, ut fternat arbores
dicitur. lam uero mitefcens, quidam amygdalu,
quod rimae inferuiffet ligni, ut fixu conftanter
i6lum reciperet, tertio iclu pertudit, & nucleum
edit. Faucis1 quibufdam utrinque bini ungues
ut auiculae, quam lyngem uocant. Haec paulo
maior quam fringilla eft, corpore uario. Habet
fibi propriam digitorum, qua modo dixi, difpo-
[p. 122] fitionem, & linguam ferpentibus fimilem: quippe
quam in longitudinem, menfura quatuor digi-
torum porrigat, rurfumcj? contrahat intra ro-
ftrum, collum etiam porrigit in auerfum reliquo
quiefcente corpore, modo ferpentium, unde tor-
quilla uulgo appellata eft : quanquam turbo ab
antiquis. Vngues ei grandes, & fimiles, ut
monedulis exeunt, uoce autem ftridet.

Picus mi-
nimus.
Medius.
Maximus.

[P-

Pritnum pici genus Angli fpechtam, & uuod-
fpechtam, Germani elfterfpechtam nominant. Secundum
genus Angli ku/wlam, Jioc eft, foraminum dolatorem,
Germani grunfprechtd nuncupant. Tertiu germs A nglia
no nouit, Germani atit crafpechtam a. cornicinum
picum appellat, quod cornicem phimaru colore & magni-
tudine etiam pene czquet.

Plinius prater h<zc tria A riftotelis genera, quartum
pici genus facere uidetur, nam lib. 10. cap. 33 fcribit,
picum aliquem fufpendere nidtim in furculo primis
in ramis cyathi modo, ut nulla quadrupes pojjit ac-
cedere.

Prceter uireonem folum^ in Europa nullam alia
tf7/£W ita nidulari noui. Quare nullam aliam, quam
hanc, qua pici quartum genus effe poffi.t, inuenio.

1 Hist. An. Bk 11. 46—47.

Picus Marlins 149

feathers red. The second bigger than a Merula, the
third not much less than a barn-door hen. It breeds
in various trees and olives in particular. It feeds on
ants and grubs, and when hunting for grubs is said to
excavate so vigorously as to fell trees. Indeed one
that was tamed broke at the third attempt an almond
which it had inserted in a chink of the wood, that
being fixed it might more surely receive the stroke,
and ate the kernel out. In some few birds there are
two claws in front and two behind, as in the little bird
which men call lynx. This kind is not much larger
than a Fringilla, and has the body mottled. It has
moreover the peculiar arrangement of the toes, of
which I have just spoken, and a tongue like that of
serpents, for it shoots it out up to a distance of four
fingers' length, and draws it back again within the
beak ; it twists its neck moreover backwards, with its
body still, just as the serpents do, whence it is
commonly called Torquilla, although it is the Turbo
of old writers. It has claws of great size, which are like
those that grow on the Monedula, it has a strident cry.

Of Picus the first kind the English call the Specht and
Wodspecht, which the Germans name the elsterspecht.
The second kind Englishmen term Hewhole, that is, hewer of
holes, the Germans grunspecht The third kind England
knows not, but in Germany they call k craspecht or the Crow-
Picus, for it is very nearly like a Crow in colour of the
plumage and also in size. Besides these three sorts of
Aristotle Pliny seems to make a fourth, for in Book 10
and chapter 33 he tells us that a certain Picus hangs its
nest, in fashion like a cup. upon a twig among the outer
branches of a tree, so that no quadruped is able to come
nigh, Except the Vireo alone, I know no other bird in
Europe which places its nest in such a way. Wherefore
I find no other than the above which the fourth kind of Picus
possibly can be.

150 Psitacus — Platea

DE P SIT A CO.
Pfitacus, Anglice a popiniay, Germanice etyn

ARISTOTELES 1.

Nam & Indica auis, cui nomen pfitacae,
quam loqui aiunt 2, tails eft, & loquacior 3 quum
biberit uinum, redditur.

PLINIUS4.

Super omnia humanas uoces reddunt pfitaci,
& quidem fermocinantes. India auem hanc
mittit. Piitacen uocant, uiride toto corpore,
torque tantu miniato in ceruice diftincla. Im-
peratores falutat, & quae accipit uerba, pro-
nunciat : in uino pcipue lafciua. Gapiti eius
duritia eadem quae roftro. Haec cu loqui clifcit,
ferreo uerberatur radio : no fentit aliter ictus,
[p. 124] Cum deuolat, roftro fe excipit, illi innititur, le-
uioremcj* fe ita pedum infirm itati facit.

DE PLATEA.

HeXe/cav, platea, platelea^ pelecanus, Anglice a
skouelard, Germa. ei)U leflet/ ob' etyn (offel ga^.

ARISTOTELES5.

Platea fluuiatilis, conchas maiufculas, le-
ues4* deuorat, quas ubi fua ingluuie coxerit,
euomit, ut hiantibus teftis exuens, legat atque

edat.

PLINIUS 6.

Platea nominatur aduolans ad eas, quse fe in
mari mergunt, & capita illarum morfu corri-

1 Hist. An. Bk vin. 85.

2 ro \fjofjifvov av&p(O7r6y\<t)TTOv.

3 aKoXttororepoi/ = reckless.

4 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xli.

5 Hist. An. Bk ix. 71.

6 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xl.

Psitaciis — Platea \ 5 1

OF THE PSITACUS.
Psitacus, in English a popinjay, in German eyn papegay.

ARISTOTLE.

An Indian bird indeed, the Psitace by name, which
people say can speak, is such a one as this, and is
reported as more talkative after it has drunk wine.

PLINY.

Beyond all Psitaci repeat men's words, and even
talk connectedly. India sends this bird, which they
call Psitace, with the whole body green marked only
by a scarlet ring upon the nape. It will pronounce
" Hail Emperor," and any words it hears ; it is
especially sportive after wine. The hardness of the
head is the same as of the beak. And when the
bird is being taught to speak, it is beaten with an
iron rod, else it feels not the strokes. When it flies
down it receives its weight upon its beak, and
supports itself thereon ; and thus lightens itself to
remedy the weakness of its feet.

OF THE PLATEA.

He\e/cdv, platea, platelea, pelecanus, in English, a shove-
lard, in German eyn lefler or eyn loffel ganss.

ARISTOTLE.

The Platea, a river bird, devours biggish shell-
fish, if they be but smooth, and, after it has seethed
them in its crop, it casts them up again, that stripping
them off from their gaping shells, it so may pick and
eat them.

PLINY.

The Platea, as it is called, flies at those birds which
dive below the sea, and seizes their heads with a bite

1 5 2 Platea — Porphyrio — Regulus

piens, donee capturam extorqueat. Eadem
cum fe deuoratis impleuit conchis, calore uen-
tris coclas, euomit, atque ita efculenta legit,
teftas excernens.

[p. 125] HlERONYMUS.

Pelican! cum fuos a ferpente filios occifos
inueniunt, lugent, fecp & fua latera percutiunt,
& fanguine excuffo, corpora mortuorum fie re-
uiuifcunt

Conradus Geftnerus^ cum Tiguri agerem, homo ut
dofliffimus, ita candidiffinms, huius miJii auis cogni-
tionem (ut fatear, per quern profeci} primus omniii
communicauit, & ideo Germanis leflerd uocari docuit,
quod roftru cochleari Jimile haberet.

DE PORPHYRIONE EX PLINIO \

Porphyrio folus morfu bibit : idem ex pro-
prio genere omnem cibu aqua fubinde tingens,
deinde pede ad roftrum ueluti manu adferes,
laudatiffimi in comagene". Roflra ijs & prae-
longa crura rubent.

DE REGVLO.

, /3a<7tX,eu?, trochilus, fenator,
regulus, Anglice a uuren, Germanice ei)n funinqfgen/
ober e

[p. 126] ARISTOTELES3.

Trochilus & fruteta incolit, & foramina, capi
difficulter poteft, fugax atque infirmis moribus
eft, fed ui6lus probitate, & ingenij folertia prae-
ditus. uocatur idem fenator & rex, quam ob
rem aquilam cum eo pugnare referunt.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xlvi.

2 It almost seems as if 'Comagene' should be 'Commageno,'
which case we might translate 'They are highly prized for

in
ointment.7

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 75.

Platea — Porphyrio — Regulus 153

until it wrenches their prey from them. So too when
it has filled itself with shell-fish that it has devoured,
it casts them up, seethed by its belly's heat, and so
picks out the eatable parts, sifting off the shells.

HIERONYMUS.

Pelecani, when they find their young killed by a
serpent, mourn, and beat themselves upon their sides,
and with the blood discharged, they thus bring back to
life the bodies of the dead.

Conrad Gesner, a man most learned as he also was most
truthful, first imparted to me while I was at Zurich knowledge
of this bird (that I may own from whom I profited), and
taught me that it was called lefler by Germans because it has
a spoon-shaped beak.

OF THE PORPHYRIO FROM PLINY.

The Porphyrio alone drinks with a bite, it also is
peculiar in dipping all its food from time to time in
water, and then bearing it to its beak with its foot, as
with a hand. The best are found in Comagene.
Their beaks and very long legs are red.

OF THE REGULUS.

7rpeo-{3vs, j3ao-i\ev<;, trochilus, senator, regulus,
in English a wren, in German eyn kuningsgen or eyn zaun-
kiiningk.

ARISTOTLE.

The Trochilus inhabits shrubberies and holes, and
cannot easily be caught. Now it is shy and of a feeble
habit, but endowed with great ability of getting food
and knowledge of its craft. The same is called both
senator and king, on which account the Aquila, they
say, fights with it.

1 54 Reguhis — Rubecula — R^^,ticilla

TrocJdlus, eft auium omnium minima, cauda longa
& femper erecta, roftro longiufculo, fed tenuiffimo,
colore fere fuluo. nidum facit foris ex mufco, intus ex
plumis aut lana, ant floccis, fed plurimu ex plumis,
Otd ere fit & in alter o fiw fine cofiftentis, forma nidus
Jiabet, in media iieluti latere Jwftiolum eft, per quod
ingreditur & egreditur. In pofticis (zdibus & ftabilis
ftramine tecJis, inter dii nidu conftruit, fed fczpius in
fyluis. auis eft etiam foliuaga, & gregatim nunquam
uolat, imb quoties alium fid generis ojfendit, mox illi
bellum indicit, & confliftatur. Quare aues illce, quce
in Bauaria pennis auricoloribus ; qnas in capitibus ceu
coronas aureas ferunt, in fyhds ceftate degentes, & gre-
gatim ad urbes kyeme aduolantes, reguli non funt fed
tyranni Ariftotelis, ut poftea docebo.

[p. 127] DE RVBECVLA ET

ruticilla.

Rubecula E,pi6aico<$, 77 epiOea, rubecula, Anglice a robin red-

brefte, Germanice ei)it rotbruft/ ot>ev ei)n votfeld;en.

Ruticilla. <boivLKovp6<$, &, ut alter tcxtus habet, fyoiviKovpyos,

Plinio phanicurus, Gazce ruticilla, Anglice a rede tale,
Germanice et)it rot ftev£.

ARISTOTELES1.

Rubecula & ruticilla uermibus aluntur.
Rubecula^, & quae ruticillse appellantur, inuicem
tranfeunt, efVque rubecula hyberni temporis,
ruticilla seftiui, nee alio fere inter fe differunt,
nifi pectoris colore & caude ~.

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 256.

2 The three words ' pectoris & caude ' are not in Aristotle.

Regulus — Rubecula — Ruticilla 1 5 5

The Trochilus is smallest of all birds, with a long tail1
always cocked up, and a bill somewhat long but very slender,
it is nearly reddish-brown in colour. The nest it makes is
outwardly of moss and inwardly of feathers, wool, or down,
but mainly of feathers. The nest has the form of an upright
egg standing on one of its ends, while in the middle of one
side there is a little postern as it were, by which the bird
goes in and out. It sometimes builds its nest at the back
of a house or in sheds thatched with straw, but usually in
woods. It also is a bird that roves alone, and never flies
in flocks ; nay more, so often as it meets another of its
kind it forthwith declares war, and fights. Wherefore the
birds with plumes of gold-colour that they wear on their
heads like golden crowns, which pass the summer in
Bavaria in woods, and in the winter flock to towns, are
not the Reguli of Aristotle, as I presently shall prove, but
the Tyranni.

OF THE RUBECULA AND THE RUTICILLA.

, rj epiOea, rubecula, in English a robin redbreste,
in German eyn rotbrust or eyn rotkelchen.

QoiviKovpos, and, as another text has it, (froiviKovpyos, in
Pliny phcenicurus, the ruticilla of Gaza, in English a rede tale,
in German eyn rotstertz.

ARISTOTLE.

The Rubecula and the Ruticilla feed on worms.
Rubeculse and Ruticillae, as the birds are called, change
into one another, and what in winter is the Rubecula
in summer is the Ruticilla2, while they hardly differ
from each other save in colour of the breast and tail.

1 Turner evidently means the Wren ( Troglodytes parvulus], but with
this the ' long tail ' does not agree ; perhaps there is a misprint.

2 As Sundevall remarks, Aristotle probably only meant that the Red-
start was called (froiviKovpos in summer and ep'tSa<os in winter. Sundevall
ascribes the misinterpretation to Gaza, whose work Turner admittedly
used. This is the more likely as the section of Aristotle quoted concerns
birds which change their plumage and note at different seasons.

'56

Rubecula — Ruticilla

Rubecul^
nidulatio

Omnia, quce hie Ariftoteles de duabus auibus iftis
confcripfit, Plinius ex ipfo in opus fuuin tranfcripjit.
Sed uterque hac in re, aucupum relatibus magls quam
fua experientia nixus, a ueritatis tramite longijfime
aberrauit, nam utraque auis Jimul confpicitur, & ru-
bectdce domitce, & in caueis alitce, eandem perpetub
formam retinent. quin & eodem tempore nidulantes,
[p. \2$\fed modis longe diner/is fcepiffime in Anglia nidi.
Rubecula, qua non fecns cejlate quant liyeme rubru
habet pettus, quam pojfit longijfime ab oppidis et urbibus
in denfiffimis uepretis, & fruticetis ad hunc modum
nidulatur. Vbi multa querna reperit folia, ant quernis
fimilia, ad radices ueprium, ant denfwrum fruticum,
inter ipfa folia nidum conjlruit: & iam conftruclum,
opere neluti topiario folijs contegit. Nee ad nidum
ubifa patet aditns, fed nna tantiim nia ad nidum itur.
ea quoque parte, qua nidum ingreditur, longum Jlruit
ex folijs ante hoftium nidi neftibulmn, cnius extremam
partem pafttim exics, folijs claudit. Hac, qua mine
fcribo, admoduin puer obferuaui, non tauten inficias
iuerim, quin aliter nidulari pojjit. Si qui alium nidu-
laiidi modum obferuauerint, edant, & Jiuinfmodi renuu
Jiudiojis, & miki cum primis no parum gratificabuntur.
Ego, quod nidi, alijs candide fum impertitus.

PJi&nicurus, quern rubicillam1 uocat, in excauatis
arboribus & (quod fcepe expertus /urn) in rimis &
fiffuris murorum, pojlicarum tediu, in medijs urbibus,
fed ubi hominum minor frequentia concurfat, nidulatur.
Phoenicurus mas nigro eft capite, & cauda rubra, ccetera
foemince, nifi quod fubinde cantillat^ Jimilis. Caudam
\$"i2<)\femPer motitat uterque. Pkceiiicura fcemina, & proles
tante nun- adeo rubeculce pullis Jimiles fnnt, ut iiix ab oculatijjimo
difcerni pojfint. Verum motu caudce dignofcuntur.
Rubecidce licet caudam moueant, poflquam tamen fub-
miferint, Jlatim erigunt, nee tremit bis aut ter more
ruticillaru. Ruticillce enim Jimul atque caudam mo-
uere ceperint, non ceffant donee ter aut quater fimul

Phoenicuri
nidulatio.

Rubecula
reflate can-

quam audiui.

1 No doubt a misprint for Ruticilla, cf. pp. 154, 160.

Rubecnla — Ruticilla \ 5 7

All that Aristotle here has written of these two birds
Pliny has copied from him into his own work. But in this
matter each of them, relying on the tales of fowlers more than
on his own experience, has wandered greatly from the path
of truth. For both the birds are seen at the same time ;
moreover tame Rubeculae, when fed in cages, constantly
retain the same appearance. Moreover I have very often
seen the birds in England nesting at the same time, though
in very different ways. The Rubecula, which has a ruddy
breast no less in summer than in winter, nests as far as
possible from towns and cities in the thickest briers and
shrubs after this fashion. Where it finds oak leaves in plenty,
or leaves like the oak, it builds its nest among the leaves
themselves close to the roots of briers or the thicker shrubs :
and when completed covers it with leaves as if with topiary
work. Nor does access lie open to the nest on every side,
but by one way alone is entrance gained. And at that place
where it enters the nest the bird builds a long porch of leaves
before the doorway and, on going forth to feed, closes the
end with leaves. But, what I now describe, I first observed
when quite a boy, nevertheless I am not going to deny that
it may build otherwise. If any have observed another way
of nesting, let them tell it, and they certainly will not a little
gratify the students of such things, myself among the first.
I have imparted truthfully to others what I saw.

The Phcenicurus which he [Gaza] calls the Rubicilla nests
in hollow trees and (as I often have had experience) in chinks
and cracks of walls and outhouses in the midst of our towns,
though where the throng of men is not so great. The male
has a black head, a red tail, but otherwise is like the
female, save that he repeatedly utters a little song. Either
sex flirts the tail continually. The female Phcenicurus and
its brood are so much like young of Rubecula that they
can scarcely be distinguished by the sharpest eye. But
by the motion of the tail they may be recognised. For the
Rubeculae, although they move the tail, yet, after they have
lowered it, at once raise it again, nor does it quiver twice
or thrice as does that of the Ruticilla. For no sooner have
the Ruticillae once begun to move the tail than they go on
till they have lightly moved it three or four times altogether

158 Rubecula — Ruticilla — Rubetra

leuiter mouerint, ut alas, iuniores auiculce cibum a ma-
tribus efflagitantes, motitant. Rubeculce in ceftate, ubi
in fyluis fatis fuperfy; alimenti fuppetit, nee nllo in-
feftantur f rigor e, (quce res cogit illas in Jiyenie ad urbes,
oppida & pagos confugere) cum prole ad defer tijjima
quceq-, loca fecedunt. Quare, minus mirandum eft,
rubeculas in ceftate non pajjim occiirrere. Ruticillas
quid miri eft in hyeme no effe obuias, quum per totam
hyemem delitefcantf Adhcec cum rubeculce pulli, in
fine autumni perfec~lam fere in pec~toribus rubedinem
natJi, ad pagos & oppida propiiis accedunt, ruticillce,
quce antca per totam ceftatem cernebantur, difparent, nee
ampliiis in proximum ufque uer cernuntur. Quce
quum ita fe habeant, quid Ariftoteli aut illi hoc re-
ferentibus erroris anfam prcebuerit, facile quiuis poteft
colligere.

DE RVBETRA.

[p. 130] B«rt9, Latine rubetra dic~la, ab Ariftotcle inter
auiculas uermiuoras numeratur. Porrb, quce'nam auis
fit, prorfus diuinarc non poffum. Gybcrtus Longolius
linariam, fine miliariam cffe rubetra putabat, quod
rubis crebrb inftdeat. Sed quum Anglormn buntinga
in rubis tarn freques fit, quid uctat quo minus & ipfa
quoq, batis did pojjit. NiJdl igitur certi habemus, quod
nomen Britannicum aut Germanicum fit huic aui im-
ponendum.

Sed quum auium fuprd commemoratarum altera
feminibus Jierbaru uefcatur, & altera hordeo & tritico,
& batis Arift, uermiuora Jit, delegeda eft auicula quce-
piam, quce folis uermibus pafcitur, qualis eft auicula
A nglis ftonchattera, aut mortettera dic~la, & Germano-
rum klein bracJiuogelclien. Hcec ft batis non fit, miJii
prorfus ignota eft. Porrb ilia, quam Angli linotam,
& Germani flasfincam uocant, ueteribus, ft Ruellio,
crcdimus, erit miliaria.

Riibecula — Ruticilla — Rubetra 159

just as young small birds flutter their wings soliciting meat
from their mothers. In summer, when there is enough and
more of food found in the woods, and they are not troubled
by any cold (a thing which forces them in winter to resort to
cities, towns, and villages), Rubecula:: retire to the most
solitary places with their young. And so it is no marvel
that Rubeculae do not occur in summer everywhere. And
what wonder is it that Ruticillse are not met with in winter,
since throughout the whole of winter they are hidden ? And
further, when the young Rubeculae, having almost assumed
the full red on their breasts at the end of autumn, come
nearer to towns and villages, the Ruticillae, which were
hitherto seen during the whole summer, disappear and then
are no more noticed till the following spring. Wherefore,
things being thus, anyone may easily perceive what gave a
handle to Aristotle or to those who reported this error to him.

OF THE RUBETRA.

Bart?, in Latin called Rubetra, is by Aristotle classed
among the little birds that feed on worms. Beyond this I
cannot guess at all what sort the bird may be. Yet Gybertus
Longolius1 believed that the Rubetra was the Linaria or the
Miliaria, because it often perched on brambles. But since
the Bunting of the English sits so commonly on brambles,
what forbids that bird from also being called the Batis ? On
this account we have no certainty as to what name, British or
German, should be given to this bird.

But inasmuch as of the birds mentioned above the one
eats seeds of grasses, and the other wheat and barley, and as
Aristotle's Batis lives on worms, some small bird must be
chosen which eats worms and nothing else. Now such a little
bird is that called by the English Stonchatter or Mortetter
and the klein brachvogelchen of the Germans. If this be
not the Batis, it is quite unknown to me. Besides that which
the English call the Linot and the Germans the flasfinc must
be the Miliaria of older works, if we believe Ruellius-.

1 For this author see Introduction.

2 Ruellius wrote De natura stirpinm libri tres (1536) and edited one
or more medical or other works.

1 60 Rubicilla — Salus

DE RVBICILLA.

Hvppov\as, rubicilla, Angli. a bulfinche, Germa.
etyn bloftfmcf.

Rubicillam Ariftoteles inter eas aues connumerat,
qua uermibus uefcuntur : fed pluribus uerbis earn non
defcribit. Ego nominis etymologiam fecutus, rubicillam
*3i] Anglorum bulfincam, & Germanormn blouduincam effe
conijcio. Nam omnium, quas unquam uidi auium
mas in hoc genere, pectore eft longe rubidijfimo : foemina
uerb pectore toto eft cinereo, ccetera mari fimilis. Sed
ut facilius omnes intelligent > de qua aue fcribam,
magnitudine pajferis eft, roftro breuijjimo, latijfimo, et
nigerrimo, Lingua latiore multb qua pro corporis magni-
tudine. Pars ea linguce, quce cibi fapores dijudicans,
oris coelum tangit, caruea & nuda eft, reliquce partes
cornea pellicula obducuntur. Supremam auis partem
plumes cyanece contegunt. cauda nigra eft, & capite
etiam nigro, uefcitur libentiffime primis illis gemmis
ex arboribus ante folia & ftores erumpentibus, & femine
canabino. auis eft imprimis docilis, & fiftulam uoce
fua proxime imitatur. nidnlatur in fepibus, & oua
quatuor excludit, ut plurima quinq\. eundem colorem per
totum annum feruat, nee locum mutat. Quce quum ita fe
Jiabeant, non poteft hcec atricapilla effe, ut quidam uolunt,
utcunq; extremo lingua acumine carere uideatur.

DE SALO, QVI GREECE
dicitur.

ARISTOTELES l.

[p. 132] Salus uitae commoditate, & partus numero
commendatur, fed alterius pedis clauditate cedit.
Sali & flori fanguine mifceri negant, ta ingens
inter falum & floru feruet odiu. Salo etiam
preliu cu afmo eft, propterea quod afinus fpi-

1 Hist. An. Bk IX. 89, 22, 14.

Rubicilla — Salus 1 6 1

OF THE RUBICILLA.

HvppovXas1, rubicilla, in English a bulfinche, in German
eyn blodtfinck.

Aristotle counts the Rubicilla among those birds which
feed on worms : but he does not describe it in more words.
I, following the derivation of the name, conjecture that it is
the Bulfinc of the English and the bloudvinc of the Germans.
For of all the birds I ever saw the male of this kind has by far
the reddest breast : the female however has the breast wholly
grey, though otherwise like the male. But, that all may
understand more easily about which bird I write, it is the
size of a Sparrow, with the beak particularly short and broad
and black, the tongue much broader than is in proportion to its
body. That part of the tongue which discriminates the flavour
of the food and meets the palate of the mouth is flesh-
coloured and naked, while the other parts are covered with
a horny pellicle. Bluish grey feathers clothe the upper parts.
The tail is black and the head also black. It feeds most
greedily on those earliest buds, which burst out on the trees
before the leaves and flowers, as well as hemp-seed. It is the
readiest bird to learn, and imitates a pipe very closely with
its voice. It nests in hedges where it lays four eggs or five at
most. It keeps the same colour throughout the year, and
does not change its home. And since these things are so, it
cannot be the Atricapilla, as some will have it, though it
may appear to lack the point at the tip of the tongue.

OF THE SALUS, WHICH IN GREEK is CALLED aiyiOos.
ARISTOTLE.

The Salus is well thought of for its skill in gaining
a livelihood, and for the number of its young, although
it suffers from lameness in one of its feet. And men
deny that the blood of the Salus and the Florus ever
mixes, for so great an enmity rages between the birds.
There is war also between the Salus and the Ass,

1 Sundevall thinks that the Ilvppov\as is the Redbreast, but the de-
scription does not agree with his idea, Another reading is nvppovpds.

T. II

1 6 2 Sain s — Sitta

netis fua ulcera fcabendi caufa atterat : turn
igitur ob earn rem, tu etiam quod fi uocem
rudentis audierit1, oua abigat per abortum, pulli
etiam metu in terram labantur. Itaque ob earn
iniuriam aduolas, ulcera eius roftro excauat.

PLINIUS2.

Aegithus auis minima cum afmo pugnat,
fpinetis enim fe fcabendi caufa atterens, nidos
eius diffipat, quod adeo pauet, ut uoce audita
omnino rudentis oua eijciat, & pulli ipfi metu
[p- 133] cadant : igitur aduolans ulcera eius roftro ex-
cauat.

DE SITTA.

Sitta, Anglice a nut iobber, Germanice etyn ttitSljaffer
ober etyn nm)fpect)t.

ARISTOTELES 3.

Sunt & ei, quse fitta dicitur, mores pugna-
ces, fed animus hilaris, cocinnus, compos uitae
facilioris. Re maleficam illi tribuunt, quia rerum
callat cognitione, prolem nurnerofam facilemcj*
progignit, cariofa ligna contundens, ex coffis,
quos inde eruit, ui6titat. Sitta4 aquilae oua
frangit, aquila turn ob earn rem, quum etiam
quod carniuora eft, aduerfatur.

A uicula, quam A ngli nucipetam uocant, & Germani
meyfpechtum, paro maxima paulb maior eft, pennis
cyaneis, roftro longiufculo, & per arbores eodem modo,
quo picus afcendit, & eafdem uiftus gratia contundit :
nuces roftro etiam perforat, & nucleos commedit. nidu-
[p. 134] latur in cauis arbor ibus more pici, uoce ualde acuta
& fonora eft.

1 Aristotle has 'KOJ/ oy/c^o-T/rat, e/c/3aXXei ra coa /cat rovs
veoTTovs,' as if the bray of the ass shook the eggs and
young out of the nest. Gaza seems to have had the reading

CKTlKTOVai for €K7ri7TTOV(ri

2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. Ixxiv.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 91, very freely rendered.
* Hist, An, Bk ix. 17

Salus — Sitta 1 63

because the Ass is wont to rub its sores against the
thorn-bushes to scratch them, therefore for this cause,
and also because the bird has heard the brayer's voice
it prematurely drops its eggs, while even nestlings fall
down to the ground with fear. So for that injury (the
bird) attacking it scoops out its sores.

PLINY.

The ^githus, a very little bird, wages war with the
Ass, because it, rubbing against thorn-bushes to scratch
itself, destroys the nest, and this the bird dreads so much
that, if it merely hears the brayer's voice, it drops its
eggs, and the young also fall to the ground with
fear. Accordingly attacking it the bird scoops out
its sores.

OF THE SITTA.

Sitta, in English a nut jobber, in German eyn nushakker
or eyn meyspecht.

ARISTOTLE.

That bird which is called Sitta has pugnacious
habits but a cheerful disposition ; it is elegant and well
adapted to get food with ease. Yet men attribute
witchcraft to it, since it is cunning in knowledge of
affairs ; it produces numerous young with ease ;
hammering on rotten trees, it lives upon the grubs
which thence it digs. The Sitta breaks the eggs of
the Aquila, on which account, and also since it is
carnivorous, the Aquila is its enemy.

The small bird which the English call the Nut-seeker and
Germans the meyspecht is somewhat bigger than the biggest
Parus, with blue plumage and a longish beak. It climbs
trees in the same way as the Picus, and hammers the same
for food ; it also bores nuts with its beak, and eats the
kernels. It nests in hollow trees, as does the Picus, while
its note is very sharp and loud.

II 2

1 64 Struthio — Sturnus

DE STRVTHIONE.

^rpovOos, Xt/Sf/eo?, Jlruthio, aut Jlruthiocamelus ',
Anglice an oiftris, Gerinanice etyn ftraujl

ARISTOTELES \

Struthio, etiam libicus, eodem modo partim
auem, partim quadrupedem refert, quippe qui
non ut quadrupes pennas habeat, ut non auis
fublimis non uolet, nee pennas ad uolandum
commodas gerit, fed pilis fimiles. Ite quafi
quadrupes fit, pilos habet palbebre fuperioris,
& gibber2 capite, parte colli fuperiore eft. Ita^
cilia habet pilofiora, fed quafi auis fit, infra
pennis integitur. Bipes etiam tanquam auis, bif-
fulcus tanquam quadrupes eft. No enim digitos
habet, fed ungulam bipartitam. quarum rerum
[p. 135] caufa eft, quod magnitudine non auis, fed qua-
drupes eft. Magnitudinem enim auiu minimam
effe prope dixerim, neceffe eft. Corpus enim
molem fublimem mouere, nequaquam facile eft.

DE STVRNO.

^ apos, fturnus, Anglice a fterlyng, Germanice e^n
ftar/ ober et)n ftor.

ARISTOTELES 3.

Sturnus niger eft, albis maculis diftin6lus,
magnitudine merulae.

PLINIUS 4.

Sturnorum generi proprium, cateruatim uo-
lare, & quodam pilse orbe circumagi, omnibus
in medium agmen tendentibus.

1 De partibus Animalium, IV. 14.

2 No doubt a misprint for 'glaber.'

3 Hist. An. Bk IX. 102, freely rendered.
* Hist. Nat. Lib. X, cap, xxiv.

Struthio — Sturnus 165

OF THE STRUTHIO.

u#d?, \(,/3vtc6<i, struthio or struthiocamelus, in English
an oistris, in German eyn strauss.

ARISTOTLE.

The Struthio, or Libyan bird, in like manner partly
recalls a bird, partly a quadruped, seeing that it, un-
like a quadruped, has wings, and yet, unlike a bird,
it does not fly aloft, nor has it feathers fit for flight,
since they resemble hairs. Likewise as if it were
a quadruped, it has hairs on the upper eyelid, while
the head and upper portion of the neck are bare. So
also it has somewhat hairy eyelashes, yet it is covered
with feathers beneath, as if it were a bird. More-
over it is biped like a bird, but yet it is cloven-footed
like a quadruped. That is, it has not toes but a
divided hoof. The cause of these things is that in
its size it is not a bird but a quadruped. For I would
almost say that a bird's size must be extremely small,
for it is by no means easy to move aloft a body when
the mass is vast.

OF THE STURNUS.

pos, sturnus, in English a sterlyng, in German eyn star
or eyn stor.

ARISTOTLE.

The Sturnus is black, varied with white spots, and
of the bigness of a Merula.

PLINY.

It is peculiar to Starlings in their kind to fly in
crowds, and wheel about as it were in a ball, all tend-
ing to the middle of the band.

1 66 Tinunculus — Tetrao

DE TINVNCVLO.

Key%/3t9, tinunculus, Anglice a kiftrel, or a kaftrel,
or a fteingall.

ARISTOTELES \

[p. 136] Omnes, quibus ungues adunci, parcius ge-
nerant, excepto tinunculo, qui plurima in adunco
genere parit. lam enim quatuor eius reperti
funt pulli, fed plures etiam procreari poffe, aper-
tum eft. Tinunculo2 uentriculus ingluuiei fimilis
eft, & folus in adunco genere bibit. Rubra funt
eius oua modo minij.

Tinunculus colore multb magis eft fuluo quam re-
liqui accipitres, & corpore paruo. Auiculas infequitur,
&, ut quidam miJii retulere, papiliones interdum. In
cauis nidulatur arboribus, & in templorum muris, &
ceditioribus turribus, ut apud Germanos Argentorati
& Colonice, & apud Anglos Morpeti obfemaui. pullos
etiam diu uolantes tantifper alit, dti ipji ex proprio
uenatu uiuere pojfiit.

DE TETRAONE.

T€T/O/£, ovpai;, tetrao, Anglice a btiftard, or a biftard,
Germanice e^n trap/ ober etytt trap

ARISTOTELES3.

[p- i37] Tetrix, quam Athenienfes uragem uocant,
nee terrse, nee arbori fuum nidum committit, fed
frutici 4.

PLINIUS5.

Decet tetraones fuus nitor, abfolutac^ nigri-
tia, in fupercilijs cocci rubor. Alterum eorum
genus uulturum magnitudine excedit, quorum

1 Hist. An. Bk vi. 2.

2 Hist An. Bk n. 88, Bk vni. 50, Bk vi. 6.

3 Hist. An. Bk, vi. 4.

4 Aristotle has ^a/znt^Xots- fyvTois.
6 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxii.

Tinnunculus — Tetrao 1 6 7

OF THE TINNUNCULUS.

tinnunculus, in English a kistrel or a kastrel, or
a steingall.

ARISTOTLE.

All birds with crooked claws1 breed somewhat
sparingly, save the Tinnunculus, and it of all the
crooked-claw kind lays the most eggs. For of this
bird four young have been already found, while it is
evident that more might be produced. The stomach
in Tinnunculus is not unlike a crop, whereas it is the
only one of all the crooked-claw kind that drinks. Its
eggs are red — like scarlet.

The Tinnunculus is of a much more fulvous colour than
are other Hawks, and small in body. It chases little birds,
and, as some men have told me, butterflies at times. It nests
in hollow trees, church walls, and lofty towers, as I have
seen in Germany at Strassburg and at Cullen, and in England
at Morpeth. It also feeds its young long after they can fly
until such time as they can live apart by hunting for them-
selves.

OF THE TETRAO.

Terpif, ovpat;, tetrao, in English a bustard or a bistard, in
German eyn trap or eyn trap ganss.

ARISTOTLE.

The Tetrix, which Athenians call the Urax, trusts
its nest not to the ground, nor to a tree, but to low-
growing plants.

PLINY.

Their glossy plumage well becomes the Tetraones,
as does furthermore their perfect blackness and the
scarlet redness of their eyebrows. But one kind
exceeds in size the vultures and recalls their colour-

1 For Aristotle's groups of Birds see p. 35.

1 6 8 Tetrao — Tyrannus

et colorem reddit. Nee ulla auis, excepto
ftruthiocamelo, maius corpore imples pondus,
in tantum aufta, ut in terra quoqj praehendatur.
gignunt eos alpes, & feptentrionalis regio. In
uiuarijs faporem perdunt. Moriuntur contu-
macia fpiritu reuocato. Proximse eis funt, quas
Hifpani aues tardas appellat, Graecia otidas
danatas cibis. Emiffa enim offibus medulla,
odoris tedium extemplo fequitur.

[p. 138] DE TYRANNO.

Tyrannus, Anglice a nyn murder, Germanice eWtt
neitn murber/ ober etyn golb fyenbltn.

ARISTOTELES \

Vefcitur & uermibus tyrannus, cui corpus
non multo amplius qua locuftae, crifta rutila
ex pluma elatiufcula, & caetera elegans, cantucj?
fuauis haec auicula eft.

Quanquam A riftoteles unum tantum tyranni genus
faciat, Colonienfes tamen aucupes tria genera effe con-
tendunt. Primum uocant die groffe neun murder \ quod
Angli etiam fchricum nominant: & ego Ariftoteles
mollicipitem effe conijcio : Jiurnum magnitudine cequat,
color eius a cyaneo ad cinereum uergit. Secundum
genus eiufdem eft coloris, cuius & fuperius, fed pajferem
magnitudine non excedit. Hoc genus etiam in aues
fceuit. Tertium genus, quod Ariftotelis tyrannus eft,
auicula eft regulo paulb maior, crifta rutila redimita, &
cceteris generibus (Ji aucupibus credere phas* Jit) cede*
& corporis effigie non dijjimilis. Secundum & tertitim
tyranni genus apud A nglos haftenus nunquam uidere
[p. lyftcontigit, & primum genus licet in Anglia fit, paucif-
Jimis tamen notum eft: funt tamen, qui norunt, &
shricum uocant.

1 Hist. An. Bk vin. 41.

2 Of course a misprint for ' fas.'

3 No doubt this should be ' sede.'

Tctrao — Tyrannus 169

ing. There is no other bird, except the Struthio-
camelus, which attains so great a weight of body,
growing to such a size that it may even be caught
upon the ground. The Alps produce them, as do
northern lands. In mews they lose their flavour.
They die of stubbornness by holding back their
breath. Very near them are those which Spaniards
call "Aves tardse" and Greece "Otides"; they are
condemned as food. For when the marrow issues
from the bones, disgust at the smell follows there
and then1.

OF THE TYRANNUS.

Tyrannus, in English a nyn murder, in German eyn neun
murder or eyn gold hendlin.

ARISTOTLE.

The Tyrannus also lives on worms2. Its body is
but little larger than a locust's is. This little bird
moreover has a somewhat upright crest of reddish
feathers, and is otherwise pretty ; its song is sweet.

Though Aristotle makes but one kind of Tyrannus, yet
the bird-catchers of Cullen state that there are three. The first
they call die grosse neun murder, which the English name
the Schric for their part, this I take to be the Molliceps of
Aristotle. In size it equals the Sturnus, while its colour verges
from blue to grey. The second kind is of the same colour
as the foregoing, but in size does not exceed a Sparrow.
Furthermore this kind is cruel towards other birds. The
third kind, which is Aristotle's Tyrannus, is a small bird
which is little bigger than the Regulus, adorned with a red
crest and not unlike the other kinds (if it be right to trust
the fowlers) in its haunts and form of body. It has not ever
happened to me hitherto in England to observe the second or
the third kind of Tyrannus and, although the first exists in
England, it is known to very few. Yet there are some who
know it and who call it Shric.

1 See p. 106. 2 See p. 35.

1 70 Trynga — Turdus

DE TRYNGA.

Tpvyyas, trynga, Anglice a uuater hen, or a mot
hen, Germanice etyn ttaffet (Jen.

ARISTOTELES \

Lacus & fluuios petunt iunco, cinclus, &
trynga2, quae inter hsec minora, maiufcula eft,
turdo enim aequiparatur : omnibus his cauda
motitat.

lam, ut fciatis, quam auem tryngam effe putem,
auis tot a pulla eft, excepta ea candce parte, quce podicem
tegit, ea enim Candida eft, & turn cernitur, cum caudam
erigit. alis parum ualet, atque ideo breues facit no-
latus. In ftagnis, qn<z nobilium cedes obducunt, & in
pifcinis apud Anglos plerunq; degit. Si qnando peri-
clitatur, ad arundineta denfwra folet confugere.

DE TVRDO.

Kt%Xa, turdus, Anglice a thrufche, Germanice e^n
frammefuogel/ ober e^n njac^^olteruogel.

[p. 140] ARISTOTELES3.

Turdorum tria funt genera, unu uisciuorQ,
quod nifi uifco refmac^ non uefcitur, & magni-
tudine picae eft. Alterum pilare, quod fonat
acute. & magnitudine merulae eft. Tertium
quod iliacum quidam uocat, minimum inter hec,
minus'que maculis diftinclum eft. Mutat4 &
turdus colore, quippe collo aeftate uarius, hyeme
diftin61us fpecletur, uoce tame eade eft. Tur-
dus5 nidos ex luto, ut hirundines, facit, in ex-
celfis arboribus, ita deinceps continuato opere,

1 Hist. An. Bk vin. 47.

2 Another reading is rrvyapyos ; but this word is elsewhere
used of an Eagle, cf. p. 30.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 96. 4 Hist. An. Bk ix. 254.
5 Hist. An. Bk vi. 3.

Trynga — Turdus 1 7 1

OF THE TRYNGA.

;, trynga, in English a water hen or a mot hen,
in German eyn wasser hen.

ARISTOTLE.

The Junco and the Cinclus live on lakes and
streams, as does the Trynga, which among these little
birds is somewhat largest, for it equals in its size
a Turdus ; all these wag their tails.

And now, that you may know what bird I think the
Trynga is, it is an altogether dusky bird, save that part of
the tail which lies above the vent, for that is white and only
visible when it erects its tail. It is weak on the wing, and
therefore takes short flights. In England for the most part
it haunts moats which surround the houses of the great, and
fishponds. If danger ever threatens it is wont to flee to
the thicker reed-beds.

OF THE TURDUS.

Kt^Xa, turdus, in English a thrusche, in German eyn
krammesvogel or eyn wachholtervogel.

ARISTOTLE.

There are three kinds of Turdi, one of which is
called the Viscivorus, since it feeds on naught but
mistletoe and gum, and is of the size of a Pica. The
second, the Pilaris, which has a sharp note, is of the
same size as a Merula. The third, which some call
the Iliacus, is the least of them and less marked with
spots. The Turdus changes colour also, since it may
be seen mottled upon the neck in summer, while
in winter it is spotted, though its voice continues
similar. The Turdus makes its nests of mud, as do
Hirundines, and places them in lofty trees, the building

172

Turdus — Vireo

ut quafi catena quaeda nidorum contexta ui-
deatur.

PLINIUS1.

Turdi hyeme maxime in Germania cer-
nuntur.

[p. 141] Primum turdi genus Angli peculiar iter nominant
Turdus a thrushe, & Germani (tii/i me fallant auctipes, qui me
Secundus. fic uocare docuerunf] eyn crammefuogeL Secundum
genus Angli uocant a throffel^ aut a mauis, Germani
Tertius. eyn drojfel^ aut eyn durjlel. Tertiu genus ab Anglis
a uuyngthrushe, & a Germanis eyn uueingaerdsuoegel
nuncupatur. Hie turdus iitrinque iitxta oculos^ & in
pet~lore & in ipfo alee flexu, intus & forts maculas
habet latiufculas rubras. Huius nidum nunquam
uidi : nee mirum, quum per ceftatem apud nos nufquam
uideatur. primum genus non niji hyeme in Anglia
cernitur^ aut Jl uideatur > rarum eft. Secundum genus
per totum annum apparet maculofo ualde pecJore, &
cdtus fui gratia a multis in caueis alitur. Nidum
intus ex luto aut lignorum carie liquore mixta, &
artificiofe leuigata, foris ex miifco in ramis arbor um
aut fruticum facit.

DE VIREONE.

XXft>/3tW, uireo, Anglice a uuituuol, Germanice et)n
n)ttn?ol/ ober ev)n tveibmail/ ot»er e^n ferfenrtfe.

ARISTOTELES 2.

Vireo docilis, & ad uitae munia ingeniofus
[p. 142] notatur, fed male uolat, nee grati colons eft.
Vireo3 totus uiridis ex obfcuro4 eft, hyeme hie
non uidetur, fed aeftiuo folftitio potiffimum uenit
in confpeclum. Difcedit exortu arcluri fyderis,
magnitudine turturis eft.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxiv.

2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 89.

3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 98.

4 These two words are not in Aristotle.

Tu rdus — Vireo 1 7 3

being so continuous as to seem almost like a chain of
nests woven together.

PLINY.
The Turdi are in winter chiefly seen in Germany.

The first kind of Turdus Englishmen particularly name
a Thrushe, and Germans (if the bird-catchers, who taught
me so to call it, lead me not astray) eyn crammesvogel.
The second kind the English call a Throssel or a Mavis, but
the Germans say eyn drossel or eyn durstel. The third is
named a Wyngthrushe by the English and eyn weingaerds-
vogel by the Germans. This Turdus has broadish red spots
on each side near the eyes, as well as on the breast, and also
both inside and outside at the bend of the wing. But I have
never seen its nest, nor is that wonderful, since it is nowhere
to be seen with us throughout the summer. The first kind is
not observed in England save in winter, or, if it be seen, it is
unusual. The second kind, with a much spotted breast
appears throughout the year, and by many is kept in cages
for its song. It builds a nest, moreover, inwardly of mud or
else of rotten wood tempered with moisture and smoothed
skilfully, and outwardly of moss, upon the boughs of trees or
shrubs.

OF THE VIREO.

XXwpiwv, vireo, in English a witwol, in German eyn wit-
wol or eyn weidwail, or eyn kersenrife.

ARISTOTLE.

The Vireo is teachable, and is remarkable for its
capacity for the duties of life ; but it flies badly and is
not of a pleasing colour1. The Vireo is wholly of
a dusky green ; it is not seen in winter here, but
comes chiefly in view about the summer solstice, it
departs at the rise of the star Arcturus, and is of
the size of the Turtur.

1 Cf. p. 86.

Vireo — Upupa

Vireonem (quod frio) in Anglia nunquam uidi, fed
in Germania fcepijfime. turttire paulb minor eft. Vocent
fiftulce grandiufculce, qua infimam cantionis partem
fuftinet, Jimilem emit tit. Nidum in ramo qnem in
fumma arbore fufpendit '; in formam rotundam conftruit,
ne cni hominum aut ferarfi ad eum pater et aditus.

DE VPVPA.

upupa, Anglice a houupe, Germanice etyn
f)ou p/ ober 09 n unbfyopff.

ARISTOTELES \

Vpupa potiffimum nidum e ftercore hominis
facit. Mutat facie tempore seftatis & hyemis,
ficut & cseterarum quoque agreftium plurimae.
[p. 143] Vpupa2 una in fuo genere non nidificat, fed fti-
pites arborum fubiens, parit fine ullo ftramento,
in cauis.

Angloru
lapuuinga
non effe
upupam.

Literatores pleriq-, onmes Britannici, upupam earn
nominant auem, quant barbari ab alarum ftrepitu,
uannellnm nuncupant, & ipfi fua lingua lapuuingam
uocant. Verum iftorum craffus error facile ajitori-
tate Plinij* de upupa ita fcribentis, confutatur : Vpupa
(inqtiit) obfccena alias paflu auis, crifla uifenda
plicatili, cotrahens earn, fubrigens4? per longi-
tudinem capitis. Hcec ille. Sed Grammaticis noftris
hie error eft facile condonandus, nam nufquam in tota
Britannia upupa (quod ego fcio) reperiri poteft, apud
Germanos tamen frequentijjima. Ea eft magnitudine
turdiy alis per interualla fufcis, albis & nigris pennis
diftinftis, crifta in capite ab ea parte roftri, qua capiti
committitur, ad extremum ufq-, occiput in logitudinem
porrigitur, quam pro adfeflibus fuis aut contrahit,

1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 88.

2 Hist. An. Bk vi. 4.

3 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxix.

Vireo — Upupa 1 7 5

I have never seen the Vireo in England, so far as I know,
but very often when in Germany. It is a little smaller than
the Turtur. It gives forth a note like that of the large pipe
which plays the bass part of a song. This bird suspends
its nest upon a branch at the top of a tree, and fashions it in
rounded form, that it should not afford access to any man or
beast.

OF THE UPUPA.

eTroxJr, upupa, in English a howpe, in German eyn houp or
eyn widhopff.

ARISTOTLE.

The Upupa builds its nest chiefly of human dung.
It changes its appearance in the summer season and in
winter, as very many other wild birds do. The Upupa
only of its kind builds not a nest, but entering the
trunks of trees lays eggs in cavities, without any
litter.

Nearly all British writers name that bird Upupa, which
from the noise of its wings foreigners call Vannellus, though
in their own tongue the former call it Lapwing. Yet their
gross error may be easily refuted on the authority of Pliny,
who thus writes of the Upupa.

The Upupa (he says) is a bird filthy otherwise as
to its food, but to be noticed for its folding crest,
which it contracts and then erects again along its
head.

These are his very words. And yet our scholars may be
well excused this their mistake, for nowhere in the whole
of Britain is the Upupa to be found (so far as I know),
though in Germany it is most plentiful. The bird is of the
bigness of a Thrush, with wings barred here and there with
brown, and marked with black and white feathers ; the crest
extends from the part of the bill which joins the head to the
extremity of the occiput, along the length, this it contracts

i 76 Upupa — Urinatrix — Vultur

aut dilatat, tit equus aures arrigit aut demit tit. tibijs
eft ualde breuibus, alts obtujioribus, & lente admodum
uolat.

[p. 144] DE VRINA TRICE.

Ko\vfjL/3pis, urinatrix, Angl. a douker, Germa. et)n
tucker.

ARISTOTELES1.

Alia degunt quidem in fluido, ui6lum(j$ inde
petunt, fed aerem no humore recipiunt, & foris
parere folent. Complura huius generis funt,
partim greffilia ut lutra, latax & crocodilus :
partim uolucres ut mergi & urinatrices.

Ariftoteles urinatricis unum tantiim genus comme-
morat, ego tamen tria urinatricum genera nidi. Horum
primum totum nigrum eft. & Jl cirrum, que in capite
gerit, exceperis, mergo, quo tamen triplo minor eft:
ccetera, quod ad corporis attinet effigie, non dijjimile eft.
& hoc genus nautce noftrates lounam nominant, alij
doukeram. Secnndum genus turdo non mains eft,
anati colore & corporis effigie Jlmile, et hoc Angli me-
diam urinatricem nuncupdt. Tertium genus adeo nuper
ab ouo exchifum refert anferculum, ut nifi roftrum
huius paulb tenuius effet, cegre alterum ab altero dif-
[p. 145] cerneres. Non enim pennas, Jed lanuginem quan-
dam, ear urn loco obtinet. Degunt h&c plerunque tria
genera in aquis ftagnantibus, aut fluuijs non ad-
modum rapidis, in quorum ripis arundines & carices
nafcuntur.

DE VVLTVRE.
Tvifr, uultur, Anglice a geir, Germanice e^n getyr.

ARISTOTELES 2.

Vultur nidificat in excelfiffimis rupibus :
unde fit ut raro nidus & pulli cernantur.

1 Hist. An. Bk I. 6, somewhat freely rendered,

2 Hist. An. Bk vi. 35,

Upupa — Urinatrix — Vultur 1 7 7

or spreads again according as it is disposed, as a horse pricks
or droops its ears. It has very short legs and rounded wings,
while it flies somewhat slowly.

OF THE URINATRIX.

Ko\v/j,{3i$, urinatrix, in English a douker, in German eyn
ducher.

ARISTOTLE.

But other animals in truth live in the water and
thence seek their food, yet they breathe air and not
moisture, and they are wont to breed out of the water.
Now there are many of this sort, in part going afoot,
as are the Lutra, Latax, and Crocodilus ; and in part
winged, as the Mergi and the Urinatrices.

Aristotle makes mention only of one kind of Urinatrix,
but I have observed three kinds of Urinatrices. Of these the
first is wholly black, and, except for the tuft it bears upon its
head, is not unlike the Mergus otherwise, so far as the
outline of its body goes, though it is one-third less in size.
This is the sort our sailors call the Loun, but others the Douker.
The second kind, no bigger than a Thrush, is like a Duck in
colour and in form of body; this the English call the middle
Urinatrix. The third kind, when it is but newly hatched,
recalls a Gosling, so that if its beak were not a little more
slender you could scarce discern the one bird from the other.
For it has no quills, but in place of these a sort of down.
These three kinds for the most part live on stagnant waters
or not very rapid rivers, on the banks of which grow reeds
and sedges.

OF THE VULTUR.
Tv-^r, vultur, in English a geir, in German eyn geyr.

ARISTOTLE.

The Vulture nests in very lofty rocks, and thus it
chances that the nest and young are rarely to be seen.

T. 12

1 78 Vitltiir

quocirca Herodotus Brifonis rhetoris pater, uul-
tures ex diuerfo orbe nobis incognito aduolare
putauit, argumeto quod nidum nemo uidiffet
uulturis, & quod multi exercitum fequetes,
repente appareant. Sed quanquam difficile
nidum eius alitis uideris : tamen uifus aliquan-
[p. 146] do eft. Pariunt uultures oua bina. Caetera,
quae carne uefcuntur, non plus quam femel anno
parere exploratum eft.

PLINIUS \

Vulturum praeualent nigri, nidos nemo atti-
git, ideo etiam fuere, qui putarent ex aduerfo
orbe aduolare falfo. Nidificant enim in excel -
fiffimis rupibus. Foetus quidem faepe cernuntur
fere bini. Vmbricius aurufpicu noftro aeuo
peritiffimus, parere tradit tria, uno ex his reli-
qua oua niducj* luftrare, moxcj? abijcere. Tri-
duo aut ante aut biduo uolare eos, ubi cadauera
futura funt.

Perperd Grammatici quidam uulture, gryphem no-
minant, itulturem & gryphem inepte confundentes. qimm
gryps fit a grypJien, animal ut creditor iiolatile &
qnadnipes.

1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. vi.

Vultur 179

Wherefore Herodotus, the father of the rhetorician
Briso, thought that Vultures winged it from some
other world unknown to us, his argument being that
nobody had ever seen a Vulture's nest, although a multi-
tude at once come into sight when following an army.
And yet, however difficult it be to see the nest of this
bird, still it has been seen at certain times. Vultures
lay two eggs each. Besides it is a well-known fact that
animals which feed on flesh do not breed more than
once a year.

PLINY.

Of Vultures the black are most plentiful. No one
has ever reached their nests and therefore there have
been some who erroneously thought that they flew
hither from another world. They really nest in very
lofty rocks. Indeed the offspring, generally twins,
are often seen. Umbricius, the most skilful augur
of our age, asserts that they lay three eggs, with
one of which they cleanse the others and purify the
nest, and afterwards throw it away. And that they
fly three or two days beforehand to a place where
carcases are likely to be found.

Quite wrongly certain scholars call the Vulture Gryps,
confounding foolishly the Vulture and the Gryps, since the
Gryps is a Gryphon, or an animal believed to be both winged
and quadruped.

12 — 2

[p. i47] AVIVM LOCI COMMVNES

ex Ariftotele.

CY Plinium, Ariftotele, Arijlophane aut quemctiq;
alinm idoneum fcriptorem te legere contingat,
locos huiufmodi comunes, quales exempli tantil gratia
fubijciam, in procinc~tu, libro infcriptos chartaceo ha-
bere expedit, nt ad eos aues omnes, de quibus apud iftos
legis, certo refer as, quod fi feceris, no dubito quin in
auiu cognitione multii-m breui Jis profeElurus.

Appendices habentes.

Olor, anfer, anas, gallinaceus, perdix, ciconia, afca-
laphus, tarda, noctua, paffer.

Ingluuies habentes.
Gallinaceus, palumbes, perdix & columbus.

Gulas tot as amp las kabentes.
Anfer, anas, gania, cataracJa, & tarda.

Gregales aues.
Olor, anfer minor, grits, & platea.

Frugibus uiclitantes.
Pahimbes, columbus, turtiir, & uinago.

[p. 148] Lacus frequentantes.

Ardeola, albardeola, ciconia, gauia cineria, iunco,
cinclus, trynga, calidris, & alcedones.

Mare frequentantes.

A Ice do, cam his, gauia alba, fulica, mergus, rupex
& caiaracla.

COMMON PLACES, REFERRING TO BIRDS,
FROM ARISTOTLE.

IF it should happen that you read Pliny, Aristotle, Aristo-
phanes, or any other suitable writer, it is fitting to have
ready for use such Common Places of this kind as I will add
for the sake of example only, written in a note-book, that
you may with certainty refer to all those birds, of which you
read in their pages. And if you do this, I doubt not that in
a short time you will make great progress in the knowledge
of birds.

Those having appendices^.

Olor, anser, anas, gallinaceus, perdix, ciconia, ascalaphus,
tarda, noctua, passer.

Those having craws.
Gallinaceus, palumbes, perdix, and columbus.

Those having wide gullets.
Anser, anas, gavia, cataracta, and tarda.

Gregarious birds.
Olor, the smaller anser, grus, and platea.

Those living on crops.
Palumbes, columbus, turtur, and vinago.

Those frequenting lakes.

Ardeola, albardeola, ciconia, the grey gavia, junco, cinclus,
trynga, calidris, and alcedones.

Those frequenting the sea.

Alcedo, carulus2, the white gavia, fulica, mergus, rupex3,
and cataracta.

1 That is cceca or blind-guts.

2 Kvavos. 3 Perhaps

1 82 Loci communes

Annies & lacus frequentantes.
Olor, anas, phalaris^ urinatrix, bofca, coruus pal-
mipes, uterque anfer, uulpanfer, capella, penelops, aquila
marina.

Spinas appetentes.
Spinus, carduelis, & auriuittis.

Culicibns niElitantes.
Pici Martij, galgulus, culicilega.

Vermibus aut ex toto aut magna ex parte

uifclitantes.

Fringilla, paffer, rubetra, luteola, & part onines,
ficedula, atricapilla, rubicilla, rubecula, fyltiia, arnica,
afylus, florus, montifringilla, regulus & frugilega.

Plures locos cuique licebit huius modi
excogitare.

Common places 183

Those frequenting' rivers and lakes.

Olor, anas, phalaris, urinatrix, bosca, the web-footed
corvus, either kind of anser, vulpanser, capella, penelops,
the sea aquila.

Those feeding on thistles.
Spinus, carduelis, and aurivittis.

Those feeding on insects.
Pici martii, galgulus, culicilega.

Those feeding" on worms^ either wJiolly, or for the
most part.

Fringilla, passer, rubetra, luteola, and all the pari, ficedula,
atricapilla, rubicilla, rubecula, sylvia, curuca, asylus, florus,
montifringilla, regulus, and frugilega.

Any one may devise more Places of this sort.

[p. ,49] PERORATIO AD LECTOREM.

N

ON deerunt forfan, qui mihi hoc uicio
uerfuri funt, quod libellus ifte meus
coniefturarum multo plus quam certarum ad-
fertionum in fe contineat : quibus refpondeo, in
re ardua, & nondum fatis explorata mihi con-
fultius & modeftius uideri, hefitanter & modefte
conieclando ueftigare, & ita inquirere, quam
temere & impudenter de rebus incompertis pro-
nunciare. Quod autem de moribus & medicinis
auium nihil hie fcripferim, in caufa fuerunt,
temporis anni infcelicitas, & anguftia (breuiori
enim fpacio quam duobus meniibus totus liber
[p. 150] confcriptus eft) & pecuniae copia minor, quam
qua? huiufmodi negocio abfoluendo fufficeret.
Nam quis fine magna pecuniae ui in longinquas
regiones proficifci poteft, peregrinarum auium
formas & mores contemplaturus, & illic diu ea
de caufa manfurus ? Quis familia aut uoca-
tione fua, aut alijs negocijs foras prodire pro-
hibitus, fine maximis impenfis omnia auium
genera ab aucupibus ad fe ex uarijs mudi plagis
allata, curare poterit ? et ia allata, quo mores
ad plenum perueftiget, in uiuarijs & caueis fine
maximis fumptibus alere quis sufficiet ? Hoc

PERORATION TO THE READER.

' I ^HERE perhaps will not be wanting those who
J_ will attribute this to me as a fault, that this little
book of mine contains within it many more conjectures
than sure statements : to whom I reply, that it seemed
to me much more prudent and becoming on a subject
that is difficult and not yet sufficiently explored to
tread doubtingly and modestly by conjecture, and so to
enquire, than to pronounce rashly and immodestly on
things undetermined. Moreover that I have written
nothing here of the habits and medicinal nature of
birds, I have for reasons the unsuitability of the time
of year and its brief span (for the whole book was
written in a space of less than two months) and a
supply of money too slender to suffice for the per-
fection of a work of that kind. For who without great
command of money can set off for distant regions,
to observe the forms and habits of foreign birds, and
there to stay a long time for that purpose ? Who,
hindered by his household or his calling or other
business from going abroad could without vast expense
give heed to all the kinds of birds brought to him
by fowlers from the various quarters of the world ?
and when brought, who would be capable without
vast expense of keeping them in vivaria and cages,
that he might investigate their habits to the full ?

1 86 Peroratio

Alexander ille omnium ethnicorum regum po-
tentia, bellica gloria, & literarum ftudio maxi-
mus & nobiliffimus fecu animo perpendens,

[p. 151] Ariftotelem iam de animalibus fcripturu, quern
priuatis fumptibus negocium illud abfoluere non
• potuiffe cognouerat, ad conducendos aucupes,
& uenatores, & ad alenda in uiuarijs animalia iam
capta, 480 milibus coronatorum donauit, & ita
inftruxit. Talis fi hodie alicubi Alexander ex-
ifteret, non dubitarem quin nouus nobis Arifto-
teles alicunde renafceretur, qui prioris illius
Ariftotelis animalia omnia, paucis exceptis, no
folum nobis cum moribus medicis fuis facultati-
bus, & huius teporis nominibus exhiberet, fed
& multa plura animalia qua prior, & humano
generi non minus utilia nos doceret. Quod
igitur Ariftoteles de tarn multis animantibus

[p. 152] ta foeliciter fcripferit, Alexadri potius liberali-
tati quam Ariflotel. diligentie tribuendum erat :
quamuis et ea fummopere laudada erat. Nam
fi Alexandri munificentia Arifhoteli animalia ilia
fpeclanda no exhibuiffet, hiftoriarn animalium
nobis tarn abfolutam nunquam aedidiffet. Mirari
igitur defmant fcriptorum huius temporis ociofi
cefores, frigidius, indoftius, & minori cum dili-
getia ftirpium, auium, pifcium & quadrupedum
hiftorias hac aetate cofcribi, quam apud feculum
prius traclabantur. Quum hodie quicquid pre-
clari in lucem emittitur, priuatis tenuioris fortu-
nae iludioforu uirorum fumptibus & typographo-
rum impenfis edatur. Sed ad te iam redeo,
candidiffime lector, quern etiam atq* etiam ob-

[p- !53] teftor, ut fi qua tibi fefe peregrina facie offerat

Peroration 187

The well-known Alexander, the greatest and most
renowned of all kings of the nations in power, war-
like glory, and zeal for learning, weighing this in his
mind, presented Aristotle with 480,000 crowns, when
he was about to write on animals, since he knew that
the philosopher could not carry out that task with
his private means, for the purpose of hiring fowlers
and huaters, and for keeping in vivaria the animals
which had been already caught, and provided to that*
end. If such an Alexander existed anywhere to-day,
I should not doubt that a new Aristotle would be born
again for us from somewhere, who not only would
display to us all the animals, with few exceptions, of
that former Aristotle, with their habits, their medicinal
properties, and their latter-day names, but would in-
form us of many more animals than the former, and
those not less useful to the human race. That Aristotle
therefore wrote so happily about so many living
creatures is to be put down rather to the liberality
of Alexander than to the diligence of Aristotle :
though that too must be praised without stint. For if
the bounty of Alexander had not supplied to Aristotle
those animals to be examined, he never would have
published so complete a History of Animals for us.
Therefore let the ease-loving critics of the present
day cease to wonder that the histories of plants,
birds, fishes, and quadrupeds are written in this age
with less spirit, less learning, and less diligence than
that with which they were treated in a former age.
To-day whatever of value is brought to light is
published at the private expense of very zealous men
of slender fortunes and printers. But now I return
to you, most ingenuous reader, and beseech you once
and again that, if any bird of foreign aspect meet

1 88 Peroratio

auis, paucis mihi illam, addito nomine gentis tuae,

depingere non dedigneris, & mihi & omnium

bonaru literarum ftudiofis fcies te magnopere

gratificaturum, nam nee facti in fecunda huius

libri editione ero immemor, nee quicqua, quod ad

hoc difciplinae genus pertinet,

mihi exploratum, te celabo.

Vale. Coloniae Calend.

Martijs.

Peroration 1 89

your eye, you will not disdain to depict it for me in
a few words, with the addition of the name of your
family, and you will know that you will greatly gratify
both me and those who are zealous of all good
learning, for I shall be neither unmindful of the act
in a second edition of this book, nor conceal from
you anything, which pertains to this kind of teaching,
and is found out by me.

Farewell. At Cullen. Ist March.

[p. 154] AABEPTO2 'O TEAPTETS

TO) rijs fflpXov o-Trovbaiw dvayvcDcrrr)

ei

TOVTO TTOirj/jia /3pa%v rd^ dvdyvaycrov aye.
OfSet9 ear* dtcpiffcos irepl TOVTCOV ypd^jrev larpwis,
Pierre /3Xe7ret9 rfj $ ev Trdvra ypatyevra /3i/3\q>.
Tov ovv (rTrovSalov Tovpvrjpov rbv TTOVOV OVTOV
: TOVTOV KOI ttTroXave

vAXXo.

vayvcoar
BouXei? Tovpvtfpov rrjv J3i(3\ov wveeo.

Tola jap OVK Zarpwv /jurj&els Trplv eypd^fraro 7rdvr(oi>,
Ei/ /3i{3\iw TOVTM, Trola BoOevra

Et ap* a/3/oo)9 re cra^w?, r^

Bif3\ov dvbdvei, tclvee Sevpo TTO&OV.

Aliud eiufdem ad candidum leclorem.

Accipe quce dofti medici tibi cura parauit
:55] Turneri, notas quifquis atiebis aues.

Has tibi tarn uarijs manus ingeniofa figuris

ExpreJJit, nojfe ut quainlibet inde qtieas.
Ne quoque non poffes has pernouiffe, Latinas,

Anglas, Teutonicas, Argolicasq; facit.

Liber ad leElorem.

Quifquis aues uarias de nomine deq-, fig^iris
Noffc cupis lector, me lege, dottus eris.

Nee dabo, crede mihi, tibi munera parua laboris
Nam nolucrum res eft maxima fcire genus.

Ad Lee tor em 191

Crebrb Grdmatici hie haret, flat /caxfrd

Nee facit officio ftultula turba fatis.
Hie ipfos medicos errare miferrima res eft,

Quos deeet h&c animis nota tenere fids.
Sen, Maro fit pueris, feu Nafo poeta legendus,

Sen fucrint quczuis fcripta legenda tibi :
Difpeream, Jl non multb tibi maximus error

Occurret pajfim, ni bene nor is aues.
Autonim nimiam placet hand pofuiffe cateruam.

Vt tibi, quce teneo, noftra probare queam.
Pliniiis hie ille eft, & Ariftoteles, reliquiq-,,

Qiiotquot de uolucrum nos ratione docent.
Hoc f do, Turneri miraberis ipfe laborem, [p. 156]

Doclrinain, fummam cum pietate fidem.

En tibi, quos doc~li dedit hie pia cura labores
Turneri medici, candide lector habe.

Innenies minium quce te didicijfe iuuabit,
Hinc uenient fructus in tua uota boni.

FINIS.

APPENDIX.

EXCERPTA EX OPERE IOANNIS CAII BRI-
TANNI DE RARIORUM ANIMALIUM ATQUE
STIRPIUM HISTORIA, fol. 17—23.

De Haliaeto.

De Auibus. T T ALIAETOS, id genus aquilae eft, quod ex mari
•1 A lacubus^ pr^dam qu^rit, vnde nomen inuenit.
Is magnitudine Milui eft, capite albis & fufcis distinclo
ff 7 b] lineis, vt melino : roftro aquilino : oculis in medio
nigris, in ambitu aureis : lingua fere humana, nifi
quod ad radicem vtrin^ habet appendicem : "colore
per fumma afturis, per ima albo: gutture maculis
notato ruffis vt & ventre, pectore medio pure candido:
crure craffo & fquamofo : pede vncungui & c^ruleo :
digitis quatuor, per fuperna ad dimidiam longitudi-
nem etiam fquamofis, ad reliquam incifis, per inferna
afperis & aculeatis tenacitatis caufa: & his tarn validis,
vt flexos vix vlla vi extendas. Predator is eftpifcium,
difcufsis decidentis corporis impetu aquis, ex eisque
viuit. Et quamuis ex pifce viuat, fidipes tamen eft
vtroque pede, non altero palmipes, vt vulgus putat.
Giraldus Cambrenfis libro de Topographia Hiberniae,
vbi de auibus biformibus agit, hunc Aurifrifm vocat:
& altero pede aperto & vnguibus armato effe, altero
claufo cum vulgo fcribit. Supra magnitudinem cor-
poris alae longitude eft, quse ad pedes Romanos duos
& digitos vndecim extenditur. Inoleuit opinio iftic
apud noftrum vulgus in Britannia, earn ineffe vim
naturalem huic aui, vt quern confpexerit pifcem, eum
fe quam mox refupinare & conuertere, atque ad fum-

APPENDIX.

EXTRACTS FROM THE WORK OF JOHN CAIUS
<DE RARIORUM ANIMALIUM ATQUE STIRPIUM
HISTORIA' (1570).

OF THE SEA EAGLE.

THE Haliaetos is that kind of Eagle, which seeks its prey
from the sea and lakes, whence it takes its name. It is
of the size of a Kite, having the head marked with white and
dusky lines, as in a badger; an Eagle's beak; eyes black in
the middle, golden in the outer circle ; a tongue almost like
that of man, except that at the root it has an appendage on
either side; the colour above that of a Goshawk, white below;
the throat marked with rufous spots, as is the belly; the
middle of the breast pure white ; the legs thick and scaly;
the foot with curved claws and blue ; four toes scaly above
for quite half of their length, fissured for the rest, rough on
the lower part and sharp for a firm hold ; and these so strong
that you can scarcely straighten them by any force when
bent. This bird is a preyer upon fishes, the water being cleft
by the shock of its body as it plunges, and on them it lives.
And though it lives on fishes, yet it is cloven on each foot,
not webbed on one as the vulgar think. Giraldus Cambrensis
in his book on the Topography of Ireland, when he treats of
unequally formed birds, calls this the Aurifrisius1; and writes
in common with the vulgar that it has one foot free-toed and
armed with claws, the other closed (with webs). The length
of the wing surpasses that of the body, for it extends to two
Roman feet and eleven inches. In this affair an opinion has
grown up among our common people in Britain, that such a
natural power exists in this bird that any fish which it sees turns
upwards on its back as soon as possible and rises to the surface

1 Aurifrisius must be the Latinized form of the old French name
'Orfraie' — which, like Osprey, is a corruption of Ossifraga.

T. 13

1 94 Appendix

mam aquam afcendere, in eaque fluitare vt fopitum,
quo facilior pr^da fit volanti. Ideo^ eius adeps stu-
diofius afferuatur a noftris pifcatoribus, quod eandem
vim habere creditur. Frequentes funt apud nos in
maritimis locis & Vecli infula. Noftri an Ofprey
vocant. Moribus placidus eft & traclabilis, & famis
[f. 1 8] patientifsimus. Vixit enim feptem dies apud me fine
cibo, & in alta quiete : nifi fi hoc non mos fecit fed
fames, quae omnia domat. Carnem oblatam recufauit:
pifcem non obtuli, quod eum ex hoc vitiere didici.
Caro illi nigra eft.

De anfere Brendino.

Anfer Brendinus, auis eft marina, palmipes, figura
anferis, fed magnitudine paulo infra, capite albo
exiguo & curto, fed roftro nigro, a quo linea nigra ad
oculum vtrumque ducitur, collo fufco, a peclore ad
caudam ex dimidio corpore inferiori albo, coxendice
munno (vt eft Columbae vulgaris color aut gruis)
ex fuperiori, ad collum fufco, vt & ad caudam medio
inter vtrumq,, murino : alis item murinis, cum cauda
longitudine paribus, fed pennis ad extremum obfuf-
catis. Cauda nigra eft ex albo enata, pede nigro &
palmato. Gregalis auis eft & garrula. Ex pifce
vi;uit, frequens apud nos per littora in Britannia.
Vulgus Britannorum quod ad littus habitat a colons
varietate a Brendgofe nominat. Ornithopolae Lon-
dinenfes Bernaclum vocant, cum dicendum putem
Berndclacum feu Brendclacum, quod antiqui Britanni
atque item Scoti, anferes marines, paluftres & la-
cuftres omnes Clakes dicebant, cum tamen hodie
corrupte dicimus Fenlakes & Fenlagges, cum di-
cendum fuit Fenclakes. Varium item colorem, Brend,
feu per metathefim Bernd ijdem appellabant. Vnde
[f. i8b] bernded feu brended id animal dicitur, quod in colore
murino variegatum eft albo, vt eft hie anfer. Non eft

Appendix 195

of the water, and therein floats as if stunned, in order that it
may more readily become a prey to the winged creature.
And therefore is its fat preserved with greater keenness by
our fishermen because it is believed to have the same virtue.
They are abundant with us on sea-coasts and in the Isle
of Wight. Our people call it an Osprey. In its habits it is
quiet and amenable, and most patient of hunger. For it has
lived with me for seven days without food, in deep repose;
unless indeed it was not habit that caused this, but hunger,
which tames all things. It refused flesh when offered to it;
I did not offer fish, because I understood that it lived on it.
Its flesh is dark.

OF THE BRENT GOOSE.

The Brent Goose is a web-footed sea-bird, of the appear-
ance of a Goose, but a little less in size, with the head small
and short and white, but the beak black, from which a black
line reaches to either eye ; the neck dusky, the lower half of
the body from the breast to the tail white ; the flank mouse-
coloured above (like the colour of a common Pigeon or
Crane), dusky towards the neck, and also the intermediate
parts towards the tail mouse-coloured ; the wings also mouse-
coloured, equal in length to the tail, but with the feathers
darkened at the tip. The tail is black from a white base, the
foot black and webbed. It is a gregarious and noisy bird.
It lives on fish, and is common with us in Britain about the
coasts. The common people of the Britons who live on the
coast, name it a Brendgose from the varied nature of its
colouring. The London bird-dealers call it Bernacle, yet I
should think that it ought to be named Berndclac or
Brendclac, because the Britons of old, as also the Scots,
called all the Geese whether of the sea, marshes or lakes
" Clakes," though at the present day we corruptly say Fen-
lakes and Fenlagges \ when we should say Fenclakes. The
same people, moreover, call anything variegated Brend or
by metathesis Bernd. Whence ' an animal is said to be
bernded or brended which is variegated with white upon
a mouse-coloured ground 2, like this Goose. It is not, there-

1 According to this notion * Grey-Lag ' would be for ' Grey-Clak.'

2 Possibly, then, 'Bergander' is for ' Bernd-gander.'

13—2

1 96 Appendix

Anfer ergo Scotorum Baffanus anfer, qui in Baffe Scotorum

Baffanus. Infula nidum ponit atq, oua, a qua nomen habet. In
hanc infula rupem exiftentem, nee in fummo quantam
Miluus oberret (vt Poeta dixit) fed exiguam, venturi
ftato anni tempore anferes, quo prius fpeculatu, qua
obferuatione pr^mifsis nuntijs vtantur quam ingredi-
untur : quo anni tempore hoc faciant, qua folitudine
infulae, concludentibus fe incolis ad aliquot dies,
donee fe firmauerint anferes, ne abigant, quanta
multitudine atq,, denfitate inuolent, fie vt in ferenitate
folem adimant, quot pifces afferant, quot oua pan-
ant, & quantos fructus in annos ex eis anferumck
plumis atty oleo percipiant infulani (nam Pupino-
rum pinguedinem habent atc^ guftu) longum effet
recenfere.

De Anate Indica.

Eft apud nos ex India anas, eadem plane corporis
figura, eodem roftro & pede quo vulgaris, fed ex
dimidio maior ea & grauior. Caput illi rubefcit vt
fanguis, & bona pars coniuncti colli a pofteriore parte.
Id totum callofa caro eft, & incifuris diftincla : quaq>
ad nares finit, carunculam demittit a reliqua came
figura feparatam, qualis cygnis eft, roftro coniun6lam.
Nudum plumis caput eft, & ea quoque colli pars quae
rubefcit, nifi quod in fummo capite crifta eft plumea
atque Candida, per totam capitis longitudinem pro-
[f. 19] ten fa : quam, cum excandefcit, erigit. Sub oculis ad
roftri initium per inferna, inordinate maculae nigrae
carni funt induclae : & vna at^ altera a fummo oculo
ad fuperna eleuate. Oculus flauefcit, feparatus a
reliquo capite circulo nigro. Sub extreme oculo in
auerfum macula eft fmgularis, feparata a ceteris.
Roftrum totum eft cceruleum, nifi quod in extreme
macula nigrefcit vna. Pluma illi per totum colli
proceffum reliquum, alba. Qua corpori collum iugi-
tur, circulus eft plumeus niger, rara pluma alba, ma-
culofus & in^qualis, per ima anguftior, per fumma
latior. Poft eum per totum imum ventrem pluma

Appendix 197

fore, the Bass Goose of the Scots, which has its nest
and eggs on the Bass, a Scottish Isle, and thence takes its
name. Now when at a certain season of the year the
Geese are about to return to this precipitous island rock —
not so big on the top as a Kite could hover over (as the
Poet has said), but very small — it would be too long to
recount what spying, what circumspection (scouts having been
sent ahead) they use before they alight : at what time of year
they do this, the solitary state of the isle, when the inhabit-
ants shut themselves up for several days, until the Geese
have settled down, lest they should drive them off, in what
numbers and in what a throng they fly to it, so that in clear
weather they obscure the sun, how many fishes they bring
home, how many eggs they lay, and what profit the dwellers
in the isle make annually from the feathers and the oil of these
Geese (for they possess the fatness and the taste of Pupins).

OF THE INDIAN DUCK.

There is among us, a Duck from India, with exactly the
same form of body, the same beak and foot as the common
bird, but bigger by half and heavier. Its head is red as
blood, as is a good part of the adjoining neck behind. The
whole of this is callous flesh and marked with fissures : and
where it ends at the nostrils it makes a caruncle like that in
Swans, separated in form from the rest of the flesh, which
joins the beak. The head and red part of the neck are
devoid of feathers, save that on the top of the head is a white
feathery crest, extending over the whole length of the head ;
and this the bird erects, when it is excited. Under the eyes
to the beginning of the beak at its lower part irregular black
spots are arranged on the flesh : and one or two reach upward
from the top of the eye to the parts above. The eye is
yellowish, b'eing separated by a black ring from the rest of
the head. Close behind the eye is a solitary mark, apart
from the rest. The whole beak is blue save that at the tip
one spot shews black. The plumage over all the rest of the
neck is white. Where the neck joins the body, there is a
ring of black feathers spotted and irregular — with an occa-
sional white one — narrower below, broader above. Behind
this the plumage is white over the whole of the belly below:

1 98 Appendix

alba eft : per fummum corpus, fufca, fed ab circulo
illo nigro pluma alba in fummo diuifa. Extremae alae
atque cauda cum fplendore virefcunt, vt Cantharides.
Tibiarum cutis fufca eft, incifuris leuibus per circuitus
du6la. Membrana per interualla digitorum pedis
pallefcit magis, vna atque altera refperfa macula fufca,
incerta lege difpofita, nifi in interuallo finiftri pedis,
vbi fex per digiti extremi longitudine difponuntur.
Tardo gradu incedit propter corporis grauitatem.
Vox illi non qualis c^teris anatibus, fed rauca, qualis
faucibus humanis catarrho obfefsis. Mas maior eft
quam fcemina. Ea fimilis mari eft, nifi quod non ita
variegato corporis colore eft. Viuit ex ccenofis aquis,
& alijs quibus cetera vulgaris anas gaudet.

[f. i9b] De Anate Turcica fine Indica altera.

Anati quidem fimilis eft quae Turcica fiue Indica
dicitur, fed quantitate & magnitudine corporis anfe-
rem fere diceres. Tota eft Candida, nifi quod roftrum,
tibiae, atque pedes rubent, genaeq., item callofa carne,
& roftri tuber fupra nares. Caro illi dulcis eft, & vox
fibilus. Sunt eius generis qu^dam, colore albo &
nigro variegatae. In aqua viuit, locisq^ gaudet cce-
nofis vt c£terae anates.

De Pica marina.

Pica marina (vt noftrum vulgus nominat) paulo
maior eft terreftri, colons quidem varietate in corpore
fimilis, fed colore pedis, digitorum numero, incifuris,
cauda atque roftro admodum difsimilis. Nam pes
rubet, & digito pofteriori deftituitur, nee incifuras
habet is & tibia, fed imprefsiones quafda, pifcium
fquamis quam fimillimas. Fiffus eft, fed ita in digitis
vtrinq, luxuriat cutis, quemadmodu in fulicis pene, vt
ad natandu quoque pes fa6lus videatur. Auis eft
Amphibios. Caudam curtam habet, roftrum longum
tenue, perpendiculariter latum, non teres, colore

Appendix 1 99

and dusky over the upper surface of the body, but the white
feathering above is divided by the black ring. The ends of
the wings and the tail have a greenish gloss as in Cantharides.
The skin of the legs is dusky, marked all round with slight
fissures. The web in the spaces between the toes is paler,
marked now and again with a dusky spot, arranged in no
precise plan, except in those of the left foot, where six are
distributed over the length of the outer toe. The bird moves
with slow step on account of the weight of its body. Its
voice is not like that of other Ducks, but hoarse; such (as
comes) from the human throat when attacked by a catarrh.
The male is larger than the female. She is like the male,
save that she has not so varied a colouring of body. The
bird gets its living from muddy waters, and those others
wherein the other common Duck delights.

OF THE TURKISH OR SECOND INDIAN DUCK.

That which is called the Turkish or Indian is like a Duck,
but (judging) from the bulk and bigness of its body you
would almost call it a Goose. It is entirely white, except
that the beak, legs and feet are red, while the cheeks also
have callous skin, and there is a protuberance on the beak
above the nostrils. Its flesh is sweet, and its voice whistling.
There are some of this kind variegated with black and white.
It lives upon the water, and delights in muddy places, as do
other Ducks.

OF THE SEA PIE.

The Sea Pie (as our common people call it) is a little
larger than the land Pie, yet like it in the varied colour of its
body, while very dissimilar in the colour of the foot, the
number of toes, their scutellations, the tail and the beak. For
the foot is red and lacks a hind toe, nor has that member or
the tibia scutellations, but merely marks, as like as may be to
the scales of fishes. It is cloven-footed, but there is such an
extent of skin on the toes on each side — almost as much as
in Coots — that the foot would even seem to be formed for
swimming. It is an amphibious bird. It has a short tail,
a beak long and thin, vertically broad, not smooth, in colour

2oo Appendix

in fummo ad caput rubrum, per reliquum pallidum,
nee eft in fine acutum, fed obtufum id. In menfa
grata auis eft.

De gallina Getula domejlica.

Gallina Getula domeftica, paulo minor noftra eft,
[f. 20] colore in fupernis obfcure ruffa, in infernis pallida,
pluma capitis incompofita & erecta, crifta ferrata,
humili, fimplici, carnea : gutturofa magis perpetuo,
quam noftrae cum glociunt : tibijs pedibusque plumo-
fis, maxime per exteriora & pofleriora vt columbis,
ne per interiores plumas greffus impedirentur: cetera
vt vulgaris.

De Meleagride.

Meleagris pulcherrima auis eft, magnitudine cor-
poris, figura, roftro, & pede Phafiano fimilis : vertice
corneo, in apicem corneum a pofteriori parte pr£-
cipitem, in anteriori leniter accliuem eleuato, armatus.
Eum natura voluiffe videtur inferiori capitis parti
tribus veluti lacinijs fe promittentibus committere
atque deligare : inter oculum & aurem vtrinque vna,
& in fronte media item vna: omnibus eiufdem cum
vertice colons: ita vt infideat capiti eo modo, quo
ducalis pileus illuftrifsimo duci Veneto, fi quod iam
aduerfum eft, auerfum fieret. Rugofus is eft: inferius,
per circuitum : qua fe attolit, in directum. In fummo
collo ad occipitium nafcuntur erecli quidam atque
nigri pili (non plumse) in contrarium verfi. Oculi
toti nigri, aeque & in orbem palpebrse atty cilia, fi
maculam in fumma & pofteriori parte fupercilij vtri-
ufque demas. Imum caput per longitudinem vtrin-
que caro quidam callofa colore fanguineo occupat,
quae ne propendeat veluti Galli gallinacei palea1, vt
[f. 20 b] replicaretur natura voluit, & auerfo duclu in duos
proceffus acutos a capite liberos finiret. Ex hac
carne attollunt fe vtrinque carunculae, quibus nares in
ambitu veftiuntur, & caput in anteriori parte a ce/tero
roftro pallido feparatur. Haru ad roftrum margines
inferiores, replicantur etiam leuiter fub vtroque nare.
1 Possibly 'palea' is a misprint for 'galea,' comb.

Appendix 201

red on the top near the head, pale on the remainder, nor is it
sharp at the end, but blunt. It is an acceptable bird for the
table.

OF THE DOMESTIC GETULIAN HEN.
The domestic Getulian Hen, is a little smaller than our
own, in colour dull rufous above, pale below, with an erect
crest of disintegrated feathers on the head, a serrated comb,
low, simple and fleshy: more continuously noisy than ours
are, when they cluck: with the legs and feet feathered, for
the most part outwardly and behind as in Doves, that the
progress should not be hindered by feathers on the inside,
otherwise it is like the common kind.

OF THE MELEAGRIS.

The Meleagris is a very beautiful bird, like to a Pheasant
in bigness of body, form, beak and foot: provided with a
horny poll rising to an abrupt horny peak at the back, which
slopes down gently in front. Nature seems to have designed
to join and bind this to the lower part of the head by three
hanging lappets as it were; one on each side between the eye
and the ear, and also one on the middle of the forehead, all of
the same colour as the poll, so that it sits on the head in the
same way that the ducal cap does on that of the most noble
Duke of Venice, if that part which is usually in front be
turned behind. It is wrinkled round about below, but verti-
cally where it rises above. From the top of the neck to the
occiput spring certain erect black bristles (not feathers),
turned backwards. The eyes are wholly black, and equally
so are the eyelids and eyelashes around them, if you except
a mark on the top and back of each eyebrow. A kind of
callous flesh of a blood-red colour covers the lower part of the
head along its length ; nature has designed that it should be
folded, and should not hang forward like the wattle of the
Fowl, and being led backward end in two acute processes
free from the head. From this flesh rise on either side
caruncles, by which the nostrils are clothed round about, and
by which the head is divided in front from the rest of the
pale-coloured beak. The lower edges of these by the beak
are also folded slightly under each nostril. What intervenes

2O2 - Appendix

Quod inter verticem & carnem eft a dextra & finiftra
parte, album deplume eft, leui cceruleo mixtum.
Color verticis atque apicis, idem prorfus eft cu colore
daclyli. Tibiae nigrae funt, & in anteriori parte, fqua-
mofa incifura duplici notatae: in pofteriori nulla, fed
leues, & veluti pun6lis quibufdam fui colons refperfae.
Color illi fub faucibus exquifite eft purpureus : in
collo obfcure purpureus : in c^tero corpore per fumma
contuenti, qualis confurgit fi album & nigrum polli-
nem 'vtcunque tenuiter tritum, colori fufco rarius
afpergas, nee tamen commifceas. Tali colori maculae
albae ouales aut rotundae per totum corpus ineffe
vifuntur, per fumma minores, per ima maiores, com-
prehenfae interuallis linearum (vt apparet in plu-
marum compofitione naturali) quae fe mutuo inter-
fecant obliquo hinc inde du6lu, per fumma tantum
corporis, non item per ima. Id non ex toto corpore
folum deprehendes, fed ex fingulis auulfis plumis.
Superiores enim, obliquis lineis fe mutuo interfecan-
tibus, aut, fi mauis, orbiculis quibufdam ex albo &
nigro (vt dixi) polline confeclis, & per extremitates
coniunclis, vt in fauis aut rhetibus, maculas ouales aut
[f. 2 1] rotundas albas in fpacijs fufcis comprehendunt : in-
feriores non item. Vtr^q., tamen fimili lege pofitae
funt. Nam in alijs plumis, ordine ita iunclae funt, vt
fere triangulos acutos faciant : in alijs, vt oualem
figura repre/entent. Huius generis ordines tres aut
quatuor in fmgulis fuis plumis funt, ita vt minores in
maioru complexu reponantur. In extremis alis & in
cauda, reclis lineis ^quidiftantibus procedunt per
longitudinem maculae. Inter gallum & gallinam vix
difcernes, tanta eft fimilitudo, nifi quod gallinae caput
totum nigrum eft. Vox illi eft diuifus fibilus, non
fonorior, non maior voce coturnicis, fed fimilior voci
perdicis, nifi quod fubmifsior ea eft, nee ita clara.
Curfu velox eft.

De Morinello.

Morinellus, auis nobis cum Morinis communis,
ftulta admodum eft, fed in cibis delicata, eoque aptid

Appendix 203

between the poll and the flesh on the right and left is white
and unfeathered, mixed with light blue. The colour of the
poll and peak of the head is exactly the same as that of the
toes. The legs are black, marked in front with a double scaly
fissure, on the back with none, but smooth, and sprinkled
as it were with some spots, of a peculiar colour. The colour
below the jaws is exquisite purple ; on the neck dark purple ;
on the rest of the body, if you look from above, it stands out
as if you sprinkled black and white flour, ground very fine with
dusky colour at intervals, and yet did not mix them up. On
such a ground oval or round white spots seem to be imposed
throughout the whole body, smaller above and larger below,
arranged in lines at intervals (as appears in the natural
structure of feathers) which cut one another here and there in
reciprocal oblique arrangement, only on the top of the body,
however, and not below. This you will observe not only
from the body as a whole, but from individual feathers if
plucked out. For the upper feathers, with their oblique lines
cutting one another reciprocally, or, if you will it, with certain
rounds composed of black and white flour (as I have said),
and meeting towards the tips, as in honey-combs or nets,
enclose oval or round white spots within dusky spaces : but
the lower do not. Both, however, are arranged by a similar
law, for on some feathers they are so joined in rows as to
almost make acute triangles ; in others so as to present an
oval form. Of this kind there are three or four rows on each
feather, so that the smaller are contained in the compass of
the larger. At the tips of the wings and on the tail, spots
lie along the length in equidistant straight lines. You can
hardly distinguish between the cock and the hen, so great
is the likeness, save that the head of the hen is wholly black.
The voice is a shrill double cry, not more sonorous or louder
than that of the Quail, but like that of the Partridge, except that
the latter is lower, and not so clear. In running it is swift.

OF THE MORINELLUS.

The Morinellus, a bird common to us and the Morini1,
is very foolish, but delicate to eat, and on that account is a

1-The people of a district in Northern France.

2O4 Appendix

nos in fummis delitijs atque pretio eft. Imitatrix
auis eft. Ideo, vt Scops & Otus faltandi imitatione,
ita h?c no6lu ad lumen, candelae pro capientis geftu
capitur. Nam fi is expandit brachium, extendit &
ilia alam : fi is tibiam, & ilia itidem. Breuiter quic-
quid gerit auceps, idem facit & ales. Ita humanis
geftibus intenta auis, ab aucipe decipitur, & rhete
obuelatur. Auis parua eft, magnitudine Sturni, tribus
tantum digitis anterioribus, pofteriori nullo, vertice
nigro, genis candidis, coturnicis fere colore, fi cinericei
[f. 21 b] parum admifceas, potifsimum circa collum. Mori-
nellum voco duplici de caufa, & quod auis eft apud
Morinos frequetifsima, & quod auis ftolida eft, quae
ftultitia gr^cis /jucoporr)^ dicitur. Earn ob rem noftri
etiam Doterellu vocant, quafi ftultitia delirantem
dicant.

De Puphino Jlue Pupino.

Eft auis qu^dam marina noftras, parui anatis
(quam /36o-/ca$a Gr^ci vocant) magnitudine & figura
corporis, pedibus palmatis & rubefcentibus, ad pofte-
riora magis pofitis quam ceteris palmipedibus exceptis
pygofcelibus : roftro tenuiore magis latitudine fe de-
mittente, quam longiore proceffu fe extendente, qua-
tuor incifuris rubris a fumma, duabus ab ima parte
fulcato, in colore pallentis ochrae. Quod inter has &
caput eft, fubcceruleum eft, & ea figura qua luna eft,
cum exa6li dies decem funt a coitu. Per fumma cor-
poris totius nigrefcit, nifi qua oculi vfunt, qui in albo
conftituti funt: per ima exalbefcit tota, nifi fummo
pe6lore, qua nigricat. Viuit ex mari. Hunc noftri
Puphinum dicunt, nos Pupinum a naturali voce pupin.
Latitat in cauernis, vt charadrius. Earn ob rem
edu6la e cuniculi cauea auis he;c eft, loco non procul
a mari pofito, a venatore quodam immiffa viuerra.
In pifcis vfu apud nos eft in folenni ieiunio per
[f. 22] quadragefimam : carne & guftu, Phocae marinae haud
difsimilis. Gregale animal eft, & fua habet latitandi
tempora, vt Cuculus & Hyrundo. Oua parit in terrae

Appendix 205

very great luxury with us, and of great price. It is a mimic.
And so, as the Scops and Otus are taken by an imitation of
dancing, this bird is caught at night by the light of a candle
according to the motion of the captor. For if he stretches
out an arm, the bird lifts a wing ; if he stretches out a leg, it
does likewise. In short, whatever part the fowler plays, the
bird does the same. So being intent on the man's actions, it
is fooled by the bird-catcher and caught in his net. It is a
little bird, of the size of a Starling, with only three fore-toes
and no hind-toe, a black crown, white cheeks, and colour almost
that of a Quail, if you were to mix with it a little ash-colour,
especially round the neck. I call it Morinellus for a double
reason, both because it is a bird most abundant among the
Morini, and because it is a foolish bird, foolishness being by
the Greeks called fAwporrjs. On this account our people also
call it Doterell, as if they were to say doating with folly.

OF THE PUPHIN OR PUPIN.

There is a certain sea-bird of our country, in size and
form of body like a little Duck (which the Greeks call /3o<j/ca9),
with webbed and reddish feet, placed nearer to the hinder,
parts than in other web-footed kinds except the Pygosceles :
with a somewhat thin beak, rather more extended in breadth
vertically than stretching laterally to a very great length,
furrowed by four red grooves above, and two below, pale
ochre in colour. The part lying between these and the head
is bluish, and of such a shape as is the moon, when ten days
have elapsed from conjunction. The bird is black on the upper
surface of the whole body, save where the eyes are set, which
are enclosed in white : but it is wholly white below, save on
the upper breast, where it is black. It gets its living from the
sea. This bird our people call the Puphin, we say Pupin
from its ordinary cry of " pupin." It hides in holes, as the
Charadrius does. And so it is driven out from a rabbit's
burrow by a ferret turned in by any hunter in a place situated
not far from the sea. It is used as fish among us during
the solemn fast of Lent: being in substance and taste
not unlike a Seal. It is a gregarious animal, and has its
proper time for lying hidden, as the Cuckoo and Swallow.

2o6 Appendix

cuniculis bina magna ex parte. Alis non confidit
nifi confpeclo mari. Pigrum videtur animal, fed
iniurie patiens. Vefcitur carne lubentius quam pifce,
& cuniculi quam alterius animalis, fed vtroque crudo :
co6la & affa refpuit. Cetera non attingit humana
gdulia. Aeftate fe lauat, fed nunquam, quod obfer-
uatione deprehendi poteft, bibit : an quod aqua ma-
rina carebat, nefcio. Excrementum alui illi eft quale
accipitri. Cum non effet quod ederet, cibum voce
naturali geminata & fummiffa, pupin, pupin clamitan-
do, implorabat. Alebam domi meae ad menfes o6lo.
Mordebat lubenter miniftrantes cibum, aut attingentes,
fed benignius atque innocentius. Exiguo cibo fati-
atur. Non enim vorax auis eft vt Coruorans nofter,
Coruorans quern tu (Gefnere charifsime) coruum aquaticum &
Jen ergus. mergum rec^e nominas, noftri Cormorantem corrupte
dicunt, nefcientes ex vocis aetymo coruum vorantem
appellari debere. Quod naturaliter facit, cum illi a
natura vnicum tantum inteftinum fine elice (vt aiunt)
rectum fit conceffum, propter vehementiam caloris
naturalis, citifsime abfumentis quae affumuntur omnia.

De Spermologo fen Frugilega.

Spermologus nofter a cornice nigra nulla in re
differt, nifi moru innocentia, TrpoKo^w feu ingluuie,
[f. 22 b] qua granum legendo continet, vt ad fuos referat :
(eft enim gutturofus) albo callo, qui in fummo roftro
eft ad caput : & voce, quam habet gutturalem &
raucam. Vnde forfan noftris, quibus nomina rerum
multa Latina funt & Greca (vti libro noftro de fym-
phonia vocum Britannicarum diximus) rouce dicitur,
quafi rauce Anglis, raucus Latinis fit dicendus : victu
quoque a coruo differt, quod frumento, hordeo, &
C£tero femine (vnde nomen 0-7^/40X0701; inuenit apud
Graces) vefcitur. Vefcitur & vermibus, vbi frugis fru-
mentique copia non eft. Hinc ruftici noftri dubitant

Appendix 207

It lays for the most part two eggs in rabbit burrows in the
earth. It does not trust to its wings save in sight of the sea.
It seems a lazy animal, but patient of injury. It eats flesh
more readily than fish, and that of a rabbit in preference to
that of any other animal, but in either case raw : it throws up
what is boiled or roasted, Other human victuals it does not
touch. In summer it washes itself but never drinks, so far as
can be ascertained by observation ; whether this was because
salt water was wanting, I know not. The droppings are like
those of an Accipiter. When there was nothing to eat it
begged for food with its ordinary cry repeated and lowered, by
calling out "pupin, pupin." I kept one at my house for eight
months. It bit with right good will those who supplied it with
food or touched it, but in a mild and harmless way. It was
satisfied with little food. For it is not a voracious bird, as our
Corvorant is, which you (dearest Gesner) rightly name Corvus
aquations and Mergus, while our people corruptly say Cormo-
rant, not knowing from the derivation of the word that it
ought to be called the Crow that devours. And this it does
naturally, since it is endowed by nature with only one in-
testine straight and without a coil (as they say), on account
of the vehemence of the natural heat, which very quickly
consumes all that it swallows.

OF THE SPERMOLOGUS OR FRUGILEGA.

Our Spermologus differs in nothing from a black Crow,
save in the harmlessness of its habits, in the 7r/>oXo/3o? or crop,
which holds the grain as it is picked up, that it may bear it to
its young (for it is pouched): in the white callus, which
extends from the base of the beak to the head ; and in its
voice, which is guttural and harsh. Whence possibly by our
people, among whom there exist many Latin and Greek
names for things (as we have said in our book on the
Harmony of British words) it is called Rouke, as if it should
be called Rauce by the English and Raucus by the Latins :
also in food it differs from the Crow in that it eats wheat,
barley, and other seeds (whence it got the name of o-Tre/o/zo-
Xtxyo? among the Greeks. It also eats worms, when there is
not plenty of corn or grain. Hence our country people doubt

208 Appendix

maior ne fit ex eis vtilitas agris dum legunt vermen,
frugis & fementis peftem, an inutilitas hominibus
dum vorant granum, hominis nutri men turn. Tanta
tamen multitudo eft, vt legibus condemnentur : inno-
cens alioqui auis atq^ vtilis. Agricolis enim teneri
adhuc ex nido, in cibo funt. Non nifi excelfis arbo
ribus, idque focietate quadam numero^ nidificant,
cohabitant, & confidunt.

De Sacropfittaco.

Pfittacorum plura effe genera obferuaui. Quidam
enim pufilli, magnitudine videlicet turdi, toto quidem
corpore virides funt, fed caudam longam atque graci-
lem, & earn aut flauam, viridem, aut puniceam habent.
Quidem1 rurfum grandes funt admodum, cornicis mag-
nitudine, ex toto punicei feu rubri, nifi fub imo ventre,
[f. 23] extremis alis, & extima cauda, quibus partibus cum
cceruleo virefcunt. His roftrum eft magnu, cauum,
pellucidum, & aduncum, medio tantum fui pallidum,
vtroque extremo ex parte nigrum, vt & inferior max-
illa tota nigra, cuius cauitatem lingua dura" & nigra
c^terorum Pfittacorum modo & forma occupat. Vtrin-
que genae, in cute rugofa, figura fere triangulari ob-
tufa, candicant, rubris mollium pennarum ordinibus
^quidiftanti parallelo induclis, & alicubi etiam fine
ordine. Oculus paruus, & in albo cilio cuticulari
conftitutus, pupillam habet nigram, quam circundat
aureus circulus. Digitos habet quatuor ita efifor-
inatos, vt videatur natura voluiffe omnes anteriores
feciffe, retorfiffe tamen duos in auerfum firmandi
corporis caufa. Hos Brafilia mittit, quos propter
infignem magnitudinem Sacropfittacos nominamus.
Sacrum. Veteres enim quod pr^clarum magnumque erat,
facrum dicebant. Vt facrum os, facram anchoram,
facrum falconem, quern hierofalconem dicunt, facrum
pifcem, iepbv Aiei>o9, facram famem, & facrum morbum.
Huius generis imaginem quam a nobis accepifti,
fubiunge. C^teros inter hos magnitudine medios,
aliae regiones, vt infula Hifpania, Aegyptus, & India
ferunt, fed colore vario. Alij enim toto corpore
cinereo, caudas habent fultas, breuiores & puniceas,

1 A misprint for Quidam.

Appendix 209

whether their utility is greater in the fields, when they pick
up the vermin, destructive to crops and seeds, or their harm-
fulness to men, when they devour grain, the food of man.
However the number of them is so great, that they are
condemned by the laws ; harmless and useful birds in other
respects. For, when still tender from the nest, they are
used as food by country men. Only in lofty trees, and that
as it were, in company and in numbers do they nest, abide
and roost.

OF THE SACROPSITTACUS.

I have observed that there are many kinds of Parrots. For
some that are small, namely of the size of a Thrush, have the
whole body quite green, but the tail, which is long and slender,
either yellow, green, or crimson. Again some are very
large, of the size of a Crow, altogether crimson or red, except
under the lower belly, on the ends of the wings, and on the
tip of the tail, on which parts they shew greenish blue. These
have a large beak, hollow, shining and hooked, pale only in
its middle, partly black at each end, while the lower jaw
is entirely black, the cavity being filled by the tongue, which
is hard and black of the style and shape of that of other
Parrots. The cheeks on both sides are whitish on the
wrinkled skin, in shape almost obtusely triangular, the rows of
soft red feathers being set in equidistant parallel lines, though
in some places also without being in rows. The eye, small
and set in a white ring of skin, has a black pupil, which is
surrounded by a golden circle. It has four toes fashioned
in such a way that nature seems to have intended to place
all of them in front, but to have turned two of them back for
the sake of supporting the body. Brasil sends us these birds,
which we call Sacropsittaci on account of their remarkable
size. For the ancients used to call that Sacrum, which was
notable and large. As the os sacrum, anchora sacra, falco
sacer — which they call Hierofalco, piscis sacer, lepov //,eVo<?,
fames sacra, and morbus sacer. Compare with these the
picture of this kind, which you have received from us. Other
regions, as the Spanish Isle, Egypt and India, produce other
kinds which are midway in size, but with various colouring.
For some with the whole body grey have strong tails, some-

T.

2 1 o Appendix

in extremoque lunares. Alij ex toto virides funt
Alij cum corpore vireant, cauda longa flauefcunt.
[f. 23 b] Mores habent omnes fimiles, & vi<5lum communem.
nifi quod Sacropfittacus, pane bera macerato, carne,
& pifce etiam vefcatur.

De Coruis albis.

Anno domini. 1548. Augufto menfe, coruos duos
candidos ex eodem nido vidi & contrectaui iftic in
Cumbria noftrae Britannia^, apud eiufdem prouinciae
comitem natiuos, atque ita ad aucupium faclos vt
accipitres. Nam & brachio falconarij quiete infidere,
& foluti ad eius vocem atque fignum vel e longinquo
quam celerrime aduolare do6li erant. Hos nihil eft
infaufhum cofequutu, vt albas illas hirundines, de
quibus Alexander Myndius apud yElianu. Nam qui
Vrfus albus. coruu album notat, colorem notat : vt qui vrfum
Vulpes ni- album & vulpem nigram : quorum vtrumque vidimus
ex Mofcouia iftic in Britannia. Quanquam vulpem
nigram non queo dicere, etfi vulgus nigram vocet :
fed potius fufcam, aut obfcure grifeam reliquo cor-
pore. Nam genas atque tibias tantum fufcas habet,
clunes atque caudam.

Expletis iam quae de volatilibus ad te fcripfi mi
Gefnere, fuo ordine pifces confequuntur.

Appendix 2 1 1

what short and crimson, and crescent-shaped at the tip.
Others are entirely green. Others, though they are green
on the body, are yellowish on the long tail. All have like
habits, and the same kind of food, save that the Sacropsittacus
eats bread soaked in beer, flesh, and even fish.

OF WHITE RAVENS.

In the year 1548, in the month of August, I saw two
white Ravens from the same nest, and handled them at the
very place in Cumberland of our Britain, bred on the property
of a lord of that county, and trained for bird-catching just
like hawks. For they had been taught both to sit quietly on
the arm of the falconer, and when loosed to fly as quickly as
possible to his call and sign even from a distance. Nothing
unlucky followed them, as in the case of those white Swallows,
about which Alexander Myndius wrote according to ^Elian.
For he who notes a white Raven notes the colour; as he does
who notes a white Bear and a black Fox ; both of which I
have seen here in Britain from Muscovy. Yet I can hardly
call a Fox black, although the common people call it black;
but rather dusky or dull grey on the rest of the body. For it
has only the cheeks and the legs, with the rump and the tail,
dusky.

And now those things being finished which I have
written to you of flying creatures, my Gesner, the fishes
follow in due order.

14—2

INDEX.

A cant his, 52, 53

Accentor inodnlaris? xvii

Accipiter, 14-18, 57, 66, 67, 206, 207

.-/. nitus, xv

A. palumbarius, 14, 15, 18, 19, 56,

57
Accipitres, 14-17, 38, 66, 67, 116-118,

138, 139, 166
Acfit is liy pole uc us, xvii, 57
Acller, xvi, 30
ALgithus, 74, 104, 162
sEsalo, 14-16
sEsalon, 1 6, 17
'Aer6j, 30, 31

Africans or Africic, see Gallince
'Ai5wi>, 108
'Aryi0ctX6s, 130, 131
"Arxi0os, 1 60, 161

j, 48, 49
s, 116
/, 1 6, 17
"Atdrja, no, in
'A/cast's, 104, 105
'AKavdo<j>dya., 40
Alauda, xiv, 80, 81, 106, 107, 146,

'47

A. arbor M, xiv
^4. arvensis, xiv
AlaudicLe, xiv

Albardeola, 38-40, 180, 181
A Ibid I la, 28, 30, 31
AlccdinidiC, xiv
Alcedo, 18-20, 22, 1 80, 181
^/. ispida, xiv
'AX^KTwp, 82, 83
'AX^/cropts, 82, 83
Alke, xv, 92, 93
'A\KVWV, 1 8, 19
Amsel, xviii, 114, 115
^//tw, xii, xiv, 22, 23, 32, 48, 92, 93,

176, 180-183, 198, 204
A. boscas, xv, 47
A. indica, 196
A. titrcica, 198
Anataria, 30-33
Anatidce, xv

Anser, xi, xii, xv, 22-24, 26, 28, no,

122, 180-183, 194, 196
A. bassanus, 30, 196
A. brcndinus, 194
.7. minor (the smaller), 180, 181
A. palicslris, xi
Anthns pratensis, xvi
^j, 98, 99
Apodes, 98-103
Apple-sheiler, 73
Aijuila, xii, xv, 16, i/, 30-38, 46, 47,

56, 57, 120, 123, 128, 129, 138-141,

152, i53> 162, 163, 192
A. marina, 182
.•/. a i on tana, 34
Aquila, Sea, 183
Aq in 'la vera, 36
Aquilce, 30, 31

Anlca, xv, 36-40, 54, 112, 124
A. alba, 38, 39
A . cinerea, xv
^-. pdla, 38, 39

^/. stellar is, x, 38-41, 126, 127
Ardece, 38, 39
ArJeidte, xv
Ardeola, 180, 181
Arlyng, xviii, 52, 53
Arn, xvi, 30, 31
Am, Edel, xv, 36
Ascalapkus, 180, 181
Asio, 130, 131
A. otus, xvii
'A(T«:aXw7ra^, 86, 87
Astur, 192
^4. paliutibarius, xv
Asylus, 182, 183
Atricapilla, 44-47, 71, no, 111, 160,

161, 182, 183
Atlagen, xvii, 40-45, 86, 92, 93, 126,

127

Attagena, 40, 41, 44, 45, 87
Atzel, xv, 142, 143
Aurifrisius, 192, 193
Aurimttis, 40, 41, 50, 51, 106-109,

182, 183
Aves Canarice, 108

2I4

Index

Aves Diot/it(dc(M, 70, 71, 78
Aves tardtc, 130, 131, 168, 169 (sec
also Tanla}

Balbushard, xv, 33
Balbushardits t 32

Bald-Buzzard, 33

Bap<?a, 40

Bargander, 25

Bao-iXetfs, 152, 153

Bass Goose, 31, 197

Batis, 158, 159

Bans, 158, 159

Bauncok, 84

Bergander, xii, xv, 24, 25, 195

Bergandrus, 24

Bergdol, xv, 90, 91

Bernacle, 195

Bernadus, 194

Berndclac, 195

BerndclacuS) 1 94

Berndgander, 195

Bernicla, xi, 26, 30

B. leucopsis, xv

Bernicle (Goose), x, xv, 27, 31

Bistard, xvi, 166, 167

Bistarda^ xii

Bittern, 41

Bittour, xv, 40, 41

Blackcock, ix, 43

Blak byrd, xviii, 114, 115

Blocltfinck, xvi, 160, 16 1

Bloudvinc, 16 \

Bloudvinca, 160

Bw/x,oX6%os, 90, 91

Bonasa sylvestris, xvii

Bosca, 48, 49, 182, 183

Boovccts, 204, 205

Botaurus, xiv

,5. stellar is , xv, 41

Brachvogelchen, xviii, [58, 159

Bramlyng, xvi, 72, 73

Brant, xv, 27

Branta, xi, 26

Brech vogel, xviii, 52, 53

Brendclac, 195

Bri'iidt'lacus, 1 94

Brend Gose, 194, 195

Brent Goose, 195

Btfas (Bptfas), 46, 47

Bubo, 46, 47

B. ignavus, xvii, 47

Buchfink, xvi, 72, 73

Bulfinc, 161

Biilfinca.) 1 60

Bulfinch, x

Bulfinche, xvi, 160, 161

Bunting, xvi, 135, 159

Bunting, Reed, x

Buntinga, 134, 158

Burgander, 25
Burrow Duck, 25
Bushard, xv
Buskarda, 1 6
Bustard, xvi, 166
Buleo, xii, 14-18, 32
/>'. vitlgaris, xv
Buttor, xv, 123
Bullora, 122
Buttour, xv, 40, 41
Buzzard, 17
Buzzard, Moor-, ix

Caddo, xv, 92, 93
Calidris, 180, 181
Canary Bird, xvi, 109
Capella, 182, 183
Cafrimulgidce, xv
CaprimulguSi xii, xiii, 48-51
C, europcciis, xv

Cardueiis> xii, 40, 41, 50-53, 182, 183
C. elegant) xvi
C. spimis, xvi, 51
Cartilus, 1 80, J8i
Cataracta, 70, 71, 180, 181
Ceppkus, 74, 75
Certhia, 52, 53
6\ faniiliaris, xv, 65
Cci'lJiiidcc, xv

Chaffinche (Chaffinch), xvi, 72, 73
Chalets, 56, 57
Charadriid(2t xv
XapaSptos, 181
C/iaradrius, 204, 205
) xv

wj/, 96, 97
22, 23

t xii> 22-25
22-28, 31
XXw/3e(;s, 106, 107
XXwpiw, 1 06, 107, 132, 172, 173
Chloris, xii
XXwpis, 107-109
Chogh, xv, 92, 93
Choghe, 90, 91
Choghe, Cornish, xv, 90, 91
Chough, 91

Chough, Alpine, x, 91
Chough, Cornish, x
Xpv<rofj,iTpis, 40, 41
Chrysoinitris, 52, 53
Cicoma, x, 54, 55, 62, 63, 92, 93,

180, 181
C. a/^<7, xv
Ciconiidcc, xv
Ciaitnce, 120, 121
Cicttnia:, 120
Cindid<Zy xv

duel us, xiii, 54-57, 170, 171, 180, 181
C. aquaticus, xv, 23

Index

215

Circus, 14-17
C. icruginosus, xv, 33
C. cyaneus, xv
Clakc, 194, 195
Clanga, 30, 31
Glotburd, xviii, 52, 53
Cnipolegos, xiii
Cob, xvi, 79
Cobbi marini, 78
Coccothrausles, xiii
Candeo, 52, 53
Cok, xvii, 82, 83
Cok of Kynde, 84
CV/'/w, 88, 89
Collurio, 58, 59
Columbia xv, 14, 58-60

C. a' lias, XV

C". paluinbus, xv

C. vulgaris, 194

Coluinba:, 58, 59

Columbi, 14, 18, 42, 44, 58-61

Columbidee, xv

Columbus, 18, 58-62, 66, 67, 180, 181

Comatibis comata, 93

C. eretnita, xvi, 93

Coot, 77, 199

Copcra, xiv, 80, 8 1

Corinorans, 206

Cormorant, ix, xvii, no, in, 207

Corn-Crake, 71

Cornish Choghe, xv, 90, 91

Comix, xii, 64, 65, 90, 91, 118, 148,

208

C. aqua tic a, 22
C. hyberna, 64
Corvidic, xv
Corvorans, 206
Corvorant, 207
Corvus, x, 34, 64, 65, 92, 93, 206,

(albus) 210

Coi'vits (web-footed), 183
C. cujuaticus, x, 92, 93, 206, 207
6". calvusy 92
(7. corax, xv
C. comix, xv, 65
C. cor one, xv, 65
C. fntgilegus, xv, 65
C. inoncdula, xv
C. nocturnns, xii, xiii
C. palmipes, 182
C*. sylvaticus, x
C. varans, 206
Corydos, 82, 83
Cotile riparia, xvi
Colnrnix, 62, 63, 68, 104, 105, 126-

129, 138, 139, 146, 147, 202, 204

C. communis, xviii

Coushot, xv, 60, 6 1
Cout, xvii, 33
Co-ut a, 32

Crake, Corn-, 71

Crainmesvogel, J72, 173

Crane, x, 55, 94, 95, 97, 195

Craspecht, xvii, 149

Craspechta, 148

Creeper, 53

Creeper, Tree-, ix

Creeper, Wall-, 53

Crepera (Creper), xv, 52

CVtu-, 68-71, 128, 129

C. pratensis, xvii, 71

Crow, xv, 64, 65, 119, 149, 207, 209

Crow (that devours), 207

Crovv-Picus, 149

Crow, Carrion, 65

Crow, Hooded or Grey, 65

Crow, Sea, 65

Crow, Winter, xv, 68

Cryel Heron, xv, 38

Cuckoo, ix, x, 205

Cuculid(£, xv

Cue ulus, 48, 49, 66-69, 2°4

C. canorus, xv

Cukkow, xv, 66, 67, 69

Cuiicilcga, xiii, 64, 65, 182, 183

Curuca, 68, 69, 182, 183

Cychninius, 128, 129

Cygniis, xiii, xiv, 126, 127, 196

C. olor, xv

Cyniindis, 16, 17, 56, 57

Cypsclidic, xv

Cypsclus apus, xv

C. iiulba, xv

Cypscllus, 100, 101

Daker Hen, xvii, 70, 71, 128, 129

Daulias luscinia, xvii

Daw, 65, 77

Dcndrocopus major? xvii

Dike Smouler, xvii, 136, 137

Diomede (birds of), xvii, 71, 79

Dipper, 23

Distelfinck, xvi, 40, 41

Distelvinc, 41

Distelvinca, 40

D61, xv, 92, 93

Doterel, 205

Doterellus, 204

Douker, xvii, 176, 177

Dove, x, xv, 15, 58-61, 63, 97

Dove, Ringged, xv, 60

Dove, Venice, xv, 63

Drossel, xviii, 172, 173

Apuo/coAdTTTT;?, 146, 147

Ducher, xvii, no, in, 176, 177

Duck, xv, 22, 23, 25, 33, 49, 177

199, 205

Duck, Indian, 197
Duck, Turkish, 199
Duck, Wild, 47

216

Index

Durstel, xviii, 172, 173
Duve, xv, 58, 59
Duve, Turtel, xv, 60

Eagle, 31, 33, 37, 39, 47, 193
Eagle, Sea, 193
Ebeher, xv, 54, 55
Egle, xvi, 30
Egle, Right, xv, 36
'E7c6Aios, 1 16
Eissvogel, xiv, 18, 19
Elster, xv, 142, 143
Elsterspecht, xvii, 149
Ehterspechta, 148
Emberiza citrinella, xvi
E. iniliaria, xvi

E. schoeniclus, xvi
Endt, 22, 23
Engelchen, xvi, 108, 109
Ephemeras, 28, 29
Ephimerus, 28
"ETTOTTS, 174, 175
Eritkfcus rubecula, xvii
'Ep£0a/cos, 154, 155
'Epi^a, 154, 155
Erna, xii, 30

Erne, xii, xvi, 31

'EpwSios, 36, 37

Eul, xvii, 1 20, 121

Eul, Schleier, xvii, 130, 131 (see Kanscul)

Falco ccsalon, xv

F. sacer, 208, 209
F. subbuteo, xvi
Falconidce, xv, xvi
Falcula, 98-102
Fasant, xvii, 140, 141
Fasian, xvii, 140, 141
Fedoa, xvii, 44, 45
Feldefare, Feldfare, xviii, 58, 59
Fenclake, 194, 195
Fenlagge, 194, 195

Fenlake, 194, 195

F^ced^lla, 44, 45, 70, 71, 182, 183

Fieldfare, ix

Finch, 19, 119

Flasfinc, xvi, 159

Flasfinca, 158

Florns, 74, 75, 104, 105, 1 60, 161,

182, 183
Fowl, 20 1
Fox Goose, 25
Fringilla, 18, 52, 53, 72-75, 118,

130, 131, 148, 149, 182, 183
F. ccclebs, xvi
F. nwnlifriiigilla, xvi
Fringillago, 130, 131
Fringilldrius, 14, 15, 18, 19
Fringillidve, xvi
Frugilega, 64, 65, 182, 183, 206, 207

Fidica, 70, 71, 74-79, i So, 18 1, 198
T'1. tf/rtf, 77
/''. nigra xvii
Fulvia, 34, 35

Galerita, xiii, 18, 56, 57, 80-83

6r. cristata, xiv

Galgulus (Galgalns), 88-91, 146, 147,

182, 183
Galli, 82, 83

Gallina, 86, 87, 138, 140, 148
G. cohortalis, 84
G. getula, 200
G. nigra, 32
G. nigra aqtiatica, 76
G". numidica, 84, 85
6^. pains tr is, 76
6^. rnstica, 82, 84, 86
Gallinaceus, 180, 181
Gallina!, 18, 82-87
6". africancc (afruce), 82, 84, 86, 87
6r. Hadriamc, 84-87
6". villatiac, 82, 84, 86
Gallinago, 40, 41, 86-88, 146, 147
Gallinula chloropus, xvii
6VZ//W.S-, 82, 83
(7. domeslicus, xvii, 42
£. ferruginous^ xvii
(7. gallinaceus, 200
6". mcdicus, 84
ra/x,i/'c6j'i;%es, 40
Ganss, xv, 22, 23
Gauss, Loffel, xvii, 150, 151
Ganss, Trap, xvi, 166, 167
Garrnlus glandarius, xv
Gavia, 78, no, in, 180, 181
G. alba (White Gavia), 78, 180, 181
G. cinerea (Grey Gavia), 78, 180, 181
Gavicc marina:, 78
Gccimis viridis, xvii
Geelgorst, xvi, 106, 107
Geir, xviii, 176, 177
repcu/os, 94, 95
Gersthammer, xvi, 135
Gersthammcra, 134
Geyr, xviii, 176, 177
Geyr Swalbe, xv, 102, 103
Ghiandaja, 145
FXau^, 1 20, 121
Glede, xvi, 116, 117
rXwrris, 104, 105
Godwit, ix
Godwitt, xvii, 45
Godwitta, 44
Goldfinc, 41
Goldfinca, 40
Goldfinche, xvi, 40, 41
Gold hendlin, xviii, 168, 169
Goose, 23, 25, 27, 29, in, 123, 139,

195, 197

Index

217

Goose, Bass, 31, 197

Goose, Bernacle (or Bernicle), x, 27,

3i» 195

Goose, Brant (or Brent), xv, 27, 195
Goose, Fox, 25
Gose, xv, 22
Goshawk, 19
Gosling, 177
Gouke, xv, 66, 67
Graculi, 90, 91, 94, 95
Graculus, x, 90, 91, 94, 95
Graesmusch, xviii, no
Grasmuklen, xviii, 44, 45
Grasmuschen, 47
GrasmuschuSy 46, 72
Grassmusch (Grasmusch), xvii, xviii,

73> !36, 137
Grass-sparrow, 1 1 1
Greenfinch, 41
Grenefinc, 107
Graiefnica, 106
Grenefinche, xvi, 104, 105
Grey-clak, 195
Grey Hen, ix
Grey-Lag, 195
Grouse, Hazel, xvii
Gruida*. xvi
Grtinling, xii

Grunspecht, xvii, 89, 113, 115, 149
Grnuspcchta, 148
Grunspechtiis, 88, 112, 114
Grits, 54, 62, 63, 94-96, 180, 181,

,'95

G. conununis, xvi

Gryphen, 178

Gryps, 178, 179

Guinea Fowl, 85

Gull, 79

Gull, Black-headed, ix, 77

Gull, Grey, xvi

Gull, White, xvi

IWeueros, 34

rtf& 176, 177

Guse, Solend, xvii, 28

Gy pact us barb at us, xvi, 129

Hadrians, ^see Gallium

1 02, 103
Halcyon, 20, 21
Halueetos, 36, 37, 192, 193
Halucetus, 34, 35
//. albicilla, xvi
Han, xvii, 82, 83
Harrier, see Hen- Harrier and Marsh-

Harrier

Hawk, 18, 19, 39, 68, 119, 167
Hedge-Sparrow, xvii, 136, 137
Hen, xvii, 82, 83
Hen, Getulian, 201
Hen- Harrier, ix, 19

Hen-Harroer, xv, 18

Hen, Marsh, 77

Hen. Mot, xvii, 170, 171

Hen, Water, xvii, 77, 170, 171

Heron, xv, 36, 37, 41, 55, 113, 125

Heron, Blue, 38

Heron, Cryel, xv, 38

Heron, Dwarf, xv, 38

Heron, Night, xiii

Hewhole, xvi, 115, 149

Hicrofalco, 208, 209

HimantopuS) 102

ffinnulariet, 30, 31

ffiruttdinidts, xvi

Ilirundo, 96-102, 116, 117, 170, 173

H. agrestis, 98

H. (alba), 210

H. aquatica, xiii

H. dor/iestica, 100

ff. riparia, 98-102

H. rufula, 99

H. rustica, xvi, 98, 100, 101

Hobbia, 18

Hobby, ix, xvi, 19

Holtzsnepff, xvii, 86, 87

Holtztaube, xv, 60, 61

Htin, xvii, 82, 83

Horn Oul (Owl), xvii, 130, 131

Houp, xviii, 174, 175

Howlet, xvii, 120, 121

llowpe, xviii, 174, 175

Huhol, xvii, 89, 115

Huhola, 114, 148

Huholus, 88

Hydrochelidon nigra, xvi

Hyrundo, 204

laia, 144
Ibid idee, xvi
Ibis, Glossy, 57
Ibis, Red-cheeked, xvi
Icteros, 88, 89
"I/CTO/OS, 1 1 6, 117
Iliacus, 170, 171
lynx, 146-149
/. torquitta, xvii

Jay, xv, 145

Junco, 102, 103, 170, 171, 180, 181

Ka, xv, 92, 93
Kastrel, xvi, 166, 167
Kautz, xvii, 46, 47
Ke7xp«, 1 66, 167
KeXe6s, 88, 89, 146
Ke?r0os, 74-77
Kersenrife, xvi, 172, 173
Klx\a, 170, 171
KiyicXos, 54, 55
Kingfisher, xiv, 21, 23

2l8

Index

Kirsfincke, xvi, 104, 105

Kistrel, xvi, 166, 167

Kite, x, 117, 193, 197

Kite (Blacker), 117

Ktrra, 142, 143

Kj>i7roX67os, 64, 65

Koelmussh (Koelmusch), xvii, 136, 137

Koelni uss/i us, 136

KOKKVJ;, 66, 67

Kok of Inde, xvii, 86

KoXtos, 88, 89, 146, 147

KoXXu/nW, 58, 59

Kolmeyse, xvii, 130, 131

KoXotos, 90, 91, 146

KoXv/uippis (KoXvjtt/Wj), 176, 177

Kopa/aas, 90, 91

K6/>a£, 64, 65

Kopwj'?;, 64, 65

Kopu5a\6s, 80, 81

K.6pv6os, 80-83

Korri>06s (Koirrvfios), 114, 1J5

Krae, xv, 64, 65

Kraeg, xv, 64, 65

Krammesvogel, xviii, 58, 59, 170, 171

Kran, xvi, 94, 95

Kranich, xvi, 94, 95

Kuewos, 52, 53, 181

Kukkuck, xv, 66, 67

Kvnvos, 82, 83, 1 20, 121

Kuningsgen, xviii, 152, 153

Kyngesfissher, xiv, 18, 19

Kyte, xvi, 116, 117

Kywit, xv, 77

Kyivitta, 76

Leaves, 14, 15

Lagopes (Lagopus], 104, 105

Aay<jj<t>6vos, 34

Lagopus unit us, xviii

Z. scoticus, xviii

Lammergeier, 36, 129

Laniidce, xvi

Lanitis excubitor, xvi

Z. minor?, xvi

Lapwing, x, xv, 175

Lapwinga, 76, 174

Larida, xvi

Lark, 19

Acipos, 74, 75, 78, 79

Zrtr/w, xvi, 74, 75, 78, 79

L. ridibundus, xvi, 77

Laverock, xiv, So, 81

Lefler, xvii, 150, 151, 153

Leftera, 152

Leporaria, 34, 35

Lerc, 8 1

Lerc, Wilde, 81

Lerca, 80

Lerch, xiv, 80, 81

Lerch, Heid, xiv, 80, 81

Lerck, Wod-, xiv, 80

Lerk, xiv, So, 81

Lerk, Ileth, xiv, So

Lerk, Wilde, xiv, So

Aeu/cepwSios, 38, 39

Libicus, 164

AifivKos, 164, 165

Libyan Bird, 165

Ligurin us, 1 04 , 105

L. chloris, xvi

Limosa belgica, xvii

Linaria, 158, 159

Lingett, xviii, 47, m

Lingetta, 46, no

Lingutaca, 104, 105, 128, 129

Linot, xvi, 51, 159

Linota, 50, 158

L. cannabina, xvi

Livia, 58-61

Loffel Gauss, xvii, 150, 151

Loun, xvii, 177

Louna, 176

Ay/cos, 90, 91

Liiningk, xvi, 132, 133

Lupus, 90, 91, 94, 95

Lusctma, 44, 45, 68, 69, 108-111

Liilea (Luteus), 106-108

Luteola, 108, 109, 182, iS3

Lyke Foule, xvii, 46, 47

Lyssklieker, xiii

MaXa/co/c/mj'ei/s, 116, 117, 132

JMarcca penelope, xv, 22

Marsh-Harrier, 33

Marsh- Hen, 77

Martinette (or Martnette), Chirche, xv,

102, 1O3

Martinette, Rok, xv, 102, 103

Martnet, Bank, xvi, 102, 103

Matrix, 128, 129 (cp. 126)

Mavis, xviii, 172, 173

Mediae, 84, 85

Meelmeyse, xvii, 130, 131

MelaznaetoS) 34, 35

MeXa7/copi;0os, 44, 45

MeXameros, 34

Meleagris, 82-87, 140, 141, 200, 201

Mdiae, 84, 85

Mercolphus, xv, 144, 145

Mcrgus, xiv, 76, 77, no, ni, 126,

127, 176, 177, 180, 181, 206, 207
Merl, xviii, 114, 115
Merlin, xv, 17
Mcrlina, 16
Meropidce, xvi
Merops, 112-115
M. apiaster, xvi
Merula, 48, 49, 52, 53, 82, 83, 114,

115, 146-149, 164, 165, 170, 171
M. aqualica, xiii

Index

219

Mewe, Wyss, xvi, 74, 75

Meyse, 130, 131

Meyspecht, xvii, 162, 163

Meyspechtus, 1 62

Miliaria, 50, 51, 158, 159

Milvius (Milviis), 16, 17, 116, 117,

192, 196

Milvus ictinus, xvi
^/. a/<?r (nigrior), xvi, 116
Mistletoe-Thrush, xviii
Molliceps, 58, 59, 1 16, 117, 120, 121,

132, 133, 168, 169
Monedula, 64, 76, 90-93, 146-149
Monctula, 90, 91
Monticola, 130, 131
MontifringiUat 72, 73, 182, 183
Moor-Buzzard, ix, 33
Moorhen, 171
Morhen, xviii, 87, 171
Morhenna, 86
Morinellus, 202-205
Morphna (Morphnos], 30, 31
Mortetter, xviii, 159
Mor tetter a, 1 58
Motacilla, 64, 65
M. alba, xiii, xvi
M. lugubris, xvi
Motacillida, xvi
Mot Hen, xvii, 170, 171
Musche, xvi, 132, 133
Myre Dromble, xv, 38

Nachtgal, xvii, 108, 109
Nachtra, xii, xiii
Nachtrab, xiii
Nachtrap, xii
Naghtrauen, xii, xiii

i'os, 30

22, 23
30

Neun murder, xvi, 168, 169
Neunmiirder, Grosse, 168, 169
Night-Heron, xiii
Nocltia, 46, 47, 120, 121, 130, 131, 180,

181

Nonna, 132
Nousbrecher, xv, 94
Nucifraga, 94, 95
N. caryocatactes, xv
Nucipeta, 162

Nuin murder, xvi, 116, 117
NuKTt/copa^, 1 20, 130
Nituiida meleagi'is, xvii
Nmnidica, see Gallina
Nun (Non), xvi, 133
Nushakker, xvii, 162, 163
Nutcracker, x
Nutjobber, xvii, 162, 163
Nutseeker, 163
Nycticorax, xii, xiii

Nyghtyngall, xvii, 108, 109

Nyn murder, xvi, 116, Ji7, 168, 169

Nyi'oca farina, xv

OiVds, 62, 63

Oistris, xvii, 164, 165

Oloi-y 120-123, 126, 180-183

Onocrotalus (Onocralalus), x, xiii, xiv,

122-127
Orfraie, 193
Oriolida, xvi
Oriohis galbula, xvi
'Opoffirlfrs, 72, 73
"O/aruf, 62, 63
Ortygometra , 126-129
Osel, Black, xviii, 114, 115
Osprey, ix, xvi, 34, 35, 37, i93~*95
Ossifraga, 36, 118, 128, 129, 193
0. barbata, \ 28
Ossifrage, 37, 129
Ossifrage, Bearded, 129
Otidida, xvi

Otis, 130, 131, 168, 169
0- tarda, xvi
'i7ros, 120, 130, 131
Otus, 128-131, 204, 205
"Ovpa|, 1 66, 167
Ousel, Water, 23
Owl (Oul), xvii, 120, 121
Owl, Eagle, 47
Owl, Hawk, 157
Owl, Horn, xvii, 130, 131
Owl, Horned, 120
Oxei, Great, xvii, 130
Oxeye, Great, 131

Pageliin, xvii, 136, 137
Palmipedes, 120

Paluiiibarius, 14, 15, 18, 19, 56, 57
Palunibes, 58-61, 68, 69, 180, 18 1
PaliimbiiSy 1 8, 60, 61
Pandion haliactus, xvi
Pandionidcc, xvi
Papegay, xvii, 150, 151
Pap/uis, 50, 51
UapdaXos, 58
Pardahis, 132, 133
Paridcc, xvi
Parrot, xvii, 209
Partridge, 43, 63, 141, 203
Pants, 130-133, 182, 183
P. ater, xvii
P. cceruleus, xvi
P. major, xvii
/•*. inajciinus, 132, 162
P. inedius, 130
P. minimus, 132
P. palustris, xvii

Passer (Pascer), 18, 72, 104, 106, 108,
I37~I39» :6o, 168, 180-183

22O

Index

Passer coinmnnis, 134
P. dotnesticus, xvi

P. gran linens, no, in

P. Jiantndinaccns, 104, 105

/'. inagnus, 134

P. sepiaritiSi 136, 137

P. ton] italics, 134, 135

/". troglodites (troglodytes}, 134-137

Passer, Common, 135

Passer, Great, 135

Passenulus, 134

Pavo, 136-139

P. cristatus, xvii

P. iiidicus, 86

Peacock, 137, 139

Peacock, Indian, 87

Pecok, xvii, 136, 137

IleAeids, 60, 61

Pelccanns (Pdicanus], 150-153

IleXe/cd?, 150, 151

Fella, 38, 39

Penelopes, 22-25

Penelops, 22, 182, 183

Pence, 14, 15

Percnoptems, 34, 35

Pennos, 30-33

Perdix, xiv, 18, 42-44, 138-141, 180,

181, 202
/*. cinerea, xvii

T3. rnstica (nisticula), xii, 140, 141
/*. viilgaris, xiv

, 138, 139

d, 58, 59
40
14

Pernix, 14, 15
Pertrige, xvii, 138, 139
Pffaw, xvii, 136, 137
Phalacrocoracidce, xvii
Phalacrocorax, x, 92-95
T3. carbo, xvii
/*. graciilus? xvii
Phalaris, 92, 93, 182, 183
PJiasianidcc, xvii
Phasianus, 40, 140, 141, 200
^ colchicus, xvii
4>dTTa, 60, 61
Pheasant, 41, 201
$^1?, 36

Phesan, xvii, 140, 141
Philomela, 108, 109
P/iceuiciira, 157
Ph<xnicurits, 154-157
Phccnix, xvii, 140, 141

((powiKOvpyos), 154, 155
X 38-41

38

Yoz, 118, 142-145, 170, 171
. granata, 144
^. marina, 198

/Vm rustic a, xv
/'. viilgaris, 144
Picida', xvii

/y«/j, 54, 114, 115, 146-149, 162, 163

/J. cornicinus, 148
Picus, Crow, 149
Picus, Green, 115
/Vc-wj martins, xiii, xvii, 88, 89, 146,

147, 182, 183
P. maximtts, 148
7J. inediits, 148
T7. minimus, 148
/'. viridis, 1 1 2
Pie, 119, 145, 199
Pie, Common, 145
Pie, Sea, 199
Pie, Seed, 145

Pigargus (Pygargns), xii, 30, 31
on , 45» 195

Pilaris (Turdiis), 170, 171

Piot, xv, 142, 143

Pipers (of Crane or Pigeon), 96, 97

Pipiones, 96, 97

Pipit, Tree-, 69

Pipo, 146, 147

Pittour, xv, 40, 41, 123

Pittourus, 40, 122

lIAcryyo s, 30

Plane ns, 30, 31

Planga, 30, 31

llXcij/os, 30

Plalalea leucorodia, xvii, 41

PlalaleidiC, xvii

Platea, 150, 151, 180, 181

Platclea, 150, 151

Plegadis falcinellns, 5 7

Plover, Stilt, 102

Pluver, xv, 132, 133

Pochard, xv, 49

Pochards, 48

Podicipedidcc, xvii

Podieipes minor, xvii

Popinjay, xvii, 150, 151

Porpliyrio, 102, 103, 152, 153

/'. cidestis, xvii

Pratincola > nbicola, xviii

n/acv/sws, 152, 153

"Priest," 51

Procellariidce, xvii

^cipos, 164, 165

Psilaca, 1 50

Psitaee, 150, 151

Psilacus (Psiticiis), 82, 83, 142, 143,

W.J5I

Psiltacidce, xvii

Psittaeus (Sacropsittacus), 208-211
14
14
f, 56, 57

Index

221

Puffinus, xvii

Tlvyapyos, 170; see Pigargns

Pnlla, 34, 35

Pulver, xv, 132, 133

Puphin, 205

Puphinus, 204

Pupin, 197, 205

Pupinus, 196, 204

n.vppov\as, 1 60, 161

Ilvppovpds, 161

Puttok, xvi, 1 1 6, 117

Py, xv, 142, 143

Pygargus, see Pigargus

Pygosceles, 204, 205

Pyrrhocorax, 90-93

P. alpinus, xv

P. graculus, xv

Pyrrhula europtea, xvi

Quail, 63, 69, 203, 205
Quale, xviii, 62, 63
Qiicn/iiL-ifttla crecca, xv
Quikstertz, xvi, 64, 65

Rabe, xv, 64, 65

Rail, Water, 71

/?#/#, xii, xiii, 140

R. aquatica, xii

R. aquatilis, xiii

^. Montana, xiii

^. sylvestris, xiii

A*, terrestris, xii

Rale, xvii, 141

Rallida, xvii

Rail us aquaticiis, 71

Ranseul, xvii, 130, 131

Raphon, xvii, 138, 139

Rauce, 206, 207

l\<tucns, 206, 207

Raven, xv, 35, 64, 65

Raven, White, 2ri

Rayn byrde, xvii, 146

Redbreast, ix, 161

Redbreste, Robin, xvii, 154, 155

Rede Sparrow, xvi, 102, 103

Rede tale, xviii, 154, 155

Redshanc, xvii

Redshanca , 101

Redshank, 103

Redstart, ix, 155

Reed-Bunting, x

Reed-Sparrow, 105

Regulus, 52, 53, 118, 119, 134-137,

152-155, 168, 169, 182, 183
R. cri status ? xviii
Reydt Miiss, xvi, 102, 103
Reyger, xv, 36, 37
Ringel Taube, xv, 60, 6r
Ringged Dove, xv, 60, 61
Ringtail, 19

Ringtale, xv

Ringtalus, xii, 18

Ringtayle, xii

Riparia, 98-102

Robin Redbreste, xvii, 154, 155

Rook, 65

Rosdom, xv, 40, 41, 123

Rosdomma, 122

RosdommuS) 40

Rotbrust, xvii, 154, 155

Rotkelchen, xvii, 154, 155

Rotstertz, xviii, 154, 155

Rouce (Rouke), 206, 207

Rowert, xvi, 72, 73

Rtibecula, 154-159, 182, 183

Rubetarins, 14, 15, 18, 19

Rubetra.) 158, 159, 182, 183

Rubicilla, 156, 157, 160, 161, 182, 183

Rupex, 1 80, 181

'Py<ro/A?77-p77?, 40, 41

Rusticu/a, xii

Rut id lla, 154-159

R. phcenicurus, xviii

Sacropsittacus , 208-2 1 1

Solus ) 1 60, 161

Sandpiper, ix

Sandpiper, Common, 57

Saxicola ccnanthc, xviii

Sxt^TroSa, 40

S%otVi/cXos, 102, 103

Schrecke, 71

Schric, xvi, 169

Schricus, 168

Schriek, 71

Schryk, xvii, 70, 71

Schuffauss, xvii, 46, 47

Schiiffel, xvii, 46, 47

Schwalb, xvi, 96, 97, 102, 103

Scolopacida, xvii

Scolopax ntsticnla, xvii

Scops, 204, 205

Scrica, xvii, 128, 129

Sea-Aquila, 183

Sea-Cob, 79

Sea-Eagle, 193

Sea- Pie, 199

Se Cob, xvi, 78-79

See Gell, xvi, 78-79

Zeuro-n-vyis, 54, 55

Semaw (white with a black cop), xvi,

74' 75

Senator^ 152, 153
Serinus canarius, xvi
Shearwater, 71
Sheldappel, xvi, 72, 73
Sheld-Drake, 25
Shell-apple, 73
Shovelard, xvii, 41. 150, 151
Shovelarda, 38

222

Index

Shric, 169

Shricus, 168

Shrike, ix, xvi, 116, 117

Siskin, xvi, 51, 108, 109

Sitta, 162, 163

S. ccesia, xvii

Sittidcc, xvii

^jKvnrcxpdya,, 40

2/toXoTra^, 87

S\'w\77/co0a7a, 40

Smatche, xviii, 52, 53

Smerl, xv, 17

Smerla, 16

Snepff, Holtz, xvii, 42, 86

Sneppa, 70, 71

Solend Guse, xvii, 28

Sparhauc, xv

Sparhauca^ 18

Sparrow, xvi, 73, 105, 107, 109, n/,

i32> i33» '35. l6l> l69
Sparrow, Grass, 1 1 1
Sparrow- Hawk, 19
Sparrow, Hedge, xvii, 136, 137
Sparrow, Rede, xvi, 102, 103
Sparrow, Reed, 105
Spatz, xvi, 132, 133
Specht, xvii, 146, 147, 149
Spechta, 1 48
Speiren, xvi, 102, 103
Sperlingk, xvi, 132, 133
"ZirepfjioXdyos, 64, 65, 206, 207
SpermologuS) 206, 207
Sperwer, xv, 18, 19
Spink, xvi, 72, 73
Sjtinus, 40, 41, 64, 65, 104-107, 182,

183

Sir/fa, 72, 73
Spoonbill, x, 41
Star, xvii, 164, 165
Starling, 23, 95, 165, 205
^TeyavoTToda, 40
Steinbeisser, xiii
Steinchek, xviii, 52, 53
Steingall, xvi, 166, 167
Stellaris, 14, 15, (Ardea)*, 38-41, 126,

127

Sterlyng, xvii, 164, 165
Stern, xvi, 79
Sterna, 78
S. nigra, 79
Steynbisser, xvii, 54, 55
Stigelitz, xvi, 40, 41
Stilt- Plover, 102
Stocdove, xv, 60, 61
Stonchatter, xviii, 159 •

Stonchattera, \ 58
Stor, xvii, 164, 165
Storck, xv, 54, 55
Stork, xv, 54, 55
Strauss, xvii, 164, 165

Sir ig idee, xvii
Strix stridula ? xvii

132, 133
"Zrpovdos, 164, 165
Strnthio, 44, 45, 164, 165
Struthio catiielus, xvii, 92, 93, i6-».

165, 168, 169
Strttthionidce, xvii
SturnidcZ) xvii
Sturnus, 22, 94, 164, 165, 168, 169,

204

S. vulgaris, xvii
Snbaquila,^, 35

Subuteo (Subletted), xii, 14, 15, 18, 19
Su/ca\ts, 70, 71
Sn la bassana, xvii
Siilidic, xvii

Swalbe, Geyr, xv, 102, 103
Swalbe, Kirch, xv, 102, 103
Swalbe, Uber, xvi, 102, JO3
Swale, xvi, 96, 97
Swallow (Swallowe), ix, xvi, 96, 97,

101-103, 205
Swallow, Black, ror
Swallow, Great, xv, 102, 103
Swallow, House, 101
Swallow, Water, xiii, xvii, 54, 55
Swan, xv, 120, 121, 123, 127, 197
Swan, xv, 120, 121
Sylvia, 182, 183
S. atricapilla, xviii
S. rufa, xviii
Sylviidee, xvii, xviii

Tadorna cornuta, xv, 25

Taw*/, 136, 137

Thrda, xii, 180,- 181, (see also Aves

tardce)

Taube, xv, 58, 59
Taube, Ringel, xv, 60
Tela, 48
Tele, xv, 49
Tern, Black, ix, 79
Tetrao, 30, 31, 130, 131, 166, 167
7". tetrix, xviii
Tctraonidff, xviii
Tetrix, 30, 31, 166, 167
T&y>if, 1 66, 167
Thraupis, xii, 52, 53
OpauTrts, xii, 50, 51
Throssel, xviii, 172, 173
Thrusche, xviii, 170, 171
Thrush, 59, 119, 175, 177, 209
Thrush, Blue, 53
Thrush, Mistletoe, xviii
Thrushe, xviii, 172, 173
Tichodroma muraria, 53
Tinunculus {Tinnnnculus), 166, 167
Tinmtnailns alaudarius, xvi
Titlark, 69

Index

223

Titling, 69
Titlinga, 68
Titlyng, xvi, 68, 69
Titmouse, 130, 131
Titmous[e], Great, xvii, 130, 131
Titmouse, Greatest, 133
Titmous[e], Less, xvii, 130, 131
Torquella (Torqiiilla}, 146-149
Totanns calidris, xvii
Trapp (Trap), xvi, 31, 166, 167
Trappus, xii, 30
Tree- Creeper, ix
Tree-Pipit, 69
Triorcha, 14, 15
Triorchcs, 16, 17
Tpi6px^, 14, 1 6, 17
T/x>xt\os, 152, 153
7 'rock Hits, 152, 153
Troglodytes (Troglodites}, 134-137
T, pai-vuhis, xviii, 155
Troglodytidte, xviii
Tpvyyas, 170, 171
Tpvywv, 60

Tryiiga, 170, 17 r, 180, i8[
Turbo, 146-149
Turdidff, xviii
T'nrdus, 58, 102, 105, 118, 170 174,

208

T. iliacus, xviii, 170, 171
T. incrula, xviii
T. mnsicus, xviii
T. pilaris, xviii, 170, 171
T. viscivorns, xviii, 170, 171
Turtel Duve, xv, 60, 6r
Turtle- Dove, 89
Turtnr, 58-61, 88, 89, 146, 147, 172

-175, i 80, 181
T. communis, xv
Tyrannus, 120, 12 r, 154, 155, 168,

169

Ule, xvii, 1 20, 121
Ulula, 130, 131
'T7rcueT(5s, 34
Upupa, 174, 175
£/. epops, xviii
Upnpidce, xviii
Unix, 166, 167
Urinatrix, 92, 93, 176, 177, 182, 183

Valeria, 34, 35

Vannelhts, 76, 77, 174, 175

Fi vulgaris, xv

Velt hon, xvii, 138, 139

Venice Dove, xv, 63

Villatica, 82, 84, 86

Vinago, 58-63, 180, 181

Vipiones, 96, 97

F/m>, 58, 59, 106, 107, 148, 149,

i72-J75

Viscivorus (Turdiis), 170, 171
Visharn, xvi, 34, 35
Vogelhain, xiii

Viilpanser, xii, 24, 25, 182, 183
Vultur, xviii, 34, 166, 176-178
K niger, 178
Vulture, 35, 177, 179
Vulture, Black, 179
-, xviii

Wachholtervogel, xviii, 170, 171

Wachtel, xviii, 62, 63

Wagtale, xviii, 64, 65

Waldrapp, x

Wall- Creeper, 53

Waltrap, xvi

Walt-rapp, x

Waltrapus, 9'2~95

Wasser Hen, xvii, 170, 171

Wasser Steltz, xvi, 64, 65

Water-Craw, xv, 22, 23

Water-Hen, xvii, 170, 171

Water-Hen (black with a white frontal

patch), 77

Water Ousel, ix, 23
Water Rail, 71

Water Swallow, xiii, xvii, 54, 55
Weidwail, xvi, 172, 173
Weingaerdsvogel, xviii, 172, 173
Weye, xvi, 116, i \~]
Wheatear, ix, 53
Widhopff, xviii, 174, 175
Wigene, xv, 48, 49
Wigeon, 22
Witwol, xvi, 172, 173
Wodcoccus, 42
Wodcok, xvii, 86, 87
Wodlerck, xiv, 80
Wodspcchta, 148
Woodcock, 42, 45, 89
Woodpecker, 55

Woodspecht (Wodspecht), xvii, 149
Wren, xviii, 152, 153, 155
Wyngthrushe, xviii, 172, 173

Yelowham, xvi, 106, 107
Yowlring, xvi, 106, 107

Zaunkiiningk, xviii, 152, 153
Zeysich, xvi, 108, 109

CAMBRIDGE : PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

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JJCJ_22:!992

QCT271992

167U17

Turner, W.

Turner on birds.

uaii iNumoer:

QL673
T8

T8

167417