ipillilllliiifflllf mm mm Mm s~ ^fi - u HARVARD UNIVERSITY m \y LIBRARY OF THE Museum of Comparative Zoology APR £0 1922 / i BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS Vol. XXI MAY 15, 1920 No. 10 I Science Bulletin \^^u Vol. XIII, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (Continuation of Kansas University Quarterly.) LAWRENCE, KANSAS Published Semimonthly from January to June and Monthly from July to December, inclusive, by the University of Kansas. Entered as second-class matter December 29, 1910, at the post office at Lawrence, Kansas under the act of July 16, 1894. 9-8fiO NOTICE TO EXCHANGES. The attention of learned societies and other institutions which exchange scientific publications with the University of Kansas is called to the list of publications of this University on the third and fourth pages of the cover of this issue. Those marked "Supply exhausted'* cannot be furnished at all ; as far as the supply permits the remaining numbers will gladly be furnished to any of our exchanges who may need them to complete their files. Back numbers of the Kansas University Quarterly, as far as possible, will be sent to those of our newer correspondents who are able and willing to reciprocate. ANNOUNCEMENT. The Kansas University Science Bulletin (continuation of the Kansas University Quarterly) is issued in parts at irregu- lar intervals. Each volume contains from 300 to 400 pages of reading-matter, with necessary illustrations. Exchanges with other institutions and learned societies everywhere are so- licited. All exchanges should be addressed to the Library of THE University of Kansas. All communications should be addressed to The Kansas University Science Bulletin, Library of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. EDITORIAL BOARD. W. J. BAUMGARTNER, Managing Editor. H. E. JORDAN, Exclmnge Editor. S. J. HUNTER, Chairman of Committee. W. C. STEVENS. W. S. HUNTER. O. O. STOLAND. ^1 M fWV-' IV*-» THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 1— May, 1920. CONTENTS : Miocene Land Shells from Oregon, G. Dallas Hanna. LlHliAliV PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post-office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-860 S- A//? 'L ' ■ ol\ l,'i f> I THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIIL] MAY, 1920. [No. 1. Miocene Land Shells from Oregon.* BY G. DALLAS HANNA, Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology, California Academy of Sciences. (Plate I.) THE exposures of fossiliferous rocks in the valley of the John Day river in Oregon have been known as a collecting ground for mammalian remains since 1861. Many expeditions have worked there and an extensive literature exists in which numerous types have been described. Fossil mollusks were obtained by the earliest collectors and subsequently and sev- eral papers have been written about them since 1870. In 1907 an expedition was led into the region by Mr. H. T. Martin, curator of paleontology of the University of Kansas. Numerous specimens of vertebrate animals were secured and Mr. Martin also collected the land shells which form the basis of this report. Sixteen specimens belonging to eight species were found at Cove Inlet of John Day river. Four species appear to be new and are named and described herein. Altogether thirteen species of mollusks have been collected in the John Day deposits, eleven being land pulmonates, one a fresh-water pulmonate and a fresh-water mussel. All are spe- cies not now known to exist but no genus has been considered to be new. The preponderance of the land forms has an inter- esting bearing upon the question of the lacustrine, fluviatile or seolian method of deposition of the strata.f * Received for publication on February 2, 1920. t For a full account of the geological, stratigraphical, and paleontological features of the region see. Merriani, "A Contribution to the Geology of the John Day Basin," Uni- versity of California publications, Bulletin of the Department of Geologv, vol. 2, No. 9, pp. 269-314, April, 1901. Also, same author and series, vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1-64; De- cember. 1906. Also, vol. 5, No. 11; Merriam and Sinclair for fairly complete bibliography, etc.; October, 1907. (3) 4 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. The age of the beds is believed to be Miocene, a conclusion reached from a study of the fossil mammals and plants, and other geological features. A sufficient number of land and fresh-w^ater shells has not been collected to have an important bearing on the subject. However, the long geological life of the molluscan genera found in these strata as compared with the disappearance of families and perhaps orders of mammals is a valuable commentary on the correlation of deposits else- w^here by the two classes of fossils when they are found singly. Not only have the mollusks passed through epochs of intense climatic change but they have withstood one of the most violent outflows of lava visible on the surface of the earth. Yet the genera found in the John Day and Mascall beds are repre- sented in and near the same region to-day with closely allied species. Ammoyiitella lunata Conrad. Planorhis (Spirorbis?) lunatiis Conrad, Am. Journ. Conch., vol. VI; p. 315, pi. XIII, fig. 8, 1870. Condon collection. Bridge Cr., Ore. Planorbis (Spirorbis?) lunatiis White, 3d. Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 448, pi. XXXII, figs. 24, 25, 1880-'81. Published, 1883. Gonostoina yatesi Cooper. Stearns (in White), Bui. 18, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 16, pi. Ill, figs. 8-12, 1885. Cope and Condon Coll. Arnmonitella yatesi prcecursor Stearns, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. II, p. 656, pi. XXXV, figs. 8-12, 1900. Same figures reproduced as in Bui. 18, U. S. Geol. Surv., cited above. Aminonitelltt yatesi prcecursor Stearns, Science, New Series, vol. XV, p. 153, 1902. Universit.v of California Collection. Ammonitella yatesi prceeursor Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, No. 3, p. 67, 1906. Although Conrad's description is very meager, taking it to- gether with his figures leaves no doubt that he first described the shell which seems to have been collected by many exploring parties into the John Day region. His specimens were col- lected by Thomas Condon, the pioneer in the field and it is stated that they came from "Bridge Creek, Oregon." The error in considering it to be a species of the fresh-water genus Planorhis is not strange since Cooper says of Ammonitella yatesi {Am. Jou7\ Conch., IV, 210, 1868) : "It would have been supposed to be a Planorhis if found near water, and if the streams of that country (Calaveras county, California) had not been thoroughly searched by many collectors." Stearns first identified the fossils as A. yatesi Cooper but later reconsidered the matter and made them a new subspecies based chiefly on size. He says : "Though the fossil specimens are considerably larger than any of the recent ones, I am un- HANNA: MIOCENE LAND SHELLS. 5 able to detect any other difference." (Proc. Wash. Acad. ScL, vol II, p. 657, 1900.) The University of Kansas expedition secured two specimens of this interesting form and although they are not perfect I am able to point out specific differences which are of sufficient importance to continue the separation of the fossil from the living form. Comparison has been made with, several fossil specimens in the collection of the University of California; also with 16 excellent specimens of Ammonitella yatesi Cooper from the Hemphill collection which now forms a part of the museum of the California Academy of Sciences. The recent shells came from "near Murphys, California," and were col- lected by Henry Hemphill. One important difference is in size. The largest yatesi is but 9 mm. in greatest diameter, whereas the largest Innata (and it is imperfect) is 15 mm. The former also has eight whorls while the latter has nine. The umbilicus of binata is proportionately wider and the apex is a hol- low cone. The apex of yatesi is truncated inside and therefoi'e shallower. On the ventral side of yatesi the last whorl swings out over the one pre- ceding, but this is not true in the best specimen of Innata, although figure 1 of Stearns (White) indicates that there may be some variation in this respect in the fossil species. MEASUREMENTS. (All measuremeuts are in millimeters.) A. yatesi. , A. Iiinata. ^ Greatest diameter 9 . 00 15 . 00 12 . 50 Least diameter 8.00 13.50 11.00 Greatest altitude 4 . 50 7 . 50 6 . 50 No measurements of the fossils studied by Conrad, Stearns and White have been published. Their figures show that the shell substance of the body whorl has been lost, a condition which is almost always the case. The University of Kansas specimens are in that condition, but through the kindness of Prof. Bruce L. Clark, I was permitted to examine well-pre- served material in the University of California. It was learned that the shells are smooth and shining as in the recent species, with growth wrinkles barely showing on the latter part of the body whorl. GasU'odonta imperforata Hanna. New species. (Plate I; figures 1, 2, 3.) Whorls six; spire high and dome-shaped; sutures moderately im- pressed; apex marked with fine regular growth lines; growth lines on the body whorl slightly uneven but without an approach to a ribbed con- 6 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. dition; last whorl slightly descending at the aperture; peristome thin and acute, slightly expanded on the basal portion ; umbilical region deeply impressed, the perforation being minute. Greatest diameter, 17.50. Least diameter, 16. Altitude, 13. Type in the University of Kansas from Cove Inlet, John Day river, Oregon, collected by H. T. Martin in 1907. A single specimen was obtained. The dome-shaped shell and thin, acute peristome prevents its being classed as Polygyra dalli, the species with which it is most apt to be confused. Its correct generic position cannot be stated because of minor shell differences which separate many of the groups of recent pulmonates. It resembles in general shape some of the Gas- trodo7iias as intertexta, for instance. The fact that the lip is slightly expanded below is the chief character which casts some doubt upon its being a Gastrodoyita. This condition is met with in Oreohelix and our shell resembles in form and size sonie of the dome-shaped varieties of 0. cooperi, as, for in- stance, apiarium Berry. It might be placed directly in this genus were it not for the differentiating characters of the umbilicus. The specimen is slightly defective as shovni by the photo- graphs but it is sufficiently intact it seems to make the species easily recognizable in the future. * There is a second specimen in the collection of the Univer- sity of California which is similar in all respects to the type, except perhaps it is a little better preserved. Pyramidula mascallensis Hanna, New species. (Plate I; figures 4, 5, 6.) Whorls six and three-fourths, rounded below^ and flat above; spire not greatly elevated; suture apparently channeled; last w^horl carinated through the first two-thirds, the carina gradually disappearing; latter part of last whorl depressed below the carina of the one preceding; the shell substance of the apical whorls is preserved but sculpture is absent; the body whorl is an internal cast but shows on the upper side some coarse uneven growth ridges; umbilicus widely open. Greatest diameter, 33.50. Least diameter, 30.25. Altitude, 28. Type in the University of Kansas from Cove Inlet, John Day river, Oregon, collected by H. T. Martin in 1907. Only the type specimen was secured so that a statement of variation cannot be given. The flattened upper whorls and the apparently deeply channeled suture distinguish this shell from other species. It may represent a new generic type, but the genera of land shells were so often based upon anatomical HANNA: MIOCENE LAND SHELLS. 7 and minor shell characters that it seems best for the present to include this under Pyramidula, the genus which it most re- sembles. Perhaps better material will eventually be secured and enable the correct genus to be determined. The specimen is not perfect. The aperture has been lost, together with the shell substance of the last two whorls. It has also been crushed but not in such a manner as to distort the shape. The original shell had over seven whorls and was considerably more elevated than the measurements given show. But the diameter was but little if any greater on account of the last whorl growing in beneath the one preceding. Also when the shell was complete the last whorl was but little angulated on the periphery, this seeming to be a character which applies only to the whorls up to and including the sixth. It is named for the Mascall, one of the subdivisions of the John Day series. At first it was believed that this specimen was Conrad's Helix (Zonites) marginicola because it was the only form found with the "spire scarcely raised above the margin of the last volution." However, he states that his shell had six whorls and was narrowly umbilicate. He gave no measurements, but his figure shows that he had a young specimen. He states fur- ther that his shell was narrowly umbilicate, a condition which would not be true in the young of mascallensis. There is, in my opinion, little doubt that one of the species subsequently described under another name is ynargiyiicola, but this cannot be recognized because of the inadequate original description. It is to be hoped that if the type specimen is in existence it will some day be fully described. Polygyra dalli Stearns. Helix (Monodon) [error for Mesodon] dalli Stearns. In White, Bui. 18, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 14, pi. Ill, figs. 4-6, 1885. Polyrjiir'i dnUi Stearns, Proc. Wash. Ac. Sci., vol. II, p. 655, pi. XXXV, figs. 4-6, 1900. Same figures as above reproduced. Polygyra dalli Stearns, Science, new series, vol. XV, p. 153, 1902. Polygyra dalli Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, No. 3, p. 67, 1906. One almost perfect specimen and four young and broken ones were obtained at Cove Inlet, John Day river, by Mr. Martin. A large number of specimens in the University of California indicates that this is probably the most abundant species in the region. As Stearns has shown, it is very closely related to Polygyra columbiana Gould, which is common in the 8 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Pacific coast states to-day. The latter, however, is smaller; some specimens of dalli are almost as large as thyroides of Kansas and Missouri. The umbilicus of the fossil species is covered by the narrowly reflected peristome and its junction with the body whorl is deeply seated. There appears to be no tendency for the peristome to descend more or less abruptly near its outer termination with the body whorl. Polygyra expansa Hanna. New species. (Plate I; figures 7, 8, 9.) Whorls about seven, somewhat flattened above and below; sutures not deeply impressed; lines of growth apparently uneven on the last whorl and broken into ridges parallel thereto; the last whorl of the type is sub- carinate at its beginning due to pressure, but is flattened naturally on the lower side; axis imperforate and covered with heavy shell substance; the junction of the peristome with the body whorl in the umbilical region is marked with a distinct angular depression; it is not a gently concave depression as found in such recent Polygyras as albolabris. Greatest diameter, 32. Least diameter, 28.50. Altitude, 17. Type in the University of Kansas from Cove Inlet, John Day river, Oregon, collected by Mr. H. T. Martin. A single specimen was secured and it is not in as good con- dition as would be desired. Its characters are so distinct, however, that it cannot be referred to any known form. The imperforate axis covered with heavy callus places it in Poly- gyra rather than in Epiphragmophora. However, it is flat- tened on the base and has a tendency to be slightly carinated as some forms of fidelis Gray of the latter genus. A single, and better preserved specimen in the University of California shows, in addition to the above characters, that the outer lip abruptly descends at its junction with the body whorl for a distance of 4 mm. Polygyra martini Hanna. New species. (Plate I: figures 10, 11, 12.) Whorls five, well rounded, the last being conspicuously enlarged vertically; sutures moderately impressed; lines of growth very fine for a shell of this size and very regular, crossed by less impressed revolving striae which are most noticeable on the body whorl; umbilical region deeply impressed; lip thickened by callus and reflected over almost the entire umbilicus; no indication of a noticeable deflection of the peristome at its junction with the body whorl. Greatest diameter, 34.50. Least diameter, 25. Height of body whorl, 19. Altitude without body whorl, 18. Altitude (total), 28. HANNA: MIOCENE LAND SHELLS. 9 Type in the University of Kansas from Cove Inlet, John Day river, Oregon, collected by Mr. H. T. Martin in 1907. A single well-preserved specimen was secured. While it resembles in general shape some of the old world species, as Pomatia aspera- for instance, it is believed to be more closely related to the albolabris group of Polijgyra. It must be stated, however, that important differences exist. The shell is more globose than other species of this genus and the umbilical region is more deeply impressed. While most of the margin is broken away, enough remains to show that it was folded back upon itself in the basal region and the body whorl was obtusely keeled in this region. The shell resembles in some respects the Helix leidyi of Hall and Meek {White, 3d. Anyi. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. Jf55, pi. XXXII, figs. 32, 33, 1881-82), but it is proportionately more elevated and the body whorl is deeper in a vertical direc- tion. The two species belong to the same section of the genus which may be defined by the form of the lower apertural mar- gin and the angular body whorl in the umbilical region. The species is named in honor of Mr. Martin, an indefatiga- ble collector of fossils. Epiphragmophora dubiosa Stearns. Epiphragmophora dubiosa Stearns, Science, new series, vol. XV, p. 153, 1902. (Original description.) E piphragmophora dubiosa Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, p. 69, figs. 3, 4, 1906. Original description repeated and figures provided. Only one specimen of this interesting species was found. The shell is imperfect, as was the type, but enough remains to show that it is narrowly umbilicated; very flat below and spire but little elevated; whorls flattened above and sutures but little impressed; the pitting on the apex mentioned by Stearns cannot be seen, but this may be due to the worn condition of the shell substance; for the same reason the growth striae are not well preserved. Greatest diameter, 23. Altitude, 12. Whorls, five and three-fourths. It is not certain that the form is placed in the correct genus, but without better preserved material for study it would be useless to attempt any other disposition. Doctor Stearns states and shows in his figure that the sutures are deeply im- pressed. It is believed, however, that this is not natural, as the Kansas University specimen and four others seen in the University of California did not show them noticeably deep- ened. Snails of this group are known to be subject to con- 10 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. siderable variation in this respect so that it would not seem to be justifiable to consider them distinct on this character when otherwise all which have been seen agree with the description and figures. Unfortunately the formation of the aperture in the species cannot be determined. Epiphragmophora antecedens Stearns. Helix (Aglaia) fidelis Gray. Stearns (in White) Bui. 18, U. S. G. S., p. 14, pi. Ill, figs. 1-3, 1885. Epiphrugmofihora fidelis antecedens Stearns, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. II, p. 653, pi. XXXV, figs. 1-3, 1900. Epiphrafjnwphora fidelis antecedens Stearns, Science, new series, vol. XV, p. 153, 1902. E piphrar/mophora fidelis antecedens Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, p. 67, 1906. Four specimens which clearly belong to this species were found. One is fully grown. It shows that the umbilicus was normally completely closed and thickened with callus, a condition which does not obtain in E. fidelis. The umbilicus, however, is of the general form found in Epi- phragmophora and not that which is common in Polygyra. The best specimen Stearns had was imperforate, but it seemed to have been caused by crushing. This is now known to be normal. In order to complete the record the other species of mollusks known from the John Day Miocene will be mentioned. The original generic terms ascribed to them are retained. No ob- ject would seem to be gained by attempting a rearrangement at this time. The full synonomy of Unio condoni White has not been searched for. 1. Unio condoni White, Bui. 18, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 13, pi. II, figs. 1-3, 1885. 2. Limnoea maxima Stearns, Science, new series, vol. XV, p. 154, 1902. Liinncea maxima Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, p. 70, fig. 1, 1906. Limncea stearnsi Hannibal (in Baker) Limnwida; of N. and Mid. Am., p. 102, pi. XVII, fig. 11, 1911. New name for L. maxima above, preoccupied by Collin, Ann. Soc. Mai. Belg., VII, p. 94, 1872. 3. Helix (Zonites) marginicola Conrad, Am. Jour. Conch., vol. VI, p. 315, pi. XIII, fig. 9, 1870. Bridge creek, Oregon. Condon, Coll. Helix (Zonites) marginicola White, 3d Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 453, j)l. 32, fig. 34, 1880-'81. 4. Helix {Patula) perspectiva Say. Stearns, Bui. 18, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 14, pi. Ill, fig. 7, 1885. Pyramidula perspectiva simillima Stearns, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. II, p. 657, pi. XXXV, fig. 7, 1900. Pyramidula perspectiva simillima Stearns, Science, new series, vol. XV, p. 153, 1902. Pyramidula perspectiva simillima Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, p. 67, 1906. 5. Pyramidula leeontei Stearns, Science, new series, vol. XV, p. 154, 1902. Pyramidula leeontei Stearns, Univ. of Calif. Pub. Geol., vol. V, p. 68, fig. 2, 1906. The reader is referred to a paper by Harold Hannibal (A Synopsis of the Recent and Tertiary Mollusca of the Cali- HANNA: MIOCENE LAND SHELLS. 11 fornian Province; Proc. Mai, Soc. London, vol. X, pp. 112-211, 1912) which may perhaps have references to the John Day fauna. The paper has not heen favorably reviewed. (Pilsbry, Nautihis, XXVI, 71, 1912.) I have not seen it and cannot comment on what it contains, but apparently Hannibal, in working over the John Day material in the University of California, combined at least four species under the name Helix niarginicola Conrad. Some of them bore Stearns' labels and probably some of them were his types. EXPLANATION OF PLATE L The figures are from photographs which have been retouched. The photographs were taken with millimeter cross-section paper for a back- ground and the scale can be obtained from this. Figure 1 is less en- larged than figures 2 and 3, Figures 1, 2 and 3. Gastrodonta imperforata new species. Figures 4, 5 and 6. Pyramidula viascallensis new species. Figures 7, 8 and 9. Polygyra expansa new species. Figures 10, 11 and 12. Polygyra inartini new species. (12) Miocene Land Shells. G. Dallas Hanna. PLATE I. 10 12 (13) MiocENK Land Shells. G. Dallas Hanna. IMATE I. (13) THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 2— May, 1920. CONTENTS: Pleistocene Mollusks from Wallace County Kansas, G. Dallas Hanna PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post-office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-860 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIIL] MAY, 1920. [No. 2. Pleistocene Mollusks from Wallace County, Kansas.* BY G. DALLAS HANNA. Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology, California Academy of Sciences. ONE of Mr. H. T. Martin's numerous fossil hunting expedi- tions for the Universitj^ of Kansas took him to the Mio- cene mammal beds of Wallace county of that state. Here, in one locality he found some ant hills about which were numerous shells the indefatigable insects had collected. A small quan- tity of the general debris about the nests was preserved and the mollusks have come to me for study. The collection, although small, is valuable because it throws more definite light upon the size and duration of the Pleistocene Kansas lake which Prof. J. E. Todd has aptly named "Kaw Lake." Some of the species of mollusks found inhabit lakes solely and since there are none of these bodies of water within a long distance of the locality at the present time, practically conclusive proof is offered of the existence of Kaw Lake before the present epoch. And since many of the species now live in northern cold waters it seems justifiable to conclude that this body of water was coexistent with the great glaciers. Probably its inhabitants lived during the deposition of the Aftonian giavels; that is, prior to the descent of the Kansan ice sheet. It seems likely that the lake was formed by the pre-Kansan ice sheets, continued through the Aftonian period and that its dam was broken by the Kansan sheet. Kaw Lake probably existed for several hundred years. This is indicated by the presence in it of a large molluscan popula- tion which would require a very considerable number of years * Received for publication on February 2, 1920. (17) 2 — Sci. Bui. — 860 18 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. for dispersal. A cool, moist climate similar to that of northern United Slates or southern Canada must have accompanied it. This is shown by the land-shell species found associated w^ith the fresh water. This was also shown by the shells found in the Phillips county Pleistocene which has been reported upon. (Hanna and Johyison, Kan. Univ. Sci. Bui., vol. VII, No. 3, 1913.) That radical change took place in the climate, fauna and flora of western Kansas after the disappearance of Kaw Lake is evi- dent from the almost complete disappearance of the land and fresh-water mollu^ks, A considerable number of species and at least two genera are not known from Kansas as yet except from Pleistocene fossils. Neither streams nor uplands are fitted for their existence and search must be made for them far to the north before they are located. The ants were not particular in choosing material for their "hills." Besides the fossil shells dug from the light buff ma- terial forming the lake deposit they collected a few recent species, probably found living near at hand. There were also sand grains of large size and plant stems, seeds and roots. LIST OF SPECIES. Sphasrium. What appear to be two species were secured. Any attempt at specific determination in this group of shells at this time would merely add to the already almost inextricable confusion. Valvata tricarinata Say. Four specimens. I know of no pub- lished records of this species from Kansas, either living or fossil. Mr. E. C. Johnston collected a dead shell, but not a fossil, at Cameron's Bluff, above Lawrence, Kan., in 1916. No other records are available for the state. Lymnxa humilis rustica Lea. One specimen. This form is recorded from Douglas county, Kansas, by Baker {Lymnseidse of N. Am., p. 269, 1911), and is probably the same as was re- corded from the Phillips county Pleistocene as L. humilis. Lymnsea pai'va Lea. Thirteen specimens. Previously known from the marl beds of Long Island, Phillips county, and from Douglas county river debris. Planorhis antrosus Conrad. Seven specimens. Planorbis deflectus Say. Two specimens. Both are small and apparently not full grown. The species lives in Lake View, hanna: pleistocene shells. 19 Douglas county and has been found in the Pleistocene of Phillips county. Baker (Naut., XXIII, p. 93, 1909) records it from Anthony, Kan. Succinea avara Say. Abundant. Succmea stretchiana Bland. Two specimens. This "species lives on the plains at the present time and the two shells se- cured are plainly not fossils. Valloiiia pulchella Miiller. Fifteen specimens. This is an addition to the list of Kansas Mollusca and since it inhabits cool, moist timbered areas it emphasizes that this was the con- dition in western Kansas in Pleistocene time. Zonitoides singleyanus Pilsbry. Two specimens, not fossils. Pupilla muscorum Linnaeus. Abundant. In Pleistocene time this was a very common snail in western Kansas. Pupoides marginatus Say. Six living shells. Gastrocopta armifera Say. One living shell. Both this and the preceding species live in the region at the present time. 1H£ KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 3— May, 1920. CONTENTS: Moisture Requirements of Germinating Seeds, Rupert Peters. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post office in L 9 .6585 1.0119 1.9495 1 . 1 109 1.2587 1 3111 18.15 27.89 28.93 30.62 34.70 36 14 24 ... 1.4465 1.5142 1.5652 1 8168 38.8 40.0 41.1 48.7 1.0834 1.1766 1 . 2342 1.4037 1 4264 1.4548 1.5937 1-7588 29.9 32 1 33.7 38.3 39.0 39 7 43.5 48.1 .7241 20 5 28 32 48 .8809 1.0030 . 25.0 28 5 52 56 1.3137 , 36.22 72 1.4735 2 0045 40.7 55.2 1.1198 1 . 2073 1.4661 31 8 96 34 3 120 41 1 (lermination. — No. 1, all ten, rootlets averaged 2 cm.; No. 2, the same; No. 3, nine with 1.8 cm. rootlets, secondary rootlets and shoots appearing, one rot; No. 4, eight with rootlets from 1 to 3.5 cm., shoots appearing, one incipient, one rot. No. 4 was clieeked by setting up another test under the same conditions and taking but the initial and the tinal readings. Germination was complete and the per cent of gain was 41.5. TABLE 2. Water Absorption of Legumes. Peas. Navy jeans. Soy beans. Dry weight. 3.3909 2.7181 4.0166 Time in hours. Gain. Gain. Gain. Grams. Per cent. Grams. Per cent. Grams. Per cent. 1 1 0070 1,6225 40.49 59.69 .4811 .8870 11 97 3 22.08 4 2.S367 83.6 5 1.9493 2.1184 71.71 77.93 1.2667 1.6510 31 53 7 41.10 8 3.9282 115 8 9 1.9613 3.8499 48 80 24 5.1386 151.5 2 5P03 2.6135 95.29 96.15 95.84 27 28 5.2918 153.1 4.2329 4.4170 4.5323 4.7940 4.8430 105 38 30 2.6394 97.10 109.96 112 83 32 5.3788 158 6 48 2.8475 104.76 119.35 PO 57 52 54 2.9528 108.62 56 4.8823 121 55 Germinnlion. — All peas and the navy beans had rootlets averaging 0.9 cm. bean rotted, the others had 0.5 to 1.0 cm. rootlets. One soy The results shown in these tables are shown graphically in figure 1. They were checked by running a series of five sets each. The above are characteristic and the data for the others 30 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. is omitted. The averages, however, were: Corn, 46.4 per cent; peas, 149 per cent; navy beans, 108.3 per cent; and a series of tests with wheat, 69.1 per cent. Widtsoe (10) gives the following as the percentages of moisture contained by seeds at saturation. Wheat, 52 to 57; corn, 44 to 57 ; peas, 93 ; beans, 88 to 95. The differences be- tween those given above and those of Widtsoe are probably due to differing end-points, or the different varieties of seeds may differ in their saturation percentages. The original pa- pers to which he refers are not available. The results reached here will be used as the same end-point and as seeds from the same lots were used as in the tests following. Com k 120 Houre Fic;. 1. Water absorption of various germinating seeds. Corn 1, navv beans and soy beans on wet cotton ; peas and corn 2, between pads of wet cotton; corn 3, on sand wet with 10 per cent water; corn 4, on sand wet with 5 per cent water. RESULTS. At the same time this preliminary test was run, careful germination tests were made of different lots of seeds and only those were chosen for use which gave a high percentage of vitality. Corn was the first used, Boone County White, as to variety. With no arrangement to keep temperatures down. peters: moisture requirements of seeds. 31 and working at first in July in a room where it at times be- came exceedingly warm, a number of the early tests failed because the vapor caused the seal to buckle and loss of mois- ture resulted. The unnoticed loss of sand particles in remov- ing covers when placing bottles in the oven, caused on one series alone some seventy useless weighings in the endeavor to secure constant weights. But when the difficulties had been overcome, results were secured as shown in table 3, the first ones naturally being too high. Only those tests are quoted which may be of assistance in reaching conclusions. By "weight of bottle" is meant the tare of the weighing bottle in which the particular sand sample was placed for drying. "Weight with wet sample" is the weight of this bottle and the wet sand sample before going into the oven. "Weight with dry sample" means the weight of this bottle and the sand when a constant weight had been secured by drying. "Loss of water" is the difference be- tween the two just given. "Weight of dry sample" is the net weight of the sand sample after drying. "Per cent of Loss of water water" = ■. The upper line of figures in Weight of dry sample each test is the record of the sample taken at the beginning of the test ; the lower one, that at the close of it. 32 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 3. Results of tests with corn. No. Weight of bottle. Weight with wet sample. Weight with dry sample. Loss of water. Weight of dry sample. Per cent of water. Germinati( n. 22 23 24 15.1972 14.9436 14.9436 13 1033 13 4485 11.2461 27.2665 24 4012 26.2905 22,4946 22 8234 21 7644 27.0445 24 3547 26 1013 22.4467 22 6711 21.6932 0. 2220 0 0465 0 1892 0.0479 0.1523 0 0712 11.8473 9.4111 11 1577 9,3434 9 2226 10.4471 1.87 0 48 1 69 0.51 1 65 0.68 1 All sprouted; tumbler filled with tangle of roots; two shoots through seal. Four growing vigorously, 25 cm.; roots freely liranched, no shoots; one rotted. Four germinated, one incipient. 25 11 2461 13.4485 19.7670 22.9802 19.5860 22. 9 ICO 0 1810 0 0612 8 , 3399 9.4705 2 17 0.64 All growing freely; shoots ap- pe.tring. 28 14.9436 11 2461 27.1611 20 6403 26,9926 20.5776 0.1685 0.0627 12.0490 9.3315 1.39 0 67 All germinated, roots 0.5 to 3cm., shoots forming. ^sl S^ 29 15.7069 13 1033 28 S811 21.4845 27.7170 21,4264 0 1641 0.0581 12,0101 8,3231 1,36 0,69 All with brdncLed roots, 5-12 cm., and with i-3 cm. shoots. 30 15.1972 13.4485 26.4334 23,1298 26.2708 23,0806 0,1626 0.0492 11,0736 9,6321 1 46 0 51 Four with 1 cm. rootlets, 1 in- cipient, t^ 33 14.9436 12.7311 27.2533 21,9564 27,0783 21.8662 0.1750 0.0902 12.1347 9.1352 1 44 0.98 All with 1 cm. rootlets. 34 15 7069 11 2461 27,4449 21.7802 27,26.34 21.6694 0.1815 0 1108 11 5565 10,4233 1.59 1,06 All with 4-7 cm. rcots, shoot just showing. 36 38 15.1972 13 1033 15.7069 15.7069 26 6290 22,6704 27.0591 27.1975 26.5158 22,6056 26.9420 27.1318 0 1182 0.0648 0.1171 0.0657 11 3186 9.5023 11 2351 11,4249 1 00 0,68 1.04 0.57 One with 2 cm. rootlet and with shoot showing, 4 with 1 cm. rootlets. One fully germinated, 4 incipient. 39 12 7311 12.7311 23,0582 22.4594 22 , 9908 22 4195 0 0647 0,0399 10.2597 9.6884 0 65 0 41 All swollen. 41 14.9436 13.4485 28.0634 23,8692 27.9723 23 , 8295 0.0911 0 0397 13.0287 10 3810 0.69 0.38 One with 2 cm. rootlet; 1 incip- ient; 3 swollen. 42 15.1972 13 1033 26.2107 21,9365 26 1267 21 88'j5 0.0900 0-0470 10.9295 8.7862 0,82 0.53 Two with 1 cm. rootlets; 1 incip- ient, 2 swollen. 43 15.1972 13.4485 27,2890 22,8073 27,2100 22.7(95 0 0790 0,0278 12.0128 9.3310 0,05 0,29 All swollen. 40 11 2461 12 7311 21.7230 22,8293 21 6416 22 8028 0.0814 0 0265 10 3955 10 0717 0 78 0 26 ' One with 1 cm. rootlet, the others swollen. Navy beans were next tested. Because of their larger size and because they absorb at least their own weight of water in germinating (table 1 and fig. 1), but two seeds were used for each test lest the necessary moisture demands for germina- tion should so exceed the amount furnished in the sand that germination would be impossible. peters: moisture requirements of seeds. T.\BLE i. Results of tests with navy beans. 33 No. Weight of bottle. Weight with wet sample. Weight with dry sample. Loss of water. Weight of dry sample. Per cent of water. Germination. 58 12.7311 15.1972 21.7195 27.7559 21.6582 27.7136 0.0613 0.0423 8.9271 12.5160 0.68 0.33 One somewhat swollen, 2 em. rootlet. one with 59 14 9436 13.1033 26.5169 22.03*2 26.4262 22.0058 0.0907 0.0314 11.4826 8.9025 0.79 0.35 One with 1 cm. rootlet, 0.4 cm. rootlet. one with 60 15.1972 12.7311 27.1102 22,0474 - 26.9874 21.9928 0.1228 0.0546 11.7902 9.2617 1.04 0.58 One with 2.4 cm. rootlet 0.2 cm. rootlet. one with 61 15.7069 13 4485 27.1330 24.1932 26.9881 24.1025 0.1449 0.0907 11.2812 10 6540 1.28 0 85 One with 3 cm. rootlet and unswollen. one dry Numbers 59 and 60 are particularly interesting as they show germination of both seeds with amounts of water sup- plied well below the wilting coefficient of the sand. Number 61 unfortunately had a dead seed. As a further check in this series, the beans were weighed when selected, again when the test was complete, and were then dried and the loss of water determined. In the following table "calculated absorp- tion" is based upon the results shown in table 1 above. The actual loss of weight is in every case below the calculated ab- sorption, even though it includes the water originally pres- ent in the seeds. This either indicates that germination can take place with less water than the amounts indicated there, or illustrates the difficulty of making transfers without the loss of water, probably the latter, although corn 4 compared with corn 8 in table 1, given originally 5 per cent and 10 per cent of water in the sand, seem to bear out the former idea, since the absorption was 4 per cent and 48 per cent, respec- tively. T.\BLE 5. Loss of wat^r in drying germinated beans. No. Original weight. Sprouted seeds. Dried seeds. Loss of weight. Calculated absorption. 58 0.5082 0.5618 0.5440 0 5257 0.8624 0 9484 1.0178 0.4200 0.4622 0 4356 0.4424 0.4862 0.5822 0 .345.S 0 5448 59 0.6067 0 5875 60 61 0.8092 0.4634 0.5677 The final series upon which a report can be made was run with wheat, ten grains to the test. Results follow : 3 — Sci. Bui. — 860 34 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. T.'^BLE 6. Result of tests with wheat. No. Weight of bottle. Weight with wet sample. Weight with dry sample. Loss of water. Weight of dry sample. Per cent of water. Germination. 101 14.9436 14.9436 28.5618 25.8592 28.4282 25.7821 0.1336 0.0771 13.4846 10,8385 0 S9 0.71 5 with 0.5-1.2 cm. rootlets cipient, 1 dead. 4in- 102 11.2461 15.7069 21.2021 27.1988 21 , 0792 27.1070 0.1229 OOSIS 9.8331 11.4001 1,25 0.80 6 incipient, 4 unchanged. 103 12.7311 12.7311 24.2885 22.9414 24.1628 22.8613 0.1257 0.0801 11 4317 10.1302 1,09 0.79 7 with 5-7 em. rootlets, 3 lent. incip- 104 15.5137 15.1972 24.7871 25.9985 24 . 6767 25.8904 0 1104 0,1081 9.1630 10,6932 1,20 1.01 2 with 0.5-1.2 cm. rootlets, cipient, 1 dead. 7 in- Of these, No. 103 gives illiTmiiiatius results with Nos. 101 and 104 close seconds. . DISCUSSION. Some interesting things are shown in these tables. Num- ' bars 22-35 started with moisture contents above that of the wilting coefficient of this sand, 1.31 per cent; the remaining ones quoted were below it. Numbers 36, 38, 59, 60 and 103 showed satisfactory germination in a soil given less than the wilting coefficient of moisture. Others are very close, not listed simply because fewer of the seeds germinated. Some are very suggestive : Numbers 28 and 29, for example, fully germinated and with original moisture content but 0.08 and 0.05 per cent, respectively, above the limit. There seems abun- dant evidence in the results shown here to indicate that seeds can germinate at or below the wilting coefficient of the soil. Why germination did not take place in some instances is still a problem. For example, in number 4, with 1.55 per cent of moisture on the start, the seeds became slightly swollen with one rotted, and 1.30 per cent of moisture remained in the sand at the close of the test. In the light of the other tests, it hardly seems that five infertile seeds were selected for this particular one. Further, germinating seeds pull the moisture content down to surprisingly low figures, the average, as already given, being 0.584 per cent for corn, 0.42 per cent for beans, and 0.83 per cent for wheat. This evidently depends considerably upon the rapidity with which water moves through the soil, as referred to above. In this connection, while Briggs and Shantz found the same amount of moisture remaining in the soil at perma- nent wilting regardless of the kind of plants grown in it, re- sults here show quite the contrary, as just pointed out. Of course their plants had root systems distributed through the peters: moisture requirements of seeds. 35 soil and with very short distances, comparatively, to pull the water ; transpiration was going on ; and wilting gave a more or less definite end-point ; while here, there were practically no roots, just as many absorbing centers as there were seeds. There was no transpiration to be a factor, and the end-point was not even approximately fixed, making this problem really in no way comparable to theirs. Yet, in a series from the corn tests where the moisture supplied was above the wilting co- efllicient, there remained at the close of the tests, 0.48, 0.51, 0.68, 0.67, 0.69, and 0.51 per cent, respectively, and with the crude apparatus used, with the lack of soil temperature control, and with the variations in the end-points reached, these do not reallv diff"er a great deal. taf. 6o 40 Flfi. 2. Curves showing increase in the surface forces of soils as drying proceeds; to the left, for subsoil of the Oswego silt loam: to the right, for Xo. 2/0 sand. But, in contrast, in those tests which started with just about this amount of water, the corn grains showed absorptive power sufficient to pull the water down to 0.29, 0.38, and 0.41 per cent, respectively. Dead plants, as shown by Briggs and Shantz (1) , would have done this, or more, if extending through the seal, but here it went into the seeds. This is especially interesting in view of the fact shown by Shull (8) in his graph reproduced here, that the soil forces tending to retain moisture increase enormously as the soil becomes drier and drier, especially when approaching air-dry conditions. In these three instances there is shown a tremendous absorptive power which is evidently not present in the six cases given above, or thej^ would have pulled more moisture from the sand. 36 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. But Shull (9) also found that air-dry seeds of the cocklebur (hygroscopic moisture, 7 per cent) had an internal attractive force for water of 965 atmospheres, or over 14,000 pounds per square inch, and that when these seeds had absorbed an addi- tional 7 per cent of water this force had dropped to less than 400 atmospheres. The absorptive power shown by the three instances referred to in the paragraph above seems to bear out his findings. In the case of the other six, there was evidently sufhcient water in the sand to allow an equilibrium to be reached between the opposing external and internal forces be- fore the percentage of water present was pulled to the low figure reached by the other set. Another way of looking at the results mentioned above, num- bers 39, 41, and 43 were given about the same amount of water each, practically half that required for the wilting coeffi- cient of this sand, and the results are practically the same. By calculation, disregarding that removed in sampling, each tumbler contained a total water content of about 1.3 grams. Of this, the seeds absorbed about half, 0.48, 0.62, and 0.72 grams, respectively. According to table 1, 41 per cent of the weight of the corn seed is the minimum for fair germination when conditions are favorable. Forty-one per cent here is 0.73 gram. The maximum used as shown in the table is 55 per cent, or, that would be here, 1 gram. With 0.48 to 0.72 gram of water used here, with 0.73 to 1 gram used when conditions are favorable for absorption, with the weight of the seeds practically the same, and with the moisture content of the soil pulled down to 0.29-0.41 per cent, it would seem that when the lower limit of possible water absorption from the surrounding soil was reached by these seeds in the cases quoted, they had been unable to secure water enough for germination. The lower limit is probably somewhere about 0.75 to 0.85 per cent. In comparison, number 36 used but about 0.64 gram of water for complete germination, and when this was complete, as much water remained in the sand as each of the three men- tioned had to start with. But why should number 36 germin- ate when it had absorbed 0.64 gram of water and number 43 fail to do so when it absorbed 0.72 gram? Has the rate of absorption or the amount remaining in the soil anything to do with it? peters: moisture requirements of seeds. ' 37 conclusions. 1. Seeds can germinate when supplied with amounts of water which are below the wilting coefficient for the particu- lar soil used. 2. A uniform water content remaining in the soil when per- manent wilting occurs in the plants growing in it, regardless of species, does not hold true for seeds germinating in such a soil even when the amount supplied could have been used in germination. 3. While the amount of water used by seeds for germina- tion may be more or less constant when moisture is abundant, they may germinate with far smaller quantities when the sup- ply is scanty. 4. When the supply of moisture is scanty, the time re- quired for germination is correspondingly lengthened. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Briggs, L. J., AND Shantz, H. L.,The wilting coefficient and its in- direct determination. Bot. Gaz., 53:20-37, 1912. 2. Caldwell, J. S., The relation of environmental conditions to the phenomenon of permanent wilting in plants. Physiological Re- searches, 1:1-56, 1915. 3. Clements, F. E., Research Methods in Ecology, p. 30, 1905. 4. Hedgcock, G. G., The relation of the water content of the soil to certain plants, principally mesophytes. Studies in the vegetation of the state, part 2, 1902, pp. 5-79. In Bot. Surv. of Nebraska, vol. 6. 5. Livingstone, B. E., Incipient drying and temporary and permanent wilting of plants, as related to external and internal conditions. In Contributions to Plant Physiology, p. 176. Reprints from The Johns Hopkins University Circular, March, 1917. 6. Russell, E. J., Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, 1912, p. 104. 7. Sachs, J., Bericht uber die physiologicale Thatigkeit an der Versu- chsstation in Tharandt. Landwirtschaftlichen Versuchs Stationen, 1859, vol. 1, p. 235. 8. Shull, C. a.. Measurement of the surface forces in soils. Bot. Gaz., 62:7, 1916. 9. , Measurement of the internal forces of seeds. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., 27:65-70, 1915. 10. Widtsoe, , Dry Farming, p. 209. Army service interrupted this work and it is not now convenient to resume it. Its imperfections are realized, but it is hoped that it adds something to our knowledge in this field and that it may suggest further investigation. THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 4— May, 1920. CONTENTS: A Special Riemann Surface, H. H. Conwell. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post-office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-860 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII.] MAY, 1920. [No. 4. A Special Riemann Surface.* BY H. H. CONWELL. (Plates II to V.) THE purpose of this paper is to consider in detail, for elliptic functions and briefly for hyper-elliptic functions, a special Riemann surface in three space obtained as the pro- jection of the intersection of two hyper-surfaces in four space. It will be seen that the surface investigated here is of ad- vantage in the fact that it can be easily identified, from the point of view of analysis situs, with a double-faced disk hav- ing p holes; where p =[-=-^]t, n being the degree of the function. In Riemann's real representation this is obtained only after an artificial and somewhat complicated dissection of the surface, in which the determination of the branch points is a very important factor. In a sense this difficulty may be said in our case to have been merely shifted from such a dis- section to the construction of a certain real surface from its equation in three space. This construction can, however, be made very simple. In the ordinary Riemann surface the actual location of the branch points is difficult at best, and is useless so far as the investigations bearing on the surface are concerned. The actual construction of the surface under con- sideration will be avoided except in the simplest case, and then only as much of its outline as is necessary will be ob- tained. This construction will be found to be comparatively simple. * Received for publication on April 29, 1920. tr^-n . , n- 1 L 2 J ^ understood to mean the greatest integer in 2 (41) 42 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Let f{w, z) ^0 he an irreducible polynomial in the two complex variables w and z, w^ith either real or imaginary con- stant coefficients. Substituting w =^u -\- iv and z^ x -\- iy in the above relation we obtain the equation, P (x,y,u,v) -{-iQ (x,y,u,v) =0 (1) Whence, P (x,y,u,v) =0 (2) Q (x,y,u,v) =0 (3) The last two equations represent real three dimensional mani- folds in the real four space (x, y, u, v) . Their intersection in four space will be the surface $. Assume that w ^w^ when z = Zq. It is then possible, in the neighborhood z^^, w^, to ex- pand {w — w^) in powers of {z — z^) and by analytical con- tinuation to go from the neighborhood of z^ to the neighbor- hood of z^. As z changes from z^, to z^, w will change from Wq into one of the values w^ corresponding to z^. If this process be continued until z by a continuous succession of values re- turns to z„, w may or may not return to w,,. In the first case the representative point on $ corresponding to a pair of values {w, z) will describe a closed path, while in the second case the path will be open. The obvious one to one correspondence between points of the surface $ and sets of values {w, z) shows that this surface can play the same role as the ordinary Rie- mann surface. If between equations (2) and (3) v is eliminated there arises the relation, F {x,y,u)=Q (4) which represents in the three space {x, y,u), a surface F, viz., the projection of in that space. This surface F, as well as 4>, can be used as a Riemann image, this being the configuration to be investigated in this paper. We shall limit ourselves, as before stated, to the hyper-elliptic case. It is evident that the X, y or u projection of $ would serve the same purpose as F. Before proceeding with the general cubic a special cubic will be considered in detail, and enough of the resulting surface constructed to show its properties as a Riemann image. (This special cubic is chosen on account of its adaptability to cross- section representation.) conwell: a special reimann surface. 43 Consider the equation iv^ = z^ — Slz — SO (5) from which p = u^ — v^ _ (x^ _ sxy- — 31a; _ 30) = 0 . . (6) and Q = 2uv— (Sx-jj — r — 31?/) =0 (7) The intersection of P = 0 and Q = 0 in four space is the sur- face *. The V projection of in three space has for its equa- tion F (x, 7j, u) = 4u' — Au- {x^ — 3x?/2 — 31a; — 30) — (3a;27/ — ?/ — 3l7y)2 = 0 (8) This surface is symmetric to both the XU and XY planes. The trace on the XU plane is the XX axis and the real curve u- = x'' — Zlx — SO (9) representing all the real pairs {ii\z) satisfying the original equation. The curve represented by (9) consists of an in- finite branch and an oval (see fig. I). The XY trace consists of the XX axis and the hyperbola (see fig. II). 3a:2 — 7/ = 31 (10) This hyperbola and the XX axis are the only double curves of the surface. From equation (4) v^^e obtain, u= ^V\[s + {S''-\-T~)y^''' (11) where S = xy" — Sxy- — 31a; — 30 (12) and T = Sxhj — qf — Sly (13) In this expression for u only positive values of the inner radical are considered as only real points on the surface F are to be in- vestigated. Investigations of ( 11 ) show that when y = 0,^ =0 for all values of x except 6,-1 and — 5, where it is infinite. For values of x :^ V'^and y > 0, V- is positive or negative ac- cording to whether u is positive or negative, while for negative values of y it is positive or negative according to whether u is negative or positive. Hence for all sections of the surface parallel 44 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. to the y U plane, where x — \H there will be either both a maximum and minimum point, or a double point, for y equal zero and for no other finite value of y. For x > \H , there are other maximum and minimum points and double points, and the curves all pierce the X Y plane along the curve represented by equation ( 10) . From the preceding discussion and an inspecti6n of equation (9) and figure I it is evident that the orthogonal projection of F upon the X U plane will be nowhere within the oval, and hence that there is a hole in F for which the oval is the central section. It is obvious that the surface F is composed of two sheets (see figs. I-VII) which hang together along the XX axis from — 00 to — 5, from — 1 to +6 and pass through each other along the branch of the double curve 7" = 0 which lies to the right of the YY axis. Sections parallel to the XU plane give curves composed of two branches which cut each other in points on one branch of the double curve T ^ 0 and nowhere else. Each branch con- tinues to infinity and there unites parabolically with the other. The YU sections also unite parabolically at infinity, and hence the two sheets of the surface F merge into each other every- where at infinity. The surface F may be reduced to a double-faced disk with one hole as follows: For all values of a: > \-^ deform the o surface by pulling the sheets through each other in such a way that instead of cutting in two distinct points on T" ^ 0 for each value of x they will cut each other in two coincident points. This deformation will be continuous and approach zero in magnitude as x approaches \-^ and will nowhere O produce a tear in the surface. Having made this deformation, project the surface upon the XU plane and the result will be a double-faced disk with one hole. Starting at a point P in sheet I and continuing in any direc- tion on the surface F we can always return to P. This closed path may be all in sheet / or in both sheets / and II. It may or may not pass through or around the oval. In the latter case the circuit can always be reduced to zero while in the former it cannot be so reduced, unless there be an even number of conwell: a special reimann surface. 45 such passages and they be in opposite directions. Hence any closed circuit on F can be reduced to zero or to sums of mul- tiples of two irreducible circuits. These facts show the elliptic function to be doubly periodic over F. THE general elliptic CASE FOR WHICH f {z) HAS REAL ROOTS. We shall now extend the preceding discussion to a general elliptic function of the type IV- = z^ — pz -\r q (14) where p is positive and q either positive or negative, and where the roots of z^ — VZ + q = 0 (16) are all real. It will be shown that the resulting surface F {x, y,u) =0 has properties identical with those of the special case already investigated, if judged from the point of view of the investigations of this paper. We obtain at once, as in the preceding case, F {x, y, u) = Au^ — 4m-S — T- = 0 (16) where S = x^ — 2>xy- — vx + q (17) and T = Sx^y — y- — py (18) The similarity of the XU and XY traces to those in the pre- ceding case is obvious. From (16) we obtain, du ]/2y[-6x(S^-r)y^-\-Sx'-\- 6x''y' -6qx -\-'Sy' + 4p y'' - p' '^y~ A. (S-- T^)y^ [S + (5^ + T^)y^ y/^ . it 11 For ^ = 0, — = 0 for all values of x except the roots of x^— px + q = 0, where it is infinite. For all negative values of x =^~ , J- is positive or negative for values oiy > 0, according to whether u is positive or negative, and negative or positive for ?/ < 0 ac- cording as u is positive or negative. Hence for all sections parallel to the y U plane, where x = \-J^ there will be a maximum and minimum point for y equal zero and for no other finite value of y . Since the sum of the roots of (15) are zero, at least one root must be negative and at l6ast one positive. It is also evident that the m 46 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. ovalfpasses|[through the two smaller roots of (15). Let ri,r2,n, be the roots of ( 15) , where n> r2> ri; then ri + ro + rs = 0 and — nnrs = q. From the last relation and the fact that ^ P s > g it is evident that g p ^^ > 2 rh and therefore \| > r2 ; other words, x = V? does not lie within the oval. For X > ^^ there are other maximum and minimum points or double points than for y equal zero. As in the simpler case these sections are parabolic in nature. These investigations show that this surface has no impor- tant characteristics, from our point of view, not common to the more special case and is therefore always reducible to a double-faced disk with one hole. THE GENERAL ELLIPTIC CASE. Up to this point the investigations have been confined to the type, w- = z^' — pz -^ q, where p and q were both real, p positive and the roots all real. It will now be shown that no generality is lost by this restriction. Consider the general elliptic case, w- = f (z) (20) where f(z) =a,{z~ J\) (z — r,) (z — r,) (z — 7',) ... (21) and a„» ^'i. *"2> ^'s^ ^'4» ^^e real or imaginary constants. The elliptic integral resulting from this form may by a well known transformation of /(z) be made to depend upon an integral of the type, g(z) =bAz' — a,z — a,)^ (22) No generality is therefore lost by replacing / (2;) by g (z) . The constants of (22) may be positive or negative, real or imag- inary. If tto and ttg are arbitrarily changed the surface F will undergo a deformation. The only matter of interest in the present paper is vv^hether such a deformation increases or de- creases the number of holes in F. It is of course evident that if the number of holes is diminished as a, and a^ assume the * Boehm, Elliptische Functionen, Zweitci- Teil, page 128. conwell: a special reimann surface. 47 values a^2 and a^^, that as a., and a,^ approach a^^ and a^^ in value, one or more holes in the surface must be continually- decreasing in size in such a way that when a", and a"., are reached the surface has a node at the point (x\„ t/,^, u^) on F and vice versa. If (.i\„ y,„ u^, %\) is the corresponjiing point on $, the latter will also have a node at this point. Therefore corresponding to nodes on F are nodes on . At such nodes the tangent hyper-planes to P {x, y, u, v) = 0 and Q {x, y, u,v)=0 are coincident. In order to investigate the nature of F at such places write the equations of the tangent hyper-planes to P and Q at the point (x^„ y^, u^, v^), and the conditions for their coincidence. The equations in question are, {x-x^)P'x, + {y-y^) P'y,, + {v-v^)P'e,, + { u - m, ) P'u,, = 0, ( 23 ) and (a:-a:o)Q'xo + (?/-?/o)QVo + (w-Wo)Q'uo + (i'-r„)Q'v„ = 0..(24) The conditions for these two hyper-planes to be coincident is that PX _ Z^ _ Z^ _ Zx? Q'xo - QVo ~ Q'uo - Q'vo" • It is evident, however, from the relation P {x,y,u,v.) -\-iQ(x,y,u,v) = 0 that P'xo = Q'yo, PVo= -Q'xo, P'u„ = QVo, and P'v„= -Q'u.,. Hence P'^'xo+Q'^'x„ = 0, P^Vo+Q^VnO, = P- V.+Q-'uo = 0 and P'^'vo+Q'''e„ = 0 and therefore Px'o = PV„ = P'u„ = Pv„ = Q'x.. = Q'yo = Q'u,. = Q'v„ = 0 . In the above relations P ^u- — V- — s {x, y) and Q = 2uv — t (x, y) , therefore it follows that u = 0 and i' = 0 and therefore that g (z) = 0. Moreover, since P'xo+?Q'xo = Oand P'yo+i'QVo = 0 48 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. it follows that s'xo + it'xo = 0 and sVo + ii'vo = 0. Therefore g' (z^) = 0, showing that z is a. double root of g (z) = 0. It is evident therefore that the surfaces P and Q, and hence F, may be deformed in any way we please without affecting its analysis situs properties provided that during this deformation g (z) = 0 never acquires any double roots. These conditions allow a deformation that will change com- plex roots into real and unequal roots without any two roots becoming equal in the process. Hence we may in this manner transform g (z) into j (z), where the roots of j (z) are real and unequal. The above conclusions show that no generality is lost in con- sidering the simpler case and thereby avoiding the difficult task of dealing with imaginary coefficients. The difficulty introduced by imaginary coefficients is that due to the lack of symmetry with respect to the XU plane. It is evident now that the surface constructed from the simplest possible relation is sufficient for a complete exposi- tion of the Riemann surface properties of the most general elliptic function. A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THE HYPER-ELLIPTIC CASE. As an introduction to the general hyper-elliptic function we will consider briefly a simple numerical example of the same. The details of the surface F will be considered sufficiently to show that the preceding discussion can be applied in all its essential details to the higher form. For this purpose con- sider the equation ^2 _ (^ _ 5) (^ _ 1) (. _^ 1) (^ •+ 2) (^ + 3) . The surface F(x, y, u)^ 0 will be represented by 42^4 _ 4^2^- _ 2^2 ^ 0, where and T = bxHj — lOit'V + y^ — 60:r-7/ + 20?/ — 60xy + 19?/. The surface F is symmetric to the XU and XY planes. The trace on the XU plane is the XX axis and the real curve v^= (x — 5)(x — l)(x ^1) (x + 2) (a; + 3) conwell: a special riemann surface. 49 representing all the real pairs (w,z) satisfying the original equation. The latter consists of two ovals and an infinite branch. The trace on the XY plane is the double curve repre- sented by the equation T- = 0. This curve is composed of the XX axis and four infinite branches which are hyperbolic in form and coaxial (see fig. VIII). Sections parallel to the XU plane give rise to curves which have double points on the branches I and III of the double curve, as shown in the figure, and nowhere else. This is shown by an investigation of the value of S in the neighbor- hood of these branches. For the two branches to hang to- gether or intersect each other, it is necessary that T be equal to zero and S be negative or zero. Every pair of values {x, y) on one of these infinite branches reduces T to zero, but none of these pairs on branch II or IV will cause S to be negative or zero. Therefore the two sheets of the surface F do not cut through each other along either of these branches. The two sheets hang together along the XX axis from — oo to — 3, — 2 to — 1, from + 1 to +5 and cut each other along the two branches I and III of 7" ^ 0. To prove, as in the elliptic case, that the two sheets never hang together for any finite value of y except zero would be very complicated, and so another method is employed. It is easily seen that any section parallel to the YU plane will give rise to a curve which has a number, say d, double points. But this curve is composed of two branches which intersect in d points in the XY plane. If d is odd the two branches are odd and hence each branch stretches off to infinity in both directions. If d is even, each branch is even and hence cuts the line at infinity in an even number of places and is accordingly a closed curve. In the first case (d odd) the XX axis must be composed of intersection points, while in the latter it is not. This leads to the conclusion that all sections which cut the curve u = f (x) , y :^ 0 give rise to even branches and all others to odd. Hence the former are always reducible to traces of the form, fig. V or fig. VI, while the latter are always reducible to branches of the form fig. VII. From this will follow, as in the elliptic case, that F is two-sheeted and contains two holes. By a deformation similar to the one de- scribed in the example of the elliptic case, it may be brought into the form of a double-faced disk with two holes. Hence all 4 — Sci. Bui.— 860 50 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. closed circuits on F may be reduced to zero or to sums of mul- tiples of four irreducible circuits. Having considered the elliptic case in detail and investigated briefly a special hyper-elliptic function, we now proceed to the most general hyper-elliptic function, w = R{z), where R{z) is of degree n. Forming the equation of the surface F in the usual manner, there arises the equation F{x, y, u)= 0, where F is of degree 2n in {x, y,u). F(x,y,u)^Q may always be put in the form, 4u' _ 4u^s — r-=o, where S and T are polynomials in x and y of degree n. As has been shown in the preceding considerations, R{z) may be assumed to have only real roots. Hence the surface F is symmetric to the XU and XY planes. The XU trace will con- sist of the XX axis and a curve representing all real pairs (w, z) satisfying the original equation. The latter curve will consist of one or two infinite branches, according to whether n is odd or even, and p ovals. The XY trace will be a double curve represented by T" = 0 and consisting of the XX axis and a curve represented by an equation of degree {n — 1). This double curve represents all the real double points of the surface F. The surface F is composed of two sheets which hang to- gether everywhere along the XX axis except for values of x which satisfy the equation u^ R{x) ,y ^0, and cut each other along certain branches of the double curve T = 0. Cor- responding to the v ovals there will be p holes in F. All closed circuits on F may be reduced to sums of multiples of 2.p irre- ducible circuits. DOUBLE CURVES. The double curves of the surface F arise as the result of projecting the surface $ from four space into three space, the center of projection being at infinity. Whenever a pro- jecting line cuts $ in two places a double point occurs on F. If the two points on be real the double point on F will be a real double point connected with the surface F, but if the two points on be imaginary the resulting double point on F will be isolated. This gives rise to two classes of double curves, one being on the surface F and the other being related to the sur- face but isolated from it. conwell: a special riemann surface. 51 In the elliptic case the double curves consisted of the XX axis and an hyperbola. That part of the XX axis included by the real part of the curve u = f(x), 2/ = 0 is isolated. Of the hyperbola, that branch lying to the left of the YU plane is isolated. In the hyper-elliptic example the double curve consists of the XX axis and four infinite branches. What v^as said of the XX axis for the elliptic case holds here also. Of the four infinite branches two are isolated (see fig. VIII), and two are curves of intersection of the two sheets of the surface. The same conditions will exist in the general hyper-elliptic case, the XX axis always being a double curve with the same law as to isolated points as in the simpler cases. The other double curves will be partly isolated and partly curves of in- tersection of the two sheets of the surface. The isolated curves separate themselves from the other class in that they always pass through one or more of the ovals, while the curves of in- tersection of sheets never do. 52 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. U -J — -X a 6 2 9 ' = — ( Pll /' + Pl2 <^ ) '^ ' = — ( P2I /' + 2522 <^ ) . r (3) J *G. M. Green, On the Theory of Curved Surfaces, and Canonical Systems in Projective Differen- tial Geometry. Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 16 (1915), pp. 1-12. STOUFFER: INVARIANTS AND COVARIANTS. 61 The substitution from ( 4 ) into ( 3 ) now gives \ «n y" + '^12 z" + (wn 'in + W12 '-'21 ) ?/ + (wii '-'12 + W12 "22) z = 0, (5) < _ _ _ _ ( «21 ?/" + '-'22 2" + ( W21 'ni + U22 "-IX ) y -\- { W21 ai2 + U22 «22 )2 = 0, where* 2 (6) Wik = gik -p'ik- SpijPjk, (/, fc = l, 2). j = i The system (5) may be put into the form ,^\u"+'Qn~y-\-qi2Z= 0, {^)i - _ _ - _ ( Z" + 921 2/ + 922 2=0, if we write _ 2 2 (7) A g.k = - - -hi ''Ik Mil, (/, A; = 1, 2) , i=ii=i where -^ji is the algebraic minor '>(ji in the determinant of the trans- formation (1). Wilczynski calls (B) the semi-canonical form of the system ( A ) . The differentiation of equations ( 7 ) gives _ 22 (8) Ag'ik= 2 - [•''ji "11.^^1+ .^ji'^'ikWji + --I 'ji'^ikMjil- 1=1 j=i _ A'9ik, {i,k = 1, 2). By the use of (4) we find 22 2 - -^'jiWji = - --Iji [- iVn + P22) Wji + - PjmWu,i], j=l j=l m=l A' = - (Pll + P22)A, whence it follows at once that (9) A9'ik= "- ^'•-'ji"iki'ji, (z, A: = l,2), 1=1 j=i where 2 (10) ?^ik = w'ik+ 2 (pijWjk- PjkWij), (2,A; = 1,2). j = i It follows without calculation that ( 11) A g"ik = ^' 2 Ay, '^ikWji, (i, k = l,2), i=ii=i where 2 (12) Wik = w'ik+ - (Pij^jk-Pjk^'ij), (i, A: = l,2). j=i *The expression here used for Ujk differs in sign as well as in numerical coefficients from that used by Wilczynski. 62 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Let us rewrite transformations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) in the form (13) r fin ^22 - (3i2 fin ,^0. \z^ (B21Y+ P22Z,. (14) c=|(x), and find the most general nature which these transformations may have and still leave {B) in the semi-canonical form. By these transformations ( S ) is converted into d- Y d^ Z d Y (/3i2r' + 2/3'i2l')-— +(y8"ii + gu/?ii + gi2i82i)y + d c (15)^ (/8"l2+ 911/812 + 912 /?22)Z= 0, /321 (^r^ + /?22 (r)^ ^ + (/32ir + 2 /?'2ir) ^ + (/?22c" + 2/?'22l')TT- +(/?"21+g21/8ll + 922^321)7 + (/8"22 + ^21 ^12 + 922 /?22 ) Z = 0 . This system is in the form of system ( J5 ) if and only if ^iir + 2Ai^^' = 0, {i,j = 1,2), that is, if h (16) A, = :^, (i,i = i,2), where 6ij are constants. If these values for /3ij are substituted into (15) that system may be written in the form rd'Y -7Zr + QnY + Qi2Z = 0, 1 d^' (C) -t and b\i = fij and z' hy rr at the same time that q,\, and 9'ik are replaced by ?/ik and V\^, re- spectively. Thus we have f P = y<7 - zr, C = (uny + ui2z) z — {U'2\y + U22Z) y, E = {vny + V12Z) z - {V2\y + V22z)y, 0 = {uny + Ui2z)t — {U2\y + U22Z) i> . By the same argument as in the case of seminvariants these four semi-covariants are known to form a complete system for (A). 4. The Canonical Form and the Invariants. We shall now proceed to find those functions of the seminvari- ants in their semi-canonical form which remain unchanged except for a factor Tfyn by the transformation (20). We shall thus obtain the functions of the coefficients of (B) and their deriva- tives which remain unchanged by (18), except for the factor 1 (33: "^ STOUFFER: INVARIANTS AND COVARIANTS. 67 Equation ( 17 ) shows that ( 20 ) converts ( B ) into a new system whose coefficients Qik are given by the equations fQn= 7w i^r-l^'^q.^, {i= 1,2), Qik = TTTy^ 9ik, (t,k = 1,2; I 9^ k). V We notice that Qu + Q22 = j^Ty ( 2 '/"'^ - 'z ' + gil + qi2), so that Qii + Q12 = 0, provided that (35) //. = r/ - }, t/-' = g-n + g22. • From equations (34) we have at once, if (35) is satisfied, (36) ^^ Qii= Y^iq-u-lD, {i = l, 2), U ) Qik=7|W9ik, {i,k = 1,2; 19^ k). whence (37)-<^ V "" Q'u = T^ [q'u -\r -2r, {q^ -hi)], Vt ) Q"n= JJTy [?,i-U"+/— 27g,-5^(g'„-U') + ^vCqu-^D], Q'ik = -|^(g'.k-2-/;9.k), {i,k = 1,2; i 9^ k) , Q\ = -^ (?ik - 2 7 gik - 5 rg',k + 5 V^ 9:k) • Let us now assume that (B) has been converted into j ? + Q2li + Q22^- 0, where Q,k have the values (36) so that Qn + Q22 = 0. The sys- tem ( D ) is called the canonical form of ( A ) . If the seminvariants for (D) corresponding to I , J , K, L for (B) are denoted by /i, Ji, Ki, L\, respectively, equations (37) show that 68 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. fir = o,j^ = j^[j-U'], W) K-\{I'y-2r,-^{J -IP) + ax Ari^(J-]P) K'i = i^'y (38) ^ '^1^-^^^'^n-^^^^ AJ-\P)- Ix - (I'/ 47(J-iP)i +15V^/-(J-17'0 - ' dx 20v^(J- ID j, -21 -^{J- \P)+^P{J -\P) ox' -hrA±[K- \{ry] - 2i4-{J-\P)i ( ax ax ) + bry\^(J-\P)-AI{J-\P)l ' dx^ ) + 15r,2 \K-\_{i'y + 25r/(J- IP) 25r,^-i (J-i P) dx V The system (D) is left in the canonical form by the trans- formation (20) provided that ."- = 0. We shall now seek those functions of the seminvariants in their semi-canonical form which are left unchanged in value by the transformation (20) subject to the condition ," = 0. From (34) or by direct substitution we find that (20) with p- = 0 converts Qik into (39) Qik = jjyQ.^, {i, k = l, 2), STOUFFER: INVARIANTS AND COVARIANTS. 69 whence it follows that (40) Q'ik = />/xa (Q'ik — 2 5/ Qik), These results show by direct substitution and by differentiation that J\, K\, L\, and their derivatives for the transformed equa- tions have the values r - 1 — 1 J\ = (^')4 Ji, J'l = ( fcM-^ ( J'l — 4r/ Ji), (41)<; (t ) I-l = T^(Ll-5r,K'i + 5r;V"l + 15r,2Ki-25r/Vl + 25r/Jl). If the transformation (20) is made infinitesimal by putting where Jt, t. The resulting system of partial differential equations whose solutions are invariants of {D) under the transformation (20) with /' = 0 contains two independent equations. There are therefore four such absolute .nvariants involving the variables Ji , J'\, J" I, Ki, K'l, L\. The five relative invariants may be taken to be ^ ^4 = Jl, «4.1 = 9(J'l)2 -8JlJ"l, ^10- (J'l)'' - iJlKl, W,5= SWioJ'i - 2W'ioJl, "wiH= 1 (J'i)'^-4JiKi iL + Ki(J"i - 2Ki)2 + Ji(K'i)''' -J'xK\{J'\-2 Kx). (42)^ (43) 70 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. The system of equations for the invariants involving also the next higher derivatives of J\, K\, L\, contains no more equations but three more variables. The three solutions may be taken to be (44)^ 4 J, 7/'i, - 15J'iT^ir„ 4 Jx e'ls - 18J'iW,8. The invariants involving the next higher derivatives of J\, K\, L\, may obviously be obtained by combining J\ and J'l with the invariants (44). A continuation of this process evidently gives all the independent relative invariants. The invariants (43) may be expressed in terms of I , J , K, L, and their derivatives by means of (38). However, a compari- son of (38) and (41) shows that this substitution can be made, except for a factor tttyth > t)y replacing in (43) Ji by J — 17', J'l by ^(J-]P), J"iby ^^(J-i7-^)-47 {J-\P),Kx by d d K - 1 (7')--', TC'i by ^ ] 7C - i (7')^ ( - 2/^ ( J - 1 7'^) and U by L - 1 (7")2+ 47 \K-l- {I'r f - 27 ^ ( J - ] P) + 4 7''' ( J - ] 7- ) . The results of these substitutions are as follows: re,=j-\r\ dux = 9(0',)- - 80,6% + 3210,', e,, = {0',y-4.f>,\K-\ii'r\, H,, = 5t),u O'i - 2 0\oO,, 0,, = 0,, [L - 1 (7")--' + 47 { K - 1 (7')' \-2I0",+ APoq + \K-\{rf\ \o",-uo,-2K+\{Py-\' + o,(K'-^pr-2P->',y- y, {K'-\ir-2U)',) j 0", -^I0,-2K+ \ {Pf\ = Ou.\L-Hi'y\ + \K-}{Py\{j"-^ir-2Kr + 0,{K' - \I ry- - 0',{K' - i,U") {J" - \I P -2K). The same reasoning as in the case of the seminvariants shows that the expressions (45) are invariants of (A) and that all inde- pendent invariants of (A) are obtained in this way. (45)-^ STOUFFER: INVARIANTS AND COVARIANTS. 71 There is another expression for an invariant which is easily obtained and which is of geometrical interest. From equation (21) we easily deduce the equations D (Qn - Q22) = {bu h22-\-hv2b2i) {qn — 922) +2621622912- 2612611921, DQ12 = 612622(911 — 922) + 622^912 — 612'^ 921, D Q21 = - 621 611 (911 - 922) - 62i''^ 912 + 611'^ 921 , and exactly similar equations involving derivatives of any order. Thus we know at once that the determinant (46) 911 — 922 912 921 9' 11 — 9 '22 9 '12 9 '21 q"n-q"22 ^'vi ^2\ is the semi-canonical form of a semin variant. Furthermore equations (39) and (40) show that it is the semi-canonical form of an invariant. The expression in terms of the original coeffi- cients for this invariant is (47) 6. un — U22 I'W — ?'22 WW — W22 1(12 ri2 IC\2 M2I 1-21 W2I 5. The Covariants. Let us now return to the semi-canonical form of the semi-co- variants and assume that they have been written down for equations (D). If they are denoted by Pi, Ci, fii, Oi, equations (39) and (40) show that their values for the equations obtained by transforming (D) by (20) with /^ = 0 are as follows: Pi = Pi, (r) Ci = {El r Ci, 2-/;Ci),Oi = 7^(Oi + ir;Ci) (? )" Therefore four relative covariants in their canonical form are Pi, Ci,£;i + 40i, 2JiEi-CiJ'i. By converting these expressions into the original coefficients and variables we find the complete system of covariants for (A) to be P, C,C3 = E + 4(0-i/P) =E-{-2N,Ci = 20iE-e'iC. THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 6— May, 1920. CONTENTS: Possible Methods of Classifying White, Yellow and Orange Staphylococci, Martha Bays. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post-ofBce in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-860 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII.] MAY, 1920. [No. 6. Possible Methods of Classifying White, Yellow and Orange Staphylococci.* BY MARTHA BAYS. From Department of Bacteriology, University of Kansas, La\vre7ice, Kan. INTRODUCTION. STAPHYLOCOCCI were first found in pus by Pasteur ^ (1880). Ogston - confirmed Pasteur's work a year later (1881), and in 1883 Becker •' was able to isolate staphylococci in pure culture. Rosenback ^ (1884) described staphylococcus pyogenes, dividing it into two varieties corresponding to the orange and white pigmentation, calling them var. aureus and var. albus. In 1908 the Winslows ■' based their classification upon growth, pigment production and liquefaction of gelatin. Dudgeon'^ (1908) found staphylococcus albus commonly in normal tissue while staphylococcus aureus was usually ob- tained from pathogenic sources. He was interested in the interchangeability of these two varieties and worked upon a classification of these organisms, using glucose, lactose, malt- ose, glycerin, cane sugar, raffinose, erythrite, salacin, litmus milk and neutral red. He finally concluded that they all be- longed to the same species. Winslow, Rothberg and Parsons' (1920) studied 180 cul- tures of white and orange staphylococci to determine their ac- tion upon the sugars, glucose, lactose, sucrose, maltose, raffin- ose, mannitol, dulcitol, salacin and inulin. They used two dif- ferent media, the dehydrated bacto nutrient broth prepared by * Thesis offered as partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Arts, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. Received for publication August 28, 1920. (75.) 76 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. the Digestive Ferments Company, and the peptone media of Clark and Lubs. They found that : "The action of the staphy- lococci upon glucose, maltose, sucrose and lactose would seem to offer a possible basis of classification, although the marked differences due to the effect of the medium would suggest the use of this property as a differential test might prove of doubtful value." They were able to divide the organisms into three main groups. Group I, organisms fermenting all four sugars; group II, organisms fermenting glucose, maltose and sucrose, but not lactose. In group III they classified all the rest of the strains and stated that it was a "highly heterogeneous agglom- eration." They found that "gelatin liquefaction was slightly but dis- tinctly more common among the active fermenters," and that "white and orange pigments were fairly evenly divided among the various fermentative groups with a slightly greater pre- ponderance of vigorous fermenters in the orange than in the white group." Their tests for indol were all negative and nitrate broth gave almost uniformly positive results showing reduction. Winslow, Rothberg and Parsons, after this extensive work upon various sugars, nitrates, indol chromogenesis and gelatin liquefaction, state that : "Fundamentally we are inclined to agree with Dudgeon in considering the whole group a reason- ably homogeneous one, and it seems clear the central type of the whole genus is the orange-pigment forming, vigorously fermenting, gelatin liquefying, somewhat actively pathogenic St. aureus. As we depart from this type there is a progres- sive weakening of the various biochemical activities of this more vigorous form. The loss of one characteristic of the St. aureus type tends in some degree to be associated with the loss of others. Thus the white chromogens are less actively patho- genic than the orange forms, less actively gelatinolytic and slightly less vigorous in fermentation action. The forms which fail to liquefy gelatin also tend to be less active ferment- ers than the liquefiers." The object of the present paper was to obtain white, yellow and orange staphylococci from as many different sources as possible and to see whether the group would lend itself to rational or satisfactory subdivision making use of fermenta- bays: classifying staphylococci. 77 tion, pigmentation, hemolysis, proteolysis on milk agar plates, liquefaction of gelatin, blackening of lead acetate agar, and the determining of limiting hydrogen ion concentrations of each strain in dextrose broth. I hoped to see if there was a correlation of any of these with source and pathogenicity. In order to do this, I have subdivided this work under six headings, as follows : 1. Assuming as Dudgeon that staphylococci seemed to be one species and disregai'ding the characteristic of pigment production and liquefac- tion of gelatin, is it possible to subdivide staphylococci in general upon a basis of fermentation of carbohydrates. In determining data for this question, I have asked myself to note the following questions: Does the classification by fermentation reaction offer any correlation w^ith pig- ment production, liquefaction of gelatin, with pathogenicity, with source? and, Is there a correlation between rapidity of fermentation and of pig- ment production and pathogenicity as suggested by Winslow? 2. After studying staphylococci as a whole from the standpoint of fermentation reactions, it was next decided to assume pigmentation as the primary differentiation into subgroups of white, yellow and orange staphylococci and attempt the subdivision of each of these by means of fermentation reaction. The borderline yellows and orange pigment pro- ducers were placed in their respective groups of yellow or orange. 3. The next step was to assume, as before, pigmentation as a pri- mary differentiation into white, yellow and orange staphylococci then to attempt a subdivision of each of these by means of blood agar plates, placing the hemolizers and nonhemolizers in separate groups as has been done for streptococci, these were again subdivided upon the basis of fer- mentation reactions. In the work on hemolysis, a comparative study was made using different kinds of blood, such as rabbit, sheep and human. 4. A similar study of staphylococci in which pigmentation was made use of for primary subdivision of each group, subdivided again in ac- cordance with the ability of various strains in that group to produce proteolysis upon milk agar plates. This gave proteolytic and nonproteoly- tic subdivision. These were further divided upon the basis of fermenta- tion. It was necessary to study the reationship between reaction of media and degree of proteolysis in obtaining data for this work. 5. To study the ability of the various staphylococci to produce hy- drogen sulphide, all staphylococci were first inoculated into both one per cent peptone broth agar containing lead acetate, and three per cent pep- tone broth agar containing lead acetate to see whether there was any correlation between the blackening of lead acetate and any other char- acteristics. I might say there was noted apparently a correlation be- tween pathogenicity and blackening of three per cent peptone lead acetate agar. 6. Lastly, it was thought worth while to determine the limiting hydrogen ion concentrations of all these various staphylococci in dextrose dipotassium phosphate broth to see whether there exist high and low 78 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. ratio groups and whether these correlate with any other characteristics and data. In all, 75 strains of staphylococci were studied. These were obtained from pathological conditions, in various foods and three strains from the American Museum of Natural History. My tentative definition for staphylococci was cocci in which the division was in two planes giving rise to flat sheets of cells and irregular masses. TECHNIQUE. All organisms used in this work were freshly isolated and were first grown upon agar, + 1 to phenolphthalein, then inoculated into plain broth to determine morphology. In studying fermentation, the organisms were inoculated into one per cent sugar broth solutions of dextrose, lactose, saccharose, mannite, maltose, salacin, dulcite, inulin, raffinose, glycerin, galactose and xylose, and tested in 48 to 72 hours with litmus. For confirmation, the organisms were inoculated into Hess's semisolid medium containing Andrede as an indicator plus the following carbohydrates — dextrose, lactose, saccharose and mannite. One per cent peptone lead acetate agar and three per cent peptone lead acetate agar were made according to directions given by Jordan. Litmus milk, one per cent peptone gelatin, Dunham's pep- tone, nitrate broth were made according to directions in Stand- ard Methods of Water Analysis. Gram stains were made from cultures after 24 hours' growth upon an agar slant, using carbol gentian violet as the primary stain and counterstaining with an aqueous solution Bismarck brown. The chromogenic power was determined by spreading a por- tion of a culture two weeks old upon white paper, as suggested by Winslow. Blood agar plates were made by adding 3 cc. of whole de- fibrinated blood to 100 cc. of agar neutral to phenolphthalein. Sheep, rabbit and human blood were used. The sheep blood was all obtained from the same animal, three different rabbits were bled, and human blood was obtained from several indi- viduals. BAYS: CLASSIFYING STAPHYLOCOCCI. 79 Milk plates were made by adding 10 cc. of milk to 100 cc. of agar. The agar was adjusted to + 2, + 1, 1, and — 1 to phenolphthalein. The chlorimetric or indicator method was used in determin- ing the hydrogen ion concentration. Buffers were made up according to Cole."^ Methyl red, Phenol red and brom cresol purple were used as indicators as suggested by Clark and Lubs.9 The synthetic media used contained .5 per cent Bacto pep- tone (Digestive Ferments Company), .5 per cent dextrose and .5 per cent Ki.'HP04 titrated neutral to methyl orange. The media was sterilized at 10 pounds for 15 minutes, in order not to destroj^ the vitamines. After sterilization the hydrogen ion concentration of the broth was 7.3. As previously mentioned, the first division of this work was a study of the fermentation reaction of all strains of staphy- lococci, especially with regard to dextrose, lactose, saccharose and mannite. As a matter of supplying additional informa- tion maltose, galactose, xylose, salacin are included in the report. The summary of this data is included in table I. Nomenclature was taken from Winslow's Systematic Rela- tionship of Coccacese. 80 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. o « 33333?;333ai3fJj;j::3aJca^-=j ■ enMrnoioxl o S^- . . ._ - . M I I M I l^im^i^'ad: 3 — . o BAYS: CLASSIFYING STAPHYLOCOCCI. 81 ? I M I i I i I I I I I I I l + l I I I M M M l + l + l M i I I+++I++ 5 H B + + + + - + + I I I I I I < B c o o o 0; V • o ,: ° ci £ o — g:r S ttt, 2 a i' 0) J2 ■ .^x a o lu ^^ H m W, , ;- OT o o o 6 — Sci. Bui. — 860 O o -— Oj -— I I I o == I I I I MM ++++ I I ++++ + i^o^ <. H t/i w^ 82 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. z o pa d 'J CO S 2 o 11 CE ++ 0 4 3 l-H + 4- 1 03 2 a t < -+ J 1++I 1+ 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1+1 1 1 1 "3 ++I 1 1 1 is 1 1 1 l&l i mill CI] O 1 Q bu .2 C3 S a1 a 03 o 1 ■* g 2 o a til fe &^ & i ^ ^ § O Ed O K & O E t c c -I O Q C 1 6 c- O iC w >-i m lO < rfi H ai o d '3 a 2 O + Aureus. + Epidermidis. + Luteus. + Flavus. ■d + +I + -^ S + +I 1 -d + +1 1 ++1 + 1 d is a c 1 o. ^ S 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 g i 1 1 1 i +111 d CO ++1 1 ++1 1 1 1 1 1 p ++++ 1 a 0) c.t: 0(S bC bC 33 Source. ^ 2 o e < 6 CO in -> c^ CJ e OS o '5 OJ Clj o fe t~. 0 *j p. ^3 0 Tt< 0 CO cu «J o ^ t. 02 a a ^ § - r- t- 00 fr* o-^o ic »n oo r^ CC t^ GO c; Ci in c-i 00 c: Ci oo iC m lO Tj- IT! '^ 000 co c^ 00 tH ■yD -rj- lO iM Tl — t- -rf — OOO ic ^ ":! 000 *c 00 oc S 1 — « c^co -T>- W5 5© t^OO Ci c--^ CO -^lO 'O t^ ()— Sci. Bui.— 800 114 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Plate VII. — Application of Professor Marvin's periodocrites to various periodocrites. 1. 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LAWRENCE, KANSAS Published Semimonthly from January to June and Monthly from July to December, inclusive, by the University of Kansas. Entered as second-class matter December 29, 1910, at the post o£5ce at Lawrence, Kansas, under the act of /uly 16, 1894. 9-3728 c - nt. NOTICE OF EXCHANGES. The attention of learned societies and other institutions which exchange scientific publications with the University of Kansas is called to the list of publications of this University on the third and foui'th pages of the cover of this issue. Those marked "Supply exhausted" cannot be furnished at all, as far as the supply permits the remaining numbers will gladly be fur- nished to any of our exchanges who may need them to complete their files. Back numbers of the Kansas University Quarterly, as far as pos- sible, will be sent to those of our newer correspondents who are able and willing to reciprocate. ANNOUNCEMENT. The Kansas University Science Bulletin (continuation of the Kansas University Quarterly) is issued in parts at irregular inter- vals. Each volume contains from 300 to 400 pages of- reading-mat- ter, with necessary illustrations. Exchanges with other institutions and learned societies everywhere are solicited. All exchanges should be addressed to the Library of the University of Kansas. All communications should be addressed to The Kansas University Science Bulletin, Library of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. EDITORIAL BOARD. S. J. HUNTER, Chairman of Committee. W. C. STEVENS. W. S. HUNTER. 0. 0. STOLAND. W. J. BAUMGARTNER, Managing Editor. R. C. MOORE, Exchange Editor. H. C. TRACY. THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 10— July, 1922. CONTENTS: On the Prepar.\tion of the Aryl Isothiocyanates, F. B. Dains, R. Q. Brewster, C. P. Olander. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 8-3728 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII.] July, 1922. [No. 10. On the Preparation of the Aryl Isothiocyanates. BY F. B. DAINS, R. Q. BREWSTER, C. P. OLANDER. THE aromatic mustard oils, RNCS, which have been the sub- ject of many investigations on account of their reactivity, have been prepared by a number of different methods. The most com- mon one involves the synthesis of the disubstituted thioureas from the amines and the subsequent splitting of the thioureas into aryl isothiocyanates and the amine or some derivative. Thus thiocar- banilide, when boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, 20 per cent sulphuric acid or concentrated phosphoric acid gave phenyl mustard oil and varying amounts of aniline and triphenyl guanidine. The yield of mustard oil, based on the aniline used, in general is far from satisfactory on account of losses incurred in the prepara- tion of the thiourea and the subsequent splitting with acid.^ An interesting modification in the preparation of these compounds depends upon the action of acetic anhydride or an acid chloride such as acetyl chloride upon the thiourea.- The acetyl derivative of the thiourea, wiiich is first formed, readily breaks down into the mustard oil and an acyl-aryl amide, RNHCSNCOCH3R = RNCS + RNHCOCH3. While the above methods are of general applicability, it is evi- dent that only one-half of the original amine can be converted into the isothiocyanate, and that it necessitates the synthesis of the sub- stituted thiourea. Fortunately, however, H. S. Fry's-" interesting method for the preparation of the diaryl thiocarbamides has made readily acces- sible various thioureas that were difficult to obtain by the older methods. 1. J. 1858, 394. Z. 1869, 359. Ber. 15, 986 (1882). 2. J. Chem. Soc, 59, 400 (1891). J. Am. Chem. Soc, 22, 188 (1900). 3. J. A. Chem. Soc, 35, 1539 (1903). (3) 4 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. A second general method for the synthesis of the mustard oils is based upon the intermediate formation of the salt of a substituted dithiocarbamic acid, RNHCSSMe. This is illustrated by the Hof- mann^ syntheses of alkyl isothiocyanates, which involve the desul- phurization of the salt RNHCSSNH3R with mercuric chloride, silver nitrate, etc. In the aromatic series compounds of the type RNHCSSNH3R cannot, as a rule, be isolated, but instead lose hydrogen sulphide and go over to the ordinary thiourea, RNHCSNHR. On the other hand, the aryl amines react with carbon bisulphide and ammonia and give almost quantitatively the corresponding ammonium salts, RNHCSSNH4. This should afford a convenient source of mustard oils, provided some simple means could be devised for removing a mole of NH.SH. METHODS FOR SUCH ELIMINATION. Andreasch^ and others have shown that the ammonium dithio- carbamates react with ethyl chloroformate with the formation of aryl isothiocyanates, RNCS. The yields, however, are varying and the products are apt to be contaminated with the corresponding oxygen ureas. The method involves, too, the use of the expensive ethyl chloroformate. In a paper published in 1891, LosanitscM described a number of salts of phenyl dithiocarbamic acid and obtained from the am- monium dithiocarbamate, in water solution, the corresponding col- ored salts of copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, mercury and manganese. The statement was made "that the best method for the prepara- tion of phenyl mustard oil is to treat a solution of ammonium phenyl dithiocarbamate with copper sulphate and distill with steam. The yield of mustard oil is theoretical." No confirmatory data, however, were given for this statement. Later Heller and Bauer'^ found that lead carbonate reacted with the ammonium aryl dithio- carbamates, yielding mixtures of the aryl isothiocyanates and mono- aryl thioureas. Since considerable amounts of the aryl isothiocyanates were needed in another investigation in this laboratory, it seemed ad- visable to follow up this observation of Losanitsch and ascertain 4. Ber. 1, 170 (1868). Ber. 8, 108 (1875). Ann. 371, 201 (1909). 5. Monat. 27, 1211 (1906). Monat. 30, 701 (1909). Monat. 33, 363 (1912). Am. Ch. J. 24, 432 (1902). Ber. 35, 3368 (1902). Ber. 36, 3520 (1903). Ber. 40, 2198 (1912). 6. Ber. 24, 3021 (1891). 7. J. Prak. Ch. (2) 65, 365 (1902). DAIXS ET AL.: ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES. 5 whether the method was really a practical one and to determine if possible the optimum conditions. The investigation has shown that the general method suggested by Losanitsch is capable of giving very satisfactory results in the synthesis of aryl isothiocyanates. Yields of mustard oil up to 77 per cent based upon the weiglit of the amine have been obtained — a result which is impossible by the usual method. REACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE DESULPHURIZATION OF THE ARYL DITHIOCARBAMATES. Using aniline as a typical aryl amine the synthesis is best illus- trated by the following reactions: I. C6H5NH2 + CSo + NH4OH = C0H5NHCSSNH4 + H2O. II. C6H5NHCSSNH4 + Pb(N03)2 = CeHsNCS + NH4NO3 + HNO3+ PbS. Equation II does not occur directly, since the addition of the lead nitrate causes the precipitation of the lead salt — III. 2C6H3NHCSSNH4 + Pb(NO:j)o = (CcH5NHCSS)2Pb + 2NH4NO3. The lead phenyl dithiocarbamate on heating breaks down as follows : IV. (CGH5NHCSS)2Pb = C6H5NCS + CeHgNHCSSH + PbS. The free phenyl dithiocarbamic acid tends to decompose with the formation of thiocarbanilide, aniline, etc. To prevent this a second mole of lead nitrate is used: V. (CoH5NHCSS)2Pb + Pb(N03)2 = 2C6H5NCS + 2PbS + 2HNO3. Since the nitric acid diminishes the yield by freeing phenyl dithio- carbamic acid from its NH^ salt, an excess of aimnonium hydroxide is added. The ideal proportions would be: VI. 2C6H5NHCSSNH4 + 2Pb(N03)2 + 2NH4OH = 2C6H5NCS + 2PbS + 4NH4NO3. For the best results, the solution after the addition of the lead nitrate should be neutral or only slightly acid. An excess of ammonia converts the mustard oil into monophenyl thiourea. EXPERIMENTAL. PREPARATION AND ISOLATION OF THE AMMONIUM PHENYL DITHIOCARBAMATE. The following procedure, which is a modification of the method described by Heller and Bauer,* was found to give the best results. Carbon bisulphide (54 gms.) and 28 per cent ammonium hydroxide 8. J. Prak. Chem. (2) 65, 369 (1902). 6 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN, (80 gms.) were mixed in a wide-mouthed flask or tall beaker set in ice. To this was added through a dropping funnel, in the course of 15 minutes, aniline (54 gms.), the whole being kept in agitation with an automatic stirrer. The milky heterogeneous mixture, which first resulted, became clear and homogeneous after the addition of the aniline. The am- monium salt soon began to separate, and the mixture may become so thick as to stop the stirrer. After standing an hour in the ice bath the white ammonium salt was filtered, the mass washed with a little alcohol and dried quickly on a porous plate or between filter paper. The best yield of this salt was 86 per cent of the theory, although this may vary decidedly, not only in the case of aniline but also with the other aryl amines. This is due to the in- complete separation of the ammonium salt rather than to its non- formation. PROPERTIES OF THE AMMONIUM PHENYL DITHIOCARBAMATE. On standing, the salt slowly decomposed with the formation of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, carbon bisulphide, aniline and thio- carbanilide. Tlie decomposition was hastened when the salt was boiled with water. The results here indicated that the two main reactions were as follows, the first predominating: I. C6H5NHCSSNH4 = C0H5NH0 + CS2 +NH.3. II. CoH,5NHCSSNH4 = C6H.5NCS + HoS + NH3. The mustard oil and aniline reacted to give thiocarbanilide, but the yield is low, only about 20 per cent of the theoretical. With the ammonium salts of the p-chloro and p-bromophenyl dithiocarbamates, where the amines and isothiocyanates are less volatile, 55 to 60 per cent yields of the substituted thiocarbanilides have been obtained by this method. DECOMPOSITION WITH ACIDS. When an aqueous solution of the salt is treated with hydrochloric acid the quantitative decomposition can be expressed as follows: CGH5NHCSSNH4 + 2HC1 = C6H5NH2HCI + CS2 + NH4CI. Only traces of hydrogen sulphide and phenyl isothiocyanate are formed. PREPARATION OF THE ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES FROM THE AMMONIUM SALTS. It is evident, then, that in order to produce the mustard oil, RNCS, from the dithiocarbamate, RNHCSSNH^, some metallic salt must be used which will form a stable sulphide and an ammonium DAIXS ET AL.: ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES. 7 salt. To determine the best conditions for such a decomposition the following experiments were undertaken, using the dry am- monium salt of the aryl dithiocarbamates. FERROUS SULPHATE. A solution of 60 gms. of the iron salt in the minimum volume of water was added to 40 gms. of the ammonium phenyl dithio- carbamate in 200 cc. of water. A yellowish-brown precipitate formed immediately. The mixture, which had a noticeable odor of the phenyl isothiocyanatc, was allowed to stand for an hour and then distilled with steam, but with the result that only 3 cc. of an impure mustard oil was obtained. ZINC SULPHATE. On mixing 30 gms. of the ammonium salt in 300 cc. of water with 47 gms. of zinc sulphate in 150 cc. of water a thick, white pre- cipitate of the zinc phenyl dithiocarbamate was formed. This changed on steam distillation to zinc sulphide and gave a 23 per cent yield of the phenyl isothiocyanatc. COPPER SULPHATE. To a solution of 25 gms. of the ammonium salt in 150 cc. of water was added 34 gms. of copper sulphate in the same volume of water. The odor of mustard oil was very pronounced, and the yellowish- brown copper salt changed readily, on distilling the mixture with steam, to the black copper sulphide. The yield of oil in this case was 71.7 per cent — a very decided increase. LEAD NITRATE. Using the same concentrations as above, 25 gms. of the ammonium salt and 40 gms. of lead nitrate gave the brown lead salt with a subsequent yield of 77.2 per cent phenyl isothiocyanate — a maxi- mum which has not been exceeded. In general it has been found that while both the copper and lead salts are suitable desulphurizing agents, the use of lead nitrate gave the better result in about the above ratio. PREP.\RATION OF PHENYL ISOTHIOCYANATE WITHOUT SEPA- RATION OF THE AMMONIUM SALT. The data obtained from the preparation of the ammonium salts of the ar^d dithiocarbamates showed that the isolation of this com- pound might be far from quantitative, with the result that the yield of mustard oil based on the amine used would be proportionately lowered. This was proved directly by many experiments, two of which will be described in detail. 8 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. In each case the following amounts of reagents were used and the same procedure followed as exactly as possible: Aniline 26 gms. Carbon bisulphide 27 gms. Ammonium hydroxide (28%) 44 gms. Alcohol 20 cc. Lead nitrate 100 gms. The addition of the aniline required one-half hour. The stirring was then continued for another one-half hour, and the mixture filtered after standing for an additional hour. The separated salt was dissolved in 200 cc. of water, treated with the lead nitrate (in 200 cc. water), and distilled wuth steam. The yield of pure mus- tard oil was 20 gms. (53 per cent). In the second case the unfiltered solution and salt was made up to 200 cc. with water and desulphurized as before. The product weighed 28 gms. — a yield of 74.2 per cent, based on the aniline used. The best yield obtained under these conditions was 76.8 per cent pure phenyl isothiocyanate. The difference in yield in the above experiments between 53 per cent and 74 per cent is due without question to the solubility of the ammonium salt in the aqueous ammonia. LABORATORY PREPARATION. The following directions are given as suitable for a laboratory experiment in the preparation of the phenyl isothiocyanate: Place 54 grams of carbon bisulphide and 80 grams of cone. NH^OH (28 per cent) in a tall beaker, surrounded by ice, and stir the mixture with a turbine. Drop 56 gms. of aniline into this mixture from a separatory funnel during the course of 20 minutes. The separation of ammonium phenyl dithiocarbamate soon begins. Continue the stirring for 30 minutes after all of the aniline has been added. Then allow the mixture to stand for another period of 30 minutes without stirring. Dissolve the salt by the addition of 800 cc. of water, and add to the solution (with constant stirring) 200 gms. of lead nitrate dissolved in 400 cc. of water. Steam-distill the product from a 5- liter flask. Put in the receiver a little dilute sulphuric acid ; this will combine with traces of ammonia or aniline that might be driven over, and thus prevent the formation of any mono- or diphenyl thiourea. DAINS ET AL.: ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES. 9 LARGER-SCALE PRODUCTION. Tlic preparation of the mustard oil was carried out in a number of experiments, using from five to ten times the amount of the reagents listed above, with corresponding dilution. The percentage yields, however, were not so great as with smaller amounts. For instance, 280 gms. of aniline gave 232 gms. of product, and 560 gms. of aniline yielded 435 gms. of pure redistilled phenyl isothiocyanate. The low results were due in part to difficulties in properly mixing the reagents. If much free nitric acid was formed it decomposed the ammonium phenyl dithiocarbamate, thus preventing the for- mation of the lead phenyl dithiocarbamate. Other by-products that occurred were ammonium thiocyanate, diphenyl thiourea, triphenyl guanidine, which appeared as the nitrate, and monophenyl thiourea, where any excess of ammonia was present. In addition a strong current of steam is needed to separate the oil from the mass of lead sulphide formed. ACTION OF LEAD NITRATE ON OTHER SALTS OF THE PHENYL DITHIOCARBAMIC ACID. It seemed worth while to try the desulphurization of other than the ammonimn salts, since in the absence of that reagent certain side reactions might be prevented. Sodium Salt. C,H,NHCSSNa. Aniline 28 . 0 gms. Carbon bisulphide 27.0 gms. Sodium hydroxide 13. 1 in 50 cc. water. Lead nitrate 100.0 in 300 cc. water. The sodium salt which formed on mixing the reagents was so thick that the stirrer was stopped. Alcohol, 22 cc, was therefore added, and the stirring continued for one-half hour. After standing for an hour the orange-colored mixture was dissolved in 300 cc. of water and treated with the lead nitrate solution. Only a 30.2 per cent yield of the mustard oil was obtained, the greater portion of the aniline having been converted into thiocarbanilide. Barium Salt. (C6H3NHCSS)3a. Aniline 28 gms. Carbon bisulphide 30 gms. Crys. barium hydroxide 47.5 gms. in 110 cc. of water. Zinc chloride 42. 1 gms. in 42 cc. of water. Sodium hydroxide 9.6 gms. in 18 cc. of water. The aniline was slowly added to the mixture of barium hydroxide 10 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. and carbon bisulphide and then stirred for an additional hour. The odor of hydrogen sulphide became noticeable, showing decomposi- tion. The zinc hydroxide formed by the addition of the sodium hydroxide to the zinc chloride was now added and the mixture allowed to stand overnight. On distillation with steam, 15.2 gms. of mustard oil, or 37.4 per cent, was isolated. Calcium Salt. (C,H5NHCSS),Ca. Parallel experiments were now made, substituting calcium for barium hydroxide, the other conditions remaining the same. Very little phenyl isothiocyanate was obtained, the main product being thiocarbanilide. In the report on "The Manufacture of War Gases in Germany,"^ it is stated that Kalle & Co. made the phenyl mustard oil used in the preparation of phenyl iminophosgene from the calcium phenyl dithiocarbamate, w^iich was then desulphurized with a mixture of zinc chloride and sodium hydroxide. That calcium phenyl dithiocarbamate was formed from the carbon bisulphide and calcium hydroxide was shown in the following ex- periment : Aniline 28 . 0 gms. Carbon bisulphide 27.2 gms. Calcium hydroxide 12.0 gms. in 26 cc. of water. Lead nitrate 100.0 gms. in 300 cc. of water. On the addition of the aniline there was a tendency for the mass to collect in a gummy paste. This was prevented by the addition of a little alcohol and stirring the mixture for 24 hours. After desulphurization wdth lead nitrate 15.6 gms. of oil were isolated, which corresponded to a yield of 38.4 per cent. The increase in mustard oil is doubtless due to longer stirring and the more efficient desulphurizing agent, lead nitrate. PREPARATION OF OTHER ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES. The following experiments were carried out in order to ascertain wiiether the method was suitable for the preparation of other aryl isothiocyanates: o-ToLYL Isothiocyanate. o-C-H^NCS. o-Toluidine 32.2 gms. Carbon bisulphide 27.0 gms. Ammonia water 47.0 gms. Alcohol 20.0 cc. Lead nitrate 100.0 gms. in 200 cc. water. 9. J. F. Norris, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 11, 827 (1919). DAINS ET AL.: ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES. 11 The ammonium salt crystallized out readily after addition of the amine. The mixture was then brought into solution by the addition of 400 cc. of water and treated as before. The weight of pure o-tolyl mustard oil was 32.8 gms., or 73.27 per cent. m-ToLYL ISOTHIOCYANATE. m-C-H^NCS. Using the same proportions as before, the solid ammonium salt, which is easily soluble in water, soon formed. From the reaction mixture was isolated 33.5 gms. of oil, or 74.7 per cent yield. p-TOLYL ISOTHIOCYANATE. p-C-H-NCS. Under the above conditions 32.3 gms. (72.1 per cent) of the p-tolyl mustard oil (b. p. 270) were obtained. 1, 3, 4,-XyLYL ISOTHIOCYANATE. (CHg) oCeHgNCS. 1. 3. 4-Xylidine 36.4 gms. Carbon bisulphide 27.0 gms. Ammonium hydroxide 47.0 gms. Lead nitrate 100.0 gms. in 200 cc. of water. After three hours' stirring the ammonium salt separated in coarse crystals, which were dissolved in 400 cc. of water before the addi- tion of the lead nitrate. The mustard oil was very slowly volatile with steam, and was obtained partly by this method and partly by extraction of the oily lead sulphide with carbon bisulphide. The separation was not complete, and only 25.5 gms. (52 per cent) of the xylyl isothiocyanate (m. p. 31°) were obtained. PsEUDOCrMYL IsOTHIOCY.\NATE. 1, 2, 4, 5, (CHg) aCgH^NCS. Pseudocumidine 20.0 gms. Carbon bisulphide lo-O gms. Ammonium hydroxide 23.0 gms. Alcohol 22.0 cc. Lead nitrate 49.0 gms. The ammonium salt separated after two hours' stirring. It was dissolved in 1,000 cc. of water and treated with the lead nitrate in the same dilution. The isothiocyanate is difficultly volatile with steam, and the yield, 50.2 per cent, could probably have been in- creased by extracting the sulphide residue with some solvent. Alpha-Naphthyl Isothiocyanate. A-CioH.NCS. Alpha-naphthylamine 20.0 gms. Carbon bisulphide 15.0 gms. Ammonium hydroxide 22.0 gms. Alcohol 20 cc. Lead nitrate 46.2 gms. in 200 cc. of water. 12 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN, The reaction mixture was dark colored and required long stirring before the ammonium salt separated. It was then dissolved in 400 cc. of water and desulphurized. The isothiocyanate, which melted at 35°, was isolated by extract- ing the sulphide precipitate with repeated portions of alcohol. The product weighed 17.6 gms. (68.2 per cent). Beta-Naphthyl Isothiocyanate. The procedure was the same as with the alpha-naphthylamine, and while the ammonium salt, which was readily formed, reacted with the lead nitrate, no isothiocyanate could be isolated from the residue using alcohol as a solvent. It is probable that some other solvent would have proved more suitable. o-Anisyl Isothiocyanate. o-CHgOCgH^NCS. o-Anisidin 37 . 1 gms. Carbon bisulphide 27 . 0 gms. Ammonium hydroxide 47 . 0 gms. Alcohol 20 cc. Lead nitrate 100.0 gms. in 200 cc. of water. The ammonium salt separated quickly as a mass of coarse crys- tals. The mixture was allowed to stand for one hour and then dis- solved in 800 cc. of water and desulphurized. The mustard oil, which distilled slowly with steam, weighed 35.2 gms. (70.7 per cent). P-Anisyl Isothiocyanate. p-CHgOC^H^NCS. p-Anisidine 10.0 gms. Carbon bisulphide 10.0 gms. Ammonium hydroxide 13.0 gms. Alcohol 15.0 cc. Lead nitrate 27.0 gms. in 500 cc. of water. The salt formed readily in large white crystals. After standing two hours the mixture was dissolved in 500 cc. of water and treated as usual. The mustard oil was easily volatile with steam and gave a yield of 9.2 gms. (68.6 per cent). P-Phenetidyl Isothiocyanate. p-CoHjOCeH^NCS. In this case the weight of p-phenetidine was 41.3 gms.; otherwise the amounts of reagents corresponded to those used in the prepara- tion of the o-anisyl isothiocyanate. The mustard oil distilled slowly with steam and gave a yield of 72.7 per cent. DAINS ET AL.: ARYL ISOTHIOCYANATES. 13 HALOGEN SUBSTITUTED PHENYL MUSTARD OILS. m-BROMOPHENYL ISOTHIOCYANATE. m-BrCyH^NCS. m-Bromoaniline 15 gms. Carbon bisulphide 10 gms. Ammonium h3'droxide 13.6 gms. Lead nitrate 29.0 -gms. in 500 cc. of water. The dithiocarbamatc formed very slowly and coarse crystals of the ammonium salt began to appear only after an hour's stirring. These were dissolved in 500 cc. of water. The oil which came over with the steam solidified on cooling. The yield, however, was only 7 gms. (37.4 per cent). P-Bromophenyl Isothiocyanate. p-BrCeH^NCS. The same quantity of reagents were used as in the preceding prep- aration except that 15 cc. of alcohol was added in order to decrease the solubility of the ammonium salt, which separated in the form of fine, needle-shaped crj^stals. After standing overnight the mix- ture was dissolved in 500 cc. of water and filtered from a little un- changed p-bromoaniline. The yield of mustard oil was 39.6 per cent. P-Chlorophenyl Isothiocyanate. p-ClCoH^NCS. p-Chloroaniline 20.0 gms. Carbon bisulphide 15.0 gms. Ammonium hydroxide 24.5 gms. Alcohol 20 cc. Lead nitrate 52.0 gms. The mixture containing the ammonium dithiocarbamate was dis- solved in 500 cc. of water and treated as usual. The yield was 15.8 gms. of the solid isothiocyanate (59.6%). p-IODOPHENYL ISOTHIOCYANATE. p-ICeH^XCS. p-Iodoanihne 20 gms. Carbon bisulphide 12 gms. Ammonium hydroxide 14.2 gms. Alcohol 20 cc. Lead nitrate 30.2 gms. The crystals separated after 30 minutes' stirring. The mixture after standing for four hours was added to 500 cc. of water, and later filtered from a dark-colored insoluble residue. The mustard oil, which was obtained in a 53.4 per cent yield, was volatile with steam and melted at 79°. p-XlTROANILINE. All efforts to prepare the ammonium p-nitrophenyl dithiocar- bamate failed, the nitroaniline being recovered unchanged. 14 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. / RESUME OF RESULTS. Aryl Per cent yields based isothiocyanates. « on amines used. ■ Phenyl 76.8 o-Tolyl 73.2 m-Tolyl 74.7 p-Tolyl 72. 1 1, 3, 4,-Xylyl 52.0 Pseudocumyl 50. 7 Alpha-naphthyl 68.0 Beta-naphthyl 00.0 o-Anisyl 70.7 p-Anisyl 68 . 6 p-Phenetidyl 72.7 m-Bromophenyl , 37 . 4 p-Bromophenyl 39 . 6 p-Chlorophenyl 59 . 3 p-Iodophenyl 53 . 3 p-Nitrophenyl 00.0 From the consideration of the foregoing results, it is evident that the success of the method is dependent upon at least three factors: First, the completeness of the formation of the ammonium aryl dithiocarbamate, RNHCSSNH^. Second, the ease and completeness of separation from the sulphide precipitate. Third, the avoidance of side reactions leading to the formation of free aryl dithiocarbamic acid, aniline, etc. The low yield in the case of the xylyl, cumyl and alpha-naphthyl derivatives would seem to be due to their slight volatility with steam and the difficulty of extracting the oils from the mass of lead sulphide. The cause of the failure with beta-naphthylamine must be de- termined by further investigation. With the halogen substituted anilines which are less basic than the aniline, toluidine, etc., there is probably incomplete salt forma- tion, which would thus account for the lower yields. SUMMARY. The paper describes a method for the preparation of aryl isothio- cyanates which is relatively simple and inexpensive and which gives yields greater than any which require the intermediate formation of the diaryl thioureas. D THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 11— July, 1922. CONTENTS: A Rainfall Period Equal to One-ninth the Sun-spot Period, Dinsmore Alter. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-3728 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII.] July, 1922. [No. 11. A Rainfall Period Equal to One-ninth the Sun-spot Period. DINSMORE ALTER. SYNOPSIS. PRELIMINARY discussions based on the rainfall of the United States have been published in the Monthly Weather Review and the University of Kansas Science Bulletin. The present paper com- pletes the investigation of this period, using much longer records and the data from the United States, Northern Europe, Central Si- beria, the Punjab in India, Chile, South Australia, Jamaica and Madagascar. Numerous tables and curves are given. The con- clusion reached is that the period does exist, and that the relation- ship to sun spots is not a direct one, but due to an unknown common cause. In purelj' continental areas, minimum rainfall is connected with a maximum of sun spots; in purely marine, with a minimum of sun spots. For areas with rainfall between these types the period is nc>t plainly found. INTRODUCTORY. In August, 1915, Dr. A. E. Douglass read a very interesting paper before the Berkeley meeting of the American Astronomical Society regarding an investigation of the growth of trees in many parts of the world, indicating an eleven-year period in rainfall (1). It seemed to me that the data collected by the Weather Bureau should definitely settle such a question of periods. Some prelimi- nary reading showed, however, that a tremendous amount of time had been spent on the problem (2), and that if solvable it must be very complicated. Other work prevented starting any actual in- vestigation ; then the war intervened and the problem was untouched till the spring of 1919. The first data examined were those from (17) 2 — Science Bui. — 3728 18 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Lawrence, Kan., where records since 1868 are available. Several hun- dred hours of work showed nothing. Once a stretch of five years was found which resembled another five quite closely after eliminating the seasonal curve. Another time resemblances were found after about twenty -two years. All such were easily explainable as acci- dental. It seemed useless to carry the work further with the data at hand. A paper by Professor Turner (3), however, gave me a new sug- gestion, although there was little if any logical reason for any con- nection. In this paper Professor Turner shows plainly the existence of a period in earthquakes with a length between 14.8421 and 14.- 8448 months. It occurred to me that this period might be com- mensurable with the sun-spot period. Upon multiplying it by 9, I obtained 11.13 years, which is the mean sun-spot period to the exact hundredth of a year. Such an exact coincidence is very probably not accidental (4a). The next move was to examine all sun-spot data in order to find whether such a period also exists in sun spots. The results have been inconclusive, some evidence favoring the existence of the period, but not being definite enough to settle the question either way. The general conclusion seems to be that any relationship of sun spots to weather is not a direct one, and that periodicities which are commensurable may exist in each separately, as might happen if the variations were due to a common cause. This will be more fully developed in the general discussion of results. In three preliminary papers (4b) I have investigated the rainfall of the United States, and in them arrived at the conclusion that they afford evidence toward the existence of the rainfall periodicity. When these papers were published it was recognized that they did not constitute proof, that data were needed from all parts of the world and, as Marvin (5) stated in a critical discussion, long rec- ords were needed. Since the publication of the first papers I have been gathering all available data, much of it in unpublished manu- scripts sent me by meteorologists from many countries of the world. The reduction of these data has been a long job, even requiring hun- dreds of hours to prepare a single table. For example, the rainfall of many separate stations were given for Sweden; these had to be combined as one table. The same was true of the Punjab in India, where data from twenty-five stations were copied out of Eliot's book and averaged to give a district record to 1900. After that it was necessary to borrow seventeen large volumes and copy a little ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 19 from each to complete the tables. To complicate the task, these data were given for fifty-five districts during the early years and for thirty-three during the later. From some countries averages made correctly were sent in form to use, but in the main the data, as se- cured, required much work to put it in a form to begin the investiga- tion. Such tables are added to this paper in order that other in- vestigators may be saved the preliminary computations. All lono- records have been studied, with the exception of Canada, which is so close to the United States that it was felt the results secured would not be worth the work of averaging many stations together to get district values in usable form. In the proper places comments will be made on the methods of securing district averages in the United States and other countries. It is believed that many of these should be remade. MATERIAL SUITABLE FOR HARMONIC ANALYSIS. A mass of observational material, when plotted with time as ab- scissa and observed values as ordinates, may show no repetition of the same curve, even though such a curve might exist There may be nothing definite about it to indicate a period. In such cases or- dinary methods of harmonic analysis become useless. This failure to repeat values, when a period exists, may be due to any one or more of the four following causes: (a) Incommensurable periods may coexist. In this case the curve will never repeat itself, although for short periods of time there may be a fairly close approximation to such repetition. If there are three or more incommensurable periods the curve obtained for the data is very complex. For example, the seasonal variation of the rainfall would be incommensurable with a possible one equaling the sun-spot period. Of course, if one of such periods is known, as in the case of the seasonal variation in the example above, it may be eliminated (6) There may be large accidental errors. Such errors mask a periodicity almost completely in any one cycle and disappear only when the data values m each of a number of well-distributed phases are added through many cycles. From the theory of errors their influence wiir be inversely proportional to the square root ^f the number of cycles added. (c) Long-period variations may exist. If there are periods longer than the interval of the data they will produce much the same effect as accidental errors or incommensurable periods id) There may be periods which vary in length. An example of such a period is the sun-spot period, which, although averaging 20 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. 11.13 years, has varied from 7.3 to 17.1 years during the last 115 years. When any of these four difficulties exists it is almost impossible successfully to treat the problem unless the investigator stumbles upon the true period, either by a fortunate suggestion or by some reason extraneous to the problem, or by the patient trial-and-error method by which Kepler found his three laws of planetary motion. Schuster (6) has developed a method designated as the periodogram, which will avail in some cases. METHOD USED BY TURNER IN EXAMINING THE EARTHQUAKE DATA. The exact form of this method seems to be due to Schuster (6), and is a slight modification of the one astronomers have used for generations. Suppose that we have a mass of material — for ex- ample, the number of earthquakes recorded per month, or the rain- fall per month — through many years. Plotting shows no perio- dicity, or at the most only a faint hint of such. Chance or Schuster's periodogram leads us to suspect a period of, for example, 15 months. We can write the first 15 months' data in a row as the heads of as many columns. The sixteenth month, the thirty-first, etc., will fol- low successively in the first column, the seventeenth, thirty-second, etc., in the second column, and so on, the thirtieth, forty-fifth, etc., in the fifteenth column. Each column will then contain only months which are in the same phase of the suspected period, if it actually exists. We will refer to one such row as a cycle, and to the columns as phases. Suppose the period to exist. It may not show in a single cycle, probably will not, because of large accidental errors or incom- mensurable periods, either or both of which may be present. But the months of any phase of an incommensurable period will, in the long run, be almost evenly distributed through all the phases of our assumed period, and will, therefore, be subject to the same laws as accidental errors, namely, their influence will be inversely propor- tional to the square root of the number of cycles. In the course of four cycles (five years in our present example) their importance will be only half as great as for any one cycle; after sixteen cycles one-quarter as great, etc. However, the effect of our assumed fifteen-month period will be equal in each, and therefore as prom- inent in the average as in any one cycle. Thus, no matter how large the accidental errors, or the variation due to incommensurable periods, the true variation from phase to phase will begin to appear. ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 21 If the assumed period does not exist, the mean values of the phases Avill approach each other as we increase the number of cycles. This last point gives us two very powerful criteria for the verity of our assumed period: (a) Having given a large numher of cycles, we may compare the phase values of the first half of the cycles with those of the latter half. If the variation be real the curves from the two halves of the data should agree fairly well. If the variation be accidental there can be only chance resemblance. Unless the assumed period exists, the two halves of the data are entirely independent, when there are enough cycles to eliminate residuals of other periods that might exist. A very simple test for a real relationship between the two curves may be made as follows : There is an even chance that if the results are purely accidental, any pair of values from the same phase in the two curves will lie on the same side of the normal. If there are three curves, one-fourth of them should show all three curves on the same side. Much departure from this accidental grouping indicates strongly a correlation. (6) Having obtained the phase values, as above, for each half of the data, we may consider half the difference of identical phases in the first and last halves of our data as a measure of the deviation of the two curves from each other and of the amount of chance error left in each phase. Call this half difference d. We will have in this example r/^, d.,, . . . d^j. The probable error of any point on the curve which is formed from the whole of the data will be given by the formula, e = 0. 6745 ^f-(^') . If this probable error is as large as half the variation from maxi- mum to minimum phase there is approximately an even chance that the variation is accidental. If the ratio of e to the variation is smaller than about one-eighth, the chances are less than one in a thousand that it is accidental. These ratios are tabulated in the general discussion of results for each set of data. Both these criteria must be applied in any case under discussion. Let us suppose that the assumed period is not an exact number of months; for example, 14% months. In this case 7 cycles will equal 104 instead of 105 months. We must spread our 104 months over 7 cycles of 15 phases each; that is, over 105 phases. To do this we will fill each of the first 6 cycles and the first 14 phases of the seventh cycle just as formerly, using all the data that we have for 7 22 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. cycles. We will then use the month's data which we used for the fourteenth phase of the seventh cycle again in the fifteenth phase. Doing this, no month will fall more than a half phase from the proper one as determined by the mean of all positions. If we assume a period of IdVi months we will merely skip one of the month's data, or better still, average it with the next following one. In this man- ner any period may be plotted with any number of phases desired, and no month's data more than a half phase from its proper place. FIRST APPLICATION OF THIS METHOD TO RAINFALL. One-ninth of the mean sun-spot period is very nearly 14% months. I tabulated all the rainfall data from Lawrence, Kan., beginning with 1868, according to the method outlined above. The result showed a variation of about 12 per cent each side of the normal. Next I divided the data into halves and found the two to agree fairly well. Following this I examined data from all of Kansas, from Nebraska, New England and Ohio. The data from Ohio checked fairly well; those from New England and Nebraska gave results which were discordant with themselves. The variation of the sun-spot period now came to mind. If there were any real variations due to sun-spots or to a common cause they would cer- tainly have to keep a constant relationship with the phases of the sun-spot period. Table 1 shows the dates of maxima and minima of sun-spots as determined by Wolf and Wolfer (7). It also shows the number of years intervening between successive maxima or minima; in other words, the actual sun-spot periods during those years. As a first approximation to keeping the phases in step with the sun spots, I plotted the rainfall between the dates of each pair of consecutive minima on a period one-ninth that interval. Minima occurred in 1889, August, and in 1901, September. The interval is 145 months. I therefore used a period of 16^/^' months between those dates. The next minimum occurred in 1913, May. This interval is 141 months, and I used a period of 15% between these dates. When this was done I secured very much better results than before, so much better that I could not believe them due to accident. I obtained similar curves for each state the whole length of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts as far as Texas. When the data of New England and Pennsylvania were divided in halves, curves of similar shape were obtained for each, differing only in phase. This improvement over the results from a constant period indicated that a more rigid method of keeping constant relationship with the sun-spot phases should be devised before definite conclusions were drawn. ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 23 RIGID FOLLOWING OF THE SUN-SPOT PHASES. It is evident that the sun-spot period between the minima named above had values of 145 and 141 months, respectively. Let us examine the two maxima occurring between these dates. One oc- curred in 1894, February, and the other in 1906, May, with an in- terval of 147 months. This must have been the average value of the sun-spot period between these dates. It is longer than the period obtained from either pair of minima named above, yet it occurs as part of each of them and contains no part that is not in one or the other of them. We are forced, therefore, to the con- clusion that if continuous (8a) — The length of the sun-spot period is continuously varying and a value of the period obtained between successive maxima or suc- cessive viinima is merely an average of all values passed through in this interval. If we had a curve with time plotted along the axis of abscissse and the corresponding values of the sun-spot period as ordinates, the average value of the sun-spot period between two maxima or two minima occurring at t.^ and ^2 would be given by — ^1 — ^2 = average value = ' J'-' curve If we plotted abscissa? and ordinates on the same scale, these average values would form squares bounded by ordinates through the dates which limit them. The area between the axis of abscissae and the unknown curve, described above, representing the actual value of the period at all times, would in the interval between two maxima or two minima have to equal the corresponding known square. Since these squares overlap, we know the value of a series of overlapping definite integrals of the unknown curve. From these data it is possible, assuming the simplest curve to be the true one, by the aid of a planimeter, to construct the curve without knowl- edge of its mathematical form. In doing this it is easier to choose some convenient period as the axis of abscissae and to measure de- partures from this period. Changing the axis in this way merely changes all the integrals by a known constant amount and changes the known squares into known rectangles. It is also practical to magnify the scale of ordinates very much over the scale of abscissae. Locating the curve consists first in measuring the area of each of the rectangles; then penciling in what appears to be the curve, measuring the definite integrals of the approximate curve with the planimeter; erasing for a new approximation, and repeating many 24 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. times. In the curve of the sun-spot values reproduced as Figure 1, I have erased each part of the curve probably a hundred times. Although very laborious, the process, with enough patience, yields very good results. The accuracy of the period curve depends upon the accuracy with which the epochs of maxima and minima are obtained. A steep but narrow peak, such as that of 1861, may be unreal for this reason. However, due to the short duration of such a peak and the fact that it must almost immediately be counter- balanced, there will usually be little effect in data extending over a long range. In the preceding paragraph I have spoken of the sun-spot period at any date as a varying quantity, not even approximately constant through a single cycle. This may necessitate a definition of "period" somewhat different from what is ordinarily understood. I there- fore give the following definition, which will be adhered to whether referring to sun spots or rainfall. The length of the period at any date is the reciprocal of the rate of change of phase at that date and need not continue even approxi- mately through a complete cycle. From this curve I have taken the mean value of the sun-spot period for each year. These values are given as column 2 of table 2. Column 3 gives the departures from 15 months of one-ninth these values. Obviously, 15 months was chosen because it is the nearest integral number of months to one-ninth of a period. If, for example, the number given for any year in column 3 were + 9, it would mean that during that year one-ninth of the sun-spot period was 16 months. If it were —9 it would mean that the period was 14 months. In the first case it would be necessary, working on a 15- phase basis, to skip a month every 16 months as long as that length of period persisted; in the second case to repeat one every 14 months. We can thus construct a table of months to be re- peated in the analysis of our rainfall data when the ninth of the sun-spot period is less than 15 months, or to be skipped (or better still, averaged with the next adjacent one) when the ninth is more than 15, in order that Wolfer's sun-spot maxima may all fall in one phase and his sun-spot minima in one. In this work I have in each case averaged the month to be skipped with the next following one instead of actually skipping. Thus three months' data give two phases, the result desired through skip- ping, and all data are used. There is, however, such a slight gain in accuracy that I scarcely believe it worth the slight extra work in- volved. If this averaging and repeating is done correctly the epoch ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUxY-SPOT PERIODS. 25 of maximum of each of the cycles of the sun spots will always fall in one phase of the suspected rainfall variation and also each minimum in one. Wolfer's values of maxima and minima are un- certain by a month or so, and therefore in the first paper the placing of them within one phase from the mean was considered as a perfect check in determining the months to be averaged or re- peated. When there was a greater error than this in determining the position of a maximum or a minimum it meant that there was a slight error in the curve and that it was necessary to apply a slight adjustment factor to the values of the period taken from it. In no case did I have a large factor to apply, thereby showing that the curve as constructed was approximately correct. Indications from the work explained above were that the period taken from it could be relied upon to within three or four months, and that such errors as did occur were canceled in most cases by ones of opposite sign before adjustment had become serious. I did not realize at the time that readers might think this discrep- ancy purposely made by me in order to better my results. To avoid this objection I have, in this paper, made the Wolf-Wolfer epochs fall exactly in the same phase each cycle. The phase in which the sun-spot maximum falls has been numbered 1 and that in which minimum falls 8. For 1913 Wolfer has published two dates of sun- spot minimum, first May, and later August. I used the former in the first paper before seeing his later work. The sun-spot curve seems to me to indicate May, or even an earlier epoch, correct. Wolfer's later epoch may, therefore, be a typographical error, and I have continued to use May. Since a short period locates its epochs of maxima and minima more exactly than a long one, it will be pos- sible later, if the existence of the short rainfall period be admitted, to revise the Wolf-Wolfer epochs from the rainfall data. Such a gain in accuracy would mean much in an investigation of the sun- spot periodicity. Table 3 shows which months I have averaged and repeated in the analysis of the rainfall data of each country investigated. It is probably useless to emphasize that there was no change in this table for any of the countries under consideration. At first thought the results of table 3 and of figure 1 are startling. However, an inspec- tion of the much greater changes in the period which have persisted through entire cycles during the last 115 years, namely, from 88 to 205 months, shows that these variations through short periods of time are to be expected. Moreover, there is no way to draw a curve 26 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. satisfying the necessary conditions and having smaller variations, unless possibly by introducing more points of maxima and minima upon it. Such a complication would be much less probable than the variations shown by the present one, all of which are less than the variations from the mean value of complete cycles of approximately 11 years have been in the rather recent past, as shown by table 1. THE RAINFALL DATA EXAMINED. I have examined the rainfall averages of each of the forty-two sections in which the United States has been divided by the Weather Bureau, of a number of stations in Central Siberia, of the Punjab in India, of a few towns in Chile, of complete records of Denmark and Sweden and stations in Holland and England, of South Australia, of Jamaica, and of Tananarive, Madagascar. I had a small amount of data from the Soudan and Abyssinia and scattered small amounts from other countries, but none of these enough to examine with any weight. There were also data such as received from Canada, where the proximity of countries for which I had data made it seem un- wise to take the great amount of time necessary to average the in- dividual stations, and where, unlike Madagascar, thousands of miles from the nearest data used, it seemed useless to obtain results with the little weight that would be attached to one station. The results from each of the sections named above are discussed here, the tables are given from which these results are deduced, the values are given for each individual cycle, and the means of the halves or thirds are given and plotted, as also the curves from the whole data. The sections are grouped in three main divisions: (A) Interiors and eastern coasts of large continents. There are three such sections: Eastern United States, Central Siberia, and the Punjab. (B) Western coasts of continents. This group includes the Pa- cific coast of the United States, the group of countries from the northwest European coast, and a very small amount of data from Chile. (C) Other sections. This includes South Australia, Jamaica and Tananarive, Madagascar. The last sun-spot maximum occurred in 1917, and all data since then are thus unavailable for use in examining the existence of the period. This would not be a serious handicap for predicting, if the period should be proved to exist, since the course of the maxima and minima could be followed from cycle to cycle by using means from ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 27 a large number of sections and an- extrapolation made for a cycle in advance without serious error. Indeed, in such a case it might be possible to predict the time of the next sun-spot maximum or mini- mum quite accurately from the rainfall data. Effect of Annual Cycle. In many cases the residual left from the seasonal variation is large enough to distort the curves ma- terially. I have, therefore, always carefully eliminated it, no matter how large or how small. To do this I have, wherever it is very pro- nounced, prepared two tables for each section according to the plan previously outlined, repeating and averaging in each one the months determined by table 3. In the first of these tables I have used the actual values of the rainfall. In the second I have used instead of each January the mean of all the Januaries, and so on for each month of the year. In this second table the mean monthly values were repeated or averaged exactly as in the first one, to give a table entirely similar to the first table. The variation from phase to phase in this second table is, therefore, entirely the seasonal residual and contains all of it. For the average state in the United States it is approximately four per cent each side of the normal, the rest of the seasonal variation having been damped out by the process of tabu- lating the incommensurable period which is being investigated. The quotients of the sums of each phase of the first table by the second give us the percentage of normal rainfall of that phase for the section concerned throughout all the years of the data. Each month is in this way weighted in accordance with its normal rainfall. In no case has there been any smoothing of results other than that marked in the tables where the 77iean has sometimes been smoothed by aver- aging each phase with the ones immediately adjoining for better ex- amination. In the eastern United States and northern Europe the yearly variation of rainfall is small enough that each month may be weighted the same without serious error. I have, therefore, in these two cases divided the actual rainfall of each month by its normal and thus obtained the percentage of normal to plot. This has the advantage for the reader that he need look at but one table instead of two to see how the period has been followed from cycle to cycle. It may occur to some that possibly there is in some manner a residual of the seasonal effect left in this period, despite the elimina- tion explained above. There are three answers that may be givn to this objection, all of which are merely the same one in different forms. 28 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. (a) In Professor Schuster's discussion of the periodogram (6) method of searching for periods we find the following: "There is a limit beyond which it is useless to go. This limit is reached when the values of A and B for two closely adjoining values n^ and n, are no longer independent of each other. The theory of vibration shows that independence begins when there is an ultimate disagreement of phase amounting to about one-quarter of a period." (5) Professor Turner has worked out the effects of any period on adjoining periods (86). 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CD «— < — * Oi CO ^H •^ CO Ol -^ ■'f CO ooo coco CO"** O CD -* CO CM C^J 102 101 1916 1867 COCO OO OS OS 00 o coS or-~ OO S '^ CO O^O CD CD t>-uo CO coS CO '<»« COiO !0 00 — ■ o s 05 CD CO t^ C5 CD -^ CD .- O -OCO eou5 t-oo CD^ -*oo cot— 00 OS r^ CO CO ^ r>-co OCO ■*»* 050CO Ot^ CO o CO-*** ^co oooo CM CM 00 o CT.O OS 00 COO t-cO 00 00 C 3 oc CO CO ^ (M ■* c^ 1 c £ T 1 c c £ c c 6 -a J I 1 c c J 1 E 1 .2: c C -c a 1 ^1 1 1 o c 1 c c ■s 1 a ALTER : RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 45 TABLE 10.— Mean raiDfall in inches of Ashland, Albany, Cascade Locka, Portland, Roseburg and The Dalles, in Oregon. Years. 1879. 1880. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 1890. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 1900. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 1910. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.. 1920. 21., Mean. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. 960 1080 419 878 387 346 787 1207 732 294 917 387 450 186 1040 770 714 270 412 622 472 689 324 801 492 344 538 674 402 850 552 680 873 663 994 461 504 340 606 760 375 652 6.12 421 1152 754 157 540 698 275 354 189 98 1038 701 202 592 (536) 140 393 654 537 562 432 652 784 145 1013 160 538 492 290 632 590 275 492 136 376 390 588 383 559 762 21 645 845 355 278 247 340 261 50 400 588 284 212 496 320 263 353 826 336 357 578 21G 445 372 367 481 289 813 440 250 424 419 204 248 98 253 409 262 230 775 444 289 520 415 433 4.88 3.83 281 291 281 399 519 337 105 305 423 123 266 133 259 410 541 266 217 446 170 157 379 158 249 600 164 236 83 160 371 192 92 245 206 272 250 305 186 277 904 116 334 358 262 2.87 501 256 108 111 175 105 345 149 289 102 280 88 211 159 255 171 343 396 88 164 248 273 193 242 116 58 236 279 135 276 184 215 300 243 190 143 326 254 200 164 164 90 149 2.09 83 116 272 91 2 164 170 38 104 486 62 209 265 75 110 236 35 94 188 145 80 195 99 69 194 64 128 238 130 97 44 116 71 254 321 172 72 135 70 17 71 166 115 1 36 131 36 92 85 0 92 9 96 7 104 22 32 58 61 19 32 44 6 45 54 10 16 8 124 48 72 7 0 53 14 106 1 16 44 86 6 103 239 10 74 14 62 3 0.50 107 88 102 23 12 15 0 2 23 8 60 29 76 8 4 2 13 71 41 76 237 81 30 50 43 13 17 8 141 80 18 4 10 231 40 0 6 38 6 60 4 106 22 0.46 198 79 170 71 65 342 242 246 171 67 145 36 174 124 337 188 204 76 193 260 118 176 (326) 123 132 56 201 198 148 32 112 79 378 172 204 296 50 70 114 134 256 409 223 302 145 609 716 344 352 180 278 135 376 399 233 396 233 529 434 5 208 201 155 366 545 115 134 220 544 408 262 100 451 289 322 98 302 319 414 198 98 6 379 217 344 279 1.72 I 2.94 538 246 446 342 556 198 784 168 370 427 381 49 539 551 799 257 360 1244 927 715 746 427 482 944 993 451 256 777 569 295 1185 961 406 550 541 370 981 558 506 440 656 592 1011 5.84 779 944 540 1087 (560) 883 656 996 1024 427 549 383 1127 650 522 473 984 679 833 368 626 498 546 927 278 763 619 607 1064 378 376 401 457 629 287 217 728 432 1123 354 514* 810 296 6.37 46 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 11.— Mean rainfall in inches of Folsom, Hollister, Los Angeles, Marysville, Merced, Sacramento, San Francisco, San Jose, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, San Bernardino, San Diego and Stockton, in California. Years. 1878. 79. 1880. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 1890. 91. 92, 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99, 1900, 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07. 08, 09, 1910, 11 12, 13, 14. 15, ' \l 18, 19, 1920, 21,, Mean, Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 635 769 272 174 30 3 1 0 16 47 44 (174) 289 246 278 184 86 7 1 1 0 79 233 383 139 271 138 668 64 0 1 2 0 9 37 832 370 239 122 107 4 20 0 0 22 80 79 175 166 229 354 161 20 14 0 0 31 132 184 56 165 123 306 90 169 4 1 0 42 104 42 (148) 343 697 778 194 74 154 0 1 15 131 20 572 154 17 45 174 20 9 3 1 3 17 774 168 573 82 227 370 11 2 4 2 0 19 63 118 68 664 91 191 15 6 2 0 39 14 97 272 484 109 300 21 39 11 1 1 33 7 365 405 59 95 559 64 136 10 1 7 3 512 260 970 574 318 247 76 86 9 1 17 74 5 24 306 59 594 157 160 58 10 2 7 23 5 30 363 147 251 309 87 209 6 0 0 6 69 375 434 314 287 560 86 33 0 9 0 10 34 152 208 284 (256) 69 35 131 35 1 2 88 113 39 672 681 160 208 93 61 0 1 0 49 44 118 101 619 12 2.50 280 58 0 5 31 18 117 280 210 304 435 187 41 19 4 0 1 7 149 40 97 113 60 189 25 116 6 1 0 60 43 44 109 333 16 421 51 38 53 0 5 0 294 269 222 271 28 143 156 146 2 3 0 10 108 479 81 407 485 59 178 72 1 0 6 46 140 177 60 120 506 275 121 48 2 7 0 0 100 226 209 290 164 570 134 6 0 0 1 7 8 197 68 68 416 468 145 17 0 0 11 252 160 97 173 308 422 404 87 184 4 3 1 7 5 181 76 457 341 729 128 205 38 1 0 18 1 107 691 579 264 648 40 10 48 0 0 ■? 180 5 296 398 312 77 28 67 1 1 6 43 47 117 164 957 510 274 2 0 5 0 10 23 72 186 578 280 99 274 26 2 0 1 1 41 65 39 98 1109 298 530 76 15 3 1 0 27 27 28 176 189 17 415 211 98 24 1 2 49 56 88 38 263 220 115 54 56 20 15 10 3 4 382 357 884 395 73 110 24 31 1 0 4 75 46 413 514 623 131 115 225 0 0 4 1 0 6/ 414 1173 253 159 18 12 0 3 8 72 135 69 410 217 431 82 66 26 0 2 1 14 2 46 32 75 482 531 51 6 9 3 6 *230 34 265 182 136 470 230 27 20 0 0 2 74 31 32 226 44 213 420 115 12 8 0 1 4 139 218 353 447 113 209 39 171 1 0 0 36 44 92 654 3,65 2 95 2,93 1.20 0 66 0 13 0 02 0.03 0 34 0.79 1.48 2,90 48 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. o r^ 2 Oi E- O H CO 3 > aa & a H o O ^ < 6 O T3 g 03 OJ a s I PQ I^ ,_,,-.-—. 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L'j N— »■ .-^ wj .*-. i.'j *»^ ..-' \*j ■ — • ^rf ■--' t") ^H »f^ T-H i>. tO "O I^» C^ to OO CD-*^ C^>— iCSi— 'C^iOCO CO-^ »0'—''— '•—''— 'COOifM OHOC^^HcOO lOiO'^OCOr^OOiO'-J'OiOOOOCl'^'M'^iOOiCOOS'^tOCOOOOOO oo^Dooc-iicoioo-^cor—ioco-^'MOooTfoooir-^HOw^or-Oiooco-Ht- OOSO C*]CM^'i000cD0l»O^-O'— 'O0:Tf^J"t^':0^HOcD<;D'^C0C000C^) Tt*^«D C^»i-<^^ iOCO C^). r^ lO CO -^ •M C^ OO CO M ■^ u^ CO-^OO — * UO '*}' ^ C5 ^- '^ UO — " fO CO w t>- i:oeo 05 CO O 05 OO CO 'M 00 CO O t^ CO CO f* CO CO lo coco CO ^ 1^ O -^ i-> Ci-^ — ^ — * lO OS t^ LO ^ OO (M CO as CO •-' IlO O OS CO <0 to ^^ CO ^ — « -TtH lO t>- CD C^ '-' 00 ;D r^ CO ^^ CO :o "^ O -M Tf ^^ t^ CO CO UO lO C4 CO t^ 00 »f^ -^ "O O '-0 »0 '-' 01 OO '!*' ■^ ^- CO ro 'O ■—•JO lO t^ CO 05^I>- CD (M CO Oi -f OO CO t^ OS r- CO CO C<1 to »— ' CO ^- lO t^ OS .— I CO 40 Tf OS *o ■— ' -^ l>- OO C^ •-' c^ — ' CD 00 I— ' »0 CO -^t^ o c^ »o ■— ' "O CO CO ^ CS t-CO 1-t '— ' -^ ■^ lO lO <— I to — r C^ »0 r-o ^ CO"* ■* -— 'icsos UO 10 M* 00 CO t— CO — ^■^.^■^^-t— 000^-CiuOOOOiOOOOlOt»CO'— 'i-hOtJ^'— '.-H — — — — C: — — OOCOC^OOOiO^-OC^-*— -cococoTj"tococor--*o-^coco— ' — CO COOOO C^IQOCOC^CC lOCO — OOCO C^OOC^ »OCC(N OS CO cico — o lO lO coo I -* o 00 (. 40 »0 — — il ^o II 00 ;o I OCM 00 to CO o •'f to t— CO II -* o 00 O ij »^00 ^ II Oi05 n 00 00 O "M cOO'-OOlOO^-OOltOO — UOOOOCOOi— '■— ";^Tj" — trDO-*— ' .-■■^ •— I — --COO'MOOCOC-1-^COtOC^JiOOOCOO'MOO — OliO^^— "CS II ^TiTli to»otrai— cococot— cotc^-"^'— '.oror^ — coco— O5'^io^-os oco OOOOOOOCO too t-CQ^-r— tCO'M tc*— ^HQOCO ii'^OO to t- I —to OS Ci I, CO to II c^o 11 CO CO II OtO eoooorritor— CO — O00--O — — coooior— o:-^^-ooi'— ' tot— 000 t— o ^H— . — ^- — t^l'Tj"- CSOOOC^'n'OO- OC^-^COOT^Tj-cOCO (iCOtO O^H it— (3 iototo»o — cor-tr^cicococoio — — t(^cocot-i— — cotot— -H ■— 'Os .-.^h .— <<= 000000000 rioo toco t— -Mc^QOco iraoM t-oc^),,tcoo ^o I 00 t- II to to — c; II to toiototooori loco^-t- c^io tooc^ t-o c^iooonO't- I t-to r— t— t— r— oootot— '»*' — o — too ^^r-iTj..^-^ — C^4.rr — t^lTj-COtOCO t— t— t— r— tococot— — roto — --^t— C^DC^C^I—CO c^o t— c^^-o — I— tOoOtOOOS — tOOO! tl ^^o O"*- O^^OCCOO lO-^CO il t— -^ Oit— to COCOCOt- — -rfiO I— II CO — c^ooro toO'M- r- -o.icoo II CO'^** t— -^ 00 CO 00 rf 00 ■* CO CO Tp (M II to to O) CO II c^ o — — II OS CS Il coc^ t- C^ I 00 00 CO "— ' Il 00 — — II 0000 II 00 OS II coco I CO -^ t— CO tOtOO^"— 'tOOOtOOOO^-CO — tOO-*"^^!— 000 — 00 Oi" to to cc — o. to Tl n 00 o n — CO to "* — o -^ — o c^j 00 ^H ci t "-•-rro— o--rococococoto— I'^tO'— 'Ot— locococoto loo-. — — too — r— toco QOIM'— t'-co C^IC^)nr^ »jr>nnii»*i CS — — — to J o r to cot- i! — o t- — II o 00 — II Oto Ij O M- 00 CO -^O II O-S" iM CO ,1 O to — — II oc^ II -* o lOt^oocao — c^ico ^■tOCOt— OOOO'^C^JCO'^toOt— OOOiO a c B E 3 3 02 Oj •S o = 2 3 a O-cc E E c o = s Cm 2 S E B o o ° 2 3 E Ceo" 4 — Science Bui. — 3728 50 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 13.— Per cent of normal rainfall at Chilgrove, West Sussex, England, actual rainfall in "British Rainfall, 1919." Compiled from table of Years. 1834 35 36 37. 38, 39. 1840. 41 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 1850'. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 1860. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 1870. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 1880. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 1890. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. Jan. 107 38 96 144 17 38 114 128 62 81 122 105 168 47 75 94 67 153 159 156 99 22 126 93 52 76 136 24 100 123 64 136 150 114 136 110 75 110 242 153 80 149 36 259 66 78 10 48 58 94 96 62 136 93 47 30 121 106 39 61 214 98 61 103 30 110 Feb. 135 169 90 160 71 143 TOO 121 126 97 125 76 232 86 82 38 106 45 33 61 55 18 42 90 61 85 31 38 60 106 183 109 62 119 138 79 116 131 95 98 151 84 120 175 128 136 82 202 106 175 42 33 34 60 47 2 35 146 108 6 24 173 71 110 Mar. 73 121 226 24 122 83 0 96 65 66 138 48 93 46 209 57 19 190 23 89 18 127 54 95 72 81 94 128 172 52 146 54 77 78 90 63 119 105 26 65 132 121 72 29 46 91 40 35 124 99 96 49 183 92 73 180 42 10 82 121 202 260 38 35 Apr. 55 39 262 73 51 92 21 77 44 149 26 95 80 71 185 174 218 93 26 177 8 23 198 108 137 168 90 39 58 29 76 22 81 106 134 56 11 246 49 38 144 71 110 155 156 191 100 27 197 66 80 61 91 78 86 109 145 52 47 2 132 162 34 146 67 152 May. 57 76 19 34 84 34 85 143 75 298 21 113 117 82 22 145 132 73 106 109 189 143 185 65 116 59 186 75 172 114 77 140 69 68 58 212 70 29 136 71 19 59 27 162 109 133 101 74 68 101 44 234 225 50 91 232 87 114 46 42 64 12 27 67 207 43 June. 129 91 62 45 167 54 78 108 22 113 57 90 45 87 191 39 108 92 286 108 82 56 96 100 43 56 291 101 113 195 58 98 127 80 26 84 19 166 88 109 134 140 69 26 86 201 101 101 153 105 61 110 28 47 158 33 151 87 95 72 96 32 184 116 123 July. 322 11 99 47 49 226 128 79 46 87 78 92 89 40 161 90 157 90 62 244 32 170 30 57 111 106 109 182 103 34 14 92 75 100 35 ^3 61 200 114 98 54 166 34 133 43 174 210 133 131 130 97 22 156 38 292 92 155 117 100 155 212 201 42 28 143 69 Aug. 78 26 91 77 64 89 71 146 73 128 99 86 173 57 182 32 100 50 172 115 45 44 142 80 85 58 167 24 79 66 34 182 107 113 159 51 121 58 53 67 83 55 103 160 184 211 34 184 76 384 44 374 75 83 95 81 119 251 109 27 61 135 45 200 65 25 Sept. 24 195 127 78 91 218 151 157 192 22 31 94 56 58 94 168 94 0 192 117 39 88 136 153 83 141 125 128 73 136 138 10 262 73 111 195 65 165 83 103 89 85 167 63 66 152 163 100 78 133 108 171 57 136 37 27 55 43 109 65 92 214 308 105 71 112 Oct. 41 135 139 84 53 83 45 167 37 118 120 64 156 68 96 110 56 106 154 141 95 171 76 196 52 98 68 43 122 103 45 236 36 67 95 55 114 42 142 107 117 133 54 31 208 53 222 67 33 99 133 33 48 185 27 170 108 123 128 99 92 12 98 68 Nov. 107 146 186 58 191 111 173 156 201 104 117 113 66 77 73 63 96 27 244 45 52 48 29 59 50 143 102 142 41 63 123 99 59 29 46 70 56 24 153 82 80 150 122 226 142 20 109 135 51 153 38 101 110 148 157 43 95 134 112 80 190 196 32 47 139 165 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 51 TABLE 13— CoNTiN-UED. Years. 1900 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Normal in inches. 3 20 Jan. 153 44 46 108 213 45 305 45 51 35 107 50 126 185 31 138 50 53 138 237 Feb. 302 76 111 81 199 34 185 78 77 19 187 96 130 64 203 222 155 53 74 133 2.45 Mar. 44 121 101 183 64 254 65 51 150 222 71 93 213 150 222 40 148 100 69 286 2 32 Apr. 97 158 57 141 104 100 51 267 123 80 136 80 0 183 91 75- 60 107 108 129 1.95 May. 55 60 112 174 218 24 175 143 123 86 56 143 57 158 75 186 93 104 85 11 2.07 June. 165 157 165 119 55 190 57 140 32 145 84 103 161 23 60 84 100 170 41 25 2.31 July. 47 108 51 134 59 13 17 68 140 131 85 30 80 75 126 166 39 98 168 72 2.65 Aug. 126 62 233 197 85 124 37 75 148 77 117 18 266 66 61 52 123 200 67 133 3 02 Sept. 44 82 38 154 99 79 54 21 64 130 4 42 108 56 58 83 89 59 224 50 3.08 Oct. Nov. 66 73 73 250 67 58 137 174 77 221 123 147 84 140 75 96 136 108 34 128 17 137 75 41 157 163 97 42 21 126 159 58 104 108 105 140 51 98 198 4.22 3.53 Dec. 144 165 72 96 125 40 79 134 124 158 147 256 136 55 275 297 113 52 99 199 3.51 52 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 14. — Per cent of normal rainfall at Utrecht, Holland. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1849 73 164 64 153 91 60 136 56 47 157 85 145 103 50 115 230 84 228 117 39 64 149 43 108 118 124 118 51 57 73 138 141 102 40 146 82 42 45 187 27 90 52 162 187 94 22 160 155 45 178 135 296 147 110 141 53 145 103 52 239 80 149 105 87 132 120 7 36 105 54 122 164 26 54 132 120 63 81 87 160 123 221 113 55 80 51 64 50 76 90 182 68 34 165 44 84 82 56 113 143 33 155 218 110 66 105 112 20 192 77 112 57 120 14 77 125 13 35 96 48 104 46 51 20 62 58 85 40 41 48 71 109 142 177 39 85 32 105 144 59 47 75 209 160 34 64 79 84 130 93 88 68 94 1860 127 93 167 103 143 82 73 88 113 71 93 42 100 61 19 48 127 98 114 183 121 84 152 4 126 34 92 62 107 44 43 63 60 102 125 75 61 128 42 85 78 63 75 72 63 50 61 97 36 79 128 40 65 99 72 64 38 65 93 23 62 107 26 101 123 43 59 14 63 65 99 117 93 19 86 18 256 218 14 105 39 13 90 66 120 129 111 87 73 70 141 102 190 14 194 122 113 67 137 104 58 119 53 112 142 41 120 90 57 108 95 68 95 87 133 94 61 20 25 116 34 83 47 138 78 69 74 157 79 50 267 79 53 102 118 133 142 96 112 1870 83 20 110 39 57 40 82 210 71 149 84 161 92 71 59 50 34 161 33 133 172 28 13(3 101 61 75 87 72 114 92 81 65 101 90 117 86 172 176 159 158 118 73 65 72 42 89 141 95 52 84 162 95 41 22 80 74 94 55 133 39 163 71 53 61 181 76 156 83 97 75 110 77 68 37 71 85 182 185 121 56 182 42 101 76 33 156 172 109 108 79 42 66 213 61 95 85 102 77 187 208 136 68 87 43 108 152 59 92 142 92 114 78 118 54 177 80 196 49 38 120 93 91 163 72 104 79 89 120 27 194 63 118 162 118 66 83 68 28 95 1880 59 80 75 67 24 178 94 62 137 172 141 173 105 81 56 182 147 53 175 124 48 155 103 66 48 150 109 82 76 74 163 121 106 248 129 130 131 104 155 127 130 83 71 67 84 7 75 52 140 65 ' 93 104 142 83 82 84 150 63 59 43 70 28 138 64 88 94 79 141 85 85 94 127 57 45 151 56 9 55 124 212 83 54 89 86 18? 64 103 43 158 130 106 54 29 82 79 139 98 87 33 20 59 96 109 18 22 39 74 133 83 101 66 88 46 64 179 81 61 170 168 75 46 99 66 53 92 89 33 138 103 89 152 130 167 160 163 87 82 115 118 1890 160 9 100 157 68 69 172 120 41 163 200 7 106 91 141 21 113 68 154 207 120 81 67 57 77 176 107 92 142 77 64 38 47 142 51 66 187 202 87 108 101 93 81 285 51 1 42 24 122 75 147 113 131 110 98 94 98 249 106 132 67 122 188 153 112 95 115 131 131 95 108 35 162 96 72 92 104 103 34 110 138 155 101 96 91 13 116 74 14 61 75 99 219 123 96 97 90 97 35 90 144 174 86 119 42 129 144 70 68 132 103 98 80 212 97 109 162 128 109 62 174 70 118 101 119 99 146 102 49 201 174 11 73 182 207 94 55 83 115 1900 120 127 46 101 100 140 78 150 23 134 48 117 99 01 86 64 141 197 66 81 117 83 169 108 102 145 113 02 80 79 93 84 154 40 105 132 66 59 54 92 86 03 77 79 135 292 115 152 105 112 161 165 143 40 131 04 108 136 74 48 135 120 31 74 63 59 100 79 86 05 59 87 155 120 73 110 102 140 75 200 99 42 105 06 206 118 105 62 185 81 79 73 52 77 101 105 104 07 69 111 107 93 132 162 43 60 56 101 71 124 94 08 97 129 83 75 118 113 97 126 56 36 98 54 90 09 40 85 126 215 77 66 116 163 93 136 70 166 113 1910 110 173 67 162 91 132 133 82 107 27 187 126 115 11 53 101 108 67 49 183 28 196 52 157 156 110 105 12 114 126 162 90 125 208 56 265 152 89 140 140 136 13 135 73 132 45 176 189 129 21 28 65 117 115 102 14 114 72 278 93 88 90 113 45 124 52 100 166 111 15 196 201 116 99 158 91 126 115 70 28 163 160 127 16 138 182 170 186 135 190 42 119 59 129 86 119 130 17 89 15 54 120 36 161 84 230 57 215 83 54 100 18 193 111 51 74 37 87 i78 62 291 103 79 154 118 19 92 92 132 150 44 77 170 58 62 87 97 167 102 1920 155 92 38 203 124 45 130 137 39 14 24 88 91 21 156 25 62 67 41 75 150 35 32 34 56 Normals, 5 44 4 30 4 98 4 33 • 4 93 5 89 7 58 8 36 6 51 7.27 1 5 96 6 89 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 53 TABLE 15. — Number of rainfall stations in the different counties in Denmark. Counties. Year. 1865. 1870. 1875. 1880. 1885. 1890. 1895. 1900. 1905. 1910. 1915. 1920. Hjorring Thisted 1 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 2 1 3 1 1 3 1 4 6 7 4 6 5 9 7 7 5 6 9 6 5 5 7 7 7 7 7 9 8 5 6 8 8 8 8 7 9 10 9 7 9 15 9 9 6 33 18 11 8 9 17 11 9 6 30 18 10 7 7 17 10 9 7 29 18 10 8 7 20 11 11 6 28 17 8 9 8 22 9 7 7 25 15 7 10 9 21 9 8 6 Rin^kjobing Ribe 26 12 8 -•Valborg 13 11 -Aarhus 20 10 Sonderjylland 25 Odense Svendborg 1 1 0 2 1 4 0 2 11 9 7 4 5 12 13 9 12 11 10 5 8 12 14 15 12 10 11 6 5 14 14 18 17 17 11 9 5 14 17 14 17 16 12 8 4 15 14 14 18 17 10 11 5 13 14 14 20 17 10 10 8 13 13 14 20 18 11 9 6 13 17 15 20 16 11 13 10 15 22 16 20 16 HolbSBk Soro Frederiksborg Kjobenhavns ........ Prsesto 11 14 11 14 21 Maribo 16 Total number ... 19 24 125 144 156 187 222 216 224 227 233 262 54 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 15a. — Denmark. Observed per cent of normal rainfall of stations shown above made from manuscript copy of actual rainfall sent by Prof. Carl Ryder. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1860 58 61 40 87 113 54 80 150 157 115 82 96 33 115 127 120 185 26 183 136 35 23 42 89 75 172 92 124 21 54 28 127 96 129 82 96 66 49 49 99 157 148 {136) 103 96 80 167 92 99 82 153 75 54 70 54 131 190 101 94 108 162 218 113 45 83 86 86 240 166 143 139 30 131 68 45 39 18 157 157 45 154 166 71 74 68 134 116 50 27 135 92 15 36 77 .175 143 74 27 50 151 116 181 53 30 160 160 68 (113) 80 151 45 211 181 107 83 101 80 101 21 140 104 143 65 150 79 103 126 39 55 82 158 45 61 45 182 42 110 71 218 87 137 47 63 87 124 34 92 39 79 66 163 79 108 134 39" 63 121 121 168 229 132 82 50 116 132 84 79 150 108 76 121 100 45 137 124 158 192 105 66 134 16 103 66 82 77 80 114 54 17 125 193 111 37 54 97 131 82 88 63 128 85 71 82 114 20 131 5ti 45 99 94 102 122 82 139 94 74 9 114 65 102 105 94 142 134 162 63 148 160 151 74 57 125 139 139 80 108 74 125 63 122 97 136 134 256 65 77 97 77 82 72 118 113 31 153 64 46 166 189 64 84 49 87 161 148 49 87 110 46 105 130 94 133 84 46 135 153 115 66 89 84 64 187 217 82 79 89 199 84 120 87 115 118 146 110 84 67 113 69 84 95 148 28 38 28 156 77 163 178 151 190 43 116 99 33 81 78 161 99 58 66 110 93 87 83 169 116 60 178 66 52 83 75 31 153 52 103 62 194 60 95 93 66 50 202 25 109 190 66 76 78 91 83 194 91 107 132 161 132 87 70 29 153 87 81 91 58 56 133 117 68 57 99 101 170 49 46 63 131 73 104 95 80 52 140 82 148 164 121 151 145 117 41 90 82 180 117 150 137 43 120 117 156 66 128 71 69 115 54 84 128 28 85 57 79 85 107 115 58 110 58 139 155 91 71 110 112 129 49 92 63 76 125 126 126 31 79 75 98 46 87 111 106 71 51 170 123 173 43 157 114 110 44 107 44 46 84 149 129 210 92 78 118 114 109 141 102 36 95 58 146 139 75 147 112 103 107 79 143 47 155 71 54 74 129 135 .99 87 88 108 1.55 108 160 149 31 144 147 123 110 93 157 196 155 139 51 159 108 98 88 139 118 72 113 79 149 77 129 52 96 34 92 110 146 61 34 177 124 72 138 78 39 59 92 38 125 51 28 88 116 61 46 70 80 90 65 62 98 208 77 97 64 12 132 62 61 112 30 110 114 114 145 39 101 176 82 145 51 123 91 80 171 139 121 124 130 145 88 119 82 170 129 95 135 150 97 127 145 39 38 91 160 53 83 233 82 132 76 82 17 110 35 141 124 77 70 33 129 148 70 70 21 91 189 71 71 88 101 150 65 80 123 123 47 150 97 67 155 71 121 144 62 176 105 168 170 64 54 86 101 101 54 82 75 41 95 75 140 47 54 97 82 69 121 17 93 129 75 146 82 84 107 136 193 123 133 120 107 120 144 41 92 34 37 62 130 63 104 64 23 65 29 114 66 67 70 68 236 69 1870 71 116 66 70 72 118 73 74 77 103 75 411 76 147 77 79 78 97 79 37 1880 116 81 77 82.... 79 83 103 84.... 137 85 60 86 139 87 97 88 87 89 43 1890 15 91 132 92 93 94 58 85 77 95 96 97 98 112 87 120 170 99 1900. . 01 02.. .... 83 128 130 77 03 41 04 110 05 29 06 74 07 132 08 48 09 163 1910 . . 116 11 120 12 13 196 141 14 137 15 215 16 164 17 58 18 141 19 153 1920 .... 104 21 Normals in mm . 42.6 33 7 38.0 35.2 39 1 48 4 63.4 74.7 61.2 66.2 53.6 51.7 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 55 TABLE 16. — Sweden. Observed per cent of normal. Prepared from material from "Observations Meteorologiques Suedoises L'.^cademie Royale des Sciences de Suede," for 1910. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. I860 180 72 65 107 44 113 119 186 101 45 140 46 108 191 84 146 72 144 84 58 281 49 83 73 126 42 53 83 61 69 13S 103 80 88 119 70 79 92 78 151 116 64 108 113 96 68 122 106 78 88 125 90 104 58 77 112 84 238 115 155 132 60 52 99 72 33 34 133 149 27 131 133 257 91 54 83 50 13 39 92 133 256 50 84 102 108 92 48 90 160 100 178 63 50 99 152 53 116 104 126 40 155 Ill 119 72 89 136 47 91 64 144 46 48 263 120 52 93 89 134 154 122 48 34 86 117 59 90 36 39 50 108 72 117 100 67 83 117 152 200 173 177 87 67 101 118 102 84 98 121 77 115 205 52 138 50 129 137 61 24 91 173 122 58 83 58 140 49 96 65 123 78 49 132 76 53 162 50 44 30 58 120 81 81 242 58 108 43 102 83 115 123 88 186 107 106 37 195 149 122 109 127 102 130 164 113 116 81 64 58 110 139 56 58 173 102 169 162 136 48 76 55 91 156 121 65 103 114 80 125 51 27 92 101 71 136 125 72 90 148 70 76 119 167 78 78 50 111 78 131 63 155 105 104 102 130 167 57 175 88 134 59 118 145 42 124 90 58 142 107 43 97 110 82 127 121 72 98 118 101 146 32 29 53 67 59 122 53 172 80 96 109 124 75 158 72 71 160 82 92 101 87 88 158 120 102 87 72 128 132 69 65 94 122 136 53 46 92 59 70 79 76 78 70 52 63 124 126 117 148 172 133 25 21 115 158 146 149 113 78 103 133 178 88 106 155 84 99 32 132 114 30 112 78 144 84 116 131 165 118 68 100 102 114 15 53 85 110 68 24 94 105 95 78 71 123 110 94 39 131 130 123 38 57 13 87 83 124 137 149 127 107 125 135 126 125 115 46 116 70 153 188 127 139 91 113 95 109 93 109 107 59 157 127 36 155 99 132 102 108 168 181 155 106 35 216 78 100 124 77 120 65 148 75 45 22 132 90 115 41 99 107 153 77 66 108 135 75 185 72 37 79 81 70 109 35 40 97 92 95 134 27 137 76 73 101 23 109 126 121 111 41 163 152 97 57 105 93 97 98 93 98 94 97 122 73 22 83 121 106 152 115 110 182 91 132 164 53 50 104 161 116 114 145 95 86 70 90 20 156 53 86 190 105 73 95 98 152 90 74 112 189 34 157 133 77 102 82 158 151 63 131 105 147 178 51 21 41 11 77 69 153 110 24 78 71 117 68 83 122 90 131 79 30 60 104 101 161 63 86 64 252 97 61 42 62 104 63 94 64 46 65 34 66 127 67 128 68 127 69 97 1870 91 71 45 72 131 73 76 74 121 75 77 76 101 93 78 133 44 1880 135 81 90 82 120 91 84 170 25 86 64 140 88 124 89 52 1890 81 126 92 80 ni 94 119 80 96 99 142 98 188 1900 01 02 97 147 135 77 03 04 79 120 05 06 29 86 123 08 86 179 1910 98 Normals 3 54 3.03 3.12 2.74 3.92 4.58 6.12 6.91 5.43 5.13 4.06 3 71 56 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 17. — Per cent of normal rainfall of Chilgrove, England; Denmark; Sweden, and Utrecht, Holland — weighted equally because of geographical distribution. The record of Sweden is not included after December, 1910. Years. Jan. 1861. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 1870. 71 72, 73 74, 75 76 77, 78 79 1880 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 1890 91 92 •93 94 95 96 97 98 99 1900 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 39 90 104 50 107 135 148 112 78 98 62 145 134 94 148 42 193 101 65 93 49 76 78 136 72 170 230 52 40 136 112 98 78 132 86 70 70 72 141 134 68 92 100 128 63 200 78 81 61 124 59 98 130 66 155 123 81 142 148 Feb. 44 68 81 98 198 124 112 137 62 78 94 80 56 57 149 150 62 145 127 162 80 98 96 117 42 30 81 106 82 27 68 177 152 52 28 101 148 107 197 64 68 105 162 60 133 93 121 47 182 126 121 73 125 167 147 30 108 110 Mar. 131 92 77 125 58 84 73 131 62 77 101 126 60 90 73 164 125 127 38 54 103 111 53 91 58 79 56 158 86 127 132 53 52 106 139 172 202 111 63 52 120 111 126 75 164 100 78 117 163 59 113 166 147 231 87 128 96 45 174 Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 66 96 126 141 80 136 22 162 82 102 142 119 71 75 130 65 82 79 133 53 80 145 70 68 54 70 122 40 90 134 56 91 20 102 54 135 160 23 138 84 90 100 108 110 88 188 26 139 148 72 109 157 59 110 94 60 115 52 32 40 110 100 104 02 50 201 92 47 84 131 106 112 47 73 57 74 124 84 130 113 140 69 130 140 39 156 56 42 96 141 105 94 80 1.58 146 155 64 134 92 83 92 144 132 88 92 165 78 70 156 129 93 95 59 72 108 126 97 73 98 147 118 60 88 50 73 189 68 92 96 107 60 108 151 77 99 162 89 156 86 56 134 89 92 150 150 116 152 152 149 108 73 53 89 60 117 148 44 130 161 139 38 110 96 105 157 110 89 98 153 100 174 140 112 86 135 130 45 76 81 147 170 122 98 161 53 86 72 121 48 88 95 58 59 142 70 24 148 122 132 65 72 126 66 91 46 46 81 79 99 96 37 64 64 118 92 86 92 82 137 200 84 56 88 100 90 125 68 130 128 100 137 62 171 106 111 156 126 43 118 132 68 136 102 122 173 75 109 99 67 70 151 68 98 128 139 66 14 60 59 125 72 128 142 96 120 92 102 162 114 86 103 113 102 60 82 160 122 87 117 148 81 45 109 68 95 203 131 61 137 115 90 76 149 127 44 63 90 188 153 120 80 98 64 119 170 94 48 74 72 160 89 98 110 78 121 85 122 54 130 94 156 66 147 78 68 82 88 80 60 144 88 93 166 00 82 60 194 113 110 120 159 123 198 93 116 151 88 37 93 68 70 93 123 62 120 78 138 97 119 108 74 158 77 58 78 48 90 143 136 124 164 84 88 36 112 78 106 123 89 102 119 76 38 78 141 94 105 118 107 108 156 66 150 90 109 118 109 67 60 176 76 86 149 39 87 47 148 169 66 98 167 82 229 77 99 107 101 134 100 87 53 55 94 118 103 83 73 126 52 91 66 109 79 146 68 149 80 73 52 125 123 125 148 57 124 70 131 115 108 56 139 81 188 71 157 93 106 53 70 152 76 241 69 73 1.38 28 64 118 93 63 55 129 Dec. 42 102 98 31 40 110 88 189 107 106 64 144 49 97 50 136 88 89 33 136 104 102 79 141 45 172 102 82 70 30 142 80 102 105 114 116 133 137 83 134 144 80 64 108 35 86 123 78 166 122 162 157 104 193 224 132 55 131 173 58 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. eg 9 a eg W a a o .a o (a pa S 00 cllO•-Hcococ^ccooQO^'^l^*•*t'ClOO■^c:C'3•^>--"^^o<»c<^coc7lCC'^JOOioo<^^lOoo^-o^*»oo r^ CO ■^(^^!C'0'*c^^csc<^(D■^*Hc^l>.»-Hr^^cocococ^l:o^c^oo^^oO'^'<*'00■^t'C'lcoooooo^'-'CTs s §S|S§S8S§2^gSS^S2SSS§§SJg§ggS22Sg5§SS^gS2 ■^ '^oocrlc^--oooOMO:0'-^^-u^C'^cccca;lra^*ociO":!Oi^^Oi-r+'r^ooocoooco^Dl>.^^'^ a C C3 s SE^S?5g§gg§^SS2§S§g|SSgSg2S?2Sgo|§S§§gg2S§ s gSSgSS2SSgggSS^2gJ?^5!gS§§SS§?JgSSg§SSKSSS 3 O-^OiOCOOOt^ ^^ ^ OO -M <<*- t>5 OO C) O C^J OOC^lO^eO^OC^OcOOOOcDOCOO OO GO OO cs cooi^cooo^^TtHC^iuocct^Trcn.t^cc^t^t^i^cooor^r^oto^^ooooojOieDioGOt--»o "O 2SS^Sg2SSS:S2§SS§|2S2g|SSg?!SgS3§?ig^|S^SSS 1— 1 §SSS2SSJSE;Sg§§g8gSggS?5K|SSSgg§«2^SgS§§SSg cc" §|S|25?^|Kg§gRgg38|Jg3SS§§§§§S|2^g2H"BSS2 S §t2gg§§S§5:§SSS§2|SSgiSSSlgggSS^gSgSSS2g|g3S ^ (»i--osur300^yD'cot^ooio O g§Sg§S2gJ^|SggKg^§§S^g^2SgggSS§5SS2|g|Sg§ 3 c -H^„^o=o,^ooo.o-c.22:2S^S2§?3?3?5S;SS?5i5SgS?5??SSSS;??S ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 59 Cl O dc^»o»coo o 05 CO 05 05 03 S o OS OOC^M Oi^ CO ■-r O 00 -^ec oj CO CD O t^ r^ ccoo o o 05 OS t^r^ ^ to tp 00O«-*(M l-H (M «— 1 •— ' §1 2 2 CM O C5 osifs a>^- co 03 (M t>. »o oo 00 CO o OS -**■ t- CO 00 TT o OS O OO o C4 ^N,-H ,-1 to o C<1 r>-oo ^- lO 04 § CM 2 c«3 r^ '«*' »o oo 1— « to Ci»0 C^ o b- - cooo lO PC r- C) c: ic Ci Tf l« cs s oo OS CS ^ CO C5CO oo OJ 1 -* 00 CI CM CD (^ CD -^ CM CDOO CD M — -^ CM oo Oi 2 § 1 c T S5 1 c O ^H CM CO -^ s s s 60 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 19. — Chile. Sums of rainfall in th% following towns for years indicated: Concepeion, 1876-1887 and 1892-1915. Puerto Montt, 1862- April, 1873; 1888- July. 1895, and .January, 1896-1915. Santiago, 1873-1915. Serena, 1869-1915. Valdivia, 1852-1879 and 1900-1915. Sums of Actual R.\inf.\ll. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 1852. 53 110 54 ... . 250 55 970 56 1100 57 2320 58 370 59 120 1860 170 61 120 62 2120 63 1490 64 1500 65 1150 66 960 67 650 68 4220 69 2580 1S70 2920 71 3280 72 2060 73 1440 74 250 75 1656 76 408 77 148 78 228 79 446 1880 496 81 186 82 222 83 176 84 42 85 844 86 60 87 50 88 170 89 655 1890 2162 91 2200 92 1233 93 403 J 94 1534 95 987 96 1373 97 313 98 1175 99 2321 1900 2220 01 1166 02 1383 03 510 04.... 679 05 369 06 1421 07 916 08 102 09 484 1910 2756 11 1092 12 903 13 129 14 3242 15 192 1420 540 90 500 1270 2260 360 1080 190 340 1050 800 190 980 1680 5170 1.550 2130 600 1510 566 210 1186 1466 1279 424 582 182 304 332 38 24 428 190 185 1240 510 730 1290 2641 590 1230 989 410 990 4251 1296 3532 3439 3495 501 285 71 1137 1271 609 854 1951 851 3579 1379 390 1772 1300 1410 2080 3050 1650 560 1630 890 1560 2770 3010 2060 1560 7900 2820 2750 3210 6130 6860 2920 3610 1094 2710 3712 2472 2716 1020 235 50 733 1392 797 302 852 80 750 1520 805 1930 1535 2270 2326 3222 1471 2847 2108 2981 8567 1657 4529 738 1094 3581 1578 558 3202 265 564 644 1443 2177 1740 1250 1970 2500 3550 1930 2570 3830 2900 1130 5310 4490 6080 2770 2940 4500 5420 3910 1620 4130 3960 3290 4228 570 1204 2264 6640 5502 2138 548 2195 536 407 2920 734 470 2.53 2392 1590 486 1520 1047 1555 1098 1605 781 4587 5081 4380 3451 3639 6093 2154 4784 4011 4438 364 6184 2737 3678 7038 7136 8693 2024 9038 5550 5490 1780 1410 4730 3990 4750 3830 3600 8450 3960 8670 9050 8970 10820 4780 8400 4985 3680 3726 2744 7176 5432 3601 8897 5275 1436 3773 2248 3349 614 3955 1512 910 3694 3210 1783 2910 3360 5414 4668 2412 1942 6666 5616 8812 10757 10459 15927 2864 9731 6925 9484 5215 8909 2948 5324 10577 9364 12355 9691 17518 7500 7650 4600 8340 6350 2910 6480 2840 42,50 13030 8890 7630 6480 2320 6020 10070 4400 4380 4075 5140 5890 6827 1893 4155 4109 10.554 9160 8676 2554 1796 6316 2247 757 2808 6643 4130 1733 2841 6227 2822 3405 3182 4219 3484 4819 10006 7430 10533 16351 15389 13472 10565 12188 8481 9114 6913 5655 13591 5191 8967 5986 17961 10368 2770 5270 4610 2640 4220 2240 4220 8030 4340 7170 4470 6280 7320 7610 5390 8430 8720 8650 5470 4875 5340 3598 3658 8848 12422 6432 11084 9018 3380 4385 1382 1722 4295 1731 1855 4111 3870 4592 4654 4080 6648 5181 6826 8203 3713 6377 13519 22182 13035 13753 3779 17881 9646 6869 6817 2958 2865 9993 6221 5405 15961 13405 11040 5150 1760 2690 4650 2640 1320 5110 1730 0330 2570 5790 4670 6740 7740 10000 4,590 4560 11280 3000 8140 8125 3187 4288 1250 5881 4894 2431 9804 4423 2142 3698 836 3673 2425 1368 6958 7073 2870 1703 2859 4087 3792 4161 5739 4561 3491 2783 13047 9368 11198 5536 3697 5736 8120 5618 6337 6908 6751 12160 6948 7820 6161 6552 8119 2580 2490 1310 1390 1320 1760 1950 1650 3150 1270 2460 2210 3880 4580 3820 3200 6640 3370 1520 2610 4850 3312 2897 590 3380 5872 5051 718 582 2969 1031 1354 1591 1491 813 2280 3368 1496 1796 2310 2549 978 2715 1510 7270 1511 3051 1293 6177 4860 5657 3019 7179 4234 3916 5171 3144 1723 1934 3814 1904 5289 10493 3291 620 1260 1920 990 430 1510 580 740 910 1480 4820 1460 3040 6170 2210 1670 4120 3170 1600 4170 4480 900 2000 900 4726 38S8 3418 938 1002 1317 376 884 1012 897 371 933 3289 740 1133 3405 2069 963 3462 1204 2919 2338 1733 1240 6108 2200 2392 1355 3029 3906 1346 2866 1968 2055 1248 917 3716 2048 3150 2923 2330 1520 750 400 1550 3220 2170 660 940 640 5520 2490 2590 2170 3500 2470 2100 3260 1520 1190 4060 130 2068 934 1054 1698 2695 1058 126 688 877 758 237 166 381 738 1522 1163 520 987 733 1419 3574 533 2153 2235 2441 2450 4155 5324 3450 909 1557 450 223 449 1864 1967 3094 4497 3192 349 5615 2553 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 61 TABLE 19— CoNTiNiED. Sums op Normal Rainfall for Each Month Where Actual Rainfall Has Been Used. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 3365 2101 1417 1233 5747 3748 2840 2686 5747 3748 2840 2686 5747 3748 2840 2086 5747 3748 2840 2686 5747 3748 2840 2686 5747 3748 2840 2686 5747 3748 2840 2686 6000 3815 2877 2693 6000 3815 2877 2693 6000 3815 2877 2693 6000 3815 2877 2693 4239 2435 1608 1312 4239 2435 1608 1312 4239 2435 1608 1312 6131 3423 2220 1734 6131 3423 2220 1734 6131 3423 2220 1731 6131 3423 2220 1734 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 2766 1322 803 501 3256 1981 1614 1532 3256 1981 1614 1532 3256 1981 1614 1532 3256 1981 1614 1532 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 5149 2969 2226 1954 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 6132 34-3 2220 1734 6132 3423 2220 1734 6132 3423 2220 1734 6132 3423 2220 1734 6132 3423 2220 1734 6132 3423 2220 1734 6132 3423 2220 1734 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 8514 5070 3643 3187 Dec. 1852. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 1860. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 1870. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 1880. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 1890. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 99. 1900. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 1910. 11. 12. 13 14 15 634 634 634 634 634 634 634 634 634 1846 1846 1846 1846 1846 1846 1846 1847 1847 1847 1847 1854 642 642 819 819 819 819 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 1220 1220 1220 1220 1397 1397 1397 1397 1397 1397 1397 1397 2031 2031 2031 819 819 819 819 819 819 819 2031 2031 2031 2031 2031 819 738 738 738 738 738 738 738 738 738 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1815 1831 754 754 981 981 981 981 243 243 243 243 243 243 243 243 1093 1093 1093 1093 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 1320 2058 2058 2058 981 981 981 981 981 981 981 2058 2058 2058 2058 2058 2058 1418 1418 1418 1418 1418 1418 1418 1418 1418 3005 3005 3005 3005 3005 3005 3005 3013 3013 3013 3013 3058 1471 1471 2060 2060 2060 2060 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 1640 1640 1640 1640 2229 2229 2229 2229 2229 2229 2229 2229 3647 3647 3647 2060 2060 2060 2060 2060 2060 2060 3647 3647 3647 3647 3617 3647 2376 2376 2276 2376 2376 2376 2376 2376 2376 4286 4286 4286 4286 4286 4286 4286 4311 4311 4311 4311 4466 2556 2556 3436 3430 3436 3436 1060 1060 1060 1060 1060 1060 1060 1060 2090 2090 2090 2090 2970 2970 2970 2970 2970 2970 2970 2970 5346 5346 5346 3436 3436 3436 3436 3436 3436 3436 5346 5346 5346 5346 5346 5346 3910 3910 3910 3910 3910 3910 3910 3910 3910 ■6788 6788 6788 6788 6788 6788 6788 7001 7001 7001 7001 4745 4745 4745 6751 6751 6751 6751 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 3713 3713 3713 3713 5719 5719 5719 5719 5719 5719 5719 5719 9629 9629 9629 6751 6751 6751 6751 6751 6751 6751 9629 9629 9629 9629 9629 9629 4457 4457 4457 4457 4457 4457 4457 4457 4457 6925 6925 6925 6925 6925 6925 6925 7403 7403 7403 7403 5770 5770 5770 8318 8318 8318 8318 3861 3861 3861 3861 3861 3861 3861 3861 3781 3781 3781 3781 6329 6329 6329 6329 6329 6329 6329 6329 10786 10786 10786 8318 8318 8318 8318 8318 8318 8318 10786 10786 10786 10786 10786 10786 4310 4310 4310 4310 4310 4310 4310 4310 4310 7213 7213 7213 7213 7213 7213 7213 7554 7554 7554 7554 5555 5555 5555 8185 8185 8185 8185 3875 3875 3875 3875 3875 3875 3875 3875 4148 4148 4148 4148 6778 6778 6778 6778 6778 6778 6778 6778 11088 11088 11088 8185 8185 8185 8185 8185 8185 8185 11088 11088 11088 11088 11088 11088 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 2479 1105 1105 1105 1368 1368 1368 1368 321 321 321 321 321 321 321 321 1490 1490 1490 1490 1753 1753 1753 1753 1753 1753 1753 1753 2800 2800 2800 1368 1368 1368 1368 1368 1368 1368 2800 2800 2800 2800 2800 2800 62 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. ^ooaooI^'*^-C5as^QOOOGr)e:lt--'^e^^ooo«^c-^-oo»ococo'?^0'--'OiOt^ot^ooc050<» r^SS^oir-OCKit^ocri^oo^oaiGoco-Hascri — coc^Tt^^'-'^O^^^Cftcor-— -rjo »nO>-rt'OiOO"^«'^OOa5CCrJ'COt^OOC^10»Or-lOr-C^l400-1'a5'— lO-— '0^--"»o»-;--^t^ S o '^ -^-1 ^j c© c-j CO 00 L":; L-^ »o o r-- --H (^t] CO Oi Oi t-- c^ 00 o c-i CO o c-i CO Ci .-• r-- Oi £"- ^ c^i CD L-D =0 ■T-i* ic^ cji cf:i <:> ao '-^ ■'—' ^iT-: cc c^i c-i y—i o^ ':o i^ cci ^ni *: »OCO'— 'OOcOCOfO'rrCOOOC-l'MtO-— < - 05 OC500>00000«00--0(M'M'M'M--OCO — C0O00<3i0O'MC0-*00'— '^I'-'-^OO'-'OjCQ ociS'0^i-^»oco':ot^eoi:^t--ooooco--*t--C5-Hoo:o-^^y:''aiU7cocoooGC»o»oco«ot--oc^ "— :::i,.^:^,^— ..« — i--"r-^ — — --+..r-• -^ ^-^^ i '•-' ■ ■ ^■'^ —IT}'— 'lOOOC^'O'— 'OJOO— '-^-^40 a < B I pa S I - C^<:SOOOOOOOO''-Or^-**^COC^asMiOOOOOCO^C-ir^OO-^^^'— '^C0O00'-'«O'Ci;^00 roStrsS^li-'iOCOO'^^OtO'— ••^C^lC^l'^C>JC^I<0v0t--0iO-^'rt't-'O'— 'OiCCOCOOOO'— 'OOO tpi■^.-Ha^^I-^lO•-•c»-H^c:Jlr^rJ^"^cacot^-:t^coa:-0'^C'^ocooco»0'^^'Oc^^^GoaiGD'^ ^^— «lC»oC^l'~-''M'-OiO'M'-' -^ cO—i n-— "Ot^-— J^'M^-'-H'Mt--0^tO'^»0^»0 SXr^oo'^r^oofMOoococoooo— '•^o-rfoscoio — r-CMcootot--ai'^i>j^':ooocoioo»o ^C^C^lOiOO'— 'lOCSO-T-^— '»0^--0 Ci(MC'i^-00^-00iCi-OTj«-^"*-^COr-00»O»OC^ICS*MtO ^M'^) ^COCO^COC-JO'^J' O'Tt^ COiO <=jC5OOOC)OOOOO=0X)00-X:C0q6-^I— COCOOOCO*-" tit^OTCOC^lC-lCO'M00(M-Tr»O'M — t'-OOCO— 'lOOTpCOt^CO-tt^ ..^w— '— '>— — — .r*I— COCOOOCO'-'TPU^OCO^-^^OOO'— 'OcOOiOO ^-.^-.O^CDC^lC-^C0C^00C^l■Tr»OC1^-t'-00C0•-'^OO'''^«OX5 01>.00 0'— 'CO— '0'-^I>.'^r-'^-'^'— 'iOt-'-'C^'COa C^-*^Cq?aTtH:OiOCOC^*C^-^COOO C^O-^CO^C^iOCsl l-OC^CO^ OiOO c^ (— i(-^t^c-5C!CDOOOOOOO'— 'C^^-"^Ou^C^O■^fO^COO'— •COCDCOI^-iOOS'^'C'COC^t^ ^OQO•5iQooDcsocooO'-'0:><:oco'rt*Ci-H^^c^lO^^Oicoc:^colO'rJHt^^co-^co'^1oo-'^ '5i«lSot^^(^^•-''^■3 00lraco^---^'MOTt"OCOOO — OOtO-— ' C^^OOt^iOiOOt^'^l'-O'M-^'^aiCO^O OiCO-^-— '35-hOC-II-^OO — -^10 — iciQo^-Hcoco — -^icoi--ooo-*c^ai t^t^ioci--otMt^coei— (ai<:oo IT: ^ ^r z_i — .» — 1 (-.1 *w-i ^1 rtf-i ^v^ rvi _^ ry^ fv^ ^-< r.<»OSO'— 'ClCO'^iOcDt^OO ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 63 3814 2242 2024 10368 OOCJOOO ■ ^f 05 ^}< — • <3s « r^ ?o ■ -" oooo • iM— -ajco • eon 05 ■ 5191 1904 3242 1250 »ooo»or^ - CO O Tf Oi ■ O '^ ?o^ ■ Tf t^ooc<» - -gjcc rr OS - ■ oo cc c^i *o • 1092 7136 6161 5615 O rc — O — C'J M" — lO C3 1— ■ ■^r c: — ' OS ^ij" Oi cC CO cc Ci t^ 00 CI >-'3 ^ »0 Ci -^ ir2 cceoiO o c^ CO cQio — ' CO ^ CICD Ol Oi C3 ^ "^ C^ »-" C^ 00 CO CO o r-- 1^ '-« OS cc o: t^ ^ -^ C^ Tj« c^ t^oo CO t^ -^ -- o Ci — lO C5 ■^ 05 ci t^ ■^r^ o s o 12; 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CO ^ t^ II f so CO or^ CD O 0»0 CD 11 — ^ CO ^ii:;s Oi CO '* o: oo :o C^ C^ OiOO CO II CO Tji -— ll CD CD II oooo O -^ QO O II t~ 00 ol -M CO o OS -^ 1 CD O -rJ. M-O »— I r^ (M^,-,u, II o^ lO 00 *0 CO oo 00 CD to II II — 1 !>-£-- CD -rt* o^ ^H 1 OO CD o- 1 t-^ 00 -^oo — « TtHOO O 1 — ICC 1 lO ^ o CO 1— 1 CD r- lO — ' OS « II COt~ 1 ■^ l>. coco ooo 40 CO CD CD CO — < O OS oo»o COiO CO -^ en 00 cDuO o ^CD ■* t^ — oo 'rf Tf T) oo t--oo 05 t^ CD O ^1**0 CI ifj CO O CD O — o ^ OS — coo CO C-I Cl-H CO OS »0 rf 00 f coco OS C5 »0 CO 11 1 — . .— . t/ b (. t* c ^ 1 «5 TJ, ■^ (M c-l --3 C3 -^' c3 —J eg 3 a o O c o O c 03 a o O ca c: .2 ts c .2 S c .2 a a 1 a a 2 a a o O ^ C^) CO 3 3 3 3 3 ^. 3 3 3 -* ■^ -<*" -* Cf2 m o Ki 02 o cc w cy 5 — Science Bui.'— 37^8 r 66 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. •s 03 o "3 -a a > JJ O OJ a s- -s— fc. O) f-i C.J £lD Q 1 o ca 'ci (d p -i; >. -C rt 3 o r* •-5 c: 3 .13 O n t^ r^ -^ Tj< o 'l>-r-t:OCO'MI>-00'^'^'— 'OiC^JOOOOOOO C^Tf -^ ^. O iM *o O O C^^H o »o t~» oa ^-M »— I rvi •—< ■■ — ' bm vm »+h vm f**.i r^t i-v-. i-»-i /vi *v^ ^w^ i-i-i ^.i ^-^-i —. r-.^ ^-i-i ,JJ T7- ct;j 1_) ^j (j(j '_j I--- iji CT3 ^£^ r^;; -rr 31 ^T r— ^J "— ' CQ t^ C3 C ,— , ^HT^i— .C^lC^JCCCOiM coco CO C^(Mi— ICOC^ ^r^lcoc-5■r+-^?OTt^-HOO»C'^co<^^^£^o03^co^CJ»-•^-•c^1'^c^^cooo■T^*':o■■--'C^l'--CT=':ocl:oooloc»oocoGDt^cocoC)(^3co 0'^050CO'^OOt^CO'^CT)iO'*OTt'C^'lC^J-^t--OCOiri!0(OOil>--Hl-^C35iCO'^00'^OO^D COCO-Tt'-^iO-^-^'t<-rtttC)COdCOCOOCS^-«-— ^-^lO-^-^^C^lOO IC'-I --H (MCI C^COC^J'-H 1— '1— 11— iCvJC^COCO^H CO CJ^H -rji coco »0 O Oi -^ *-<-:}- 00 'M ^1— 'b-'^OOOiCOT-l^-COCOOOOC^t^O'— «C^cOOtO"rI^.*j -" — T-t 1— f CC 93 <— ■ CO CO o o o o -^ CO CO ^ ■— ' ^1 "O ^O t'j :_j •— ■ T-" C-) C^ >--« C^J .— I CO CO 00OtOt^G0"-OO'— 'OCOOOSi— •■^GOOOOOcOGOCOT-iaiOCX)t^ail>.f— (U5 coCi'-'Ocooc-jrj'iooouoO'— ."^-t*»ocO'^ci3;ooo^»oc;>OwOi--'* .— ICOCO COC^C^ ■^,— i-H -^CM .— ii— « TJH— i-H— ic^coca'-' o-^cxtcooo"— --'^oo^coou^ooor'.-^c^cococowtii— »ot^»o-^t^r^ri'C^-io:ic«oc^c>ico'— • ^-c^r^t^oocoo^eo■^t^'-DcoocO'^t''*c'lalcoc^^o-^^-!^oooaioocociOOi"*M•^~co OOC-lOOI^C'i— ti— I CT-OOOC'ICvi'— '■^— 'G0G0»OdiOiOiOC100C^'^--'G0CO'^) CTi-^-^OCOt^cO 1— «cou:5c:;oo:C'— 'touoci--o--ic^i-rf'c^icocicocco"^o«oc;-oi>-"^«ticccoiC'ricDoooo---i>-o ^ *— i-r^C-l-^COCsifMCM Cgcr^ (M c^,— I,— I T-( C^CO 04 C^)>— * 1— I.— ( CO -" OO "Tf^ QO o o ■^ CO i—iCO'—'^C^l-^COC-l •—<--« C-IC^ '—•'—' '-« •-' -—«,-. r^iOuOGOCO'^OOiOCM'^'— 'COCO coc^J'^oor-t-^oc^irMasC'iioi--oo^^i:^'— ''Mcocoo-ri^oo-rt^-rticocraoo'^C'i-rfc^o cocvi'^'rt'inrt'iccvtoc]:^-'— ''— ■co^oc^i'--'-rf'C-iocO"^c:i;oO'^-^CT:uO'*ooco;r> "^T-i COCO-rf'^C^iMCO'— ■ 1-H.— 1— .C^lC-irM—i T-iCV) —< CO^^CO CO i— iC-) -^ C^ O CO 00 lO O ^3 C^J t-- C0OO--C'^00CMOOOO'-"'-HC0-r}H'ra»Ot^C^lcO»000'O':MOG0<— 'O-^rt^O-^COOi'ft-C OOOOOO— '."^^-000'— t— '-HCOCO-^COm-^CO c-ioot-^c-jo c .— iC'ti— I CMG^l'— ' 1— ■C^— '■— 'CO'— 'CO •— iC-JCO-— 'CMC-l ,— .o) ,_,,—,,— , C^l-— i COCi C COt-O^O^OOO--''— I OC'lClCOCWGC CO CTitOCO CI O-^tO-^OOOO^OCOt^^Ot^C^lOiC^COt^rt* i>.c^i'— (OOcic-ic;-:}'c::)t^c^i-^-^05'--"C^icooO'— t^«o-^OiOc-i"^iOO'«#co — co^i.-^ -^ CO-— ' -^C-l-— -r- !,-« rM COCI-— I-— COCOt-ii— iri'—'— I C]CO C^ i— irj* r-t QI^,_H^,OlO-^I>•l>■c^cooi"^'^<^J■^ooc>lOicOTJ^ic■^ococ^^c^^Ol^-.TJ^ol'X>"^cooo»oc^l i^-rf"OcMooooso t^oosr-oc^jio ■^oot^t-->o-^i-^coi^r-tocor-oO'^coi>-ci'r-ic^j CO-— I Csjr-«»-H lO CO-* CQ PO—t'— '1— IC^'-HC^ i-HIMC^fM .— i C-J'-' ^C^CO-^UOCOt^OOOSO-— 'C^CO'*iOtO^-.OOOsO'-iC-lCOrt'»OcOb--OOOlCi'— tC^CO-^iCOt-^ i-i^^^^^,-H^^i-H»^(Mcsc-':oO"-*':oo 05iooooc3ooc5050ooiQOOor-.r-oo:D^ooooooor^o»oO;Doooootoooiot«o C^ ^H C^l ,— . ^^ CO -^ C^ CC CO CO CO C^ — ' CS "M -CsOt— t^^o ■<*« CO — ' t--. COo "*- 00 lO CO oo r* t^oo 05 as 00 CO CO O coco ^ CD ■* CO M CO CO OS coco OS t^ coco 00 00 CO CO coco COiO COCN CO CO oco CO CO CO CO t-co O OS lOCO CO CO OiCO Tt-00000iC000O00O000000t^ •-« C^C^)*— >'— 'CMC^*— '^^ C^-— «'— < CO^^ CO'—' !—«•—< (Ml— It— IC^ .— -t^:0CSO'^asO00t^:0"rt*OOOOOI>*^O00t--'*--t*0S00t^O00-^c0 oscooior-r-iCicot^coQOt~(OOi»oooocDcococox>icoasa5»CGOOr-ci*ooscsoo '-HCOr^— '—'CSC^C^— «.as0^^o-*"^"rt^■^oo^-too-^ot~-^^'^^"rt';ooI>.^- »OOOiCOOOOiCOOtOOOOOOOOOt^OOtOOSOOOOOOOOCOOOOO:0000;»OOt^05 0COti^>0 -CCOO00iO0SiOC:s000000 CM '-'CM'MCMCMCOCMCM CM '—"CM CM'-' CM"-* CO— »'— 'Ca CM'—' i— (Cvl OS CO •^ CO O CO "Tf CO CO lO oo o t^o CM CO CO "* oo CO CO CO "^'O00-S"-^t^-^-^'^'^c0G0O:C^OO'^Oic0OOOOO'*'C0Ot~^0S00''*C0Ot^O00"^ OO0SwCCiOOOO00O0St--0st^:0Ot^O0S0S0S0;:OOO0SifiI>.CS00O00i00S0S'O CO"— ' COC.:O»O0000OiCiOO*^'^i~^"^^~' C^l '— C^I CM CI CO C-1 CM CO OsOcOr-.-'^-^r—cOOscO'-0-0-Ort-t^t--cOO-.OClTj*o OGOOt-'Or--c^ooocoiC! -— " C^JCacO CMC^I'-H'— '^-'— I'— " C^C^l-— I*— 'CM CO-—" CJ'— " CM CO CO •*?' OS c-Tt"t-^OO[-*cD0S0sCS0:OO-rf0s00l>-Ot^c0OTfas'^O | OscO COOaCOOOOu'^0000»OOQOiOOSiOOSOO»OOE--l>.t^I>.C.OOOOI^OSmjSiOCS^Ot^OOOO 1 LO ^^ — C4 -— iCOCOC^I '—'■—' C^l CM CMCMC^I ,— (CMCM-— '^^^^— ' ■— 'C^J-— ' CM C^lC^l CO—^ '— 'llcot— II CO CO wt--OOOt^Tt<0000ooooosoooo»cosos^^co'^osooor^ooooosoot^ooooo»oooioocsas i CM CMCO*-< •-H'-tCM C^C^^'-'.— " CslCM— -C^ICMC^I^^ COC-4 CJ-— «'— "CM CMCM || oo CO CO C^l coco "rj"-l-oOOr-00000"^cOQOaoOcOO-*l>'COcOcO;OOsC^lt--t~-.0'^OSQO'^00(Or-.COO I OOCSOcOOO»OOOcOOaOOOOO^^C3cOOCOOiOC>OC;Ot^l^>C»0 0'-Ot^a5000SOOiOOcO 1 CM,_, r-tC^ r-t --.C^i-fC^ CM COCMCMC^C^CMi— « C. 't^ CO CM r— CO »o CO CO oo t^ CM CO CO CO CO CO — •cMco'**«ir;cot^oocsO'--— •ooor-'— ' cot-^r-— -t^— ooco — ^ooooocs^^oc^)--'OOOr-ot-"rj«— oo-^'-'t^'— '-— '-^oocNCTs 50co^-0'^h^cO'*otOTf''»t'OooO'Tj<»0'*ciai-t'ot^'--'oot^oootD'rj"-^oo'ri'^cc3> OO"— 't^iC'^OOClO'^QOrO^^OO'— 'O"— '^'^^C^^'^t^CCf'-OCTSOC-ltD-^OOOiCCJO'-H'^ tot-^cc — f- a: t--"*i>-ioioaic:iOoo—«otr)ci^oicoo3iCiria3C^;o !■>-'— '000*0*0-^ !DO oo '2 1 o 00 . e»3 . CO 1 "O 2^ -a 1 "" ^^ J3 S o Co Co rt o a o « o -e a ^1 70 THE UNWERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 24. — Tananarive, Madagascar. Rainfall in mm. lEARS. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. 1890 18880 15270 12380 13100 0 1302 240 58 58 15403 23901 29955 129747 91 11700 23843 35133 4528 469 224 557 534 1982 28173 3635 18389 129167 92 36374 33996 3007 5064 574 665 442 1175 424 5611 7517 28113 122962 93 25853 24182 18607 10001 4131 1412 1460 887 237 8219 1616 50343 146948 94 95 47306 21811 22957 1844 3496 597 849 3307 6244 1902 10327 40132 160772 96 16820 41155 6490 12505 630 1040 100 933 393 7320 15605 15455 118446 97 46065 15095 27500 4480 1108 100 170 55 690 7770 7960 44647 155640 98 41699 11800 13820 2785 472 1009 535 1650 380 3263 7385 36816 121614 99 23470 30281 37733 12616 2783 232 802 1056 91 14746 14009 10116 147936 1900 41449 33277 14280 2060 310 82 439 1112 4128 2709 3249 15104 118199 01 41200 23627 22918 894 294 1213 162 799 386 991 4068 37217 133769 02 12200 30358 21516 9423 1431 420 364 113 2096 5506 11549 18439 113415 03 44565 23810 25840 1852 700 631 756 836 1190 7226 19729 24218 151383 04 31777 24842 17356 697 905 2548 943 1717 1271 2680 3262 36547 124545 05 40502 53237 11665 8039 1140 215 756 1901 2381 6829 31347 35541 193553 06 4945 66995 24004 13270 320 225 670 70 3220 13825 10090 24760 166494 07 19105 16710 34655 3765 0 1685 1790 105 5155 7055 16425 54770 161220 08 20940 47040 18115 3740 3245 114 859 0 720 5310 8172 45237 153492 09 13099 20183 1675 6120 600 480 25 3135 4565 4663 6102 8565 69212 1910 21162 2279 S 26092 ISO 11 23 57 70 2 1950 14981 31284 120576 11 32681 27787 25301 3828 1322 1426 703 667 481 1617 16374 13227 125474 12 23301 15071 12141 7299 189 485 934 110 2325 2443 943 25459 90700 13 49075 44162 6064 1928 3770 273 463 419 4953 5238 16571 24286 157202 14 61814 46426 7412 5354 833 130 1579 328 80 5648 11917 7549 149070 15 27781 27075 22142 8352 3200 309 113 212 214 2464 15922 15098 122882 16 29355 24652 21576 5774 3132 593 613 571 661 5185 39063 44902 176077 17 20533 23850 8596 6541 263 154 1077 2391 864 . 1662 17139 52281 135351 18 19572 15787 11486 2159 2007 928 600 315 . 359 1963 13011 26605 94792 19 27480 28110 24442 1018 1261 2057 402 313 2538 3590 11537 33782 136530 1920 38211 51037 8087 4344 692 720 1069 312 247 605 14821 10635 130810 21 58273 24303 11229 513 4077 179 462 508 104 2624 20389 37662 160323 Mean. 305 28 293 10 178 80 53 45 14 02 6 99 6 45 8 27 15 34 61 03 128 58 289.40 1360.74 72 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. CO U5 t^ CO O CO 00t^00Cl»OC0C0-^--0i0OC000»O'*'»0^ -^^ ^ttj r- ^^ j»rf^ -1^ -^ r^ 1-.^ *■^^^ ^^ r-. ^^ '^ »/^ f^^ ^1 X >— ' r- ^H cc -x> --0 Oi r- CO •— ' r- ■ ■^ cc c^ < Oi *0 ^O (M 00*000 — ot^t^-rrT-ioor-fci-^T-iioc-j-^-^ f" '-' DO OO 00 O r- o -^ Ci as t^,— ,,_,_l-,C,5^,_^7 iO»O00 CO CO — t CO -— < »-' OO'^Or^OO'— <'MOOCOOiiCO»C"*— 'COOC^IO CM -^O -^ -M CO Cr. OO OO OO -f rf" C^l O -^ CO GO r- t-- 00 -M iO QOO-^COCOCDC-l uOGCO^OO— 't^^-OlOC-1 0500 r!3 Id .— I (^ 1—1 r-1 i(-i (Tin -Ti i?v^ m -Tf in »0 CO O lO •— ' O — CO mx J vrf^/ ■'*^- ^^-i ' ' ■■ ^ ' ■ ■•mJ'J ^— ' iM lO CO as CO CO -* *o 01 ^ ^ . - I ?^ .— it^C^(MOOUOOOcOOOO— '0»«-oocoO'Mair-to»oooorf'^0'Mco »0b-OO'MOO00cOC0aiO'M'^C-ir-t^^0C0^^:0 COOCOOO'— ''MCJ^H»j'!:Ot--00Oi'— t COOi— OS c5 OO Ol t^ Oi lO 00 o -^ CO '-D OO 00 oo o lO c-1 r^ -:*- CO 00 Ol C-l CO •— ' »o CO -rr -a (M CO CO -O o I-- »o r^ CO — ' oo 'Oi •— ' 00 lO c^» O C^l CO !>• 00 >-< uo ai ^- 05 1— ' oo CM CM d o Tt- r- — O CO -^ — ' '— ■ lO lo oo CO t-- — r-. CM •O r- '^ CO oo "O — o CO lO "-O CO c-1 lo r- O rf -ff CO 1>. CM Ol -^ C'l CM -^ CO *in o ^ uO O 05 lO O oo CO t^ -H O ^ >— t CO oo ^ ^ ooor^cooscDioooirar^t^cicocoic OGOt— •— '■Tt<»o^^oit--r^iO'— 'coco'—oo 1— *c^joocoooco»ooco ■^cOrfC'iiOOO'— ' ■^^-C^l-T'COCOCOCO •»^i— 1»— ■ iC***"-^ coo t^iO Tt* CM >— I CM CO OOinClTt^cOt^OiOiOOSiOt— COCMO^H dco'-oajot^cor-tOCi-— 'cD-rt^'— 'Or^ c^jiooooor-ocooo-— 'coofc^iu^ f-" CI cj-— 'OO t^co r-co 0-) i-« CO — too^tooocooo»o»r^»cr-»ocococOdco --OO-rt^.— I.— — COCltOCOOO-'J'CliC^- OOl^O^'— 'C3COC4'— "OOOr^Tf-'fCOCO CO^— i-ffCl -^T-H lOiC"— ' CMcOOO T*H ^ C-1 C3 "-i -* Tf uoci-— ir-.-t'Oir^o^oocicOifs-'ticMco »o r- CI CI CO c) CO c) o r- Oi CI O) 1— I ^*. a:, -rr-^ cDcor-oco— "'— 'O-^COOO-^uO to CO OICO^-' OOO— iCl-— 'CJ >— I CM >— ' lO CJ CO CM O iC CO —■ -^ CO CI O O O oo CJ O CO lO CI oooiOioc-icior^oi— aiCM-— 'oot^co cot— o^-a>citocic--.cor-cO'-'CJO— ' ioc)r-.oo t-oco^-iocii— ' "^r-co ^H c^i T^ ^H CI CM CM OOCMO'-cocor-'^ioocaoO"*— •— 1-^ C) CJ O -^ CI •— ' "Tf O oo CI CO CI CO !>• 00 t— COOOOOClTfiOtOOcOI>-<— 'OOOluOr— b- t—CO cod-— icO-^-— I — CO cOt^iO ^-* CO C) C-1 t-t CM COOcOOScOcOCMiOOOiO'— 'lOQO'-'eO 05 O CO O -^ lO CO C^i CO CO 00 CO oo t— — «*.*,►. — ^ ~.^ ~~. tOCO-^CMt— tO oo 40 iO t^ •-< CM CM CI i-lJ t— ' C^ WJ — ^ ITS ^^^ '-'J CO 00 CI o- »o r- c) oi ^H CJ ^^ CO CO >— ' CI CO z > o z '-'CMcO'^tocor— oooio-HCicoTt- CD 1— 1 .— t ,_, CO ^-'CM CM "—I COOCl-^OiOO^iOt— OOClt— OOOCl-^ O*— 'OCO— '■^Ol-^OCIOCMiO'— 'OCO — CO'^iOCOCOCOCOOOiOrrOOCOCO'^uO COOJ^^CTS OiO O'-H CJOi— .— 1 CI CM C) CO T-. CI -'footcr^GOOicoOiOOiciocoootor^ CO CJ Tf CI CI OS O 00 Tt* -* "tj- "Tf O C4 •**< CI iOiCCOOOtOCO^OOcOOSCOCD — lOCOOO — OiO O cot-- OOUO CO o »o CO CO —« CI CO t-- O C3 to CM '■S'OO '^ 00 OS 00 CD 00 t^ CM —t ■C)TjHOOlOOOOS-- CD O i-« CO -OOtol---^OCOOOtOtOCOO - to -* CI CO to O CI -f '^ O — " ■Gpcooor--o — tococo— CO CI to OS- cDOtO coos ; — CI CO CM O OS-«J< o — CJSCO Tt^ CO CO lO o- OS — 00 CM C) •COOu^OOtOOOOOS-*HOO ■OGO-rJ-tO-^OO-^J-OOOSCOCl ■— GOCOGOCO — OlOOCOtOiO ■cor- cito — cot- ^o . ^ ^ CI -H CO CO CM t^OO CI O C4 to »o -^oooo CD —1 CM CO — ■"^ooicoo»ocoocMr-o -CO'— 'OiOOO-^iO— 'OC)"^ ■tOCOcD — OOcOtOCO-^J-OOOS - — OS cor— cMos^ 00 CM ^ ^ CM CM '-'ClCO-^tO^t^OOOSO — CMCO^tOcD ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 73 Oj ^ ooo^ lOCM r*-^ ■«*''«*< coco OS CD oco o ro-r — o r-o oo OS CO t^ t^ OS cot-* 00 OS Tf »0 C^ CO -^ »ra t-^ CO CM OS OS i-i "QO ai-H o^ QO — * OOCM CS(M t^oo o-* t^CM r-lCM lO r^oooo lO -*t^ r^ b- uo oo ■"S* CO OSIC CM OS <* 'M »0 iTJ Tt* MQOOOiC CO q?0 oo 00 Oi — CT> t^O — OS — CO — CO W3 !M O^O — t^ co-^ t>-CM ^CO r*!0 eo-H T-< T-H CM CM O »<0 CO O O •^oo 00 Oi r^cM 00 Tf* — * o to «-> OO ■^ O Tf oo o — CM O OiOi 00 o o — oo 00 :o — OlOO C^l OS O-* CO-rf 1—1 1— 1 t-- «oo r^ CO O O5U0 CM CO »-H CS ^ UOCM CM'<»< 00 CO CM CM O Ci-^OOO lO «3 CO ^ OS CM OiOO -*oo u:)oo ■— ' CJ CO »o — • t^ r- 0:0 oo t^ r* t^ co-rj. oooo CO y:;«^ oo CO ceo OSCM CO CO Ci «- t^W3 CO OS CO-*** -00 ■rf — c^j r>- — ' CO CO T^ t^ oo — """ CM CM Tf t^ CO O- — CM lO CO c: »c »o coco — CO CM CO CO ^ lO OS cooo -* O — 'T -^ CM CO CMO CM '^J' CM — -^ l^ Ol o 5D — CO CO Xi ■JD^ I-, — cc en kO CM Tt« CM CO 1 oo CO CM coco C^l OS t-H .—« »— 1 CM CM Oi -^ oo O ■3'. O Oi iC CO CO 00 CO i>- CO t^ oo CO en CO CI 00 en. i O -M oo O CMOO UOCM CM — 1 OS CO <£: tri lo 00 yu t^o CM 40 -^ o r^ CM CO CO CO oo CO CO —I OCM r- — 1 t^co , CM CM CI r~ c:: c; c^i coco — 00 lO o coo ooco t^ OS 0= C-) -J- — o ■v 00 zr;co '*" , or- — • OS Ci O OC^l 1 Osh- 1 — oo o o ;oo *C 00 ■^ 00 Ci-^ I CM C^J 1 OS CO 1—. -}< ?1 n COCO cO<1 oooo CO — 00 OS oo O -- »0 00 t- t'- CM-*i O CM t^ O O 1^ oo — Oi CO oo 00 ^ CO-H ooo CM -^ CM CM t^OO OSO — »-• — — C^CM 74 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES. Data collected during the investigation, but not used, published to make available for other problems. All this information was obtained in manuscript form with the exception of that from India, which was collected from the large annual volumes of "India Rainfall," 1901-1918. SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE No. L— Showing total monthly and annual rainfall recorded at Alexandria and the normal for 1891-1920 in mm. Years. 1891 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 1900 01 02 03 04 05 06..... 07 08 09 1910 11....^ 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1920 Normal Jan. 9 51 89 52 1 69 126 57 73 14 83 104 90 63 46 32 25 80 43 86 28 21 12 28 19 109 66 39 36 35 53 Feb. 9 11 27 17 0 45 12 4 23 33 0 8 34 12 16 43 13 47 41 8 42 24 36 31 19 14 39 .31 4 42 24 Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 7 0 0 0 0 0 6 4 2 76 13 2 9 0 0 0 0 11 85 23 53 2 3 drops 0 0 drops 6 11 107 40 drops 6 0 0 0 0 0 102 30 4 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 100 19 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 41 27 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 1 107 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 144 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 58 25 64 16 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 10 125 4 0 0 0 0 0 14 0 30 57 4 6 1 0 0 0 drops 5 36 92 14 1 drops drops 0 drops 0 drops 10 24 drops 2 drops 0 0 1 drops 3 65 50 14 drops 0 0 0 0 0 28 7 159 6 3 9 drops 0 drops 0 19 64 31 38 7 0 0 0 2 drops 0 50 25 14 3 0 1 0 0 drops 0 39 76 0 51 drops 0 0 0 0 21 22 31 19 2 3 0 0 drops 4 0 30 28 12 2 drops 0 0 0 drops 8 17 79 9 0 2 0 0 0 0 drops 10 27 21 drops drops 0 drops 0 drops 14 79 98 7 8 0 drops 0 drops drops drops 29 103 19 1 drops 0 0 0 drops 0 14 10 8 2 drops 0 0 drops drops 0 21 45 13 1 drops 0 0 0 drops 8 8 65 6 drops 0 0 0 0 0 drops 53 50 1 drops drops 0 0 0 0 3 54 126 11 drops drops drops drops 0 0 0 6 39 13 4 1 0 0 0 1 7 34 67 Year. 113 198 298 247 167 205 274 266 245 200 188 256 173 196 270 207 160 260 209 180 188 93 260 206 82 199 200 179 224 133 204 Note. — "Drops" indicate that rain was too small to measure. ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 75 SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE No. 2.— Showing total monthly and annual rainfall recorded at Khartoum (Gordon College) and the normal for 1899-1920 in mm. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1899 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 drops 0 0 0 0 0 0 drops 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 drops drops 0 0 drops drops 0 0 drops 0 drops 0 0 0 0 0 drops 0 drops 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 drops 0 0 drops 0 0 drops 0 0 drops drops 0 0 0 0 24 drops 6 0 0 0 1 0 7 drop drops drops 9 14 drops drops 7 4 1 23 16 0 0 0 U> 4 drops 1 drops 35 drops drops 0 1 8 22 34 14 drops 0 13 80 24 116 18 34 8 90 14 64 71 38 55 drops 7 30 19 33 0 30 38 103 12 47 16 5 12 76 75 96 163 44 26 15 12 98 70 54 63 57 24 60 23 185 ■■■23' d ops 2 14 20 4 24 12 31 11 22 2 18 22 11 77 20 18 drops 7 49 6 8 8 drops drops drops 50 13 0 12 3 drops 1 0 2 5 0 0 0 drops drops drops 0 drops 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [32] 1900 181 01 64 02 123 03 68 04 130 05 159 06 . . 227 07 189 08 09 152 112 1910 110 11 12 77 116 13 . . . 101 14 101 15 176 16 17 18 19 1920 146 76 94 75 341 Normal 0 0 0 0 3 8 40 56 18 5 0 0 130 NoTE.^" Drops" indicate that rain was too small to measure, observations are incomplete. Brackets [ ] are used to denote that the SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE No. 3.— Showing total monthly and annual rainfall recorded at Adis Ababa and the normal for 1898-1920 in mm. Y'ears. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1898 8 2 15 11 105 73 41 121 352 290 151 18 10 0 1184 99 1900 (1081 222 172 191 124 94 132 61 91 208 147 140 182 104 68 121 294 279 106 90 151 283 277 236 269 350 294 380 176 284 210 268 306 286 192 288 345 248 281 208 316 280 328 250 291 267 196 352 358 284 365 364 334 230 319 311 323 378 418 287 264 253 300 194 128 184 224 176 113 119 108 220 174 226 155 111 134 308 570 321 270 51 133 165 0 21 0 20 40 1 16 14 28 0 20 46 0 0 100 59 5 53 drops 0 5 13 0 11 0 0 45 28 83 8 10 0 64 0 0 0 27 drops 0 drops 0 3 5 13 1 8 0 0 0 drops 0 drops 14 0 0 0 32 11 7 34 0 0 0 1931) 01 . . 16 1 29 0 5 9 0 38 48 0 7 53 0 10 2 64 28 0 11 2 54 76 25 37 7 156 20 7 0 1 4 139 65 94 23 57 39 84 47 10 124 49 83 136 48 189 11 10 18 25 67 51 66 77 105 91 10 70 66 61 100 89 88 57 88 103 140 70 133 48 38 43 102 125 126 74 115 104 32 74 36 42 268 58 41 60 36 5 130 66 31 20 108 18 133 148 194 74 43 26 1241 02 1152 03 1472 04 1170 05 1000 06 07 08 1550 933 1126 09 . 1295 1910 1149 11 1088 12 13 1204 1082 14 15 1443 1900 16 1727 17 18 19 1590 961 991 1920 1077 Normal 15 48 70 87 75 146 279 307 192 20 14 6 1259 Note. — "Drops" indicate that rain was too small to measure, observations are incomplete. Brackets ( ] are used to denote that the 76 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE No. 4.— Copenhagen. Rainfall in mm. From Meteorological Institute, Copenhagen. Sent by Prof. Carl Ryder. Years. 1820. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 1830. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 1840. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 1850. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 1860. 61. 62, 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 1870. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 1880. 81. 82.. 83.. 84.. 85.. 86.. 87.. 88.. 89.. Jan. 64 44 39 26 40 10 97 28 22 35 45 18 19 79 23 103 15 38 48 74 71 17 125 121 35 58 32 9 50 17 32 55 56 45 30 44 40 29 29 34 20 34 42 23 28 44 68 27 25 32 84 35 36 40 66 12 79 48 17 8 6 24 22 78 3 40 5 29 15 Feb. 5 17 85 26 45 71 5 32 90 70 61 1 58 29 56 53 50 12 22 29 11 0 61 61 21 55 37 55 44 53 30 62 42 30 8 41 18 9 57 36 48 24 35 23 •12 93 68 53 30 6 21 18 11 7 2 51 54 15 42 41 20 16 10 49 36 7 10 26 31 Mar. 22 63 33 43 23 41 93 64 21 38 49 36 67 40 24 67 33 59 13 5 25 66 18 44 34 83 39 38 34 12 63 11 22 20 35 3 32 19 38 33 62 24 49 47 13 32 16 58 14 9 19 57 9 45 31 69 24 36 8 14 26 45 5 49 22 16 23 71 26 Apr. 25 15 44 27 100 44 45 54 27 103 19 2 29 14 55 31 36 93 43 5 29 0 50 15 17 37 43 63 19 54 86 22 51 21 41 66 57 17 52 51 13 20 47 15 7 72 74 52 10 16 21 45 28 31 10 29 19 21 49 31 3 40 17 19 17 28 41 19 34 May. June. July 74 3 36 40 41 7 55 24 34 60 40 40 19 39 82 15 38 20 43 60 30 24 14 21 122 22 62 10 9 38 48 52 36 47 60 49 10 93 13 40 28 28 25 28 16 91 48 7 74 19 16 86 73 15 24 40 44 57 39 13 47 18 22 30 49 37 69 44 43 4 2 76 38 70 22 39 54 43 107 130 47 61 29 15 27 28 30 56 31 99 94 104 34 16 28 51 97 104 37 68 80 37 46 55 57 15 27 51 93 76 86 60 119 29 44 55 3 32 33 75 51 56 25 68 54 39 58 57 41 20 81 37 27 78 42 24 54 25 21 138 66 34 27 41 56 145 126 56 18 71 30 3 2 91 20 44 55 63 96 36 69 54 75 74 39 38 121 117 46 5 75 27 74 63 32 51 34 23 106 80 65 43 55 53 125 8 23 12 80 61 114 87 50 45 100 35 108 92 93 46 87 75 15 50 44 96 60 Aug. 31 116 45 76 99 25 48 88 81 100 52 73 87 43 40 30 57 133 36 66 48 3 47 123 105 22 26 110 45 61 28 68 64 134 76 40 43 55 52 132 51 34 64 152 57 77 18 60 63 60 26 30 84 68 46 34 123 46 HI 8 66 88 55 44 83 29 43 48 107 Sept. 55 63 41 50 53 83 34 40 70 61 72 27 50 43 68 56 70 54 33 73 59 76 58 26 27 63 12 66 36 48 57 27 69 46 67 30 57 28 14 107 51 73 89 75 86 31 65 76 64 42 65 84 89 69 67 38 76 43 49 29 69 72 46 54 35 92 46 52 22 88 Oct. Nov. 50 42 28 32 56 51 87 53 38 107 28 34 28 73 49 45 32 38 53 10 58 171 26 100 90 104 34 34 104 95 54 45 74 34 39 80 23 38 31 45 55 6 79 27 41 56 26 65 61 59 99 16 90 99 33 62 34 70 41 40 123 61 53 67 102 99 73 49 43 72 60 81 33 45 150 131 54 40 38 83 9 61 35 50 78 43 62 51 25 43 54 62 48 54 57 49 26 24 56 27 79 85 101 17 36 6 67 27 23 61 24 84 31 23 61 48 77 54 25 37 47 25 56 55 60 72 21 40 93 17 105 52 67 84 36 18 24 45 45 15 Dec. 23 67 12 69 119 40 51 70 58 7 27 21 34 204 32 29 70 31 16 27 13 51 27 17 17 83 36 16 19 35 21 14 81 7 70 35 64 19 35 65 25 29 68 78 6 4 55 34 100 32 33 20 64 33 43 18 50 38 29 5 53 35 29 46 55 20 59 54 56 14 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 77 TABLE 4— Concluded. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1890 91 92...: 93 94 42 36 56 22 34 17 22 9 46 68 54 29 48 47 37 32 62 32 23 33 54 22 28 26 31 66 87 45 29 38 60 77 3 13 12 72 50 11 8 12 42 38 45 13 11 48 44 40 41 25 50 19 93 64 34 21 34 35 38 9 41 32 28 15 31 51 25 30 40 40 78 93 46 37 27 49 56 18 38 47 34 25 34 31 12 31 41 44 80 23 25 34 3 29 19 20 47 21 37 6 62 16 42 52 51 54 29 56 18 74 53 64 21 35 52 39 54 35 39 20 60 32 38 41 28 53 102 22 23 73 36 32 46 38 30 47 101 23 27 44 86 10 66 14 30 45 80 32 61 58 27 13 30 42 37 10 18 7 100 34 45 69 89 19 34 48 42 33 96 15 34 150 36 60 42 47 52 90 56 64 40 70 49 28 15 10 86 19 47 40 38 48 91 97 26 51 136 86 32 43 59 32 93 27 51 54 23 56 43 65 50 46 89 57 46 50 77 72 43 40 88 60 81 36 93 170 94 57 65 87 81 68 51 16 69 52 69 90 36 170 85 63 72 40 64 38 135 56 39 43 128 88 76 57 95 101 15 42 50 68 35 14 100 94 67 97 63 36 39 61 12 64 44 10 61 45 46 21 28 51 57 36 45 50 67 48 34 35 74 61 90 141 93 63 84 9 11 43 132 23 43 133 51 78 32 20 9 46 14 85 67 62 35 16 77 111 32 31 2 53 33 38 7 63 42 78 .31 32 39 55 36 74 5 61 78 30 80 40 34 62 76 78 73 76 57 38 61 95 25 40 10 51 2 60 37 38 34 66 40 41 76 39 71 62 52 20 50 7 26 86 20 87 57 58 93 76 67 109 92 22 77 90 54 499 731 559 599 671 95 564 96 590 97 533 98 685 99 517 1900 01 680 615 02 514 03 676 04 530 05 649 06 550 07 536 08 541 09 544 1910 660 11 617 12 660 13 523 14 582 15 522 16 .... 737 17 564 18 531 19 525 1920 623 21 Means 40.6 34.2 35.8 37.4 39.7 51.1 60.0 67.7 54 3 58 4 51 1 46.2 .^76.5 SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE No. 5.— Rainfall of agricultural districts of the state of South Australia. All stations used. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. .Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 1908 09 50 47 43 29 03 13 31 42 50 123 34 30 32 47 34 18 192 68 129 28 19 12 149 22 237 04 123 51 276 56 122 173 98 20 25 105 53 22 44 64 168 18 27 46 42 132 119 75 47 90 56 76 246 247 330 208 41 (90) 106 188 115 301 • 200 153 158 269 266 231 208 268 33 61 268 414 245 186 106 375 99 258 328 174 206 94 105 186 343 314 160 109 197 198 379 154 135 172 182 26 290 277 249 240 129 281 263 108 268 171 210 215 49 239 202 282 40 169 231 215 145 158 69 105 182 51 80 176 187 157 95 158 32 100 119 21 163 83 147 21 195 101 19 39 218 42 27 73 159 79 98 98 34 88 89 38 148 94 1648 1830 1910 2016 11 1449 12 13 1483 1334 14 932 1915 1506 16 1972 17 18 2192 1239 19 1920 1293 1868 Means 41 .74 .90 .74 1 83 2 25 1 98 2.09 1 88 1 37 .97 82 78 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. CORRELATION OF OLD AND NEW METEOROLOGICAL DISTRICTS OF INDIA. Old No. Old Name. New No.* Old No. . Old Name. New Na.* 1 Tenasserim 2 2 2 3 3 5 4 4 4 5, 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 9 10 10 11 11 12 11 13 14 31 32 33 33a 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 49a 50 51 52 52a 53 54 55 56 57 14 2 Lower Burma, Deltaic West Punjab 12 3 Central Burma, Deltaic Malabar 30 4 Upper Burma, Deltaic 30 5 Arakan Madras, South Central 31 6 East Bengal Coorg 29 7 Assam Surma Mysore 29 8 Assam Hills 25 9 Assam Brahmaputra Bombay, Deccan . . ; Hyi'erabad, North Kkandesh 26 10 Deltaic Bengal 28 11 Central Bengal 26 12 North Bengal Berar 22 13 Bengal Hills Central Province W^est 23 14 15 < Irissa Chota Nagpur Central Province, Central Central Province, East Gujarat Kathiawar and Cutch 23 24 16 South Bihar 19 17 North Bihar 19 18 United Provinces, East Sind .... 16 19 South Oudh Baluchistan Hills 15 20 North Oudh Central India, East Central India. East Rajputana, E. Central India W West Rajpatana 20 21 United Provinces Central 21 22 United Provinces West 18 23 United Provinces, East Sub United Provinces. West Sub 17 24 Madras, East Coast North 33 25 United Provinces, Hills Southeast Punjab Madras. East Coast North 33 26 Hyderabad, South Madr.as. Central 28 27 South Punjab 32 28 Central Punjab Punjab. S.ibmontane Punjab Hills . . . ■ . Madras, East Coast Central 33 29 30 Madras, East Coast South Madras, South 31 31 31 North Punjab *New number, "as used in these tables and of its part of table. 'India Rainfall." Names of each district will be found at head SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE No. 6.— The rainfall of the thirty-three districts of India, in inches, 1901-1918. No. 1. — Bay Isles. Years. 1907 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Jan. 322 41 5 53 14 1925 171 0 89 0 24 125 Feb. 0 168 211 45 17 1 1 0 111 0 7 9 Mar. 345 0 137 453 0 0 3 0 65 0 273 17 Apr. 43 70 395 356 348 43 5 85 81 2 9 33 May. June. 1329 1504 1324 612 859 629 559 895 917 1919 976 1715 970 2327 1794 1267 1679 2206 1724 1576 999 1772 938 1549 July. 1397 1525 1901 1025 1125 1726 1375 2182 1077 1249 1208 592 Aug. 1457 2246 1027 1007 713 1167 731 1619 917 1673 1.352 1462 Sept. 546 1260 1469 2197 2216 1221 1489 1119 1311 1629 1373 839 Oct. 1001 625 1453 1064 1023 981 1123 353 1266 1187 665 585 Nov. 1885 475 852 677 193 457 847 667 826 649 671 Dec. 1198 5 733 361 513 55 572 793 1083 401 792 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 79 TABLE 6— Continued. No. 2. — Lower Burma. 1901. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 1910. 11. 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Years. Jan. 0 0 0 2 22 35 3 4 12 5 122 8 2 21 0 10 12 Feb. 196 29 16 15 0 3 2 42 35 6 6 14 3 11 0 Mar. 22 39 6 50 20 3 204 14 44 338 20 10 47 6 42 15 100 48 Apr. 46 80 41 349 10 38 28 101 100 299 392 45 2 153 146 114 92 127 May. 859 1809 931 1083 1234 1148 1785 1013 1324 1627 950 1439 952 1001 1771 1114 771 2700 June. 2059 1987 2264 3055 2933 2063 2649 2769 2512 1719 2765 2326 2270 3237 2306 3635 2988 2524 July. 2400 2938 2691 3244 3148 2571 2541 2795 3452 1830 2950 281)6 3271 4027 3066 1768 3110 2766 Aug. 3951 2130 2408 2612 2134 1494 3600 3113 2364 2701 3258 2656 2817 3186 2687 2435 2462 3343 Sept. 1438 1925 1884 3039 2049 2047 1677 1399 1960 2215 1561 1437 1657 1278 1400 2135 1953 2349 Oct. 1240 419 998 396 710 667 1017 840 926 697 908 749 654 724 1201 795 1223 620 Nov. 165 47 196 552 73 220 73 705 514 299 13 322 778 282 216 500 197 Dec. 7 67 28 21 66 3 151 1 16 9 3 5 6 187 319 47 66 No. 3. — Upper Burma. 1901 6 02 03 ' 4 04 0 05 9 06 6 07 38 08 17 09 5 1910 6 11 14 12 12 13 g 14 : 1 15 1 16 5 17 2 18 3 80 4 10 30 54 4 3 3 15 3 9 19 15 11 8 57 9 4 4 36 9 256 8 83 6 1 114 41 19 39 17 63 4 50 170 16 358 76 32 64 88 167 290 347 74 31 92 139 126 126 110 718 685 608 706 1004 852 498 467 763 716 579 553 413 656 1037 442 399 1033 2316 2178 2116 3056 2267 2674 558 644 653 682 877 751 770 1200 890 811 787 624 2504 3750 18.50 3358 3352 2802 434 529 697 624 555 648 722 691 661 719 450 583 2610 1615 2815 2211 2656 1524 534 857 888 659 646 914 813 698 661 926 1023 827 1724 978 1606 434 1594 933 1392 338 1760 658 1713 568 581 460 635 328 592* 601 857 710 680 564 598 652 649 655 656 593 641 533 963 624 1008 723 680 528 248 20 334 514 34 102 9 834 284 176 23 127 206 135 125 307 226 20 8 2 26 146 4 126 0 67 0 1 10 21 200 100 03 4 No. 4. — Assam. 1901 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 68 52 32 36 47 100 41 251 51 82 36 254 236 128 70 144 87 33 47 110 304 81 40 241 53 338 26 322 34 204 77 118 47 381 16 65 115 377 426 235 760 339 364 106 16 541 3.58 481 476 309 293 437 128 563 1039 1475 574 2020 812 1235 1028 776 803 789 917 1104 1321 854 792 921 723 622 726 2125 1779 2005 1335 149 2397 2181 2130 1652 817 2564 1855 2525 1398 1467 1785 2292 1916 1138 1070 3308 2090 2839 1279 1301 1743 2416 2710 1295 799 1928 2155 1221 1585 1217 1472 1880 1396 1459 1196 2154 1331 1742 915 985 2147 2374 1530 993 1714 18)8 2293 1600 1530 943 1685 2065 1664 952 1443 1724 1767 1403 1019 1087 1175 1520 1826 1215 2309 1852 2468 1815 997 1117 1.337 1816 1614 1197 715 2103 1838 138 ^ 1313 1109 2200 2649 2108 1386 819 363 683 475 1251 643 170 401 499 933 913 643 822 279 411 899 715 283 413 35 294 268 25 185 17 30 H^ 49 103 188 48 39 40 120 138 3 8 17 100 4 50 0 39 22 13 32 175 51 16 23 6 80 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 6— Continued. No. 5. — Bengal. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 91 4 44 18 78 88 6 80 22 60 37 6 4 1 17 5 2 3 94 4 82 97 140 320 83 58 21 44 10 64 283 212 81 44 122 1 48 242 162 76 380 180 322 32 3 112 186 306 113 101 325 18 71 160 260 642 97 433 422 68 348 160 558 241 338 624 160 534 247 587 312 411 646 913 512 1154 938 657 612 662 596 687 1052 784 1017 1031 1115 388 701 1062 1547 1442 1667 781 967 1190 1358 1408 1904 1544 1686 1384 2477 885 1007 1798 1572 2045 1646 2060 1076 1882 2137 1866 1549 1546 1052 1908 1410 1688 1473 1655 1427 1478 1651 1475 1392 1524 1836 1346 2186 2149 927 882 2380 1388 1286 1365 1451 1388 1.537 1708 1192 1970 1169 1914 1226 820 1540 1000 979 938 972 961 1138 771 1147 885 1023 1441 1020 963 285 275 656 374 546 538 124 152 532 734 608 619 618 147 527 1165 1357 108 252 24 54 65 2 67 4 36 72 13 45 365 80 12 100 191 52 10 02 10 03. 0 04 5 05 51 06 0 07 58 08 0 09 78 1910 0 11 0 12 0 13 73 14 88 15 0 16 1 17 0 IS No. 6. — Orissa. 1901 02 180 23 34 1 123 113 1 144 24 67 0 4 7 0 54 0 1 19 254 1 106 49 61 389 95 4 64 4 38 229 249 134 95 19 385 1 44 92 69 86 300 132 224 63 16 9 135 109 65 49 173 2 123 85 173 313 83 19 195 12 456 23 520 148 128 198 28 213 98 77 83 126 298 322 254 361 429 241 208 193 247 257 234 150 427 772 289 180 457 514 309 515 641 1192 375 804 941 1139 1181 932 1350 480 1056 860 624 1458 1292 1336 1258 1952 1410 1010 1057 1152 689 1212 1570 1318 621 1368 2010 1569 934 883 1226 694 1002 1264 1116 1216 787 825 2354 1974 962 1211 1110 1384 1126 1072 1060 1193 1263 1102 837 679 1124 917 1087 1041 648 799 980 1042 988 812 581 1418 1066 718 958 722 346 119 1117 434 292 501 103 191 173 940 356 319 458 66 645 975 1517 20 549 22 122 2 2 40 13 0 2 0 24 354 110 0 843 261 67 0 170 03 6 04 16 05 3 06 25 07 96 08 0 09 ' 1910 228 0 11 1 12 0 13 6 14 27 15 0 16 17 0 0 18 No. 7.— Chota Nagi-ur. 1901 359 19 87 5 171 188 9 ' 65 114 85 5 11 11 0 39 0 6 16 282 40 66 71 217 533 227 160 47 29 0 97 527 85 155 64 170 4 45 51 38 168 200 141 313 17 5 15 123 82 187 97 106 1 64 16 62 95 129 37 147 5 95 1 332 136 29 95 4 80 35 67 28 47 145 231 229 454 230 107 74 186 1Q9 177 141 135 286 514 184 86 375 251 293 308 533 1263 158 644 1289 813 1067 954 1482 466 1425 408 433 1006 1155 1253 1018 1721 874 1963 1781 1461 742 1316 1055 977 602 1430 1289 1129 973 841 1272 500 1623 833 1112 1.502 962 937 1917 1451 1415 1101 1544 1396 1498 1258 820 1173 1645 1526 1050 1185 831 405 1360 749 875 610 1218 969 1028 450 650 631 800 785 900 680 129 54 886 106 83 307 2 108 84 320 336 92 316 80 207 923 1016 0 39 31 3 6 0 30 0 0 0 25 163 227 80 0 178 67 4 0 02 14 03 0 04 1 05 11 06 6 07 108 08 W 09 1910 0 11 0 12 0 13 51 14 29 15 0 16 17 18 0 4 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 81 TABLE 6— CoNTI^fUED. No. 8.— Bihar. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 220 12 18 34 58 59 5 60 24 10 31 19 0 0 31 1 11 25 79 9 21 8 112 224 236 161 26 18 0 19 148 84 195 63 75 0 46 96 8 12 132 34 152 23 0 21 86 98 78 33 106 0 37 8 5 64 15 14 88 4 83 7 270 41 52 101 5 127 23 90 27 106 243 224 78 . 446 303 165 134 1.33 91 190 167 250 407 396 378 71 432 356 264 433 678 697 178 730 894 337 1666 971 1313 559 1542 375 575 1112 928 957 864 1375 364 1599 1566 1388 966 737 1049 '1273 719 1382 992 1163 1194 1554 1338 885 1230 842 1240 1416 1928 1602 929 644 1361 1368 1683 1203 1414 1812 1492 1284 878 1990 562 1331 664 313 1398 462 871 591 699 982 1240 379 1028 398 737 1088 1078 937 32 106 567 394 42 132 12 85 132 317 532 42 274 38 276 602 561 29 28 4 0 37 0 1 0 0 0 100 71 289 15 0 154 10 0 a 02 9 03 0 04 10 05 2 06 0 07 7 08 1 09 19 1910 0' 11 0 12 0 13 140 14 4 ' 15 3 16 17. 18 0' 1 No. 9. — United Provinces, East. 1901 02 03 04 245 16 30 32 57 22 7 75 33 16 168 57 1 5 46 0 28 1 125 6 1 6 90 226 292 1 23 1 0 20 138 54 167 72 105 1 36 10 4 24 82 23 60 22 0 1 117 23 122 76 90 0 26 19 4 10 2 1 19 0 72 6 259 5- 8 17 2 38 23 24 13 13 61 94 55 104 70 58 35 18 20 92 12 57 242 179 56 26 163 60 186 133 202 587 63 534 162 206 930 605 380 188 627 140 418 1043 628 493 862 1676 628 1350 1294 1366 707 1022 1588 774 321 1279 783 1642 1091 1129 1324 380 1064 626 1690 1236 1342 1171 1164 1254 719 1295 1149 1046 703 1262 1628 1467 918 1006 2434 1011 1065 343 687 437 73 295 524 860 1555 540 328 389 1439 711 1190 355 19 54 1323 248 18 23 0 38 23 377 334 4 47 13 383 216 221 0 0 3 0 67 0 0 0 0 0 123 148 110 0 3 4 29 0 6. 0- lOL 05 6' 06 07 O' Oi 08 2 09 85 1910 0 11 I 12 3 13 46 14 1 15 7 16 0 17 19 18 No. 10. — United Provinces, West. 1901 278 11 104 63 206 37 83 102 80 62 329 144 2 0 103 2 37 36 162 24 8 6 168 367 287 87 35 18 6 35 188 63 274 77 117 2 67 31 63 160 125 92 103 5 0 0 182 48 124 101 222 0 62 64 4 64 10 12 30 8 114 11 275 8 7 21 7 88 33 13 96 46 81 105 62 144 85 55 56 60 14 58 3 28 229 135 58 49 204 34 102 254 194 410 178 794 68 223 702 379 315 132 572 241 239 621 466 470 783 1473 658 1515 778 1130 774 1414 1534 755 263 991 611 1369 954 1362 1428 409 1800 917 1349 1439 703 1020 1083 1685 957 1379 643 1067 457 860 1184 1414 1017 723 414 1364 740 501 414 732 9 138 452 893 1306 981 84 1051 589 981 1281 115 42 56 594 18 1 14 0 1 5 690 62 0 11 56 49 240 357 2 0 3 0 87 2 0 0 4 0 16 193 31 6 25 0 14 0 49 02 0 03 17 04 70 05 28 06 31 07 0 08 8 09 14& 1910 I 11 2 12 7 13 39t 14 0 15 u 16 0 17 25 18 6— JScience Bui.— 3728 S2 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 6— Continued. No. 11. — Punjab, East and North. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 194 0 91 92 205 25 109 162 84 125 396 209 8 57 93 7 31 26 142 3 3 6 99 320 330 54 98 32 29 35 213 140 238 86 13 4 76 37 120 296 97 170 191 2 9 9 425 43 142 65 228 21 40 224 2 39 6 6 8 9 200 130 232 28 19 80 7 179 62 20 213 157 66 91 52 93 29 12 27 52 11 12 7 30 226 95 24 54 134 5 52 245 29 94 81 207 120 60 359 363 237 61 386 205 116 219 345 131 628 593 744 395 443 478 319 869 902 567 124 671 511 1240 260 914 714 151 612 415 548 624 163 607 819 1622 658 944 351 790 624 368 373 907 992 518 77 254 426 351 429 755 21 257 638 346 403 250 80 608 369 332 1259 55 10 34 27 21 3 2 0 5 12 189 44 1 146 72 127 402 3 0 9 0 47 0 0 0 7 0 0 127 46 8 36 0 0 0 15 02 0 03 2g :04 53 (05 38 j06 27 ;07 0 i08 21 09 17& agio 16 11 2 12 9 13 59 a4 ' 50 15 12 16 2 17 44 18 No. 12. — Punjab, Southwest. ■1901 108 0 36 188 182 5 17 90 9 70 131 168 0 66 8 6 13 4 58 4 2 2 98 360 108 21 66 5 23 6 124 133 45 27 0 8 68 39 135 366 82 112 69 2 14 10 324 16 66 57 112 22 44 178 36 30 26 2 14 13 163 144 138 82 34 122 13 154 71 28 96 126 200 63 85 26 16 10 32 45 1 9 14 26 43 43 15 60 116 1 59 202 27 49 48 98 134 35 126 144 149 38 125 118 79 92 129 27 372 268 509 108 338 190 117 421 449 203 37 226 300 748 57 288 237 127 184 262 354 234" 37 404 320 609 67 389 79 168 493 236 68 579 883 97 72 171 202 42 471 309 2 418 180 2 40 69 57 141 16 82 609 77 2 27 10 6 8 1 0 0 1 4 53 4 6 93 17 51 1 10 0 0 1 40 3 0 0 0 0 0 42 0 8 45 0 0 0 0 02 i03 (04 (85 0 18 38 82 (06 52 107 0 08 3 09 100 igiO 8 11 2 12 8 33 24 14 33 15 7 16 0 17 16 18 No. 13. — Kashmir. 1901 589 23 344 333 438 209 294 236 274 348 839 413 210 139 151 145 171 81 725 72 85 97 448 747 441 156 407 272 172 127 342 654 592 402 72 89 315 382 656 557 607 468 339 61 155 200 702 272 223 393 371 200 256 854 61 291 73 111 95 31 372 B17 102 309 174 244 340 487 546 148 391 661 335 232 227 250 208 67 213 167 100 113 59 230 145 262 54 169 204 16 152 354 171 191 206 778 308 56 127 257 124 47 251 327 185 349 632 244 1335 1138 959 1712 1.308 1261 213 328 543 366 190 343 291 1474 365 1043 768 370 2363 917 1851 1297 1034 3172 435 652 441 528 252 302 445 615 718 1030 1086 517 277 563 694 302 229 1069 54 255 481 68 148 12 65 347 253 214 906 75 19 92 34 142 2 6 52 58 105 2 39 14 29 512 67 109 417 53 0 17 0 79 2 0 8 4 5 0 168 40 82 165 1 13 1 65 02 03 0 263 04 171 05 139 06 103 07 2 08 291 09 225 H910 173 11 76 12 119 13 138 14 287 15 45 16 24 17 257 18 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 83 TABLE 6— Continued. No. 14. — Northwest Frontier Province. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 316 15 110 313 271 32 159 320 29 380 383 253 16 61 2 47 70 10 179 8 6 6 197 543 299 111 211 90 38 103 229 334 232 171 4 26 268 169 364 621 397 223 262 33 65 50 707 26 135 171 202 92 218 454 128 189 117 43 56 82 381 584 112 219 95 222 62 328 438 151 89 285 633 112 186 48 88 57 49 28 23 50 28 44 56 139 39 160 102 5 92 230 32 18 20 113 123 32 99 207 114 38 164 204 88 66 152 117 209 411 215 290 246 286 159 434 541 584 47 418 205 675 122 301 2i2 146 356 383 338 437 194 459 358 638 493 644 227 381 392 358 196 794 714 198 286 257 224 117 198 221 49 447 93 32 124 59 96 170 147 179 279 74 67 139 15 93 15 22 12 40 12 0 92 23 14 368 70 57 20 7 0 25 6 48 3 0 0 0 1 0 95 2 37 69 0 1 0 0 02 2 03 74 04 46 05 250 06 172 07 0 08 94 09 186 1910 39 11 50 12 9 13 60 14 153 15 8 16 9 17 131 18 No. 15. — Baluchistan. 1901 174 2 70 269 388 39 1 123 71 191 385 350 46 114 42 168 118 12 15 2 72 49 191 391 330 11 172 24 56 19 234 347 18 91 5 107 89 26 282 335 172 294 108 104 83 62 381 15 178 78 131 29 161 380 16 20 160 7 20 16 113 93 72 48 62 90 8 71 257 91 15 71 162 10 73 0 10 3 2 3 4 9 1 13 2 4 1 26 47 2 0 47 11 2 4 26 118 3 21 42 2 17 71 . 85 5 22 1 2 106 28 81 6 43 30 42 177 98 200 7 166 80 281 31 48 35 32 22 63 36 9 0 99 191 108 12 78 42 52 145 29 19 391 341 16 6 60 11 9 9 30 0 1 41 0 9 15 4 50 10 7 ' 141 19 0 17 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 47 0 36 153 12 1 0 1 0 22 11 20 3 10 0 0 0 0 99 2 61 189 0 0 24 0 02 28 03 13 04 7 05 263 06 12 07 6 08 '. 67 09 142 1910 109 11 26 12 100 13 106 14 GO 15 1 16 6 17 53 18 No. 16. — SiND. 1901 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 0 0 11 47 27 6 1 77 18 47 6 35 0 0 0 8 3 0 11 0 5 29 71 201 131 0 7 0 0 0 65 80 7 0 2 0 14 1 17 112 3 51 21 1 0 0 59 0 17 3 40 0 17 33 2 35 1 98 i 7 0 1 15 0 0 0 16 1 20 1 15 0 9 3 0 0 6 5 0 0 4 23 35 0 0 9 12 124 5 0 0 231 1 2 0 96 228 7 9 118 10 27 36 154 0 49 31 0 112 21 24 244 301 11 49 4 138 0 48 170 16 374 834 278 441 65 566 156 0 15 238 189 939 517 274 3 31 1 191 698 88 442 0 92 0 319 27 7 10 65 2 0 53 1 7 12 228 45 42 139 569 7 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 16 38 5 124 0 4 0 0 10 9 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 73 2 0 0 0 84 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 6— CONTINTTED. No. 17. — Rajputan.^, West. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 34 0 5 9 12 0 4 38 13 8 5 35 0 8 30 5 6 2 0 0 7 12 20 128 130 1 8 0 0 0 24 8 91 1 5 0 3 0 29 50 4 27 26 0 0 0 119 0 8 0 64 1 7 14 0 I 3 6 0 12 6 104 17 1 7 0 29 1 7 51 3 15 16 20 61 1 1 26 22 11 1 0 21 60 16 2 65 229 4 12 177 4 58 19 67 34 124 106 302 113 102 217 204 71 86 305 25 333 152 689 200 145 253 212 940 727 231 11 519 232 503 95 271 441 23 237 312 379 215 3 280 1089 1190 344 632 62 457 309 238 93 808 971 189 6 196 205 60 273 351 1 306 449 41 240 73 126 210 51 403 860 22 14 6 0 6 0 3 0 1 2 3 25 27 1 24 122 76 308 1 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 4 0 0 8 12 0 14 0 0 0 02 0 03 0 04 24 05 2 06 7 07 0 08 n 09 65 1910 0 11 12 13 0 0 33 14 15 16 17 18 0 0 0 3 No. 18. — Rajputana, East. 1901 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 103 51 11 2 16 3 0 5 11 2 6 0 14 18 92 1 27 45 14 7 1 98 40 0 37 176 42 61 69 4 6 2 29 6 0 203 42 11 0 7 74 3 69 3 45 17 11 14 0 62 / 2 0 3 4 15 68 123 190 14 1 28 d 2 16 37 21 46 25 0 14 5 16 27 45 104 6 9 45 31 24 9 1 13 195 39 16 37 290 5 65 154 83 168 53 259 68 174 424 384 273 98 347 334 129 311 461 103 693 1102 738 1167 398 853 451 1679 1133 412 168 1202 465 1247 312 669 1218 189 755 30 34 0 428 496 46 0 917 537 114 0 1079 223 3 30 114 300 0 0 291 763 5 0 1252 11 0 0 1435 269 1 5 665 319 4 0 908 754 341 4 337 781 23 96 996 317 5 14 307 97 6 2 478 454 59 17 498 131 156 0 1701 497 99 11 1556 1206 354 0 623 97 0 1 3 7 0 76 »4 13 iO 0 105 t; 7 75 0 4 0 1 No. 19. — Gujarat. 1901 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 0 10 0 2 2 0 1 17 0 3 10 0 0 0 21 0 3 o 0 2 0 0 0 1 48 78 3 2 46 0 38 1 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 84 0 0 0 0 15 0 6 52 0 0 20 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 1 7 0 20 0 21 4 34 10 0 0 3 0 9 1 3 3 32 27 fi 30 387 43 214 106 94 157 70 688 284 246 638 1041 554 406 1493 927 445 400 526 139 886 652 76 830 1130 1048 1740 692 605 685 194 382 2100 116 257 1200 874 400 1276 1721 43 1880 1268 85 1473 712 588 1088 1177 170 223 297 193 2401 1067 150 1463 632 505 1493 414 1035 476 306 184 687 1318 617 1129 1207 1158 393 561 50 48 12 20 16 6 40 0 4 8 78 1 33 4 38 380 146 954 2 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 23 7 127 0 23 2 6 0 0 42 0 3 0 1 0 0 26 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 85 TABLE 6— Continued. No. 20.— Central Indu, West. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. 1901 112 80 15 13 48 1 15 57 12 8 70 16 0 0 47 0 51 3 62 37 1 48 15 67 67 2 5 0 5 22 35 5 106 28 84 3 19 1 1 99 34 31 4 28 0 0 12 2 5 17 106 0 5 10 10 6 0 0 12 0 33 4 106 2 0 1 0 7 23 1 9 0 10 19 43 49 13 5 8 4 29 2 2 10 124 62 22 68 278 34 102 109 174 348 97 592 164 343 599 763 487 199 665 514 359 742 690 354 965 1659 947 1573 1081 1494 836 1485 1109 735 475 1376 1127 1483 595 911 1192 461 1724 685 1178 1041 594 672 1343 1159 1083 980 569 1064 779 557 850 2177 1319 876 349 792 1008 449 574 1525 122 178 388 1019 798 329 237 578 288 482 1063 261 17 79 458 55 0 14 0 0 8 173 46 11 0 26 273 204 345 1 0 25 0 14 0 0 26 3 0 103 118 234 2 45 12 78 0 9 02 22 03 0 04 53 05 4 06 0 07 0 08 1 09 69 1910 0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 0 7 48 0 16 0 0 No. 21. — CENTR.AL InDLA, EaST. 1907 08 09 19 78 87 24 125 10 2 1 60 0 15 1 469 58 46 1 9 33 312 23 117 40 78 11 20 15 8 1 79 5 77 114 96 0 78 5 79 1 250 12 0 11 0 58 29 9 4 2 23 28 10 58 22 17 166 68 28 12 249 35 158 141 951 692 500 107 818 271 499 1012 660 275 763 2068 1518 560 396 1790 792 2095 800 927 1571 332 1875 2328 544 1421 1365 1074 635 972 1547 1819 1624 978 27 314 478 970 1552 540 273 310 457 569 920 301 0 55 0 188 283 0 3 9 222 359 234 0 14 1 0 214 153 142 0 1 1 95 5 0 21 82 1910 0 11 0 12 4 13 38 14 0 15 4 16 0 17 10 18 No. 22.— Berar. 1901 211 13 31 22 13 52 5 2 7 0 98 0 0 0 120 0 4 4 16 0 4 7 32 4 317 9 37 0 0 91 49 55 22. 29 212 11 65 0 0 39 10 10 4 94 14 0 4 1 5 42 283 2 76 7 48 31 6 0 9 0 129 33 38 0 0 10 6 45 83 7 16 0 21 5 183 29 23 10 2 4 84 29 1 84 73 32 119 170 304 578 154 374 486 256 1019 646 780 535 931 545 309 710 1137 729 922 789 527 942 1087 1469 553 879 1163 884 990 889 725 548 938 1208 804 901 1246 884 462 1235 681 859 387 499 1130 878 991 517 937 645 895 622 700 413 821 639 361 280 401 532 849 899 305 98 660 684 971 287 258 537 1100 657 1081 1008 104 206 197 303 213 27 24 2 1 26 249 25 30 44 19 411 345 358 26 0 92 0 0 1 37 63 0 0 217 218 48 1 37 29 145 8 0 02 155 03 0 04.........^ 05 7 0 06 86 07 1 08 8 09 1910 292 0 11 0 12 4 13 127 14 63 15 124 16 0 17 18 0 86 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 6— CoNniTOED. No. 23. — Central Provinces, West. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 02 03 04 05 170 30 24 6 36 32 30 47 34 21 70 21 4 0 45 0 18 4 122 8 14 72 37 60 330 36 59 0 0 194 155 33 100 85 213 28 104 0 0 130 40 108 7 77 17 0 40 0 59 192 234 0 76 11 64 16 6 0 50 0 135 21 182 2 0 11 1 78 47 6 17 2 28 12 185 37 37 26 21 3 67 23 5 7 90 53 45 74 242 162 368 138 413 584 255 1208 497 634 640 916 777 165 790 537 746 1058 914 941 1395 1238 1508 984 1389 1619 889 1541 1233 940 643 1489 1289 1607 1449 1080 1284 809 2052 867 1458 784 1010 1146 1738 1599 965 1319 1092 1412 1192 1047 1.339 1523 1518 984 523 827 976 650 1384 874 139 572 553 1103 1056 550 315 783 634 1057 1411 295 32 106 400 157 14 19 0 35 4 208 149 7 14 37 432 720 313 5 0 116 2 0 0 18 76 4 0 227 238 227 3 17 26 137 0 0 66 0 32 2 06 44 07 5 08 28 09 . . 237 1910 0 11 0 12 7 13 86 14 31 15 19 16 0 17 18 6 No. 24. — Central Provinces, East. 1901. 02. 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12. 13 14 15 16 17 18 167 418 112 42 50 269 1397 1755 762 110 8 2 3 3 113 48 143 1679 1183 691 39 10 20 53 3 25 156 382 1453 1519 924 524 1 0 57 119 9 260 1455 1121 1618 419 268 4 210 107 84 104 104 1.35 1513 1062 1329 53 0 96 357 270 0 18 587 1803 985 971 148 23 20 146 83 238 12 8.)3 1069 1797 427 0 36 36 185 9 2 18 910 1812 2202 714 51 0 20 38 26 376 25 823 2048 860 517 25 0 11 1 4 26 42 1048 1340 1539 1132 248 255 21 0 49 0 12 1191 1037 1873 907 341 65 16 346 0 73 29 201 1910 2067 754 99 55 4 248 78 5 76 952 1365 1338 554 67 14 0 40 58 219 134 634 2046 1360 928 17 2 118 100 127 58 65 535 1485 1525 940 525 61 0 101 5 12 61 1114 1155 1442 783 637 107 4 330 103 44 164 1132 1542 1461 1120 560 3 43 16 11 15 225 2015 948 1481 498 2 0 26 0 0 0 41 60 10 281 0 0 0 71 17 2 0 3 No. 25. — Konkan. 1901. 02. 03. 04. 05 06 07 08 09. 1910 11 12 13 14 15. 16 17 18. 1 0 0 0 35 6 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 10 0 3 0 1 25 0 6 2 1 0 10 0 6 0 8 0 0 1 1 3 0 18 25 0 1 76 10 0 15 103 9 5 25 10 1 118 44 8 1 4 38 10 12 71 30 8 12 97 50 767 65 4 10 12 25 111 35 62 116 65 31 74 146 93 1269 2687 1606 1696 3537 1156 2072 2336 1746 2911 3119 2032 2321 3467 2610 3092 3067 3113 1284 4111 2820 426 3789 2023 2422 5135 2565 1125 2955 1407 837 3120 1341 770 4171 1936 876 4626 3301 678 5560 2594 819 5062 1418 1461 1729 2964 1418 2289 2825 631 5083 2253 559 4207 1345 730 5753 3064 2024 2788 1414 1465 2768 3270 2251 2711 3463 2380 1588 2207 424 211 378 514 359 366 173 93 109 108 562 192 330 569 107 573 837 1628 59 37 128 64 1 70 37 38 8 49 148 89 390 4 94 78 485 123 9 250 9 0 0 61 5 0 1 0 17 0 0 22 5 0 0 ALTER : RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 87 TABLE 6— Continued. No. 26. — Bombay Deccan. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1901 15 0 0 20 6 3 11 0 0 0 0 3 1 2 19 1 70 1 28 0 0 12 1 16 8 16 15 11 14 0 0 2 64 2 28 12 140 32 14 22 18 3 233 47 10 4 6 80 52 32 105 44 32 27 154 72 303 104 118 54 15 49 168 83 97 109 199 95 93 248 64 372 426 399 342 456 266 668 423 321 620 660 511 326 878 593 719 485 609 211 782 806 1036 522 953 765 919 938 886 663 503 1185 761 1333 869 911 402 226 701 420 596 258 338 758 914 576 430 901 521 559 310 853 310 616 651 394 356 592 548 706 223 375 503 642 517 691 132 255 349 733 819 748 904 269 296 288 316 343 199 126 37 74 165 351 165 400 230 96 284 576 634 73 20 148 44 0 32 55 32 14 30 123 145 219 5 156 122 465 191 2 02 26 26 1 0 40 3 1 5 0 6 0 0 0 40 0 0 23 268 03 18 04 1 05 0 06 84 07 g 08 0 09 19 1910 0 11 27 12 1 13 17 14 43 15 57 16 0 17 18 0 No. 27. — Hyderabad, North. 1901 38 281 2 02 650 1054 268 929 637 861 658 590 663 765 640 329 771 574 544 927 423 03.; 0 376 452 352 1002 558 355 669 851 415 201 550 1117 775 637 692 324 568 28 927 695 681 872 727 789 902 1105 1003 509 1261 937 457 735 1166 795 406 299 1523 586 1593 383 262 320 1132 1055 1106 .1313 465 37 04 0 2 130 4 6 16 0 15 0 0 0 103 0 1 34 46 ''l4 0 13 65 69 9 36 106 42 35 135 123 405 327 0 0 05 28 1 19 5 10 0 0 93 38 20 6 31 284 1 23 \¥ 35 18 2 10 0 0 3 259 6 88 14 72 * 287 9 81 0 1 47 64 14 62 14 69 17 0 06 92 1 1 46 270 23 78 154 54 392 486 356 11 64 11 0 1 149 90 80 0 43 59 228 134 86 07 36 08 1 09 48 1910 0 11 3 12 a 13 44 14 71 15 32 16 0 17 0 18 No. 28. — Hyderabad, South. 1901. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 1910. 11. 12. 13. 14 15. 16. 17. 18. 26 1 0 156 4 57 3 0 0 0 0 0 59 0 0 56 167 24 0 6 15 0 0 0 140 12 0 33 10 130 0 14 29 8 69 14 4 5 1 0 0 9 250 0 160 re 168 75 12 504 15 151 37 18 103 19 48 56 115 88 71 291 106 27 13 10 58 65 106 35 192 121 101 111 191 367 430 234 460 438 706 522 369 553 582 336 121 205 717 575 682 529 163 625 347 576 1037 524 167 219 843 570 808 509 687 495 573 702 624 412 754 655 448 837 690 836 236 1068 850 600 749 1107 433 595 769 319 269 289 851 (80 330 490 347 1849 676 766 385 347 235 945 886 1105 946 693 248 279 238 4 18 31 339 83 92 240 54 746 1097 510 18 71 0 47 2« 0 0 175 61 140 1 35 94 406 75 43 0 0 214 48 0 0 0 18 0 0 24 1 14 0 88 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE 6— Continued. No. 29. — Mysore. Years. 1901 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 29 116 30 212 392 1236 2136 839 634 840 456 0 24 77 308 458 758 2386 604 940 848 234 2 0 11 68 602 832 2839 1062 798 777 856 6 10 40 268 601 1650 1888 632 604 550 12 4 41 58 95 560 1078 1476 818 358 726 127 90 9 9 50 300 832 2165 1610 505 818 103 19 0 45 349 192 459 785 699 586 225 210 54 13 34 172 367 320 8i0 384 290 266 6 86 4 22 174 638 464 862 788 403 487 146 0 3 30 95 359 433 972 848 416 901 328 2 1 22 109 519 574 821 298 213 668 142 3 18 12 160 276 476 1065 673 716 762 241 0 0 5 77 365 442 893 350 604 484 5 0 3 8 70 247 226 1092 539 391 456 261 40 9 134 169 264 829 655 263 687 409 348 0 0 0 87 572 623 747 783 544 660 613 1 144 60 73 227 603 369 660 1040 588 367 48 4 63 187 402 239 184 378 378 161 Dec. No. 30. — Malabar. 1901 113 58 12 96 6 96 28 4 165 3 4 7 0 0 26 0 0 18 121 10 54 12 72 28 1 50 13 17 8 5 9 0 21 8 194 10 198 180 20 104 26 ■48 83 57 35 36 22 6 11 7 110 12 119 61 538 285 312 258 388 48 509 317 188 250 98 513 121 10 262 191 84 75 526 459 858 758 910 540 256 394 2026 487 562 654 613 356 428 702 401 3109 3146 1.574 2084 3941 3111 1614 3634 2931 3775 3753 4281 4141 2800 2696 3128 4493 3885 2327 2692 4242 3703 2733 2031 3380 3940 5925 4412 2229 3284 4272 3652 4876 3382 2403 2089 986 1346 1147 1458 1130 1178 1588 4873 2296 1142 2305 1361 3055 1206 2476 1487 1996 1636 1674 660 1914 1168 806 702 526 643 452 899 1248 252 561 814 979 1329 1629 1914 481 880 1296 1207 1068 1388 966 803 621 590 1103 992 1513 1705 1296 770 1135 1301 622 1354 620 552 83 316 640 680 57 467 747 395 373 147 364 983 516 636 162 02.. 483 03 • 262 04 37 05 2 06 316 07 150 08 20 09 88 1910 0 11 183 12 14 13 83 14 344 15 26 16 29 17 ... 60 18 No. 31. — Madras, Southeast. 1901 89 152 84 136 272 117 146 242 861 449 540 329 02 289 39 71 82 505 137 143 472 300 1139 740 429 03 82 32 6 69 473 205 212 408 792 547 783 768 04 135 24 202 0 26 50 2 69 59 68 253 31 457 310 139 95 158 154 29 1 123 247 133 367 714 281 234 234 613 941 657 102 587 753 16 05 16 06 505 07 31 5 80 297 188 1463 237 189 455 633 892 268 08 57 457 143 38 86 19 73 243 241 447 121 93 130 118 181 853 659 469 1091 511 174 281 108 09 86 1910 35 81 5 91 202 171 582 578 203 1072 615 2 11 16 3 17 111 251 204 160 128 496 490 777 569 12 29 10 10 42 215 139 107 280 435 987 1117 110 13 ,. ... 14 26 13 8 19 16 75 142 218 191 94 138 177 99 237 395 500 492 865 1200 832 529 545 14 557 15 152 90 173 133 193 206 447 311 515 334 997 269 16 0 13 13 70 204 89 634 450 368 786 633 143 17 70 135 117 35 278 245 172 622 584 499 707 209 18 405 28 86 31 286 138 145 198 189 257 ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 89 TABLE 6— Continued. No. 32. — Madras, Deccan. Years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. J901..- 25 15 36 26 5 113 2 21 159 0 0 0 0 0 109 0 5 61 193 0 0 0 19 2 0 66 1 0 0 20 0 0 14 2 227 1 1 3 0 11 50 4 16 36 3 5 3 2 0 2 212 0 35 17 58 79 30 49 53 3 258 25 145 36 53 56 30 59 52 34 24 40 254 154 225 248 147 50 10 147 250 153 202 72 249 175 185 218 172 294 242 321 266 184 300 351 213 146 162 173 234 139 191 190 227 228 360 86 262 161 461 248 161 456 477 287 242 600 309 299 404 338 502 828 185 85 208 354 479 98 867 532 153 163 883 668 239 453 94 517 213 623 605 238 403 653 803 318 483 551 379 886 731 865 382 659 474 621 774 716 851 607 271 626 408 472 486 376 89 249 82 516 285. 419 531 132 277 1027 635 19 275 126 790 0 219 59 281 8 25 339 124 468 1 133 529 340 313 61 02 78 03 96 04 12 05 1 06 395 07 73 08 2 09 1 1910 0 11 . ... 35 12 0 13 78 14 15 16 17 18 25 6 1 10 No. 33. — MvDRvs, CovsT North. 1901 47 8 48 216 16 335 5 197 113 4 0 5 0 4 169 1 7 151 304 0 23 4 50 61 9 168 13 6 1 62 47 21 66 10 116 17 15 10 3 15 45 55 3 11 6 2 35 16 4 22 228 2 41 40 1 102 20 11 104 10 284 34 438 119 55 79 31 273 119 81 97 53 189 84 368 416 180 45 86 156 156 95 109 127 251 367 197 152 353 331 210 247 410 308 308 583 788 280 460 707 579 219 448 688 615 576 825 475 453 463 762 402 302 574 515 528 828 909 571 872 787 728 574 1027 609 462 468 770 731 386 624 692 615 795 739 848 480 993 529 778 903 886 816 599 450 680 722 420 596 413 362 1073 690 788 719 774 507 1129 685 641 944 595 460 1208 558 685 368 428 209 465 96 1149 522 473 904 143 793 1358 1080 88 970 610 1389 18 568 157 331 85 26 336 427 388 79 131 972 532 491 224 02 400 03 04 05 .■ 274 114 0 06 869 07 206 08 8 09 263 1910 0 11 127 12 13 3 104 14 18 15 6 16 17 : 18 8 51 90 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. O ;-! ^ ^ k ^ i-i ^ I— » (0 (—1 o c! to 92 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. CO O I — I 0) o a CO I ALTER : RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 93 $ 3 ^ 2 *^ -1 94 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. O u ^ Q "^•n p^ <3 \ ^ ^ s CO S ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 95 ^ ^ ^ K g > 3 ^ O h3 o a 1— o CD "-1 96 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. ^1 0) o a to ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 97 Q 00 7 — Science Bui. — 3728 05 o H o • ^ a p^ Ci K ALTER: RAINFALL AND SUN-SPOT PERIODS. 99 § i ^ I — I o THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII, No. 12— July, 1922. CONTENTS: Indications of a Gigantic Amphibian in the Coal Measures op Kansas, H. T. Martin. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-3728 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Vol. XIII.] July, 1922. [No. 12. Indications of a Gigantic Amphibian in the Coal Measures of Kansas. By H. T. AL\RT1N, Associate Curator, Paleontological Museum, University of Kansas. INTRODUCTION. IN the summer ol 1919, Robert and James Coghill, students of the University of Kansas, discovered in the sandstone cliffs border- ing the Wakarusa creek, five miles east of Lawrence, what to them appeared to be the footprints of some large animal impressed in the hard, sandy bottom of a small, narrow ravine that empties into Wakarusa creek from the east near Dightman bridge. The writer's attention was called to the find, and a visit to the locality revealed three or four tracks exposed to view. Unfavorable weather condi- tions prevented the removal of the tracks at the time, and the sub- sequent rains covered them with silty mud. It was not until the spring rains of 1921 had again washed them clear that work on their removal could be carried on. By this time additional tracks were exposed, and in a distance of thirty-nine feet, where the animal had traveled in a nearly direct line, nine very fine impressions of his huge feet were recorded. The impressions, although in a nearly straight line, were not in consecutive order. As shown in the diagram (plate I, figs. 1 to 9), one space of twelve 'feet from the first track to the second was eroded and no impressions remained. Midway between the third and the fourth, a distance of eight feet, there is an indication of a track, but with no character. From track four to track five the bottom of the ravine is still covered with mud, and it is possible that more tracks will be found here. Eight of the tracks have been safely removed and placed in the museum. The first in the series (103) 104 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. yet remains in situ, but will be removed in the spring. The first im- pression in the series occurs at the mouth of the small ravine, where it empties over the edge of the deeply undercut, rocky, shelving bank into the Wakarusa. At this point the smooth, level bed of the creek is composed of the same sandy formation (plate II) as that in which the tracks appear. From the bed of the creek to the level of the first track there is an elevation of fourteen feet. This track, like several others in the set, shows the imprint of more than one foot. It also shows plainly that the animal must have been of great size and weight, for from the marks made by the claws (plate I, fig. 10) of the front foot, at the extreme upper edge of the basinlike cavity each impression has made, to the level of the superimposed im- pression of the hind foot there is a depth of over fifteen inches. It may be doubted if an animal of less than from 400 to 500 pounds weight could possibly have left as deep an imprint as is here shown. From the first track to the second, a distance of twelve feet, there is an elevation of three feet. There is no doubt that the animal was well adapted for traveling on land, as well as for life in the wet and swampy marshes, and that its body was carried clear of the ground, requiring relatively long limbs. The imprints also indicate that an upright position was maintained, the toes of the feet being planted in a straight line parallel to the body and to the line of travel. The footprints sug- gest that the animal was of very robust build, possibly not unlike that of Eryops from the Permian of Texas, but probably of longer limb. It may well be that the form described herewith as Onychopus gigas is a Carboniferous representative of this well- known fossil amphibian, or some similar animal with a longer length of limb. Onychopus gigas gen. et sp. nov. An entirely new form of amphibian is indicated by the present series of footprints, for which the term Onychopus gigas is proposed. The generic term refers to the presence of claws, apparently for both fore and hind feet. Claws are known among previously described Paleozoic vertebrates, particularly among the Permian reptiles, but are here regarded as a generic character. Their presence is indi- cated in the long, sharply marked grooves on the edges of the foot- prints, where the sluggish animal lazily dragged his feet from the soft sand. Another new character is an apparent presence of heel pads (plate I, figs. 2-10), which are represented in the footprints as depressions at the base of the footprint. Further discoveries may MARTIN: A GIGANTIC AMPHIBIAN. 105 locate the form in a genus of reptile? or amphibians already known, but for the present the footprints indicate an unknown animal. Additional characters are indicated in the apparent presence of webs between the toes, extending; a short distance on the phalanges. The body and the tail were carried clear of the ground, as there is no evidence of dragging. This is all the more unusual in view of the great depth of the impressions. The length of his sluggish stride was 450 mm.; th.e manus was 90 nun. in length and the pes 104 mm. Other detailed measurements are given in the description of the plate. The most nearly related form is Baropus lentus, described by Marsh, from the Coal IMeasures of Osage county, Kansas (1). The present form differs from Baropus in being somewhat larger, and especially in the indications of the heel pads and claws. None of the other Coal Measures footprints from Kansas approach the present footprints in size save Dromopus agilis Marsh (2), from which it is clearly separated by a number of characters. The present series of footprints have been compared with the descriptions of Coal Measures footprints given by King, Leidy, Lea, Butts, Marsh, Mudge, Dawson, Moore, Cox, Moodie and Woods- worth, a list of whose writings relating to this subject is to be found in Moodie's memoir (2) on "The Coal Measures Amphibia of North America." The present form is widely separated from the foot- prints recently described by Lull (3) as Dromopus (?) woodworthi, from the Coal Measures of Massachusetts. It has been assumed, on account of the indications of four toes on the manus and five on the pes, that Onychopus gigas was an amphib- ian, though the discovery of skeleton material may make this as- sumption unwarranted. In view of the possibility of its being rep- tilian, the present footprints have been carefully compared with those described by Hitchcock (4), but none similar in form are found. FORMATION. The massive reddish-brown sandstone in which the tracks were found contains abundant flaky scales of mica. There are no per- ceptible lines of stratification and no lines of cleavage. The rocks are split up by horizontal, perpendicular and oblique cracks and fissures into sections of erratic shapes and sizes (plate II). A care- ful examination failed to reveal any invertebrates or other fossil forms in the sandstone bluffs, although remains of Coal Measures plants have been found elsewhere in this horizon. 106 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. The bottom of the ravine containing the tracks scales off more readily than the surrounding bluffs and is consequently rapidly eroding away. The banks of the ravine are very steep, the average width at the bottom being about 3 feet, with a width at the top of 25 feet, while the depth from the level of the banks above to the level of the tracks is 25 feet. CORRELATION OF FORMATION. The heavy sandstone rocks in which the impressions appear are exposed in a sharp escarpment on the south side of the Wakarusa creek for a distance of 1% to 2 miles, in varying heights ranging from a thin feathering edge to 40 feet. The highest point is attained in close proximity to and just above the small ravine in which the tracks were discovered. A short distance southw^est, at the extreme eastern end of Blue Mound, and just above these exposures, an outcrop of the latan limestone occurs, thus definitely placing the sandy exposures in the division which composes the lowest member of the Douglas forma- tion, and as it occurs immediately below the latan limestone con- stitutes a part of the uppermost strata of the Weston shales. The inclusion of this heavy sandstone in the Weston shales will be better understood by referring to the description of the Douglas formation by Moore (5) : "The shale members of the Douglas are variable in composition and texture, changing markedly from point to point. In the north there is a predominance of clay shales, which is sufficiently pure for use in brick manufacture, but towards the south the proportion of sand is notably increased. In places here the shale is replaced by thick, massive sandstones. Coal occurs at one or two horizons in the formation, but is not of great thickness and has been worked only locally." DESCRIPTION OF TRACKS. Tkack No. 1, the first in the series, shows clearly where the front foot had pressed down in the soft, plastic mud to a depth of eight inches, leaving at this level a well-defined ledge. Immediately be- hind this narrow ledge the superimposed hind foot had pressed down to a depth of another seven inches, plainly indicating that the animal was of large size and great weight. This impression repre- sents the tracks of the front and the hind foot of the left side. Track No. 2. (Plate I, fig. 2.) This track was located 12 feet from No. 1 and is one of the finest in the set, showing distinctly the impressions of five bluntly pointed toes. Between the toes the weight of the animal has caused the mud to ooze up, not in sharp MARTIN: A GIGANTIC AMPHIBIAN. 107 ridges as one would expert if the animal had separate unwcbbed phalanges, but in a smooth, rounding ridge, indicating that either a fleshy pad, or more likely a thick web, extended to the base of the short, blunt claws. The hinder part of the impression has un- fortunately eroded away, so that no imprint of the heel is retained. Both the manus and the pes are represented here, and naturally that of the pes shows most distinctly. Towards the hinder part of the impression there is a small, round indentation, as if caused by a conical protuberance beneath the pad of the foot, as indicated in other tracks of the series. The elevation from the first track to the second is three feet. Track No. 3. (Plate I, fig. 3.) This track was exactly two feet from its predecessor, measurements in each instance being made from the centers of the impressions. There are four distinct toe marks in this track, evidently a left manus. This track, like No. 2, was' in a shelving, badly eroded place, leaving no imprint of the palm. From this track to No. 9, the last in the series, there is an elevation of 3 feet. Track No. 4. (Plate I, fig. 4.) This impression was separated by eight feet of clear space from No. 3, and it has the least charac- ter of any in the set. There are four light toe marks, and two of the small, round depressions at the base of the palm. These were made, no doubt, by round, warty tubercles beneath the foot. The relative position of the toe imprints to each other indicates a right manus, but so indistinct are the surface toe marks that it is doubtful if the}' do not belong to the left instead of the right. Track No. 5. (Plate I, fig. 5.) From the fourth to the fifth track there is a space of ten feet, covered to a depth of several inches with soft mud and yet unexplored. Future rains will doubtless disclose more impressions. Track No. 5 shows deep scoring on the edges of the depressions by the slipping of the claws. The four grooves thus made end with the same number of round pits, pressed a half inch or more below the level of the palm, while at the base of the palm one of the small circular pits occurs. These small pits appear at the base of each palm and sole wherever the conditions are fav- orable enough to retain the imprint of the hinder part of the foot. There is no doubt but that this track represents the impression of the left manus. Track No. 6. (Plate 1, fig. 6.) Impression No. 6, two feet six inches from No. 5, is similar in all respects to others already de- scribed, and is the left pes. 108 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Tracks Nos. 7 and 8. (Plate 1, figs. 7 and 8.) These two tracks were remov^ed in one block. The distance of stride from No. 6 to No. 7 was two feet six inches. Here the animal changed its course and turned sharply to the left, making a short step of only twelve inches from track seven to track eight. Each of these tracks were pressed firmly into the sandy matrix, making a bowd-shaped de- pression, with sloping sides, twelve inches in diameter and six inches deep. Grooves in the sides of the depressions show distinctly where the toes and the pad of the front foot have pressed down to a depth of four inches. At this level there is a slight ledge left where the overlapping hind foot pressed still deeper down for another three inches, leaving a well-defined imprint of the short claws and the circular pits similar to those found at the base of the palm and sole of the other tracks collected. Track No. 9. (Plate 1, fig. 9.) This, the last track of the series, was situated two feet three inches from the preceding track, and six inches higher in elevation. This probably is of the left side, but whether of the manus or pes is rather doubtful. The imprint, being on higher and drier ground, was less distinct and showed less char- acter than those made in more plastic material. The bank rises rapidly from the last track found, and although the overlying soil was cleared away for quite a space around, no other indications of tracks could be found. The finding of these scarce footprints in the Coal Measures of Kansas will be welcomed because they may shed some light on the ancestors of the later Permo-Carboniferous amphibians, or possibly reptilian fauna of that age. Thanks are here expressed to the finders of these rare tracks for their generosity in presenting them to the paleontological depart- ment of the University of Kansas. I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Roy L. Moodie, College of Medicine of the University of Illinois, to whom I am under obliga- tions for assistance in the preparation of this paper. CONCLUSIONS. The present series of footprints referred to under the new term of Onychopus gigas indicates one of the largest, if not actually the largest, pre-Triassic vertebrate thus far known from the geological horizons of the world. A short-bodied, long-limbed vertebrate with well-developed feet left these impressions, of whose bodily structure nothing whatever is known. So deeply marked are the footprints MARTIN: A GIGANTIC AMPHIBIAN. 109 in the sandstone that it looks as if an elephant had recently waded through. A curious consistency of the sandy shale is indicated in the well-preserved indications of foot structure of Onychopus gigas as he trailed through the sandy mud many millions of years ago. It is extremely interesting to note the change in elevation between track one and track nine. While this may be due to the dip of the 'strata, it may also indicate the shelving bank of a Coal Measures stream which has again been exposed by the gradual erosion of the present Wakarusa creek. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Marsh, O. C. 1894. Footprints of Vertebrates in the Coal Measures of Kansas. Amer. J. Sci. XLVIII, p. 83. (Plate 2, fig. 5.) 2. MooDiE, Roy L. 1916. The Coal Measures Amphibia of North America, Carnegie Institute of Washington. Publ. 238, p. 201. 3. Lull, R. S. 1920. An Upper Carboniferous Footprint from Attleboro, Mass. Amer. J. Sci. L, p. 234. 4. Hitchcock, Edward. 1858. Ichnology of New England, Boston. 5. MooRE, R. C. 1920. Oil and Gas Resources of Kansas. Kans. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 6, ixirt II, page 40. (Geology of Kansas.) 110 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Footprints of a Gigantic Amphibian. H.T. Martin. PLATE I. I2in. I2iii. m 12: lift Gill. '2ft Gin. Eroded iiit<'rval 10ft. Eroded iiit«M-val 8ft. 2ft. Eroded interval 12ft. xr^n I II MARTIN: A GIGANTIC AMPHIBIAN. Ill EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. The small figures on the left, from 1 to 9, indicate the series of amphibian footprints in the sandstone ledge of the Upper Coal Measures. After makmg the sixth impression the animal turned sharply to the left, so that the drawing does not represent exactly the manner of occurrence. It shows, however, the distance between impressions. No. 1 is possibly a fore-foot impression, with portions of another; No. 2, the left pes; No. 3, the left manus; No. 4, indefi- nite; No. 5, left pes; No. 6, left pes, part manus; No. 7, left pes, part left manus; No. 8, left pes, part manus; No. 9, undecided. The figures 2 to 10 on the right of the plate are detailed studies of the best-preserved tracks. No. 2, left pes with a distance of 130 mm. across the heel impressions at the level of digit I. The distance between the tips of digits I and II, II and III, III and IV is in each case 40 mm.; between IV and V is 80 mm. Small pits in the heel impression indicate heel pads. No. 3, left manus. The small pits to the left indicate toe marks of another foot. The greatest width of this foot is 105 mm. The distance between the tips of digits I and II, II and III is in each case 50 mm.; between III and IV is 40 mm. No. 4, right manus. The distance from the tip of digit III to the posterior edge of the heel pad is 95 mm.; between II and III, 45 mm.; between I and II. 4S mm. No. 5, right pes. The greatest length is 110 mm.; the greatest width 120 mm. No. 6, undoubtedly a pes, with well-marked heel pads. The greatest length is 140 mm., the greatest width 144 mm. No. 7, a pes. The impressions below the pes represent a second impression, which was probably obliterated by the hind foot. The circle surrounding the footprints represents the edge of a three-inch depression in which the foot- prints occurred. This indicates both the great weight of the animal and the softness of the ground. No. 8, a part of pes and manus, also occur in a depression three inches deep. No. 9 shows two superimposed impressions of a fore and a hind foot. The greatest width of the hind foot is 135 mm. No. 10 is a sketch of the appearance of the depression, showing the shape of the depression and the long furrows made by dragging blunt claws along a moist surface. Claws have been previoush^ indicated in the remains of the larger Permian and Triassic amphibians, in the presence of blunt terminal rugose phalanges, but so far as I am* aware no impressions of them have been so clearly recorded in the rocks of the Coal Measures. 112 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. MARTIN: A GIGANTIC AMPHIBIAN. 113 EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL Photograph of the east bank of the Wakarusa creek at Dightman's crossing, five miles southeast of Lawrence, Kan., showing the relation of the heavily bedded sandstone, in which the amphibian footprints were found, to the Weston shales which outcrop immediately at the edge of the water. The ravine in the center of the picture has a depth from the surface of twenty feet, and in this depression, on the ledge indicated at the point of the arrow, was found the series of footprints shown in the plate. This ledge at the position of the first track lies fourteen feet above the creek, but the stratum rises three feet between the first and the second impressions, between which there is an eroded interval of twelve feet. A further inclination of the stratum is indicated in the fact that there is a rise of four feet between the second and the last impressions, a distance of twenty-seven feet. The ledge on which the impressions were found is continued into the sandstone chff immediately above the star (*). 8 — Science Bui. — 3728 114 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Footprints of a Gigantic Amphibian. H. T. Martin. PLATE III. Photographs of tracks Nos. 8 and 9, showing the imprint of both the front and the supraimposed hind foot on each impression. THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. XIII, No. 13— July,, 1922. CONTENTS: On Some Isothiourea Ethers, F. B. Dains and W. C. Thompson. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-3728 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. XIII. ] JULY, 1922. [No. 13. On Some Isothiourea Ethers.^ (Contribution from the Chemical Laboratory, University of Kansas.) BY F. B. DAINS AND W. C. THOMPSON. ONE of the characteristic reactions of the substituted thioureas is their ability to add directly alkyl halides, with the formation of halogen halide salts of bases, in which the alkyl group is joined to sulfur.- RNHCSNHR + R'X = RNHC(SR')NR,HX. From these salts, the free thiourea ethers can be obtained by the action of alkalies. As part of an investigation now in progress, it was deemed advisable to synthesize the n-propyl and n-butyl ethers of certain thioureas and, owing to the departure of one of the authors from this laboratory, to record these preliminary results at this time. EXPERIMENTAL. r-PROPYL-a, )8-DlPHENYL THIOUREA. C6H.5NHC(SC3H7)NC6H5. (n-Propyl ester of phenylimino-phenyl thiocarbamic acid.) A mixture of thiocarbanilide (15 gms.) and normal propyl iodide (10 gms.) was heated on the water bath for an hour. The light- brown viscous liquid solidified on cooling. After crystallization from alcohol the hydrogen iodide salt was obtained in the form of colorless rhombic crystals, which melted at 103°. The salt was slightly soluble in ether, cold water and cold alcohol, but readily soluble in hot water, hot alcohol and acetone. The yield was 80 per cent. Calc. for CioHi8N,S,HI: N, 6.93. Found: 7.09, 6.79. The free base, which was insoluble in water, was obtained by 1. The authors wish to express their thanks to the research committee of the University for a grant which was of assistance in the prosecution of this work. 2. Her. 14, 1490 (1881); 15, 1314 (1882); 21, 962, 1857 (1888). (117) 118 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. neutralizing an aqueous solution of the salt with sodium hydroxide. The white needles, which separated from alcohol, melted at 61.5°. Calc. for Ci^HigN.S: N, 10.39. Found: 10.10, 10.16. . y-n-BuTYL-a, /?-DlPHENYL THIOUREA. C6H.5NHC(SC4H9)NC6H5. The mixture of normal butyl iodide and diphenyl thiourea was heated on the steam bath for an hour. The salt, which solidified on cooling, could not be purified by crystallization. It was therefore ground up and thoroughly washed with ether, in which it was in- soluble. The yield of the hydroiodide, which melted at 122°, was 83 per cent. Calc. for Ci,HooN.,S,HI: N, 6.78. Found: 6.66, 6.68. An aqueous solution of the salt was treated with sodium carbon- ate. The free base was obtained a heavy, colorless, noncrystalliz- able oil, which was readily soluble in the ordinary organic solvents. Calc. for Ci-H,oNoS: N, 9.85. Found: 9.92, 9.95. y-n-PROPYL-'/, /8-Di-p-ToLYL Thioubea. C7H7NHC(SC.H7)NC7H7. Di-p-tolyl thiourea and normal propyl iodide reacted readily on warming and the resulting hydrogen iodide salt was purified by washing with cold alcohol. It then melted at 165°. The yield was 88 per cent. Calc. for C,,H2.N,S,HI: N, 6.57. Found: 6.29, 6.51. The salt was freely soluble in water and the thio ether, precipi- tated by the addition of alkali, crystallized from alcohol in fine, white needles which had a melting point of 99°. Calc. for CisH,.,N,S; N, 9.36. Found: 9.18, 9.35. r-n-BuTYL-'>(, /S-Di-p-ToLYL Thiourea. C7H7NHC(SC4H9)NC7H7. The hydrogen iodide salt, which was obtained in a 95 per cent yield from the normal butyl iodide and the thiourea, melted at 145°. Calc. for Ci9H24N.S,HI; N, 6.36. Found: 6.35, 6.35. The free base formed by neutralizing an alcoholic solution of the salt was a thick, colorless liquid, insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Calc. for Ci,H,,X,S:N, 8.97. Found: 9.12,9.33. y-n-PROPYL-«, l3-Di-2, 4-Dimethyl-Phenyl Thiourea. (CH3)2C6H3NHC(SC.sH7)NC6H3(CH3)2. Di-m-xylyl thiourea and normal propyl iodide reacted easily on warming, but the product, which was obtained in 87 per cent yield, proved to be the free base and not its salt. This when purified from alcohol melted at 113.5°. Calc. for Co^HogN.SiN, 8.58. Found: 8.46,8.46. DAINS AND THOMPSON: ISOTHIOUREA ETHERS. 119 THIOETHERS FROM UREAS CONTAINING TWO DIFFERENT GROUPS. r-METHYL-«-p-BROMOPHENYL-/8-PHENYL THIOUREA. aH5NHC(SCri.)NC6ll4Br or C«H.5NC(SCH3)NHC«H4Br. The iinsymmetrical nature of tlie mol did not prevent the addi- tion of the alkyl iodide, since when methyl iodide and phenyl-p-bro- mophenyl thiourea were heated under the usual conditions a yield of 69 per cent of the hydrogen iodide salt was obtained. It melted at 152°. Calc. for Ci,Hi3N,SBr,HI : N, 6.24. Found: 6.04, 6.27. The thioether was preciptated when an alcoholic solution of the salt was made alkaline with sodium carbonate and then diluted with water. When purified, the white needles melted at 79°. Calc. for Ci,Hi3N2SBr; N, 8.72. Found: 8.54,8.77. r-n-PROPYL-'>t-p-BROMOPHENYL-/3-PHENYL THIOUREA. CeH.NHC (SC3H7) NC6H4Br. Normal propyl iodide and the thiourea united to form a salt, which, however, failed to crystallize, but remained as a heavy, red oil. Calc. for Ci,Hi-N,SBr,HI: N, 5.88. Found: 5.46. The thioether, which was isolated in a 70 per cent yield, melted at 84°, after purification from alcohol. Calc. for CisHi-N.SBr; N, 8.02. Found: 8.09, 8.07. y-n-BuTYL-'Z-p-BROMOPHENYL-yS-PHENYL THIOUREA. C6HoNHC(SC4H9) NC6H4Br. The hydrogen iodide salt from the thiourea, and the normal butyl iodide separated in this case also as a thick noncrystallizable oil. Calc. for Ci,H,9N.SBr,HI; N, 5.70. Found: 5.37, 5.62. The free base obtained in the usual manner was a viscid oil, sol- uble in alcohol and ether. Calc. for Ci-H.^N^SBr; N, 7.71. Found: 7.72, 7.52. r-n-BuTYL-MoNOPHENYL THIOUREA. C6H5NHC(SC4H9)NH. When monophenjd thiourea and normal butyl iodide were warmed on the water bath, a gummy mass was obtained. This was dissolved in hot alcohol and neutralized with sodium carbonate. On dilution with water the thiourea was precipitated as a heavy oil, which failed to crystallize. Calc. for C11H16N2S; N, 12.72. Found: 13.03, 13.05. 120 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. SUMMARY. A number of new alkyl ethers of substituted thioureas have been prepared. While usually these ethers are solid crystalline com- pounds, the normal butyl derivatives thus far isolated are basic oils. The di-m-xylyl thiourea gave the free base and not the hydrogen iodide salt with normal propyl iodide. Lawrence, Kan., July, 1922. THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. XIII, No. 14— July, 1922. CONTENTS: The Size of the Thymus Gland in Relation to the Size and Development OP THE Fcetal Pig as Studied in a Varied Range of Stages, Donald N. Medearis and Alexander Marble. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-3728 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. XIII.] JULY, 1922. [No. 14. The Size of the Thymus Gland in Relation to the Size and Development of the Foetal Pig as Studied in a Varied Range of Stages. BY DONALD N. MEDEARIS AND ALEXANDER MARBLE. From the Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy, University of Kansas. INTRODUCTION. THE thymus gland has long been a favorite subject for study and for speculation as to its function and possible effect upon growth. Much work has been done in extirpation of the gland in postnatal animals in order to note the effect upon metabolism. Dif- ferent results have been obtained as different species of animals were examined, depending largely upon the time of involution of the gland in that particular animal. H. Matti (1) found that ex- tirpation of the thymus in pups (eighteen days to eight weeks in age) caused slowness of movement, muscular weakness, softness of bones, bone changes resembling those in rickets, and subsequent death. Almost similar results were reported by Basch (2). Such findings would seem to indicate a direct effect upon bone formation, and accordingly upon the size of the animal. That the size of thymus is correlated with size of animal (i. e., in individuals be- low age of involution stage) is evidently accepted as probable by Badertscher (3), who states in a description of a sketch that "[above is an] outline drawing of the exposed left thymus of a 'runty' pig, one day old and only 240 mm. in length; the thymus in this specimen was a few millimeters shorter than that in the full- term embryo; this is perhaps due to the fact that the specimen was a 'runt.' " On the contrary, Hatai (4), in a study of postnatal rat thymi, states that "the weight of the thymus is correlated with the age of the rat rather than the body weight," thus showing a counter finding. (123) 124 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. This problem, then, was deemed worthy of investigation, and for study the foetal pig was chosen, largely because it shows the typical mammalian characteristics and because little work of any sort has been attempted with the foetal pig ; then, too, the material was fairly easily obtained and was found to be highly satisfactory. Since the pig had been selected, a further phase of the subject arose, and its importance became evident: as yet (as we believed after a search through literature) no one had studied the thymus in any great number of fatal pigs and had tabulated measurements and thus secured normal averages and percentages. Such tables of averages, etc., we recognized to be of great value as a basis for further work in this direction or in any phase of thymus work in pigs. Ex- tensive work of this sort has been done by Hatai (5) and by Jackson (6) in albino rats, and by others. Therefore, it is with this twofold purpose that this paper is pre- sented: (1) to give our findings as to the relation of the size of the thymus gland to the size of the foetal pig, and (2) to furnish, as a possible basis for further research, tables of measurements and weights of many individual pig fceti of various sizes, with the meas- urements and weights of their thymi and individual and group aver- ages. We hope to further continue the study to include postnatal pigs; in this study a further object of interest will be the determi- nation of the time of the involution stage, since such time would be expected to lie in the postnatal period. METHODS OF OBTAINING SPECIMENS AND LABORATORY TECHNIQUE USED. Specimens were obtained from the plant of the Armour Packing Company in Kansas City, Kan. The collectors went on the killing floor of the plant, secured suitable uteri, removed the foeti, tied the umbilical cords, and put the pigs into a preservative solution (for- maldehyde) ready for shipping. Litters were kept separate by means of cheesecloth bags for individual litters. Care was taken to get foeti of as wide a range of lengths as possible, varying from 9.5 to 28.5 centimeters. In the laboratory each pig was weighed, its length recorded (head to rump measurement taken), and its sex determined; then each pig was given a litter letter and a serial number, and tagged so that future identification was possible. The remaining procedure in the actual bulk of the work was simple, and the dissection progressed rather, rapidly once the technique was mastered, and an exact idea of the extent of the thymus was secured. The neck and upper MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 125 thoracic region of the body were stripped of skin, and the thymus beneath (easily seen) dissected away from the surrounding tissue. The ghand was then washed, dried superficially on filter paper, and weighed. This process was carried out on almost 150 pigs, and tables and curves were made and studied to determine tendencies. RELIABILITY OF RESULTS. Before going into the body of the report it may be well to con- sider just how reliable were the results obtained, and wherein lay sources of error. (1) In the weighing of the pigs, some of them may have absorbed more of the formaldehyde preservative than others ; some may have lost more of their body fluids than others. This error seems to us, however, as negligible. (2) The chemical bal- ances used were not of the best, and, too, the thymi may not have received exactly the same treatment after removal from the pig, although every effort was put forth to secure uniformity. To this end, all weighings (practically) were made by one operator. (3) Lengths of the pigs may not be entirely accurate, although here, too, the greatest care possible was taken to secure exactness. (4) Lastly, incomplete removal of the thymus, or removal of other tissue as thymus, may have occurred in some cases. The greatness of this error depends, of course, upon the skill of the workers, and it is their hope that this has been a negligible factor of error. Taking all in all, then, it is extremely probable that the material and data to be set forth are accurate to this degree, that they may be taken as the basis for conclusions of a definite nature. Such conclusions are, in our minds, accurate and reliable enough to merit considera- tion. THE THYMUS: ITS GENERAL SHAPE AND EXTENT. It was not our purpose to study the structure of the thymus in any detail, and this part of the report is merely made in passing, without any attempt at thoroughness. Our , findings seem to be similar in many respects to those of Badertscher (3) as to the anatomy of the gland.'^ In the foetal pig it is comparatively very long, ex-tending usually from a point over the upper half or third of the heart, underneath the sternum (as viewed from the ventral side), and up to the base of the mandible. The portion covering the heart is strongly attached to the pericardium ; it is roughly tri- angular in shape, with the apex pointing posteriorly, and lies mainly to the left of the median line. The anterior end of this, the thoracic 1. In a further paper (7) Badertscher discusses the development of the thymus in the pig from the standpoint of histogenesis. 126 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. portion of the gland, narrows down, and the thymus appears be- neath the sternum as two slender, paralkl ribbons of glandular tissue. Once into the neck region, however, these two ribbons be- come very much larger and diverge, passing anteriorly to the base of the mandible, one on each side. In the thyroid region they parallel each other closely, lying on opposite sides of the thyroid, and thus fairly close to the median line. Then each passes from here into deeper tissue and obliquely away from the median line, ending behind the mandible. The thymus seems to be made up of many small lobules, combined into larger lobes. The accompany- ing sketch will give, perhaps, a clearer idea of the form of the gland. RioK-b Lobe of Thiimu,s Left Lobe of Thumas. — Trachea Luncj — -Thoracic "Portion of I hvjmus - - Heart Sketch of the Thymus "v 5 itu MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 127 TABLE NO. 1. Table No. 1 shows the original data as taken in the laboratory concerning each pig, together with individual averages, sex aver- ages, and litter averages. From the table all the derivations and calculations of the report will be taken. Its value lies largely in reference, and will not be used much to point out conclusions. How- ever, it is well to note from it the number of pigs dissected, namely, 147 from 18 different litters. Relation of Sex to Thymus. An examination of the averages listed beneath each litter in table No. 1 will readily show, in regard to sex, that males and females have practically tlie same percentage of thymus in the same stage of development. Consider particularly the percentage thymus by weight as balanced against the length of the pig, and this state- ment becomes evident. It is true that in several of the litters the females have the greater percentage of gland, but this tendency is practically balanced by the fact that many of the litters show ap- proximately equal averages for males and females, and others show the balance in favor of the males. If our results be taken to show any positive tendency at all, it is that the females have the larger thymi (proportionally) , but the writers believe that this is due to the small number of pigs dissected, and that such a positive tendency is too weak to merit much consideration. As such, special curves and tables have not been made for this part of the report. Not- withstanding, Hatai (4) in relevant material states that ''so far as our present data are concerned, the thymus gland of the female of the albino rat appears to be .slightly heavier than that of the male; nevertheless, the difference found is too slight to justify treating the sexes separately." 128 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE No. 1. Pig. Sex. Pig length in cms. Thymus length in cms. Per cent by length. weight in grams. 235 192 233 202 212 265 237 228 243 228 174 234 102 265 212 251 218 100 102 76 89 90 100 89 92 107 145 136 123 122 164 143 102 164 139 127 134 752 771 815 843 669 752 843 770 184 196 211 208 195 126 185 190 187 122 130 115 115 120 102 95 Thymus weight in grams. Per cent " by weight. 1 Al 15.5 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 17.5 16 0 16.0 16 5 15.5 14.0 16 0 11 5 17.0 15.3 16.8 15.5 11.0 11.0 10.0 10.5 11.0 11 0 10.7 10 9 11.5 13.0 13.5 13.0 13.0 14,0 li.O 11.5 13.5 13.0 13.0 13.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 23.5 24.6 25.0 24.7 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.0 16.0 12.5 14.6 14.8 14.7 13.5 13.5 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 12.0 13.5 13.5 12.5 11.0 13.0 12.0 12.9 12.6 12.8 4.0 3.75 3.8 3.8 4.0 4,5 3.5 3 7 3.7 3 8 3.5 3.8 2 3 4.5 3.72 4.0 3.8 2.5 2.75 2.5 25.8 25.0 24.5 24.5 25.0 25.7 21.9 23.1 22.4 24.5 25.0 23.8 20.0 26.5 24.2 23.8 24.1 22.7 25.0 25.0 .310 .454 .255 .260 .295 .503 .636 .325 .402 .295 .205 .350 .140 .661 .329 .569 .364 .070 .095 .031 .132 .236 .109 .129 .134 189 2 A2 Male 3 A3 Male 4 A4 Male 5 A5 6 A6 7 A7 .268 143 8 A8 Male 9 A9 Male 165 10 A 10 Male 129 11 All Male 118 12 A 12 150 13 A13 Male 137 14 A 14 Male 287 Averages . . . A Male. 86 per cent Female, 14 per cent Litter .156 .229 166 15 Bl Male 070 16 B2 Female 093 17 B3 18 B4 19 B5 Averages . . . . | 041 2.75 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.5 3.5 4.0 2.5 3.25 2.85 2.9 2,9 6.5 7.0 7.5 7,0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.2 3.2 2.5 2.75 25.0 22.7 25.0 24.4 21.7 19.2 20.0 19.2 19.2 25.0 28.6 21.7 24.1 21.8 22.3 22.1 26.0 28,0 30 0 28.0 29.8 28,5 28,0 28,4 23.5 23 3 23,3 23.3 21.9 24.0 23.1 23.4 23.2 22.2 22.2 23.1 24.6 24.6 19.2 22,9 .070 .070 .065 .067 .120 .121 .130 .150 .130 .150 .134 .110 .1,58 .134 .134 .134 2.986 2.580 2.860 3 550 2.788 2,804 3.550 2.953 .276 .268 .238 .410 .250 .180 .269 .272 .270 .125 .214 .184 .085 .115 .080 .068 078 Male, 40 per cent Female. 60 per cent Litter .070 .071 071 20 CI 21 C2 22 C3 23 C4 112 Male 083 096 122 24 C5 Male 107 25 C6 Male 091 26 C7 27 C8 28 C9 f Averages . . . A 29 Dl Female 094 Male 108 Male 096 Male. 56 percent Female. 44 per cent — Litter .097 .106 101 397 30 D'> Male 334 31 D3 32 D4 33 D5 ( Averages ....•{ ( 351 Female 421 417 Male, 80 percent Female, 20 per cent. .. . .375 .421 384 34 El 35 E2 36 E3 37 E4 Female 150 137 Male 113 Male 197 38 E5 39 E6 Averages . . . . • Jvlale 128 Male 143 Male, 67 percent Female. 33 per cent — Litter .145 .144 .145 40 Fl Female 102 41 F2 .165 42 F3 43 F4 44 F5 45 F6 46 F7 47 F8 48 F9 49 FIO 50 FU 51 F12 52 F13 Averages . . . A Male 160 Male .074 Female 096 Male .078 Male 072 Male 3.0 3.2 2.5 3.3 2.6 2.96 2.9 3.0 22.2 25.6 22.7 25.4 21.7 22.9 23.2 23.0 140 120 83 126 96 116 112 114 .082 .108 .072 .117 .085 .103 .120 .111 059 Female .090 .087 Male .093 089 Male, 50 per cent Females, 50 per cent.. . Litter .089 .105 .097 MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 129 TABLE No. 1— CoNTimiED. Pig. 53 Gl 54 G2 55 03 56 (J4 57 05 58 06 59 07 60 08 Averages 61 HI 62 H2 63 H3 64 H4 65 H5 66 H6 67 H7 68 H8 69 H9 70 Averag HIO es ■ 71 II 72 12 73 13 74 14 75 15 76 16 77 17 78 18 Averages . . . 79 Jl 80 J2 81 J3 82 J4 83 J5 84 J6 85 J7 86 J8 Averages. . . 87 Kl 88 K2 89 K3 90 K4 91 K5 Averages. . . 92 LI 93 L2 94 L3 95 L4 96 L5 97 L6 98 L7 99 L8 Averages . . . 100 Ml 101 M2 102 M3 103 M4 104 M5 105 M6 106 M7 107 M8 108 M9 Averages . . . Sex. Males, 5 Females, 3 Male, 63 per cent . Female, 37 per cent Male Male • Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Male, 80 per cent . . Female, 20 per cent Litter Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male, 50 per cent. . , Female, 50 per cent Litter Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Male Male, 75 per cent. . . Female, 25 per cent. Litter Male Male Female Female Male Male, 60 per cent . . Female, 40 per cent. Litter Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Male, 75 per cent. .. Female, 25 per cent. Litter Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male, 67 per cent. .. Female, 33 per cent. Litter Pig length 22.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 21.5 21.5 22.0 19.0 21.5 17.0 16.0 16.5 12.5 13.5 16.0 17.5 14.0 18 0 16.5 15.6 16 25 15.8 14.0 13.5 14.0 14.0 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.8 13.6 13 7 17 0 18.5 17.0 17.5 17.5 17.0 17.0 16.0 17.17 17.25 17.2 19.5 20.0 20 0 20 0 19.5 19.7 20 0 19.8 16.5 16.5 17.0 16 5 16.5 16.5 16.5 15.5 16.3 16.8 16.4 21.5 21.0 20.5 21.0 21.0 19.0 22.5 22.0 22.0 21.3 20.8 21.2 Thymus length in cms. 6.0 5.5 6,2 6.0 5.8 5.5 6.0 5.2 5.8 4.5 4.3 4.0 3 3 4.0 4 0 4.5 3.2 4.5 3 8 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.7 2.9 3 5 3.5 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3 2 3 3 4.3 4 3 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.0 4 1 5.5 4.5 5.0 4.5 4.3 4.7 4.8 4.76 4.4 4.4 4.2 3.5 4.3 4.2 4 5 3.6 Per cent by length. 5.5 5.5 5.55 5.3 5.48 27.3 25.0 28.2 27.3 27.0 25.6 27.3 27.4 26.9 26,5 26.9 24.2 26.4 29.6 25.0 25.7 22.9 25.0 23.0 25.8 24.6 25.5 26.4 21.5 25.0 25.0 23.7 23.0 23.7 24.4 24.9 23.3 24.1 25.3 23.2 26.5 22.9 22.9 23.5 23.5 25.0 24.4 23.2 24 1 28.2 22.5 25.0 22.5 22.5 24.4 23.8 24.1 26.7 26.7 24.7 21.2 26.0 25. 27. 23. 25. 25. 25. 27.9 25.2 26.3 25.2 26.2 27.9 24.9 25.0 25.0 26.2 25.6 26.0 Pig weight in grams. 635 549 665 658 640 581 635 346 589 251 257 271 118 154 235 318 159 316 245 227 253 232 137 135 125 150 145 137 145 143 144 136 140 267 295 285 255 245 250 228 205 256 248 254 440 460 430 420 405 435 425 431 270 245 270 250 250 240 250 125 232 255 238 515 515 445 475 445 342 550 500 420 462 478 467 Thymus weight in grams. 3.241 1.280 1.900 2.914 1 999 2.379 2.205 .755 2.084 ,305 .420 .751 ,133 .323 .519 .705 .205 .847 .410 .419 .635 ,462 ,137 .170 .114 .160 .120 .155 .160 .142 .140 .150 .145 .332 .385 .320 .340 .228 .232 .260 .280 .319 .230 .297 .750 813 1.055 .820 1.115 .893 .938 .911 .432 .392 .335 .407 .370 .365 .365 .200 .361 .350 .358 1.220 .920 1 032 1,183 .887 .685 1.315 1 255 .772 1.014 1.045 1.030 Per cent by weight. .510 ,233 ,286 ,443 ,312 ,409 .347 .218 ,345 ,122 .163 ,277 .112 .209 .221 .222 ,129 .268 .168 .174 .249 ,189 ,100 ,126 .091 .107 .083 .113 .110 .099 ,097 .110 .104 .124 .131 .112 .113 .094 .093 .114 .137 .122 .093 .115 .170 .177 .245 .195 .275 .207 .220 .212 .160 ,160 .124 ,163 ,148 ,152 ,146 ,160 .156 .138 .152 .237 .179 .232 .250 .200 .200 .239 .251 .184 .218 .220 .219 9— Science Bui.— 3728 130 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE No. 1— Concluded. Pig. Sex. Pig length in cms. Thymus length in cms. Per cent by length. Pig weight in grams. 400 360 420 430 360 380 395 407 393 398 394 170 275 280 230 263 262 313 290 238 274 260 735 700 590 665 675 495 435 740 620 678 614 628 55 68 66 63 63 63 61 61 63 62 63 1,098 693 932 999 925 1,035 951 925 947 Thymus weight in grams. Per cent By weight. 109 Nl Female 19.0 19.5 19.0 19.5 18.5 ' 18.5 19.0 19.5 19.1 19.0 19 1 14 0 17.0 16.5 16.0 16 0 17 0 18,0 16.5 16.0 16.6 16.4 24.5 24.0 23.5 23.5 24.5 21.5 20.5 23.5 22.0 23 3 23.0 23.1 9.5 10.5 10.0 10.0 10 5 10 0 10.0 10.5 10.0 10.3 10.1 27.0 25.5 27.5 27.5 26.5 28.5 27.2 26.5 27.1 4.5 4.6 4.8 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.3 5.0 4.7 4.4 4.65 3.5 4 7 4.2 4.6 4.2 4,1 4,5 4,1 4.2 4 3 4,2 6.4 6.0 6.0 6,0 6,0 5 0 5,5 6,3 6 1 6.3 5,8 5,9 2 3 2,5 2,3 2 2 2^3 2,4 2,5 2,5 2.4 2,4 2 4 9,0 7,0 8 0 7.5 8.6 9.0 8.1 8,6 8,2 23,7 23.6 25 3 25.6 24.3 24.3 22 6 25,6 24.8 23.1 24.4 25 0 27,6 25.5 28.7 26.3 24.1 25.0 24,8 26.2 25.7 25.9 26.1 25.0 25.5 25.5 24.5 23,3 26,8 26,8 27.7 26.9 25.3 25.7 24.2 23,8 23 0 22.0 21 9 24,0 25,0 23,8 23-8 23,2 23.5 33,3 27.5 29,1 27,3 32,5 31 6 29.8 32.5 30.2 .710 .517 .580 .550 .466 .635 .805 .672 .570 .757 .617 .180 .602 .405 .255 .426 ,425 .370 .351 .268 ,442 .377 2,285 2,135 1,610 1,940 1,975 1,540 1,375 2,002 1 930 2.108 1.797 1 866 ,019 .040 .032 .029 .022 .025 .035 .032 .029 .030 .029 2,480 1.549 3,365 3 010 2.500 2,972 2,675 2,500 2,646 178 110 N2 Male .144 111 N3 .138 112 N4 Male .128 113 N5 Male .130 114 N6 Male .167 115 N7 Feinale .204 116 N8 Male .165 Averages . . . . | Male, 75 per cent Female, 25 per cent. . . Litter .145 .172 .157 117 01 Male .106 118 02 .219 119 03 Female .145 120 04 121 05 122 06 123 07 124 08 Averages .... -1 125 PI Male F'emale Female Male Female Male, 38 per cent Female, 62 per cent. .. . Litter .111 .162 .162 .118 .121 .112 .162 .143 Male .311 126 P2 .305 127 P3 128 P4 Female .273 .292 129 P5 .293 130 P6 Female ,311 131 P7 .316 132 P8 Female .271 133 P9 .311 Averages \ 134 Ql 135 Q2 Male, 22 per cent Female, 78 per cent Litter Male .311 .294 .298 .035 Male .0.59 136 Q3 Male .048 137 Q4 .046 138 Q5 139 Q6 140 Q7 141 Q8 Averages . . . .{ Female .035 Male ■ .040 Female Female Male.'SO per cent Female, 50 per cent Litter .057 .052 .046 .048 .047 142 Rl Male .226 143 R2 Male 224 144 R3 145 R4 146 R5 Male Male .361 .301 .270 147 R6 Averages . . . . ] Male Male, 83 per cent Female. 17 per cent. . . . Litter .287 .280 .270 .278 MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 131 —<' Sii at 132 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Relation Between the Length of Pigs and the Percentage Thymus by Weight, Using Litter Averages Throughout. Table No. 2 and curve No. 1 are to be considered in this connec- tion. Curve No. 1 shows that as litters made up of larger and larger foeti, as regards length, are examined, the percentage thymus by weight increases steadily. There is a marked drop near the center of the curve which cannot be explained, but it does not ob- scure the general tendency of an increase in percentage thymus by weight. It will be noted that the value for the litter of pigs of aver- age length, 27.1 centimeters, has dropped quite appreciably. Whether or not this means that at 24 cm. or 25 cm. the gland reaches its greatest stage of development we do not know; not enough pigs longer than 25 cm. were examined. It would be an interesting problem to work out to see at just what stage the thymus development ceases, and when it commences to atrophy. TABLE No. 2. Litter. , Pig length in cms. Thymus length Id cms. Per cent by length. Pig weight in gms. Thymus weight in gms. Per cent by weight. Q 10.1 10.9 12.8 13 0 13 7 14.7 15.5 15.8 16.4 16.4 17.2 19 1 19.8 21.2 21.5 22 0 24.7 27.1 2.4 2.6 3.0 2.9 3.3 3.4 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.7 4.8 5.5 5.8 6.1 7.0 8.2 23.5 24.4 23 0 22.1 24.1 23.2 24.1 25.5 25.1 25.9 24.1 24.4 24.1 26.0 26.9 27.7 28.4 30 2 63 92 114 134 140 187 218 232 238 260 254 419 431 467 589 628 770 947 .029 .067 .111 .134 .145 ,270 .364 .462 .358 .377 .297 .617 .911 1 030 2.084 1.930 2.953 2 646 .047 B .071 F .097 C .101 I .104 E :...;. .145 A .166 H .189 L .152 0 .143 J....; .115 ». . . : .157 K .212 M .219 g .345 P D R .311 .384 278 MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 133 jot- K i \ \ -u , z . > _- !?■ ^HtriTr*^" ■-U-: t,o&\ \ iliffiirifefmlwtiiffiTHteim 134 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Relation Between the Weight of Pigs and the Percentage Thymus by Weight, Using Litter Averages Throughout. Table No. 3 and curve No. 2 show practically the same tendency as to table No. 2 and curve No. 1, i. e., as heavier and heavier pigs are examined, the percentage of thymus by weight increases steadily. There is practically the same inexplicable deviation or drop near the center of the curve, and the possible maximum point centering about pigs of a weight of 770 grams. table No. 3. Litter. Pig weight in gms. Thymus weight in gms. Per cent by weight. Pig length in cms. Thymus length, in cms. Per cent by length. Q B 63 92 114 134 140 187 218 232 238 254 260 419 431 467 589 628 770 947 .029 .067 .111 .134 .145 .270 .304 .462 .358 .297 .377 .617 .911 1.030 2 084 1.930 2.953 2,646 .047 .071 .097 .101 .104 .145 .166 .189 .152 .115 .143 .157 .212 .219 .345 .311 .384 .278 10.1 10.9 12.8 13.0 13.7 14.7 15.5 15.8 16.4 17 2 16,4 19.1 19,8 21.2 21.5 22.0 ' 24.7 27.1 2.4 2.6 3,0 2,9 3.3 34 3.8 4,0 4.1 4.1 4.2 4,7 4,8 5,5 5,8 6,1 7,0 8.2 23,5 24.4 F 23.0 C: ;.... 22 1 I 24.1 E 23.2 A 24 1 H 25.5 L 25.1 J 24 1 0 25,9 N 24,4 K 24.1 M 26,0 g 26.9 P 27.7 D R 28.4 30.2 Relation Between the Length of Pigs and the Percentage by Weight of the Thymus, Using Length Group Averages Throughout, Disregarding Litters. Table No. 4 and curve No. 3 show that as larger and larger foeti (as regards length) are examined and classified regardless of litter, there is a steady increase in the percentage thymus by weight. The increase is not as uniform, however, as when the pigs are classified according to litter, as will be shown by a comparison of curve No. 1 with curve No. 3. The former is the smoother. Hence from these calculations on lengths, we may conclude that pigs tend to have the same size thymus, relatively, as that of other pigs of the same litter, regardless of individual pig lengths. MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 135 o o ^ ^ « 8 01 8 \5 :SU:oi I ''■ ■ .;. . *v T .;;, ?''5 I- :[ 1 ■ "-— ^ "■■"^■'i -— 1 n : 136 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE No. 4. Per cent Pig Per cent Per cent Pig Per cent Class. Pig. thymus weight thymus Class. Pig. thymus weight thymus by weight. in grog. by length. by weight. in gms. by length. 9.5 cm.. . . Ql .035 55 24.2 15.0 cm... A2 .236 192 25.0 Avg. .035 55 24.2 El E4 .137 .197 196 208 23.3 23.3 lO.O.'cm.... Q7 .057 61 25.0 E3 .113 211 23.3 Q6 .040 63 24.0 Avg. .171 202 23.7 Q4 .046 63 22.0 Q3 .048 66 23.0 15.5 cm... . L8 .160 175 23.2 B3 .041 76 25.0 A4 .129 202 24.5 Avg. .046 66 24.0 AlO A3 .129 .109 228 233 24.5 24.5 10.5 cm.... Q8 .052 61 33 8 Al .132 235 25.8 Q5 .035 63 21.9 Avg. .132 215 24.5 Q2 .059 68 23.8 Avg. .049 64 26.5 16.0cm.... E5 J8 .128 .137 195 205 21.9 25.0 U.Ocm.... Fll .087 83 22.7 A5 .134 212 25.0 B5 .078 90 25.0 A8 .143 228 23.1 Bl .070 100 22.7 04 .111 230 28.7 B2 .093 102 25 0 A12 .150 234 23.8 Avg. .082 94 23.9 H6 A7 .221 .268 235 237 25.4 21.9 11.5 cm C8 .108 102 21.7 H2 .163 257 26.9 A13 .137 102 20.0 05 .162 263 26.3 CI .112 107 21.7 Avg. .162 230 24.8 Avg. .119 104 21.1 16 5cm.... L6 .152 240 25.5 12.0 cm. .. F7 .072 95 22.9 A9 .165 243 22.4 F13 .089 96 21.7 L2 .160 245 26.7 Avg. .081 95.5 22.3 HIO L7 .168 .146 245 250 23.0 27.3 12.5 cm.... H4 .112 118 26.4 L5 .148 250 26.0 FIO .090 120 25.6 L4 .163 250 21.2 E6 .143 126 24.0 LI .160 270 26.7 Avg. .115 121 25.3 H3 03 .277 .145 271 280 24.2 25.5 13.0>m.,.. F6 .078 102 19.2 08 .121 290 24.8 ' F4 .074 115 24.6 " Avg. .164 258 24.8 F3 .160 115 23.1 F5 .096 120 24.6 17.0 cm J7 .114 228 23.5 C5 .107 122 19.2 J6 .093 250 23.5 C4 .122 123 19.2 HI .123 251 26.5 F12 .093 126 25.4 06 .162 262 24.1 C2 .083 145 19.2 A 14 .287 265 26.5 Avg. .102 121 21.8 Jl L3 .124 .124 267 270 25.3 24.7 13 5 cm.. . . Fl .102 122 22.2 02 .219 275 27.6 F2 .165 130 22.2 J3 .112 285 26 5 12 .126 135 21.5 Avg. .151 261 25.4 C3 .096 136 20.0 16 .113 137 23.0 17.5 cm.. . . J5 .094 245 22.9 E9 .059 140 22.2 J4 .113 255 22.9 18 .099 143 24.4 A6 .189 265 25.7 15 .083 145 23.7 H7 222 318 25.0 17 .110 145 23.7 Avg. !l55 271 24.1 H5 .209 159 29.6 C9 .096 164 24.1 18.0 cm.... 07 .118 313 25.0 Avg. .114 141 23.3 H9 Avg. .269 .194 316 314.5 25.0 25.0 14.0 cm.... 13 .091 125 25.0 11 .100 137 26.4 18 5cm.... J2 .131 295 23.2 C7 .094 143 28.6 N5 .130 360 24.3 J4 .107 150 25.0 N6 .167 380 25.4 H8 .129 159 22.9 Avg. .143 345 24.3 C6 .091 164 25.0 01 .106 170 25.0 19.0 cm.... M6 .200 342 ' 27.9 All .118 174 25.0 G8 .218 346 27.4 Avg. .105 153 25.4 N7 Nl .204 .178 395 400 22,6 23.7 4.5^cm.. . . El .150 184 23 5 N3 .138 420 25.3 Avg. .150 1 184 23 5 Avg. .188 381 25.4' MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 137 TABLE No. 4— Concluded. Per cent Pig Per cent Per cent Pig Per cent Cl.\ss. Pig. thymus weight thymus Cwss. Pig. thymus weight thymus by weight. in gms. by length. by weight. in gms. by length. 19.5 cm.... N2 .144 360 23.6 22.5 cm.... M7 .239 550 24.9 K5 .275 405 22.5 Avg. .239 550 24.9 N8 .165 407 25.6 N4 .128 430 25 6 23 5cm.... P3 .273 590 25.5 Kl .170 440 28 2 P4 .292 665 25.5 Avg. .176 408 25.1 D5 P8 .417 .271 669 740 29.8 26.8 20.0:cin.... K4 .195 • 420 22 5 Avg. .313 666 26.9 K3 .245 430 25 0 K2 .177 460 22 5 24.0 cm.... P2 .305 700 25.0 Avg. .206 437 23 3 Avg. .305 700 25.0 20.5 cm... P7 .316 435 26 8 24.5 cm.... PI .311 735 26.1 M3 .232 445 26 3 P5 .293 675 24.5 Avg. .274 440 26.6 Avg. .302 705 25.8 21.0 cm.... M5 .200 445 26 2 25.0 cm.... Dl .397 752 26.0 M4 .250 475 25.2 D2 .334 771 28.0 M2 .179 515 25.2 D3 .351 815 30.0 Avg. .210 478 25.5 D4 Avg. .421 .376 843 795 28.0 28.0 21.5 cm... P6 .311 495 23.3 Ml .237 515 27.9 25.5 cm.... P2 224 693 27.5 G6 .409 581 25 6 Avg. ^224 693 27.5 G5 .312 640 27 0 Avg. .317 558 26.0 26.5 cm R5 Avg. .270 .270 925 925 32.5 32.5 22.0 cm.... M9 .184 420 25 0 M8 .251 500 25.0 27 . 0 cm. . . . Rl .226 1,098 33.3 G2 .233 549 25.0 Avg. .226 1.098 33.3 P9 .311 620 27.7 07 .347 635 27.3 27.5 cm.... R3 .361 932 29.1 01 .510 635 27.3 R4 .301 999 27.3 04 .443 658 27.3 Avg. .331 965.5 28.7 03 .286 666 28.2 Avg. .321 585 26.6 28.5 cm.... R6 Avg. .287 .287 1,035 1,035 31 6 31.6 Relation Between the Weight of Pigs and the Percent.age BY Weight of the Thymus, Using Weight Group Averages Throughout, Disregarding Litters. Table No. 5 and curve No. 4 show that as larger and larger foeti (as regards weight) are examined and classified regardless of litter, there is a steady increase in the percentage of thymus by weight. As has already been noted in curve No. 3, the increase is not uni- form. When we compare this curve No. 4 with curve No. 2' (where the pigs are classified according to litters), it is evident that the latter is smoother by far. Hence from these calculations on weights in addition to the calculations already noted on lengths, we may conclude that pigs tend to have the same size thymus as that of other pigs in the same litter, regardless of individual sizes. 138 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. __^_^__^ 8 S — o. MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 139 TABLE No. 5. Class. Pig Pigl weight in gms. Per cent weight. Pig length in cms. Per cent length. Class. Pig. Pig weight in gms. Percent weight. Pig length in cms. Percent length. 50-74 Ql 55 .035 9.5 24.2 225-249 J7 228 .114 17.0 23.5 Q8 61 .052 10.5 23.8 A 10 228 .129 15.5 24.5 Q7 61 .057 10.0 25.0 A8 228 .143 16.0 23.1 Q5 63 .035 10.5 21.9 04 230 .111 16.0 28.7 Q6 63 .040 10.0 24.0 A3 233 .109 15.5 24.5 Q4 63 .046 10.0 22.0 A12 234 .150 16.0 23.8 Q3 66 .048 10.0 23.0 Al 235 .132 15.5 25.8 Q2 68 .059 10.5 23.8 H6 235 .221 16.0 25.4 Avg. .0465 23.47 A7 L6 237 240 .268 .152 16.0 16.5 21.9 25.5 75-99 B3 • 76 .041 10.0 25.0 A9 243 .243 16.5 22.4 Fll 83 .087 11.0 22.7 .15 245 .094 17.5 22.9 B5 90 .078 11.0 25.0 L2 245 . 160 16.5 26.7 F7 95 .072 12.0 23.9 HIO 245 .168 10 5 23.0 F13 96 .089 12.0 21.7 Avg. .1567 24.41 Avg. .0734 23.66 250-274 J6 250 .093 17.0 23.5 100-124 Bl 100 .070 11.0 22.7 L7 250 .146 16.5 27.3 F6 102 .078 13.0 19.2 L5 250 .148 16.5 26.0 B2 102 .093 11.0 25.0 L4 250 .163 16.5 21.2 C8 102 .108 11.5 21.7 HI 251 .122 17.0 26.5 A13 102 .137 11.5 20.0 J4 255 .113 17.5 22.9 CI 107 .112 11.5 21.7 H2 257 .163 16,0 26,9 F4 115 .074 13.0 24.6 06 262 .162 17.0 24.1 F3 115 .160 13.0 23.1 05 263 -,. 162 16,0 26.3 H4 118 .112 12.5 26.4 A6 265 .189 17.5 25.7 FIO 120 .090 12.5 25.6 A 14 265 .287 17.0 20.5 F5 120 .096 13.0 24.6 Jl 267 .124 17.0 25.3 Fl 122 .102 13.0 22.2 L3 270 .124 17 0 24.7 Co 122 .107 13 0- 19.2 LI 270 .160 16.5 26.7 C4 123 .122 13.0 19.2 H3 271 .277 16.5 24.2 Avg. .1115 22.51 Avg. .162 25.5 125-149 13 125 .091 14.0 25.0 275-299 02 275 .219 17.0 27.6 L8 125 .160 15.5 23.2 03 280 .145 16.5 25.5 F12 126 .093 13 0 25.4 J3 285 .112 17,0 26.5 E6 126 .143 12.5 24.0 08 290 .121 16 5 24.8 F2 130 .165 13.0 22.2 J2 295 .131 18.5 23.2 12 135 .126 13.5 21.5 Avg. .146 25.5 C3 136 .096 13.0 20.0 11 137 .100 14.0 26.4 300-324 07 313 .118 18 0 25.0 16 137 .113 13.5 23.0 H9 316 .268 18 0 25.0 F9 140 .059 13.5 22.2 H7 318 .222 17.5 25.0 C7 143 .094 14.0 28.6 Avg. .203 25.0 18 143 .099 13,5 24.4 C2 145 .085 13.0 19.0 325-349 M6 342 .200 19.0 27.9 15 145 .083 13.5 23.7 G8 346 .218 19.0 27.4 17 145 .110 13.5 23.7 Avg. .209 27.3 Avg. .1078 23.49 350-374 N5 360 .130 18.5 24.3 150-174 14 150 .107 14.0 25.0 N2 360 .144 19.5 23.6 H5 154 .209 13.5 29.6 Avg. .137 24.0 H8 159 .129 14.0 22.9 C6 164 .091 14.0 25.0 375-399 N6 380 .167 18 5 24.3 C9 164 .096 13.5 24.1 N7 395 .204 19.0 22.6 01 170 .106 14.0 25.0 Avg. .186 23.5 All 174 .118 14.0 25.0 Avg. .1223 25.23 400-424 HI K5 400 405 .178 .275 19,0 19,5 23.7 22.5 175-199 El 184 .150 14.5 23.5 N8 407 .165 19.5 25.6 A2 192 .236 15.0 25.0 N3 420 .138 19.0 25.3 E5 195 .128 16.0 21.9 M9 420 .184 22.0 25.0 E2 196 .137 15.7 23.3 K4 420 .195 20.0 22.5 Avg. .1628 23.43 Avg. .189 24.1 200-224 A4 202 .129 15.5 24.5 425-449 N4 430 .128 19.5 25.6 J8 205 .137 16.0 25.0 K3 430 .245 20 0 25.0 E4 208 .197 15.0 23.5 P7 435 .316 20.5 26.8 E3 211 .113 15.0 23.3 Kl 440 .170 19.5 28.2 A5 212 .134 16.0 25.0 M5 445 .200 21.0 26 2 Avg. .1420 24.26 M3, Avg. 445 .232 .215 20.5 26.3 26.4 140 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE No. 5— Concluded. Class. 450-474 475-499 500-524 525-544 550-574 575-599 600-624 625-649 650-674 Pig. K2 Avg. M4 P6 Avg. M8 M2 Ml Avg. G2 Avg. M7 Avg. 06 P3 Avg. P9 Avg. G7 Gl G5 Avg. G4 G3 P4 D5 Avg. Pig weight in gms. 460 475 495 500 515 515 549 550 581 590 620 635 635 640 658 665 665 669 Percent weight. .177 .177 .250 .311 .281 .251 .179 .237 .222 .233 .233 .239 .239 .409 .273 .341 .311 .311 .347 .510 .312 .390 .443 .286 .292 .417 .360 Pig length, in cms. Per cent length. 20.0 22.5 22.5 21.0 21.5 25.2 23.3 24.3 22.0 21.0 21.5 25.0 25.2 27.9 26.0 22.0 25.0 25.0 22.5 24.9 24.9 21.5 23 5 25.6 25.5 25.6 22 0 27.7 27.7 22.0 22.0 21.5 27.3 27.3 27.0 27.3 22.0 22.0 23.5 23.5 27.3 28.2 25.5 29.8 27.7 Class. 675-699 700-724 725-749 750-774 800-824 825-849 925-949 974-999 1025-1049 1075-1099 Pig. P5 .R2 Avg. P2 .-^vg. PI P8 Avg. Dl D2 Avg. D3 Avg. D4 Avg. R5 R3 Avg. R4 Avg. R6 Avg. Rl Avg. Pig weight in gms. 675 693 700 735 740 752 771 815 843 925 932 999 1,035 1,098 Per cent weight. .293 .224 .259 .305 .305 .311 .271 .291 .397 .334 .366 .351 .351 .421 .421 .270 .361 .316 .301 .301 .287 .287 .226 .226 Pig length Per cent length. 24.5 25.5 24.5 27.5 26.0 24.0 25.0 25.0 24.5 23.5 26.1 26.8 26.5 26.0 25.0 26.0 28.0 27.0 25.0 30.0 30.0 25.0 28.0 28.0 26.5 27.5 32.5 29.1 31.3 27.5 27.3 27.3 28.5 31.6 31.6 27.0 33.3 33.3 Comparisons Made to Correlate the Size of Underdeveloped AND Overdeveloped Pigs with the Size of the Thymus, Tak- ing Percentage Thymus by Weight as a Standard, and Grad- ing Pigs in the Litters by Length. As the title above indicates, table No. 6 is the result of an at- tempt made to correlate the size of underdeveloped and overde- veloped pigs with the size of the thymus, taking percentage thymus by weight as a standard, and grading pigs in the litters by length. In each litter the two smallest foeti (by length) and the two largest were studied as to percentage thymus by weight as seen in column F in the table. The percentages of the two smallest and the two largest were individually averaged (column G), and the two aver- ages compared; the correlation noted was recorded in column H. Positive or + correlation is taken to mean that the overdeveloped pigs in the litter had a greater percentage of thymus than the under- developed pigs. As seen from the table, there were nine positives and nine negatives, hence we must conclude, from the data at hand now, th^t no parallelism exists between the large and small size, re- spectively, of underdeveloped and overdeveloped foeti, and the per- centage of thymus by weight. MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 141 TABLE No. 6. Column A. Serial No. Column B. Litter No. Column C. Pig length in centimeters. Column D. Per cent thymus by length. Column E. weight in grams. Column F. Per cent thymus by weight. Column 0. Averages of column F. Column H. Correlation. 13 11 A13 All 11.5 14.0 20.0 25.0 102 174 .137 .118 .128 + 6 A6 17.5 17.0 25.7 26.5 265 265 .189 .287 \ .238 14 A14 17 19 B3 B5 10 0 11.0 25.0 25.0 76 90 .041 .078 } .065 + 16 B2 11 0 11.0 25.0 22.7 102 100 .093 .070 1 ■ .082 15 Bl 27 C8 11.5 11.5 21.7 21.7 102 107 .108 .112 1 .110 20 CI 26 C7 • 14.0 14 0 28.6 25.0 143 164 .094 .091 } .093 25 C6 . .-. 33 29 D5 Dl 23.5 25.0 29.8 26.0 669 752 .417 .397 .407 32 31 D4 D3 25.0 25.0 28.0 30 0 843 815 .421 .351 } .386 39 E6 12.5 14.5 24.0 23.5 126 184 .143 .150 1 .147 34 El 38 E5.... 16.0 15.0 21.9 23.3 195 211 .128 .113 .121 36 E3 50 46 FU F7 11.0 12.0 22.7 22.9 83 95 .087 .072 1 .079 + 48 F9 13.5 13.5 22.2 22.2 140 130 .059 .165 1 .112 41 F2 60 58 G8 06 19.0 21.5 27.4 25.6 346 581 .218 .409 1 .314 + 53 59 01 07 22.0 22.0 27.3 27.3 635 635 .510 .347 1 .429 64 65 H4 H5 12.5 13.5 26.4 29.6 118 154 .112 .209 1 .162 + 69 67 H9 H7 18.0 17.5 25.0 25.7 316 318 .268 .222 1 .245 72 12 13.5 13.5 21.5 23.0 135 137 .126 .113 1 .120 76 16 74 14 14.0 14.0 25.0 26 4 160 137 .107 .100 \ .104 71 11 86 J8 16 0 17.0 25 0 23.5 205 228 .137 .114 1 .126 85 J7 80 J2 18.5 17.5 23.2 22.9 295 255 .131 .113 1 .122 82 J4 91 87 K5 Kl 19.5 19.5 22.5 28.2 405 440 .275 .170 ] .223 88 89 K7 K3 20.0 20.0 22.5 25.0 460 430 .177 .245 1 .211 99 97 L8 L6. 15.5 16.5 23 2 25.5 125 240 .160 .152 \ .156 94 L3 17.0 16.5 24.7 26.7 270 270 .124 .160 } .142 92 LI 142 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE No. 6— Concluded. Column A. Serial No. Column B. Litter No. Column C. Pig length in centimeters. Column D. Per cent thymus by length. Column E. weight m grams. Column F. Per cent thymus by weight. Column G. Averages of column F. Column H. Correlation. 105 102 M6 M3 19.0 20.5 27.9 26.3 342 445 .200 .232 } .216 + 106 107 M7 M8 22.5 22.0 24.9 25.0 550 500 .239 .251 } .245 113 114 N5 N6 18.5 18.5 24.3 24.3 360 380 .130 .167 [ .149 112 116 N4 N8 19.5 19.5 25.6 25.6 430 407 .128 .165 } .147 117 120 01 04 14.0 16.0 25.0 28.7 170 230 .106 .111 } .109 + 123 118 07 02 18.0 17,0 25.0 27.6 313 275 .118 .219 } .169 131 130 P7 P6 20.5 21.5 26.8 23.3 435 495 .316 .311 } .314 125 129 PI P5 24.5 24.5 26.1 24.5 735 675 .311 .293 1 .302 134 140 Ql Q7 9 5 10.0 24 2 25.0 55 61 .035 .057 } .046 + 135 138 Q2 Q5 10.5 10.5 23.8 21.9 68 63 .059 .035 1 . .047 143 146 R2 R5 25.5 26.5 27.5 32.5 093 925 .224 .270 1 .247 + 147 145 , R6 R4 28 5 27.5 31 6 27.3 1,035 999 .287 .301 } .294 Total result, 9+, 9 • MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 143 Comparisons Made to Correlate the Size of Underdeveloped AND Overdeveloped Pigs with the Size of the Thymus, Tak- ing Percentage of Thymus by Weight as a Standard, and Grading Pigs in the Litters by Weight. As the title above indicates, table No. 7 is the result of an attempt made to correlate the size of underdeveloped and overdeveloped foeti with the size of the thymus, taking percentage thymus by weight as a standard, and grading pigs in the litters by wcigiit. In each litter the two smallest fa?ti (by weight) and the two largest were studied as to percentage thymus by weight as seen in column F in the table. The percentages of the two smallest and the two largest were individually averaged (column G), and the two aver- ages compared; the correlation noted was recorded in column H. Positive or + correlation is taken to mean that the overdeveloped pigs in the litter had a greater percentage of thymus than the under- developed pigs. As seen from the table, there were ten positives and eight negatives. This is indeed a very weak positive correlation; so slight, in fact, that we feel that it must be disregarded until more positive data can be secured. Hence, once more we must decide, on the basis of the data at hand now. that no parallelism exists between the large and small size, respectively, of underdeveloped and over- developed fa?ti and the percentage of thymus by weight. 144 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE No. 7. Column A. Serial No. Column B. Litter No. Column C. • ^[^ ■ weight m grams. Column D. Pig. length in centimeters. Column E. Per cent thymus by length. Column F. Per cent thymus by weight. Column G. Averages of column F. Column H. Correlation. 13 11 A13 All 102 174 11.5 14.0 20.0 25.0 .137 .118 1 ' .128 + 14 6 A14 A6 265 265 17.0 17.5 26.5 25.7 .287 .189 \ .238 17 19 B3 B5 76 90 10.0 11.0 25.0 25.0 .041 .078 } .060 + 15 16 Bl B7 100 102 11 0 11 0 22.7 25.0 .070 .073 1 ,082 27 24 C8 C5 102 122 11 5 13.0 21.7 19.2 .108 .107 ] .108 25 28 C6 C9 164 164 14.0 13.5 25.0 24.1 .091 .096 } .094 33 29 D5 Dl 669 752 23.5 25 0 29,8 26 0 .417 .397 1 .407 1 32 31 D4 D3 843 815 25.0 25.0 28 0 30.0 .421 .351 \ .386 39 34 E6 El 126 184 12.5 14.5 24.0 23.5 .143 .150 1 .147 + 37 36 E4 '■ 208 E3 1 211 15.0 15.0 23.3 23.3 .197 .113 } .155 50 . 46 Fll F7 83 95 11.0 12.0 22 7 22'9 .087 .072 1 .080 + 41 48 F2 F9 130 140 13 5 13.5 22.2 22.2 .165 .059 ) .112 60 54 G8 02 346 549 19 0 22.0 27.4 25.0 .218 .233 } .226 + 55 56 G3 G4 665 658 22 0 22.0 28.2 27 3 .286 .443 1 .365 64 65 H4 H5 118 ' 154 12.5 13.5 26,4 29.6 .112 .209 } .162 + 67 69 H7 H9 318 316 17 5 18 0 25,7 25,0 222 '268 } .245 73 72 13 12 125 135 14 0 13.5 25 0 21.5 .091 .126 } .109 67 69 14 15 150 145 14.0 13.5 25.0 23 7 .107 .083 } .095 86 85 J8 J7 205 228 16 0 17.0 25.0 23.5 .137 .114 \ ' .126 80 81 J2 J3 295 285 18 5 17.0 23 2 26.5 .131 .112 \ .122 91 90 K5 K4 405 420 19.5 20.0 22.5 22.5 .275 .195 } .235 88 87 K2 Kl 460 440 20.0 19.5 22.5 28.2 .177 .170 1 .174 99 97 L8 L6 125 240 15 5 16 5 23.2 25.5 .160 .152 \ .156 94 92 L3 LI 270 270 17.0 16.5 24.7 26,7 .124 .160 } . 142 MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 145 TABLE No. 7— CONCLTJDED. Column A. Serial No. Column B. Litter No. Column C. Pig weight in grams. Column D. Pig. length in centimeters. Column E. Per cent thymus by length. Column F. Per cent th>Tnus by weight. Column G. Averages of column F. Column H. Correlation. 105 108 M6 M9 342 420 19.0 22.0 27.9 25.0 .200 .184 } .192 + 106 100 M7 Ml... 550 515 22.5 21.5 24.9 27.9 .239 .237 } .238 110 113 N2 N5 360 360 19.5 18.5 23.6 24.3 .144 .130 1 .137 111 112 N3....\... N4 420 430 19 0 19.5 25.3 25.6 .138 .128 } . 133 117 01 170 230 14.0 16.0 25.0 28.7 .106 .111 1 .108 120 04 + 124 123 08 07 290 313 16 5 18.0 24.8 25.0 .121 .118 1 .120 131 P7 435 495 20.5 21.5 26.8 23.3 .316 .311 } .314 130 P6 132 125 P8 PI 740 735 23.5 •24.5 26.8 26.1 .271 .311 } .291 134 Ql 55 61 9.5 10.0 24.2 25 0 .035 .057 } .046 140 Q7 + 135 Q2 68 66 10.5 10.0 23 8 23 0 .059 .048 } .054 136 Q3 143 146 R2 R5 693 925 25 5 26.5 27.5 32.5 .224 .270 ] .251 + 142 147 Rl R6 1,098 1,035 27.0 33 3 28.5 31.6 .226 .287 [ .257 Total result, 10+, 8 — Note No. 1. — It will have been noticed that in the foregoing report nothing has been said concerning the percentage of thymi by length. An examination of the tables will show that there is indeed an increase in this percentage as larger and larger pigs are examined, but that this increase is neither marked nor uniform, and we must consider that part of the increase in weight must come by this increase in length. We feel that the method by which we secured the thymus lengths was not accurate and uniform enough to allow much value to be attached to the figures recorded. They may be taken as rather approxi- mate. In general, the length of the thymus will average about 25 per cent of the total length of the pig. Suffice it to say, however, that we believe that as the foeti grow older and older there is an increase in the percentage of thymus by length; just how regular and consistent this increase is, we cannot say. Note No. 2. — It is interesting to note that the pigs used for dissection showed a preponderance of males. This was probably purely accidental, how- ever, and if larger numbers of animals had been used a more balanced ratio would have been secured. 10— Science Bui.— 3728 146 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. CONCLUSIONS. 1. The thymus gland in the fcetal pig is comparatively very large, extending from a point above the upper half or third of the heart to the base of the mandible. In the thorax it consists of a single triangular body, but in the neck region is made up of paired branches which approximately parallel each other. 2. Sex appears to have no connection with the percentage of thymus found, except that possibly the values for the females may average a trifle higher than those for the males. 3. As larger and larger foeti, as regards both weight and length, are examined, the percentage of thymus by weight increases fairly steadily and rather uniformly. 4. Foeti tend to have the same size thymus as the average of pigs in their litter, regardless of individual size. No parallelism appar- ently exists between the small and large size, respectively, of under- developed and overdeveloped pigs, and the percentage of thymus by weight. Perhaps further work on this one question might bring a reversal of opinion, but the data obtained so far point to the state- ment made above. 5. Figures of percentage of thymus by length, while not very reliable, show that this percentage increases as larger and larger foeti are examined. Such increase, however, does not seem to be as uniform as that of the percentage by weight. It is a pleasure to express here our appreciation of the help kindly given by Prof. W. J. Baumgartner in the preparation of this bit of work. It was at his suggestion that it was undertaken and by his guidance that it was carried out. Whatever of merit it has is due in large measure to him. LITERATURE CITED. 1. Matti, H. 1913. Ergebnisse der Innere Med. ii. Kinderheil., Bd. 10. (Quoted by Paton, D. Noel, in "The Nervous and Chemical Regulators of Meta- bolism": Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London: 1913; pp. 116-117.) 2. Basch, K. 1906-190S. Jahrbuch f. Kinderheil. (Quoted by Paton, D. Noel, in "The Ner\ous and Chemical Regulators of Metabolism": Mac- millan & Co., Ltd., London: 1913; p. 114. Also by Biedl, Dr. Artur, in "The Internal Secretary Organs: Their Physiology and Pathology": Trans, by Linda Forster; London: John Bale Sons & Danielsson, Ltd., 1913; pp. 117-120.) 3. Badertscher, J. A. 1915. Development of the Thymus in the Pig. I : Mor- pliogenesis. Am. Jour. Anat., vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 317-3.J9. 4. H.\TAi, S. 1914. On the Weight of the Thymus Gland of the Albino Rat (Mus iiorveqiciif^ albinus) According to Age. Am. Jour. Anat., vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 251-257. MEDEARIS AND MARBLE: THYMUS GLAND. 147 5. Hatai, S. 1913. On the Weights of the Abdominal and Thoracic Viscera, the Sex Glands, Ductless Glands and the Eyeballs of the Albino Rat (Mus norvegicus albinus) According to Body Weight. Am. Jour. Anat., vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 69-87. 6. J.\CKSON, C. M. 1913. Postnatal Growth and Variability of the Body and of the Various Organs in the Albino Rat. Am. Jour. Anat., vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-69. 7. B.\DERTSCHER, J. A. 1915. Development of the Thymus in the Pig. II: Histogenesis. Am. Jour. Anat., vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 437-495. THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. XIII, No. 15— July, 1920. CONTENTS : A Comparison of the Antigenic and Cultural Characteristics of a Number of Strains of Bacillus Typhosus. Cora M. Dovms. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, LAWRENCE, KAN. Entered at the post-office in Lawrence as second-class matter. 9-3728 THE KANSAS UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. XIIL] JULY, 1920. [No. 15. A Comparison of the Antigenic and Cultural Character- istics of a Number of Strains of Bacillus Typhosus* BY CORA M. DOWNS. Department of Bacteriology. ALTHOUGH it has seemed to be the general concensus of opinion that Bacillus typhosus is a very homogeneous organism, yet in view of the fact that some observers have reported cultural and serological variations, it was thought advisable to investigate the cultural and serological reactions of the strains of typhosus used in this laboratory. The work done may be divided into three phases, namely: cul- tural reactions, agglutination and absorption tests, and the Widal reaction. The source, place of isolation, name and date of the or- ganisms used are tabulated in table I. CULTURAL REACTIONS. Technique: The carbohydrate medium used was semisolid, to which was added 1 per cent of the carbohydrate desired, and Andrade indicator to make a pale, flesh color when cold. As a check a second set of determinations was run, using meat infusion broth adjusted to Ph, 7.0, to which 1 per cent of the carbohydrate was added, litmus being used as an indicator. For the lead acetate agar 1 per cent lead acetate solution was added to semisolid medium. Two per cent peptone gelatine, made according to a formula devised by Treece (1), was used for liquefaction and to test for gas produc- tion in noncarbohydrate media. • Received for publication October 18, 1921. Abstract published in Abstracts of Bac- teriology, Feb. 1920, vol. IV, No. 1, p. 19. (151) 152 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. TABLE I. — Organisms used for cultural and antigenic reactions. No. Source. Name. Date. 1 21 223 25 33 4 6 8 16 20 24 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 7 12 15 2 3 10 11 13 14 17 19 26 Blood culture — Lawrence, Kan Blood culture — Kansas City. Mo Blood culture — University of California. Blood culture — Johns Hopkins Hospital. Blood culture — Youngstown Hospital . . . Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- Fecea- Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- Feces- - Lawrence, Kan -Lawrence, Kan -Lawrence, Kan -Carrier, Beau Desert, France. -Topeka, Kan -Fatal case. John Hopkins. . . . -Kansas City, Mo -Carrier -Carrier -Carrier -Carrier -Carrier -Carrier -Case Spinal fluid — Halstead, Kan . Spleen — Autopsy . Spleen — Autopsy . Gall bladder — Autopsy, France. No history — New York board of health No history — New York city board of health . No history — New York city board of health . No history — .American Museum No history — American Museu n No history — Institute of Berlin No history — University of Chicago No history — Johns Hopkins Hospital 57. 1913 1919 191.4 McCreary . Smith Schopinsky . Light. ... Blythe... Dardrich . Cattler. . . Doud . . . . Stitt Levi 1921 1919 1918 1919 1918 1919 1919 1920 1920 1920 1920 1920 1920 1920 1920 .1919 Rawlings . Rawlings. Wable... 1918 Bender. . . Mt. Sinai. Pfeiffer ... Hopkins. . Miller... Ebert.... Jordan . . . 1888 1889 DOWNS: BACILLUS TYPHOSUS. 153 to to to to ^^ »-J KJ -rf CB *■ z^ o to to Kt _ to ^•~* M to l_( 4^ o o ■^ •z to Ol DO 3 • "■ ; to pi » '. " tad CO -^ "y o CO CJJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 'fi'in'^w 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 niBjg 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 3UIJBP0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ppni + + + + + + + + a^B^aDB psa^ + + + + + + + + + + + + + -f- + + a^iuuBj^ + + + + + + + + 9SO}[13J^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 aso^oBq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 asoj^qaDBg 1 + + + + + + + UUJX3Q 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • • •8soni!)iraoniBn^ + 1 + 1 1 1 + 1 uiauiBg 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a^pina 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 asouiqBjy + + + + 1 + + + 8S0[XX to „ ^_ ,_, CO zn to a. •(>' *-J c ir' 3 3 >-»» -1 % B CO P t g. o O s- r T CO CO 3^ ^ n r r 154 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. The litmus milk was kept for six weeks before being discarded. The cultural reactions are tabulated in table II. It will be observed from the table that none of the strains exhibited any variation in the media commonly used in routine laboratory procedure. All strains gave acid in dextrose, mannitc, maltose, negative in lactose and saccharose, no liquefaction of gelatine, no indol, and an initial acidity in litmus milk. Three strains gave slight acidity in salacin, one strain gave no acid in xylose, Rawlings' strain, and one gave acid only after ten days. Two strains were negative in dextrin. All strains except No. 7 gave a distinct greenish-black cloud around the stab in 2 per cent peptone gelatine, but no gas. In litmus milk all but six organisms remained a permanent lilac color, six turned back to neutral in three weeks and one became a deep blue after one week. In addition to the above strains an organism isolated from the feces of a clinical case of mild typhoid was studied. This organism is designated as No. 5. The patient at no time gave a positive Widal. The organisms were abundant in the feces and culturally differed from Bacillus typhosus only in giving very slow blackening of lead acetate agar, negative in xylose, negative in dextrin, positive in rhamnose, and distinct alkaline reaction in litmus milk after 72 hours, but with no saponification. DISCUSSION. Weiss (2) has reported the cultural characteristics of thirty-one strains of typhosus and groups them according to xylose fermenta- tion. Three of his strains produced acid slowly and four remained negative. One of the negative strains was the Rawlings' strain which we also found to be negative. Teague (3) objects to such a classification on the basis of xylose fermentation on the ground that the so-called negative strains are not really incapable of fermenting xylose, but ferment it slowly. Four of his strains failed to give acid on the thirty-second day, but these strains could be trained to give acid by plating on xylose agar. No attempt was made by the author to discover mutants from nega- tive strains on any of the carbohydrates used. Our strains were uniformly negative on dulcite and arabinose. Teague (3) reports eleven out of forty-one strains fermenting these sugars slowly. Krumwiede (4) also reports the fermentation in dextrin as varying with the sample used. The two cultures giving negative in dextrin might, therefore, have shown typical acid pro- duction with another sample. DOWNS: BACILLUS TYPHOSUS. 155 The salacin fermentation seemed variable and did not correlate with any other characteristics. The danger of confusing nongas-producing paratyphoid strains with typhosus has been recently emphasized. Ten Broek (5) re- ports a nongas-producing hog-cholera bacillus which resembles in some respects B. typhosus. Krumwiede (4) also reports a similarity both culturally and serologically between B. pullorum and B. san- guinorum and B. typhosus. Myers (6) reports the isolation of a rhamnose positive typhosus from a clinical case of typhoid which was also atypical in its serological reaction. It was difficult to de- cide, therefore, whether No. 5 was a true but irregular typhoid or a nongas-producing paratyphoid. Krumwiede (7), using the fer- mentation of rhamnose as the deciding factor between typhoid and paratyphoid, would place it in the para group. AGGLUTINATION AND ABSORPTION TESTS. Antigenic irregularities had been observed in this laboratory in the course of routine agglutination tests on organisms isolated from clinical cases of typhoid and a number of Widals. Parke-Davis antityphoid serum, serum from the city laboratory of Wichita, Kan., and serum sent us from the University of Chicago were used in checking up the antigenic properties of the following organisms: Nos. 1,2, 4, 5, 20, 50, 51 and 52. Culturally they were all typhoid. Nos. 50, 51 and 52 were strains isolated from feces in cases resembling influenza. They are not in- cluded in the other tables because of accidental loss. TABLE III. — Quantitative variations in agglutinations with commercial sera. Sera used. No. Parke-Davis. Wichita. University of Chicago. Titre. Reaction. Titre. Reaction. Titre. Reaction. 1 1-50 1-10000 1-1000 1-2000 1-50 1-50 1-50 1-4000 3 + 4+ 4+ 1-50 1-50 1-400 1-400 1-50 1-50 1-50 1-8000 1-10000 1-2000 1-1000 1-50 1-50 1-50 1-8000 i+ 4-h 4-t- • 4+ 2 1+ 4 6 50 51 52 20 4-h 4-1- 156 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. Numerous observers have remarked on the antigenic differences in typhoid. Durham (8) observed such differences, but did not attempt to group his strains. Weiss (1) and Hooker (9), however, offered a tentative grouping on the basis of their agglutination and absorption tests. The agglutination tests in this series were all done with suspen- sions in sterile saline made from twenty-four-hour cultures. The serum used came principally from raHabits immunized in this labo- ratory. A high-titred bivalent horse serum from the New York city board of health* prepared from the Mt. Sinai strain, and a freshly isolated strain as well as a high-titred serum for which the Rawlings strain had been used for immunization from the Lederle laboratories, were also used. Table IV gives a summary of the results. In addition to the results given here, eight other immune sera were used for agglutination against all the organisms with similar results. The following technique was used for the absorption tests: The serum to be tested was diluted to one-tenth of the titre. This di- lution was then saturated with organisms, washed from a twenty- four-hour agar slant to make a heavy emulsion. This was incu- bated at 37° C. for four hours and for four days at ice-box tempera- ture, more organisms being added as the supernatant fluid became clear. The control of diluted serum in every case gave a good ag- glutination in spite of the prolonged incubation. If the control gave agglutination after absorption .with the homologous organism the test was repeated. Since considerable prominence has been given to the mirror re- action in the recent literature, it might be well to establish some standard method for absorption tests in order to get comparable results. We found the following points must be carefully considered in any test: 1. Weight of suspension. 4. Repeated saturation. 2. Dilution of serum. 5. Temperature. 3. Time of absorption. 6. Controls. • Krufnwiede (4) recommends a proportion of 1-4 or 3, or at most 1-2 of packed cells to supernatant fluid. Our proportion after the final centrifugation was about 1-3. It was found that a dilution of one-tenth the titre of the serum was perfectly satisfactory. Al- though higher dilutions could be used, a lower dilution did not give complete absorption. Three or four hours was not long enough * I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Charles Kruniwiede for the use of this serum. DOWNS: BACILLUS TYPHOSUS. 157 to give complete absorption and frequently absorption was not complete in twenty-four or forty-eight hours. After a standard of four days was chosen .no more trouble was experienced. It was always necessary to add more organisms as the supernatant fluid became clear; the greater the tendency to agglutinate, the larger the number of organisms necessary for complete absorption. It was necessary to keep the serum at ice-box temperature because of the well-known tendency of diluted serum to deteriorate at room or incubator temperatures. A control of diluted serum which had been incubated under the same conditions as the test sera was neces- sary to show that no drop in titre had occurred, and a control of the serum to be tested saturated with the homologous organisms indicated the completeness of the absorption. Table V gives a summary of the absorption tests. From table IV it will be seen that the strains of typhoid differ perceptibly in their agglutinating properties. On this basis we have placed the organisms tentatively into three groups. Group I is made up of eleven organisms; group II of twelve organisms; group III of two organisms. Group I serum agglutinates all other or- ganisms in this group in dilutions practically as high as that given for the homologous organisms. Group I serum also agglutinates group II organisms, but in lower dilutions; conversely, the group I organisms are agglutinated by group II serum, but in lower dilu- tions than are the group II organisms. These two groups are closely related and interagglutinate to the degree indicated in the table. Groups I and II serum give slight or no agglutination with group III organisms. Group III, consisting of two strains, Nos. 2 and 3, interagglutinate perfectly at 1-15000, but this high-titred serum agglutinates members of groups I and II in low dilutions or not at all. The results of agglutination tests using horse serum indicated that the same antigenic differences were present, but that they ap- peared in higher dilutions because of the higher titre of the serum. To illustrate: No. 12, the Rawlings strain, was completely ag- glutinated at 1-80000, and No. 1 at 1-5000. Many of these agglutination tests were checked by using the microscopic method, care being used to rule out the personal equa- tion. Where partial agglutination occurred, the macroscopic meth- od seemed to give more definite results. It will be seen that the absorption tests show an even closer relationship between groups I and II than do the agglutijiation tests. No. 1 being somewhat more irregular than the others. The ab- 158 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. M be < i pa .2 + -H -H4- +++ ++++ +++ + -H+H --f -4 -+ (S n COC^M ■COC^ 'f'CO CO CO ffO -^ CO M COCO "* CO oo o o o oo oooo ooo oo ooo o o o o P oo oo ooo oooo ooo o O O O O CJ -CI La (M « C) „,«_-- — H fr-i — H '"' — lO lO o ^- -^ I 1 1 1 1 1 H 1 ++■« + :++ ++++++++fl ++ '■*3 ■«< eoooooo S2 Ui C-1 ^ C^fCJC^-H^-H-iiOiO p i d o ++++++++++ ++ -t --I-4- 1^ r 1 cc^coooeocococc-^co ■* ■* ■^COCOCO'^COCOfCO-^'^'^COCOCO flj fc (S T3 t oooooooooo ooo>ooooooo ooooooooo oooooo oo :tcccococO'*'*TjH a O 3 ;- C<1 ^ ooooooooooo oo ooooooo ooo ZO ooooooooooo ooooooooooooooo OJ ooooooooooo 000000000000o CO c^l ira c^l ^ CI c^ c^ r-H ^ w ^ 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -<-s (M -+< C] CO -CI 00 CI ^ CO CC CO 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 H .2 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++ o co'^iO'jH'^cococococo'^'^'^'^coeo'^cocococoeococo"^'* t~ oo ooooooo ooo oooooo ooooooooooooooO' ooooooooooo ^ 0000)00000000 0'00000 0'000000>0 -H M l-r i040»ococoioci'— 'CO'— 'Co>— <^^w:!'— loicqtocj'— 'c^iiO'— 'i— (•Ei>— « 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 T 1 H d o ■-3 o a a ■* ci ' oooo o o ' ooooo ooo 0C>00'0 000000> oooooo-ooo-o o ■ ?^ 0000<0000000i ooooo ooooo o ■ t-, 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 to C) C-l CI '— 1 C3 »0 iO »o --H f : H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 d o '■+3 t> C^ - ; oooo o o o ooooooooo ooooooooo o ■ oooooooooo V Oi o o o o o o o o o o ■ oooooooooo t- Cvj CI CI ^ CI ■^ ^ CI -H .O "7 . J 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 I CM C-l T-- -HI ^ .-■.— — —. ^ 0|,C. P 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Strain i-iT*4yDI:^OOO^CO^":>Ot^GOCT>i-iOsC^OCO-*iOCDI^OiO'-'C-1CMCO CJ cq c^ (M ■ z 5 s TO + + 1 1 1 > 3 ■ + : If 1 a + + + ■f 1 o + + If 1 1 o + + If 1 f ts + + If H- i *=J 1 + + If 1 o + : 1 1 K + + + + + t-H + ■■ 1 + =-< + H- 1 1 If W 1 If 1 ff 1 f H- If + 1 1 g; + If + + + 2; + 1 If 1 + 0 If H- + + + ^ If + If If + 0 + + 1 1 + S3 + + 1 1 1 CO + + 1 i K- H Ot o CO CO to o to + 1 H- to en CO to ^4 to en o If o o CO en 4* 1 > f I 1 1 —Science BuL— 3728. 162 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. From table VI it is readily seen that different organisms with the same sera set up at the time showed marked differences in agglutin- ability. This may b'e due to the different agglutinabilities inherent in the organisms themselves and such marked differences probably would not be noted had absorption tests been possible. It is recognized that these twenty positive Widals are too few to provide a basis for accurate conclusions. It seems highly probable that the dried-blood method exaggerates the antigenic differences between the organisms, changing what is probably a quantitative into an apparently qualitative difference between the organisms. The low percentage of positives given with Nos. 2 and 3 might be expected from the results given in the absorption tests using immune sera. No. 10, on the other hand, gave a very low percentage Gf negatives. Those read as partial agglutination in clinical work would be called positive. The tubes read as positive gave complete clearing of the supernatant fluid ; those read as partial agglutination showed unmis- takable agglutination, but with some cloudiness of the supernatant fluid. No. 10, therefore, gave 93 per cent positive. No. 12, while giv- ing the highest percentage of complete agglutinations, gave only 90 per cent positive when partial agglutinations are included. It seems probable in view of the results obtained that it might be worth while to use more than one strain of typhoid in running Widals and to select easily agglutinable strains, such as No. 10 Mt. Sinai strain, and No. 12 the Rawlings strain. The serological reactions here recorded might have an important bearing on the following points: 1. The occurrence of typhoid fever in vaccinated persons. 2. The advisability of using a polyvalent vaccine. 3. The occurrence of negative Widals in clinical cases of typhoid fever. 4. Sources of error due to the dried-blood method. A number of cases of typhoid fever occurring in vaccinated in- dividuals may be found in the literature. Vaughn (10) says that "It is possible that in so far as vaccination has failed it is due to the disease being caused by other members of the typhoid group, . . . which in all probability is much larger than we now ap- preciate." Mock (11) reports the occurrence of forty-five cases of typhoid and paratyphoid in individuals who had been vaccinated about one year previous to the attack. Some of the strains isolated were atypical in regard to their cultural and serological reactions, but were identified positively as typhoid or paratyphoid organisms. DOWNS: BACILLUS TYPHOSUS. 163 Trowbridge (12) reports the occurrence of a typhoid epidemic among vaccinated persons in an institution. Here • the original source of infection came from the milk supply, which was infected by a vaccinated worker with a mild case of typhoid. It is realized that in such an epidemic the dosage may have been sufficient to overcome the innnunity acquired from vaccination. Wade and Mc- Daniel (13) report the occurrence of an epidemic in an institution among vaccinated individuals. Here there seemed to be an in- teresting correlation between the negative Widals given after vac- cination and the susceptibility of these persons to typhoid. Myers and Nielson (6) report the isolation of an atypical strain of typhoid from the blood stream and stool, respectively, of two vaccinated persons. Hooker (9) and Weiss (2) conclude from their experiments that a vaccine made from several strains of typhoid would be more effi- cient than one made from a single strain. The results of these ob- servers and the others reported, together with our findings, would suggest that at least it might be well to consider the use of a vaccine made from several strains. Stober (14) reports three negative Widals and seven positive Widals, using an organism isolated from urine. Mock (11) also re- ports negative agglutination with typical typhoid organisms iso- lated from clinical cases. Robinson (15), on the other hand, re- ports no variability in 100 Widals using the Worcester and Raw- lings strains. In summing up the work done the following conclusions may be drawn : 1. Culturally, the typhoid organisms studied differ very slightly from each other, the reaction being most variable in dextrine, xylose, salacin and litmus milk. These variations cannot be cor- related with the age of the culture nor source. 2. Cross-agglutination and absorption tests establish the exist- ence of at least quantitative antigenic differences between the strains used. It occurs to the author that the conflict as to whether there are antigenic differences in the typhoid group, may be due to the fact that qualitative rather than quantitative differences have been emphasized. 3. There is a marked difference in the agglutination of organisms with the sera used in Widals, and it would be advisable to set up each Widal with more than one strain, selecting strains which were known to give a high percentage of positives. 164 THE UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN. 4. The use of fresh serum drawn from the clot is much more satisfactory than the use of dried blood, changing what is probably a quantitative difference into an apparently qualitative difference. This work was offered as part of the requirement for a master's thesis. The author is greatly indebted to Dr. N. P. Sherwood, chairman of the department of bacteriology of the University of Kansas, for the initiation of this problem and constant aid and encouragement. BIBI^IOGRAPHY. L Treece. Abstr. of Bact., Feb. 1920, 4, 1, p. 9. 2. Weiss. Jour. Med. Res., 1917, 36, p. 135. 3. Teague and Morishima. Jour. Infect. Dis., 1920, 26, p. 52. 4. Krumwiede, Kohn, and Valentine. Jour. Med. Res., 1918, 38, p. 89. 5. Ten Broek. Jour, of Exp. Med., 1916, 24, p. 213. 6. Myers and Nielson. Jour. Infect. Dis., 1920, 27, p. 46. 7. Krumwiede, Charles. Local citation. 8. Durham. Jour, of Exp. Med., 5, 1901. 9. Hooker. Jour. Immunol., 1916, 2, p. 1. 10. Vaughn. Jour. Lab. & Clin. Med., 1919, 4, p. 640. 11. Mock. Ibid. 1919, 5, p. 54. 12. Trowbridge, Finkle, and Barnard. Jour. Am. Med. Assn., 1915, 64, p. 728. 13. Wade and McDaniel. Am. Jour, of Pub. Health, 1915, 5. p. 136. 14. Stober. Jour. Infect. Dis., 1904, 1, p. 445. 15. Robinson. Jour. Med. Res., 1915, 32, p. 399. n 9-3728 Publications of the University of Kansas. KANSAS UNIVERSITT QUARTERLY. Volume. I. No. 1, postage, 4 cents. Nos. 2, 3, supply exhausted. No. 4, postage, 3 cents. IT. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, supply exhausted. III. Nos. 1, 2, supply exhausted. No. 3, postage, 4 cents. No. 4, postage, 6 cents. IV. No. 1, postage, 4 cents. No. 2, postage, 3 cents. Nos. 3, 4, supply exhausted. V. Nos. 1, 2, supply exhausted. Vol. V consists of only two numbers. VI, A. 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