neh ai Orne - “ . a ake netiptct tate sna eiat santtehetaneh tt Par re phe Nn inh net otiolintintninty ten’ alt Lette ete 5 eraletetn tem *- tafe THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES VOL. VII FRANCIS RAMALEY EDITOR PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BOULDER, COLO. DECEMBER, 1909, TO JUNE, I9IO 218 44° CONTENTS OF VOLUME VII No. 1 FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO. A CHAPTER IN Economic HIsToRY JouN Burton PuHILiips, PH.D. Professor of Economics and Sociology FOREIGN DRAMA ON THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE. II. GERMAN DRAMA CHARLES C. AYER, PH.D. Professor of Romance Languages BORROWINGS AND ADAPTATIONS FROM THE “ILIAD” AND “ OpyssEY’’ IN MATTHEW ARNOLD’S “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM”’ Mito G. DERHAM, PH.D. Assistant Professor of Latin THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO MOUNTAIN LABORATORY FRANCIS RAMALEY, PuH.D. Professor of Biology No. 2 THE DECLINING BIRTHRATE . Joun Burton Puitiies, Pu.D. Professor of Economics and Sociology AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy and W. W. Rossins, M.A. Instructor in Biology No. 3 PAGE 63 73 oI 159 179 SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909 1. ITINERARY, TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY Juntus HENDERSON, B.A. Curator of the Museum ili IOL Io. CONTENTS REMARKS ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO ae PS eee W. W. Rossiys, M.A. Instructor in Biology A BoTANICAL TRIP IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO . W. W. Rossins, M.A. Instructor in Biology Mo.tiuscA COLLECTED IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909. Junius HENDERSON, B.A. Curator of the Museum SomE INSECTS COLLECTED IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN IgoQ T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF COLO- RADO EXPEDITION OF 1909 T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy NotTEs ON BrrDS AND MAMMALS OF NORTHWESTERN COLO- RADO A. H. FELGER Fosstt INVERTEBRATES FROM NORTHWESTERN COLORADO . Junius HENDERSON, B.A. Curator of the Museum Fosstt PLANTS FROM THE MESA VERDE CRETACEOUS . T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS DEALING WITH THE GEOLOGY AND NATURAL History OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO II2 II5 125 126 130 132 146 149 I51I 2. CONTENTS No. 4 PrRE-THAEESIAN PHILOSOPHY MELANCHTHON F. Lipsy, PH.D. Professor of Philosophy SEX DIFFERENCES AND VARIABILITY IN COLOR PERCEPTION V. A. C. Henmon, Px.D. Professor of Psychology . INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE ANTS OF NORTHERN COLORADO suse ePoapesttte 4s W. W. Rossins, M.A. Instructor in Biology REMARKS ON SOME NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BOULDER PARK (TOLLAND, Coto.) Pe RIN TY PR Ee FRANCIS RAMALEY, PH.D. Professor of Biology NOTES ON THE FLow oF WATER IN IRRIGATION DITCHEs . CLEMENT C. Writrams, C.E. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering ALPHABETICAL INDEX . V 201 207 215 223 237 249 Sierslt Se ete ns viper io esate = “hips = Faso eigaens Voitume VII NuMBER I THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES FRANCIS RAMALEY EDITOR PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BOULDER, COLO. DECEMBER, 1909 Price, 50 Cents Vie A eK Ke \ Fara thon in) ih ia Hy, ait ( a its OH fi vatican hy ut x “1 (! ANH my uy iat Sih Np ve Ati! ih NOW ID vi i ‘ . ) ni iA) at } it WN "h a nu Wu Maley \ i ati At , Hae Lim n\ We i a eee \ wu Wi) ae ) yi ii ot Anu fi PLU ee | Deane t 4 eau ia { yn Gite Hi) ; Bi tay Nie ay tal Hue NS 4 Ae ay i Ny wi CONTENTS FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO. A CHAP- TER IN Economic HISTORY JoHN Burton PHItiies, Pu.D. Professor of Economics and Sociology FOREIGN DRAMA ON THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE. II. GERMAN DRAMA CHARLES C. AyER, PH.D. Professor of Romance Languages BORROWINGS AND ADAPTATIONS FROM THE “ILIAD’’ AND “ OpySsSEY ”’ IN MATTHEW ARNOLD’S “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM”’ Mito G. Deruam, PH.D. Assistant Professor of Latin THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO MOUNTAIN LABORATORY FRANCIS RAMALEY, PH.D. Professor of Biology PAGE 73 oI Pry Bg a iy He M4 | th JAN i | udb atid i tae ‘Adhe ar ' Oo wala\h a vi " Det umeder (aeke Uo MUM ey Tbe a % is Plot a} FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COEORADO: A CHAPTER IN ECONOMIC HISTORY By JOHN BuRTON PHILLIPS CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ~ PAGE Denver as a Distributing Centre SOURS eR eA COMM MTU SE) LOAM Ra 8p hea Importance of Long Haul ..._. AO EMNY PURER tg ee >) Dependence of Rocky Mountain Resa on Telus DeLee 7 Gia te Wn BD Power of Railroad Manager : : : SA PA 2 se PP He Ye pes 2 Interest of Railroad Manager in Dividends SAP hy Res stile yd coi a RR ote EIS Carrying Industry Desires Haulage . ... USA Relat ole ae Localization of Manufactures in East Increases Haile OS eh a) wes of EY Manufactures in East; Raw Material Production in West . P ; Rea Transportation Companies’ Interest in This Condition Sib sh iis) el eel at Ge Population Moves West More Rapidly than Manufactures . ee Heaviest Denver Shippers Formulated First Schedule of Freight Rates . 11 aig ocnedule Accepted by Railroad: .5 0) ke ee Ae Industrial Characteristics of Mining Population . . . . . . 12 Beginning of Local Manufacture ee Ee LE Lik Le HON RN PIN despa oe Complaints against the Freight Rates wh ME GG PEER POA cae OY ons 0s Legislative Investigation of 1885 FUERTE A) SUE BSI Ita RR Tea CHAPTER II. TESTIMONY OF MANUFACTURERS AND MERCHANTS Paper.—Paper-Mill Project Defeated by Threat to Lower Rates SAREE Saddlery.—Rate on Raw Material Higher than on Manufactured Goods . 15 Freight Rate Lower from East through Denver to California than to Denver , BO ieee ban) ee a Lower Rates to pieyenne ant eden fan to Denver SMO R 50 ti hi Whip Manufacture Discouraged by pei ALOS {es weed eh irks ES Evils of Railroad Pol. . lt St aN oaks pk UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Alleged Railroad Freight Inspector Rebating System and Its Effects Matches ——Manufacture Begun but Discouraged by Rates Monopoly of Diamond Match Company . Soap.—Rates Discouraged Maunfacture . Kirk and Company’s Monopoly . Iron.—Early Development of Iron Manufacture Needed in Mining Region . Freight Rates Same on Raw Material and Manufactured Articles Discrimination against Denver as Distributing Point Powder.—Reduction in Price after Erection of Denver Mill . Combination of DuPont Monopoly with Railroads . Glass.—Railroad Threat to Lower Rate on Incoming Glass . Operation of Factory Raised Denver Rates to Tributary Points . Carriages.—Rate on Materials Higher than on Manufactured Article Building Material and Furniture. Boxes. Brooms.—Rate Same on Unfinished and Finished Furniture : Rate on Mattresses Favored Manufacturer at Wissouti Ree Cement and Terra Cotta.—Difficulty in Distribution of Product Groceries.—Table of Discriminatory Rates Coal Mining.—Complaints of Coal Mine Operators Railroads Engaged in Coal Mining ; Monopoly Price Discouraged New eaters: ‘ CHAPTER III. TESTIMONY OF RAILROAD OFFICIALS Santa Fe Discriminated against Goods Made in Colorado Higher Rates from Denver than from Missouri River ‘ Rio Grande Favored Colorado Consumer Rather than Aisnsetactnnee Nail Rate Reduced to Favor Colorado Coal and Iron Co. Origin of Colorado Coal and Iron Co. Railroad Assistance Attitude of Union Pacific Pressure on Railroads by Eastern Manita cies Letter of Pool Commissioner Promising Aid to ea rinitetasars CHAPTER IV. 1885-1896 Law Creating Railroad Commissioner and Its Repeal Complaints against Freight Rates by Presidents of Denver Ghats of Commerce . 18 19 20 20 20 21 22 23 25 27 27 28 29 30 31 33 34 36 38 39 4o AI AI 42 43 44 45 45 48 49 49 FREIGHT RATES AND MAGUFACTURFS IF COLORADO Freight Rate Attack on Paper-Mill Resolution of Citizens’ League against Freight Rates Table of Commodity Rates to Colorado and California Rite Table of Commodity Rates, California to Colorado and Missouri River Table of Distributive Rates from Colorado Discrimination in Favor of Missouri River Points . Peculiarities of Rate Discrimination . Difficulties of Colorado Jobbers . : Discrimination against Mattress Manufacture . Discrimination against Iron Manufacture in Pueblo Y Inter-State Commerce Commission’s Order to Reduce Rate on Iron Commission’s Order Vacated by United States Circuit Court Failure of Denver to Secure Missouri River Commodity Rates ian. Oh jaa) , Wily Ny tit AALS a dl : \ : } At nh yy ead BEN GE eg bie Headey ne! dont 4 a IN f Wasvig si | FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION The geographical situation of the city of Denver and its function as the distributing centre of the Rocky Mountain region have made the question of transportation of paramount importance. Denver is 1,000 miles from Chicago and 1,800 from San Francisco. It is also about 1,000 miles from the Gulf points and 1,700 from Seattle. From Missouri River points the distance is 600 miles. It thus appears that the city is the only largely populated centre within a vast territory. Further, the entire region between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains is not densely populated. Local traffic is therefore not important and the feature that has appeared most decisive to the railroad companies has always been the long haul. When the Pacific Railroad was opened in 1867, it was supposed that Cheyenne would be the future metropolis of the Rocky Mountain region and little attention was paid by the rail- roads to the thought of building a road from the Union Pacific southward to Denver, then a town of some 4,000 inhabitants. It must be remem- bered that the gold craze which was so powerful a factor in filling Colo- rado with population in the years immediately following 1859 had spent its force and thousands of the disappointed gold hunters had returned ‘to their homes in the east. The men who had stayed in Colorado knew the value of the region as a mining state and, with a thorough belief in the future, sought to secure railroad connection with the outside world. They began at once to raise the funds necessary for building a railroad from Cheyenne to Denver, and after many disappointments and difficulties, the road was opened for traffic on June 22, 1870. The road was built purely by local enterprise. By September of the same year another railroad, the Kansas Pacific, reached the city and thus Denver had satisfactory communica- tion with the outside world and by two different routes. The history of no city shows more clearly the immense power of the railroad managers over the growth and development not only of cities 9 Io UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES but also of large sections of the country. As already indicated the geo- graphical situation of the city and the country tributary to it were in great degree absolutely dependent upon the freight rate for any reason- able growth. Water communication which has guaranteed fair rates to so many places did not exist; navigation of the air was not possible; haulage by wagon was so expensive that it was prohibitory for all except the most valuable kinds of freight. The Rocky Mountain region was therefore absolutely dependent upon the mercies of the railroad manager. The history of railroading in the United States shows clearly enough that the railroad manager is guided in his action by the interests of the men that own the railroad. The men that build and operate a railroad are entitled to make a profit out of their work and hence it happens that the manager is primarily interested in what dividends he is able to secure. Railroads are built for the purpose of hauling commodities primarily and anything that tends to make communities self-sufficient and thus eliminate the need of transporting goods to them is not likely to reteive aid and support from the men who have invested their money in and are devoting their energies to railroads. If each community in the United States began in considerable measure to manufacture the things that are consumed in that particular section, and if the raw materials of manufacture were not required to be hauled in, it is at once apparent that there would be some diminution in the amount of freight carried by the railroads that are now serving these places in the capacity of carriers. It is therefore to the interest of the carrying industry that manufactures should not spread over all sections of the United States. In the railroad manager’s point of view, it is more to his financial interest to have manu- factures largely localized in the eastern part of the country and to keep the West engaged in the production of raw materials. By accomplishing this, he will be able to furnish enormous traffic for the carrying industry. He will haul the manufactured goods from the East to the raw material producing regions of the West and vice versa. This will greatly increase his profits as long as the industries remain thus localized. This brings to mind the navigation laws of the seventeenth century and the prohibi- tion of manufactures that preceded the revolutionary war. ‘The interest of the mother country was to keep the colonies raw material producing FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO IT regions, and in modern times the East and the railways have had the same interest in preventing the growth of manufactures in the western states. That this interest has been in some degree effective appears by a study of the increase of population and the movement of manufac- tures toward the West in the United States. From 1850 when the domestic system of manufacture gave way to the factory, the progress of manufacture toward the West has not kept pace with the westward movement of population. In 1850, the centre of manufactures was a little south of the middle of Pennsylvania, slightly north and west of Harrisburg, while the centre of population was just west of the eastern boundary line of Maryland, being thus considerably east of the centre of manufactures. By 1900, the centre of population had moved westward to a point almost south of Indianapolis while the centre of manufactures was a little east of a line from Columbus to Toledo. During the same period manufactures increased from $1,000,000,000 in 1850 to $13,000,000,000 in 1900. This shows a marked concentration in the manufacturing industry. On June 23, 1870, the next day after the first locomotive arrived in Denver, there was a meeting of the heaviest shippers to consider the matter of freight rates. On the following day another meeting of the same persons was held and a schedule of rates was agreed upon. This schedule was presented to the superintendent of the railroad who replied on June 28 as follows: DENVER PacrFic RAILWAY Superintendent’s Office Denver Colo., June 28, 1870 Fred. Z. Solomon, Esq., Chairman Business Men’s Meeting, Denver, Colo. Str: The proceedings of the meetings of the heaviest shippers of this place, held in this city June 23 and 24, were handed me by your secretary, Mr. McDonald. The recommendations of the meetings were presented by me to the proper railroad officials, and the rates proposed by your meeiings for carrying freights have been adopted and will be published in a few days. These rates will apply to all freight which has come into Denver over the Denver Pacific Railway since June 25, and if any other rate has been paid, the matter will be properly adjusted upon applica- tion to me at this office. Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, C. W. FIsHER, Supt. D. P. R’R. I2 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES In reply to this the committee having the matter in charge adopted the following resolution: Resolved, That the reply of Col. Fisher to the request of the shippers of Denver relative to freight tariff over the road of which he is superintendent is perfectly satisfactory, and our thanks are due for the prompt and cheerful compliance with our request, FrED Z. SoLoMON, Chairman. F. A. McDonatp, Secretary. After publishing this correspondence, the editor of the Colorado Daily Tribune remarked that this was an auspicious beginning as it proved that the railroad company and the merchants were dwelling together in unity. He thought this was a forerunner of what might be expected in the future." It is true that this looked like an auspicious beginning but there were certain conditions that made it to the interest of the railroads apparently to keep the prices for transporting freight to Colorado high. ‘The roads had been built in advance of the needs of the time. There was no popu- lation along their line to furnish them with any business. If their stock was to become at all valuable, they must do their utmost to secure as large a revenue as possible from all shippers who patronized them. Therefore, there was every inducement for them to raise the rates and keep them high. There was also the inducement to keep new manufac- tures from locating in Colorado so as to supply the home market. This would reduce the revenue of the roads from hauling in freight. There was also another cause operating to prevent freight rates favor- able to the establishment of manufactures and that was the leading occupation of the country. Manufacturing is a routine industry; it takes time and patience and does not furnish the opportunity to “strike it rich”? suddenly. Wealth made in manufacturing comes slowly as the result of years of patient attention and devotion to the details of the business and to the development of a large market by advertising’ and so forth. This industry, therefore, requires a different type of mind from that needed in such an industry as mining. After the railroad had reached Denver, the people that came for the next ten years or more were very largely persons interested in one way or another in the mining t Colorado Daily Tribune, June 29, 1870. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 13 development of the state. They did not come to Colorado for the pur- pose of starting a manufacturing plant. In fact, the rewards from the mining industry had become sufficiently well known to make most of the migrating population turn their energies in that direction rather than pay much attention to the establishment of manufactures. The persons, then, that came to the state in the earlier decades were persons of the adventurous type of mind and not persons accustomed to the monotonous routine of workaday industry. A population of this sort largely engaged in the mining industry expects that everything will be high. A mining region is accustomed to pay high prices for all things as the rewards of industry in the search for gold are apt to be high and this increases the cost of all other things as workers in other lines must be paid as much as the average returns of the gold seeker. If they are not so paid they will also engage in the search for the precious metals. This was the situation in Colorado for the first decade and more after the railroad reached Denver. Mining was the leading occupation. No one was paying much attention to manufacturing; the returns from mining were sufficiently large to make that the paramount industry. Therefore the few manufacturing concerns which did start were soon disposed of by the adjustment of discriminatory rates on the part of the railroad companies. After the factories started, the rates were lowered so that goods could be brought in from the East more cheaply than they could be produced in Denver. This matter did not attract any par- ticular attention during the early period as mining was occupying too prominent a place. As Denver increased in population, however, and it was seen that it was destined to be one of the large cities of the country, and as it also became apparent that the cheaper forms of mining were no longer efficient, then it was evident that manufacturing in Colorado would be an advantage to the city and state. ‘Therefore, public atten- tion began to be directed toward whatever hindrances there were to the development of this important industry. The freight rate difficulty was at once complained of. Discussion of the injustice which it was alleged the city and state were suffering at the hands of the railroads was carried on in the newspapers and in January, 1885, the legislature, almost immediately after convening, appointed a special railroad com- I4 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES mittee of the house of representatives to investigate the freight rate situa- tion and ascertain if possible whether or not the railroads were unfavorable to the establishment of manufactures in Colorado. This committee occupied several weeks in examining witnesses, both shippers and rail- road agents and officers, in an honest endeavor to ascertain the facts of the existing situation and also the attitude of the railroads toward the establishment of manufacturing industries in Colorado. Much impor- tant testimony was taken and great light was thereby thrown upon many phases of the question. From this testimony important data bearing on the relation of the freight rate to manufactures has been summarized below. CHAPTER IJ. TESTIMONY OF MANUFACTURERS AND MERCHANTS PAPER In 1884, a plan was matured to build a paper-mill in Denver. Mr. Woodworth, a gentleman who was familiar with the manufacture of paper in the East and who had been spending the summer in Colorado, saw the possibilities in the manufacture of paper in the city and decided to set up a mill. He convinced some of the local capitalists that the enterprise would pay. A lot was selected and he went East to buy the necessary machinery. The capital of the establishment was to be $250,000. When the railroad officials learned of the scheme they informed Mr. Woodworth that in case a paper-mill was started in Denver they would put the freight rates on incoming paper so low that he could not afford to manufacture.? SADDLERY AND HARDWARE Mr. E. B. Light who was engaged in the saddlery business in Denver in 1885 explained to the committee the effect of the freight rates on leather manufacture. It appears from his testimony that the rate on raw material was generally higher than on manufactured goods. There was at that time a combination in the saddlery hardware business and the trust would lay down the same hardware any place east of the Mis- sissippi River at the same price. The dealer at the River got the goods therefore at the price paid by the dealer in Newark, N. J. The freight on one hundred dollars worth of such hardware from the Missouri River to Denver was about one fourth of the value, so that the Denver dealer had to pay $125 for what the dealer at the River secured for $100.2, The same rate on raw and manufactured goods was a loss to the railroad according to Mr. Light as the amount of money invested in a harness if invested in the raw material and this shipped in from the River would yield a large amount in freight as the raw material was three or four times as heavy as the finished product. ‘This was true of either leather t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, pp. 13, 14, 1885. 2 Ibid., p. 84, 1885. T5 16 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES or saddlery hardware. From the railroad point of view, however, cheaper rates on raw materials might have tended strongly to encourage the growth of manufacture in Denver, and ultimately make for the self- sufficiency of the region. This might mean less freight in the future. At this time Mr. Light’s concern had travelers making the towns in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Kansas, Nebraska, Idaho, Montana, and they had gone even as far as Hailey, Oregon. The goods sold over this large territory were certain specialties that were well adapted to the uses of this particular region. The competition which these agents encountered was particularly with the California dealers. Goods could be shipped from the East to the California houses more cheaply than they could be shipped to Denver. The goods thus went through to the Pacific points cheaper than they could be stopped off at Denver. In this way the San Francisco dealer could get into Idaho and other parts of the West and undersell the Denver man. Goods were thus carried across the continent and then shipped back again to the points reached by the San Francisco trade. It was the custom of Mr. Light’s firm to sell to certain dealers in various parts of the states above mentioned and have the goods shipped directly from the factory to the dealer as the rate would have greatly raised the price had the goods been shipped via Denver. This was considered bad business by the wholesaler as it was said to bring the manufacturer and the dealer into closer relations and in the course of time the dealer would buy directly from the eastern manufacturer, and the Denver jobber’s trade would disappear. In 1883, Mr. Light had a drummer in Texas who found he could sell a large quantity of wooden stirrups that were made in Ohio. By bringing them in south of the pool lines and getting them to Fort Worth, they could be handled for $1.10 a hundred. Bringing them to Denver and shipping them thence to Fort Worth would cost $5.10. Mr. Light presented the case to the freight agent of the Santa Fe explaining that he could handle a large amount of these stirrups and asking if the railroad would not give the same rate on them as was then given on wooden ware, namely $0.60 a hundred. The agent said he would write to the head office at Topeka and find out about the matter. Before this time Mr. Light’s concern had been called the Denver Whip and Collar Company, FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 17 but the name had recently been changed to the Denver Manufacturing Company. When this was explained to the agent he said, “The name will kill this thing because you are manufacturers.’’? Mr. Light asked to be allowed to ship in carload lots and then asked if they would make him a special rate on what he shipped south of Emporia which was a pool point. The railroad would then get a haul to Denver and half way back to Kansas City and none of the goods would be sold in the territory of the pooled roads. This proposition was de- clined on the ground, according to the statement of the freight agent of the company, that Mr. Light was a manufacturer. The reply from Topeka was unfavorable as had been anticipated. As an indication of the policy of the railroads toward the development of manufactures in the Rocky Mountain region at this time the following incident is worth noting. Mr. Light bought a carload of blankets in Philadelphia in 1884. The freight on these blankets was $175 from Philadelphia. Of this amount the cost of freight from Philadelphia to Chicago was $45, and from Chicago to Denver, $130. For the first half of the journey the freight was one fourth of the total, the second half, from Chicago to Denver, three fourths of the total freight cost.? The efforts of the Union Pacific to build up Cheyenne and interfere with the progress of Denver which had been the policy of that railroad in the early days lasted till some time previous to 1885 and the rates enjoyed by the merchants in that town were much more favorable than the rates granted to the Denver dealers. Goods shipped to Georgetown and Central City came via Cheyenne. The Union Pacific would not make the same rate to Denver as it was a pool point and Cheyenne was not. If goods were shipped to Denver the Union Pacific would get only one fourth of the freight, but if shipped to Cheyenne, this road would getall. Sucha condition prevented the increase of manufacture and trade in Denver. If the Union Pacific hauled to Denver, it would get one fourth of the freight, but if it hauled to Ogden, it would get all the freight. This condition accounts for the lower rates from the Missouri River to Ogden and Salt Lake than to Denver. Mr. Light formerly manufactured whips in Westfield, Massachusetts. t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 83. 2 [bid., p. 84. 18 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES He told the committee that he could make whips more cheaply in Denver. This was because factory workers were cheap in Colorado as so many per- sons had come out from the East in search of health and while they were not fitted to do the heavy work of the building trades or mines, were never- theless able to do the lighter work of the factories. He also stated that there was no reason why he should not make whips in Denver and sell them to the entire tributary country save only the adverse railroad rates. He had previously had considerable trade in Trinidad but of late it had greatly fallen off. The merchants there said that they could get the goods more cheaply by shipping them in from the East than they could get them from Denver. The general conditions in Denver in 1885 were not encouraging to the manufacturing industries. Such industries were at that time declin- ing according to testimony before the special railroad committee. The cause of this decline was said to be the railroad pool. The discrimi- natory rates against Denver and in favor of Cheyenne, Ogden and Salt Lake, are evidence of the injury to the manufacturing interests of Denver wrought by the pool. It was affirmed before the committee that in the days when there was only the old Kansas Pacific to bring in the goods from the Missouri River, it was possible to have the commodities come in more reasonably than in 1885 when the city had four railroads. It was charged that the classification of freight was almost constantly changed and the rates raised in this way every time the traffic would bear a higher charge. The railroad companies were said to have had an inspector at the freight house whose business it was to open boxes and ascertain if freight was properly classified. If a few first class articles were found in a box of mixed freight the whole box was charged up as first class freight. The railroads regarded it as smuggling.’ This was especially the case in the matter of saddlery. If ten dollars worth of harness rosettes were placed in a $300 box of saddlery hard- ware, the whole shipment would be put up to first class rates, that being the class to which harness rosettes belonged. In the East harness rosettes were third class freight. t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 84. 2 Ibid., p. 85. Improper freight classification is a serious fraud practiced on railroads. An inspector may have been necessary. See Report of the United States Industrial Commission, Vol. IX, p. 288, 1902. 3 Ibid., p. 84, 1885. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 19 These various railway practices were not without their effect on the business of the city. It was stated to the legislative committee that in 1885, 25 per cent. less mechanics were employed than was the case two years before. The number of men in the iron industries was also reduced in the same proportion. Nothwithstanding these conditions, many of the business men, especially wholesalers, were at that time friendly to the railroads. The rebating system was then in force and as many of these persons were in the habit of receiving rebates which enabled them to thrive while their competitors were worsted, they natu- rally remained friendly to the railroad companies. A canner of vegetables agreed to sell to wholesalers as cheaply as they could buy in the East plus the freight. They greatly astonished him by the information that 15 per cent. of the freight should be deducted as this was their rebate. It is said that several of the merchants wanted high rates so they could profit by the rebate they were then getting and at the same time be pro- tected from the competition of new firms that, were it not for this dis- crimination, might be induced to start business in the city. Rebating was then carried on in other cities of the state besides Denver; Mr. Light told the committee that a merchant in Leadville showed him a check for $2,000, that being his rebate during a certain period." Freight rates were so adjusted at this time that the Denver merchants and manufacturers could not get into the market at Cheyenne, save only in those cases in which the dealers of the latter city wished their goods sent with great dispatch. In such cases the road would make a rate that would allow the Denver dealer to sell his goods in Cheyenne. Ex-Gover- vor Alva Adams, president of the board of trade at Pueblo, stated in an address that nails made by the Colorado Coal and Iron Company if shipped to El Paso paid a rate of fifty cents a keg. If these nails were bought in the East and shipped to Pueblo, the freight would be twenty- five cents a keg. If they were reshipped at Pueblo and sent to El Paso, the freight to that point would be twenty-five cents more. It thus appears that at that time the manufacturer of nails in Pueblo paid the same rate as the eastern manufacturer whenever he wished to ship to points in what might be called country tributary to his manufactory.’ 1 Ibid., p. 84. 2 Ibid. 20 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES MATCHES Mr. James D. Davis began the manufacture of matches in Denver in 1883. He started with a capital of four or five thousand dollars and produced from twenty-five to thirty gross a day. When the factory first started, matches could be sold to the merchants at $2.50 a gross, but he had to sell them very soon at $1.50 in order to keep his trade, as the rates were reduced on matches brought in from the East. When the factory began operations, the freight rate on matches was $3.60 a hun- dred. Very soon after that it was reduced to $2.60 a hundred, and still later it became the practice to classify matches as wooden ware, and thus classified the rate was one dollar a hundred. When the factory was started, the profit was thirty-five to fifty cents a gross on the manufacture of matches at the Denver factory, but after the profit had declined to five or ten cents in consequence of the reductions in freight rates, it was not profitable to keep the factory running and it accordingly closed down in 1885." One of the prominent merchants of the city of Denver testified before the committee that there was a general break in the rate in the year 1884, and that aside from matches, soap and other commodities were affected. That this rate war was purely a railroad contest is hard to prove. It appears from evidence before the same committee that Kirk and Company were trying to starve out the small manufacturers of soap at this time. It is also true that the Diamond Match Company had a monopoly more or less complete of the match manufacture of the United States. $27,000,000 worth of matches was manufactured in 1883, and of this amount $22,000,000 was made by the Diamond Match Company. It is easy to believe that so large a shipper as the Diamond Match Com- pany might have some power in the matter of dictating the rate to be charged by the railroads. After the winter of 1884, the rates on matches and other commodities were again raised. The match factory had then gone out of business.? Soap A soap factory was established in Denver in 1876. In the beginning the factory was somewhat handicapped by the railroads as the freight t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, pp. 22, 23, 133, -130- 2 Ibid., p. 133. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 21 rates on the raw material for the manufacture of soap were the same as the rates charged for bringing in soap. The factory was able to make a large product but experienced the greatest difficulty in marketing it as the rates were so made by the railroads as to favor the long haul. At this time there were four roads in the pool and the division on a carload of freight hauled from the River to Colorado points would be more than that resulting from a car of soap shipped from Denver to Las Vegas, or other points in the neighboring territory. After the factory had been running for three or four months and had turned out a soap that would take the market, the freight rate was changed. When the factory was opened, the rate on soap from the Missouri River to Denver was one dollar a hundred pounds and the rate from Chicago to the River was forty cents a hundred. This $1.40 rate to Denver was lowered as soon as the factory appeared to be successful to 60 cents a hundred pound case. About 1880 another soap factory was started in Denver. Some time after it had been in operation, the rates on soap from the East were low- ered and a great fall in the price occurred. This was the current report in Denver at the time of the investigation by the legislative committee and a number of witnesses testified before the committee. It was the custom to buy the soap that was shipped into Denver with the freight prepaid and this tended to surround the matter with more mystery and lend color to the suspicion that the report was true. At any rate the factory had gone out of business.? The evidence taken by the committee shows that the freight rate, as in the case of the factory in 1876, was the same on soap and soda, although one car of soda would make many cars of soap. It appeared that there were good opportunities for the manufacture of soap in Denver. It was stated by witnesses before the committee that the price of grease in Denver was lower than it was in the East. The rate on soap from the Missouri River to Denver was maintained rigidly and honestly from November 1, 1882, to February 28, 1884. On the latter date rate cutting was begun and one cut followed another till the rates were 30 or 4o per cent. of the published freight tariff, t Ibid., pp. 43, 218. 2 Ibid., p. 131. 22 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Chicago to Denver. On August 1, 1884, the rates were restored and the plan of the railroad companies was to exact from all shippers the same rate. It was found, however, that Kirk and Company had a con- tract which ran till the end of the year by which one of the railroads running from Chicago to Council Bluffs agreed to ship their soap. below the published tariff. Over this railroad the Union Pacific had no control. After the expiration of this contract Kirk and Company had to pay the same rate as anybody else. It was the practice of Kirk and Company to sell soap in Denver and Salt Lake as cheaply as in Chicago as they wished to break up the manufacture of soap in the West. In this the committee was told Kirk and Company were usually successful. In case the soap makers of the West were not ruined by this competi- tion, they were at least made sufficiently tractable to make a contract according to which the profits were divided and a share given to Kirk and Company. In 1885, there were very few soap factories between the Missouri River and the Pacific Ocean.* IRON Of all manufactures, that of iron is the most important and its devel- opment usually takes place first in order of time in all places where such industry attains much magnitude. ‘The attitude therefore of the govern- ment or of those in control of the forces affecting the iron industry toward the manufacture of iron is a clear indication as to whether or not it is desired to make that particular section a manufacturing centre. In this respect, the attitude of the railroads is important as showing their desire for manufacturing to develop in any particular place. They constitute certain powerful causes in aid of or injury to manufactures, and it is only necessary to ascertain whether or not they make the freight rate so as to discriminate against the infant manufacturing industry struggling to get started in the newer points reached by the road. The attitude of the railroads therefore toward the growth of the iron manufacture at any point is an indication of their general attitude toward the development of the other manufacturing industries at that place. What was the atti- tude of the transportation companies toward the iron industry in Denver and Colorado generally in the earlier period ? 1 Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 225. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 23 Aside from any interference on the part of the railroads, the natural situation of the state of Colorado and the nature of the industry that was first developed in the state, namely, mining, are conditions that would of necessity have started the iron industry at an early date. Heavy iron machinery was greatly needed in working the mines. Such machinery is expensive to bring in from points 1,000 miles distant as its weight adds greatly to the difficulty in transporting it and freight rates must of neces- sity be very high. In 1881-82, just after the great mining successes at Leadville, there was a great influx of mining machinery. It was shipped from points beyond the Missouri River, much of it from places as far distant as Pittsburgh, and the average rate of freight was said to have been ten cents a pound. This was an enormous tax on the mining industry of the state. There can be little doubt that this great demand for the products of iron manufacture would have stimulated the develop- ment of that industry very rapidly, had it not been for the discriminating freight rates. _ The foundry business was started in Denver in 1871. It was handi- capped by the rates for the shipment of its products. ‘The freight rates from Denver to points in Arizona, Montana and southern California were the same as from Missouri River points. ‘The foundry shipped in pig iron and coke from the East as these were superior in quality to any made in Colorado at that time. The freight rate on these products was fifteen dollars a ton.? The freight rates were not favorable to the manufacturer of foundry products then nor did they become so soon. The discrimination in favor of the places on the Missouri River continued. The rates were kept as high on the raw material needed for use in iron manufacture as on the manufactured product. It cost as much in every case except that of pig iron to bring in the raw materials as it did the manufactured machines. This is especially illustrated by the rate on boilers. On 30 per cent. of the material in boilers, the rate was higher than the rate on the manufactured boiler. The rate on the boiler tubes was $1.15; on the finished boiler, the rate was $1.00.3 Six firms were engaged in the manufacture of boilers in 1884. The price of boilers was high enough t Ibid., p. 166. 2 Ibid., p. 51. 3 Ibid., p. 166. 24 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES to encourage their manufacture in Colorado if the railroads would have been willing to change their classification of freight so as not to discrimi- nate against the growth of the manufacture. Most of the boilers made in Colorado at this time were made from scrap iron.’ If the freight rate on boiler iron had been reduced to 75 cents a hundred, it was said before the committee that the boilers made in Colorado would have been equal to the demand in that state. It was also stated that this lowering of the rate on boiler iron would have had a great effect in developing mining in the state. In 1881-82 when there seemed for a time to be a prospect favoring the growth of this industry, the Colorado Iron Works employed from 150 to 300 men.’ Mr. James W. Nesmith, the president of the Colorado Iron Works, testified before the committee in verification of the testimony already given by other witnesses concerning the discrimination against the development of the iron industry in Colorado. He said it did not pay to manufacture boilers in Colorado as the freight on boilers was at that time less than the freight on the iron from which boilers were made and this iron would have to be shipped in from Pittsburgh. Boilers from the same point could be brought in for less money. To make the boilers in Colorado would have cost as much more as the labor put into the manufacture of them was worth. Mr. Nesmith testified that this discrim- ination had always existed. There was a rate war beginning June 2, 1884, when for a time there was a difference of twenty-five cents between the freight rates on raw and manufactured iron. The Colorado Iron Works did not manufacture more than 33 per cent. of the boilers which they might manufacture were it not for the discriminating freight tariff. The five or six iron manufacturing concerns in Denver in 1885 had all dropped out of the business of making boilers on account of the unfavor- able freight rate, and had devoted themselves to the manufacture of other things. At that time $1,000,000 was invested in the various machine shops of the city, all of which could engage in the manufacture of boilers were it not for the rate against them. These various shops had a capacity to employ 1,200 men, but owing to the unfavorable attitude of the railroads toward the development of manufactures in the state, t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 160. 2 Tbid., p. 168. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 25 these shops were not then and had not been for a year employing more than 150 men. Had there been no rate discrimination, Colorado would have made all the mining machinery needed in the state. However, at that time and with all the shops ready, Denver did not produce more than 25 per cent. of the mining machinery needed in the country tribu- tary to it. It was stated that if there had been at that time the same discrimination between manufactured articles and raw iron as there had been between pig and manufactured iron, the iron manufacture would have developed rapidly in Denver. The rate on pig iron from the Missouri River was fifty cents a hundred; on bar iron $1.00. If the bar iron was boxed to go into machinery, the rate was sixty cents a hundred. There was a discrimination also against Denver as a distributing point for manufactured articles. The rate from Denver to Wood River was the same as the rate from Omaha and other Missouri River points to Wood River, though the distance was several times as great.? It was brought out in the testimony before the committee that the Santa Fe charged about 4o per cent. higher rates on freight from Denver to New Mexico points than was charged shippers bringing in their goods from eastern points. Asan illustration of this Mr. Davis, a manufacturer of boilers and engines, related to the committee the following incident: He sold a hoisting outfit, boiler and engine, to a person who desired them to be shipped to Los Cerillos, New Mexico. After the bargain had been concluded, other dealers in boilers and engines who were handling goods shipped in from the East offered the purchaser of Mr. Davis’ machinery the same goods at a cheaper price. The purchaser stuck to his bargain. Mr. Davis went to see about the freight rate on the outfit to the destina- tion in New Mexico. Before stating the rate, the freight agent asked Mr. Davis where the goods were made. When he was told they were made in Denver, the freight rate announced was considerably higher than the rate from Denver to New Mexico charged commodities that were shipped in and jobbed from Denver. Mr. Davis next tried to ship this outfit through a firm that had a special agreement with the Santa Fe, Jensen, Bliss and Company. ‘I went to Mr. Bliss and asked him if he would ship it, he said he would and asked what it was; I told him t Ibid., p. 4. 2 Ibid. 26 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES an engine and boiler; he said, ‘I can’t ship that; it would burst my arrangements up;’ he said he had a special contract with them to ship his goods at a special rate but they must be goods shipped in here.’’? This transaction occurred some time previous to January, 1885. Mr. Davis began the preparation of a lawsuit against the Santa Fe on account of this discrimination maintained by it, but found that at that time there was no existing law against it. Another foundry had started in 1880, but failed as the rates were so high that coal, coke and pig iron could not be brought in to enable the manufacturer to compete with machinery brought in from the Fast.? In 1883, the Union Pacific began a fight against the Colorado Coal and Iron Company by lowering the rates on manufactured iron goods. The cut began in Utah and by September 11, had extended to Colorado. This cut affected the company disastrously.3 The same situation confronted other iron industries as was the case with the boiler manufacture. In anew country that was doing so much development work as was being done in Colorado in the decade from 1880 to 1890, much iron to be used in bridges was needed. The roads were being improved in all directions and this meant a great need of bridges. Iron had been found to be the best material of which bridges should be made and it was therefore natural to expect the development in the state of certain bridge manufacturing plants. ‘This did not occur as the rate on bridge iron brought in from the eastern manufactories was so adjusted that the eastern manufacturer could make the bridges and ship them to the Rocky Mountain region more cheaply than they could be made in Colorado. As late as 1884, no iron bridge had ever been made in Colorado. The freight on the raw bridge iron from the Missouri River was $1.00 per hundred weight, while the freight on the finished bridge was only seventy-five cents. The iron manufacturers stated that twenty-five cents a hundred was a very large profit. It is thus very clear that as long as this condition prevailed, bridges would continue to be made east of the Missouri River and shipped to Colorado. t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 78. 3 Ibid., p. 218. 2 Ibid., p. 50. 4 Ibid., p. 168. = ete FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 27 POWDER Some years previous to 1884, a company was formed for the manu- facture of powder in Denver. Much of this article was then used in the mining operations in the districts tributary to that city and it occurred to the men promoting the company that the cost of transporting it to Colorado from the East might be saved if its manufacture was begun in Denver. The company secured a patent by which it was claimed that powder could be made for nine cents a pound cheaper than it was then made in the East. The mill was accordingly started. At that time the price of powder was thirty-seven or thirty-eight cents a pound. Immedi- ately after the factory was in operation, the price was put down to twenty cents a pound for powder brought from the East to Denver. It cost more than twenty cents a pound to manufacture powder at the Denver mill. The mill was operated for about six months when the lower prices of powder from the East made it apparent to the stockholders that the enterprise was not likely to be in condition to pay any dividends and the mill was accordingly closed. The stockholders sold out for about 35 cents on the dollar, losing about $20,000 of the cost of the plant. It is said that DuPont did not want the mill in Denver to manufacture powder. He wanted the powder to be made in his mills in the East. Mr. Bosworth, who was superintendent of the mill, told the committee that he understood there was a rebate given by the railroad companies as powder was sold in Colorado during the time the mill was in operation for less than it could be made in the East.* Just after the Denver factory had started and when the price had been put down, the president of the company, Henry R. Wolcott, went East to investigate the low price of powder. He found that powder making in the East was in the hands of the DuPont monopoly, and that this monopoly in combination with the railroads was too strong for the Denver firm. By lowering the freight rates to Colorado and also the price at which powder was sold in the state, and by recouping itself by higher rates and prices elsewhere, the combine could give away all the powder used in Colorado and still not lose. When this state of affairs was understood, it was felt by the stockholders that it was idle to fight the t Ibid., p. 66. 28 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES collusion of the railroads and the trust and although the Denver plant was one of the finest, it was sold out to DuPont at his own figures." Some interesting light is shed on this matter by the testimony of the general freight agent of the Union Pacific Railroad. This agent, Mr. Shelby, stated that his company had had nothing to do with the destruc- tion of the powder-mill. His railroad wanted to go out of the business of transporting high explosives and desired to foster their manufacture in Colorado. ‘To this other roads having terminals in Colorado objected and believed that their interests lay in the transportation of powder to Colorado. The Union Pacific went out of the business of transporting powder for a time and the other roads charged a high tariff for carrying it. Mr. Shelby did not think the rate was lowered for the purpose of destroying the powder factory in Denver. He thought the case was more like the case of the soap factory mentioned above. Kirk wanted to monopolize the manufacture of soap and did so. So with the DuPont powder company; they would give away powder in Colorado rather than let the factory produce it in the state.? GLASS The glass industry encountered similar opposition to that which confronted the others already described. It is an industry that tends to establish itself as near as may be to the localities where it is consumed in large quantities as the commodity is one that is liable to loss from breakage resulting from shipment. Thus with the growth of Denver and the cities of Colorado, there was an impetus given to the establish- ment of glass industries. According to statements by the Denver dealers, during the ten months ending November 1, 1881, $281,000 worth of glass was sold in Denver. Mr. Burdsall came to the conclusion that this manufacture might be carried on profitably there as all the materials needed in making it were to be found in Colorado and not distant from the city. He intended to utilize the soda lakes near Morrison from which an abundance of soda could be easily brought to Denver. He discussed the matter with the Union Pacific officials and found that the freight on the incoming glass was a considerable item in the income of that railroad, t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 64. 2 [bid., p. 243. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 29 amounting to not less than $100,000 for the preceding ten months. Mr. Burdsall also discussed with the railroad officials the matter of bringing in soda from Morrison and establishing a glass factory in Denver; they told him that if his company started a factory in Denver, they would put the freight rate on glass from the East down to nothing so as to kill his company’s business.'. They charged Mr. Burdsall $14 a car to ship some soda, silica, kaolin and so forth from Morrison to Denver. Lime and other products for the Grant Smelter were brought to Denver from the same place for seven dollars a car. The materials near Morrison were so abundant that if the rate from there to Denver could be lowered, glass and sulphate of soda could be made in Denver and sold in the country tributary to that city in defiance of anything the railroads could do. At the prevailing rate east, the product might be shipped to the Missouri River and sold there.? The general freight agent of the Union Pacific, Mr. Shelby, told the committee that the rates on silica, soda etc. were not fourteen dollars a car if several cars a day were shipped. He said lower rates were not given the Grant Smelter. The explanation would seem to be that the Grant Smelter was at that time consuming enough of the material to get a cheaper rate in consequence of larger shipments. Mr. Shelby also stated that at that time the Union Pacific would be glad to encourage a glass factory in Denver and would haul in the materials at as low a rate as four cents a hundred as it was then (1885) doing for the glass factory that had recently started.4 Mr. John P. Epley began the manufacture of glass in Denver in 1884. His factory turned out bottles only. ‘These he attempted to sell in the territory tributary to Denver, but had encountered difficulties. He received an order for bottles to be shipped to a point east of Denver on the Burlington, but as soon as the customer ascertained what the freight would be, he canceled the order. The freight rate for bottles made in Denver and shipped to points in the territory adjacent was too high to allow such manufacture to develop. After the factory had been started, the freight rates on bottles from the East were lowered. In consequence, t [bid., p. 147. 3 Tbid., p. 248. 2 Ibid., p. 149. 4 Ibid. 30 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES the price of the bottles made in Denver had to be lowered to meet the competition and hold the customers which the new factory had secured in Denver. None of the materials used in the manufacture of bottles by this factory were brought in from the East. The soda was brought from Wyoming. When this glass company attempted to extend its trade to the southern part of Colorado, territory served by the Santa Fe railroad, it encountered difficulties as the freight rate from Denver to the points in this territory had been raised during the year 1884 and just after the glass factory had started." CARRIAGES The difficulties which the manufacturer of carriages suffered on account of the arrangement of the freight rates were related to the inves- tigating committee of the legislature by Mr. D. K. Wall, a carriage manufacturer who was employing from fifteen to twenty-five men in his factory in 1885. Mr. Wall stated that the freight rate on carriages partly finished in the white as it is called was the same as the rate on the finished product. Carriages made in Colorado were said by this manu- facturer to be superior to those made in the East owing to the greater dryness of the atmosphere and the fact that the timber would in conse- quence be so much better seasoned. Mr. Wall thought carriage manu- facture could be carried on as well in Denver as anywhere as it is the custom for all carriage manufactories to have certain parts used in the manufacture shipped in from points all over the United States. The rate on carriages from the Missouri River at that time was $1.37 a hundred weight, the same as the rate on carriage wheels in the white or other parts of the vehicle. He stated that if rates were proportioned according to the value of the article, carriages would be made in Denver at a very good profit. Many laborers had come out to Colorado for their health and unable to do heavy work would be very happy to find work such as is required in a carriage factory and which they would be able to perform successfully.? Another carriage manufacturer employing from fifteen to twenty- five men confirmed the testimony of Mr. Wall, stating that everything that t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 55. ; 2 [bid., p. 157. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 31 goes into a carriage is charged at a higher freight rate than the finished carriage when that is shipped from the East. This manufacturer, Mr. Melburn, stated that in 1883 he had asked that the rates on all the things that go to make a wagon, wheels, springs, carriage bolts etc. be so ad- _justed that they would be the same as the rate on manufactured wagons. This the railroad officials refused and said the articles could be classi- fied only after their arrival here. The rates were such that the freight on a car of finished wagons from the Missouri River to Denver would cost $200, but the car of parts of wagons from the Missouri River would have to pay freight amounting to $365. The manufacturer stated that four carriage wheels in raw material ironed cost $17.40, but when painted and ready for the wagon they were worth $32, the difference being due to the additional labor put on them. Ii the freight on this $17.40 of raw material were in the same proportion to the value of the material as the freight on the manufactured article was to its value, carriages could be made in Denver and the Denver manufacturers would control the trade. Their profits would be increased about to per cent., said Mr. Melburn. It seems that at that time the carriages made in Colorado would sell for a little more than those shipped from the East.! An interesting light is thrown on the carriage trade by the testimony of this manufacturer. It seems that when he began the manufacture of wagons in 1877, vehicles made in Colorado were not in demand, but by 1884 the preference was given to the wagons that were made in the state. It was estimated at that time that the wagons made in the state would last 20 per cent. longer because of the better seasoning of the timber put into them, due, of course, to the dryness of the climate. A lowering of the rates would enable him to employ in his factory 300 more hands. At that time not more than 125 men were employed in this kind of manufacture in the entire city. The witness stated that the employ- ment of 300 more men would mean a difference in the population of the city of from 1,500 to 2,000.? . BumLpDING MATERIAL AND FURNITURE The freight rates had their effect on the manufacture of the higher grades of building material and furniture. Sash, doors and blinds t Ibid. 2 Ibid., p. 157. 32 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES made in Denver could not be marketed north of the Union Pacific nor south of the Santa Fe. One of the prominent lumber dealers in Denver stated that in 1882 he could make doors and started in the business but the Chicago firms got the rates lowered so that in 1885, doors could not be made in Colorado. In 1885, the rate on glazed sash from the Missouri River to Colorado common points was seventy-five cents; on window glass the freight rate from the River was one dollar. Therefore glazing could not well be done in Denver. At that time only odd sizes of sash and the like were made in the city. These sizes did not compete with the product shipped in from the East and the manufacturer was therefore allowed to sell them north of the Union Pacific railroad. His market could not be extended to the towns within a short distance of Denver such as Long- mont, Colorado Springs or Pueblo. The freight rate on such goods from the East to these points was the same as the rate from Denver." Mr. Henry C. Taussig, a manufacturer of packing-boxes, stated that the freight rate on such boxes complete in the knock-down shape from the Missouri River to Colorado points was the same as the rate on the rough lumber of which such boxes were made. ‘There was also consid- erable waste in the manufacture of these boxes. Mr. Taussig stated that this rate was special to certain dealers in the city. Some makers of crackers and soap were getting their boxes from the East in 1885. The rate had not recently been lowered, but the classification of packing- boxes had been changed. He could not sell to the soap factory in Pueblo as the rate from Kansas City to Pueblo was the same as the rate from Kansas City to Denver. The rate on lumber from the mountains of Colorado about 75 miles distant was $1.65 a hundred weight, while the rate on lumber from Kansas City, 600 miles, was fifty cents.? A broom factory was started in Denver in 1880. The market was mostly local owing to the unfavorable freight rates from the East as compared with the rates from the Denver manufactory. Brooms were shipped from various points between the Missouri River and Denver to points in the Mountains at $40 a car. The rate on brooms shipped from the Denver factory to the same points in the Mountains was $130 to $150 a car. Manufactured brooms were also shipped from the Missouri t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, pp. 73, 79, 81. 2 Ibid., p. 33. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 33 River to Denver at the same rate as raw material. Brooms were classi- fied as wooden and willow ware, the same as raw material. It cost more at that time to ship a carload of broom handles from the River to Denver than it cost to ship a carload of brooms.‘ Mr. Shelby, freight agent of the Union Pacific, said that these rates would be modified so as to give the Denver broom manufacturer a market from 100 to 200 miles east of the city.” A furniture dealer who had also been engaged in the manufacture of mattresses stated that he had had to abandon their manufacture on account of the unfavorable freight rate on goods brought in from the East. Rates on materials from which mattresses are made were $1.05 from the Missouri River to Colorado. After the manufacture had begun in Denver, the rate on these materials was advanced to $1.45. Then the firm ceased to manufacture and bought the mattresses in the East. Mr. Gartner, the manufacturer, stated that the rates on the raw material for upholstered goods were the same as for the finished article. Mr. Stewart, another manufacturer of mattresses, confirmed what Mr. Gartner had said and added other interesting items. He had begun the manufacture of mattresses in 1881 and soon found that the freight rates were unfavorable to the extension of his market over territory south of Denver. Freight rates to New Mexican points had been raised after the factory started. Formerly the rate on mattresses from Denver to Las Vegas was $1.55; in 1885, it was $2.80. The old rate to Albu- querque was $2.15; in 1885, it was $3.80. Until 1884 or 1885, the rates from Denver to points in New Mexico were higher than the rates from the Missouri River to these points. This, of course, did not encourage the growth of his market. The freight rate on bed springs was lower than the rate on the raw wire of which these bed springs were made.3 The freight rate on chairs in knock-down condition was the same as the rate on chairs set up and finished if shipped in carload lots. Look- ing glass plates were charged the same freight rate as finished looking glasses, and all furniture, whether in the raw or finished condition, paid t Ibid., p. 30. 3 Ibid., p. 28. 2 Ibid., p. 85. 34 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES the same rate.t Labor was higher in Colorado and without a consider- able difference in the raw and manufactured goods, furniture could not be finished in Denver.’ CEMENT AND TERRA COTTA Fire brick, cement and terra cotta works in Denver had each similar experiences to those of the other industries already mentioned. The fire brick company could not enlarge its market on account of the unfa- vorable freight rates. The cost of manufacturing this commodity in Denver was somewhat higher than at the Missouri River points as the coal had to be hauled in and labor was higher. After the article was manufactured, however, the rates from Denver to points in Idaho and Montana were the same as the rate to those points from places on the Missouri River.* This condition confined the fire brick made in Denver to the local market. Much the same condition confronted the manufacturers of cement in Denver in the years preceding 1885. ‘The firm could not sell its product in Salt Lake as the rate from Denver to Salt Lake was about the same as the rate from the Missouri River to Salt Lake and hence, the manufacturer at the River who could produce more cheaply had the advantage over the Denver manufacturer. The freight rate from Denver to Albuquerque was the same as the rate from the Missouri River to the same point. This was true generally of the rates to points in Mexico. In 1885, the freight rate on cement from Denver to Chey- enne was lower than the rate from the River to that point but the Denver company could not sell cement in Cheyenne. Mr. Evans, the secretary of the company, stated that he thought the merchants in Cheyenne were getting rebates at that time, and that the public schedule did not obtain. He said his company had nearly closed a contract for three cars in that city, but the Union Pacific learned of it and cut the freight rate so that the company lost the contract and the cement was hauled from the Mis- souri River. After the factory had been started in Denver, the freight rate on cement from the Missouri River to Denver was greatly lowered, whether to injure the factory or not the secretary said he did not know.4 The terra cotta stone works were built in 1881 and the product was t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 1. 2 [bid., p. 142. 3 Ibid., p. 35. 4 Ibid., p. 42. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 35 soon more than sufficient to supply the local market. The owner, Mr. Moulton, sought to sell his surplus in Salt Lake. He found to his astonishment that the freight rate on a car of his products from Denver to Salt Lake was $75 more than the rate on the same products from the Missouri River to Salt Lake. Eastern firms at Akron, Ohio, Peoria, Ill., and Des Moines, Iowa, were then competing in the Denver market. Since Mr. Moulton’s factory was started, the freight rate from the Missouri River to Denver had been greatly lowered. He stated that if the rates had remained the same as they were when his factory began operations, he would be able to compete with eastern manufacturers. The rate then existing on terra cotta products from Denver to Salt Lake was $250 a car. The rate from Omaha to Salt Lake on the same products was $175 a car. This effectually shut out Denver from the market in Salt Lak . Seventy-five dollars a car was a handsome profit according to the testimony of the Denver manufacturer.’ GROCERIES The grocery business was so discriminated against by the freight rate that Denver could not become a distributing point for the Rocky Mountain country. It was stated in the evidence before the railroad committee, that the Kansas Pacific Railroad was capitalized at $250,000 a mile which sum was vastly beyond the cost of constructing it, and that in consequence of this great capitalization, it was the desire of the rail- road company to secure all the returns in freight that could possibly be obtained. The same was more or less true of the capitalization of the other railroads that at that time terminated in Denver or other parts of the state. It was alleged that the railroads expected the people to pay interest on this enormous capitalization, and hence the high rates for everything carried into the state. Mr. Shelby, general freight agent of the Union Pacific, stated that during the preceding year, the Union Pacific fell short of paying expenses and interest on bonds by $623,299.’ It was also charged by Mr. Martin, a wholesale grocer, that the goods shipped to Colorado were frequently overweighed. He had brought a suit against the railroad company on this charge and had won the suit. t [bid., p. 171. 2 [bid., p. 240. 3 Ibid., p. 61. 36 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES The following table of freight rates.on the various groceries shows very clearly the discrimination in that business:* CANNED GOODS California ‘to Bostortiy. ih pelea eg sis be ee ee $x. Caliiomia io Mbeya. hor et hea ay ee Ts Galtfornia' ito Atchison wiccce iene ee seein 18 Caliiomiato Denver ee a ea rs DRIED FRUITS Calitomiaito (Chicaeo noi csiiien oe ele ee ele ae ep Ti California: to Denversan eee cue ae one a RAISINS California to) Missourt Riverss0b52oe looks ee TT GaliformiatowMenvernssscee ee ooo ee een Ree 2. NUTS Galitomia to Chicago: otis ee a ieineshacues meee r. GalifomialtosDenversy. ns Ae ia Dean eer SE 2. BEANS Califormiatte Chiesa ge) i. th iiae oaks Se emu alee Ei GCalifomiartolStluoulsi vane ote iirc De Cahfornia. toi Cmemnaisai bein sap seo I. CaliformmaitorDenverdiiuer see od alee akan Te COFFEE AND RICE Calrtomiatto Missouri River aac ce sane in Californiaito Denver a yee fete leis ee eeee ore Pe FRUITS AND VEGETABLES (CAR LOTS) Galiforsia to bicamos ihe cine ciao e\fia is leine etrawiens eee is California Ta WMEnVery GOAL ok hue supe tin eaee ane I. California to Denver (less car Jots)........ ata 2. SUGAR Califomia to Kansas \City uo 4)U5 2 ie suena Ee Califomia ‘to Denver iiuiecc eda een t ee ae Zs RICE Caltforniato Kansas: Cityociu icy Suen Lt; California to Denvete iui dss sstnesaawatinenienne ne By this table it appears that all staple groceries that came from Cali- fornia to Denver were charged at a higher rate of freight than if they t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 60. 40 FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 37 went on through to the Missouri River or Chicago. As a general rule, all fifth class goods which consisted of groceries were hauled from Cali- fornia to the Missouri River points for one dollar, but to Denver, six hundred miles shorter haul, the rate was $1.50. Green fruits shipped from California to Denver paid a rate of two cents a pound, but if shipped through to the Missouri River, New York or Chicago, th2 rate was one cent a pound.t A number of wholesale grocers confirmed this testi- mony.? Isaac Brinker, a retired grocer, bought syrup in California and shipped it to the Missouri River and then back from the River to Denver in order to get the advantage of the lower freight rate. Mr. Wolfe Londoner, one of the wholesalers of Denver, stated that the rail- road pool was a great injury to the business interests of the city. The rates were so arranged as to favor shipping in manufactured goods. He had lost his trade at Trinidad, Colorado Springs and Grand Junction, on account of the discrimination against Denver as a distributing point. The freight rate from Chicago to Salt Lake injured the trade of the Den- ver wholesalers and destroyed the trade with Grand Junction. It was hard for the wholesalers to live at that time as the rates were so unfavor- able. Merchants in Georgetown and other points in the interior of the state could get the same rate as the Denver wholesaler and as a conse- quence, they ceased buying from the Denver house and bought directly from the firms in the East or elsewhere.t It was impossible to ship groceries to Utah from Colorado. California competed with the East. Canned goods, coffee, rice, dried fruit, liquors, cigars, machinery and nails were hauled from California to Utah because these all came to Cali- fornia by water and at a very low rates. They had been shipped from California to points in Utah at as low as thirty-five cents a hundred weight. This is why the freight rate on nails from Pittsburgh to Cali- fornia was sixty-five cents a hundred.‘ - In explaining why fifth class freight was carried from California to Chicago and Omaha more cheaply than to Denver, Mr. Shelby, general freight agent of the Union Pacific, said that there was water t Ibid., p. 243. Mr. Shelby, general freight agent of the Union Pacific, said this was not true in 1885. 2 Ibid., pp. 133, 97- 4 Ibid., pp. 139, 140. 3 [bid., p. 111. 5 Ibid., p. 1909. 38 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES competition at these points and there was no water competition at Denver. ‘These articles were shipped around Cape Horn.* Coat MINING It appears also that the business of coal mining upon which the growth of manufacturing industry depends was not greatly encouraged by the railroads. Various witnesses before the committee testified to discriminations of different kinds which interfered with the profitable conduct of the business. Mr. Langford who was at that time operating the Marshall Mine about sixteen miles from Denver stated that the freight rate on coal from the mine to Denver was $1.25 a ton. The Louisville Mine was operated by the Union Coal Company and was two miles farther from Denver than the Marshall Mine, but the rate on coal from the Louisville Mine to Denver was only twenty-five cents a ton. ‘This was denied by the general freight agent of the Union Pacific who said the Union Coal Company was a department of the Union Pacific Railroad.? The directors and stockholders of the Louisville Mine were the same as the largest stockholders in the Union Pacific Railroad Company. Mr. Goodrich who was mining coal at Erie confirmed the testimony of Mr. Langford. He stated that he was obliged to pay $1.00a ton to get his coal from Erie to Denver, and that he could not sell in the Mountains nor south of Denver as the freight rate was discriminatory.* The sale of Colorado coal outside of the state was not encouraged by the railroads. A Denver dealer got orders for coal at places in Kansas. The Union Pacific quoted him a rate of $3.50 a ton for the shipment of coal to these points. A traveler had been sent out and had worked up considerable trade. ‘Three cars were sent over the Union Pacific. ‘Then an order came to receive no more cars, and the shipper had to abandon the attempt to sell in Kansas. Coal was at that time being mined in Gunnison County and shipped to Denver ready for the markets in Kansas and Nebraska. ‘The coal came over the Rio Grande. The Union Pacific raised the freight rate for hauling coal to points in the states east of Colorado to $10.00 a ton. The officials of the Union t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 248.. 3 Ibid., p. 50. 2 [bid., p. 230. 4 Ibid., p. 64. ae ete ener! gOS 09, +e ae ir ‘ FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 39 Pacific said they were not receiving any freight from the Rio Grande at that time. A similar case happened with the Santa Fe. As soon as it was learned that the coal came from Colorado, a prohibitory tariff. was fixed." It is stated in the report of the railroad commissioner for the year 1885 that the price of coal was exhorbitantly high to the consumers in many parts of the state. This was due to the large profits secured by the dealers and not to any extreme cost of production. It appeared that the dealers in many instances had been able to secure a monopoly of the business through connivance with the railroad companies. Dis- crimination had, therefore, become so common that it became a settled conviction in the public mind that a coal measure in the state was without value unless owned by or in connection with a railroad company, and that the transportation companies controlled the price of the entire product. Whether or not this was true, the report does not say.? The explanation of the railroads being engaged in the business of coal mining is, however, not without great interest because of the light it throws on the development of manufactures in the state. When the railroads reached Colorado in the summer and fall of 1870, a demand for coal was created. The consumption by the railroads was more than the mines could produce with their equipment at that time. Hence, the era of railroads created a demand for the investment of more capital in the coal mining business. This capital was not furnished by private parties as their wealth was invested in the mining of precious metals. The Colorado immigrant of the earlier decade came for the purpose of mining gold and not coal. His relation to the coal mining industry was that of consumer rather than producer. If the railroads had not engaged at that time in the mining of coal, it is quite possible that their excessive demands on the small amount of private capital invested in the business would have added a scarcity value to the product. It was on this account that the railroad ownership and operation of coal mines was not in the earlier decades considered a serious menace to the welfare of the state. The commissioner of railroads stated that as private enterprise entered t [bid., pp. 104, 105. 2 Report of the Railroad Commissioner, pp. 63, 65, 1885. 3 Ibid., p. 66, 1885. 40 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES the field, the railway manager could not fail to see that the interest of his company would not be advanced by his staying in the markets as a commercial trader and antagonizing the patrons of his road.'' The difficulty with the situation in 1885 was the monopoly of the business by the railroads and their affiliated dealers so that private capital was discouraged from going into the business. As a result of this situation, the high price of this most essential commodity had a depressing effect on the minds of those persons who were considering the mantpaaateas of new manufacturing plants in the state. t Report of the Railroad Commissioner, p. 66, 1885. CHAPTER III. TESTIMONY OF RAILROAD OFFICIALS The true attitude of the railroads-toward the growth of manufacture in Colorado during this period is perhaps most clearly shown by the statements of the freight agents before the investigating committee of 1885. The freight agent of the Santa Fe testified that the rate on freight from Denver to points in New Mexico was uniformly more than the rate from Kansas City. He said it averaged 4o per cent. more on goods made in Colorado. The rate was uniformly more to Denver and from there to destination than was the case if the freight went through direct. The then existing rates were not published in the rate sheet, but were gotten up in a hektograph form and distributed among some of the shippers. The date of the sheet exhibited to the committee was January 1, 1882. It showed a pronounced discrimination against Colorado manfacturers. These rates applied on jobbing business.* They were as follows: DISCRIMINATION AGAINST COLORADO MANUFACTURERS Furniture made in the East Pueblo to Albuquerque $1.40 “cc (73 ‘73 Colorado “cc (79 cc 2. 15 Fourth class goods made in the East REA i eb (73 “cc “ce (74 6c Colorado “cc 73 73 1.47 First class goods made in the East i! SOCOrEO 1.65 (79 73 “cc 73 (79 Colorado (73 73 73 2.50 Fourth class goods made in the East Tes ae i E35 cc (7 (73 ifs “cc Colorado cc 73 73 I. 70 First class goods made in the East So) Denning 2.15 cc (73 cc ce 73 Colorado “cl (a3 (73 a 20 Fourth class goods made in the East “ “ = “ 1.75 “c cc “ce cc (73 Colorado “cc “cc “ce 2.12 Tron made in the East 1) SCORE Ei 3G ce ce “cc Colorado “ec (7s ce 1.70 Nails made in the East (car lots) ectatite ‘ ey cc “cc “cc Colorado (73 sc 73 1.60 1 Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, pp. 106, 107. 41 42 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES The freight rate was usually from 50 per cent. to 75 per cent. more from Denver to points in Arizona and New Mexico than from Kansas City 600 or 700 miles farther distant. Much the same situation prevailed with regard to the freight rates from Omaha.' ‘These rates show that the man with the capital to invest in manufacturing enterprises would be driven out of Colorado and would probably locate his factory at some point on the Missouri River. From the railway point of view some light is shed on the above table of rates by the testimony of Mr. Hamblin, the general freight agent of the Santa Fe. He stated that the rate tariff was made the last of 1882 or early in 1883, and that according to this tariff, the rates were as shown in the table. The aim of the railroad at that time was to increase its revenues. Since January, 1884, Mr. Hamblin said this tariff had not been in use. Formerly, however, this road had discriminated against goods made in Colorado and was not anxious to encourage manufactures there. He verified the statements of Mr. Davis concerning the purchase of the hoisting engine. The freight rate on this machinery was higher if the article was made in Colorado.? In explanation of the desire of the railroad to prevent the growth of manufactures in the state, Mr. Hamblin said the Santa Fe was at that time getting 19 per cent. of the business of the Colorado pool, “and of course, controlling all of that line from Kan- sas City clear down here, we naturally wanted to make as much money as we possibly could and we made a distinction between manufactured articles and those that we shipped in.’’3 Mr. Hughes, traffic manager of the Rio Grande, stated that the freight rates were made before there were any manufacturers in the state, and that it was the desire of the railroad companies to bring in manufactured products cheaply enough so that people could live in the Rocky Mountain region. The railroads tried to favor the con- sumer rather than stimulate manufacturers. He said there was some justice in the complaints that were at that time made by the persons desiring to start manufacturing in Colorado, and that his railroad was t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 107. 2 Tbid., p. 254. See supra, p. 25. ? 3 Ibid., pp. 254, 255. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 43 willing to make a difference between the rate on the raw material and the manufactured product. He thought that if coal, coke and iron were abundant in the state the policy of the railroads toward manufactures might be changed. His road was not willing to haul in everything needed in manufacture and thereby allow manufactures to develop in the state by keeping up the price of the finished article. In 1882, the Colorado Coal and Iron Company began the manufac- ture of nails. Immediately thereafter, the Union Pacific lowered the rate on nails from the Missouri River. Prior to their manufacture in Colorado, the rate had been $1.25; it was reduced to one dollar as soon as the Coal and Iron Company began to turn out this product. There was likewise a lowering of the rate on everything the company turned out as soon as they began the process of manufacture. Mr. Shelby of the Union Pacific testified that this lowering of the rates was true. He said there had been some “isolated cases.”"* In the spring of 1884 a large territory was opened up to the Coal and Iron Company on account of a change in the freight rates which allowed the company to compete with the eastern dealers in the country north and west of Denver. The company was able in January, 1885, to ship its products to George- town, Central City, Idaho Springs, Erie, Greeley, Boulder and other points which were inaccessible to it ten months previous to the beginning of the year 1885. The iron ore used by the company in this manufac- ture was a Colorado product which came from the mines at Calumet and Villa Grove.? Mr. Hughes stated that the Union Pacific had formerly had a rate from the Missouri River to Salt Lake that was the same as the rate from Denver to Salt Lake, but when the new pool was formed and the rates restored, the Rio Grande had obtained a con- cession that the rates from Colorado points to Salt Lake should be something like 70 per cent. of the rates from the Missouri River to Utah. In consequence of this, the Colorado Coal and Iron Company was selling nails all over Utah and doing the entire business there. After this pool went into operation, the rate on nails from the Missouri River to Utah was $1.50 while from Pueblo, it was ninety cents. t [bid., p. 223. 2 [bid., pp. 218, 210. 3 Ibid., pp. 191, 193. 44 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES The reasons for the reduction in the freight rate so as to enable the company to sell in the above district and in Utah were due to the activity of the Rio Grande which was friendly to the Coal and Iron Company as stockholders of the railroad were largely interested in the company, owning half of its stock. When the pool was formed, they insisted upon a readjustment of the rates by the Union Pacific so that the company might be able to sell its products in a larger territory. The origin of the Colorado Coal (Fuel) and Iron Company at least as far as it has become a factor in the manufacturing industry of the country is due to its reliance upon railroad assistance. Had it been deprived of the close relation with the railroad interest, it is very doubt- ful whether or not it would have been able to grow into the great manu- facturing concern it has become. About 1873, the Rio Grande railroad was built into Pueblo. General Palmer, the builder, got into difficulty when the road had reached this city and found himself short of funds. He wished to build the road from Pueblo to Canon City, a distance of 42 miles. The Colorado Coal and Iron Company had many coal and ore lands in the vicinity of Canon City which they wished to develop. The Coal and Iron Com- pany, therefore, raised the money needed to build the road to Canon City, taking in exchange therefor the stock of the railroad. In this way the road was successfully extended to that point. In a similar fashion, another company bought up the coal and iron lands around Trinidad, Huerfano and some other points, and then turned over one half of their interests to the railroad and on these properties, the funds were raised with which the railroad was built to Trinidad. In 1880 or 1881, in order to develop the resources along the road, General Palmer got the men interested in these properties, both at Trinidad and at Canon City, to put up capital for a steel plant at Pueblo. All the companies were consolidated into the Colorado Coal and Iron Company. About $2,500,000 was expended at that time. The two contracts which had formerly been made by the railroad by which special favors were granted to the companies in the matter of freight rates were then consolidated into one contract with the combined company. ‘This contract extended spe- FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 45 cial favors to the company in the matter of freight rates as the company had united with Palmer in the development of the coal and ore beds and was therefore entitled to a good bargain. This is why, according to the evidence of the receiver of the Rio Grande, no other companies were allowed to sell coal in Leadville except the Colorado Coal and Iron Company.’ This also explains why the above company shipped coal from Coal Creek to Pueblo at two dollars less a ton than could other shippers at Canon City. The discrimination was even greater than two dollars ordinarily at that point.? This is also sufficient to explain the refusal of the Rio Grande to furnish cars to the other companies even though a number of the cars desired were at that time standing empty on the side track.3 Concerning the railroad attitude toward manufactures in Colorado Mr. Shelby, the general freight agent of the Union Pacific, said: It would be to the interest of the Union Pacific Company to so adjust their rates between the Missiouri River and those Colorado central points, as to make it to the interests of the merchants at these points or at the Missouri River, but when you come to go a step further, you will see that would turn the jobbing mer- chant of Denver against us, if we were to pursue that policy; so from a business standpoint, we find it to our interest to so adjust our rates as to give the Denver merchant the benefit of dealing with all the merchants in Colorado. There may be some few instances where this plan is not lived up to.4 A number of wholesalers had already shown that this plan was not generally lived up to. In theory the rate to the points in central Colo- rado was the rate to Denver, plus the local rate, but a number of instances are recorded where the dealer in the interior of the state got the same rate as the Denver dealer. As far as the manufacturer was concerned, Mr. Shelby said the Union Pacific was willing to make the freight rate on raw materials go per cent. of the rate on manufactured articles in order to encourage manufactures in Colorado.s As to the general question of freight rates from the East to the Rocky Mountains, it is clear that very great pressure was brought to bear on t Evidence, Special Rawroad Committee, p. 206. 2 Ibid., p. 19; Colorado Daily Tribune, January 1, 1885. 3 Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, p. 67. 4 Ibid., p. 240. 5 Ibid., p. 228. 46 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES the railroads by the manufacturers of the eastern states to induce them to keep the rate favorable for the shipment of eastern articles to that region. It was not a matter of purely selfish interest on the part of the railroads alone; whatever selfish interest in the matter they may have had was greatly reinforced by a similar interest on the part of the eastern manufacturers. This is made vividly apparent by the testimony of Mr. Daniels who was at that time the official charged with the adminis- tration of the Colorado pool. Repeatedly during 1884, and even as late as the month of January, 1885, the railroads were requested by manu- facturers in the East to lower the rates on manufactured goods shipped to the Rocky Mountain region. The reasons stated in these petitions were that the eastern dealers and manufacturers were losing trade in Colorado on account of the growth of manufactures there. The pool commissioner, Mr. Daniels, said the roads refused to do this as they felt that in the end reasonable protection to the manufacturers of Colo- rado would increase the profits of those engaged in the transportation business. On January 4, 1885, a meeting of the general freight classification committee was held in St. Louis. At this meeting a number of con- cessions were made to Colorado manufacturers. Wagon wood was reduced from class A to class B so as to promote the manufacture of wagons in Colorado. Iron bridge material which had been for some years in class B was advanced to class A. This was protecting the Colorado iron manufacturer. A petition from important shippers was presented to the classification meeting asking for a reduction of the freight rate on soap from the East to Colorado, and stating that soap was being made in that state. The Colorado roads protested against any reduction in this rate and the rate was not changed. A similar petition was presented from the manufacturers of matches asking for a reduction in the carload rate to Colorado and stating that matches were being made in the state, and in consequence, the market for east- erners was being destroyed. This request was also opposed by the Colorado railroads and the rate was not changed." It was also shown by Mr. Daniels that the railroads, in August, t Evidence, Special Railroad Committee, pp. 265, 266. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 47 1884, had reduced the freight rates on the different classes of freight from the Missouri River to Colorado common points. These reduc- tions had been made on the demands of the business men of the leading cities. FREIGHT RATE REDUCTIONS FROM MISSOURI RIVER TO COLORADO 1st class reduced from $2.40 to $2.10 a cwt. “cc “cc eal os oo (2300 1.70 3d “cc ce ce 095 “cc I.40 “cc 4th “cc “cc ce Esa5 cc Eats cc 5th (74 cc “ E25 (73 I.00 “ It was said that these reductions were very nearly and in some cases “quite the rates” asked by the shippers. Mr. Daniels said this was evidence of the attitude of the railroads on the freight rate question." On January 30, 1885, a circular was sent out by the Denver chamber of commerce and board of trade containing a letter which had been addressed to the president of that body three days before by the officials representing the railroads of the state. The circular of the chamber of commerce aimed to call the attention of the world to Colorado as a desirable place for the establishment of manufacturing enterprises. It contains the following: “Many persons in failing health in the eastern states familiar with manufacturing and desiring to establish their particular industries here so as to secure the benefit of our wonderful climate, have hesitated from fears of railroad opposition. The subjoined letter clearly proves that the railroad companies themselves want this idea eradicated.’’? At the meeting of railroad officials at which it was decided to issue this letter to the president of the chamber of commerce, all the railroads in the Colorado pool were represented. ‘The general traffic manager, and general freight agent of the Union Pacific, assistant general manager, and general freight agent of the Burlington and Missouri River, the traffic manager of the Santa Fe, the traffic manager of the Rio Grande, and Mr. Daniels, the commissioner of the Colorado Railway Association, were present. The letter is as follows: t Tbid., p. 267. Ibid., p. 264. 48 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES IMPORTANT TO MANUFACTURERS CotorApo RAtmway ASSOCIATION Union Paciric Ratway BURLINGTON AND Missouri RIvER Ry. ATCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA FE Ry. DENVER AND Rio GRANDE Ry. DENVER, SouTH PARK AND Paciric Ry. OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONER Denver, Colo., Jan. 27, 1885 R. W. Woodbury, Esq., President of the Denver Chamber of Commerce and Board of Trade, Denver, Colo.: DEAR Sir: I am instructed by the managers of the lines, members of the Colo- rado Railway Association, to say to you that they will be glad to use every means within their power, consistent with a broad commercial policy, to encourage manu- factures in Colorado and to foster and build up her home institutions; and to this end they will be pleased at all times to meet through their representatives, com- mittees of your association or others for the purpose of discussing means for the advancement of such interests, believing as they do, that the interests of the people of the state of Colorado and of the railroads, members of this association, are largely identical, and that whatever legitimately advances your interests must advance the interests of these railways. The association invites, through your Chamber of Commerce, the attention of manufacturers of the United States to the natural advan- tages of the Rocky Mountain country for the establishment of industrial enterprises." ‘In the light“of what happened in the years succeeding the issue of this circular, it has been said that it was not issued in good faith. This would probably be hard to prove. It is true it was issued at a time when an investigation of the freight rate question was being conducted by a legislative committee and the fear of adverse legislation might have had some influence on the minds of the railroad managers. However this may be, it is certain that the high promises concerning the establishment of manufactures in Denver and Colorado generally that are apparently embraced in the provisions of the letter were not fulfilled by a favorable adjustment of freight rates. t Second Annual Report of Chamber of Commerce, 1884-85, Pp. 21. CHAPTER IV. 1885-1896 Notwithstanding the fair promises held out in the letter of the pool commissioner to the president of the Denver chamber of commerce, the disadvantageous freight rates of which the shippers complained were not generally readjusted. The legislative committee worked up con- siderable public sentiment by their investigation and as a result of it the legislature passed a law providing for the appointment of a railroad commissioner. The law was approved April 6, 1885. The commis- sioner displayed considerable activity and published a creditable report covering the year 1885. No report was published for the year 1886 as there was no appropriation to pay for it.2 No future appropriations were made to pay the salary of the commissioner. It has been said that the railroad lobby defeated the appropriations and finally compelled the repeal of the law in 1893.3 Whatever was the attitude of the rail- roads in this matter, it does not appear that their rate policy was changed. There is abundant evidence that very little had been done to encourage manufacturers by favorable freight rates during the period from 1885 to 1896. The following is taken from the address of the president of the Denver chamber of commerce delivered in January, 1886: Your directory is unwilling to believe that Denver, a city aspiring to become a commercial, manufacturing and distributing centre, advertising itself to the world as such, can aquiesce in and much longer continue a condition which is delaying its natural growth and development of business year by year. It is useless to say that freight charges in and out of Denver, are so because of so and so. The fact remains that Denver, amongst many characteristics, enjoys or seems to prefer the distinction of being the highest charged town in the country. x This act was supposed to give the commissioner sufficient power over rates to prevent discrimination though it did not say he had the power to make rates. It empowered him to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses, obtain books, papers etc. in the investigation of railroad affairs. 2 A small report—z1 pages—covering the years 1891-92 was published in 1893. 3 The repealing act was vetoed by the governor, but passed both houses, March 30, 1893, by a two- thirds vote and so became law. It was given effect in these words: ‘‘Inasmuch as the public interest requires that this act should take effect at once, an emergency exists requiring this act to take effect immediately; there- ore this act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.’’”—Session Laws of Colorado, 1893, chap. cxxxvi. 4 Report of the Chamber of Commerce, Denver, p. 7, 1806. 49 50 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Again in a similar address some years later is the following: It is not possible that the railroads centering here can much longer ignore the importance of the enormous tonnage, but must see that it is to their interest to give to our manufacturers and jobbers a freight rate that will permit of the distribution of goods to a much greater distance than they now enjoy. In fact each year the dealers have to cut the profits to hold their trade to far distant points. Yet with the discriminations by the railroads in favor of cities located on navigable waters, the tonnage continues to develop, and when they see fit to foster the manufacturers and give to them equal rates with those located to the east, Denver will be the most important city between Chicago and San Francisco.* An illustration of the attitude of the railways toward the development of manufactures appears in the testimony of Professor Ripley and Mr. Kindel before the United States Industrial Commission. During the years 1890-92, a number of men had planned to build a pulp- and paper- mill in Denver and use the raw materials of that section to manufacture paper for the newspapers that circulate in the Rocky Mountain region. In this way it was thought the great expense of shipping this commodity a thousand miles might be avoided. Plans were under way when the attention of one of the railroads was called to the matter, and the officials of the railroad informed the promoters that if a paper-mill was built in Denver, and thereby the shipment of paper from Wisconsin interfered with, the railroads would kill the enterprise at any cost to themselves. This they threatened to accomplish by lowering the freight rate on paper from the East. The promoters were greatly discouraged, but as the freight rate was very high, they decided to build the mill. Plenty of timber was available in the near-by mountains. Coal mines were in active operation within twenty miles of Denver. The promoters thought there was every reason to believe the mill would succeed owing to the great expense of hauling paper 1,000 miles from Wisconsin. ‘The rate on incoming paper had been $1.55 a hundred, and the complaints about the high rate had been one of the leading causes that had led to the erec- tion of the mill. As soon as the mill went into operation, the railroads reduced the rate on incoming paper to $0.25 a hundred. The profits of the enterprise were greatly cut down and the mill finally closed.? t Report of the Chamber of Commerce, Denver, p: 57, 1805. 2 Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. IV, p. 264, 1902; ibid., Vol. IX, p. 287. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 51 Whether or not the closing of the mill was due entirely to the low rate on incoming paper is not important in this connection. The incident is important as showing the disposition of the great traction interests toward the development of an industry which was likely to reduce their profits from freight haulage. Under the schedule of freight rates in force in 1894, Chicago and St. Louis manufacturers could ship mining machinery and supplies to points in New Mexico and Arizona “a great deal cheaper” than the same class of goods could be laid down from Denver. It was said that as a matter of fact this was the case with all kinds of manufactured ar- ticles. The freight tariff at that time was prohibitory and closed Mexico to Colorado manufacturers and jobbers. As a general rule the rates were the same from Omaha to Denver and to Salt Lake although the latter point was 800 miles farther west. ‘The result of all this was that the Colorado shipper was at the mercy of the eastern manufacturer. Chicago was closer to New and Old Mexico than was Denver. This is one of the ways in which the railroad annihilates space. Manufac- turers of mining machinery in Denver stated that were that city placed on an equal footing with the other centres, they could increase their trade threefold within a year. Even as it was, the enterprise of the local manufacturer had in some degree overcome the hardship imposed by the railroad discrimination.' On August 17, 1896, the Citizens’ League of Arapahoe County adopted a resolution declaring that railroad discrimination had retarded the development of the resources, crippled manufactures and diminished the commerce of the state to a point below the volume it had attained in 1884. The resolution also demanded that a promise be exacted from all candidates for the legislature that they would use their best efforts to enact laws for the establishment of an efficient state railroad commis- sion with power to prevent unjust discriminations and charges.?_ Per- haps some allowance should be made for other causes which had reduced the commerce of Colorado at the time this resolution was adopted. The closing of the silver mines between 1893 and 1896 was an important t Denver Republican, January 1, 1895. 2 [bid., August 18, 1806. 52 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES factor in bringing on the depression which prevailed during the latter year. However, the resolution shows that the freight rate discrimination was felt to be a serious grievance. On May 21, 1896, the Denver chamber of commerce adopted a resolution stating that Colorado industries were subject to extortionate and discriminative transportation rates, and that these rates had reduced the volume of business in many lines below that of 1884. The resolution also provided for the appointment of a committee of three to solicit money to carry on the fight for fair freight rates." It is thus apparent that in 1896 the freight rates were complained of by the most prominent business organizations and the newspapers. Whether or not there was justice in these complaints of the shippers can be determined by an examination of the rates themselves. The following table gives the commodity rates in force in 1896, Chicago to California and to Colorado. A glance is sufficient to show that everything was charged more if it stopped in Colorado than if it went on through to the Coast. . TRANSCONTINENTAL ComMMODITY RATEs, 1896* Chicago to California Chicago to Colorado Terminals. Average | Common Points. Aver- Distance 2,500 Miles |age Distance 1,000 Miles aes asl SAGES crac ass ahhh eeceia an memos $1.50 $2.05 AS TA RGASCS ee oh ety ea Uren eaeceeled ele retro eatetute ge 1.50 3.074 (CEmm Godse BOM So obinoo ne Debio Beno dois Mot 1.75 2.05 Banners i: sce eye yaish ee ors & siz eielagaee Real 1.50 2.05 CASHWEEGISLEES stare slccera atersclal syste ia rege a cule feu 2.40 4.10 CURING: i's cic AYS naa fe inicias le ne rie ius culeyt egelehe 1.50 2.05 Coffee (roasted and ground)................. .80 Tee Chocolate WAG: Tanah tsa) shateloyenetelsa rere I.50 2.05 ID Farraerorore GUE Wd Meas saa RRA tse ca Busha bs oceer I.00 2.05 IDyqoreshzhave | pacleabihles sso Aa soneomsaclsagaue I.20 2.05 Harthen ware (plumbers) pc. ser sere sieacere 1.00 T.65 Glass \(Tolate) Wem reels Stine stolecalals beabanieve ets 1.50 6.15 Glass (colored, decorated etc.).............-. TAS 6.15 fair |(COmMpressed EEE.) or eileveloy ols ei ekel etary stre= esis I.00 2.05 LAG Waren sect mite st stolslioat ovelonaiakeb ake et skate = I.00 1.65 Ese Meme ETA) UN ic tataraians Uisi spe ate eok a tea rate hs 1.00 2.05 Iron and steel (bar, road, hoop etc.).......... .50 ayy | Iron and steel (boiler and plate)............. .60 aye | TO MBPIPE cme eran che teen she ae eed) oleh Meena tare etn eit “50 a * Kinvet, A B C of Freight Rates, Denver, p: 17, 18096. t KINDEL, ibid., p. 9. | FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 53 TRANSCONTINENTAL COMMODITY RATES, 1896—Continued Chicago to California Chicago to Colorado Terminals. Average | Common Points. Aver- Distance 2,500 Miles | age Distance 1,000 Miles Tron (roofing and corrugated)................ $ .70 $ .77 Hirer HOESESNOES st jaime weet olathe x el stale .50 57 Wirevety ALG ADIES ss a2 rth lage e ray eet ek a mare acne Sidra al 2 .50 Ai) Ha PATIMECMWATE or. crave rare rnisse aia cust votes atlas I.00 2.05 MATS (iD DER )iicaneacieers ram alain aacte ale ties I.00 2.05 Miners’ leather-lined clothing................ I.50 2205 None y-CraWerseniatratin tha cies tyes aee.s. outasee sree I.50 2.05 MTISEARC eaves leeds ies Meera ler eeee ee tcvd aetinyelelad I.00 1.65 IMIAGEINTOSHES src crvety st ciiicreiie viele ie nic a wien ea eles I.50 2.05 INailStamd SPIKES. ioc fers. 2) -/e)Sinieye sie ace cia sis esac .50 Ay PN tutSe COCALDTE peas tai estar hays lsee e mysieh es weavalersda wee wits I.00 I.15 Oilcloth (floor) and linoleum................ I.00 2.05 BPNNGG | Gi wigs) are sl 2 ADDRES CASS CL Epaees eet ae I.00 1.65 FEseU PRET PERROTT ENS ee 22 SEs \o cialis tar ste etre fm te whee ews I.00 2.05 TEGO} oie. ello Aaa prey Leta bitrine GaS Rie eh aE I.00 2.05 Rattan and willow furniture................. 3-40 6.15 DIGS aie, HVC sseeeeliel ees cia a ears Peat oii ah edoeal yas I.I0 2.05 DEEens (LOUMETY) aero ics siciniela\avencieichebolareal 1 tie) 2.05 SSW Tia CHIMES ya ocy nace lahce wiles: cyeyie distal al ciat> I.20 2.05 SRP ea TER CUREN ESS Coho ay oie fash 15, Se ncaa sce fo\els a Salado aa 150 2.05 Sates (SCHOO!) Hy Sa saseheiehe sceisicre a aisleriaba svete aise I.00 2.05 STEMGIUSS Bur AINA CNAs Bier Ge A SDA eal I .00 iil seis PILATE BD AAS fers) wialejatahsietiensmbucisis) sriks saiciasranoetereie ete I.00 2.05 RUN LOLS Hy cjosievelacatarevon .enalsis’ svapelealel giaksnsscye ls: sucesisie 1.50 2.05 SSIES retarted seaieine tials asia eine ai ateia names 1.50 2.05 SEOVESA (CAS OLELGs)eary slope cise. eter ojeye ene cieitys 1.50 2.05 glen (i914 OM VANS) ses whe foil el pagans se circ ded evete laa = I.00 I.65 Tiling (art, decorated or inlaid) ............. iio 2.05 pL AIOCA nats ayes oa s\asetsiese fish oversees clot value w/t I .00 1.65 Tobacco (smoking or cut plug, baled)........ 1.50 2.05 Tobacco in barrels, boxes or kegs............. 1.40 1.65 ROR NaF aisya te, he eh ate: ulis ap hate Ma cdatatany wie aie (2 \ de I .00 2.05 RIB ES eter ywtersl ahs faite ache chal a alle Marcas te teats deer a iatath 1.00 1.65 AVetremnshnne gee Yaw creat ciara tea enale aca larenpe meena sues I.00 2.05 Wax (for sealing canned goods).............. I.00 2.05 Window Shadeshitenn is ciao a etelerereyert, has I.00 2.05 Waterrclosetsyaenrisecaysciatarepesieo are musiersieee aici I.00 2.05 The following table shows the commodity rates from the California terminal points to Colorado and also to the Missouri River. The same characteristic feature appears as in the other table. It cost more to ship to Colorado than to points on the Missouri River. 54 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES TRANSCONTINENTAL ComMoDITy RATEs, 1896* California Terminals to | California Terminals to Kansas City, St. Joseph |Pueblo, Colorado Springs and Omaha, 2,157 and Denver, 1,545 Miles Miles Apricnitaral implements :|:).:.\. 22%). so x\nieckda sn $1.35 $1.40 UBTUIS HES Sai pais Wea: Siok voxohepeeareltvs isso ialene rate 1.20 220 BIA MKCES YS eerie s citemec mathe sls s sickens 1.50 2.50 Chocolatert speci cc, shacuswie Sune ite ats ext iateneys oie I.00 2.20 SUR eee ery temas se fal ool Wiete-aulevenerche: Nelms aes a) etiay apace 50 75 IDIniiss eae hiestete ei yquemagdpa coma s os cane ibe) 3.00 ALG ES S(O TEEN) oe, oje aio $aVeuei we overt ced cose eucl s aueeRen ae I.00 I.30 AOR GY or seieicisversso Metein evetrelioy site) suena sh etiesBhewalel sBatln oe 75 I.10 Gal BE A SANE TOE PASO chalehite dieteusee sate ie peices yas 1.00 3.00 WancdanaSOMShEULES Ui.) Vis eicwusioioiskers kellie Toco I.30 MachineryclassvAw shia. sisi serena. I.IO I.40 @ilclothiGoor) and limoleuma:. yo.5 22.2 1. «= sep I.9o Pam (canthtand mineral)in i... .6 ose tones aff I.00 RIG us MAP IODR AA RY rcatai da IRM RS, Sil Sec Nod ERS haa .50 I.00 ODP ac teeer tetas os olor tialele Merekove joan toners st hive BS epee 75 .82 Skins, Russian sable, silver fox, sea otter and D)KDIENS Kop-gy aie sey ee IA ines erate ay Yea ses 3.50 6.00 Martin, fisher, cross fox and white fox...... 3.00 6.00 Bear, beaver, otter, mink, lynx and red fox . 2.80 6.00 Deer, raccoon, muskrat, squirrel, reindeer etc . 2.50 3.00 * KINDEL, op. cit., Pp. 24. Colorado was under similar disadvantages when it came to shipping goods out of the state. It did not seem to be the scheme of the man who made the rates to allow Denver to be a distributing point. The follow- ing tables giving the freight rates from Colorado cities to certain points, and also the rates from other cities to these same points, show that it generally cost more to ship from Colorado than from other cities even though in the latter case the haul was often much longer. Frrst Ciass RATES, 1895* New York to San Francisco............ $1.00 Chicago to San Francisco.............. 1.00 New Orleans to San Francisco......... I.00 Omaha to}san) Francisco, ace ee 1.00 ¢ Denver to) San) Francisco’.).1).- s\s se. 3-00 Omahasto Salt Wake, Sic cpye sess 1.65 Denver to'Salt Lake. (20.05.0001. Sac 1.65 Chitage ti HI Paso, ci. ute tb ieee 1.62 y Denverito BisPasole sass cee eee 2.00 * KINDEL, op. cil., DP. 53. FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 55 First Crass RATES, 1895—Continued Omaha tov fulesbure yj tees cea tes) oa $1.00 Denver tomes ure c sols egies) seo eyes .87 Kansas City to Haighler, Neb.......... eta Omaha, toxtiaighler: Neos. s<)0-))40- .84 Denver totaarehlen Nels ca eae ec .87 Missouri River to Chappell, Neb....... I.O1 Denver to\Grappells Nebioos5-o-20 5 - tees Missouri River to Rock Springs, Wyo.. . 1.65 Denver to Rock Springs, Wyo.......... 1.65 A slight advantage in rates was given to Denver over Missouri River points in shipments to other places in Wyoming." DISCRIMINATION IN Favor OF MissouRI RIVER POINTS, 1896* Omaha, Kansas City Denver, Colorado Commodity Rates and St. Joseph to Springs and Pueblo to California Terminals California Terminals PNG Sano ey ele liana ah, oy $0.90 $1.40 AOTICUIEUITAL TMPlEMIEN(S e<)s leo cles « wee) sc I .05 I.40 eabbitamietal ee para yeteie ease ie cas eeeielare) sees 75 TS ENINV EVE loner tare uedeval rua tauste eet uisieve baer | sie ike witic 75 1.60 SOO ESIATIGUSHOES ar at hayeeyercia « aitl etstelielue aleve elev eats T.50 3.00 ROLLE (CLASS) erate oh ic tetehalicdcechinitlete stile oledate acotavonsns 65 1.60 IBOESWQDADEL) "= ve cleria tis & Sirseie tuswsrael sereieicr se!’ I.00 6.00 I BAPEISIS) (61016 IS) a a EI SIC ede Se eee I.00 2.60 SL OODAS palsy apes 2 isich s,s) sacks ebet iy salah ag susie at sls 1.95 3.00 Brushes) (Shoe, scrub; Stove)... - 2.0265 e se « I.20 3.00 ME ATISH (DID) arte sias fare steal ies eet ctten vedas ayiel che 75 1.60 Wars(StEESE) sci ketal oluis eee eet atone ies rea5 I.40 ariseats ang) DaCKS bhi) a uin cea tern rey Ney anenete fe T.45 3.00 KEE OS SH a area lett kr mncci\e ud Sialaer atl Mesh Svea Ske 1.65 2.60 Chimneys and lantern globes (glass).......... go 2.00 CIT aera crave Sral eos let snes > hoy nohel dus lctensya lols) ones I.00 3.00 Wlathing woverallseace i cin ncinyeracetienysehe als I.50 3.00 Woltee (Toasted; foround))./2 27-0 cls sn esis «ie esi: .80 2.00 BORGER UOMO yn, Pig eitiv ie a62cicls) Sab arty, viosanls aleols I.00 2.60 Crockery andiqueenswares.. sic /)).0/ssen eee oe 85 1.60 WMS S ATIGe EE ATCITIES 5a!) .7:1 -Vors/ is) ae shoisichs sieves) 1.20 3.00 1D nse Petarofaleh esi 6x8 ey We pat nen ALI a RLU ey I.50 3.00 terse (STONE) si ecay ler lore ec ie inter seers trestle ake I.00 7s IBASESA(pIASS) ey spierstevei a) hale! isicieren, sale lonelier 65 1.60 HGrrell((COMMPOSITION) a)-(a sos Oey 25 $4.35 115 pounds of mattresses in a car of furniture, Chicago to Denver 1.26 Raw material in excess of manufactured goods................ $3.09 Mattresses are worth at least 10 per cent. more than the raw material on account of the added labor. A grease spot will injure a manufac- 1 KINDEL, Op. cit., P. 37. 2 Ibid., p. 54. 4 i 4 : FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 59 tured mattress, but hair in sacks is not likely to be injured very much in transportation. The effect of these rates on the mattress industry in Denver is shown by the fact that when the Brown Palace Hotel was built in that city, the hotel company bought 20,000 pounds of curled hair mattresses, and at that time the freight rate was so adjusted that had the company bought the raw material and had it shipped in and manufactured in Denver, the difference in the freight rate alone was so great that it would have added $800 to the cost which the company had to pay for the mattresses already manufactured in the East and delivered.* The same disadvantage appeared at that time when Denver was con- sidered as a distributing point. The Missouri River cities were favored by the rates.” roo pounds of moss, New Orleans to Omaha........... $0.59 15 pounds of ticking, Chicago to Omaha............. .o7$ 0.664 115 pounds of mattresses, Omaha to Trinidad.......... 1.43 SE SMEAN NS soe crt haf ne ee Me eit ih does aapteet cinnde $2.09 roo pounds of moss, New Orleans to Denver........... $1.59 15 pounds of ticking, Chicago to Denver.............. 26 $1.85 115 pounds of mattresses, Denver to Trinidad.......... .82 A) EL Ea GP SIA ae Sat REE et ea) —— $2.67 Difference wn. tavor of Omala ol. isi a enn cose $0.58 A study of freight rates from Denver to the various cities which served as the distributing centres of the country shows that these rates were ‘considerably reduced on January 1, 1895, and remained so reduced till November 1, 1895. At the latter date they were raised somewhat though not to the level of the old schedule. The changes are shown in the fol- lowing table: t Tbid., p. 45. 2 Ibid. 60 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES RATES FROM DENVER AND CoLorADO Common Pornts, 1896;* REDUCED JANUARY I, ry 1895, AND ADVANCED NOVEMBER 1, 1895 Class I 2 3 4 5 A B Cc D E ; To Chicago— Old rate... .|/$2.32 |$1.90 |$1.52 |$1.20 |$1.00 |$1.15 |$0.90 |$0.75 |$0.623|/$0.56 Reducedina)|§2).00 |r 155 i) 0 22 95 v7 85 .70 .60 a5 251 240 INew rate. i205 i) £165) 126 -97 SoG 92 Mike 62 -53%| .46 Peoria— Old rate....) 2.22 | 7.80 | 1.47 | 1.144| .974| .x114| .86 a72e| s SOOn| 258% Reduced). Wit.00) |) reggae G25 heey 24 | eeu omen| est 57a lan. 50 434 New rate...| £-05 |'r.55 | 1.20 -94%| .743| .884| .68 -59%| 251 -43 Mississippi River— Oldiratess. 2.02 korn aay iE. 6 *95)) 1-078) 7.825) -70 Sif sllay) acs Reduced ...| 1.80 | 1.35 | 1.12 SOO!) Neon | angie Oa pam S -473| -41 New rate...| 1.85 SES 92 ny .844| .645| .57 .484] .41 St. Paul— eH aS On H Oldirate: tari2 .cS emia Gilman) ks LOSamEEOr 83 -70 59 Lies Reduced ...} 1.80 | 1.40 | 1.12 go 68 77 63 -55 -49 -42 New rate...} 1.85 | 1.50 | 1.15 92 TO 84 65 a7 -50 42 Missourz River— Oldirate2))-|)).60)'|/t.20 | 1.00 .go 75 85 .65 Ail -45 -40 Reduced ...| 1.25 95 .80 65 .50 55 -45 40} 35 .30 New rate...| 1.25 | 1.00 .80 65 .50 .60 -45 -40 SB AS 30 Spokane, etc.— Old rate....| 2.80 | 2.40 | 2.00 | 1.60 }] 1.40 | 1.40 | 1.24 | I.00 88 72 Reduced:. ..| 1.496) 1.32 | 1:29 | 1.16 | r.04 | ©.04 712| .648} .624) .56 New rate...| 2.40 | 2.08 | 1.76 | 1.52 | 1.20 | 1.16 | I.00 .88 76 68 Helena— Oldirate:)):)) | 2)coj ne 7\| or -40)))) 106} reco .88 73018 OS} 570]/\ ao Reduced yh oseulnma2o |) Es T ail ir .O4! .96 .88 .67 59 56 .48 Wewirate/)...|)2.00) )) 0.724|11'.40)})).420))|)t.00 92 .80 By .60 52 Galveston— Oldinate tr, 2507 ar 3| stor 88 | 1.04 .80 65 52%| .46 dreaueed 3). D.75, || Ba So) |) LLO7 82 63 74.| .60 50 423] .36 New rate. .).) 1.301] 1.103 ‘07 "90 “70 14 “65 54 43 36 Galveston to Denver ..| 1.80 | 1.48 | I.10 .84 .65 .80 .62 .52 -433| .36 * KINDEL, oP. cit., Pp. 37- The reasons for these changes are hard to understand. It may be that the railroads were experimenting to ascertain what the traffic would bear. Some have interpreted the readjustment of rates as a fresh attack on the manufacturing industries then starting in Denver. For some time before 1896 the rates discriminated heavily against FREIGHT RATES AND MANUFACTURES IN COLORADO 61 the manufacture of iron in Pueblo as is shown by the following table. They were lowered, however, in April, 1896." April 15, 1895, Chicago | Same Date Pueblo to | Reduced April 28, 1806, to San Francisco San Francisco Pueblo to San Francisco Rails (iron and steel).... $0.60 $1.60 $0.45 ron (DAt) eosin ete als .60 1.60 37% Iron billets and blooms .50 1.60 37% Tron (pig).............. 50 85 37% WRORIEIVEES cee Awiciese 2 ¢ -50 TOO) (ve 37% igo} oun c 21 Ee OR .50 1.60 2375 Iron pipe (cast iron)..... .50 I.20 374 This reduction in rates was the result of a decision and order of the United States Inter-State Commerce Commission made in November, 1895, and providing that the rates from Pueblo to California should not exceed 75 per cent. of the rates from Chicago to California. This order the railroads refused to obey. Court proceedings were begun by the commission to enforce the order. Then the railroads obeyed and the rates were lowered as shown above. But this situation was not to last. They kept the rates down about two years, till October 17, 1898. Then the Southern Pacific increased the rates. The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, on whose complaint the investigation and order was made, sued for damages and an injunction, October, 1898. The Circuit Court enjoined the railroads from charging more than the rates fixed by the commission. But April 16, 1900, the Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision on the ground that the United States Supreme Court had ruled that the commission cannot fix rates.? Notwithstanding a vigorous campaign by Denver shippers and manu- facturers to secure Missouri River commodity rates for Denver, they were denied and the following excuse was given by Mr. W. A. Poteet, secretary of the Southern Pacific Company, in a letter dated July 21, 1896. The statement is as follows: That it was not considered that the circumstances would justify the application of the transcontinental basis of rates to Denver and common points without making t [bid., p. 12. 2 Inter-State Commerce Commission Reports, pp. 41-43, 1805; pp. 55-61, 1900; 101 Fed. 779, The appeal to the Supreme Court was dismissed by stipulation, November 1901 (46 L. Ed, 1264); Parsons, Heart of the Railroad Problem, p. 92. 62 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES the same basis applicable in surrounding territory and such action would be more apt to have an injurious effect upon the industries of Denver and other centers of trade in Colorado than would the continuance of the present rates.* Since 1896 there has been much improvement in the attitude of the transportation companies toward the development of Denver as a manu- facturing and distributing centre, but as yet the freight rates are far from satisfactory and the evil effect of the old rates on the city’s growth has not been obliterated. 1 KINDEL, 0. cil., P. 35- FOREIGN DRAMA ON THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE: II. GERMAN DRAMA By CHarRtes C. AYER If Germany has been less prolific than France in furnishing the English and American stage with plays, a study of some good history of German literature and especially an examination of old files of theater programs will show that we are nevertheless indebted to Germany for many valuable contributions to our repertory either in the form of direct translations or as adaptations. The theater in Germany originated, as it did in France and elsewhere, in the church. It formed a part of the service dealing with sacred sub- jects or events drawn from the Scriptures or from the lives of the saints. To these were added allegorical representations of didactic trend. From the church the drama gradually moved out upon the public square but did not lose its moralizing tendency even in the plays of Hans Sachs. With all of this mediaeval theater, we have nothing todo. It merely belongs to dramatic history, as it does in France. Indeed, to find the first German milestone on the English stage, we should move on to mod- ern times without delay, had it not been for Richard Wagner (1813-83). He was inspired to devote his genius to the redevelopment of mediaeval sagas, with the result that, indirectly at least, many of the stories of the Middle Ages are now accessible to us in operatic form. Tannhéuser (1845) has been traced back in popular legend to the fourteenth century and Lohengrin (1847) to the end of the thirteenth century. Likewise Parsifal, the sacred music drama which Wagner dedicated to the fes- festival theater at Bayreuth in 1882, dates back to the famous poem by Wolfram von Eschenbach, which is said to have been written between. 1205 and 1220. Also the four operas of the Nibelungenring, Rheingold (1854), Die Walkiire (1856), Siegfried (1869) and Die Gétterdémmerung (1874), with which the Bayreuth Festival Theater was opened in 1876, t See ‘‘Foreign Drama on the English and American Stage. I. French Drama,’ University of Colo- rado Studies, Vol. VI, No. 4, pp. 287-07, June, 1900. 63 64 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES were based upon the Nibelungen Lied, which dates back as far as the year 1200. Wagner’s only comic opera, Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg (1868), deals with a love story of the time of the Reformation, with Hans Sachs as one of the leading figures. As Wagner wrote the librettos to all his operas, and as they are now generally regarded in Germany as poetic dramas of high literary excellence, quite apart from the unique music with which he provided them, Wagner may be included here among Germany’s leading dramatists. The history of the Wagner music dramas on the American stage dates from the seventies, when Lokengrin (1847) and The Flying Dutchman (1841) were given in German. The great enthusiasm, however, did not set in until the eighties when these operas were given admirable performances in English by the ill-fated American Opera Company organized by Mrs. Jeannette L. Thurber, and conducted by Theodore Thomas. Even then and for a long time after, the Wagner- ites preferred to hear the operas sung in German, as was done for several seasons at the Metropolitan Opera House. Finally, however, Mr. Henry W. Savage, who had previously devoted his energies to the pro- duction of light and comic opera, decided to place the works of Wagner in English in the best possible style on the American stage, with the result that within the past ten years, three of his operas Tannhduser, Lohengrin and The Valkyrie, have been given in all parts of the United States. It will not be long before the entire number of Wagner’s works will be known in English, if one may judge by the great success recently attained by the complete Ring given in London last season by an English-speaking company. As has been said, the German poetic lore of the Middle Ages would not, on its own merits, have claimed the attention of the modern world, had it not been for Wagner. And indeed, it is a long time, many hun- dred years in fact, before we in any way find a trace of German drama on our modern stage. To be sure, the German theater was cultivated continuously, and plays were written and acted, but their career was ephemeral. After the Middle Ages, the German drama developed through the Reformation period in much the same way as it did else- where. The eighteenth century brought the pseudo-classic tragedy FOREIGN DRAMA ON ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE 65 imitated from the pseudo-classic French school of Corneille and Racine. Then came the fine critical and creative work of Lessing in the classic period of the German drama, followed by the melodramatic sensations of the Storm and Stress period. Then followed the romantic works of Goethe and Schiller and the plays of the nineteenth century by writers several of whom are still living and, by the character of their present work, maintaining the drama of Germany upon a high plane. If, as in the case of the development of the French drama on the Eng- lish stage, we proceed chronologically, the first date at which we stop is 1787, the year of the production of Schiller’s"Don Carlos. Even this play has no significance for us as a popular favorite known to the average theater-goer. It is interesting to us as having been the second last great production of the late Richard Mansfield. It was not a success, as suc- cess is measured by the superficial theater-going public of the present day, but for lovers of the drama, for students and for all those who still cherish ideals of the drama, it was a memorable production. In pro- ducing Don Carlos, as well as Moliére’s Misanthrope and Ibsen’s Peer Gynt, Mr. Mansfield was moved by the sincere love of his art, rather than by sordid box-office considerations. The next date at which we pause is 1796, when Goethe finished his Wilhelm Meister. One of the episodes from this long work furnished the ground work for Thomas’ opera, Mignon, first produced in Paris in 1866 and ever since a favorite in all languages. The year 1800 marks the first production of Schiller’s Mary Stuart. This glowing tragedy with its famous scene between Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots has long been included in the repertory of the foremost tragic actresses. It is the only play of Schiller which has been a money-maker in America. Strange to say, the most illustrious actresses to appear in Mary Stuart on the American stage have been foreigners, Madame Janauschek, a Bohemian, and Madame Modjeska a Pole, both of whom played in English, and Adelaide Ristori who played in Italian. Schiller’s Maid of Orleans (1801), which is a favorite in Germany though scarcely known in this country, has nevertheless been brought into prominence recently by the out-of-door performances of the play 66 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES as translated and adapted by George Sylvester Viereck and given by Miss Maude Adams, in the Harvard University Stadium in June, 1909. In 1831, Goethe sealed up complete his Faust, on which he had worked for a lifetime. He began his labors as a young man, and finished his work the year before his death at the age of eighty-three. Faust is a name not unknown among the veriest Philistines, but the Faust which we know from long acquaintance on the American stage, is far from being the Faust of Goethe, that treasure-house of philosophy and life experience. What we know as Faust is in reality only that portion which in Goethe’s Faust is known as the Gretchen tragedy, and which served as the basis of Gounod’s opera, the melodies of which are familiar to music lovers from St. Petersburg to Valparaiso. It isa fact that among the lesser educated people the world over Faust stands for the Gounod opera, which dates only from 1859, rather than for the great work which inspired Gounod. Faust as a drama was first made known to the American public in the season of 1885-86 when Henry Irving and Ellen Terry with their company and scenery direct from the Lyceum Theater, London, made it the feature of their American tour. The play, however, was not the Faust of Goethe, excepting in inspiration. It was the Gretchen tra- gedy adapted from Goethe’s Faust and enhanced by the theatrical genius of Mr. Irving himself. The effectiveness of the play was recog- nized at once, even apart from the fine acting of Mr. Irving as Mephis- topheles and Miss Terry as Margaret. Following Irving’s example, Lewis Morrison prepared a version of Faust which he used on his tours for twenty years up to the time of his death. In this way many an American small town saw a performance of Faust which was very creditable, for Mr. Morrison was an actor and manager of fine ability, and his play was a good piece of work. In 1842, a play was produced in Germany from the pen of Friedrich Halm, called The Son oj the Wilderness. ‘Translated by Mrs. Maria Lovell into English under the title of Ingomar, this play has been a great favorite in its time on the American stage. The character of Ingomar the Barbarian has appealed to actors of such talent as Salvini FOREIGN DRAMA ON ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE 67 and John McCullough, and the réle of the gentle Parthenia has served to introduce some famous actresses to the American stage. Though the play now seems stilted and old fashioned on reading, yet a fragrant memory hovers about it to one who remembers the girlish grace of Julia Marlowe, then in her first season on the stage, and the radiant loveliness of Mary Anderson still in her teens. All persons who quote poetry at all know the lines Two souls with but a single thought Two hearts that beat as one. One more play remains to be spoken of among the old-fashioned German dramas. This is-the Deborah (1849) of Salomon Hermann von Mosenthal (1821-77). Under its original title it was in the repertory of Mme. Janauschek, but since the early eighties, when Margaret Mather appeared in the play, it has been known as Leah the Forsaken. The role of the unhappy Jewess is very effective, especially so in the famous curse scene, as can be inferred from the fact that that gifted actress, Miss Nance O’Neil, has recently been using this scene successfully as a twenty minute vaudeville “turn.” In the late sixties a grand spectacular play from the German was produced in this country by the famous Kiralfy Brothers. This play was adapted from an old fairy tale and dealt with the persecution, adven- tures and final reunion of a pair of perfect lovers, the poor artist, Rudolph, and the village beauty, Amina. Pursued by the evil machinations of the villain aided by a magician, the young couple were nevertheless protected by the queen of the fairies, and virtue triumphed over evil. The curtain falls on a vision of the enchanted home of the fairies. The foregoing description sounds innocent and harmless, yet in its day The Black Crook was denounced as wicked, vile and harmful, in short a menace to public morals. The free advertising thus received of course acted then as it does now, when some play is sensationally denounced and thereby exploited by a hypocritical yellow press and eager managers. It stimulated curiosity and made of The Black Crook one of the biggest sensations and money-earners in the history of the American stage. Even today barn-storming companies, trading on the remains of the unsavory reputation of The Black Crook forty years ago, do 68 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES not hesitate to start out with the piece, or at least with an entertainment bearing the name, and earn good money in the prurient back counties of the Mississippi Valley. But what was all the original hue and cry about? In what did the wickedness of this play consist? Simply in the fact that The Black Crook introduced the ballet for the first time on the American stage. It should here be stated that the dancing was of the highest degree of excellence. The poetry of motion had never been realized so completely before, as in these bewildering Hungarian ballets. No manager since has surpassed the Kiralfy Brothers in the beauty of the stage setting. The objection to The Black Crook in the sixties was to the short skirts and tights, an objection seldom raised nowadays. Indeed in many a modern musical comedy the hardened theater-goer often sees vulgar dancing, which makes the old ballet divertissement of The Black Crook seem like a lesson in deportment. During the eighties in New York Daly’s Theater was the favorite resort of people of taste. Augustin Daly, though famous as a producer of Shakespeare and the poetic drama, nevertheless achieved permanent fame by his presentations of wholesome German farce comedies. For many of his most successful plays he was indebted to Franz von Schénthan (1849-). Owing to his complete change of title and scene in many instances, it is difficult to learn from an American theater program, what the original name of the play was, from which Mr. Daly made his adaptation. But in the palmy days of John Drew, Ada Rehan, James Lewis and Mrs. Gilbert, some of Schénthan’s plays were given very delightful productions, especially The Lotiery of Love, An Inter- national Match, and A Night Off. The last named seems to have won a permanent place in the repertory of stock companies throughout the country. Shortly before the advent of Schénthan, a dramatist held sway, whose work ranks high in the realm of comedy, Gustav von Moser (1825—1903.) He is known to us through The Private Secretary (1878), a hilarious farce, adapted to our stage in 1882 by Mr. William Gillette, who played the title r6le and came prominently into notice at that time. This play too has been given by many stock companies with great success. . Q 4 se i ge ee FOREIGN DRAMA ON ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE 69 The year 1882 marks the first appearance as a dramatic author of Ernst von Wildenbruch (1845-). He is one of the most prominent living modern German dramatists, yet to us he is known by only one play, Die Haubenlerche (1891), from which the late Clyde Fitch, a few years ago, adapted The Bird in the Cage for Miss Annie Russell. Though a strong modern play in good standing in Germany, it seems to have made no lasting impression in this country. In 1889, an author came to the fore in Germany who has since domi- nated the German stage. This was Herman Sudermann (1857-). The only dramatist who may be said to share his reputation is Gerhart Hauptmann (1862-). ‘These two are the great names at the beginning of the twentieth century. Of the dozen plays of Sudermann, four have been given in this coun- try, Heimath (1893) under the title of Magda, John the Baptist (1898), The Fires of St. John (1900) and Es lebe das Leben (1902) under the title of The Joy of Living. Of these plays only Magda seems to have maintained itself in the public interest. Madame Modjeska was the first to produce it, when it was still a novelty in Ger- many. Mrs. Patrick Campbell and Miss Nance O’Neil have since appeared as the heroine. The réle has been acted in French by Madame Sarah Bernhardt and in Italian by Madame Eleanora Duse. With this play Sudermann may be said to have achieved international fame. John the Baptist (1898) was produced by Mr. E. H. Sothern and Miss Julia Marlowe. The interest in the play was enhanced by the furore caused about the same time by the production of Richard Strauss’s opera Salome. The Fires of St. John (1900) was for a time in the repertory of Miss Nance O’Neil. The Joy of Living (Es lebe das Leben, 1902) was the chief offering of Mrs. Patrick Campbell on one of her late tours. Of the plays of Gerhart Hauptmann, only two interest us from our present point of view, Hannele (1894), produced about fifteen years ago by Madame Modjeska and possibly to be revived soon by Miss Maude Adams, and The Sunken Bell (1896), produced about ten years ago by Mr. E. H. Sothern, and revived later by him in conjunction with 7° UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Miss Julia Marlowe in splendid style. Both of these plays are for the more serious minded class of theater-goers. ‘Their mysticism is not calculated to appeal to the frivolous amusement seeker. There are a few other German plays which have been seen upon the American stage of recent years, which are deserving of more than pass- ing mention. One of these, the Old Heidelberg (1890) of Wilhelm Meyer-Forster (1862-) first given in this country by Richard Mans- field, has since taken its place in the repertory of the stock company theaters the country over. The other is the biblical drama Mary of Magdala (1899) by Paul Heyse, which was given a most impressive production by Mrs. Minnie Maddern Fiske. The performance of this play in Germany is still forbidden by the censor. On the whole, if Germany has not furnished the American stage with as many well-known and popular plays as has France, the number is nevertheless considerable, and that there has been much plagiarism from Germany, there can be no doubt. Many a German farce with an unpronounceable title is made over into an American play with American scenes and names. Sometimes a vague acknowledgment by the Ameri- can adapter is made. Twoof his recent successes, The Blue Mouse and Girls, Clyde Fitch adapted from the German of Alexander Engle and Julius Horn, though in view of the very American character of Girls it is hard to imagine what the German original must have been like. Anyone really interested in the German drama, if he understands the language, cannot do better than patronize the German theaters in the larger cities of the United States having a considerable German popula- tion. New York has for many years had a German theater, the Irving Place Theater, where the performances are of the best; and in Philadel- phia, Buffalo, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Louis, there are excellent performances in German. In the smaller cities there are occasional performances sometimes by semi-amateur organizations, which are given on Sunday evenings. The repertory is kept remarkably up to date, and plays are given which are still regarded as novelties in Germany. A few years ago Der Hochtourtst was given in Denver, by the local German company, while Mr. Francis Wilson was enter- FOREIGN DRAMA ON ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STAGE 71 taining his audiences about the country with an English version of the same play under the title of The Mountain Climber. On the whole the modern dramatic output in Germany is of very satisfactory quality. Especially in the field of operetta, Berlin and Vienna have long since distanced Paris. In the drama they are already formidable rivals, and the outlook for the future is encouraging. BORROWINGS AND ADAPTATIONS FROM THE SPETAD AND) (“ODYSSEY TING MEAT T Pte W ARNOLD’S “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM”? By Mito G. DERHAM It has more than once been suggested to me that I should translate Homer. This is a task for which I have neither the time nor the courage; but the suggestion led me to regard yet more closely a poet whom I had already studied, and for one or two years the works of Homer were seldom out of my hands.—ARnoLp, On Translating Homer. Matthew Arnold fulfilled the precept of Horace. He turned over his Greek models by day and by night. He brought everything to the classical touchstone. Whatever was not Greek was barbarian. Far more truly Homeric than Clough’s jolting hexameters it (‘‘Sohrab and Rustum”’) is as good a speci- men of Homer’s manner as can be found in English—HeErsert Paut, Matthew Arnold, pp. 3 and 46. In the selections here given from “Sohrab and Rustum,’’ the page numbers refer to the Globe Edition of Matthew Arnold’s Poems (The Macmillan Company, New York, 1903). Lang, Leaf and Myer’s trans- lation of the Jiiad, and Palmer’s translation of the Odyssey supply the renderings of Homer. Page 65: —the men were plunged in sleep; Sohrab alone, he slept not; all night long He had lain wakeful, tossing on his bed. Compare Jl. 24:2 ff.: “The rest bethought them of supper and sweet sleep to have joy thereof; but Achilles wept, remembering his dear com- rade, nor did sleep that conquereth all take hold on him, but he kept turning him to this side and to that.’”’? Compare also J/. 10:1 ff.: “Now beside the ships the other leaders of the whole Achaean host were sleep- ing all night long, by soft Sleep overcome, but Agamemnon, son of Atreus, shepherd of the host, sweet Sleep held not, so many things he debated in his mind.” Through the black Tartar tents he passed, which stood Clustering like bee hives on the low flat strand. t Classical elements in Matthew Arnold’s poems have been pointed out by CHurton Cottiins, Matthew Arnold’s Merope and Sophocles’ Electra, Oxford, 1906; Professor W. P. Musrarp, ‘‘Homeric Echoes in Arnold’s ‘Balder Dead,’” in Studies in Honor of Basil L. Gildersleeve, Baltimore, 1902; and a number of parallel passages have been incorporated in Professor PAUL SHoREY’s notes in his edition of Horace's Odes and Epodes, Boston, 1899. 73 74 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Although the picture is different, these lines recall J/. 2:87 ff.: “Even as when the tribes of thronging bees issue from some hollow rock, ever in fresh procession, and fly clustering among the flowers of spring, and some on this hand and some on that fly thick; even so from ships and huts before the low beach marched forth their many tribes by companies to the place of assembly.” Page 66: And Sohrab came there, and went in, and stood is Homeric in presenting a situation by a group of three specific state- ments, while the verses just below And found the old man sleeping on his bed Of rugs and felts, and near him lay his arms resemble J/. 10:73 ff.: “Then went he himself after Nestor, the shepherd of the host, whom he found by his hut and black ship, in his soft bed; beside him lay his fair dight arms, a shield, and two spears, and a shining helmet.” Pages 66 f.: Let the two armies rest today; but I Will challenge forth the bravest Persian lords, To meet me, man to man. These lines show the influence of J/. 7:49 ff.: ‘“‘Make the other Trojans sit, and all the Achaeans, and thyself challenge him that is best of the Achaeans to meet thee man to man in deadly combat.” Page 67: The remonstrance, O Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine! Canst thou not rest among the Tartar chiefs, And share the battle’s common chance with us is not very different from that in Jl. 3:60: “ Hector, .... thy heart is ever keen;” and in JI. 20:376f.: ‘‘ Hector, no longer challenge Achilles at all before the lines, but in the throng await him and from amid the roar of battle.’ The “battle’s common chance” may be compared with the Homeric, “equal war,” J/. 13:358, 635; 18:242. But now he keeps apart, and sits at home. a THE “ILIAD” AND “ODYSSEY” IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” = 75 Compare J/. 1:349: “Then Achilles . . . . sat him down apart, aloof from his comrades.” —Yet my heart forbodes Danger or death. Compare Ody. 14:219: “My swelling heart cast not a look on death.” Page 68: And o’er his chilly limbs his woolen coat He pass’d, and tied his sandals on his feet, And threw a white cloak round him, and he took In his right hand a ruler’s staff, no sword. Compare J/. 10:21 ff.: “Then he rose and did on his doublet about his breast, and beneath his shining feet he bound on fair sandals, and there- after clad him in a tawny skin of a lion fiery and great, a skin that reached to the feet, and he grasped his spear.” From their black tents, long files of horse, they stream’d; As when some grey November morn the files, In marching order spread, of long neck’d cranes Stream over Casbin and the southern slopes Of Elburz, from the Aralian estuaries, Or some frore Caspian reed-bed, southward bound For the warm Persian sea-board—so they stream’d. These verses have much in common with J]. 2:459 fi.: “And as the many tribes of feathered birds, wild geese or cranes or long-necked swans, on the Asian mead by Kaystrios’ stream, fly hither and thither joying in their plumage, and with loud cries settle ever onwards, and the mead resounds; even so poured forth the many tribes of warriors from ships and huts into the Skamandrian plain.” , Pages 69 f.: As, in a country, on a morn in June, When the dew glistens on the pearled ears, A shiver runs through the deep corn for joy— So, when they heard what Peran-Wisa said, A thrill through all the Tartar squadron ran Of pride and hope for Sohrab, whom they loved. Compare I/. 23:597 ff.: “And his heart was gladdened as when the dew cometh upon the ears of ripening harvest-corn, what time the fields are 76 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES bristling. So gladdened was thy soul, Menelaus, within thy heart.” Compare also JI. 2:147 ff.: “And even as when the west wind cometh to stir a deep cornfield with violent blast, and the ears bow down, so was all the assembly stirred.” Page 70: And to Ferood his brother chiefs came up To counsel; Gudurz and Zoarrah came, And Feraburz, who ruled the Persian host Second, and was the uncle of the King; These came and counsell’d, and then Gudurz said. This counsel scene is similar to that in Il. 2: 403 ff.:“Agamemnon... . called the elders, the princes of the Achaean host, Nestor first and king Idomeneus, and then the two Aiantes and Tydeus’ son, and sixthly Odysseus peer of Zeus in counsel. And Menelaus of the loud war-cry came to him, unbidden, for he knew in his heart, how his brother toiled.” —Aloof he sits And sullen, and has pitch’d his tents apart. Haply he will forget his wrath and fight. The phraseology brings to mind the picture of Ajax in the lower world, Ody. 11:543 ff.: “Only the spirit of Ajax, son of Telamon, held aloof, still angry at the victory I gained in the contest at the ships for the arms Or achilles... |. To him I spoke in gentle words and said: ‘Ajax, son of gallant Telamon, will you not, even in death, forget your wrath about the accursed armor ?’ ” Pages 70 f.: He spake: and Peran-Wisa turn’d and strode Back through the opening squadrons to his tent. Compare Ody. 11:538 ff.: “So I spoke, and the spirit of the swift-footed Aeacides departed with long strides across the fields of Asphodel.” Page 7I: But through the anxious Persians Gudurz ran, And cross’d the camp which lay behind, and reach’d, Out on the sands beyond it, Rustum’s tents. And Gudurz enter’d Rustum’s tent and found BUSH AS \. 1) 1k) THE “ILIAD”? AND “ODYSSEY” IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 77 . . and there Rustum sate Listless, and held a falcon on his wrist, And play’d with it; but Gudurz came and stood Before him; and he look’d, and saw him stand, And with a cry sprang up and dropp’d the bird, And greeted Gudurz with both hands and said:— ‘Welcome! these eyes could see no better sight. What news? but sit down first, and eat and drink.” Though not a close imitation of Homer, this passage has much in com- mon with the story of the embassy of Odysseus and Ajax to Achilles, Il. 9:182 ff.: “So the twain went along the shore of the loud-sounding Bee ial ay They came to the huts and ships of the Myrmidons, and found the king taking his pleasure of a loud lyre. .... So the twain came for- ward .... and they stood before his face; and Achilles sprang up amazed with the lyre in his hand, and left the seat where he was sitting. .... Then Achilles . . . . greeted them and said: ‘Welcome; verily ye are friends that are come—sore indeed is the need—even ye that are dearest of the Achaeans to me even in my wrath.’ “So spake noble Achilles and led them forward, and made them sit on settles and carpets of purple; and anon he spake to Patroklos being near: ‘Bring forth a greater bowl, thou son of Menoitios; mingle stronger drink, and prepare each man a cup, for dearest of men are these that are under my roof.’ ” The last line of the above quotation from “Sohrab and Rustum” reflects the Homeric custom of first entertaining guests and then question- ing them. Compare Ody. 3:69 ff.: “Now, then, it is more suitable to prove our guests and ask them who they are, since they are refreshed with food. Strangers, who are you? Where do you come from, sailing the watery ways? Are you upon some business? Or do you rove at random, as the pirates roam the seas, risking their lives and bringing ill to strangers ?” Page 72: And I to tarry with the snow-hair’d Zal My father, whom the robber Afgans vex, And clip his borders short, and drive his herds, And he has none to guard his weak old age. 78 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES There would I go, and hang my armour up, And with my great name fence that weak old/man. This passage portrays defenseless old age in the same spirit as Ody. 11: 494 ff., where Achilles’ lament in the lower world is given: “Tell what you know of gallant Peleus whether he still has honor in the cities of the Myrmidons; or do they slight him now in Hellas and in Phthia, because old age has touched his hands and feet? I am myself no longer in the sunlight to defend him, nor like what I once was when on the Trojan plain I routed a brave troop in succoring the Argives. If once like that I could but come, even for a little space, into my father’s house, frightful should be my might and my resistless hands to any who are troubling him and keeping him from honor.” Compare also Ody. 11: 187 ff.; 24: 224 ff.; Il. 18:434f.; 19:334 ff.; 24:540 ff. And with these slaughterous hands draw sword no more. The expression “slaughterous hands” is the same as Homer’s “man- slaying hands,” Jd. 18:317; 23:18; 24:479. And greatly moved, then Rustum made reply:— “OQ, Gudurz, wherefore dost thou say such words? Thou knowest better words than this to say.” Compare J]. 12:230°ff.: “Then Hector of the glancing helm lowered on him and said: ‘Polydamus, that thou speakest is no longer pleasing to me; yea, thou knowest how to conceive another counsel better than this.’ ”’ Compare also Jl. 7:356 ff. Page 74: And as afield the reapers cut a swath Down through the middle of a rich man’s corn, And on each side are squares of standing corn, And in the midst a stubble, short and bare— So on each side were squares of men, with spears Bristling, and in the midst, the open sand. Though describing a different situation, this passage is a close imitation of I/. 11:67 ff.: “And even as when reapers over against each other drive their swathes through a rich man’s field of wheat or barley, and thick fall the handfuls, even so the Trojans and Achaeans leaped upon each other destroying, and neither side took thought of ruinous flight.” THE “ILIAD”? AND “ODYSSEY”? IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 79 Page 75: And he ran forward and embraced his knees, And clasp’d his hand within his own, and said. Compare I. 1:500 f.: “So she sat before his face and with her left hand clasped his knees.”’ Compare Il. 6:253 (=406): “and she clasped her hand in his, and spake, and called upon his name.” But Rustum eyed askance the kneeling youth, And turn’d away, and spake to his own soul. Compare J/. 1:148: “Then eyeing him askance the fleet-footed Achilles addressed him.”” Compare also J/. 22:98: “Then sore troubled he spake to his great heart.” Pages 75 f.: The scene in which Rustum ponders on the probable result of a reconciliation with Sohrab is in the manner of the episode of Glaucos and Diomedes, J]. 6:212 ff. The lines —and proffer courteous gifts A belt or sword perhaps, and go his way, and —then he and I Changed gifts, and went on equal terms away, are echoes of J/. 6:218 f.: “They gave each other goodly gifts of friend- ship: Oineus gave a belt bright with purple, and Bellerophon a gold twy-handled cup;” and of J/. 6:226f.: “So let us shun each other’s spears, even amid the throng..... But let us make exchange of arms between us.” Page 76: So will he speak perhaps, while men applaud. Compare Jl. 3:461: “So said Atreides, and all the Achaeans gave assent.” Compare also Ody. 12:294, 352. Rash boy, men look on Sohrab’s face and flee! This recalls Homer’s use of oxéTdw0s, I]. 3:414; Ody. 9:494; 12:21, etc. Or else thy bones shall strew this sand, till winds Blanch them, or Oxus with his summer-floods, Oxus in summer wash them all away. This is apparently a free imitation of Ody. 1:160 f.: “They eat the sub- 80 UNIVERSITY OF.COLORADO STUDIES stance of a man whose white bones now are rotting in the rain, if lying on the land, or in the sea the waters roll them round.” Page 77: But yet success sways with the breath of heaven. Compare J/. 6:339: “For victory shifteth from man to man.” He spoke, and Rustum answer’d not, but hurl’d His Spears si. 46 . . . . Sohrab saw it come And sprang aside, quick as a flash; the spear Hiss’d, and went quivering down into the sand, Which it sent flying wide;—then Sohrab threw In turn, and full struck Rustum’s shield; sharp rang, The iron plates rang sharp, but turn’d the spear. And Rustum seized his club, which none but he Could wield; an unlopp’d trunk it was, and huge, Still rough,—like those which men in treeless plains To build them boats fish from the flooded rivers, So huge The club which Rustum lifted now, and struck One stroke; and again Sohrab sprang aside, Lithe as the glancing snake and the club came Thundering to earth, and leapt from Rustum’s hand. The above passage shows a skilful independent combination of various Homeric elements with much that is original. Compare J/. 22:273 ff.: “He said, and poised his far shadowing spear and hurled. And noble Hector watched the coming thereof and avoided it; for with his eye on it he crouched, and the bronze spear flew over him, and fixed itself in the earth.” (Compare Jl. 13:402 ff; 17:525 ff.) Compare also JI. 7:258 ff.: “Then Priam’s son smote the shield’s midst with his dart, but the bronze brake not through, for the point turned back: but Aias leapt on him and pierced his buckler, and straight through went the spear. .... Yet even then did not Hector of the glancing helm cease from fight, but yielded ground and with stout hand seized a stone lying upon the plain, black and rugged and great; therewith hurled he and smote Aias’ dread shield of sevenfold oxhide in the midst upon the boss, and the bronze resounded. Next Aias lifted a far greater stone, and swung THE “ILIAD”? AND “ODYSSEY’’ IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 81 and hurled it, putting might immeasurable therein.” Compare also Il. 16:139 ff.: “Then seized he two strong lances that fitted his grasp, only he took not the spear of the noble son of Aiakos, heavy, and huge, and stalwart, that none other of the Achaeans could wield, but Achilles alone availed to wield it; even the ashen Pelian spear that Cheiron gave to his father dear, from a peak of Pelion, to be the death of warriors.” Compare also Ody. 9:319 ff.: “There lay beside the pen a great club of the Cyclops, an olive stick still green, which he had cut to be his staff when dried. Inspecting it, we guessed its size and thought it like the mast of a black ship of twenty oars—some broad-built merchantman which sails the great gulf of the sea; so huge it looked in length and thick- ness.” Page 78: Come plant we here in earth our angry spears, And make a truce, and sit upon this sand, And pledge each other in red wine, like friends, And thou shalt talk to me of Rustum’s deeds. There are enough foes in the Persian host, Whom I may meet, and strike, and feel no pang; Champions enough Afrasiab has, whom thou Mayst fight; fight them, when they confront thy spear! But oh, let there be peace ’twixt thee and me! Compare J]. 6:212 ff.: ‘So said he, and Diomedes of the loud war-cry was glad. He planted his spear in the bounteous earth and with soft words spake to the shepherd of the host: ‘Surely then thou art to mea guest friend of old times through my father. ... . So let us shun each other’s spears, even amid the throng; Trojans are there in multitudes and famous allies for me to slay, whoe’er it be that God vouchsafeth me and my feet overtake; and for thee are there Achaeans in multitude, to slay whome’er thou canst.’ ” Page 79: Blazed bright and baleful, like that autumn-star The baleful sign of fevers. Compare J/. 22:26 ff.: “Blazing as the star that cometh forth at harvest- time, and plain seen his rays shine forth amid the host of stars in the darkness of night, the star whose name men call Orion’s Dog. Brightest 82 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES of all is he, yet for an evil sign is he set, and bringeth much fever upon hapless men.” Girl, nimble with thy feet, not with thy hands! Curl’d minion, dancer, coiner of sweet words! Fight, let me hear thy hateful voice no more! This is in the tone of J/. 22:279 ff.: “Thou hast missed, so no wise yet, godlike Achilles, hast thou known from Zeus the hour of my doom, though thou thoughtest it. Cunning of tongue art thou, and a deceiver in speech, that fearing thee I might forget my valor and strength.” With the thought of the passage from Arnold may be compared Vergil, Aen. 11:390 f.: “Will your prowess always lie in your blustering tongue, and in those feet only swift to fly ?” Speak not to me of truce, and pledge, and wine! Remember all thy valour; try thy feints And cunning! all the pity I had is gone; Because thou hast shamed me before both the hosts With thy light skipping tricks, and thy girl’s wiles. This is an adaptation of J]. 22:261 ff.: “Hector, talk not to me, thou madman, of covenants..... Bethink thee of all thy soldiership: now behooveth it thee to quit thee as a good spearman and valiant man of war. No longer is there way of escape for thee, but Pallas Athene will straightway subdue thee to my spear; and now in one hour shalt thou pay back for all my sorrows for my friends whom thou hast slain, in the fury of thy spear.” —at once they rush’d Together, as two eagles on one prey Come rushing down together from the clouds, One from the east, one from the west. These lines remind one of two passages in Homer, J/. 22: 308 ff., and Ody. 2:146 ff., because of their Homeric tone, although the situation is different and the verbal resemblance is not marked. Pages 79 f.: And you would say that sun and stars took part In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud Grew suddenly in Heaven, and dark’d the sun Over the fighters’ heads; and a wind rose Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain, And in a sandy whirlwind wrapp’d the pair. THE “ILIAD” AND “ODYSSEY” IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 83 In gloom they twain were wrapp’d, and they alone; For both the on-looking hosts on either hand Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure, And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream, But in the gloom they fought with bloodshot eyes And labouring breath. These lines were evidently suggested by the passage in J/. 17:366 ff.: “Thus strove they as it had been fire, nor wouldst thou have thought there was still sun or moon, for over all the battle where the chiefs stood around the slain son of Menoitios they were shrouded in darkness, while the other Trojans and well-greaved Achaeans fought at ease in the clear air, and piercing sunlight was spread over them, and on all the earth and hills there was no cloud seen. ... . But they who were in the midst endured affliction of darkness and the battle, and all the best men of them were wearied by pitiless weight of their bronze arms.”’ Page 80: —but this time all the blade, like glass, Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm, And in the hand the hilt remain’d alone. This is a variation of Homer’s lines, Jl. 3: 362 f.: “But the sword shat- tered upon it into three, yea, four, and fell from his hand.’’ (Compare Il. 16: 338 £.) —his dreadful eyes Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear. This recalls the Homeric picture of Athena, J/. 1:200: “And terribly shone her eyes.” “Menacing spear” recalls Vergil’s “menacing spear”’ (Aen. 10:877). Page 81: Sohrab, thou thoughtest in thy mind to kill A Persian lord this day, and strip his corpse. One may compare for a similar taunting speech of one hero to another, Il. 22:279 f.: “Thou hast missed, so no wise yet, godlike Achilles, hast thou known from Zeus the hour of my doom though thou thoughtest it.” Compare also J]. 22:331; 16:830. Dearer to the red jackals shalt thou be Than to thy friends, and to thy father old. 84 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES In Homer, we find, J/. 11:161 f.: “But they on the earth were lying, far more dear to the vultures than to their wives.” —Yet thy fierce boast is vain. Thou didst not slay me, proud and boastful man! No! Rustum slays me and this filial heart. For were I match’d with ten such men as thee, And I were that which till today I was, They should be lying here, I standing there, But that belovéd name unnerved my arm— . . and thy spear transfix’d an unarm’d foe. Here is plainly a free adaptation of Patroklos’ dying words, J]. 16:844 ff.: “Boast greatly, as now Hector, for to thee have Zeus, son of Kronos, and Apollo given the victory, who lightly have subdued me; for themselves stripped my harness from my shoulders. But if twenty such as thou had encountered me, here had they all perished, subdued beneath my spear. But me have ruinous Fate and the son of Leto slain, and of men Euphor- bos, but thou art third in my slaying.” Page 82: And with failing voice, Sohrab replied. Compare J/. 16:843: “Then faintly didst thou answer him, Patroklos.” Compare Il. 15:246; 22:337. Page 83: Yet him I pity not so much, but her, My mother who in Ader-baijan dwells With that old king, her father, who grows grey With age, and rules over the valiant Koords. Her most I pity, who no more will see Sohrab returning from the Tartar camp, With spoils and honour, when the war is done. Compare Hector’s words, Il. 6:450 ff.: “Yet doth the anguish of the Trojans hereafter not so much trouble me, neither Hekabe’s own, neither King Priam’s, neither my brethren’s, . . . . as doth thine anguish in the day when some mail-clad Achaean shall lead thee weeping and rob thee of the light of freedom,’’ and Hector’s prayer, J/. 6:479 ff.: “And then may men say of him, ‘Far greater is he than his father’ as he return- THE “ILIAD” AND “ODYSSEY” IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 85 eth home from battles; and may he bring with him bloodstained spoils from the foeman he hath slain, and may his mother’s heart be glad.” Page 84: —one child he had— But one—a girl; who with her mother now Plies some light female task, nor dreams of us— Of us she dreams not, nor of wounds nor war. Several passages in Homer contrast the domestic tasks of woman and the sterner business of counsel and war falling to the lotof man. Com- pare Ody. 21:350 ff.: “Then seek your chamber, and attend to matters of your own,—the loom and distaff,—and bid the women ply their tasks. Bows are for men, for all, especially for me.’”’ Compare also Ody. Be: 256 8; UL.6: 400 fi. Page 85: The anguish of the deep-fix’d spear grew fierce, And he desired to draw forth the steel, And let the blood flow free, and so to die. Death follows immediately after the removal of the spear point, and in Homer the soul at times seems to depart through the wound, J/. 16: 502 ff.: “Even as he spoke thus the end of death veiled over his eyes and his nostrils, but Patroklos, setting foot on his breast, drew the spear out of his flesh, and the midriff followed with the spear so that he drew forth together the spear point, and the soul of Sarpedon.”’ Then with weak and hasty fingers, Sohrab loosed His belt, and near the shoulder bared his arm, And show’d a sign in faint vermilion points Prick’d; as a cunning workman, in Pekin, Pricks with vermilion some clear porcelain vase, An emperor’s gift—at early morn he paints, And all day long, and, when night comes, the lamp Lights up his studious forehead and thin hands— So delicately prick’d the sign appear’d On Sohrab’s arm, the sign of Rustum’s seal. The above simile has been compared for its verbal similarity as well as for the Homeric addition of picturesque details to J/. 4:141 ff.: “As when some woman of Maionia or Karia staineth ivory with purple, to make a cheek-piece for horses, and it is laid up in the treasure chamber, 86 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES and many a horseman prayeth for it to wear; but it is laid up to bea king’s boast, alike an adornment for his horse and a glory for his chari- oteer; even in such wise, Menelaos, were thy shapely thighs stained with blood and thy legs and thy fair ankles beneath.” Vergil (Aen. 12:67 f.) borrowed the Homeric simile, applying it to a blushing maiden: “As if one had stained Indian ivory with ruddy purple.” Page 86: And then a dark cloud pass’d before his eyes, And his head swam, and he sank down to earth. This may be compared with J/. 22:466 ff.: “Then dark night came on her eyes and shrouded her, and she fell backward and gasped forth her spirit.”” Compare also such passages as I1. 4: 503 ff. —and he seized In both his hands the dust which lay around, And threw it on his head, and smirch’d his hair,— His hair, and face, and beard, and glittering arms; And strong convulsive groanings shook his breast, And his sobs choked him. The description of Rustum’s grief for his son is very similar to the picture of Achilles bewailing his friend Patroklos, J/. 18:22 ff.: “Thus spake he, and a black cloud of grief enwrapped Achilles, and with both hands he took dark dust and poured it over his head, and defiled his comely face, and on his fragrant doublet black ashes fell. And himself in the dust lay mighty and mightily fallen, and with his own hands tore and marred his hair... Then terribly mourned Achilles.” Arnold’s “glittering arms” like Vergil’s arma radientia is borrowed from Il. 18:617. —I but meet today . The doom which at my birth was written down In Heaven. The belief in fatalism occurs frequently in Homer, as in Ody. 7: 196 ff.: “There, in the days to come, he shall receive whatever fate and the stern spinners wove in his birth-thread when his mother bore him.”’ Compare also Il. 3:308 f.: “Zeus knoweth, and all the immortal Gods, for whether of the twain the doom of death is appointed.” Compare also JI. '6: 487 ff.; 16:441 f.; 20:127 f.; Vergil, Aen. 10:467. THE “ILIAD”? AND “ODYSSEY”? IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 87 Page 87: Come, sit beside me on this sand, and take __ My head betwixt thy hands, and kiss my cheeks, And wash them with thy tears, and say: My Son! It is possible that this passage shows the influence of J/. 18:70 ff.: “And as he groaned heavily his lady mother stood beside him, and with a shrill cry clasped the head of her child, and spake unto him winged words of lamentation: ‘My child,’”’ etc. Compare also J/. 24:723 ff. —and Ruksh, the horse, With his head bowing to the ground and mane Sweeping the dust, came near, and in mute woe First to the one then to the other moved His head, as if inquiring what their grief Might mean; and from his dark compassionate eyes, The big warm tears roll’d down, and caked the sand. The “mute woe” of Ruksh is described in words which represent a free borrowing from the story of the grief of Achilles’ horses, Balios and Xanthos, once “endowed with human speech,” over the death of Patrok- los, Il. 17:426 ff.: “But the horses of Aeakides that were apart from the battle, were weeping, since first they were aware that their charioteer had fallen... .. So abode they immovably with the beautiful chariot abasing their heads unto the earth. And hot tears flowed from their eyes to the ground as they mourned in sorrow for their charioteer, and their rich manes were soiled as they drooped from beneath the yoke cushion on both sides beside the yoke.”’ Compare also J/. 19:404 ff. In “big warm tears,” Arnold has combined two Homeric epithets occur- ring separately. The expression “big tears” is found in Il. 24:9; “warm tears” in Il. 17:437, 438. The expression “caked the sand”’ calls up JI. 23:15 f.: “ Bedewed were the sands with tears, bedewed the warriors’ arms.” Page 88: Then with heavy groan, Rustum bewail’d. There are many lines in Homer very similar to this one. Compare Il. 1:364: “Then with heavy moan, Achilles, fleet of foot spake to her.” 88 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Oh, that its waves were flowing over me! Oh, that I saw its grains of yellow silt Roll tumbling in the current o’er my head! In these lines, Arnold was evidently influenced by Helen’s “gentle words,”’ J/. 6:345 ff.: “Would that on the day when my mother bore me at the first, an evil storm-wind had caught me away to a mountain or a billow of the loud-sounding sea, where the billow might have swept me away before all these things came to pass.’? Compare Tenny- son’s adaptation, in “A Dream of Fair Women”— I would the white cold heavy plunging foam, Whirl’d by the wind, had roll’d me deep below, Then when I left my home. Page 89: Fear not! as thou hast said, Sohrab, my son, So shall it be; for I will burn my tents, And quit the host, and bear thee hence with me, And carry thee away to Seistan, And place thee on a bed, and mourn for thee, With the snow-headed Zal, and all my friends. And I will lay thee in that lovely earth, And heap a stately mound above thy bones, And plant a far-seen pillar over all, And men shall not forget thee in thy grave. No other passage in “Sohrab and Rustum”’ illustrates better Arnold’s complete absorption of the Homeric manner and the skill and felicity with which he constantly combined detached Homeric phrases, and situations drawn or adapted from various parts of the poems, into a harmonious whole. In accordance with the Homeric manner this speech of Rustum is a repetition, mutatis mutandis, of the words of Sohrab, the other party to the dialogue. ‘The Homeric passages drawn upon are I1. 24:669 ff.: “All this, O ancient Priam, shall be as thou biddest; for I will hold back the battle even so long a time as thou tellest me;” 1. 22:352 ff.: “Not even so shall thy lady mother lay thee on a bed and mourn her son” (compare J/. 22:86 f.); and J/. 16:671 ff.: “And send him to be wafted by fleet convoy, by the twin brothers Sleep and Death, that quickly will set him in the land of wide Lycia. There will his kins- THE “ILIAD”? AND “ODYSSEY” IN “SOHRAB AND RUSTUM” 8g man and clansman give him burial, with barrow and pillar, for such is the due of the dead.”” Compare also Jl. 11:371; 16:457; 17:434f.; Ody. 12:14f. “That lovely earth” recalls Homer’s frequent use of the adjective €patewds, applied to countries and cities, as in Ody. 7:79: “lovely Scheria;’”’ Jl. 3:239: “lovely Lakedaimon.” Page 91: Till now all strength was ebb’d and from his limbs Unwillingly the spirit fled away, Regretting the warm mansion which it left, And youth and bloom, and this delightful world. Compare I/. 16:855 ff.: “Even as he spoke, the end of death overshad- owed him. And his soul, fleeting from his limbs, went down to the home of Hades, wailing its doom, leaving manhood and youth.” Compare also Il. 22:361 ff. THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO MOUNTAIN LABORATORY By FRANcIS RAMALEY The mountain laboratory at Tolland, Colo. (attitude 8,889 feet), is maintained for the field study of biology: plants, birds, insects and mam- mals. In the summer of 1909, from June 14 to July 30, the first session Steambost Spri ngs a Henmedd Springs = and t Grand¢ & ‘Junction Springs PUEBLO Vad 4a “to River A) 72¢a8 Fic. 1.—Map of Colorado showing location of Tolland, the seat of the mountain laboratory. Its nearness to Denver and to the university at Boulder is apparent. was held. This proved so successful that it was determined to continue the sessions in subsequent years. It was found that the courses which had been planned were well adapted to conditions at the laboratory and they were carried out to the satisfaction of all concerned. Students and instructors worked together on a number of special problems as well as in regular class work. ol UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES g2 (‘ulepnig surlzepyey sst Aq poredarg) A107 eI10qR] UTeJUNOW 94} JO SUOTAUA o}eIPSUIUMT oY} SuIMoyYs yIeg Jopjnog jo dep;—'e ‘ory MMA 40 3TVOS rE Cia ee ae [Fare 44 O00] “WAYSLNI ene - Vibha —_ S22 ee awe” = =fst=22 9snoy [0042S § lS W) f : = I LE = = : ———s Scayvowe === SOVON TIVE see ‘O109 OGNV TIOL MaVd ddd 1Inod UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO MOUNTAIN LABORATORY 93 In choosing the location for the laboratory attention was given to accessibility, suitable climate and richness of flora and fauna. ‘Tolland? is a mountain hamlet of less than two score buildings but is provided with excellent train service by standard gauge railway and also post- office, express and telegraph facilities, good hotel, lodging-houses and restaurant. There are two general stores. Gold mining and timber cutting are the chief industries of the country ’round, the cool summers not permitting agriculture. Only five miles down the valley there are, however, mountain ranches which produce hay and grain. The laboratory differs from other biological stations in offering special opportunities for field study of plant distribution in different climates. At Tolland the summer is cool, with a mean July temperature of about 58° F., while within an hour’s ride by railway down the valley to the foothills or to the edge of the plains the July mean is nearly 70°. A trip by rail of forty-five minutes takes the student to the upper limit of tree growth (timberline) with its alpine tundra and scrub willows. Almost at his door, it may be said, the student has as wide diversity in climate as could be found in a trip from Illinois to Ellesmereland. Just as in making this latter journey various zones of plant and animal life would be encountered, so in passing from arid plain to alpine height there are many belts of vegetation each with its own characteristic plants. Although the laboratory building was originally designed for business purposes it is admirably adapted to its present use. It is well lighted from the north, is provided with ample shelf room, counters and tables and there is a large room for storage and a good photographic dark room. Jars, bottles and chemicals, plant driers, insect nets, water bath, drying oven, soil cans and soil borers are kept at the laboratory while reference books, microscopes, microtomes, forestry instruments and cameras are taken up from the university at Boulder for use during the summer session. The village of Tolland is situated in a mountain park (Boulder Park) surrounded by mountains. South Boulder Creek, a stream fed by melting snows of the alpine peaks, flows in winding course through the t See also an article in the Plant World, Vol. XII, pp. 105-10, by the present writer and Mr. W. W. Rossins for further account of Tolland and vicinity. 94 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES park, fringed by a band of meadow with swamp grass and clumps of willows. A broad area of dry grassland extends back from the creek and this is followed by pine and spruce forests on the surrounding hill- sides. A considerable extent of aspen and alder forest on a moist hill- side opposite the laboratory and a ridge covered with sage brush and various dry-country plants offer extreme conditions for plant growth. Thus in the immediate neighborhood of the laboratory, within twenty minutes’ walk, there are almost unrivalled oportunities for ecological study. From the standpoint of ornithology and mammalology Boulder Park is not especially rich but there is opportunity here for studying some of the more common birds and mammals of the region. An abundance and variety of insects make it possible for the student to secure a good collection with a minimum amount of exertion. During the summer of 1909 a large number of specimens of insects were taken as well as many birds and some mammals. To the student who wishes to become acquainted quickly with exam- ples of many plant families Tolland offers a wealth of material for work. In the early spring season—which is the month of June—there are wil- lows, alders and birches in blossom, and, somewhat later, pines and spruces. Flowering herbs are abundant and varied in character. The growing season is so short that in two months’ time it is possible to observe nearly the whole flora from blooming of willows to fruiting of gentians and composites. The laboratory is a place where those who wish to become acquainted with the outdoor side of botany and zoédlogy may find instruction suited to their needs. Teachers who wish to prepare themselves for nature- study work may make collections to be used later in their schools. The advanced student, trained in laboratory work, may carry on investigations and enlarge his knowledge of plants and animals in the field. To the high-school or college instructor who wishes to broaden his horizon by intimate contact with nature and an acquaintance with mountain plants and animals opportunity is here given to learn much in a short time. The laboratory is in no way a rival of the many excellent seaside and lakeside laboratories in various parts of the world. It occupies a unique Fic. 3.—The mountain laboratory with a group of students. From a photograph by the author. Fic. 4.—Looking east in Boulder Park: South Boulder Creek, dwarf willows; rail- way station at extreme right. From a photograph by the author. h by the autl rap Q eS o = és za c S =) oa 0 = = ‘S| ‘=| 44 reek, about a he est near Jenny C rous for s.—The coni IG. 4 I UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO MOUNTAIN LABORATORY 95 position in affording opportunity for the study of the rich flora and fauna of a mountain district. Especially favored in climate and geographical position it places the student where he must appreciate the relationship which organisms bear to their environment. The following investigations' were undertaken by members of the Igog party: iA Plant Formations of Boulder Park and Vicinity—to be a general account of the larger ecological associations. . Pondside Vegetation—a continuation of work started two years ago by the pro- fessor in charge and the instructor. . The Lodgepole Forest—a study of the distribution of the lodgepole pine with rela- tion to slope, exposure, etc.; also the associated trees and herbaceous plants of the forest. . An Ecological Cross-Section of Boulder Park—examination of ten typical points as to soil moisture, soil temperature and characteristic species of plants. . The Insect Visitors of Pentstemon—collection and study of the different insects and their importance in pollination. . The Habits of the Salamanders of Park Lake—observations on breeding, relation to temperature of the water, behavior during night and day. . Ants of Boulder Park—study of habits, abundance etc. Preparation of artificial key for their identification. t The unrivalled opportunities for investigation of botanical problems in Colorado are set forth in a paper entitled “Botanical Opportunity in Colorado” by the present writer published in the University of Colorado Studies, Vol. V1, pp. 5-10, December, 1908. een | dl par ie a A) t ’ \ é ‘ Votum_E VII NuMBER 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES FRANCIS RAMALEY EDITOR PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BOULDER, COLO. January, 1910 Price, 50 Cents CONTENTS SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909 if Io. ITINERARY, TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY Junius HENDERSON, B.A. Curator of the Museum REMARKS ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO BRUM UN RN h ED ae on te et W. W. Rossins, M.A. Instructor in Biology A BOTANICAL TRIP IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO . W. W. Rossins, M.A. Instructor in Biology Mo.tuscA COLLECTED IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909 SNe PAGE a I IAL We Junius HENDERSON, B.A. Curator of the Museum Some INSECTS COLLECTED IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909 AR ek co Og DN T. D. A. COCKERELL Professor of Systematic Zoélogy REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF COLO- RADO EXPEDITION OF 1909 ‘ T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy Notes ON BIRDS AND MAMMALS OF NORTHWESTERN COLO- RADO ak Cm eae A. H. FELGER Fossit INVERTEBRATES FROM NORTHWESTERN COLORADO . Junius HENDERSON, B.A. Curator of the Museum Fosstt PLANTS FROM THE MESA VERDE CRETACEOUS . T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS DEALING WITH THE GEOLOGY AND NATURAL History OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO PAGE Iort II2 II5 125 126 130 132 146 149 151 Mi Mt ‘ " SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN De Io. COLORADO IN 1909 Itinerary, Topography and Geology Junius re the . Remarks on the Climatology of Northwestern Colorado W. W. RossBins . A Botanical Trip in Northwestern Colorado . W. W. RosBIns . Mollusca Collected in Northwestern Colorado in 1909 . Junius HENDERSON . Some Insects Collected in Northwestern Colorado in 1909 .« T. D. A. CocKERELL . Reptiles and Amphibians of the University of Colorado Expedition of 1909 T. D. A. COCKERELL . Notes on Birds and Mammals of Northwestern Colorado A. H. FELGER . Fossil Invertebrates from Northwestern Colorado . Junius HENDERSON . Fossil Plants from the Mesa Verde Cretaceous T. D. A. CocKERELL Bibliography of Papers Dealing with the agi > and Natural History H Northwestern Colorado ; she ITINERARY, TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY By Junius HENDERSON PAGE Ior II2 115 125 126 130 132 146 149 BRE. The expedition, under the auspices of the University of Colorado Museum, outfitted at Newcastle, Garfield County, and traveled thence by wagon, covering portions of Garfield, Rio Blanco and Routt Counties (Fig. 1). Mr. W. W. Robbins, instructor in biology at the University, had charge of the botanical work Mr. A. H. Felger, of the Denver North Side High School faculty, acted as ornithologist and mammalogist. James Terry Duce, a student of the Boulder High School, assisted in various lines of work. The writer paid special attention to paleonto- ror 102 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES logical and conchological investigations. Each member of the party to some extent assisted in other lines of work We desire to express our appreciation of the courtesies received at the hands of the people living along our route, who were almost uni- formly kind and assisted us in many ways. Messrs. J. L. Riland, W. A. Kyser, W. B. Blythe and Reuben Ball, of Meeker, were especially helpful to us in securing valuable material for the museum. ———je SN F f\; a rN papa OER Fic. 1.—Outline map of Colorado, the territory covered by the expedition being enclosed in the square shaded by diagonal lines. The accompanying map shows the route and localities visited (Fig. 2). Starting on August 3, 1909, we proceeded up Elk Creek, thence to Rifle Gap, where Rifle Creek breaks through the Mesa Verde sandstone ridge, which constitutes the Grand Hogback (Fig. 9). Here we made our first stop. We next passed through the Gap to the Rifle-Meeker stage road, which we followed to Meeker, stopping at Piceance Creek on the way. From Meeker we traveled to Axial and back. Thence “Teq-SSO1 [PUIUIIO} YIM More dip yeuofueauos Aq poyedIpul dip Jo uoyoaiq *s1eq-ssoID [BUTUTIE} JNOYIM smoare Aq poyeoIpul oAey Jo uoreNq ‘ourj uexosq Aavay Aq payeoipul ajnoyY “PesS{A sayqTBO] puw oynor Surmoys deyy—z “og ae eS ee | | | $3) N8 /2SE2M9, IRS EPSP N eipene BdoeIS Weas oouesqTory | I | _| 24.00.66. i SOE] IUIAEW 34 0000/ 2HET OV gizddery WU, aooou | nemasned fijobuew [ quel | “4 9000! Q) Wi ) FEA 3eD fideaXg y : hae Se ee O on I04 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES we proceeded to Little Beaver Creek and up White River to Buford, Marvine Lakes and Trapper’s Lake, and returned to Newcastle by the Mud Spring road over White River Plateau. The greater part of the distance traveled was over good roads, which gave two horses very little trouble with our heavy load. Where we pulled out of the White River Valley, however, the long, steep, rocky hill, badly washed road and wet weather which then prevailed required a division of the load, with five horses. The roads extend to within five or six miles of Marvine Lakes and Trapper’s Lake. We reached Newcastle on the return, September 4. The following is a list of localities' visited and dates: INS UPCAREI Eh cae SANIT. eoe8 UE ASD RNG AN apa dh aI ny August =I, 2 IN Gweastle tor iie Maps iia. cle sae lgetiemre enh sm eketeiuls ik 3 REPETITION As PU A Ona 4 Rifle Gap to Rio Blanco Stage Station ............... 5 OSA CO SEAMS ENEAELON | hs. I MIL ahs desis Ga fal 6 PNG HE EAMGO (EO LCE RET 0s). 01k aie i wlaaloiana el evele rete etal aie 7 EPEC E AOE Gils he ehh Nataiateluio Sete Cie Wem ew io ai alle favota cali 8 to II (Feel ocak so cA Te ee LB I OW 12 (SECU US ATA ESE CESS ALU ODA MET A ELA 13 PEST) VICE REE Hy) MR HCS MERU SLU OT gee Cie 14 IVTSRICOE hice RUA haat eC Ria tucleie ala iavaga alia te leavers oe 15, 16 Meeker ¢o dttle (Beaver Creeks) oie chs \eiie aiss piotele ae fertile Beaver Greek! Sc. 4s05 oe cetenaielnsdois eed iavels theta el ela 18 Eatie Beaver Greek tolButord y's) ote Ou eae ie 19 SCOR ure Ma sv intataiet tale) ucebens a tolnie ian anitae ete tabste ae 20 to 23 Butord to: Marvine Lodge ee el NNO ane 24 Marvine Lodge to Marvine Lakes and back........... 25 Mirvac ranpe ik H ut ates iiss alalela data a eye ale tile atabet ae 26 to 29 Narvine odes to Elms ire miele cies dima ate ciciaraiejand 30 Himes’ to Trapper’s Lake, thence to Fitzgerald’s....... 31 CZCS rarity faite hie tule ahiteia i ni ye egoA pa CC eat naN September 1 Bitz re radia es (ho SUIOEG (12). 2 auehalsis bi alsih is orate eiatansmateie we 2 Butord ta mear Mud Spring ice ois ats ales alana aia nie 3 Mud Sara toNeweastle i. oe alae Weal ae 4 t While we were encamped at Marvine Lodge and Fitzgerald’s, August 25 to September 2, Mr. Felger and a guide explored the region adjacent to Marvine Creek and the Lost Park country in search of elk and deer. i SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I05 The route passed first up a broad valley which separates the escarp- ment of Mesa Verde sandstones on the one hand from the Dakota sand- stone on the other (Fig. 3). The surface débris of the valley conceals the greater part of the Mancos formation, though the lower portion outcrops on the north side (Fig. 8) and the upper part on the south side (Fig. 7). The valley itself results from the erosion of these yielding shales, the bounding ridges being the resistant sandstones of the Mesa Verde and Dakota formations. A very much generalized cross-section Little Book Cliffs Grand Hogback Ce ey, le i ne Sandstone / ertiary _ andstone Ne 3000ft. 4000 -5500ft./ Fic. 3.—Generalized cross-section showing relation of formation to valleys and ridges between Newcastle and Meeker. of the route to Meeker is shown in Fig. 3. The strata from Newcastle to Rifle Gap dip in a southeasterly direction, giving the ridges a northwesterly strike. Beyond the Gap the dip changes to westerly and consequently the strike of the ridges and bluff lines becomes northerly, thus changing the direction of our route. Throughout the region the directions taken by the valleys and ridges, and hence the roads, are controlled by the direction of the dips of strata. The passage through Rifle Gap (Fig. 9) carried us out into the Wasatch (Tertiary) formation, with the Little Book Cliffs towering majestically on our left and the Grand Hogback (Mesa Verde formation) on our right (Fig. 3). At Meeker the dip again changes, this time to northwesterly, with corresponding change of strike of bluffs and ridges 106 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES to northeasterly. It will be noted that these changes in dip and strike indicate a great anticlinal fold. Long ago the Hayden Survey named the high ridges of Mesa Verde sandstone extending from Grand River to White River the “‘Grand Hogback,”’ a name which is quite appro- priate and still clings to it, though some of the formation names then applied have been superseded by others. Meeker is in the broad valley of White River. The valley here occupies the Mancos formation, with the Mesa Verde bluffs to the north (Fig. 11) and the Dakota sandstone to the south. On the south side of the valley are several terraces, telling unmistakably of various periods of renewed erosion, as if base level had several times been reached, followed by a renewal of activity from fresh uplift. These terraces were traced far up White River. ‘The lower bottom-lands are extensively irrigated and used as hay lands from Meeker up to within six miles of Trapper’s Lake. The route from Meeker to Axial was chiefly through gulches cut in the Mesa Verde sandstones. From Meeker to Little Beaver Creek, on the other hand, was chiefly in the Mancos. Returning from Little Beaver Creek to the main road and proceeding up White River, we at once broke through the Dakota sandstone into the underlying sand- stones, limestones and clays, chiefly of a reddish color, probably mostly representing Jurassic and late Carboniferous time with possibly some Triassic or Permian, though we found no paleontological evidence of their age. The greater part of the valley is likely in Carboniferous rocks. Marvine Creek is in amygdaloidal basalt, which appears to extend across to Trapper’s Lake in a continuous sheet several hundred feet in thickness. The White River Plateau is the broad, rolling, partly dissected divide which separates the White River canyon from the canyon of the Grand River. It was long ago described! as “a lava-capped mesa, irregular and cut by deep canyons and valleys, which often nearly subdivide it... . with surface irregularly rolling.” The region affords excellent examples of the persistence of perennial streams, as where Rifle Creek at Rifle Gap (Fig. 9) and White River t Lapp, Story B., Eighth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., p. 437- SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 107 below Meeker cut through the Mesa Verde escarpment, while the minor drainage by intermittent streams is controlled by the relations of litho- logical units and the displacement of strata by folds. Thus, with the strata dipping uniformly in a given direction at a given locality, the minor drainage follows yielding strata and produces valleys between more resistant horizons, while the major streams cut through the ridges which have developed from erosion of the lateral valleys, probably continuing in pre-established courses. The so-called Dakota formation here, as along the foothills of the Front Range, is likely not all of Dakota age. In at least a portion of the region it consists of two sandstone members, with intervening shales. On Little Beaver Creek we found in the top of the upper sandstone fragments of Ostrea and Inoceramus not specifically determinable but strongly suggesting Benton forms. The Mancos formation is believed to be equivalent, in point of time of deposition, to the Benton and Niobrara formations and about the lower half of the Pierre. At the base are black calcareous shales, con- taining thin beds of gray limestone in the upper part, as the Benton does east of the Front Range. Above this series at Newcastle is a limestone in places weathering almost white, containing Jnoceramus and Ostrea congesta, overlaid by calcareous shales. That limestone is not as massive as the basal limestone of the Niobrara east of the Front Range, but otherwise its occurrence and appearance are quite similar. It shows usually on the lower part of the Dakota slope. The greater part of the Mancos throughout the region occupies valleys and is covered by alluvium and débris from the steep valley sides. The top of the formation is frequently found exposed at the base of the Mesa Verde escarpment (Figs 7 and 11). The entire formation is marine, as are the Benton, Niobrara and Pierre equivalents elsewhere The line of demarcation between this and the next higher formation is not always sufficiently definite to remove its exact position altogether from the realm of personal opinion, although the formations are quite distinct in general character and conditions under which they were deposited. The Mesa Verde formation consists of alternating massive sand- stones, clays and coal beds, and marks a radical change in conditions of 108 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES sedimentation. It is believed to include strata representing upper Pierre and most of Fox Hills time. I am not aware of any Lewis shale or Laramie in the region traversed by us. Neither the overlying Tertiary formation nor those underlying the Dakota were examined particularly by us. Portions of the Wasatch between Rifle Gap and Piceance Creek afford excellent examples of “bad land” topography. Mr. Richardson! says: “In the Grand Hogback, northwest of New- castle, Colo., T. W. Stanton and H. S. Gale collected fossil plants which F. H. Knowlton refers to the Fort Union, but Gale did not find it prac- ticable to map the rocks containing these fossil leaves distinct from the Wasatch.” The table on the next page (not drawn to scale) shows the relation to each other of the Cretaceous formations of eastern Colorado, the Yampa River Region, and the Grand Hogback near Rifle Gap. The coal of northeastern Colorado is confined to the Laramie, while in the Yampa Region it is found in both Laramie and Mesa Verde, and in the Grand Hogback it is in the Mesa Verde. A comparison of the several faunas discussed in a subsequent part of this report, and the associated lithological evidence, is instructive. The Mancos and lowest Mesa Verde faunas are strictly marine. The later Mesa Verde faunas are of brackish-water types. The fossil plants of the Mesa Verde are terrestrial. ‘The evidence as a whole indicates the following post-Dakota geological history of the region: Throughout Mancos time marine conditions prevailed, with a slowly subsiding sea-floor and low-lying or rather remote shore, so that only fine sediments reached this region. It is likely that deposition was approximately equal to subsidence until several thousand feet of fine lime and clay shales had been deposited. ‘Then the rate of subsidence decreased, or deposition was accelerated, or both, resulting in the shallowing of the sea, the sediments becoming more sandy. Marine conditions, however, still continued until the lower sandstones assigned to Mesa Verde age had been deposited. Then the sea retreated and there followed a period of low-lying shores, swamps and lagoons, with t U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 371, p. 21. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 109 several alternations of land, fresh-water and brackish-water conditions, under which there accumulated a thick series of alternating sandstones, shales, limestones and beds of coal. We did not find the fossil plants NortH- GRAND YAMPA HocBAckK REGION Pace teiaash Tertiary Tertiary (fresh water) (fresh water) Tertiary (fresh water) ! Laramie Laramie (fresh (fresh and brackish and brackish water) water) Unconformity tt t : ae Lewis and Laramie (marine) Fox Hills (marine) Mesa Verde Mesa Verde (fresh (fresh and brackish and brackish water) water) Pierre (marine) Mancos Mancos Niobrara (marine) (marine) (marine) Benton (marine) ‘Dakota’ “Dakota”? ‘*Dakota” and animals mingled, but each occupies definite and separate strata, showing, at least locally, alternating terrestrial and lagoon conditions. The palms and Corbicula indicate a climate considerably milder than IIo UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES now prevails. At or soon after the close of Mesa Verde time the brackish- water lagoons ceased to exist and the elevation of the region probably began, though it is doubtful whether this occurred until after the period represented in other localities by the Lewis shales and the Laramie formation, for it seems that the absence of the two latter in the Grand Hogback is due to erosion rather than to non-deposition.t | The post- Mesa Verde elevation of the land likely progressed through Tertiary time and may even continue to the present day. The entire region has been elevated about a mile, or, to speak more precisely, its position has been changed that amount with reference to sea-level, for whether the difference is due entirely to actual elevation with reference to the center of the earth, or partly at least to the tilting of portions of the earth’s crust and consequent withdrawal of the ocean into deepening basins, may never be definitely known. ‘The widespread change in the vertical configuration of the continent at and after the close of the Cretaceous was not uniform, but was accompanied by tilting on a large scale, leaving the portion of the continent bordering the Rocky Mountains high above sea-level, while portions of the continent to the east, west and south were but little elevated. The differential movement was particularly pronounced at places along the present borders of the sedi- mentaries, leaving the strata resting at high angles upon the mountain slopes. The Tertiary beds overlying the Mesa Verde were probably deposited under varying conditions and may be partly subaérial, partly fluviatile and partly lacustrine. During and since the deposition of the Tertiary beds rapid erosion has prevailed and numerous canyons have been cut to depths varying from a few hundred to several thousand feet. During Pleistocene time the higher region in the eastern part of the area explored by us was subjected to the action of numerous glaciers, originating at an altitude of from 11,000 to 12,000 feet, uniting and moving down White River Valley to an altitude of 7,500 feet or less, modifying the valley and upon final retreat leaving behind the usual hummocky topography, moraines and lakes. Glacial sinkholes? gave the name “Pothole Valley” to that portion just above Buford. t RicHarpson, U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 371, p. 18. 2 HAYDEN’s Aflas of Colorado, etc., sheet v. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO Iil The lakes in the upper valleys, as usual in glaciated mountain regions, are of two types—rock basin and morainal—but some at lower levels are “ox-bows” left by the cutting through of river bends. The glacial topography has been since modified but little by erosion in the upper parts of the valleys. The coal-beds of the Mesa Verde formation are numerous and exten- sive and aggregate great thickness. The outcrops along the Grand Hogback are easily accessible and have been worked in many places for local consumption, more extensively at Meeker and Newcastle. The coal is now on fire in places near Newcastle, and it seems to have been of frequent occurrence in the past, as much sandstone and clay has been metamorphosed from this cause along the Grand Hogback. Much work has been done upon the geology of this coal-field by the United States Geological Survey, reports of which work are cited in the bibliog- raphy accompanying the present report. No coal is found here below the Mesa Verde. There is much lime and clay in the region, some of which is of eco- nomic value, but neither has been much exploited and apparently the best has not usually been selected. Large deposits of gypsum occur in the earlier formations of the upper White River Valley, reminding one forcibly of the Lykins deposits east of the Front Range. Lack of transportation facilities at present prevents any just estimate of its value or future possibilities. Building stone is everywhere abundant, some of it of excellent quality. Carnotite from Coal Creek, northeast of Meeker, furnished by Mr. J. L. Riland, was tested by Mr. C. J. Marvin by use of sensitized plate, and after an exposure of sixty hours showed very faint radio-activity. The deposits have been described by Gale.* Specimens of gilsonite were obtained from J. L. Riland and W. B. Blythe, collected on Piceance Creek, southwest of Meeker, where it is said to occur in considerable quantities. Unexpected difficulties have been encountered, which have prevented complete analyses up to the present writing, but incomplete analyses show that the Riland samples run on an average approximately 77 per cent. carbon and 11.5 per cent. 1 Gate, Hoyt S., U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull., No. 315, pp. 110-17, 1906. II2 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES hydrogen, with 9.69 per cent. unaccounted for, which may increase the total amount of carbon somewhat. The Blythe specimens contain about 3 per cent. less of carbon and 1 per cent. more of hydrogen. Some “brown gilsonite’’ from the same place presented by Mr. Riland is found to be very impure material, containing 15.29 per cent silica and 7.33 per cent. calcium carbonate. The agricultural possibilities of the country vastly exceed ‘the present development. The region traversed ranges from 5,000 to 12,000 feet above sea- level, sloping from the mountains above Trapper’s and Marvine Lakes westward, and draining ultimately into the Pacific Ocean. A partial bibliography appended to this report cites the more impor- tant works relating to the region and its biological and geological phe- nomena. Up to the present time the geology has received much more attention than the biology. REMARKS ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO By W. W. RosBINS General account.—As the area visited by the expedition ranges in altitude from 5,000 feet to 12,000 feet, there are, of course, varied climatic conditions. Climatological data are available for Meeker and Rangely.t These data represent very accurately climatic condi- tions existing over the greater part of northwestern Colorado, exclusive of altitudes above 7,000 feet, for which no data are available. Local- ities below this altitude are dominated by pinyon pine (Pinus edulis), Utah cedar (Sabina utahensis) sage-brush (Artemisia tridentata) and associated plant forms. Even without climatological data, such xero- phytic vegetative types as these indicate semi-arid conditions. Western Colorado in general has a semi-arid climate. It belongs to that great arid district which embraces Nevada and Utah. Precipitation.—Meeker has a mean annual precipitation of 16 inches; Rangely 8.8 inches. This difference is due partially at least to the difference in altitude between the two stations. Meeker is 6,182 feet t Annual Summary Colorado Section of the Climatological Service. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO II3 and Rangely 5,050 feet above sea-level. The aridity of the climate at Rangely is recognized at once by the record of precipitation. Meeker with a rainfall nearly twice as great must, however, be included with Rangely as arid. This will be apparent by comparison with the climate of Denver. Denver has a mean annual rainfall of but 14 inches as com- pared with 16 inches at Meeker, and yet the vegetation about Denver eee Mere Ape. Mey) disse. uly! Adal ‘Genk vide Apr May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Ben | | aaa —Y ae ae | Fic. 4.—Graphic representation of the mean precipitation i months at alan Rangely, Boulder and Wray. The stations, Meeker and Rangley, west of the continental divide, have an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year, as is shown by the flatness of the curves for these stations. On the other hand, Boulder and Wray, stations east of the main range, have the greater percentage of their rainfall during the spring months. is not as xerophytic in its nature as that about Meeker. This difference is due in large measure to the seasonal distribution of rainfall. At Meeker and Rangely, in fact at all localities west of the continental divide, only about 50 per cent. of total precipitation occurs during the growing season. On the other hand, at Denver, and other stations east of the main range, about 75 per cent. of the yearly precipitation comes during the growing season. Fig. 5 shows graphically the distri- bution of precipitation throughout the year for stations near the 40th parallel both east and west of the continental divide. Judging “from annual precipitation amounts alone leads one into error unless there be a consideration of seasonal distribution II4 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Irrigation is necessary throughout northwestern Colorado for suc- cessful farming and fruit-raising Jan. Feb. Mar Apr May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. | Fic. 5.—Graphic representation of the mean temperature by months at Meeker, Rangely, Boulder and Wray. Meeker and Rangely are west of the continental divide, Boulder and Wray east; all are near the goth parallel. The greater ranges of temperature will be roted in the cases of Meeker and Rangelv. Temperature.—Northwestern Colorado as a whole has a severe climate. That is, extremes of temperature, both diurnal and annual, are great. Table I gives temperature conditions at four localities in TABLE I : Mean Mean Altitude Mean Mean Station : Annual | Warmest | Temp. | Coldest | Temp. | 4 I Feet | Temp*| Month | Warmest) Month | Coldest | Ranges ould gris cctts te) cislosle. 4 fo st 59347 51 Aug. 71 Feb. 33 38 WEY 2) Seren etch foie edie 'a\ 3,512 51 July 74 Jan. 20 45 IM SSRN orbs 70 bla OC 6,182 43 July 66 Jan. 20 46 Laos Mok Band)a Doing eee 5,050 43 July 69 Jan. 15 54 * Degrees F. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO II5 Colorado, all near the goth parallel, two on each side of the continental divide. (See Fig. 1 for their relative locations.) From the table it is seen that the mean annual range of tempera- ture is greater in the case of the two localities, Meeker and Rangely, west of the divide, than it is for Boulder and Wray, stations east of the _ divide. As a general rule, annual range of temperature decreases with an increase of altitude. Meeker, however, has a greater elevation than Boulder, but a wider range of temperature. The annual march of temperature is given in Fig. 5 for Meeker, Rangely, Boulder and Wray. The average length of the growing season at Meeker is 95 days; the average date of last killing frost in spring, June 7; and of first killing frost in autumn, September 12. These conditions, together with the severity of the climate, limit horticultural possibilities. Peaches or melons cannot be successfully grown. Some varieties of apples and cherries, however, do well. Hay is a more profitable crop than grain. A BoTANICAL TRIP IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO By W. W. Rossins For the botanist there is keen pleasure connected with collecting in fields new tohim. There is the anticipated enjoyment of getting new species, possibly; of seeing new plant-formations; of making comparisons with the flora and vegetation with which he is familiar. In Colorado there are many new botanical fields. One who has done most of his botanical field-work on plains and in mountains east of the continental divide is always eager to see what is “on the other side of the mountain.” It is generally held, and correctly too, that the flora and vegetation west of the continental divide is essentially different from that to the east. These differences will be mentioned at another point. General account.—The first three weeks of August were spent riding and tramping through a country of stream-cut valleys, some wide and gently sloping at either side, others narrow and abrupt, bounded on both sides by sedimentary ridges. During this time we did not get above an altitude of 7,500 feet, and hence through it all there was a sameness and monotony to the vegetation. The general character of 116 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES this was xerophytic. Rocky ridges with scattered pinyon pines and cedars; stream benches, level areas, roadsides, gradual slopes and mesas covered with sage-brush; scrub oak at the bases of slopes; stream- sides fringed with cottonwoods; a dearth of blooming herbs—such was the general appearance of the country. After three weeks of sage-brush and stony ridges an aspen grove was a relief. It was an indication of moister and cooler climatic conditions and a greater variety of plant species. Aspens become abundant at 7,000 feet altitude. A very few Rocky Mountain yellow pines (rock Fic. 6.—Generalized N-S cross-section in vicinity of Little Beaver Creek. Sage- brush covers the lower portions of the long, gradual slope from Little Beaver Creek. As the soil becomes more shallow at the upper part of the slope, sage is replaced by scattered clumps of oak. Pinyon pine and cedars occupy the steep, rocky south exposure. The north slope covered with dense oak chaparral is steeper than the slope from Little Beaver Creek, and hence sage-brush is confined to a narrow strip along the stream. pines) are scattered among them. At this elevation Douglas and blue spruce occur in moist, shaded gulches. At about 8,000 feet altitude lodgepole pine appears in abundant numbers, and at about 10,000 feet Engelmann spruce forms the dominant tree growth, extending up to timberline. Aspen is far more abundant in northwestern Colorado than at similar altitudes on the eastern slope. It is usually much larger also, often reaching a diameter of two or more feet and with bark at the base of the trunk corrugated. The greater time of the expedition was spent at altitudes below 7,500 feet. Furthermore, in making comparisons between the flora and vegetation east and west of the continental divide, the differences are particularly marked at the lower altitudes. For the above reasons this account will be restricted for the.most part to a discussion of conditions existing below an altitude of 7,500 feet. | . | | : | . : SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I17 Vegetation of streamside and bottom-lands.—From a ridge crest the courses of the Grand and White rivers may be followed for miles by ‘the presence of cottonwoods which fringe them on both sides (Fig. 11). The narrowleaf cottonwood is the dominant tree along the largest streams. The western cottonwood (Populus sargentii) and the lanceleaf cottonwood were not seen. Only one tree of Wislizenus’ cottonwood was seen and that along Dry Elk Creek between Rifle Gap and Rio Blanco Stage Station. This species is southern in its distribution, but extends to higher latitudes west of the continental divide than east. Narrowleaf cottonwoods were quite commonly overgrown with clematis in bloom. Streamside birch, alder, choke-cherry, skunk-bush, willows and thorn- apples form an undergrowth of shrubs along the streams. Buffalo berry, a small thorny tree with silvery leaves and bright red berries, grows in clumps in moist river bottoms. It also occurs along fences of irrigated fields. Abundant and conspicuous herbaceous plants of streamsides and bottom-lands are Rudbeckia ampla, Lactuca pulchella, Helianthus nuttalli, Solidago canadensis, Aster adscendens and Gymno- lomia multiflora. Hops climb and trail among the shrubbery. It is noticed that the conspicuous flowering plants of streamside and bottom- lands are composites. ‘This is the case in all situations. The lower altitudes throughout Colorado have a late summer and autumn vegeta- tion which is characterized by the blooming of composites. COLLECTION OF PLANTS FROM STREAMSIDE AND Bottrom-LANDs‘ Typha latifolia L. Carex utriculata Boott. Equisetum laevigatum R. Br. Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. & S. Equisetum pratense Ehrh. Scirpus lacustris L. Triglochin palustris 1. (half-submersed) Lemna minor L. (floating) Beckmannia erucaeformis (.) Host. Juncus bufonius L. Chaetochloa viridis (L.) Scribn. Juncus nodosus L. Alopecurus aristulatus Michx. Vagnera stellata L. Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) Beauv. Populus angustifolia James Elymus canadensis L. Salix spp. Elymus condensatus Pres}. Alnus tenuifolia Nutt. Hordeum jubatum L. Betula fontinalis Sarg. t The writer is under obligation to Professor Aven Nelson, of the University of Wyoming, who kindly determined most of the specimens in this and succeeding lists. 118 Quercus utahensis (DC.) Rydb. Humulus lupulus neo-mexicanus Nels. and Ckll. Chenopodium berlandieri Moq. Vaccaria vaccaria (L.) Britton Batrachium flaccidum (Pers.) Rupr. (half- submersed) Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. Haler pestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene Ranunculus eremogenes Greene Ranunculus macounii Britton Ranunculus reptans L. Arabis oxyphylla Greene Roripa nasturtium (L.) Rusby Roripa sinuata (Nutt.) A. S. Hitch. Sophia incisa (Engelm.) Greene Peritoma serrulatum (Pursh) DC. (Cleome serrulata Pursh) Ribes longiflorum Nutt. Geum strictum Ait. Crataegus saligna Greene Crataegus rivularis Nutt. Prunus melanocarpa (A. Nels.) Rydb. Astragalus canadensis Muhl. Astragalus pattersonit Gray Glycyrrhiza lepidota Nutt. Melilotus alba Desv. Vicia americana Muhl. Rhus trilobata Nutt. Acer interior Britton Sidalcea candida A. Gray Sidalcea neo-mexicana A, Gray Lepargyraea argentea (Nutt.) Greene Epilobium adenocaulon Hausskn. Epilobium paniculaion Nutt. Onogra strigosa Rydb. UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Hippuris vulgaris L, Svida stolonifera riparia Rydb. Cicuta occidentalis Greene Sium cicutaefolium Gmelin Apocynum ambigens Greene Lappula floribunda (Lehm.) Greene Mentha borealis Michx. Monarda menthaefolia Benth. Stachys palustris L. Castilleja sulphurea Rydb. Mimulus hallii Greene (half-submersed) Veronica americana Schwein. Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. Galium asperrimum Gray Lonicera involucrata Banks Symphoricar pos occidentalis Hook. Valeriana ceratophylla Hook. Troximon aurantiacum Hook. Achillaea lanulosa Nutt. Artemisia aromatica A. Nels. Aster adscendens Lindl. Aster hebecladus DC. Aster laetivirens Greene Erigeron divergens T. & G. Erigeron ramosus (Walt.) B.S. P. Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal Gymnolomia multiflora (Nutt.) B. & H. Helianthus nuttallii T. & G. Leptilon canadensis (L.) Britton Madia glomerata Hook. Rudbeckia ampila A. Nels. Rudbeckia laciniata L. Solidago canadensis L. Solidago elongata L. Lactuca pulchella (Pursh) DC. Sonchus asper (L.) All. Intermittent streams.—There are many intermittent streams in the area covered. They usually occupy narrow, deep beds which have a considerable grade. In August, when the region was visited, most of these streams were completely dry and one was able to walk in the bottom of the stream-bed. In some cases this was of soft shale, in other cases of solid rock.. Since there is flowing water only during times of storms, there is no typical streamside vegetation. A sickly cottonwood SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IIg may be seen occasionally. Quercus gunnisonii, Amelanchier oreophila and Rhus trilobata are usually abundant, sometimes growing even within the stream-bed. The roots of these shrubs are often exposed along the eroded sides of the bank. Flood plains of the intermittent streams consist of soil rich in alkali and are usually covered with grease- wood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus). Vegetation of streamside and gulch.—At an altitude of 7,000 feet, the streamside vegetation differs considerably from that at lower eleva- tions. This is due partly to the direct effect of climatic differences which accompany a change of altitude, but in great measure to differ- ences of stream topography. At lower elevations there are large, meandering streams flowing in wide valleys, which give an abundance of bottom-lands with a deep and fine-grained soil. In the lower foothills, on the other hand, there are many small streams; these, as well as the large ones, flow in narrow and steep-sided gulches. Thus in addition to streamside moisture, exposure must be considered as an important factor. Moist, shaded slopes and gulches have their characteristic forms of plant life. Hence in the lower foothills we shall speak of streamside and gulch vegetation rather than of streamside and bottom- land vegetation. In the following list particular notice should be called to such typical gulch forms as Populus tremuloides, Pseudotsuga mucro- nata, Vagnera stellata, Sidalcea candida, Sidalcea neo-mexicana, Geranium richardson, Acer glabrum, Angelica ampla, Lonicera involucrata and Actaea viridiflora. ‘The two species of Sidalcea occur in great abun- dance and are invariably found growing together. COLLECTION OF STREAMSIDE AND GULCH PLANTS Equisetum arvense L. Populus tremuloides Michx. Picea parryana (Andree) Sarg. Salix spp. Pseudotsuga mucronata (Raf.) Sudw. Alnus tenuifolia Nutt. Elymus condensatus Presl. Betula fontinalis Sarg. Hordeum nodosum L. Quercus gunnisonii (Torr.) Rydb. Scirpus lacustris L. Urtica gracilis Ait. Juncus saximontanus A. Nels. Eriogonum campanulatum Nutt. Allium cernuum Roth. Eriogonum umbellatum Torr. Vagnera amplexicaulis (Nutt.) Morong Eriogonum umbelliferum Smal Tris missouriensis Nutt. Polygonum spergulariaeforme Meis. ( ?) Populus angustifolia James Rumex occidentalis Wats. I20 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Aconitum insigne Greene Actaea viridiflora Greene Healer pestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene Ranunculus macounii Britton Thalictrum fendleri Engelm. Arabis drummondii Gray Arabis oxyphylla Greene Lepidium crandallit Rydb. Sophia incisa (Engelm.) Greene Stanleya arcuata Rydb. Thelypodium gracilipes (A. Gray) S. Wats. Capnoides aureum (Willd.) Kuntze Ribes pumilum Nutt. Cercocar pus parvifolius Nutt. Geum strictum Ait. Potentilla diversifolia Lehm. Rosa nutkana Presl. Amelanchier oreophila A. Nels. Crataegus saligna Greene Crataegus cerronis A. Nels. Prunus melanocar pa (A. Nels.) Rydb. Prunus pennsylvanica L. f. Vicia americana Muhl. Geranium fremontit A. Gray Geranium richardsonii Fish. & Traut. Rhus trilobata (Nutt.) Small Acer glabrum Torr. Vitis vulpina L. Sidalcea candida A. Gray Sidalcea neo-mexicana A. Gray Malvastrum coccineum (Pursh) A. Gray Chamanaerion angustifolium (L.) Scop Epilobium adenocaulon Hasskn, Epilobium paniculatum Nutt. Gayophytum ramosissimum T. & G. Onogra strigosa Rydb. Angelica ampla A. Nels. Cicuta occidentalis Greene Washingtonia obtusa C. & R. Vaccinium oreophila Rydb. Androsace subulifera (A. Gray) Rydb, Asclepias speciosa Torr. Gilia aggregata (Pursh) Spreng. Polemonium foliosissimum A, Gray Phacelia glandulosa Nutt. A gastache urticifolia (Benth.) Kuntze Mentha penardi (Brig.) Rydb. Castilleja linariaefolia, Benth. Orthocar pus luteus Nutt. Pentstemon strictus Benth. Pentstemon unilateralis Rydb. Galium asperrimum Gray Lonicera involucrata Banks. Symphoricar pos pauciflorus (Robbins) Brit- ton Gymnolomia multiflora (Nutt.) B. & H. Pyrrocoma crocea (Gray) Greene Rudbeckia laciniata L. Senecio admirabilis Greene Solidago canadensis L. Sage-brush formation.'—One who passes from the eastern to the western slope of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado cannot fail to be struck with the great difference between the vegetation of the great plains and of level areas in the western part of the state. The plains of eastern Colorado are grass-covered; sage-brush is dominant on level stretches of western Colorado. This sage (Artemisia tridentata) is most abundant on flat expanses back from streams; it occurs on flat areas generally, reaching its greatest development in deep, fine-grained soil. As slopes become steeper and more stony, with a consequent decrease in soil depth, sage-brush gives away to pinyon pine, cedar and shrubs t Poor, R. J., “Histological Studies in the Artemesia Formation,” Univ. of Neb. Stud., Vol. VIII, pp. 1-28, Oct., 1908. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I21I typical of rocky slopes On north slopes sage-brush often grades into scrub oak (Fig. 6). The sage-brush formation forms a pure, close, regular stand In any sage-plain the shrubs are of uniform height, commonly three or four feet (Fig. 8). Along roadsides and in more favorable situations, however, individual plants may reach a height of six to eight feet. Rabbit-brush (Chrysothamnus sp.) is the common associate of sage- brush It occupies moister soil, being found nearer to streams and in places where seepage exists. Looking over a sage-plain, the silvery- gray sage-brush is readily distinguished from the greener rabbit-brush. Grease-wood alternates with sage-brush in alkaline soil. It is not uncommon to find low, rounded hills covered with large patches of vegetation which give them a yellowish hue This color is due to an association of Chrysothamnus glaucus, Eriogonum cam- panulatum and Gutierrezia sarothrae, all with yellow bloom. This association is a common one of the sage-brush formation. Sage-brush has a great altitudinal range and will grow under a variety of edaphic conditions. As has been said, it is best developed below 6,000 feet altitude over flat areas, having rather deep, fine-grained soil. It is by no means absent, however, from steep slopes; it often forms there the undergrowth below pinyon pine and cedar. Sage- brush decreases in abundance with altitude, but occurs at times as high as 10,000 feet. At high altitudes it is confined to warm, exposed ridge crests. Sage-brush alternates with oak chaparral on north and south slopes. The north exposure may be clothed with oak shrubbery while the south exposure bears sage-brush, the two formations meeting at the bottom of the gulch. In northwestern Colorado, the present farming land occupies, almost without exception, areas which were covered with sage-brush. This has been removed by “grubbing.” COLLECTION OF PLANTS FROM SAGE-BRUSH FORMATION Atriplex confertifolia S. Wats. Salsola tragus L. Erigeron campanulatum Nutt. Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr. Grayia brandegei Gray Astragalus haydenianus Gray I22 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Hedysarum carnosulum Greene Artemisia frigida Willd. Lupinus flexuosus Lindl. Carduus tracyit Rydb. Lupinus greenei A. Nels. Chrysopsis villosa Nutt. Anogra coronopifolia (T. & G.) Britton Chrysothamnus affinus A. Nels. Asclepias speciosa Torr. Chrysothamnus glaucus A. Nels. Orthocar pus luteus Nutt. Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal Vegetation of ridges.—Below an altitude of 7,000 feet the ridges are of sedimentary rock, mostly Mesa Verde and Dakota sandstone. The - soil is shallow, sandy and rocky except where large exposures of Mancos shale are disintegrating. In many places the strata of the hillsides are exposed and the only soil occupies rock crevices. ‘The tree growth of ridges consists of pinyon pine and Utah cedar (Fig. 11). These two species are always associated. In the vicinity of Newcastle (altitude 5,502 feet) cedar forms probably go per cent. of the tree growth, pinyon pine being relatively less abundant. At higher altitudes, however, pinyon pine increases in abundance relative to cedar. At the upper altitudinal limit of the pinyon-cedar zone, pinyon pine, not cedar, extends higher. These two species are particularly adapted to withstand severe climatic conditions. From the account of climatology it may be seen that the annual ranges of temperature in western Colorado are wide. Diurnal ranges of temperature are also wide there and especially on stony ridges where pinyon pine and cedar grow. ‘These two trees grow in an open stand, occupying a sandy, stony soil and are seldom fifteen feet high." The common shrubs of ridges are Cercocarpus parvifolius, Amelan- chier spp., Symphoricarpos spp., Peraphyllum ramosissimum, Fendlera rupicola and Atriplex canescens. Sage-brush and rabbit-brush are scattered. Ephedra antisyphilitica, the joint-fir, was found associated with pinyon pine and cedar in the vicinity of Newcastle, but at no point farther north. This peculiar shrub is more at home in southern Colo- rado, New Mexico and Arizona. Its occurrence at Newcastle is a high- latitude record. ‘At-this season of the year, the herbaceous vegetation of ridges is sparse, as will be seen from the following list. t Porxies, F. J., ‘‘A Study of Pinyon Pine,’’ Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLVIII, pp. 216-23, September, 1909. — ee a a a ee SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 123 COLLECTION OF PLANTS FROM RIDGES Pinus edulis Engelm. Amelanchier rubescens Greene ? Sabina utahensis (Engelm.) Rydb. Peraphyllum ramosissimum Nutt. Ephedra antisylphitica E. A. Mey. Lupinus greenei A. Nels. Eriocoma cuspidata Nutt. Touterea speciosa Osterh. Hordeum jubatum L. Asclepiodora decumbens (Nutt.) A. one Sitanion pubifiorum J. G. Smith Gilia aggregata (Pursh) Spreng. Quercus gunnisoniz (Torr.) Rydb. Castilleja flava Wats. Quercus utahensis (DC.) Rydb. Symphoricar pos occidentalis Hook. Eriogonum alatum Torr. Artemisia tridentata Nutt. Eriogonum tristichum Small Artemisia wrightii Gray Atriplex canescens (Pursh) James Aster nelsonit Greene Atriplex confertifolia (Torr.) Wats. Brickellia microphylla Gray Odostemon aquifolium (Pursh) Rydb. Carduus undulatus Nutt. Ribes vallicola Greene Chrysopsis arida A. Nels. Fendlera rupicola Engelm. & Gray Chrysothamnus graveolens (Nutt.) Greene Cercocarpus parvifolius Nutt. Coleosanthus albicaulis Rydb. Kunazia tridentata (Pursh) Spreng. Petradoria pumila (T. & G.) Greene Amelanchier oreophila A. Nels. Solidago trinervata Greene Oak chaparral.—In northwestern Colorado this formation is a thicket of Quercus utahensis and Q. gunnisonii. These two species seldom grow higher than ten or twelve feet.. At lower altitudes oak chaparral forms the transition formation between sage-plain and ridge. Here it usually extends as a fringe along the base of the slope (see Fig. 10). In passing from Newcastle (5,562 ft.) up to 7,000 feet elevation, oak increases in abundance, often covering whole hillsides at the higher elevations From Rifle Gap to Rio Blanco Stage Station, the Little Book Cliffs are in constant view on the left With increasing altitude the appearance of these cliffs changes from a duller to a greener hue, due to the greater abundance of oak chaparral. Intermixed with the oak are bushes of mountain mahogany, which at this time of year are in fruit, and the long plumose styles give them from a distance a silvery color, standing out in pleasing contrast to the green mass of oak. Vegetation of Mancos shale.—Hills of Mancos shale are very desti- tute of vegetation (Fig. 8). This shale is easily weathered, and on steep slopes most of the vegetation that may get started is washed away. Cercocarpus parvifolius and Amelanchier rubescens are the common shrubs scattered here and there on the almost totally bare slopes. Erio- I24 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES gonum tristichum is a successful herb of the shale slopes. Level areas of shale soil are grown over with sage-brush. Ruderals.—The most common ruderal is sage-brush. With rabbit- brush it forms the common roadside vegetation (Fig. 7). Russian thistle is far less abundant than on the eastern plains. The following is a list of some of the common ruderals: Chenopodium berlandieri Moq. Melilotus. officinalis (L.) Lam. Salsola tragus L. Orthocar pus luteus Nutt. Vaccaria vaccaria (L.) Britton Marrubium vulgare L. Peritoma inornatum Greene Aster hebecladus DC. Peritoma serrulatum (Pursh) DC. Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal Melilotus alba Desv. A comparison of conditionseast and west of the continental divide.* —The general differences between the vegetation east and west of the continental divide are very striking. These dissimilarities are more marked in northern than in southern Colorado and at lower than at higher altitudes. Comparisons may be made of climatic and vegetative conditions at Rangely and Wray and at Boulder and Meeker. ‘These four stations all being near the 4oth parallel, any effect of altitude is eliminated (see map, Fig. 1, for relative locations). Wray Rangely Relations:toy dividers guy yeu vee nett East West dN hit ital eyes ater 15m ei 4 Alpe CNTR ora eR 3,512 feet 5,050 feet Mean annual precipitation............ 17-18 inches 8.84 inches Percentage during growing season...... 80 55 Mean annual temperature............. tee da 420b Mean summer temperature............ Faye: 62 F. Meanlanniial range yee won trices eae AREY 54 F. At Wray the vegetation is a grassland formation. This consists for the most part of various bunch-grasses, of grama grass (Bouteloua oligostachya), and buffalo grass (Bulbilis dactyloides) At Rangely, t Gray, AsA, AND Hooker, JosEepH D., ‘‘The Vegetation of the Rocky Mountain Region and a Com- parison with That of Other Parts of the World,’”’ Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of Territories,” Vol. VI, No. 1, pp. 1-62, 1880. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 125 sage-brush is the characteristic form of vegetation; large grass-covered areas are totally absent, and grama and buffalo grasses do not occur. Boulder Meeker Relation to divide..... Se ire Rea hey Big , East West PNiat atts yO CUE ery ee COR HL ABEL Sit HD 5,347 feet 6,182 feet Mean annual precipitation............ 18.27 inches 16.37 inches Percentage during growing season...... 69 53 Mean annual temperature............. SIF. 43 F. Mean summer temperature............| 69 F. 64 F. Mean annualitang enlist jaleieayainye Oe tsal de 46 F. The vicinity of Boulder is the meeting-ground of grassland and Rocky Mountain yellow pine (rock pine) formations; Yucca glanca is abundant. There are no oaks, pinyon pines or Utah cedars. At Meeker, sage-brush is dominant over level areas, pinyon pines and cedars on the ridges, and oak along the bases of slopes. There is no Rocky Mountain yellow pine or Yucca glanca, and large grassland areas are totally absent. Southern forms have extended farther north in western Colorado than in eastern. Examples of these are Quercus spp., Ephedra anti- sy philitica and Populus wislizeni. The climate of northwestern Colorado is drier from the vegetation standpoint than that of eastern Colorado at the same latitude and altitude, hence southern forms find, on the drier western slope, conditions more nearly like those to which they are accustomed in the hot, arid districts of Arizona and New Mexico. Mo LtLuscA COLLECTED IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909 By Junius HENDERSON An interesting molluscan fauna was obtained. As a supplement to The Mollusca of Colorado is contemplated in the near future which will discuss somewhat fully this fauna, it is thought best at present to give only a list of species collected, as follows: Pisidium sp. Thysanophora ingersolli Bland Oreohelix cooperi W. G. B. Pupilla blandi Morse Oreohelix haydeni gabbiana Hemph. Vertigo concinnula Ckll. 126 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Vertigo milium Gld. Succinea avara Say Vallonia cyclophorella Anc. Lymnaea palustris Mill. Vitrea rhoadsi Pils. Lymnaea caperata Say Vitrina alaskana Dall Planorbis trivolvis Say Euconulus trochiformis Montagu Planorbis parvus Say Zonitoides arboreus Say : Physa spp. Agriolimax campestris Binn. A plexa hypnorum Linn. Pyramidula cronkhitei anthonyi Pils. Valvata lewisi Currier Succinea haydeni W. G. B. SoME INSECTS COLLECTED IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO IN 1909 By T. D. A. COCKERELL The insects recorded in this paper were obtained by the University of Colorado Expedition in 1909 under Professor Junius Henderson. Collectors’ names are abbreviated as follows: H.=J. Henderson, R.=W. W. Robbins, D.=Terry Duce. LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA Danais plexippus (L.) var.a. Inner spots of apical patch of anterior wings large and fulvous. Newcastle, August 2 (R.). Basilarchia misippus (L.) var. a. Entirely misippus, but showing a slight tendency toward B. hulstii in the better-developed submarginal white spots, and the presence of five fulvous patches in the black apical area of anterior wings. New- castle, August 3 (R.). B. weidemeyeri (Edw.) var.a. Female; white band on under side of hind wings rather narrow, the costal white patch no larger than the others; basal area (before the band) larger; orange lunules on hind wing beneath dull, and pallid basally. Meeker August 8 (D.). Argynnis leto charlottii (Barnes). Newcastle (R.). This is a good subspecies of A. leto; the yellow border on hind wings beneath (female) is much broader. I do not quite understand the name; was it after one Charlotte, and if so why has ita masculine termination? Genuine A. Jefo occurs only westward of Colorado. Satyrus charon (Edw.). Fitzgerald’s, September 2 (D.). S. alope olympus (Edw.). Meeker, August 9; Newcastle, August 2, “‘Com- mon” (both R.). Pieris beckerii (Edw.). Buford, August 21 (H.). I have specimens of this which I collected at San Pedro and La Jolla, California, but in spite of the very different environment, it is impossible to separate the Colorado insect even as a race. Mr. Nash took P. beckerit years ago at Poncha Pass, Colorado. P. rape L. Buford, August 21 (D.). This is a species of Europe, introduced. P. occidentalis Reakirt. Newcastle, August 2 (R.). SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 127 P. napi cruciferarum (Boisduval). Newcastle, August 2 (R.). Meeker, August 9 (R.); Buford, August 21 (D.). Eurymus eurytheme eriphyle (Edw.). Rifle Gap, August 4 (R.); Buford, August 23 (D.). Hesperia tessellata Scudder. Newcastle, August 8 (R:). LEPIDOPTERA HETEROCERA Smerinthus jamaicensis geminatus (Say). Meeker, August g (R.). This is apparently the most western record for this species, which is characteristic of the Atlantic and middle states. Good specimens have been taken at Boulder by Mr. G. Hite. Apantesis parthenice intermedia (Stretch). Rio Blanco, August 5 (R.). Hamp- son’s table, at the point where separation is made on the color of the abdomen beneath, is unsatisfactory. The present specimen has the abdomen with a pair of large quadrate black patches on each segment. Holomelina immaculata (Reakirt). Newcastle, August 2 (R.). Schinia acutilinea separata (Grote). Meeker, August 9 (R.). This is a true separata, but the subterminal line is strongly sinuous, in the manner of acutilinea. Dr. J. B. Smith’s opinion that the two are forms of one species appears to be correct. The common Schinia at Boulder is S. cumatilis Grote. HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA Phymata erosa fasciata (Gray). On Solidago, Newcastle, August 8 (R.). Lygeus reclivatus Say. Newcastle, August 1 (R.). Lygus pratensis (L.). On Solidago, ten miles east of Meeker, August 19 (R.). Alydus scutellatus Van Duzee. Buford, August 23 (D.). I had taken this for a variety of A. conspersus Montandon (which is common on the university campus at Boulder), but it certainly differs by the unspotted but marbled membrane, the nervures anastomosing, and by the more slender hind femora with a pallid subapical annulus. The scutellum is deep velvet-black, with the extreme apex white. The membrane, however, is pale between the veins, and a considerable part of the under- side of the abdomen is pallid, spotted with black and speckled with red. The type locality of scutellatus is Beulah, New Mexico. The Buford insect is certainly scutel- latus rather than conspersus, but perhaps a distinct variety. HEMIPTERA HOMOPTERA Ceresa basalis Walker. Buford, August 23 (D.). The common Ceresa at Boulder is C. bubalus (Fabr.). HYMENOPTERA APOIDEA (BEES) Apis mellifera ligustica (Spinola). Meeker, August 8 (D.); Rifle Gap, August 4 at ‘“‘bee plant” (R.). 128 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Bombus huntii Greene. Newcastle, August 2 and 3, at Cleome or “bee plant” (R.); Meeker, August 9, at Cleome serrulata (R.); ten miles east of Meeker, August 19, at Solidago (R.); 2? miles south of Axial, August 13, a male at Rudbeckia ampla (R.). B. centralis Cresson. This is exactly like jwxtus Cress., in nearly all respects, but the worker (female not seen by me) has black hair on the middle of the basal part ofthe abdomen. Mr. Franklin (in litt.) states that centralis is ‘‘a freak specimen”’ of juxtus, and as the name has priority, uses it for all juxtus. Five workers before me all agree with Cresson’s description of centralis, and seem to represent a valid geo- graphical race, which must extend (at lower altitudes than B. flavijrons) from Cali- fornia to western Colorado. Meeker, August 9, males and workers at Cleome serrulata (R.); Newcastle, August 3, at Cleome (R.); Rifle Gap, August 4, at ‘‘bee plant” (R.). B. nevadensis Cresson. 23 miles south of Axial, August 13, a male at Achillea (R.). B. appositus Cresson. Newcastle, August 2, male at Carduus (R.). B. fervidus (Fabricius). Rifle Gap, August 4, at Helianthus and at ‘‘bee plant” (R.); Meeker, August 9, male at Cleome serrulata (R.). One of the Rifle Gap speci- mens (worker) has the thoracic band very poorly developed. B. occidentalis howardii (Cresson). Ten miles east of Meeker, August 19, males at Solidago (R.). The hair on the apical segments of the abdomen varies from whitish to pale reddish. Melissodes agilis Cresson. Rifle Gap, August 4, at Helianthus (R.). The speci- men is a male, peculiar for its rather large size (about 12 mm. long), labrum black with a large whitish spot, mandibles without light spots at base, face unusually broad, flagellum very slender and pale, apical plate of abdomen with the notches very near the end. I had some thought of treating it as a distinct species or subspecies; but it is in other respects so distinctly agilis, and that species is so variable, that segregation does not seem justifiable. The slender pale flagellum associates it with agilis rather than with menuacha. M. mysops Ckll. 2% miles south of Axial, August 13, at flowers of Rudbeckia ampla, one female (R.). Megachile sexdentata Rob. Rifle Gap, August 3, male and female at Helianthus (R.). The male is the insect which passes in Colorado and New Mexico for M. pruina Smith. M. sexdentata differs in certain respects from pruina, but is at least very closely allied. M. cleomis Ckll. Meeker, August 9, at Cleome serrulata, one male (R.). M. pugnata Say. Ten miles east of Meeker, August 19, at Solidago, one male (R.). The specimen is unquestionably pugnata, but the hair of the mesothorax above is wholly pale, and the first recurrent nervure meets the first transverso-cubital. The change in the venation is especially interesting, as ordinarily it would be con- sidered a good specific character. Soe SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 129 Osmia mandibularis Cresson; variety like that known from Rociada, New Mexico. Newcastle, August 3, at flowers of Carduus (R.). Perdita albipennis Cresson. Rifle Gap, August 4, male at flowers of Helianthus (R.). Halictus armaticeps Cresson. Rifle Gap, August 4, at flowers of Helianthus (R.). HYMENOPTERA VESPOIDEA AND SPHECOIDEA (Wasps) These have all been determined by Mr. S. A. Rohwer. Vespa maculata L. Buford, August 21 (H.), and 23 (D.). V. arenaria Fabr. Buford, August 22 (H.). V. communis Sauss. Seven miles below Marvine Lake, Rio Blanco Co., August 26 (H.), Marvine Lodge, August 28 (D.). Polistes sp. Newcastle, August 2 (R.). Mr. Rohwer says that this is identical with a form which he collected at Rifle, Colorado, and is perhaps a variety of P. variatus Cresson. More material is needed to determine its exact status. Eumenes coloradensis Cresson. ‘‘A variety with a small lateral spot on the side of the first abdominal segment” (Rohwer). Meeker, August 9 (R.). Chlorion (Proterosphex) ichneumoneum (L.). Newcastle, August 2 (R.). ‘The abdomen is a little blacker than in Boulder specimens” (Rohwer). Sphex luctuosus (Smith). Newcastle, August 2(R.). Meeker, August 9 (R.). Crabro dilectus Cresson. Meeker, August 9 (R.). Ephuta fulvohirta Cresson. Newcastle, August 9 (R.); between Newcastle and Rifle Gap, August 3 (R.). COLEOPTERA These have all been kindly determined by Mr. H.C. Fall. They were collected by Mr. Robbins. CARABIDE Carabus tedatus Fabricius. Buford, August 20. Pterostichus protractus Lec. Buford, August 20; Fitzgerald’s Ranch, Septem- ber’: Pterostichus longulus Lec. Buford, August 20. Amara polita Lec. Buford, August 20. Harpalus ellipsis Lec. Buford, August 20. Harpalus oblitus Lec. Fitzgerald’s Ranch, September r. HALIPLIDZ Haliplus ruficollis DeGeer. Near Buford, August 20. DyTISCIDZ Bidessus affinis Say. Near Buford, August 20. Coelambus patruelis Leconte? Near Buford, August 20. I30 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Coelambus impressopunctatus Sch. Near Buford, August 20. Acilius fraternus Harris. Near Marvine Lodge, August 25. The only previous Colorado record is from Alamosa. HyYDROPHILIDE Philhydrus diffusus Lec. Reservoir above Rio Blanco Stage Station, August 6. SILPHIDZ Silpha inzequalis Fabr. Marvine Lodge, 9,500 ft., August 29. New to Colorado. COccINELLIDZ Coccinella transversoguttata Fabr. Buford, August 20. Form mugatoria from Little Beaver Reservoir, August 18. PARNIDE Dryops striatus Lec. Reservoir above Rio Blanco Stage Station, August 6. BUPRESTIDE Buprestis rusticorum Kirby. Buford, August 20. SCARABZIDZE Diplotaxis brevicollis Lec. Marvine Lodge, 9,500 ft., August 29. CERAMBYCIDZ Pachyta liturata Kirby. Marvine Lodge, 9,500 ft., August 29. Tetraopes femoratus var. basalis Lec. Little Beaver Creek, August 1. CHRYSOMELIDZ Galeruca externa Say. Buford, August 20. ‘TENEBRIONIDZ Asida polita Say. Meeker, August 8; Little Beaver Reservoir, August 18. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO EXPEDITION OF 1909 By T. D. A. COCKERELL RANID (Frogs*) Rana pipiens Schreber. Reservoir seven miles northeast of Meeker, August 12; five miles above Ruford, August 24; White River at Meeker, August 11, eaten by Thamnophis elegans; Buford, August 22 (T. Duce); swamp near White River, Meeker, August 6. « J take occasion to record that at Medano Ranch, Costilla Co., Colorado, 1909, Mr. E. R. Warren took Rana pipiens and Bufo cognatus Say. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I31I AMBLYSTOMID& (Salamanders) Amblystoma tigrinum Green. Meeker, August 16 (A. H. Felger). COLUBRID (Water Snakes?) Thamnophis elegans (Baird and Girard). Meeker and Buford, all with 21 rows of scales and eight upper labials. The Buford specimens are very dark with the lateral pale bands obsolete. A series of immature specimens puzzled me at first, being conspicuously spotted and rather peculiar in appearance. They all have 21 rows of scales and eight upper labials, except that the Buford specimen has only seven upper labials on one side. In every case, there is only one preocular. The lateral stripes are usually ill defined, but whenever clearly visible, they are on the second and third rows of scales. A noticeable character, more or less visible in all, is a pair of small yellowish spots, close together, on the parietals. The snake from three miles south of Axial has a divided anal, which would throw it out of Thamnophis according to the current diagnosis of that genus; but the specimen from reservoir of Curtis Creek, with entire anal, is certainly the same thing. ‘The others also have the anal entire. The localities of these snakes are: Reservoir of Curtis Creek, seven miles northeast of Meeker, August 12 (Felger); three miles south of Axial, August 14 (Felger); Buford, August 20 (T. Duce); slough on White River, three miles above Meeker, August 17 (T. Duce). Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis (Say). Buford, August 23; 17 rows of scales; seven upper labials. Mr. A. H. Felger notes that the snake contained two rodents. One of these was still good enough to make a skin, and proves to be Microtus nanus Merriam. Another specimen (17 rows of scales, seven upper labials, one preocular) is from Meeker, August 9 (Felger). IGUANID& (Lizards) Crotaphytus collaris baileyi (Stejneger). One specimen; femoral pores 18. Rifle Gap, Garfield Co., August 5 (A. H. Felger). New to Colorado. Ditmars, in his Reptile Book, ignores baileyi, and yet gives measurements of collaris which exclude it; consequently it cannot be determined from his book. Sceloporus undulatus (Latreille). A dark specimen. Meeker, August 10 (A. H. Felger); four miles west of Meeker, August 11 (Henderson and Duce). Phrynosoma hernandesi (Girard). ‘Two miles southeast of Meeker, August 8 (W. W. Robbins); Meeker, August 10, a juvenile (A. H. Felger). It is worth while to record that we have a young specimen of Tropidonotus sipedon (L.), found at Boulder by Sidney Searcy. This appears to be an addition to the Colorado fauna. We also have Ophibolus dolsatus gentilis B. and G., found near Boulder by V. E Metcalf, July 22, 1904. 132 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Birps AND MAMMALS OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO By A. H. FELGER The following annotated list of 133 species of birds and 51 mammals includes those observed and collected on the expedition and also those reported on good authority from the region. ‘The absence of certain species, especially alpine forms, is due to the fact that our work was done almost wholly between 5,500 and 8,000 feet altitude. Only twice did we pass this latter height, namely, during one day from Marvine Lodge to Marvine Lake and return, and one and a half days from Fitz- gerald’s to Trapper’s Lake and back. At no time were we above timberline and only once above 9,500 feet—while at and near Trapper’s Lake for two or three hours. I endeavored to record the exact number of individuals of the species seen, counting one by one except in cases of large flocks, when oe num- bers were estimated. A few places which are extra-territorial with regard to the map (page 103) should be here located: California Park lies at the head of Elkhead Creek which empties into Bear River from the north a few miles east of Craig. To the north of this park lie the Elkhead Moun- tains. Sand Mountain is at the north edge of California Park and is one of the Elkhead Range. Bear’s Ears Mountain ascends from the western edge of California Park. Cedar Springs are 6 miles west of Craig near Cedar Mountain. They have been a famous watering place for deer, elk and bison. I desire to express my appreciation and gratitude to the following: Dr. W. H. Bergtold, of Denver, for kind and valuable advance sugges-. tions pertaining to collecting in a field in which he is thoroughly familiar and for helpful notes given me for these lists; Mr. R. S. Ball, of Meeker, who has in the Meeker Hotel a private collection of local birds and mammals, and who has generously given me much information; Mr. E. R. Warren, of Colorado Springs, who has identified some of the more difficult mammals and has gone over my mammal manuscript; Messrs. Enos A. Mills, Samuel Himes, William Green, James Johnson, James Fitzgerald, J. R. Bartlett, W. A. Kyser and H. G. Buckingham, who have SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 133 contributed notes; Mr. Dan Frost, the guide who assisted me in secur- ing some large mammals for the University. BIRDS 7. Gavia immer, Loon Twenty miles from Meeker toward Rifle [Ball’s collection]. Migratory in the White River valley [Ball]. 62. Xema sabini, SABINE’S GULL A specimen taken four miles below Meeker on the White River, and called by Mr. Ball a Sabine’s gull is now in his collection but could not be examined closely because hung close to high ceiling. 130. Mergus serrator, RED-BREASTED MERGANSER 131. Lophodytes cucullatus, HOODED MERGANSER Both reported by Mr. Ball. 132. Anas platyrhynchos, MALLARD A female was seen on our trip about 3 miles below Marvine Lake on Slide Lake, where they are said to breed. Breeding on Trapper’s Lake [Himes]. California Park, 1894 [Bergtold]. 133. Anas obscura, BLACK Duck 134@. Anas fulvigula maculosa, MotrteD Duck © Young “black mallards” on a pond near Himes’ August 28, 1909 [Bucking- ham]. ‘Black mallards” in White River valley [Ball]. The absolute identity of these birds is a question. 137. Mareca americana, BALDPATE Reported by Mr. Ball. 139. Nettion carolinensis, GREEN-WINGED TEAL White River valley [Ball, Himes]. Breed in sloughs below Meeker [Himes] California Park, 1895 [Bergtold]. 140. Querquedula discors, BLUE-WINGED TEAL White River valley [Ball, Himes]. Breed in sloughs below Meeker [Himes]. 141. Querquedula cyanoptera, CINNAMON TEAL White River valley [Ball]. 142. Spatula clypeata, SHOVELLER 143. Dafila acuta, PINTAIL 144. Aix sponsa, Woop Duck 146. Marila americana, REDHEAD 150. Marila collaris, RING-NECKED Duck 151. Clangula clangula americana, AMERICAN GOLDEN-EYE 153. Charitonetta albeola, BUFFLE-HEAD All the above species of ducks in the White River valley [Ball]. 134 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES 172. Branta canadensis, CANADA GOOSE Reported by Messrs. Ball and Himes. 173. Branta bernicla, BRANT Reported by Mr. Ball. 190. Botaurus lentiginosus, American BITTERN White River, 6 miles above Meeker [Ball’s collection]. 194. Ardea herodias, GREAT BLUE HERON Twenty miles from Meeker, toward Rifle [Ball’s collection]. Common along White River [Ball]. 197. Egretta candidissima, SNowy EGRET Two specimens killed at Meeker in April or May [Ball’s collection]. On a lake midway between Trapper’s Lake and Glenwood Springs [Himes]. Mr. Shepherd, living 1 mile from Buford, has one taken at Peltier Lake. 202. Nycticorax nycticorax nevius, BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON White River valley [Ball]. 205. Grus canadensis, LITTLE BROWN CRANE White River valley [Ball]. 206. Grus mexicana, SANDHILL CRANE White River, 1 mile below Buford, August 22, 1909 [Bartlett]. White River valley [Ball]. Breeding in large numbers in marshy spots on ridges north of Himes’ [Himes]. A few in California Park, summer 1894 [Bergtold]. James Johnson found a nest with two eggs in June, about 1905, at the head of South Williams Fork. Mr. Ball has one of the eggs. Mr. Johnson also found a nest 4 mile south of Marvine Lodge. He has seen a female regularly during the summer for the past seven or eight years in the same marshy spot between Marvine Lodge and Marvine Lakes, and thinks she nests there. He says, ‘‘I have seen as many as eight of ten birds at a time in Lost Park, and have noted them in the other high parks about here.” 212. Rallus virginianus, VIRGINIA RAIL Meeker [Ball’s collection]. 214. Porzana carolina, SORA Meeker [Ball’s collection]. 221. Fulica americana, AMERICAN Coot Reported by both Mr. Ball and Mr. Himes. The latter states that they breed on the lakes in the vicinity of his place including Trapper’s Lake. 226. Himantopus mexicanus, BLACK-NECKED STILT Reported by Mr. Ball. 230. Gallinago delicata, WILSON’s SNIPE One killed at Meeker; numerous in that country [Ball]. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 135 254. Totanus melanoleucus, GREATER YELLOW-LEGS California Park, autumn, 1894 [Bergtold]. 255. Totanus flavipes, YELLOW-LEGS California Park, autumn, 1894 [Bergtold]. White River valley [Ball]. 256a. Helodramus solitarius cinnamomeus, WESTERN SOLITARY SANDPIPER Taken on our trip on Curtis Creek, Little Beaver Creek and White River between Meeker and Buford. 261. Bartramia longicauda, UPLAND PLOVER One seen at Marvine Lodge, August 28. A flock of twenty-five or thirty birds, which I judge were of this species, reported as feeding in a field of short alfalfa just south of Meeker, August ro. Mr. Ball also reports them from White River valley. 263. Actitis macularia, SPOTTED SANDPIPER Seen occasionally all along our route, including Trapper’s Lake. 264. Numenius americanus, LONG-BILLED CURLEW Reported by Mr. Ball. 273. Oxyechus vociferus, KILLDEER Seen on Good Spring Creek near Axial, on Little Beaver Creek and along White River and at Buford; none seen above the latter place. 289. Colinus virginianus, BOBWHITE 294. Lophortyx californicus, CALIFORNIA QUAIL Mr. Ball says, ‘‘We had some of both but they seem to have died out.’’ The birds here referred to were doubtless imported into this section. 297. Dendragapus obscurus, Dusky GROUSE A number seen at Marvine Lodge and at base of Sand Peak near Lost Park. There were young in each flock. 304. Lagopus leucurus, WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Breeding on Devil’s Causeway [Bergtold, Himes]. 308d. Pedicecetes phasianellus columbianus, COLUMBIAN SHARP-TAILED GROUSE Common in California Park, autumn, 1894, also Sand Mt., 1905 [Bergtold]. White River basin [Ball]. 309. Centrocercus urophasianus, SAGE HEN We saw several flocks, including young, on Little Beaver Creek, and one flock, including young, near Buford. Reported as plentiful locally in White River valley. [310a. Meleagris gallopavo silvestris, MERRIAM’S TURKEY Thus far I have not learned of any wild turkeys being seen in this area.] 316. Zenaidura macroura carolinensis, MOURNING DOVE Seen in numbers all along our route as far up as Himes’. Between Newcastle and Rifle Gap two hundred or more were seen in one grain field. 136 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES 325. Cathartes aura septentrionalis, TURKEY VULTURE Along White River [William Green]. 331. Circus hudsonius, MarsH HAWK One seen on Little Beaver Creek, four from Meeker to Buford, one from Buford to Fitzgerald’s. 332. Accipiter velox, SHARP-SHINNED HAWK Only one seen on the trip, between Rifle Gap and Rio Blanco Stage Station. 337). Buteo borealis calurus, WESTERN RED-TAIL Noted here and there all along our route, one being seen at Trapper’s Lake. 347a. Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis, ROUGH-LEG 348. Archibuteo ferrugineus, FERRUGINOUS ROUGH-LEG A number of hawks which appeared to be rough-legs were seen but none taken. The species was, therefore, not determined. 349. Aquila chrysaétos, GOLDEN EAGLE Noted in numbers ranging from one to eight along our route as far as Buford, where the last one was observed. 352. Halizetus leucocephalus, BALD EAGLE One killed 5 miles south of Meeker [Ball’s collection]. A number of Bald Eagles especially near Rangely; not so many bald eagles as golden eagles in the upper White River valley [Ball]. A pair has nested 2 miles from Himes’ each of the last five years [Himes]. 356a. Falco peregrinus anatum, Duck HAWK Reported by Mr. Ball. 360. Falco sparverius, SPARROW HAWK Common to abundant all along our route except between Himes’ and Trapper’s Lake, where none were seen. 364. Pandion haliaétus carolinensis, OSPREY Reported by Mr. Ball. 366. Asio wilsonianus, LONG-EARED OWL Only one seen on the trip—near Marvine Lodge, August 28, 1909. 367. Asio flammeus, SHORT-EARED OWL Only two seen on the trip—both along Good Spring Creek near Axial. 3754. Bubo virginianus pallescens, WESTERN HORNED OWL One seen near Newcastle and another heard hooting at Marvine Lodge. Mr. Green says they roost upon the flour mill in Meeker. . 376. Nyctea nyctea, SNowy OWL Reported by Mr. Ball. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 137 378. Speotyto cunicularia hypogea, BURROWING OwL Both Mr. Ball and Mr. W. A. Kyser state that they have seen these owls in the Meeker district. Strange enough, in all the prairie-dog towns that we passed, not a burrowing owl could be found, though I watched carefully for them. * 379. Glaucidium gnoma, PyGmMy OwL But one noted—on Good Spring Creek near Axial. 385. Geococcyx californianus, ROAD-RUNNER Has been seen on Montgomery’s Ranch, about 3 miles below Meeker [Ball]. 390. Ceryle alcyon, BELTED KINGFISHER ? One noted at each of the following places: Meeker, Buford, Marvine Lodge and Himes’. 393e. Dryobates villosus monticola, Rocky Mountain Harry WooDPECKER Two birds, apparently of this species, noted, one at Buford, the other at Marvine Lodge. 402a. Sphyrapicus varius nuchalis, RED-NAPED SAPSUCKER A bird that I took to be of this species was seen near Meeker and another near Marvine Lake. 404. Sphyrapicus thyroideus, WILLIAMSON’S SAPSUCKER A bird which appeared to be of this species seen near Himes’. 408. Asyndesmus lewisi, LEwIs’ WOODPECKER One taken at Meeker and another at Buford; none seen elsewhere. 413. Colaptes cafer collaris, RED-SHAFTED FLICKER Common along our whole route. 418. Phalenoptilus nuttalli, PooRWILL One seen near Little Beaver Creek. White River valley [Ball]. 420d. Chordeiles virginianus henryi, WESTERN NIGHT-HAWK Common on almost the entire trip as far up as Marvine Lodge, where it was last seen. 425. Aéronautes melanoleucus, WHITE-THROATED SWIFT A colony of about twenty-five seen near Axial on a cliff overlooking Good Spring Creek. Another cliff, which appeared to be a colony site, where a single Swift was seen, was found along White River about 10 miles above Meeker. 432. Selasphorus platycercus, BROAD-TAILED HUMMINGBIRD From one to five noted here and there all along our route as far up as Himes’. 447. Tyrannus verticalis, ARKANSAS FLYCATCHER Common all along our route as far up as Buford, but none seen above that point. Specimens were taken here and there, and careful search was made with an excellent pair of field binoculars for T. vociferans, but none of this species were found. 138 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES 457. Sayornis saya, SAY’S PH@BE Occasional from Newcastle to Axial and Little Beaver Creek, but none noted beyond this point. 462. Myiochanes richardsoni, WESTERN WooD PEWEE Occasional throughout our journey. 466. Empidonax trailli, TRAILL’s FLYCATCHER Adults and young taken at Rifle Gap; none recorded elsewhere. [474c. Otocoris alpestris leucolema. DESERT HORNED LARK Not a single bird of this common species was seen on the whole trip.] 475. Pica pica hudsonia, MAGPIE Common almost everywhere; locally abundant; flocks of from twenty to sixty were seen several times. 478). Cyanocitta stelleri diademata, LONG-CRESTED JAY Seen here and there all along our route, in numbers ranging from one to twelve. 480. Aphelocoma woodhousei, WOODHOUSE’S JAY A number observed between Newcastle and Rifle Gap; none seen elsewhere. 484a. Perisoreus canadensis capitalis, Rocky MOUNTAIN JAY Noted only about Marvine Lodge, Marvine Lakes, Trapper’s Lake, and Mud Springs. 486. Corvus corax sinuatus, WESTERN RAVEN Three seen between Rifle Gap and Meeker, sixteen in a flock near Meeker, and two near Axial. Mr. Himes reports them common about his place. 491. Nucifraga columbiana, CLARKE’S NUTCRACKER None seen on our trip, but Mr. Himes reports them abundant about his place at times. 492. Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, PINYON JAY Many seen at Newcastle, one flock containing about two hundred birds; a flock of about twenty-five at Rifle Gap; about one hundred and thirty between Rifle Gap and Rio Blanco Stage Station; one between Meeker and Axial; about fifty between Buford and Marvine Lodge; and about forty between Fitzgerald’s and Himes’. 494. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, BOBOLINK Two young birds shot about 7 miles northeast of Meeker, August 17. This establishes to a certainty their breeding near Meeker and in the state. 495. Molothrus ater, COWBIRD Noted at Meeker, Axial, Little Beaver Creek and Fitzgerald’s. 497. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD Noted in only two places—a flock of about twenty-five near Meeker and a flock of about twenty, 7 miles north by east of Meeker. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 139 498. Agelaius pheeniceus neutralis, San D1iEGO REDWING, THICK-BILLED REDWING A flock of about 30 seen near Rifle Gap, 6 near Meeker, 4 on Little Beaver Creek, about 75 near Buford and 1o at Himes’. Two specimens taken; identified by Mr. H. C. Oberholser of the Department of Agriculture. 501. 1. Sturnella neglecta, WESTERN MEADOWLARK Common as far as Little Beaver Creek; none seen after leaving that locality. 508. Icterus bullocki, BULLOCK’s ORIOLE Only one seen on the trip, at Meeker. 510. Euphagus cyanocephalus, BREWER’S BLACKBIRD Abundant in suitable localities all along the route as far as Buford, where the last were seen. Near Meeker I saw from two to three thousand flocked together in an irrigated alfalfa field. "The number of Brewer’s Blackbirds over the area traversed was far in excess of that of the Red-wings or Yellow-heads. Residents also report that there are comparatively few of the two latter. 515d@. Pinicola enucleator montana, Rocky MOUNTAIN PINE GROSBEAK Two seen near Marvine Lodge and one near Mud Springs. Mr. Ball has five specimens killed at Windermere Lodge, 27 miles above Meeker, along the North Fork. 519. Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis, HouSE FINCH, CALIFORNIA LINNET To my surprise not one of this species was seen on the trip, but Mr. J. T. Duce, formerly a resident of Newcastle, says there are a few of them in that town. 524. Leucosticte tephrocotis, GRAY-CROWNED Rosy FINCH Four mounted birds, killed in Meeker [Ball’s collection]. 529. Astragalinus tristis, AMERICAN GOLDFINCH One noted at Meeker and quite a number along Good Spring Creek near Axial. 530. Astragalinus psaltria, ARKANSAS GOLDFINCH Saw several at Newcastle, common at Meeker and Axial, and noted one at Buford. I saw in Meeker a young bird of this species, just able to fly. It was doubtless hatched in or near the town. 533. Spinus pinus, PINE SISKIN Taken between Marvine Lodge and Marvine Lakes, August 24, and several seen at Mud Springs, September 2. Passer domesticus, ENGLISH SPARROW Found it common in Newcastle and Meeker, and saw one at a farmhouse near Rifle Gap; none seen elsewhere. 540d. Pocecetes gramineus confinis, WESTERN VESPER SPARROW Common all along our route as far as Buford; none seen beyond there. 552a. Chondestes grammacus strigatus, WESTERN LARK SPARROW Seen occasionally from Newcastle to Meeker and vicinity, but not beyond. I40 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES 560a. Spizella passerina arizonae, WESTERN CHIPPING SPARROW A great number of sparrows, apparently Spzzellas, were seen from place to place not close enough for certain identification. Many were doubtless of the above species. The only ones positively identified as such were at Newcastle and Marvine Lodge. 562. Spizella breweri, BREWER’S SPARROW Abundant throughout as far as Buford; none seen above there. 5696. Junco pheonotus caniceps, GRAY-HEADED JUNCO None seen until we reached Buford, where about twenty were noted, August 25. Seen also near Marvine Lodge, Himes’ and Mud Springs. 581. Melospiza melodia montana, MOUNTAIN SONG SPARROW First seen at Rifle Gap, whence they were common until we passed 2 or 3 miles beyond Himes’; here the last were seen. 588a. Pipilo maculatus montanus, MOUNTAIN TOWHEE Seen along Alkali Creek near Newcastle, at Rifle Gap and on Little Beaver Creek. 592. 1. Oreospiza chlorura, GREEN-TAILED TOWHEE First noted at Rifle Gap, thence seen in suitable localities all along our route up to a point 2 or 3 miles above Himes’, where the last one was noted. 596. Zamelodia melanocephala, BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK Two adults seen and one young taken at Rifle Gap. Therefore, a breeder in that vicinity. 599. Passerina amcena, LAZULI BUNTING Two at Newcastle, seven near Rifle Gap and two near Buford. 6c5. Calamospiza melanocorys, LARK BUNTING Seen in only one narrowly restricted area, the same as that in which the Bobolinks were found, about 7 miles north of east of Meeker. There were ten ora dozen birds, some of which appeared to be young. 607. Piranga ludoviciana, WESTERN TANAGER Only one seen—at Rifle Gap. Mr. Ball has a mounted specimen killed at Meeker. 611. Progne subis, PURPLE MARTIN Two seen on the trip—a pair (male and female) in Lost Park, September tr. 612. Petrochelidon lunifrons, CLIFF SWALLOW Seen at Rifle Gap, Meeker, Axial, Little Beaver Creek and Buford, but not beyond this point. In numbers they ranged from half a dozen to several score. 613. Hirundo erythrogaster, BARN SWALLOW Found them common locally almost all the way to Buford; none seen above that place. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I4t 615. Tachycineta thalassina lepida, VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOW Found two pairs that had taken possession of an old dead tree near Marvine Lodge, and saw several more between Fitzgerald’s and Himes’. 616. Riparia riparia, BANK SWALLOW 617. Stelgidopteryx serripennis, ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW At various points numerous swallows, which I took to be one or both of these two species, were seen. None being taken, their identity is uncertain. 618. Bombycilla garrula, BOHEMIAN WAXWING 619. Bombycilla cedrorum, CEDAR WAXWING Mr. Ball records waxwings for his vicinity, but the species is not known. 622a. Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides, WHITE-RUMPED SHRIKE Saw only three on the whole trip; two at Little Beaver Creek and one at Buford. 629. Lanivireo solitarius plumbeus, PLUMBEOUS VIREO One taken at Buford. I think I saw others of this species, but did not collect them and identification is not positive. 652. Dendroica aestiva, YELLOW WARBLER Noted singly or in pairs here and there as far up as Marvine Lodge. 656. Dendroica auduboni, AUDUBON’S WARBLER A flock of about twenty-five seen near Marvine Lodge. Mr. Ball has one killed at Meeker. yor. Cinclus mexicanus unicolor, DIPPER Seen only in two places, one near Marvine Lake, the other between Fitzgerald’s and Himes’. 702. Oroscoptes montanus, SAGE THRASHER Very common in the sage-brush areas between Newcastle and Rifle Gap. None seen up the White River after leaving Meeker. 704. Dumetella carolinensis, CATBIRD One noted at Newcastle, two at Meeker, one at Buford and one at Fitzgerald’s. 715. Salpinctes obsoletus, Rock WREN Common everywhere in suitable localities. 717a. Catherpes mexicanus conspersus, CANYON WREN One collected 2? miles above Axial, August 13, 1909. 421a. Troglodytes aédon parkmani, WESTERN HousE WREN First seen near Rio Blanco Stage Station; after that noted at Meeker, Axial, Buford and Marvine Lodge. 725c. Telmatodytes palustris plesius, WESTERN MARSH WREN A bird appearing to be of this species was seen in a tule-covered swampy spot between Newcastle and Rifle Gap. 142 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES 735a. Penthestes atricapillus septentrionalis, LONG-TAILED CHICKADEE Recorded from Good Spring Creek, Meeker and Axial, never more than three having been noted in any given locality. 738. Penthestes gambeli, MOUNTAIN CHICKADEE The only chickadees positively identified as of this species were several seen near Marvine Lodge. 754. Myadestes townsendi, TOWNSEND’S SOLITAIRE One noted near Marvine Lake and another near Marvine Lodge. 759. Hylocichla guttata auduboni, Rocky MounTAIN HERMIT THRUSH A single bird taken to be of this species was seen near Marvine Lodge. 761a. Planesticus migratorius propinquus, WESTERN ROBIN Common throughout the trip; most numerous along Good Spring Creek near Axial and along North Fork between Fitzgerald’s and Himes’. 768. Sialia currucoides, MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD Abundant on the whole trip, flocks of from fifty to five hundred being seen in some places. MAMMALS Cervus canadensis Erxl., ELK Two bands seen at the base of Sand Peak, one containing seven cows, the other about eight cows and two bulls. Some of the cows had calves. Comparatively fresh signs seen about five miles up House Creek, which empties into Marvine Creek from the west at Marvine Lodge. Reports of settlers indicate that elk are increasing on account of protection of state laws. A band of about a dozen frequents the basin of House Creek, a band of about equal size inhabits the Marvine Lakes country, a few are reported from the head waters of Elk Creek and the south fork of White River. About 500, I am told, roam over the territory between Sleepy Cat Mountain and Sand Peak. Odocoileus macrourus Raf., WHITE-TAILED DEER Two of these deer are reported by Enos Mills as seen about fifteen years ago near where Marvine Lodge is now located. These two deer, both does, were alone— not in company with black-tailed deer. These are the only specimens seen by him in the White River country. Odocoileus hemionus Raf., CoLORADO BLACK-TAILED DEER, MULE DEER Seen on both sides of North Fork but, like the elk, much more numerous on the north side. There has been a deplorable decimation of the deer in this section, as well as in other parts of the state, due to a law passed in 1907 permitting does and fawns to be killed. Antilocapra americana Ord., PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE There seem to be no antelope at the present time in the watershed of the upper White River although reported as still being found in the Bear River basin. Dr. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 143 Bergtold states that in the summer of 1894 they were numerous in California Park and on the flats north of Craig, but scarce there now. Ovis canadensis Shaw, MOUNTAIN SHEEP Reported in this area only on Devil’s Causeway. Said to be increasing owing to protective laws and difficulty of capture. Bison bison Linn., Bison, “‘ BUFFALO” Dr. Bergtold states that in 1894 he found their bones abundant from Rifle Creek to Bear’s Ears Mountain. The last survivors in our state of these animals which once roamed in thousands inhabited the Lost Park district. They were known as the “Lost Park Herd.” Mr. Ball writes ‘‘Last one known at Cedar Springs in 1884, killed by Utes.” Sciurus fremonti Aud. and Bach., PINE SQUIRREL Common at Newcastle and in the spruce regions of the North Fork basin. Doubt- less in all the spruce regions traversed. Eutamias minimus consobrinus Allen, RELATED CHIPMUNK Specimens taken at Meeker and Marvine Lodge. Very likely a majority of “little chipmunks” seen on the trip, and reaching up to Trapper’s Lake, our alti- tudinal limit, were of this variety. Callospermophilus lateralis Say, Say’s SPERMOPHILE, “‘ BIG CHIPMUNK”’ Common all along our journey, including the extremes in altitude. Citellus elegans Kenn., WYOMING SPERMOPHILE This ‘‘ground squirrel” was in evidence from Rifle Gap to 6 miles above Buford, at which place but one was seen, the last on our trip up the north fork. From Rifle Gap to Meeker and Axial it was common, sometimes very abundant. Citellus tridecemlineatus parvus Allen, LirTLE SPERMOPHILE Only one seen; taken between Axial and Meeker, August 14. Cynomys leucurus Merr., WHITE-TAILED PRAIRIE DoG First seen on the crest of the divide between Rifle and Meeker; numerous from there on down about 2 miles to Rio Blanco Stage Station on Piceance Creek, and on to Meeker; common locally from Meeker to Axial and along Little Beaver Creek; a few from Meeker up White River to a point 14 miles below Buford where two, the last of the trip, were seen. Marmota flaviventer Aud. and Bach., WESTERN WooDCHUCK Seen in only two localities, between Meeker and Axial, and between Marvine Lodge and Marvine Lakes. Reported to be abundant over the former area. Castor canadensis frondator Mearns, BEAVER A colony a short distance below Fitzgerald’s and others scattered along down North Fork and White River, according to reports. Dr. Bergtold states that in I44 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES former years he has found signs abundant; in the fall of 1905 fresh signs at the head of Williams Fork. [Mus norvegicus Erxl., HOUSE Rat Thus far I have not located any of this species in this part of Colorado. Mr. Ball states there are none there to his knowledge.] Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus Merr., TawNy DEERMOUSE Four specimens taken at Marvine Lodge. Peromyscus maniculatus nebrascensis Mearns, NEBRASKA DEERMOUSE Eight specimens taken at Buford. Neotoma cinerea orolestes Merr., MOUNTAIN RAT One taken at Fitzgerald’s. In evidence at Marvine Lodge. Throughout the White River valley [Ball]. Microtus nanus Merr., DWARF VOLE Three taken at Buford and one at Fitzgerald’s. Microtus mordax Merr., CANTANKEROUS VOLE Two taken at Marvine Lodge. Fiber zibethicus Linn., MusKRAT In a pond about 4 mile below Buford post-office [Bartlett]. Also reported by Mr. Ball. Thomomys fossor Allen, MOUNTAIN POCKET GOPHER Many pocket-gopher diggings were found at Buford but none of the gophers were taken. It is probable that they belong to this species. Erethizon epixanthus Brandt, YELLOW-HAIRED PORCUPINE Abundant in California Park, summer of 1894, and some at head of Williams Fork in autumn, 1905 [Bergtold]. In all probability they were of this species. White River Valley [Ball]. Ochotona saxatilis Bangs, Cony, PIKA Six seen, five of which were taken, at Trapper’s Lake. Lepus bairdi Hayden, SNowsHOE RABBIT About Buford [Bartlett]. Lepus townsendi Bach., TOWNSEND’S WHITE-TAILED JACKRABBIT Three white-tailed jackrabbits were seen on Little Beaver Creek and one at Buford. Although not collected they were presumed to be of the above species. Sylvilagus auduboni baileyi Merr., BAILEY’s COTTONTAIL Sylvilagus nuttalli grangeri Allen, BLACK H1ItLs COTTONTAIL Only one cottontail was seen on the whole trip, and that between Meeker and Axial. There was no opportunity to secure it. Mr. Bartlett says there are cotton- tails about Buford. I am of opinion that they belong to one of the above species. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 145 Felis hippolestes Merr., MouNTAIN LION Common. Some were killed by President Roosevelt on a hunting trip here a few years ago. Lynx canadensis Desm., CANADA Lynx This species and Lynx uinta reported in this area [Ball]. Lynx uinta Merr., MouNTAIN BoBCAT Reported as common. Dr. Bergtold states that he saw a bobcat on the divide between Trapper’s Lake and Williams Fork in 1905. I infer that the bobcats of that district are referable to the winta group. Canis nubilus Say, GRAY WOLF Dr. Bergtold saw two on the divide between Rifle and Meeker in the autumn of 1898. Canis lestes Merr. one Canis mearnsi Merr. Coyotes were reported abundant. Heard at Rifle Gap and Little Beaver Creek, but none seen. Probably one or both of the above species. Vulpes macrourus Baird, RED Fox Vulpes velox Say, SwIFT Urocyon cincereo-argenteus scotti Mearns., Gray Fox All reported by Mr. Ball. Ursus americanus Pallas., BLACK BEAR Reported to be more common of late than previously. Not long ago Mr. Fitz- gerald shot one near his house, and a few days prior to August 24, 1909, one appeared in his garden. Taxidea taxus Schreber, BADGER One seen between Rio Blanco Stage Station and Meeker and two between Meeker and Axial. Said to be abundant in the latter half of the stretch of country from Meeker to Axial. Numerous excavations in and about the roads. Mephitis mephitis hudsonica Rich., NORTHERN PLAINS SKUNK Mephitis mesomelas varians Gray, LONG-TAILED TEXAS SKUNK Common in California Park in summer and autumn, 1894 [Bergtold]. None noted on our trip, but Mr. Ball states that they are present over the area. The inference is that they belong to one or both of the above-indicated forms. Spilogale gracilis saxatilis Merr., GREAT BASIN SPOTTED SKUNK Spotted skunks, probably of this species, reported for upper White River country by Mr. Ball. Mustela americana Turton, PINE MARTEN Mustela caurina origenes Rhoades, Rocky MounTAIN MARTEN Martens reported by Mr. Ball but species not determined; presumed to be the above. 146 ‘UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Lutreola vison energumenos Bangs, MINK Common. Two taken at Marvine Lodge. Putorius nigripes Aud. and Bach., BLACK-FOOTED FERRET Mr. R. S. Ball has two specimens which he says were killed within 1 mile of Meeker. This extends its range not only west of the continental divide but far toward the western border of the state. Putorius arizonensis Mearns, MOUNTAIN WEASEL Mr. W. W. Robbins, of our party, saw a weasel near Newcastle. Although not determined it was likely of this species. Lutra canadensis Schreber, OTTER White River valley [Ball]. Sorex personatus Geoff., MASKED SHREW One taken at Marvine Lodge. Sorex obscurus Merr., OBSCURE SHREW Two taken at Marvine Lodge. Fosstt INVERTEBRATES FROM NORTHWESTERN COLORADO By Juntus HENDERSON A large number of fossil invertebrates and some seaweeds were obtained from the Mancos and Mesa Verde formations at several local- ities, as follows: In calcareous shales in the lower part of the Mancos north of Newcastle (Fig. 8), on Little Beaver Creek east of Meeker, on the south side of White River above Meeker, and at about the same horizon north of White River on the east side of the dome east of Meeker. NEWCASTLE LitTLE BEAVER Inoceramus sp. Inoceramus cf. deformis White Ostrea congesta Conrad Inoceramus dimidius White Ostrea congesta Conrad MEEKER, SOUTH SIDE MEEKER, NORTH SIDE Inoceramus sp. Inoceramus dimidius White Ostrea congesta Conrad Ostrea sp. Fish scales Plant stems At the top of the Mancos in the bluff about one mile east of Rifle Gap (Fig. 7) and at the same horizon in the bluff northwest of the Meeker schoolhouse (Fig. 11) SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 147 RIFLE Gap Halymenites major Lesquereux Serpula markmani Henderson Bryozoan undetermined Inoceramus sagensis Owen Avicula linguiformis E. and S. Syncyclonema rigida H. and M. Liopistha undata M. and H. Leptosolen sp. Gyrodes sp. Lunatia concinna H. and M. Anchura americana E. and S. Odontobasis? sp. Cylichna volvaria? M. and H. Gastropods undetermined Baculites compressus Say Ptychoceras sp. Placenticeras sp. MEEKER Panopea berthoudi White Inoceramus cripsi barabini Morton Inoceramus sagensis Owen Avicula nebrascana E. and S. Avicula linguiformis E. and S. Ostrea sp. Syncyclonema rigida H. and M. Mytilus subarcuatus M. and H. Goniomya americana M. and H., Thracia gracilis M. and H. Liopistha undata M. and H. Eriphyla gregaria? M. and H. Lucina sp. Spheriola? cordata M. and H. Legumen ? sp. Leptosolen? sp. Lunatia sp. Spironema? sp. Cylichna sp. Gastropods undetermined Baculites compressus Say Baculites ovatus Say Scaphites nodosus Owen Placenticeras intercalare M. and H. Fish scales Between the lowest and next to the lowest well-marked sandstone ledges of the Mesa Verde on the east side of Rifle Gap. Ostrea subtrigonalis E. and S. Cardium speciosum M. and H. Mactra cf. formosa M. and H. Gyrodes sp. Lunatia sp. Odontobasis sp. Gastropods undetermined Above next to the lowest well-marked sandstone ledge of the Mesa Verde and not far below the lowest coal vein on the east side of Rifle Gap. Ostrea subtrigonalis E. and S. Anomia retiformis Meek Corbicula occidentalis M. and H. In the lower Mesa Verde sandstones on Piceance Creek above Rio Blanco Stage Station. Halymenites major Lx. 148 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES In middle or upper Mesa Verde strata three miles south of Axial. Ostrea subtrigonalis E. and S. Corbicula occidentalis M. and H. Anomia micronema Meek Corbicula cytheriformis M. and H. In the upper Mesa Verde, below the upper coal vein, about one mile north of W. B. Blythe’s house, on the north side of White River four miles west of Meeker. Ostrea subtrigonalis E. and S. Corbicula planumbona Meek Modiola regularis White Legumen? sp. Corbicula occidentalis M. and H. Turritella sp. Corbicula cytheriformis M. and H. The Mancos faunas are strictly marine, that of the lower part being the fauna which elsewhere marks the Colorado group (Benton and Niobrara). The lowest Mesa Verde fauna at Rifle Gap is also marine, characteristic of the Montana group (Pierre and Fox Hills), the chief species being Cardium and Mactra. The next higher fauna (at Rifle Gap) includes Anomia retiformis, which at the type locality east of the Front Range is found associated with marine species, but may also have inhabited brackish water, as its relative, A. micronema, probably did. Ostrea subtrigonalis may be both marine and brackish-water, and Corbicula occidentalis is considered a brackish-water form. Above the latter horizon the Mesa Verde faunas are decidedly brackish-water. It will be noticed that with the exception of the very lowest fauna of the Mesa Verde and one species in next to the lowest, the fossils we found in that formation are species which in eastern Colorado occur in the Laramie, but the finding of marine Lewis shales between the Mesa Verde and the Laramie in the Yampa region indicates that the beds are not assignable to the Laramie. The Corbicula horizon north of Blythe’s house is about 200 to 300 feet (estimated) below the lower plant horizon east of his house, which latter is discussed by Professor Cockerell in a subsequent part of the present report. The lower plant horizon is perhaps 300 or 4oo feet below the upper plant horizon northwest of the house. Both of these plant horizons occur above the highest coal vein noted by us in that locality, and contain fossil leaves in great abundance, the lower one SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I49 being a sandstone and the leaves poorly preserved, while the higher one is a fine clay and the fossils are in good condition. The Ostrea-Micronema horizon south of Axial appears to occur nearer the middle of the Mesa Verde formation than any of the other faunas or floras, though it was impossible to be sure of this without more time for the examination of the region. The specimen of Geinitzia reichen- bachi stem discussed by Professor Cockerell was found at this point lying on the surface but apparently having come from a few feet below the Ostrea and Micronema. ‘The two latter fossils form here a ledge of black limestone two or three feet in thickness composed almost entirely of shells. Several such ledges composed of Ostrea and Corbicula occur | north of Blythe’s house, and the Corbicula-Micronema ledge at Rifle Gap is a solid mass of shells FossiL PLANTS FROM THE MESA VERDE CRETACEOUS By T. D. A. CocKERELL The flora of the Mesa Verde formation appears to be practically identical with that of the Laramie. Lists of species have been given by Knowlton in Bulletins 350 and 371 of the U. S. Geological Survey. Ficus is prominent, with several species, separable from each other thus: Apex of leaf somewhat produced; a rounded lateral lobule. . . . squarrosa Knowlton. (This is a species of the Montana formation; the identity of the Mesa Verde plant is considered doubtful.) Apex of leaf not produced, at most very broad-angled. Base deeply cordate; size very large... . speciosissima Ward. (Also a Montana formation species.) Base not at all cordate. Leaf longer than broad . . . . planicostata Lx. Leaf broader than long . . . . latifolia (Lx.) Kn. (Both these are characteristic Laramie species.) There are also Araucarian conifers, palms, cinnamon, magnolia, and various other trees, all indicating a moist and warm climate. Frag- ments of a dinosaur have been found, and eight genera of aquatic mollusca. I50 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES The material brought back by the University of Colorado Expedition of 1909 includes the following recognizable species: 1. From three miles south of Axial, in light reddish rock, collected by Terry Duce. This is considered to be about the middle of the Mesa Verde formation. Geinitzia reichenbachi (Geinitz) Hollick and Jeffrey. A remarkable piece of stem, herewith figured (Fig. 13). It has a diameter of 13 mm., and as may be. seen from the figure, has an extraordinary resemblance to many of the Palzo- zoic Lycopodiaceous stems, as for instance Ulodendron minus Lindley and Hutton. As it was difficult to imagine what a plant of this type could be doing in the Cretaceous, I turned to the conifers, and found at once consider- able resemblance even to the living genus Araucaria. At this point I con- sulted Professor A. C. Seward, who kindly wrote giving a number of pertinent references, the most significant being those to Fontaine’s Potomac Flora (Monog. XV, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1889). Here I found (Plate CXIX, f. 5) a fragment of a similar stem figured, and referred to Sequoia reichenbacht (Geinitz) Heer. This at once connected with the fact that Knowlton records S. reichenbachi, on foliage characters, from four localities in the Mesa Verde. Hollick and Jeffrey (Mem. N.Y. Bot. Garden, III, 1909, p. 38) have lately shown that S. reichenbachi is no Sequoia, but a member of the Araucarinean genus Geinitzia. Whether the Mesa Verde plant and numerous others from different localities and formations are correctly ascribed to a single species, G. reichenbachi, may be held at least doubtful. In all probability several distinct species are represented, but in the absence of proof we must follow the current usage of authors. The resemblance of this Araucarian Conifer to a Lycopodiaceous plant of an earlier period is especially significant in view of the probability that there exists a real relationship between these groups. A full and luminous discussion of this question has been given by Mr. A. C. Seward and Miss S. O. Ford in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, Vol. 198, pp. 385-98. 2. From the upper plant horizon, N. W. of Blythe’s house, 4 miles west of Meeker, collected by Messrs. Henderson, Blythe and Kyser. Myrica torreyi Lx. Very characteristic; submarginal vein more distant from margin than in the original type. Geonomites goldianus Lx. Large pieces. Sabalites grayanus Lx. This is recorded from the Mesa Verde by Knowlton with a query. Our specimen, kindly presented by Mr. W. B. Blythe, is well preserved, though imperfect, and is herewith figured (Fig. 14); it very likely represents a species distinct from the original type of S. grayanus, but it may very well be included in the species as it has been currently understood. A large specimen, also imperfect, was donated to the university by Mr. J. L. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO I51 Riland, who found it on the bluff north of Meeker. It is probably from a slightly lower horizon. Ficus spectosissima Ward. Showing the base very well. Ficus planicostata Lx. Good material. 3. From East of Blythe’s house; collected by Terry Duce. Geintizia reichenbacht (Gein.) H. and J. A fragment of foliage which might well belong here. This is in the sandstone, and belongs to a lower horizon than the others. There are also a few other imperfectly preserved species which I hesitate to identify. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS DEALING WITH THE GEOLOGY AND NATURAL History OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO This bibliography includes the more important papers which have come to our notice relating partly or wholly to the geology and biology of the region embraced in this report, and a number of papers concerning nearby localities, which are inserted because they are useful for purposes of comparison. 4 Cary, Merritt, ‘‘Some unrecorded Colorado mammals,” Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XX, pp. 23-28, 1907. ———,, ‘“‘New records and important range extensions of Colorado birds,” The Auk, Vol. XXVI, pp. 180-85, 1909. BARBER, Epwin A., ‘‘Ancient art in northwestern Colorado,” U.S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., Bull. Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 65, 66, 1876. Climatological service of the weather bureau, Annual Summary of Colorado Section. Cooke, W. W., “‘The birds of Colorado,” Agric. Exper. Station of Colo. Agric. College, Bull. No. 37, 1897. , ‘Further notes on the birds of Colorado,” Agric. Exper. Station of Colo. Agric. College, Bull. No. 44, 1898. An appendix to Bull. No. 37. , ‘The birds of Colorado,” Agric. Exper. Station of Colo. Agric. College, Bull. No. 56. Second appendix to Bull. 37. , “The birds of Colorado—third supplement,’ The Auk, Vol. XXVI, pp. 400-422, 1909. EnD1IcH, F. M., ‘‘Report on the geology of the White River District,” Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, pp. 63-122. 1878. FENNEMAN, N. M., Gate, Hoyt S., and CampBett, Martius R., “‘The Yampa coal- field, Routt County, Colorado,” U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 297, 1906. [Dis- cusses region north of our area.] I52 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Gate, Hoyt S., ‘‘Carnotite in Rio Blanco Co., Colorado,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 315, pp. 110-17, 1907. , “‘Coal-fields of the Danforth Hills and Grand Hogback in northwestern Colorado,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 316, pp. 264-301, 1907. , “Gold placer deposits near Lay, Routt Co., Colorado,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 340, pp. 84-95, 1908. , “Geology of the Rangely oil district, Rio Blanco Co., Colorado,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 350, 1908. , ‘Coal-fields of northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 341, pp. 283-315, 1909. Gray, Asa, AND HooKER, JosepH D., ‘‘The vegetation of the Rocky Mountain Region and a comparison with that of other parts of the world,” Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of Terr., Vol. VI, No. 1, pp. 1-62, 1880. HAypDEN, F. V., ‘Geological and geographical atlas of Colorado and portions of adjacent territory,” Sheets V and XI, U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., 1881. HENDERSON, Juntus, ‘‘The Mollusca of Colorado,” Univ. Colo. Studies, Vol. IV, pp. 77-96, 167-85, 1906. Hopkins, F. H., “‘The bobolink in Colorado,” The Auk, Vol. XXIII, p. 461, 1906. Lapp, Story B., ‘‘Topographical report of northern division, 1874,” Eighth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874, pp. 435-42, 1876. Putts, F. J., ‘A Study of pinyon pine,” Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLVIII, pp. 216-23, September, 1909. Poot, Raymonp J., ‘‘Histological studies in the Artemisia formation,” Univ. of Neb. Studies, Vol. VIII, pp. 1-28, October, 1908. RIcHARDSON, G. B., ‘‘Reconnaissance of the Book Cliffs coal-field, between Grand River, Colorado, and Sunnyside, Utah,” U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 316, pp. 302-20, 1907. Same title, Id. Bull. No. 371, 1909. ROcKWELL, ROBERT B., ‘‘An annotated list of the birds of Mesa County, Colorado,” The Condor, Vol. X, pp. 152-80, 1908. Rypserc, P. A., “Flora of Colorado,” Agric. Exper. Station of Colorado Agric. College, Bull. 100, pp. 1-448, 1906. WarrEN, Epwarp R., ‘“‘The mammals of Colorado,’ Colorado College Publications, Gen. Series No. 19, pp. 225-274, 1906. , ‘Further notes on the mammals of Colorado,”’ Colorado College Publications, Gen. Series No. 33, pp. 59-90, 1908. , “Northwestern Colorado bird-notes,” The Condor, Vol. X, pp. 18-26, 1908. [Includes also some notes on mammals.] , “Notes on the birds of southwestern Montrose County, Colorado,” The Condor, Vol. XI, pp. 11-17, 1909. SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION TO NORTHWESTERN COLORADO 153 Waite, C. A., “Report on the paleontological field-work for the season of 1877,” Eleventh Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1877, pp. 161-272, especially pp. 207-14, 1879. [Discusses fossils of Danforth Hills, White River and Yampa River, among others. Other references to fossils of the region are occasional in other publications of the Hayden, King and Wheeler Surveys. ] , “Report on the geology of a portion of northwestern Colorado,” Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, pp. 5-60, 1878. [Includes also considerable matter on agricultural resources, etc.] , “On the geology and physiography of northwestern Colorado and adjacent parts of Utah and Wyoming,” Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. for 1887-88, pp. 677-712, 1889. Soe ANE t { ‘i a iy Nui Nah) : A nt 4 Fic. 7.—Mancos-Mesa Verde contact east of Rifle Gap. Sage-brush is abundant along the roadsides. This shrub extends for a distance up the slope; it is replaced there by pinyon pine and cedar. The steep and easily A uniform stand of sage-brush in the fore- Fic. 8.—Hill of lower Mancos shale northeast of Newcastle. eroded sides are very destitute of vegetation. ground, extending to the base of the hill. Mesa Verde formation dipping southeast. Fic. 9.—Rifle Gap, looking down stream. Coal-mine dumps on the right. Fic. 10.—Valley of Good Spring Creek, south of Axial, cut into Mesa Verde formation.’ Note fringe of willows along the stream and strip of oak along base of slope on left. The cultivated areas were originally covered with sage-brush. Fic. 11.—Meeker from the south, with White River in foreground and Mesa Verde bluff in background. Upper Mancos shale at base of cliff. Populus angustifolia is the principal tree along the stream sides. The bluff is scattered over with pinyon pine and cedar. Fic. 12.—Nesting site of white-throated swifts about 9 miles east of Meeker, Colo. Fic. 13.—Geiniizia reichenbachi [Illustrating Professor Cockerell’s paper, “ Fossil Plants from the Mesa Verde Cretaceous”’]. Fic. 14.—-Sabalites grayanus [Illustrating Professor Cockerell’s paper, ‘Fossil Plants from the Mesa Verde Cretaceous’’]. ai UY Votume VII NuMBER 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES FRANCIS RAMALEY EDITOR PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BOULDER, COLO. Marcu, Ig10 Price, 50 Cents i's Leon gern yek fe iat CONTENTS PAGE bay ee WOmenIN ENG, HER CREATED Colter ai 07. SBE) tes bat ss. eke E SD JouN Burton PHILties, Pu.D. Professor of Economics and Sociology 2. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF Rocky Mountain BEES 179 T. D. A. CocKERELL Professor of Systematic Zodlogy and W. W. Rossins, M. A. Instructor in Biology THE DECLINING BIRTHRATE By Joun B. PHILLies “The most decisive mark of the prosperity of any country is the increase of the number of its inhabitants.” ‘This statement written more than one hundred years ago by Adam Smith has been generally accepted by publicists to the present day. Statesmen are thinking of possible military necessities, captains of industry want laborers, and new coun- tries need men to develop their resources. With these demands for an additional labor supply, it is not strange that any indication of a decline in the future supply of men is viewed with alarm. The natural increase of a population is by excess of births over deaths, and growth in this way is possible only when the excess of the birthrate is not lost by a high infant deathrate. A high birthrate does not neces- sarily indicate a great increase in population. Unless we know that this high birthrate is not accompanied by a heavy deathrate, we cannot be sure that the natural increase of the population is large. Thus, in Russia where the birthrate is 49.5 per 1,000, 31 per cent. of all infants die be- fore the end of the first year; in Bavaria the rate is 36.8 but 24 per cent. die during the first year; in Norway, the rate is 30 and g per cent. are likewise lost.* It thus appears that the birthrate alone is not a clear indication of the increase of the population of any country. It is nevertheless of sufficient importance in this respect to excite alarm by its decline. In the future medical science may considerably reduce the deathrate, but however great this reduction may be, it cannot be expected to counterbalance the effect of a constantly declining birthrate which if continued will result in a less numerous population. A comparison of the birthrates of the various countries is therefore important indicating as it does various social and economic conditions prevailing among the different peoples. Ross, ‘‘Western Civilization and the Birthrate,” Publications of the American Economic Association, Vol. VIII, No. 1, p. 84, February, 1907. 159 160 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES The following tables show the variations of the birthrates in the principal countries since 1856: AVERAGE ANNUAL BIRTHRATES BY DECADES—1856 TO 1905;* Livinc BIRTHS TO 1,000 WOMEN 15 TO 49 YEARS OF AGE Country 1856 to 1865|1866 to 1875|1876 to 1885/1886 to 1895|1806 to 1905 England & Wales............... 134 139 135 118 104 Gtooy intolts Rea Ae actor Go ode 132 136 133 121 III Irelands er, -ceclsoteer ens) servos cater as aie! IOI 92 89 Wenmarks ashi vaso ula eee ieeyas 129 124 3g 128 118 INOR WHY aio mete aor eigiasve 7) eta ee 132 120 127 125 119 SWedelietncm acer decor -t rari 128 120 119 117 IIo IRGESHS Rae Oop onomoomoe nt otk ce aes spe 0 ore 201 Tiitalkeyovs Bika ane Whar eo riers § oh eo ats 1g) 142 135 130 (NOS tela ee eos ace Sees el nee ier ae 147 149 148 145 ERIN T SS Pee eae feiaea thle! s De Seay vere 166 172 172 155 veal META arcete sents ec ways 'sctpee tee ae 116 117 IIo pele) Germanybmapire: to ....5%.0- ware iegecs I51 153 146. 141 (BrUsslas epee ctu =a eckiegs -156 147 153 149. 143 AVA aet ches oe ccchcietes v's tanta fe ee 153 159 146 145 SEIMOMDUD anti SF shou. y da sel an oe 151 159 167 157 140 WittcLempUrp: man. wis = 9 otters 147 164 162 139 139 Baden pte sees ae bas & wc slak) ob ee 149 144 130 135 Netherlands: 554.5.) 6.i006 5 is nome e 134 144 150 142 133 AGRI fc cite slave n coals Be siderite oe 127 131 132 118 114 IBTANGGyagais es Ae ee ees aren IOI 103 99 89 85 SRA roche Sik a jnic le acca ee 144 Be 141 137 eA Rial yh ete tok Gee © tice lI nine ange Me es 146 148 149 138 INew South) Wales. pier esse e cae ae Feb 150 116 Miascachusettss: sc 21-6 eae: ae nae 86 92 go * Kuczynsx1, ‘‘Zur Statistik der Fruchtbarkeit,’? Jahrbiicher fiir Nationalékonomie und Statistik, Vol. XC, p. 230, December, 1907. In the United States where statistics of births are not obtainable, it is possible to show the variation in the birthrate by ascertaining the pro- portion of children under five years of age to 1,000 women 15 to 49 years of age at each census from 1850 to 1900. NUMBER OF WHITE CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS TO 1,000 WHITE WOMEN I5 TO 49 YEARS OF AGE (CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES)* I900 1890 1880 1870 1860 1850. 1840 1830 * Wiiicox, Census Bulletin 22, p. 23, August, 1905. THE DECLINING BIRTHRATE 161 NUMBER OF WHITE CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS TO 1,000 WHITE WOMEN 15 TO 44 YEARS OF AGE (CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES)* Difference in Rate Total Native Women /|Foreign-born Women| between Native and Foreign-born | * Wirtcox, ibid. [The increase among the foreign-born is probably due to the immigration between 1890 and 1900. The decrease in the number of children to native women was general in the country except in the North and South Atlantic divisions where there was a slight increase. The greatest decrease was in the North Central, and Western divisions: ‘The decrease was chiefly confined to the cities.] These tables show a general declining tendency in the birthrate of civilized countries. Whatever the causes of this phenomenon may be, their effect is worldwide. It is highly probable that these causes are social and industrial rather than biological. Changes in social organiza- tion and in industry that have intensified the growth of individuality or placed additional obstacles in the young man’s path to pecuniary success have tended to lower the birthrate by bringing it in an increasing degree under the control of the will.t That the action of the will is the greatest factor in lowering the rate appears from the fact that the marriage rate has declined but slightly; the change appears in the smaller size of modern families. That the lower birthrate is not due to a great increase in the sterility of marriage is shown by the fact that New South Wales with a birthrate lower than that of England has a proportion of sterile marriages less than half as great.» The question then is, What are the changes that have so powerfully affected the will in its relation to the birthrate ? Among these changes are the following: the passing of the frontier; increase of wealth and luxury; democracy; prohibition of child labor; increased care of children and consequent nervous strain; t This is especially noticeable in Germany—a nation with a highly developed industrial civilization and at the same time with perhaps the highest birthrate of any modern industrial state. It appears that in that country considerable attention is being devoted to the problem of the high birthrate. There is certainly develop- ing there the desire to reduce the size of the family. The large number of pamphlets treating of methods of preventing conception which have recently appeared and are offered for sale at the bookstores is an indication of the desire for smaller families. ‘There is no law against the public sale of such literature in Germany. In the window of one large bookstore I counted five such pamphlets conspicuously displayed. The price of most of them was below fifty cents. 2 Ross, ‘Western Civilization and the Birthrate,” Publications of the American Economic Association , Vol. VIII, No. 1, p. 79, February, 1907. 162 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES decline of the old form of religious belief; growth of cities, and emancipa- tion of women.’ The effect of the disappearance of the frontier in diminishing the birthrate must not be overlooked. The disappearance of the oppor- tunities that the frontier has always presented to the poorer classes in American society has had a remarkable effect upon the increase of popu- lation among them. As the great increase in any population is always in the poorer rather than in richer classes, the disappearance of the fron- tier is a cause that will affect the natural increase of that portion of our population that has hitherto furnished the greatest addition to our numer- ical strength. The frontier has always been an attractive region to young and active men. Without the laborious years of study that are now demanded by modern education, these ambitious sons could leave the paternal roof and seek homes in the western country, and with a reasonable amount of energy might in time be assured of a competence and rise to positions of honor and dignity in the state. ‘Thus, the free lands of the United States were silently bidding for the labor of able-bodied young men and women, and offering opportunities that to great multitudes of our people appeared more valuable even than higher education and professional life. Hence it came that the strong and aggressive men and women left their homes and settled and developed this western country. To exploit the natural resources of any country does not require great education. The men who came into the West in an early day were able at once to begin the serious business of life. ‘They married early and reared large families. Now the age at marriage is more advanced and the reason is apparent. The natural opportunities of the United States connected with the exploitation of the virgin soil of the West are gone and the other activities now open to our young men require more preparation. While it may be doubted whether or not the young man has not as many oppor- tunities now as his grandfather had it is quite certain that they are of a different kind: they cannot be seized by the man without education. t Ross, ibid. [This article discusses briefly democracy, decay of religious belief, and emancipation of women as factors in the_declining birthrate.] THE DECLINING BIRTHRATE 163 Our people of all classes are therefore becoming persuaded that univer- sity training is almost a necessity and the time which the students must spend in securing it requires that the date of their marriage be postponed. When marriages occur later in life the possibility of a large family is reduced; hence, a declining birthrate. This is clearly shown by the following table: NUMBER OF BIRTHS ANNUALLY PER 1,000 MARRIED WOMEN By AGES* Ages Paris 1896 France 1896 | Budapest 1890 |Norway 1874-76] Berlin 1887-90 Wmder2orr Teuy, 1199 1BP!09s1p 3s414 189 JBIpaw 119) yeursuepw x a4NAJau 1E}IGNI-OssaASURIR PII - SF TERS 1129 jB}S05 ne oN ™ e4INAsaU a4nAJou PINAIIU JBUIZIE 187!9N5-0ssaAsues} puosas a : 4nasau jeseq: 24NAJIU JEISOIQNS = syunasou JB1s05 183Iqnd-0s4s9Asues} 4s4Iy Ocelli Vertex ad Front Scape 2 Flagellum Eye W Facial fovea \ Q Supraclypeal area Clypeus, Malar space GP Labrum > Mandible Maxillary palpus Blade of maxilla Labial palpus 3 fy \ Paraglossa 2A Coxa | A — é/ > 7 Tongue oe Trochanter Pulvillus_. \% 4417 Claw Rocky MouNTAIN BEES Fic. 2.—Ideal head of bee showing structural details. Frc. 2A.—Maxilla and maxillary palpus of Melitoma grisella; F1c. 3.—Hind leg of bee showing nomenclature of parts. —— Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES Fic. 4.—Perdita lacteipennis; Fic. 5.—Perdita ignota; Fic. 6.—Spinoliella australior; Fic. 7.—Panurginus cressoniellus; Fic. 8.—Coelioxys sayi; Fic. 9.—Anthidium emargi- natum; Fic. 10.—Dianthidium parvum, Fic. 11.—Dialictus anomalus; Fic. 12.—Dian- drena nothocalaidis; Fic. 13.—Osmia propinqua. Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES Fic. 14.—Phileremus americanus; F1G. 15.—Neopasites heliopsis; Fic. 16.—Prosopis varijrons; Fic. 17.—Halictoides harveyi; Fic. 18.—Lithurgus apicalis; Fic. 19.—Titu- sella pronitens; Fic. 20.—Alcidamea simplex; Fic. 21.—Monumetha albifrons; Fic. 22.— Robertsonella gleasoni; Fic. 23.—Ashmeadiella denticulata; Fic. 24.—Heriades carinatus; Fic. 25.—Megachile brevis. ne eT Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES Fic. 26.—A pis mellifera; Fic. 27.—Clisodon terminalis; Fic. 28.—Emphoro psis johnsoni; Fic. 29.—Triepeolus heliantht. Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES Fic. 30.—Nomada vexator; Fic. 31.—Nomada (Gnathias) lepida; Fic. 32.—Augo- chlora confusa; Fic. 33.—Ceratina nanula; Fic. 34.—Agapostemon texanus; FIG. 35.— Halictus lerouxii; Fic. 36.—Andrena bridwelli; Fic. 37.—Tetralonia edwardsii vaga- bunda. Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES Fic. 38.—Melissodes pallidicincta; F1G. 39.—Xenoglossa angelica; Fic. 40.—Xeno- glossodes imitatrix; Fic. 41.—Diadasia diminuta; Fic. 42.—Colletes kincaidii; FIG. 43.— Sphecodes pecosensis. Rocky MOUNTAIN BEES Fic. 44.—Psithyrus insularis; Fic. 45.—Bombus huntiu; Fic. 46.—Bombomelecta julvida; Fic. 47.—Anthophora occidentalis; Fic. 48.—Melissodes obliqua; Fic. 49.— Andrena argemonis; Fic. 50.—Nomia nortont. | Vo.tumeE VII NuMBER 4 | THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES FRANCIS RAMALEY EDITOR PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BOULDER, COLO. JuNE, I9g10 Price, 50 Cents CONTENTS PRE-THALESIAN PHILOSOPHY MELANCHTHON F. Lipsy, PH.D. Professor of Philosophy SEx DIFFERENCES AND VARIABILITY IN COLOR PERCEPTION V. A. C. Henmon, Pua.D. Professor of Psychology INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE ANTS OF NORTHERN COLORADO PUL MSN aoe heh talc hk vas W. W. Rossins, M.A. Instructor in Biology REMARKS ON SOME NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT ComMm- MUNITIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BOULDER PARK (TOLLAND, CoLo.) . a Yeah FRANCIS RAMALEY, PH.D. Professor of Biology NOTES ON THE FLow OF WATER IN [RRIGATION DITCHES . CLEMENT C. WILLIAMS, C.E. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering ALPHABETICAL INDEX . PAGE 201 207 2i5 223 237 249 a, i ’ we FON chashar ti PRE-THALESIAN PHILOSOPHY By MELANCHTHON F. LIBBY Teil I, Abteilung V, of Teubner’s admirable series, “ Die Kultur der Gegenwart,” is the great collaboration entitled Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie. ‘This great history (541 large pages) is the result of the combined work of Wundt, Aldenberg, Goldzicher, Grube, Tetsujiro Inouye, von Arnim, Baeumker and Windelband. Those who had believed that no better histories of philosophy than those of Ueberweg, Windelband and Erdmann could be produced, may have to revise their opinion. And the advance is not in scholarship so much as in a certain freshness and originality of handling which quite unsettle the usual notion that subjects grow pedantic under prolonged research. The whole work is an inspiration to a teacher of college philosophy. Not only is the modern Weltanschauung handled with genuine freedom and vigor, but also the Greek masters are treated with rare sympathy and infectious culture. The work is an exposition of the broad and genial spirit of present-day philosophy, and is a reproof to works like those of Allen Upward, and other critics, who value themselves a good deal because they ignore such works as these (and the writings of Paulsen, Fischer, H6ffding and Eucken, to name a few), while they repeat stale jacetiae regarding Berkeley and Kant. How would any specialist like to defend textbooks in his subject of from one hundred fifty to three hundred years of age: textbooks for example in geology or biology ? However, the purpose of this paper is not to review this welcome work, but merely to emphasize one division of it, namely, the thirty-page chapter with which it opens, and which has for its subject, “The Begin- nings of Philosophy and the Philosophy of Primitive Peoples.” This brilliant essay is by Wundt, and is not the least of his many contributions. This history so far as I know is the first to give a serious treatment of pre-Thalesian philosophy. In the earlier works it is not to be looked for of course. From Negel to Erdmann there is no curiosity manifested concerning the source of the interests that grew into philosophy. But 201 202 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES even in works which have appeared since the great masterpiece of Tylor one seeks in vain for a first chapter even remotely resembling this by Wundt. The twenty-five works most used, in general and in ancient philosophy, show at best a vague tendency to trace the Ionian move- ment to the Greek myths and the sayings of the sages. Most of them begin with the definition of the subject and proceed from that to Thales. There is no doubt that many teachers, since the publication of Tylor’s work, have been beginning their courses with some notes on anthropology or ethnopsychology, and therefore this departure will be well received. It seems most desirable that in so markedly psychogenetic an age every textbook dealing with the development of philosophy should begin with primitive culture. Wundt declares that for the province of primitive psychology the work of Tylor (1873), as a first comprehensive collection of the phenomena of the doctrine of the soul among various races, has been epoch-making in the last degree. He speaks with enthusiasm of Fraser’s The Golden Bough (1900), and these works together with Wundt’s Vélkerpsychologie and Sumner’s Folkways make a good back- ground for this first chapter of history. The subject is fascinating for its own sake, and for its bearing upon psychology, and the science of religion. Recent works on this latter subject show how profoundly the facts of animism have shaken the ontological assumptions of the crude materialistic dogmatism of the 1870’s. The insistent repetition of the greatest of all the truths of psychic origins, namely, that the world was beseelt, that the water Thales wrote of was not H,O at all, but the same that gleams in trout pools for small boys, has gone far to shake the alleged view of common-sense, that is, modern common-sense, that “chalk is chalk and cheese is cheese.” When every textbook in the history of philosophy begins with a chapter of this kind we shall be on the highway to a more hopeful conclusion. Wundt of course anticipates the objections of students, who will argue that in this chapter he steps over the border of philosophy into the dim and mysterious forest of the early myths. But like most of his readers he is probably not discomposed by this. If he promotes a truer and deeper view of the real development of the subject, Americans at least will not quarrel with him over the arbitrary definitions of words. PRE-THALESIAN PHILOSOPHY 203 He has shown in more than one of his earlier works that no one has seized hold of the essence of the mythopoeic power more convincingly; and he repeats that mythology is the fruitful mother of all the activities of civilized, mental activity. He admits that the tendency to real explanatory work sets in markedly with the school of Miletus; but he sees that there is still much of the matrix about the jewel of science. And then on the other hand, when he turns to the rich masses of primitive wisdom in the folklore of these great collectors how clearly his eye detects the points that are really of philosophical significance. Here we have the clear and piercing insight of this great writer at its brightest and best. He turns lightly away from the jurisprudence, and religion, and govern- ment, and manners, and poetry, and military strategy, and other features of the ancient fables, and fixes our minds upon 1) the beginnings of logic, 2) the beginnings of psychology, 3) the beginnings of natural philosophy, 4) the beginnings of ethics. Primitive logic, he writes, knows no abstract ideas, and knows general ideas only in the most limited sense. The pine, the elm, the oak, are known, but not the tree. Knowledge is of concrete and indi- vidual character. Primitive thinking is also entirely objective. Savages relate the most atrocious tales of battle and chase, without the least allusion to any feelings on the part of anybody. The verb hardly exists in really primitive tongues; words represent things and their properties; speech is very childlike. The deepest principle of knowledge is that whatever is given in sense-perce ption is directly certain just as it is given. To sense- perceptions we must add some few fantastic ideas based on a long experience of nature. Movements and changes of objects are next in reality to the objects themselves. Out of the very regularity of natural movements and changes springs an interest in irregular happenings, and as these happenings affect the weal and woe of men, the great why ? of science may be said to be born thereof. Such in briefest outline is this great expert’s summary of the tap-root of logic. Turning to primitive psychology he begins by showing that psychic life is nothing separated from the bodily life; both belong together. 204 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Death and dreams give pause to this original unity. Two real things known to sense, the vapor of the breath, and the shadow-picture of dreams, give rise to the idea of a soul. Psychic processes such as percep- tion and feeling have nothing to do with this idea at first. Primitive psychology does not even attempt to explain death and dreams, it is no hypothesis or explanation but a belief about facts., After death the soul remains for a time in the body. ‘This means that survivors cannot at once dissociate the two; ‘even in our ashes live their wonted fires.” But with the decay of the body the soul leaves it in the body of the first worm. Hence arise numerous superstitions about worms and snakes, and much care of the corpse as among the Egyptians. Later the seat of the soul is attributed to different organs of the body, and to the blood and the saliva. This view leads to a sort of sundering of the functions of the soul. The breath belief grows until the soul passes into other animal bodies, especially such as move about quickly and are associated with scenes of death; hence the beliefs in transmigration. ‘The shadow belief is supported by facts of delirium in fevers and ends in ideas of ghosts and demons. Finally these spiritual powers become connected by the mechanism of associative memory with natural objects and forces, and lead to a crude and fantastic philosophy of nature in which we discern the fountain of the great modern philosophies of natural science. Natural science attempts to spread the great network of human experience, and consequently whoever would seek for its origin in primi- tive beliefs must seek for the beliefs of primitive peoples concerning the law of causation. German metaphysicians have made much of the universality and necessity of this law and have easily assumed that men have always seen nature under some native conviction that she worked in strict accordance therewith. But this assumption is far from the truth. In the whole matter of perception for example the relation of primitive man to objects of sense was naive and quite free from the idea that such objects were the causes of experience. He simply experienced, and in no way explained the experience as a phase of the causal nexus. Then again the whole everyday, commonplace process of nature never seemed to him to demand a causal explanation; its very regularity PRE-THALESIAN PHILOSOPHY 205 prevented reflection. It is true that on the poetical and religious side there were many tales about the sun and other great facts of nature, but where these were really from the earliest beliefs, they seem to have had no connection with our present subject. On the other hand, it was precisely in the irregular and exceptional occurrences that the germ of scientific wonder is to be sought. The unaccustomed, the disturbing, the fearful, had the power of piercing the primitive mind with curiosity and of stirring the great interrogation. Sickness, especially if sudden and dreadful, and death suggested demonic origins, and thoughts which led to belief in charms and spells and magic, and incantations filled the primitive imagination. Here then in the very beliefs that modern science endeavors to eliminate must we look for the acorn out of which that mighty oak has grown, for it is exactly in primitive magic that the belief in cause and effect had its birth. The first men could conceive of cause only through analogy with their own wills, and all those natural forces which affected their welfare through the immediate environment (the weather, the cattle, the crops, the chase) were conceived of as endowed with wills or spirits, which could be appeased or frightened like themselves. Now some of the forces which seem at first to belong to the neighborhood, such as heat and moisture, have the power of carrying the mind to remoter objects such as the sun and the clouds, and ‘so a philosophy of magical causation gradually grew until it covered the world as it was then known. There sprang up in connection with this fanciful knowledge a parallel, fanciful control, for even among savages knowledge seemed to mean power. The savages of the spirits were met by magical rites and by sacrifices, and out of this struggle emerged a larger view of cause which began to take in the regular as well as the irregular experiences. All these beliefs were closely associated with religious beliefs, but they may be seen also as a dim philosophy or science of the natural forces. When we reach the great theogonies and cosmogonies with which the early world terminates its effort to bear the burden of human thought, there is already established a strong concep- tion of the uniformity of nature and even of the need of wisdom and investigation. It has long been recognized that the roots of moral philosophy are to 200 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES - be found in the maxims and proverbs of primitive peoples. Wundt advocates a careful and scholarly judgment of the morals of primitive races. He points out that many of their revolting customs are closely associated with their brightest virtues. The drinking of blood and eating of flesh of deceased relatives were connected with reverence for family ties, and condoned by their failure to differentiate men from other animals. Thus even cannibalism must not be measured by our standards. It was not only the seven sages of Greece who coined valuable maxims of conduct. The primitive Australians had many noble sayings about the conduct of life. In the family relations many of the primitive peoples were comparatively above reproach. The whole subject of primitive philosophizing is shown to be rich in suggestion and there can be no doubt that a study of it will banish many crude ideas. For example Conte’s opinion that the human mind developed through the three successive stages of religion, metaphysics and positive science, gets a new reputation in this work, inasmuch as it would rather seem that the three modes of thought have developed together in a sense, though not of course quite pari passu in all ages. SEX DIFFERENCES AND VARIABILITY IN COLOR PERCEPTION By V. A. C. HENMON It is popularly supposed that women possess a more highly developed color sense than men. Women are generally held to be superior both in the recognition of color (the absolute threshold) and in the discrimina- tion of small differences (the differential threshold). Statements to this effect are current in the books which discuss sex differences in mental traits. ‘This superiority of women is variously explained. On the one hand, it is attributed by many to the greater practice in color discrimination acquired by women. The differences would, therefore, be due entirely to individual experience and training. On the other hand, it is held that the difference is congenital and characteristic of sex. On this view it is difficult to see how keenness of color vision could have been a factor in survival and thus be selected, though there is some ground for believing that the more brilliant coloration of the male in some animal forms would be accompanied by a greater discrimination of color in the female. It is still more difficult to suppose that the trait, if it were acquired in individual history, could be transmitted. The experimental evidence is unsatisfactory and inconclusive. The tests that have been made on the ability of the sexes in the recognition of colors, or the absolute sensitiveness to color, have given conflicting results. Nichols (8),? in one of the earliest experimental studies, mixed red lead, chromate of lead, chromic oxid and ultra-marine blue with white magnesium carbonate and thus made a graduated series of colors varying in saturation from that of the pure pigments to colors indistin- guishable from white. ‘These mixtures were put into small glass phials. Thirty-one men and twenty-three women were asked to select the colors, the phials being mixed in a random order, and arrange them according to hue and saturation. The results showed that men were decidedly more sensitive in the recognition of red, yellow and green, while women 1 Figures in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the close of the paper. 207 208 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES were more sensitive to blue. Thompson (10) mounted 2mm. squares of red, blue, green and yellow on black and white cards (45 inches) and determined the distances at which these colors could be recognized by twenty-five men and twenty-five women. She found that women are in general superior to men in the recognition of colors. In two cases, blue and yellow on the white background, men were superior; in two others, green on white and yellow on black, the results were approxi- mately the same; in the other four combinations women were superior. The superiority of women is most marked in red and in green, while men are superior in yellow. Nelson (7), using a Glan spectropho- tometer and a Welsbach burner placed .43 meters from the instrument, determined the thresholds for the recognition of the colors, red (657.5 «Mu approx.), yellow (580m), green (525 @H), blue (470mm) and violet (445 ##) on twenty men and twenty women. Miss Nelson finds “that women are in general less keen in the recognition of colors” than men. Summarizing the results of her investigation she states that, taking into account all three methods of calculating the thresholds, the general conclusion would be that men are clearly superior in the recognition of blue; and women are possibly superior in the recognition of yellow. Miss Thompson’s and Miss Nelson’s results are thus widely divergent. Tests on the discrimination of differences in color, the threshold of difference, show greater agreement. Women are in general superior to men in the discriminative sensibility. Nichols (8) found that in arran- ging colors according to saturation women were on the average superior to men in all colors. Lombroso (5) found that women were three times as discriminative as men in arranging the Holmgren wools, a fact which he attributes to their work with embroidery. Luckey (6), from tests of the indirect color range, was led to doubt the prevailing opinion that ‘women discriminate colors better than men. He found no significant difference in color range or in discriminativeness. Thompson (10), in rough tests on accuracy of arrangement of the Holmgren wools according to shade and tint, found women to be very much better in color dis- crimination than men. The tests were not calculated to determine sex differences with any degree of accuracy. Tests of the color sense of children have given no definite results. SEX DIFFERENCES IN COLOR PERCEPTION 209 Gilbert (4) tested New Haven school children between the ages of six and seventeen and found that in arranging ten closely graduated shades of red cloth girls were slightly superior, though the difference was not sufficiently marked to be significant. Garbini (3), from experiments on 600 Italian children, concluded that sex differences were not marked in the development of the color sense. In the fourth year the color sense was more developed in boys and in the fifth year more developed in girls. In the fourth, fifth and sixth years the average color sense was better in boys for all colors except blue and violet. Vztali (12) found the color sense weaker in girls than in boys. Luckey (6) tested 200 chiJdren for color range in indirect vision and for discrimination and discovered practically no sex differences. Of greater interest and importance than the fact of sex differences in color perception is the problem of variability and range. Biologists have found much evidence in support of Darwin’s conclusion that there is a’ “greater general variability in the male sex.” Ellis (2) regards the greater variability of the male as one of the fundamental sex differences and a fact of the greatest significance. Pearson (g) claims to have “laid the axe to the root of the pseudoscientific superstition of the greater variability of the male,” but his argument and evidence are unconvincing. Investigations (11), unfortunately very limited in number, have shown that this variational tendency holds of mental traits as well as of bodily characteristics, except during the period of puberty when girls appear to be more variable than boys. The problem is one of great importance for, if the fact of greater deviation of the male from the average is established, we should expect to find in any trait some men who are better than any woman, as well as some men who are worse than any woman—a matter of considerable theoretical and practical significance. In color perception there is evidence of the greater variability of men, on the one hand, in the much greater frequency of color-blindness | in men than in women, and on the other hand, in the fact that the greatest colorists among painters have been men. There is but little experi- mental evidence. Nichols (8), in the study reported above, notes that while women are on the average superior in arranging all colors according to saturation the two nearest approaches to accuracy were by men. 210 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES EXPERIMENTS ON ADULTS The problem of this investigation was twofold: to measure sex differences and to determine the variability and range in color perception. The study was made primarily to secure evidence on variability. The method employed was as follows: A series of fifty reds was prepared by mixing the best English vermilion and chrome yellow pigments with gum arabic. For the first color a mixture of forty grams of vermilion was made and painted on an eggshell card board, 6X6 inches. For each succeeding step in the series one-fourth of a gram of chrome yellow was added to the mixture and similar cards prepared. The result was a very satisfactory color series, covering purposely a small range, with a view to eliminating in the test, so far as possible, the factor of brightness.* For the purpose of determining the correlation between discrimina - tiveness to light and color a series of fifty grays, ranging from the white of the paper used to a mean gray, was also prepared. From the colors and grays obtained, squares 3X3 inches were mounted on playing cards, cut so that the colors or grays might in the experiment be placed side by side. Thirty-five men and thirty-five women students were asked to make the arrangements. Forty-five minutes were given for the reds and fifteen minutes for the grays. The tests were taken in a room with a north exposure giving a uniform light. The method of calculating the results consisted in determining the average of the errors made in placing each of the colors, an error of one place counting one, two places two, etc. The average error of displace- ment, the mean variation, coefficient of variation and the median of displacement are indicated in the tollowing table. TABLE I Number of Average “MLV. Coeff. of Varia- . ases Displacement tion {Median Miso set eh ass 35 6.0 a5 35% 5-4 Women. asics. 35 Beg 035 28% Rist t It had been my plan to make similar series of blues, greens and yellows, but the difficulty of preparing satisfactory series with mineral pigments led to its abandonment after numerous fruitless trials. SEX DIFFERENCES IN COLOR PERCEPTION 211 The results show that in the discrimination of reds the women are superior to the men. The average number of displacements for men of 6.0 and for women of 5.3, with probable errors of 0.30 and 0.21, respectively, indicate a significant superiority in women. The median value shows a less marked difference, due to the fact of several widely 4 nee Women A —__. Men Fic. 1.—DIsTRIBUTION OF ERRoRS IN Cotor TEsTs showing greater range and variability in men. divergent records in the men. In variability the men are markedly more variable than women as is indicated by the mean variation of 2.1 in men and 1.5 in women and the coefficient of variability of 35 per cent and 28 per cent. The probable errors of the mean variations are 0.21 for men and 0.15 for women. In range the records of men run from 1.4 to 11.1 and for women from 2.1 to 10.2. Fig. 1 gives the distribution of errors in the test, the abscissae repre- 212 SEX DIFFERENCES IN COLOR PERCEPTION senting the average error of displacement and the ordinates the number of cases. In the discrimination of the grays the results are as indicated in the following table: TABLE II Number of Average Coeff. of 2 Cases Displacement M.V. Variation Median Wei uate ce ban 28 2.5 0.48 23% 1.9 Womens... 35 TES 0.44 28% 1.6 Women are here, as in the colors, decidedly superior to the men, the average displacements being 2.1 and 1.5. In the variability the difference is insignificant, the coefficients of variation showing a some- what greater variability in women. In range, men run from an average error of displacement of 1.2 to 3.9, and women from 0.4 to 2.7. The experiments on discriminative sensibility to the grays were primarily made to determine the correlation between ability in dis- criminating colors and grays. The number of cases is too small, how- ever, to determine the amount of correlation with a high degree of validity but the Pearson coefficient of correlation! is given for what it is worth. . Men -+0.67 Women +0.30 There is evidently a high correlation between discriminative sensi- bility in the colors and the grays. This may point to a genuine relation- ship between the two abilities or it may be, and doubtless is partly, a correlation in conscientiousness in making the experiments. In all group tests this is no doubt a factor in determining the amount of corre- lation and one which cannot well be measured or allowed for. It is of course possible that there is a close relationship between discriminative sensibility in different sense departments but it could be satisfactorily measured only on the assumption that equal interest and effort were displayed in the tests from which the correlation is determined. t Calculated by the formula \ Be , Sxy being the sum of the products of the deviations and 76'6? the n 1f2 product of the number of cases and the standard deviations of the two abilities. A correlation+1.0oo would mean perfect positive correlation, 0.00, the absence of correlation and —1.0o perfect inverse correlation. SEX DIFFERENCES IN COLOR PERCEPTION 213 EXPERIMENTS ON SCHOOL CHILDREN? Experiments were also made on too school children, 50 boys and 50 girls, ranging in age from 11 years to 15 years. ‘The age distribution was as follows: 7 eleven-year-olds, 29 twelve-year-olds, 32 thirteen- year-olds, 28 fourteen-year-olds and 4 fifteen-year-olds. For the tests fifteen colors from the set used in the above experiments were selected, every third being taken till the fifteen were secured. The results were as follows: TABLE III Number of A Coeff. of : Caees D Displacement M.V. Variation Median 1a) Sk ae ae ea 50 1.88 0.73 390% 1.80 Girls 50 1.87 0.78 42% 1.87 There is practically no difference in the sexes in the perception of differences in the reds. The girls show a slightly greater variability Fic. 2.—DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS IN CoOLoR TESTS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN. x I am indebted to Miss Mary M. Hughes of the University Hill School for securing these results. 214 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES though the differences are not significant. This accords with results obtained in other tests which show a greater variability in girls at the two years nearest the age of puberty for girls. In range the average errors for boys run from o to 4.9 and in girls from o to 5. 4. Fig. 2 gives the distribution of the errors, the abscissae representing the average error of displacement and the ordinates the number of cases. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions which seem warranted by this study are: 1. That women are decidedly superior to men in discriminative sensibility to reds and grays. 2. That men show a decidedly greater variability in discriminating reds. 3. That in school children between the ages of eleven and fifteen years there is no significant difference in perception of differences in red and that the variability and range is slightly greater in girls. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. CHAMBERLAIN, A., The Child, chap. x, New York, 1900. 2. ELLis, HAVELOCK, Man and Woman, New York, 1904. 3. GARBINI ADRIANO, “‘Evoluzione del senso cromatica nei bambini,’” Arch. per V Anthrop., Vol. XXIV, pp. 71-98, 1894. 4. GrvBert, J. A., ‘‘Mental and Physical Development of School Children,’”’ Studies from the Yale Psychol. Laboratory, Vol. II, pp. 42-43, 1894. 5. LomsBroso, CESARE, La donna delinquente, la prostituta e la donna normale, Rome, 1893. 6. Luckey, G. W. A., ‘“‘Comparative Observations on the Indirect Color Range of Children, Adults and Adults Trained in Color,’’ Amer. Journ. of Psychology, Vol. VI, pp. 489-504, January, 1895. 7. NELSON, MaBEL L., ‘‘The Difference between Men and Women in the Recognition of Color and the Perception of Sound,” Psychol. Rev., Vol. XII, p. 271, 1905. 8.. NicHots, Epwarp L., ‘‘On the Sensitiveness of the Eye to Colors of a Low Degree of Saturation,”’ Amer. Journ. of Science, Series 3, Vol. XXX, p. 37, 1885. g. PEARSON, Kari, The Chances of Death, Vol. I, London, 1897. 10. THompson, HELEN B., Psychological Norms in Men and Women, Chicago, 1903. 11. THORNDIKE, E. L., Educational Psychology, chap. xi, New York, 1904. 12. VITALI, VITALE, “Studi antropologica in servizio della pedagogica,” Vols. I and II, Le Romagnole, Torino, 1896, 1898. AN INTRODUCTION ‘TO’ THE STUDY OF (THE ANTS OF NORTHERN COLORADO By WILFRED W. ROBBINS The present paper is offered as a beginning in the study of Colorado ants. Myrmecologists have collected and studied in the state, but the results of their work are scattered. No systematic work has been done upon the composition of our ant fauna, upon problems of distribution, habits, etc. Professor William M. Wheeler is intending to publish soon a list of the ants of Colorado, including all the material which he has collected or received from different parts of the state. Such a list is much needed and coming from the pen of Professor Wheeler will be highly valuable and indispensable. The following enumeration of species occurring in northern Colorado is necessarily incomplete, but it presents something upon which to build. It is hoped that the artificial key will facilitate the labor of identification of genera and enable those who are beginning the study to find their way more easily. Keys for the separation of species are not available." ARTIFICIAL KEY TO GENERA OF ANTS KNOWN TO OccuUR IN NORTHERN COLORADO (for the identification of workers) I. Pedicel of abdomen one-jointed (fig. r). A. Abdomen proper constricted between segments 1 and 2 (fig. 2a). : Ponera B. Abdomen proper not constricted between segments 1 and 2. 1. Antennae g-jointed; small red ants. Brachymyrmex 2. Antennae 12-jointed. a. Large, slowly moving ants, usually black; frontal carinae sinuous, in form OfiS: Camponotus b. Not as above. ; a) Ocelli absent or indistinct. a) Basal prolongation of abdomen covering the pedicel (fig. 2e); small black ants. Tapinoma b) Basal prolongation of abdomen not covering the pedicel (fig. 1). aa) Anal aperture circular (fig. 3g); clypeus trapeziform; legs short. Lasius bb) Anal aperture in form of transverse slit (fig. 3%); clypeus tri- angular; legs long. Iridomyrmex tIn his recently published book, Ants, Professor William M. Wheeler gives a key to the subfami- lies, genera and subgenera of the North American Formicidae for the identification of workers. 2 Wheeler has described a new inquiline genus Sympheidole based upon specimens from Boulder and Colorado Springs. The description is based upon males and females, the workers being apparently non-existent. The key in hand being based upon workers, the above genus is not included. 215 Prothorax dis N Mesothorax is Pp edicel Metathorax < Antenna , Fic. 2.—DETAILS OF STRUCTURE IN VARIOUS SPECIES. a. Abdomen of worker of Ponera showing constriction between first and second segments; b. Toothed spur on posterior tibia of Myrmica; c. Simple spur on posterior tibia of Stenamma; d. Showing attachment of pedicel to dorsal surface of abdomen in Cremastogaster lineolata Say; e. Abdomen and pedicel of Tapinoma sessile Say; }. Side view of Pogonomyrmex occidentalis Cresson; note beard on the head; g. Circular anal aperture of Lasius; h. Slit-like anal aperture of Iridomyrmex. THE ANTS OF NORTHERN COLORADO 217 b) Ocelli distinct. a) Metathorax with obtuse spine. Dorymyrmex b) Metathorax without spine. aa) Node of pedicel flat; frontal carinae diverging posteriorly fig. 3a). Formica bb) Node of pedicel rounded; frontal carinae nearly parallel. Myrmecocystus Ocelli Pectinated spur Tarsus Fic. 3.—DETAILS OF STRUCTURE IN VARIOUS SPECIES. a. Front view of head of Formica ruja L., subsp. rubiginosa Emery; b. Pheidole sp., soldier; note disproportionately large head as compared with the rest of the body; c. Pos- terior leg of Myrmica scabrenodis Ny]. II. Pedicel of abdomen 2-jointed (fig. 2/). A. Pedicel attached to dorsal surface of abdomen (fig. 2d). Cremastogaster B. Pedicel attached to middle or to ventral surface of abdomen (fig. 1). 1. Antennae 1o-jointed; very small ants. Solenopsis 2. Antennae r1- or 12-jointed. a. Beard present on head (fig. 2/). Pogonomyrmex b. Beard not present on head. a) Some individuals of colony with head disproportionately large as com- pared with body (fig. 36). Pheidole 218 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES b) Not as above. a) Tibiae of posterior legs with simple spur (fig. 2c); spines of meta- thorax short; clypeus flat. aa) Maxillary palpi 4-jointed; flagellum without distinct club gradually thickened from base to apex. Aphaenogaster bb) Maxillary palpi 5-jointed; flagellum with a distinctly 3-jointed club. Leptothorax: b) Tibiae of posterior legs with pectinated (toothed) spur (fig. 2b); spines of metathorax long; clypeus convex. Myrmica PRELIMINARY List OF SPECIES OF ANTS IN NORTHERN COLORADO? SUBFAMILY: MYRMICINAE A phaenogaster julva Roger (Boulder). Cremastogaster lineolata Say (Boulder). Leptothorax acervorum Mayr., var. yankee Emery (Boulder). Leptothorax curvispinosus Mayr., subsp. annectens Wheeler (Boulder). Lepiothorax muscorum Nyl., var. sordidus Wheeler (Boulder). Myrmica brevinodis Emery, var. (Boulder, Meeker). Myrmica scabrinodis Nyl., var. (Tolland, Boulder). Myrmica rubra sulcinodoides Emery (Boulder, Ward). Myrmica rubra L., subsp. brevinodis Emery (Boulder, Meeker). Myrmica rubra L., subsp. scabrinodis Nyl., var. (Tolland, Boulder). Myrmica rubra L., var. sulcinodoides Emery (Boulder, Ward). Myrmica mutica Emery.3 Pheidole pilifera Roger, subsp. coloradensis Emery (Boulder). Pheidole ceres Wheeler (Boulder). Pheidole vinelandica Forel (Boulder). Pogonomyrmex occidentalis Cresson (Meeker, Boulder, Rifle Gap, New Castle). Solenopsis molesta Say (Boulder). Sympheidole elecebra Wheeler (Boulder). SUBFAMILY: DOLICHODERINAE Dorymyrmex pyramicus Roger (New Castle). Dorymyrmex pyramicus Roger, var. niger Pergande (Boulder). Iridomyrmex analis André (Boulder). Tapinoma sessile Say (Tolland, Boulder). SUBFAMILY: CAMPONOTINAE Brachymyrmex heeri Forel, subsp. depilis Emery (Boulder). Camponotus levigatus F. Smith (Meeker). Camponotus herculeanus L., var. whymperi Forel (Tolland). Camponotus maculatus F abr., subsp. vicinus Mayr., var. nitidiventris Emery (Boulder). — Formica crinita Wheeler (Boulder). Formica fusca L., var. argeniata Wheeler (Jenny Lake, Tolland). Formica munda Wheeler (Boulder). 1 This species may be confounded with the workers of Pheidole, or vice versa, their habits are different, however. Leptothorax spp. form much smaller colonies often not more than 25 or 50 individuals; also their motion is much more rapid than that of Pheidole spp. The thorax of Pheidole is strongly constricted between the meso- and metathorax; in Leptothorax it is but slightly or not at all constricted. 2In nearly every case the species listed have been determined by Professor William M. Wheeler, the American authority on Formicidae. 3 This species has not been found in northern Colorado but according to Professor Wheeler should occur here, since it is so abundant in other localities of Colorado, Idaho and even in British Columbia. THE ANTS OF NORTHERN COLORADO 219 Formica ruja L., subsp. rubiginosa Emery (Pine Cliff, Boulder). Formica ruja L., subsp. obscuripes Forel (Tolland, Boulder). Formica rufa L., subsp. integra Nyl., var. coloradensis Wheeler (Tolland). Formica ruja L., subsp. obscuripes Forel var. melanotica Emery (Boulder). Formica subpolita Mayr., var. (New Castle, Boulder, Tolland). Formica pergandei Emery (Boulder). Formica sanguinea Latr., subsp. subnuda Emery (Tolland). Formica sanguinea Latr., subsp. rubicunda Emery (Tolland). Formica fusca L., var. between var. subsericea Say and var. argeniata Wheeler (Pine Cliff, Tolland). Formica ciliata Mayr. (Boulder). Formica microgyna Wheeler (Boulder). Formica pallidejulva Latr., subsp. schaujussi Mayr. (Boulder). Formica pallidefulva Latr., subsp. nitidiventris Emery (Boulder). Formica fusca L., var. neorufibarbis Emery (Long’s Peak, 12,500 ft.). Formica fusca, var. neoclara Emery (Boulder). Formica oreas Wheeler (Boulder). Lasius (Acanthomyops) interjectus Mayr., small var. ? (Boulder). Lasius niger L., var. americanus Emery (Boulder). Lasius umbratus Nyl., subsp. speculiventris Emery (Boulder). Lasius niger L., var. neoniger Emery (Boulder). M yrmecocystus melliger Forel, subsp. mendax Wheeler (Denver). SUBFAMILY: PONERINAE Ponera opaciceps Mayr. (Boulder). NOTES ON DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS Cremastogaster lineolata Say. ‘This species is the only one of the genus Cremas- togaster which ranges over the whole United States. It extends up to an altitude of 7,000 feet in Colorado. The other species are confined to the southern and southwestern states. The workers are often seen attending masses of coccids or aphids on plants, feeding on the “‘honey dew” which these insects give off. It has the habit of building on the twigs of plants high above ground “tents” over colonies of these coccids or aphids; hence they are called the ‘‘tent-building ants.” These tents are enclosures made of agglutinated earth or vegetable matter and often show wonderful workmanship. The workers have a disagreeable odor. Dorymyrmex pyramicus Roger. This species occurs at altitudes below 6,000 feet. It lives almost always in barren soil. Dorymyrmex pyramicus Roger, var. niger Pergande. This small black ant makes diminutive circular hills in barren soil, $ inch high and about 2 inches in diameter. It is common at lower altitudes in Colorado. Formica crinata Wheeler. The nests are from 4-1 foot high and are often con- structed of conifer needles. Formica fusca L., var. between subsericea Say var. and argentata Wheeler var. This is a very rapidly moving ant. It is easily disturbed and excited, even by scraping the feet near the nest. Formica rufa L., subsp. obscuripes Forel. I have seen this subspecies attending aphids on the leaves of aspen. Formica fusca L., var. argentata Wheeler, occurs at considerable elevations, prob- ably above 7,500 feet in northern Colorado. 220 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Formica sanguinea Latr., subsp. rubicunda. A number of individuals found at Tolland in a damp cellar had chewed the wood of shelves into a fine sawdust for their nest. They are usually found with slaves. The enslaved individuals belong to other species of Formica. Formica munda Wheeler. This species is abundant at altitudes below 7,000 feet. The nests are usually in grassy places. Lasius niger L., var. americanus Emery. Ants of this variety occur from low to high altitudes in Colorado. They often build tents low to the ground around the stems of plants and like Cremastogaster lineolata, keep captive there a number of aphids or coccids, chiefly mealy-bugs. In overturning a stone, under which there is a colony of these ants, the workers are seen to seize the mealy-bugs and take them away out of sight. In many of the middle-western states, these ants do considerable damage in corn fields, by their habit of cultivating the root-aphids of the corn. Leptothorax spp. ‘This is a very widespread group of small ants. They form very small colonies, often not more than 25 to 50 individuals. ‘The nests are small and may be in the ground, between stones or within the tissues of plants. Abandoned galls are often utilized for their nests. Myrmecocystus melliger mendax Wheeler. Members of this genus are confined almost entirely to the warmer and arid countries. They are abundant in Colorado as far north as Colorado Springs. As far as known, only one colony has been seen in northern Colorado and that by Wheeler in Denver. This is the farthest point north to which any of the Myrmecocysti have been traced. The Myrmecocysti or Honey Ants are interesting from the fact that certain workers, ‘‘repletes,”’ store large quantities of honey within their abdomen. ‘The size of the abdomen becomes prodigious and the individual is barely able to walk. Myrmica rubra brevinodis Emery. In the neighborhood of Boulder, Professor T. D. A. Cockerell has noticed that masses of these ants are attracted to the sunflower plant and are killed by the sap which exudes from broken branches. It illustrates a case of maladjustment in the relations of ants to plants. Pheidole ceres Wheeler. In colonies of this genus may be found four different forms: large-headed soldiers, much smaller and very numerous workers, winged males and winged females. Pheidole ceres is a harvesting ant which lives upon seeds stored up in the nest. ‘The nests are found in sunny places under stones. This species is rather common at altitudes from 5,000 feet to 9,000 feet. Sympheidole elecebra Wheeler. These ants are inquiline, that is, they live with other ants. They have been reported by Wheeler as occurring in the nests of Pheidole ceres, which they much resemble. Unlike Pheidole, the workers are non-existent. Pogonomyrmex occidentalis Cresson is very abundant at elevations between 6,000 feet and 7,000 feet. It is called the ‘‘Agricultural” or ‘‘Mound-building Prairie Ant.”? It is distributed over the western plains of the United States, living in large colonies in gravel-covered mounds. The ants remove all the vegetation away from about the nest, so that the mound stands in a cleared, circular space. These mounds, located in the center of cleared, circular areas, are conspicuous objects in many parts of the great plains. Solenopsis molesta Say. This small, yellow species has a wide geographic range. It often forms compound nests with larger ants. Living in the nests of other species, the THE ANTS OF NORTHERN COLORADO 221 individuals prey on larvae and pupae and eat the food of their hosts. They often live with species of Myrmica, Formica, Lasius and Stenamma. In the eastern states Solenopsis molesta has become a house-pest. Tapinoma sessile Say. This small, black ant has a wide altitudinal range, being found from 5,000 feet to 10,500 feet. ‘The workers have a peculiar rancid-butter odor. ParTIAL List OF PAPERS MENTIONING COLORADO ANTS Cresson, E. T., “Catalogue of Hymenoptera in the Collection of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia from Colorado Territory,” Proc. Ent. Soc. Philad., pp. 242- 313, 426-488, 1865. McCook, M. C., ‘‘The Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gods and the Occident Ants of the American Plains,” Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., p. 303, 1882. , “The Rufous or Thatching Ant of Dakota and Colorado,” Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., pp. 57-65, 1884-1885. , “Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gods,”’ Harper’s Monthly, pp. 126-133, June, 1906. WHEELER, WILLIAM Morton, “‘The Occurrence of Formica cinerea Mayr. and Formica rufibarbis Fabricius in America,” Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVI, No. 432, PP. 947-952, 1902. , “A New Agricultural Ant from Texas, with Remarks on the Known North American Species,” Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVI, No. 422, pp. 85-101, 1902. , “A Revision of the North American Ants of the Genus Leptothorax Mayr.,” Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., pp. 215-260, 1903. , ‘Extraordinary Females in Three Species of Formica, with Remarks on Mutation in the Formicidae,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIX, Art. XXVIII, pp. 639- 651, 1903. , “Some New Gynandromorphous Ants, with a Review of the Previously Recorded Cases,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIX, Art. XXIX, pp. 653-683, 1903. , ““A New Type of Social Parasitism among Ants,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX, Art. XXX, pp. 347-375, 1904. , “A Crustacean-eating Ant (Leptogenys elongata Buckley),”’ Biol. Bull., Vol. VI, No. 6, pp. 251-259, 1904. ‘ , “Three New Genera of Inquiline Ants from Utah and Colorado,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX, Art. I, pp. 1-17, 1904. , “New Species of Formica,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXI, Art. XV, pp. 267-274, 1905. , “The North American Ants of the Genus Liometopum,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXI, Art. XX, pp. 321-333, 1905. , “The Habits of the Tent-making Ant (Cremastogaster lineolata Say),” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, Art. I, pp. 1-18, 1906. , “The Ants.of the Grand Canon,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, Art. XIX, pp. 329-345, 1906. , “On the Founding of Colonies by Queen Ants, with Special Reference to the Parasitic and Slave-making Species,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, Art. IV, pp. 33-105, 1906. 222 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES WHEELER, WILLIAM Morton, “An Ethnological Study of Certain Maladjustments in the Relations of Ants to Plants,”’ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, Art. XXIV, pp. 403-418, 1906. , “Notes on a New Guest-Ant, Leptothorax glacialis, and the Varieties of Myrmica brevinodis Emery,” Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. V, No. 2, pp. 70-83, 1907. , ‘The Polymorphism of Ants, with an Account of Some Singular Abnormalities Due to Parasitism,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIII, Art. I, pp. 1-93, 1907. , “The Ants of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIV, Art. XXI, pp. 399-485, 1908. , ‘Honey Ants, with a Revision of the American Myrmecocysti,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol XXIV, Art. XX, pp. 345-397, 1908. REMARKS ON SOME NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT: COMMUNITIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BOULDER PARK (TOLLAND, COLORADO): By FRANCIS RAMALEY Classification of Plant Communities.—The term community is applied to an assemblage of plants occupying some definite area. If the area thus covered be of wide extent the community is known as a forma- tion. Communities of smaller area, or perhaps characterized by certain dominant species, are called associations. Thus in the foothill region of northern Colorado there is a coniferous forest formation made up of rock pines and Douglas spruces: the former in drier places, the latter occupy- ing shaded areas where there is more moisture. Here then the conif- erous forest formation of the foothills embraces a rock pine association and a Douglas spruce association. In like manner a thicket formation may embrace an alder association, a willow association, etc. In the grassland formation of our plains area there may be distinguished a grama grass association, buffalo grass association and others. Within the limits of an association subsidiary groups of vegetation are known as societies. Assemblages of mountain daisies (Erigeron) form Erigeron societies in the Bouteloua association of the plains grassland formation. Formations may well be given names which indicate at once the general character of the vegetation, as: streamside deciduous forest formation, plains grassland formation, alpine fell-field formation, etc. On the other hand, it is customary to name associations and societies for one or more species which are dominant and give character to the community: limber pine association, Trifolium society, Elymus con- densatus society. Somewhat at variance with the systematic classification here outlined is the general American usage according to which almost any assemblage t Adapted with certain changes from notes of a course of four lectures given at the University of Colo- rado Mountain Laboratory at Tolland, Colo., in July, 1909. 223 224 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES of plants is denoted a “formation.” In this case “general formation” may be used to indicate the larger aggregations and “formation” be applied to the associations defined in the previous paragraphs. In any region it is possible to make the associations many or few, since classification depends largely upon individual judgment. No two botanists are likely to agree in the method of naming or in the number or limits of associations or other communities. On account of the altitude of Boulder Park? (about 9,000 ft.) with its consequent low summer temperature (the July mean about 56 degrees F.) the plant species are largely different from those of the plains area at Denver or Boulder. Hence the plant communities are also different. The student who wishes to make a comparison with other localities in the state may consult some of the papers noted in the reading list. Life Zones.—Within a distance of ten miles of Boulder Park four life zones, as listed below, are represented. ‘The names here employed are such as are readily understood and are the ones used in Europe. Zodlogists in America have another set of terms, originally proposed by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, and these are given below in parentheses. 1. Foothill zone (apparently the upper “Transition” of Merriam). At Rollinsville and farther down the valley this zone is locally represented on south exposures of hillsides even where the general vegetation is that of the montane zone. 2. Montane zone (apparently the ‘‘Canadian”’). Boulder Park and the adjacent hills all belong to this zone. It is to be noted, however, that local areas in shaded gulches have a sub-alpine flora. 3. Sub-alpine zone (‘“Hudsonian” and part of “‘Arctic-Alpine’’). The district around Jenny Lake and, in general, wherever Engelmann spruce forests form the prevailing vegetation may be classed as sub-alpine. 4. Alpine zone (part of the ‘“‘Arctic-Alpine’’). Rollins Pass (Corona, Colo.) and all other points above timberline are in this zone. Forest, Scrub and Grassland.—For our purposes we may consider any assemblage of trees, or of shrubs taller than a man’s head, as forming a forest. "The forest may be close or open, may be of wide extent or may consist merely of a fringe of trees along a stream. A scrub consists of t The term fark is used in the western United States to designate a broad mountain valley, tree'ess or nearly so, which is surrounded by wooded hil:s. Such valleys are often the result of the action of glaciers in modifying the form of an original V-shaped gulch. Sometimes they are due to stream erosion cutting back and forth in an area softer than that up stream or down stream. Often the parks are old lake beds. Asa rule there are two or more streams uniting somewhere in a park and all the water flows out of the park throug a single narrow canyon. NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES 225 shrubs, while grassland is made up of herbaceous plants among which there need be no true grasses at all. Coniferous forests of pines are drought-resisting or xerophytic, while alders, willows and aspens which require a moderate amount of water may be described as mesophytic. Engelmann spruces live in rather moist soil but it is cold and often “sour,” hence the habitat is physiologically dry because these conditions retard absorption of water by roots. Spruce forests may on this account be called xerophytic, although various authors—the present writer in- cluded—have at times spoken of spruce forests as mesophytic. List of Plant Communities.—The following list will serve for reference in the later discussion. It is not intended as complete but to be suggestive. BOULDER PARK AND VICINITY Lodgepole Pine Forest—Pinus murrayana “‘Oreg. Com.” Limber Pine Forest—Pinus flexilis James. Engelmann Spruce Forest—Picea engelmanni (Parry) Engelm. Aspen Forest—Populus tremuloides Michx. Willow and Alder Thicket—Salix chlorophylla Anders., Salix brachycarpa Nutt., Alnus tenuifolia Nutt. . 6. Rock Pine Forest —Pinus scopulorum (Engelm.) Lemmon. 7. Willow, Birch and Honeysuckle Scrub —Salix spp., Betula glandulosa Michx., Lonicera involucrata Banks. 8. Potentilla Scrub —Potentilla fruticosa Linn. (Dasiphora fruticosa Rydb.). 9. Sage-Brush Scrub —Artemisia tridentata Nutt. (perhaps Artemisia arbuscula Nutt.). 10. Swamp or Moor —Carex spp. 11. Meadow (moderately moist grassland). 12. Dry Grassland. 13. Gravel Slide. 14. Sand Bank and Sand Bar. 15. Aquatic Vegetation. 16. Vegetation of Roadsides and Waste Places (ruderal vegetation). 17. Forest Undergrowths. brit eed Na At Rotuitns Pass (Corona, Coto.) Pond Vegetation —Potamogeton, various algae, etc. Scrub —Salix spp. Swamp or Moor —Carex spp., Caltha, Trollius, Elephantella. Meadow —Rydbergia, Campanula, Trifolium, Mertensia, Sieversia, Poa spp. Rock Desert Vegetation (‘‘Dry Tundra”) —Eritrichium, Silene, Tetraneuris, Sela- ginella, Antennaria, Artemisia. mn BW bD 226 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES COMMUNITIES AT BOULDER PARK Forest.—Lodgepole pine forest is the association of the hills around Boulder Park. This forest is invaded sparingly on steep slopes by Engelmann spruce and sub-alpine fir. It is replaced in moist seepage areas and in recently burned-over places by aspens. Where best developed the individual lodgepole pine trees stand close together and there is very little growth on the forest floor. On dry exposed ridges, such as the top of the “ Giant’s Ladder” (the — hill to the north of the park), an invasion of the lodgepole forest by limber pines takes place, and isolated groups of limber pine trees occur in various dry and windswept stations. Along the railway track east of Tolland there is such a group of trees, also some on Baltimore Ridge to the south and some at the western edge of the park. Limber pine never covers large areas as a pure forest. Pure Engelmann spruce forest belongs properly to the sub-alpine zone but is found in South Boulder Canyon, north exposure, to the west of the park. It is the usual forest at higher altitudes up to timberline. Engelmann spruces invade old moors or swamps along streams in the sub-alpine zone. They live in cold, wet soil. Aspen forests in this region are seldom of wide extent except where they occupy areas recently denuded of coniferous trees. The aspen association or society represents a stage in reforestation by conifers. In moist areas around springs or where there is considerable seepage, aspens may maintain themselves for long periods. They tend to form rather permanent groves in the basins of old morainal lakes at high elevations. Willow and alder thickets are confined to stream banks and wet areas around springs. The face of the mountain (Giant’s Ladder) which bounds Boulder Park on the north has very dense willow-alder thickets alternating with groves of aspen. There is no rock pine forest in the immediate vicinity of Tolland although a few isolated trees are to be found to the east of the alder and willow thickets mentioned in the previous paragraph. A single large tree stands on a south-facing slope at the west end of the park. Typical rock pine forest is to be seen near Rollinsville on hillsides having f | ; NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES 227 a south exposure. At Pine Cliff, still farther down the valley, the rock pine is the general association. Scrub.—A_ willow-birch-honeysuckle scrub is present everywhere along streams, lagoons and ponds, usually taking a position slightly back from the water, the intervening space being occupied by a strip of sedge moor. Ponds, as they become filled in through silting and the growth of vegetation, are first occupied by sedges and then by these shrubs which in turn give way to coniferous trees (Engelmann spruces) as the soil moisture becomes diminished. Occasionally aspens become established before the conifers make their appearance but this can only occur where drainage is good and the soil not “sour.” Potentilla scrub is generally quite open, that is the bushes are far apart. Grasses, sedges and flowering herbs occupy the interspaces. As a tule this association occurs in situations slightly drier than where willows are found. In the flatter parts of the park it is followed in time by grassland; on steep hillsides it may give way to aspens or to conifers. This community is always to be thought of as proximate and never ultimate. It is continually being replaced’ in any one locality by other associations adapted to a more stable habitat. On the other hand, such a community as the lodgepole pine association is an ultimate com- munity. It does not become replaced by anything else, for it depends on climatic conditions, which do not change.? There are some scattered Potentilla bushes in certain dry grassland areas of the park. In such situations their presence is to be accounted for on historical grounds. They were present at an earlier period when these particular spots of ground had more moisture and they have not yet been driven out by competition with grasses and other herbs, nor have they died out for lack of water. Across the park from Tolland on the south-facing hill there is a ridge covered with sage brush (Artemisia tridentata or possibly Artemisia arbuscula). Although Boulder Park seems very high for such a plant t The replacement of one association by another is known technically as succession and furnishes an interesting subject for investigation. ; 2 Naturally when it is stated that any particular type of environment does not change it is meant that change will not occur without profound alterations in climate, and these. as is well known, do not take place except at great intervals, and very slowly 228 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES which one would expect to find only on the arid plains, yet such sage brush is found at even higher levels along the line of the Denver, Boulder and Western Railroad near the Bluebird Mine in Boulder County a few miles to the north of Tolland. This particular ridge at Tolland where the sage brush grows is sheltered so that it easily becomes well warmed and also it is quickly drained so that conditions are not very different from what would be found on the “sage flats” along the Arkansas River or elsewhere in the plains region. Grassland.—Bordering the streams and ponds of Boulder Park there is usually a swampy zone formed by a growth of sedges, marsh grasses and other bog or moor plants. This area is somewhat widened out in some parts of the park especially around Park Lake and in other low-lying situations. Scattered through this bog land there are often clumps of willows which, in places, occupy so ‘much of the ground that a true thicket is produced. In like manner an invasion of Potentilla may result in the formation of a Potentilla scrub. Along the steep hillside at the north of the park there is some of this moorland? which at certain points is giving place to willows and alders, or to aspens; in other places it is passing into meadow or else to dry grassland. What I have called meadow is a dense growth of grasses with some sedges and generally a great abundance of flowering herbs. It is some- what drier than the moor or Carex association but more moist than the dry grassland. It is nearly always present as a distinct horizontal belt or zone all along the bases of the small morainic hills east of Tolland. It forms a like characteristic belt following old shore lines and benches west of town. The meadows of Boulder Park might well be divided into a number of societies, many species of plants being established in particular parts of the meadow best suited to their growth. In the better-drained portions of the park there is a dry grassland which forms a sparse earth-covering because the looseness of the soil permits rapid drying out. Close grass mat such as seen in the meadow does not exist here but certain sod-forming species of Carex produce a rather thin carpet. The soil of the dry grassland is shown by study of samples to have a low moisture content. t The word ‘‘moor,”’ a’though practically unknown in America, is a useful term to apply here in place of ‘‘bog’’ or ‘“‘swamps”’ which, to Europeans at least, have other and rather different meanings. NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES 229 Gravel slide plants are found wherever there is much weathered and disintegrated rock. In the course of time a talus slope may produce enough vegetation to allow an accumulation of soil. Limber pines and lodgepole pines will then find their way into the formation and even- tually it becomes converted into a part of the general coniferous forest formation. . The plants of sand banks and sand bars along streams are few and far between because of the looseness of the soil and the rapidity with which it dries out. A study of the species which first occupy such situations and the changes of vegetation in any such piece of ground would make an interesting little piece of work. Aquatic vegetation represented in the ponds and streams of Boulder Park is somewhat varied. It might be classified into formations and associations. ‘The most conspicuous seed plants are species of bur reed (Sparganiwm). Algae are numerous. The student should consult Schimper’s Plant Geography and Warming’s Ecology of Plants for detailed accounts of the formations of aquatic plants. THE ALPINE FORMATIONS AT ROLLINS Pass (CORONA, COLORADO) Although 20 miles by rail from Tolland the top of the pass is only about 8 miles in a straight line. The elevation is 11,660 feet, the top of the ridge above the railway station about 12,000 feet. A true alpine climate is encountered here as is shown by the United States weather records. The July temperature is about 47 degrees Fahrenheit, or 22 degrees lower than the July mean for Denver. The climate can, of course, be judged very well by the plant population. It appears that a few species found on the high peaks adjacent are here absent but the plant formations and associations are the same as occur on the highest mountains in the vicinity. Little need be said of the pond vegetation of the alpine districts, indeed very little is known about it. There are some algae and a very few seed plants found in the cold waters of the lakes above timberline. Considerable areas of dense alpine scrub formed of willows 2 to 4 feet tall occur on the high ground above Corona Lake and in places through- out the alpine zone. A scrub formation of wind-blown Engelmann 230 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES spruces seen here and there in the vicinity of Corona station is best considered a sub-alpine association which has come up the hill from its natural home. Areas of bog or moor are scattered here and there throughout the alpine zone. Everywhere there is slight depth of soil. Low places become wet from the run-off.of adjacent elevations. In walking a distance of 100 feet across the alpine “tundra”? one may pass through ten or more bog areas alternating with as many bits of meadow or of dry “rock desert.’ These moors are characterized by species of Carex, by Caltha leptosepala, Trollius albiflorus and Elephantella among other species. Alpine meadows are characterized by a somewhat close vegetation of profusely-flowering low herbs such as clovers, together with some con- spicuous taller plants as Rydbergia, Campanula and Mertensia. Sieversia turbinata often forms considerable carpets. Like the meadow at Boulder Park this particular formation, or association, changes its appearance much from time to time depending on the flowering of the more conspicuous species. Much of the vegetation in alpine regions is of the alpine mat type found in what may be called rock desert areas (dry tundra.) The sub- stratum is dry because of rapid run-off and slight depth of soil. The characteristic plants have the well-known “alpine” habit with low, matted, much-branched stems and an abundance of flowers. Some of the conspicuous plants are Silene acaulis, Eritrichium argenteum, T etraneuris, Selaginella and Arenaria. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF CONDITIONS AT BOULDER PARK Subsidiary Species.—The study of the principal and secondary species of different associations I leave to the individual student who has here the opportunity to practice the methods used by professional botanists in carrying on ecological research. It will be necessary at present merely to call attention to a few of the more obvious plant relations and thus point the way for individual work by those who wish to pursue the subject. Since spring snows in Boulder Park are very deep and lie late in the NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES 231 year among the trees, it makes the growing season for plants very short except in the treeless portions of the park. In dense forests of lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce snow lasts until April or May at Tolland, while at higher altitudes, as at Jenny Lake, there may be snow fields many acres in extent as late as the middle of June. The visitor who sees the forest in midsummer may well wonder at the absence of undergrowth if he be not informed as to conditions in the spring months; surely dense shade alone would not account for the paucity of vegetation. In more open forest areas where the sun is able to melt the snow earlier a much richer flora of the forest floor is to be found. Here, in addition to blueberries, which form the main undergrowth in the denser forest, there are roses, junipers, various grasses and different flowering herbs. The principal and secondary species of the various formations are quite different, as would be expected. Engelmann spruce forests offer soil-moisture conditions intermediate between those of the usual dry coniferous forest and the moister associations of aspen, willow and alder. Hence plants characteristic of these latter formations occasionally find their way as invaders among the spruces but only very few species are able to pass from willow thicket to dry pine forest or vice versa. Most interesting in its composition is the sage-brush scrub, where one may find, as it were, a piece of the foothills or plains transported to this montane situation. The plants which make up this formation are nearly all such as occur more abundantly at lower elevations and here reach their highest altitudinal limit. Edaphic Considerations.—Climatic conditions are much the same throughout Boulder Park. The writer’s observations show an inversion of temperature on still nights which makes the temperature of the lower parts of the park from 2 to 5 degrees F. below that of the ridges. This difference may have some influence on the distribution of trees, especially in the growth of seedlings, but it certainly has very little other effect. It is therefore to edaphic factors that we must look for an explanation of the different plant formations. Under the term “edaphic” we include such features as texture of the soil, chemical composition, moisture content and temperatures below the surface; also slope, direction of exposure and all other non-climatic factors. 232 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES The greatest single edaphic factor is soil moisture; its effects are so important that they should be accurately noted. Indeed, differences in soil moisture can be recognized without the use of instruments if we compare such associations as sage-brush scrub, Potentilla scrub and willow-birch-honeysuckle scrub. The various grassland associations also show striking differences in soil moisture. Even in a single asso- ciation, as the meadow, it is evident that the different societies which can be there recognized depend for their existence on differences in the water content of the soil. The tall valerian, the small-flowered, low- growing blue Pentstemon, the cream-colored Pentstemon, the large- flowered Erigeron, all so abundant in the meadow formation, do not grow mixed together but have their own places chiefly determined by the - moisture of the soil. An interesting study would be to resolve this one association into its separate societies, following carefully the changes which occur in general appearance from week to week through the season and keeping accurate records of moisture in soil samples taken at stations in the different societies. Other problems connected with other associations will occur to the student as subjects for study. Tables I and II give records of a few observations on soil tempera- tures and moisture content at East Lake during the summer of 1909. TABLE I Sor TEMPERATURES AT DEPTH OF 1 FT. AT East LAKE, TOLLAND, COLO., DURING THE SUMMER OF 1909 (DEGREES F.) Day and Hour Sedge Moor Willow Scrub | Potentilla Scrub Meadow Dry Grassland JMme) 55 ar Aa. 52 48 58 58 62 June 24, 10 A.M.. 55 55 58 62 64 July 12, 4 P.M.. 59 66 71 76 81 Sept. 9, 2 P.M. 54 53 55 56 57 Average..... 55-0 55-5 60.5 63.0 66.0 Zonation.—An arrangement of plants in zones,’ or belts, is strikingly illustrated in the vegetation around East Lake near Tolland, and some- what less well shown at Park Lake. Next to the water is a zone of sedges which is followed by willow-birch-honeysuckle and this,' in turn, t The name ‘‘circum-area’’ has been suggested by Professor John W, Harshberger for such ‘‘zones”’ as are here described. eee ee eee NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES 233 by an open Potentilla scrub. Still higher on the west and northwest banks, with decreasing soil moisture follows first a belt of meadow and then the dry grassland of the higher ground. At Park Lake in favorable situations it is possible to recognize these same zones and in the same order: sedge, shrub, Potentilla, meadow, dry grassland. Along the south shore of East Lake the following zones occur: sedge, shrub, Potentilla, meadow, forest. TABLE II Som, MOISTURE OF SAMPLES TAKEN AT DEPTH or 1 FT. aT East LAKE, TOLLAND, COLO., DURING THE SUMMER OF 1909 (PERCENTAGES) Day and Hour Sedge Moor Willow Scrub | Potentilla Scrub Meadow Dry Grassland June 5, 11 AM.. 60.0 63.a 18.0 17.0 2.0 June 24, 10 A.M.. TOV 2 58.4 29.0 19.3 3.6 July 12, 4 P.M.. 46.8 25.2 19.7 a7) 3.8 Sept. 9, 2 P.M.. 40.9 26.0 17.4 14.9 9.8 Average..... 54-5 43.1 21.0 14.2 4.8 A further distinction of zones may be made in many places if attention be given to particular species of, let us say, the dry grassland or the meadow. Frequently the yellow sulphur flower (Eriogonum umbellatum) and the cream-colored species (Eriogonum subalpinum) grow close together and in parallel zones near the base of a hill. In such cases the yellow species occupies the drier situation. A zone of yarrow (Achillaea lanulosa) is frequently well marked along highways, as the road between Tolland and Jenny Creek. ‘This is best seen about August 1. In a visit to true alpine lakes or streams above timberline it will be noted that, as a rule, definite belts of vegetation are not developed, although a certain amount of zonation may be recognized. While sub- alpine ponds generally show a Carex and a willow zone, the truly alpine ponds, above timberline, are likely to have only a very imperfectly developed zonation. There may be a mixture of plants of moor, meadow, willow scrub and dry tundra even close to the water’s edge and possibly no true belts except along some one small part of the shore. The failure of alpine plants to occur in zones is chiefly due to minor local differences in depth of soil, amount of moisture, presence of large rocks, ete: 234 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Seasonal Aspects.—All of the plant formations show marked changes depending on season. The pre-vernal flora begins to appear about April 15 or May 1. In all except very moist situations Pulsatilla hirsutissima is common while Thlas pi coloradense is even more abundant. These species are found in moderately dense forest, in forest openings and on the open treeless areas of the park. Spring may be said to begin May 15, summer about July 1 and autumn September 1 or earlier. Throughout the month of June the flowering plants in blossom are those which at Boulder or Colorado Springs bloom in April and May. Loco weed, Aragallus lamberit, blossoms about July 1 and this is one of the first true summer flowers at lower altitudes. Aspens and willows do not leaf out until late in June. On account of this shortness of growing period it is possible to become well acquainted with the flora in six or eight weeks instead of requiring four or five months as in warm temperate regions. Of the different plant formations change of season most affects the appearance of grassland and thicket. Meadow shows, in striking man- ner, rapid changes due to the flowering of many conspicuous species in quick succession. Thus, in the meadow north of Park Lake great differences in the vegetation may be noted even from day to day. A careful study of the succession of plants in time of flowering might well be made in one or more associations. Even the student who does not care to make this a special subject of investigation will find interest in noticing, in the meadow zone at East Lake for example, how Pent- stemons give way to Erigerons and these to Campanulas, thus bringing about complete changes in the general aspect of the area. The Glaciation of Boulder Park.—It is at once evident from the appearance of the park that its present extent and form are largely due to the action of glaciers. The rounded knolls and shallow basins just east of Tolland which give the rolling character to that part of the park are all of glacial origin. Indeed, to one who has become accus- tomed to the well-drained, non-glaciated stream-cut plains area of Colorado the topographic features here presented seem quite novel. The park is like a small portion of the eastern United States dropped down in the midst of the mountains. At some time a terminal moraine, crossing the valley a few hundred q 4 : : ‘ 1 ee ee NORTHERN COLORADO PLANT COMMUNITIES 235 feet below Tolland station, caused the formation of a lake which covered all the western part of the park, and it is likely that other morainic lakes of different sizes have existed here at different times. Perched boulders on the steep hillsides both to the south and north show that the glacier was at some time 300 to 4oo feet above the present level of the park. The soil of the park is made up largely of glacial drift for the most part very slightly worked over by the action of water. Boulder Park is, like other broad valleys in Colorado, almost treeless and the absence of trees must be due chiefly to soil conditions. The soil is throughout less well drained and of somewhat finer texture than that of the surrounding hillsides. Hence it is better adapted to the grasses and sedges which now occupy it than it would be to conifers. Again it must be remembered that in comparatively recent times the level parts of the park were covered with ice, long after the adjacent ridges were exposed and had become well clothed with timber. It is possible also that inversion of temperature is a minor factor in shutting out tree growth; for in the early spring, when tree seedlings would be most susceptible to irregularities in the temperature, the nights are un- doubtedly colder and the days warmer in the park than on the hillsides. The driest part of the park, with a soil of loose gravel and boulders, is the ridge where the sage-brush scrub occurs north of Park Lake. Adja- cent aspen groves in moister soil occupy depressions between different ridges. Vegetation on the knolls east of the railway station and in the shallow depressions, around East Lake and on the lower slopes of Balti- more Ridge shows everywhere its dependence on physiographic features, ~ and these features are the work of glaciers which came down from the Continental Divide. To those with some geological training I commend a study of vegeta- tion in the park in relation to geologic history. Particularly interesting are the old lake beds, the sage-brush ridge and the morainic lakes and basins. Teller Lakes and the surrounding ridges offer much material for study. Summary.—The plant associations of Boulder Park (Tolland, Colo.) belong to the montane life zone. A sub-alpine forest of Engelmann spruce is, however, established on north slopes just above the limit of the park while the rock pine forest of the foothills occurs only a few miles 2 36 ONIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES down the valley. Lodgepole pine forest is the general covering of the surrounding hills, while the level portion of the park is a grassland area. Streams and ponds are generally fringed with a willow-birch-honey- suckle scrub, while alder-willow thickets and aspen groves occupy seepage areas. Moor, meadow and dry grassland cover the more level parts of the park proper. Many different formations and associations can be recognized. Edaphic conditions, seasonal aspects, zonation, principal and secondary species, the effects of glaciation—these have all been touched upon briefly. Attention is called only to more obvious ecological facts. Various problems are suggested for study. It may be well to note that the present paper is intended primarily for use of students at the University of Colorado Mountain Laboratory. ParTIAL List OF PAPERS DEALING WITH PLANTS AND PLANT FORMATIONS OF COLORADO CLEMENTS, FREDERIC L., ‘‘ Formation and Succession Herbaria,”’ University of Nebraska Studies, Vol. IV, pp. 329-355, 1904. CocKERELL, T. D. A., “‘The Alpine Flora of Colorado,” American Naturalist, Vol. XL, pp. 861-873, 1906. Cooper, Wit1am S., ‘Alpine Vegetation in the Vicinity of Long’s Peak, Colorado,” Botanical Gazette, Vol. XLV, pp. 319-337, 1908. RaMALEY, FRANCIs, ‘Plants of the Florissant Region in Colorado,” University of Colo. Studies, Vol. III, pp. 177-185, 1906. , “Botany of Northeastern Larimer County, Colorado,” University of Colo. Studies, Vol. V, pp. 119-131, 1908. , “Botanical Opportunity in Colorado,” University of Colo. Studies, Vol. VI, PP. 5-10, 1908. , ‘University of Colorado Mountain Laboratory,” University of Colo. Studies, Vol. VII, pp. 91-95, 1909. RAMALEY, FRANCIS, AND ROBBINS, W. W., “‘Studies in Lake and Streamside Vegetation, Redrock Lake near Ward, Colorado,” University of Colo. Studies, Vol. VI, pp. 133- 168, 1909. : Rossins, W. W., “Distribution of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs on the Mesas”’ [near Boulder], University of Colo. Studies, Vol. V1, pp. 36-47, 1908. , ‘Climatology and Vegetation in Colorado,” Botanical Gazette, Vol. XLIX, pp. 256- 280, IQIo. Rossins, W. W., AND Donps, G. S., ‘Distribution of Conifers on the Mesas” [near Boulder], University of Colorado Studies, Vol. V1, pp. 31-36, 1908. SHANTZ, HomER LERoy, “A Study of the Vegetation of the Mesa Region East of Pike’s Peak,’ Botanical Gazette, Vol. XLII, pp. 16-47 and 179-207, 1906. Younc, Rospert T., ‘‘Forest Formations of Boulder County, Colorado, Gazette, Vol. XLVI, pp. 321-352, 1907. » Botanical NOTES ON THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION DITCHES By CiemMent C. WILLIAMS A complete and entirely satisfactory method of determining the flow of water in irrigation ditches has not yet been devised. Galileo once declared that he “found less difficulty in the discovery of the motion of the planets, in spite of their amazing distances, than in investigations of the flow of water in rivers which takes place before my very eyes.” He maintained that the laws of falling bodies applied to the flow of streams, and hence the velocity was dependent upon the fall regardless of the length of the channel. Torricelli was the first to discover that the inclina- tion of the stream bed governed the velocity of flow. In the first half of the eighteenth century, Pitot and Bernoulli showed that the rate of flow of streams was dependent upon the cross-section of the channel. About fifty years later, Chezy, a French engineer, developed the familiar formula which bears his name based on the fact that in uniformly flowing streams the accelerating forces are equal to the retarding forces. His formula is V=CVRS where V =velocity in feet per second R=hydraulic radius or mean depth S=slope C=a coefficient, which he assumed to be constant. Hydraulic engineers since that time have accepted Chezy’s formula and have devoted their efforts mainly to finding a value of the coefficient C based on the slope, the cross-section and the roughness of the stream bed. Dubuat, Venturi, Coulomb, DeProny, Eytelwein and others have contributed various additions to the science along this line. Darcey in 1857 published the first definite formula, which Bazin, Ganguillet and Kutter modified and gave to the world in the following form, commonly known as Kutter’s formula: 237 238 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES 1.811 00281 ——_ + 41 .66 +—— 00281 I1+——= (a: 66+- ) VR S where C, R and S are as given above and m is a “coefficient of C= roughness” of the stream bed. Kutter proposed values of m for . different materials among which were the following: (1) Canals in fine gravel N=0.020 (2) Canals and rivers free from stones and weeds N=0.025 (3) Canals and rivers in bad order N=0.035 Of all the values which he suggested, these are the only ones that would be applicable to ordinary irrigation ditches. The factor m=0.025 has been very generally used, but some large ditches as well as some smaller ones designed on this basis have given very unsatisfactory velocities, in some instances so swift that the washing was serious and in others so sluggish that silt was deposited and vegetation flourished in the channel. Several attempts have been made to secure more suitable values of mn, among which the experiments of P. J. Flynn, C.E., of Denver and those of Professor Samuel Fortier of Bozeman, Montana, stand foremost. The results of the very valuable experiments of the latter are published in Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 43 of the United States Geological Survey. He classified the experiments on canals into eight groups which are briefly tabulated below. Group No. 1 N=0.0134 to 0.0184 The channels were elliptical in form and had been in use from six to thirty years. Character of Channel Dis- | Water New Slope n Clayey loam, well lined with silt. Good condi- tion. Free from vegetation.............. 2225 (62..2°}, 2202 1) 00038 0134 1 Oh ce Pentre eS ie a ene Te eae TO.7' || TO}. 2> |e OAs") OOOL2. || ssOle5 Dittol. hai Ree UR eee Eee ee ee FQ | BAclt 26331 |).OOLGS || sOnay TDittO ety oh state een sre tes Eee: Rao a eee sree Borah ae 109.6 | 46.4 | 2.36 | .00027 | .0155 Ditto rsicied SEPA eee. Pte Ses ee eee eet. 64.0 | 31.7 | 2.02 | .00027 | .o164 Fine gravel, sides fade GONGNEOMes pos arose eee. EG | TOL 7e qa al ooo ss O177 Sides smooth; earth and gravel; no vegetation| 45.9 | 17.8 | 2.58 | .00083 | .o184 eS FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION DITCHES Group No. 2 N=0.0194 to 0.0213 239 The cross-sections for this group were lacking in uniformity. The bed was usually of small cobblestones or fine gravel. Some of the ditches had been in use thirty years. Character of Channel Clayey loam lined with sediment. Footprints of SLOG, ING) VERELATION. «..c5q0 eo i lenin @ Compact clay, some rock fragments. One side smooth; willow roots projecting on other Rive ii Sacked BES GMGr ian cee ean Clay covered with fine sand; % of perimeter covered with vegetation................. Small pebbles imbedded in sand.............. No vegetation. Bottom smooth, composed of lthakeyfea eh ies Aree Sh ee ic) Oe Rn Bed smooth, free from vegetation, composed of GLAVEVRIOAIA fe ein dis tae eln aoe 9 sasie coos Well-packed coarse gravel, weeds at edge...... Dis char, Group No. 3 ge n=0.0218 to 0.0238 The ditches in this group usually were designed for a greater flow carrying at the time of the experiments. Character of Channel Volume carried was small in proportion to capacity. Clayey loam lined with sedi- INE GS anh moe eoclcoae cute dS vice eer aa Partly full. Bed composed of well-packe smooth gravel lined with sediment........ One-fourth full. Channel of clay; }% of peri-| meter covered with ‘‘frog moss”......... Well-packed gravel; lined with sediment; no WEUSEUOMReerb ed cau cuine FONGomMn DRO Oe Clayey loam lined with sediment. Some “‘horse HAMMMOSS 2? Sheet Aciacls:s 5 ors ee ree Same as above with no moss...............+-. Partly full. Clayey loam; channel partly stopped with irrigators’ dams............ Binewpravels no vegetation)... 4.0. 2es eae On OD w& Section Area Water Section ww 0 WO w& LoS) AR than they were 240 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Group No. 4 n=0.0238 to 0.0260 The channels of this group were characterized by the gravel and rocks in their beds. . Area Dis- Mean Character of Channel charge Pantech Vel. Slope n ee ee ee ee TOOUS ccs e ea es ope oe eR Panta eine 7.6 | 2.6 | 2.93 | .00616 | .0238 Coarse gravel; smooth, lined with sediment ...| 60.2 | 30.6 | 1.97 | .0006 .0246 Sides uneven; bed covered with coarse flat LOCKS; NO. Vepetationiy tne tiers Sete aie 5-7 3-5 | 1-61 | .0016 0247 DittO scr Pets ee Oe ae ee uate See Speen 1.6] 1.9 | 0.84 | .o013 0260 Group No. 5 nN =0.0293 to 0.0319 The ditches of this group were in poor condition, as the result of neglect. . Area Character of Channel Dis- Water ec Slope n Narrow boards at sides; bottom coarse gravel . . Bed cobblestones; sides overgrown with alfalfa and weeds Mok Masckaise why sas ee abe shane ee Bs 2.8 | 0.88 | .oo14 .0319 Group No. 6 N=0.0329 to 0.0365 Channels irregular with rough banks. . Area Dis- Mean Character of Channel harge ae Vel. Slope n Cobblestones covered with silt; edges made nreeular by ‘cattle tracks } 2057-100 9 jaded e sabe: $l FN] Tuoose /COarseleravelacache: ohn sisctpae be seer O01 = On Gravel; “‘horse tail moss’’ over # of perimeter] 24.6 | 29. Coarse rock 0.8 | o FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION DITCHES 241 Group No. 7 ‘ N=0.0377 to 0.0424 Channels rough and rocky. Dis- Area Mean Character of Channel charge a icc Vel. Slope ip Rough; coarse gravel and cobbles............ Ye ab GPAs Sa TE SPs al ero fs 0377 Rocky; overgrown with alfalfa............... 2.5 | 5.6] 0.44 | .0029 0393 IROUPHSS COMESE OTAVEL: Gasjek ale sctolls vio lel ersi ej nye i BEC18| ERS Ll ae auitoya | arontis 0 0423 Loose gravel; long waving water plants....... Shot | 20.4) | 5 29 9-00n2 0424 Group No. 8 n=0.0469 to 0.0529 The characteristic of this group was the heavy vegetation in the channels. Character of Channel charge Piles Vel Slope n Natural stream; 4 full of ‘horse tail moss”’..... 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.54 | .0044 .0469 Canal; more than half full of “‘horse tail moss’’; edges overgrown with weeds; bottom fine PEAVELIAS Fae tne metehte oa heen & we ae ae 23.4 | 35-8 | 0.65 | .00028 | .0499 Lateral; # full “horse tail moss”............. TL) |) 1/201} (0142.1) Ps A. a ee “4 ‘ Bin vera pe lca elke ¢ on 4 ays a wh . ee he ¢ NE a - i - ere « ts wigs ~ ~ eed aa Fa ae 3 e eae yes» eo 5 ang “s . Find - ms od 2 Papeete hf eM ad og a > shen ) a S Binds a ~ é i eG y ‘ "i : ° ad aS ome dhe — wohl we - ~ Se ae oa : 4 Sw t= 5 —s oe 3 ~ : . i ~ - gee rk % ¥ * - - - ~ ah ew a On ay . * - — < + ra a - “2 z Riwtee ; 4 +n = : - x > * | oe N ren ¥ . f as aye , wi Te d t ’ Da ae ue Lh ee ly 78 wy, ~ Se =e 4 5 a . e ing > : ‘ 5 Pk ¢ . me 4 * o” c.. oa rhor = f F a VN ; 1 i > ~ y - ) . ~z ayy s “>: j 4 - ~ , : ‘ ‘ 2 ; y at * — at Ps - ore « a 4 P. . Rey ox > 5 ' f Py Ruta ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF VOL. VII Ants of Northern Colorado Ayer, Charles C. Bees, Study of Rocky Mountain Birthrate, Declining Borrowings and Adaptations aoe ite Thad and biayees in Matthew Araabire Sohrab and Rustum Boulder Park [Plant Senanidies| Cockerell, T. D. A. Colorado: Amphibians . Ants Bees Birds Botany . Climatology . Fossil Invertebrates Fossil Plants Freight Rates in . Geology Insects . Mammals Mountain Taboratery: Mollusca Paleontology Reptiles : Scientific Bepedition : Color Perception Declining Birthrate Derham, Milo G. Felger, A. H. , Foreign Drama on the English aad Reey Staze Freight Rates and Manufactures in Colorado German Drama . Henderson, Junius Henmon, V. A. C. 249 130, 149, 115, 126, 146, IOI, 125, 207 250 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO STUDIES Introduction to the Study of the Ants of Northern Colorado . . . . .~) 215 Introduction to the Study of Rocky Mountain Bees . . . . . . 2: 7 Irrigation Ditches yer eee ES A, ekki Pee ihe st th bre! G8 es) Libby, Melanchthon Pg “ib. (eR Seon he ee ae le Ves ee cee Northern Colorado Plant Communities... Bas Tt oe os OR ee at 2S Notes on the Flow of Water in Irrigation Ditches ae Aa ey eat ka et ae eee Phillips, John Burton 3 Le DNS Bo Mad aR eS 0 Plant Communities [of Hediee Park] Se ict By ateake ete DRG ete ie ee mI Pre-Thalesian Philosophy os 5.9 8.) te as he gilts van ate ee Rawidley, i srrens fue) ah Ps ae a aa ad os ea Q1,223 Robbins, W. W. Btrieve at Rs 2G NE Sy eco ranks, Star es TOs Sy ameteye Eeg Rocky Mountain Bees ooo o8 iL! Po) tan PRIA Shad et ee Sex Differences and Variability in Color Perception . . . . . «. « 207 Scientific Expedition to Northwestern Colorado in 1909 . . 3 .¥-. . «+ IOI Study of Rocky MountamrBees. «9. 4.) 2 on es a Toland, Colo. [MountainsEaboratory at]: 93. 3 Ss ee es ee gI University of Colorado Mountain Laboratory MBL Sar Winer docras CoGas Mae gI Williams, Clement C. 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