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UNIVERSITY STUDIES

Oe Wislleh

UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

VOLUME XVI

*§ a
National Mus?

LINCOLN
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY

1916

_ PRESS OF
THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY
LANCASTER, PA.

CONTENTS

BoERKER— Ecological Investigations upon the Germination and Early Growth
of@tionestwlree Stes omit etnias yerter yo purine ewe Mem pm esP yes) Ms, Sen ek os I

PoyNTER—Arterial Anomalies Pertaining to the Aortic Arches and the Branches

Arising from them ; 3 : Reap eehiceis bon het et 2 O
SpaFFORD—The Effect of Climate and Soil Upon Agriculture... ... - gl
SwENK—On a New Subspecies of Porcupine from Nebraska. .. . . » | WHS

WILLIAMS—A Social Study of the Russian German. .......... «4127

cae

Vou. XVI JANUARY—APRIL 1916 Noss der

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION

F. M. FLING P, H. GRUMMANN
P. H. FRYE L. A. SHERMAN

C. A. SKINNER

pace
Zags SHUT gE
(fe JUN 29 1984 | ©

4
\ fi

—

I.—ECOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS UPON THE GERMINA-

TION AND EARLY GROWTH OF FOREST TREES.
Richard H. Boerker —

eee |

I].—TuHe EFFECT OF CLIMATE AND SOIL UPON AGRI-

CULTURE... Russell K. Spafford xa ee Of
IIIl.—On A NEW SUBSPECIES OF PORCUPINE FROM

NEBRASKA. Myron Harmon Swenk . . . 115 |

{

LINCOLN, NEBRASKA

i

pony N

1
ies
i

Ys tah

WNIVeRSILY SIrUDIES

VoL. XVI JANUARY-APRIL 10916 NOS ie

T—ECOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS UPON THE
GERMINATION AND EARLY GROWTH
Ono LOR St kisi

BY RICHARD H. BOERKER

CONTENTS

PacE
JES aren HONe Ye INOUE 5 Shai es Gib see etna suscelec coneites ces Orato Te ce oaeyrpich bia ERI Rene canner I
IPreliinammamy ComenGlkarennoms “oascascdsuecccusdoodoudocusouseodnbacncet WI
USES Govt Coulltyaaeapae ec cersich ncn Atnarats Cresent Oats eve eptinner cy a Gaul Arasrh Sap mcitepen st aahe nice tots 7
Classinicaiion ame IReswiamé oie Ielelouiane [CHOIRS sooooscgooussaduusede II
Ainer GerminaommsroOCeSSirs cermin sok tenic ca coca mae meena mince ts 15
Mieiaod of Attacking Iiroplem ae Isle! 5occ0ccb0ndeonecscnsoac 708 19
Metaods amel Appareils WSCC sonnenscoccnn0sd0cdcvsadacconsanesGN 21
Wine Comiroll Ou Islan IPACWORS ocoococdoagscnscccaoauocovenKba06 24
IN@WES. Chale Devenyonbavemvonncen eye nes 6 erties eicniclole Catlcle) aie ec\reneiia cieien cn wegen Peace 32
The Effect of Habitat Factors upon Germination ..................-- 34
The Effect of Habitat Factors upon Stem and Root Development .... . 64

The Relation of Size and Weight of Seed to Germination Per Cent.
ayanGl Beielhy -1Deyeleyorsneiols sya geile Udo oaks ood a ecmmemoncad > aatoe 70
Sunamaray Oi) Conclusions, oasdeecouont cosmos ooene en coos aE oes asa oo 82
A Lo Salechs DMV AMER TRE A oe cyte) Ged cu cntncldie Ghee ctalcal abctsSrateue lapstete Ceares cet lads 88

PREFATORY NOTE

Almost every national industry makes provision for investiga-
tive work. Millions of dollars are spent annually to develop both
human and mechanical efficiency. It is immaterial whether the
investigations are for the purpose of utilizing certain products
hitherto considered waste, or to make workmen more efficient,
or to employ the latest processes and inventions to better survive
in the competitive struggle—the results of this class of work are

I

2 Richard H. Boerker

considered a great, indispensable business asset, warranting whole-
some moral and financial support.

The history of our country reveals the fact that material in-
dustrial progress is largely in direct proportion to scientific re-
search and invention. This is especially true in the agricultural
pursuits. The various governmental bureaus, our state universi-
ties and agricultural colleges, and our many agricultural experi-
ment stations are intimately connected with and responsible for
the progressive agricultural development of our country. These
institutions form a vast ganglionic intellectual organization ; they
are rapidly becoming the centers of a new agricultural system
and, working from these centers outward, they are gradually
touching every phase of agricultural activity.

Forestry has joined the ranks of the great industries in develop-
ing the investigative side of the business and the establishment of
forest experiment stations and a forest products laboratory by
the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agri-
culture has been the first step in this direction. It has become the
business of these stations and this laboratory to study the funda-
mental laws governing the life of the forest and their effect upon
the final product—wood. That vast complex of environmental
factors—the habitat—is beginning to be analyzed to discover in
what ways man can help nature to produce more and better
timber, in a shorter length of time and at less cost than nature
has produced in the ages past. While perhaps, on account of
economic conditions, industrial investigations have been given
preference to purely silvicultural research, yet investigations in
establishing and growing forests have received no small amount
of attention. |

Outside of these governmental endeavors very little has been
done along the lines of silvicultural research. State forest ex-
periment stations are practically unknown. It is true that the
foresters as well as the ecologists connected with some of our
agricultural experiment stations are contributing to this field, but
a beginning has scarcely been made. ‘There is a great need for
state forest experiment stations or at least for foresters upon the
staffs of some of the agricultural experiment stations to help

Germination of Forest Trees 3

solve local forestry problems. Finally, there is no reason why
forest experiment stations established and maintained by private
endowment on the plan of the Desert Botanical Laboratory of
the Carnegie Institution would not be able to do a great service
along these lines.

The importance and need of silvicultural investigations
scarcely needs comment, yet it might be well at the outset to
emphasize certain fundamental concepts. Forests are one of our
greatest natural resources. Unlike coal, iron, oil, etc., they can
be grown to insure a continuous supply. Forests are not huge
warehouses of standing logs from which we can take our annual
supply ad infinitum; they are not merely aggregations of indi-
vidual trees; they are complex communities of living organisms
capable of response to environmental factors not unlike human
beings. It follows then that in order to replace what we take
from the forest, in other words, in order to grow a neverfailing
supply of timber intelligently and economically, we must under-
stand these complex living organisms and commuiities, must
study their behavior and requirements and ascertain the condi-
tions under which they grow best. This domain is forest ecology
or silvics.

It has been asked, Does forestry in its present stage of develop-
ment need this kind of work? Is not this work ahead of the
times? Is it not of too little practical value to demand our atten-
tion at present? It will be my purpose to show at this point
of my paper that, while this class of work is not absolutely
essential to forestry at the present time, it is extremely desirable
that it be begun in a scientific manner at the earliest possible
moment, in order to put American forestry upon a firm scientific
basis. The present status of forestry in the United States em-
phasizes the necessity of beginning soon. A brief word as to
our present stage of development may be in order.

Forestry either of an intensive or an extensive nature is being
practised in many parts of the country to-day. Both private and
public corporations are engaged in one or more of the main phases
of it, viz.: silviculture, forest protection, forest administration,
or forest utilization. In the field of forest protection gigantic

4 Richard H. Boerker

strides have been made in the last ten years on both public and
private holdings, and obviously this is the first step towards forest
management. Such intensive silvicultural operations as planting
and thinning are being practised principally in the east, while ex-
tensive forestry involving the selection and shelterwood systems
of management is almost the rule in the west. As might be
expected, in the west forest planting is still in its experimental
stage. On the whole economic conditions in the east have favored
the development of both public and private forestry and hence
this activity has been on a more intensive scale there than in the
west. That forestry in some sections of the country is not de-
veloping as fast as some conservationists might wish is due to the
fact that it is being held back by certain conditions and elements
of environment which by their very nature belong to a new
country with enormous natural resources like ours and over
which human endeavor has no control. It must be realized that
forestry never developed in any country in the world as fast as
it has in the United States in the last twenty-five years, and that
at the present time it is proceeding as fast as is consistent with
sound principles and existing economic conditions.

While the practice of forestry is making rapid strides, silvi-
cultural investigations are still in the infancy of their develop-
ment. In other words the practice of forestry and the science
of forestry have not developed in a ratio which would make them
mutually helpful. The greater development of the applied phases
of forestry is due partly to economic conditions and partly also to
a lack of appreciation of the value of purely scientific research.
The tendency has always been to magnify the industrial branch
of a science at the expense of the main body from which it had
its origin. Purely scientific botany has been largely lost sight of
in the face of such of its branches as bacteriology, plant breeding,
pathology, etc. Similarly the science of silvics has had to give
way to seemingly more important phases concerned with the
utilization of forests. In these days of commercial ideals when
the value of most things is gauged by what they will bring on the
market, I fear that undue emphasis has been placed upon the
economic or applied phases of a science. Hence it is not strange

Germination of Forest Trees 5

that we should measure the value of purely scientific work in
dollars and cents rather than in terms of scientific advance and
intellectual satisfaction. The test nowadays applied to any sci-
ence by the large majority of people is, How much money does
it influence? What industries has it created? What has it added
to the wealth of the world?

If purely investigative work in forestry must give a raison
d étre, it might be well to call to mind the following facts: that
many of its problems strike the foundations of national pros-
perity and their value cannot be measured in dollars and cents;
that some of its problems must be gauged by the future returns
they bring rather than by the present; and that it is the avowed
purpose of scientific work to solve those problems in which the
so-called practical worker has failed to produce results. History
bears witness to the fact that those fields which have seemed
furthest removed from utility have often yielded the most fruitful
results. What seems of only scientific value to-day very often
turns out to be of great practical utility later. It is comparatively
easy to estimate the value of a piece of work when it is possible
to base that estimate upon what has been actually gained; but
how hopeless is very often the task when we must base our esti-
mate upon the loss which it prevented. In such silvical investiga-
tions as the influence of forests upon stream flow, upon the water
supply of communities, and upon the health and prosperity of our
people money values fade into insignificance.

Silvicultural investigations as well as forestry business are
long time propositions. The value of such work is very often
measured not so much by the immediate financial returns it brings
as by the principles it helps to establish, which in turn may affect
our management and hence the financial returns many years
hence. It is the tune element more than any other that em-
phasizes the need for beginning the solution of some of our silvi-
cultural problems soon. It is believed by many that it will be at
least twenty-five years before intensive operations such as plant-
ing, thinning, and other silvicultural measures will be economically
possible in some parts of the country. Granted that this is true.
Is this too much time to devote in preparation for this work? If

6 Richard H. Boerker

we keep on getting results in the next twenty-five years in the
same proportion as we have done in the past ten, will many of our
important problems be solved? Most silvicultural investigative
problems take many years to solve. Some nursery and planting
problems can be solved in from three to five years (if nothing
interferes), but most of even these take longer. In many cases it
takes from two to four years merely to raise stock let alone
experiment with it.» It usually takes six months or more to de-
termine whether the stock set out will live, let alone establish
principles in planting. The element of time is the largest factor
in this work; we will need much of it, for failures will be numer-
ous and this will mean the loss of many years. Only long time
and carefully planned investigations can lead to stable and eco-
nomic forest management.

With the development of forestry it cannot be doubted that a
great deal of exact silvical and silvicultural knowledge is neces-
sary, and we must admit that a great deal of data is needed to-day
which cannot be furnished. We have unsystematic and indefinite
knowledge about many phenomena which await experimental |
proof. In fact, forestry is loaded down with a vast weight of
undigested facts, and pure science has only begun to relieve
forestry of this burden. The quickest and surest way for purely
forestry research to gain recognition is to show how to attain
practical results which years of blind groping along applied lines
have failed to accomplish.

Our task is a gigantic one, greater than any investigative prob-
lems that have confronted or will confront European nations.
We have more species of trees important in forestry than all
European nations combined. Our varied topographic and cli-
matic conditions make our problems infinitely more complex and
numerous. But that should not discourage us. Big problems
concerning the forest have been solved in the past and are being
attacked to-day. We have worked out our problems in logging
and have developed machinery and methods unique in the history
of forest industry; we have developed a system of forest fire
protection unlike anything ever attempted by forestry-practicing
nations ; it remains for American ingenuity and enterprise to solve
the silvicultural problems which confront the American forester.

Germination of Forest Trees ji

Briefly stated the purpose of the present investigation is to
inquire into the effect of the more important habitat and seed
factors upon the germination and early development of certain
American forest trees in control cultures in the greenhouse for the
purpose of obtaining data that may be used in the silvicultural
management of these species.

This investigation has been conducted under the direction of
Professor Raymond J. Pool and I am indebted to him for his
friendly advice and counsel. I am especially grateful to him for
having read the first draft of this paper and for offering valuable
criticisms and suggestions. I wish to further acknowledge my
indebtedness to Professors P. B. Barker and H. J. Young of the
department of agronomy of the College of Agriculture for the
mechanical analyses of the soils used in these experiments and to
various members of the departments of botany and geology for the
many courtesies extended to me. Thanks are due to the various
district foresters, forest supervisors, and rangers, also members
of the Washington office of the Forest Service for their kindness
in furnishing so much of the seed used in these investigations.
Without this material assistance a large part of this work would
have been impossible. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to
my wife for much valuable assistance in counting seeds, in com-
piling the final data and in reading proof. Also, I cannot fail
to acknowledge the guidance and inspiration of the late Dr.
Charles E. Bessey throughout the course of these studies.

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
Historical

The literature of the work done upon this problem is meager
and widely scattered. As has been noted before, both botanists
and foresters have worked in this field, so that papers from
widely different sources had to be considered. General observa-
tions were found to be much more numerous than results based
upon exact investigations. Too often one finds opinions and
views upon these questions with but very little data to substantiate

8 Richard H. Boerker

them. Foresters and botanists, in general, have proceeded on
the assumption that light and soil moisture are necessary for
germination. They have also noted that germination is acceler-
ated in sand as against a heavier soil like loam or clay. Little
has been done to inquire further into these relations. On the
whole the effect of habitat factors upon the early development of
plants has received more attention than their effect upon germina-
tion. In the following historical summary, light in relation to
germination and early development of plants will be considered
first, since probably more work has been done upon that particular
phase of the problem than any other.

One of the oldest notions regarding light and its relation to
plant growth is the one concerning the effect of artificial or
natural shade upon atmospheric and soil moisture conditions.
The forest experiment stations of Europe have long since worked
out this relation in the forest, so that to-day these results are
more or less well known to all foresters and botanists. Several
Americans, working on the effect of artificial shading upon the
growth of tobacco, have brought out results similar to those
secured in connection with forests. Hasselbring (3) has shown
that the transpiration of plants grown in the open is nearly 30
per cent. greater than the transpiration of plants grown under
cheese-cloth shade. The transpiration per unit of leaf surface
was nearly twice as great in the sun plants as in the shade plants.
Stewart (4) records the results of observations made in the
course of tobacco experiments in Connecticut on the climate and
soil conditions as affected by tents in producing a certain kind of
tobacco. He concludes that under the shade of tents the soil
retains more moisture, there is a greater relative humidity, and
there is a reduction in wind velocity, all resulting in plants which
are larger and of more rapid growth as compared to those grown
without tents. To sum up the effect of shade it might be stated
tersely: it lowers the air and soil temperatures and breaks the
action of the wind; these factors increase the humidity of the
air and this increased humidity results in less evaporation from
the soil and less transpiration from the plant; the final con-
sequence is a greater soil moisture content with its correspond-
ingly good effect upon the growth. of the plant.

Germination of Forest Trees 9

The effect of light upon the height growth of forest trees has
been used as a basis for determining the relative tolerance of these
trees. As early as 1866 Kraft (2) planted a number of different
species in the shade of older trees and measured their heights and
diameters several years later. Upon this basis Kraft arranged
the species according to their tolerance. Nikolsky (2) in 1881
carried on similar experiments with pine and spruce and showed
that the greatest length of stem was found in the trees which
grew in the shade; the length of the entire plant above ground
increased with increase in shade; the length of the main root as
well as the number and total length of the lateral roots, however,
diminished with increase in shade, while the total length of all
roots of plants which grew in great light intensity was greater
than the total length of all the roots in the shaded rows. At the
Swiss experiment station in 1893 Badoux (2) carried on experi-
ments on eleven tree species with different degrees of shading to
determine their behavior in different light intensities and thus
determine their tolerance. Fir and spruce had almost the same
average height growth at different degrees of shading. With
pines, larch, beech, and ash the growth on the contrary decreased
in proportion to the shading. In the case of basswood, blue
beech, and elm the growth in height was but little affected. The
work of Wiesner (2) from 1905 to 1909, in various parts of the
world, and of Clements and Pearson in the United States (2)
between 1907 and 1909 was only for the purpose of determining
the minimum light requirements of species as a basis for scales of
tolerance. The last two investigators took numerous readings
in the Rocky Mountains and noted the condition of seedlings
under various light intensities.

Burns (9) experimenting with white pine under lath shade in
the nursery found that shading delayed the time of germination
but that the final germination per cent. was about the same in
both cases. He likewise raised white pine seedlings in full shade,
half shade, and no shade and (at an age which he does not state)
measured the length of the hypocotyls, tap roots and lateral root
branches. He found the greatest length of hypocotyl in the
plants that had been grown in the full shade, the greatest length

1O Richard H. Boerker

of tap root in plants that had been grown in no shade and the
greatest length of lateral roots and total root system in the no-
shade plants. This bears out Nikolsky’s experiments along the
same line. An interesting conclusion reached by Burns is that
shade reduces the temperature of the soil and delays the time of
germination.

The work of Atterberg (9) which is quoted by Burns is given
here for completeness. Atterberg studied the relation of light
and temperature to the germination of pine seedlings. He found
that at a constant temperature of 23° C. 80 per cent. of the seed
germinated in the absence of light and 87 per cent. in the presence
of light during practically identical germination periods. Burns
concludes from this: “ Apparently a high and changing tempera-
ture, light, and a moist seedbed are essential to satisfactory
germination.”

The investigations of Haak (5) and Pittauer (6) have very
little bearing upon the problem at hand. The former at the
mycological laboratory at Eberswalde studied the influence of
season, moisture, temperature, light days and dull, artificial and
natural light, color of light, intensity and duration of light, and
the influence of chemicals upon the germination of Scotch pine
seeds. He found that in lower temperatures germination begins
considerably later and proceeds much more slowly that in higher
temperatures, but that the final germination per cents. are about
the same in either case. He found that certain rays of light were
beneficial and certain harmful to germination. Pittauer studied
the effect of different degrees of light and extreme temperatures
upon the germination of tree seeds of certain European species,
viz.: beech, black locust, and various conifers. He found that
germination proceeds more rapidly in light than in shade and is
most satisfactorily accelerated in diffused light.

Undoubtedly considerable work has been done in the United
States by the various forest experiment stations of the Forest
Service but these results have not been, as far as my knowledge
goes, published. In a very recent article in Science, Graves (7)
speaks of such work being carried on at the Wind River Forest
Experiment Station in Oregon. A recent discovery at this sta-

Germination of Forest Trees ir

tion showed that the seed of Pinus monticola of Idaho lies in the
duff and litter beneath the mature stands for years and then
germinates when the ground is exposed to direct lighting. This
is mentioned here, merely as another instance of the many of
record in which it is assumed that light is to a large degree re-
sponsible for the germination of certain tree seeds.

Practically the only work of any importance on record concern-
ing the effect of soil moisture and soil texture upon the early
development of forest trees is that of Tolsky (8). He studied
the relative effect of sandy and black soils upon the structure of
the root system of Scotch pine. He found on black soils that
pine developed principally vertical roots while on sandy soils
superficial roots predominate. In rich soils roots are guided in
their development by moisture, while in poor soils like sand,
activity is directed mainly towards extracting nutrition from the
soil. In poor soils nutrition is spread over a large area and in
order to get it in sufficient quantities trees need numerous roots.
Whatever the cause might be, Tolsky found more lateral roots
and more superficial roots in the case of trees grown in sand, and
this may be taken as the most significant part of his work.

Before discussing the present investigations, I feel that it would
be profitable to briefly summarize the edaphic factors of the
habitat with special reference to the physical properties of the
soil which play a physiological role in the germination of the
seed,

Classification and Résumé of Habitat Factors

The complex of climatic, edaphic, and biotic factors which
influences the life, growth, and reproduction of a plant is known
as its habitat. The study and investigation of habitats as entities
avails us very little unless we analyze a habitat into its component
parts and investigate each of these parts by itself.

Clements (1) classifies habitat factors into physical and biotic.
The former have to do in general with inanimate objects and the
latter with human beings and animals. He further divides phys-
ical factors into climatic and edaphic. Climatic factors are atmos-
pheric in their nature and the edaphic factors are concerned with

12 Richard H. Boerker

the soil. He further subdivides climatic factors into humidity,
light, temperature, wind, pressure and precipitation. The edaphic
factors are subdivided in a similar way into water content, soil
composition, soil temperature, altitude, slope, exposure, and
surface.

In glancing over this classification it becomes at once obvious
that all of these factors cannot affect the plant directly. Many
of those enumerated are in themselves very complex in their
nature. For example, slope, aspect, altitude, and surface could
each be subdivided into component factors, but if this is done it
will be seen that they resolve themselves into those factors men-
tioned above which are not divisible. In other words there are
about three master factors which are able to affect plant life
directly, and all others are combinations of these. There is no
better way to bring out this idea than to give Clements’ (1)
classification based upon the influence which each of these factors
may exert on plant life. He classifies factors into those that have
a direct bearing upon plant life, those that have an indirect bear-
ing, and those that have a remote bearing. Direct factors are
only those which produce qualitative structural changes in the
plant itself. Furthermore, the classification of habitat forms and
plant formations is based upon them, which fact merely em-
phasizes that they are fundamental. Indirect factors are those
that affect a formative function of the plant through another
factor ; and remote factors are those which are physiographic or
biotic in nature and must operate through at least two other
factors in order to produce a structural change in the plant. This
classification is as follows:

Direct Factors Indirect Factors Remote Factors
Water content Temperature Altitude
Humidity Wind Slope
Light Pressure Exposure
Precipitation Surface

Soil composition
Soil temperature

Germunation of Forest Trees ng

The germination of seeds depends principally upon edaphic
factors, hence climatic factors will receive little attention here
except in so far as they condition the former. It is taken for
granted that the morphological and the physiological significance
of water, light and heat to plant life are too well known to require
discussion here, especially since that phase of botany is funda-
mental in all ecological work.

The water content of the soil is by all odds the most important
edaphic factor in determining germination, for while other factors
may condition this process to a certain extent, none but water,
within certain limits, can prevent it altogether. In a synoptical
manner I will briefly call to mind the significance of this master
factor in germination and then briefly inquire into the important
soil factors and properties that bear directly on the investigations
at hand.

The amount of water in the soil has no direct relation to the
amount of water which plants can use. At the outset distinction
must be made between the different kinds of water in the soil
and which of these are available to plant roots. Usually three
kinds of water are distinguished, namely: hygroscopic water,
capillary water and free water. Hygroscopic water is that water
which plants cannot get owing to the enormous film pressure
which holds it. It is also known as the amount of water in an
air-dry soil. Capillary water is that water, most of which is
available to plants and is held against gravity around the soil
particles by capillary forces. Free water is that which is not held
either as hygroscopic or as capillary water. It is water influenced
in its movements by gravity and is therefore called gravitational
or hydrostatic water. Clements (1) calls these echard, chresard,
and holard respectively. It will be seen then, that the only water
available to plants is a part of the capillary water which surrounds
every soil particle and fills every small pore space.

The principal factors which influence the amount of soil mois-
ture available (capillary water) to plants are:

1. The amount of water reaching the soil.
2. The catchment of water by the soil.
3. The water-holding capacity of the soil.

14 Richard H. Boerker

4. The amount of evaporation from the soil.

5. [he amount of water withdrawn by other plants.
6. The replacement of loss by capillary movement.
7. The amount lost by seepage, percolation, etc.

Of these factors, only four are important in the present investiga-
tions. These are the water-holding capacity of the soil, the
evaporation from the soil, the replacement of loss by capillary
movement, and the amount lost by seepage and percolation. The
water-holding capacity of a soil is determined by soil depth, soil
texture, and the amount of organic matter present. In soil tex-
ture two factors are important, namely, the size of the soil
particles, which affects the surface area of the particles and the
amount of pore space in the soil, and the density of arrangement
of these particles. It is largely for these reasons that loam will
hold more capillary water and will contain more air space than
sand or gravel. Evaporation from the soil naturally affects
greatly the amount of water available to the plant. This is
affected by climatic factors such as temperature, relative humidity,
and wind; and by soil factors such as texture, color, depth and
the character of the surface. The replacement of the loss of soil
water by capillarity depends upon the rise of water from the
water table. ‘This rise is conditioned by the degree of saturation
of the lower soil layers, the texture of the soil, the height to which
the water must be raised and the character of the intervening soil
layers. A fine-textured soil like loam or clay is much more favor-
able in this respect than a coarse-grained soil like sand or gravel,
principally on account of its great ability to obtain water from the
lower soil layers. The amount of water lost by seepage and per-
colation depends largely upon the texture of the soil. The coarser
the soil the greater is the amount of water that percolates through
it and the less is the amount held: by capillary forces.

As far as it determines the amount of soil moisture available
to plants, soil texture is certainly the most important physical
property of the soil and it deserves a foremost consideration in all
problems that pertain to the germination of seeds.

Germination of Forest Trees 15

The Germination Process (10, II, 12, 13)

This period in the life history of the green plant is unique in
that the organism is independent of an external food supply and
also of all luminous energy. Germination may be called a period
of growth without photosynthetic activity, and it terminates at the
time the accumulated food in the endosperm is more or less ex-
hausted. During all this time it is without light; it does not
require it, but lives in total darkness beneath the surface of the
soil. While the seed has no use for light, it does require water,
oxygen, and a certain amount of heat in order to germinate suc-
cessfully. The dependent life of the plant begins at the termina-
tion of the process of germination, when the first ray of light
strikes the spreading cotyledons. Light sets the photosynthetic
mechanism in motion and this marks the beginning of the plant’s
manufacture of food; henceforth it is dependent upon its en-
vironment.

The role of water in the germination process is to aid in the
transformation of the accumulated nutrient material into food
that can be used by the germinating embryo. In other words,
this factor is instrumental in taking this sunken capital and trans-
forming it into specie for circulation. But water cannot do this
directly ; it must act through the agency of certain catylists or
enzymes. ‘These enzymes transform insoluble and indiffusible
foods into soluble and diffusible ones which in turn move from
the endosperm to nourish the embryo.

Water is important to the seed for two reasons; its absence
determines the seed’s power to live in a dormant condition, which
is one of its most important properties. If a seed is not dry it
cannot be preserved ; we cannot secure good seed in a wet autumn.
The second reason why water is important is because of its
chemical and mechanical action in germination. Hales at the
beginning of the eighteenth century showed that the absorption of
water by seeds is generally accompanied by a considerable mani-
festation of energy, which takes the form of swelling. Chemically
water acts as a solvent for the enzymes which render the ac-
cumulated foods soluble.

16 Richard H. Boerker

Practically all the accumulated foods in the endosperm must
be transformed by the action of enzymes, which in turn must
first be dissolved by water. Starch, which is insoluble in water,
is converted by means of the enzyme diastase into a soluble sugar.
Throughout germination the quantity of starch in the seed de-
creases; the starch grains at first corrode and finally dissolve
completely. Many albuminoids (simple proteins) are likewise
insoluble in water and certain soluble albumens cannot diffuse
through membranes. A pepsin-like enzyme which develops dur-
ing germination acts upon the albuminoids, transforming them
into soluble and diffusible forms. Others are changed to crystal-
loids which after solution diffuse very readily. Fats and oils are
likewise insoluble. Certain enzymes during germination decom-
pose oil into its constituents, fatty acids and glycerin, the latter
easily soluble in water. It is well known that fatty acids when
set free assist the breaking up of oil in water into very fine drops
with the formation of an emulsion.

Heat is important in the germination of the seed in that it may
accelerate, retard, or even entirely stagnate the processes begun
by the action of water. It might well be said that the rapidity of
germination depends to a large extent upon heat, since it has the
power to modify the action of enzymes. Temperature likewise
affects the diffusion of liquids. A considerable part of the heat
used in germination is generated by respiration. This process
sometimes raises the temperature of the seed as much as 40-50°
F. above the surrounding temperature. Certain seeds owe their
ability to germinate at very low temperatures (below freezing)
to the heat generated during respiration. Certain arctic and
alpine plants are able to blossom in the snow for this same reason.

Seeds in water, seeds buried too deep, or seeds surrounded by
air deprived of oxygen do not germinate even if other conditions
are favorable. In other words, water and heat are of little avail
without oxygen. Even before water and heat can act through
the agency of the enzymes, in many cases another factor must
come into play to release the enzymes. The latest investigations
show that the formation of diastase is intimately connected with
respiration. In a similar manner respiration supplies the energy

Germination of Forest Trees 7;

which oxidizes the fats and oils of the endosperm. It has been
noted that the quantity of oxygen absorbed is much greater in the
case of fatty seeds, like those of the pines and birches, than in
the case of the starchy ones,

It has been known for a long time that seeds lose weight during
the process of germination although no solid matter is lost as near
as can be determined. If we take a certain quantity of seeds
and weigh them both before and after germination, being sure
to get the dry weight both times, we find that although the seeds
have increased in size, they have lost weight. This is due to the
loss of certain elements like carbon and hydrogen. In the process
of respiration the carbohydrates in the endosperm are broken
down, carbon and hydrogen are lost while the quantity of nitrogen
remains practically constant. In the process of respiration, the
products of combustion are carbon dioxide and water.

Respiration in the seed is quite different from that in the case
of leaves and other green parts of the plant. Seeds are generally
not provided with intercellular air spaces, but oxygen penetrates
to their interior chiefly by diffusion from cell to cell. Thus it will
be seen that the supply of oxygen to the deep-seated cells of the
seed is most liable to become insufficient. This of course retards
germination. If the supply of oxygen is reduced materially, due
to lack of soil aeration, germination may be prevented. The best
aerated soils are those that have comparatively large interstitial
spaces, like sands and gravels, and the poorest ventilated soils are
the heavy loams and clays which are small grained and compact
and have minute interstitial spaces. The seeds of different tree
species naturally vary as to their soil requirements in this respect.
This explains why tree species of sandy habitats germinate so
poorly on clay soils.

From what has been said, it will be seen that water, heat, and
oxygen are the essentials for germination, and that the lack of any
of these factors is sufficient to retard, if not entirely to inhibit the
process,

It is a well-known fact that seeds have a power of remaining
dormant for a period without affecting their vitality. The power

_to retain this vitality is due largely to the nature of the seed-coat

18 Richard H. Boerker

which insulates the embryo from heat, water and air and protects
it from mechanical injury. Cottonwoods, willows, elms, soft
maples, and white oaks have a very short period of rest. Usually
the period is not over six months, but basswood and hornbeam
lay over from fifteen to eighteen months. It has likewise been
noted that some tree seeds must lay over for a certain period
before germination can take place. The. common experience of
attempting to germinate seeds in mid-winter which have been
gathered during the previous fall is proof of this phenomenon.
This leads me to a brief discussion of the process of after-ripening
as it is called.

Many seeds we know require a long time for germination in
spite of the fact that they are surrounded by the proper condi-
tions. During this period it has been found that certain chemical
and physical changes take place which are necessary before the
seed can germinate. The length of delay is apparently de-
termined by the persistence of the structure of the seed-coat

and to the conditions under which the seed is exposed. The |

term “after-ripening ” has come into use to designate the changes
in the seed during this period. Eckerson (17) concludes that
most cases of delayed germination are due to the exclusion of
water or oxygen by the seed coats. But some seeds do not
germinate after all coats have been removed and the seed put into
germinating conditions, indicating that the delay is due to embryo
conditions. It is now certain that some changes within the
embryo are necessary for germination. In the case of Crataegus
used by Eckerson it was found that food is stored in the embryo
in the form of fatty oils; neither starch nor sugar is present.
A series of metabolic processes takes place in the embryo during
the period of after-ripening. At first there is increased acidity
accompanied by increased waterholding capacity. There follows
an increased activity and production of enzymes and as a result
the fats decrease and sugars appear. The appearance of sugars
which are soluble and diffusible marks the beginning of the germi-
nation of the seed.

All recent investigations both in America and abroad show how
extremely complex is the role of oxygen in germination. <A set

Germination of Forest Trees 19

of conclusions based upon one species of plant apparently may
or may not hold for others. Shull’s investigations (14, 15, 18)
are based mostly on Xanthium seeds. In his experiments he finds
no evidences of the diffusion of oxygen through an absolutely dry
seed coat. This is significant in that it shows an important role
of water in preceding oxygen in penetrating seed coats. Ex-
perimenting with Crataegus mollis Davis and Rose (16) find that
seeds treated dry or those placed under water do not go through
the process of after-ripening. Here again is evidence that both
water and oxygen are necessary. These investigators, working
on the effects of temperature upon the period of after-ripening,
conclude that favorable moisture conditions and temperature con-
ditions shorten the period. Atwood (19) confirms almost all of
the conclusions drawn by Eckerson although working on Avena
fatua. Crocker and Davis (20, 21) worked with water plants
and their results totally different than those described for land
plants need not be given.

Unfortunately these conclusions are not based upon forest tree
seeds. Such investigations have not been undertaken. This
phenomenon will probably explain many of the cases of delayed
germination which are well known to foresters. It is reasonable
to assume that the conclusions based on Crataegus would also
hold for such fatty seeds like the birches, spruces, hard maples,
etc. It is also reasonable to suppose that most tree seeds pass
through this period of after-ripening during the winter months ;
if this is true it explains why it is often impossible to germinate
certain tree seeds immediately after they have been gathered.

Method of Attacking the Problem

There are two general methods of determining the causes in-
fluencing the behavior of seeds or plants growing under natural
conditions. These are the observational and experimental
methods. In the observational method we observe the kind of
vegetation produced in response to a certain complex of physical
factors and seek to find constant relations of one to the other in
order to draw conclusions. In the experimental method we may

20 Richard H. Boerker

either synthetize an artificial environment and proceed to study
the plant under definitely measured differences of light and water,
or we may measure the physical factors influencing the same plant
under various natural conditions. The observational method is
il suited for most work on habitat relations because the habitat
involves an extremely variable array of uncontrolled physical
factors, and it is practically impossible to determine without actual
measurements which factor has the controlling influence and what
the relative importance of the others are. The most desirable
method for problems which will allow its application is the one
in which we synthetize an artificial environment. In this case we
keep certain factors constant and measure the variable one; in
this way, it is quite obvious, the environment 1s comparatively easy
to analyze. This method, of course, presupposes a greenhouse
and on this account is only of limited application.

There is no question that all these methods have their value in
their proper places ; the choice of one must vary with the problem
and the circumstances. The method of measuring the factors
influencing the same plant under various natural complexes is the
one probably of widest application in the field. The purely ob-
servational method, for work on the determination of habitat
factors, while of some value when other methods are impossible
of application has unsurmountable objections. Observers in vari-
ous parts have no common basis or standard; their mentai equip-
ment and fund of ecological knowledge vary greatly and they may
even have very different points of view. Some of these ob-
jections might be summed up in the term “ personal equation.”
Another danger in this method is that of applying local observa-
tions to large areas, in other words, in generalizing on the basis
of too meager observations. The conclusions drawn in the ob-
servational method are largely in the nature of opinions modified
as indicated above by the personal equation, while the experi-
mental method produces conclusions based upon actual figures
which are indisputable and carry the weight of scientifically
proven facts.

Another objection to the observational method in determining
the effect of habitat factors is that this method studies the effect

Germination of Forest Trees 21

and not the cause of the factors. It is a most significant fact that
the same habitat factors do not always produce the same effects
upon vegetation even under apparently the same set of conditions.
The effect of two habitat factors or groups of factors may be the
same so far as the structure and behavior of the plant is con-
cerned, yet upon inquiry into the causes concerned we might find
in one case it was due to temperature and in the other to soil
moisture. In a similar manner it 1s known that other factors
besides light determine tolerance. In other words the study of
the effect of habitat factors upon plants does not always lead us
to safe assumptions as to what the underlying cause is. The only
safe method in this kind of work is to measure the cause, thus
employing a direct method instead of an indirect one.

Methods and Apparatus Used in These Investigations

The investigations herein described were carried on in the
middle room of the west greenhouse of the botany department
of the University of Nebraska. For the germination studies three
series of cultures were used, namely, the light, soil-moisture, and
soil-texture series. For the experiments and measurements in
connection with the early development of roots and stem a fourth
series was added, namely, the soil-depth series. In each series
three degrees were used. In the light series open light, medium
shade, and dense shade were used; in the soil-depth series shallow,
medium deep, and very deep soil was used; in the soil-moisture-
content series, dry soil, medium wet soil, and wet soil was em-
ployed ; and in the soil-texture series loam, sand, and gravel were
used. The values of each degree in each case will be given later.
As the experiments progressed it was found that the amount of
greenhouse space assigned to the work was not sufficient, so
that the open light culture, the wet soil culture, and the loam cul-
ture were combined into one since these were being run under
identical conditions. (For arrangement of cultures see page 33.)

The seeds for these experiments were obtained from any source
it was possible to get them. Large orders were sent to almost
all large commercial seed houses at one time or another. On the
whole the response from these orders was very discouraging. At

22 Richard H. Boerker

the time the seed was wanted (early fall) many of the seed crops
had not been collected. Likewise it took time to determine
whether there would be any crops at all in the case of some
species. This resulted in delay in getting the work started. By
the middle of January eighteen species had been obtained from
commercial seedmen and of these only seven produced results that
were in any way satisfactory. On the other hand, through the
kindness of various members of the Forest Service throughout
the United States, twenty-six species wére secured and practically
all of these produced good results. Due to these facts anyone
undertaking experiments of this kind in the future must look a
long ways ahead for a good seed supply. The following series of
tables gives the source of the seed obtained together with what
information was available as to date and place of collection. The
nomenclature used here and throughout this report is that used
by the Forest Service and is according to Forest Service Bulletin
No. 17 by G. B. Sudworth.

Spectres SUPPLIED BY THE UNITED STATES ForEST SERVICE

Species Piace Collected Date
Pinus ponderosa ......... Californias ics tee he erricen pen oe eee ?
Pinus ponderosa ......... IBS IN IB) INGiir MISCO coocccobodcas 1913
Pinus ponderosa ......... Wieisere Ne ba elicdalioy a aenaeemnne erat 1912
Pinus ponderosa ......-.. Harney. Ne bes outhDakotayemerienerrc 1912
Pinus ponderosa ......... Bitterroot Ney Ee Montanay arrears 1912
Pseudotsuga taxifolia ..... Pecos N. F.. New Mexico ............. 1913
Pseudotsuga taxtfolia .....CanbouuNe Ea idaho erence er racer 1912
Pseudotsuga taxifolia ..... Madison N. F., Montana ............... IQII
Pseudotsuga taxifolia ..... Western Washington and Oregon ...... IQII
PES SOPHO ‘a bic00 cg 85000 erin ING 1, Ceili ioie, Soboooscocodedoas Igi2
ALDIES COMCOUOL soodcacacue DurangoyNe hes Coloradomaerecee ate: 1913
Tsuga heterophylla ....... OlympiceNeh Washingtongeenc ase IQII
Pinus lambertiana ........ Lassen ING, 184, (Calliiromimnia, accooccesonnncs 1910
Libocedrus decurrens ..... EldoradomNe Han Caliionmitasaenennceriier IQI4
IES. GDOHISH (US 6 306005000 ikorsialey ING, Je, IMlomick 3 c5cccoccecnoocce ?
IOS COMMETE coooccosedc Montereya Nek Calitornnitaleeeeeeeeeeeiat 1910
Abies magnifica ........... Sequoiay Newb. Calikornialeee eee eee ?
Sequoia washingtoniana ..Sequoia N. F., California .............. IQI2
Pinus dvgaricata :2....2-.. Minnesota N. F., Minnesota ............ 1910
US COMMOIS coanboaccas ArapahowN) hl Cologadowenararen aes B

ANUS ESUVOSA = Neen Minnesota N. F., Minnesota ............ 1910

Germination of Forest Trees 2

arin occidentalis #2225... - Colkvillle IN, IRs, Weaslainettornl 5oocccccn00ce IQII
Abies lasiocarpa ........-- Priest Ishyer, MCN sehecoceocadccccc0de 1913
MAIDEES OPUROHMS sone eo b0006 IPest, IRR, UCAMNO sdoonckemooncacoes so 1913.
IPHCCG SUNGCRSIS sag00003000¢ (Coase Of Wasiminetiom 5 o.c000ccccbscc0ds IQII
Pinus monticola .........- ries Iie, MGEING sooecoacusccecbocaKc 1914

SPECIES SUPPLIED BY COMMERCIAL SEEDMEN OR COLLECTED

Species Place Collected Date
IPOS SHADOUS seaocosooade Gala days AE Crrie mates lines Sar tamer late 1913
LOUDER PLIAO DOO peeeloe Sa oat e IE TDURONOXE" cia ic tek into isi nrerenc ice See ae arn ae ?
Rus ponderosa ah. e eae blacketills South Dakotas oy......5 6: « 1913
IEW ES OO NEMHE socc00000 Nordnerin IMbiAMESOIA sooonoccvccedouoee IQ14
‘Robinia pseudacacia ...... IEEE Time I Ce ante RS abe ran SC ed near RE feat ?
Catalpa speciosa <..0..45 4: Tervcliietarey arene eter owes oe eee tees Gureian (ce 1913
OneREUS THOU codcsscccce INES (ol Sse a1 Nr Beale Be gra eS are Ge Ah ae el 1Q14
AGG? SUCCIDORAT sosoococcc MtimOrsieeaeeeeec oes Reser tired: oS Beata IQI4
LOZ ACIFOU HOUR PHFORD: 0.60 QUO) oucaccccaccebancguaosadodoecacauoe IQ14
Betula papyrifera ......... Renia'siyhvariange, eee renee eee re oleae 1914
Abies balsamea ........... IM Ee Sal SoS a 6 Peta a io eae entctea ohetep ats Be caer 1914
Psomdorsngea wasenfOlwe 566 COlOrAGO cogcoopaoecnsocndedcceocgoeage 1913
PCRS UEC so00¢00005000C Southlenmestatesiaen some rere cae koe ?
Taxodium distichum ...... Sotithtennmastatesm sem cee atime cine ?
inonclonnoce, SEN oentttes ace Norn (Carrolbvoe Gaacaqoonoesvovonnancese 1914
ANC SOCCIIOPUUT kas000000c Cried eee eer eh aan ae lie IE 1914
VAGCIGATMOLUIIN ameter: New siilannnsininelge sr marie cme maine oe 1914

- Fraximus americana ...... Iinmabiehaley, eee eats cei ots eon einai ener at lege IQI4
Juniperis virginiana ...... Missouri River, Nebraska ............. 1914
Ciedisciuaimiacantnos =). eincoln. Nebraskans. anes ee a IQI5
Pinus monticola .......... Glacteme aries Montana eee see 1914
CHO, SPECIOSE cavccecoce WincolaeNe basal aentitos os abies ee eae IQI5

In the body of this report, in order to distinguish the climatic
varieties of a species, the name of the state in which the seed was
collected is given with the name of the species.

The first planting was done on October 28, 1914. From that
time on plantings were made as the seed arrived. The last seeds
were planted March 21, 1915. All experiments were conducted
between the first date mentioned and May 1, 1915, a period of 184
days. In all cases ample time was allowed for the completion of
the process of germination. This time naturally varied with the
species. For most species three months was allowed but in the

24 Richard H. Boerker

case of certain Pacific coast species four months was apparently
necessary. Three months ordinarily is plenty time enough;
usually if a seed in the forest fails to germinate in that time, it
usually does not germinate at all, especially in the west where
the dry period sets in after the spring is over.

Ten of the species mentioned in the foregoing tables failed to
germinate. These species were Larix europea, Acer saccharum
(both), Liriodendron tulipifera, Taxodium distichum, Liqui-
damber styraciflua, Fraxinus americana, all of which were supplied
by commercial seedmen. If the data regarding the collection of
these seeds is bona-fide, their failure to germinate must be ex-
plained by the fact that they had not completed their resting
period. In the case of Jumniperis virgimana, Gleditschia tria-
canthos, and Pinus monticola, whose place and date of collection
is known absolutely there can be very little doubt as to why they
failed to germinate.

The soil used in all cultures (except the sand and gravel) was a
garden loam of excellent quality with a mixture of about 25 per
cent. of white sand. The mixture was prepared in the green-
house. ‘This made a very good soil for experimentation purposes.
The sand used was common white, quartz sand with but a very
small per cent. of hornblende and magnetite. The gravel was the
kind used by the large construction companies around Lincoln
for concrete work. Mechanical analyses of representative
samples of these soils are given elsewhere.

All seeds were planted in rows at a depth which was 2% times
the shortest diameter of the seed as near as this was determinable
by the unaided eye. The rows averaged 3 inches apart and about
24 inches in length. In general 200 seeds were used of each
species when the seeds were of medium size or smaller; for some
of the western pines only 100 were used because of their large
size.

The Control of Habitat Factors

As has been pointed out, the only safe way to study the effect
of the factors of the habitat upon the life of the plant is to
measure one variable factor while all the rest are kept constant.

Germination of Forest Trees Bs

This principle is fundamental in mathematics; a single algebraic
equation with two unknown quantities cannot be solved. In each
of the series used in these investigations it was the intention to
have only one variable habitat factor. In this way the study of
cause and effect was much more clearly brought out.

The soil moisture determinations were made for four different

purposes :

1. As acheck upon daily watering in similar cultures.

2. To show the effect of shading on soil moisture content.

3. To show the minimum content in the soil moisture series.
4. To compare soil moisture content in loam, sand, and gravel.

The samples were taken in certain cultures and at intervals
varying with the purpose. The samples for the moisture content
series of cultures were taken once a week, all others once a month.
Each sample consisted of from 50-100 grams of soil, and was
taken at depths varying with the development of the plants in the
culture. In order to provide against error each sample consisted
of from two to five portions taken from spots several decimeters
apart, care being exercised that no soil was dug near holes where
previous samples had recently been obtained. The samples were
always dug between the rows of seedlings. The samples were
immediately weighed and dried at a temperature of 95-105°
Centigrade to constant weight (24 hours). The per cent. of
water was computed upon the dry weight of the soil.

All the cultures except the dry soil and the medium wet soil
cultures were watered every evening. As was noted above, when
the amount of room for the germination tests became insufficient
the number of cultures was reduced from 12 to Io by eliminating
two duplicate cultures. The only check moisture samples which
will be considered here are those that have to do with the three
cultures which were being operated under identical conditions.
Samples taken and recorded hereafter will take care of the other
cultures and series. During the time (three months) that these
duplicate cultures were run, one set of soil samples was taken as
a check to determine whether they were being watered equally.
These figures follow:

26 Richard H. Boerker

Cueck Som Moisture SAMPLES 11/14/14
Depth 5.0 cm.

Name of Culture Moisture Per Cent,

Open Mighty Mie oe ae ead Oo eis eae rae eens ae ro en ea 27.9
AS alatone Meee pak Sea MeN) Nat Dear ema Nrgr ee USCS mtr ota a 24.1
1BYay- baal Py eae ie Manna MeCN ATE GlMler te Ser ohsansn! a) lo,6:6%6 6 Sole B 277,
ID Yess ahiasioyl Beye ANIA RI Ere Ei Men nee iy Realy umeate Ss aA city ot ty 6 28.2
WMkerbibion Glee Gooocscuesconnsgbccoososonosoosmodoao er 28.5
Shatlowiisoihvee no) ou as canyn Stern SOR ee EC eee 31.4

These figures, obtained after more than two weeks of daily water-
ing, pretty well indicate the small amount of variation in moisture
content which results in a number of cultures under the same
conditions.

Light was controlled in the greenhouse by means of shade
tents. Thé east bench of the room was divided into three parts
and the portions at the ends of the bench were covered with
cheese cloth. The central compartment of the three was not used
on account of the shading influence of the tent to the south of it.
(See page 33.) The tent intended to develop medium shade was
made of a medium grade of cheese cloth, while the tent intended
for the dense shade was constructed of a double layer of heavy
cheese cloth. The light values developed in these tents and in the
full light of the greenhouse as determined by a Clements photom-
eter are given below:

TABLE OF LIGHT VALUES

‘ Open Medium Dense Number
Date Time Light Shade Shade Readings Weather
1/21/14 Il:30 A 0.4250 OSL FT/S dn aon 5 Clear
11/27/14 12:00 A 0.4040 0.1467 0.0216 2 Clear
AV CT AS Caen | cme 0.4145 0.1621 OLO2ZTO ih hose alert

These values are based upon full sunlight just outside of the
greenhouse. These tables indicate that full greenhouse light is
approximately ™% of full daylight and that the medium and dense
shade tents have values approximately % and %po of full daylight
respectively.

Germination of Forest Trees 27,

It is quite natural to wonder how these values compare with
values that have been obtained in the woods. Probably the com-
parison of the light values obtained in the dense shade with some
of the lowest values obtained in the woods would be most interest-
ing. Clements (2) found light values from 0.12 to 0.05 under
mature lodgepole pine in Colorado. He observed that Douglas
fir occurred very rarely in densities below 0.05. Wiesner found
the same value in this case. Pearson in Arizona found that
western yellow pine seedlings grow fairly well in a light intensity
from 0.309 to 0.414. White fir was found in good condition in
light intensities of from 0.027 to 0.068 and healthy young growth
of Engelmann spruce was found in intensities of from 0.033 to
0.062. In Oregon Pearson found such tolerant species as alpine
‘fir, Engelmann spruce, western hemlock, and Lowland fir grow-
ing in light intensities from 0.021 to 0.029. The western larch
however showed only poor development in a light intensity of
0.353. This will be sufficient to indicate that the light in the
dense shade tent compares with some of the lowest light intensities
that have been measured in our western forests. In this con-
nection it is interesting to note that white pine, black locust, red
oak, and western yellow pine lived for two to four mouths in the
dense shade tent, as is evidenced by the fact that stem and root
measurements were taken on these species during the last days of
these investigations.

In connection with the light experiments a very important fact
soon became evident. In spite of the fact that all three cultures
were watered every evening at the same time and in the same
degree, it soon became evident from mere observation that the
top layer of soil by the following evening had dried out to very
different degrees in the three cultures. The open light culture
was noticeably the driest and the dense shade culture the moistest
so far as the top layer was concerned. This fact led to taking
systematic moisture samples to determine the exact difference
in moisture content. These samples were taken once a month,
three evenings in succession and these readings were averaged
into one reading. The table of soil moisture contents is given
below :

28 Richard H. Boerker

Tas_E oF Sort Moisture CoNTENT IN LicgHT CULTURES IN PER CENT.
Depth 2 cm.

Dates | Open Light Medium Shade Dense Shade
IE /(POSE2s iaawnens create aries meet 12.3 15.3 19.8
T:2 PBS We vary ater atrace ss eustieae | 12.0 19.0 19.3
ia ieee O) ie eee ary ne RN oe | 6.1 Te") 18.0
2 TAT Ol eiaene hesiaie ehascneetemens = 14.0 16.6 BiB
Bi DATO ce ee ucie dotese 3 estes 14.4 17-0 DIB)
AY Ate snooty tee 8 gee eee Cie as | 10.3 Tp 19.7
|
PANG) fad or eG OTe ILIESS) 16.8 19.9

Soil depth was comparatively easily controlled, either by only
partially filling the flats with soil or by using deeper boxes. This
was done and the depths used were as follows:

Shallow isomh (occas oe sa pei sleleseuets Cieteeote able eycheceneeetece 4.0 cm.
IMeditim’ deep ssoil ts ay eee cee ee eer eer eee 9.0 cm.
Vierya deepcsorl cn. pace peleyneie ta crore vae omen eeaterare eae 30.0 cm.

The depth of the medium soil was the depth of all the other
cultures used in the light, soil moisture, and soil texture experi-
ments. No attempt was made to measure the soil moisture con-
tent periodically in the soil depth cultures, except as noted in
checking up the watering of the cultures.

Soil moisture was controlled in the soil moisture experiment
by watering the cultures at different intervals. The wet culture
was watered every evening, the medium wet culture was watered
every Wednesday noon and Saturday evening and the dry soil
culture was watered only every Saturday evening. The soil
samples that were taken were secured just before watering and
were taken at first every Wednesday noon and every Saturday
evening and later only every Saturday evening. Thus the soil
samples represent the minimum water content of the soil at the
end of one day, at the end of three and one half days, or at the
end of seven days. In the following table are given the soil
moisture per cents as taken at various depths according to the
stage of development of the majority of the seeds or plants in
the cultures concerned.

Germination of Forest Trees

29

Minimum Soir Mortsture Content In Sort MorstureE CULTURES

; 1 Medium Wet Wet Cult :
Date | von P Ber cent? | Culture, DerGene |
TAC Poh oa leaae Wee er) eee 0-5 6.4 10.5 23.0
TERR UR eds SENS an ere PU 0-5 4.0 13.7 30.0
aT [pTiplipepe ae egestas id ae 0-5 4.6 | 5.0 25.0
Du pe eae eatier ecu aye ien carbs O-5 He) | T4.1 24.1
TAY DIL Ree ee ree eneye 0-5 Flo] IF sit 21.1
TUTE OHNE pene ctn re ae ae pee 0-5 6.7 | 13.8 22.3
17H} Netra des ieee oe MO aka | 0-5 | 6.1 12.4 24.3
TATE Ne aie eren att ah aaa 0-5 8.5 16.6 23.3
1020) ICO) pies, ateiaeeee polo eeoee 0-5 5.2 TEDa it 20.5
12 2 ORs use sete ee NI van 0-9 4.3 9.4 Dios
tO aS Rooney meena eee 0-9 6.8 | 11.8 24.7
cE OS ees eh bc ect es Ecol eniteges 0-5 BaF 15-7 40.0
an) AL) ai pecire: SeRcee see 0-5 Se 12.5 36.6
TCA ast eer ae a eee 0-5 3.0 6.3 17.9
TE EXO es Mtesopeael aeansere veucheereceel 0-5 Be2 | Fait 18.8
Bil Deke oraioici ake ae eles 0-9 4.7 12.4 20.7
TH TeX Rent See ies Setar ome 0-5 4.3 ae 19.0
PHONO IA an te eres gee eee Ra 0-5 6.3 13.8 23.3
DH IOAGT heen edna cutee ae ERE Ve | 0-5 5-4 T4.1 38.3
21] Ola aed IEE 0-5 4.0 | 9.4 Diyala
QT NTS SHEN SA NN 2 Satur te ew Ser 0-5 | Bolt | 6.7 19.8
3/2 Oleh See eae 0-5 Bo 9.3 19.6
Wis tec bie Gatco One: 0-5 4.5 15.6 Diy
All Qe Alas o mil arinnacr ets 0-5 4.5 | 12.4 19.8
Alm Onrwe pe ke yak la A iee 0-5 | 5.9 | I4.0 30.8
AUT ee Sec arse te4| 0-5 3-5 | 8.0 23.8
TM AYN es ai Sed aera Seat ea 0-5 4.0 | 12.4 20.7
IAVETASCH Ese ies Ae | Sit Ir.8 23.9

Soil texture was controlled by the use of cultures of loam,
sand, and gravel. Soil texture affects principally the moisture
content and the air content of the soil, hence careful analyses to
The following moisture
determinations were made for sand, loam and gravel, which show
the amount of hygroscopic water, the volume of pore space, and
the amount of capillary water in each of these soils:

‘determine both relations were made.

TABLE OF Soi DETERMINATIONS

Texture of Soil

Hygroscopic Water,| Volume of Pore’ Capillary Water,
Per Cent Space in Per Cent Per Cent

36.54 5-4
0.14 39-34 5-0

41.14 2.8
pee 39.04 4.4
0.11 33-51 16.6
0.92 53.32 38.0

1 Lost by accident in the

soil oven.

30 Richard H. Boerker

The per cent. of hygroscopic water in the soils was the amount
of moisture the soils held at room temperature. The amount
of pore space in the soils was equivalent to the total amount of
water the soils would hold. This would also be the amount of
air in the soil when air dry. In determining the amount of pore
space the soil used was air dry, hence the amount of hygroscopic
water in the soil had to be added to the amount of pore space.
The amount of capillary water was the amount of water the soils
held against gravity. The same soils were used in all three
experiments and the samples consisted of about 150 grams each
except in the volume determinations in which 100 cubic centi-
meters of soil were used in each case. This table shows very
strikingly the water and air relations in these soils. The great
amount of air in gravel when it is at its maximum capillary
water content is also shown approximately.

The mechanical analyses of representative samples of these
soils which were kindly furnished by the department of agronomy
of the University of Nebraska are given below:

MecHAnIcAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS

Separate Diameter, Mm. . Loam Sand Gravel

PS LSO NDT ASE reenter, Seco Shwe INDOVG sae Bi ereiliy sac toy isceme de mene tone 38.639
Coarsereraviel eon ce nee Base gl hiker iys tall avec cerita nul a Peco ats 40.382
ine oraivel rae, sei aetse eunenae 20 7.9360 21.045 I4.051
Coarse’sandi i aoe I=.5 Wega 29.418 4.245
Miedimmiysandian rein ce ee ee 5 —.25 8.107 21.709 1.062
ine ssande cavecven ears cytes 25 —.1 I1.392 25.708 0.770
WEIAY InlNS GAINES os Sob cccc ose gee st OS 6.182 I.074
LIGA ee ec tat aeraee eels ana aeareng sae .05 —.005 21.704 6 0.268
(OIE iis fie et oy cuprates Satan, eens oe .005 and less 26.506 “34
Molatilesmiattercie: us todas eon | gether erste 6.252 0.700 0.583

IO} te hee Rae ee ee on ieee Mera RAI ant bin assay 100.000 | 100.000 | 100.000

Besides these determinations soil samples were taken once a
month to determine how much moisture these soils held at the
end of a day in the cultures in the greenhouse. These results
bear out the findings in regard to capillary water held by the
soils shown in a preceding table. These moisture contents are
given below:

Germination of Forest Trees

31

Sort Motsture Content Twenty-Four Hours AFTER WATERING

Depth 5.0 cm.

Gravel, Per (ent

Date Loam, Per Cent Sand, Per Cent

TR AA eas iy tage sree hae Dopey Ale
1025) it Sates eon ae a aco korea ee 25.6 eA

Tg sta creed tec ae She a lee ree recy 25.1 4.8

Dre SAR i ln eerie er ee 26.1 5.0

ES RT era ey eRe os ate SPE 28.7 Sit

AUP bis sence ae Seat Ree ena eae 27.4 4.
PAW CHAS CM rush cumaccet orks east 26.8 4.9

The temperature and humidity of the air were determined by
a hydrothermograph which was checked every Monday morning
by means of a cog psychometer and humidity tables (the baro-
metric pressure used was 29 inches).
summarized and the results for the entire period are given below

by weekly averages:

The record sheets were

Week Ending

INOWiermlb cram sre ers
cial ae eaten em Ohi

December (Os. eas

January Bea ate es pany hor

February 7

_ March fee Dents cite Bae

Temperature, Degrees Fahr. Reve Tie
Weekl Weekly
Min. | ‘Max, | Weekly Meanie Min. Max. Means
Range ® elie. 2 Hr.

60 100 40 Pleat) 18 78 | 49.0
53 99 AOR C/-Om eae s 4 93 | 69.4
52 94 42 67.8 20 90 | 64.0
49 90 4 66.6 | 29 75 | 54-9
54° 90 BO |) ZL | Bist iS || 559
59 89 30 70.2 32 84 60.7
59 87 28 69.7 37 66 | 55-0
52 83 Bit 67.8 38 62 48.9
51 88 37 O7.@ | -B5 57 48.8
56 93 37 TAQ | Sal 69 | 52.8
52 89 37 67-3 Ar 79 64.7
54 85 31 64.6 30 Ow OA
47 96 49 65-4 39 75 58.5
53 88 35 64.6 43 82 65.7
53 98 45 70.4 33 68 | 54.5
57 98 AI 68.4 38 ss {| O22
52 95 43 61.5 35 Bo | ied
55 98 43 64.9 25 65 | 54.0
57 100 43 63.2 21 60 53-7
54 98 44 65-5 28 65 54.6
59 bgoyo) At) 67.4 22 63 50.5
54 I0o 46 63.7 28 83 62.0
53 100 A7 66. 23 88 55-7
55 100 45 | 64.5 23 61 47.2
47 100 53 64.6 18 85 49.9
49 I0o 5r WR 24 90 68.3
61 I00o 39 75.0 18 92 63.0

32 Richard H. Boerker

Soil temperature was not measured. With the air temperature
at an optimum point during the entire experiment it is reasonable
to assume that the soil temperatures were likewise always at an
optimum, at least they were never at such a low,nor at such a
high point so as to affect materially the germination of the seeds
or the growth of the seedlings.

Notes on Damping-O ff .

No special investigations were conducted to determine what
species were most affected and what conditions of light, moisture,
and soil were most favorable for the development of this group
of fungous diseases. This part of nursery practice is a problem
of no small importance in itself and the only data here given is
that which had to be taken in connection with this series of in-
vestigations. Therefore these are merely notes and suggestions,
which, while conclusive as far as they go, must be substantiated
in the future to be of any permanent value.

It was found that the pines were most affected. Pinus divari-
cata at the end of five weeks was affected most. About 15 sepa-
rate cultures of 200 seeds each of this species were started and
most of these showed more or less serious effects of the disease.
Several cultures of Pinus resinosa failed after six weeks. Pinus
palustris damps off in loam before it really gets its crown above
ground. In this case the loss was reduced in the sand and gravel
cultures. Both the New Mexico and South Dakota varieties of
Pinus ponderosa after five weeks damped off considerably, leaving
only from 10-25 per cent. of the original stand. The following
is a list of species in the order in which they were affected in
loam under normal conditions of light and water. The first men-
tioned were affected most:

Pinus divaricata Pinus ponderosa (N. M.)
Pinus resinosa " Robinia pseudacacia
Pinus palustris Pinus strobus

Pinus ponderosa (S.D.) Pinus taeda

It appears that the seeds of trees of certain habitats when
germinated in soils or under conditions different from those ob-
taining in their natural environment are affected worst. These
habitats are:

Germination of Forest Trees

1. Sandy soils
Pinus divaricata
Pinus resinosa
Pinus palustris
Pinus taeda
2. Dry habitats
Pinus ponderosa (S. D.)
Pinus ponderosa (N. M.)
3. Poor soils
Robinia pseudacacia.

a9

34 Richard H. Boerker

Species that seemed to be affected most were those from the
Black Hills and New Mexico and those affected least were those
from the Pacific coast. Intermediate between these were those
species obtained from Montana and Idaho. The coast species
affected most was Sequoia washingtoniana. Pseudotsuga taxi-
folia was much less affected than Pinus ponderosa taking into ac-
count all the varieties of each.

The conditions and cultures which were favorable to damping- -
off are of interest in that they emphasize many points already
known about this part of the subject. Loam is more dangerous
than sand or gravel due to its moisture retentiveness. The shade
cultures were more affected than the open light due to a greater
soil moisture content in the upper layers of soil. The moist cul-
tures were affected more than the dry ones and the shallow soil
cultures more than the deep soil ones due to a greater amount
of soil water per unit of volume of soil. Humous soils, soils with
decaying vegetable matter, and manure soils should be avoided
because they contain myriads of fungus spores. The data for
Pinus divaricata is given as representative of the three worst
affected species. The per cents. given below are those of the
number of plants killed (out of the total number that germinated )
within five weeks after planting the seed. Two hundred seeds
were planted in each culture:

Pinus divaricata KILLED By DAMPING-OFF

Light Cultures | Soil Moisture Soil Depth | Soil Texture
Opente ee Spl IDiay Stolle g oo66 6 ONDE ooo o105 ab 8% ‘Loam Vie cca cers 35%
Medium..... 26% Medium soil. ..24%|Medium....... ASGs| Sail, oo basco 56 1%
Densekumeas: 90%|Wet soil....... 25 7o\Shallowesseee OnGAGranalacocoacs o%

THE EFFECT OF HABITAT FACTORS UPON GERMINATION

This problem was undertaken because it was felt to be of funda-
mental significance not only to silviculture but to ecology as well.
Not only was it desired to throw more light upon some of the
phases of this problem that had already been partly worked out
and to modify, if necessary, some conclusions that have been
drawn, but it was my intention to throw some light upon phases

Germination of Forest Trees 35

of it that had never been attacked. Some of the questions that
are immediately called to mind by a mere statement of the prob-
lem are: Does light affect germination in any way? Does light
affect the germination of tolerant and intolerant species differ-
ently? How does soil moisture content affect germination? Do
drought-enduring species and moisture-loving species behave
alike in this respect? What is the effect of soil texture upon
germination? Has the amount of air or oxygen in the soil any
significance in germination? Since soil texture affects mainly
the moisture content of the soil, does soil texture affect drought-
enduring species in the same way as moisture-loving species ?

The data collected upon the effect of habitat factors on germina-
tion will be presented in four parts. The effect of light, soil
moisture, and soil texture will be taken up in the order named
and following this there will be given a résumé of the relative
effect of all habitat factors. The three most important points
to be noted in germination, are the number of days it took until
germination began, the total number of days in the germination
period, and the final germination per cent. The rate of germina-
tion is shown by curves for certain representative species. The
length of the germination period was taken as the total number
of days during which any seeds germinated. Records were kept
long after germination ceased, so that the germination period was
ended at the time the last seed germinated. To give data as to
the period of greatest activity involves certain arbitrary standards
and this method, though tried in compiling the present data, was
abandoned. The effect of light, soil moisture, and soil texture
upon the periods of greatest activity is best shown by the curves
offered for certain representative species.

The original data was taken by two-day periods. Every other
day the number of seeds that germinated were counted and re-
corded. In most cases these were immediately pulled up; but
where growth measurements were to be taken later the seedlings
were allowed to grow.

The first three tables show the effect of light upon the germina-
tion of eastern species, Rocky Mountain species, and Pacific coast
species respectively. Three sets of figures are given under each

36 Richard H. Boerker

degree of light, namely, the number of days which elapsed before
germination began, the number of days in the germination period,
and lastly the final germination per cent.

The number of seeds used of each species in each culture made
was as follows: 100 seeds each of Catalpa speciosa, Acer rubrum,
Gleditschia triacanthos, Pinus taeda, Pinus ponderosa (Idaho),
Abies grandis, Abies lasiocarpa, Pinus ponderosa (Mon.), Pinus
ponderosa (Harney), Pinus ponderosa (Calif.), Pinus jeffreyi,
Pinus lambertiana, Pinus coulteri, Abies magnifica, and Pseu-
dotsuga taxifolia (Wash.) ; 25 seeds of Quercus rubra, 400 of
Betula papyrifera, and 200 seeds of all other species.

When a number of check cultures were combined as was noted
previously it became necessary to average the results obtained in
several cultures under the same set of conditions. Thus the check
cultures used in each series show the same data in every case.
Three cultures of each of the following species were averaged
together: Catalpa speciosa (Ind.), Pinus strobus, Quercus rubra,
Pinus divaricata, Robinia pseudacacia, Betula papyrifera, Pinus
ponderosa (S. D.), Pseudotsuga taxifolia (N. M.), Pinus pon-
derosa (N. M.), and Pinus ponderosa (Calif.). Two cultures of
each of the following species were averaged together: Pinus
palustris, Pinus resinosa, Pinus jeffreyi, Pinus lambertiana, and
Pinus coultert. All other species in the check cultures were
planted but once.

In Table I 10 species out of a total of 14 germinated in the
dense shade before they did in the open light culture. Only
one species, Pinus palustris, germinated first in the open light,
one species, Gleditschia triacanthos, did not germinate in the open
light at all, and two species germinated simultaneously in all three
cultures. Pinus strobus germinated 8 days earlier in the dense
shade than in the open light, Pinus divaricata 2 to 4 days, Pinus
resinosa 10 days, Pinus taeda 2 days, Catalpa speciosa 2 days,
Quercus rubra 14 days, Robinia pseudacacia 2 days, and Acer
rubrum 4 days.

In 9 cases the germination period is longer in the dense shade
than in the open light and, considering the shade cultures together,

Germination of Forest Trees a7)

II species show a longer germination period in the shade than
in the light. The other three species did not germinate suffi-
ciently to make a conclusion possible.

TABE RSE
Tue Errect or Light on GERMINATION

Eastern Species

Open Light Medium Shade Dense Shade

Beccles Began,| Period, Fine), Began,| Period, Eel, Began,| Period,| Pinal;

Days | Days | Cent | Days | Days | Gent | Days | Days | Cent

IPUNUSSIVOUUS! = = 525 e 22 50 TOW |) LO Sal |) Wits || uA 26 8.0
Pinus divaricata....... I2 BA || RAL || LO AS || Oo || UO 38 TBS
Pinus divaricata (F.S.)| 14 DO) |) 2X0)a5) |) seal AS) || B70) || 310) 24 | 46.5
PUMUSH.ESTNOS One) ye 24 16 | 30.5 16 DA e500) ||) LA! 14 74.5
IPG BAS POWISTUS 6 66.0666 Bit 53 10.5 | 32 82 1Q@ || 32 62 5.5
IZUUS WIGS 6 be boc a6 34 OQ || 1@.@ |) BA © | 33.0 |) Be 8 | 33.0
Abies balsamea....... 18 30 II.o | 18 38 10.0 | 18 36 8.0
Catalpa speciosa....... 18 I TC) (0) (6) 0.0 | 16 I I.0
Catalpa speciosa (Neb.)| 16 U2) |) Oe) |) aA 20 |92.0| 14 14 | 88.0
Quercus rubra......... 40 28 28.0 | 30 18 UDO) || AAS) 42 12.0
Robinia pseudacacia... 8 16 28.8 6 18 29.0 6 18 33-5
Betula papyrifera...... 34 I TAO || Bal it 2.0| 34 I I.0
ANGEYIUOVINTIU ee eee 18 30 BLO) || 1G 34 I5.0 | 14 34 16.0
Gleditschia triacanthos . to) @ He Oo) 6 2 2.0 6 2 2.0

Three species had a higher germination per cent. in the open
light than in either of the shade cultures. Four showed the
highest per cent. in the medium light and six in the dense shade.
The greatest difference was shown in the case of Pinus resinosa
whose germination per cent. was almost two and one half times
greater in the dense shade than in the open light culture.

The germination curves of Pinus resinosa and of Pinus divari-
cata are given on page 38. These are representative of the
effect that light has upon germination. These curves show a
greater germination per cent. in the dense shade culture, a more
rapid rise of the germination curve in the dense shade and that
germination begins sooner in the shade than it does in the light.

Richard H. Boerker

Tue Errect oF Light UPON GERMINATION

Fic. 1. The germination curves of Pinus resinosa.

Fic.2. The germination curves of Pinus divaricata.

Germination of Forest Trees 39

TABLE II
Tue Errect oF Light on GERMINATION

Rocky Mountain Species

Open Light Medium Shade | Dense Shade

Species 2 : a |S ; =| ra

pecie 3 Su loun|8 |] agu|/Da/—-8 |] esgauldal|a

| asaya ean ume |e (eve es a
Pinus ponderosa.......... S.D. TO | 32 | 58.0] ro | 22 | 56.5) 10 | 34 | 58.5
IAVDUS POWWOAOS. oad 00608 Harney | 14 | 14 | 52.0) 8 | 26 39) 8) 26) (6220
TAVWUS POWGEYOS Wt N.M. | 14 | 40 | 56.0) 12 | 32 | 82.0) 10 | 12 | 70.0
Pseudoisuga taxifolia...:..| N.M. | 12 | 26 | 63.0] 10 | 12 69.0) 10 | 16 | 65.0
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Colo; |) #2} AD | Ox} we || Bo 73-5) 8 | 36 | 82.0
VAIDVESNGONGOLOV eee el Colo. | 24 ; 50 | 38.0) 18 ; 56 | 54.0) 14 | 60 | 56.0
IEVPUS COMO. 6 so 65000 5 Colo. 14 |) SO) | BAO) uO |) Go) Fas aeAal |) GN Babs
' Pinus ponderosa.......... Mon. | 18 | 22 | 10.0] 18 | 54 | 15.0) ro 8 | 9.0
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Mon. | 14 | 34 | 20.5) 12 | 32 |15.5| 12 | 44 | 35.0
Pseudotsuga taxifolia......| Idaho | 18 | 30 | 20.5| 16 | 64 | 49.0) 10 | 64 | 50.0
Pinus pondeyosa.......... Idaho | 36 | 52 | 42.0) 24 | 66 | 52.0| 14 | 82 | 43.0
AOIES RUGS s oo so anne eo Idaho | 36 | 36 | 4.0| 22 | 62 | 16.0] 22 | 60 | 10.0
Abies lasiocarpa.......... Idaho | 30 | 30 | 6.0] 26 | 50 | 7.0| 22 | 28 | 6.0
ECU SMO TULU COLO ter ene Idaho | 24 | 50 | 22.5] 16 | 58 | 20.0] 14 | 60 | 36.5

In Table II 12 species out of a total of 14 germinated first in
the dense shade, the other two germinated simultaneously in the
dense shade and open light. The number of days difference
between the two cultures varied from 2 to 22 days. Pinus pon-
derosa (Harney) germinated 6 days earlier in the dense shade
than in the open light, Pinus ponderosa (N. M.) 4 days, Pseu-
dotsuga taxifolia (N. M.) 2 days, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Colo.)
4 days, Abies concolor to days, Pinus ponderosa (Mon.) 8 days,
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Mon.) 2 days, Pseudotsuga taxifolia
(Idaho) 8 days, Pinus ponderosa (Idaho) 22 days, Abies grandis
14 days, Abies lasiocarpa 8 days, and Pinus monticola 10 days.
The medium shade cultures in most cases represent a condition
intermediate between the open light and dense shade.

In 10 species out of 14 the germination period was longer in
the shade than in the light. In 6 species the germination per cent.
was higher in the dense shade than in either of the other two cul-
tures and in 12 cases out of 14 the highest per cent. was in either
of the two shade cultures as against the light culture. In other

40

Richard H. Boerker

Tue Errect oF Light uPON GERMINATION

T T +
t t i
T it COE 1
i T { T 1 Tor t
i ae t co i aoe aoe
i 1 1 i CEP eeeet ct t
HH ope a
tH : Sa neeee paoeeenees o
t i t t i t i topt oo
i { TT 1 tt t
t { Tot ct
Tot t
mt
} T T i i
1 {
i
imt
cr t
i
t T
1 t
i

Fic.1. The germination curves of Pseudotsuga taxifolia (N. M.).

i t t
1 t - EEC if : TT
eeeoed ee igeeueens eecesseces es eee ceaa :
cH }
—
iat
} !
HH
i i tote
=
ist 1 i
i I
4
a
EE ge oe
rf
|
Bee
T
t i

Fic. 2. The germination curves of Pinus ponderosa (N. M.).

Germination. of Forest Trees 41

words, only 2 species had a higher germination per cent. in the
open light than in the shade.

On page 40 are given the germination curves of the two New
Mexico species, Pinus ponderosa and Pseudotsuga taxifolia.
While these do not show a higher germination per cent. in the
dense shade than in the open light they show the characteristic
rapid rise of the shade curves and the fact that germination begins
earlier in the shade than in the light.

TABLE III
THE Errect oF Light oN GERMINATION

Pacific Coast Species

Open Light Medium Shade Dense Shade

i : So |S n jm | 28 2a Suri eee

89 | PA |z é B91 eA le 5 ZO | 2A |e E
Pinus ponderosa (Calif.).......... 42 | 67 | 61.0, 22 | 92 | 62.0, 22 | 62 | 42.0
UMUSJCH VENT: ton aes Ws eis eis aie || Ga | FAO)! 22 1) Bb | wALO) BOQ | 2b | yO
Pinws lamber wands see ee sees ls ee FO || BO | BS) FO | BO |) Aol FO!) Be | 7
AU USAGOULLEY DAME eee tome aeyaysne seer eee 52 | At |15-5| 54 | 30 | 18.0] 52 || 62 | 23-0
AND LES ILE SNLIUGH ay en eerie ies 44 | 52 | 18.0) 24 | 54 | 30.0] 36 | 54 | 10.0
WEA DOCCOLUSOCGULVEN SH MAA ee re BO | FB |) GO| 2a, |) 2B |) ALO} uO || Ga |) ©
Sequoia washingtoniana........... 106) i] 3683] 97 f0)] el O | SoS) al |) wal |) Sols

LESUED (DUA Mass anvanacoccccs 66 % | Gil Oo (0) oO; oO (0) (0)
PU GEOSTERC WSIS Scicliene.cSiaie a wi/oieie sieen,s 22 | 60 | 22.5] 18 | 64 | 34.0] r4 | 36 | 38.0
LBS COGWAWOHS a5 6060565 5600009 4 (0) (0) Oe72 I | 0.5] 70 i |! @s5
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Wash.)...... 22) F280 16.0) 22) (2540 nse) EAG | 0252250

Out of the 11 Pacific coast species listed in Table III, 7 germi-
nated in the dense shade before they did in the open light culture,
2 germinated simultaneously in the light and shade and 2 species
did not germinate sufficiently to warrant conclusions. Pinus pon-
derosa (Calif.) germinated 20 days earlier in the dense shade
than in the light, Pinus jeffreyi 11 days, Abies magnifica 8 days,
Libocedrus decurrens 13 days, Sequoia washingtomana 2 days,
Picea sitkensis 8 days and Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Wash.) 8 days.

Six species showed longer germination periods in the shade,
three in the open light, and two species did not germinate sufficiently
to be considered. Only one species, Pinus jeffreyt, showed a
higher germination per cent. in the open light, two species showed

Richard H. Boerker

42

Tue Errect oF Light upoN GERMINATION

a i
ry aognnee:
saateafaeate alana
ao 1c

The germination curves of Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Wash.).

FG sale

Tot

T
r
t
T

H HAVE HH iy H EEL EERE EEE
EEE PEELE ALE cE EEE EEE EASE
PEELE se +H aap HAH HE
Ce ae: \an 4 saee| a
EERE i ap ct SEER EEEEEEEEEEE
EEEEECEEE Beg. ea HE :
i aoe (oe E po oan8 ot
uBo Woae wl an T Try
Pry \e HHH | -H rH aon 4
+ Hoe tH EERE AEEEEEEEE EEE
EECCA EEEEEEEH Baa
FEEEECEEAN E EEE EE
PEELE Er RHEE
SRgGRoe PEE HH EES SS
BEB Benen aI tL o ig See Seo eenee .
“EEE EA ARE aan H
H PERE EEE FEE EEE EEE
ae eateted teeteteted iterate of iesssafata oaeeqetes irtciay
a0 E Ee H PEE EEE H
Ba LEH H H +H PEE

The germination curves of Picea sitkensis.

Tes2:

Germination of Forest Trees 43

a higher per cent. in the medium shade, and six a higher per
cent. in the dense shade than in the other cultures.

On page 42 are given the germination curves of Pseudotsuga
taxifolia (Wash.), and Picea sitkensis. Both sets of curves show
that germination begins sooner, the curve rises more rapidly and
the final germination per cent. is higher in the case of seeds
germinated in the shade as compared to light.

TABLE IV
Tue Errect or Soil Moisture oN GERMINATION

Eastern Species

Dry Soil Medium Wet Soil Wet Soil

ecies gu l|Uoa aot fa] Tn ess an |Ton as

aA las eS aR | eA Fe eA laR Ee

JW GIS SUR OIS Wee deo bea abhor alo obi eed — | — | —] 30 | 34 | 8.0] 22 | 50 | 10.7
IPGLNS WBCTHUCHUB 56s s0050ccd00ea0% AG) | BA | TOO} 1A |) GO 1 FH) Ba Ba | S405
IPOS GeaCHUCOH® (V8 Sh) 50000000000 BX | ral Fos 223 |) 3 | ALO) ial |) BO) |) BonS;
IRAWUS GESUIOSE Rs A eh aie acon isan aveiaatie te 68 — | 2.5) 24 | 40 | 40.0) 24 || 16 | 30.5
2U USD QUUSETES ty ete En heise tes | — | — | — | 36 | 50 6.0} 31 | 53 | 10.5
UPC USEEC CDG) yor Ao cays Ruteisie lees ear criel oi: SN icy 6 | 19.0
INES WONSHUMADBs 66.5 obo 66086 ooo eo — | — | —| 22 | 22 | 12.0] 18 | 30 | II.o
(CONMDD, SVACIOSWs 45550000000 KG 008 — | — | — | — | — | — | 18 I I.0
Catalpa speciosa (Neb.)........... ——) | —— | | 22 6 | 4.0] 16 | 12 | 91.0
OWEy, GUSSET ULC. Oe or a ee on eee — | — | — | — | — | — } 4o | 28 | 28.0
Robinia pseudacacia.............. 1) | SO-| weno & | se. |aexol) 13 ae Paes
LEAH: WOM Gln e oeonsaceonocone — 34 it |, LO
EMCEE. PVT TOTE SOOO Ge ee a hee 24 LT!) 3.0) 24 || 26 |'12.0) 18 | 30 | 17.0

Tables IV, V, and VI consider the same species as the three
preceding tables from the standpoint of soil moisture instead of
light.

In Table IV in practically every case where a comparison is
possible germination started in the wet soil culture, and was de-
layed as the soil moisture content was reduced. Also the germi-
nation period is shortened with decrease in soil moisture. The
final germination per cent. in every case but one was highest in
the wet soil. Pinus resinosa showed the highest per cent. in the
medium wet soil.

This table separates the species into classes based upon their
ability to germinate in dry soil, medium wet soil, or wet soil.

A4 Richard H. Boerker

THE Errect oF Soil Moisture upon GERMINATION

Fic. 1. The germination curves of Pinus divaricata.

Fic. 2. The germination curves of Robinia pseudacacia.

Germination of Forest Trees 45

According to that classification the most drought enduring are
Pinus divaricata, Pinus resinosa, Robinia pseudacacia, and Acer
rubrum. It is rather unusual to find Acer rubrum in this cate-
gory but the seed has such a thin seed coat that water absorption
is easier than in the case of a thick-coated seed. The intermediate
species are Pinus strobus, Pinus palustris, Abies balsamea, and
Catalpa speciosa (Neb.). Among what might be called the
moisture loving species are found Pinus taeda, Catalpa speciosa
( Ind.), Quercus rubra and Betula papyrifera.

On page 44 are given the germination curves of Pinus divari-
cata and Robinia pseudacacia. These sets of curves show that
as soil moisture decreases the beginning of germination is delayed,
the germination curve rises less rapidly and the final germination
per cent. is decreased.

RABE Wi

Tue Errect oF Soil Moisture on GERMINATION

Rocky Mountain Species

Dry Soil Medium Wet Soil Wet Soil

oO » ~ ra

BA] 29 |B 5/89/28 jes | gA | eo jes
TU SE pO GCTOSG yer ‘S.1D); 26 | 26 | 26.0] I2 | 36 | 48.0] 10 | 32 | 58.0
TUN WSe PONG CLOS Gey erste Harney] 34 © GO) 22 | aS | wo) weAl |) aeat || Ao)
IZ OUS OPUAOSU ooh aoc 84 N.M. | 22 | 18 | 39.5] 20 | 16 | 61.0] 14 | 40 | 56.0
Pseudotsuga taxtfolia...... N.M. | 12 @ | SoH 22 |p AVI |) SA0)) 2a || QO | O8-O
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Colo: || 2A || BA © I2 | 42 | 60.5] 12 | 42 | 91.0
VPAIGTESACOWGOLOVA meee olen Colo. | — | — —/| 80 | 26 | 12.0} 24 | 50 | 38.0
JEGOMS COMA ob 06006008 Colo. | — | — =| 2O. || OO |) BoGil Zl |) GO || Beso
Pinus ponderosa.......... Mon. | — | — | — 18 | 58 6.0] 18 , 12 | 10.0
Pseudotsuga taxtfolia...... Mon. |} — | — ——|| £8 | 26" | T2-0)) 24) |) 34 20.5
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Idaho | 24 |) O25] ZO || B® || Os) US|) BO || Boss
PINUS Ponderosa. «3... + ++ Idaho | 90 8 | 5.0] 14 | 72 | 2r.0| 36 | 52 | 42.0
PAIDUES OVO GTS eee eine Idaho | — | — —| 66 | ro | 3.0] 36 | 36 | 4.0
Abies lasiocarpa.......... Idaho | — | — 84 I T.0/ 30 | 30 | 6.0
LVS TROUHEQUO oc 5abevoo Idaho | 48 Tl OLSe LS ese OOle24 | 50) 2285

As in the preceding table, Table V shows that the beginning
of germination is delayed in most cases and that the germination
period is considerably shortened with the decrease of soil moisture
content. Only I species, Pimus ponderosa (N. M.) showed a
higher germination per cent. in the medium wet soil than in the
wet soil, all other species show a higher per cent. in the wet soil.

46 Richard H. Boerker

THe Errect oF Soil Moisture urpoN GERMINATION

Fic. 2. The germination curves of Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Colo.)

Germination of Forest Trees 47

It is evident from this table that the two most drought endur-
ing species are Pinus ponderosa (S. D.) and Pinus ponderosa
(N. M.). While other species germinated in the dry soil their
germination per cents. were very small. Among the intermediate
species, as far as soil moisture goes, are Abies concolor, grandis,
and lasiocarpa, Pinus contorta, Pinus ponderosa (Mon.), and
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Mon.). It is interesting to see that with
one exception the only species that germinated in the dry culture
were either Pinus ponderosa or Pseudotsuga taxifolia. The
former from the Black hills, New Mexico, and Southern Idaho
and the latter from New Mexico, Colorado, and Idaho. ‘The line
is evidently drawn between Southern Idaho and Montana as to
whether these species will germinate in the dry culture or not,
since both species from Montana did not germinate in the dry
culture. Another interesting fact is that there are no moisture-
loving species in the Rocky Mountains so far as this classification
and these species are concerned, since there are no species that
germinated only in the wet soil.

On page 46 are given the curves of Pinus ponderosa and
Pseudotsuga taxifolia in their relation to soil moisture. These
curves show that germination is delayed, the curve rises less
rapidly, the period is shorter, and the final per cent. lower with
a decrease in soil moisture.

TABLE VI
Tue Errect oF Soil Moisture oN GERMINATION
Pacific Coast Species

Dry Soil Medium Wet Soil Wet Soil

Species galSulosigalsal—s|dalce|—s

mt fA | 8 | aA | ae ey We. | Ye
Pinus ponderosa (Calif.).......... — | — | — | 68 | 12 | 6.0) 42 | 67 | 61.0
ALM UWS RI CHM ENUM torlopoke. eh a ees dies — |— | — | 80 © | TAO) Sr | 7 | 2a
Pinws lambertvana... 3... 425.5 ss — | — | — | — | — | — | Fo | 36 Ds
IEQUDS COOMA SOS 5 > Re SBE Ee — |— | — |} 90 8 | BO] 52 | dat |) 255
INDIES UES EIGN 6 6 0 5 oa oa eae Be — | — | — | — | — | — | 44 | 52 | 18.0
Libocedrus decurrens.............. 20 I |o.5 |— |]|— |—/] 20 | 73 6.0
Sequoia washingitoniana........... er) 8) |) 2720
DESUSONMELCLO PIV LLCS oars eee — |— | — | — | — | — | 66 | or 0.5
IPUGCOWSUEREHSIS Rvs Wiehe tengo teteee ahs — | — | — | — | — | — |} 22 | 60 | 22.5

UO TXOCCULENL ALIS ee ee ee = |) SS SS
IPSEUGOISULM LAGLfOWWGs a ee — |— | — !— | — | — |! 22 | 28 | 6.0

48 Richard H. Boerker

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES BASED UPON THE Errect oF Soil Moisture upon
GERMINATION

Eastern Hardwoods

Xerophilous Species Xero-mesophilous Species Mesophilous Species
Robinia pseudacacia Catalpa speciosa Catalpa speciosa
Acer rubrum (Neb.) (Ind.)

Quercus rubra
Betula papyrifera
Eastern Conifers
Pinus divaricata

Pinus divaricata Pinus palustris
Ga, Ss) Abies balsamea
Pinus resinosa Pinus strobus Pinus taeda

Rocky Mountain Species

Pinus ponderosa (S. Abies concolor
1D),

Pinus ponderosa (N. Abies grandis

Pinus ponderosa(H.) Abies lasiocarpa

Pinus ponderosa Pinus contorta
(Id.)

Pseudotsugataxifolia - Pseudotsuga taxifolia
(N. M.

Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Mon.) : ;
Id.

Pseudotsuga taxifolia Pinus ponderosa
(Colo.)

Pinus monticola (Mon.)

Pacific Coast Species

Libocedrus decurrens Pinus ponderosa Tsuga heterophylla
(Calif.)
Pinus jeffreyi Picea sitkensis
Pinus coultert Pseudotsuga taxifolia
(Wash. )

Pinus lambertiana
Abies magnifica
Sequoia washington-
tana
In Table VI in every case where conclusions were possible it
was noted that the beginning of germination was delayed and the
germination period was shortened with the decrease of soil mois-
ture. In every case the germination per cent. was highest in the
wet soil culture.
For some unaccountable reason Libocedrus decurrens ger-
minated in the very dry and wet cultures but not in the medium
wet one. However, the four drought resistant species stand out

Germination of Forest Trees 49

conspicuously: Pinus ponderosa, Pinus jeffreyi, Pinus coulteri,
and Libocedrus decurrens. This table shows that the Pacific
coast species are predominantly moisture-loving.

The foregoing table is a classification of all species used in the
soil moisture experiments upon the basis of whether they ger-
minated in all three soil moisture cultures, in two of them or in
only one of them. These three groups are called by the terms
xerophilous, xero-mesophilous, and mesophilous. Xerophilous
species are those that germinated in all three cultures; xero-
mesophilous species are those that germinated in the medium wet
and the wet soil cultures; and mesophilous species are those that
germinated only in the wet soil culture.

TABLE VII
Tue Errect oF Soil Texture on GERMINATION

Eastern Species

Loam Sand Gravel »

Species suoldel/25/]sa/da/28 | galda| 38

BA) PA Es) SA) eo le S| BA) ea |e

EG LUSESTROUUS MAN Netra eee 22a SO | HO. 7) WS |) Bal || TwO} Bal | BS | GO
Pi nUsKdivajiclla eae eee Ta es32esa5| Tee s8ulcz2-ol) xo) Ao) ases
IFW POS CHAT UEC (Sse co bc eaeso0 5 TA 2Om ZOeG LOS.) 325\) LON ern | 280
IPRS TPESCHOSE. ca deocoossbcducede 24 |.16 | 30.5] 20 | 54 | 85.0] 16 Sa RLOnS
IPORUS POWISTOS > ok oo baknobeonacce Br || 58 | LOG) 20) Ga |.12.5]) a2 1 Ga || ong
JED S HUGT De ess Pa eS eget WORE eee 34 6 | 9.0] 28 | 12 | 41.0] 4o iT |) ata)
ANOES WOISCHIAs o35000600000000008 ie) || BO jp aeusO) wAL || 2yi | eS.5l) a6) || ZO |) Geo
(COWHIDE SROGOSH..6 6560660558 0H00|) he x | RO! oO 0 | 0.0] oO 0 | 0.0
Catalpa speciosa (Neb.)........... 16 | 12 |O1.0] 16 | 12 | 92.0] 16 ~ |) OO
QUG?EUS FUL Bs s5 oss cacaondnocunds 40 | 28 | 28.0) 38 | 46 | 24.0] 30 | 54-| 16.0
Robinia pseudacacia.............. 8 | 1 | 28) 8 | cB | BoO.S) SB | wS jl wi.
ISCO. PUPMPUIGB ooo oo benbgouacce 34 I I.0) 34 m | BO} Bal | Os
PNCOP COMO PON Boo 8 OE A AEP OD 18 | 30 | 17.0] 24 | 18 | 13.0] 18 8 8.0
Gleditschia triacanthos............. © | ©} Oo) BA I 0) ©) Oo | 0.0

Tables VII, VIII, and IX show the effect of soil texture upon
the same species.

Table VII shows that for the 12 species considered in the final
results only one germinated first in the loam culture. Three
germinated simultaneously in all cultures, three first in the sand,
and four germinated first in the gravel. Three species had the
longest germination period in loam, two in sand and 5 in gravel.

50

Richard H. Boerker

Tue Errect oF Soil Texture UPON GERMINATION

IEG, Iie

The germination curves of Pinus divaricata.

ct
a8

Fic. 2.

The germination curves of Pinus resinosa.

Germination of Forest Trees Bal

The two species that stand out as having the greatest germina-
tion per cent. in the loam are Quercus rubra and Acer rubrum.:
Nine species reached their highest germination per cents. in the
sand and in this group the following stand out most conspicu-:
ously: Pinus diwaricata, Pinus resinosa, Pinus palustris, Pinus
taeda, and Robinia pseudacacia. Being species of sandy habitats.
it is quite easy to see why they should germinate better in the
sand. In the gravel, which is a poor moisture retainer, it is in-
teresting to compare such a drought enduring species like. Pinus
divaricata and such a moisture-loving species like Pinus taeda.

On page 50 are given the curves for Pinus divaricata and Pinus
resinosa. .

ADVE le Vell

Tue Errect or Soil Texture oN GERMINATION

Rocky Mountain Species

Loam Sand Gravel

v » a - _—

ies 3 Fat |2) ea SE el ry aelica) Seats top es) Can liens

a faF [ee oO jam eS ae aA | es
Pinus ponderosa.......... S.D. TOME SZ 5S-Ole oe 2ON 57251028) |) 3S) 4450
Pinus ponderosa.......... Harney | 14 | 14 | 52.0) 14 | 26 | 45.0) 14 8 | 13.0
Pinus ponderosa.......... INES || Zt |} ZO || 5OO} LO |) BO || Garey) a | 1s || Rares
Pseudotsuga taxifolia ..... N.M. | 12 | 26 | 63.0] 10 | 22 | 70.5] Io | 14 | 63.5
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Colo. | 12 | 42 | 912.0] Io | 38 | 83.5] Io | 44 | 80.0)
Abtes concolor............ Colo. | 24 | 50 | 38.0! 18 | 66 | 51.0] 20 | 48 | 34.0.
IZ EMS COMO. s ccccgeeasd (COO jf 14 |) BO | 22a) 2 |) CO | US) 2O |) FO | A055
Pinus ponderosa.......... Mon. | 18 | 12 | 10.0] 18 | 48 | rr.0} 18 Te | eee O,
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Mon. ! 14 | 34 | 20.5! 12 | 44 | 43.0! 12 | 42 | 44.5.
Pseudotsuga taxifolia...... Idaho | 18 | 30 | 20.5) 20 | 54 | 11.0; 16 | 70 | 43.0%
WU Se PON GELOSG= se Idaho | 36 | 52 | 43:0] 44 ; 52 | 509.0) 20 , 78 | 71.0
MNES (FMD cod Ceaanooce Idaho | 36 | 36 | 4.0} 46 © | 20) 26 | BO | Zoey
Albves lasvocar, pay. sane ae ae Idaho | 30 | 30 | 6.0) o (0) (0) to) (0) fo)
ACU S MMONLUGOL Opes ee eee Idaho | 24 | 50 | 22.5) 24 | 50 |11.5| 24 | 50 ! 13.5:

Table VIII gives the results for the Rocky Mountain species.
Out of 13 species, 8 germinated first in sand or in gravel, only
one germinated first in loam, and four germinated simultaneously '
in loam and in sand or gravel. Eight species show a longer |
period of germination in sand or gravel than in loam, and 5'
species show the same length of period in either sand or gravel
and in loam. Six species show a higher germination per cent. in

Richard H. Boerker

Tue Errect or Soil Texture UPON GERMINATION

Fic. 1. The germination curves of Pinus ponderosa (S. D.).

Fic. 2. The germination curves of Pinus contorta.

Germination of Forest Trees

Tue Errect or Soil Texture UPON GERMINATION

53

Fic.t. The germination curves of Pseudotsuga taxifolia (N. M.).

Fic.2. The germination curves of Pinus ponderosa (N. M.).

54 Richard H. Boerker

loam, four in sand, and four in gravel. It is significant to note
the large number of species in this table that germinate well in
the gravel.

On pages 52 and 53 are given the germination curves of Pinus
ponderosa (S. D.), Pinus contorta, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (N.
M.) and Pinus ponderosa (N. M.). These curves show that the
gerinination usually begins earlier in the sand or gravel, that the
curve rises more rapidly for these soils and that the germination
per cent. is usually higher.

Table IX gives the results for the Pacific coast species. Out
of 9 species, two germinated first in the loam, the others ger-
minated first in either the sand or gravel. Three had longest
‘germination periods in the loam and six in either the sand or the
gravel. Only one species, Libocedrus decurrens, showed the
highest germination per cent. in the gravel, while six species
germinated highest in the sand.

On page 55 are given the germination curves of Pinus pon-
derosa and Pinus jeffreyi both from California. These curves
show substantially the same facts as those for the Rocky Moun-
tain species. These curves show that Pinus ponderosa does not
germinate so well on gravel as does Pinus jeffreyi a fact which is
significant when it is remembered that the latter will. grow on
much poorer soil than the former.

TABLE IX
Tue Errect or Soil Texture oN GERMINATION
Pacific Coast Species

Loam Sand Gravel

Species gu ldo | daulUa ae duluoo 8

ae ae rae mao | aie ae aie! liga =e
ins. pondeyosan(Calits) eee eee 42 | 67 | 61.0] 20 | 82 | 68.0) 30 | 30 | 17.0
UEC ICUS) J CHIL EN LER eRe aE ee te reer SN 7 | BBO AY KO) | SO] BO || GO|) TO-©
Binuslanvvertvang ne eee 1) | SO a5 G2 uO |) OO) exo) | 8 | O.@
AWOTES. TOOTBYLED S060 6 285 ols bo ob be 44 | 52 | 18.0] 96 2 | 3.0) 50 | 48 5.0
Libocedrus decurrensi,... 6.5 eno. 730) I 7 || OSLO, AS || GS acess! BS |) SB || aa,
Sequoia washingtoniana........... LO) | cS 720), 16) 246.5!) 272 Te .0s5
Wsuzasheierophylla ee eee | GS) ae | Oss Aad eel GO |B |) we
IVE SHUTABSOS sg conn bse bene oaans 22 | 60 | 22.5) 18 | 64 | 31.0) 18 | 64 | 24.5

IE OV CXHOCCUGENLOL IS a et eee — | — | — | — | — | — | mY] — J —
Pseudoisuga taxtfolias. >... 4... 22-| 28 | 6.0] 38 | 44 | 5.0] 36! 48 | 6.0

Germination of Forest Trees

Tue Errect or Soil Texture upoN GERMINATION

5)

Fic.1. The germination curves of Pinus ponderosa (Calif.).

+

Fic. 2.

The germination curves of Pinus jeffrey.

56 Richard H. Boerker

Tables X, XI, and XII give the results of the effect of light,
soil moisture, and soil texture upon certain groups of species as
they were classified on page 48. While the foregoing tables
group the species and the final results on the basis of the geo-
graphical distribution of the species, these tables divide all species
into three groups based upon the amount of soil moisture neces-
sary for germination. The tabulation of the final data on this
basis is probably more significant than any other that could be
offered.

The data for the xerophilous species are given in Table X.
The average figures given at the bottom of the table show that
germination begins first in the dense shade, next in the medium
shade, and last in the light ; that the germination period is longest
in the dense shade; that germination begins last in the dry soil;
that the germination period is shortest in the dry soil; that
germination begins first in the gravel and that the shortest ger-
mination period is in the loam and gravel. Of the 14 species
given in this table, 13 germinated in the dense shade before they
did in the open, 9 showed longer germination periods in the dense
shade than in the open light, 12 germinated in wet soil before
they did in dry soil, 13 had shorter germination periods in the
dry soil than in the wet, and 9 germinated in gravel before they
did in loam.

Table XI gives the results for the xero-mesophilous species.
The average figures given in this table show that germination
begins first in dense shade, next in medium shade, and last in open
light ; that the germination periods are longest in the medium and
dense shade; that germination begins last in the medium dry soil;
that the germination period is shortest in the medium dry soil;
that germination begins first in the sand or in the gravel; and
that the germination period is shortest in the gravel. Out of 13
species listed in this table 9 germinated in dense shade before
they did in the open, 7 showed longer germination periods in the
dense shade than in the open light, 12 germinated in the wet soil
before they did in the medium dry soil, 12 showed shorter ger-
mination periods in the dry soil and 9 out of 11 germinated first
in either sand or gravel.

Germination of Forest Trees 7

The data for the mesophilous species are given in Table XII.
The average figures at the bottom of the table show that germina-
tion began in dense shade, followed by medium shade and open
light; that the germination period is longest in the case of the
dense shade; that germination began first in the loam and last in
the gravel; and that the germination period was shortest in loam.
Out of the 10 species listed in this table 7 germinated in the
dense shade before they did in the open light, 4 out of 8 species
showed longer germination period in the dense shade than in the
open light ; and 7 showed shorter germination periods in the loam
and sand than in the gravel.

These three groups show exactly the same results so far as
light and soil moisture go. From the standpoint of soil texture
there are some interesting results. In the xerophilous species
germination usually begins in the gravel, in the xero-mesophilous
species it usually begins in the sand; and in the mesophilous
species it usually begins in the loam, as the average figures and
number of species in each case testify. In the xerophilous
species the germination period is shortest in the loam and gravel,
in the xero-mesophilous it is shortest in the gravel, and in the
mesophilous species the period is shortest in the loam. That
xerophilous species germinate sooner in the sand and gravel than
in the loam is due undoubtedly to the amount of oxygen in these
soils. This suggests that oxygen is more necessary for the ger-
mination of xerophilous species than is the case in mesophilous
ones. In the mesophilous species germination begins sooner in
the loam indicating that soil moisture is more necessary to them
than oxygen. In the case of the light and the soil moisture
experiments it has been shown that favorable moisture conditions
lengthen the time of germination. In these cases it was found
that the shortest periods were in the open light and in the dry
soil. This same theory is proven in the case of the soil texture
experiments. It is well known that loam is favorable for ger-
mination on account of its moisture-retaining properties and that
gravel is favorable on account of its great amount of aeration.
Sand is intermediate between these and combines enough of the
soil moisture property of the loam with the aeration of the gravel

GAS oar | OSS | Ler | Pee | Soe Noro: | ova lien | ORE OS | ore | OE {Qe | 4s: | Sew eos see Tress S98BIIAV

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Richard H. Boerker

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60 Richard H. Boerker

so as to make it an ideal soil for germination. Hence we might
expect to find the longest germination periods in the sand. ' The
average figures show that this is the case in each group of species.
The shortest periods in every case are either in the loam or the
gravel because loam is unfavorable from one standpoint and
gravel from another.

In comparing the check cultures of the three groups of species
it will be seen that xerophilous species germinate first, xero-
mesophilous next, and mesophilous last. In other words the
drier the habitat the sooner germination starts, granting that the
conditions are favorable.

TABLE XE

Tue Errect oF Light AND Soil Texture ON THE GERMINATION OF Mesophi-

lous SPECIES

Light Soil Texture
Galture | ‘Shade’ | Stade | Gattare | Sand | Gravel
Species : ls
eI WEY BS)) LS BS Pei] SS Lea S29) Le Se £e
PINUS CCG eee eee BAO s4an| On IBZ) a Smale At eNom al 28-0 ht2 snl 4Onelnr
Catalpa speciosa (Ind.)....|18 I (0) 16 18 I ® | © | © | @
Owercus 7b7. Caren ere 40 !28 /30 |18 |26 |42 |40 |28 |38 |46 |30 |54
Betula papyrifera........ yah Ip ae gah Ae Nigh ae Neva ae Neva hae ligak Iho
Pinus lambertiana....... FO NZO. FOUR ZO 7O 24. 70m | ZOn 1S 2in| LOMe | SOmn Es
INGWES (OE BOHUCDs bo 00 bape 6 44 |52 |24 |54-|36 |54 |44 |52 |96 | 2 |50 |48
Sequoia washingtoniana...|16 |18 |16 | 6 |14 |14 |16 |18 |16 j|24 |22 I
Tsuga heterophylla....... 66 I (0) fo) fo) Oo |66 I 144 |42 |56 8
IPT CE GRSLERCTUSUS oe 22 |60 |18 .|64 |14 |36 |22 |60 |r8 |64 |I8 [64
Pseudotsuga taxifolia |
QWash Di atisre roe By NX} NBA GAL lta NOB lan 198 las 44 36 48
AMUSE KAS A oblaco bo oo B16 35-9 28.6|/31.7|/27.9|30.0/30.1/38.7 25.5/40.4 27.9 40.7 27.0

Tables similar to X, XI, and XII were constructed showing the
effect of these habitat factors upon the germination per cent. of
the species. This table is not given but the most significant facts
which it shows are given here and in a later table. It is interesting
to note that of the 37 species used in the experiments the highest

* Catalpa speciosa and Tsuga heterophylla not included in averages of
light cultures. Catalpa speciosa not included in soil-texture averages.

Germination of Forest Trees 61

germination per cent. did not always occur under the influence of
the same conditions. Considering all factors and all degrees of
these factors the highest germination per cents. occurred as
follows:

Hitter p etic lame ern Nee ete aiey ce TOL UN nes GON ais ais ve ecaie'e Fes 3
Ihnvimechtimn sImaGle .cccccducusvcvusocesdomucer SEAR AOE 5
itadenisee shade arma nae mira nmer one ote suc ed ene | See | II
Usaha de 8 Na Sich eR es REE ee re ee 12
litgl asic SL Re ih tae ene ols ceoiae eG Ent CAC Oe En ee ee 4

AGEN ia BE Ra BING iphone ain can a aS An Br

The distribution of these species in the three groups as de-
termined by soil moisture is not significant. The only interesting
fact to be found is that no mesophilous species germinated highest
in the gravel.

TABLE XIII
SUMMARY OF THE Beginning of Germination By NUMBER OF SPECIES
Light
Number of Species |
Germinated First in oes Total
Xerophilous Siiloue & Mesophilous

Oj Denelichitee eer 0.33 Be BR 0.50 Boiky/
Medium shade......... 2.33 2.33 T.00 5.07
Dense shade........... II.34 8.33 5.50 25.16
MO talhcreet ahi fists. te 14.00 13.00 7.00 | 34.00

Soil Moisture

Daye Soller ere eins ores oR Petes Rae BoB
Medium wet soil....... 3.83 0.50 ae 4.33
Wie tisolte years am oie 8.83 12.50 cyys 21.34
MMO talleses ete re asreceyou I4.00 13.00 See 27.00
Soil Texture
NG Oa 0h So he ome Ua ee oes | 2.50 Beit] 2.50 | Clery,
SSG Oi ohate ore oe GSe earn 4.00 eee) 3.00 | 12.17
Graveleeoe sas er ake 7.50 3.66 1.50 12.66
HINO Cel aw sas thease eave, 6 I4.00 II.00 | 7.00 32.00

62 Richard H. Boerker

Tables XIII, XIV, and XV take the same data as presented in
previous tables but the results are given by number of species
rather than by average numbers. The number of species in each
group which performed certain things under certain conditions
are given without respect to the name of the species. This is
perhaps a better way of drawing conclusions than to use average
figures. Each species is counted in its proper column; if a
species, for example, germinated simultaneously in two cultures
it counted one half in each column.

TABLE XIV
SUMMARY OF THE Length of the Germination Period By NUMBER OF
SPECIES
Light
Number of Species
Shortest Germination =
Period in : Xeromeso- , Total
Xerophilous philous Mesophilous

Openvlightiaeee aes 7.00 5.00 2.50 14.50
Medium shade ........ 4.50 3.00 3.50 II.00
Denseshadereme rac 2.50 5.00 I.00 8.50
Rotalccere ee ewes 14.00 13.00 7.00 | 34.00

Soil Moisture

IDIAY Soil, ciao Sa ob ooomee 12.00 ae ta 12.00
Medium dry soil....... I.00 12.00 in So 13.00
NVietisoilman car WD ayer 1.00 1.00 Neen 2.00

ANCoy cel eae crs tn oat ter ara T4.00 13.00 esege 27.00

Soil Texture

ETOP ne bhyais has out ieee aaa a 3.83 4.00 3.00 10.83

Sela a ieee eae aha Aes 3.00 2.00 9.33

Grav ele ccN eu ene 5.83 4.00 2.00 I1I.83
|

MOtaley can SU eet 14.00 | 11.00 7.00 32.00

Out of 34 species 31 germinated first in either of the two
shade cultures and only 3 began their germination in the open
light. The tendency to germinate first in the shade is more
marked in the case of the xerophilous and the mesophilous species
and less marked in the xero-mesophilous. Out of 27 species,

Germination of Forest Trees 63

over 21 germinated first in the wet soil. In both the xerophilous
and the xero-mesophilous species the tendency is to germinate
first in the wet soil. In the experiments on soil texture the
tendency is for the xerophilous species to germinate first in the
gravel and sand, for the xero-mesophilous to germinate first in
the sand, and for the mesophilous species to germinate first in
the sand and loam. This is a most interesting result, in view of
the moisture and air conditions in these soils. On the whole the
tendency is for most of the species to begin germinating in the
sand and gravel; about 25 out of 32 species began germinating in
either of these two kinds of soils. In the soil texture data it is
interesting to compare the germination of xerophilous and meso-
philous species in the gravel. Such a comparison shows 7.50
xerophilous species, germinated first in the gravel and only 1.50
mesophilous species.

From Table XIV it is apparent that out of 34 species 14.5
showed the shortest germination period in open light and that the
number of species of this kind decreases as the intensity of the
light decreases. In other words shade increases the length of the
germination period. In the soil moisture experiments the
shortest periods were in 25 species out of 27 found in the dry
or the medium wet soil. In the soil texture experiment the
species are very evenly distributed. Loam and gravel, the two
extreme soils from the standpoint of soil moisture and soil aera-
tion, show the greatest number of species and the sand culture
shows the least. This fact is in harmony with the idea that
favorable conditions, such as we found in the light and the soil
moisture experiments, lengthen the period of germination.

Table XV shows that out of 14 drought-enduring species 12
reached their greatest germination per cent. in the shade; out of
13 xero-mesophilous species 10 reached their highest per cent. in
the shade; and out of 8 mesophilous species 7 reached their
highest per cent. in the shade cultures. Out of a total of 35
species, 29 germinated highest in the shade cultures. Out of 27
species tried in the soil moisture experiments 23 germinated
highest in the wet soil and 4 highest in the medium soil. None
reached their highest per cent. in the dry soil cultures. Among

64 Richard H. Boerker

the xerophilous species the highest per cents. are in the loam and
sand, among the xero-mesophilous species the highest per cents.
are in the sand while in the mesophilous species the highest per
cents. are in the sand and loam. Out of 34 species, 18.5 ger-
minated highest in the sand, thus showing the value of this class
of soil for seed germination.

TABLE XV
SUMMARY OF THE Final Germination Per Cent. By NUMBER OF SPECIES.
Light
Number of Species
Greatest Germination Total
Per Cent in z : Xeromeso- f
Xerophilous philous Mesophilous
@Openvlightt: -seceesa 2.00 3.00 T.00 6.00
Medium shade......... 3.00 7.00 2.50 I2.50
Denseishadeseeecmccne: 9.00 3.00 4.50 16.50
MO tal psec eee 14.00 I3.00 8.00 35.00

Soil Moisture

IDS Ay ion erie siya cree 0.00 ates BR 0.00
Medium wet soil....... 3.00 I.00 nays 4.00
Wietssoilians.cricus cieeer II.00 12.00 Breese 23.00

MO talc Boia a etecetake 14.00 13.00 aoe 27.00

Soil Texture

1 E70 ye coluen eres of eecanien eects 6.00 I.00 2.50 9.50
Sat Gr ereevsa dhe ioxs ai share geen 5.00 8.00 5.50 18.50
Gravieliccn 25 scutes 3.00 2.00 I.00 6.00

Ota sac ce ansteaentieroe I4.00 II.00 9.00 34.00

THE EFFECT OF HABITAT FACTORS UPON STEM AND ROOT
DEVELOPMENT

Following the experiments upon germination, some of the
species were grown for several months for the purpose of ob-
taining root and stem measurements. Since damping-off re-
duced materially the number of seedlings as time went on, the
number of plants upon which final measurements could be taken
was naturally reduced. Hence the results are not based upon as
many measurements as was originally intended.

Germination of Forest Trees 65

The species retained for this work were Pinus ponderosa (S.
D.), Robimia pseudacacia, Quercus rubra, and Pinus strobus.
Stem and root measurements were taken upon the first three of
these species and stem measurements only upon the last one.
Each measurement represents the average of 10 representative
plants, except in case of Quercus rubra where from 3 to 14
plants were used depending upon the number available. The
measurements of the stems of Pinus ponderosa and Robima
pseudacacia were taken at two different ages, namely at the age
of two and three months, but the plants used at the age of three
months were not the same ones used at the end of two months.
Hence in the data the three months’ old plants are not necessarily
larger than the two months’ old plants, although they usually are.
Root measurements of Pinus ponderosa and Robinia pseudacacia
were taken at the end of three months. Both stem and root
measurements for Quercus rubra were taken at the age of five
months.

The effect of light on stem and root development is shown in
the following table:

Tue Errect oF Light on Stem AND Root DEVELOPMENT

Conifers
Stem Measurements Root Measurements
P. ponderosa P. strobus | P. ponderosa (3 Mos.)
Degrees
2 Mos., 3 Mos., 2 Mos., Tap, Laterals,
Cm, Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm.
Opentlight ge pete 2.76 2.59 4.31 5-93 enti
Medium shade............ 2.90 Bos 5-50 5.80 62
Dense shade.............-. 3.50 be 6.35 Ae
Hardwoods
Stem Measurements Root Measurements (Tap)
R. pseudacacia QO. rubra | Rob. pseud.| QO. rubra
Degrees
2 Mos., 3 Mos., 5 Mos., 3 Mos., 5 Mos.,
Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cn.
O) emai gta. en staal erels ee 6.00 7.02 9.40 9.64 13.8
Medium shade........... 5.80 5.05 7.30 7.16 10.2
Dense shade............:. 5-00 G52 6 BOO GOON ss TOL

66 Richard H. Boerker

From these tables it will be seen that Pinus ponderosa increases
its length of stem with a decrease in light intensity both at the
age of two and at three months. This is likewise true for Pinus
strobus. For Robinia pseudacacia, however, both at the age of
two and three months, there is a striking decrease in stem height
with a decrease in light intensity. Quercus rubra behaves the
same way, except that the length of stem is greater in the medium
shade than in the dense shade. This development is shown very
well by the accompanying photographs.

In the case of all species it is strikingly shown that the length
of the tap root and the total length of the laterals decrease with
decrease in light intensity. .

In so far as the stem and its relation to light is concerned it
is quite evident that hardwoods behave differently from conifers.
As has been pointed out conifers tend to increase their height ~
growth with decrease in light intensity while hardwoods tend to
decrease this growth with decrease in light intensity. Evidently -
conifers can adapt themselves to these unfavorable light condi-
tions better than hardwoods. In-the hardwoods the reciprocal
relation of roots and stem in their dependence upon light is strik-
ingly shown.

Tue Errect oF Soil Depth upon Stem AND Root DEVELOPMENT

Conifers
Stem Measurements Root Measurements
Deerecsisollbenth Pinus pond. P.strobus | P. ponderosa (3 Mos.)
2 Mos., 3 Mos., 2 Mos., Tap, Laterals,
Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm.
IDES DRe es ata Lanse ae 2.85 2.69 4.35 9.51 | 47
Mie dimen Sates aoe eae 2.706 2.59 4.31 BO || apie
Shallow: hae eee 2.60 2.68 4.25 R07 | Ar
Hardwoods
Stem Measurements Root Measurements (Tap)
Desa Soil Osis R. pseudacacia Q. rubra | Rob. pseud.| QO. rubra
2 Mos., 3 Mos., 5 Mos., 3 Mos., 5 Mos.,
Cm. Cm. m. Cm, Cm.
Dee psa ee ee ae 6.45 7.20 6.50 TSS 20.4
IMISChITIING SaGkboddognescbs 6.00 7.02 9.40 9.64 13.8
Shallowe seekers nee 5.70 6.04 5.90 3.30 6.9

Germination of Forest Trees 67

The foregoing tables show the effect of soil depth upon root
and stem development for the same species and ages of stock.

In the case of stem development in all species except Quercus
rubra, the height of the stem increases with increase in soil depth.
The increase in length between the deep soil and the shallow soil
is not very great, 7. e., in the pines it is never over 0.25 cm. and
in Robinia it is never over 1.16 cm. In Quercus rubra the
smallest height growth is in the shallow soil but the greatest
height growth is in the medium deep soil. It is interesting to
note that in all cases the greatest total length of stem and root
together is in the plants grown in deep soil.

As is to be expected the length of the tap root is materially
decreased as the soil depth decreases. In Pinus ponderosa the
tap root is 2%4 times longer, in Robima it is 5 times longer and
in Quercus it is 3 times longer in the case of the deep soil than in
the shallow soil. The length of lateral roots was taken only in
the case of Pinus ponderosa and this species is representative of
what took place in all the other species. In this species the total
length of lateral roots increased with decrease in soil depth. In
the case of Robinia this is strikingly shown in the photographs.
This indicates that whether a tree has deep-seated roots or super-
ficial roots depends largely upon the depth of the soil in which
the tree grows. The terms “ deep-rooted species” and “ shallow-
rooted species” have therefore only limited significance and the
real basis for these terms is in most cases the environment.

In the following table are given the data upon the effect of soil
moisture upon root and stem development :

Tue Errect oF Soil Moisture UPON STEM AND Root DEVELOPMENT
Conifers and Hardwoods

Stem Measurements Root Measurements ?
o A fe P , Gh. R.
Wesrecs Pinus ponderosa| Robinia pseud. Resse P. pon era
2 Mos., | 3 Mos.,| 2 Mos., | 3 Mos.,| 2 Mos.,| Tap, Wate. Tap,
Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm.
IDA Sco aieotcrera Gta eens ue bile 208 2.60 BES ies oF oe 6.004
Ie Gana es es es eich sce ee 1.80 | DOP | ABS | BILBO || Sow || wes |) BOR | aby!
VE Se oe eae nce 2.76 | 2.59 | 6.00 | 7.02 | 4.31 | 5.03 | 1-11 | 9.64 -

3 Age, 3 months.
4 Age, 2 months.

68 Richard H. Boerker

In connection with the soil moisture experiments a very in-
teresting fact was noted. Both Pinus ponderosa and Robinia
pseudacacia wilted on January I, just exactly two months after
the seeds were sown. The soil moisture at the time was de-
termined to be 6.6 per cent. It happens that at three different
times the moisture content was far below this figure. On Oc-
tober 28 the seeds were sown, on November 7 the moisture
content was 4 per cent., on the 11th it was 4.6 per cent. and again
on December 5 it fell to 6.1 per cent. Robinia pseudacacia ger-
minated first on November 9 and the Pinus ponderosa on No-
vember 26. It is evident from this occurrence that more mois-
ture is needed for the early development of the seedlings than is
necessary for germination. On the 9th of January this fact was
further emphasized. While taking root and stem measurements
and digging up the seedlings two germinating seeds of Robinia
were found. The moisture samples taken on this day show 5.7
per cent. moisture in the dry culture. As a result of this condi-
tion no stem and root measurements appear in the dry solo at
the age of three months.

In all species measured the length of the stem decreases with
diminishing moisture supply and the fact is noted that this de-
crease is greater in the case of Robinia than it is in the case of
Pinus ponderosa or Pinus strobus. This indicates the greater
drought resistance of the conifers as compared to the hardwoods.

In the case of the root development of Pinus ponderosa it is
shown that both the tap root and the total length of lateral roots
increase with diminishing moisture supply. For Robina the
result was quite different, for it was found that the length of the
tap root decreases with diminishing moisture. While Pinus
ponderosa seems to be able to develop roots to reach the lower
moisture layers of soil, Robinia is unable to do this.

The following table gives the results on the effect of soil tex-
ture upon the development of the stem and roots of these species.

The greatest length of stem in Pinus ponderosa was found to
be in the case of the two-months-old seedlings in the loam and the
next greatest length in the gravel. In the case of the three-
months-old trees the greatest length was in the gravel and the

Germination of Forest Trees 69

next greatest in the loam. In the case of Pimus ponderosa clearly
the greatest length is either in the loam or in the gravel and the
shortest length of stem is in the sand. Loam and gravel are, as
we have seen, quite opposite when it comes to moisture retentive-
ness, hence the good development of plants grown in gravel must
be attributed to other properties of gravel, namely, the amount

Tue Errect or Soil Texture upoN STEM AND Root DEVELOPMENT

Conifers
| Stem Measurements | Root Measurements
Degrees F 12 BOLAND P. strobus | uf ponderosa (3 MOS)
2Mos., 3 Mos., 2 Mos., Tap, Laterals,
Cm. m. Cm. m. Cm.
[Boater seme eb ha yh 2576 2.59 4.31 BLOB ee bake
SPAT VG Laat Cre ee ren hee | IS} 2.06 ZE8 02a 0222 | 94
(Grae ara t Bae) oy tele nc oo 2.05 2.70 4.10 Woo ALOR
£
Hardwoods
Stem Measurements Root Measurements (Tap)
Degrees R. pseudacacia Q. rubra | Rob. pseud.| Q. rubra
2 Mos., 3 Mos., 5 Mos., 3 Mos., 5 Mos.,
Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm. Cm,
a fe
|
TB OATS epee eases oN ts wine 6.00 7.02 9.40 9.64 | 13.80
MS EVI GL ps easy cores) conse ceantemaiens careers 4.75 4.75 5.90 10.85 | 15-70
(Gravelam case acon 3.80 4.25 5.70 TORT eT OFOO

of air in the soil. Pinus strobus shows the greatest height growth
in the sand. Robinia shows the greatest length of stem in the
loam and the least in the gravel. This is in peculiar contrast to
Pinus ponderosa. For growth Robinia is evidently more par-
ticular about soil moisture than about the amount of air in the
soil. Quercus rubra shows the greatest height growth in the
loam and the least in the gravel.

The tap root of Pinus ponderosa is of greatest length in the
gravel and least in the loam, and the total length of lateral roots
is greatest in the gravel. This naturally follows from the fact

that, as has been pointed out before, gravel allows water to
"percolate rapidly and the top layers dry out very soon, hence the

70 Richard H. Boerker

plant has to go deep for its moisture. In the cases of Robinia
and Quercus the greatest length of laterals and the greatest
length of the tap root was found in the sand or gravel, again
bearing out the fact that sands and gravels are poor soils for
retaining moisture.

THE RELATION OF SIZE AND WEIGHT OF SEED TO GERMINATION PER
CENT. AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT

During the process of counting between 100,000 and 125,000
seeds of various kinds for these experiments the fact that seeds
of the same species varied considerably in size came to the
author’s notice very forcibly. In his experience in the woods as
well as in seed extracting it was often noted that many factors
may affect the size of seeds. In general, it may be said that the
size of the seeds of any one species depends upon one or more of
the following factors:

ihe size of the cone:

The position of the seed in the cone.
The development of the cone.

The age of the tree.

The physiological condition of the tree.
The site upon which the tree grew.
The climatic variety of the species.

ON ae: els

It is an old experience that large cones produce large seeds
and small cones small seeds. The seeds at the extreme base and
the extreme apex of the cone are very often very much smaller
than in other parts of the cone. External conditions such as
temperature and moisture, may affect in no small degree the seed
while it is maturing, thus retarding its morphological develop-
ment. It has been observed that middle-aged trees produce the
largest cones and the largest seeds, while very young or very old
trees usually produce small cones and small seeds. The physio-
logical condition of the tree may affect the size of the seed.
Since seed crops are dependent upon the accumulated food in the
tree, it is reasonable to suppose that a paucity of such food ma-

Germination of Forest Trees We

terial will produce smaller seeds than in cases where there is a
great accumulation. It has been repeatedly shown that after a
seed year the amount of accumulated food in the medullary rays
and other food accumulation centers is reduced to a minimum.
The site upon which the tree grew, naturally, is intimately con-
nected with the amount of food material available for the embryo
of the seed. For the same reason the climatic variety of the
tree probably affects the size of the seed. At least, it is common
knowledge that the California variety of Pius ponderosa has
seeds which may weigh from three to four times as much as
those of the South Dakota variety. While most of these points
remain to be proven experimentally, they have been indicated to
the writer by various experiences and are put forth as interesting
hypotheses awaiting experimental proof. Whatever the cause of
the varying size of seeds is, it is quite evident from the amount
of literature on the subject that this phenomenon has attracted
considerable attention in recent years: both in silviculture and
agriculture. ‘

That heavier and larger seeds furnish a better germination per
‘cent. than light ones has been recognized for a long time by
European silviculturists. The physiology of germination indi-
cates that large seeds should succeed better, and repeated ex-
periments by Buhler, Friedrich, Haack, Eisenmenger, and others
establish this beyond much doubt. In fact forestry practice
throughout Europe and especially in Prussia shows that smaller
seeds produce fewer plants per hectare than larger ones in broad-
cast sowing. Favorable and unfavorable site and season condi-
tions produce far less variation in the final results in cases where
heavy seeds are sowed. ;

In 1904 Blumer (22) conducted at the seed laboratory of the
United States Department of Agriculture a series of tests upon
certain American species of tree seeds. Pinus ponderosa from
the Rocky Mountains and Pinus divaricata showed the highest
germination but Pinus ponderosa from Oregon germinated ex-
ceedingly slowly, a feature which also characterized Pseudotsuga
taxifolia from the Pacific Coast. He noted great variation in
the number of seeds per pound for the same species, especially

72 Richard H. Boerker

for Pinus ponderosa. In the case of this species the difference
was often as much as 100 per cent. ; usually the difference in other
species did not exceed 50 per cent. Schotte (23), of the Swedish
Forest Experiment Station, has shown that the size of the seed
and the size of the cones decrease with increasing age of the tree
in the case of Scotch pine. The work (24) done on seeds by
certain forest experiment stations in Europe in 1907 with spruce
showed that seeds from large cones germinate earlier than those
from small cones; that the largest cones produce the largest and
heaviest seeds and hence the largest plants; and that the effect of
the size of seed upon the life of the plant has been noticed only
in the first two years of its growth.

In Busse’s (25) experiments pine seeds were graded by means
of a Kayser centrifuge into three grades according to weight.
The heaviest seed made up 68 per cent. of the stock seed, the
medium weight seed 27 per cent. and the light seed 5 per cent.
He recommended the first grade for field sowing but said that the
third grade should not be used. Sprout tests did not show any
differences in germination results. Centgraf (26) examined 247
tests of pine seed as to the relation of the weight of 1,000 grains
to their germination. He failed to find a relation between weight
and germinative energy or germination per cent. In fact he
found that the heavier seed averaged a smaller germination per
cent. than the light ones. He concluded that the slower germina-
tion of big seed is probably due to a thicker seed coat of the
heavier seed which determines in part its weight and which takes
up water more slowly than thin coats of light seed. Some of
these results do not agree with the many experiments made by
foresters in Europe. These tests being made for commercial
purposes cannot therefore be taken as conclusive.

While the size and weight of seed has been recognized as a
factor in germination it also has been recognized as a factor in
the early development of the seedling as has been indicated in a
few instances above. One finds statements in regard to this rela-
tion quite common in silvicultural works but very little material
to substantiate these opinions. The view held by many writers is
summarized very well by Schlich in his Manual of Forestry

(27):

Germination of Forest Trees 78

In the case of one and the same species large, heavy seed are better than
light ones. The former generally possess a greater power of germination
and the resulting seedlings show a greater power of resistance against
injurious external influences and a more vigorous development which in
many species is due to the greater quantity of reserve food materials
deposited in the seed. This superiority at the first start should not be
underestimated because it is recognizable long after the seedling stage
has been passed. In many cases the dominant trees grow out of the seed-
lings which had the better start.

The relation of size and weight of seed to germination per
cent. and later development has been worked out to a much
greater degree of certainty in the case of agricultural and garden
seeds than in the case of forest-tree seeds. These facts have
already been quite firmly established in practice and already
adopted as a criterion of seed values. There is no reason why
weight of seed should not play as important a part in selecting
forest tree seeds as well as agricultural and garden seeds in the
future, as the source and germination per cent. of those seeds.

A considerable amount of work has been done by investigators
upon cereals, regarding the comparative value of heavy and light
seed used in planting. Most of the work has been done with
wheat, oats, and barley and the preponderance of evidence is in
favor of the large seed. The hypothesis upon which this work
has been based was the fact that, since the weight and size of the
seed determines largely the amount of food material immediately
available for the plantlet at the time of germination, it is reason-
able to assume that these factors might have some influence upon
the life of the plant and even upon the final crop.

Iarly experiments by Hellriegel, Wollny, Marek, and others
(28) were favorable to the view that seeds of greater size and
weight generally give more vigorous plants than those smaller
and lighter. Hellriegel was of the opinion that differences at
maturity between the product of heavy and light seeds are in-
tensified when the conditions are unfavorable. Hicks and
Dabney (28) have made a test of the relative effects of weight
upon vigor, using many kinds of seeds. In the case of radish,
vetch, sweet pea, cane, Kafir corn, rye, and oats the total weight
of the seedlings in each case favored the heavy seed. The differ-
ences in germination per cent. of light and heavy seed was not

74 Richard H. Boerker

conclusive. Only in the case of the corn was there a sufficient
difference to warrant a conclusion in favor of the heavy seed.
From the results of these experiments it seems logical to conclude
that in general more vigorous growth and consequently a better
stand in the field is secured by employing only the heavier seed.
The effect of the size and weight of seed on production has been
with no other plant so extensively studied as in the case of the
wheat. The majority of results seem to favor the view that large
and heavy seed are preferable. Zavitz (28) showed that the
yield in bushels per acre was in favor of the large plump seed.

Trabut (32) found in the case of tobacco seeds that it was
possible to affect a separation into heavy and light sorts through
the capacity of these two kinds respectively to sink and float in
water. It was found that the heavy seed produced plants which
were greener, more vigorous, and of larger size. The yield from
plants from the heavy seed was almost double that of the yield
from the light seed. Shamel (31) secured results similar to
these. Careful comparative tests of the light and heavy seeds of
tobacco have proved that the best developed and most vigorous
plants are always produced from the large, heavy seed while the
light seed produce small, irregular and undesirable plants. In
an experiment with Cuban tobacco seed Shamel found the
germination of heavy seeds almost perfect while less than five
per cent. of the light seeds sprouted. The plants from the heavy
seed grew more rapidly than those from the light seed and
reached the proper size for transplanting seven to nine days
earlier than the plants from the light seed.

In the case of cotton seed, comparative production tests of the
value of the heavy seed over the usual farm product have been
made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (30). The yields
in pounds on equal areas in South Carolina show the gain from
the use of heavy seed in two different cases to be 10.9 per cent.
and 8.25 per cent. respectively.

Bolley (29) selected large and small grains from the same
heads of wheat and found that the large grains generally pro-
duced the largest yields. Waldron (29) found that short wheat
culms, shortheads, and those with a smaller number of grains

Germination of Forest Trees 75

bear on the whole grains of a greater weight. Walls (37), work-
ing upon the size of the grain and the germ of corn, concludes
that the heaviest grains do not necessarily have the best ger-
minating qualities and that plants from the heaviest grains attain
the greatest weight, other conditions being favorable. Concern-
ing the size of the germ he finds that the germinating properties
of the kernels containing different sizes of germs may be equal;
that the largest, hardiest, and most vigorous plants come from the
kernels with the large germs; and that the plants from the
kernels with the largest germs withstand the drought best. He
says in the selection of corn, in order to insure a good stand and
a large yield none but the large germed kernels should be used.

Harris (33, 34, 35) working on the differential mortality with
respect to seed weight of beans and peas secured similar results,
though in a.different way. In the case of peas about 1,000 seeds
from each of ten early varieties were weighed and planted. In
seven cases out of ten the total weights of the seeds which ger-
minated was higher than the total weights of the seeds which did
not germinate. Cummings (38) worked with numerous kinds of
garden seeds. He quotes numerous investigators who worked on
corn, oats, wheat, sugar beets, cotton, and beans and practically
all the results show an increased yield through the use of large
seeds. He himself worked with squash, pumpkin,, lettuce,
spinach, parsley, radishes, beans, garden peas, and sweet peas.
Here too the results were almost without exception in favor of
the large seeds. Not only were the resulting yields larger and
heavier but in most cases the yield was earlier. In the case of
the radishes the large seeds produced more uniform crops one
week earlier than the small seeds. Sweet peas showed earlier
blossoming, a larger total yield of blossoms and a larger number
of blossoms of good quality. On the whole the permanent ad-
vantages accruing from large seeds are a larger and greater
number of leaves, flowers and fruits.

Present Investigations

Having on hand several climatic varieties each of Pinus pon-
derosa and Pseudotsuga taxifolia, | was prepared to determine

76 Richard H. Boerker

the effect of size upon germination per cent, for many varieties
of the same species. This study would also bring out some
interesting relations between these varieties, as for example, cor-
relating the size and weight of the seed with the site upon which
the trees grew. Ri

The largest and the smallest seeds were separated from the
stock seed and counted, weighed, planted and carefully labelled.
Of each variety of Pinus ponderosa 500 seeds were used except
in the case of the California varieties. Due to the scant supply
of these only 200 seeds of each of these were used. In the case
of the Pseudotsuga taxifolia 200 seeds of each variety were used.
After germination began counts were taken every other day.
The tables below give the size of the seeds, weight of 500 seeds,
the number of seeds per pound, the final germination per cent., and

Size AND Weight of Seed IN RELATION To GERMINATION PER CENT.
Pinus ponderosa

Total Final Per Cent

Soures or Vaviety | Sie | Mie | Seca] pete ieee ire
Gm. | Cent Seeds
South) Dakotaseaervsere Small 3-5 10.065 22,530 50.6

Large 5-9 20.720 II,000 53.6 3.0

Harney, Nee Saal eerormall 4-6 10.845 20,900 25.0 Le
m Large 6-9 | 20.720 II,000 40.2 15.2
Bitterroot, N. F., Mon. Small 5-8 | 19.050 II,900 7.6 ad
Large 8-11 | 30.400 7,450 8.0 0.4

Weiser, N. F., Idaho...| Small ART | 107-£00 13,250 60.0 ae
Large 47-10 | 29.540 7,050 84.8 24.8

Pecos Ne he Nees ees osmall 4-7 | 16.150 14,000 65.2 fae
Large 7-9 23.470 9,650 | 73.4 8.2

Califormniayees ese Small 4-II | 35.500 6,350 63.5 Bact
Large II-14| 67.000 3,385 73.5 10.0

PG eT ENUA RAS ems ee Small 7-10 | 26.000 8,725 8.0 Bs
Large |10-14| 77.600 2,900 84.0 70.0

Pseudotsuga taxifolia

Caribou, N.F., Idaho...| Small ae 6.040 aa 225) || Bee
Large |) 5. 8.290 mets 42.5 10.0
Pecos Nae Nel ieaer ies Small la eee 5.450 er 65.0 Dee
Large | AS 7.850 aes 69.0 4.0
Wiashinetontmemcnceroe Simmel | 5c 3.780 ee 16.5 |
Warcem wean: 6.450 wad 16.0 O55
COMOPGIO> os d00500s000 Smalls. 3-750 cea 79.0 aan
Ware ern tae 6.980 Hey, 88.0 | 9.0
Madison, iN: Bey Montes) small) is: 3.350 ak 43-5 Beas
Large ae 6.630 Liga 50.0 6.5

Germination of Forest Trees HG

the per cent. in favor of the large seeds. In converting grams
to pounds it was assumed that 453.6 grams equals one pound.
The germination period for Pinus ponderosa was 120 days and
for Pseudotsuga taxifolia 100 days.

_ From these tables it will be seen that in every variety of Pinus
ponderosa the final germination per cent. is in favor of the large
seeds. In the case of Pseudotsuga taxtfolia every variety except
one shows a final per cent. in favor of the large seeds.

It is well known that there are definite climatic differences
between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast. The most
conspicuous proof of this is in the flora of these regions. In
general the Pacific coast is inhabited by relatively mesophilous
vegetation, especially near the coast, while the vegetation of the
Rocky Mountains is more xerophilous in nature. Again, the
Rockies themselves show marked differences in this very respect
in travelling from south to north and from east to west.

Probably the best way of studying the effect of great climatic
variations upon vegetation is to use polydemic species such as we
are considering here. Pinus ponderosa and Pseudotsuga taxi-
folia are conspicuous examples of this class of species. It is
well known that both these species reach a better development on
the Pacific coast than in the Rocky Mountains. It is likewise
well known that they reach a far better development in the
northern Rockies than in the southern. As a proof of this we
have but to go to volume tables of these species in the Woods-
man’s Handbook by Graves and Ziegler. In the case of Pinus
ponderosa three tables are given, one for the Black Hills, one for
Arizona, and one for California and Montana. In studying
these tables it will be seen that the maximum heights and
maximum diameters and the average and maximum heights for
a given diameter increase steadily in going from the Black Hills
to California. In the case of the Douglas fir the same thing is
true in considering the volume table for Idaho and Wyoming
and that for Washington and Oregon. In the order of their
favorability for tree growth, as manifested by these species these
regions arrange themselves in the following order, the least favor-
able being given first:

78 Richard H. Boerker

Black Hills

Arizona and New Mexico

Colorado and Wyoming

Idaho and Montana

Washington, Oregon, and California.

It is a striking fact in the case of Pinus ponderosa that the
size and weight of the seed and their manner of germination
follow exactly this same order. The smallest seeds come from
the Black Hills and New Mexico and the largest from California ;
the total weight of 500 seeds is least in the case of the Black
Hills variety and greatest in the California variety, hence the
number of seeds per pound is greatest in the former and smallest
in the latter variety. Furthermore, germination begins sooner,
the germination period is shorter and the germination curve rises
more rapidly in the case of the South Dakota and New Mexico
variety than in the case of the Pacific coast variety. Some of
these striking relations between seeds and site are also shown by
Pseudotsuga taxifolia. This species shows all these relations
except those of weight of seed and number of seeds per pound.
There seems to be no definite relation in this respect.

On page 79 the germination curves of the climatic varieties of
Pinus ponderosa and Pseudotsuga taxifolia are given and they
illustrate very forcibly what has been said above concerning the
behavior of these curves.

In order to determine the effect of the size of the seed upon
the size of the seedling shortly after germination, the seedlings
were dug up very carefully as they were counted and taken to the
laboratory and measured. The total length of the hypocotyl and
tap root was taken in each case, the seed being excluded from the
measurement. These measurements were kept separate for the
small and large seeds and the results are given below:

Pinus ponderosa (Idaho)—Age, 2 Days
200 seedlings from small seeds averaged ............... 3.07 cm.

200 seedlings from large seeds averaged ............... 3.90 cm.

These 400 seedlings were classified according to their total length
as follows:

Germination of Forest Trees

Tue Errect or Climatic Varieties UPON GERMINATION

i

. 1a

eet

Fic.1. The germination curves of Pseudotsuga taxifolia.

Fic. 2. The germination curves of Pinus ponderosa.

80 Richard H. Boerker

Seedlings from Seeds

Size, Cm. Small Large
OFONS Di: Mou eure eee age ane 2 (0)
OGG Atco ee eee Beers 10 (0)
DATS TS reese eae aoe Neem Nera 0G/ 6
TO 22 Opes aeiavacon sao eae se irs 26 14
PIS aa HAA eee aot ng HOS eT 24 19
21G= 3 One eine ae ae te ae 25 25
Pee yh ele cas a es eer nts ae 30 26
Ee Gear I Oa ater reas RUNS cnn eee aN 23 ait
71S Remo iis Sah acter a a eS ea 15 17
AIGASIO marten cco mene abe ie alay tnetaere II 15
GT = Gu SRG ren siewtt ger soeeataaeas Ae gs Mika pane tees 8 13
OHO! O Sia eteeacon sap eon cone atone evarortore 4 12
ORT SONG rere eo tere eer: 2 9
ONG O ier ten mnertoen Crete corn oricclo ume (0) 8
GAs a iin Sipe aen eee mais A eae eter e is ES (0) 2
FE OOO rsa est eee REST I 2
Sole BrG ee eas oeecnens ecco eemeaee I (0)
CoH ONO erhnin EMRIs ai ocaa Sue OceG tno I I
SIRO tall ee, Ss SONS ee ea here Waeta 200 200

It will be seen that most of the plants from the small seeds fall
between the limits 0.6 and 5.0 while most of the plants from the
large seeds fall between the limits 1.6 and 6.0. In other words a
greater per cent. of small plants were found among the plants
that germinated from the small seeds. The average difference
in size of 200 plants of each kind was 0.84 cm. in favor of the
plants from the large seeds.

The measurements taken for another climatic variety of Pinus
ponderosa were as follows: .

Pinus ponderosa (South Dakota)—Age, 4 Days

35 seedlings from small seeds averaged .................. 4.6 cm.
Br seedlings mom langelseeds averageds.. 4. 5.6 cm.

Here there is a difference of I.0 cm. in favor of the seedlings
from the large seeds.
Similar measurements were taken in the case of Pseudotsuga
taxifolia:
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (New Mexico)—Age, 4 Days

100 seedlings from small seeds averaged ................ 3.58 cm.
100 seedlings from large seeds averaged ................ 4.27 cm.

Germination of Forest Trees : 8I

These 200 seedlings were classified according to their total length
as follows:

Seedlings from Seeds

Size, Cm, Small Large
CORON te che eoucne mie Merete esc ete tak hoe 0 (a)
TAL OC Sey eRe Abe tae a eee (6) (0)
TST SY SRC a te en Se a oe I 0)
HRW PUOMRrc Fevers ave fe aianita. Emer Bare ae 9 3
IRN ND pes opsber veep ecm eA tee, acheter ane Ti 9
2 OSE) (0) es ee are SL OTN 20 8
SUIS, 1 ENE ede ge a eae wR coe ee 19 12
SASHA Ans Se ego ie een AD 12 12
AA TALIS a he 2 oR pa A a en EU rel 180) 17
POE O a eit noah ns aires PRS nd aT 12
ee Se aicrctue laren ieon titers meee te es 5 II
LOR OlO nme uk wiitine WiLL RT ah. 5 7
INTE ONG Ma Kanes ne eee Ae Nyy I 6
ETO SOs RE IE pane area (0) 2
AFIS Ia Stee ROAR eS HR aU fo) I
ANG} Ee (MOR Stee A a pasa oP Aegan ea ea 100 100

Tt will be seen from this table that most of the seedlings from
the small seeds fall between the limits 2.6-s.0 while most of the
seedlings from the large seeds fall between the limits 3.1-5.5.
Just as in the case of Pinus ponderosa above we see that the
greater per cent. of small seedlings are found among the seedlings
that germinated from small seeds. The average difference in
size of 100 plants of each kind is 0.69 cm. in favor of the plants
from large seeds.

The measurements taken for another climatic variety of Pseu-
dotsuga taxifolia were as follows:

Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Colorado)—Age, 4 Days

31 seedlings from small seeds averaged ................. 3.4 cm.
76 seedlings from large seeds averaged ................. 3.9 cm.

Here again there is a difference of 0.5 cm. in favor of the large
seeds. In comparing Pseudotsuga taxifolia with Pinus ponderosa
it is found that the size of the seed makes a greater difference in
the case of the latter species than in the case of the former. Also,

82 Richard H. Boerker

the difference in both cases is greater for the variety that comes
from the drier climate, that is, the South Dakota variety of Pinus
ponderosa shows a greater difference than the Idaho variety and
the New Mexico variety of Pseudotsuga taxifolia shows a greater
difference than the Colorado. ‘The data here presented upon this
phase of the problem, however, are not sufficient to warrant
conclusions.

GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

I. The Effect of Habitat Factors upon Germination

1. Shade decreases evaporation and transpiration and thereby
increases the Soil-moisture content of the superficial soil layers.
This increase in soil moisture content is best shown by the ac-
companying diagram. ‘This conclusion agrees with the results
obtained by Stewart and Hasselbring who grew tobacco in shade
tents.

2. Shade accelerates germination, that is seeds germinate
sooner in the shade than in the light. This acceleration is due
to the increase in sotl-moisture content spoken about above.

Oo

opey medium deyse
light Shade shade

Diagram showing soil moisture content in the three light cultures.

Germination of Forest Trees 83

Burns reached the conclusion that shade reduces the temperature
of the soil and delays germination. Evidently there is a delicate
balance between soil moisture and soil temperature, so that a
slight deficiency in either might delay the germination process.
In Burns’s case the temperature of the soil was so low, that in
spite of the fact that there was sufficient soil moisture, germina-
tion was delayed. In the present investigations soil temperature
was kept at an optimum and measured differences in soil moisture
were sufficient to result in an acceleration of germination in the
shade cultures. One unfortunate fact about Burns’s work was
that he failed to take into account soil moisture. In his experi-
ments it must be assumed that there was sufficient soil moisture
for germination. But there is nothing in his report which does
not indicate that there was too much soil moisture. The recip-
rocal relation between. soil temperature and soil moisture is well
known. Furthermore there is an intimate relation between soil
‘moisture and soil aeration and germination. Such factors as
these were evidently not taken into account to explain the delay
in germination in the experiments cited.

3. Shade increases the length of the germination period. This
bears out to a certain extent Pittauer’s experiments which showed
that germination proceeds more rapidly in the light than in the
shade.

4. The germination curve of seeds sown in the shade rises more
rapidly than the curve of seeds sown in the light. This con- ©
clusion does not agree with the results obtained by Pittauer.

5. The final germination per cent. is usually Iigher in the case
of seeds sown in the shade than those sown in the light. This
conclusion, based upon abundant evidence, is not in accord with
some work done by Atterberg which showed a greater germina-
tion per cent. in the presence of light than in the absence of it.

6. Light plays absolutely no part in the germination of tree
seeds; in fact shade has been found to be exceedingly beneficial
to germination, other factors being equal. In the work carried
on by Burns already referred to, there are at least two state-
ments that a certain amount of light is necessary for satisfactory
germination. Whether he means to imply by the term “light ”

84 Richard H. Boerker

merely the luminous energy or the heat energy of the sun or both
is difficult to say. Asa general thing it is impossible to have light
energy without a certain amount of heat energy, but heat and
light affect plants so differently that the final effect of these
factors is easily recognized. It is important to keep these two
concepts separate in order to avoid confusion. Graves also makes
the statement that light is necessary for the germination of
Western White pine. ~ It is inconceivable how luminous energy
can play any part in germination, especially when the seeds are
below the ground; it is likewise difficult to conceive what possible
effect light could have if it did reach the seed.

7. An inadequate supply of soil moisture delays germination.

8. An inadequate supply of soil moisture decreases the length
of the germination period.

g. A lack of soil moisture decreases the final germination per
cent.

10. The germination curves of seeds sown in wet soil rises
much more rapidly than that of seeds sown in dry soil.

I1. Xerophilous species begin germination first, xero-meso-
philous germinate Jater, and mesophilous germinate Jast.

12. ‘The germination period of xerophilous species is shorter
than that for either the xero-mesophilous or the mesophilous
species.

13. In xerophilous species germination is accelerated in the
gravel and sand; in mesophilous species it is accelerated in loam
and sand. In general germination is accelerated in sand and
gravel due not to the amount of soil moisture in these soils (see
accompanying diagram) but to the amount of oxygen in the soil.

14. The germination period is longest in the sand.

15. The germination per cent. is usually highest in the sand.

16. The rise of the germination curve of seeds sown in sand
is usually more rapid than of seeds sown in loam or gravel.

17. According to the table on page 29 of this report the volume
of air space in a given volume of soil is about 39 per cent. for
gravel, 33..per cent. for sand, and 53 per cent. tor loam. Ingthe
accompanying diagram is shown the amount of capillary water in
these soils at the time of watering and twenty-four hours later.

Germination of Forest Trees 85

This diagram shows very strikingly the water retaining capacity
of these three soils. Not only do sand and gravel hold less mois-
ture at the time of watering but they lose a much greater per
cent. of it in the course of twenty-four hours than does loam.

Sand grave/

Diagram showing:
L]soil moisture per cent. at time of watering;
fj soil moisture per cent. twenty-four hours later.

When we consider the amount of air space in these soils and the
amount of soil moisture each retains, the fact that loam usually
contains a great deal of moisture and very little air space and that
gravel contains very little moisture and a great volume of air
Space is very strikingly shown.

86 Richard H. Boerker

Il. The Effect of Habitat Factors upon Stem and Root
Development

1. Pinus ponderosa and Pinus strobus show increased height
growth with dimimshing light intensity. This conclusion bears
out the results secured by Nikolsky who worked with pine and
spruce and Burns who worked with Pinus strobus. On the other
hand Badoux showed that pines decrease their height growth
with increasing shade; but these trees were grown to a height of
about six feet while Nikolsky and Burns experimented with much
smaller stock.

2. Robinia pseudacacia and Quercus rubra show a decrease in
height growth with diminishing light intensity.

3. Pinus ponderosa shows a decrease in length of tap root and
in total length of laterals with dimimshing light intensity. These
results again bear out the conclusions of Nikolsky and Burns.

4. Robinia pseudacacia and Quercus rubra show a decrease in
length of tap root and total length of lateral roots with decreased
light intensity.

5. Pinus ponderosa, Robinia pseudacacia, Pinus strobus, and
Quercus rubra show increased height growth with an increase in
soil depth. :

6. Pinus ponderosa, Robima pseudacacia, Pinus strobus, and
Quercus rubra show an increase in length of tap root but a
decreased development of lateral roots with increased depth of
soil.

7. Pus ponderosa, Robinia pseudacacia, and Pinus strobus
show a decrease in height growth with a decrease in the soil
moisture supply.

8. Pius ponderosa shows an increase in length of tap root
and an increase in total length of lateral roots with diminishing
soil moisture content.

9. Robinia shows a decrease in length of tap root with a de-
crease in soil moisture supply.

10. Pinus ponderosa shows the greatest height growth in the
loam and gravel, but Pinus strobus shows the greatest height
growth in the sand.

it. Robinia pseudacacia and Quercus rubra show the greatest

Germination of Forest Trees wakes 7!

height growth in the loam and the Jeast in the gravel. Compar-
ing this conclusion with No. 10 it is interesting to see that the
conifers do well in either sand, loam or gravel, but that the hard-
woods do best in loam only.

12. Pinus ponderosa, and Quercus rubra show the greatest
length of tap root and greatest length of lateral roots in the gravel
and the shortest length in the loam; Robima pseudacacia shows
the greatest length of tap root in the sand and least in the loam.
In other words, root development is usually greatest in the gravel,
and least in the loam. This conclusion agrees in part with
Tolsky’s results that pine in black soils develop vertical roots but
in sand develop a greater spread of lateral roots.

13. As far as height growth goes it is evident that pines, on
account of their greater drought resistance, may grow as well in
sand or gravel, or even attain a greater height in sand or gravel
than in loam; while hardwoods which prefer moister soils grow
best in loam. That root development is greatest in gravel is due
undoubtedly to the fact that water quickly percolates through this
soil and hence the roots have to go deep for the moisture.
Reference to the diagram on page 85 will bring out these rela-
tions more clearly.

Ill. The Relation of Size and Weight of Seed to Germination
and Early Development.

1. Large seeds of Pinus ponderosa and Pseudotsuga taxtfolia
produce a higher final germination per cent. than small seeds.
This conclusion contradicts the results of Busse and Centgraf
who found no relation between size of seeds and germination per
cent., but it proves the contentions of many old silviculturists
that large seeds produce a higher germination per cent.

2. At the age of from 2 to 4 days large seeds of Pinus pon-
derosa and Pseudotsuga taxtfolia produce larger seedlings than
small seeds. This conclusion proves at least in part Schlich’s
statement on page 73 concerning the use of large seeds in plant-
ing and nursery work and bears out the contentions of practicing
foresters in Europe that large seeds should be used in field
sowing. ‘This conclusion likewise agrees with the mass of evi-
dence collected in connection with many cereal and garden vege-

88 Richard H. Boerker

table seeds, namely that the use of large seeds results in a better
all round later development and a greater final crop.

3. The Rocky Mountain varieties of Pinus ponderosa produce
smaller seeds, their germination begins earlier, their germination
period is shorter, and their germination curves rise much more
rapidly than in the case of the Pacific coast varieties of this
species.

4. Except for the size of the seed, the same relations hold for
the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast varieties of Pseudotsuga
taxifolia. Blumer noted the slow germination of Pinus pon-
derosa and Pseudotsuga taxifolia from the coast and he also
noted the great difference in size of the seed of Pinus ponderosa.
These observations are corroborated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Clements, F. E. Research Methods in Ecology, Lincoln, 1905.

2. Zon, R., and Graves, H. S. Light in Relation to Tree Growth. U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Bul. 92, 1911.

3. Hasselbring, H. The Effect of Shading on the Transpiration and
Assimilation of the Tobacco Plant in Cuba. Bot. Gaz., 57, 1914.

4. Stewart, J. B. Effects of Shading on Soil Conditions. U. S. Dept.
Agric., Bureau of Soils, Bul. 39, 1907.

5. Haak, J. Die Priifung des Kiefersamens. Zeitschrift fir Forst- und
Jagd-wesen, April, May, 1912.

6. Pittauer, E. Uber den Einfluss verschiedner Belichtung und Extremen
Temperaturen auf den Verlauf der Keimung forstlichen Saatgutes.
Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, April, May, 1912.

7. Graves, H. S. The Place of Forestry among Natural Sciences. Sci-
ence, N. S., XLI.: 117, 1915.

8. Tolsky, A. P. Work of the Forest Experiment Stations of Russia.
Review in Forestry Quarterly, III, 1905.

9. Burns, G. P. Studies in Tolerance of New England Forest Trees.
Vt. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bul. 178, 1914.

10. Haberlandt, G. Physiological Plant Anatomy. English edition trans-
lated from fourth German edition, 1914.

-11. Coulter, J. M., and Barnes, C. R., and Cowles, H. C. A Textbook of
Botany, IgIt.

12. Clements, F. E. Plant Physiology and Ecology. New York, 1907.

13. Timiriazeff, T. A. The Life of the Plant, 1912. ,

14. Shull, C. A. The Oxygen Minimum and the Germination of Xan-
thium Seeds. Bot. Gaz., 52, 1911.

15. Shull, C. A. Semipermeability of Seed Coats. Bot. Gaz., 56, 1913.

16. Davis, W. E., and Rose, R. C. The Effect of External Conditions

17.

18.

33.
34.

35.

36.
37.

38..

Gernunation of Forest Trees 89

upon the After-ripening of the Seeds of Crataegus mollis. Bot.
Gaz., 54, 1912.

Eckerson, S. A Physiological and Chemical Study of After-ripening.
Bot. Gaz., 55, 1913.

Shull, C. A. The Role of Oxygen in Germination. Bot. Gaz., 57,

IOT4.

. Atwood, W. M. A Physiological Study of the Germination of Avena

fatua. Bot. Gaz., 57, 1914.

. Crocker, W., and Davis, W. E. Delayed Germination in Alisma plan-

tago. Bot. Gaz., 58, 1914.

. Crocker, W. The Réle of Seed Coats in Delayed Germination. Bot.

Gaz., 42, 1906.

_ Amerikanische Versuche mit Kiefersamen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und

Jagd-wesen, April, 1908.

. Schotte, G. Work of the Swedish Forest Experiment Station. Re-

view in Forestry Quarterly, IV.: 51, 1906.

. Die Zuchtwahl im Forstbetriebe und die Bestandespflege. Allg. Forst-

und Jagd-zeitung, December, 1907.

. Busse, J. Ein Weg zur verbesserung unseres Kiefernsaatgutes. Zeit.

schrift fiir Forst- und Jagd-wesen, May, 1013.

. Centgraf, A. Uber Beziehungen zwischen Tausendkorngewicht und

Keimenergy bei Kiefersamen. Allg. Forst- und Jagd-zeitung, June,
1913.

. Schlich, W. A Manual of Forestry. Vol. IJ, London, 18o1.
. Duggar, B. M. Plant Physiology. New York, Io1tI.
. Waldron, L. R. A Suggestion Regarding Heavy and Light Seed

Grains. Am. Nat., 44, I9I0.

. Webber, H. J., and Boykin, E. B. The Advantages of Planting Heavy

Cotton Seed. U.S. Dept. Agric., Farm Bul. 285, 1907.

. Shamel, A. D. The Improvement of Tobacco by Breeding and Selec-

tion. U.S. Dept. Agric. Yearbook, 1904.

. Trabut, L. Bulletin 17, Service Botanique de Jl’Algerie. Directeur

du Service Botanique, Governement de 1’Algerie.

Harris, J. A. On Differential Mortality with Respect to Seed Weight
Occurring in Field Cultures of Phaseolus vulgaris. Am. Nat., 46,
IQI2.

Harris, J. A. Supplementary Studies in the Differential Mortality
with Respect to Seed Weight in Germinating Garden Beans. Am.
Nat., 47, 1913. ;

Harris, J. A. On Differential Mortality with Respect to Seed Weight
Occurring in Field Cultures of Pisum sativum. Am. Nat., 48, 1914.

Nobbe, F. Handbuch der Samenkunde. 1876.

Walls, E. P. The Influence of the Size of the Grain and the Germ of
Corn upon the Plant. Bul. 106, Md. Agric. Exp. Sta., 1905.

Cummings, M. B. Large Seed a Factor in Plant Production. Bul. Vt.
Agric. Exp. Sta., 177, 1914.

ery
ae
ae
is

fi
bi

: PLATE |

Fic. 1. View of the interior of the greenhouse, showing cultures and
hydrothermograph.

Fic. 2. View of the interior of the greenhouse, showing cultures and
the cheesecloth tent used for the dense shade experiments.

atta
ict ae

PLATE II

Tue Errecr or Light upon Earty DEVELOPMENT

Fic. 1. The effect of light upon the development of Pinus ponderosa
(S. D.). Ten plants each (1) grown in open light, (2) grown in medium
shade. 5@ natural size.

Fic. 2. The effect of light upon the development of Robinia pseudacacia.
Three plants each (1) grown in open light, (2) in medium shade, (3) 1
dense shade. 3% natural size.

fe

Va Peas

PLATE III

Tue Errect or Soil Depth upon Earty DEVELOPMENT

Fic. 1. The effect of soil depth upon the development of Pinus pon-
derosa (S. D.). Ten plants grown (1) in deep, (2) in medium, and (3)
in shallow soil. ™% natural size.

Fic. 2. The effect of soil depth upon the development of Robinia pseu-
dacacia. Three plants each (1) grown in shallow, (2) in medium, (3) in

y

deep soil. 1% natural size.

PLATE IV

Tue Errect oF Soil Moisture uPoON Earty DEVELOPMENT

Fic. 1. The effect of soil moisture upon the deve'opment of Pinus pon-
derosa (S. D.). Ten plants grown in (1) medium dry soil, (2) wet soil.
Y% natural size.

Fic. 2. The effect of soil moisture upon the development of Robinia
pseudacacia. Three plants grown (1) in wet soil, (2) in medium dry soil.
Y% natural size.

Bie

ca
Aaa

PLATE V

Tue Errect oF Soil Texture upoN EArty DEVELOPMENT

Fic. 1. The effect of soil texture upon the development of Pinus pon-
derosa (S. D.). Ten plants each (1) grown in loam, (2) grown in sand,
(3) grown in gravel. % natural size.

Fic. 2. The effect of soil texture upon the development of Robinia pseu-
dacacia. Three plants each (1) grown in loam, (2) grown in sand, (3)
in gravel. 4 natural size.

fit EC OF. CLINATE AND SOIL UPON
AGRICULTURE

BY RUSSELL R. SPAFFORD

Field studies in farm management are at present almost wholly
confined to measuring the profitableness of a farm business and
analyzing the effect of those factors which fall largely within the
control of the farm operator. While factors beyond individual
control have always been recognized in field work, very little at-
tempt has thus far been made to measure their influence upon
farming. It is true that with present weather, soil, botanical,
census, and farm management data only preliminary measure-
ments can be made, but nevertheless such measurements do much
toward correlating what at present are disconnected facts in agri-
cultural science. The use of these measurements in farm man-
agement appears to be of particular importance in a region of low
rainfall or low temperature. In a state such as Nebraska it is
quite impossible to analyze intelligently either our eastern or
western types of farming without first analyzing the influence of
natural factors.

The discussion which follows illustrates briefly an analysis of
the effect of a few interesting and important variations in climate
and soil. In order to give a broad veiw of this analysis the more
detailed facts secured from local data have been oriented with
respect to broad geographic principles.

The border regions of agriculture in North America, Europe,
and Asia are determined by low rainfall or low temperature. In
central United States, southern Russia, and western China suc-
cessful agricultural practices are in harmony with critically low
rainfall. In southern Canada and northern Russia they are in
harmony with critically low temperature. While moisture and
temperature are the chief concerns of border regions, soil fer-
tility is the chief concern of a region well within critical lines.

op

2 Russell R. Spafford

Figs. 1, 2, and 3 illustrate the relative importance of moisture,
soil fertility, and temperature, as limiting factors in crop pro-
duction.

=
——s :
=e

My, AN

Fic. 1. Moisture the limiting factor in the Great Plains.

Climate and soil are best described as natural factors over which,
in the large, we have little or no control. In contrast with natural
factors there are so-called artificial factors. These lie to a cer-
tain extent within the control of individuals or groups of indi-
viduals. Government, organized commerce, and the organization
of private business serve as illustrations.

In an early day people of western Nebraska and similar regions
were not inclined to look upon climate and soil as fixed. They
expected them to be greatly modified as a result of breaking new
land and growing cultivated crops. This idea lasted only so long
as they lacked actual experience with the country. A few years
of effort made it plain that to do profitable farming it was neces-
sary to conform to the natural conditions of the region. This

Q2

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 3

conformation has now reached a stage where the organization of
farm business may be used as a measure of the effective value of
climate and soil.

Fic. 2. Soil fertility the limiting factor in the east and similar agricultural
regions.

Artificial factors in Nebraska are distributed almost directly
- proportional to the people. In fact, the relation between the two
is so close that it would appear that each individual carried a unit
charge of that force necessary to produce what is termed artifi-
cial. This is well illustrated by the distribution of our towns and
railroads; also by the variation in the size of our congressional
districts and counties. If the relation between natural factors,
artificial factors, and people were not so close the analysis of the
various effects of climate and soil in this state would be more
difficult.

During the past three years (1913-1916) Farm Management
Surveys have been conducted in Merrick, Fillmore, Gage, Seward,

93

4 Russell R. Spafford

Dakota, Thurston, Richardson, Johnson, Box Butte, Phelps,
Dawes, and Kimball counties. The adaptation of farm business
to natural conditions in these different areas is striking. A con-
trast of eastern and western farming will illustrate some of the
adjustments necessary to meet a marked decrease in the effective

Fic. 3. Temperature the limiting factor in the north.

value of natural factors. Observation and measurements con-
firm the fact, that of all the elements entering into natural factors,
moisture and texture of soil are the most important in this state.

The sparse plant growth on our western uplands compared with
the more dense plant growth on adjacent valley or irrigated lands,
affords ample proof of the low effective value of moisture in
western Nebraska. From a mere observation of these facts, how-
ever, it does not follow that well-organized upland farms in
western Nebraska are unprofitable. Such facts simply indicate
that a very large area is needed to produce plant food sufficient

94

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 5

for an average family living. For example, on some of the table
lands in western Nebraska a section and a half of land at present
produces plant food about equivalent in value to that produced on
a quarter section of upland in the southeastern part of the state.

re eS Tiches

20 22)
PBETLIELELLE:, 26

OF =
ONS IED

cen, 27

[NEN
Tate LLL
mows ro 2p

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|
Hl

IE

(ZZ ZL

(ZZZLLLA

ail

BY GA.LOVELAND
U.S WEATHER BUREAU

l
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:

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f

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Seale of Shades in Inches:

WUNDERI6 61020 ‘'20to2a- = - 2 to26

Fic. 5. Average annual precipitation.

Actual measurements show that the total capital, labor, and profits
on average farms well adapted to western conditions are about the

95

6 Russell R. Spafford

same as on average farms well adapted to southeastern Nebraska.
Though a time may come when it will be profitable for people to
decrease the average size of farm or increase the average amount

eA

°
feawson| teed Ga
— a SS 7 a
FRONTIER] & ol S laoams[cuar| 2
| Saas o

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~
=
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2 mics aed 8)

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jae 8 a

Fic. 7. Congressional district, towns, and railroads. Compare the west
half of the map with the east half.

of labor per farm in these two regions, there is good reason to
believe that the ratio which now exists between them will not be
greatly affected.

96

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 7

ONE, ty tye, ”,
ONO
10,6, 4, 0,4,
COMA
4, Z
Pn WA

AMA
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ai pS
. 14.0047, 4,
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:

HARLAN

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS PER SQUARE MILE

[J tees than 2 \WO aa GV 45 10 90

2106 FEB] 12 10 48 BQ 00 ano over

‘Rural population is defined as that residing vateide of incorporated places having 2,500 inhabitants or more.

Fic, 8. Density of rural population (census 1910).

Some parts of the above discussion will be made more clear by
a graphic illustration (Fig. 10) of average southern Nebraska
farms. Soil texture and topography are much the same from
Dundy county to Richardson. The differences that exist in soils
along this scale are probably slightly to the advantage of the

“CRITICAL
LINE

i
i
!
t
---7-}
| CEOAR

’ nase

i
i pierce |

CHERRY

WAYNE

i
' H
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| Pearre iconrax! oooce

KIMBALL

FULHORE

FRONTIER "COSPE;
ib ef

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CRITICAL
LINE

Fic. 9. Counties entering into a scale of study across southern Nebraska.

97

8 Russell R. Spafford

Data ENTERING INTO A SCALE oF Stupy Across SOUTHERN NEBRASKA

County Dundy | Red Willow) Franklin Jefferson | Richardson
Raintall)s cyan 18 in. 2 in. 26 in. 29 in. 32 in.
Growing season.......... r4o d. 50 Gly |) BSS Gl 165 d. 165 d.
Harmvarearssiy sn eitrcerects 640 a. 353 a. 235 a. 189 a. 158 a.
CroplarearcaiGancmwn rane: 200 a. 200 a. 193 a. 155 a. 136 a.
Total farm capital........ $11,974 | $12,708 | $13.404 | $15,663 | $16,092
Man labor per farm....... 1.6 1.6 1.6 THO} I.6

coarser and more open soils in the western counties. With im-
portant variations in soil practically eliminated, climate in this
scale becomes the effective factor. Growing season along our

Y

ty

Seti

SS SSI SSE
JEFFERSON RICHARDSON

GUM YO MHUYWj
KBR OME
YH Yy

MME@@ lla Yo “tt edd Li
DUNDY COUNTY TYPE OF FARN RED WILLOW Co. FRANKLIN JEFFERSON RICHARDSON

Fic. 10. The organization of southern Nebraska farms. See Fig. 9.
(Labor income is a measure of the profitableness of a farm business. It
is determined by subtracting farm expenses and a fair rate of interest on
capital from the farm receipts.)

southern boundary varies from 165 to 140 days while rain-
fall varies from 32 to 18 inches. Generally speaking, rainfall
below 24 inches or growing season below 125 days becomes an
effective limiting factor in ordinary farming. Since nowhere

98

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 9

along this line the growing season falls below 140 days, the ele-
ment moisture proves to be the important limiting factor.

In the scale chosen, the size of farm varies from an average
of 158 acres in Richardson to an average of 640 acres in Dundy.
The technical use of the word farm refers to the land directly
operated by one man. He may own all the land, rent all the land,
or own part and rent part. At first thought it might appear that
farms at the western end of the scale are larger simply because
the country is relatively new. This cannot be correct, however,
for when the government first disposed of the land the average
size of farm was nearer 160 than 640 acres.

After long and trying experiences people in the western coun-
ties are more and more coming to understand that conditions
there are very different from those even a short distance east.
But regardless of this fact there is even to-day no clear idea of the
rapid change from favorable to adverse conditions after passing
the 24-inch line of rainfall. The number of acres required to
pasture a horse or cow may be used as a rough measure of this
change. To provide five months’ pasture for a mature animal in
western Nebraska requires about four times the number of acres
necessary in eastern Nebraska. From this fact alone it is not
-out of reason to infer that a decrease in the effective value of
moisture reduces the available pasture growth from I to about %.
Man is as dependent upon plant growth as are other animals.
All of the food which he consumes is derived either directly or
indirectly from plants. Since in Dundy county the effective value
of moisture is such that the total usable pasture growth is only
about %4 that in Richardson, it is not surprising to find that the
size of farm must be at least four times that in Richardson.
Many people though recognizing a decrease in native vegetation
in western Nebraska hold strongly to the idea that correct culti-
vation is the only thing necessary to produce high average yields.
All open-minded field studies in this state indicate that in general
cultivated plant growth per acre varies quite in harmony with the
growth of native vegetation. If it were true that 160 acres of
land in Dundy county naturally produced plant food equivalent
in value to that produced on 160 acres in Richardson—capital,

99

IO Russell R. Spafford

labor, and profits per acre in the two regions would be practically
equal. But when it becomes necessary to harvest, either directly
or indirectly, four quarter sections in order to gather an economic
unit of plant food, it is not surprising to find that capital, labor
and profits per acre are cut down to about one fourth.

The adjustment of farm business to conditions of climate and
soil is so complete in Nebraska to-day that it is not far wrong
to state that the price of land in area X is to the price of land in
area Y as the profitable size of farm in area Y is to the profitable
size of farm in area X. ‘This proportion is a fair index even
where the ratio of land prices is as extreme as $6.00 to $125.00°
per acre. Judging from farm surveys there is good reason to be-
lieve that at present an average profitable farm business in western
Nebraska can be conducted on about 85 per cent of the cap-
ital necessary in eastern Nebraska. This is in a large measure
due to the fact that where plant growth is sparse and farms of
necessity become large, business, educational, and social advan-
tages fall to the point where people hesitate to settle unless finan-
cial returns are proportionately increased.

ge :
AY SERRE

ALVWI19 JO 3NIVA JAILI39S439

awake
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ANIKI \\ =
eee a

DUNDY COUNTY TYPE OF FARM si RED WIL!-awW Co. FRANKLIN JEFFERSON RICHARDSON
Fic. 11. Effective value of climate measured in terms of plant food having
economic value.

IO0O

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture II

Fig. 10 might be described as artificial accounting with soils
under a range of effective moisture variations. In contrast with
artificial accounting an attempt is made in Fig. 11 to illustrate
what might be called natural accounting. The proportions of
this figure are correct in so far as the size of farm in this region
is a function of natural factors. Furthermore, since soil, tem-
perature, and sunshine are not limiting elements in this scale the
variations observed can be attributed largely to moisture.

Using the size of farm as a function of natural factors it is
possible to illustrate, with a fair degree of accuracy, the effective
value of such elements as moisture, temperature, and soil. Under
the head of soil it will be possible to isolate some of the effects
of topography and texture.

Lines I, 2, 3, 4, and 5, Fig. 12, serve as indexes to graphs shown
in Figs. 13 and 14.

Fic. 12. Key to graphs shown in Figs. 13 and 14. The soil areas indi-
cated are the ones having the greatest effect upon the trend of the graphs.

It will be observed that the rate of change in Graph No. 1, Fig.

13, increases rapidly after passing Range 22 W. Graph No. 2

indicates the rate at which size of farm changes across northern

Nebraska. In this graph a rapid increase in the rate of change is

observed just west of Range 6 W. It is significant to observe

that both graphs show a rapid rise as soon as mean annual precipi-
101

12 Russell R. Spafford

tation drops below 24 inches. If it were not for sand hills be-
tween Range 46 W and 6 W in northern Nebraska, Graph No. 2
would probably follow parallel to and 50 to 100 acres above

ACRES PER FARM

30W

Fic. 13. Graphs illustrating the rate at which size of farm changes along
east and west lines in Nebraska. (See Fig. 12, lines 1 and 2.)

Graph No. 1. Any effect due to lower temperature must lie
within this narrow margin. From these observations it would
seem that though temperature in this state has an important effect
upon certain farm enterprises, it has but comparatively little effect
upon farming as a whole. :

Graphs along north and south lines in the state (Fig. 14) will
serve as a partial check on conclusions drawn from a study of
variation along east and west lines.

Graph No. 3 across eastern Nebraska lies well east of the line
of critical moisture. But for the effect of extremely level land
reducing the size of farm near T 8 N, and for the effect of rolling
land together with slightly sandier soil increasing the size of
farm near T 24 N, there is little fluctuation. Judging from these
measurements topography has at least as important an effect upon
size of farm as temperature.

Graph No. 4 is typical of central Nebraska. A slight decrease

102

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 13

in the size of farm south of T 8 N is caused by level upland and
the Platte Valley. North of T 8 N critical moisture and sand
hills cause an abrupt increase in the size of farm.

ACRES PER FARM

a
cee

N

Fic. 14. Graphs illustrating the rate at which size of farm changes along
north and south lines in Nebraska. (See Fig. 12, lines 3, 4 and 5.)

Graph No. 5 is a composite of several drawn for western Ne-
braska. Moisture gives it its position relative to graphs No. 3 and
No. 4 while topography and soil texture are the principal elements
determining its trend.

Though the above study is based largely on Nebraska data it
has more than a local bearing. Moisture problems from southern
Texas to the head of the Mississippi river are closely related.
To the south they are influenced by high temperature, while to
the north they are modified by low temperature. From the head
of the Mississippi northwest into Saskatchewan and Alberta a

103

14 Russell R. Spafford

lobe of favorable summer temperature determines, to a large ex-
tent, the boundaries of the Canadian agricultural area recently
opened. In the southern part of this lobe the problems of low
temperature are more commonly blended with problems of low
rainfall than is true farther north.

Figs. 15, 16, and 18 illustrate the approximate location and na-
ture of critical agricultural lines in the northern hemisphere.

11 5 se 7
50 5 we wb y
401, PD. g oo
Wig 80129 £10 190 90 89 10 J ch : :
; ie. = 1 0 oe
" "7 x
4 Jf is

(e)
O
DOPCCOQ09000

aa
SS
aS ~~...

0 Critteo/ Colo,
® Cr/71CO7/ (Jea7.
N Critical Kointahh
Index to Graph

Fig. 15. Critical agricultural lines in North America.

The distribution of native vegetation relative to these lines is
very marked. The boundary lines of agricultural regions thus
far well developed follow closely the boundaries between northern

104

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 15

coniferous and broad-leaved forests, the boundaries between tem-
perate and semi-desert grass lands, and the boundaries between
northern coniferous forests and semi-desert grass lands.

10 Cr/ticg/ Cold
@Criticol 7ea7-
\CrittCa/ Fratnfe//

Index To Grapghy

Fic. 16. Critical agricultural lines in Europe.

The natural factors which give such striking characteristics
to the distribution of native vegetation give equally striking char-
acteristics to the distribution of people and the organization of
farm business. A study of graphs based upon the area of land
per person in the United States (Figs. 18 and 19), Russia (Fig.
20), and China (Fig. 21) will serve as a general index to the
tate at which the organization of farm business changes near

105

16 Russell R. Spafford

critical lines. It is interesting to observe that the rate of change
in Europe and Asia is much the same as in America, ©

OCritico/ Cole
@Crittco/ Mea?
\C rit ical Raolnlol

Fig. 17. Critical agricultural lines in Asia.

In the United States it has been a common experience of thrifty
farmers from such states as Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to fail for
a number of years while learning to farm in regions of low rain-
fall or low temperature. It is not uncommon in the drier parts
of the west to-day to hear a farmer say: “I sold my place back
east and came to this country with enough money for a good start,
but I lost it all, and now I’m just beginning to make it back.”
A review of the experiences of such men invariably reveals the

100°

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 107

ACRES
PER PERSON
Ea ee

Ly)
GREAT PLAINS Alles EASTERN UNITED STATES

Fic. 18. Land per person increases rapidly near the line of critical mois-
ture. (See Index to Graph, Fig. 15.)

ACRES.
PER PERSON
Gaara

Fic. 19. Land per person increases rapidly near the line of critical tem-
. perature. (See Index to Graph, Fig. 15.)

ACRES
PER PERSON

N.RUSSIA Miles. S.RUSSIA
ee,

° 70o

Fic, 20. Land per person from northern to southern Russia. (See Index
to Graph, Fig. 16.)

107

18 Russell R. Spafford

fact that they are to-day conducting their business on a plane
very different from that on which they made their first attempts.
Misconceptions regarding the plane of profitable business on the
adverse side of critical lines are not wholly confined to the prac-

ACRES
PER PERSON

CENTRAL CHINA rage EASTERN CHINA

° joo

Fic. 21. The effect of critical moisture in China. (See Index to Graph,
Fig. 17.) :

tical agriculturist. Scientists working on the problems of our
border regions have not infrequently had experiences somewhat
similar to those of eastern farmers. The same may be said of
large business organizations—as for example, loan companies.
It is gratifying to observe, however, that general farm experience
supplemented ‘by scientific study is gradually solving a number of
the most difficult problems peculiar to border regions.

i
i
i 1 ;
' CEDAR | i

i toro -tomon oanora.

oemsenen eal aa nd era

! i

. CUSTER 3 ' SHERMAN* HOWARD

ee | ee Et int oe a rei cee eee eco
1 1 ’ '

|
PHELPS! MEARNEY

SRE pea

ADANS i
Uo ee

Fic. 22. Insurance companies have hesitated to make loans in western
Nebraska. The solid line shows what at one time was the western limit
for the Union Central Life Insurance Company. The broken line marks
what at one time was the western limit for the Northwestern Life Insur-
ance Company.

108

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 19

A clearer understanding of what constitutes a profitable farm business
west of the line of critical moisture will in time do away with much of
the element of risk now entering into loans made on western land.

Observe the relation which lines on this map bear to lines indicated on
the following maps.

Fic. 23. The distribution of telephone lines is affected by critical mois-
ture and critical temperature. Compare the figures with Figs. 22, 24, 25.

|
|
|
|
;
|

Fic. 24. North Central States divided into four areas according to type
of farming. Division made by the Office of Farm Management, Wash-
ington, D. C., in recent fence investigations. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
Bulletin 321.) Compare this figure with Figs. 22, 23 and 25.

109

20 Russell R. Spafford

ae He
1 \
ji wy [i

i
ag panned
AZ ae

[

Fic. 25. This map is made to show the regions of more or less stabi-
lized aboriginal occupation in the United States and Canada. In the region
numbered (1) on the map, including the eastern half of the United States.
and a part of the lake and St. Lawrence region of Canada, the aboriginal
inhabitants had fixed abodes, lived in permanent houses and cultivated
crops of corn, beans, squashes and pumpkins, sunflowers and tobacco.
From their permanent villages they made excursions into adjoining re-
gions at certain seasons in quest of various desired products of the native
resources. Thus at the western border of region number (1) the vil-
lage inhabitants made hunting excursions into region number (2) in
quest of their supply of meat and other animal products, and also certain
vegetable products not available in the region of their fixed homes. They
even traveled to region number (3) for some desired products, for exam-
ple, the lodge pole pine for tent poles, and certain minerals, as obsidian,
chalcedony, bentonite, and various other earths and clays.

The tribes resident in region number (2) did not have fixed abodes for
the reason that the physical condition of the region did not favor or even
permit the cultivation of crops. The supply of their requirements was
meager in this region, and had to be sought over a greatly extended range.

The tribes of region number (4) lived in fixed abodes, subsisting by
irrigated agriculture. Thus they were found by the Spaniards, the first
comers from Europe. The native irrigation works of the region were of
great antiquity.

The California region, numbered (5), was one of secluded valleys, the
physical control producing community life in fixed abodes.

IIO

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 21

Region (6), surrounding Puget Sound, was a region of village life, the
factor of control in this case being the fisheries. The houses of this
region were built of wood from the abundant forest growth.

Region number (7), the Great Basin, and number (3), the Rocky
Mountain region, for the purpose of this discussion may be considered
similar, in that the meagerness of natural products in both necessitated a
thin and mobile population.

There remains to mention region number (8), the Northern Woodland,
in which the climatological conditions prevented aboriginal agriculture and
necessitated a mobile population, moving about with the seasonal produc-
tion of various resources which controlled their economic conditions.

(By courtesy of Dr. M. R. Gilmore.)

Compare the figure with Figs. 15, 22, 23 and 24.

A study of Fig. 26 will serve to summarize the foregoing dis-
cussion and at the same time orient it with respect to broad geo-
graphic principles. .The curves drawn illustrate the relation which
artificial factors bear to climate and plant growth.

The increase of plant growth from desert to tropical regions is
represented by an increase in the height of the shaded areas.

(a) The first graph based upon the density of plant growth
illustrates the ease with which man can gather plant food.

(b) The second graph is, in a sense, the complement of the first.
In regions where plant growth is sparse man is dependent upon
animals to convert plant food into usable form.

(c) With an increase in plant growth there is naturally an in-
crease in the number of inimical plants. In arctic or desert
regions weeds and harmful bacteria are relatively scarce and
cause man little trouble. In tropical regions they are so numer-
ous that even civilized man is at present unable economically to
control them.

(d-e) The majority of agricultural people have long been ac-
climated to temperate conditions. Any attempt to change to a
region where a normal body temperature of about 98.6° is not
easily maintained results in serious physiological disturbances.
These disturbances no doubt lower the vitality of colonists in
tropical regions to a point where it has thus far been impossible
for them to become independent of climate, and to do what, under

III

22 ; Russell R. Spafford

temperate conditions, would be a normal amount of productive
labor.

(f) Capital in arctic regions includes little more than a crude
home, land of extremely low value, dogs, and a few implements.
In temperate regions capital includes a better home, valuable land,

A Muintd ity.

Ing i

N
2
3
y
Q
N
iN
NS
BN
:
5

Termperate Agricu/ture. Within
Cold Deserrs Criffeo/ Lines.
Hot Deserts Irrigated Districts.
: Valley Lands jn Dry Pegions.

Fic. 26. The relation of artificial factors to climate and plant growth.

more domestic animals, improved implements, and a valued in-
terest in many devices for keeping in touch with people over a
wide area. In the tropics capital drops back to a level compar-
able with that in arctic regions.

D2

Effect of Climate and Soil upon Agriculture 23

(g) Organized commerce falls to the level of barter in regions
where people are scattered and productive labor runs low.

(1) Highly organized government exists in regions where labor
is much divided and people become interdependent.

Without the aid of ideas and material from a number of sources the
presentation of matter in this article would scarcely have been possible.
I am pleased therefore to make acknowledgment to the following:

Prof. H. F. Williams, Farm Management Extension; Prof. G. A. Love-
land, Meteorology; Dr. G. E. Condra, Geography and Soils; Dr. R. J.
Pool, Botany; Prof. E. Hopt, Field Crops; Dr. G. O. Virtue, Political
Economy and Commerce.

IiI—ON A NEW SUBSPECIES OF PORCUPINE
FROM NEBRASKA!

BY MYRON HARMON SWENK

Nebraska porcupines all belong to the yellow-haired species
(Erethizon epixanthum), and these animals have never been
abundant in the state. Formerly, however, they were much more
numerous than today, and enjoyed a more extended range in the
state than they do at the present time. Up to about 1885 these
animals occurred across the northern portion of Nebraska east at
least to Pierce and Madison counties, there being records of four
specimens secured along the small streams tributary to the Elk-
horn river in these two counties between 1870 and 1885. Also,
in March, 1900, a specimen was killed along the Republican river
at Orleans, Harlan county, Nebraska, by Eskey Cobb and is now
in the A. M. Brooking collection. As early as 1880 Aughey
referred to these animals as being present in the state in small
numbers only.

All of the more recent records of the occurrence of porcupines
in Nebraska have come from the counties west of the 1ooth
meridian, and mostly from the Pine Ridge of Sioux and Dawes
counties and the North Platte valley in Scottsbluff and Banner
counties. However, in this study I have carefully examined four
mounted porcupines which are in the Rees Heaton collection and
which were taken at intervals up to 1903 in Frontier and other
western counties. Also, a subadult female porcupine was cap-
tured alive with a lasso near the Roseberry ranch in the Cherry
county sandhills north of Mullen, Hooker county, September 12,
1914, by Carl Kiehl, quite away from any timber. This specimen
was taken to Omaha and sold there, whence it came into my
possession by purchase, and is now in the University collection.
In August of that same year (1914), a porcupine was killed in a

1 Publication No. 2 of the Nebraska State Biological Survey.
is

2 Myron Harmon Swenk

cottonwood grove west of the city of North Platte, Lincoln
county, about three miles from the river, according to Mr. Wilson
Tout. Mr. Tout saw the specimen, which, mnkowattaalie ly, was
not preserved.

In the winter of 1900-1901 a porcupine was reported as killed
by a ranchman in the Pine Ridge near Harrison, Sioux county,
but was not preserved, and a Plateau Lynx killed in southern
Sioux county on February 9, 1916, had numerous porcupine quills
in its head. Mr. L. M. Gates writes me that two porcupines were
caught in the Ridge near Chadron, Dawes county, during the fall
of 1915. But the center of abundance of this animal in Ne-
braska during recent years seems to be in the North Platte valley.
On January 8, 1896, a specimen was received at the University
from Scottsbluff county and was mounted for the Museum.
During the summer of 1913 Dr. R. H. Wolcott saw a porcupine
lying by the roadside in Banner county. On July 28, 1914, Mr.
P. P. Wilcox, of Minatare, Scottsbluff county, caught a porcupine
in an oats field seven miles north of the town of Scottsbluff, and
he kept the animal in captivity in the town of Minatare for a
time, but it finally chewed its way out of its cage and escaped.
At about the same time Mr. J. N. Wood, of Scottsbluff, captured
another specimen in about the same manner. On September 26,
1915, Mr. J. E. Dorothy found a fine old male porcupine in the
trees on his farm three miles east of Mitchell, Scottsbluff county,
and captured it alive. It was sent to me on September 30 and
kept alive in captivity until October 19, when it was killed and.
added to the author’s collection at the University. Later in the
fall Mr. F. C. White, a neighbor of Mr. Dorothy, found another
porcupine on his farm in a beet field and sent it alive to Hastings
College, from whence it was sent to an eastern museum. ‘These,
with other records that I have been unable to fully verify, indicate
that porcupines are yet surviving in fair numbers in extreme
western Nebraska.

In 1877 J. A. Allen pointed out the large size of the porcupines
from Wyoming and Montana? as contrasted with Alaska speci-
mens. This same characteristic apparently holds true when

2 Monog. N. A. Rodentia, D. 302.
116

A New Subspecies of Porcupine 3

British Columbia and California specimens are contrasted. A
careful comparison of the available Nebraska specimens with the
published measurements and descriptions of the various described
subspecies ofwyellow-haired porcupines, and with specimens of
the typical subspecies, convinces me that the Nebraska animal
may well be separated under the name

Erethizon epixanthum bruneri subsp. nov.
NEBRASKA YELLOW-HAIRED PORCUPINE

Type—Three miles east of Mitchell, Scottsbluff county, Ne-
braska, September 26, 1915. ¢ adult (No. 305, Collection of
State Entomologist, University of Nebraska). J. E. Dorothy,
collector.

Subspecific Characters——Similar to E. epixanthum epixanthum
Brandt,? of California, but slightly larger, with the hind feet
comparativly shorter, the general coloration paler and duller, the
under side of the tail largely or wholly brownish yellow, the nasals
broader in front and much more narrowed posteriad, the audital
bullae larger, and the sagittal, supraorbital and occipital crests less
developed, especially in the male; similar also to EF. epixanthum
nigrescens Allen,* of northern British Columbia, but slightly
larger, general coloration much paler and less blackish, and
osseous crests of skull much less developed; larger, with the
coloration paler and less yellowish than E. epixanthum myops
Merriam,® of Alaska, and differing further in the larger skull
with the brain case broader posteriorly, and other cranial char-
acters; very similar in its pale, dull coloration to FE. epixanthum
couest Mearns,® of Arizona, but with the skull much larger
throughout than in the type of that subspecies, and probably the
whole animal larger.

Color—Adult in winter pelage: Upper parts copiously clothed
with a fine, soft, woolly, black or blackish underfur which mostly
conceals the white, dark brown to blackish tipped quills, which

3 Mem. Acad. St. Petersburg, IX, pl. 1 (1835).

4 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XIX, pp. 521-567 (1903).

5 Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., Il, pp. 27-28 (1900).
6 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIX, pp. 719-724 (1807).

117

4 Myron Harmon Swenk

are abundant everywhere and densely crowded on the neck,
shoulders and hips, and become more or less tinged with yellow
basally on the sides of the lower back and rump; all of this more
or less overtopped with long, straight, coarse, bristle-like hairs
which are concolorous with the underfur all or most of their
length (pure white at extreme base), the wholly black ones being
most numerous dorsally, the others having the apical exposed one-
fourth or one-fifth very pale yellowish gray to greenish yellow,
these partly yellowish hairs few and scattered dorsally but numer-
ous and with a more pronounced yellow cast on the lower
shoulders, sides and especially the flanks, the rump and median
area of the upper side of the tail without long hairs; under parts
along the midventral line with soft, fine, sooty brownish hairs,
these becoming stiffer and white at their bases toward the sides
and rather heavily overlaid with the long bristle-like hairs of the
overfur, like those above but usually with more extensively white
bases; the long, yellowish-tipped hairs of the overfur become
stiffer and yellower over the flanks and extend down the sides
of the tail as long, very heavy, pale yellow, spinous bristles con-
cealing numerous yellowish white to white quills, the under side
of the tail with rather short, exceedingly dense and hispid or
spinous bristles which toward the base of the tail are mostly
brownish yellow but become increasingly intermixed with black,
so that the terminal one-half of the tail is blackish ; nose, forehead
to interorbital line, a ring around eyes, anterior cheeks, chin and
throat covered with short, wholly blackish or brownish hairs, these
abruptly intermixed on the forehead and cheeks posteriorly with
stiff, appressed, whitish hairs that cover small, white quills and
these developing on the occiput and nape to the normal, long
overfur hairs and quills; whiskers jet black; legs with the under-
fur brownish sooty more or less overlaid with greenish yellow to
pure gray-tipped hairs. (Description of type ¢'; September.)

Adult in summer pelage: Like the winter adult but general
color much darker owing to the reduction of the long, greenish-
yellow tipped hairs of the overfur which more largely exposes
the black underfur. (Description of a living specimen captured
at Scottsbluff, July.)

118

A New Subspecies of Porcupine 5

Immature animal: Like the adult but general color much paler
and duller, owing to the very much heavier overfur; with the
greenish-yellow apical portion of the long hairs much more ex-
tended, involving the exposed one-half to two-thirds of the hairs,
so that the general color of the sides, shoulders and neck is almost
all greenish-yellow; whitish hairs of forehead and posterior
cheeks much more numerous ; underfur brownish sooty to brown-
ish black; quills of lower back and rump more yellowish, a clear
pale yellow ; spinous bristles on sides of tail more strongly yellow,
the ventral spinous bristles wholly brownish yellow; legs so
heavily overlaid with gray-tipped hairs that the prevailing color
of the limbs is gray. (Description of paratype 9; September.)

Measurements of Type ¢.— Length to end of vertebrae, 797;
length to end of tail hairs, 878; tail vertebrae, 202; tail to end of
hairs, 283 ; hind foot, 117. Weight 2214 pounds.

Measurements of Paratype 9—Length to end of tail hairs 865 ;
tail vertebrae, 199; hind foot, 98. Near Roseberry Ranch in
Cherry county, north of Mullen, Nebraska, September 12, 1914.
2 subadult (No. 285, Collection of State Entomologist, University
ef Nebraska). Carl Kiehl, collector.

Erethizon epixanthum was described by Brandt in 1835 from
specimens collected in California and Unalaska. Mearns in 1897
selected California specimens as typical of E. e. epixanthum in
his cranial comparisons with E. e. couest, and Merriam in 1900
described FE. e. myops from the Alaska Peninsula, thus restricting
FE. e. epixanthum to the California form which he designated as
“typical.” Evidently, the assumption has been adopted by these
two mammalogists that California is the type locality of E. e.
épixanthum.

Compared, then, with an adult 9 specimen of typical E. e.
epixanthum from California (Independence Lake, Nevada
county, July 22, 1910, L. Kellogg; Mus. Vert. Zool., 12642) the
Nebraska animal is slightly larger (the California specimen is 745
mm. long; tail vertebrae, 200; hind foot, 120), except that the
hind foot is comparatively shorter, and the general coloration is
paler because the long, bristle-like hairs are mostly pale yellowish
gray or greenish-yellow-tipped, with but few wholly black ones

119

6 Myron Harmon Swenk

even dorsally (in E. e. epixanthum the wholly black hairs are
much more numerous dorsally and the under parts have very few
pale-tipped hairs except on extreme sides), while the dense,
spinous bristles on the under side of the tail are largely or wholly
brownish yellow (wholly jet black in E. e. epixanthum). .

Compared, also, with the description of E. e. nigrescens, which
is evidently a form very close to typical epixanthum, but blacker,
the Nebraska animal is again slightly larger (the adult ¢ type of
E. e. nigrescens is 740 mm. long; tail vertebrae, 210; hind foot,
go) and differs in coloration much as from typical epixanthum,
only in even greater degree, since in FE. e. nigrescens the long
dorsal hairs are almost wholly black, with pale-tipped hairs only
on the nape, sides of lower back and thighs, while the under parts
are wholly sooty black and the long, spinous bristles on the sides
of the tail are black, broadly tipped with yellowish white.

From E. e. myops the Nebraska form differs, as does typical
epixanthum, in the paler, less yellow coloration of the pale-tipped
hairs of the sides, flanks and sides of the tail, and by the sides of
the face and interorbital region being less grayish-haired in the
mature animal. It also appears to be a larger animal than E. e.
myops. EE. e. couesi is smaller than E. e. bruneri, but the two are
apparently very similar in coloration.

Compared with an adult 2 specimen of the Canada porcupine,
E. dorsatum dorsatum (Linnaeus)’ from Wisconsin (Sayer,
November 11, 1907, E. Heller; Field Mus. Nat. Hist., 16284),
the Nebraska porcupine differs in the more abundant long, pale-
tipped hairs, which are yellowish gray or greenish yellow in color
(comparatively few and white or yellowish white for the terminal
one-fourth or one-fifth of their length in FE. dorsatum), in the
long, yellowish bristles on the sides of the tail (much shorter and
white or whitish in E. dorsatum), in the more grayish legs
(mostly black in E. dorsatum), in the largely brownish yellow
color of the under side of the tail (wholly jet black in FE. dor-
satum), and in the white or yellowish, dusky tipped quills of the
lower back, rump and flanks (quills of the lower back and flanks
clear white with the extreme tips black, of the rump wholly black,

T Syst. Nat., ed. 10, I, p. 57 (1758).

120

A New Subspecies of Porcupine 7

in E. dorsatum). The Nebraska animal is larger than this Wis-
consin specimen (which is 790 mm. long; tail 190; hind foot 93)
but does not reach the maximum measurements given for E.
dorsatum by Allen (875—1,000 mm.) and Elliott (goo-1,200 mm. ).
E. dorsatum picmus Bangs,® from Labrador, with a shorter tail
(166 mm.) and longer hind foot (124 mm.) than typical E.
dorsatum, probably differs in much the same color characters.
Skull—Measurements of the type in millimeters: Total length,
115.5; basal length, 99; basilar length of Hensel, 95 ; occipito-nasal
length, 111; zygomatic width, 73; interorbital width, 30; length
of nasals, 40; width of nasals in front, 21 ; width of nasals behind,
15.5; length of upper molariform teeth, 27.5; audital bullae,
21 X 16.5; length of mandible, 83; height of mandible, 36.5.
Inasmuch as the skulls of Erethizon exhibit considerable sexual
variation, for a proper analysis of the characters the skulls of the
sexes are better compared separately. The adult ¢ type skull of
E. e. brunert compared with the skull of an adult ¢ specimen of
E. e. epixanthum from California (Whitney Creek, Sierra Nevada
mountains, August 26, 1911, Storer and Taylor; Coll. Mus. Vert.
Zool., 16216) differs distinctly in its greater length, comparatively
shorter and broader rostrum, the much more posteriorly narrowed
nasals which are more convex when viewed in profile, larger
audital bullae, less developed depression on the top of the skull
in the fronto-parietal region, lower lateral borders of interorbital
region without any knob-like processes posteriorly, and much less
developed sagittal and occipital crests. The 9 skull exhibits much
the same differences, only they are less pronounced. The @ para-
type skull of E. e. brunert compared with the skull of a 9 speci-
men of E£. e. epixanthum from California (Coll. Mus. Vert. Zool.,
12642) though of the same length is’ distinctly more slender, the
-nasals are broader and narrow distinctly between the anterior and
posterior margins (E. e. epixanthum 9 has the nasals narrower
in front than behind and their sides subparallel), and the audital
bullae are distinctly larger. The differences in the development
of the borders of the interorbital region and the sagittal and

8 Proc. New England Zool. Club, Il, p. 37 (1900).

I21

8 Myron Harmon Swenk

occipital crests are not very great, dnote slightly stronger in E.
e. epixanthum.

Compared with the description of the skulls of ¢ and 9 E. e.
nigrescens, brunert apparently differs, as from FE. e. epixanthum,
in the poorly developed fronto-parietal depression and lateral ©
border of the interorbital region. In these respects the skull of
E. e. bruneri agrees with that of E. e. myops, as well as in the
poorly developed sagittal and occipital crests; but the skull is
longer and the nasals are more narrowed posteriorly than in
myops, while the brain case does not narrow posteriorly but rather
broadens, and the form of the zygoma and the outer wall of the
antorbital vacuity are not as described for myops but as these
occur in epixanthum. The skull of E. e. bruneri is much larger
than that of the subadult type of E. e. couesi, and the audital
bullae are as large or even larger than in that form, but the form
of the nasals is apparently much the same. In the figures given
by Baird® of a paratype of FE. e. couesi (Bill Williams Fork,
Arizona, 1854, C. B. R. Kennerly: U.S: N> M., 1262) the masals
resemble those of typical epixanthum J and the audital bullae are
no more inflated than in epivanthum,; possibly this specimen
really represents epixanthum and not couesi.

The skull of £. e. bruneri 9 compared with an adult 9 skull of
E. dorsatum:dorsatum from Wisconsin (Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
16284.) reveals considerable similarity, the nasals in both forms
narrowing posteriad from the anterior extremity, but these bones
are throughout broader and proportionately longer in bruneri,
more than one-third of the total length of the skull, while in EZ.
dorsatum they are less than one-third of the total length of the
skull. These differences are even more accentuated between
typical epiwanthum and dorsatum, but less so between myops and
dorsatum. The form of the outer wall of the antorbital vacuity
in dorsatum also resembles that described for myops rather than
that of epixanthum, couesi or bruneri.

These cranial differences may be expressed concretely by the
following table of typical measurements:

9 Mammals of North America, plate LV, fig. 1, a, b, c, d and e.
LAA

A New Subspecies of Porcupine 9
a bows | A Gilt Has ne av x ws =
Seles een lee Cem ea) ac = pro) | tae
ess | sees) ss | se | ms = as | oe
a | 5* Bey el ees <
F. e. epixan-
thum. Ad.
oa (M.V.Z.,
HOZMLO) a ae I07 72 | 20 37 19 18 26 TQOXI5 84 32
E. é. nigres-
cens. Ad. of
(Type, A.
M.N.H.,
BOVFA)o osocl| LOR | Oy | GAS lacey Scena
E. e. bruneri. ;
Ad. of |
(Type, U.N., |
State Ent.
BOS) pie caees USS GB | BO |) ao Ar || m5.5 || 275 21x16.5 83 | 36.5
E. é. epixan- | :
thum. Ad.
2 (M.V.Z., | ;
TACHI NS ae.b 98 7I |34.25| 38 | 19.5 | 21.5 24 | 20.5x16.5 | 78.5 35
FE. é. nigres-
cens. Ad. Q |
(A.M.N.H.) | 104 it 29 ORS A A ec Oho
E. e. bruneri. |
Subad. 9 |
(U.N., State
Ent., 285) O7A5N 07, |) BOs5)) 34 22.5 20.5 26 |22.75X17.5 Ga || Byes
E. e. couesi. ;
Subad. ( @ ?)
(U.S.N.M.,
6501)4..... 86 |64.25| 25 | 30 | 18.25!15.75| 23.75|. 2IxI6.7 | 62.5 | 20.25
E. d. dorsatum
Ad. @ (.
M.N.H.,
16284).....| 96 64 BS NGOS) i) || ay 24 21x17 WO2E|) 3B

10 Distance from front edge of premaxilla to posterior edge of occipital.

condyles.

11 Distance across nasals between postero-superior angles of premaxille.
12 The width is taken across the widest point between basioccipital
suture and inferior edge of auditory tube.
18 Chord of the distance from front edge of the mandibular symphysis
to the end of the angular process.
14 Measurements translated into millimeters from Allen, Monog. N. A.

Rodentia, p. 395, and from the original description of Mearns.

123

10 Myron Harmon Swenk

As to the geographical range of E. e. bruneri, I.do not have
the material or data to indicate except in a very general way.
The specimens recorded by Baird from Kansas (Republican

He| fe) \s 2 | a i 35
za fat |) a 20 g & Sealine ye dla
e SE | os | 89/28 [2s [Pe | aa lee
A |e |e) ge | se | ce | Se | we |e
fe ere eS | See lesa Sen |e aS os
6 |S8i/a |gels-|sS | Bs laa |e
Seen Paty ia acs BRE fd ae 50
i) 3 ) |= = as
FE. e. bruneri:
Republican Fork, Kansas. Ad. o
CUGSEIN IML BIOS) s divscoonecade TOK II) se Ne | AG al | ark} | BB, GO|) BS
Republican Fork, Kansas. Ad.
(sex?) (U;S.N.M., 2504) .. 52... TOME Zee esha eAet 17.5| 27 | 74 | 30
Fort Bridger, Wyoming. Ad. |
Gex?)(UISSNEM = 2657) nae ce 112 | 78 | 34 |44.5| 26 | 22 |30.5
Wyoming. Ad. (sex?) (U.S.N.M., |
TaTe5 OAS re RIC tel Sle eater Ve ERD ce teen TOY PALS Ze | ASI ey |) BO. BB |-GO | 2S
Wyoming. Imm. (sex?) (U.S.N.M.,
(ONSNOIE3) ec a ae hea nay nea leet ah KS G2 | BO || uO \ Qu |) We
Three Buttes, Montana. Ad. @
(WeSsiNiclMlos BROW) ooo coe esse 107 | 7I | 27 | a2 | 22 | 18.5) 26.5) 78 | 36
Three Buttes, Montana. Ad. @
((UESENEIVI S268) eae eee 99 Bie Ae BA | OLB AG) || 73 || BO
E. é. epixanthum?:
Idaho. Imm. (sex?) (U.S.N.M., |
TID AOS.) Rae ean Noah tL genes RU BI HO | 88 |) Se aA) BR | B7oS| WivoS|| Bz
Utah. Ad. (sex?) (U.S.N.M.,
BOSON cones aR us Cite ena ace Na 102 | 77 | 30 | 4o |-2T.5| 19.5) 28 | 80 | 38
FE. e. myops3'6
Fort Yukon, Alaska. Ad. (sex?)
CUESEINEIME OS 2/8) Eee ein nore OW FF WN BS | BS 2355] BO |-20. |) FO | BS
Yukon River, Alaska. Ad. (sex?)
CUESENSMIE MOOS) eee ee LOS |) 7B! || Bx 24 | 80 | 38
Yukon River, Alaska. Ad. (sex?)
(UESSNEMES O07) ee nae T04 | 72 |34.5' 4o | 21.5, 19 | 26 | 80 | 36.5
Yukon River, Alaska. Imm. (sex?)
COsSuINSING. GOS) s Ssscobsooc 6: 100 |70.5| 30 26 | 79.5] 35-5
Yukon River, Alaska. Imm. (sex?)
@UESENBIIEGO6) eee ae 94 28 AS | TB | BS
Peel River, Alaska. Imm. o
CUGSEINS IMIS; ©2337) o oko oodeonos OAM 730 eS 2e Sie |t2 ie S| LOS 250m nee
Peel River, Alaska. Imm. 9Q
(QUESSNEIMIP I O21'8) eee QI.5 Bef | QoS UCLS|) ey | Bak) Ge | BS
Alaska. Imm. (sex?) (U.S.N.M., |
SOAR) aisle cab vae a eae 83 | 63 | 32 22 | 64 | 30.5
16 According to Osgood (N. A. Fauna, 30, pp. 26, 56 and 80), the por-

cupines of this region are referable to EZ. e. myops.

124

A New Subspecies of Porcupine II

Fork, October 6 and 7, 1856, W. S. Wood, U. S. N. M., 1896-
2594 and 1897-2595) from their large size (1896, length 812,
tail 162; 1897, length 819, tail 212) and the posteriorly much
narrowed nasal bones undoubtedly belong to bruneri.® The
three skulls from Wyoming measured by Allen (F. V. Hayden;
U. S. N. M., 3657, 6863 and 11564) are large, and this, with the
dimensions of the nasals, indicates that these are also brunert.
The two adult @ skulls from Three Buttes, Montana, measured
Di NlctnCAUstst T andi3i, 1673, -Coues; U.S. N. MM. 12077
and 13978) are proportioned essentially like the Wyoming speci-
mens ; however, the Montana specimen figured by Baird as repre-
sentative of epixanthum (Fort Union, U.S. N. M., 822; Mamm.
N. A., p. 571 and pl. LV) is not only small, being probably imma-
ture, but has the nasals nearly as wide posteriorly as anteriorly
and is possibly an intergrading specimen with EF. e. epixanthum.
The Idaho and Utah skulls (U. S. N. M., 12405 and 3680, re-
spectively) are apparently also intergrades with E. e. epixanthum.
The skulls of E. e. myops are smaller and have the nasals formed
as in E. e. epixanthum. ‘The following table has been compiled
in millimeters from Allen’s measurements, and is appended for
comparison,

The writer takes pleasure in naming this new subspecies for
Professor Lawrence Bruner, of the University of Nebraska, in
recognition of his pioneer work upon the fauna of Nebraska and
his continued enthusiasm toward the furthering of our knowledge
concerning it. The writer also wishes at this time to acknowledge
his obligation to Dr. Joseph Grinnell, of the Museum of Verte-
brate Zoology, University of California, for the loan of Cali-
fornia specimens of E. e. epixanthum for comparison, and for
permission to publish photographs of these specimens along with
the Nebraska form, and to the authorities of the Field Museum of
Natural History for the loan of material representative of E. d.
dorsatum.

15 Measurements taken from those given by Baird, Mammals of N. A.,
p. 571, and Allen, Monog. N. A. Rodentia, p. 395.

1215

per

Sy Lay

ee

ee oe eer

;

PLATE I.

UNeYL

xanthum br

on ep

o

5

Ereth

SIZE.

skull two-fifths natural

)

1Ze

-tenth natural s

in one

pe.—sk

Ty

ca fa eS ae
i ae =
aoe

PLATE Il.

E. e. epixanthum f E. e. epixanthum @ E. e. bruneri &

Skulls two-fifths natural size.

uw)
KE
<
=
oO

E. e. epixanthum @

_bruneri 2

e, epixanthum 2

Soe ie eee S=s=

tec . . & 1, Ti NR IES pre AIN GT th ag tl Bs GEE 9 PR Ie neil eS

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VoL. XVI Juty 1916 No. 3

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION

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P. H. FRYE L. A. SHERMAN

Cc. A. SKINNER

CONTENTS

A SoctaL STUDY OF THE RUSSIAN GERMAN. Hattie
Plum Wiliams... . ACER NEC MAN Ia ilo MN Iz

LINCOLN, NEBRASKA

oP

es

en

Lae RE

WNIVERSITY STUDIES

Vion. XV I ; INQIE SO 1G Not

PS OCINET STUDY OF TH RUSSIAN GERMAN
BY HATTIE PLUM WILLIAMS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

For several years the writer has been engaged in a sociological
study of the Russian German community in Lincoln, Nebraska,
the results of which will be published ultimately under the title,
The Czar’s Germans: a Study of an Immigrant Group in the
Midwest. An understanding of the sociological problems pre-
sented has made necessary an extensive historical survey of these
people.

The subjects of this study come from the two Volga provinces
of Saratow and Samara, located in the southeastern part of
European Russia. Their ancestors emigrated thither from vari-
ous parts of Germany, particularly the southern states, in re-
sponse to the manifesto of Katherine the Great in 1763. They
are a part of the same stream of emigration from Germany which
brought the Pennsylvania “ Dutch” to the American colonies and
which, after the middle of the eighteenth century, was diverted
for some years into various European countries.

The Volga “ colonists,” as they have been called in Russia, have
lived, during the past one hundred and fifty years, in their ex-
clusively German villages, retaining their own language, customs,
and religion. They have been influenced but slightly by the life
about them, and untouched entirely by the great forward move-
ments in the world at large. This is due to the facts that they
did not consider the Russian civilization worth emulating, and
that they were cut off from the world at large, and from their

2 Hattie Plum Williams

German brethren in particular, by lack of facilities for com-
munication and transportation.

After the freeing of the serfs in Russia in 1861, the various
reforms which followed affected the status of the German
“colonists.” They had gone to Russia under promise that they
should have. local self-government, retain their own schools and
churches, and be free from military service. Now their local
self-government was gradually being interfered with, universal
military service forced them into the army, and the fear arose
that they would in time be denied their German schools and
freedom of worship.

Emigration began in the seventies, some going to South
America, others to Canada, and large numbers coming to the
United States. The latter settled mainly in Kansas, Nebraska,
and the Dakotas, all of which at that time were bidding for
immigrants. Lincoln was then the distributing center for Ne-
braska settlers, and has since remained the clearing house for this
particular immigrant group. Several thousand Russian Germans
now live in Lincoln, forming the largest group of these people to
be found in any one city in the United States.

The writer will later make acknowledgment of aid rendered her
by many persons, both in the community studied and outside
its ranks. She wishes to make grateful recognition at this time
of the assistance of Mrs. Henry Heft and family, of Mr. J. J.
Stroh in connection with the census of the Lincoln community in
1914, and of Dr. H. P. Wekesser, who read the manuscript of the
following pages and gave the benefit of his criticism. Thanks
are due to Professor George Elliott Howard under whose direc-
tion this study has been pursued, and to the writer’s husband,
Thomas F. A. Williams, without whose encouragement, sugges-
tion, and criticism the work would not have been possible.

Copyright {£
By
Farm Proxy Witty

asd

128

A Social Study of the Russian German 3
CONTENTS

PAGE

FO AP NESE een NETH ol OPUIMACTO Nin were ch ahs castsuay atelier sualc-sienk feed eielehsi a elene. diets 5
I. Composition according to Place of Birth and Periods of Im-

MAW SA KYAT ONTL. Lice ain GonS OG O eRGeND Geckos Gee SISO ER CEC Eee ee ee 8

Mi Wocation ot ther Settlenrenmts: 2 tye ciits checce ware or ssraie orate ois evevarsiorsiets 18

ie wellinosmann ds Mammilies: sic gar uemiceaic tle sis eelcse ola slat so awe ayers lere 23

INA DIStab tor iy. Mamnilies. are os sess. gas Me lnueehregistc pals wisi ae claves 34

VY. Distribution according to Age, Sex, and Conjugal Condition.. 36

CHAPTER IJ. BrrtH AND DEATH, MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE............ A2

WV arco Statistics imi Ne liaiskcas 2h sel snt. vey. cisco asia ses calm ym ncaa) 42

Geer Stata cite syne Carre gua teea eiinghay celoeac ca Mins PU TRY wold! Waban 47

TOLL, “TD een URES ie obi eas is Si mca a ne aa ene I Ue Ny Oe ann 58

HAN Pe eitytativeore tas vere m tosh ie Marine tenis as Mani note nae WAL ayy stants) ay 71

Wie, UDWIRRO IRCCS: PA a oe nator ts Ty ene Ua Se er ea eeris rere 87

NB IAT OGRE CAT a) NODE Se peniira trent cots ee munioe necr arcu: Soave Weve lane laacsle wee deere OF

‘TABLES

1. Distribution of Russian Germans by provinces and by colonies ... 10
2. Distribution of Russian Germans within North and South Settle-

PASM) DAR DAC ORNENCONIOL INES, ages sow coc aon eneo no bobs Baaewe meen 22
3. Number of rooms per dwelling of houses within the settlements... 24
POMC LORSIMP OL -MOMLESIN ws e...08a, sua cre Gao deat als dicadths ne ae snes 26
CEI AC ONIN AITINTE Suu nis seen Setar e ie cetiss: Nha eee Be Se eet Serta ses ee Ea 35
6. Comparative size of families among Russian Germans and in the

WinitedmStatesaswamuilolesre vitis rots «aor crn eee ey ae 36
PMO CeO OL MSAD UDeTCCNtagess & acini temas «sone seis ons iat ee eee 38
8. Conjugal condition of the population over fifteen years, by per-

CEM LAG ES Mare tenerench eyaictaiatelay ten sheterers giemieiy ans iDOods0gdnoDadDoURDOCOEONS 40
g. Conjugal condition of Russian German population according to

Sexe GeaSenpemOo dsm, MIMS) spacpoks occ eo ee ee ee 40
PmEnGias per 1 o0ontotal population: 2.6.0... 6 ccs) a. ce ees cosa 48
11. Deaths among Russian Germans and in the city at large, according

LOMA CEM CIS Ll DUE Omer penc tls Sc ell cs gal am at nn cn ine MV ue net 59

12. Number of deaths under one year per 1,000 living births for Lin-
coln as a whole, for Lincoln exclusive of the Russian Germans,
BUC OG tiem eissiann Germans.) 1OT2=1OT4) syn... Seek oh) 61
13. Distribution of deaths of Russian German children under one
year of age and from one to five years (exclusive) according
OME SITU IayaEGALISES 318 ncatesacert ae on vem ate ea ecko) a, Ml archrs Werimtat, » Say 2 67
14. Age at marriage among Russian German brides and grooms...... 76

129

I

I]

Hattie Plum Williams

PAGE

. Change in marriage age of Russian Germans in 1895-1904 and

TOOS STOMA Meee en a aaa ian, iin ates OS ape) ret ORC ple ee ea
. Number of Russian German marriages by months, 1900-1914....
. Number and percentage of intermarriages by Russian Germans,

Ile DETIOAS o-TO7O=TO TAM ocr e ele eucwnaie Mes ire a aie te One Ree)

. Birthplace of those intermarrying with Russian Germans, 1878-
50) eee Ot Re LN Mou cae a nrg APM ANDRE IER AI oo
. Number of marriages to one divorce for Lancaster County and
RO themRTsstanin Germans wel OOOO TAN sae eres reais pera
. Divorces granted to Russian Germans in Lancaster County, with
partial data relating thereto, from 1900 to I914, inclusive......

. Duration of marriage before divorce among the Russian Germans,
TOOOZT OTA wie sie taoe Se Phe Sag cern ENMU TAU en Oe eel ce a

CHARTS
I. Date of immigration to America of Russian Germans living in
EincolnstApnilt morals ystiesaectes anes vs eiseniee anise autre pera facing
I. Distribution of the total population of the United States, of Lin-
coln, and of the Russian Germans in Lincoln, by age periods
ALC SEX LOU PSH be acne el archehe chal eae eee cata oe Me eeu a facing
I. Number of Russian Germans married in Lancaster County, 1878-
1914, compared with immigration wave ............+.+-- facing

130

16

36

74

(CisbAE An ies Mal

THE POPULATION

The history of Russian German immigration to the United
States reveals the fact that it has been essentially a movement to
the western part of this country and hence to the rural districts.
In this respect it differs from much of the present-day immigra-
tion which tends to congest in the east, particularly in the large
cities. For a study of this nationality, no place in the country
offers a better field than does Lincoln, Nebraska, a city of some
48,000 inhabitants, of whom one seventh are Russian Germans.
In addition to forming a large proportion of the population, they
are a rapidly increasing element in it. In 1914 one third of all
the births in the city were of Russian German parentage, while
in the preceding year, the total of such foreigners entering Lincoln
direct from Russia equalled one and one half per cent. of the
entire population of the city.

The location of Lincoln is an added factor which makes it a
favorable place for a study of Russian German immigration,
situated as it is in the heart of the territory where the greatest
number of this group has settled. In the earliest days of the ,
city, it was a distributing point for all immigration to Nebraska,
.both native and foreign, and small numbers of the first Russian
German settlers in the state may still be found in the city. In
later years it became the clearing house for a large percentage
of the immigration of this nationality to the west; and many of
these people have been ticketed direct from Saratow to Lincoln
via New York, knowing nothing of any other places in America
than these two. After a few years’ residence in Lincoln, during
which they go to the beetfields each summer, some of them save
enough money to start farming, either on rented land in the
county or in the vicinity of the beetfields, chiefly in western Ne-
braska, Colorado, and Montana. Others move to small towns
near these regions where they may be close to their work, or out

131

6 Hattie Plum Williams

to the Pacific coast. Aside from this shifting population there is
a large stable nucleus connected with the business and industrial
life of the city, and this is being constantly increased as the people
rise in the social scale and leave vacant places in unskilled labor
for the raw immigrant to fill. Thus Lincoln, on account of its
location, furnishes every type of Russian German from the
wealthy lumber merchant who came among the first immigrants
a generation ago to the most recent arrival from Russia who ekes
out a scanty living at street sweeping or at work on the railroad
section.

Moreover, Lincoln furnishes an example of the influence of a
semi-rural environment upon an immigrant group, a phase of the
subject which is seldom treated. Conditions are a cross between
city and country, the immigrants being segregated, as in the urban
communities of the east, and subject to the political exploitation
and the municipal neglect common to great cities. In the forma-
tion of educational and political ideals, the influence of Lincoln
differs materially from the influence of the country districts in
Nebraska where the Russian Germans live; while in industry it
partakes more of the nature of a rural locality. On first thought,
the circumstances under which the immigant lives in such a com-
munity as Lincoln would be pronounced ideal, but in spite of the
possibilities which it offers, the relation which exists between the
city and its “foreign colonies” is much the same as in the larger
cities, and reproduces their immigrant “problem” in miniature.

At every period in American history there has been an immi-
grant group which has been at the bottom of the social scale. In
the colonies, it was the Germans who were feared, despised, and
ridiculed. The officials of Pennsylvania were apprehensive lest
the government should fall into the hands of these aliens whom
Benjamin Franklin is said to have described as “ rude boors”’ and
whom the people nicknamed “ Dutch.” Later, the Irish enjoyed
the same prominence, but they are now displaced by the Italians
and the Russian Jews. Every community, too, has its foreign
outcasts, and those who are accounted aristocrats in one section of
the country are anathematized in another. For example, in
Pennsylvania where there are so many Slav races congregated at

Ti2

A Social Study of the Russian German Ti

present, the Bohemian is a patrician, while in Nebraska, where he
is practically the only Slav group, he is considered decidedly
plebeian. In the west, another nationality denominated “ Rus-
sian” occupies the lowest seat in the localities where he has
settled, for usually the immigrants of northwest Europe are his
only competitors, and he is made to suffer in comparison with
them. These local opinions are significant, not because they are
well-founded or just, but because they explain in a large degree
‘the relations which exist between these immigrants and the com-
munities in which they live.

In Lincoln the same ignorance, prejudice, and misunderstand-
ing obtain concerning the Russian Germans which invariably
exist in American cities having foreign colonies and which too
often characterize the attitude of the average American toward
the immigrant in general. Many people who have lived in the
city for years are ignorant of the fact that the mother tongue of
these foreigners is German instead of Russian. Not infre-
quently some well-meaning citizen suggests that a pamphlet, or
address, or bulletin be printed in the Russian language and dis-
tributed among the people down in the foreign settlements so
that they may get the benefit of it, all unconscious of the fact that
not one in a hundred of these persons can understand, speak, or
read the Russian language. Others are ignorant of the real
character of the people, judging the whole group by the conduct
of the few individuals who have a police record. Hence they
“would be afraid to go through the settlements alone even in the
day time,” and they warn anyone who intends to go that they
“must be on their guard, for those people carry knives.” Even
citizens of long residence, ordinarily well informed, are “sur-
prised” at the ability of the children at school, at the neat ap-
pearance of the homes, and at everything else commendable which
they see on their first visit to the settlements.

A deep-grained prejudice very often exists against these so-
called “Russians.” Teachers who are sent into these districts
resent the assignment, as a rule, and regard it as exile. Certain
business men inform you that “ they would as soon see the Chinese
come here as those people,” while others refuse to employ them

133

8 Hattie Plum Williams

because “they are clannish and quarrelsome and Americans can’t
get along with them.” Even social workers sometimes go into
the settlements looking for bad conditions, and they invariably
find just what they are looking for—but nothing else. When a
Russian German rises out of the ranks of the street sweepers, he
is recognized as a “ German,” while the “ Russian” remains the
lowest type of laborer and the most hopeless political factor in the
city. These misunderstandings persist year after year in a city
so small as Lincoln, and with a foreign group where the barrier
between the immigrant and the native is so slight as here exists.
They account in part for the fact that the Russsian German is an
immigrant problem to the city and that the city is a problem to the
immigrant.

I. Composition According to Place of Birth

The Russian German population of Lincoln is composed almost
entirely of immigrants from the Volga provinces of Saratow and
Samara. It will be recalled that there are several groups of Ger-
mans in Russia, each with individual characteristics accentuated
by long residence and isolation in a foreign land. The Baltic
Germans, exclusive and aristocratic, have furnished little emigra-
tion to America and the few who have lived in Lincoln have
belonged to the educated and professional classes. The Germans
from South Russia, popularly known as the “Odessers,” have
settled more largely in the farming districts of the west. There
are in Lincoln but nine persons born near the Black Sea and
these all came in the early immigration of thirty or forty years
ago. Seldom does one of this group come to Lincoln now, and
none live within the border of the settlements. The Volga Ger-
mans include both Catholic and Protestant, and of the former
there are in the city only six families, aggregating twenty-nine
people. Aside from a small scattering of persons from other
parts of Russia, the remainder of the 6,500 Russian Germans in
Lincoln are Protestants direct from the Volga, known among
their countrymen as “Volgers.” In one sense they form a de-
cidedly homogeneous group which emphasizes their “ conscious-

134

A Social Study of the Russian German 9

ness of kind” and sets them off from not only the American, but
even the Empire German, element of the population.

However an intimate acquaintance with the Russian Germans
reveals a number of types as varied as the immediate localities
from which they have come; and different customs, ideals, and
characteristics are easily accounted for in this way. The more
isolated a community and the less intercourse it has had with
neighbors of its own blood and with the outside world, the more
accentuated and crystallized its peculiarities become. This has
been the experience in the Volga colonies, those living within the
same village developing constantly closer ties until they have be-
come as one large family, while all the time the lines between them
and the other German colonies have become more sharply defined.
No one is so sensitive to these differences as are the Russian
Germans themselves. They can tell from each person’s dialect
the colony to which he belongs; and furthermore, they profess to
know certain characteristics of the people coming from each
village.1 This fact must be recognized in a thorough under-
standing of this group, and therefore a further analysis of the
source of emigration is essential.

As has been seen, the two governments of Saratow and Samara,
in which are located 181 German colonies, furnish the bulk of the
immigrants to Lincoln.?, Of the foreign-born Russian Germans
in the city, seventy-six per cent. are natives of Saratow; eighteen

1 They often connect nicknames with these characteristics and attach a
story to explain their origin. For example, the inhabitants of the colony
of Doenhoff are called “ Geelbaa’n” (Gelb bein), meaning “ Yellowlegs.”
They are an exceedingly active and busy type of people, as is indicated
by the fact that they are the most well-to-do of all the German colonists.
_ Their neighbors tell the story that a villager going to market was once
asked by a neighbor woman to take a basket of eggs to sell for her. He
accepted the charge, and others then besieged him until his wagon box was
filled to the top. But the villagers were still not all accommodated, and
not content with what he had already done, the obliging and bustling
Doenhoffer jumped upon the load and began trampling down the eggs to
make room for more. Hence the name “ Geelbaa’n,” which in the minds
of the German colonists characterizes their countrymen of Doenhoff.

2 Of these villages, 131 are Protestant, 39 are Catholic, 10 are Mennonite,
and 1 is Moravian.

10 Hattie Plum Williams |
per cent. of Samara; and six per cent. of other governments in
Russia or of other countries. The distribution of the immigrants

between these two provinces is further shown in the following:

Taste I. DistripuTIoN oF RussIAN GERMANS BY PROVINCES AND BY

CoLoNIES
Number of Colonies Furnishing Immigrants Number of Immigrants

Saratow Samara Each

5 I 200-600

2 100-200

4 2 50-100
6 2 25-50
20 38 I-25

The Germans in Samara engage entirely in agriculture, while
those in Saratow devote themselves partly to manufactures; but
this variation is not reflected in the settlement in Lincoln, as nore
of its inhabitants follow the occupations which they carried on
in their former homes. But these groupings manifest them-
selves in various ways in the social and religious life of the
people, as we shall see in detail later. Aside from peculiarities
in dialect and customs, and numerous differences in folklore,
they are the basis of local pride and prejudice which break out in
petty quarrels often carried into the courts, and in “wedding
riots”’ which sometimes occur during the season of these
festivities.
In addition to the immigrants who come direct from the Ger-
man colonies of the Volga, many coming from other parts of the
Empire are traceable originally to that region. A few of these
are natives of near-by Russian villages where their parents had
gone for work, while others were born on neighboring estates
where the father was employed as foreman of a mill or in some
similar capacity. A larger number come from the cities of the
government Saratow—some from Zaritzyn, but most from the
city of Saratow where they have been engaged in various manu-
facturing pursuits. .
Outside the Volga provinces, the Caucasus furnishes the largest
number. They come from the German colonies near Tiflis,

136

A Social Study of the Russian German II

Stavropol, Vladikavkaz, Novorossiisk, and Yelizavetpol, and
from the city of Baku. Astrachan and Orenburg in the east of
Russia contribute a few, as does Riga in the Baltic Provinces.
Several cities in western Russia, which send a large number of
Jews to the United States, are represented. Polotsk, the home
of Mary Antin,t is credited with three natives; while Kiev,
Zhitomir, Novgorod Volynsk, and Warsaw each furnish one.
Some of these are due to marriages which Russian Germans con-
tracted while stationed at these cities on garrison duty ; or prob-
ably in some cases as a result of acquaintanceships formed at the
emigrant stations on the way to America. There are a few
immigrants in Lincoln who were born in Siberia where the Volga
Germans have gone in great numbers during recent years, under
contract with the government which has been settling large tracts
of land there. These were dissatisfied with the conditions they
found, and since they had forfeited their place in their village by
emigrating, friends have helped them to America. A few of the
Russian Germans in Lincoln were born in South America, chiefly
Buenos Ayres, where large settlements of their people have been
located since the German colonists first began leaving Russia in
1871. In some instances these are people who were refused en-
trance at Ellis Island on account of trachoma, and who then went
to South America where the exclusion acts are not so strict.
After a few years there, they apply again for admission to the
United States, and are accepted. The last group of foreign-
born Russian Germans includes those born on the way to America.
Libau, the port of embarkation for much of the present emigra-
tion from Russia, is the native place of five; Liverpool, of one;
Germany, of one; Quebec, of one; while five were born at sea.
Several born at New York and Boston are really included within
this latter group.*

3 Mary Antin, The Promised Land, Chapter I.

4A further analysis of the source of emigration of the Russian Ger-
mans in Lincoln is interesting though not of any especial social signifi-
cance. The following table gives the total number of Russian born
Germans according to provinces and villages:

34

12

Hattie Plum Williams

The first Russian Germans known to have settled in Lincoln

Government Saratow

German Colonies: IKepatzkey ia teutaie tad ee eee 3
Notkasviciiaan en aie 633 DD Reispiiz lavage este ee 3
1 Edretahigll seas bent gett ec aia ie Cae 371 Marienfeld (Catholic) ..... 2
Balzeri aeons ane e ennns seeree 352 Merkel onc) san paco a ener 2
Beideck ee terme tana te tee 292 Gigs Wial agenra Naess anmecr 2
Fel Claes RU eee arte racine 253 IEMA“ Gopoooocdcououob oc 2
Wraltentinniae accretion 1096 Holsteinasi tiny 2 aoe aoe I
Schilling seeorc eae sere tens: 154 Aischerbakotkawee- eee I
Ta Uzi eta t eeepc un tery 90
Biramlee (ChianOr soboccoccsc 68 Russian Villages:

Tol hie eee een ate 66 Balanday sigs sk aes 9
Titel bo eae ie ee aa 60 Ray burstikaiae: eee see ee 6
DD oenh openers ne ee 45 Nukolayewlsaseess eee eee 3
Walters Chiutonme-eeereaeere 44 Balashove ses doce sa eee 2
MOOR lea ameter 30 Sitirokaydeeneee cere eeee 2
tdsSenhachemereaeree sr ie 37 Atchimatiia: 2 ion so eee eee I
Grimms oe nae 32 Ry udiya dee eee I
PASTE Talti-ts aire eae ey ene eaten Mena 31 Denvetrievikayee sa eee I
INSEL IMIEESSP aco bbobsusdous 14 Uinkm'o wine ie ie cece 10
TAU Were ay eae eee 13
IMicSSCra een serine cen ieee 12) Estates:
Baer pe a age concentra ume smea ae II Fahrenbruch Chutor ....... 4
ID Obrinkas Smee comics 10 Ustvlobaiaicr one eee 3
ISU tte ne teen eee 9 WMolansy Ghtatoniee eee 2
Seimeoe (MOTE) Soocccc 4 Minekovkcam Clitoris are I
Filtmannes(@atholic)ye see 4
Stephano ner 4 Russian Cities:
IPO DOUKIMRAI ssccoovscoodes 3 SatatOws oe. aces enor eae 58
Emsoeg) (CAINE) snoscssoc 3 ZaritZyiv 202: 6s gee eee 14
Scliwalbattetins rs secures 3 Atkarsk: orice I
Government Samara

German Colonies: Reinwalld,: 4caxcs nee eee 2B
GUI Gb inet Aiea aoa bio pmo cor 243 IRaskeiay (Canoli@) .ssc6cec 3
lifelines era Eat cS en 04 Strassburg cued sae one 2
WYVENRCMMDGIRS oo occ0coocuoc0ce 81 GinevalenGlorrt® csosacovnooccccs 2
Stallatlt has cee at cee eee 40 Marienthal (Catholic) ..... Z
TO SGA ees sere un aR Ls co sceta ns 38 Neti Eiussenbachwenne enon I
Wiesenmuellér ............. 24 CnadentavG,anaece ae ae I
losribhamemell Goboosoupooneoos 19 Ele;zocm (Catholic) ayes ee I
atherinenstadtaase erences 17 Scliaener Oc ae chee ee I
Schiweedisttacrt senate es 15 IN@e, S@avililinge soobecooocsocc I

A Social Study of the Russian German 13

came in 1876.°

During the following decade many passed

through to join friends in the rural districts of Nebraska, Kansas,
or the Dakota Territory and some took up their residence in the
city. By 1889 the number of these foreigners was sufficiently
large to show initial signs of differentiation from the rest of the
community by the organization of a church of 18 families repre-

senting 100 individuals.®

Winakor tcener eet ete s here ator ie 13
Gani oeeee os essen ema cor 10
MBAMM@ CT bol sicrs oi eicucts oes sucess iisesesrs 8
Gnadenkelde coe. bass sees 7
Bintedenteld 3. cccses eee ons 7
RO Senne Mir shal errr eooke, ches 5
Stars Td OYfatete cio, 5 a) cicks ateo Mae eters 5
MIO RR ENEAU se Ses ceiovece enue gies 5
STII See aerate twee AS 5
Wish atclan gecesi dca sacccticarare 5
ners ste. Ae ae ean eats eb 4
PNIPAM al deers atari eas eee 3
JROSSMAEHIN) cas gnidemecs So dale 3
iLermecimicicl cep euiooce soue es 3
The Caucasus
Government Stavropol ....... 30
Government Baku, Baku ..... 10
Government) (iis +5 .6.e5- 6
Government Terek ........... 3
iovermment Kuban” .....252.. 3
Government Yelizavetpol ..... 2
Siberia
Government Tobolsk ....::... 2
Government Akmolinsk ...... I
Goverment Omsk <0... 2. 2). I
Agumcinam ((Giip) 66doces0ccos I
Oveeialnoreern (Cina aieneen eS eee 5

Since the time of the formation of this

IMMA Ga corabnadooounbo I
INeupseati bai acerca ce ete I
IRONS COL ea OD Aamo Nea I
Selituillyy Ree Se See in ac amit ites
Neu Marienthal (Catholic). 1
Semenovka (Catholic) ..... I
SCMORNGOE socdoooasdsdeodr I
Ripesentals \s one. acvctrcrne ere wie I
Orlow (Mennonite) ....... I
Hahnsau (Mennonite) ..... I
Russian Villages:
IN@SHIRGMSIAGKE Soca ooenoshons a
West Russia
Winding, IEOMOESIR cocusconcuoce 3
SrimOlemelic ING Goooncaccne I
Roig, WARS scsceocoocn0c I
Volhynia, Novgorod Volynsk. 1
ZAMNEOMME sogocodacue I
IRS ie IGE aarp ane mds eode I
Baltic Provinces
Cotslemel, IMD soossaccocose 5
Lior, IRL CocooscooabcKbee I
South Russia
Ghenrsome tn ssc eee ete 7
IBessanalbtatcster anemone eee 2

5 Cf. Naturalization Records of District Court of Lancaster County.

6 The church records have not been found, and these figures are esti-
mates by some of the charter members.

139

14 Hattie Plum Williams

nucleus, increasingly large and frequent groups of Russian Ger-
mans have been added. This length of residence together with
the facts that the immigration has always been a family move-
ment, and that a large birth rate prevails with this nationality,
accounts for the great numbers of native born Russian Germans
in Lincoln. Out of 5,985 persons whose birth place was given,
30.3 per cent. were born in the United States and 63.0 per cent.
in Russia." A very small number of the native born are heads
of families and thus furnish an opportunity to mark the effect of
American environment upon the second generation born here.
The majority of the native born, however, are children and
young people under age. Of the native-born children of Russian
German parents, 80 per cent. are natives of Lincoln, showing how
largely this city has been the distributing point for this nationality.

It has been pointed out frequently that the Russian German
immigration to America is a family movement. This is true, not
merely in the sense of the individual family consisting of parents
and children, but in the larger sense of the undivided or patri-
archal family as it exists in the German colonies in Russia. It is
a common saying that everybody in the Lincoln settlements is
related to everyone else. A child, in response to the question how
many of her family came when she did, said, “ A whole ship-load.”
Relationships are recognized to a much more extended degree
than with us, and second or third cousins, or relatives by marriage,
with the relatives thereby acquired, are counted as a part of one’s
“family.”® Endogamy, practiced for a century and a half, has
literally made the inhabitants of each village one large family,
and when immigration from any one colony begins, it means that
a large number of “relatives” will surely follow from that place.
Thus six colonies have furnished 60 per cent. of the 3,772 foreign-
born Russian Germans in Lincoln, while the remaining 4o per

7 All statistics relating to the Russian German settlements are taken
from or based upon the private census taken in March-April, 1914, unless
otherwise stated.

8 The Russian Germans use the word “ freund” as a generic term to
mean relative, including all degrees except those represented in the imme-
diate family.

140

A Social Study of the Russian German ii

cent. is scattered among 124 different places. This immigration
has not resulted from solicitation by steamship companies or
advertising literature, but almost universally from the encourage-
ment of relatives who preceded the immigrant to America. There
has been not only the assurance of work and of comfortable living
conditions, but the receipt from relatives of steamship tickets, the
money for which is repaid out of the first earnings of the family
after reaching America. Fathers and mothers, brothers and
sisters, aunts and uncles, nieces and nephews, cousins and second
cousins, and all of their relatives in turn are thus brought to the
mica of the iree.”’

Technically speaking, Russian Germans therefore fall under
the head of “assisted” immigrants, 7. e., aliens who come on
tickets bought in this country and sent to them. Such foreigners
are ordinarily considered an undesirable class and their admission
is prohibited when they are assisted by a corporation, association,
society,, municipality, or foreign government. But a distinction
is made between such aliens and those whose fares are paid by
relatives or friends, although the government still considers the
practice unfortunate and not calculated to secure the best results.
In 1913, 32 per cent. of all the aliens entering the United States
were prepaids, and from 1910 to 1912 the proportion ranged from
25 to 36 per cent.2 Of the Russian-born Germans living in
Lincoln in 1914, however, 65 per cent. had come on prepaid
tickets and only 35 per cent. had paid their own passage. In
spite of the unfavorable circumstances suggested by these statis-
tics, experience with the Russian Germans in Lincoln, who for
twenty-five years have come “assisted,’ shows that there is no
relation between the desirableness or the undesirableness of these
immigrants and the fact that their passage is paid for them.

Indeed it does not always indicate even their financial condi-
tion. Not infrequently a young married man of a well-to-do
family wishes to emigrate, but his father objects and refuses not
only to give him his portion of the family possessions but even to

2 Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration, 1913, 18.

Cf. also, “ Emigration Conditions in Europe” in Report of Immigration
Commission of 1907, IV, 59-61.

I4I

16 Hattie Plum Williams

advance him money for the voyage. The young man then writes
to a brother, a cousin, or other relative in America and secures
tickets for himself and his family. Immigrants thus assisted
are far better off than those who borrow money in Russia. This
most often happens when a man leaves home in a great hurry
to avoid being caught for military service.*° He does not have
time to dispose of his property advantageously or to wait for a
ticket from America, so borrows enough for its purchase from
money loaners in Russia. ‘These are usually Jews, and the interest
demanded is enormous. On the immigrant’s arrival in the United
States his relatives or friends secure a new loan for him and he
is thus relieved from the necessity of paying exorbitant interest.

Invariably, the purchase price of tickets to immigrants is loaned
without interest, since the transaction ordinarily takes place be-
tween relatives and is considered purely as a matter of mutual
aid. In case, however, the relative is unable to raise the amount
from his own funds and the circumstances are urgent, he can
secure a loan with interest from one of his well-to-do country-
men. ‘That it is a very rare thing for anyone to lose any money
in these transactions, argues well for the assisted immigrants.
Moreover, such aid from relatives is the best proof available that
America has not made them grasping and selfish in their newly-
found prosperity. It is a sign that they are keeping fresh in their
minds the condition under which they came to America, and that
they remember with gratitude the help that someone lent them.
It is when they begin to say that they “need all the money they
can make for themselves” that they manifest the unsocial spirit
which the materialism of America fosters.

An important factor in any immigration problem is the alien’s
length of residence in America, which immediately affects his
political status, and which is a means of demonstrating his ability
to assimilate and to rise in the social scale. In Lincoln, as we

10 Another type of immigrant who does not come technically “assisted,”
according to the records, is the criminal who may or may not be aided by
his relatives to escape. There are only a few of this class in the Lincoln

settlement, but, as a rule, they attract a great deal of attention from the
public.

142

Cuart I. Date of Immigration to America of Russian Germans Living
in Lincoln, April, 1914

a) 200 300 400 500 “600 Number
j i Immi-
| grants,
1872 =
1873 dD
1874 2
1875 6
1876 zi
1877 5
1878 3
1879 zy 3
1880. 4
1881 3
1882 :
1883 7
1884 I
1885 4
1886 5
1887 30
1888 16
18890 15

1805 I
1896 4
18907 8
18098 76

II4

A Social Study of the Russian German iy,

have seen, there is still a small representation of the earliest
Russian German immigrants who came to the United States in
the seventies. A larger number and a greater proportion of those
who came the following decade also reside in the city. The great
majority of the foreign-born population, however, are compara-
tive newcomers. Their date of arrival distributed according to
five-year periods, shows the proportion of the total Russian-born
Germans in Lincoln to be as follows:

Per Cent
TBE TOL CMAN COO wey Pein eared nny gata cena a) sratiatetave a veeauy alors 12.1
MOG Os ROOMY Alena eaters mer te De emyresln en scales atceavee haee nterayele 17.4
1904-1908 ..... nent tenn nett eee e eee e ee eee eens 2783
UOOO=NOUS Sancacaccoocc Pep Mee cu er reel catia oicslsbercloter cio Pa\iotoUelsielefetians 43.2

Thus, nearly one half of the Russian German immigrants in
Lincoln have arrived in the United States within the last five
years indicated, while almost three fourths of them have lived in
America less than ten years.

A further analysis according to the date of arrival shows that
Russian German immigration, like all similar movements, has
its ebb and flow; and thus far each incoming wave has risen
higher than the preceding. During the initial period of immigra-
tion before the nineties, the largest number (30) came in the
year 1887. In the following decade, the year 1892 was the crest
of the wave and brought 113; in 1903, 141; in 1907, 346; and in
1913, 576. Each of these high tides is preceded and followed by
an increasing number of immigrants, and represents not the
growth of a single year but of a period.

This brief survey of the composition of the Russian German
population of Lincoln discloses the fact that these immigrants are
a homogeneous group from the German colonies of the Volga,
yet having individual characteristics developed through isolated
life in their respective villages during a century and a half.
While these people theoretically belong to the “new ” immigra-
tion of south Europe, their length of residence in America has
been sufficient to produce a large number of native-born, with
even a few of the second generation, in whom the possibilities for
assimilation may be observed. The majority of the Russian

143

18 Hattie Plum Williams

Germans come assisted by relatives or friends, the proportion
being twice as great as for the United States as a whole. The
settlements include a large number of new arrivals, almost one
half having come within a recent five-year period. The history
of their immigration shows that they respond to the same ebb and
flow as does immigration in general, although the causes in the
two instances are not identical.

Il. Location of the Settlements

The Russian Germans in Lincoln are settled chiefly along the
entire west edge of the city, in two compact groups, separated
from each other and from the rest of the city by the railroad
yards and the wholesale district. The north settlement extends
from Seventh to Fourteenth streets and from the railway tracks
to the city limits, occupying a triangular district, the half of seven
blocks square. The south settlement is scattered over more terri-
tory, running from M to A streets and from Eighth street to the
city limits, approximately ten blocks. On the border of each of
these settlements and scattered throughout the city is an increas-
ingly large number of Russian Germans who have left their
former homes, sometimes in order to be nearer their places of oc-
cupation but primarily as an evidence of their rise in the social
scale.

The locality occupied by these two settlements is the most un-
desirable part of town. The west edge of the city dips down
into the Salt flats, a wide valley through which a large creek
of the same name flows. Two smaller streams which drain
a wide territory enter Salt Creek within this basin.1 The land
on these flats is most unlovely to look upon. During dry weather,
mineral deposits, chiefly alkali, appear on the surface and explain
the absence of trees and of almost all vegetation except coarse
weeds. During wet weather, the lack of drainage in much of
the settlement area makes the streets almost impassable; while
prolonged periods of rain or sudden melting of the snows pour

11 See U. S. Geological Survey, Nebraska, Lincoln Sheet, ed. September,
1897, reprinted November, 1909.

144

A Social Study of the Russian German 19

immense volumes of water down into the basin and turn the
several individual streams into one great lake a mile or more
broad.

It was this tendency to floods which soon drove the earliest in-
habitants of Lincoln back to the high ground on the east and
gradually resigned the west side of the city to the railway and
wholesale districts.12 The houses and stores they had built were
then occupied by the various foreign nationalities which first came
to Lincoln, chiefly Empire Germans and Bohemians, and by the
poorer class of American laborers. When the Russian Germans
began coming in the seventies, they naturally settled among
those speaking their own tongue, and formed a nucleus about
which later immigrants gathered. From the nineties on, when
the Russian Germans began to form a noticeable part of the
community, they gradually preémpted more and more of this
territory until today few families of other nationalities reside
within its limits. With the growth of the railroad and whole-
sale districts, the two settlements became more and more cut
off from each other so that now they form two distinct com-
munities.

The location and segregation of this group of foreigners have led
the municipal authorities to exclude this part of the city from all
plans for improvement. As soon as the settlements became suf-
ficiently homogeneous to differentiate them, the newspaper re-
porters dubbed them “ Russiatown,” “Little Russia,” or “ Little
St. Petersburg” and “Little Moscow”; and the community

12 The first heavy flood after the settlement on the present site of Lin-
coln was made, occurred in 1869. Again a disastrous flood took place in
1874, when the water rose two inches higher than five years before. In
1878, 1881, 1883, 1891, and 1892 the whole valley was inundated. In 1893
the creek was straightened, and it was hoped the defect was remedied;
but another series of wet years proved as disastrous as before. In 1902,
1903, 1907, and 1908 the same experience was repeated. The flood of 1908
was one of the worst ever known and is a landmark in the history of the
Russian German settlements. Aside from great property loss entailed,
five persons were drowned by the overturning of a boat, four being chil-

dren of one family. Other effects of this flood will be referred to
frequently.

145

20 Hattie Plum Williams

abandoned them to their own interests. For years the city dumped
its garbage into the front yards of the south settlement, and
when a protest finally arose it philanthropically transferred its
refuse to the back yards of the north settlement. The word
“dump” is a common one in the vocabulary of every Russian
German child in the settlements. ‘To those on the south side, it
signifies a long high ridge partially overgrown with grass, form-
ing a vantage ground on which to play, and sometimes yielding
up rich treasures in the form of marbles, broken bits of pottery
or brass, and discarded articles of small furniture.* To the
child in the north settlement it means richer discoveries, for the
dump has not yet been picked over; but it also means sickening
odors when the breeze drives the smell of decaying garbage into
his home, particularly if the wind changes while the dump is
being “burned.” <A little kindergartner, when asked by his
teacher to draw a picture of his front yard, covered an otherwise
fairly clean sheet of paper with a great black spot and called it
the “dump.” This conception represents the growing conviction
of a large part of the community that our system of garbage dis-
posal is a great blot on a moderately clean and well-ordered city.

For many years a sewer discharged its contents into a natural
depression on the edge of the south settlement, although at present
it is the policy of the city to extend all such pipes to the creek.
These “sinks” now furnish skating ponds for the children in
winter, and in summer breeding places for amoebae and other
zoological specimens over which dignified professors stoop gin-
gerly, hurriedly gather their prey, and hasten back to their
laboratories. For many years, also, the city discharged its human
sewage in the same vicinity, and until 1909 the red-light district
cut off the south settlement from the business portion of the
Citys

18 Just recently several new “dumps” for rubbish alone have been
started on the edges of the south settlement. For a number of years an
effort has been made to get the city to adopt scientific measures to handle
the garbage problem, and in May, 1915, a bond issue of fifty thousand
dollars was voted for the establishment of a garbage disposal plant, but a

year has passed without anything definite being accomplished.
14Tn 1909 the county attorney enforced the law against these “ houses,”

146

A Social Study of the Russian German 21

In spite of the struggle against an adverse environment, the
settlements as a whole do not present the characteristics of a
slum. Here and there may be found a “foul back street” or a
family “of slovenly or vicious type” such as constitute a slum;
but these are the rarest exceptions. Order, system, neatness and
thrift are the prevailing traits in the Russian German settlements,
particularly as regards the buildings. The yards show less
favorable results on account of the hopeless battle with the soil
and the yet uncontrolled floods. Time and again have small
trees and shrubs been uprooted and carried off, and blue grass
sod covered inches deep with debris, so that the majority of
householders despair of ever getting permanent results. In an
attempt to raise the yards above the flood level, many of the
people have filled them in with ashes and clay from excavated
cellars which can be secured for the mere cost of hauling, and
have thus shut off all hope of cultivation. But if the yards lack
vegetation they do not lack system and order; and any place
filled with junk or rags may safely be set down as not Russian
German. A mended though often well-worn sidewalk, scrupu-
lously clean even in the muddiest weather, leads from the street
to the house. Fences, porches, houses, outhouses and barns are
all neatly and freshly painted. The combination of colors is not
always the most fastidious—chrome yellow porches and bright
blue houses are conspicuous among the prevailing white of the
dwellings and red of the barns—but everything which needs paint
is protected by it.

Neglect and decay of buildings is nowhere visible. On the
_ other hand, many of the houses in the settlement are made over
from half tumbled-down structures which were bought at a low
price, and remodeled under the skillful and painstaking hand
of the owner. The Russian German never occupies a house of
this sort—unpainted, partly windowless, and dilapidated—and if
such are seen in the settlements, the inhabitants will be found
to be negroes or the lowest class of American poor.
and since that date segregated vice has not existed in Lincoln. An earlier

attempt (1904) made by the city council failed of enforcement by the
police. Cf. Nebraska State Journal, May 28, 1904.

147

22 Hattie Plum Williams

In the matter of streets the city has not set the Russian Ger- ~
mans a deserving example; and whatever is praiseworthy here is
due to the people themselves and not to any municipal aid. Side-
walk construction in Lincoln is in the hands of the property
owners; and long, straight stretches of concrete walks in many
places in the settlements show the results of community action
among the foreign people. The construction of sidewalks along
other almost impassable spaces is held up by a few unprogressive
property owners whom the city might coerce if the people had
any confidence in their ability to secure action from the officials.
But the authorities have not done even their plain duty, let alone
helping the people to do theirs. Viaduct approaches and street
crossings have been neglected month after month, until some
teacher or other influential citizen who had to use that highway
sent in a complaint and got the necessary walks. Ungraded
streets and undrained pools remain untouched year in and year
out as mute evidence of careless and neglectful municipal control.

The two settlements demonstrate the exclusive character of the
Russian Germans not merely in the fact that they segregate them-
selves from the rest of the city, but in their distribution within the
settlements. It will be seen at a glance how largely the people |

Taste II. Duistripution oF Russtan GERMANS WITHIN NortTH AND SOUTH
SETTLEMENTS, BY PRINcrIPAL “ CoLoniEs 715

“‘Colonies’’ Having 50 or More Native Citizens in Lincoln

| North | South North | South
BalZzerccsat eon ae eee AO) B08) I USO acocecbosao0ndcc 2 62
Beidecks ay. camera cua | Gi) BES |) RMR s cc oo oko ease 223 7
AD Wet oe Dette phe ae erate ee ee easel Murcenleaubercve ae ean seen 90 3
TE Tre Keo e eth oy Cele ike pa | AM 3asuilleNonka: -yaqeeenn sere 385 133
HrankerChutote see ee | OQ] SSA Soombbine., sooo soscsoc I I51
Tl Chet aoe a aa neers | @@g Til aNValltersees etree nn 3 176
DENT eno tn Rn as Ge aE 7B Gaile Watrenio uncer ee | 7 70

are grouped in Lincoln according to their native villages, the few
exceptions to this rule being in nearly all instances cases of in-
termarriage.*° This local heterogeneity of the settlements is

15 The term “colony” has been the official name, in Russia, for these

German villages, and the inhabitants have been known as “ colonists.” -
16 Incidentally this shows how little intermarriage there has been.

148

Tynes of Houses in the Lincoln Settlements

A Social Study of the Russian German 28

preserved in the colloquial speech of the people, who speak of the
north settlement as the “ Norker bottom” and the south settle-
ment as the “ Franker bottom” and who denominate the various
churches not by their confessional names of Lutheran, Reformed,
or Congregational but as the “ Kukkus,” “Balzer,” “ Norker,”
“ Beideck,” or “ Franker ” churches. Again within the settlements
the people from each village live in groups, and whole streets will
be occupied by former residents of one colony, and other streets
by those from another colony. This is especially true of the
new immigrants, although not confined to them.

Ill. Dwellings and Families

Housing conditions among the Russian Germans in the settle-
ments present some distinct contrasts to those in the rest of the
city. They are neither as bad as in the poorer sections nor as good
as those of American people in the same financial circumstances.
Ordinarily the dwellings are small, because the people economize
in fuel, and consider extra or unnecessary rooms a useless waste.
The average house is a one-family dwelling of three or four
rooms located on a twenty-five or thirty-five foot lot. A very
few large houses have been built to accommodate undivided
families such as exist in the village communities in Russia; but
the rapidity with which the family in America dissolves and
leaves such houses a financial loss, has fortunately discouraged
their erection. Some of the few which have been built have
been divided into two or three parts and sold to be remodeled
into small residences.

The following table shows the number of rooms per dwelling
for the houses within the settlements. Since the size of the houses
varies materially in the two sections the figures are given for both
districts. The four-room house is the most popular in the north
settlement, with the five-room dwelling but little ahead in the
south. Of the houses in the north side, 23.7 per cent., or almost
one fourth, are two room dwellings while in the south side, but

17 The Russian German population living in Lincoln outside the two set-

tlements is not considered in the study of housing conditions because the
people conform entirely to the American communities in which they live.

149

24 Hattie Plum Williams

Taste II]. NumpBer oF Rooms Per DWELLING oF HoUuSES WITHIN THE

SETTLEMENTS

Number of Rooms North | South Total

Summer kitchens:
Esa saga adc patats cS AAV at Sh oe UMN ig atc cy ot TS alien ee 18
Be NN SEN TS eG AU fc OURO ARE A nae cee a reaper alee 13 2 its

Dwellings:

Ti Sy saison arya c oerishe eae Saco S weer Me ctros eae ec tettane ese ena I m
PERC Tee Fn Nt EE een RE enim pare ees Ge 75 42 II7
eA Ae a band eicca O.Gth a. 0-0 UieamorelolO Ola aro Gicio a Ble eiaie 60 117 177
LEB eC R AACOIG IO: 8 OL CIOIO OIG Oo CHTCO CO CLAIoR ORDER DOS IGe BUONO 105 123 228
AG etree ne AIR es weneatret o Rep Teel re ora ab eRe CIS Ea none 50 16239) 187
OT eee ER BE peer ab sy cine pe pele Re Laie. eemeUt 30 AT 17
Taha van dal sevle taden ou atistte dal alee Wah yah s ealiate La cota a uemene ete ite IO 26 36
Bi Ne eee EE eR cedure etic egies ih (MEANS archers eats 6 I5 21
(GFE PRN Ly Rar PUR A Dare acer UR ea A gua vente ater 2 7 9
TOs ideal pans arene uanee lac awers bald OMA Arb uiiege ota 3 2 5
Totalenimiberomnrooms eee ae eee | 1,390 2,284 3,674
Totalinumber ofjdwellingswaaer eee meee 372 519 801
Average number of rooms per dwelling......... 3.7 4.4 4.1

8.5 per cent. are of this size. The “summer kitchens” are dif-
ferentiated from dwellings of the same size because they always
indicate two houses on a lot and mean more crowding than the
single dwellings.

The “summer kitchen” is a distinctively Russian German in-
stitution. It is a separate building, of one large or two small
rooms, situated a few feet from the kitchen door of the main
dwelling. In the German colonies in Russia, this structure was
the chief means of protection against fire, which proves so de-
structive among thatched roofs. In summer, when the buildings
were not protected by snow, no fires were allowed built in the
main dwelling but all cooking had to be done in these “ Sommer-
kuechen,” which must be located as far as possible from the
cther buildings of the yard and must be constructed of brick or
stone.t® The custom has been transferred to this country
although the occasion for it is removed. The buildings are used
in summer, as formerly, for cooking and eating and the main
dwelling is thus kept cooler and more free from flies. In winter
they are usually rented out to returned “beetfielders”” or to new
immigrants, and the profit accruing from these structures makes

18 Klaus, Unsere Kolonien, Appendix, 35.
150

Examples of Summer Kitchens in the Lincoln Settlements

A Social Study of the Russian German 25

them very popular in the more restricted area of the north side.

It is a tribute to the Russian German population that, without
the guidance of housing laws, they have built the sort of dwelling
which now so largely exists in their settlements. Happily, their
tendency to homeownership has freed them from the landlord
who, desiring to get the most revenue out of his investments,
crowds many families under one roof and creates our tene-
ment problem. With their settlements located on the edge of the
city, they have been able to expand countrywards ; and instead of
adapting themselves to discarded buildings such as immigrants in
the cities must crowd into, each family has built for itself a house
to suit its own simple needs. Although they have paid for in-
ferior vacant lots prices far beyond their value, the communities
have suffered less from this exploitation of real estate agents
than they would have suffered had they subjected themselves to
landlordism.’® It is a matter of deep regret that the most un-
sanitary and overcrowded houses in the settlements are the few
cwned and rented by Lincoln capitalists.

The desire of the Russian German for homeownership is a
practically universal characteristic and accounts largely for the
generally good housing conditions among them. It gives them a
definite purpose in economizing; it encourages them in caring
for property, keeping it repaired, and making permanent improve-
ments; and it protects the family life by preserving its privacy,
individuality, and pride. The extent to which the Russian Ger-
mans own their homes, either free or mortgaged, appears from
the following table:

19 The early history of the settlements in Lincoln favored this indi-
vidual initiative. Many acres of land adjoining the settlements in pioneer
days belonged to the state or to the railway companies, and the immigrants
who came during the hard times of the nineties, when there was little sale
or use for such land, “squatted ” on it and, undisturbed by the owners, put
up small houses in which they lived until they were able to buy a lot and
build again. In one corner of the north settlement even an unused street
was preempted and until quite recently several small houses occupied the
middle of it.

Tesp0

26 Hattie Plum Williams

TasLte [V. PRopRIETORSHIP oF Homes

| Residence in America Residence in America
| More than 5 Years | Less than 5 Years
| Number Per Cent, Number | Per Cent.
|
$$ | r= |
Motaliheads;ofmamiliesh ane eee 696 100.00 | 359 100.00
Homes owned: |
BTS SU NGI Ete Garena aliens a Sua, aie 422 | 60.8 31 8.7
Miontgagsedin ase na sens 4 apeenrtrs 96 Tay 40 Telpal
Flomesmentedar acinar entire | 178 25.5 288 $0.2

Three fourths of those who have been in America five years
or longer own their homes either free or mortgaged; while one
fifth of those who have lived in the country less than that period
are home owners. A mortgaged home is more often a sign of
advancing social position than it is of careless financiering; and
it is in these homes where sometimes overwork and neglect of
the family are most evident, on account of the strenuous efforts
made to pay off the debt occasioned by the move into a better
neighborhood.”° Some of the families living in rented homes are
young married people who prefer living alone to sharing the
parental roof. In these cases, the head of the family worked
until his marriage for his father; and, as is customary, turned
all his earnings over to the parents, so that when he came to
set up his own home he had nothing to start on. A few of the
native-born heads of families and some of those who have lived
in America a generation show no tendency toward home owner-
ship.

In so far as the single family dwelling is indicative of good
housing conditions, the Russian German settlements are most
commendable. There are factors, however, which, though tem-
porary in themselves, are constantly present; and which offer a
real problem to a semi-rural community which ought to be en-
tirely free from a tenement population. Overcrowding in the
settlements and unsanitary conditions are the chief of these

20 A larger percentage of families own their homes free and a smaller
number, mortgaged, in the north settlement where the dwellings are
smaller and the people less ambitious socially than on the south side. The
proportions are as follows: North settlement—homes free, 69 per cent.;
mortgaged, 10 per cent. South settlement—homes free, 56 per cent.;
mortgaged, 14 per cent.

Teg

A Social Study of the Russian German 27

factors. Although figures cannot adequately represent the former,
because it depends upon so many different elements, it is worth
while to see what they show and then to supplement that informa-
tion with specific examples. The lack of a proper standard of
comparison such as would be furnished by a corresponding study
of the native laboring element of Lincoln reduces the value of
the following statistics, which can be compared only with totals
for the city at large.

Overcrowding varies greatly in different parts of the two
settlements, some streets being no more thickly populated than
the average residence portion of the city while other blocks have
more than twice the normal number of inhabitants. .The density
of population also varies with the seasons and with the waves
of immigration. During the winter when the people are in from
the beetfields, conditions are much aggravated; as they are also
when new immigrants come who are sheltered temporarily with
relatives or who occupy summer kitchens or rooms in other houses
until they can afford to rent a separate establishment. In 1914,
when the census of the Russian Germans was taken, there were
many of the latter class in the settlements, so that overcrowding
was greater than usual. Every possible nook and cranny was
packed with people, as is evidenced by the fact that several fami-
lies of newcomers had to rent places just beyond the border of the
settlement. Overcrowding varies with the length of residence in
America, being almost always confined to the raw immigrants. A
family of eight who came to Lincoln in 1907 and occupied a two-
room house the first three years of their residence there, now live
in an eight-room dwelling but complain of “being too crowded.”

The number of persons per dwelling in the Russian German
settlements in 1914 was 6.0 as compared with 4.6 for the city
at large. Since the latter figure counts hotels, boarding houses,
and apartments each as one dwelling, it would reduce the propor-
tion for the residence section of Lincoln, and intensify the com-
parison between it and the foreign settlements. Whether the
persons are largely adults or children, how many families they
represent, and the size of the dwellings they occupy are vital

21 Tlurtecnth Census of the United States, 1910, Abstract, 262.
153

28 Hattie Plum Williams

factors in judging the social significance of these figures. We
have seen that the average number of rooms in each dwelling was
4.1, thus making the average number of persons per room 1.4.”?
There are no census figures covering this point, hence the reader
must appeal to his own experience for a standard of comparison.
In the north settlement, which is compactly built up, there is an
average of over 100 persons to the block. On the south side no
similar estimate can be made because the people are scattered in
groups over a wide territory, with few blocks entirely occupied.
The large proportion of children and the few boarders in the
settlements, facts which will be demonstrated later, reduce the
evils of overcrowding. The following specific examples taken at
random show the worst extent to which the practice goes.

Dwelling number 7: summer kitchen of one room; one family of six;
four children ranging from four months to four years.

Dwelling number 10: two rooms; one family of seven; three daughters
aged 16, 17, and 19, and two sons, 15 and 12, respectively.

Dwelling number 16: two rooms; one family of eight; four children
from five to twelve years of age; the grandfather and one boarder (a
relative whose family is in Russia).

Dwelling number 65: five rooms; two families (brothers) of sixteen
persons; one contains five children from four to fifteen years.

Dwelling number 120: nine rooms; five families of twenty people; (1)
parents and two small children; (2) widow; (3) parents, three small chil-
dren and a boarder (single man); (4) parents and two small children;
(5) parents and three small children.

Dwelling number 220: four rooms; three families of fourteen persons

including eight children under twelve years of age.

' Dwelling number 274: three rooms; two families of twelve people:
first includes five children from ten months to seven years; second, three
children aged 4, 13, and 17, respectively.

Dwelling number 465: two rooms; one family of eight; six children
ranging from six months to eleven years.

Dwelling number 506: seven rooms; two families of nineteen people;
first includes nine children ranging from two to seventeen years; second
includes five children from one to eleven years and a boarder.

Dwelling number 764: four rooms; three families of twelve persons;
(1) parents and four small children; (2) husband and wife; (3) parents
and two children.

22 The north side shows an average of 1.6 persons per room as against
1.3 for the south side.

154

A Social Study of the Russian German 29

Dwelling number 815: three rooms; two families of eleven people; first
includes three small children, the grandmother and a boarder; the second
includes one small child and a boarder.

Dwelling number 1029: four rooms; one family of eleven; five children
from four to twelve years; four male boarders.

The evils of overcrowding are both physical and moral, and
so far as the people can mitigate them, they are reduced. Ordi-
narily, the chief physical harm is unsanitariness which arises from
lack of cleanliness, of air, of sewage facilities, and of pure water.
Of the first, there is no absolute criterion. The housewife who
scoured her broomhandle was formerly the standard of this
virtue, but it is quite probable that the modern housewife would
object to the sparing use of water by which she achieved un-
deniably good results. The Russian German prides himself on
the cleanliness of his housekeeper and the highest compliment he
can pay his wife is to attribute to her this characteristic. One of
the chief reasons he objects to being called a “ Russian” is ex-
plained by the common expression which the German colonist
contemptuously applies to his enemy, 7. e., “as dirty as a Rus-
-sian.”’?? The most overcrowded homes in the settlements show
remarkable results produced through order, system, and hard
work. Whether the furniture be little or much, it is arranged
with care and precision. The bed is the especial pride of the
housewife. Piled high with feathers, with immense pillows at
the head, and sheets bordered with handmade lace, this article
of furniture is the object of scrupulous care. Sunny days find
fences and lines filled with bed clothes undergoing their frequent
airings.

Saturdays are as sacredly devoted to cleanliness as Sundays
are to godliness and no home misses a thorough overhauling.**
It would be as disgraceful a thing for a woman to neglect scrub-
bing her house and her children on that day as it would be to have
her husband’s Sunday shirt buttonless and his boots unblacked.
A group of little girls called at their teacher’s home one Sunday

23JTn the Lincoln settlements, the phrase is transposed to “a5 dirty as
the Irish,” and is a popular one among the children.

24Tt is the custom in the German colonies in Russia for the people to
sweep the streets every Saturday in preparation for the following day.

155

30 Hattie Plum Williams

afternoon and were taken to her kitchen to make some candy.
One of them, a ten-year-old, gave one glance as she entered the
room, and then in a tone of mingled disgust and triumph re-
marked, “You didn’t scrub yesterday, did you?” Teacher has-
tened to explain that “ Katie” came on Mondays and that she
always scrubbed after she washed; and though the explanation
was accepted without argument, the child undoubtedly considered
that she had “caught ” her teacher in a transgression no whit less
than some for which the pupil had been chastised.

The Russian German housewife is a persistent and furious
scrubber. No mop disgraces her home, and a broom is too valu-
able an article to be spoiled by this process. Armed with soap
and a cloth or brush, she drops upon her knees and vigorously
attacks parlor and kitchen oilcloth alike. Even porches, and
walks, or “stepping stones” which may replace the latter, are
subject to the same process, although in this instance she rises
from her knees and assumes a stooping posture possible only to a
seasoned athlete as she gradually worms her way down the walk.
Her girls and boys are early taught the art of scrubbing, and their
constant application to it accounts for the fact that a stranger,
walking through the settlements, can invariably pick out the
Russian German houses by the looks of the front porch. The
cynic will reply, “their front porches ought to be clean, for they
are never used,” and there is no denying that in the majority of
Russian German homes this part of the house bears the same
relation to the rest of the dwelling as did the old-fashioned parlor
of our grandparents. Except in the rather rare instances where
a bell graces the front door, whoever would “enter in” must go
to the rear. The reason for this lies, partly, back in the old
home in Russia. There the houses are built directly upon the
street with only windows in the front. The door is at the side
and cannot be reached except by gaining admission to the yard
through the large or the small gate. This method of archi-
tecture was adopted when the German colonists first went to
Russia as a means of protection against the Kirghiz, Kalmucks,
and robbers with which the country was so long infested, and it
remains unchanged to this day. When the Germans came to

156

Dr J. &. Wrueger

Dr. J. F. Krueger

Two Types of Houses in the German Colonies on the Volga, Showing
Measures Used for Protection

A Social Study of the Russian German ail
America, they adopted the type of buildings prevailing here but
retained, though all unconsciously, their ingrained conviction that
he who enters in at the front of the house is a “thief and a
moepber. °°
The people also show the effect of their former environment
in their sparing use of water as a cleansing agent. In the colonies
there were the communal sources of water supply as we have in
Lincoln, but instead of having the water piped into each house
where unlimited quantities were easily available, each house-
holder was obliged to carry from the spring, creek, or river all
that was used for household purposes. Under such circum-
stances, it may be imagined what economies were practiced in its
use, and in this respect the Russian scorns his German neighbor.
The Slav performs his ablutions from a ewer hung from the
ceiling and (according to his interpretation) washes the dirt away
trom his face, while the Teuton returns a good share of it to its
original place by using the water from a basin. Moreover, the
Russians are famous bathers and no isba is so poor that it does
not include a pile of stones for the mujik’s vapor bath. The
German, on the other hand, contents himself with the less primi-
tive but less effective “tub,” and the mark of his complete as-
similation in America appears when he considers a bathroom a
necessity and not a luxury. The tendency of the Russian Ger-
man to economize in the use of water was shown in an exagger-
ated but not exactly typical way by the following incident. A
kindergarten teacher had threatened for sometime to send home.
one of her pupils who came to school with a dirty face, and one

25 The heavy wooden shutters on the windows of the houses shown in
the illustration preceding may be seen on many of the dwellings in the Lin-
coln settlements. In Russia they served primarily as a defense against rob-
bers, and secondarily as a protection against the cold. In Lincoln they are
found chiefly on houses owned by “ beetfielders ” and are used only during
the absence of the family in summer to protect window panes from the
unerring aim of mischievous boys.

It is interesting to observe that the better of these two houses belongs
to a man who spent several years in Lincoln as a section hand. He
returned as “a rich man” with two or three thousand dollars and built
this house, which is one of the finest in a colony of 12,000 people.

157

32 Hattie Plum Williams

morning she carried out her threat by taking the lad home. The
grandmother was scrubbing the front porch, and she promptly
applied the cloth, with which she was scrubbing, to the child’s face
and produced an effect which the teacher pronounced “ satis-
factory.”

So far as soap and water are concerned, the Russian German
home is faultless, but it suffers from the lack of ventilation. The
winters in Russia are so severe that every crack and crevice of
the houses is closed to shut out the cold and to conserve the heat;
and the weather of Nebraska, though milder, is resisted in the
same way. Moreover the small size of the houses here dis-
courages ventilation and on account of the risk from drafts, pure
air becomes almost as dangerous as bad air. It is an easy thing,
where the sleeping apartments are shut off from the rest of the
louse, to throw them open at night and leave them thus for half
the day ; but where there are only one or two rooms in the house,
the problem becomes more complicated. Again, the people do not
feel the need of fresh air.2° There is the former, almost uni-
versal, notion that some especial danger lurks in the night air;
and that outdoor air is especially bad for sick people. This
tendency to keep the house closed too tightly results in a faint
odor attaching to the clothing of the people which is taken by
those who do not know them to be a sign of soiled garments or
unbathed bodies. This slight odor is often the basis for un-
warranted prejudice against an otherwise cleanly people.

These peculiarities of economy in the use of clean water and
pure air are the results of environment and quickly improve
under changed conditions. The younger element among the
immigrants is less superstitious and more susceptible to suggestion.
The example of the American homes in which the mothers work,
the teaching of the schools, and the better type of houses which
the immigrants acquire after a few years in America, all aid in
effecting the change. A young miss of fifteen, after hearing a
health talk by a woman physician before a club of school girls,
declared: “I can’t stand to sleep with the windows shut. My

26 The windows in the houses of the German colonists on the Volga are
not made to open.

158

A Social Study of the Russian German 33

stepmother complains that it is too cold in the morning, but I tell
her to lie still until I get the house aired out, and I’ll do the
work.”

Sanitary living conditions are not wholly dependent upon in-
terior cleanliness of the homes and upon pure air; for in a city,
and especially in overcrowded sections, the problem of sewage and
water supply is vital. These, however, will be discussed in a later
chapter under the head of health conditions and only the moral
effects of overcrowding will be considered here. These depend
largely upon the composition of the “families” in the over-
crowded districts. A two-room dwelling occupied by eight people
is manifestly an example of overcrowding from the sanitary point
of view; but its moral effect will differ vastly as to the age, sex,
and relationship of the individuals. The evil decreases in propor-
tion as they all belong to one family, and as the age of the chil-
dren is low or their sex the same. But let them be a combination
of two families, brought about by second marriages, with ages
differing widely ; or a group of single or married male boarders
in a family containing girls or young women, and the problem is
greatly intensified. Hence an analysis of the composition of these
families is necessary to ascertain the moral effects of overcrowd-
ing. Reserving the statistical tables for a later use, the two vital
facts in this connection are: first, the number of boarders in the
settlements is comparatively small; and second, the number of
small children is comparatively large.

The small number of boarders is due to the fact that immigra-
tion occurs almost wholly by families and that the young unat-
tached persons usually leave the settlement, either for work in
other parts of the city, or for other locations. In the north settle-
ment there were only 20 boarders listed in the census of 1914,
and in the south settlement, 61.27 Of these, 16 were married men
whose families were in Russia, 42 were single men; and three
were women—one divorced and two single. About a third of
these were boarding with relatives, usually with a brother. The

27Tt is possible that some of the boarders in the north settlement were

not listed, through a mistaken notion that it might affect the taxes of the
informant.

159

34 Hattie Plum Williams

majority were young men in the twenties who came in the recent
immigration chiefly to escape military service; and the total num-
ber, comparatively small as it is, was much larger than usual.
Most of them are boarded singly, although two groups of four,
one of three, and six of two each are found. In almost every
case they must share the sleeping quarters of some members of
the family although in all but six cases separate rooms are pos-
sible. As a rule, the families in which these men stay contain
only small children, so that the bad moral effects are reduced to a
minimum.

With the Russian German, the keeping of boarders is often
not so much a matter of choice as it is governed by a dislike of
violating the customary rules of hospitality. A woman who lived
in a comparatively spacious house bemoaned the unexpected
arrival of her husband’s nephew—a married man who left his
family in Russia and hurriedly came to America to avoid a
threatened return to the army. She did not want to board him;
he made so much work, for he didn’t know how to keep the house
clean; but “it would be shame for us not to keep him, for he
is our friend.’

IV. Distribution by Families

The organization of the Russian German family in Lincoln
shows the transition from the patriarchal to the modern type.
Hence, the number of families returned in the census is indicative
of neither the undivided nor the divided family, nor does it agree
with the number of married couples and of widowed persons with
unmarried children. There are many families where married
sons live with their parents and where the housefather controls
the financial affairs of the entire group. There are other fami-
lies where married brothers dwell together, sharing some of the
details of living but with no common financial interests. Finally
the modern family composed of parents and unmarried children
is largely represented.

The number of families of Russian Germans in Lincoln is as
follows :?8

28 This includes only those Russian Germans for whom complete data
160

A Social Study of the Russian German 35

Families Individuals
North Settlements: se ce ciclepaei crac es 425 2,246
Soutin Semlomene ssonacooboccevoacteoc 631 3,148
@utside thes Settlenventsieceq-- oon. - 132 700
EIN Gitel Meath sea) casrets eaten Pees ners te coin eee 1,188 6,100

The average number of persons per Russian German family is
5.14 compared with 4.2 for the city of London and 4.5 for the
United States as a whole.?® In this respect it approaches more
nearly the eighteenth, than the twentieth, century type of family
for in 1790 the average size of the white family in the United
States was 5.8 persons.*°

The size of the family as it actually exists in the Russian Ger-
man settlements, 7. e., including all those living in one family group
without regard to relationship or lack of it, is shown in the follow-
ing table :*+

TaBLE V. SizE oF FAMILIES

Number of Persons Contained in Each Family

Families j
I 2 | 3 | 4 5 6 | 7 8 9 70) f} gery || ae
3 UO) | UOw | AAS | USH || BOR | LAB | 77S | AI| 19 | 6 | I
Per cent....... .3 | 10.6 115.5 | 16.0 RE | wR wwe Nos | A hae oS ox

The four-member family is the most largely represented, closely
followed by the six-, three-, and five-member groups. Compared
with the same type of family for the United States as a whole,*”
a significant difference appears in the very small number of

was secured. There are about 400 persons besides these, not here rep-
resented.

29 Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, Abstract with supple-
ment for Nebraska, 259, 262. These comparisons must be used cautiously,
since the bases are not always the same.

30 See Rossiter, “ The Significance of the Decreasing Proportion of Chil-
dren,” in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
XXXIV, No. 1, 71-80.

31 These figures are based only on the families within the settlement area
where conditions are typically Russian German.

32 The statistics for the United States are found in Mayo-Smith, Sta-
tistics and Sociology, 186.

161

36 Hattie Plum Williams

TABLE VI. COMPARATIVE SIZE OF FAMILIES AMONG RuSsSsIAN GERMANS
AND IN THE UNITED STATES AS A WHOLE

Russian German United States
iene Wena? Gaooucosccsouoos .30 3.63
2=O-member eratmilysey sao eee 73.00 73.33
7-TO-iM eMp ete ratiniliyac mere sierra sane 25.10 20.97
TI—12-member scanatlysayaes see eee ee 70 2.07

persons among the Russian Germans living alone. This fact is
indicative of their strong tendency toward family life. The
widowed remarry, often at an advanced age; or, otherwise, if
their children are grown, they make their homes with them. The
comparatively small number of families of eleven members and
over is also significant. The figures for the United States are
based largely upon boarding houses and hotels where all those
living under one roof are classed as a family. In the immigrant
quarters of the large cities or in foreign districts like the anthra-
cite coal communities in Pennsylvania, these statistics indicate
crowded and unwholesome conditions, where many boarders are
housed in small quarters. The few families of this size among
the Russian Germans demonstrates the fact already mentioned,
that considering the size of the immigrant group, the number of
boarders is small, and the evils arising from their presence is at
a minimum. ‘The percentage of two-to-six-member families is
practically the same for the Russian Germans as for the United
States as a whole. The percentage of families consisting of from
seven to ten members is considerably larger among the Russian
Germans and this is the true index of the comparative size of
natural families in the two groups.

V. Distribution According to Age, Sex, and Conjugal Condition

The resolving of a population into these factors is a necessary
prelude to the explanation of certain social phenomena which that
particular group exhibits. For example, a high death rate may
be due to the unsanitary conditions under which a people live, or
it may be largely explained by the fact that a great proportion of
the population is of the age when the expectancy of death is
greatest, i. ¢., under one year or over fifty. Again, criminality

162

ith Census of the United States.)

a 3a b34
[asta J 52

M/~ec (0.6 54300 10 12 34 5°67 6 9,10" 12

Per Cer Per Cent.

‘otal Population of Un/Russian German Population of Lincoln: 1914

va
hone

Rue
we

atone

Burnes
als

If

oy hn

mtr Maras

Want
eae

Sone
aint

é Il. Distribution by Age Periods and Sex Groups. (Compiled Partially from the Thirteenth Census of the United States.)
Hart II. :

57 1. 1.0
mmo oe | O |} 234 § 6 7654321081234 5 67 2H 09 8 7-65 4 3°2 ) 0 [32 3.455 6 7-0 eee
/ Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
| Total Population of United States : 1910. Total Population of Lincoln : rg10 Russian German Population of Lincoln: 1914

sy Bax eboigg wa Bond lnsisiaitet ‘Ppa d hirtecr
1904 an i rf .

+

L.@2 Ss ERR @7S waremepeneTy
(yep eaaals SE ats $099: 999
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yy ee

A Social Study of the Russian German ou

depends partly upon the comparative number of males and females
in a community, and partly upon the percentage of males of the
criminal age. Illegitimacy, or the lack of it, depends upon the
number of single persons of marriageable age, as well as upon
the social customs and ideals of the groups. These factors must
all be kept in mind in any discussion of social conditions among
the Russian Germans, for upon them depend largely the test of
the morality or the immorality, of the desirableness or the unde-
sirableness, of the group.

The distribution of the Russian German population of Lincoln
according to age periods is shown in Chart IT.**

The most striking thing is the abnormally large proportion of
persons in the lower age groups: 22.1 per cent. under five years
of age among the Russian Germans as compared with 9.9 per
cent. for the city of Lincoln and 11.6 per cent. for the United
States. The local charts show increases in the middle age periods,
the total city population being swollen most largely by young
people (20-24 years of age) who come from the rural districts
either to enter industry or to attend school, and the Russian
German population being most largely increased by immigrants
(25-35 years of age) who come here direct from Russia. The
small proportion of Russian Germans above sixty years of age
indicates the comparative recency of the immigration and the fact
that few old people emigrate from Russia.** The small propor-
tion of young people from 15 to 25 is striking, and somewhat
difficult to account for. The smaller number of males in these
groups is due to the Wanderlust of youth which leads a large
number of young men to leave their father’s house, usually with-
out parental consent, and seek adventure or labor elsewhere.

88 Incidentally this chart illustrates the principle of the stability of large
numbers and the instability of small. The figure for the United States
shows a gradual decline, while the variations of the other two are neither
uniform nor gradual.

84 The top of the pyramid for Lincoln cannot be completed because the
census of 1910 gives only broad-age periods above 40 years. The group
from 40-49 years was resolved into two five-year periods on the basis of
proportions given in the census of 1900, but no further estimate was
possible. ;

163

38 Hattie Plum Williams

Some enter the navy, one or two have found their way to the
Philippines, while many have stopped on the Pacific coast where
they may have relatives or friends. Rarely does one become a
“hobo”; sometimes their hard experiences bring them back home
subdued and sobered; but more often they set up independent
establishments and remain away permanently. Some of the
steadiest and most ambitious young men in the community have
sought release from home restraints and old-fashioned ideas and
customs of family life in this way.

A further comparison by broad-age groups shows some interest-
ing facts. The abnormally large proportion of children under

Taste VII. AcE Groups, By PERCENTAGES

| o-14 Years | 15-39 40-59 | 60 and Over

Russian German, Lincoln, 1914............ | 48.0 Boa | sto B)2)
Ano; ILANEOK, UOLOS coccovooabacodbooocNs | 20.1 45-4 |) 20.2 8.2
Foreign white stock,®> United States, IgIo.. | 21.5 | 46.4 | 23.0 8.1
otal wWnited: States: sono merieeiie ne | B2eT | 43.2 17.8 6.6

fifteen years of age among the Russian Germans is indicative of
the high birth rate prevailing among them and of immigration by
families at the period of life when fecundity is the greatest. The
much smaller percentage of foreign white stock in this lower age
group is accounted for by the fact that so many of the other
foreign-born groups are adults without their families; and,
although the fecundity of all immigrant mothers is very high, the
combination of the two elements reduces the proportion of chil-
dren.*° The large percentage of Russian Germans in the lower
age group implies (1) a high infant mortality; (2) a heavy bur-
den upon the community in providing educational facilities, and a
great opportunity in “training up the child in the way he should
go”; and (3) a heavy burden upon the immigrant in providing
for so large a proportion of non-producers within his group.

85 Foreign white stock includes those born abroad and native-born having
one or both parents born abroad.

86 Only 5.7 per cent. of the foreign-born are under fifteen years of age,

while 38.0 per cent. of the native-born of foreign parentage are under
fifteen.

164

A Social Study of the Russian German 39

The distribution of the Russian Germans according to sex
shows a normal, stable population. Males comprise 51.0 per
cent., and females 49.0 per cent., of the total number of persons.
This. comparatively equal proportion of the sexes is another evi-
dence of the family character of this immigration. The few
married males who are from Russia without their families, and
a small number of young men from the rural districts attending
school in Lincoln, account in part for the slight excess of males.
The city as a whole shows 49.7 per cent. males and 50.3 per cent.
females, an excess of females in every age period from ten to
forty-five.

The comparatively equal proportion of the sexes among the
Russian Germans insures the establishment of homes and the
normal increase of this element of the population through birth.
It tends to retard assimilation by checking intermarriage, but this
is well for both the immigrant and the community because a too
sudden change cannot be other than superficial. On the other
hand, it permits early marriages to which the people have been
accustomed, and lessens impure living and criminality which might
otherwise result.

The tendency to establish homes, encouraged by the favorable
age and sex distribution of the Russian German population, is
shown by an analysis of their conjugal condition.** The Russian
German males show a larger percentage of single persons over
fifteen than do the females, while the latter exceed in each of the
other three divisions. While normally about one half a popula-
tion is married, the Russian German males show 76.3 per cent.
and the females 80.0 per cent. The smaller proportion of males
among the widowed (1.2 males as compared with 4.0 females)
shows the universal fact of their greater tendency to remarry; as
does also the smaller percentage of divorced males. When the
comparison is extended to the other groups in the table, it shows in
every item the greater tendency of the Russian German to marry,
to remarry, and to stay married.

37 The statistics for Lincoln and for the United States are taken from
the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, 599, 149.

165

40 Hattie Plum Williams
TasLte VIII. ConyucaL ConpiITIoN oF THE PopuLATION Over FIFTEEN
YEARS, BY PERCENTAGES38
Males
Total | Single | Married) Widowed | Divorced

RussianiGerman ronan sey yen TOOLOM | 22230 7 Ore) Tex 2
Win col; KO WOM were a eM a ae LOOLOM I SAS el eS. Bo] 25
United States, 1910: |

ARO Gaul eyes gate Bilbeg kloan oA Rule ete Te 100.0 | 38.7 | 55.8 | 4.5 as

Native white of foreign parents... -| 100.0 | 50.2 | 46.3 | 2.8 4

OREN NOB, po aceodcasouscoeus || HOO) |) Suess: | Oar 5-4 “3

e
Females
; i

Russian’ Germianken@ eee er pee | 100.0 | 15.6 | 80.0 4.0 4
Lincoln 1OLOR ate aa ee ee 100.0 |, 31.9 | 56.0 10.3 re)
United States, 1910:

Bay ceri i sey Ui He and ant 8 ate Agee 100.0 | 20.7 58.9 TOsOjee 6

Native white of foreign parents....| 100.0 | AMP Mo Riko 6.5 a5

Foreign DOLE mernie obdesonssous I00.0 TOes | OOns Aa ann| 32

An analysis of the conjugal condition according to ages further
reveals certain social facts. To a very large extent, the females
marry earlier than the males and both marry before the age of
twenty-five. Out of a total of 1,635 males over 15 years of age,

TasLe IX. ConyuGAL ConpiTion or Russian GERMAN PopuLaTion Ac-
CORDING TO SEX AND AGE Prriops, By NUMBERS

Single Married Widowed Divorced
Age Ir ee
Male | Female} Male | Female} Male | Female} Male | Female

WEF S1G) WEIS 6 goa vod ¢ 211 I96 I 25 ies I I I
2 Om 21s CALSH eI EEE TIt 36 108 193 wee
BEG) WEEE 6668 oo0 00 Zr 3 282 316 2 os oa
20-24 VearSaeeieeee 6 I 244 182 ne I I
SO) WEN 6acegoacs 4 I 183 +|- 161 2 I 2
AO—AAVCATSH ee ree he eeae I 125 100 ay I I I
[NE—ANO) WAEEMESS Scib'o.5'5 oo we Of. |) 8a I I
SOR 5ASVCALS relerul een: I 88 67 2 6
5 SOMVCALSe eee 62 52 I 9
COTO, WEEN G cidouca65 28 22 5 13
OS=6io) WEBB o 5 ous 5666 ame) 16 I 8
Vorandvovieranieice 13 5 6 ie)

88 The totals in the United States census figures include a small per-
centage of persons not listed in the accompanying table, whose marital
condition was unknown.

166

A Social Study of the Russian German AI

only 43 were single at the age of twenty-five, and out of a
total of 1,523 females in the same age group, only 6 were un-
married at twenty-five.*® The largest number of married per-
sons is between the ages of 25 and 35, at the most prolific
period of life for rearing children. By far the largest num-
ber of widowed persons is beyond the age of fifty, and it is
significant that out of 60 widows, 56 are past the age of child
bearing. The smaller number of divorced males does not signify
especially that the Russian German women are more addicted to
separation than the men, but often the woman remains in the
settlement while the man hides himself in an up-town boarding
house or in some other locality. Sometimes he has deserted the
wife, either before or after leaving Russia, and is thus unrecorded
here.

The influence of the conjugal condition of the Russian German
upon crime, suicide, insanity, illegitimacy, and the adult death-
rate, all of which are decreased among the married, is difficult to

determine accurately ; but its influence upon the increase of the-

population is clearly evident. Every condition among the Russian
Germans in the Lincoln settlements is favorable to a high birth
rate, even higher than in their former home in Russia. The
population contains fewer persons in the upper age groups beyond
the child-rearing period because the old people do not emigrate.
It is more healthy as a whole because the process of selection
necessary for entrance into the United States eliminates the phys-
ically unfit. It contains many raw immigrants, because Lincoln
is a distributing point for this group who come here direct from
Russia, and therefore shows the primitive tendency of the
foreigner toward large families. Finally the abnormally large
proportion of young married people, showing the universal tend-
ency toward marriage and the early age at which it occurs, and the
long duration of married life due to few divorces and constant
remarriage, produce ideal conditions for a high birth rate.

89 Something less than a dozen of the forty-three single males are uni-

versity students living outside Lincoln, and hence not an integral part of
the city population.

167

(ClaU ME TORS JE

BirtH AND DEATH, MARRIAGE AND DIvoRCE

I. Vital Statistics in Nebraska

Vital statistics are in such a chaotic condition in the majority
of the United States that there is no adequate or reliable basis for
a study of the phenomena they present. The following results
obtained from the records available must be accepted as approxi-
mate and not final, and the excuse for presenting them at all is
that they are the only ones which exist, that they are fairly
approximate, as any one knows who is familiar with conditions
in the foreign settlements in Lincoln, and that they may form a
basis for comparison when more accurate work is made available
by the state. It is unfortunate that there is no means of checking
the results here tabulated; for the Russian Germans are never
separated from the other groups and unless one is familiar with
the family names of these immigrants he cannot sort out the data
relating to them.?

Nebraska’s tardy recognition of the value of vital statistics
and the spasmodic and imperfect enforcement of the laws relating
to it are typical of the American attitude toward this subject.
There is some comfort, but no help, in the fact that our back-
wardness in this regard has been due to two factors, the absence
of which none of us regret; viz., a state church and compulsory
military service. Our system of representation gave us the
federal decennial census, the original purpose of which was purely
political. As the social horizon has broadened, the social value of
the census has become. more and more pronounced; and an
increasing demand has come for a continuous registration, by the

1 The writer’s interest in laying a foundation for future historical work

for this people has led to her copying in almost all instances the data upon
which the figures herein contained are based.

168

A Social Study of the Russian German 43

smaller units, of the facts which go to make up what is aptly
called “ vital statistics.”’?*

Nebraska has proceeded with the ordinary leisure of the un-
concerned in securing the registration of such data. There has
not been lack of law, but lack of public sentiment behind the
law to secure its enforcement. Marriage was naturally the first
event to require registration and these records were not so com-
pletely ignored; for every one recognized the state’s jurisdiction
and control over this institution, the conduct of which was care-
fully detailed in the statutes. But not so with births and deaths.
The congregate growth of the population through immigration was
jealously guarded and widely advertised, but its genetic increase
and its decrease passed unnoticed.

A Nebraska law of February 12, 1865, provided that the county
commissioners require the assessors to make a full and complete »
return annually of all births and deaths of the preceding year.*

2Tn the United States Census of 1900 the only states in which the regis-
tration record was accepted as accurate were Massachusetts, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, New Hampshire, with certain counties and cities of New
York and New Jersey. Bailey, Modern Social Conditions, 8. In 1910 the
registration area included the New England States, Pennsylvania, and
Michigan and the cities of New York and Washington, D. C. “ Birth
Registration, an Aid in Protecting the Lives and Rights of Children,”
United States Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Monograph, num-
ber 1, 16.

3“ While the United States led the world with respect to the census of
population, we still rank with the most unprogressive and semi-civilized
countries as concerns the registration of births and deaths.” C. L. Wilbur,
“The Census and the Public Health Movement,” in Annals of the Ameni-
can Academy of Political and Social Science, XXXVII, number 2, 45.

4Complete Session Laws of Nebraska, I, 430-432. The statute made
elaborate provision for the return of these records. Upon blanks pro-
vided them the assessors were to make tables showing the age periods
of the population, the sex of those born, with the number of plural and
still births, and the cause of death, tabulated by months and by age, with
sex in each case. The nativity of each person was also to be recorded,
as were all cases of idiocy and insanity. The annual returns were to be
made to the county clerk on the third Monday of April. Although this
would not now be considered a model law because it did not provide con-
tinuous and prompt registration of births and deaths, and because it did
not throw the responsibility upon the householder or his physician, yet its

169

44 Hattie Plum Williams

That the law was not being observed is suggested by an amend-
ment passed in 1875 requiring the assessors to take oath as to
the correctness of their returns and providing a certain sum per
capita for the names registered.» The effort to secure vital
statistics was finally given up in 1885 when the statute was re-
pealed by an act providing for a state census to be taken that
year. For twenty years this law for the registration of vital
statistics was on the statute books; but diligent inquiry fails to
reveal any results which ever came from it, except a deep regret
that it was not enforced.

In 1889 the city of Lincoln passed an ordinance requiring the
registration of births and deaths, and since September of that year
fairly complete death certificates have been returned because
permits were necessary to secure burial in the city cemeteries.
Moreover, the town was becoming large enough that the coroner
felt called to insist upon this formality as a means of detecting
crime. <A few birth certificates are found for that year but the
health officer failed to enforce the law and for ten years there-
after not a single birth entry is made. In 1901, influenced by a
general agitation over the country for registration, the health
officer made a spasmodic attempt to enforce the ordinance but
only those physicians obeyed who believed in the desirability and
necessity of such records.* The most faithful person to report
was a woman doctor who handled many of the lying-in cases in
the Russian German settlements, but almost fifty per cent. of these
were treated by Russian German midwives who paid no attention
to the ordinance and who were left unmolested. Besides being
incomplete, the birth records up to 1912 are unusable for com-
parative purposes unless the rural records are separated from the
city records. To do this, a knowledge of the changes in the city
enforcement would have provided a imine of historical and social data
for present use.

5 Complete Session Laws of Nebraska, II, 848.

6 Laws of Nebraska, 1885, 97-108.

7In 1903 Congress passed a resolution urging the states to enact suitable
registration laws. Cf. Congressional Record, 57th Cong., 2d Sess.,
XXXVI, 585.

8 Cf. below, 47, footnote 14.

170

A Social Study of the Russian German 45

limits at various periods of the municipality’s history is necessary.

In 1905, the Nebraska Legislature passed a model Vital Statis-
tics law which was first properly put into effect in Lincoln upon
the reorganization of its Board of Healthin1912.1° There are now
on record, therefore, three years of fairly accurate and fairly
complete birth and death certificates for the city, although there
would have been nine if the law had been promptly enforced.
The state, however, is still included (1914) in the list of common-
wealths where “ good birth registration laws have been enacted—
although their enforcement does not yet meet the census require-
ments.’”** In 1909 the State Registrar of Vital Statistics was
made the depositary of data on marriage and divorce, to whom
annual reports are to be made by the county judge and Clerk of
the District Court respectively.2 This law has resulted in no
more complete statistics in Lancaster County than were available
before. Elaborate blanks containing between thirty and forty
items are provided, but only such items are filled in as the marriage
license or the petition for divorce happen to record. The divorce
statistics are woefully deficient, not more than half the items
being filled out, because attorneys have not been in the habit of
including many of the points asked for, and the clerk’s office has
not taken the trouble to secure the information from the litigants.

9 These corrections have been made in the figures used for the tables
which follow.

10 Laws of Nebraska, 1905, 466-471. The salient features of this act
are (1) that the registration area covers the entire state, (2) that the
birth and death certificates are made out according to the standard blanks
adopted by the United States Census Bureau, (3) that all local registrars
must make a report to the State Registrar, who makes a permanent record
of the certificate, and (4) physicians and undertakers failing to report
births and deaths are subject to a fine of $10 to $100, or to sixty days
imprisonment, or to both.

11“ Birth Registration, an Aid in Protecting the Lives and Rights of
Children,” United States Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Mono-
graph, number 1, 16. See also map of the United States on page 2, show-
ing adequacy and inadequacy of birth registration laws in the various
states. The Bureau of the Census, however, included the cities of Omaha
and Lincoln in its registration area in 1911. Department of Commerce and
Labor, Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics, 1911, 10.

12 Laws of Nebraska, 1900, 347.

171

46 Hattie Plum Williams

The question of the comparative number of divorces among the
foreign-born and the native-born is interesting and important;
but the nativity of the client is never recorded, and unless one
knows the family names of foreign groups, there is no possible
way of distinguishing.

No apology is made for this lengthy and somewhat tedious
digression from the point at issue. Satisfactory studies of local,
state, or national social conditions can never be forthcoming so
long as our records are so carelessly and inadequately kept.
“ Sound vital statistics are the necessary basis of modern sanita-
tion and register clearly the steps in the campaign against pre-
ventable diseases, often pointing the way to the next step. They
furnish a definite measure of the value of sanitary improve-
ments.’ Moreover, it is a fact that the state’s confidence is
continually imposed upon, as any cursory examination of the
records will show. Birth statistics are the most unreliable of
all the unreliable vital statistics we have; yet the state fixes a legal
age for school attendance, child labor, marriage, militia duty,
and the suffrage and provides no way for unerringly establishing
it. For example, a marriage certificate dated July 14, 1911, gave
a bride’s age as 18. A death certificate for this same woman
August 8, 1912, gave her age as 16 years 9 months and 18 days.
According to the latter and probably correct data, her age at
marriage was 15 years 8 months and 23 days, or 3 months and 7
days below the age of parental consent in Nebraska. A young
couple went from Lincoln to Council Bluffs and the marriage
license issued to them gave the groom’s age as 21. A year later
he sued for divorce on the ground of fraud in forcing him to
marry, and gave his age at that time as 20 years. A young man
married in December, 1914, gave his age as 21, although in April
of that year the census recorded him as 18. Misrepresentation by
those desiring citizenship papers was not uncommon before the
new naturalization law of 1906, especially in states which per-
mitted alien suffrage; for where five years’ residence was not re-

18 Chaddock, “Sources of Information upon the Public Health Move-

ment,” in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
XXXVII, number 2, The Public Health Movement, 305.

172

An Average Family

A Social Study of the Russian German 47

quired, crowds of voters could be rounded up on short notice and
the age of those ineligible could be conveniently stretched to suit
the occasion. The care taken under the new law to establish
the exact age of the applicant now results in a number of denials
of citizenship on the ground that the declarant was under 21 years
of age. Misrepresentation of age to school authorities is the
most flagrant abuse locally and the Russian German is the chief
sinner, not because he is primarily dishonest, but because the
state through its neglect aids him in evading a law with which he
is not in sympathy.

id Birt Rates

It has been previously pointed out that every condition among
the Russian Germans in Lincoln is favorable to a high birth rate.
Although comprising less than one seventh of the total population
of the city, the proportion of Russian German births to the total
number of births in the city was 25.2 per cent. in 1912; 20.7 per
cent. in 1913; and 32.3 per cent. in 1914.14 The phenomenon of
a decreasing native population of native parentage in a community
where the foreigner is a comparatively recent comer is here
demonstrated. The increase from one fourth to one third the
total births does not mean that the birth rate among the Russian
Germans is rising at that ratio but that the Russian German
population increased more rapidly, through immigration, during
these years than did the population of the city as a whole.

14 Birth Records of the City of Lincoln. The degree to which the public
health reports are deficient is shown by a comparison of the number of
births recorded at the health office and the number of christenings in the
various Russian German churches:

Year Health Records | Gee Year Health Records Cie
1902 46 134 1909 168 273
1903 61 168 IQIO 230 304
1904 63 188 IQII 204 327
1905 76 198 IQI2 201 339
1906 99 220 IQI3 336 358
I907 139 291 IQI4 390 382
1908 150 | 278 Total... 2,319 3,460

173

48 Hattie Plum Williams

-Another measure of the natural increase of population is the
crude birth rate; 7. e., the number of births per annum per 1,000
of the total population.

TABLE X. BrrRTHS PER 1,000 ToTAL PoPpuLATION?!®

Riassiank German elOlie nc thee Oe te Cee 60.0
INbiscraim (GSRMeia, WO osooccdceocodupUccdconcdedobodeO 60.8
Ieinicolnas GrOtall))\ maT OUOW eye rie oie rsccieas, ockcie create a ere 25.1
Russia, TOTO eee a a Oe ee Pa 44.2
Germany, TO EO oe sielcis ahs ore SR See ee ee Ee 30.5

The figures however do not show the actual fecundity of
marriage among the Russian Germans because there is not the
same proportion-of women from 15 to 45 years among the
Russian German and the city populations; nor is there the same
proportion of married persons in the two groups. For example,
28 per cent. of the total population of Lincoln is composed of
women between 15 and 45 years, while only 20 per cent. of the
Russian German population are women of that age group.
Based upon the number of women between 15 and 45 years, the
birth rate for the Russian Germans was 318.6 births per 1,000
and for the city of Lincoln 73.2 per 1,000. A similar comparison
of the fecundity of marriage between native-born and foreign-
born women in Michigan for the five-year period, 1890-1894,
shows 111 births per 1,000 native, and 232 births per 1,000
foreign, women.**

15 The data for 1914 are based upon the writer’s census of the Russian
Germans in that year. The Russian German population in 1910 is esti-
mated from the United States Census as 5,000. The number of births is
taken from the total christenings of the eight Russian German churches,
which record 304 births in 1910 as compared with 236 registered at the
health office. The former would not include a few births where families
belong to other churches-nor the still births. Moreover, it might include
some born outside the city, viz., in the beetfields, but these would be only
a few. These facts illustrate, however, the impossibility of ascertaining
an absolutely correct rate. The data for Lincoln are based on the United
States Census for 1910 and the city health records, which latter are incom-
plete and make the rate somewhat lower than it should be. For Russia
and Germany, see Statesman’s Year Book, 1912, 1914.

16 Cf. Chart II. Distribution by Age Periods and Sex Groups, 36.

17 Newsholme, The Elements of Vital Statistics, 65.

174

A Social Study of the Russian German 49

This enormous difference in Lincoln is due partly to the large
number of unmarried women between these ages in the city at
large and the small number among the Russian Germans. An
unusually large proportion of single women in the schools, col-
leges, and university; the usual number of rural immigrants in
business and industry; and the increasing number of women of
leisure who delay marriage, reduce the proportion of married
women between 15 and 45 years in the city to 54.7 per cent., while
80.0 per cent. of the Russian German women of this age are mar-
ried.18 Based upon the number of married women between 15 and
45 years, the birth rate for the Russian Germans is 399.1 births per
1,000 and for Lincoln at large, 134.1 per 1,000.1° Unfortunately
there is no way of separating the city rate which all the way
through includes the Russian German and does not anywhere
show comparative ratios between this foreign group and the
native-born, nor between them and the rest of the city.

The potential size of the Russian German family may be ascer-
tained by a study of the number of children born in those families
in which the mother has passed the age of child-bearing. Out
of 265 Russian German families in Lincoln in which the mother
was 45 years and over, the following number of children had
been born:

o children in 18 families ; 8 children in 26 families ;
1 child in 3 families; 9 children in 37 families;
2 children in 9 families; 10 children in 40 families;
3 children in 4 families; 11 children in 32 families;
4 children in 8 families; 12 children in 16 families;
5 children in 12 families; 13 children in 10 families;
6 children in 21 families; 14 children in 5 families;
7 children in 21 families; 15 children in 3 families.

In 80 per cent. of these families, six or more children were

18 Cf. Table VIII, Conjugal Condition of the Population Over Fifteen
Years, by Percentages, above, 40.

19In the three years 1890-1892 the annual birth-rate for England was
264 per 1,000 wives. Newsholme, The Elements of Vital Statistics, 64.

175

50 Hattie Plum Williams

born, and in 40 per cent. of the families, from ten to fifteen
children.2° The average number of births was 8.0 per family.”4

The percentage of sterility among these 265 women was 6.8.
The only rate with which this figure can be compared is that
given in a study of the population of Massachusetts where, among
married women from 50 to 59 years of age, 14.8 per cent. of the
native-born were without children, and 9.3 per cent. of the
foreign-born.*?

In these same 265 families, the number of children living was
as follows:

o children in 19 families ; 7 children in 27 families;
1 child in 16 families ; 8 children in 23 families;
2 children in 20 families ; 9 children in 11 families;
3 children in 29 families; 10 children in 2 families;
4 children in 46 families ; 11 children in 2 families;
5 children in 37 families; 12 children in 1 family.
6 children in 32 families;

According to this method of reckoning, there was an average of
4.7 children per family, or 6.6 persons as compared with 5.03
persons in the whole settlements. While in 80 per cent. of these
families, six or more children had been born, in only 37 per cent.
are six or more children living; and while in 4o per cent. ten or
more had been born, in only 1.9 per cent. were ten or more living.
In 34 families, 12 or more children had been born but in only one

20 In one instance a man of 34 married a girl of 14, and in twenty-five
years she bore him eleven children, of whom eight are living.

21 The average number of children in the normal American family at
the present time is slightly above two. See Ripley, “ Race Progress and
Immigration,” in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, XXXIV, number 1, 135. In Russia in 1896 the number of births
to ten marriages was 65 or 6.5 children per marriage. New International
Encyclopedia, IX, 804. Tables showing the number of children born per
marriage are given for various countries and groups of population in
Newsholme, The Elements of Vital Statistics,64-70. However, the method
of computation is not known and hence the figures cannot be compared
safely with those given above. Cf. also “The Fecundity of Immigrant
Women,” in Reports of Immigration Commission, XXVIII, 731-826.

22 Kuczynski, “The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Popula-
tion in Massachusetts,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, XVI, 158.

176

A Social Study of the Russian German 51

family were 12 children living. There was a decrease through
death of 3.3 children per family, or 41.2 per cent. of all who had
been born.

The Russian German follows the European trend in natality,
and in his birth rate and his marriage rate he is more an eigh-
teenth century product of Germany than of any modern condi-
tions. Thrown out upon the frontier of Europe a century and
a half ago, like all pioneers, a part of his service was to multiply
and replenish the steppes, and his German ancestry fitted him
admirably for this task. In spite of border warfare, epidemics,
famine, and slight emigration the population of the German
colonies in less than a century showed ten times its original
number.?? They actually increased more rapidly than the native
population because they were more protected, particularly from
military service, which meant not merely the loss of individual
men but of homes as well.

The birth rate, however, among the German colonists in Russia
is not so high as it is for Russia as a whole, nor so high as it is
among their immigrants in Lincoln. For five years (1907 to
IQ11 inclusive) the birth rate per 1,000 of the total population of
Russia was 44.5.24 The crude rate for the Protestant German
colonies was 40.9 births per 1,000 in 1908 and 36.9 in 1912.7> The
latter shows the effect of three years’ famine and emigration.
According to this computation, the crude birth rate of the Ger-
man colonists in Lincoln is about 20 more per 1,000 population
than in Russia. This phenomenon of a higher crude birth rate
among immigrants in America than in their native home finds a
parallel among the inhabitants of the anthracite coal communi-
ties of Pennsylvania. These are mostly Slavs from Austria and
Hungary where the birth rate is 38.6 and 44.0 respectively per
1,000 population. In Pennsylvania, in five parishes the birth rate
was estimated at from 50.00 to 73.33 per 1,000.76

23 Bauer, Geschichte der deutschen Ansiedler an der Wolga, 76.

24 Statesman’s Year Book, 1914.

25 Computed from data in the Friedensboten Kalender, 1910 and 1914,

printed in Talowka, Government Saratow, Russia.
26 Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, 69-70.

177

52 Hattie Plum Williams

The Russian Germans—men, women, and children—think in
terms of large families. The man’s idea of playing “ eine grosse
Rolle” in state or church is to rear at least as many children as
did his father or grandfather. A woman of thirty-two was
asked how many children she had and her reply was, “‘ Only six,
yet.” A girl of fourteen explained her lack of appetite at a table
where only two persons were seated by saying that she never could
eat unless there were lots of folks around, and quoted one of her
countrymen—a physician—who said that it gave one an appetite
to eat where there were a great many children.

The American family—or lack of it—is .a source of deep
mystery to the Russian Germans. They pity the women with no
children, for they cannot conceive of such a state occurring from
free choice instead of necessity. They suspect the woman with
but one or two children, and are convinced that some illegitimate
means must be used to accomplish such an end. They are en-
couraged in this belief by the fact that young girls among them
who have left the path of virtue have no difficulty in finding
physicians to provide them with unlawful means of escape from
their dilemma.

Statistics are too inadequate, and the immigrants’ length of
residence in America is too short, to note accurately any change
in the birth-rate due to other than superficial causes. But through
personal acquaintanceship with the people, one detects here and
there the beginning of a changed attitude toward the large family.
One of the primary causes is the rise in the standard of living,
and the consequent feeling that it is impossible to rear so many
children properly when the cost of mere necessities is so great.
Therefore, “the rich people are the ones who ought to raise
children for they can take care of them.” ‘The religious objection
to a voluntary reduction in the size of the family is met with the
conviction that life is a serious proposition and that the calami-
ties which may befall children make it “better if they do not
live.”

A growing regard for women is also responsible for some of
this change. There are not a few young wives in the settlements
who have had their health impaired by hard work when they

178

A Social Study of the Russian German 53

came, as young girls, to America a decade or more ago; and either
the warning of physicians or the considerateness of their hus-
bands results in a material decrease in the size of their families.
The criminal means of prevention found among so many of the
younger generation of women of foreign-born parents is not in
evidence among the Russian Germans, except occasionally in
cases of illegitimate relations. As pointed out later, almost with-
out exception the Russian German girls drop out of organized
industry when they marry, and this removes one of the greatest
temptations which exists to interfere with the course of nature.

Different ideals of family life will also tend to reduce the birth
rate among the Russian Germans in Lincoln. Everywhere in
Europe, particularly under the village system of Russia, the child
is looked upon as an economic asset. Among the German
colonists, the girl, if necessary, takes her place beside the male
workers in the field during the summer, substituting for her
brothers when they are drafted for military service; while through
the leisure season she is the chief factor in the industries which
are carried on in the home. On the other hand, every boy born
means an added dusch to the family income, for each housefather
receives as many shares as there are males in his househola.
Where the shares are so small as they are at the present time
among the German colonists, every added one is of especial value,
and the death of male children is particularly mourned because it
represents a very definite economic loss. In America the child is
still considered an economic asset, but the demands of the state
for its education reduce its value far below what it would other-
wise be. Moreover, while it is customary for Russian German
children, so long as they remain in the home, to turn over all their
wages to their parents, the law in America absolves them from
the necessity of it after they have attained their majority, and very
often they avail themselves of the privilege of the law.

More important still is the disintegration of the family which
occurs in this country. A very definite thought in the rearing of
children is the idea that they will repay the trouble they have cost
by caring for the parents in their old age.. In America, however,
the economic organization of society is not such as to insure them

179

54 Hattie Plum Williams

this care, and often ungrateful children abuse their unaccustomed
liberty by deserting their parents or leaving them to live alone.
This is one of the especial grievances which the older people have
against America, and which keeps some of them from joining
their children here. When, therefore, the child comes to be con-
sidered an economic liability instead of an asset, and when he
ceases to serve the purposes of an old age pension, the size of the
family will automatically decrease.

Sex relations among the Russian Germans as revealed by the
Statistics of illegitimacy are remarkably pure, the ratio of illegiti-
mate to each 100 births in the Protestant colonies on the Volga
being an average of 1.4 for the years 1906, 1907 and 1908.27 The
rates for the European countries are unusually high and for the
United States, very low. In 18g, Russia, which ranked among
the lowest, had 3.1 illegitimate births out of each 100 births.28
In 1886-1890, the illegitimate births ranged from LAN per OS
for Austria to 3.1 for Holland, with Germany showing 9.3 and
Great Britain 4.8. On the other hand, Rhode Island in rgo1 had
1.3 illegitimate per 100 total births, and in Connecticut, the rate
was 1.1.*° It is true that the statistics on this subject are difficult
to interpret. The temptation to conceal these births is as great
as, or greater than, the carelessness in reporting other births.
Moreover, with the growth of medical science and the unre-
strained practices of vicious doctors, criminal prevention plays a
part unsuspected by the public and all too large. Where custom
and law demand the immediate marriage of the guilty parties, the
real conditions are concealed in the statistics which report all
children born in wedlock as legitimate. But the comparative
standards of Americans and Europeans, as shown in the statistics,
are borne out by travelers who find a vast difference among people
of every stratum of society—peasants, middle classes, university
students, and social leaders.

The purity of the Russian German family life as shown by the
low percentage of illegitimacy may be accounted for partially by the

27 Friedensboten Kalender, 1908, 130; 1909, 131; IQIO, I3I.

28 New International Encyclopedia, IX, 804.

29 Bailey, Modern Social Conditions, 121.

“180

A Social Study of the Russian German 55

low marriage age, the universality of marriage, and the great im-
portance attaching to the wedding ceremony in the simple lives of
the people. The impossibility of concealing their shame in the
small villages in which they live is a deterrent, as is shown by the
fact that in Saratow, a city of 200,000 population, where some
12,000 German colonists live, the number of illegitimate births per
100 among the latter was 5.8 in 1906; 7.6 in 1908; and 5.3 in
t912.°° In the villages, public opinion is a most powerful pre-
ventive. Since marriage in Russia is an exclusively ecclesiastical
institution, the minister must be appealed to for the ceremony ;
and if he learns of the indiscretion of the pair the bridal wreath
is torn from the bride and their disgrace is heralded by their
being denied a public wedding. The difficulty or impossibility of
desertion by the father due to the lack of freedom of travel in
Russia and the consequent necessity of being provided with a
domestic passport by which he can easily be traced, is a restraining
influence. The fact that illegitimacy would stand as a bar to
marriage, in a community where the arrangements are largely in
the hands of parents and the personal wishes of the contracting
parties count for little, would also have its subtle influence.

As usual the woman is the chief sufferer and if she chance to be
deserted or conceals her paramour, her lot becomes almost unen-
durable.** Not only is she shunned and despised by her asso-
ciates, but she is jeered and howled at by the boys of the street,
who constitute themselves the guardians of virtue, as much to
their own debasement as to the edification of the accused. This
custom is transferred to America and prevails in the settlements
in Lincoln. A sixteen-year-old girl who had fallen victim to
vice through the public dance hall was being accompanied to her
home in the settlement on Sunday afternoon by the probation
officer’s assistant. On their way they passed through the city

80 Friedensboten Kalender, 1908, 130; I910, 131; 1914, 142.

31 A writer in the Volkszeitung, a semi-weekly paper published in Sara-
tow, describes the popular conduct toward such women and _ protests
against the leniency shown the male culprit in contrast to the pitiless atti-
tude toward the woman. This is one of the numerous signs that the

“woman’s movement” is penetrating even one of the most secluded cor-
ners of the Russian Empire.

181

56 Hattie Plum Williams

park where a number of boys were lounging. Recognizing the
girl but not knowing who her companion was, the boys began
calling after her and followed her for some distance hurling vile
epithets at her in the German tongue. For months this girl could
not go outside her home without submitting to this same conduct
from the boys in the neighborhood. The viaduct which separates
the north settlement from the city is a via dolorosa to any girl
who leaves the path of virtue; for here the boys gather and as
she goes back and forth to her work, they taunt and tempt her in
truly mediaeval fashion.*

How far the absolute parental control of matchmaking enters
as a preventive of illegitimacy can only be conjectured, but there
can be no question that it sometimes causes illicit relations between
young people. Although the Russian law permits the minister to
perform the marriage ceremony over the objection of the parents,
the dependence of the youth upon their family, due to its patri-
archal organization, induces them to find some way of escape
without breaking its ties. Several instances are known in Lin-
coln where parents objected to the choice of their child, and the
couple checkmated them, not by elopement, as is customary in
America, but by assuming prematurely the privileges of the mar-
ried state. In one case the parents, upon confession of the young
people, prepared the ordinary wedding, and concealed the facts
from the minister until afterwards.

Apparently this purity in the sexual relations has been the

82. One of the most effective methods of punishment among the Russian
Germans is “shame.” However, since the community must act in the
capacity of “hangman,” it is a question whether more harm than good
does not result from this primitive method of meting out justice, particu-
larly when children are employed. An instance of this sort of punishment
is given by a correspondent in the Dakota Freie Presse, December 27,
1910. A man and his wife in one of the colonies were caught stealing
provisions from a neighbor. The customary legal penalties were imposed
upon the man; but the woman was taken to the school grounds where
she was made to stand with a link of the stolen sausage around her neck
and a little cooking-kettle on her arm, while the school children danced
about her in a circle and cried, “ Wurst, Wurst,” “ Kalbas, Kalbas.” The
woman was then led through the entire village, followed by the children
“with ear-splitting cries.”

182

A Social Study of the Russian German 57

result of forces without as much as of forces within; for when
the people come to America, they succumb in a certain degree to
a lower standard because of the removal of restraints. Here it
is easy for the young man to “skip out” as soon as trouble
overtakes him. In this intention he is seldom hindered, and once
in a while an innocent victim is forced by the law, or through fear
of it, to pay the price another owed. As a rule, however,
marriage results, as is shown by the fact that in fifteen years, only
two illegitimate births among Russian German girls have been
reported. But in all too many cases a birth record follows too
soon after a marriage license. The fact that marriage in America
is a civil ceremony and that it can be performed without the
guilty subjecting themselves to the searching eye of the minister,
furnishes a way of escaping one result of their misdeeds. For
this reason there is always suspicion among the Russian Germans
attaching to those who resort to the civil authorities for marriage.

One of the worst features in connection with these cases in
America is the ease with which they can escape the consequences
of their sin by appealing to unscrupulous physicians. Instead of
advising immediate marriage, the girl is instructed in the art of
murder and if she takes this advice she is quite as effectively dis-
‘graced in the eyes of her people as though she had born a child
out of wedlock. Moreover, the responsibility of the couple for
their misdeeds is so lightly thrown off in this way that instead
of being warned for the future, they are made more reckless. It
is impossible for the best informed persons to tell exactly how
many of such cases occur in the Russian German settlements ; for
sometimes the true nature of the illness is concealed or, again,
imaginative neighbors saddle their suspicions upon an innocent
girl. But the fact is that girls are here thrown out into industry
and meet temptations of which they have never been warned
because their mothers know nothing of them. Naturally, some
of them go astray; the larger per cent. of these marry; a few of
the remainder hide their shame in our state institution, but more
seek release through the aid of unprincipled doctors.

183

58 Hattie Plum Williams

III. Death Rates

We have seen that one third of the total births of the city are
of Russian German parentage, although that people constitute but
one seventh of the population; that the proportion in the city is
gradually increasing; and that the birth rate is abnormally high
due to the age distribution of the immigrants and to favorable
economic conditions. As usual a high infant mortality accom-
panies the high birth rate, and presents a much more vital problem
to the city because it is one over which society has some direct
control.

So far as the crude death rate among the Russian Germans in
Lincoln is concerned it is commendably low, being 11.0 deaths
per 1,000 of their population in 1914 or, exclusive of still births,
9.5 per 1,000. In 1911, the lowest death rates in the registration
states of the United States were 10.5 in Minnesota and &.9 in
Washington.** Unfortunately there is no way of accurately find-
ing the death rate of Lincoln in 1914; but estimating the popula-
tion at 45,000, the death rate would be 12.1 per 1,000.°* The city
has long claimed a low mortality based partly on incomplete re-
turns, although there is every condition locally, such as age dis-
tribution, occupation, density of population, climate, and physical
and social conditions, to encourage a low rate.

As compared with the rest of the city, the death rate of the
Russian Germans varies little from the proportion which they
constitute of the whole population. They comprise from 12 to
14 per cent. of the total inhabitants of the city, and in 1912, 14.3
per cent. of the total number of deaths were Russian German; in
1O13,12-2 per cent: and in 1914,/12'2 per cent.<> Wile theyzde

33 Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics, 1911, 12. The death rate
for Russia,, 1901-1905, was 30.9 per 1,000. Idem, 13. In 1912 the death
rate for the Volga Protestant colonies was approximately I9 per 1,000.
See Friedensboten Kalender, 1914.

34 The crude death rate for the registration area of the United States
in IQII was 14.2 (exclusive of still births). Bureau of the Census, Mor-
tality Statistics, TOIT, 9.

35 The effect of the foreign population of a city upon the mortality

tates is frequently to raise them; for instance, in Boston the death rate
in 1900 was raised 3.14 per 1,000 as the net effect of its foreign population.

184

A Social Study of the Russian German 59

not show any great difference in either the crude death rate or the
proportion of total deaths in the city, they do show great differ-
ences in the number of deaths according to age distribution. It
is to be assumed that where there is a large proportion of chil-
dren or of old people, the expectancy of death will be greater
than where the middle age groups constitute the bulk of the
population. In so far, however, as infant mortality, 7. e., the
death of children under one year of age, or child mortality, 7. e.,
the death of children from one to four years inclusive, occur from
preventable causes, the community cannot find much comfort in
that general rule.

The following table shows the age distribution of the two
populations and the proportion of deaths according to those ages:

TABLE XI. DEATHS AMONG RUSSIAN GERMANS AND IN THE CITY AT
Larce, AccorpDING To AGE DISTRIBUTION

dix
x) a ey Percentage Russian 6 5,9| Percentage Lincoln |
tos -| German Deaths | Bo Se eaths | &
sO 8 3 ge 4 teearcs
Age Groups fel ao ) Ba | | o
5.6 Zi Sees 2,
oae Sia Ree =
aoe Igi2 | 1913 | 1914 A457" | ror2 | 1913 | 1914
|
OF WEAIBo 5 cot 4.0 | 37.2 | 45.1 | 61.1} 47.8 BA || QUO || BAO)|) BB.0|| QBBwAl
Ta, WERSc 4c654 7/(0) |p BLD) || BBolt || BBO | BAO) | Fad |] G78 beak) PO Ges
RIK) WEBNS 6 6 boc 280 || OO) 40) Bod) uL@ || Bas SeSa lee 5c OR 5251 O20
2O—AQ) VeaLse ee B58} |) et || WAG | FO) Bs || GOK) SHS |) BAO | Bice || SBS
Over 50 years ..... FAD! LALO) |) W274 SoS || UO || U5 |) BS | BOC) 403 |) AG2
Se eased Goes |
100.0 !100.0 |I00.0 |100.0 |100.0 |100.0 |I00.0 |100.0 |100.0 |100.0

It is unfortunate that the percentages relating to Lincoln cannot
be reckoned as to its inhabitants excluding Russian Germans, but
the United States census does not furnish the necessary basis.
The table shows that, in proportion to the total number of deaths,
the largest percentage among the Russian Germans occurs in the
lower age groups; and for the city at large, in the upper age
groups.*® For example among the former, the percentage of
Cf. Davis, “The Relation of the Foreign Population to the Mortality

Rates of Boston,” in Medical Problems of Immigration, 51.
36 The figures upon which these percentages are based include the still

births.
185

60 Hattie Plum Williams

deaths under five years of age was 65.1, 68.2, and 84.7 of the total
number respectively for the three years, or an average of 72.7 per
cent.; while for the city at large it was 28.5, 30.1, and 30.0, or
29.7 per cent.27_ The proportion of deaths over fifty years of age
is much lower for the Russian Germans than for the city at large;
while in the middle age groups, where mortality should be the
lowest, the rate for the city at large is almost twice the proportions
for the immigrants.

These figures are significant only as one keeps in mind the age
distribution of the two groups. Of the Russian German popula-

tion, 21.9 per cent. are under five years of age, while only 9.9 per |

cent. of the population of the city fall within that age group. On
the other hand, the city has many more elderly people than has the
Russian German and many of these deaths in the city are of
persons over sixty years of age. The age distribution of the
Russian Germans is such, then, as to warrant a greater expectancy
of death than in the city at large, particularly in the lower age
groups.** The real question and the one of social significance is
whether or not any considerable number of these deaths are pre-
ventable.

The large proportion of deaths under one year of age among
the Russian Germans argues, at first glance, for a high infant
mortality rate; but such is not actually the case. The proportion
of infant deaths (exclusive of still births) per 1,000 living births
for the three years, 1912-1914, has been as follows :*°

37 The infant and child mortality among the Slavs of the Pennsylvania
coal fields was 70 per cent. of the total deaths, while the English-speaking
children formed 40.7 per cent. of the entire mortality. Roberts, Anthra-
cite Coal Communities, 79.

38 Tf the figures were available it would be possible to compute the death
rates for each age group and thus show exactly the comparison in health-
fulness between the two populations. See Bailey, Modern Social Condi-
tions, 216-220.

39 The proportion of still births is also lower for the Russian Germans
than for the city at large, being in 1914, 2.8 per 100 for the former and 3.4
for the latter. The same fact was found to be true among the foreign
women in Pennsylvania, where 17 to 20 per cent. of the still births were
among Slay mothers, and 68 to 80 per cent. among English-speaking
mothers. Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, 81.

186

A Social Study of the Russian German OI

Taste XIJ. Number or DEATHS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 LivinG BirTHs
FoR LINCOLN AS A WHOLE, FoR LINCOLN EXCLUSIVE OF THE RUSSIAN
GERMANS, AND FOR THE RUSSIAN GERMANS, 1912-1914

Lincoln (Total) Lincoln (Exclusive of Russian Germans

Russian Germans)

Mee Number |} Number} Infant | Number) Number | Infant | Number | Number | Infant

Living Infant |Mortality} Living | Infant | Mortality) Living Infant | Mortality
Births | Deaths Rate Births | Deaths Rate | Births | Deaths Rate
IQOI2| 1,161 85 73.2 822 62 Sab | B30) 23 67.0
1913 | 1,110 Ii2 100.9 752 fo 12T.0.| 358 20 81.0
1914! 1,168 97 83.0 | 786 61 70 B82 36 94.2
Average..... 85.7 91.3 | 80.7,

The statistics will be found to differ greatly between the various
groups, and also within each group; while the period covered is so
limited and the figures are so small, comparatively, that it is diffi-
cult to formulate any general rule. Especially is this hazardous
because of the incompleteness of the records. One fact, how-
ever, is clear and of vital importance: the infant mortality rate
among the Russian Germans does not differ vitally from the same

‘rate in the remainder of the city, and the Russian German infant

has about the same chance to grow out of babyhood into child-
hood as does the average child in the city. This fact is particu-
larly significant locally because, for some years, the impression
has prevailed in the community that there is an abnormally high
infant and child mortality in the Russian German settlements as
compared with the city at large. The statistics, however, do not
bear out this supposition.

It is true that the community is more conscious of the infant
mortality among the immigrants because it is localized; e. g., in
1914, 36 infant deaths out of a total of 97, or almost one third,
occurred among the Russian Germans, and most of these were
within the settlements.*° But practically one third of the total
number of births occurred among the same people; and naturally,
where the births are, there must be the infant mortality, also.

However, it is undoubtedly true that the infant mortality rate

40 In the discussion of vital statistics, the figures for the Russian .Ger-

mans include the entire city, and not merely the residents of the two set-
tlements as in the case of housing conditions previously discussed.

187

62 Hattie Plum Williams

of the entire city is larger than it should be, or than it need be if
proper means were taken to reduce it. It is difficult to say just
how far this could be done, or what would be a reasonable
standard to set. The average rate in Lincoln of 85.7 for three
years is certainly not high compared with the estimated rate of
124.0 for the United States as a whole, or with some of the
American cities as shown in the following list :*

JOHNS wank anes Aen ee ei renee eunnn et 55,000 134
IVa tile re Fas See Sagas ap ec hen en 44,000 90
Spring firel deel yceow eats aos n Renee 51,000 130
Wichita sa eanise iss. sniua sities) aun un ryote gl 52,000 102
South Blend linclite teens Gay veers ele 53,000 182
OinraltayiNely rey ate ete recny en eee 124,000 126
Grandia piclssaaVii chi genes wanes ae nate 112,000 122
Mos: wAn'eele'sii Gailsacon tn oriuertis Mey e eonra race 319,000 97
Inidianapohiswlcadee sere serena Sane 233,000 123
Kanisasii@ity ai Mioa mn iitsi nee hese ees annul 248,000 154
Seattle Wrasliepvnters ve rieak a hierniana mice 237,000 82

But conditions in these places may vary widely from each other
and from circumstances in Lincoln. Here there are broad streets,
spacious yards, few tenements, and only a small manufacturing
population. Every outward encouragement for a low infant
mortality exists, and no community is absolved which has any
appreciable amount of preventable waste of human life.

In New Zealand, a country whose history and conditions are
not unlike some of our western states, remarkable progress has
been made in reducing infant mortality from a rate which was
comparatively low to begin with. In ten years (1902-1912) the
infant mortality rate for the country as a whole was lowered from

41 For statistics relating to cities of 100,000 population and over, see
Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics, 1911. For the infant mor-
tality rates of Johnstown and Malden see Duke, “Infant Mortality, Re-
sults of a Field Study in Johnstown, Pa.,” Children’s Bureau, Infant
Mortality Series, No. 3. For the data concerning the remaining cities,
chosen on account of similarity in size and conditions to Lincoln, I am
indebted to Miss Julia Lathrop, Chief of the Children’s Bureau. The

figures represent the infant mortality rate for 1908-1912, for which period
the rate for Lincoln was 99.8.

188

A Social Study of the Russian German 63

83 per 1,000 births to 51, while the rate for Dunedin, a city the
size of Lincoln, declined from 89 to 38 deaths per 1,000 births.”
The fact that so large a proportion numerically of the infant
deaths in Lincoln are in a definite locality and that the causes
producing them are fairly uniform makes the matter easier to
handle.

The first requisite in solving the problem is a knowledge of the
exact causes which result in the death of so many children. This
is not an easy thing to find out even in so small a place as Lincoln.
So many factors enter into the problem that it becomes an ex-
ceedingly complex one in spite of the simple terms to which
statistics apparently reduce it.4? There are a few diseases which
account for most of the deaths among infants and children, but
the conditions which produce these diseases are greatly varied.
They can probably be summed up in the two words “ dirt” and
“ienorance,” but these factors result in things other than infant
mortality, and, moreover, they are doubtless the basis of nine
tenths of all the diseases to which human flesh is heir. If the
specific forms of dirt and ignorance which cause the death of so
many children can be discovered it will help in the early solution
of the problem. Everywhere at present, statistics show that diar-
rhoeal diseases are one of the three main causes for infant
mortality. The occurrence of these diseases “depends, wholly
or partly, upon surrounding temperature and deficiency of rain-
fall, upon urban and social conditions, and upon pollution of food,
chiefly milk, or other articles intimately associated with the life
of infants.”44 To combat this one disease is no simple matter.
The importance of a pure milk supply has been emphasized and
much has been done in the larger cities by way of milk stations,

42 See “ New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children,
an Example of Methods of Baby-saving Work in Small Towns and Rural
Districts,” published by the United States Department of Labor, Children’s
Bureau, Infant Mortality Series, number 2, Bureau pub. number 6.

43 A casual perusal of the addresses at the annual meetings of the Amer-
ican Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality con-
vinces the layman of the degree of specialization necessary in coping with

the problem, and that here also “doctors disagree.”
44 Newman, /nfant. Mortality, 152.

189

64 | Hattie Plum Williams

but artificial feeding is not a factor in the infant mortality of the
Russian German settlements in Lincoln, for this practice is almost
unknown among these foreign mothers. This reduces the prob-
lem of a pure milk supply to a minimum, particularly since many
of the people keep their own cows which they pasture on the edge
of the settlement, and which supply themselves and their neigh-
bors with fresh milk.*°

The bad effect of midwifery upon the infant mortality rate is
often alleged, and it is true that the Russian Germans employ
these women very largely. In 1914, 201 of the 390 births re-
ported among these foreigners were attended by midwives, and
only 186 by physicians.*° According to the health records the .
work of the midwives is increasing, although this is probably only
apparent, due to the fact that they have not been held strictly to
account in reporting births until very recently. There are six or
eight of these Russian German women, all of whom are untrained
and who have no legal or professional standing in the community.
Nevertheless the sum total of their work in the foreign settlements
redounds to the good, rather than to the harm, of their patients.
They are, as a rule, cleanly in their habits, as is evidenced by the
fact that puerperal septicaemia practically never results from their
work. Besides they do not attend infectious. cases as do the
regular physicians, who not infrequently transmit infection in this
way. ‘They are more patient and careful than the doctors who
“treat the people like dogs,” in the words of one of the physicians
themselves. Their fees are low, averaging from $5 to $8 a case
and, in addition to the technical services they perform, they nurse

45 Several years ago an attempt was made to check the infant mortality
in the settlements by the establishment of a pure milk station in the ward
school building. During two months’ existence only one call was received
(and that largely from curiosity) although milk from the University
Experiment Station was furnished at less than cost. The plan failed, not
because the people were too stubborn, or too ignorant, or too heartless
regarding their children to receive the proffered help, but because it did
not meet the need in solving their problem.

46 From 30 to 85 per cent. of the deliveries of infants in large cities are
in the hands of these women. Newmayer, “The Warfare against Infant
Mortality,’ in The Public Health Movement, Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, XXXVII, number 2, 295.

190

A Social Study of the Russian German 65

the patient and do the work about the house. Of the same speech,
sex, and faith as those whom they attend, their services are of
much more value to the mothers than are those of the majority of
the doctors who commonly practice in the settlements, unless it
can be shown that actual harm results from their work. The
testimony of competent and sympathetic physicians, of the health
authorities, and of the statistics so far as they reveal the facts,
does not disclose such results.

It is unfortunate that no attempt is made by the state to recog-
nize the midwives and to raise their status. This cannot be done

by passing arbitrary laws shutting them out of practice, for this _

would do more harm than good by depriving the immigrant of
any medical attention except the help volunteered by neighbors.
It would also increase the difficulty of securing birth registrations ;
for the number of Russian German midwives is a practically stable
quantity and the authorities can keep an eye on them, while it
would be almost impossible to ferret out the unattended births in
the settlement. But the state could demand the registration of
midwives,*® it could fix a certain reasonable standard to which all
should conform, and it could provide some means of education
whereby this useful class of medical attendants might become a
positive means of good.*®

47 The Russian German midwives employ many customs belonging to
the folk medicine of the German villages. For instance, they will not
allow the mother to go to sleep, nor will they give her cold water to drink.
They wash the new born child’s eyes with milk and place a cloth wet
with whisky on its head. As a rule, these practices are harmless, based
purely on superstition; but the people have much more confidence in their
potency than in modern medical science.

48 See Wile, “Immigration and the Midwife Problem,’ in Medical
Problems of Immigration, 119-125, and Schwartz, “ Prenatal Care,” in
Transactions of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Association
for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, 174-100.

49 Since the above paragraph was written, the Superintendent of Health
of the city of Lincoln has taken steps to provide instruction and super-
vision for the midwives. The women were first called together and the
city nurse explained to them in German the purpose of the Health Depart-
ment to organize a school of instruction for them, with meetings to be held
once a month in the North Side Neighborhood House. A series of lec-

191

66 Hattie Plum Williams

The large size of the families must have its effect upon infant
and child mortality, not only by depriving the children of the
necessary care, but often by weakening the mother, and indirectly
the child, through overproduction. As a rule, however, to
counteract these evils, two years intervene between births, and the
period of child-bearing is extended over a longer time. It is
common to find women past forty who have young babes, and
some even past forty-five. Out of 75 Russian German women
over forty years of age, 50 had children living who were born
since the mothers had reached forty years; while doubtless some
had borne children who are now deceased—a fact which the
census did not show. Of these 75 women, 7 had given birth to
children at forty-four; 3 at forty-five; 3 at forty-six; and one at
forty-seven. This prolonged period of child-bearing means that
often a woman is a grandmother before all her own children have
come; and it means that her whole life, after marriage, is en-
grossed with children and children’s children.

Another factor indirectly increasing infant mortality, and child
mortality as well, is the effect of the voyage to America. This
would be felt especially in the three years, 1912-1914, on account
of the heavy immigration of that period. Of the children of one
year of age or under who died in 1912, six were born in Russia
or on the way to America; in 1913, four under the age of one,
and five between the ages of one and five; and in 1914, three
under one, and two under five years of age. The figures do not
tell the whole story, however, for not infrequently a Russian
German mother buries her baby at sea or in some foreign land
where the family was detained at an emigrant station. Not
merely the effect of the hardships of the voyage upon the child
itself, but the general conditions surrounding the family in its new
environment in America would tend to make themselves felt in
tures was provided for them, and meanwhile the office sent to Germany
for copies of a standard book on obstetrical work. Each woman bought a

copy, and lessons are now assigned which they study and discuss at their
regular meetings. The sessions are faithfully attended, intelligent interest

ad

is shown, and the midwives without exception express their appreciation —

of the help being given them.

192

A Social Study of the Russian German 67

an increased death rate. The poverty and overcrowding incident
to the life of the raw immigrant and the homesickness and hard
work of the mother must necessarily affect her physically and
mentally. If figures were available, they would undoubtedly show
that infant and child mortality decreases with the length of resi-
dence in America, even though the birth rate remains the same
for a generation.

The direct causes for death assigned in the death certificates
are not always reliable; and moreover, as has been stated, one
needs to know the causes for the disease itself before a remedy
can be suggested. Frequently the secondary cause of death is the
one to be guarded against, e. g., measles seldom prove fatal but
pneumonia following measles is a common cause of death in
children. The health records for the years 1912 to 1914 in-
clusive, show the following attributed causes for death among the
Russian German children under five years of age:

Taste XIII. Distrrpution oF Dreatus or RussIAN GERMAN CHILDREN
UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE AND FROM ONE TO Five YEARS (EXCLUSIVE),
ACCORDING TO PRIMARY CAUSE

Infant Mortali Child Mortality
(Under One Vear) | Getorat | (EremOneto | Ue aay
Cause of Death Infant Five Years) Child
Mortality Mortality
rgi2 | 1913 | ror4 T9I2 | 1913 | 1974 |
PMICATISESis sess ae 2s 20 36 88 24 19 iy) | 60
Respiratory diseases. . 6 BK0) 6 25.0 12 6 zB | 35-0
Diarrhoeal diseases... 4 iit 9 27.4 7 5 6 | 30.0
Congenital debility . |
Premature birth.... a 4 TS an i ; =o 3-3
PNCCIGENE src. clsniccs cre ena ae a a 0.0 | it I B | 6.7
Other causes (13)..... 2 4 6 13.6 Beal 6 5 | 25.0

The diseases producing infant mortality fall into three groups,
the largest number being due to the perils attending birth, such
as prematurity, malformation, inanition, etc., which are largely
ante-natal in their origin.°® Enteritis and pneumonia are the two
other principal causes for deaths of babies during the first year.
Among children from one to five years, pneumonia demands the

50 Thirty per cent. of all the infant deaths in England are due to this
same cause. Newman, /nfant Mortality, 62.

193

68 Hattie Plum Williams

greatest toll, with enteritis closely following, while contagious
diseases, chiefly diphtheria, and accidents form an appreciable
factor.

It is significant to note that the diseases producing infant
mortality in the foreign settlements in Lincoln are in general the
same as elsewhere. In Newman’s exhaustive study of the sub-
ject in England the fatal diseases of infancy are shown to be:
wasting diseases, 31 per cent. of the total; diarrhoeal, 21 per cent.,
and respiratory, 16 per cent. ;>! while in the intensive study made
in Johnstown, Pa., by the Children’s Bureau, these diseases
claimed 27, 26, and 25 per cent. respectively of the total infant
mortality.°? In the Russian German settlements in Lincoln, the
proportion for these diseases in the same order as stated is 32.9,
27.2, anda25.Onpen Cento

Even after this analysis is made, the core of the matter is not
touched; for positive and accurate information can result only
from the tracing of each individual case, and intelligent action on
the part of the community can come only after such a study has
been made for the entire city. It is certain, however, that the
causes for infant and child mortality are both social and indi-
vidual ; and that the community has it in its power through sanita-
tion and education to reduce materially the number of such deaths.
So far as sanitation is concerned the Russian Germans have done
nearly all in their power to improve their living conditions, and
no great change can occur until the city gives to the settlements
better drainage of streets and alleys and removes the garbage
deposits from their midst. How much harm results from water
standing in cellars of the homes where there is no drainage, cannot
be said; and though it is probably never the direct cause of
death, it undoubtedly lowers the vitality of those who live in such

51 Newman, Infant Mortality, 45.

2 Duke, “Infant Mortality, Results of a Field Study in Johnstown,
Pennsylvania, Based on Births in One Calendar Year,” 37, in United States
Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Infant Mortality Series, number
3, Bureau pub. number o.

58 The registration area for the United States shows the same order for

the diseases producing infant mortality. Bureau of the Census, Mor-
tality Statistics, 1911.

194

A Social Study of the Russian German 69

houses. However cleanly the homes, the people cannot escape
the effects of odors from undrained sewage and pools of stagnant
water, piles of manure and garbage heaps thrust upon them by
the city, nor the more direct effect of well water contaminated by
seepage through such polluted soil.

Probably an important cause for infant mortality (and child
mortality, as well) over which the individual has control, is lack
of protection against cold. The immigrant coming from Russia
finds here a climate much milder than the one to which he has
been accustomed and underestimates its effect upon the weak.
The children are not warmly enough clothed; the houses are not
kept sufficiently and evenly heated, while crowded conditions
often subject the child to sudden changes of temperature. It is
not unusual for mothers to take small babies to the church when
the building has not been ventilated or heated and to sit through
a long service when the temperature within the house is colder
and damper than without. Particularly is this true of week-day
services, such as funerals, when there is no one at home with
whom to leave the child.

The Russian German mothers, as a rule, are not “ grossly in-

experienced or negligent in the care of their children.” The ma-
jority of them spent their childhood caring for babies and the
care of children comes second nature to them in spite of their
youth at marriage. The young married women seldom go out
to work either in’organized industry or in the homes, and thus
the care of their infants is not shifted upon some one else. The
neglect of children is most apt to occur where the family is large
and demands the mother’s work away from home, and where the
care of the younger children falls to the lot of the older ones. or
possibly to aged or infirm grandparents. Thus, contrary to the
general rule, it is usually the later born who suffer neglect more
than the first born, and the older babies instead of those under
one year of age.

The Russian German mother as a ids is healthy in body and
mind, and is contented and happy in rearing her family. Her
children are not unwelcomed as is sometimes the case elsewhere,
and her inferests are usually narrowed down to the individual

195

70 Hattie Plum Williams

care of them. Her ambition sometimes gets the better of her
judgment and sends her out to wash and scrub when the children
would be as well off with fewer clothes and more personal care;
but this applies more to children who have reached school age,
than to the younger ones. The mother’s chief failure, as with
most mothers, comes through ignorance of elementary but im-
portant hygienic principles. The existence of a simple family
diet may not save the small child from being fed things that are
hurtful and fatal to it. Irregularity of feeding does more harm
than unclean or improper foods. The customary dependence on
home remedies tempts the family to delay calling medical help
until every other means is exhausted, and this often proves too
late to save the baby, as is not infrequently noted by the physi-
cian on the certificate of death. This attitude of mind results
also in the use of patent medicines and liquor which, as a rule,
is kept in the home “as a medicine.” The general principles of
hygiene in its relation to infant welfare are largely an intuition
with the Russian German mother. The houses are, as a rule,
kept cool in the summer, not because she knows the scientific
effect of heat upon infant mortality, but because she has been
accustomed to cooking outside. Sometimes where the summer
kitchen is lacking, women will be found doing the cooking over
an open fire in the yard to save heating the kitchen.

Definite education of the women and girls would undoubtedly
accomplish results in a comparatively short time. The raw immi-
grant mothers could be reached through the midwives if these
were properly instructed; while others might be helped: through
visiting nurses.°* The girls are being better prepared by the
teaching of hygiene in the grade schools, and further specialized
instruction is possible through special clubs and other existing
organizations. The movement for “Little Mother’s Clubs” is
good in principle but unfortunate in the name chosen. It is too
suggestive of relieving the proper agent of care and of placing
responsibility upon those not physically or mentally mature

54 At present (June, 1915) the city jointly with the Charity Organization

Society and the Board of Education employs a visiting nurse who gives a
large proportion of her time to work in the settlements.

196

A Social Study of the Russian German 71

enough to bear it. Aside from the definite results to be accom-
plished through better sanitation and through the education of
mothers, whatever tends to improve social conditions in the com-
munity will make itself felt in lowering the number of deaths of
infants and small children. Education, however, will not be
properly effective until the Russian Germans are taught how un-
necessary are the deaths of many of their children. They have
been accustomed to great epidemics of children’s diseases which
carry off, in some years, several hundred out of a single colony.
No such event has ever happened in this country, and the gradual
decrease of the child population as it occurs in Lincoln does not
arouse them to any feeling of alarm. Only when they begin to
feel that it is not entirely the “ divine will” that their children die,
but that they have some control over the matter, will they do their
fair share in eliminating the preventable waste of child life.

To sum up the question of death rates among. the Russian
Germans in Lincoln, we have seen that for these people as a
whole they are about the same as for the city at large, or some-
what lower. The largest percentage falls upon children under
five years of age, but according to the number of births, the
infant mortality is a trifle lower for the Russian German than
for the whole city. Undoubtedly it might be quickly reduced by
ascertaining the definite causes; but better sanitation by the mu-
nicipal authorities and education through visiting nurses and
through the school will tend to the same end, though more slowly.

IV. Marriage

It has been pointed out that under the favorable economic and
social conditions prevailing in Lincoln, the crude birth rate of the
Russian Germans is increased over that which exists in the Ger-
man colonies in Russia, and that the death rate is decreased. The
variance noted in these physical processes of birth and death is
still more pronounced in relation to marriage, which responds
with greater readiness to outward conditions.

The exact degree of change in the marriage rate cannot be
given, but only approximated. From April, 1913, to April, 1914,

OT, :

V2 Hattie Plum Williams

there were seventy marriages among the Russian Germans in
Lincoln, giving a rate of 10.7 marriages or 21.4 persons married
per 1,000 population. In 1910, there were fifty-four marriages,
a rate of 10.8 marriages or 21.6 persons per 1,000.°° ‘These two
rates, while corresponding almost exactly, are the results of
entirely different local circumstances. The number of marriages
in the first instance was the highest ever reached among the
Russian Germans in Lincoln; while in 1910, the number was at
the lowest ebb in a nine years’ period. Representing, therefore,
two entirely different sets of circumstances which yet produce
practically the same result, these figures may be taken as the
average marriage rate among Russian Germans in the city.

In the Protestant German colonies on the Volga, the marriage
rate during a six-year period ranged from 10.6 persons to 15.0
persons per 1,000 of the population. The approximate rates for
the various years were as follows :°°

TO OO eine ayes eeneteley Ueiee eae ye 15.0 persons per 1,000 population
LOOP Sen ee eee Ree 13.2 persons per 1,000 population
TO OSM Serine NCR REIT 13.3 persons per 1,000 population
TOL2 yan Bice eee 10.6 persons per 1,000 population

It will be noted that there is less difference between the highest
and lowest rate in the colonies than there is between the former
and the average rate in Lincoln; and also that the average rate
in the city is more than twice the lowest rate in the colonies.
Thus, the marriage rate of the Russian Germans rises greatly
under the favorable living conditions in Lincoln.

Before discussing the specific causes for this change, it will be
profitable to compare this marriage rate with those prevailing in
some other countries, and in certain parts of, or groups of popula-
tion in, the United States.®”

55 Record of Marriage Licenses in Lancaster County, Nebraska.

56 Compiled from the Friedensboten Kalender, ¥908, 1900, 1910, 1914.

57 The statistics for the European States, except Russia, and for New
England are taken from Bailey, Modern Social Conditions, 137. For
Nebraska and Lancaster County, see Nebraska State Board of Health,
Bulletins, 1912-1915. Cf. Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, 60, for

198

A Social Study of the Russian German Figs

Persons MarriED PER 1,000 TorTAL POPULATION

Europe:
Felivttl rch Taye eeU Taya Sictale cys tenstacocte omalsy obec afeistousiane & TOOOR ee 17.7
(GOTTEN NS Sele ene ele OES BEI RIC a iOS TOOO!s sets 17.0
Baslemel giadl WIGS oh onospbodccode dposaaod LOO; ee 16.0
INRSIENOGLN Sahin Sick Satm H SaB Doe ene, SOIR eee ie WYO occsccnc 9.6
HRUIS Siiclvamraes areal PUG ah meee neuer eam SS rey SUES alla Gens LOO2Z—1900. . suis =: 17.8
United States:
ING LENA B's Sito ais Go omens cima asin 1893-18097........ 17.5
INE bpaslcame esc ais Wo ict GENIN 5 needs ice FOLO—1OT3).- 5. 18.3
Warnicasters oumtiy, secre oe emece tee UOMC=TOW 6 on o00¢ 28.6
Anthracite Coal Towns of Pennsylvania ...1899-I901........ 24.0
IRwesian Germans aa ILjimeobi 5sscccoccencnc TOU), WONG occuoce Piols

The marriage rate for the Russian Germans is decidedly in
advance of the rates for the European countries or for the United
States. The rate for Lancaster county is raised to unusual pro-
portions by out-of-town “trade.” The fact that it is the capital
city brings many young people here for their marriage ceremony,
particularly during the state fair which occurs in the late summer.
Hence this rate needs to be refined before it can be used for
purposes of comparison.

The fact that two immigrant groups so vastly different as the
Slav miners in Pennsylvania and the Russian Germans in Lincoln,
Nebraska, present the same phenomenon of an increased mar-
riage rate in the United States, suggests the probability of this
being a general law. The marriage rate for Hungary, one of the
highest of any of the European States, is 17.7; but the Slavs in
Pennsylvania have a rate of 24.0. In the Protestant colonies on
the Volga, the marriage rate is about 17.8; while among the
Russian Germans in Lincoln, it rises to 21.5.

Various conditions are favorable to this high marriage rate
among the Russian Germans in Lincoln. Among the first of
these is an equal distribution of the sexes due to their almost
universal custom of emigrating by families. The age distribu-
tion, on the other hand, is not’such as to encourage a high mar-
riage rate, for, as we have noted, a comparatively small number

the data concerning the Slavs. For Russia, see Webb, New Dictionary of
Statistics, 615.

oe

—

74. Hattie Plum Williams

of young people are found in the settlements. Therefore, if the
matriage rate were to be computed according to the number of
single persons of marriageable age, the difference between the
Russian Germans and the surrounding population would be much
more marked.°* In spite of the lack of young persons among the
foreigners, the almost universal tendency of the widowed to re-
marry helps to raise the rate to its unusual height.

The economic laws which affect the marriage rate in general in
all countries scarcely operate within the Russian German settle-
ments in Lincoln. It is a general principle that “the marriage
rate falls in hard times and rises on the recurrence of pros-
perity.”°° But in so far as it can be computed for this foreign
group, it follows the curve of immigration more closely than it
does the rise or fall in prosperity, and often quite contrary to it.
Hence, the first or second year following each high tide of immi-
gration has always shown an increase in the marriage rate beyond
the proportionate increase in population.

The years from 1892 to 1894 inclusive are the first and most
striking example of this fact, Up to 1891, as has been previ-

58 In a comparative study of marriage rates among the native and for-
eign born in Massachusetts, a vast difference was found between the two,

but this was much reduced by comparing the ages of the two populations.
Thus, in the years 1887-1889, the marriage rate was as follows:

Persons per 1.000 Rate Corrected for Age
Population Distribution
ING EIVIE SENET aay oN 16.6 15.5
Horeignt bora ery Nepean i 30.9 26.9
Enitire State, sae yy oe alee melt ZOOS 18.6

The large number of adults and the small number of children among
eastern immigrants apparently raises the rate to an enormous figure, which
is much reduced by correcting the rate for age distribution. Cf. Kuczynski,
“The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Population in Massachu-
setts,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, XVI, 1-36, 141-186. A similar
correction for the Russian German population in Lincoln, however, would
raise the marriage rate instead of lowering it, because the age distribution
of the two foreign groups is the direct opposite.

°9 For a summary of the principles governing the movement of the mar-
riage rate, see Howard, General Soctology, an Analytical Reference Sylla-
bus, 27; also Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Sociology, 93, 100-101 ; and Bailey,
Modern Social Conditions, 142-144.

200

Number of Russian Germans Married in Lancaster County,

Cuart III.

1878-1914, Compared with Immigration Wave

009

oos

oof

002

ooL

.... Immigration

Persons married

A Social Study of the Russian German 75

ously shown, many of the immigrants were either young, single
men who came alone or families containing such youth as would
soon be eligible to army service. The excessive number of males
of marriageable age in proportion to the Russian German popula-
tion must result either in mixed alliances or, for the more con-
servative, in deferring marriage. Meanwhile the immigrants
were becoming established in industry and prosperous enough to
set up homes of their own. When, therefore, in 1891 and 1892
a large immigration resulted from the famine in Russia, the mar-
riages reached an average of 22 per annum during the years
of 1892, 1893, and 1894. At a liberal estimate of 500 for the
Russian German population of the city it would mean an annual
rate during these “hard times,” of 44 marriages or 88 per 1,000
population.® Again, the year 1907 was one of financial depres-
sion but it followed the heavy immigration of 1906-1907 and
registered the largest number (67) of Russian German weddings
ever recorded in the county in one calendar year.

The Russian German in Lincoln is less susceptible to the influ-
ence of prosperity upon the marriage rate than is the American,
because what are considered poor times in America would be
good times in Russia. The principle operates most truly when
the standard of living is high or when the line between affluence
and poverty is so slight that the loss of a crop or two reduces
many families from comparative comfort to absolute privation.
This latter is what occurs in the German colonies in Russia, where
the marriage rate is so keenly sensitive to harvest conditions that
newspaper correspondents invariably remark upon the connection
between the two facts.*t The dearth of marriages is also more
noticeable there because the period when weddings occur is
limited to one season of the year, and greater social prominence is
laid upon them. Moreover, there is so little diversification of
industry that a poor harvest settles the matter finally for every
one. Among the Russian Germans in America, on the other
hand, the prospect of a “job” in some of the unskilled avenues

60 This reminds one of the shipment of maidens to the Virginia colony in

the first days of its history.
61 Dakota Freie Presse, February 24, 1914.

201

70 Hattie Plum Williams

of labor, and the comparative prosperity of the immigrant even in
times of financial stress, keep hope alive and encourage them to
carry out their plans in spite of temporary conditions. Those
who have lived here longer, however, and have a higher standard
of living, similar to the American element, are more susceptible to
the general principle controlling the marriage rate.®

In the age at which they marry, the Russian Germans of
Lincoln differ decidedly from the American population. They
marry earlier in life; there is less range in the marriage age; and
the women of certain classes seem to marry younger in America
instead of older as one would expect to find. Of 730 Russian
German brides of the first marriage, 60.0 per cent. were married
between the ages of 18 and 20, while the ages of all ranged only
from 16 to 38. Of 722 Russian German grooms, 59.9 per cent.
were married between the ages of 21 and 23, varying from 18 to
possibly 40 years. Few persons, either men or women, pass the
25-year line before marriage.** Of the above number of brides,
94.2 per cent. were married under 25 years of age, and of the
grooms, 88.5 per cent. Distributed among five-year periods,
these marriages occurred as follows:

Taste XIV. Ace at MarRRIAGE AMONG RUSSIAN GERMAN BRIDES AND

GRooMsS
Age at Marriage Brides, Per Cent Grooms, Per Cent
TOR20R CATS ge yy ge eee eet ceca gers 62.7 5.3
PEASE N SEN ae gatos Hnlom eee ale Bid nae SILO) 77.8
26=3 OF VCASH em Eto in iaeneoee ae eines 1.9 12.4
Sia eisniehoMiny eens eves aca ae moe ae Tear 3.4
BOPAONVEALS ut Valence ee terested one 4 Tait

62 These facts demonstrate the proposition that it is the lack of luxuries
which deter people from marriage, but not the lack of necessities.

63 Marriage Records of Lancaster County, Nebraska, I1V—XL (1878-
1914). The previous marital condition is noted only since 1909 and it is
‘not always possible to tell whether it is a remarriage unless the title
“Mrs.” is prefixed. With the grooms there is no opportunity to distin-
guish, except as one knows the facts from other records, hence the figures
may be somewhat higher than they should be.

64“ Tn Russia the marriages take place much earlier than in any other
country on account of the national customs and the peculiar system of

202

A Social Study of the Russian German Teh

During the thirty-seven years since their immigration began
(1877-1914) the average age for Russian German women was
20.1 years and for the men, 24.9 years. In Massachusetts in 1901
the average age of all brides was 25.8 years and of all grooms
29.2 years.

A change in the marriage age is shown from an analysis of
the Russian German weddings of the last twenty years.°%° From

TABLE XV. CHANGE IN MarrtAce AcE or RusstIAN GERMANS IN 1895-
1904 AND 1905-1914

Brides Grooms

ecaeNariace 1895-1904 IQO5-19T4 1895-1904 IQO5-I9T4
> —

Num- Per Num- Per Num- | Per Num- Per
ber Cent. ber Cent. ber Cent. ber Cent.

HO—-20 years.........- We LOOn On. B12 || O5ok 13

755 21 4.5
MOV CALS. rf 08s 5 «al | 65 | 38.0 mG | BOs | WAG | WBoAl 369 78.7
Over 25 years........ I 6 18 3.9 33 IQ.1 79 | 16.8

this table it will be seen that more women are marrying at 16-20
years of age than formerly and fewer men; and fewer women
are marrying at 21-25 years and more men. ‘The figures for
over 25 years are less significant, especially for the men, because
it is probable that some of these are remarriages.

The change in the marriage age is accounted for largely by
social and economic conditions. With the poorer class of women,
the marriage age has fallen; while with the better class, it has

land tenure.” Bailey, Modern Social Conditions, 153. Of the females,
58 per cent., and of the males, 37.8 per cent., were under the age of twenty
years (1872-1880). In Rhode Island for the same period, about 14 per
cent. of all persons married were under twenty years of age.

65 Bailey, Modern Social Conditions, 152.

66 The time covered by the records from 1878 to 1914 falls into three
periods: (1) 1878-18091, when there were few Russian German immi-
grants, and considerable intermarrying because of a disproportion of
sexes; (2) 1892-1804, when a large influx of new immigrants raised the
marriage rate beyond all normal proportions; and (3) 1895-1914, when an
equilibrium of sexes and an ordinary movement of population produced
stable conditions.

203

78 Hattie Plum Williams

risen. Both changes are largely due to industry, and the differ-
ence in result depends upon the type of service entered. Girls
who go into the unskilled industries are thrown with crowds of
other irresponsible girls whose thoughts and conversation are
largely confined to the “making of dates.” They are thrown
with men either in their work or on the streets; and with no
interest except their daily monotonous grind, they seek excitement
in association with them. Soon beyond the control of parents,
they marry early either against the latter’s consent or with their
reluctant approval.

Aside from these facts, the normal tendency would be for the
marriage age to rise, for in the German colonies in Russia the two

factors of military service and the patriarchal family system tend

to push the age downward. There the young men must go to the
army at 21, and they are encouraged to marry early and establish
a family before the lots are drawn, for if this is not done, from
five to nine years’ service delays marriage beyond the desired
time.®’ It is the feeling of parents that their sons will be steadier,
while away from home, if they are married. Besides, it will be
a bar to their contracting alliances while off on garrison duty with
Polish, Russian, or other foreign women whom to deceive is
cruel; but to marry, involves religious complications. The
parents of sons are especially anxious to contract marriages for
them. The more well-to-do classes reason that they will have to
hire help anyway, and that the son’s wife will save money to them
and be a financial asset to the son. If a male child is born, it
will mean one more dusch or land share for the family and thus
help to compensate for the economic loss to the family of the
recruit. The parents of daughters, on the other hand, would
resist this tendency if they could, but since there is no way of
telling who will be drawn and since the marriage age is much
below 21 years, their wishes in the matter count for little. The
patriarchal family system places a premium upon marriage by
bringing into the family an extra worker without any expense
except board and clothes. The teachings of the church have had

67 This service is now reduced to three years for the army and five for
the navy. .

204

La a

A Social Study of the Russian German a0)

a potent influence upon the marriage age. Luther taught that
“young” marriages were most desirable and recommended from
sixteen to eighteen years for girls and seventeen to nineteen years
for boys. The Russian Germans have gone little beyond that,
since the most of the girls in the colonies marry from seventeen
to eighteen and the boys from eighteen to nineteen.

Although the statistics do not clearly show the fact, it is never-
theless true that the marriage age among the Russian German
men and women of the higher social class in Lincoln is rising. It
invariably ranges from 22 to 25 years of age for the women and
often past 30 for the men.®* This class includes those who go on
to the high school and the university, and who defer marriage by
reason of the prevailing sentiment of a different environment, or
in order to carry out ambitions which have been aroused. The
same reasons operate upon those who have learned a trade, as
millinery, dressmaking, bookbinding and the like, or upon those
who are in business pursuits, as clerking and stenography. Be-
sides, their rise in the social scale narrows their choice of mates,
for most of them still prefer to marry within their own nationality
(or if not choosing it voluntarily, they respect their parents’
wishes in the matter) and the number of Russian Germans who
have risen to the same social level is necessarily limited.

The tendency of the parents to discourage marriage becausc
the children are considered an economic asset, is probably more
enforced with this class than with their inferiors. The higher
standard of living which they have adopted demands the income
of the children, and the older ones of the family especially are
encouraged to share in assisting the parents to meet expenses.
Any discussion of the matter is ended by the very apparent prop-
osition that “if you marry so young, how do you ever expect
us to get back what you have cost us” 76°

68 The American-born children of Russian German parents show the same
class difference in marriage age which the foreign-born exhibit. Those
who have moved outside the settlement respond to the community influ-
ence and delay marriage; while among those who have remained in the
settlement, the marriage age has become still lower.

69 Several instances are known of young men whose fathers, backed
by their legal rights, demanded the services of their sons until the latter

205

80 Hattie Plum Williams

Every people has its “time to marry,” and June roses bloom
for the Russian German youth in the heart of the winter.”? In
the colonies in Russia the weddings usually begin after the
“Kerb,” which is the fall holiday celebrating the close of work in
the fields and the beginning of the leisure season.” It is observed
on different dates in the various colonies, during the months of
September and October; and is a veritable mating season for the
young people. The weddings usually begin the first Tuesday in
November and continue until the Advent Season, which opens the
fourth Sunday before Christmas.

The favorite time, however, is from the week immediately fol-
lowing Christmas until the beginning of Lent, six weeks before
Easter. Economic convenience and ecclesiastical sanction have so
crystallized sentiment concerning this marriage season among
the German colonists that any breaking away from it is considered
a sign of apostasy."? In expressing her disapproval of American
marriages in general, a pious Russian German woman said “ The
Americans are like the Russians; they get married just any
timer

This marriage season has been observed by the Russian Ger-
were 21 years of age. These young men did not marry until they were 26
or 28 years of age, or until they had worked long enough for themselves
to gather sufficient property to marry.

70 For the marriage season among the Slavs in Pennsylvania, see Roberts,
‘Anthracite Coal Communities, 65-66.

“1 This is a survival of an old German custom which was at one time
universal and which is still retained in many rural sections of the Empire.
Mogk, Deutsche Sitten und Braeuche, 11, says: “ Wie in alter Zeit finden
auch heute noch in vielen laendlichen Gegenden Deutschlands die Hoch-
zeiten im Spaetherbst oder. Winter staat. Das ist die Zeit, wo die Jahres-
arbeit zu ruhen pflegt und die Ernte, die Fruechte der sauern Arbeit,
hereingebracht ist.”

72 A wedding in the summer is an unusual occurrence and happens only

when the parties are contracting a second marriage or when the ceremony
is necessitated by some circumstance, legal or illegal.

73 As a matter of fact the Russian is more limited than the American in

choosing his wedding day, for the festivities may not occur during fast.
That eliminates Wednesday and Friday of each week, the Lenten season
of seven weeks before Easter, the five weeks following Pentecost, and the
three weeks following October 21.

206

A Social Study of the Russian German 81

mans with great regularity since their residence in Lincoln, partly
because the annual migration to the beetfields has produced in-
dustrial seasons similar to those in the old home. A comparison
of periods, however, shows an increasing tendency to conform
to American customs, by a more even distribution through the
months, with a decidedly growing preference for June.

Taste XVI. Numper oF Russian GERMAN Marrtaces By MonrtuHs,

IQOO-I9I4

is = =|o—

SISSIES SSB SSS] SS lela | sles
aS a PE a a
TiPineinySiciece ors pom arelerace 4| 3\ | 7 6\24| 4 q\t0l14 11/46 6\to| 5| 5 6)32 102
IRGIOIRUENAZE teat cumia ae cia aac 1} 6) 2! 3! 2/54 6|E1|10|10 9 46] 4 8 2) I| AlLol 79
RY Terie ieee seen rae ce hae r|..| Z| 6} | 9] 5| 5| 4/ro| 3/27) 8] 5) 3] 6| 6/28] 64
ANTICS See nates ane anes t| 2| z| x| 5|z0] 3| 4| 7| 8| 6/28] 1| 3 ro|r0| 3\27| 65
lear ie i en yo | Biles sa 2| 2| 4) 3| 5| 3) 2\27|- 2) 3) 3] 21 2ir2} 3a
ATRIR Seen tetera e was Sciuesteug Aloal| Br al Binal Bl) oe All G 115 6] 5 I1| 3| 6 31] 59
Telly s ee ee oe raee mt loaa BLO wie lie Olek AN ai or A\l2 3] 3) 4| 6| 2\18} 40
PRUOUISt Eee eer eee tree sol) Zl 2] 2 2 S| Sl Bl 2h al alu} A 6| 3| 5| 4.22] 4o
Beptembers we. koi. ks. 3} FI ral ot 2| 7] r| 2| 5|..| 3ltz} 4] 5| 4| 9] 8/30} 48
ERODE ee wa ce sella r r| 6] 2|..| 4] 2| 6/4] 5] 3.12] 4| 5/28) 48
IN(OHYEIaal OVS EAS Auosle sense chow 2| 3) 1| 3) 3/12] Z| 2| 8) 2) 5/18] 3] 5 6|10| 5\20] 59
IDeECEMDeIen Marin ay. 6|..| 3! 4| tlr4|rolno| 6: 5 2133 6| 5 3] 5| 3/221 60

The percentage of marriages occurring in November, Decem-
ber, January, and February has decreased during the three five-
year periods from 49.9 per cent. to 48.0 per cent. and 34.2 per
cent., respectively, while the proportion and actual number of
June marriages have doubled in the last two decades.

This change in the marriage season is an evidence of assimila-
tion, as is also any tendency to intermarriage. The German
colonists in Russia have been decidedly endogamous in their alli-
ances, intermarriage being very uncommon except among the
highest classes. This is chiefly due to religious differences, and
to the fact that according to the Russian law, the issue of mixed
marriages must be enrolled in the Orthodox church.“ So
strongly is this principle engrained into their nature that the older

74 The law of April 16, 1905, gave permission to all persons over eighteen
to change their church affiliation. In 1907 the age was raised to twenty-one,

but the red tape connected with the process is so great that few take advan-
tage of it and it remains an effective check upon intermarriage.

207

82 Hattie Plum Williams

people especially manifest decided disapproval of marriages out-
side their own group.”* Not infrequently parents bring such
pressure upon a young man or woman as to induce them to give
up a proposed union with a foreigner. “ People ought to marry
the same,” they say, “then they can raise their children alike,”
meaning that common religious training is necessary to insure the
proper rearing of offspring. Those who are more liberal in their
views concerning intermarriage in general, unanimously draw the
line at the “Irish”; and since this term to them is synonymous
with Catholic, the opposition really rests as before upon a re-
ligious basis.

Another and more reasonable ground for opposing mixed mar-
riages is the unfortunate outcome of so many of them. Those of
the lower social class in America who contract such alliances al-
most invariably marry persons who are inferior in character to
themselves. Girls who work in hotels or restaurants marry men
who are cooks and dishwashers or ticket sellers for cheap theaters.
In a year or two, their home is broken up, the American husband
deserting his wife and child entirely, or the American woman, as
the case may be, frequenting the public dance halls and enter-
taining “strangers” to the ruin of her husband’s purse and the
neglect of all her wifely duties. A young girl who married an
American dishwasher in the Chinese restaurant where she had
worked, and who by her conduct had lost caste in the settlement,
thus opened her heart to a pedestrian who helped her wheel her
baby across the viaduct, one violently windy Sunday: “I’m
going up to the county jail to see my husband. He sent word for
me to bring the baby up for him to see. It’s now over a year old
and he has never seen it, for he left me four months before it
was born. I know what he really wants me for, though. He
wants me to get him out of jail but I’m not going to. He has left

75 A correspondent in the Dakota Freie Presse, September 10, 1912,
writes that one of his townsmen has married a Russian lady who taught
in the Zemstvo school in their village and that the marriage ceremony was
performed by the Russian priest in Saratow: “Sie ist die erste Russin,
welche hier in Kukkus Einzug gehalten hat. Die alten Deutschen schuet-
telten zwar die Koepfe, aber. . . .”

208

A Social Study of the Russian German 83

me twice now and he can just stay where he is until he gets ready
to support me and the baby.”® O, I felt so ashamed when folks
asked me where my husband was and I[ didn’t know.” Such
unfortunate experiences as this have not been infrequent, and the
divorce court has played so prominent a part in the intermarriages
of the lower class that all such are looked upon with suspicion and
doubt. The current opinion upon the subject is expressed by a
newspaper correspondent who urges the young people to “ marry
industriously ” but warns the young men “not to remain sitting
by an English lady, for with them marriage does not usually last
long.” The correspondent “knows several good German Russian
boys who made that mistake and were separated within three
months. That is the way in America, if young folks do not get
proper instruction.’

The rate of intermarriage has varied greatly during different
periods on account of local conditions, but under normal circum-
stances it is on the increase.

Taste XVII. NumBer AND PERCENTAGE OF INTERMARRIAGES BY RUSSIAN
GERMANS IN PERIODS FROM 1878 TO 1914

Intermarriages
Marriages a
Number Per Cent.
ROPSHUGOLY ois /g.6 see0ls og a0 66 Dal 13 | 48.1
MOO 2 WOO Aepeves ais Hel ace tts beanie 66 8 WAS
SOG TOO Ue mwers gs .35 sere ree 198 24 Wit
UOOH—UOuAe, 6 5 book neo ae 572 89 15.5
863 134 15-5

The average number of mixed marriages during the entire
period has been 15.5 per cent., varying from 48.1 to 12.1. The
extremely high rate during the first period is due to the fact previ-
ously mentioned that many of the first immigrants were young
single men who had been brought or sent by their families to

7™ The Nebraska law against wife desertion, passed in 1003, provides
for imprisonment in the penitentiary for not over one year or in the
county jail for not over six months, for a husband who abandons his wife

or refuses to support her. Revised Statutes of Nebraska, 1913, Secs.
8614-8617.

77 Dakota Freie Presse, January 28, 1913.

209

84 Hattie Plum Williams

America to keep them from military service. There were few
available young women of their own nationality, and this in-
equality of the sexes led to intermarriage, chiefly with Empire
Germans. When the immigration of the nineties provided a
supply of women, the percentage of mixed marriages dropped
to 12.1. During the last twenty years of more normal conditions,
it has risen from 12.1 in the first decade to 15.5 in the second
decade—a sign of the growing assimilation of the people.

More Russian German women marry outside their nationality
than men, a total of 73 women and 61 men having contracted
mixed marriages. The excess of women is the more striking
when one recalls that in the first period, nine tenths of the inter-
marriages were of Russian German men ; while in the year 1908,
nine tenths were of Russian German women. The occupations
which are followed account in part for the greater independence
of the men. The foreign women are thrown with native men in
industry more than the Russian German men are thrown with
native women, and this contact sometimes results, as has been
seen, in intermarriage.’®

The marriage licenses issued in Lancaster county, show the
birthplace of those intermarrying Russian Germans to be as
follows:

Taste XVIII. Brrreprace oF THOSE INTERMARRYING WITH RussIANn
GERMANS, 1878-1014

Birthplace Brides Grooms
Wasted sStatesse nee Wee alta 39 54
German yest ee nng tit aie wae ea aly) 17 16
Plan gay ern tey wire eee eee ee ctv 2 I
Deninanloa tien Wer ein Sune sen a a8 I
England eat Cae hare Ra sek ore amine ees I
Aiea ie a tae sete tant ee Rah a I
RS Siae(Silanp eens Ten nena I
IU nilcin@ ware presence ok ey emt I

Totals natieje: secre Bich Eh yl ae 61 73

"8 But in European countries it is also true that native women are much
more likely to marry outside their group than are foreign men. Bailey,
Modern Social Conditions, 165; Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Sociology,
III-112,

210

A Social Study of the Russian German 85

Of the foreign-born, Germany has the far greater proportion,
but this is partly true because the largest foreign group in Lincoln
outside the Russian Germans is the Empire Germans. Some of
the native-born are also of German parentage while others are of
Irish, English, Scotch, and Bohemian stock. The largest pro-
portion of them, however, are probably American.

The native-born Russian German who has been reared in the
settlements in Lincoln shows the same general tendency of the
foreign-born to marry within his own nationality; while those
who have been reared outside this group, almost without excep-
tion contract mixed alliances. Out of 53 native-born Russian
German women, 23 married foreign-born Russian Germans, 4
married native-born Russian Germans, and 26 married Ameri-
cans. The same proportion appears for 34 native-born Russian
German men, 12 of whom married foreign-born and 5, native-
born Russian Germans, and 17 married Americans. So long,
then, as the Russian Germans remain within the settlement, they
show only a slight tendency to intermarry, even though they may
be American born; but when they move outside their group, they
are more and more inclined to mixed marriages, an increasing
evidence of their assimilation.

It has been pointed out how little the German colonists in
Russia have intermarried, even outside their own village. In view
of this endogamy, their attitude toward the marriage of blood
relatives is of especial importance. Since marriage is an ecclesi-
astical institution in Russia, each religious group retains its
peculiar customs and laws. For the Greek Orthodox and the
German Catholics, the marriage of cousins is forbidden; while the
Evangelical Germans permit it.° Among the wealthy Protestant
colonists, the marriage of cousins-german very often occurs, in
order to keep the property within the family or within the same
social circle. But popular sentiment among the common people
strongly opposes such unions, although the children of step-
brothers or sisters commonly marry.

79 For a discussion of this subject at various periods and among dif-

ferent peoples, cf. Howard, A History of Matrimonial Institutions, index
under “Forbidden degrees.”

211

86 Hattie Plum Williams

When the Russian Germans first came to Nebraska, immigrants
not infrequently married their cousins in order to avoid the
greater calamity of marrying outside their nationality. But rela-
tives always compare the children of these unions with others, and
blame any physical defect upon this relationship. However, in
spite of a generally strong feeling against consanguineous unions,
the marriage of cousins today is a rather common occurrence
with the Russian Germans in Lincoln, although since 1905 it is
contrary to the law of the state of Nebraska.®° |

These alliances occur among persons of every social class. A
young woman of exceptionally good family, native-born, recently
wished to marry her cousin, whose brother, a few years previ-
ously, had married her sister. The parents refused their con-
sent on the ground of the relationship, but the couple decided to
marry in spite of the parents’ wishes. It used to be customary,
when the Nebraska statute forbade divorced couples to marry
within six months, for such persons to evade the law by going to
Council Bluffs, Iowa, and getting married at once. Laboring
under the impression that the law against consanguineous mar-
riages might be evaded in the same way, this couple took a wit-
ness and went to Council Bluffs to have the ceremony performed.
But Iowa also forbids such marriages, and since the family names
of the contracting parties were identical, the clerk suspected an
illegal case and refused a license. However, the parties and their
witness swore that they were not related and the clerk finally
issued the license and the ceremony was performed.

In another case shortly previous to the one related above, a girl
seventeen years old was sent a ticket by an aunt and uncle ; and
when she arrived from Russia, she was summarily married off to
their son, her cousin, the matter of age and relationship both being
arbitrarily adjusted to suit the Nebraska laws! No objections

80 Laws of Nebraska, 1005, 449; Compiled Statutes of Nebraska, 1905,
1058, Chapter 52, section 3.

81 The age of consent in Nebraska is twenty-one for males and eighteen
for females; the age of parental consent is eighteen for males and sixteen

for females. Cf. Howard, 4 History of Matrimonial Institutions, II,
471-473.

A Social Study of the Russian German 87

have ever been raised to any of these cases, and the people will
go on with the practice until it is challenged in the courts.

Remarriage is the almost universal rule among the Russian
Germans and the proportion of second marriages (and sometimes
third) is very large. As has been seen, few persons are found
living alone or unmarried, and the ages of widows on remarriage
range from 20 to 60, and of widowers from 24 to 61. Except
with young people who marry single persons, remarriage always
means the union of two or more families and the rearing of
another, so that some excessively large families are formed in
this way. Financial considerations do not prove a deterring ele-
ment in these alliances for one or both of the parties may be very
poor. Moreover, it is considered that the large number of chil-
dren acquired will prove an asset instead of a liability. It is
customary in Lincoln for a man to dispose of his dead wife’s
belongings to the neighbors for a financial consideration, since
his new spouse will bring him the same things in her dowry.
Some enterprising widowers several years ago saw the possibility
of realizing a larger sum from these effects by a Sunday afternoon
auction and at the same time providing a social function for their
friends. ‘This method of disposal, however, is not general, but is
an example of mongrel customs which arise from a combination
of American and foreign manners.

V. Divorce

Among the German colonists in Russia divorce is an almost
unheard-of thing. Although the right of separation exists, the
disapproval of public opinion, the authority of religion, and the
difficulty and expense connected with securing a divorce make it a
rare occurrence. The only ground for it in Russia is the
scriptural cause of adultery; and since women are taught to
believe that they must submit to their husbands in all things, they
are practically denied the right of divorce, though they may have
abundant cause for action. Since marriage is an ecclesiastical in-
stitution in Russia, divorce must be obtained through the church
authorities. The parties must present their case to the pastor,

213

88 Hattie Plum Williams

who draws up a petition to the Consistory of the Lutheran church
(in case they are Protestant Germans). ‘This is then sent to the
Holy Synod of the Orthodox church which canvasses the matter
and returns its answer through the Lutheran Consistory to the
pastor. Local inquiry failed to find anyone who knew exactly
by what ceremony or formula a divorce was granted, so un-
familiar are the people with the phenomenon. But tradition says
it occurs as follows: the couple appear before the pastor who says
to them “God does not divorce; the devil does.” He then com-
mands them to join hands as they had done at the wedding cere-
mony and separates them as a sign of their divorce. The law
permits remarriage after a certain period, but public sentiment is
so strongly against the divorced woman that it is seldom she can
remarry even if she be the innocent party.*? In their attitude
toward divorce, as toward the position of women in the family,
the Russian Germans seem to have been influenced by Russian
sentiment more than by the lenient attitude of Luther.®?

The divorce rate based upon the population given in the Census
of 1910, was 3.7 per 1,000 the total population for Lancaster
county, while the rate for the Russian Germans was .4 per 1,000.
The proportion of divorces to the number of matriages can be
more accurately stated.

Taste XIX. Number or MarriaGes To ONE Divorce ror LANCASTER
CoUNTY AND FoR THE RUSSIAN GERMANS, 1909-1914

Year Lancaster County Russian German
LOOO Sits rycen ac oaay ie, ain ene 3.8 17.6
LOU ORs Arlen area rye tae ere tae COL 255 26.0
LBOHGIG Mi rune Onin Ame ar a AN Ue ROS 3.5 20.3
LO UZ Pec sean apkeetsens Gia nee ok Se 3.8 8.1
TOUS Gai tee eae RE, Aon Men des Seales 4183 13.2
LOMA seesetele tye 2. ctor Seber: 4.6 12.8

62 Divorce is more rare among the higher classes than among the lower,
on account of the stigma attaching to it.

83 For the Protestant doctrine of divorce which was largely shaped by
Luther, cf. Howard, A History of Matrimonial Institutions, II, 60 ff. For
marriage and divorce in Russia, cf. Leroy Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars
and the Russians, Il, 201 ff.

214

A Social Study of the Russian German 89

The divorce rate for Lancaster county is abnormally high as,
it will be recalled, its marriage rate was. The same cause ac-
counts for both, 7. e., the number of out-of-town cases which come
to the capital city. Hence, the rate itself is not significant but
only the fact that it is comparatively stable, changing but little in
the period covered. ‘The rate of divorce among the Russian Ger-
mans, on the other hand, varies much more, partly because their
population has not been so constant, and partly because more
change is actually taking place among these foreigners than among
the native people of the community.

The divorce records of Lancaster county for the past fifteen
years show the following facts concerning the Russian Germans :*°

TaBLE XX. Divorces GRANTED TO RUSSIAN GERMANS IN LANCASTER
CouNTY, wiTH PartraL DATA RELATING THERETO, FROM 1900
TO 1914, INCLUSIVE

i

v8] 2 5 5 |B4o¥) 9 Se es _2 3
we) os AS g ERIS is] ie =&|'38 2&9) Nature of Decree
oe) A iss 3 Sai as a = 8) OS fee
Z ce a ae\ 2 a <0 a0} § Ox
I |r90r| Husband | Wife r | 3 | Russia Adultery No | 0 | Divorce
2 |1904| Husband | Wife I | 5 | Nebraska) Marriage Yes} I | Dismissal
obtained by
fraud
3 |1905| Wife Husband 15, Russia Cruelty, No| No | o | Divorce
* non-support
adultery
4 |1905| Husband | Wife I | z| Lincoln | Marriage No | 0 | Divorce for
obtained by cruelty
fraud,
cruelty
5 |1905| Husband | Wife 2 | =| Nebraska| Cruelty No | 0 | Divorce
6 |1906| Husband | Wife ue 3| Lincoln | Cruelty No | 1 | Dismissal
47 |1907| Husband | Wife I | 75| Lincoln | Cruelty No | o | Dismissal
8 |1908| Husband | Wife I | ro} Russia Desertion, No | rt | Divorce, custody
adultery of child
9 |1908| Wife Husband | 1 | ,5,| Lincoln | Cruelty Yes} Yes] 0 | Divorce, maiden
name
Io |1909) Wife Husband | 1 I; Kansas Marriage No| Yes! 0 | Annulment
obtained by
fraud
Ir |1909| Husband | Wife I 3| Lincoln | Desertion No | o | Divorce

85 For the records previous to 1909, cf. files of the Equity Docket of the
District Court of Lancaster County. For the years 1909-1913, cf. Ne-
braska State Board of Health, Divorce Records.

25

gO Hattie Plum Williams
ala B |Bele8| es Se esi eee
Sih Manas a is BESé 3 B ve z Bl] sols @| Nature of Decree
(Oy Shh (a) as co Sahn s ae Se, = 8] Og |e
Z Ay a Asie = <0 2a0|} S|/O<
| Wife Husband | 1 1/ Lincoln | Non-support] No| No! r | Divorce, custody
of child
Wife Husband | 1 1} Lincoln | Cruelty, No| No} t | Divorce, custody
non-support of child
| Husband | Wife 2 | 35| Colorado | Cruelty No Divorce
| Husband | Wife I | y2| Council | Minority of Yes Annulment,
| Bluffs, Ia.) plaintiff, mar. maiden name
| obt. by fraud
| Husband | Wife 1} Lincoln | Cruelty No Divorce
| Wife Husband 3| Lincoln | Non-support} No| No Divorce, custody
| of child
Wife Husband 6] Council | Cruelty, Yes) Yes Dismissal
Bluffs non-support
| Husband | Wife 5| Nebraska} Cruelty Yes Dismissal
Wife Husband 24| Russia Non-support| Yes| No Divorce, custody
| drunkenness of child
| cruelty
| Wife Husband | I] Lincoln | Cruelty, No Divorce
non-support
| Wife Husband I} Lincoln | Cruelty No| Yes Divorce,
maiden name
Husband | Wife 20| Lincoln | Cruelty Yes; Yes Divorce, custody
of children and
alimony to def’t
Wife Husband 3/ Lincoln | Cruelty, No Divorce
non-support :
| Wife Husband 26) Russia Cruelty, No Dismissal
non-support ‘
drunkenness
Wite*4 Husband 7| C. Bluffs | Cruelty Yes) Yes o | Divorce
Wife Husband I] Lincoln | Cruelty Yes) rt | Dismissal
| Husband | Wife I} Nebraska) Cruelty Yes) o | Divorce and
maiden name to
defendant
Wife Husband 13| C. Bluffs | Non-support Yes Divorce, parti-
cruelty tion of property
| Wife Husband a Cruelty Yes} Yes Divorce, custody
| | of child
| Wife Husband 4) Russia | Non-support No Divorce, maiden
| cruelty name
| Wife Husband I} Lincoln | Cruelty Yes) No Dismissal
| Husband | Wife 2} Lincoln | Abandon- No Divorce
ment and
cruelty
| Husband | Wife to} Russia Cruelty Yes Divorce to de-
fendant

The total number of divorce suits filed by the Russian Germans
is remarkably small considering the proportion of the total popu-
84 Second suit filed; cf. case 18.

216

A Social Study of the Russian German gt

lation which they form. In the past fifteen years, 34 suits have
been filed in Lancaster county, an average of a little over 2 suits
per year. The average number of divorces for the county at
large in the five years, 1909-1913, has been 240 annually,®® during
which period the Russian German has averaged 4.2 divorces.
while comprising about one twelfth of the population. In other
words, if the Russian German had secured divorces in the same
proportion as the population of the county in: general, he would
have averaged 20 divorces per year instead of 4.2.

In spite of the comparatively low divorce rate among the
Russian Germans, one of their number on being told that there
had been 34 cases in 15 years, expressed the general sentiment of
the community by saying: “Well, that’s just 33 too many.”
Another man, educated in a Russian college and much influenced
by the writings of Tolstoi, expressed the belief that, even with
the evils connected with American divorce, conditions were vastly
preferable to those in Russia where an exceedingly low rate is
maintained. Jt is his belief that families in America, on the
whole, are happier and that family morals are purer.

A number of interesting facts may be noted from the above
table. One is the increased number of cases in which the wife
appears as plaintiff. In the first 17 instances, the husband filed
the original suit in 11 cases and the wife in 6; in the last 17,
the wife filed in 12 cases and the husband in 5. This is a measure
of the growing independence and individualization of the Russian
German woman, and of her realization that public sentiment does
not force her to suffer—indeed does not approve of her suffering
—at the hands of a really cruel husband. Several of these suits
have been directed by American women who have employed these
foreign women, usually in the capacity of home laundresses. As
a rule these cases are marriages of long standing, usually con-
tracted in Russia, and involving several minor children. Others,
however, are young Russian German girls lacking in stability,
who feel that they are demonstrating their degree of Americaniza-
tion by their promptness in rushing into the divorce court.

A second noticeable fact is the small number of children in-

86 Nebraska State Board of Health, Divorce Records.
Baz:

92 Hattie Plum Williams

volved in these divorce suits. In 21 cases there were no children
by the marriage ; in 8 cases there was only 1 child affected ;87 and
in 5 cases there were from 2 to 6 children. In six out of a total
of eight cases dismissed by the plaintiff, from one to six children
were involved in each, while in the 5 suits between persons of
second marriage, there had been no children. These facts point
very definitely to the conclusion that children are a decidedly
binding factor in the family life of the Russian German; and
although no general statistics are at hand, it is very probable that
the presence of children is a much greater preventive of divorce
in the Russian German than in the American family.

The proportionate number of divorce suits filed and then dis-
missed by the Russian German is more than twice as large as
for the state as a whole. In 1911 and 1912, 9.4 per cent. of all
divorce suits filed in Nebraska were dismissed by the plaintiffs,
while the Russian Germans in Lincoln dismissed 21.5 per cent.28
This shows their deep-seated, instinctive aversion to divorce and
their willingness to withdraw under the persuasions of relatives,
friends, or minister. It is also suggestive of their readiness to
use the divorce court as a weapon with which to bring a recal-
citrant spouse to terms, and of their litigious tendency elsewhere
mentioned.*® There seems to be no difference in this regard be-
tween men and women for in these 8 dismissals, 4 plaintiffs have
been men and 4, women.

The proportion of divorces among Russian Germans who have
intermarried with other nationalities is less than is generally sup-
posed, particularly by the Russian Germans themselves. In the
last fifteen years (1900-1914) there has been one intermarriage —
for every 6.99 marriages among the Russian Germans; while
there has been one divorce among the intermarried for every 5.66
divorces. Contrary to expectation also, the Russian German has

87 In one of these cases there were three adult children beside the one
minor child affected.

88 While large numbers are here compared with small ones, it is probable
that it is a fair comparison between the Russian German and the native

population.
89 Cf. Bauer, Geschichte der deutschen Ansiedler an der Wolga, 100 ff.

218

A Social Study of the Russian German 93

been the plaintiff in five out of the six divorce suits of inter-
married couples.

A fact which does not appear from the table is that in many
of the marriages culminating in divorce, the ceremony was per-
formed by a civil officer instead of an ecclesiastic. This includes
all the marriages listed in the table as performed in Council Bluffs,
Iowa, and some of those solemnized in Lincoln. There is always
something irregular about the civil ceremony among the Russian
Germans because church control of the institution is so grounded
in them that resort to a civil ceremony is considered a disgrace,
and usually denotes such in fact. In Russia, forced marriages
are as binding as the others, but in America escape is often sought
later through the divorce court.

The years of marriage for the Russian German divorcees are,
as for the American, chiefly short. Almost one half the total

TABLE XXI. Duration oF MARRIAGE BEFORE DIVORCE AMONG THE RUSSIAN
GERMANS, 1900-1914

Duration of Marriage Number of Divorces | Duration of Marriage] Number of Divorces
Less than one year......... 6 7 years 2
EV CAN ok Nese er 8c helt le! aire ephttise aorta 9 IO years 2
DEN CATS 4. yhix anes set wie) Sg who eres ees I 13 years I
BR CALS vise raciia ciate ses fuchsia: 5 15 years I
ABV CATS Ue ates ta dsrealhan ence fs I 20 years I
G WEBING ao Bice eI eae reese 2 24 years I
GRYV.CATSieratectancbeeiete reas (eects lays I 26 years I

number of divorces (15) were granted to persons who had been
married less than two years; while 22 couples out of 34 were
married less than 5 years.

The alleged ground for divorce among the Russian Germans is
usually, as with divorce in general, cruelty. In 25 out of the 34
cases, cruelty is one of the grounds given and in 14 cases it is the
sole allegation; while non-support enters into I1 cases. As a
matter of fact, it is impossible to tell from the alleged ground
what was the real cause for action; for cruelty, in divorce peti-
tions, covers a multitude of sins. In more cases than with
Americans, however, it means physical cruelty, such as wife-
beating. In 3 cases, adultery is an alleged ground; in 2 cases,

219

94 Hattie Plum Williams

desertion ; and in 2 cases, drunkenness. In 4 cases annullment is
prayed because the marriage was obtained by fraud, three of the
plaintiffs being husbands and one a wife.

Several of these cases disclose peculiar customs which obtain
among the Russian Germans. In one instance the husband
claimed he had been cajoled into marriage by the defendant, rein-
forced by her minister who threatened dire spiritual consequences
if he did not marry the young woman, not on account of any
illegal relations sustained but just on general principles. As the
matter was purely one of overpersuading an unwilling suitor and
involved no criminal action, the court disregarded this petition
but granted a divorce on the charge of cruelty.°° In another
case, the plaintiff was accused of being the father of the de-
fendant’s unborn child, and on threat of prosecution went to
Council Bluffs and falsified his age in order to secure a license.
After marriage the wife confessed to having defrauded the plain-
tiff, and two months later he sued for a divorce on the ground of
his minority and of fraud in obtaining marriage. This case is
typical of a certain small class of marriages where the parties com-
mit perjury in order to carry out their plans, and the clerk’s office
has no recourse on account of the characteristic American care-
lessness concerning birth data. A people accustomed to the most
elaborate and detailed system of records such as Russia employs,
come to America, and, if the end in view demands it, falsify con-
cerning such data with the happy consciousness that nothing will
come of it.

Another divorce petition throws an interesting side light upon
Russian German customs. A young man in a neighboring state
sent a ticket to a young woman in Russia in order that she might
come to America to marry him. When the ticket arrived the
young woman was married to another, and it was decided that a

90 The petition for divorce filed in this case is an interesting commentary
on the superstition of a simple-minded young foreigner, and of the man-
ner in which matters relating to marriage among the Russian Germans
are referred to the minister for final adjudication. The prompt appeal to
the divorce court is also suggestive of how quickly the hope of escape
through the civil authorities overcomes the victim’s fear of spiritual
penalties.

220

A Social Study of the Russian German 95

certain girl who had relatives in Lincoln and who wished to come
to America should use the transportation. Instead of getting off
at Lincoln she ignorantly went on to the town called for in the
ticket, where she was met by the young man and his relatives who
tried to persuade her to marry him. When she objected, they
read what they pretended was a letter from her sister in Lincoln
saying that she would not take care of her; and, since the girl had
expected her relatives to repay the young man for the ticket, she
was in great distress. Finally the people gave her liquor, and
while she was intoxicated she was married to the young man.
The next day her sister arrived from Lincoln and took her to her
home, and a year later the marriage was annulled.

Remarriage among divorcees is the general rule with the Rus-
sian Germans in Lincoln. There is no disposition for them to
remain single, in spite of the ostracism which is practiced against
divorced persons among the people in the Lincoln settlements.
Tales defaming the character of the divorced person, particularly
if-it be a woman, soon begin to spread ; and though the individuals
be entirely innocent, neighborhood gossip adds the burden of
suspicion to their already troubled existence. Girls in factories
and laundries have been known to refuse to work beside a divorced
Russian German woman of good moral character, giving as their
only reason, “She’s divorced.” This attitude of the community
tends to hasten marriage among such as are unfortunate enough
to be divorced, many of them contracting new alliances at the
end of the six months’ interlocutory period.®*

The effect of a new and strange environment upon the attitude
of the. Russian German toward marriage and divorce is plainly
marked. There is a loosening of the ties very largely as a result
of the lax marriage laws in our American states. The Russian
German has been accustomed to publication of the banns for three
weeks preceding the ceremony; but where this formality is not
required by law, the way is opened for elopement and clandestine

91JTn December, 1914, a Russian German woman was granted an inter-
locutory decree in the Lancaster district court and less than a week later

was married in Council Bluffs, returning at once to Lincoln, where she has
since made her home.

221

96 Hattie Plum Williams

marriages. Civil, in place of ecclesiastical, jurisdiction ftirnishes
another opportunity for moral laxity and those who have over-
stepped the law avoid the censure and punishment of the church
by appealing to the civil authorities for the ceremony.

Ignorance and misunderstanding are the cause for a variety of
incidents in which Council Bluffs, Iowa, plays the part of a
Gretna Green where the marriage laws of Nebraska may be
evaded. Every class of irregular marriage is performed there,
very often in violation of the laws of both states, and through
perjury of the parties. Young people under age who elope, first
cousins, those who are forced to marry, and divorcees who have
received their interlocutory decrees in Lincoln but a few days
previous, all journey to Council Bluffs for their wedding cere-
mony. While the actual number of these is not large, yet the
general feeling exists among the Russian Germans that whoever
cannot marry in Lincoln can evade the law by going to Council
Bluffs. None of these persons have ever been prosecuted,
although they are often plain violators of the law, and the practice
will continue so long as the authorities wink at its infringement.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

The basis for the local statistics contained in the preceding
chapters (unless otherwise noted) is a Census of the Russian Ger-
man Settlements taken March 15 to April 15, r914. It had been
the desire of the writer ever since beginning this study in 1907
to secure such material, but there were obstacles in the way.
Chief among these was the exclusiveness of the people themselves.
Unacquainted with such investigations, and suspicious of their
purpose, any attempt to secure this information through a house
to house canvass by one outside their own number would result
in their “shutting up like clams” and refusing any returns.
Publicity in the matter would not help, for it would only arouse
more questioning, and possibly a concerted resistance to the plan.*
The people’s sense of obedience to the law had led them to give
prompt and correct answers to the federal census takers, whose
work had been explained through school and pulpit ; but the case
of a private census was different. There was no pressure which
could be brought to bear upon them by law, so appeal must be
made through some definite interest by persons in whom they had
complete confidence.

Although the writer had enjoyed six years of acquaintance
and most cordial relationships with many of the Russian German
families of the settlements, it was impossible for her to make the
canvass because the people could not be made to understand how
one outside their own number could have other than a selfish or

1 This is in striking contrast to the attitude of the negro population of
Lincoln a few years ago, when a study of this people was made by two
graduate students of the University of Nebraska. See Marsh and Davies,
Study of the Negro in Lincoln, 1904. All that was necessary to secure the
cooperation of the negroes was an announcement from the pulpits of the
various colored churches of the city that investigators would call to secure
information, and, without exception, they were received cordially, and
obtained answers as nearly correct as the negroes were able to give.

Instead of resenting it as an intrusion, the people were pleased at the
attention shown them.

223

98 Hattie Plum Williams

sinister motive in spending time, energy, and money in such work.
Hence it was deemed best to work through the people themselves,
and this was made possible through the kind assistance of Mr.
Jacob J. Stroh, who, as immigration agent for many years, was
personally acquainted with almost every family in the two settle-
ments. His personal interest, especially in the historical data to
be secured, led him to pay particular attention to obtaining ac-
curate returns; and he chose as canvassers men who were not
only sufficiently well and favorably known to the people to secure
the information desired, but men who would use care in having
the answers correct. Asa result of his choice, only three families
out of about 1,200 who were canvassed refused the information
sought, although explanations had to be given in practically every
case as to the purpose of the census.

The people were frankly told that Mrs. Williams was writing a
history of, the Russian Germans, and that the census taken was
to be preserved as a record for their children. Guaranteed
by the cooperation of the canvasser and Mr. Stroh, this was often
sufficient to allay the natural curiosity excited by such a canvass;
although questions such as “‘ What is she doing it for?” or “ How
much money is she getting out of it?” were usually asked. With
the more ignorant or more recent immigrants, suspicions were
aroused, and the canvassers were asked such questions as “Does
it mean more taxes?” “ Are they going to take soldiers for the
Mexican War?” “Is Russia hunting up soldiers?” (occasioned
by the query as to how many years each man had served in the
Russian army) ; and finally, “Is somebody trying to organize a
new church?” ‘

The census thus obtained was checked with and supplemented
by the school records, the city directory, the naturalization, mar-
riage and divorce, and health records, and by information given
by several of the most widely acquainted members of the com-
munity. Especial pains were taken to be accurate because the
figures handled were so small that slight errors would be much
more serious than when dealing with large numbers.

The public records which have been consulted for Chapter II
are the Birth Records of the City of Lincoln, September—De-

224

A Social Study of the Russian German 99

cember, 1899; June, 1901—December, 1914; Death Records of the
City of Lincoln, September, 1899—December, 1914; Marriage
Records of Lancaster County, IV-XL, 1874-1914; Divorce
Records of Lancaster County, 1909-1914, and Files and Dockets
of The Equity Division of the District Court of Lancaster County,
1901-1909. The incomplete and unreliable nature of these re-
turns has been commented upon in the text. The Bulletins of the
Nebraska State Board of Health, Nos. 1-3, and January, 1915,
have been appealed to, but in addition to the incomplete character
of the returns upon which they are necessarily based, the bulletins
are put up in such poor statistical form as to be practically worth-
less.

The birth records of the city have been supplemented by the
parish registers of the eight Russian German churches now in the
settlements. The years covered by each of these records are as
follows:

I. Evangelische Congregationale Gemeinde, 1889-1914
2. Evangelische Reformirte Immanuels Gemeinde, 1891-1914
3. Evangelische Congregationale Zions Gemeinde, 1900-1914
4. Evangelische Congregationale Salem Gemeinde, 1901-1914
5: Evangelische Lutherische Friedens Gemeinde, 1907-1914
6. St. John’s Evangelische Gemeinde, 1907-1914
7. Evangelische Lutherische Emanuels Gemeinde, 1909-1914
8. Evangelische Lutherische Christ Gemeinde, IQII-IQI4

These are valuable records, especially as supplemental to the
birth records, for they include all the Russian German population
in the city until very recently, and therefore all of the christen-
ings. Even then they are incomplete, for they do not include
those who died before christening. However, the city death
records provide this data, and between the two it is possible to
compile a correct and complete list of births.

Aside from the manuscripts noted above, the following works
were consulted :

American Academy of Medicine. Medical Problems of Immigration,
being the papers and their discussion presented at the Thirty-seventh
Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Medicine, held at
Atlantic City, June I, 1912. Easton, Pa., 1913.

22%

100 Hattie Plum Williams

American Academy of Political and Social Science. “Housing and Town
Planning,” Annals, LI. Philadelphia, 1914.
“Race Improvement in the United States,” Annals, XXXIV, NG I,
Philadelphia, 1900.

—— “The Public Health Movement,” Annals, XXXVII, No. 2. Phila-

delphia, 19rt.

American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant vo
Transactions, 1910-1914. Baltimore, 1911-1915.

Bailey, William B. Modern Social Conditions. New York, 1906.

Bushee, Frederick A. “Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston.”
American Economic Association. Publications, Third Series, IV,
2990-477. New York, 19063.

Crum, F. S. “The Marriage Rate in Massachusetts.” American Statis-
tical Association. Publications, 1V, 340-357. Boston, 1805.

Friedensboten Kalender. Talowka, Russia, 1908, 1900, 1910, 1914.

Howard, George Elliott. General Sociology, an Analytical Reference

Syllabus. Lincoln, 1907.
—— The Family and Marriage, an Analytical Reference Syllabus. Lin-
coln, 1914.

— A History of Matrimonial Institutions. 3 vols. Chicago, 1904.

—— “Social Control of Domestic Relations.” American Journal of So-

ciology, XVI, 805-817. Chicago and New York, to11.

King, Milford Isbel. The Elements of Statistical Method. New York,
1912. ;

Kuczynski, R. R. “The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Popu-
lation in Massachusetts.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, XVI, 1-36,
141-186, Boston, 1902.

Mayo-Smith, Richmond. Statistics and Sociology. New York and Lon-
don, 1806.

Mogk, Eugen. Deutsche Sitten und Braeuche. Ed. by Laurence Fossler.
New York, t1o12.

Nebraska. Complete Session Laws. 3 vols. Lincoln, 1886, 1887.

—— Compiled Statutes, 1905.

— Laws, 1885, 1905, 1900.

— Revised Statutes, 1913.

— State Board of Health. Bulletins, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915.

New International Encyclopedia, 1X. New York, 1903.

Newman, George. Infant Mortality a Social Problem. London, 1906(?).

Newsholme, Arthur. The Elements of Vital Statistics. London and New.
York, 1800.

Roberts, Peter. Anthracite Coal Communities, a study of the demography,
the social, educational, and moral life of the anthracite regions. New
York, 1904.

Statesman’s Year Book. London, 1912, 1914.

226

A Social Study of the Russian German IOl

United States. Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of the Census.
Mortality Statistics. Washington, Iori.

—— Department of Commerce and Labor. Bureau of the Census. Thir-
teenth Census of the United States. Washington, 1910.

— Department of Labor. Children’s Bureau. “ Birth Registration, an
aid in protecting the lives and rights of children.” Monograph
No. r. Washington, 1914.

—— Department of Labor. Children’s Bureau. “Infant Mortality. Re-
sults of a Field Study in Johnstown, Pa., based on births in one
calendar year.” Infant Mortality Series No. 3. Bureau Publi-
cation No. 9. Washington, 1915.

—— Department of Labor. Children’s Bureau. “New Zealand Society
for the Health of Women and Children, an example of methods
of baby-saving work in small towns and rural districts.” Infant
Mortality Series No. 2. Bureau Publication No. 6. Washington,
1914.

—— Department of Labor. Annual Report of Commissioner General of
Immigration for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1913. Washing-
ton, 1914.

— “Fecundity of Immigrant Women.” Reports of the Immigration
Commission, XXVIII (Sen. Doc. No. 282, 61st Cong., 2d sess.),
731-826. Washington, IQII.

Volksfreund Kalender. Saratow, Russia, 1911.

Wilcox, Walter F. “The Marriage Rate in Michigan, 1870-1890.” Amer-
ican Statistical Association. Publications, IV, 1-11. Boston, 1805.
Webb, A. D. New Dictionary of Statistics, a Complement to the Fourth

Edition of Mulhall’s Dictionary of Statistics. London, 1011.

227

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UNIVERSITY STUDIES

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION

F. M. FLING P, H. GRUMMANN

P, H. FRYE L. A. SHERMAN

C. A. SKINNER M. G. WYER
CONTENTS

ARTERIAL ANOMALIES PERTAINING TO THE AORTIC
ARCHES AND THE BRANCHES ARISING FROM THEM 229

LINCOLN, NEBRASKA

PNEVERSITY STUDIES

VoL. XVI

OCTOBER 1916 No. 4

nel A ANOMALIES 9) PERTAINING ) TO “THE
RORMUC RCH SAND Tih BRANCEES

Section*
Section
Section
Section
Section

Section
Section
Section
Section

Section
Section

I.
II.
IBA
IV.
We
VI.

WANK.

IX.

XI.

ARISING FROM THEM
[6 Plates, 49 Figures]

BY C. W. M. POYNTER

SYNOPSIS
PaGE
Iimtrodtuctonymremarksh rer isigec) mica c cin hese arate 2
Variations in the development of the arteries ....... 5
Developmention thelaontic arches) saan sesso eee eee 6
Comparativeuanatonmyaepe eer ee eee eee noo II
Irregularities in the development of the truncus com-
TUUUITTShecaT LOTTO SUS p iatevoreersascere es alee oo oe ote este keeraae clearer 12,
Irregularities in the development of the aortic and
pulmonic arches and the roots connecting them ... 22
Irregularities in the development of the branches of
ITEC eIO Tibial mepyen eee Mann Ua Mate lree adi bahg a aia eee ee tay AI
Analysis of irregularities grouped unelet the headings
OL EhED VaniOUS aGtenies: -fj0.0. 50sec ee neuen. 53
Irregularities in the development of the thoracic duct 55
Generaliesumimiaiyn pie sven eee) acces Caniaie Meenetastes noes 57

A list of the literature relating to the irregularities in
the development of the great vessels arising from
the: heartrandethetnebranches: sa sieeceneemeeeee 50

* Note—The section arrangement above is for the benefit of the Study
as a whole and is not meant for the body of the text, where the word
section refers only to the classification of the arterial variations.

229

Sis INTRODUCTION

For a number of years I have been interested in the arterial
variations which have been encountered in my dissecting rooms.
Notes have been made of these abnormalities and the literature
describing similar conditions has been gradually collected. The
more recent textbooks in anatomy devote little space to the sub-
ject of arterial variations and the classic works which have re-
viewed the field are no longer readily consulted; then, too, new
facts have been added to our knowledge of arterial development
since the most recent of the latter were published. In view of
these facts it has seemed worth while to assemble the cases I have
collected from the various sources and classify them according to
our present knowledge of development.

I wish to take this opportunity to express my thanks to Doctor
W. F. Whitney, curator of the anatomical museum at’ Harvard
Medical School, for placing the splendid collection of the Warren
Museum at my disposal for study. In the later pages I have
used the results of my study freely, referring to the various
anomalies as from the Warren Museum.

The following does not purport to be the entire list of all
cases reported, for it was not possible with the library facilities
and time I had at my disposal to consult all the works that might
contain a record of such variations, but I believe a sufficient num-
ber have been collected on which to base reliable conclusions of
the scope and possibly relative frequency of such abnormalities.

The bibliography at the end of this study includes not only
the cases referred to in the body of the work but, in addition,
many titles which I was unable to consult but which came to me
on good authority. I have included the latter believing that a full
bibliography on any subject has a distinct value of its own.

In this study I have confined the observations to those anom-
alies directly related to the aortic arches and the ventral aorta.
In many cases the factor which has produced these variations

230

Arterial Anomalies B

seems to have influenced the development of the heart; since,
however, no constant relationship could be discovered between
the heart anomalies and those of the arches, I will reserve the
study of the heart for a future paper. All cases which might be
considered to be the result of known pathological processes have
been excluded.

Arterial variation is but one of many irregularities encountered
in the human body and in order to appreciate it fully we must
consider the subject of variation as a whole, otherwise we may be
inclined to think that arterial variations have a significance and
perhaps an importance greater than any other anomalies encoun-
tered.

The first interest which variations had for observers, aside
from being simple curiosities, was their bearing on the develop-
ment of the individual and influence on the various medical and
surgical procedures; then with the discovered resemblance to
lower forms and the growth of embryological knowledge they as-
sumed greater significance as one of the evidences of man’s origin
from the same stem as the lower animals. Duval (1884) said:
“En effet de cas deux ordres de variations les unes sont un sorte
de pas fait vers l’avenir, c’est a dire vers les transformations
futures; les autres sont un retour vers le passe c’est a dire vers”
le transformations déja subir; les premieres sont des anomalies
progressives, les seconds des anomalies regressives.” Bateson
(1894) said: “ Variation in fact is evolution. The readiest way
then of solving the problems of evolution is to study the facts of
variation.” |

That all variations should be interpreted as atavistic remi-
niscence is undoubtedly incorrect. A great many more variations
are found in man than in the lower animals. This has been con-
sidered as an indication that the average type form is a compara-
tively recent acquisition, hence instability, also instability due to
progressive change toward a type not yet established which will
more nearly meet the requirements of the organism. Probably
the best way to view the question is to consider variation as be-
longing to classes. Numerous observations establish a type, then
by careful study we are able to classify the variations as belong-

231

4 | C. W. M. Poynter

ing to lower types or not. If the anomaly is found in some form
below man it is retrogressive, if not it is progressive. This
is as far as comparative anatomy can carry us, but compar-
tive embryology has thrown more light on the subject. Meh-
nert (1895) has suggested a new significance for the variations
in the embryo. These variations are of themselves of great
theoretic interest, they furnish us with a hint of the growth
processes and are not apparently confined to the phylogenetic
processes. This consideration of embryonal variations would
suggest a third class of variations according to Mehnert, “Als
Ungluchheiten in der Art der Entwicklung eines Organs inner-
halb derselben Species oder mehrfach vertretener Organe inner-
halb eines Individuums zusammenfasst.”

~ When we find in man a condition similar to that found in some
lower animal we may assume that the same factors were operative
during a certain stage of development which are constant for
that animal. This only suggests that at times during develop-
- ment man may be subject to unknown forces which are constantly
operative in the lower forms. Objection to the assumption that
variations dissimilar to conditions found in lower forms are pro-
gressive may be made on the ground that we are too near to
judge.

Of the remote causes of variation we know nothing yet and
if we assume that at a certain time unusual factors operate in a
human embryo to produce a variation we are still ignorant as to
what the factors are. With increased knowledge of development
the number of anomalies which may be considered as indicative
of atavism decrease.

Another feature of variation has been suggested by Keith
(1895), who says: “An extended observation will probably show
that nearly allied races are more emphatically distinguished by
the kind and frequency of their anatomical variations than by
what would be described as their typical structure.” If this were
known to be true we could only speculate as to its significance.

232

Arterial Anomalies 5

SVE AON Oh PNR DRS

Arterial variations early attracted the attention of anatomists
and were recorded as deviations from normal; they soon inter-
ested surgeons and it is from this standpoint that Quain (1844)
presented his great work; even as late as 1878 Hyrtl considered
them principally for their surgical significance. Anatomists who
studied the lower animals, as Cuvier (1838), recognized the simi-
larity between some of these anomalies and the normal condition
in animals and in recording the variations regularly spoke of the
animals in which a similar condition obtains. The growth of the
conception that a connection existed between the two, I will speak
of particularly in the next section.

Baader (1866) classified a large number of the mammalian
conditions as analogous to variations in man. He did not make
use of the facts then known concerning development and did not
speak of a similarity indicating atavism. His idea of the way in
which variations occurred was new; it was in effect that the
earliest vessels are arranged as a net and that the great trunks
develop through the enlargement of some of these channels while
others degenerate. In keeping with this theory his conception
seems to have been that the number of possible variations was
limitless. Aeby (1871) held the same idea and Krause (1868)
made use of a hypothetical plexus in some of his explanations.
The conception of an arterial net was purely theoretic with its
author but it has since furnished the subject for a controversy
which need not be reviewed here.

Ruge (1884) showed that variations fall into certain classes,
1. €., are not innumerable, and he considered that a part at least
of these variations have an atavistic meaning. The work of
Hochstetter, Goeppert, Evans, Lewis and others has contributed
much to the general subject of arterial variation but the intimate
relation of their work to the subject of this study will permit a
detailed review of their researches at proper points in the subse-
quent pages.

233

6 C. W. M. Poynter

SIRO sla AON, NIRCIBUSS)

The earliest observations on the aortic arches were made on
birds; Haller (1758) recognized a stage in the chick when there
were three vessels and this was antedated by the work of Mal-
pighi who figured three arches. Pander (1817), in Tab. IX, fig.
3, showed three arches in a three-day chick; these figures are
possibly copied from Malpighi, he recognized that early there
were two dorsal aortae. v. Baer (1827) also saw two dorsal ar-
teries, saying that about the fortieth hour the blood was forced
around the gut in two trunks; these proceed on each side under
the vertebral column, probably uniting after having been separate
for a considerable distance. Serres (1830) saw between the for-
tieth and fiftieth hours a double aorta throughout its entire length;
he affirmed that the single aorta was formed by the gradual fusion
of these two trunks. He does not however seem to have had a
clear conception of the branchial arteries.

Rusconi (1817) comprehended the formation of the arterial
stems from the vessels of the visceral arches and described the
metamorphosis from the fish type for salamander. This work
was followed by that of Huschke (1817) and v. Baer (1827) for
birds, and v. Baer (1828) for mammals.

Rathke is quite generally credited with originating the diagram-
matic figures illustrating the fate of the aortic arches, but I be-
lieve the first figure of this kind was made by v. Baer (1828) as
fig. 3, Plate IV ; see fig. 1 of this study. This figure was referred
to by him in his discussion of both birds and mammals and in
that discussion he clearly indicates that the right arch persists in
birds while in mammals the left remains. As noted in fig. 1 this
is a left arch. Thomson (1830. copied the figure as a right arch
and introduced a second figure of a left arch which he referred to
as representing the mammalian condition.

_ v. Baer (1828) clearly understood the phylogenetic significance
of the aortic arches, for he said, page 518: “ Die erste Bildung
des Arterien Systems wird aber durch die Halskeimen auf eine
bei allen Wirbelthieren, bei den Fischen bleibend, bei den hoheren
Classen vorubergehend.” Rathke (1832) made an exhaustive

234

Arterial Anomalies 7

study of the branchial apparatus of different forms; he con-
cluded, page 127: “ Bei allen Wirblethieren ohne Annahme kom-
men in die fruhesten entwickelungszeit Anlagen zu einem Zungen-
bein und Keimapparate vor.”

v. Baer (1837), as the result of more extensive observations,
revised his figure calling attention to the mistake he had made in
interpretation of the carotids. The new figure was fig. 14, Plate
IV, its general scheme is reproduced in fig. 2 of this study. A
comparison of figs. 1 and 2 will show that his idea of the truncus
arteriosus and carotids was changed, but he still believed that the
subclavians arose from the third arch.

Rathke (1843) criticized the last figure of v. Baer, calling par-
ticular attention to the error in the origin of the subclavian ar-
teries. In 1857 he issued his second work and figured the
changes for the aortic arches in mammals on Plate VI, fig. 10;
this I have copied as fig. 3. Aside from the point just referred
to in his earlier work our principal interest in this figure is in the
more detailed development of the carotids; he supposed that the
basal portion of the third arch by elongation became the common
carotids, and of the pulmonary arteries, he said, in speaking of
the truncus arteriosus: “Es sendet nur einer von truncus (***)
einen Zweig aus der sich Gableformig theilend auf beide Lungen
ubergeht, und entwickelt sich darauf mit diesem Zweige und jenen
erst erwahnten Canal zu der Lungenarterien, indass der andere
funft Gefassbogen vergeht.”

From the time of Rathke’s renowned precept of five pouches
for the system of embryonal visceral arches the question of a
greater number of arterial arches was not raised till van Bem-
melen (1886) called attention to the presence in the embryos of
reptiles and birds of a rudimentary vessel between the systemic
and pulmonary arches. ‘This caused Boas (1888) to review the
evidence of his earlier work (’81-’2—’6) calling attention to the
origin of the pulmonary artery in amphibia and reptilia from the
sixth arch. He concluded that the pulmonary artery arose from
the corresponding arches in all vertebrates and that a true arch
had been overlooked between the fourth and pulmonary arches.

235

8 C. W. M. Poynter

He prepared diagrams illustrating the supposed fate of the arches,
see fig. 4, which have since been quite generally employed.

Zimmerman (1889), acting on the suggestion of Boas, exhib-
ited a reconstruction of a 7 mm. human embryo showing a ves-
sel, not previously described, between the fourth and pulmonic
arches ; it was described as being about as large as the fourth arch
and opening into that arch at both ends. Later the same year
he found indications of such a vessel in an incomplete series of a
sheep embryo and a complete vessel in a rabbit of the eleventh
day, in the latter the vessel ran from the truncus arteriosus to
the aortic root.

Tandler (1902) made a study of rat and human embryos; in the
former he found irregular vascular buds and in the latter, in
two embryos, a vessel running from the truncus arteriosus to the
aortic arch. He said, page 341:

Da wir aber bei der Ratte so gut wie bei allen andern Sadugern einen
funften Arterienbogen postuliren miussen, glaubte ich mich berechtigt
diese Verbindung als ein Analogie des fiinften Bogens anzusehen, und
dieses um so mehr als ja der ftinfte Aortenbogen bezugleich Ursprung und
Verlauf bei den einzelen Species, ja bei den einzelen Embryonen, beispiel-
weise beim Menschen, different zu sein scheint. ... Die Annahme, dass
es sich hier um eine eigenthumliche Form eines fiinften Bogens handelt
gewennt’ meiner meinung nach um so mehr an warscheinlichkeit, als ja

dieser Bogen nicht nur sehr frith verschwindet, sondern sich auch sehr
spat bildet.

Lehmann (1905) in a study of the pig and rabbit found in the
former a vessel connecting the fourth and pulmonic arches and
joined with the aortic root.

Locy (1906) reviewed the evidence in favor of a fifth arch but
stated no positive conclusions although he was inclined to favor
_ the idea of a true arch.

Soulie and Bonne (1908) studied the mole and found a vessel
connecting the truncus arteriosus with the pulmonary arch; they
were very insistent in the claim of a true fifth arch and called at-
tention to the exact resemblance to the present condition in
selachians. They explained the development of the vessel after
the pulmonary arch on the ground of the physiological impor-
tance of the latter.

236

Arterial Anomalies 9

Reagan (1912) studied the pig and found numerous anasto-
moses in the region between the fourth and pulmonic arches.
He concluded that “A fifth vessel, very closely approximating a
theoretically perfect aortic arch, can be demonstrated for the pig.”

Coulter (1909) worked on the cat and found rudimentary ves-
sels below the fourth arch and concluded that a complete fifth
arch develops in the cat.

Lewis (1903) was the first to question the fifth arch. He
called attention to the irregular condition of the vessels between
the fourth and fifth arches and concluded: “ The irregular small
arteries around the fourth entodermal pouch do not, as Zimmer-
man believed, form a distinct aortic arch.” Later (1905), he
made reconstructions of the arches, together with the pouches in
the rabbit, and showed not only a great irregularity of the vas-
cular elements but that there was not sufficient evidence of a
fifth entodermal pouch to warrant the claims of six arches, and
that the question of the homology of the arch from which the
pulmonary artery sprung was, in mammals, still an unsettled one.

In the light of recent work on the early vessels of the embryo
it is not sufficient simply to find a vessel to prove the existence of
a fifth arch. From my study of rabbits and the negative evi-
dence which the collected variations furnish, I am inclined to
accept Dr. Lewis’s conclusions. The problem has been particu-
larly covered recently by Bremer (1912), who says:

While not wishing to go too deeply into the controversy on the presence
or absence of a sixth aortic arch, I may say that it seems to me that the
solution should come from further study of the entodermal pouches, of
the branches of the nerves and the cartilages of the region. ... As far
as the early development of the vessels is concerned there is nothing cer-
tainly to prove the presence of an interpolated arch.

Quite recently new interest has been given the pulmonary arch
and arteries. If the pulmonic vessel is a true arch it has under-
gone great modification and its interpretation is not as simple as
had been supposed. Reagan (1912) says that both the pre-pul-
monic caecum and the pulmonic vessel “seem to have been greatly
modified, if they ever resembled closely the parts anterior which
have generally been considered their homologues.” Of the pul-

237

10 C. W. M. Poynter

monic arch, Bremer (1912) says: “In the strictest sense the arch
extends only from the dorsal aorta to the pulmonary artery; the
ventral part of the vessel usually called the arch is really the
ventral aorta.”

The development of the pulmonary arteries is readily under-
stood by reference to Bremer’s work (1902-6) which shows that
Rathke’s error was due to a failure to study the early develop-
ment of the vessels, the condition which he figured being a later
stage; see figs. 3 and 5. The arteries in the earlier stages de-
velop one on each side and shift to the left with the growth and
torsion of the truncus pulmonis about the bulbus aortae.

The subclavian arteries already referred to, fig. 3, Rathke
(1857) considered arose as figured and arrived at the adult con-
dition by a shift of the arch and a coalescence of the roots of the
subclavian and carotid. This explanation was accepted till 1888
when Mackay presented a study of the subclavians in the chick.
This was followed by the work of Hochstetter (1890), Goeppert
(1908) and Evans (1909) for mammals, which established the
origin of these arteries from a number of segmental arteries, vari-
able in number, from the dorsal aorta. This work agrees with
or explains the variations of the subclavians so frequently en-
countered. Figs. 5 and 8 illustrate the possibilities of origin of
these arteries.

We are indebted to Hochstetter (1890) and to its further
elaboration by Kemmetmuller (1911) for the correct interpreta-
tion of the origin of the vertebral arteries. Fig. 6 illustrates
diagrammatically the origin of these arteries and their possible
variations.

I have reviewed the embryonal history of these vessels in order
to establish a basis for classification and explanation of the varia-
tions which are to follow. While we are not directly interested
in the earliest stages of the bloodvessels, all of the recent work
has shown that many vessels are preceded by plexus formation,
though not to the extent suggested by Baader, and this fact may
account in a few cases for the formation of unusual anomalies
which do not seem to belong to the general classifications.

228

<

Arterial Anomalies II

SVE COMPARATIVE "ANATOMY:

As already intimated, early observers were impressed with the
resemblance of certain variations encountered in man to condi-
tions which were type forms for the lower animals and this led
to early group classification of these anomalies according to the
arrangement of the trunks which sprung from the aortic arch.
While many of the variations may be explained by the figures de-
veloped in the preceding section, there are others relating par-
ticularly to the arch which cannot be so explained. Among mam-
mals in which the same primary arrangement of arches occurs and
in which the same parts of the arches atrophy a difference in
tvpes is found. For the sake of brevity we will speak here only
of the general principles and leave details of type for the later
sections.

Turner (1862) believed that the modification of the early ves-
sels brought about by the movement of the heart into the thorax
was responsible for the various forms encountered. While more
recent embryological observations have more fully explained the
definitive arches and subclavians and have confirmed the migra-
tion of the heart, they have failed to detect differences in migra-
tion or other factors which would explain the various types ex-
tant. Dr. Owen (1868) suggested that the best service of the
body economy would determine the type, but in the light of re-
cent biological studies we must look for a more tangible factor.
Many exhaustive observations have been carried out in attempts
te throw light on the subject but it will not be profitable to con-
sider them here for they simply furnish morphological data.

It seems to me that the point of particular interest to us in this
study is the relation of human variation, if any, to type forms in
the lower animals and the significance of variation per se. An
idea which has been most popular is that the type of chest shape
and the degree of descent of the heart are determining factors of
the normal. Observation has failed so far to establish a rela-
tion between chest shape and the anomalous arrangement of the
branches of the arch, possibly because it is of a transient charac-
ter. As to the significance of an animal type in man we may

ZO)

12 C. W. M. Poynter

quote Keith (1895): “It is doubtful if one can legitimately con-
strue this . . . as an atavistic tendency ; more probably it has no
more morphological worth than the degree of interdigital web-
bing.” )

Parsons (1902) has made an exhaustive comparative study and
as a result of this thinks Keith is not warranted in drawing the
above conclusion from the data available. He very strongly
favors the idea that the comparative breadth or narrowness of
the upper opening of the thorax is the chief determining factor in
the arrangement of the trunks springing from the aorta. In re-
spect to variations from the normal types among lower animals,
all observers are agreed that they are unusual; from this fact he
concludes: “These human anomalies are quite new and tentative
attempts to meet some changed condition in man as progressive
variations which may or may not become more common as time
goes on.”

For the sake of comparative interest in taking up the various
classes of anomalies the animals having a similar condition as
normal will be listed.

$V

I, IRREGULARITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUNCUS COM-
MUNIS ARTERIOSUS

The irregularities in this section will involve structures which
belong in development to the heart, but I have chosen to consider
them with the arteries because such cases are generally reported
with vascular anomalies and because division from a purely de-
velopmental standpoint is impracticable. The close association of
this, or, more properly, these structures, with the general develop-
ment of the heart is suggested by the fact that in almost all of
these cases of anomalous development there are associated car-
diac defects, the most frequent of these is incomplete interven-
tricular septum. Later it will be necessary to review briefly the
development of these structures when associated heart defects
will be referred to in detail.

240

SS SSS aa

Arterial Anomalies 13

A. Absence or Imperfect Development of the Aortico-Pulmonary
Septum

Irregularities in the development of the proximal portion of
the aorta and the pulmonary arteries can only be appreciated by
comparison with the various embryonal stages. As briefly re-
viewed on page 10 the process of development of the aortico-pul-
monary septum is seen to be a complicated one and probably it is
dependent on many factors. That some of these are coupled with
the development of the heart there can be no doubt; this is sug-
gested by the fact that in case of absence of the septum (per-
sistent truncus communis) the ventricular septum is frequently
rudimentary and is always defective at the base. The common
trunk may open from the right side of the common ventricle as in
an early stage of development or when the heart is well developed
it may open from both ventricles over the defect in the interven-
tricular septum. When the aortico-pulmonary septum is entirely
absent the common trunk gives off the two pulmonary arteries
separately from its lateral or dorsal wall and continues as the
normal ascending aorta; see fig. 5. The common trunk is gen-
erally considered as the homologue of the aorta and the case is
referred to as lacking a pulmonary artery, but this is incorrect
if we are dealing with a truncus arteriosus in which the septum
has failed to develop. It is the structure from which both the
aorta and pulmonary arteries are differentiated and consequently
represents both in an imperfect state of development. If there
is no other defect in the region but the absence of a septum the
pulmonary arteries will be given off one on each side of the com-
mon trunk. This condition is extremely rare, Keith (1909).

The septum may begin to develop normally, then be arrested ;
in such cases a truncus communis arises from the heart, then
divides into an aorta and pulmonary trunk, Clarke (1885). The
septum may be present but defective ; in Rokitansky’s case (1875)
the external appearance was very much like that of the case just
cited, but a remnant of septum was present in the common trunk.
If the factors producing the anomaly have only a minor influence,

241

14 C. W. M. Poynter

they will be indicated by a communication between normally dif-
ferentiated arteries, Hektoen (1905).

Not all cases of a single trunk from the heart belong to this
class of irregularities. The cases of Farre (1814) and Foster
(1846), Vierordt thinks, are cases of atresia of the aorta; atresia
of the pulmonary artery will be discussed on page 14. Since
these cases seem to represent arrest of development of the aortico-
pulmonary septum and are in a measure independent of the
accompanying cardiac defects I have classed them together.

The following represent all of the degrees of the anomaly in-
cluded in section I, A:

Wilson (1798), Standert (1805), Lawrence (1814), Meckel (1816),
Tiedemann (1825), Breschet (1826), Martin (1826), Mayer (1827), Blum-
hardt (1834), Crisp (1847), Dubrueil (1847), Clark & Owen (1848), Toyn-
bee (1849), Hale (1850), Chevers (1851), Deutsch (1851), Hyernaux
(1851), Pozzi (Chevers 1851), Vernon (1856), Bernard (1860), Wilks
(1860), Turner (1862), Fraentzel (1868), Hickman (1869), Messenger
(1873), Rokitansky (1875), Baginsky (1879), Crocker (1879), two cases,
Caesar (1880), Peacock & Reed (1880), Rickards (1881), Grant (1883),
Berrand, Barry & Rachet (1884), Brewer (1885), Brocq (1885), Clarke
(1885), Barbillon (1886), Ziegenspeck (1888), Muhr (1889), Pryor (1889),
d’Renzi (1889), Klipstein (1890), Charrin & Le Noir (1891), Girard
(1895), Gallois (1896), Cade (1897), Cazin (1897), Petschel (1897), Ci-
vatti (1900), Orlowski (1902), Gutkind (1903), Lefas (1904), Rispal &
Bay (1904), Keith (1909), Wenner (1909), Dickson & Fraser (1914).

B. Atresia of the Pulmonary Artery Usually Accompanied by
Perforate Septum Ventriculare or Patent Ductus Arteriosus

Perhaps no form of cardio-vascular defect is more familiar to
the general student than pulmonary stenosis, on account of its
comparative frequency and marked clinical manifestations. It
has been exhaustively studied by Kussmaul (1865), Rauchfuss
(1878) and Vierordt (1898), consequently I will not review the
large literature but will confine this classification to the cases in
which the pulmonary artery is not functional.

In the cases of atresia of the pulmonary artery, as in other
anomalies, different degrees of the defective development are to
be found; 7. e., all of the variations from a normal artery with ob-

242

Arterial Anomalies 15

literation of its cardiac opening to a slender fibrous cord in the
normal position of the artery. It seems questionable however
whether the same factors have always been operative in produc-
ing these two extremes; see fig. 35.

The case of Weiss (1875) is interesting as representing atresia
in the conus, the pulmonary valves were present and the artery
otherwise normal. The most frequent site of obliteration is a
narrow band completely constricting the lumen of the vessel in
the wall of the ventricle; it may however extend for a variable
distance on the arterial trunk. When the artery is represented by
a fibrous cord the aorta is usually very large and by its position,
opening over both ventricles, suggests an unequal division of the
truncus arteriosus by an anomalously placed aortico-pulmonary
septum rather than a degenerative process or arrest of develop-
ment of the pulmonary artery after it has been differentiated.
The theory that the condition is due to a foetal endocarditis is
generally giving place to the opinion that a developmental dis-
turbance is the causative factor.

This anomaly is in the majority of cases coupled with defec-
tive development of the septum ventriculare. Rauchfuss only
knew of fourteen cases in which the septum was complete and six
of these were his own. It is interesting to speculate on the rela-
tion between the two conditions and I am inclined to think from
the evidence at hand that the obliteration of the pulmonary artery
is the primary condition and that the failure of the ventricular
septum to close, like the persistence of the ductus arteriosus, is
in the nature of adaptation. The pulmonary circulation is usually
carried on through a patent ductus arteriosus but in rare instances
this closes normally when the bronchial arteries enlarge and as-
sume the added function, Meckel (1816). This is one of the
most remarkable examples of structural adaptation that has been
recorded.

Fig. 33 isan example of the usual appearance of the anomaly
and the following cases are illustrative of its varying degrees.

Fleischmann (1815), Breschet (1826), Cerutti (1827), Mauran (1827),

Lediberder (1836), Laurence (1837), Mansfeld (1843), Chevers (1846),
Peacock (1848), Wallis (1850), Bednar (1852), Clar (1857), Marey

243

16 C. W. M. Poynter

(1857), Meyer (1857), Sturock (1859), Hervieux (1861), Rauchfuss
(1864), Arnold (1868), Vulpian (1868), Semple (1870), Peacock for
Royds (1870b), Peacock (1871), Peacock (1874), Heineman (1878),
Crocker (1879), Schrotter & Chiari (1879), Luneau (1880), Stifel (1880),
Cronk (1881), Turner (1883), Ashby (1884), Hayward (1884), Leo
(1886), McKee (1887), Habershon (1888), Murray (1888), Northrup
(1888), Bingham (1889), Wagner (1889), Griffith (1891), Moore (1892),
Burgess (1893), Probyn-Williams (1894), Grothe (1898), Lowenthal
(1900), Thomson & Drummond (1900), Champeter & Carton (1903),
Schreiber (1903), Cohn (1904), McCrae (1906), Keith (1909), Hebb
(1913), Milland (1914). ;

C. Transposition of the Aorta and Pulmonary Artery

Abnormal positions of the great vessels coming from the heart
have generally been discussed under the head of “transposition
of the aorta and pulmonary artery” and reported cases are gen-
erally found in connection with accounts of congenitally defec-
tive hearts. Transposition, like the conditions considered in the
preceding sections, seems to bear a very close relation to cardiac
development and is most frequently found in conjunction with
defective septum ventriculare.

It is not necessary to develop the subject in detail, for the
work of Rokitansky (1875) still stands, in spite of recent contri-
butions to the history of development, as the most lucid and com-
plete discussion of the subject that has been made. Although the
anomaly belongs in part developmentally to the heart, it is in-
cluded in this study because it is generally reported as an ar-
terial variation. In order to classify the types of the anomaly in
harmony with recent discoveries it will be necessary to review
the points of development and the theories advanced concerning
the etiology of the condition.

The more recent investigations have shown that the bulbus
cordis of more primitive forms is represented in the mammalian
heart, Greil (1903), early forming part of the anterior limb of
the heart; then it is absorbed partly into what becomes later the
right ventricle and partly into the truncus arteriosus. The elon-
gated truncus arteriosus becomes differentiated into the aorta and
pulmonary artery through the aortico-pulmonary septum, which

244

Arterial Anomalies 17

appears at the cephalic end of the truncus and grows proximally
to unite with the distal and proximal bulbar swellings and finally
its interventricular border is attached to the interventricular sep-
tum, while dorsally it probably assists in forming the pars mem-
branacea septi. During this complicated process of division of
the elongated truncus the aortico-pulmonary septum describes a
spiral in a clock-wise direction of about 135 degrees. In lower
forms (Lepidosiren) this spiral is carried for 270 degrees, Rob-
ertson (1913), p. 195. Distally the septum extends laterally, di-
viding the truncus into a dorsal (pulmonary) and ventral (aorta)
compartment, fig. 18 I. Proximally the rotation of the septum
through 135 degrees has changed the relations so that the dorsal
compartment is the aorta and the ventral compartment is the pul-
monary artery, fig. 18 Il. Through the rotation of the ventricu-
lar cardiac loop which has been going on while this process is be-
ing completed in the truncus, by the time the aorta and pulmonary
artery have become independent vessels they have established
definite relations with the left and right ventricles, fig. 18 III.
We may consider this region as made up of four separate ele-
ments, viz., truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, ventricular limb
and arterial limb.

The normal movements of rotation during development may be
reversed, that is rotation may be counter clock-wise. When all
the viscera share in this condition it is known as situs viscerum
transversus. More than three hundred cases have been reported
and an analysis of them shows that many are in every respect
normal aside from the fact that the viscera and their arrange-
ment is a mirror picture of the normal, Gruber (1865). What
factors are operative in the production of situs viscerum trans-
versus is not known. v. Baer described a chick which had ro-
tated in the reverse direction and suggested that this might be
the cause of the condition. Thomson (1830) accepted this
theory, but it is wanting in proof. I have very carefully recon-
structed the viscera of such an embryo which I have in my col-
lection and find that in this specimen all structures are normal in
position and development. Another theory which has been ad-
vanced by several authors, Virchow (1861), is that situs trans-

245

18 C. W. M. Poynter

versus is the result of mechanical influences acting through
the persistence of the right-sided umbilical and omphalomesen-
teric veins. Dareste (1877) and Fol & Warynski (1881) have
produced the condition experimentally, but have added little to
our knowledge of its etiology. The orderly reversal of struc-
tures in true situs transversus does not always occur, Lochte
(1894) having collected thirteen cases in which only part of the
viscera had rotated in the wrong direction.

It has long been recognized that the heart may be transposed
while the abdominal viscera and the lungs are normal. This con-
dition is known as dextrocardia. A review of the literature
shows that observers have no clear idea of this congenital condi-
tion, for cases of pathologically displaced hearts are frequently
reported under this head and clinical diagnoses are frequently
made notwithstanding the fact that the condition is extremely
rare.

Both in cases of situs viscerum transversus and dextrocardia
alone the heart and great vessels may show anomalies similar to,
1. €., mirror pictures of, those encountered in individuals who are
normal except for the defect in question. It follows that the
anlage of the heart not only does not always follow the other
structures either in situs solitus or situs transversus but that one
loop may be normal and one or both of the other loops trans-
posed. Lochte (1898) formulated the general conclusion, “ Jede
korregierte Transposition bei situs solitus ist einfache Transposi-
tion bei situs transversus.”

The cases of situs viscerum transversus are too numerous to
burden this report with their repetition, but I have included the
following cases of dextrocardia for the benefit of those who may
be interested in their more careful study.

Eschenbach (1769), Abernethy (1793), Otto (1816) 2 cases, Breschet
(1826) 2 cases, Meckel (1826), Otto (1829), Jasinski (1861), Falck (1877),
Kriezer (1880), Pope (1882), Kundrat (1888), Grunmach (1890), Graan-
boom (1891), Lochte (1894), Paltauf (1901), Nagel (1909), Geissler
(1911).

As has been shown, we cannot consider the anomalous position
of the great vessels independently of the heart, and before we

246

a

Arterial Anomalies 19

can attempt to classify them we must understand the theories
that have been advanced accounting for their production. Ro-
kitansky (1875) believed that if the concavity of the aortico-pul-
monary septum be reversed the relative position of the aorta and
pulmonary arteries would be reversed. Since the septum is mov-
able all degrees of such deviation could occur. He described and
figured sixteen different forms of transposition which he believed
could occur, due to different degrees and combinations of devia-
tion and nonunion of the aortico-pulmonary septum and the sep-
tum interventriculare. In the light of recent work, Robertson
(1913), there are inconsistencies in his figures which in a meas-
ure destroy the classification. Also he considers a ventricle, even
when furnished with a bicuspid valve, as right, so long as it occu-
pies a position to the right of the other ventricle. This method
of interpreting ventricles leads to some confusion which may be
avoided if we identify the ventricles as bicuspid and tricuspid
ventricles.

Keith (1909) suggested that the atrophy of the bulbus cordis
around the pulmonary artery is responsible for transposition.
He, however, was apparently unaware of the function and de-
velopment of the spiral valve in the dipnoan heart which carries
the rotation two hundred and seventy degrees and would there-
fore reverse the position of the aorta and pulmonary artery and
accordingly vitiates his theory and spoils his diagram (Robert-
son 1913).

Robertson concluded from a study of the lower forms that
“Tf the bulbus cordis develops as a short straight tube without
any disparity in the length of the walls of its middle segment, no
torsion of the vessels, that is the aortico-pulmonary septum, will
take place, the middle part of the bulbus cordis where it should
occur being so to speak wiped out.” Since the position of the
great vessels is determined by the position of the proximal bulbar
ridges and these, theoretically, may occupy any position, the aortic
and pulmonary orifices may be found with the aorta in front of
the pulmonary artery and rotating clock-wise at any point in an
arc of 270 degrees, or rotating counter clock-wise at any point in
a similar arc the pulmonary orifice may be rotated about the aorta.

247

20 C. W. M. Poynter

Less than normal torsion, that is a rotation of the pulmonary to
the left about the aorta through an arc of 90 degrees, may occur
with no physiological disturbance, for the ventricular loop adapts
itself to the slight abnormality and the structures as a whole de-
velop along normal lines. Such a condition is easily overlooked
and is only important as illustrating a stage of more extreme
conditions. Robertson (1913a@) has reported four such cases and
I have observed the condition in a foetus with rachischisis.

More than normal torsion, that is the. pulmonary artery occu-
pying a position in front and to the right of the aorta, is also likely
to be overlooked and will not disturb the general development.
The condition is perhaps most interesting as suggesting the rep-
tilian condition. The case of Crocker (1880) is illustrative.

All of this type of anomalies encountered cannot be explained
by the torsion of the septum, and to account for these Lochte
(1898) has suggested that the ventricular loop may twist nor-
mally or the reverse independently of the other parts of the
heart. What factors determine the direction which the ventricu-
lar limbs will take are unknown, but it seems reasonable to sup-
pose that they might take a reverse direction without affecting
the rest of the heart.

Lewis (1915) has accepted this theory and by modeling the
heart with the ventricular loop in reverse rotation has shown that
such development is possible. Lochte (1898) carries the theory
farther and supposes that a left-to-right twist of the left around the
left deviation of the interventricular septum, may occur and bring
about a transposition of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves.

To make a classification we may consider the truncus arteri-
osus, aortico-pulmonary septum, and ventricular loop acting in-
dependently. The truncus, leaving out intermediate positions,
may assume three positions: (@) nonrotation (transposition) ;
(b) rotation to the right (situs transversus) ; (c) rotation to the
left (normal). The ventricular loop may rotate normally or the
reverse, situs transversus. This will give six possible positions
or combinations, of which one is the normal and another is the
mirror of the normal or situs transversus. Of the four remain-
ing combinations two may be discarded, since they are physiolog-

248

Arterial Anomalies 21

ically normal, Crocker (1879) ; they are represented in figs. 22
and 23.

The two remaining combinations are generally known as trans-
position of the aorta and pulmonary artery; they may be de-
scribed as follows:

t. A failure of rotation of the aortico-pulmonary septum in a
heart in which the ventricular loop has rotated normally. The
aorta is situated in front of the pulmonary artery and opens
from a tricuspid ventricle. This is the most frequent form of
transposition, fig. 20.

2. A failure of rotation of the aortico-pulmonary septum in
a heart in which the ventricular loop has rotated in the reverse di-
rection. The aorta is situated in front of the pulmonary artery
and opens from a tricuspid ventricle. The condition is the mir-
ror picture of “1” and might be found in a case of situs viscerum
transversus. For explanation see fig. 21.

3. A group of cases which do not fall in either “1” or “2”
have been encountered. The aorta is in front of the pulmonary
artery and opens from a bicuspid ventricle. The condition is
very unusual and I know of no theory to account for the anomaly
which does not present great difficulties. I have offered the
theory of Lochte, which Wenner (1909) thinks is satisfactory,
as presenting the most logical explanation; see fig. 24.

The following illustrative cases are arranged according to the
classification just given for transposition:

Transposition, Class A: Langstaff (1811), Baillie (1812), Farre (1814),
Lawrence (1814), Meckel (1816), Otto (1816), Wolf (Ref. Kreysig 1817),
Kreysig (1817), Nasse (1821), Miller (1822), d’Alton (1824), Burkart
(1825), Tiedemann (1825), Breschet (1826), Bock (Ref. Cerutti 1827),
Holst (1836), Martin (1839), Ducrest (1840), Ewen (1840), Friedberg
(1844), King (1844), Beck (1846), Parker (1847), Jackson (1849), Parker
(1849), Johnson (1851), Ward (1851), Keil (1854), Peacock (1855), Meyer
(1857), Reynolds (1857), Hervieux (1861), Cockle (1863), Libert (1863),
Meigs (1867), Arnold (1868), Frankel (1870), Kelly (1871), Pye-Smith
(1872), Ogston (1874), Barlow (1876), Maier (1876), Elliot €1877), Jane-
way (1877), Martin (1877), Babesiu (1879), Chiari (1879), Mackenzi
(1879), Mazzotti (1879), Lees (1880), Ashby (1881), Kleinschmidt (188r),.
Peacock (1881), Talini (1881), Bianchi (1882), v. Etlinger (1882), Holl
(1882), Peacock (1882), Pope (1882), Scott (1882), Crocker (1883),

249

22 C. W. M. Poynter.

Gelpke (1883), Marchand (1883), Turner (1883), Combes & Christopher-
son (1884), v. Maschka (1884), Shattuck (1884), Toennies (1884), Tooth
(1884), Bull (1885), Durozier (1885), Epstein (1886), Bury (1887),
Harris (1887), Schrotter (1887), Fussell (1888), Birmingham (1889),
Gampert (1889), Miura (1889), de Renzi (1889), Revilliod (1889), Audry
& Lecroix (1890), Dorning (1890), Hebb (1890), Hochsinger (1891),
Mirinescu (1893), Saunders (1893), Lochte (1894), Bonne (1895),
Thérémén (1895), Litten (1896), Monod (1896), Rheiner (1896), Valenti
& Pisenti (1896), Reifschlager (1897), Rolleston (1897), Freyberger
(1898), Ramm (1899), Rolly (1890), Meinertz (1901), Peters (1901),
Champeter & Carton (1903), Cowan & Ferguson (1903), Brain (1905),
Chartier (1905), Ellis (1905), McCrae (1905), Apert & Brézaud (1906),
Emanuel (1906), Young (1907), Keith (1909), Marchand (1909), Wenner
(1909), Robertson (1911), Variot & Moranci (1911), Sato (1914).

Class B: Gamage (1818), Hickman (1869), Schrotter (1870), Graan-
boom (1891), Griffith (1891), Birmingham (1892), Stokes (1909), Wenner
(1909).

Class C: Walshe (1842), Stoltz (1851), Gut'wasser (1870), Pye-Smith
(1872), Rokitansky (1875), Rauchfuss (1878), Toennies (1884), Mann
(1889), Grunmach (1890), Lochte (1898), Thiele (1902), Wenner (1909).

§ VI

II. IRREGULARITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AORTIC AND
PULMONIC ARCHES AND THE ROOTS CONNECTING THEM

I have already outlined in a preceding section the growth of
our knowledge concerning the development of the aortic arches.
From this we see how slowly a clear understanding of the in-
tricate steps of development has been reached, and it is not there-
fore surprising that the anomalies encountered in this region were
not sooner explained and classified. One of the most important
steps in clearing up these cases was the paper by Wood (1859)
showing the developmental process in the production of the ab-
normality of a right subclavian artery as the last branch of the
AOI, GSS ile, 12).

Turner (1862) collected many cases of irregularity and classi-
fied them according to the developmental error. Thomson
(1863) criticized Turner for not sufficiently emphasizing by clas-
sification the difference between simple cases of right aortic arch

250

Arterial Anomalies Be

and those associated with inversion of the heart. He offered a
substitute classification which is in many respects less satisfactory
than the one criticized. Krause (1868) added many cases to
those reported by Turner and presented a somewhat different ar-
rangement of them.

A review of all that has been offered in the literature concern-
ing the proper arrangement of the abnormalities under considera-
tion tends to impress one with the fact that no single classification
will meet all requirements. I do not offer this arrangement as
an improvement on what has gone before, but as the simplest
method of presenting the material collected. A few cases in
which there is marked disagreement from the explanation of the
monographs cited above will be discussed, but minor differences
will not be referred to, because of lack of space and not because
they have been overlooked.

A. Persistence of One or Both Pulmonary Arches

, Abnormalities in the development of the pulmonary arches are
rare, except the condition of persistence of the ductus arteriosus.
This may be accounted for by supposing that this arch develops
after the factors which produce the anomalies we have been con-
sidering have ceased to be operative. Bremer (1908) has shown
that the truncus pulmonis absorbs a part of the pulmonary arches,
so that the left pulmonary artery springs from the truncus while
the right pulmonary artery represents in its proximal portion a
part of the right pulmonary arch. This point should be kept in
mind in interpreting cases of absence of the aortico-pulmonary
septum like that of Clarke (1885).

Persistence of both pulmonary arches is very rare; the only
cases with which I am familiar are those of Breschet (1826) and
Peacock (1868). In the former the aortic arch was normal, the
common pulmonary artery short and from its left branch the
ductus arteriosus extended in the usual way. From the right
branch of the pulmonary artery a slender artery extended upward
to the right, joining the subclavian artery in its proximal portion.

251

24 C. W. M. Poynter

In the latter case the development is not so regular; Breschet’s
case is illustrated in fig. 30.

Persistence of the right arch with atrophy of the left (ductus
arteriosus) is not so unusual as persistence of both arches.
When the development of the vascular arches is otherwise nor-
mal a right pulmonic arch (ductus arteriosus) may persist; it
would seem that if the normal developmental relations are main-
tained it should join the proximal portion of the subclavian and
represent in its distal part a segment of the right dorsal aorta.
This would correspond to the position on the left or the position
it occupies in cases of right arch persisting, Abernethy (1793) ;
however in the cases of Gruber (1846), Jackson (1875) and Hil-
drith (1880) the vessel joins the innominate just before its divi-
sion. The explanation of this condition presents some difficul-
ties especially in the light of other anomalies of the arch.

A right arch persists occasionally in cases of right aortic arch,
although this is not the rule: Abernethy (1793), Breschet (1826),
Otto (1824), Ollivier (1861), Quain 1844) and Lockwood
(1884). In these cases it passes from the right pulmonary to
the aorta at a point below the origin of the right subclavian. In
cases of situs viscerum transversus the left arch usually persists
at least till birth, but in the cases of Arnold (1868) and Griffith
(1891) the development of the right arch obtained as in the cases
of right aortic arch above.

Persistence of the left arch to the time of birth and its later
obliteration was known to Galen and its place in the foetal cir-
culation was described by Harvey. The persistence of the arch,
ductus arteriosus Botalli, is not a rare anomaly and it is fre-
quently combined with other developmental defects, having to do
particularly with the circulation of the lungs.

The cause of this anomaly has been sought indirectly in en-
deavoring to discover the process which produces normal occlu-
sion. Two main factors have been suggested as responsible for
the obliteration of the ductus arteriosus: (a) lowering of the
blood pressure in the ductus after birth and (0) the difference in
the histological structure in the ductus and the connecting blood-
vessels. Recently Faber (1912) concluded that the obliteration

2152

Arterial Anomalies 25

is due to stretching; this stretching occurs through the force of
the left pulmonary artery being filled with blood. Stienon (1912)
recognized the changed relations dependent on the establishment
of the pulmonary circulation but thought that the ductus also be-
comes compressed by the expanding left lung.

Taking into consideration then the three theories of closure,
1, €., decreased blood pressure, absence of muscular fibers in the
wall of the ductus and mechanical influences, a study of the cases
in which the ductus remains open would suggest that more fre-
quently a condition of pressure in the vessels, similar to that exist-
ing before birth, is the most important element although no doubt
the other factors, or rather the disturbance of their action, may
have an influence.

As indicated above the factors producing situs transversus and
right aortic arch seem to have little influence on the development
of the pulmonic arch and in these conditions when the ductus per-
sists it may join the descending aorta, Dubrueil (1847), Chartier
(1905 ),—or it may open into the left subclavian when that vesset
is the last branch of the arch. This condition should not be con-
fused with double aortic arch, for in both there is a vascular ring
about the trachea and esophagus.

The following cases illustrate the union of the ductus with the
left subclavian artery when it is the last branch of the arch:

Klinkosch (1766), Cailliot (1807), Obet (1808), Bernhard (1818), Her-
mann (1830), Ewen (1840), Greig (1852), Fick (1854), Tiingel (1862),
Broader (1866), Cameron (1871), Combes & Christopherson (1884), Lane
(1887), Riche (1897), Garnier & Villemin (1909).

Persistence of the left arch, ductus arteriosus Botalli, is not a
wide departure from the normal and cases with or without other
developmental anomalies in conjunction are numerous. Varia-
tion in the position of the distal end presents a point of some in-
terest. Normally during development when the arch is formed
it is joined to the dorsal aorta at a point slightly above the defini-
tive subclavian artery; later in the adjustment of parts it is fre-
quently found below the subclavian origin. It would seem thai
there has been a disturbance of the normal shifting process in
those cases in which the ductus joins the subclavian artery instead

253

26 CV Vie View ovninen,

of the aorta, Reinemann (1754), Breschet (1826), Quain (1844),
PIN, tien 2): seemien 2osbochdaleki@rso7)r

A still more interesting variation is that in which the left sub-
clavian artery is the continuation of the ductus and is entirely
separated from the aorta, Helst (1832) and Hildebrand (1842).
These cases have been incorrectly classed with that of Osler
(1880) and others, see page 40, which have a very different basis
for their formation.

Strassmann (1894) has very fully reviewed the subject of the
patency of the ductus arteriosus, so it will not be necessary for
me to review it farther, since no new details have been encoun-
Wane,” SSS IS, A7, Ad, 20, Be ehaval Vl,

The following references will illustrate the various conditions
under which persistent ductus arteriosus is found and will sug-
gest the frequency of occurrence:

Obet (1808), Langstaff (1811), Baillie (1812), Cailliot (1812), Farre
(1814), Meckel (1816), Kreysig (1817), Tiedemann (1825), Breschet
(1826), Bock (Cerutti 1827), Mauran (1827), Holst (1832), Chassenat
(1836), Walshe (1842), Quain (1844), Beck (1846), Gruber (1846), Bab-
ington (1847), Chevers (1847), Crisp (1847), Peacock (1847), Bernutz
(1849), Chevers (1851), Johnson (1851), Ward (1851), Hale (1852),
Rokitansky (1852), Keil (1854), Willigk (1854), Luys (1855), Clar (1857),
Langer (1857), Meyer (1857), Sturock (1859), Pannard (1860), Her-
vieux (1861), Ollivier (1861), Almagro (1862), Duroziez (1862), d’Bary
(1864), Rokitansky (1864), Schnitzler (1864), Ramsbotham (1865), Ger-
hardt (1867), Glas (1867), Arnold (1868), Walkhoff (1869), Peacock
(1870), Semple (1870), Cameron (1871), Pye-Smith (1872), Fagge (1873),
Jackson (1875), Martin (1877), Walsham (1877), Franck (1878), Allen
(1879), Peacock & Reed (1880), Hildrith (1880), Lees (1880), Luneau
(1880), Malherbe (1880), O’Sullivan (1880), Ingendahl (1881), v. Et-
linger (1882), Holl (1882), Scott (1882), Abercrombie (1883), Thoma
(1883), Ashby (1884), Berrand, Barry & Rachet (1884), Combes &
Christopherson (1884), Coupland (1884), Foulis (1884), Holt (1884),
Darier (1885), Vilon & Lévéque (1885), Barbillon (1886), Lane (1886),
Leo (1886), Fussell (1888), Habershon (1888), Murray (1888), Hopkins
(1889), Rickards (1889), Schanz (1889), Griffith (1891), Laffitte (1892),
Moore (1892), Boquel (1893), Hebb (1893), Hochhaus (1893), Saunders
(1893), Ferguson (1894), Haury (1894), Probyn-Williams (1894), Stembo
(1894), Frenkel (1806), Monod (1896), Siredey (1806), Cyon (1897),
Josefson (1897), Gérard (1899), Alfieri (1900), Gibson (1900), Thomson
& Drummond (1900), Ardissone (1902), Sidlauer (1902), Gutkind (1903),

254

Arterial Anomalies 27,

Scheffer (1903), Schreiber (1903), Letulle (1904), Chartier (1905), Apert
& Brézard (1906), Ellis (1906), Carpenter (1909), Weiss (1909), Wenner
(1909), Robertson (1911), Variot & Moranci (1911), Hayashi (1912),
Keith (1912), Gasquet (1913), Hebb (1913), Matzfeldt (1913), Milland
(1914).

The following cases are considered from the diagnostic standpoint
during life: Burghart (18098), Zinn (1808), Dressler (1902), Pfeifer
(1902), Starck (1902), Arnheim (1903), Bittorf (1903), Hochsinger
(1907), Wessler & Barss (1913).

B. Persistence of Both Fourth Arches

The persistence of the fourth right embryonal arch in conjunc-
tion with the left arch produces a peculiar and rare anomaly.
If there is a maintenance of the early embryonal condition, fig. 5,
the right, posterior, arch will pass over the right bronchus and
give origin to the right subclavian and carotid arteries; the left,
anterior, arch will be in somewhat near the normal position of
the aortic arch and will give origin to the left carotid and sub-
clavian arteries. The arches will join dorsally somewhat below
the attachment of the ductus arteriosus and will thus form a com-
plete vascular ring about the trachea and cesophagus.

The following cases may be classified under this head:

Hommel (1737), Biumi (1765), Malacarne (1784), Bertin (1824), Za-
gorsky (1824), v. Siebold (1836), Hyrtl (1841), Blandin (1842), Rendu
(1842), Jones (1846), Cruveilhier (1851), Thomson (1863), Watson
(1877), Shepherd (1880), McKee (1887), Heller (1904), Hamdi (1906),
Gladstone & Wakeley (1915).

The case of Malacarne is somewhat irregular, fig. 26, and diffi-
cult to explain. The internal and external carotids come from
the arch and probably represent an absence of the third arches.
Hommel’s case, fig. 27, seems to represent the typical condition.
The case reported by Zagorsky consists of an anterior arch which
is evidently the normal one and which gives origin to the in-
nominate trunk and the left common carotid. The posterior
trunk passes between the cesophagus and the trachea, giving off
the left subclavian before joining the descending aorta. It is dif-
ficult to understand how, if this right vessel is the right arch, it
reached the position in front of the cesophagus ; on the other hand

255

28 C. W. M. Poynter

to explain it as an aberrant vessel which through some need has
reached the proportions of an aorta is to rob any vascular anomaly
we do not understand of its embryonal significance and reaffirm
the theory of Baader. This case is in some respects similar to
that of Shepherd which is figured in the Hand Book of Medical
Sciences as fig. 292. In the latter case however we must inter-
pret the anomalous vessel as representing, in addition to the de-
scending aorta, one of the segmental vessels and its root.

Thomson reported a condition which, while not a true arch,
should be included in the classification as representing an inter-
mediate condition. In a case of right aortic arch a fibrous cord
occupied the position of the left descending aorta. A case re-
ferred to by Curnow (1875) is somewhat similar.

The case of Jones is very interesting as representing an arrest
of development at a very early stage for not only do both arches
persist but there are two dorsal aortae as well.

The description given by McKee is somewhat confusing, but it
seems to me that this case should be interpreted as a case of right
aortic arch, with anomalous blood supply to the lungs resulting
from obstruction of the pulmonary trunk.

C. Persistence of the Right Aortic Arch with Partial or Complete
Obliteration of the Left Fourth Arch

This condition is commonly spoken of as “right aortic arch”
from which it might be concluded that the normal process of de-
velopment is simply reversed on the two sides ; however an exam-
ination of the cases shows a number of different conditions which
fall into the following classes.

1. Persistence of the right arch, right dorsal aorta and left
arch with obliteration of the left dorsal aorta.

2. Persistence of right aortic arch, left ventral root and left
dorsal aorta with obliteration of the fourth dorsal root and arch
on the left.

3. Persistence of the right aortic arch, left aortic arch and left
dorsal aorta with obliteration of the left dorsal root.

256

Arterial Anomalies 29

4. Normal condition of the arches in a case of situs viscerum
transversus.

1. I have placed this type first because it would seem to be most
nearly a simple exchange of the two sides in the normal develop-
ment, fig. 9. The arch passes over the right bronchus and gives
off first the innominate, which passes to the left, dividing into
the left common carotid and the left subclavian, then the right
common carotid and the right subclavian. It continues down-
ward as the dorsal or descending aorta and sooner or later as-
sumes the normal position to the left of the bodies of the ver-
tebrae. This condition is usual in situs transversus but is occa-
sionally varied, Hickman (1869).

I have already shown, section II, A, that it is unusual in cases
of right arch, or situs transversus, to find the ductus or ligamen-
tum arteriosum on the right, from which we must conclude that
the developmental factors for the two arches, aortic and pulmo-
nary, are quite independent of each other or that the factors de-
termining the normal type for the pulmonary arch are less easily
influenced than the other. An examination of the ligamentum
arteriosum in these cases shows that there are two different dis-
positions of its distal end. In one type there is a dilation of the
aorta opposite the third or fourth dorsal vertebra, to which the
duct or ligament is attached. This dilation represents the vestige
of the left dorsal aorta, Thomson (1863), Dubrueil (1847), Plate
II, fig. 1. In the other type the ligament joins the left subclavian
a short distance from its origin, Bernhard (1818), copied by
Quain ’44 as Plate VII, fig. 3. In the latter type the proximal
portion of the subclavian represents the dorsal root of the left
fourth arch.

Examples of this class of right aortic arch are not numerous,
see fig. 29. I have been able to find only the following:

Cailliot (1807), Bernhard (1818), Breschet (1826), Cruveilhier (1831),
Quain (1844), Gruber (1846), Drubrueil (1847), Thomson (1863) 2 cases,
Turner (1883), Vincenzi (1886), Reid (1914).

2. This condition is found much more frequently than the pre-
ceding; its development is easily understood by referring to

257

30 C. W. M. Poynter

fig. 10. The arrangement of the branches from the arch is first
the left common carotid, the right common carotid, the right sub-
clavian and last the left subclavian artery. In that the left sub-
clavian is the last branch of the arch and represents in its proxi-
mal portion the left dorsal aorta, it presents a close analogy to
the condition of the right subclavian as the last branch, section II,
ID. it.

This anomaly is not nearly so frequent as the low right sub-
clavian, but when we compare it with the total number of right
arches it is seen to be the usual type of development. It would
seem that the tendency to develop is stronger in the left dorsal
aorta than the left fourth arch and that when disturbing factors
produce this irregularity they more readily affect the arch or
they act with greater force on the arch, and the persistence of the
right dorsal aorta may be looked upon as an arrest of the normal
atrophic process to compensate for the obliterated canal. In the
case of the low right subclavian, some disturbing factor causes
an obliteration of the fourth right arch when there is an arrest of
the normal atrophic process in the right dorsal aorta to com-
pensate for this obliteration of the canal and insure a circulation
to the extremity. If it is correct to view the two conditions in
this light the anomalies are similar in that in each case some fac-
tor or factors causes the obliteration of an arch which normally
develops and a compensating development of the right dorsal
aorta occurs, see figs. 28 and 32.

The following cases are representative of this type of anomaly:

Klinkosch (1766), Schleitz (1768), Fiorati (1786), Sandifort (1793),
Obet (1808), Meckel (1809), Meckel (1816), Otto (1824), Hermann
(1830) 2 cases, Pommer (1840), Hyrtl (1841), McWhinnie (Quain ’44),
Quain (1844) 3 cases, Ewen (1845), Tiedemann (1846), Paetruban (1848),
Greig (1852), Fick (1854), Meyer (1857), Schwegel (1859), Agliette
(Peacock ’60), Peacock (1860), Tiingel (1862), Turner (1862), Gruber
(1863) 2 cases, Broader (1866), Bochdalek (1867), Barkow (1869), Cam-
eron (1871), Watson (1877), Pertik (1880), Brenner (1883) 2 cases,
Combes-Christopherson (1884), Lockwood (1884), Dittrich (1886), Gott-
schau (1887), Lane (1887), Lockwood (1800), Herringham (1891), Ab-
bott (1892), Lunn (1896), Riche (1897), Brachet (1908), Annan (1909),

258

Arterial Anomalies Bu

Garnier & Villemin (1909), Macalester (1909), Weiss (1909), Dickson
& Frazer (1914), Reid (1914), Warren Museum I case.

3. This group of cases would be representatives of double aortic
arches except for the absence of the left dorsal root; the order of
branches is a left innominate stem dividing into left common
carotid and left vertebral, right common carotid, right subclavian
and left subclavian. The condition is recognized by Piersol in his
anatomy and figured as fig. 688; he suggests that it is the reverse
of fig. 685 (our II, D, 2) but he does not label the left vertebral in
the figure.

Brenner (1883) first explained this condition and showed the
relation of the inferior laryngeal nerve to the left vertebral ar-
tery ; he expressed the idea of a “ widening” of the vertebral but
now we know from Hochstetter’s work (1890) that the vertebral
and subclavian represent different segmental vessels. Brenner’s
case is figured Taf. 17, fig. 5, our fig. 11, and contains the addi-
tional variation of a right vertebral springing from the arch be-
tween the right common carotid and right subclavian.

4. Of this group we also have only one example, that of Fox
(1824) which presents a normal arrangement of the vascular
arches in a case of complete situs viscerum transversus. It may
be viewed as a reversal of group I above, considering the body
as a whole; on the other hand it is interesting in the suggestion
that the factors which produce situs transversus may not always
be operative in the development of the arches.

For other variations in cases of right aortic arch belonging to
origin of vessels springing from the arch see III, B, 2, g; C, and
UT 1D), 2a Gls

D. Abnormal Obliteration or Persistence of Segments of the
Arches or Dorsal Roots

A number of more or less limited irregularities of development
are included in this section. They are grouped in this way not
because they are morphologically similar, for they represent very
divergent patterns, but because they represent circumscribed or
local effects of the factors which have disturbed the normal course

259

32 C. W. M. Poynter

of development. As already pointed out, objections to this ar-
rangement are appreciated and more data or a different viewpoint
might suggest an entirely different classification.

1. Right fourth arch obliterated, right dorsal root persists and
is represented in the right subclavian, which is the last branch
from the arch.

2. Right fourth arch persists and is represented in the proxi-
mal portion of the right vertebral, right dorsal root persists and
is represented in the beginning of the right subclavian.

3. Right fourth arch persists and is represented normally, the
right dorsal root is present and is represented in the proximal
portion of the right vertebral.

4. Obliteration of the fourth left arch and dorsal connection
with the fifth arch, persistence of the left pulmonary arch.

5. Obliteration of the dorsal connection between the fourth
and pulmonic arches, persistence of the left pulmonary arch.

6. Obliteration of the right third arch, persistence of the dorsal
connection between the third and fourth arches.

7. Obliteration of the third left arch, persistence of the dorsal
connection between the left third and fourth arches.

8. Obliteration of the third arch and dorsal roots beyond.

1. Right fourth arch is obliterated, right dorsal root persists
and is represented in the right subclavian artery, which is the last
branch of the arch.

(a) Cases in which the right subclavian passes between the
cesophagus and vertebral column.

(b) Cases in which the right subclavian passes between the
trachea and cesophagus.

(c) Cases in which the right subclavian has a pretracheal
course. .

(d) Cases in which this anomaly is seen in conjunction with
irregularities in arrangement or number of branches springing
from the arch.

(a) The origin of the right subclavian artery from the de-
scending aorta is not a rare irregularity but perhaps on account
of its unusual appearance it has received more attention than any
other anomaly considered in this paper. The major portion of

260

SS eee

Arterial Anomalies 33

cases consist of a normal aortic arch giving rise to the right com-
mon carotid, the left common carotid and the left subclavian ar-
teries, while the right subclavian springs from the descending
aorta on its dorso-lateral aspect opposite the second -or third
dorsal vertebra, and passes behind the cesophagus to reach its
normal position.

The condition was first explained developmentally by Wood
(1859), who recognized it as a persistence of the right dorsal
aorta, fig. 12, represented in the proximal portion of the sub-
clavian. The frequency of the condition is variously estimated
as illustrated by the following:

Name : Per cent No. Cases Observed
@iainenGiS4A nes nets eee ees 4 212
Weasel. (iO) Goocageuecscsauecos 8
MINIT TUTE TAN TOO) lease leteraretets ates ekcvere ayer siees 4
Wnomgon (i863) socoscodocccpn0cg6e 6 800
Winorasom (CUson)) scoocotosvcacadgcsoes it 500
Hehoucgy (1804) pasar oe eae ae 5
Grinlerakeiy (tse) Neon Sere ase cies occa eae 8
GOEZEHECE OOO) tenn e aan aicie ere ee 8
PANidarelan 1 OR@NA) i tery secctavcle ye ccetste ca emrceenes 3 271

While the first cases were all grouped together in one class
when they were analyzed, Holzapfel (1899), it was seen that they
are not all alike, but fall into different classes, as I have indicated
above. These cases have been explained from the developmen-
tal standpoint so frequently that it will not be necessary to repeat
such explanations here; also reference to fig. 12 will make the
point clear. It seems to me that one point should be emphasized
in the developmental side of these anomalies; from a study of
right aortic arch, see page 30, and comparing those anomalies
with this one there is a strong suggestion that the important fea-
ture of the irregularity is not the persistence of the dorsal root
but the obliteration of the right fourth arch. In looking for the
etiology of the condition we should seek a factor or factors act-
ing abnormally on the arch.

During the past year a case of this type was encountered in our
dissecting rooms, the first in 150 bodies, which is in every way

261

34 C. W. M. Poynter

typical of the class; I will describe it here both to report the
case and to illustrate the type.

Specimen is from a man 62 years old who died of Bright’s disease; he
did not suffer from dysphalgia luxoria and was not left-handed. Fig. 25
was drawn from the dissection.

The heart was normal, the aortic arch was normal in position and size,
it gave off first the right common carotid, the left common carotid, the
left subclavian and last the right subclavian. The latter vessel arose from
the right dorsal aspect of the aorta opposite the juncture of the bodies
of the third and fourth dorsal vertebre, passed behind the cesophagus
upward, describing a slight curve with the convexity to the left, to reach
its usual position in relation to the scalenus anticus muscle. The right
vertebral artery, which was the first branch given off, had the usual rela-
tions and entered the sixth costo-transverse foramen. The ligamentum
arteriosum was normal and was attached to the aorta Bote 3 cm. above
the origin of the right subclavian.

The recurrent laryngeal nerve on the right was given off in the neck
and passed almost directly across to the trachea without making any
downward loop. The thoracic duct divided into two trunks, of which the
right was slightly the larger, opposite the fifth dorsal vertebra and emptied
into the venous angle on both the right and left sides. There were no
other anomalies observed in the entire body.

There are seven similar cases in the Warren Museum, which I exam-
ined and which, I believe, have not been reported. In two of these there
is a definite dilation at the point where the subclavian leaves the aorta;
the other cases are in no wise remarkable and all are without history.

Cases of this type are most numerous, see figs. 39 and 41, and
present a simple developmental disturbance which is entirely com-
pensated for and consequently works no ill to the individual. I.
have been able to collect the following cases, referring freely to
Holzapfel’s (1899) splendid work:

Hommel (1737), Cassebohm (Bohmer 1741), Hoffmann (1751), Mieg
(1753), Loseke (1754), Ludwig (1764), Schleitz (Ref. Murray 1768), Erd-
mann (1772), Sandifort (1772), Pohl (1773), Walter (1785), Cruickshank
(1789), Hulme (1789), Valentin (1791), Sandifort (1793), Isenflamm
(1800), Meckel (1805) 4 cases, Autenrieth & Pfleiderer (1806) 2 cases,
Koberwein (1810), Zagorsky (1810), Isenflamm & Fleischmann (1815),
Meckel (1816) 3 cases, Otto (1816), Kirby (1818), Colles (1820) 4 cases,
Meckel (1820) 2 cases, Tiedemann (1822), Stedman (1823), Godman
(1824), Hesselbach (1824), Hart (1826), Cerutti (1827), Mayer (1827),
Wagner (1828) 2 cases, Weber (1829) 2 cases, Green (1830) 3 cases,
Hopkinson* (1830), Lauth (1830), Otto (1830) 6 cases, Cruveilhier &

262

Arterial Anomalies 35

Lenoir (1832), Fleischmann (1835) 2 cases, Dubrueil (1837) 2 cases, Har-
rison (1839) 2 cases, Liston (1839), Todd (1839), Demeaux (1841), Gor-
gone (1841) Ref. Banchi ’o7, Brent (1844), Patruban (1844), Quain
(1844) 8 cases, Reid (1846) 2 cases, Arnold (1847), Demarquay (1848)
3 cases, Stachelroth (1850) 2 cases, Frandsen (1854), Cavasse (1856),
Hyrtl (1859), Oehl (1859) 2 cases, Wood (1859), Peacock (1860) 5
cases, Dubrueil (1862), Turner (1862) 4 cases, Barkow (1866), Barwell
(1867), Wood (1867), Barkow (1869) 10 cases, Bankart, Pye-Smith,
Phillips (1869) 2 cases, Peacock (1870), Bradley (1871), Eppinger (1871),
Leidy (Ref. Mears ’71), Mears (1871), Pancoast (Ref. Mears ’71), Pye-
Smith, Howse, Davies-Colley (1871) 2 cases, Diiben (1876), Krause
(1876), Shepherd (1877), Zenker (1878) 5 cases, Flesch (1879), Carrier
(1880), Walsham (1880), Wiltshire (1881), Brown (1882), Giacomini
(1882) 6 cases, Brenner (1883) 3 cases, Ozenne (1883), Horrocks, White,
Lane (1884), Collins (1885), McArdle (1885), Beisso & Giuria (1886) 3
cases, Struthers (1888), Deaver (1889), Mann (1889), Calori (1890) 5
cases, Dunn, Washburn, Targett (1890), Ledouble (1890) 3 cases, Rau
(1890), Thomson (1890), Bothezat & Chatiniére (1891), Thomson (1891)
3 cases, Solger (1893), Leboucq (1894) 4 cases, Faure (1895), Jacques
(1895) 2 cases, Gotz (1896) 2 cases, Testut (1896) 2 cases, Herrick (1897),
Miura (1897), Anile (1898), Holzapfel (1899) 4 cases, Rolly (1899) (Ref.
Banchi ’07), Hamann (1900), Ledouble (1901) 3 cases, Blair (1902) 2
cases, Cabibbe (1901) (Ref. Banchi ’07), Bouchet (1903), Duckworth
(1906), Gérard (1906), Gianelli (1894) (Ref. Banchi ’07), Zoia (1872)
(Ref. Banchi ’07), Banchi (1907), 2 cases, Pearce-Gould (1909), Geddes
(1910), Hasebe (1912), Adachi (1914), Cobey (1914), Gladstone & Wake-
ley (1915), 7 cases in the Warren Museum.

This irregularity is very unusual in animals but the following cases have
been encountered.

Meckel (Ref. Cuvier 1810) in the hedgehog, Ogilvie & Cathcart (1874)
in a lamb and Smith (1891) in a rabbit.

(b and c) The condition in which the anomalous subclavian is
between the cesophagus and trachea and that in which itisin front
of the trachea may be considered together from a developmental
standpoint, but the cases of each type will be listed separately.
Fig. 5 may be used to illustrate the conditions but not to suggest
the actual developmental process. There are many difficulties in
the way of using the explanation which accounts for the forma-
tion of the preceding group (fig. 12) in expounding the forma-
tion of these irregularities; neither Turner (1862) nor Krause
(1876) seem to have fully appreciated the fact.

263

36 C. W. M. Poynter

Several hypotheses have been offered in explanation of the ven-
tral position of the proximal portion of the subclavian but none
of them, it seems to me, are entirely without objection. The first
assumes that the dorsal aortae unite ventral to the cesophagus.
Such a process is difficult to understand in view of the way in
which the common aorta normally develops; then too if a process
so fundamental, apparently, as aortic development may present
such an extreme irregularity we have no evidences of its having
been found except in this one anomaly and always at this point.

The second hypothesis, that of Rau (1890), offered as an ex-
planation of the general class, conceives that the anomalous sub-
clavian has arisen by early anastomoses with the right bronchial
artery. This would account for the ventral position of the ves-
sel, but we would have to assume a very high origin for the bron-
chial and also that it developed much earlier than it seems to do
normally. The right bronchial artery would then be a branch of
the anomalous subclavian and no such condition has been re-
ported (Holzapfel).

The third hypothesis, which is favored by Holzapfel (1899),
is that an anomalous anastomosis develops ventrally between the
paired descending aortae. This anastomosis occurs early, then
when the lungs are laid down their relation to this aberrant ves-
sel will determine which type, 7. e., b or c, will develop. The ex-
planation cannot be disproved but may be objected to on the
ground that it denies an orderly development of the earliest vas-
cular anlage and reaffirms the theory of Baader for this particu-
lar anomaly, in the light of all the more recent investigations
which suggest that a more exact explanation may be possible.

The fourth hypothesis was offered by Banchi (1907) who
thinks these cases represent a persistence of both fifth (not pul-
monary ) arches with atrophy of the dorsal root of the right fourth
arch and the right descending aorta. We may offer as an objec-
tion to this that there is possibly still some controversy on the
“fifth” arch, see page 8, but more important, that such an ex-
planation necessitates an anomalous union between these arches
ventrally, which is as great a difficulty as the general question ; or
if we accept his explanation of this point we still have to account

264

Arterial Anomalies Buh

for an atrophy of the junction of the “fused” fifth arches and the
ventral aortae, see fig. 7.

The following cases represent the two conditions: b, cases in
which the anomalous subclavian passes between the cesophagus
and the trachea; c, cases in which the subclavian passes ventral
to the trachea:

Group b (artery passes between trachea and cesophagus): Bayford
(1789), Brewer (1791), Monro (1797), Herold (1812), Hesselbach (1824),
Harrison (1839), Hyrtl (1841), Pigné (1847), Stachelroth (1850), Gross
(1852), Peacock (1860), Brown & Brown (1868), Bankart, Pye-Smith,
Phillips (1869), Bradley (1871), Calori (1890), Thomson (1891), Glad-
stone & Wakeley (1915). :

Group c (artery is pretracheal) : Hunauld (1735), Meckel (1751) in a
letter to Haller (1743-56), Walter (1785) 2 cases, Cruveilhier (1831),
Vittorini (1831) (Ref. Banchi ’o7), Dubrueil (1847), Blandin (1842),
Burns (Ref. Banchi ’o7).

Another question in connection with these cases, which is of
great interest, is the relation of the right vagus nerve to the
anomalous subclavian artery. Unfortunately many reports are
silent on this point but it is shown from the reports recording
this relation that in some cases the nerve runs ventral to the ar-
tery and in others it has a dorsal course. Banchi (1907) sug-
gests that the process by which the nerve reaches a dorsal position
in these cases is through a secondary subclavian, which Rabl
(1906) has shown is the manner in which a similar relationship
is effected normally in birds.

(d) In certain cases of anomalous subclavian artery there are
additional variations either in the number of branches springing
from the arch or in their position on the arch. It is my impres-
sion from a study of these cases in conjunction with other varia-
tions that they represent two independent processes; they are
included here as a separate group simply to facilitate more de-
tailed study. The cases are all listed in the preceding groups of
this class and are again listed in the proper classes under section
III, so in the following list references for full detail are to the
various classes of section III.

Hunauld (1735), Meckel & Haller (1751), Erdmann (1772), Sandifort
(1772), Walter (1785), Koberwein (1810), Meckel (1820), Tiedemann

265

38 C. W. M. Poynter

(1822), Godman (1824), Wagner (1828), Green (1830) 2 cases, Lauth
(1830), Dubrueil (1837) 2 cases, Demeaux (1841), Brent (1844), Quain
(1844) 5 cases, Tiedemann (1846) 4 cases, Pigné (1847), Cavasse (1856),
Barkow (1866), Wood (1867), Barkow (1869) 3 cases, Bankart, Pye-
Smith, Phillips (1869) 2 cases, Pye-Smith, Howse, Davies Colley (1871),
Carrier (1880), Giacomini (1882) 2 cases, McArdle (1885), Brodie (1888),
Shepherd (1890), Thomson (1891), Abbott (1892), Leboucq (1894),
Jacques (1895), Gotz (1896), Herrick (1897), Holzapfel (1899) 4 cases,
Banchi (1907), Warren Museum 5 cases.

For the detailed classification of the cases in this list see the following
sections) ILL B, 2c. Mil Ga’ TIliG26- TID) td elle) Taso mlelem ae
ayia OG 10), se (DS IU, 1). Abe WU WL A Ge 100l, 1D > a,

2. The right aortic arch is present and is represented in the
proximal portion of the right vertebral artery, which seems to
spring from the right common carotid. In this group conditions
are the same as in group I, except that the right vertebral springs
from the right common carotid instead of. from the right sub-
clavian artery. Reference to fig. 13 will explain the method of
development of the irregularity. The theory of its occurrence was
first suggested by Brenner (1883) and was based on the relation
of the right recurrent laryngeal nerve. This has the same rela-
tion to the vertebral artery in these cases as it bears normally to
the subclavian artery of this side. It will be seen that this theory
necessitates considering that the vertebral has an origin in a
higher segmental artery than the subclavian, but, as is pointed out
in considering the development of the vertebral, page 10, this is
not unreasonable. It would seem that the disturbing develop-
mental factors have affected just the connection between the
sixth and seventh segmental arteries and the right dorsal aortic
root; or perhaps the primary defect was in the connection be-
tween the segmental arteries, and the resulting anomalies, 7. e..
persistence of the sixth segmental artery and the right dorsal aorta,
are in the nature of compensation for this irregularity of develop-
ment, see fig. 39.

The following cases belong to this group:

Murray (1768), Green (1839), Simon (1846), Tiedemann (1846), Du-
brueil (1847), Hyrtl (1859), Wood (1859), Brodie (1888), Shepherd
(1890), Abbott (1892), Solger (1893), Suzuki (1894), Holzapfel (1899),
Kemmetmiller (1911) 3 cases, Hasebe (1912).

266

Arterial Anomalies 39

3. This group presents a persistence of the right dorsal aorta
represented in the proximal portion of the right vertebral artery ;
for diagram see fig. 14. The branches of the arch are normal,
but the right vertebral, instead of springing from the subclavian
in the usual manner, arises from the descending aorta just below
the arch, passing outward and upward behind the subclavian to
reach its normal position. In these cases the vertebral originates
through a lower segment than the subclavian and in this respect
is the reversal of group 2. If there were no other change than
the persistence of the two segmental arteries and the right dorsal
aorta the picture would be one of a double arch. The fact that
the right arch includes a connection between the two segmental
arteries instead of the right fourth root could not be appreciated
from an examination of the case.

It seems to me that to explain these cases we must assume that
the axillary plexus, page 10, which Goppert has shown is always
present, early makes a connection with one of the upper seg-
mental arteries, say the sixth, very near its origin from the aorta.
With this pathway established the more distal portion of the seg-
mental (sixth) atrophies; then, when the connections are estab-
lished between the segmental arteries to make up the vertebral,
either a more cephalic segmental will furnish the origin of the ver-
tebral or a more distal one (seventh) ; in the former condition the
vertebral may arise from the subclavian near the common carotid
and enter a higher transverse foramen, Waldeyer (1909), or from
the common carotid as in one of Brenner’s (1883) cases where it
entered the fourth transverse foramen; in the latter, representing
this group, the persistence of the right dorsal aorta is in com-
pensation for the absence of other vertebral connections. The
vertebral enters the seventh.or sixth foramen.

The following cases representing the condition have been re-
ported:

Hyrtl (1859) 2 cases, Struthers (1875), Paterson (1884), Azuta (1905),
Szawlowski (1906).

4. Obliteration of the fourth left arch and dorsal root, per-
sistence of the left pulmonary arch. In these cases the innomi-

267

40 C. W. M. Poynter

nate and left common carotid spring from the ventral aorta and
represent the circulation from the left side of the heart. The
ductus arteriosus is patent and joins, or is continuous with, the
descending aorta; at the angle formed by the two the left sub-
clavian artery is given off, see fig. 15. It seems most logical to
account for these cases as due to disturbance with the develop-
ment of the left arch; in this respect they are closely allied to
cases of the more numerous type of right aortic arch, II, C, 2;
however it seems to me that probably the disturbing factor acted
at a later period than it did on the right arches, 7%. e., after the
normal atrophy of the right dorsal aorta had been effected. As
already indicated these cases present a different problem of de-
velopmental disturbance than the case of Holst, page 26.

Greig (1852), Struthers (1875), Osler (1880).

5. Obliteration of the dorsal root of the left fourth arch, per-
sistence of the left pulmonary arch. This condition is evidently
closely related to the preceding group. The innominate, left
common carotid and left subclavian are normal, the left arch
terminates with the left subclavian and the descending aorta is
continuous with the left pulmonary through the ductus arteriosus.
This condition seems to bear the same relation to II, C, 3 that the
preceding one does to II, C, 2. The disturbing developmental
factor acts on a limited area, the left fourth dorsal root, but this
same localleffect is'seen in IC. 3, ll, D2 and Wl, Dah seeinie ame

I know of only one example of this anomaly, the case of Stei-
dele (1778). Valenti & Pisenti (1896) have reported a case
which is suggestive of the condition although the obliteration is
not quite complete ; probably also some of the cases of coarctation
of the aorta, which is not considered in this paper, are examples
of the less pronounced effect of the same developmental dis-
turbance.

6. Obliteration of the right third arch, persistence of the third
right dorsal root.

7. Obliteration of the left third arch, persistence of the third
left dorsal root.

Groups 6 and 7 may be considered together, since they are

268

Arterial Anomalies 4I

identical except for the side affected. In each the common caro-
tid is absent and the internal and external carotids spring from
the arch. We may consider that the developmental disturbance
leading to an atrophy or failure in development of the third arch
is the primary condition and that the persistence of the dorsal root
is an attempt at compensation for this anomaly, see fig. 17.

The following cases are illustrative of the two groups:

Group II, D, 6. Malacarne (1784) double arch, same condition on each
arch, Power (Ref. Quain ’44), Kosenski (1867), Macalester (1886), case I.

Group II, D, 7. Malacarne (1784), double arch; Gottschau (1885) ;
Macalester (1886), case II; v. Augenmayer (1906), Siegfried (1906).

8. Obliteration of the third arch and the roots beyond. This
condition is characterized by the absence of the internal carotid ;
the condition may occur on either the right or left side and to
make the classification uniform with the preceding should be di-
vided into two groups, one for each side.

Absence of the external carotid is less frequent but does occur,
Langenbeck (1841).

All of the following cases are failure of development on the left
side except that of Todd, which is on the right and Fisher, which
is on both sides.

Todd (1787), Koberwein (1810), Quain (1844), Peugnet (1876), Wyeth
(1878), Flemming (1895), Fisher (1914).

§ VII

III. IRREGULARITIES IN DEVELOPMENT OF BRANCHES OF THE AORTA

This section will include, in addition to the variations in num-
ber and arrangement of branches springing from the aortic arch,
anomalous arteries of the ascending aorta. Some of these condi-
tions are understood embryologically, but many of them are still
without satisfactory explanation from a developmental stand-
point; consequently, instead of classifying them from a develop-
mental standpoint, as has been done in the preceding sections, a
simple morphological classification will be followed. The ar-
rangement of branches in many of these groups is similar to type
forms in other mammalia. It is interesting to note that through

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42 C. W. M. Poynter

all classes of mammals there is variation in the arrangement of

branches from the arch in the individual species. No single
species or genus shows a wide variation till primates are reached,
and man seems to present as anomalous development all of the
conditions encountered in other mammalia. I have already re-
viewed, see page I1, the significance of the comparative anatomy,
so it will only be necessary here to repeat that in citing under the
various groups the animals presenting the same condition nor-
mally it is done simply as a point of morphologic interest and
not with the idea of suggesting an atavistic relationship.

Some of the variations already included in the preceding sections
will be repeated here; this applies particularly to I], D, 1. This
seems necessary because the basis of classification for this section
is different than for the preceding and it is desirable to present
together all of the examples of a given type of variation.

A. Irregularities in the Branches from the Ascending Aorta

1. Irregularities of the Coronary Arteries—The coronary ar-
teries exhibit several irregularities ; of these the most frequent is
the presence of one or more accessory arteries. Symmers (1907)
reported these present in 40 percent of cases and that they were
more frequently present on the right side. This is greatly in
excess of the percentage present in the series reported by Hal-
bertsma (1863) and Banchi (1904) ; the latter finds that when a
third branch is present it is generally a branch of the right coro-
nary, which has a separate origin from the aorta. In a hundred
observations I have found in two instances that the area usually
supplied by the right coronary was furnished by two short trunks
direct from the aorta; this confirms Banchi’s observation.

One artery may be absent and in that case the other artery sup-
plies the entire heart.

The arteries, one or both, may arise higher than normal from
the aorta, as in the cases reported by Farre (1814), Mayer
(1827), Hyrtl (1841) and Chevers (1851).

Arteries multiple: Morgagni (1761), Meckel (1817), Halbertsma (1863),
Krause (1865), Brooks (1885) from pulmonary, Hepburn (1886), Banchi
(1904-7), Symmers (1907).

270

Arterial Anomalies 43

One artery: Fantoni (1699), Thebesius (1716), Mayer (1827), Otto
(1830), Hyrtl (1841), Hyrtl (1855), Heitz (1901).

2. Other Arteries from the Ascending Aorta—Bremer (1912)
has shown that the ventral aorta is developed from a plexus
and it seems probable that it is through the persistence of some
of these early channels in connection with the aorta that such
anomalies as the following are to be explained. That they are so
very rare may be accounted for on the ground that this plexus is
a very early formation, and is in a center of great growth activity
and shifting of parts; any minor channels which might persist
after the ventral aortae were established would almost certainly
atrophy through pressure and lack of definite area to supply.

Thymic vessels springing from the ascending aorta have been
reported by Haller (1747), Breschet (1826) and Hyrtl (1841).

Twice the internal mammary dextra has been observed arising
from the ascending aorta. Such an anomaly is more difficult to
reconcile with the above explanation unless we assume that the
aberrant vessel of the plexus communicates with a segmental be-
low the definitive subclavian, which in turn gives rise to the in-
ternal mammary; such a conclusion is not warranted by any de-
velopmental history of the internal mammary or any of its anom-
alies with which I am acquainted. The cases are reported by
Bohmer (1741) and Meckel (1816).

B. Number of Branches from the Aortic Arch Less than Normal

1. One branch from the arch.

2. Two branches from the arch.

1. In these cases one branch springs from the arch of the aorta;
see fig. 37. This condition is common in some of the lower mam-
mals; the single branch divides into brachial and cephalic trunks
which are arranged normally. The cases of this irregularity are
not all exactly similar ; in some the arch is apparently lacking and
the descending aorta seems to curve over the bronchus from a
junction with the ascending stem from its proximal portion; in
other cases a stem springs from the top of the arch and almost
immediately divides into the regular branches, suggesting that

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44 C. W. M. Poynter

they have simply migrated to a common point of origin. I know
of no exact explanation for this irregularity ; it is not difficult to
account for the fusion of the left carotid with the innominate
trunk, but if the arch is normal the anomalous position of the
left subclavian is more difficult to explain.

The following cases of this irregularity have been reported:

Troussieres (1667), Garnier, Spon & Troussiéres (1729), Haller (1768)
(Ref. Meckel 1816), Klinz (1787), Meckel (1816), Boudant (1829), Hyrtl
(1841-59), Dubrueil (1847), Vernon (1856).

This type of development is found in the following mammals: Anti-
lopidae, atherura, bos, capra, cervus, dasyprocta, equus, gazella, genetta,
rangifer, rhinoceros, tapirus.

2. Only two branches from the arch. This condition is repre-
sented by a number of different types of arrangement which have
been classified as follows:

(a) Fusion of the ventral aortic roots or migration of the left
carotid furnishes an innominate stem with the left carotid spring-
ing from it and the left subclavian arising from the arch, figs. 31
and 36. The positions of the right subclavian and carotids on
the innominate present a number of variations; the left carotid
may arise from the base of the innominate or a trunk may con-
tinue for some distance after the right subclavian is given off, then
divide into the right and left carotids; for these various arrange-
ments see Keith (1895) and Parsons (1002). These “cases are
numerous; Quain says twenty-five times in 219 cases, which
probably explains why the older anatomists considered the condi-
tion normal. Vesalius figured the condition on pages 483 and
564.

The following list is given of references encountered during
this study ; it is evidently in no way representative of the number
of times this condition has been observed; Thomson’s report
(1893) and Adachi’s figures (1914) show a frequency of over
10 percent. I have observed the condition only twice in my dis-
secting rooms; in both of these cases and also in the two from
the Warren Museum, reported below, the left carotid arose from
the innominate trunk quite near its base; see fig. 36.

272

Arterial Anomalies 45

Vesalius (1543), Casserius (1609), Spegelius (1627), Vestingus (1641),
Troussieres (1668), Eustachius (1714), Heister (1717), Hunter (1717),
Petsche (1736), Neubauer & Erdmann (1772) 2 cases, Meckel (1774),
Huber (1777), Malacarne (1784), Neubauer (1786), Walter (1785),
Burns (1809), Ryan (1812), Tiedemann (1822), Baron (Lauth 1825),
Weher (1829), Lauth (1830), Hyrtl (1841), Quain (1844), Isaacs (1855),
Kelly (1871), Peacock (1871), Pye-Smith, Howse, Davies, Colley (1871),
Embleton (1872), Davies, Colley, Taylor (1873), Broca (1880), Shepherd
(1880), Horrocks, White, Lane (1884), Deaver (1889), Freyberger (1898),
Cowan & Ferguson (1903), Adachi (1914), Warren Museum 2 cases.

This condition is quite common in mammals; it seems to have been
encountered occasionally in all of the primates and is probably the normal
condition for Hylobates. It is the most frequent arrangement in the car-
nivores and has been noted in the following ungulates: giraffa, hippo-
potamidae, hyracidae, llama, suidae, tapirus. Among the rodents this
type of arrangement is normal for lepus and has been reported for cavi-
didae, hystricidae, lagostomus, myopotamus, octodon, sciuridae.

(b) This group may be termed bi-innominate; there are two
trunks arising from the aortic arch and each divides into a sub-
clavian and a carotid artery. The obvious anomaly is that the
origin of the left subclavian has moved proximally on the arch
till it is fused with the left carotid or that there has been a dis-
turbance in the development of that portion of the arch between
the carotid and subclavian. I have not been able to find any re-
port of work on the developmental side of this problem.

The following examples have been reported; for illustration

see fig. 35.

Biumi (1765), Malacarne (1784), Jackson (1816), Tiedemann (1822),
Boudant (1829), Patruban (1844), Dubrueil (1847), Cruveilhier (1851),
Broca (1880).

The bi-innominate trunks are normal for Chiroptera (Grosser 1901)
and are frequently found in the following other animals: cetacea, chryso-
chloridinae, erinaceidae, tulpa.

(c) A condition of two branches from the arch, the first made
up of the two carotids and the other of the two subclavians.
There may be some doubt about these cases; only two have been
reported, the first, Schon (1823), was referred to by Meckel in
his anatomy (1817), page III, as a case of bi-carotid bi-sub-
clavian trunks, but Krause doubts the validity of the case; the

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46 C. W. M. Poynter

second, Patruban (1844), is accepted by Krause, but Holzapfel
considers this a case of low origin of the right subclavian and a
bi-carotid trunk; this seems to me the correct interpretation of
the case.

(d) This group is similar to (a) except for a slight modifica-
tion; the first trunk divides into the right subclavian, right and
left common carotids and the right internal mammary ; the second
trunk from the arch is the left subclavian. I know of only one
example, that reported by Hyrtl (1841).

(e) This group is like the one immediately preceding except
that a thyroid ima takes the place of the internal mammary.
Cases have been reported by Isaacs (1855), Paterson (1884) and
Freyberger (1808).

(f) In these cases there are two branches from the arch, one
an innominate trunk made up of the right and left common caro-
tids and the left subclavian, the other trunk the right subclavian.
Only three examples are available; viz., Zagorsky (1809),
Breschet (1826) and Dubrueil (1847). These cases are quite
difficult to interpret. Krause classified Zagorsky’s case as one
of right arch, although there was no mention made in the orig-
inal of the direction of the arch; Tiedemann figured it, Plate IV,
fig. 8; there was no figure in the original, and Quain copied his
figure on Plate VI, fig. 8. It seems to me that instead of inter-
preting these as cases of right arch we might consider them as the
counterpart of the next group.

(g) In this group the right aortic arch takes the place of the
left; from the arch proper one trunk is given off, which divides
into the left common carotid, right common carotid and right sub-
clavian, from low on the arch, i. e., the descending aorta, the left
subclavian arises. This condition has been reported by Henle
(1843), Tiedemann (1846) and Dubrueil (1847).

C. Number of Branches from the Aortic Arch Normal in Number
but Abnormal in Arrangement

1. Order of branches, innominate trunk made up of right sub-
clavian, right common carotid, left common carotid, then left

274

Arterial Anomalies 47

vertebral and last left subclavian, illustrated by fig. 43. In this
group the innominate stem presents the same anomalous develop-
ment that has been discussed in section III, B, 2 (a), the only
difference from that section is the presence of a vertebral aris-
ing from the arch instead of in its usual position. This latter
variation is brought about by the persistence of one of the higher
segmental arteries and the failure to establish the normal connec-
tion with the segmental, which is represented in the subclavian ;
see fig. 6.
The following cases are illustrative:

Sandifort (1781), Walter (1785), Meckel (1816), Tiedemann (1822),
Paterson (1884), White, Lane, Price (1883), Warren Museum.

2. This group is the same as the preceding except that the
order of the subclavian and vertebral is changed; order of
branches, innominate, left subclavian, left vertebral. Walter
(1796 and 1805) reported a case, also Tiedemann (1822). Owen
(1868) says the condition is normal for the giraffe.

3. Order of branches, right subclavian, common trunk for the
carotids, left subclavian; illustrated by fig. 4c. Cases are re-
ported by Portal (1803), Tiedemann (1822), Dubrueil (1847),
Trelat (1856). This condition is found occasionally in elephants
and some marsupials.

4. Order of branches, bi-carotid trunk, left subclavian and last
right subclavian; illustrated by fig. 38. This arrangement of the
carotids is a frequent one in the cases in which the right sub-
clavian is the last branch of the arch.

The following list is taken from cases already reported in sec-
tion II, D, 1, but repeated here because in the former classifica-
tion the arrangement of the carotids was not indicated.

Hunauld (1735), Hommel (1737), Meckel (1751), Erdmann (1772),
Sandifort (1772), Walter (1785), Green (1830), Lauth (1830), Demeaux
(1841), Quain (1844), Patruban (1844), Dubrueil (1847) 2 cases, Pigne
(1847), Stachelroth (1850), Cavasse (1856), Barkow (1866), Wood
(1867), Brown & Brown (1868), Bankart, Pye-Smith, Phillips (1869),
_Barkow (1869) 2 cases, Bradley (1871), Carrier (1880), Giacomini (1882),
Calori (1890), Herrick (1897), Thomson (1891), Leboucq (1894), Jacques

275

48 C. W. M. Poynter

(1895), Gotz (1896), Holzapfel (1899), Banchi (1907), Gladstone &
Wakeley (1915), Warren Museum 5 cases.

5. The order of branches is: Bi-carotid stem, right subclavian,
left subclavian. Cases reported by Lauth (1830) and Quain
(1844).

6. The order of branches is: Right carotid, stem composed of
the left carotid and the left subclavian, right subclavian; see fig.
41. One case has been observed by Tiedemann (1822) ; this be-
longs in the general class of low origin of the right subclavian,
section 11, D1.

7. The order of branches is: Innominate, left subclavian, left
carotid. Example reported by Weber (1829).

8. The order of branches is: Innominate, left external carotid,
left subclavian. This group has been previously reported as sec
tion Uses:

g. The order of branches is: Innominate, dividing into right
subclavian, internal and external carotids, left common carotid,
left subclavian. Previously reported, see section II, D, 6.

to. In right aortic arch the order of branches is: Innominate
(left), right carotid, right subclavian. Previously reported as
Section II, C, 1.

11. In right aortic arch the order of branches is: Innominate
made up of the right and left common carotids, right subclavian,
left subclavian. This is the counterpart of group 4 above; cases,
which are included in section II, C, 2, have been reported by
Annan (1909) and Macalester (1909).

12. The order of branches is: Right subclavian, right carotid,
left carotid from the arch; the left subclavian from the ductus
arteriosus. Reported by Holst (1832) and Hildebrand (1842).

13. Ascending aorta divides into the right subclavian, right
and left common carotids; the left subclavian and descending
aorta from the ductus arteriosus. Reported as section II, D, 4.

D. Number of Branches from the Aortic Arch Greater than
Normal

1. Number of Branches Four.—(a) The order of branches is:

Right subclavian, right common carotid, left common carotid, left

276

Arterial Anomalies 49

subclavian (absence of innominate). The following cases have
been reported:

Bergerus (1698), Heister (1717), Nicolai (1725), Winslow (1732), Pal-
fyn (1734), Ballay (1758), Meckel (1809 and 16), Ryan (Monro 1813),
Fleischmann (1815), Tiedemann (1822), Lauth (1825), Pitcard (1840),
Isaacs (1855), Krause (1865).

(b) The order of branches is: Right common carotid, right
subclavian, left common carotid, left subclavian; see fig. 44.
Cases are reported by Huber (1777) and Walter (1785) and
these are both figured by Tiedemann and Quain but there is no
indication of the direction of the arch; Thomson (1863) thought
them cases of right arch, Krause considered them incomprehen-
sible from a developmental standpoint.

(c) The order of branches is: Right common carotid, left com-
mon carotid, right subclavian, left subclavian. Cases reported by
Walter (1805) 2 cases, Krause (1865), Horrocks, White, Lane
(1884).

(d) The order of branches is: Left common carotid, right com-
mon carotid, left subclavian, right subclavian. ‘This is a case of
low origin of the right subclavian with transposition of the caro-
tids; only reported example is by Rau (1890).

(e) The order of branches is: Innominate, left carotid, left
vertebral, left subclavian, see fig. 45. I have encountered three
cases in my own dissecting rooms; in two of them the vertebrai
entered the fifth transverse foramen and in the other the fourth
foramen. As far as the vertebral is concerned this group is simi-
lee joo JOUL, (Gs it,

The following cases have been collected:

Cassebohm (Bohmer 1741), Henkel (1747), Huber (1777), Tiedemann
(1822), Quain (1844), Dubrueil (1847), Barkow (1869), Carver (1869),
Bradley (1871), Pye-Smith, Howse, Davies, Colley (1871), Struthers
(1875), Miller (Harris 1877), Shepherd (1877), Gruber (1878), Anderson
(1879), Lees (1880), Shepherd (1880), Park (1883), White, Lane, Price
(1886), Hochstetter (1890) in a dog, Shepherd (1890), Thomson (1891)
5 cases, Abbott! (1892), Struthers (1893) 3 cases, Freyberger (1808),
Azuta (1905), Kubo & Matsui (1906), Pellegrini (1906), Waldeyer (1906),

Kubo (1908), Elze (Kemmetmiiller ’11), Kemmetmiuller (1911) 7 cases,
Stein (1911), Adachi (1914) 9 cases.

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50 C. W. M. Poynter

(f) The order of branches is: Innominate, left carotid, left
subclavian, left vertebral; see fig. 46.

This condition is much less frequent than the preceding; cases
have been reported by Meckel (1816), Tiedemann (1822), Szaw-
lowsky (1906) and Adachi (1914) 2 cases.

(g) The order of branches is: Innominate, made up of the
right common carotid and the right vertebral, the left common
carotid, the left subclavian and the right subclavian. These cases
have been previously reported under II, D, 2, and need not be re-
peated here.

(h) The order of branches is: Innominate made up of the right
common carotid, the right vertebral and the left common carotid,
the left vertebral, the left subclavian and the right subclavian.
Cases have been reported by Brodie (1889) and Abbott (1892).

(1) The order of branches is: Right subclavian, a common
stem for the carotids, left vertebral, left subclavian. A case has
been reported by Hall (1870).

(k) The order of branches is: Innominate, made up of the
right common carotid and the right internal mammary, left com-
mon carotid, left subclavian, right subclavian. This condition
was observed by Ludwig (1764).

(1) The order of branches is: Innominate, left carotid, left
subclavian, right vertebral. For cases illustrating this condition
See section I, Dy 2:

(m) The order of branches is: Innominate, left internal caro-
tid, left external carotid, left subclavian. The group of cases
listed under II, D, 7 are examples of this condition.

(7) In right aortic arch the order of branches is: Left carotid,
right carotid, right subclavian, left subclavian. This arrangement
has already been discussed in section II, C, 2, and a list of re-
ported cases given.

(o) The order of branches is: Right carotid, left carotid, left
subclavian, right subclavian. This arrangement is the counter-
part of the preceding and represents the simplest condition in the
cases of low origin of the right subclavian.

Since the classification under II, D, 1 is from a different stand-
point, the lists of cases, while including this condition, do not in-

278

Arterial Anomalies Bl

dicate which are cases of four branches from the arch arranged
in this order; the following list is given to satisfy such grouping.

Cassebohm (Bohmer 1741), Hoffmann (1751), Mieg (1753), Loseke
(1754), Pohl (1773), Bayford (1789), Cruickshank (1789), Hulme (1789),
Brewer (1791), Valentin (1791), Sandifort (1793), Monro (1797), Isen-
flamm (1800), Meckel (1805), Autenreith & Pfleiderer (1806) 2 cases,
Zagorsky (1810), Herold (1812), Isenflamm & Fleischmann (1815),
Meckel (1816) 3 cases, Otto (1816), Kirby (1818), Colles (1820) 4 cases,
Stedman (1823), Hart (1826), Cerutti (1827), Mayer (1827), Weber
(1829), Hopkinson (1830), Otto (1830) 3 cases, Cruveilhier (1831), Cru-
veilhier & Lenoir (1832), Fleischmann (1835), Harrison (1839) 2 cases,
Liston (1839), Todd (1839),.Gorgone (1841), Quain (1844), Reid (1846)
2 cases, Arnold (1847), Blandin (1842), Demarquay (1848) 2 cases,
Stachelroth (1850), Frandsen (1854), Oehl (1859) 2 cases, Peacock (1860)
4 cases, Turner (1862) 4 cases, Barkow (1866), Barwell (1867), Barkow
(1869) 6 cases, Peacock (1870), Eppinger (1871), Mears (1871), Pye-
Smith, Howse, etc. (1871), Dttben (1876), Krause (1876), Shepherd
-(1877), Zenker (1878) 5 cases, Flesch (1879), Walsham (1880), Wiltshire
(1881), Brown (1882), Giacomini (1882) 2 cases, Ozenne (1883), Hor-
racks, White, Lane (1884), Beisso & Giuria (1886), Struthers (1888),
Deaver (1889), Mann (1889), Dunn, Washburn & Targatt (1890), Le-
double (1890), Thompson (1890), Bothezat & Chatiniére (1891), Thomson
(1891) 2 cases, Faure (1895), Testut (18096) 2 cases, Miura (1897), Anile
(1898), Holzapfel (1899), Rolly (18909), Hamann (1900), Ledouble (1901)
3 cases, Bouchet (1903), Gérard (1906), Pearce-Gould (1909), Geddes
(1910), Hasebe (1912), Cobey (1914), Warren Museum 2 cases.

(p) The order of branches is: Innominate, internal mammary
(dext.), left carotid, left subclavian. Cases reported by Loder
(1781) and Meckel (1816).

(q) The order of branches is: Innominate, right inferior thy-
roid, left carotid, left subclavian. Two cases are reported by
Meckel (1816).

(vr) This is similar to the preceding except that the inferior
thyroid goes to the left side and is situated between the left caro-
tid and left subclavian. Cases are reported by Nicolai (1725),
Hyrtl (1841), Gottschau (1885) 2 cases, Taylor & Grell (1902).

(s) The order of branches is: Innominate, left carotid, left
superior intercostal, left subclavian. Macalester (1886) reported
two examples of this condition.

(t) The order of branches is: Innominate, left thymic, left

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52 C. W. M. Poynter

carotid, left subclavian) Cases reported by Hluber (1777) sama
Ilyana (Caeylan)\,

2. Number of Branches Five-——The number of branches from
the arch five and classified according to their arrangement as fol-
lows:

(a) The order of branches is: Innominate, right vertebral, left
carotid, left vertebral, left subclavian; see fig. 48. Cases are re-
ported by Penada (1801), Fiorati (1805), Meckel (1805), Huber
(Tiedemann, 1822).

(b) The order of branches is: Innominate, composed of the
right carotid and vertebral, left carotid, left vertebral, left sub-
clavian, right subclavian. These cases are included in section I],
D, 1, and are as follows:

Tiedemann (1846) 2 cases, Bankart, Pye-Smith, Phillips (1869), Barkow
(1869), Giacomini (1882), Brenner (1883), Shepherd (1890).

(c) The order of branches is: Right subclavian, right caro-
tid, left carotid, left vertebral, left subclavian. This condition
has been reported by Petsche (1736) and Loder (1781).

(d) The order of branches is: Right carotid, left carotid, left
vertebral, left subclavian, right subclavian. These cases have
been reported as a part of the list of section II, D, 1, classifying
the low origin of the right subclavian.

They are as follows:

Koberwein (1810), Meckel (1820), Godman (1824), Hesselbach (1824),
Quain (1844) 2 cases, Bankart, Pye-Smith, Phillips (1869), Pye-Smith,
Howse, Davies, Colley (1871), McArdle (1885).

(e) The order of branches is: Right carotid, left carotid, left
subclavian, left vertebral, right subclavian. This is similar to the
last group, except that the left vertebral follows the left subclavian
on the arch; a case has been reported by Wagner (1828).

(f) The order of branches is: Innominate, right internal mam-
mary, left carotid, left vertebral, left subclavian. Cases have
been reported by Casselbohm (Bohmer, 1741) and Meckel (1816).

(g) Ina right arch the order of branches is: Left carotid, right
carotid, right vertebral, right subclavian, left subclavian. Cases

280

Arterial Anomalies 53

are reported by Otto (1824), Hermann (1830), Barkow (1869),
Watson (1877) and Abbott (1892).

(h) Ina right arch the order of branches is: Innominate, com-
posed of the left carotid and left vertebral, right carotid, right
vertebral, right subclavian, left subclavian. A case has been re-
ported by Brenner (1883).

3. Number of Branches Six—The number of branches from
the arch six; classified according to arrangement as follows:

(a) The order of branches is: Right subclavian, right verte-
bral, right carotid, left carotid, left vertebral, left subclavian;
see fig. 49. Cases are reported by Miller (Meckel, 1817), Tiede-
mann (1822) and Harrison (Quain, 1844).

(b) The order of branches is: Innominate, left carotid, two
left vertebrals, left inferior thyroid, left subclavian. A case is
reported by Kemmetmuller (1911) ; in this case a thyreoidea ima
came from the innominate.

§ VIII

E. Irregularities of the Individual Arteries Grouped Together

Irregularities of the several arteries are grouped together in
this section under the headings of the arteries for the benefit of
those who wish to consult anomalies from this standpoint.

1. Thyreoidea Ima.—The thyreoidea ima was first described by
Nicolai (1725) and, as Neubauer (1722) pointed out, must not
be confused with the inferior thyroids. Its frequency has been
placed as high as 10 percent (Morris’s Human Anatomy, Jack-
son), but this would appear to be too high; Adachi (1914) en-
countered only one case in 271 subjects. In my own experience
two cases, one from the arch between the left carotid and left
subclavian and one from the innominate, have been found.

The artery when present shows wide variation in its origin;
Gruber (1872) analyzed 80 reported cases as follows: from the
arch 12 cases, 9 between innominate and left carotid, 2 between
right subclavian and right carotid, 1 between the left carotid and
subclavian ; 39 from the innominate; 16 from the carotid; 6 from
the internal mammary; 3 from the right subclavian; 1 from the

281

54 C. W. M. Poynter

right inferior thyroid; 1 from the transverse scapular. It may
accompany other irregularities asin the cases of Patterson (1884)
and Taylor & Grell (1902). Keith (1895) has observed the ar-
tery in the chimpanzee.

The following references are offered; and for illustration see

fig. 41.

From the innominate: Neubauer (1785), Shepherd (1877) (1880), Beau-
manoir (1882), Paterson (1884), Shepherd (1889), Freyberger (1898),
Taylor & Grell (1902).

From the arch: Nicolai (1725), Neubauer (1772), Loder (1781), Neu-
bauer (1785), Portal (1804), Thiloco (1804), Meckel (1816), Tiedemann
(1822), Breschet (1826), Velpeau (1826), Otto (1830), Blandin (1834),
Harrison (1839), Quain (1844), Gruber (1845 and 72), Hyrtl (1859),
Kemmetmuller (1911), Adachi (1914).

2. Thymic Arteries—These may arise from the ascending
aorta, section IIl,(A\ 2, fromthe arch, section MID) i on tom
the innominate, Taylor & Grell (1902). This is an infrequent
anomaly and of little morphological interest.

3. Internal Mammary.—This may arise from the ascending
aorta, section III, A, 2, from the aortic arch, sections III, D, 1, p,
and III, D, 2, f, and from the innominate, section III, D, 1, k.

4. Vertebrals—These show a wide range of variation, which
has been exhaustively studied by Kemmetmuller (1911) ; he has
shown that the foramen which the artery enters indicates which
segmental is represented in its origin and this assists materially in
classifying some of the anomalies. His general classification is
excellent, but too exhaustive to be followed in this brief review.

The right vertebral may arise from the aortic arch between the
innominate and the left carotid, section III, D, 2, a; from the
arch between the right subclavian and right carotid, section III,
D, 3, a; from the arch between the right carotid and right sub-
‘clavian in cases of right aortic arch, section III, D, 2, g and h;
from the innominate in cases of low origin of the right subclavian,
sections UID 1 andl, D2 as the last branchetnonmtinevarecle
Section sD) 52.

The left vertebral may arise, from the aortic arch just pre-
ceding the leit Subclaviant sections Mes Gir: s lly) anaemia

282

Arterial Anomalies 55

sD) eee Gnd wen Why) exarby tromutierarchn) asitae) last
prachyesections LING 2) Il Dei tron the innominate, sec
enor IU JD) 2s 1.

SIX
IV. THE VARIATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THORACIC DUCT

Anomalies of the thoracic duct are considered in this paper
because they frequently appear in conjunction with the cases of
low origin of the right subclavian artery. Calori (1890) has
studied this condition and concludes that there is no relation be-
tween the two anomalies; with this conclusion I am agreed be-
cause an analysis of the cases of low subclavian shows that only
a part of them also have an anomalous thoracic duct and that
the type of irregularity is not constant and may be found in cases
with no other developmental defect.

The irregularities in the position and number of connections of
the left duct with the venous system are matters of common
knowledge and need not be reviewed; we will confine this review
to the cases in which all or a part of the system opens into the
veins on the right side.

. We are quite sure that the thoracic duct begins as a paired
structure in relation to the two dorsal aortae and that the single
duct is the result of a fusion of the two ducts in somewhat the
same manner as the single dorsal aorta is formed. More obser-
vations are needed at the cephalic end to determine whether the
right duct normally develops as the right aorta does and disap-
pears by a similar atrophy. The embryonal history may be il-
lustrated if we may consider these cases of arrested development,
or rather development in the type of embryonal stages. Som-
mering (1841) saw a case in which two ducts ran from the re-
ceptaculum chili to the venous angles in the neck, one duct open-
ing on the right and one on the left. In Duval’s (ref. Todd ’39)
case the duct was double in the abdomen. Butler (1903) saw a
case in which the duct was double in the thorax, then single for
about an inch opposite the third thoracic vertebra, then continued
as two separate ducts, one opening on the left and the other on
the right. Numerous examples have been reported in which both

283

56 C. W. M. Poynter

ducts persist above, their union occurring opposite the third or
fourth vertebra, see my case, page 34, illustration fig. 25, and
examples below.

There is a specimen in the Warren Museum in which the duct
passes up on the right of the aorta to the third dorsal vertebra
where it crosses to the left, divides into two trunks and these con-
tinue as separate channels to their termination, one in the venous
angle and the other in the jugular behind; both are left ducts.
All the arteries are normal.

Persistence of both the right and left duct is seen in conjunc-
tion with double aortic arch, Watson (1877), and in low origin
of the right subclavian, my case, page 34; it may be noted in the
latter that the left duct is smaller than the right, suggesting that
this is an intermediate stage in the cases of persistent right duct
only.

Persistence of the right duct and obliteration of the left has
been observed in cases of right aortic arch, of the type presenting
a left innominate, Thomson (1863), Reid (1914), case Il. It
has also been observed in right aortic arch of the type in which
the left subclavian is the last branch, Combes & Christopherson
(1884). It may be found in cases of low right subclavian, see
below, although in these double duct is almost as frequently en-
countered.

From the above it will be seen how difficult it is to discover a
relationship between arterial variations and thoracic duct varia-
tions. It would seem that the factors which operate to produce
a low right subclavian artery also tend to establish the right duct
as a functioning structure. If as pointed out, page 33, the low
right subclavian is related to the cases of right aortic arch of the
type having a low left subclavian we would expect, reasoning as
above, that the left duct would be the one developed and this is
the case. This result in the case of the right arch with low left
subclavian, however, does not prove that the disturbing develop-
mental factors have influenced the duct for we are here dealing
with a duct that is normal.

I would conclude from a consideration of all of the cases of
anomalous thoracic duct, taken in conjunction with arterial varia-

284

Arterial Anomalies 57

tions, that duct irregularities are independent of arterial varia-
tions except in so far as developmental disturbances affecting
the arteries may be so far reaching as also to affect the thoracic
duct.

The following is a list of cases illustrating thoracic duct anom-
alies :

Duct opening on both sides in cases of low right subclavian: Meckel
(1772), Cruickshank (1789), Fleischmann (1815), Brown (1882), Hasebe
(1912).

Duct opening on right in cases of low right subclavian: Walter (1785),
Sandifort (1793), Hart (1826), Todd (1839), Stachelroth (1850), Brenner
(1883) 2 cases, McArdle (1885), Calori (1890), Gladstone & Wakeley

(1915).

Right duct persists with or without other anomalies: Hommel (1737),
Haller (1766), Mascagni (1787), Cruickshank (1789), Fleischmann (1815),
Meckel (1816), Otto (1824-30), Todd (1839), SOmmering (1841), Teich-
mann (1861), Thomson (1863), Watson (1872), Combes & Christopher-
son (1884), Davis (1886), Szalowsky (1888), Reid (1914).

§X. GENERAL SUMMARY

From the preceding study certain impressions have been gained,
which I will present as conclusions; fully appreciating, however,
that in many cases much needed data was not possible to obtain
and that the developmental problems are approached from only
one standpoint.

There is no satisfactory evidence of a fifth aortic arch in any
of the anomalies studied.

Factors disturbing the orderly development of the different
portions of the vascular system may act independently of and
without disturbing the normal growth processes. When the gen-
eral circulatory system is seriously interfered with on account of
these factors, compensation occurs either through arrest of nor-
mal atrophic processes or by enlargement of normal channels.

The factor or factors producing situs viscerum transversus
seem to be operative on the aortic arch but not on the pulmonic
arch.

The study of transposition shows that four separate growth

285

58 GC: WME Pownier

centers, viz., truncus arteriosus, bulbis cordis, ventricular limb
and arterial limb, must be considered and that any one or more
may show irregular development while the remainder develop
normally.

It would seem that the tendency to develop is stronger in the
left dorsal aorta than in the left fourth arch if we may judge
from the more frequent type of right aortic arch.

Factors disturbing vascular development apparently act at a
very early stage and on a very restricted area. In interpreting
anomalies we should attempt to fix the time and position of dis-
turbance if we are to throw light on the factors themselves.

There is insufficient embryological data to explain many of the
anomalous arrangements of the branches from the aortic arch and
it would seem that these problems might be solved by a study of
the lower mammals, in which these anomalies are type forms.

There is no way of determining accurately the percentage fre-
quency of the various anomalies in relation to the normal; the list
below shows the percentage in relation to the total number of ab-
normalities noted. In securing these figures I have divided the
irregularities into two groups one, sections I and II, relating more

Group I
Percent.

Irregular development of the aortico-pulmonary septum..... VES
Atresiavoni the pulmonanyaarteiyareue sciences eee 6.8
Transposition of aorta and pulmonary artery .............. GG
Patent tductuspartentosusinsracer ccm crc eee 20
Doublesaorticanchee sys ss sie cee yrs ee Stes a ee 2.2
Right: aortiovar clin ese eis snes cate ce acl le Ree ERG he meen 9
Lowrsonginvor rightusubclayianeantenyacs een eerie 31
Absence.ot thesthind arch hance) aaa eee nee 2

Group 2
Onetbranchiitromvcaonticiarchwaareee ere eet ee 3
Bizinnominate: ntrunks were seen i ee ee eee ee EIne 3
Bi-carotid strum ys Sore celia a ete ORGN Ee pg run tee ah wri aa aa 25
Metticarotidsiromythe innominates ieee ce eee 20
No innominate stem. (Low origin of subclavian notincluded) 8
ettivertebralutnomeaortic anche er eer tee 30
Rightivertebralerrompaonticeanch mms iia. ween 4.7
Unusualibranchesstromuthelaontic anche eee 2.5

286

Arterial Anomalies 59

particularly to arrest of development; and the other, section III,
relating to fusion or separation of branches of the aortic arch.
Since all of the evidence goes to show that the several disturbing
developmental factors may operate independently of each other,
these figures have no statistical value except to show the relative
frequency of the cases included in this study. :
The anomalies of the thoracic duct can all be explained from
the embryological development. The duct shows less tendency to
irregular development than the arteries of the same region, and
the duct irregularities are independent of arterial variations ex-
cept in so far as developmental disturbances affecting the ar-
teries may be so far reaching as also to affect the thoracic duct.

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310

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Bye

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314

Arterial Anomalies 87

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316

Arterial Anomalies 89

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I37

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From THE ANATOMICAL DEPARTMENT,
University MepIcAL COLLEGE,
OmaAHA, NEBRASKA

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE FIGURES

Aorta.

Aorta descendens.

Arteria carotis.

Arteria carotis communis dextra.
Arteria carotis communis sinistra.
Ductus arteriosus (Botalli).
Arteria carotis externa.

Arteria carotis interna.
Oesophagus.

Arteria pulmonalis.

Arteria subclavia dextra.

Arteria subclavia sinistra.
Trachea.

Ductus thoracicus.

Arteria vertebralis dextra.
Arteria vertebralis sinistra.

y & Qn aN
PSSA) 3 COVEN IS! (Gy SGN SIPS

WSR ey

340

PLATE lI.

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i=}
a
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rr)
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r)

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ine

rate

PLATE Il.

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(CUINSS TT CURKS cot iy (CLIK

oO

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22
23 ie
24

ES Ve

PLATE IV.

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oe

PLATE V.

PLATE VI.

ue eau
ne

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

Fic. 1. This figure represents the fig. 3, Plate II, used by v. Baer to
illustrate what he, at that time, thought was the type of development of
the aortic arches in mammals. It was copied by Thomson (1831) as fig.
39, although he did not give v. Baer credit for the mammalian figure but
for the right arch figure for birds, his fig. 30, and claimed priority for the
presentation of the mammalian type.

Fic. 2. This figure represents the fig. 14, Plate lV, which v. Baer (1837)
used to illustrate his embryology. He offered this figure in place of the
one above to correct certain misconceptions of the fate of the aortic arches
in mammals. He was of the opinion that the primitive third arch on each
side forms the arterial stem which divides into the internal carotid sub-
clavian and vertebral arteries, and that the external carotids arise from
the low persisting portion of the two first arches of one half side of the
head.

Fic. 3. This figure represents fig. 10, Plate VI, offered by Rathke (1857)
to correct the errors in interpretation which he considered v. Baer had
made for mammals. The development of the carotids and subclavians in
the main is correct and the relation of the pulmonary arteries to the fifth
arch is for the first time presented. This figure has frequently been pre-
sented as if it represented the first attempt at interpreting the arches,
when in fact it) is merely one step in the progress of our understanding
of these structures.

Fic. 4. This figure represents fig. 1, Plate I, offered by Boas (1888) to
illustrate the development of the aortic arches in mammals and especially
to introduce an additional arch between the fourth and pulmonary arches
which he believed had been overlooked by previous observers.

Fic. 5. This figure represents our present understanding of the devel-
opment of the aortic arches in mammals and is used in this study as the
basis for modifications explaining the various anomalies encountered in
this work.

Fic. 6. This figure is adapted from Kemmetmiiller (1911) to illustrate
the development of the vertebral arteries and the possible variations they
may assume due to anomalous development.

Fic. 7. This figure is adapted from Banchi (1907), his fig. 7, used to
illustrate the method of development of the low subclavian, taking a pre-
tracheal course. This method of solid reproduction of the arches was
used by His, and Banchi urges that it is much easier by this type of figure
to present the actual condition of the arches than by the plane figure, as
above.

341

114 . C. W. M. Poynter

Fic. 8. This figure is adapted from Hochstetter’s (1906) fig. 118, show-
ing the development of the vertebral arteries; it differs in no essential
detail from fig. 6, above, which was suggested by one of his earlier figures.

Fic. 9. A schematic representation of the development in cases of right
aortic arch, in which there is present a left innominate; see Sect. II, C, 1.

Fic. 10. A schematic representation of the development in cases of right
aortic arch in which the left subclavian artery is the last branch of the
arch; see Sect. II, C, 2.

Fic. 11. This condition is similar to fig. 10, except that the left verte-
bral artery springs apparently from the left common carotid instead of
the left subclavian; see Sect. II, C, 3. This figure was first used by
Brenner (1883) as fig. 5, Plate 17.

Fic. 12. A schematic representation of the development in cases in
which the right subclavian artery is the last branch from the arch. The
figure was first used by Wood (1859) and has been variously modified to
illustrate pre-tracheal and pre-cesophageal cases; for discussion see Sect.
II, D, 1, and for illustration figs. 7, 25, 39 and 41.

Fic. 13. This is similar to fig. 12 except that the right vertebral arises
from the right common carotid instead of the right subclavian artery; see
Sect: IT, D, 2)

Fic. 14. A schematic representation of the development in cases in
which the right vertebral artery arises from the aortic arch as the last
branch; see Sect. II, D, 3.

Fic. 15. A schematic representation of the development in cases in
which the pulmonary artery through the ductus arteriosus gives origin to
the dorsal aorta and the left subclavian artery; see Sect. II, D, 4.

Fic. 16. Like fig. 15 except that the left subclavian artery seems to
arise from the ascending aorta by a common trunk with the left common
carotid artery; see Sect. II, D, 5.

Fic. 17. A schematic representation of the development in cases in
which the common carotid is absent and the internal and external carotids
arise directly from the aortic arch; see Sect. II, D, 6 and 7.

Fic. 18. A diagram showing varying degrees of torsion of the great
vessels with corresponding arrangement of the bulbar and ventricular
septa: A, torsion of 90 degrees; B, normal or torsion of 135 degrees; C,
torsion greater than normal. In both 4 and C we must’ consider the con-
dition normal except for the actual position of the vessels and the adapta-
tion imposed on the ventricular loop.

All of the figures on this plate are adapted from the figures of Roki-
tansky (1875) and Robertson (1913a@) ; see Sect. I, C.

Fic. 19. Diagrams representing a mirror picture of fig. 18 and illus-
trating the possible positions of the vessels and septa in cases of situs
viscerum transversus.

342

Arterial Anomalies II5

Fic. 20. Diagrams representing the positions of the bulbar and ven-
tricular septa in simple transposition of the aorta and pulmonary arteries:
I shows the position of the distal part of the aortico-pulmonary septum;
II shows the position of the proximal aortico-pulmonary septum; III
shows the possible arrangement of the great vessels in relation to the
interventricular septum; IV shows the possible relation of the great ves-
sels in relation to the ventricular chambers (heart normal and aorta opens
from a tricuspid ventricle).

Fic. 21. Diagram representing the possible arrangement of vessels and
heart in transposition of the great vessels accompanied by dextro-cardia.

Fic. 22. Diagram showing the possible arrangement of the ventricular
chambers and the great' vessels in cases in which the bulbus rotates to the
left and the ventricular loop to the right.

Fic. 23. Diagram showing the possible arrangement of the ventricular
chambers and the great vessels in cases of dextro-cardia, in which the
vessels have developed normally.

Fic. 24. Diagram representing the possible arrangement of the ven-
tricular chambers and the great vessels in the cases of transposition in
which the aorta is in front of the pulmonary artery but opens from a
bicuspid ventricle.

Fic. 25. This drawing was made from a dissection in our laboratory
of a case in which the right subclavian artery arose from the beginning of
the dorsal aorta and passed behind the cesophagus. The thoracic duct
divided near the origin of the subclavian and opened on each side into the
venous angle; see page —.

Fic. 26. This figure, representing a case of true double aortic arch, was
taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 7, Plate IV, representing a case de-
scribed by Malacarne (1788), Pt. 2, p. 119; it was copied by Quain (1844)
as fig. 8, Plate V, and by Krause (1876) as fig. 108d.

Fic. 27. This figure, representing a case in which the arch alone is
double, was taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 6, Plate IV, representing
a case described by Hommel (1737). It is referred to in Haller Elem.
Physiol., tom. 2, p. 162, and copied by Quain (1844) as fig. 7, Plate V, and
by Krause (1876) as fig. 108d.

Fic. 28. This figure, representing a case of right aortic arch with the
left subclavian artery as the last branch and the ductus arteriosus patent,
was taken from Quain (1844), fig. 2, Plate VII.

Fic. 29. This figure, representing a case of right aortic arch with a left
innominate trunk, was taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 9, Plate IV.

Fic. 30. This figure, representing a case of persistence of both the right
and left ductus arteriosus, was taken from Breschet (1826), fig. 9, Plate I.

Fic. 31. This figure, representing the more or less common anomaly
of left carotid artery springing from the innominate trunk, was copied
from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 5, Plate II.

343

116 C. W. M. Poynter

Fic. 32. This figure, representing a case of right aortic arch, with the
left subclavian artery as the last branch and the right vertebral springing
from the arch, was taken from Abbott! (1892), fig. 1.

Fic. 33. This figure, representing a case of atresia of the pulmonary
artery, was taken from Keith (1909), fig. 4; the pulmonary artery leaves
the heart as a fibrous cord but rapidly enlarges to about normal, the ductus
arteriosus is patent.

Fic. 34. This figure, representing a case of thyreoidea ima springing
from the arch, was taken from Neubauer (1786), fig. 2, Plate VII.

Fic. 35. This figure, representing a case of bi-innominate trunks, was
taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 4, Plate II, and copied by Quain (1844),
fig. 9, Plate VI.

Fic. 36. This figure was drawn from a specimen of left common carotid
springing from the innominate, which is in the Warren Museum.

Fig. 37. This figure, representing a single branch from the aortic arch,
was taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 3, Plate II, illustrating the case of
Klinz (1793), p. 273. It was copied by Quain (1844), fig. 6, Plate V.

Fic. 38. This figure was drawn from a specimen of low origin of the
right subclavian with both carotids springing from a common stem, which
is in the Warren Museum.

Fic. 39. This figure, taken from Krause (1876), fig. 115 (Macartney),
Tiedemann, 1846, fig. 6, Plate XX XIX, represent's a case of low origin of
the right subclavian artery. with the right vertebral springing from the
right common carotid and the left vertebral from the aortic arch.

Fic. 40. This figure, representing a case of common trunk for the caro-
tids, was taken from Tiedemann oe fig. 2, Plate III, copied by Quain
(1844) as fig. 4, Plate VII.

Fic. 41. This figure, representing a case of low right subclavian artery,
with a common stem for the left carotid and subclavian, was taken from
Tiedemann (1822), fig. 6, Plate II; copied by Quain (1844) as fig. 8,
Plate VII.

Fic. 42. This figure, representing a case in which all four branches
spring separately from the arch, was taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig.
3, Plate III; copied by Quain (1844) as fig. 10, Plate VI.

Fic. 43. This figure, representing a case of the left common carotid
arising from the innominate trunk and the left vertebral from the arch,
was taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 7, Plate II.

Fic. 44. This figure, representing a case of the right subclavian arising
as the second branch from the arch, was taken from Tiedemann (1822),
fig. 4, Plate III; copied by Quain (1844) as fig. 11, Plate VI. The origi-
nal was by Huber (1777), vol. 8, p. 75 and fig. 3.

Fic. 45. This figure is adapted from a case of left vertebral arising
from the aortic arch which was found in our dissecting rooms.

344

Arterial Anomalies 7,

Fic. 46. This figure, representing a case in which the left vertebral is
the last branch from the arch, was taken from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 10,
Plate III; copied by Quain as fig. 10, Plate VII.

Fic. 47. This figure, representing the right subclavian as the third
branch from the arch, was reported by Walter (1785), p. 62, fig. 5, Plate
III; it was copied by both Tiedemann and Quain.

Fic. 48. This figure, representing five branches from the arch, was re-
ported by Penada (1801), p. 44, and figured by Tiedemann (1822) as fig.
4, Plate IV.

Fic. 49. This figure, representing six branches from the arch, was taken
from Tiedemann (1822), fig. 5, Plate 1V; copied by Quain (1844) as fig.
rs. Plate: Vide

345

re DM
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