^m

JiAj?^-

LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL

PLANTING.

AN INDEX.

PrBUSHED U^DER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE
DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

LONDON:

BALDWIN AND CRADOCK, P ATE RNOSTE R-RO W.

MDCCCXXXII.

COMMITTEE.

CAairm/ui— The Right (loo. the LORD CHANCEI.LOll.
Viee-Chairman— The Rt. Hon. LORD JOHN RUSSELL, M.P., Pajroastei General.

W. Allen, Esq., F.R. & R.A.S.

Kt. Hon Vise. Allhorp, M.P.
Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Rt. Hon. Lord Ashley, M.P.
F.R.A.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Auckland, Presi-
dent of the Board of Trade.

\V. B Baring, Esq.

Capl. F. Beaufort, R.N., F.R.
and R.A.S., Hydrographer to
the Admiralty.

SirO. Bell, F.R.S. L. and E.

John Hostock, M.D. F.R.S.

The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of
Chichester.

M'illiam Coulsnn, Esq.

R. D.Craig, Esq.

Wm. Crawford, Esq.

J. Fred. Daniell, Esq.. F.R.S.

-WILLIAM TOOKE, Esq., F.R.S.

I Sir T. Denman, M.P., Attor-IEdwin Hill, Esq.

nev-General. Sir J.Cam Hobhouse,Bt.,M.P.

Rt. Hon. Lord Dover, F.R.S., Secrctarv at War.

F.S.A. iDavid Jardine, Esq., A.M.

Lt. Drummond, R.E.F.R.A.S. Henrv B. Ker, Es^.
Viscount Ehringlon, M.P. Th. Hewitt Kev, Esq., A.M.

T. F.Ellis, Esq.,.ll. A, F.H.A.S. George C. Lewis, Esq., M.A.
John Elliolson, M.D., F R.S. lEdward Llovd, Esq., M.A.
How. Elphinslone. Esq., M.A. James Lochi Esq. M.P.,F.G.S.
Thom.as Falconer, Esq. . George Long, Esq., A.M.

I. L. Goldsmid, Esq., F.R. and J. W. Lubbock, Esq.,F.R.,R.A.

R.A.S. i and L.S.S.

B. Gouipertz, Esq., F.R. and Zacharv .Macaulay, Esq.

R.A.S. M. Maiden, Esq, A.M.

G. B. Greenough, Esq., F.R. Sir B. H. Malkin, M.A.

and L.S. i A. T. Malkin, Esq., M.A.

H.Hallam, Esq., F.R.S,, M.A. 'James Manning, Esq.
M. D. Hill, Esq. J.HermanMerivale,Esq.,K.A.S.

les MiU, Esq.

M. D. Hill, Esq.

Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R.A.i

W. H. Ord, Esq.

Rt Hon. Sir H. Parnell, Burl.

M.P.
Rl. Hon. T. S. Rice, M. P.

F.A.S., Sec. to the Treasurv.
Dr. Roget, Sec, R.S., F.U.A..S.
Sir M. A.Shee, P.U.A., K.R.S
Rev. Richard Sheepshanks,

M.A
J. Smith, Esq., M.P.
Wm. Sturch, Esq.
Dr. A.T.Thomson, F.L.S.
N. A. Vigors, Esq., F.K.S.
John Ward, Esq.
H. VVavmouth, Esq.
J. Whiihaw, Esq., M.A ,F.R.S.
John Wrotlesley, Esq., M.A.

Sec, R.A,S.

Anglesea — Rev. E. Williams,
hiv. W. Johnson.
Mr. Miller.
A-flthurton — J.F.Kingston, Esq
Bihton—Kev. W. Leigh.
Birmingham.— Rev. John Cor-
rie, F.K.S., CliairTjian.
Paul Moon James, Esq.,

Treasurer.
Jos. Parkes, Esq. ) Hon.
W. Redfern, Esa. f Sees.
Bonn — Leonard Homer, Esq.

F.R.S L&E.
Bristol— ]. N. Sanders, Esq.,
Chaii-man.
J. Reynolds, Esq., Treas.
J. B.' Estlin, Esq., F.L.S.,
Sec.
Bun/ S(. Edmunds.— v. Bevan,

Esq.

Cambridge — Rev. James Bow-
stead, M.A.

Rev. Prof Henslow, M.A.,
F.L.S. &G.S.

Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A,,

Rev. John Lodie. M.A.
Rev. Gen. Peacock, M.A.,

F.K.S.4G.S.
Rev. Prol. Se<|.-wick. M.A.,

F.R S. S G.S.
Profi'ssor Snivih, M.A.
R»v. C ThirUvHll, M.A.
K. \V Rothman. Esq., M.A.

F.H.A.S, & G.S.
Rev. Georue Waddingion.
Canleibury — Alex.B. Higgins,

Esq.

Canton— J. F. Da
F.R.S.

Esq.,

Carnanon—n. A. Poole, Esq.

William Hoberts, Esq.
C;.M(er— Haves Lvon, Esq.

Hev. Mr. Aspland.

W. Cole, Jun.. Esq.

Dr. Cnmming

Dr. Jones.

Henry Potts, Esq.

Dr. Thackery.

Rev. Mr. Thorp.

— Warden, Esq.

— Wedge, Esq.
Chichester— Dr. Forbes. F.R.S

Dr. Sanden.

C. C. Dendy, Esq.
Coventry— Ar. G-egorv, Esq.
Denbigh — John Madocks, Esq

Thos Evans, Esq.
Dfrtv— .loseph Strutt, Esq.
Devonoort — Lt.-Col. J. Hamil-
ton Smith, F.R. & L.S.
John Coles, Esq.
EJrurm— Jos. Wedgwood, Esq.
Ezeter—Rev. J. P. Jones.

J.TvrrelUEsq.
Glasgoir—K. Finlav, Esq.

D. Bannalvne, Esq.
Rt. Grahame, Esq.
Profes.sor Mvlne.
Alexander McG rigor, Esq.
Charles Icniirmt, Esq.

Mr. T. Atkinson, Hon. Sec.
G tamorgans}t ire —

Dr. Malkin, Cowbridge.
Rev. R R. Paul, Lantwit.
W. Williams, Esq., Aber-
l.eruwm.
HoIi/rccH— The Rev. J. Black-
mail.

\KeigHei/, Yorkshire— Rev. T.
1 Dury, M.A.

Launcffsion — Key. J. Barfitt.
Leamington Spa — Dr. Loudon,

M.IJ.
Im*— J. Marshal?, Esq.

Benjamin Gotl, Esq.

J. Marshall, Jun., Esq.
Lewes— J. W. Woollgar, Esq.
Liverpool Local .issociation—

Dr. Traill Chairman.

J. Mulleneux, Esq., Treas.

Rev. W. Shepherd.

J. Ashtnn Vales, Esq.
Ludlmc—T. A. Knight, Esq.,

P.H.S.
Maideniiead — R.Gnolden, Esq.,

F.L.S.
Manchester Local As ociation —

G. W.Wood, Esq., Chairman.

Benj. Hevwood, Esq., Treas.

T. W. Winstanlcy, Esq.,
Hon. Sec.

SirG.Philips, Bart., M.P.
Monmouth — J. H. Moggridge,

Esq.
A«a(/i— John Rowland. Esq.
Neiccastte — James Losh, Esq.

Rev. W. Turner.
A'(n/-;Mr(— Ab. Clarke, Esq.

T. Cooke, Jan., Esq.

R G. Kirkpatrick, Esq.
Nmcimt I agnelt—.t.yi illar.Esq
Nfnrton Montgomerijshire —

William Pimh, Ksq.
A'ortniWi— Ht Hon. Ld.Suffield

Rich. Bacon, Esq.
Pturwtuth — Geo. Harvey, Esq.,
F.R.S.

Rippon— RcT. H. P. Hamilton.
A.M., F.R.S.. and G.S.
Kev. P. Ewart, M.A.
nuf/iCT— Rev. The Warden of.

Humphreys Jones, Esq.
SlKfT'eld—i.'H. Abraham, Esq.
Shetrsbury — R. A. Slaney

Esq., M.P.
South Petherlon — John Nicho-

letts, Esq.
St. A'aph—Rev. Geo. Strong.
Stockport-Hrnrv Marsland.
Esq.. Treosiirer
Henrv Coppock, Esq., .See
rarisloH— Rev. W. :.van=.

John Hundle, Esq.
UVinoia— Dt. Conol Iv.
The Rev William Field,
a^am)
nater/ord—S'n John Newport,

Bart., iM.P.
JToheihampton — J. Pearson ,

Esq.
norcesfei— Dr. Corbett, M.D.
Di. Hastings, M.D.
C. H. Hebh, Esq.
Tiejftam— Thomas Edgworlli

J. E.to

Trci

, Esq., F.L.S.

Major William Llovd.
yarmoulh — C. E. Rumbold,
Esq., M.P.
D.iwaoa Turner, Esq.
rnri— Rev.J Kenrick, A.M.
John Wood, Esq., .M.I-.

THOMAS COATES, Secretary, 59, Lincoln's Inn Fieldt.

CONTENTS.

Chapter I.

Page.

Of some of the Advantages resulting from judicious Planting . , 2

Chapter II.

Of the structure of Trees, and of the natural Agents which influence and
govern the growth of the Plants fiom the period of germination, until
the Trees arrive at full maturity ••.... 2

Chapter III.

Of the different modes of rearing Forest-Trees : — By sowing the seeds on
the spot where they are to remain for Timber. By sowing the seeds on
nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young trees to their
timber sites. Modes of propagating, and of transplantmg, preserving,
and training proper shoots or suckers produced by coppice roots or
stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the different
modes ; and of simple and mixed Plantations .... 22

Chapter IV.

Of the soils and sites most profitably employed in the Growth of Timber;
intimate nature of different soils peculiarly adapted for the Growth of
particular species of Forest-Trees ...... 46

Chapter V.

Of the mc^t approved modes of preparinsr different Soils for the reception
of the Plants — Fencinsr, Draininsj, Ploughing, Trenching. Of the
formation of rides or oarriaije-vvays into the interior of plantations. Of
the best mode of coverins; these with Herbage .... 56

IV CONTENTS,

Chapter VI.

Page,

Of the culture of Plantations; Soil; Pruning; Thinning; remedips for
accidental injuries, and the natural diseases of Forest-Trees. Of the
Tanning afforded by the bark of different species of Trees . . 60

Chapter VII.

Of the progressive increase of size or produce of Wood in different species
of Forest-Trees. Of the mode of valuing Plantations — present value —
prospective value of certain individual Trees, which have attained to
great maturity. Of the products of Plantations, and of the terms used
by foresters to denote these products . . . . , 76

Chapter VIII.

Enumeration of the different Species of Forest-Trees ; their uses, and the
method of cultivation ........ 93

Ornamental Planting 129

Index 146

PLANTING.

The subject of ])lanting' may, with propriety, be divideil into three parts:
useful or forest-tree planting, ornamental or garden planting, and
orchaid or fruit-tree planting. Each of these divisions of the subject,
from its importance and interest, in a national point of view, as welt
as to individuals, seems to demand a distinct treatise.

The first of these, forest-tree planting, is proposed for the subject of the
following pages ; and the details of the theory and practice of the art
discussed under the following heads :

I. Of some of the advantages resulting from judicious planting.

If. Of the structure of trees ; and of the natural agents which influence
and govern the growth of the plant from the period of germination
to its full maturity. Of the seeds of forest-trees ; and of the processes
of vegetation.

III. Of the different modes of rearing forest-trees: — by sowing the seeds
on the spot where they are to remain for timber ; of sowing the seeds
on nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young plants to
their timber sites ; by preserving and training proper shoots or suckers,
produced by coppice roots or stools. Comparative advantages and
disadvantages of these different modes. Of simple and of mixed
plantations.

IV. Of the soils and sites most profitably employed in the growth of
timber. Intimate nature of the different soils peculiarly adapted for
the growth of particular species of forest trees.

V. Of the most approved modes of preparing different soils for the re-
ception of the plants : fencing, draining, ploughing, trenching. Of
the formation of rides or carriage-ways into the interior of plantations.
Of the best mode of covering these with herbage.

VI. Of the culture of plantations: soil, pruning, thinning. Remedies for
accidental injuries, and natural diseases of forest-trees. Seasons for
felling trees. Of the tannin in the bark of different species of trees.

VII. Of the progressive increase of the size or produce of wood in
different species of trees. Of the mode of valuing plantations:
present value; prospective value. Of the products of plantations.
Of some individual trees which have attained to great perfection.
Of the terms used to denote certain products of plantations.

VIII. An enumeration of the different species : those of large growth,
those of under growth tor copse wood, ornament, or shelter. Ths
generic botanical characters. Their natural soils ; mode of propa-
gation ; and the uses to which their timber is more generally applied.

B

PLANTING.

Chapter I.

Of some of the Advantages resulting from judicious Planting.

Judicious planting and the skilful culture of plantations combine national
and private interests in an eminent degree; for, besides the real or intrinsic
value of the timber or ostensible crop, with other produce of woods,
available for the arts and comforts of life, judicious forest-tree planting
improves the general climate of the neighbourhood, the staple of the soil,
as regards the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter, affords shelter to
live stock, promotes the growth of pasture and of corn crops, beautifies
the landscape, and thus greatly and permanently increases the value of
the fee simple of the estate and adjoining lands.

Tf we turn to those soils emphi-.ticaliy termed wastes — exposed, elevated
lands, moors, bogs, and sterile sands — composing so large a portion of the
British euipire, and naturally clothed by the lowest and least valuable
products of the vegetable kingdom, the inferior grasses, mosses, rushes,
sedges, ferns, and heaths — we find that upon them the more valuable do-
mestic animals cannot exist. If we consider the reason why they are so
barren, waste, and unproductive, when comj)ared with other lands not
more favoured by nature, and under similar circumstances of latitude and
elevation, the cause will, in many instances, be found in the want of the
shelter and shade of trees, and of the ameliorating influence which
plantations exercise on ungenial local climates.

'I'he essential, permanent pasture grasses cannot be established on naked
exposed situations; but when assisted by the shelter of forest-trees they
become permanent and jn-oduclive. Plantations siipply us with fuel,
with materials for fencing, enclosing, building; corn crops, soiling plants,
and root crops are obtained in succession under their genial protection.
Many thousands of acres now unprofitable to the owners and to the
community, might, by judicious plaiuing, be reclaimed, and rendered
highly productive ; and it may be safely affirmed, that there is hardly a
spot of waste land in the kingdom so barren, wliich by the exercise of
skill in planting, and selection of proper species of forest-trees adapted to
the soil and exposure, might not be covered with profitable plantations.

Numerous instances might be cited from diHerent parts of the kingdom
where exposed and sterile lands have, by phuiting, been made capable of
producing valuable arable crops and the best pasture grasses, and of
rearing and fattening stock of improved breeds. This, in effect, is adding
to the territorial extent of a country, to its wealth and strength, by conquest
over the natural defects of local climate, soil, and exposure.

Chapter II.

Of the Structure of Trees, and of the Natural Agents which influence and
govern the growth of the Plants, from the period of Germination
iintil the Trees arrive at full viaiurity.

Plants being living organized bodies, a just knowledge of the functions
of their vital organs, and of the principal natural agents which influence
their progress of growth to maturity, will be found a useful, if not an indis-
pensable assistant to guide the practical planter in rearing trees in the most

PLANTING. 8

judicious and successful manner. Tliis pnvt of the subject properly belong-s to
vcgotiible physioloy-y ; and as the limits of an essay do not allow of entering
into minute details, we shall here only notice tho;^e leading- features of the
structure of trees, and those functions of their vital orgjans, which more
immediately influence the practical operations of the planter. In con-
sidering- the progress of vegetable life, physiologists have disting-uislied
six ])rincipal parts of a tree : the root, the stem, the branches, the leaves^
ihejiowers, and the fniit or seed.

'i'he varieties of the root of forest-trees are characterised by the names
of tap root, fibrous root, and creeping- root, these may be considered rather
as indicating- particnlar states of the same organ at different stages of
growth than as permanent or specific distinctions*.

The tap root is that which first appears on the vegetation of a healthy
seed, and penetrates perpendicularly into the soil. From it issne nu-
merous minute radicles ; and as the proper leaves are developed, lateral
roots or fibres are formed and sent out from the sides of the tap I'oot,
particularly at the point of junction situated between the radicle and stem.

As the plant advances in age the distinction of the tap root is lost, either
by decay or by its taking a horizontal direction in common with the
general mass of roots, and from which in a few years it is not to be
distinguished. Other leading- roots are frequently formed from the first
delicate lateral fibres, which pervade the tap root, and sometimes from its
extremity when it happens to divide into parts, which always takes place
when the extremity comes in contact with a richer or more genial soil, or,
on the contrary extreme when it meets with obstructions in its first or
early descent liom whatever cause, rocks, gravel, &c., or by injury from
insects : if the tap root be taken from tlie seed leaves before the plumula
appears, or before the development of the proper leaves, the young-
seedling dies ; and, again, should the tap root be deprived of the seed leaves
before the production and expansion of the proper leaves, no farther
reproduction or growth takes place. The uses of the tap root, it will
readily be perceived from these facts, are of great importance to the plant
in its first stages of growth, and may be compared to the equally essential
and important uses of the seminal leaves, at the same period ; but its
subsequent destruction does not, as it has been supposed, influence
injuriously the ultimate produce or value of the tree.

Two or any ecpial number of trees, for instance, of the same age, of the
like constitution, and reared on a soil of the same nature, the one from
seed on the spot, the other being transplanted from a nursery bed, without,
or with a portion only of its tap-root, will give results wliich prove that
trees, when transplanted at a certain age and size, and in all other respects
of cultine under the same circumstances, produce timber in quantity and
in quality equal, if not superior to untransplanted seedlings. Whether,
therefore, to raise forest-trees from seed on the spot where they are to

* In practical planting, as well as in practical botany, the root is considered fo be that
part of a plant which is hid underground, and the varieties of it are characterized ac-
cording to the shape and mode of growth, as bulbous, tuberous, fibrous, or creeping;
these again are susceptible of subdivision as they vary from the type. In physiology,
however, the fibres or radicles are alone recognised as the roots, as it is they only which
take up the food of the plant supplied by the soil.

The tuber of the turnip, potato, &c. and the bulb of the hyacinth, kc. are properly
reservoirs iu which to deposit the food of the plant until wanted in season for tlie pro-
duction of leaves, fiuwers, and fruit, or seed. Indeed, bulbs and tubers may be considered
the plant itself in cirtain stages of its progress to maturity. A deciduous tbrest-tree in
winter, when without its leaves, flowers, and seed, may be compared to a bulb or tuber,
when destitute at the same time of these parts of a plant. Routs, in general, arc also
distinguished in practice as to diu:atiou, being annual, biennial; and perennial.

B2

4 PLANTIXG.

produce limber, or in nursery beds, and afterwards transplant them,
is a question of mere expediency.

Wliere seeds of the kinds of forest-trees desired can be had at httle
cost; where the soil is friable, is in a ]ierfectly clean state, and consequently
adapted to the plough culture ; where such animals as are destructive of
seeds and young- plants, as mice, rooks, and game, particularly hares and
rabbits, are not likely to be greatly destructive; and where the cost of
labour is not comparatively high, then sowing the seeds of forest trees on
their timber sites, may be the best practice and be adopted with success.
But where, on the contrary, these obstructions exist or are probable,
transplanting select healthy trees from nursery beds, though the plants be
deprived of their tap roots, will be found more economical in the first
outlay, and in the subsequent cost of culture; and the most profitable, as
affording a quicker return of profit in prunings and thinnings, and will
produce timber in a less number of years from the time of occupying the
land for that purpose.

The fibrous root is that which is most common to forest-trees. It
consists of lumierous divisions or bundles of fibres, furnished with
minute spongeols, and nearly representing the divisions or ramifications
of the large and smaller branches and buds of the tree.

The variety of creeping root is chiefly confined to those trees which
have the roots running horizontally, as in some species of poplar, elm, &c.

The organization of the root is similar to that of the stem and branches,
from the j^Hh which forms the centre of the body to the epidermis which
covers the bark. Each part may be traced in uninterrupted continuation,
from the minutest radicle of the root to the extremity of the smallest
branch or bud of a tree.

When a root of whatever kind is divided, its horizontal section exhibits
three distinct jjarts, the ]>ith, i\\e %cood, dAu\ the bark ; and a transverse
section of the iri/nk of the tree, or of a branch, exhibits exactly the same
parts.

The ])ilh forms the central circle of a i-oot, stem, or branch : it is a
cellular membraneous body of a silvery white colour. As the tree or root
advances in age and the timber is perfected, the pith gradually loses its
original spongy texture, the cells of which it is composed becoming more
and more compressed until all appearance of it is lost in the wood,
excepting that the concentric circle which it occupied appears whiter than
the other annual layers. But although the pith thus disappears in the old,
it still continues in progress with the young wood of the root, stem, or
branches ; and the periodical fibres or radicles of the former, and the buds
or embryo branches of the latter, will on examination be found to originate
from it. When a branch is pruned off close to a stem wherein, from
age, the pith has disappeared for some distance above and altogether from
below the origin of the amputated branch, no reproduction of shoots takes
place in whatever season the pruning may be performed, but should a
portion of the branch be left to the stem, from that buds and shoots will
spring. It also happens that when a branch is pruned off close to a
young healthy stem containing perfect and active pith, before or shortly
after the completion of the midsummer growth, which usually takes place
before the end of July, no reproduction of shoots follows the operation, but
the efforts of the vital functions of the plant appear to be wholly directed
to cover the wound with fresh bark. Should the pruning, however, be
performed in spring before or shortly after the expansion of the leaves, or
after their fall in autumn, a reproduction of buds and shoots ensues, and a
.slower progress in the formation of new bark is apparent.

PLANTING. 5

The presence of leaves is essential to the growth of buds and branches,
and consequently to that of the pith in these and in the roots ; but the
leaves are not otherwise necessary to the formation and growth of the
fibres or radicles of the root, as these are produced in abundance when the
plant or tree is leafless, and even during winter when the ground is covered,
with frost and snow, the reservoir of nourishment in the pith being
probably sufficient for that purpose.

From these facts and others which might be brought forward, it is clear
that the uses of the pith in the formation of buds in the branches of the
tree, and of fibres or radicles in the root, and in the supjiort of these
during the first stages of growth, are analogous to the important functions
of the seed leaves in the first stages of growth of the seedling plant. The
pith of a radicle or fibre may readily be traced into that of the root, and
the same is precisely the case in a branch with relation to the stem of the
tree. The respective uses of these organs are only for the first and early
stages of growth ; and, after that, they may be lost without any apparent
injury to the further progress of the parts in question: the cotyledons dry
up and fall away as the healthy progress of the roots and leaves advances,
and the pith disappears, or its identity is lost in the wood, as that part of
the structure which surrounds it approximates to maturity. *

The wood stands next in order to the pith, it is formed of indurated
vegetable fibre, and occupies the space between the pith and the bark ; it
constitutes the bulk and strength of the subject. The yearly growth or
increase of the wood is defined by circular lines or concentric layers clear
to common observation in a transverse section of any root, branch, or
stem. The discriminating characters of the wood being more obvious in
the stem, than in the root or rootlets, we shall consider it more particularly
when mentioning the stem.

The bark covers the wood in every part of the tree, and is the most
important organ of vegetable life, for the pith may be lessened, the wood
may be partially or even wholly taken away, and, the leaves may be
stripped off, and yet the tree may recover, but when deprived of its
bark, the root, stem, or branch of a tree dies. It is therefore of the
greatest importance to the practical planter, that the bark of the roots and
of the exposed system of his plants should be preserved free from the
slightest injury.

The bark when divided horizontally shews three distinct parts, the liber,
or inner bark, which lies next to the wood ; the cellular tissue, or paren-
chyma, which is distinguished in the bark of the exposed system of the
plant by its fine green colour, but which is colourless in the bark of the
root ; and, lastly, the epidermis, or outer bark, which is the universal
covering of every part of a tree.

* A scion grafted on a stock, and a bud separated from its parent shoot and inserted
into the bark of another tree, may at first sight offer proofs going to invaU<late the opinion
of the important uses of the pith in the formation of buds and fibres ; but before the scion
and the bud are taken off; or are in a fit state for the purposes of budding and grafting, the
pith of the parent stock has already performed its offices. The important experiments of
Mr, Knight on this subject prove that the pith may be removed in part withoiit effiicting
the general health of the tree, just as the cotyledons may be removed from the young
plant after having established its root and stem, with a continuation of pith to originate
new buds, or embryo branches and radicles. We often meet with roots, which from severe
injuries by mutilation at an advanced age of the tree, or by the injurious effects of a
damp ungenial soil at an earlier period of growth, have lost the entire substance of the
pith and wood, and present the appearance of a hollow tube, have yet young fibres or
radicles issuing from their sides and continued as in roots where the pith and wood is
perfect ; on examination, however, these young fibres may be traced through the bark into
the hollow of the root, demonstrating the origin of the radicle from the pith.

6 PLANTING.

On youns; slioots and stems the epidermis appears membraneons, or as
a thin transparent membrane without vessels; but late researches, aided
by powerful glasses, have shewn that it is partially furnished with minute
retiform vessels, particularly in the leaves.

When casually displaced off young shoots it is reproduced with little
apparent injury to the part, unless it happen on the annual parts of the
tree, as the leaves and flowers. In old stems and branches the epidermis
often attains to considerable thickness, becominp; hard, rough, or granulated,
as seen in tlie trunk of elm, oak, and most kinds of forest-trees, and in the
trunk of the apricot, pear, &c., among fruit-trees. When in this latter
state, the epidermis may be removed without injury, and, in some instances,
it has been cleared away from these fruit trees with evident advantage to
their general health and fertility *.

The parenchyma is composed of hexagonal cells, containing juice, which
in the stems and branches is of a green colour, even when covered by a
thick indurated epidermis; but in the root, as before alluded to, the juice
of the parenchyma is colourless.

The inner bark consists of cortical layers, constituted of longitudinal
fibres or vessels, which are supposed to return the sap from the leaves
after their undergoing certain changes by the action of solar light, heat,
and air. The medullary rays which pass from the pith to the cellular tex-
tures of the inner bark and parenchyma in a horizontal direction, appear to
be the medium of a lateral intercommunication of sap and air throughout
the entire structure of the treef.

The green colour of the 'parenchyma depends on the exposure of its
epidermis to light and air; for when a portion of the stem of a tree is ex-
cluded from light, as is sometimes done in planting when the tree is
placed deeper in the soil than it stood before transplanting, the green
colour is destroyed in that part of it which is covered with the soil, and
which in course of time assumes the colour of the root ; and, if much
moisture exists in the soil and the tree be not young, the bark so covered
decays, and the tree dies. Should the soil be dry, however, and the plant

* In 1813 the following trial was made to ascertain the efFects of removing the rough,
hardened epidermis from the trunk and limbs of a very large and aged Crassane pear-
tree. The tree was trained horizontally on a v/est wall, the branches extended twenty
feet on each side of the large trunk in the most perfect order. The stem was cleared of
the roiifh epidermis entirely, and the branches on one side also were treated in like man-
ner. The branches which extended on the other side of the stem, had only every alternate
branch stripped of the rough, hardened epidermis. Previously to this, the tree had for
many years ceased to bear fruit, except occasionally one or two at the extremities of the
upper branches. The first season after the above operation, the foliage assumed a more
healthy appearance on the decorticated branches, and in the coui-se of the second year
many fruit buds were formed, which afterwards produced fruit of very good quality. The
branches which were suffered to remain with their hardened epidermis, continued barren.
Adjoining to this tree was another of the same species, apparently of the like age and of
nearly the same dimensions. In this instance every second branch was pruned off near
to the stem, and young grafts of the crassane, colmar, brown beurrie, and St. Germain,
united to stumps of those branches respectively. These grafts all succeeded so well that
in four years from the period of grafting they had nearly attained to the length of the
old branches, and produced full crops of fruit of a very superior quality. The old
branches, which had purpjsely been left, remained in the same barren state as before.
The branches produced from the grafts were superior at the end of thetifth year, in regard
to health and produce, to the decorticated branches ; and these last were in a like pro-
portion superior to those branches which were left untouched. These facts go to prove
clearly that the thickening and hardening of the epidermis has a very considerable in-
fluence on the health and fertility of a tree.

t It IS contrary to every known law of the vital power, to suppose that any part of tli
Btructure of a living organized body can resist decomposition or decay, if it be cut ol
from a reciprocal commimicatiou witlj the circulating vital juices,

off

PLANTING. "

young-, the bark in question is jvradually converted into root-bark ; during*
this conversion of the stem-bark to that of the root, the plant advances
but Httle, if any, in growth, but exhibits an unhealthy appearance by the
paleness of its leaves, and the weak growth of slioots. The same effects
are in a great degree observable from the opposite error, of planting too
shallow, which is when a portion of the root nearest to the stem is left
above the g-round. This exposed portion of the rool-bark in time gains
the green colour in its parenchyma ; and although no portion of it is
ever found to decay, as in the former instance, yet, for a time, the plant
makes but little progress in the growth of wood : if a fruit tree, the effect
appears to be to increase the formation of fruit buds, and to stimulate the
functions of the tree to bear fruit. It may not be devoid of interest to re-
mark here, that this is a more efficacious mode of inducing a free grow-
ing though barren fruit-tree to bear fruit, than any of those recommended
for that purpose, such as ringing, or placing an iron ring round a branch
to prevent the annual increase of bark on the space occupied by the ring,
cutting the bark in the manner of a circular incision of a branch, dividing
the roots, and by reversing the natural direction of the branches. It may
be unnecessary to add, that the above facts point out the importance of
planting every tree not deeper in the ground, nor farther out of the surface,
than the root occupied in the soil previous to transplantation ; most essen-
tially when the produce of wood or of timber is the primary object desired.

The steiti, trunk, or bole, constitutes the principal body of a forest-tree.
It is the medium of communication between the root and the branches,
leaves, flowers, and fruit or seed. By the exercise of this function it ob-
tains its vearly increase of substance, marked by the white circular lines
apparent on the surface of a transverse section of the stem of every species
of tbrest-tree. By counting the number of these circles the age of the tree
may with certainty be determined.

It was before observed that the structure of the root was similar to that
of the organization of the stem and branches ; but a more particular
notice of the constitution of the wood was referred to this place.

A close examination * of a horizontal section of the wood of a trunk or
branch of a tree, will exhibit two very distinct appearances.

1st. A series of white and shining laminee, which radiate from the pith
to the bark (_/§-. b, ])t. These generally straight, or sometimes interrupted,
lines are termed the silver grain or medullary rays of the wood. These
vary as to size and arrangement, termed primary or secondary rays, con-
tinued in one straight line from the pilh to the bark, or interrupted and
broken in the course of their direction, according to the species of tree
which affords the wood in question. They appear to be composed of
cellular tissue, and to originate from the pitii, or, in a word, are a linear
lateral extension of that organ. " These medullary rays are elastic and con-
tractile, as is evident to every one who has observed the effects of the
extremes of dry and of moist weather on the section of a felled tree.

2d. A series of concentric layers, or circles, termed the spurious grain.
These consist of tubular vessels of smaller or larger diameters, arranged
in lines or groups varying according to the genus and species of the tree
to which the wood belongs.

* With a common or four-power microscope. A tliiu slice of the siihstance is, perhaps,
the most conveuiont for examining. When placed nudcr a high magnifying p.iwer the
beauty, order, and arrangement of the tubular and cellular texture, will reward the observer.

f these should be examined with a magnifying glass, for the texture of the different
woods exhibited will thereby be more satisfactorily compared with the descnptious
which accompany them.

PL \NT1NG.

An examination of many (liferent kinds of wood proves that these
characters of distinction are constant, and, therefore, afford a certain means
of distino-uishing the wood or timber of one .species of tree from that of
another.

'J'he followin": discriminating characters of the woods of the principal
timber trees will be found constant: —

The wood of the elm (fg. a) is distinguished by having the medullary
rays, or silver grain, equal, and not crowded. 'J'he concentric layers are
composed of a series of cells of nearly unequal diameter, arranged in an
almost simple curved line. The spaces between the layers are furnished
with cells of a smaller diameter, and rather thinly scattered over the
surface.

The oak {Jig- b) has two series of medullary rays ; the primary ones
are large and strongly marked, distant from each other, and are uninter-
rupted in their course from the pith to the bark (^g. b, 1). The secondary
rays are numerous between the primary, bist not crowded.

The concentric layers, or circles, are distinguished by the arrangement
of the cells. They are grouped in somewhat triangular masses, forming
a wavy circular outline. The structure of the concentric layers or annual
rings, distinguish at once with certainty the wood of the oak from that of
the chestnut, with which it has often been confounded.

The wood of the ash (c) has the places of those rays so prominent on
the wood of the oak, supplied by twin rays (1) placed in wide intervals over
the surface, and between these double rays are smaller ones, placed in
regular order. In the narrow spaces between the individuals which con-
stitute the twin rays are wanting those apparent remains of the cellular
texture which are so remarkable in the spaces between the single rays.

The wood of the beech (fZ) has the primary" rays (2) dispersed pretty
regularly over the surface of a horizontal section of the wood ; the secon-
dary rays are not continuous from the pith to the bark, but interrupted,

PLANTING.

and exhibit a numerous series of fraf;ments of rays, filling- up the spaces
between the primary ones, obvious to the naked eye, and renderinf^ the
silver grain, as it is called, of the beech very distinct from any other kind
of wood.

The wood of the Spanish or sweet chestnut (e) has often been con-
founded with that of the oak ; but its characters of distinction are very
obvious. It agrees with the oak in having; the secondary rays equally
disposed, almost straight, and, though close to each other, yet not crowded
as in the elm and beech ; itditiers, in the primary rays being- scarcely to be
distinguished from the secondary, whilst in the oak these are prominent
and obvious to the naked eye on the slightest inspection. The concentric
layers are regularly curved, whilst in the oak they are strikingly waved.
The mouths of the tubular vessels, which constitute so obvious a part of
these annual rings, or layers, are disposed in triangular masses in the oak ;
on the contrary, in the chestnut they are in regular order.

.^^

,0^^^§§tf

The hornbeam (/) has the rays of the wood nearly equal, but may
readily be distinguished from that of the beech, to which it bears the
greatest resemblance, by the simple arrangement of the tubular structure
accompanying the concentric layers, which in the hornbeam are distant and
oval shaped, the narrow sides pointing to the pith and to the bark ; in the
beech they are circular shaped, more numerous, and equal sized.

The birch (g) has all the medullary rays nearly equal, arranged closely,
and having the concentric circles minute, but marked with a row of equal
cells.

The horse chestnut (h) has all the rays very minute, few of them np-
paiently continuous, but interrupted, and in substance varying m breadth.
The cells are numerous and minute.

Alder (i) has the wood with lar-e primary rays, thmly arranged, but
in nearly regular order; the secondary rays are slender, numerous, and
interrupted.^ The cells of the concentric layers are nearly . regular. Ihe
spaces between the rays are crowded with cells.

(10

PLANTING.

Oriental plane (A-) has the pnmary rays regular but closely arranged;
they are somewhat wavy ; the cellular texture of the concentric layers
but slightly marked.

The sycamore (/) in texture approximates to the plane: still, however,
it is very distinct in its straight lined rays, which are very minute or slender.
The cellular texture is composed of such minute ceils as scarcely to be
perceptible under a four power microscope ; these cells are, however, very
numerous.

The poplar (???) has the wood composed of rays so slender as not to be
obvious to the naked eye. The concentric layers are composed of ex-
ceedingly minute cells. This wood is extremely porous ; the cells of
which it is composed are so numerous that a very thin slice of the wood,
taken horizontally, exhibits the appearance of the finest possible open
net-work.

Common acacia, or locust, (?i) has wood which bears some resemblance
to that of the oak ; but it is very distinct from any other kind mentioned
here ; it wants the distinct primary rays so prominent in the oak, the
rays of the locust being all nearly of equal breadth, and as slender as the
secondary rays of the oak ; here they are somewhat wavy. The cellular
or tubular structure is also very different from that of the oak, being

#

\

^:

PLANTING. ai

arrant^ed in more regular order wliere they mark the concentric layers, and
the spaces between the rays are fiirnislied witli many cells irregularly
scattered over, of a size equal to those marking tlie concentric layers.

The wood of the fir (o) is distinguished from all others here enumerated
by having very prominent coloured concentric layers, arranged very
regularly throughout ; and the cellular texture, though composed of cells
sulhciently large to be seen with the naked eye, is not to be distinguished
without very close observation.

The lime (p) lias very slender equal rays and a minute celhilar texture
pervading the whole body of the wood. Tlie concentric layers are
scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. It may be compared to the wood
of the poplar, but the network-like arrangement of the cellular texture is
not so obvious in the former ; the presence of the rays in the lime distin-
guishes it at once irom the poplar.

mm

The wood of the laburnum (7) is distinguished by its minute, regular,
uninterrupted medullary rays, and by the broken beaded longitudinal lines
of the tubular structure.

These characters of distinction being permanent and constant in all these
ditFerent kinds of wood, will be found useful in cases where it is desirable
to ascertain the kind of timber which may have continued sound for the
longest period in any particular building or situation, and the contrary
where its duration has been limited*.

' The leaves constitute one of the most important conservative organs of
vegetable growth ; for on the free and healthy exercise of their functions
depend the life of the plant and its progress to maturity, to say nothing of
that universal interest and pleasure which is afforded by the diversified
beauty of their forms and tints. The green colour of the leaves of trees
has been proved, beyond all doubt, to depend chiefly on the Influence of
solar light and atmospheric air. Almost every distinct species and variety
of plant, in its most healthy state, has its own peculiar shade of green :
the yellovv-green tint of the foliage of a healthy larch, would in that of a
pine, spruce, fir, and cedar of Lebanon, be certain indications of disease
and decay. The dissection of a leaf shews that it is composed of vessels,
cellular tissue, and an epidermis. The green part of a leaf is, in fact, a
continuation of the parenchyma of the bark before mentioned ; and the mid-
rib and nerves of the leaf are a continuation of the conducting and returning
sap, and air vessels of the bark and alburnum. The under and upper
surfaces of the leaf may be separated in an entire state from each other.
These appear to perform different offices ; the under surface is provided

* It \voiild be of the greatest utility to the interests of plautiup^ were registers kept
of the kinds of timber used in particular buildings; also the age of the tree which pro-
duced it, when felled, and the soil, and situation or climate, in which the trees were
reared. Posterity would be grateful for such records of facts.

12 PLANTING.

with numerous minute pores by which moisture and air are emitted and
absorbed. The upper surface of the leaves of trees is supposed to be
destitute of pores: this part always turns its surface to solar light*.

The leaves of forest-trees are either simple or compound; simple as in
the common beech, and compound as in the ash, where several smaller
leaves are attached to one foot-stalk. The foot-stalk of the leaf is ter-
minated by a gland, which in deciduous trees, or those that shed their
leaves in autumn, becomes indurated, and at that season readily separates
from the branch or twig\

The midrib of the leaf is merely a continuation of the footstalk ; this
divides the body of the leaf longitudinally ; it may be compared to the stem
of the tree, for from it issue branches of various sizes, dispersed through
the substance of the leaf in order resembling those of the tree. The first
or largest series of fibres issue from the sides of the midrib, either in
an opposite direction, alternately, or irregularly, according to the species of
tree; from these secondary branches proceed a third and a fourth series,
not however in such straight lines as in the former, but curving and
anastomising, or opening into each other in all directions, and, in this last
particular, they have a resemblance to the disposition of the minute blood-
vessels of the animal economy. The difference in the disposition of the
first and secondary fibres of the leaves is so constant in the individual
plants of different natural genera, that it affords a very clear discriminating
character by wliich they maybe distinguished from each other, in the same
manner as the wood of different kinds are identified by the concentric
circles and medullary rays before mentioned.

The leaves of the oak (Quercus) have the secondary fibres few in num-
ber, and curved towards the sinuosities of the leaf; the third series of fibres
are very prominently marked, and the fourth series extremely minute. The
leaves of the Spanish chestnut (Castanea), belonging to the same natural
order but to a different genus, have the secondary fibres nearly straight,
the third series very numerous and curved alternately, the fourth series
nearly as large as the third, and if we examine and compare the wood of
the oak and the chestnut, we shall find equally marked distinctions between
them.

In the beech (Fagus), which likewise belongs to the same natural order,
but to a different genus to the above, the secondary fibres of the leaves are
very prominent, and the third and fourth series minute, and of nearly an
equal size, and the texture of the wood is equally distinct from that of the
oak and the chestnut.

That the leaves of plants during the day emit oxygen gas or vital air,
and absorb carbonic acid gas or impure air, has long since been jjroved.
In the night or during darkness, vital air is absorbed by plants and un-
healthy air emitted, and it would appear by various experiments on this
important point, that when the supply of carbonic acid gas from the air
and soil is greater, the emission of oxygen gas by the leaves during their
exjiosure to siinshine is also greater, hence another cause of healthy plan-
tations improving the climate of their neighbourhood besides that of shelter.

The leaves of trees being the great organs for elaborating the sap and
fitting it to become converted into all and every product of the tree, whether
timber, bark, seeds or fruit, render the facts relating to their structure and
fimctions of higii interest to the planter and forester; for they point out tiie
danger of lessening their muuber beyond a certain extent, as in excessive

* Fur a minute and interesting account of the varied forms of these pores, and of tlieir
uumber on difierent plauts, see Part I. ' of Vegetable Physiolog\,' published in the Library
of Useful Knowledge.

PLANTING. 13

prnnincr, or of siifTcrin^ the leaves 1o be crouded (oo mucli, so as to ex-
cliule a free admission of lig^lit and air, as happens when trees are planted
too close ton;ether, and judicious thiiuiing- and pruning- are nep^lected.

The seeds of forest trees. Seed consists of three principal parts:
1st. The cotyledons, or seed leaves; — 2dly. The rostel, or first radicle,
which descends into the soil, and becomes the root of the tree; —
3dly. The pli/77ii/la, which ascends, and becomes the stem, bole, or trunk.
The rostel and plumula are closely united in the seed, and there constitute
what is termed the p,erm, or embryo of the future tree. This is an essential
part of the seed, for however healthy in appearance the seed may appear,
if the germ be injured, the seed never vegetates. The cotyledons or seed-
leaves contain a farinaceous substance which is the source of nourishment
to the radicle, until established in the soil and fitted to perform its proper
office in the development of the stem and proper leaves of the plant. It
may be useful in this place to mention, that the seeds of forest trees may
be classed under the following- heads or general characters, indicating
peculiar points to be observed in the practice of sowing them.

1st. Seeds farinaceous, and covered with shells, ?int-seeds. To this class
belong the oak, Spanish-chestnut, beech, horse-chestnut, walnut, hazel,
hornbeam, plane, sycamore, maple, and ash, to which may be added, though
not strictly belonging to the group, the birch, alder, and lime. The first
seven kinds, from the farina they contain, are least adapted for keeping
out of the soil, and the same cause renders them more difficult to pre-
serve in the soil when sown, by inducing the attacks of mice, birds, and
other vermin. The spring is considered the best season for sowing, and
the seeds must therefore be preserved carefully during winter; the most
approved mode is to spread them out in their layers on a cool dry floor, but
previously to this they should be thoroughly dried by the sun and air. Tlie
smaller kinds of seeds after being sufficiently dried, may be kept in a
.smaller space. The seed of the oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), however,
succeed best when sown immediately as it is perfected. When sown, these
seeds require different degrees of covering in the soil. The larger seeds, as
those of the chestnut, oak, &c., should be covered with two inches of
mould ; for the smaller seeds of the plane, sycamore, hornbeam, maple,
and ash, it will be proper to mix with them sand, in quantity about equal
to their bulk, placing the mixture on the ground a foot in thickness, and
covering that with an inch thick of mould. The birch may be sown im-
mediately as it is taken from the tree, or preserved in the seed-loft until
spring. When sown, the birch is generally covered half an inch with
mould, the former seeds with one inch.

2nd. Hard seeds, or stones covered with a pulpy fruit. The proper
covering of these seeds is so hard, as to have acquired for them the name
of stones. In this class are the cherry-tree, mountain-ash, whitebeam,
yew, holly, pear, crab, and thorn. With the exception of the cherry-tree,
all these remain in the soil one or two years before they vegetate. To
obviate the irregular vegetation of these seeds, which is attended with
loss of time and inconvenience, the practice of preparing them for sowing
by what is called pitting has been adopted ; this is done in the manner
above mentioned for the hornbeam, plane, &c. ; but as one, two, or even
three years in the pit or preparatory bed are wanted for some of these seeds,
it is requisite after they have lain a certain time in the pit to uncover them
and turn them over, so as to assist in the separation of the pulp from the
stones. Holly berries require one year at least to prepare them for sow-
ing; mountain ash, whitebeam, yew, and ash lie one year; the cherry
readily vegetates in the same spring in which it is sown.

14 PLANTING

3rcl. Lcgv?7nno7is, or bccni seeds. These, as rep;ards forest-trees are
confined to the common acacia, or !ocnst-tree {Robinia Psa/d-Jcacia),
the olutinous Robinia (Robinia viscosa), and the laburnum. These seeds
veffetate freely when sown from the tree, but it is the jjeneral practice
to preserve them until spring in a dry, cool place. \Vhen sown, they
require to be covered with about three-fourths of an inch of mould. If
sown too thickly, that is, less than one inch seed from seed, the plants
soon injure one another and become diseased.

4th. Light seeds. Under this head we enumerate smooth elm, and
mountain elm, the poplar, and the tree willows. These seeds being- light,
and separating freely from the tree when ripe, require care in collecting, as
otherwise they are liable to be dispersed and carried away by the wind.
They vegetate quickly and may 1)e sown so soon as they are ripe. Spring
however is preferred, as tender seedling plants are subject to injury from
severe weather in w inter. They should be covered to the depth of one
fourth of an inch of fine sifted mould.

5lh. Resi}wvs seeds are those of coniferous or fir-trees. Their vegeta-
tive power when cleaned or separated from the cones, is not to be pre-
served if they are kept out of the ground for any considerable length of
time, and they require particular care in sowing. The soil of the beds
ought to be of a light sandy nature, enriched with the vegetable mould of
decayed tree leaves, or well decomposed dung. If a proper cpiantity of
the former manure be added, and well incorporated with the sandy loam
above described, it will bring that soil to a suitable texture. The seeds
are borne in cones furnished with scales of a hard woody consistence. The
cones of the larch with much difficulty part from the seeds, and various
means have been adopted to effect that object. The best is that of first
opening the cone, or dividing it lengthways into two or four parts, then
placing them on a kiln and drying by a very gentle heat until the valves
b( "in to open, when they should be taken to a proper floor and threshed :
the seeds may then be separated by a sieve. The cones of the Scotch tir
and the spruce require also the aid of the kiln ; but the seeds part from
the cones easily, and the splitting of the cones is superfluous. The spring* is
the best season for sowing these seeds. The soil of the seedling beds
should be in as finely a pulverised state as possible for their reception.

The seed of the stone ])ine requires to be covered with one and a quarter
inches of soil, the silver fir and jjinaster with one inch, the Weymouth pine
with three-fourths of an inch; the Scotch fir, Norway spruce, bahu of
Gilead, and cedar of Lebanon with half an inch of soil. The cedar of
I^^banon is best sown in boxes placed in a warm or sheltered situation.
The larch should not be sown so deep; a covering of a quarter of an inch of
soil suffices. The white, red, and American sjiruce firs, having smaller
seeds, require a slighter covering of a fifth of an inch deep, and the tex-
ture of the soil should be even lighter, which can be easily effected by
adding sand or a larger proportion of the mould of decayed tree leaves.
Heath soil, or bog soil, containing a good proportion of fine siliceous sand,
has been found very congenial to the vegetation of these seeds. f Shading

* If the winter happened to be favourable, and the depredations of vemiin were com-
pletely prevented, the balance would be in favour of sewing- the teeds of the fir and pine
in autumn, and which would be the case also with every description of forest-tree seeds,
the hard or stone seeds probably excepted.

-j- This description of suil has been erroncouslj' supposed to be injurious to transplanted
firs, and implements are used to remove the heath soil from the intended sites of the plants,
in order ihat the roots may be inserted iu the subsoil of gravel or sand, of which the sub-
soil almost always consists. The roots of the heath while alive are the cause of injury,
not the uature of the soil.

PLANTING. 15

from hot sunshine is liighly beneficial to them, indeed, indispensable in
some states of the weather, for the thin coverinn; of soil vviiicii is neces-
sarily allowed them is soon affected by tlie action of the sun's rays, and
s\id(len droup;ht quickly destroys the tender seedlings. The thickness in
which the seeds should be sown, according to the respective kinds, is on
an average from three to four on a square inch, so that the plants when
produced stand not nearer to each other than that scale of distances.

The artificial fine state of culture of the soil in the seedbeds, rendering
it less retentive of the due degree of moisture than is required, the beds
should be consolidated before and after the seeds are sown, either by the
use of a roller, or by the spade.

In concluding this practical view of the structure of forest trees, and of
those natural agents, which obviously influence the growth of plants, it may
be useful to take a similar view of the process of vegetation. A perfect
and healthy seed consists of an outer covering, cotyledons, radicle, and
])lumula. When sown in perfectly dry earth, it remains unchanged ; if in
an excess of moisture, it loses its vegetative powers and decays : in neither
case it vegetates. When the temperature of the soil is below a certain point,
all vegetation is suspended. Should the soil and the temperature be per-
fectly favourable to vegetation, yet if the seed be not planted shallow
enough to be within the influence of atmospherical air, no vegetation takes
place. Different species of seeds require different degrees of moisture,
temperatvu'e, and atmospheric influence, to render tlieir vegetation the most
healthy and perfect. The natural constitution of different soils, as regards
their respective properties of retaining or easily parting- with moisture ; the
proper season of sowing", as regards the temperature of the soil and the
atmospliere, by whatever local causes subject to be influenced; and the re-
S])ective depths to which the seeds should be deposited in the ground, as
above mentioned, apply directly to the skill of the cultivator to aid, modify,
and assist these primary essential agents of vegetation ; and on the right
adjustment of these depend the success and just reward of the planter in
this first stage of the process of his art.

In whatever position the seed is placed, the radicle first biu'sts the cover-
ing, and takes a downward direction into the soil, where it becomes fixed,
and protrudes, at right angles from its sides, numerous rootlets, which in
their turn emit others ; then, and not till then, the cotyledons rise above the
surface and expand, shewing tlie plumula or bud of the stem, which now
advances in growth and unfolds the proper leaves. After the leaves are
fully expanded, the communication of the pith with the buds, formed or
forming, at the base of each leaf-stalk in the angle made by that and the
stem, may be traced. The loss of either of these organs of the seed at an
earlier period would have prevented farther growth ; for if the cotyledons
had been seriously injured or taken away, the radicle and plumula would
have died; if the radicle had been removed, the same effect would have
followed; or if the plumula had been taken away, the plant would have
made no farther progress. But as soon as the formation of the germ of
buds is effected, as now stated, the cotyledons may be removed; the sum-
mit of the stem and the lower extremity of the radicle may be taken away,
and the plant will reproduce others. It is during the previous stage of
growth that the attacks of insects prove so fatal to seedling plants, and re-
quire the utmost care of the planter; and hence also the greater care and
attention that is demanded in the preparation of the soil for seeds than
for the reception of transplanted trees. Tliis also points out the danger
of injury to the vegetating seeds, by disturbing the seed beds before the

Ifi PLANriNG.

plants are perfected. It is in these early staG:es of (growth, that the
foundation is laid for the future healtli, beauty, and vigorous growth of the
tree. Tlie fibres of the root, with the minute spono-eols before mentioned,
now imbibe and send uj) the food of the plant to the leaves, where beina:
s])read out to the influence of solar light, lieat, and atmospheric air, it is
elaborated and returned through the foot-stalk by the longitudinal vessels
of the inner bark to the root, depositing^ in its course, or in conjunction
with the original fluids of the ceUular texture forming, the various sub-
stances and secretions peculiar to the tree. That tlie sap ascends by the
longitijdinal vessels of the alburnum, saj), or soft wood, and descends by
those of the inner bark, seems to be proved by the experiments of Mr.
Knight and others, who have more intimately investigated this part of the
subject. That a lateral movement of the sap goes on at the same time,
and in conjunction with the ascending and descending movement, appears
equally certain*. Every individual leaf of a tree is furnished with its own
particular series of vessels for the course of the sap, and not only prejiares
and elaborates the sap lor the increase of substance of its own branch,
but also for that of the parent stem and root. Hence it is that trees re-
"•ularly furnished with branches from the base upwards have more taper-
in"- stems, than trees with branches confined to the upper half of the stem,
the increase being equal, from the point where the branches begin, down-
wards to the root; or, in other words, whatever length of stem from the root
upwards is destitute of branches, tliat part of it from the period of losing
them increases in size equally throughoutf. Without a just knowledge of
this principle in the economy of vegetable life, the important process of
pruning in the culture of forest-trees cannot safely be performed by the
forester: that the sap never ceases wholly to move | is evident in the in-
crease of the roots and buds during winter when the plant is leafless; but
its ascent is particularly distinguished for greater force and activity at two
periods of the year, spring and midsummer. The ascent in spring is
the strono-est,'and continues until midsummer, gradually diminishing in
force as the new branches and leaves are perfected. This generally takes
place about the beginning of July, when an apparent cessation of asccnd-
in<v motion in the sap iinmediately succeeds, and continues usually for the

* The sap in ascending is farthest removed from the action of solar lif^ht, heat, and
atmospheric air, in descending it is nearest to these important agents, receiving their im-
pulse tlirongh the medium of the green cellular tissue or parenchyma. The offices of this
organ in transpiration and inhalation, may be compared to that of an universal leaf cover-
ing every part of the stem and branches of a tree.

f This fact may be demonstrated most conveniently, by pruning the lateral branches
ofl' quite close to the stem of a young fast-growing tree, leaving a certain number to form
a top, and to keep up the growth of the plant.

I The term circulation has been objected to as improper for describing the course of the
movement of the sap in plants ; because a point from wlience the movement begins, and to
which it again returns (as for instance, the heart in animals,) has not been discovered in
plants ; for in these the sap is periodically exhausted in the increase of the substance of the
tree, and its place periodically supplied from the soil to the spongeols of the roots. The term
periodical is here mulcrstood to apply to the effiicts observed, by the practical planter, of
the spring growth, midsummer growth, and leafless or winter cessation of growth, an-
nually in the progress of every forest-tree. That the roots of these plants (as long as
their vital powers continue to act) continue, without intermission, to imbibe fluid or pabu-
lum from the soil, however small in tpiantity that may be at certain seasons, seems highly
probable ; as also that a movement or circulation of the fluids of the cellular texture, how-
ever languid it may be, exists even in the leafless tree. But there are plants, such as the
hyacinth, potatoe, onion, kc. &c., which remain two or three months annually during
their progress of existence, without a possibility of imbibing anything whatever by their
roots, rootlets, or spongeols, inasmuch as during that period of their existence they are
destitute of these organs wherewith to imbibe.

PLANTING. 17

space of afortniglit. or three weeks, accordiiii^ to the aj^e of the plant and
the state of the weather. A second ascent of the sap, and growth of shoots
now take place, but with diminished vigour ; unless from accident, dis-
ease, or unfavourable weather, the spring growth has been checked, and
the first flow of sap prevented from being exhausted in the production of
branches, leaves, and blossoms. It is worthy of remark, that those shoots
which form fruit, flower, or seed buds, have seldom if ever any second
growth ; but remain without increasing in length until the next spring.
The midsummer growth is almost always confined to those branches which
carry wood buds only. After the second growth is completed, the effects
of tlie descending sap in the formation of new bark and wood is very
apparent in the healing up of wounded parts of the stem and branches,
which now proceeds with more activity than during any other period of
the year. Branches pruned off after the midsummer flow, seldom are
followed by shoots from the edges of the wounds caused by their removal,
which always happens, more or less, when pruning is performed on free
growing trees after the fall of the leaf, and before the full development of
the spring shoots and leaves : it is to be observed, however, that the repro-
duction of branches froni the edges of a wound is greatly assisted by
leaving a portion of the branch or shoot, or its parent branch or stem,
but impeded when a branch is pruned off close to the stem. What was
before stated regarding the offices of the pith and medullary rays in
originating the buds of shoots and branches, will be confirmed by these facts.
Food of Plants. — Those substances which the roots of plants take up
from the soil, and those which the leaves or green system of the plant
inhale or imbibe from atmospheric air are comprehended under the
name of the food of plants. This part of vegetable physiology has long
engaged the anxious inquiries of science, as well as of practice. The
question is one of much importance, inasmuch as a perfect knowledge of
what constitutes the food of plants generally, and individually, would vvitli
unerring certainty point out the means of fertilizing soils, defective in any
respect for bringing to perfection the species of tree most desired ; would
indicate at the same time the most proper substances to be used with the
greatest advantage, the exact proportions in which they should be mixed,
the mode of applying them, and the best process of manual culture or
working the soil, for elaborating and preparing them for absorption by the
roots. Of late years great progress has been made in the investigation of
this part of vegetable physiology ; the labours of T. A. Knight and M.
Dutrouhet are, in particular, highly valuable, but much still is required
before even an approximation to the solution of this important question can
be attained. The structure of the root shewed us that whatever kinds of
substances are conveyed or by it introduced into the plant, such substances
must be in a minute state of division, or dissolved in water. The analysis
of a soil demonstrates the soluble substances it contains. These have been
found to be chiefly vegetable extract, combined with smaller proportions of
a few of the neutral salts, as sulphates of potash and lime, muriates of
lime and soda, or common salt; this last, in every instance of our own
individual experience, is always in a larger proportion to the other saline
matters, and is never altogether wanting, as is the case sometimes with
the sulphates and muriates of lime. The vegetable extract, except as
regards its presence in poor clays and siliceous sands*, is always in a

* The soils here alluded to, the results of whose chemical examinations have led to
the above conclusions, were of almost every kind or description to be met with in practice,
comprising the various degrees of fertility intermediate between the poorest sand and
the most tenacious clay.

C

13 PLANTING.

lara:er proportion to the saline matters. It contains the elements of which
the substance of a tree is composed, viz., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
azote. The extract, however, obtained from soils is never ])erfectly pure,
but is always more or less (in all our experience) combined with mucilage,
and frequently with soluble animal matters. In alluvial soils distin-
guished for fertility, the soluble extract is found in the largest propor-
tion ; five parts of vegetable extract in four hundred of the soil is considered
the maximum for healthy vegetation.

The soils called alluvial have the power, it is evident, of preserving this
substance in the decomposing vegetable matters which supply it, and of
giving it out to the roots of plants, or rather to the water of the soil,
slowly, but in that seasonable and regular manner which is the most con-
ducive to the healthy exercise of the functions of the roots. It is evident
that in some alluvial soils this extractive vegetable matter must have re-
mained from a remote period uninjured for the purposes of vegetation**.
In siliceous, sandy, and gravelly soils, the reverse of this takes place, for
the manures applied to these is speedily decomposed, and the extractive
matter given out, comparatively, at once: hence the constant repetition
of manures required by these kinds of soil to keep them productive. When
clay, mild lime, or chalk, fine siliceous and calcareous sand, and im])al-
pable vegetable matters are so intimately combined as to constitute what is
termed the best loam, the extractive matter, whether of long duration in
the soil or in recently supplied manure, is economized and given out to
\\ater, and to the roots of plants, in a similar degree of effectiveness as in
the alluvial soil : on the contrary, when clay is the chief earthy ingredient
of a soil, the vegetable matter is either retained in the manure, or given
out partially ; the lower temperature of the clay, its great adhesive powers,
and compact texture, uniting to produce this result t- The food of plants
supplied by atmospheric air, whatever proportion it may bear to that
supplied by the soil, is at least equally essential to the growth of plants,
fur they can no more exist without that, than they can exist without the
soil. The curious structure of the leaves shews how admirably they are

• Extractive matter, when separated from the saline compounds with which it is usually
accompanied in soils and in vegetable manures, and exposed to the air, soon decomposes or
pntrities. It also loses its solubility in water after two or three solutions in and evapora-
tions of the water. It is a constituent of the nutritive matter of the food of the larger domestic
animals, but in the process of digestion it is not retained in the body of the animal for
the purposes of life, but is voided with the faeces. The pasture grasses^ corn, or annual
grasses, green or soiling plants, as clovers, lucerne, sainfoin, vetches, turnips, mangel
wurzel, and carrots, all contain extract as an essential constituent, which, with the woody
fibre and saline matters of the vegetable, are returned again to the soil.

f The great benefit i-esulting to clayey soils from the process of paring and burning, is
that of improving their textiue, and, even in some degree, their temperature or latent
heat. A certain degree of what may be called a circulation of the water and air of a soil
is essential to its power of preparing the food of plants depending on the soil. "Where
this power is wanting, as in the case of a perfectly stagnant clay or peat, or a sandy soil,
with a subsoil impervious to water, vegetable matter, however ample, in these soils will
r..Mnain inert and afford no support to trees, or, at least, thej' will not long exist if planted
under such circumstances. So obvious is the eftect of this principle of circulation of
water and ah, (if we may be allowed the expression,) that some have undertaken to prove
that the fertility of soils depended on it aione^ and that water and air constitute the
sok? food of plants ; and that even animal and vegetable matters were no farther useful
than as contributing to the temperature and texture of the soil, fitting it for the more
ready circulation of these, and more readily jiresenting them to the roots of plants.
However erroneous the conclusion may be, the principle of practice inculcated by it is
essential to the successful cultivation of trees, for on it depend the processes of jiaring
and Ijurning, draining, trenching, digging, and in a word the judicious adoption of the
various means which are employed for pulverizing and comminuting soils.

PLANTING. cl9

fitted to imbibe air and moisture. The essential constituents of atmos-
pherical air are oxygen and nitrogen or azote ; and it holds in solution car-
bonic acid gas and water ; they are elastic and invisible, but can be
separated from each other, and their bulk, or volume, and weight can be
determined, and their properties satisfactorily ascertained*. Oxygen
has received the name of pure or vital air, because animals cannot respire
if the air they breathe be deprived of it, nor can seeds vegetate unless it
be present in the soil and air in which they are placed. It enters into
the composition of the vegetable and most other acids, and largely into
that of sugar and extract. It forms about one-fifth of the air of the
atmosphere. Carbonic acid gas constitutes about a thousandth part of
atmospherical air, its basis carbon is well known in the state of charcoal,
and is tlie fundamental constituent of wood. Nitrogen, or azote, con-
stitutes about four-fiftiis of the atmospherical air. Its offices have not
been so clearly discovered : with much reason, however, it appears to be
employed in the formation of several products of vegetation, as gluten and
albumen, and in modifying the actions of the other components of the
air. It is remarkable that carbonic acid gas being- so largely produced
by numerous artificial and natural processes constantly going on, as in the
putrefaction of substances of every kind, in fermentation, combustion,
respiration of animals, and, during darkness, by the green system of the
whole vegetable kingdom, so small a portion only of it should be found
permanent in the air, varying from -^l^-^j to ^oVo P^*'- ^^ ^^^^' minimum and
maximum. It is heavier than the other constituents of air, and it is lost
from the atmosphere, or from wherever it may exist in plants only, and
forms the bulk or basis of every kind of wood ; it m\ist be at pre-
sent considered as being largely taken up by the roots of plants. Water,
the last mentioned constituent of atmospheric air, enters into it in the
state of vapour. The quantity of it suspended in the air is supposed to

* The elasticity of the constituents of atmospheric air is so powerful, that when, from
local causes, one ingredient is generated in undue proportion to the others, the most perfect
nnalj'sis of the general air in the immediate neighbourhood of the spot where this circum-
stance happens cannot detect any difference in the proportions of the proper constituents
from that of the air of the most healthy region. The atmosphere of a crowded city and
that of an open or moderately sheltered alpine region, afford by analysis the like number and.
proportion of ingredients or elements ; but notwithstanding this, the influence of the air
of these two situations on vegetation is very different. There are certain plants which
will not grow in the atmosphere of a crowded city, and there are others which thrive in the
former, and will not continue long in that of an alpine air. Some of the following plants
grow freely in the atmosphere of the crowded parts of the city of London.

Plants that grow freeli/. Plants that exist fur oyihj a few years in perfect health.

Sycamore. Laburnum.

Elms.

Mulberries That exist in health only a limited time.

Ivies Privets

Virginian Creepers China Roses

Vines Alpine Plants, scarcely ever produce

Oriental Planes, bulbous and tuberous- flowers,

rooted plants, except Snowdrops.

Since the above list was written, the Bedford Conservatory, or new flovv'er and plant
market, Covent Garden, London, has been erected by John I^uke of Bedford, and this
interesting feature to the ornament of the metropolis will afford extensive nuans to
determine what species of hardy as well as of tender plants will thrive in the atmosphere of
so large and crowded a city as that of London. Since this part of the market was com-
jikted in the month of June last year, the following plants may he mentioned as having
thriven best. The orange, Ci7n« aurantium; ca.mi:\\\a., Camellia Juponica ; rhododendrons,
R. ponticum, R. madimum, R. punctatum. Some kinds of pelargoniums, Gcranacece.
Heaths, particularly Erica titlijlora, E. cijlindriia, E. persoluta, E. ciiprcssina, E. odora-
rom ; Acacia vcrticilluta^ A. armuta, Epachris ijrandijlora, E, puugcns rosea.

C 2

20 PLANTING.

vary from j.}^ to ^J^ part of the atmosphere, being jyreater as the weather
is dry and hot, at which time it is most useful to the growth and health of
plants, being absorbed by the leaves *. It is clear that water constitutes
immeasurably the largest portion of what is taken up by the roots and
furnished to the plant by the soil ; and when it is considered that water
is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, it cannot be supposed to act merely
as a vehicle of the food of the tree ; it contributes, probably, to the in-
crease of the solid parts of the living structure by decomposition into its
elements, through the agency of the vital powers.

Such are the general facts disclosed by chemical examinations of the
soil and atmospherical air, with respect to the substances supplied by them
to plants as food. An analysis of the sap itself immediately after its
absorption by tiie spongeols of the rootlets, and before it enters the
ascending vessels of the alburnum, t would probably leave nothing more to
be desired on this important subject, that might apply to the operations of
the practical planter. The sap hitherto examined chemically, has been taken
from the albiu'num of the tree, and consequently after it had undergone a
change in its original constitution, or that which characterised it at the mo-
ment of its entering the spongeols of the rootlets immediately from the soil.
That the sap undergoes a change in the ascending vessels of the alburnum
before it is acted upon by the leaves, has been proved by Knight and others.
In these instances, the sap extracted from the lower part of the tree, con-
tained much less saccharine matter, than that taken from a more elevated
part of the stem. According to Vauquelin, water, extract, mucilage, sugar,
and acetic acid, combined with potash or lime, are found in sap taken from
the alburnum or ascending sap vessels of the birch, elm, and beech ; but
these vary in the sap of different species of trees. Saccharine matter is most
abundant in the birch and sugar maple. These results, however, afford but
little light in the investigation of the question, as we know that the same
sap which produces the acid, astringent crab, produces also the saccharine,
aromatic pippin. By the action of heat, light, air, and the peculiar
organic structure in different species of trees, under the influence of the
vital power, are those substances which are soluble in water, or saccharine
and nuicilaginous fluids converted into insoluble or resinous and oily
substances.

* Tlio vaUie of vapour in air to the health of plants, is well known and appreciaied by
every skilful cultivator of tropical plants in an artificial atmosphere, as well as by the
successful forcing fruit and flower j^ardener in the hothouse. Plants are enabled by
vapour in the air to withstand the efiects of extreme heat and drought, which otherwise
would destroy the organization of the leaves. We ourselves have found the leaves of the
province rose, when in an artificial atmosphere, at an early season (and when its vital
powers could not be so strongly exerted, as when under the circumstances of its natural
season of growth and exposure) to unfold and increase in healthy growth when subjected
for a certain time, each day for the space of a fortnight, to hot air strongly charged with
vapour, while leaves of the same species did not imfuld, or when unfolded previously to
the application, shrivelled up and perished under the application of a dry current of air, of
the like temperature, and though all other circumstances were equal.

f The rapid communication which exists between the spongeols of the rootlets and the
leaves at the extremity of the tree, as evidenced by the sudden effects produced on the latter
by the application of water to the roots of a tree whose leaves have become flaccid or
drooping from the want of it, warrants the idea that the ascent of fluids from the roots to
the leaves is more direct than our knowledge of the structure of the vessels will allow, or
that a principle exists in the vegetable structure analogous to that of the irritability of the
animal fibre. The well known ex-periments of Hales to ascertain the force with which the
sap of trees ascends, shew that the sap of a vine branch four or five years old rises with a
force considerably superior to atmospherical pressure. Plants having the leaves firm and
glossy, exhibited proportionally less force in their ascending sap, Vide regetdhle Statics,
vol. 1., p. 114.

PLANTING. 21

From these facts we may conclude that soluble substances, chiefly
vegetable extract, mucilag-e and carbon, with water as a vehicle and a
component, presented to the roots of plants under circumstances varying
according- to the chemical constitution, and mechanical texture of soils,
adapted to the peculiar habits or natural wants of different species of trees,
as the oak for instance, and the larch, constitute the food of trees supplied
by the soil to the roots; and that atmospheric air of a certain temperature,
and degree of moisture, and with freedom of circulation, constitutes that
other essential part of the nourishment of trees, which is taken up by the
leaves or green system of the plant.

Air, like water, requires a certain freedom from stagnation or confinement
to render its nourishing and invigorating properties available to the leaves
of trees; when comparatively stagnant, its valuable properties become lost
to plants. This is indicated by the disappearance of the green colour from
the leaves, which soon drop off, and are not reproduced, but the branches
die ; a few remaining alive at the top of the stem, may continue the
existence of the tree for a few years, but without adding to its girth or
solidity of contents. These are the invariable effects of stagnant air, the
most common and indeed the only cause of which in plantations is the
neglect of seasonable thinning of the trees, and the removal of dead and
decaying vegetable matter as it is produced.

The putrefactive fermentation of spray and brushwood left in close
plantations where the circulation of the air is confined, produces fetid
gaseous matters, alike hurtful to animal and to vegetable life ; the growth
of moss on the bark of trees is promoted by it, and whenever this becomes
general in a plantation, the progress of the trees is greatly retarded.
We cannot better illustrate the importance of attending to this principle of
practice in the planter's art, than by stating an instance kindly com-
municated to us by high authority* on the subject: in many places over
an extent of upwards of a thousand acres of the plantations at Blair Adam
the prunings of spray and brushwood, and the lo])pings of the trees
thinned out, for which there is no sale in this country, had been allowed
to accumulate for many years. The injurious effect was so remarkable,
that the proprietor determined to have the accumulation removed. This
was done at an expense not very considerable. Ever since the accumulation
has been prevented by having a squad of women and boys, to clear away
and brush after the woodcutters or pruners. The expense of this operation
has been overpaid by the increase of growth, and it is evident that it has
added greatly to the value and beauty of the woods, as well as to the
growth of underwood t-

To have entered more minutely into the details of the vegetable
physiology would have been incompatible with the scope and design of
this essay, and to have dwelt less on those principles which bear directly
upon every operation of the planter's art, would have rendered the practical
details which follow, more obscure and less instructive.

* The Right Hon. Lord Chief Commissioner Adam.

t We have had the gratification lately of examining a considerable part of these
plantations, and at the same time of witnessing the triumph of art in rearing valuable
timber on situations of great elevation, and in many places more or less elevated, in
which wet and undrained land presented ditHculties to be encountered and overcome.

22 PLANTING.

Chapter III.

Of the different modes of rearing forest-trees : — By sowing the seeds on the
spot ivhere they are to remain for timber. By sowing the seeds on
nursery beds, and afterwards transplanting the young trees to their
timber sites. Modes of propagating and of transplanting, preserving,
and training, proper shoots or suckers produced by coppice roots or
stools. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the different
modes ; and of simple and mixed plantations.
Before the seeds of forest-trees are sown on the spots where the plants
are to remain for the produce of timber, or tlie young' trees are trans-
planted from nursery beds to their timber sites, the land should be fenced
and properly prepared for their reception. As fences, however, are con-
structed of various materials, turf, or earth, stones, wood, and thorns, or
other armed shrubs, and the judicious adoption of the best kind offence
depending' on local circumstances, this part of the subject, perhaps, may
be more conveniently discussed under a separate head. It has been
supposed, with good reason, but certainly without the evidence of such
clear and undisputable facts as are absolutely necessary to bring full con-
viction to practical men, that when forest-trees are reared immediately
from seed, and consequently whose lap roots, proper roots, and rootlets
have never been disturbed or curtailed, they grow faster, attain to earlier
maturity, and produce sounder timber, than such as are transplanted from
nurseries. The facts brought forward respecting the structure and growth
of trees confirm this opinion ; but when useful or profitable planting is the
object of the planter, it is necessary to inquire whether these apparent
advantages are not lost for the most part, or entirely, in the extra cost or
expense which attends the execution of this method, in comparison to that
of transplanting ; or whether the extra feet of timber, that may be thus
gained, will repay with profit the increased cost of production. A detail
of the different processes of these two first-mentioned modes of rearing
Ibrest-trees may assist materially in coming to a just conclusion on this
important question. The oak being one of the most valuable of forest-
trees, and its i-oots penetrating more directly, and to a greater dejjth in the
subsoil than those of any other tree approximating to it in value, it has been
thought to sutler great injury by transplanting, and has, therefore, been
chiefiy insisted upon to be raised immediately from seed on its timber site.
Should the land on which it is intended to rear oak immediately from
seed, be not in a clear state of tillage, it must be brought into that state
by the most eligible means; these, of course, will depend on the nature
of the soil and condition of its surface. If the soil to be sown is clayey
and tenacious, retentive of moisture, and covered with coarse plants, as
sedges (carix), rushes (juncus), thistles (carduus), and turfy hair-grass
(aiia cajspitosa), the surface should be pared and burnt, the ashes care-
fully applied, and the soil ploughed as deep as the nature of the subsoil
will permit. It should have a clear out summer fallow, with repetitions of
cross ploughings and harrowings, as often as is necessary, to bring
the land to a friable and deep tilth. It should be ploughed into ridges
twelve feet wide, sufficiently high to give an inclination from the
crowns of the ridges on each hand to carry ofl' all surface water, and be
well water-furrowed. A dressing should be applied of compost of dung,
coal ashes, road scrapings, sand, &c., or any other manure that can be
procured, which may have a tendency to divide the texture of the tenacious
soil, and make the tilth friable and deep. This part of the process will
be found highly useful, and also necessary to insure a well-founded hope

PLANTING. 23

of success. An application of lime, when it can be procured at a rea-
sonable cost, will also he foinid hi£>-hly useful.

Should the effects of these operations have been powerful enou<^h to
brino- the land to the essential condition of cleanness, depth, and fineness
of tilth required, the soil will be ready for the reception of the acorns in
the spring;. Unreclaimed lands, however, of this description can seldom
be prepared as above by the out summer's fallow only; and in such cases
it will be necessary to continue the process of fallowing for another season.
A o-reen crop fallow may be now adopted ; and should the weather be
favourable, the crop will probably cover the expense of cleaning- for that
season, or at all events considerably lessen the cost of fallowing;. The
choice of the croj) to be employed must be determined by the condition
or adaptation of the soil to certain kinds of green crops, and the g-reater
local demand that may be tor one kind of produce more than another.
The following- may be pointed out: Swedish turnips, rape, potatoes,
cabbages, and winter vetches. For these crops it may be unnecessary to add,
that the row and ridge system of culture should be adopted, as affordingthe
greatest facilities for cleaning and pulverizing the land, either by the hand
or horse-hoe, and thereby obtaining the great objects in view in their
most perfect state, and at the least comparative cost. Green crops are
here mentioned for fallow, because they exhaust the soil less than corn
crops, and also afford the means of destroying every kind of weed much
better ; but if a corn crop should promise better advantages than a green
crop, and secure the cleaning and pulverization of the soil, there can be
no possible objection to it, the extra manure given with the corn crop
supplying the loss supposed to be caused to the soil. As soon as the
croj), of whatever kind, is reaped and carried, advantage should be taken
of the first favourable weather to have the surface scarified, horse-hoed,
or skim coulter ploughed (according to circumstances of convenience, in
the possession of one or other of these implements), and the weeds collected
by the harrow, and by the hand if necessary. It is, in this case, the
safest mode to burn the weeds, for their seeds and the eggs of insects
are thereby more certainly destroyed. The land should now be ploughed
up to stand the winter's exposure. The mode of ploughing is of im-
portance at all times, but most particularly so when the full effect of
frost and winter weather is required to divide and ameliorate an adhe-
sive clayey soil. When the furrow slice of a soil of this description is
reversed, or laid quite flat, the weight and tenacity of the soil consolidate
its surface almost immediately, and obstruct the action of the weather
in breaking down the texture of the soil, as well as that of the harrows
in raising a tilth, or the greatest depth of mould for covering the seeds.
But when the furrow slice is raised up so as to lie at about an angle of
45°, the greatest possible surface of tlie soil that ploughing can accom-
plish is exposed to the direct influence of the atmosphere in the most
effective maimer*. As soon as the weather will permit in February, the
barrows should be used to raise as deep a tilth as possible ; and when
this mould is in its driest state, the last ploughing should be given : the
reversing of this comparatively dry and ameliorated mould to the bottom
of the staple of the soil is of great advantage to the growth of the plants.

* ' Rally's plough' is admirably constructed for this mode of ploughing.

It may be supposed that the preparation of the soil has here been too minutely dwelt
upon; l)ut being a part of the subject of considerable importance, iu many instances too
little attended to, and from the neglect of which failures of considerable extent have had
their origin, as regards this mode of rearing oak trees, we have ventured to state thus
much ou the point.

24 PLANTING.

By the beoinuing' of March favourable weather will have occurred to
use the harrows so as to obtain a proper depth of surface mould in which
to sow the seeds; but it is essential that the greatest possible depth of
mould be obtained, though the time of sowing be delayed until the middle
of that month, but which should be avoided if possible.

There are two distinct varieties of the British oak, differing in the quality
of the limber and quickness of growth. In collecting the acorns for sow-
ing, therefore, it is of consequence to select those of the most valuable
variety. The discriminating characters of these will be pointed out here-
after, when we enumerate all the different species and varieties of forest-
trees : here it will be sufficient to mention, that the most valuable variety of
the oak is distinguished by having the acorns on footstalks (Quercus
Robur pedimcnlala), and the less valuable variety by bearing the acorns
without footstalks (Qticrcus Robur Sessili flora). If it were possible to
have the land in a fit state for sowing in autumn, as soon as the acorns
were ripe, and the attacks of mice, birds, and insects upon them could be
securely guarded against during the winter, the autumn would be doubt-
less the most favourable season for sowing ; but as this can seldom be
done, the acorns must be carefully preserved until spring, by spreading
them out in a thin layer on a dry, cool floor. When placed in sand, unless
the same be perfectly dry, the acorns are apt to vegetate ; and the same thing
hap])ens when they are placed in heaps, or in too thick a layer.

The land being thus prepared for the reception of the seed, and the
acorns ready, drills or furrows should be drawn with the hand-hoe two
inches deep, and at intervals of four feet. In order that the rows of plants
may not obstruct the surface-water from passing off by the declining sides
of the ridges, a point of great importance in this kind of soil ; the fur-
rows for the seed should be at right angles to the ridges. The one-horse
drill which, under other circumstances, would be the most economical mode
of drawing the drills, is inconvenient here, on account of the curve of the
ridges and the open drains in the furrows, over which the drill would have
to pass*. The acorns should be dropped in the furrows at about two
inches apart: this thick sowing is to guard against the numberless ca-
sualties which thin them in the course of their vegetation in an exjjosed field
or common, and also to allow the selection of the strongest seedlings to
stand for timber — a part of the duty of the planter requiring great atten-
tion, and which hitherto has scarcely been attended to, or but incidentally.
The acorns should be carefully covered with two inches depth of mould.
The back of a large wood-rake will be found to fill up the drills effectually
and with dispatch. As soon as the young plants appear above ground, the
soil should be hoed, and every appearance of weeds destroyed. Hand
lioeing must be repeated as often as weeds appear, or the surface of the
ground becomes hardened ; in fact the land must he kept in as clean a
state, and as free from weeds, as the best managed seedling beds in a
nursery garden, or disappointment and failure in a greater or less degree
is certain to follow. The surface of a soil of this description, as regards
the successful germination of seeds and growth of seedling plants, requires
to be ke])t always in a friable, loose state ; for if once it becomes hardened
aiul cracks, the seedling plants will be injured, tlieir leaves assume a pale
sickly hue, and their growth will be greatly retarded. Where the plants are
suffered to remain long in this state, the sap vessels become contracted in
the bark and leaves, and the plants never regain that vigour of constitution
which, in this stage of their growth, is so essential to their future perfec-

* These drains are recommended to be made immediately after the ridges are formed,
tliat the land may have the benefit of their free action a tweh'emonth at least before the
sowing of the seeds.

PLANTING. 25

tion. The stem and branches remain stationary, until the roots, by the in-
fluence of a favourable season or two, sometimes force anew stem from
the base of the stinted one, which in tlie course of one year overtops it,
and becomes the stem or body of the tree ; the oris^inal stem, takino- the
place of a secondary branch, soon disappears altogether. This is the inva-
riable consequence when the growth of the plant, under these circumstances,
is left to the unassisted efforts of nature — a fact upon which is founded
the j)ractice of cutting down to the surface of the ground stinted youno-
plants, in order to produce superior stems, which always succeeds with
the oak, chestnut, and ash, but never with coniferous trees of pine and fir.

During the summer of the second year, the plants which have escaped
the attacks of the enemies before alluded to will be strongly marked in the
rows, and the horse-hoe may now in consequence be substituted for the
hand-hoe : this will be found very beneficial as attaining the great objects
of perfect weeding, pulverizing, and rendering friable and porous the sur-
face of the soil at a diminished expense. The rows, however, will require
to be looked over and handweeded with care.

Should the plants stand nearer to each other than one foot, they must be
thinned out to that distance in the spring of the third year of their growth.
In this process it is of the utmost importance that the smaller and least
healthy looking plants should be taken out, and those left which indicate
the possession of a vigorous constitution, without regard to the mere cir-
cumstance of exact distances. When a plant has a robust stem, clear bark,
and a plump leading bud, we may consider it as certain to produce a fine
tree, or to contend with most success against natural defects of soil and
climate, and accidental injuries. To protect young oaks against uncon-
genial climates, the best method is to plant nurse-trees of quick growth,
and well adapted to the soil, amongst them. An artificial climate is thus
produced, and to a certain extent, also, the soil is ameliorated by the roots
of these nurse-trees running near its surface, while the oak has its roots
obtaining nourishment from below ; the former, acting as drains, assist the
growth of the oak, until its own roots and stem have acquired sufficient
strength and dimensions to resist with effect the various unfavourable cir-
cumstances above alluded to. In soils suitable to oak this is not always
necessary ; but deficiencies of soil and climate are generally remedied by
the judicious planting of nurse-trees, of which we shall treat more parti-
cularly hereafter. The keeping down of the weeds, and the pulverizing of
the soil by the hoe, being unweariedly attended to, the young trees will make
rapid progress, and will require to be thinned out to four or five feet on
an average in the rows, in the fifth year from sowing-, when they will have
reached that period at which the opposite and more general practice, that of
transplanting from seed beds to the timber sites, begins; and as the subse-
quent culture, pruning and thinning, is the same in both instances, to be
treated of separately, we shall proceed to consider the rearing of forest
trees by transplanting. No greater error exists in the planter's art than
the doctrine that trees should be raised on the same quality of soil as that
to which they are to be transplanted, — as if a robust, healthy plant were less
likely to withstand its subsequent casualties of situation, soil, and local
climate, than a weaker plant with contracted sap vessels — the invariable
consequence of a poor seed-bed soil. What is the intention of all the
various processes of culture which have been just described as essentially
necessary to the raising of oak from the acorn on a damp, cold, clayey soil,
but to enrich the soil, and render the seedling plants vigorous and healthy?
and with how much less labour and expense can this be effected in a nur-
sery bed of clean fresh soil, of whatever nature or texture, than on the
extensive site of an intended plantation of forest trees'

26 PLANTING.

Experience fully confirms that principle of vep:etable ])liysio]og'y
wliich teaches that robust, healthy plants, whether in the seedliiip; stage of
Growth or of a larger size, succeed better than those of stinted growth, even
when transjjlanted to the least favourable soil and exposure.*

Where the land to be planted with forest-trees is an extensive tract and
remotely situated, and where the seeds of the several kinds can be procured
o-enuine, of g;ood quality, and at a small cost, the formation of a private
nursery may be advisable ; but where the ))]ants can be procured from a
reasonable distance, it will be found the most economical and effective to
purchase them from the nurseryman, and even in the former case one or
two years' seedlings should be procured in j)lace of seeds, as a saving of
time and expense. The following are essential points to be considered in
establishing an effective nursery: fencing, shelter, aspect, soil, and
management. The fence of a forest-tree nursery requires to be rabbit-
proof, or h)ss and disappointment are almost certain to follow. A founda-
tion of brick-work should be made for a superstructure of close paling.
"Where shelter is not an object, a very cheap and excellent substitute is
found in iron wire-netting, which is manufactured for the general purposes
of fences to young i)lants. Shelter is indispensable to the free growth of
seedling plants, the injurious consequences resulting to which from sudden
checks have alreaily been mentioned, as also the bad effects of confined
air to the health and prosperity of trees in every stage of growth ; and
therefore, at the same time that a full protection against cold, bleak winds
and unfavourable aspects is necessary, a full and free circulation of
atmospheric air must be secured, to allow of a well-grounded hope of
success.

The soil of the nursery must be of an intermediate quality as to mois-
ture and dryness, not less than eighteen inches deep to the subsoil, and
under a south, east, or west exposure, or intermediate points of these.
The varieties of soil required for particular kinds of trees will have to be
su])i)lied where the natural soil is deficient, as has already been_ specified
when speaking of the seeds of trees, (p. 13.)

Management. — This head comprehends an ample degree of practical
skill in the superintendent and workmen ; the erection of proper sheds,
the means of carriage for composts, soils, plants, &c., immediately when
needed, A quantity of compost and different soils should always be in
readiness when wanted for the seedling beds, layer stools, and cutting
beds, and a proper assortment of nursery garden tools, which shall be
specified hereafter. The preparation of the soil, the mode of sow^ing, and
the different kinds of forest-tree seeds, have already been described. All
kinds of forest trees, however, are not raised from seeds, either because

* It is difficult to give a definition of what is termed a robust, kca/llnj plant, so as to apply
to every species of tree wherein the habits of growth vary in every individual species. Tlie
points of excellence cannot be estimated statically, or by weight and measure, but compa-
rativel)'. A number of minute discriminating characters, collectively, are readily distin-
guished by the eye, but when taken separately cannot be usefidlj' described in words. A
robust, b.ealthy plant, not exceeding five years' growth, may be said to have equally divided
roots, the principal ones of moderate length well furnished with secondary rootlets, and
these with numerous fibres ; the stem straight, and possessing a girth or diameter pro-
portionate to its length; the bark clean, with an epidermis on the young wood exhibiting
fissures, as if bursting or giving way to the increasing size of the parenchyma, par-
ticularly in the season of spring or auUnnn ; the buds full in size and not crowded ; the
leaves perfectly shaped, and of the natural colour. The opposite of this state, from the
efiects of a poor or imgenial soil, exhibits all these characteristics in a diminished form
and number ; the opposite extreme or unhealthy state of a plant, from the effects of over-
richness of soil, may be supposed ; for in our experience we have never met with an instance
of the kind, to have all these parts of the structure in an enlarged excess.

PLANTING. 27

they do not perfect a sufficient quantity for the g^eneral purposes of propa-
g-ation, or are accidental varieties only of a species losint>* their cliaracters
of distinction when reproduced from seed. The following modes of i)ro-
pagation are found etfectual when seeds cannot be obtained : first by
suckers, second by layers, third by cuttings, and fourth by grafting.

1st. Suckers are shoots produced by the creeping- roots of a tree, which,
when separated from the parent root and transplanted, become perfect
trees. They are generally sufficiently rooted in the first season of their
production, and they should not be suffered to remain longer than two
seasons attached to the root of the tree ; for if continued longer, the sup-
port they derive from the parent root ])revents them from making inde-
pendent roots of their own in such abundance as they do when separated
or taken up at an earlier period. The spring is the most proper season for
taking them from the parent roots. When a sufficient number of rootlets
appear on the sucker, no part of the root from whence the sucker sprang
should be left attached to it ; but where the proper rootlets are deficient
in number, a small portion of the parent root may be left with advantage.
The plants should be planted in rows in fresh soil, and treated in all re-
spects afterwards as directed for seedling transplanted trees. The kinds
of trees chiefly reared in this mode are;

The abele tree, Populus alba.

Common white poplar, PojJulus canescens.

Aspen, Populus tremula.

Chinese ailanthus, AilantMis glandulosa.

The first three kinds may also be propagated by layers.
2nd. Layers. — The process of layering is well known : it consists in bend-
ing a young branch (a,Jig. 2) into the soil to a certain depth, and elevating
the top part of it out of the soil in an upright direction ; in time the buried
part takes root, and the shoot becomes a perfect plant. The root which
produces the young shoots for layering is called the stool. Stools are
l)lanted about six feet apart every way in a deep fresh soil. The stem at
first is either bent down into the ground as a layer, or cut over a fev/
inches from the root. The shoots which are produced from its sides form
^^ .9 the layers (d). The rooting of the

*" "' layers is much facilitated by ob-

structing in part the descending sap ;
this is essential to some kinds of
layei's, though not to all : the com-
mon laurel, privet, &c., strike root
readily without any artificial stop-
page of the descending sap. The
— -- — - most expeditious mode of effecting

this, is to cut a notch, slanting upwards to the origin of the layer, about
half a diameter in length (/), and securing the position of the layer in the
ground by a wooden peg (g). Where the shoot is of a nature that roots
with difiiculty, it is useful to split the tongue oCihe notch halfway up, and
to insert a small wedge of potsherd or wood to keep the division open.
Rings of wire are also sometimes used for the same purpose, and cutting
the bark round the part to within a little of the complete circumference of
the shoot. In all ordinary cases, however, the slit or notching mode is
perfectly effective. The ground should be kept quite clean of weeds, and
watered in dry weather. When sufficiently rooted, the layers should be
carefully cut away from the shoots, with all the fibrous roots attached to
them, and planted in rows in fresh, well-prepared soil. The stools should
have all the stumps of the branches cut away, and left to produce a fresh

28 PLANTING.

series of shoots for next autumn's layering. The following trees are pro-
pagated by layers.

Maple, silver striped maple, Acer campestre, fol. ar^.

Sir G. Wager's, A. dasycarpnm.

bastard, A. hyhridum.

lobe leaved, A. lobatum.

mountain, A. moiitanum.

ash leaved, A. negundo.

Italian, A. opaliis.

striped barked, A. Pennsylvanicum.

cut leaved, A. platanoides laciniatum.

gold striped, A. pseudoplataynis, fol. aur.

silver striped, A. pseitdoplat. fol. org.

Tartarian, A. Tartaricum.

Montpellier, A. monspessulanum.
Alder, cut leaved, AJmis laciniata.

oak leaved, AL qnercifolia.

prickly leaved, AL. glulinosa spinuhsa.

Turkey, A I. oblongata.

oval leaved, AL oblong, elliptica.
Birch, daurian, Beli/la daurica.

Canada, B. lenta.

•black, B. nigra.

paper, B. papyracea

poplar leaved, B. populifolia.

red, B. rubra.
Hornbeam, cut leaved, Carpinus bet. incisa.

Judas tree, American white flowered, Cercis silig.Jl. alba.

Date plum tree, Dio.tpyrJis lotus.
Spindle tree.

gold blotched, Euonymua Europ. fol. aur.

silver, yb^. arg.

white, fruc. alb.

Y>a.\e,fruc. pal.*
Beech, broad leaved, Fagus femiginea.

purple leaved, F. sylvatica purpurea.

copjier leaved, F. sylvatica cujjrca.f
Ash, weeping Fraxiniis pendula.\

curled leaved ash, F. atra

flowering ash, F. ornus.

manna ash, F. rotundijolia.

striped barked ash, F. striata.
Mulberry, white, Blorus alba.

common, M. nigra.
Tufelo tree, Nyssa aquatica.

mountain, N. montana.
Bird cherry, Frunus padus.

Cornish, P. juid. rubra.
Buckthorn, sea, Rhamnus catharticus.
Lime tree, white, Tilia alba.

broad leaved, T. Americana.

* These four trees are of low growth, and only for ornament

■f- Propagated also by grafting.

I When grafted on the common or tall ash, the pendulous branches have a striking effect .

PLANTING. 29

common, T. Enropeea.
red tniji;ged, T. Etirop. corallina.
downy leaved, T. piibescens.
Elm, Eng-Iish, U. campeatris.

striped leaved, U.fol. var,
Cornish, [/. sativa.
liornbeam, leaved U. ne)7iorali.i.
Dutch, U. suberosa.

3rd. Cuttings. — Shoots of one year's growth are the most proper to be
used in this mode of propagating several kinds of forest trees. The shoots
should be selected from the most healthy and free-grown branches, and
cut into lengths of from six to eighteen inches, according to the kind of
tree. If evergreens (a, fig. 3), the leaves should be cut off half way up
from the root-end of the cutting (6). Deciduous trees should have shed
their leaves before the cuttings (c) are taken from them. The root-ends
of the cuttings should be cut finely smooth, and inserted from about
a half to three parts of their length into the soil. For every species
of cutting, the soil should be light, and composed, at least, of half of
fine siliceous sand. There are many species of exotic plants, whose
cuttings will only strike root in pure siliceous sand. It need hardly be
Fig. 3. remarked, that in this mode of propagating,

watering is more particularly required to be
attended to than in any other. The utility of
the sandy nature of the soil consists in its
retaining no stagnant moisture, but just suf-
ficient for the wants of the shoot during the
process of rooting. As soon as the cuttings
are well rooted, if in a light soil of the above
description, they should be carefully taken up
and transplanted to their proper soil ; for
although the shoots produce roots more quickly
and in greater abundance in the siliceous
sandy soil, yet it is unable to support the
growth of the plant after the proper functions
of the roots begin. Next to that of propagation by seeds, plants may be
increased by cuttings more generally than by any other mode: the pro-
cess, however, requires more time, skill, and attention, than is demanded
for rearing trees from suckers, or by layers or grafting, and it is therefore
chiefly practised for the increase of exotic ornamental plants ; but the fol-
lowing forest trees are most advantageously raised from cuttings :

Plane, American, Platanus occidentalis.

Spanish var., P. acerifolia.

Oriental, P. orientalis.

waved leaved, P. cuneata.
Poplar, Carolina, Popnlus Carolina

Lombardy, P. dilatata.

Athenian, P. Grceca.

Canadian, P. monolifera.

black, P. nigra.

weeping, P. pendula.

trembling, P. tremula.
Maiden-hair tree, Salisburia adiantifolia.
Willow tree, common, Salix alba.

Peach leaved, y^mygdalina.

30 PLANTING.

Duke of Bedford's, Russelliana.

weeping-, Babylonica.

round leaved, Capera.

gray, Cineria.

crack, Fragilis.

spear leaved, Hastata.

common. Helix.

fine stemmed or smooth leaved, pentandria.

triandrous, triandra.

golden osier, vitelliiia*.

4th. Grafting, in forest-tree propagation, is chiefly had recourse to for
those varieties of trees which lose their distinctive characters when repro-
duced from seed, and which make finer trees when grafted on free grow-
ing stocks of their own species. The scionsf take more freely when not
more than of one year's growth, but those of much older growth will succeed.
Tlie most perfect grafting is where the scion and the part of the stock to
which it is to be united are nearly of an equal size, for on the perfect con-
tact of tiie inner bark of the scion and stock depend the perfect union of
the two in the shortest space of time, and consequent equal healing of the
wound. The month of March is the best season for forest-tree gratting*.
The modes of grafting are numerous. French authors enumerate up-
wards of forty ; for the purposes now under consideration, however, that
termed whip or tongue grafting is generally followed. The scions should
be selected from the more upright, free-growing branches ; the middle
portion of the shoot is the best; but where there is a scarcity of grafts, the
top and bottom may be used, as these will succeed, though not likely to
produce such fine trees. From two to five buds should be left for the
production of a leading stem and branches. The stock should be cut in
an oblique direction (a, fig. 4), and the scion in like manner at a corre-
sponding angle fbj ; a slit should then be made in the
stock about the middle of the wound, passing down-
wards (c), and a similar slit upwards in the scion {d) ;
the upper division of the scion made by the slit, termed
the tongue or wedge, is then inserted into the clet\ of
the stock, and the inner barks of the stock and scion
brought into perfect contact, at least on one side. Tliis
should be effected with as little delay as possible. The
parts are then to be bound with a riband of bass, and
particular care should be taken that, in this part of the
process, the junction of the two barks is not in the
~ least displaced. To protect the grafted parts from

drought and moisture, and from the action of the air, various means have
been adopted, but the most direct and useful is well-worked clay, cleaned
of gravel or small stones, and horse-droppings, well incorporated and
mixed in the proportions of three parts of the former to one of the latter;
a little finely-chopped straw is added with advantage. The clay should be

* This numerous and highly interesting trihe of forest plants, from the useful and
varied properties which the different species evidently possess, demand more of the notice
of the forest planter tlian they have yet received. The extensive and important trials in-
stituted by John Duke of Bedford, now in progress, to investigate the comparative merit
of all the different species of willows, will afford much usefid information on the subject.

f Scions may be separated from the parent stock some time before grafting, without
suffering injury from being kept, but the root-ends should be placed in eartli to prevent
the bark from shrivelling. The ascent of the sap in the stock being more advanced in the
stock thau in the graft, is sometimes advantageous.

PLANTING,

31

placed on tlie grafted parts an inch thick on every side, and extend about
half an inch above and below the union of the stock with the graft*.
Jig. 3. Another mode, called saddle grafting, is perhaps

better adapted for forest trees than the foregoing,
but it takes up more time in the performance.
The stock should be cut so as to leave the top in the
form of a wedge (a, Jig. 5) ; the scion split at the
lower end, and each side of the incision pared obliquely,
so as to form the two divisions into tongue-like pro-
cesses (b) ; these are then seated on the wedge and
made to fit accurately to each side of it. The after
operations of tying and claying are the same as in
the former mode. The trees which come under the
forester's care that require to be reared by grafting-
are the following :

Broad-leaved evergreen oak, Querci/s ilex hdifolia.

entire leaved, Q. ilex integrifolia,

Lucomb's, Q. Exonicnsis.

Turner's, Q. Exoniensis Turneri.

broad-leaved Lucomb's, Q. Exoniensis latifolius.
Sweet crab tree, Pi/riis coronaria.

Siberian crab, P. pninifolia.

willow leaved, P. salicifolia.

Chinese, P. spe.ctahilis.

wild service, P. terniinalis.

white beam, P. aria.

Swedish white beam, P. aria dentaia.

small fruited crab, P. haccatn.
Heart-leaved poplar, Popuhis candicans.

various leaved, P. helerophylla.

smooth leaved, P. heter. Iccvigata.
Upright medlar, Mespilus germanica.

weeping medlar, M. ger. diffusa.
Entire leaved ash, Fraxinns simplicifolia.

striped barked, F. striata.

variegated, F. variegata.

white American, F. Americanus.

black, F. Amer. puhesce.ns.

red, F. Amer. rubriis.
Gold striped beech, Fagiis sylvatica fol. aur.

silver striped, F. sylv. fol. arg.

copper coloured, F. sylv. ciiprea.

purple leaved, F. sylv. purpurea.
Gold striped Spanish chestnut, Castanea vesca, fol. aur.

silver, C. ves. fol. arg.
various leaved, C. vcs. heterophylla.
shining leaved, C. ves. lucida.
Gold striped horse chestnut, jEfculus hippocastaiunn, fol. aur.
silver, 7E. hipp.fol. arg.
yellow horsechestnut, JE.fava.

scarlet, JE. paria.

* It is a hig'nly useful practice to draw earth up round the clay so as to cover it
entirely from the sun and air.

32 PLANTING.

The stoclcs for these trees should be raised from seed of the common
species, to which each variety is nearest aUied.for the nearer the connection
of the stuck with the graft the more lasting- is the union and more perfect
the "-rowth. In trees that have been grafted on unsuitable stocks, we
frequently see the base of the stem abruptly contracted to a smaller cir-
cumference than the upper portion, and vice versa, just as the stock or the
graft hapjiens to possess the freest habit of growth. The stocks sliould
be planted in rows two feet apart, and should be one foot distant plant from
plant. When arrived at two years of transplanted growth they will be in
a fit state to graft. Tlie grafts should be united to the stock as near to
the root as convenient. This facilitates the vigorous growth of the tree, and
allows of the earth being drawn up on each side to cover the clayed
portion of the graft. The clay should be removed from the grafts, and
the ties or bandages loosened when the progress of the new shoots of the
graft indicates the perfect completion of the process. In the spring tbl-
lowing that in which the trees were grafted, many of them may be
transplanted to their permanent sites ; but it is better, as a general rule, to
defer transplanting until the second autumn or spring. The size of the
different kinds of trees most suitable for final transplanting is a point of
some importance, particularly when the planting is on a large scale, and
where the preservation of every fibre of the roots of the plants cannot be
accomplished without an unnecessary e.\pense of time and labour. A
very young plant may be readily taken up and triinsplanted with its roots
entire; but a plant of several feet in height requires considerable care in
taking it up to preserve its roots from injury. The structure and the
functions of the roots of trees, as connected with the produce and support
of the plant were before described, and clearly point out the essential use
of the minute rootlets and their accompanying spongeols or glands to
the noin-ishment of the plant in every stage of its growth, and under every
change of circumstance. Accordingly we find that, if a plant is taken up
and transplanted witli all its roots entire and uninjured, it experiences
scarcely any perceptible check, unless its roots are exposed to the effects
of the sun and wind for any considerable time, in which case it makes little,
if any progress for a season. A moderate degree of pruning, however,
of the overgrown and straggling roots of young trees, possessing the
reproductive power in a full degree, and of the branches of their stems, is
often expedient, and, when judiciously performed, is beneficial: it prevents
the accident of doubling up tlie roots, or improperly disposing them in
the soil, an evil of worse consequences to the plant than the shortening
of an overgrown root, or lateral branch. To trees which possess the
reproductive power in a very imperfect degree, pruning the roots or
branches preparatory to transplanting is injurious. Tlie facility with
which young plants of any kind can be taken up without hurting the
roots, and the slight pruning which they require at that stage of
growth, point out as a general rule in deciding on the most ])roper size
of the different species of trees for final transplanting, that the non-re-
productive kinds should be of the smallest size or earliest stage of growth,
and those in which the reproductive power is greatest of the largest size.
If we divide the stem of a Scotch fir, or a larch, a corresponding stem is
not rejjroduced; but if we cut down, in like luanner, a willow, or even a
chestnut, or an oak, a vigorous stem will follow. Where the habit of the
roots is to divide into large branches, and run deep into the ground, as in
the case of the oak, younger plants are required for transplanting than
in those instances where the habit of the root is to produce numerous
fibres. The nature of the soil also dictates, in some measure, the size of

PLANTING. Sy

the plants. In rocky, elevated soils that cannot be ploiighed or trenched,
nor can allow of proper sized holes being made with the spade, plants of
one or two years growth, or such as have small roots, can only be
planted: when exposed to severe winds, plants above one foot in height
are loosened in the soil, and never prosper. P'or the purposes of general
or extensive works of forest planting, the best sizes of the plants of the
different species of trees at the period of transplanting to their timber
sites, may be thus enumerated :

1st. NoN-REPRODUCTIVE OR RESINOUS TREES. iicigbt •

Pinus abies, common spruce fir, from . . 6 to 20 inches.

alba, white spruce.
rubra, red spruce.
nigra, black spruce.
sylvestris, Scotch fir.

laricis, Corsican fir . .24

unciiiata, hooked fir . . . 18

pumila, upright coned fir , . 12

Mughus, nodding coned fir.
piingens, prickly coned fir.

Baiiksiana, Hudson's Bay fir, in pots* . 24

Pallasiana, Prof. Pallas's fir.
pinaster, cluster fir
pinea, stone pine
maritima, sea-side pine .
Halepensis, Aleppo pine
inops, Jersey pine .

resinosa, pitch pine
variabilis, various leaved pine.
Clanbrassiliana, dwarf pine.
tteda, frankincense pine, in pots.
serotina, fox-tail pine.

rigida, three-leaved pine . . 6 20

palustris, swamp pine, in pots.
longifolia, long leaved pine.

Cembra, Siberian pine . . 6 18

strobus, Weymouth . . . 12 36

excelsa, Bhotan, in pots.
cedrus. Cedar of Lebanon, in pots.
deodara, Indian cedar.

pendula, black larch. . . 6 24

microcorjja, red larch.
larix, common larch.

Canadensis, hemlock spruce • . 9 20

dumosa, bushy pine, in pots.
iaxifolia, yew leaved, in pots.

picea, silver fir . . . 9 20

spectabilis, purple coned, in pots.

balsamea, balm of Gilead . . 9 20

Fraseri, double balsam, in pots.
adunca, crooked.
Romana, Roman.

* By this is meant such sorts of forest-trees as from their rarity, or recent introduction of
very small quantities of their seeds, have rendered the utmost care and caution necessary
in the first attempt to cultivate them here ; by and by, instead of being raised in pots, the
seeds may be found to succeed equally well in the open ground.

6

20

6

18

6

18

6

18

6

18

6

18

34.

PLANTING.

Height.

9 to 20 inches.

Pinus Siftmcfl, Siberian pine

pichta, pigmy pine, in pots.
orientalis, oriental pine.
Lambertiana, Lambert's pine, in pots.
ponderosa, heavy wooded.
Araucaria imbricata. Chili pine.
Taxodium dislichum, deciduous cypress.
Cupressus sempervirens, upright evergreen cypress.

thyoides, while cedar.
Juniperus Virginiana, red cedar.
Thuja occidentalis, American arbor-vitae,
orientalis, Chinese.
plicata, Nee's.
Caroliniana, Lucas's arbor-vitae.

2d. Reproductive trees.
Quercus, oak, different species of . from

Fraxinus, ash, different species of
Castana, Spanish chestnut
jEsculus, horse chestnut
Fagus, beech

Betula, birch . . . .

Alnus, alder . . .

Carpinus, hornbeam

Platanus, plane . " . .

Acer, sycamore . .

Maple common

Norway . . . .

Grafted and layer reared species
Tilia, lime, common, and others .

Ulmus, elm, wych

Grafted and layer reared species
Populus, poplar, different species of
Salix, willow tree, species of

Those species which are mentioned as raised in pots for transplanting,
except the cedars and a few others, are as yet considered merely orna-
mental trees, the period of their introduction not having allowed sufficient
time to prove their properties or comparative value as timber trees. It
is highly desirable to plant them, with a view to ascertain that point,
several of them being highly valuable in their native countries. The
pinus Lambertiana has been found to have attained to the growth of 200
feet in height, and 57 feet in circumference*.

Modes of transplanting. Much difference of opinion prevails on the
comparative merits of the different methods of planting from time to time
introduced, and more or less practised. Trenching is held by some to be
essential to success, without considering that there are situations and soils
where timber of the most valuable quality may be produced that cannot
be dug or trenched. Others again infer, that to insert seedling plants into
the soil in its natural state is all that is required for the production of
timber and underwood possessing every requisite value.

These opinions are too exclusive; they have led to baneful effects, and still
are the cause why many extensive tracts of land lie waste, which other-
wise might have been covered with profitable plantations. But in more

* Transactions of the Linnean Society of Loudon, vol. xv. Part II. p. 498,

Height.

6 to

30 mches.

6

20

12

30

12

30

6

20

9

30

6

24

6

24

12

30

6

30

6

24

6

24

12

36

12

36

9

30

18

36

18

36

W.ANTING.

3«

numerous instances, from the same cause, {]jreat and unnecessary
expenses have been incurred, only to result in a total failure of the
plantation, with the consequent loss of time and property. Instances
illustrative of these points have been too frequent in the management of
the forest lands of the Crown, (which ought to shew an example of practical
planting worthy of imitation by the community,) as well as on private
estates, to require to be cited here. Well regulated economy in the expense,
or first outlay, is one of the principles of the art important to be attended
to in practice. Accordingly it is not surprising to find some modes of
planting invented, and others misapplied, under the mistaken impression
of furthering this principle, at the serious risk of retarding the healthy
growth and prosperity of the trees, and of producing results completely
subversive of the intention.

The great object of transplanting trees from seed-beds, layer-stools,
cutting grounds, &c. to nursery rows, or beds previous to their final trans-
plantation for good, is to increase the number of fibres and rootlets ; and,
by ensuring the free uninterrupted formation of healthy stems and buds, to
lay the foundation of a vigorous constitution in each individual plant before
it be finally transplanted to its timber site.

The different modes of planting trees on their timber sites are denomi-
nated, first, slit-planting; second, holing or pitting; third, trench-plant-
ing ; fourth, furrow-planting. There are also varieties of these characterised
by the instruments or tools used for inserting the roots of the plants into
the soil.

Slit planting is the most simple mode, and is practised on soils in their
natural state without, any preparation of holing, ploughing, or trenching.
It is performed by three different kinds of instruments : viz. by the moor
planter (Jig. 6. a), by the diamond dibble (6), and byj the ^common
garden spade.

Fig. 6.

1st. The moor planter (a) is a heavy instrument, consisting of a wooden
shaft and handle two feet nine inches in length, terminated by a single
slightly curved prong of well tempered iron or steel fifteen inches in
length, two and a half inches broad at the insertion of the shaft, and
gradually tapering to the point. The handle is made sufficiently large to
be grasped by both hands, and the operator with one stroke drives the
prong into the ground to the depth required for seedling trees, and by
depressing the handle, the point of the instrument raises up the earth,
leaving a vacuity or opening in loose earth, into which a person, holding
a plant in readiness, places the root, and with the foot fixes it in the soil.
A stout active workman with this instrument, and the aid of a boy, will
transplant a greater number of seedling trees on light moor soils than by
any other method at present known.

2d. The diamond dibble (b) is recommended by Sang* : it is made of a

, • Planter's Kalendar, p. 170. '

D 2

36 PLANTING.

triann-iilar shaped plate of steel, furnished with an iron shaft and wooden
handle. The sides are each four inches long, and the upper part or side
four inches and a half broad. It is used for planting on sandy and gravelly
soils where the surface produce of herbage is short. In this case the
planter makes the ground ready with the instrument in one hand, and
inserts the plant with the other. He carries the plants in a bag or basket sus-
pended from his waist ; he strikes the dibble into the ground in a slanting
direction so as to direct the point inwards, and, by drawing the handle
towards himself, an opening is made, and kept open by the steel plate for
the reception of the roots of the plant by the other hand. The instrument
is tlien removed, and the earth made firm about the roots of the plant by
a stroke with the heel of the instrument.

.3d. By the spade, a cut is made in the turf with the spade and crossed
by another at a right angle: the two cuts thus made resemble the figure of
the letter T. The handle of the spade being depressed backwards forces
open the edges of the cuts, and in the opening thus made the roots of the
plant are inserted ; the spade is then withdrawn, and the turf replaced by
pressure with the foot.

Sir John Sinclair describes an improved mode of slit-planting, as
follows: The operator with his spade makes three cuts, twelve or fifteen
inches long, crossing each other in the centre, at an angle of sixty degrees,
the whole having the form of a star. He inserts his spade across one of
the rays (a), a few inches from the centre, and on the side next himself;
Fiz-7. then bending the handle towards himself and almost to the

ground, the earth opening in fissures from the centre in
the direction of the cuts that had been made, he, at the
same instant, inserts his plant at the point where the spade,
intersected the ray (o), pushing it forward to the centre,
and assisting the roots in rambling through the fissures.
He then lets down the earth by removing liis spade, hav-
a ing compressed it into a compact state with his heel; the

operation is finished by adding a little earth with the grass side down,
completely covering the fissures, for the purpose of retaining the moisture
at the root, and likewise as a top dressing, which greatly encourages the
plant to push fresh roots between the swards'*^.

4th. The defects of the slit mode of planting are, that the earth is not
properly reduced in its texture to suit the tender fibres of the roots of seed-
ling plants, and the natural plants of the surface are left to contend with
ihem for the nourishment aftbrded by the soil, nor can the rootlets of the
young trees be disposed and placed in their right positions. The least
objectionable practice is to cut a circular piece of the turf, a foot in dia-
meter, and lay it on one side with the surface downwards ; the workman
tlien with his spade loosens and breaks down the texture of the uncovered
soil, and, by making ample space for the extension of the roots of his plant
in every direction, inserts it in the pulverized eartl). The turf which had
been reversed and laid on one side, is then with a stroke of the spade
divided into two equal parts, and replaced on each side of the plant in its
reversed position. The reversed turf supports the plant against the effects
of the wind, retains the proper moisture of the soil, and prevents the evil
consequences resulting to the lateral branches of the young tree, and to
the healthy progress of the stem, from the imcontroUed growth of the
herbage natural to the soil, — all of which, by the former modes, are rather
encouraged than checked. In uninclosed commons or moors, the natural

* General Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 283.

PLANTING. ZT

herbage and shrubby plants are kept under by cattle, &c. ; but when such
lands are inclosed for planting-, and thereby protected from stock, the
natural plants, which before appeared diminutive and slow of growth, sud-
denly attain a size and vigorous vegetation highly detrimental to the
young forest trees.

2. Matlonk planting is confined chiefly to rocky ground, and to soils
containing many coarse, tough roots of herbage, heath, &c. ; and under
these circumstances the mattock is an indispensable instrument. It is
tluis described in the Planter's Kalendar: — 'The handle is three feet six
inches long; the mouth is five inches broad, and is made sharp; the
length of it to the eye or shaft is sixteen inches, the small end or pick is
seventeen inches long' (c, fig. 6). It may be unnecessary to mention that
the broad or hoe end should be faced with steel and kept well sharpened ;
it is perfectly effective in cutting or paring the heath, furze, &c., and
the pick end is equally so for thoroughly loosening and fitting the soil to
be operated uj^on with the spade or planter (d). The Hackle prongs are
recommended for clayey, tenacious soils*, which are difficult to work
with the spade. It is made with two or three prongs ; the former of two
for the soil just mentioned, and the latter of three prongs for stony or
gravelly soils.

3. Holing. — Holes or pits are dug out, and the loosened soil left for
a season to the action of the weather, to ameliorate and reduce its texture.
Time should be afforded for the rotting or decomposition of the turf or
surface produce taken off the space which is opened, previous to the period
of planting. The size of the holes should vary according to the size of the
plants to be planted, and to the nature of the subsoil. Plants from
one and a half to two feet high should have the holes two feet wide and
eighteen inches deep, prejiared in the summer or autumn for the reception
of the plants in spring. For trees of larger growth, the extent of the
roots must determine the size of the holes, making an allowance of from
six inches to a foot of extra width beyond the extreme points of the
roots. Holes made in tenacious clays retain the water which falls into
them, and rots the roots of the trees ; dry, light, sandy soils cannot be
benefited by the pulveriziug action of the sun and air; rocky soils admit
but imperfectly of holing; and some kinds of binding gravelly soils are
as liable to the retention of moisture as stiff clays. The practice of holing
is therefore never attended with success on these kinds of soil.

Spade planting applies to land prepared for the reception of the plants
by trenching. Although this mode of planting is the most common in
use, and may appear to require but little exercise of skill on the part of
the oi)erator, it is nevertheless often very badly executed. It is best
performed when the holes are made a few inches wider than the roots of
the plant extend; the earth of the bottom of the hole should be broken
down with the sjjade, the sides all round should be made to slope inwards,
so as to cause the bottom to be wider than the top. The person who holds the
plant should then place it in the centre of the pit, and the operator with
the spade should have ready some fine surface soil to cover the bottom
and raise it up to the proper height, the person holding the plant raising
it at the same time, so tliat it may stand not deeper in the soil than it
previously stood. The earth should then be carefully thrown in a finely
divided state, and the plant during the operation slightly moved, so as to
prevent the roots from being covered in bundles, and to afford each root
and rootlet to have a portion of soil intervening between it and the rest.

* Pontey's Profitable Planter.

88 PLANTING.

Treading should be avoided, as it renders the soil cohesive, which in stiff or
heavy land is an evil of great magnitude to newly-planted roots. In light
soils, however, a slight pressure with the foot to keep the plant steady
in its place is necessary, particularly if the weather is dry during the
season of planting; but in cases where it is practicable, it is much more
beneficial to settle the earth about the roots of the plants by a free
application of water ia the usual manner.

It is the best and most expeditious practice to have one set of men
to make the holes, and another to finish the planting. When different
species of trees are to be mixed in the plantation, and in unequal
proportions, each species is successively distributed and planted. What
we have already stated respecting the great importance to the success of
the plants of not suffering the roots to be dried by exposure to the sun
or wind, may render it unnecessary to urge here, that the distribution of
the plants on the ground should not be farther in advance than just to
keep the planters fully employed. Before laying the plants out on the
spots where they are to be planted, it is a most useful practice to dip
the roots in water, or in a puddle made of water and rich mould. In
planting on a confined scale, the plants may be distributed as before,
and two workmen may proceed to open the pits on the spots. As soon
as the hole is opened, one of the operators places the roots of the
plant in the hole, while the other with his spade finishes the process as
above directed. By this method the holes can be made proportionate
to the size of the roots of the different plants, which, when of various
species, are oftentimes also of different sizes. When circumstances war-
rant the previous preparation of the soil necessary to this mode of
planting, it should be adopted, as being the most perfect and effective. '

Furrow planting is performed by opening a furrow with the trenching
plough, or with two common ploughs ; the one succeeding the other in
the same trench or furrow, and opening it to the depth required by the
roots of the trees. The roots being placed in the furrow at the proper
distances, the workman with the spade finds no difficulty in obtaining the
necessary quantity of pulverized soil to complete the work. This mode
of planting has been practised with success on the Duke of Bedford's
estates in Bedfordshire, and in Buckinghamshire in the neighbourhood of
Woburn. The implement employed was a very strong plough, drawn by
six horses, and opening a furrow from twelve to sixteen inches deep,
turning the sward or heath over on each side. This was followed by a
scuffler or grubber of three tines, which completely stiiTed and pulverized
the soil. On light land eight acres a day was done in this way, but the
soil must be light and free from large stones or other obstructions.

That extensive and valuable plantations have been made by slit planting
there are abundant proofs, and on elevated, thin, light soils incumbent on
rock, or where trenching cannot be effected or the furrow plough be used,
this mode maybe adopted with economy and success. Before planting by
this method, however, it is essential to know the precise nature of the
subsoil, and that there does not exist a hardened stratum, impervious to
water, beneath the surface, which frequently happens in heaths, or siliceous
sandy moorlands, it generally consists of the heath-soil in a compact layer
about an inch thick, containing a large proportion of oxide of iron, and
impervious to water. Beneath, and next to this, is generally grey or white
sand, surcharged with water ; and whenever trees are planted, by the slit
mode, on soils so constituted, they never make any healthy growth, but
perish so soon as the roots reach the hardened stratum: trenciiing, or the
furrow plough must be em])loyed in such cases- to destroy the impervious

PLANTING. 39

stratum, and render free the circulation of water and air, otherwise the
attempt to establish trees will be. vain. When the land is clean, friable, mo-
derately deep, free from, and not retentive of stag-nant moisture, the mode of
plantings by holing; may be adopted witii propriety. Lands of a tenacious,
clayey nature, and also those of the best quality, employed for forest
planting, oufj^ht to be trenched, as beinp; the most economical ultimately,
and the most etfectual, for these kinds of soil. The preparation of tenacious
clayey soils by paring', and burnino-, and trenching-, has already been stated.
Since the above was y)repared lijr the press, we have perused the able
tracts * on ])lanting' by W. Withers, Esq., of Holt, in Norfolk. This gen-
tleman, besides shewing-, by facts not to be doubted, the superior advantag-es
of trenching-, compared to that of holing or slit planting-, in the more
speedy returns of profits from thinnings, and e.xtra annual increase of
timber in the trees left for that purpose, lias likewise proved the value of
manure to poor soils in conjunction with this mode of jireparation That
such a mode of preparation with the application of manure should be
highly advantageous for the growth of the more valuable limber trees on
soils of the nature now alluded to, will be instantly seen by every one who
has examined carefully the natural habits of these trees by the principles of
vegetable physiology already discussed ; and such as may f€e\ reluctant,
or have not leisure, to employ this mode of arrivincc at a perfect convic-
tion, may be amply convinced by comparing that soil on which the oak,
for instance, or any other of the more valuable timber trees, invariably
attains the highest perfection, with that on which it or they are always
inferior. Compare the constitution of the soil No. 2, at page 7, with that
of the soil No. 5, undthe almost total absence of clay, chalk, and vegetable
matter, will be evident in the former. Now, on this soil the oak, according
to our experience and observation, is never found in a natural state, audi
when planted in it, never attains to any value as a timber tree even with
the aid, as nurses, of the |)ine, birch, and sycamore, which here succeed.
On the soil No. 5, where the constituents of the soil are ditferent from
those of No. 2, the oak attains to the highest perfection. To supply
manure, therefore, composed of clay (burnt or recent), chalk, and vegetable
matter, or rotten dung, in the requisite proportions, and by deep trenching
(remedying, in some measure, the defects of the subsoil), and by combining
and comminuting the whole as intimately as possible, the soil No. 2 would
approximate to that of No. 5, and the oak might then be planted with a
certainty of its successful produce of timber. Any smaller application
than the requisite quantities of these ingredients will, of course, give a
diminished result as to the crop of timber, but still it will give an increase
in proportion to the quantity applied.

The principle on which manure is objected to for the rearing of forest-
trees, is, that it will force the growth of the tree beyond its natural st;ite,
and render the deposit of vegetable fibre soft, and of diminished strength
and durability. This, however, is carrying the point to an extreme to
which it is never likely to be in the power of any planter to arrive, were
he even willing to attempt it. To maimre a poor soil, for it should be
here kept in view that this and not a rich, or even moderately rich soil, is
intended, can have but one effect, and that is to improve the growth of
the trees. But the great, immediate, and important object of maiuire here,
is to furnish a liberal supply of food while the plant is in its first stages of
growth, thereby giving it the means to lorm a strong constitution, enlarg-

* ' A Memoir on the Rearing, &c., of Forest-trees.' ' A Letter to Sir WaMer Scott,
Barf., &c.' * A Letter to Sir H. Steuart, Bart., &c.' By W. Withers, of Holt, Norfolk. '

40 PLANTING.

ing its number of roots and rootlets, and, at the same time, improving the
quality of the exhalations from the soil, for absorption by the leaves, which
is, in fact, an amelioration of the local climate or air. All these important
points to the health of the tree, to the value of its timber, and to the
attainment of the object in view, a valuable return in the shortest space of
time for the capital expended, are thus highly promoted, and, in a great
measure, secured by trenching, manuring, and keeping clean of weeds or
surface culture for a limited period after planting. As an answer to
the important question, will the sum expended in trenching and manuring
be returned with interest and profit in proportion to those of the lesser
sum required for planting on unprepared land, INlr. Withers has brought
forward facts and observations to which we shall revert when discussing
the subject of tlie valuation of timber trees.

The proper distances at which young forest trees should be planted on
their timber sites depends on the natural habits of growth of the different
species, the nature and preparation of the soil, and the size of the plants
to be planted.

The larch, spruce, and pine require less space than the oak, chestnut,
elm, &c. The nature of tlie soil will determine the peculiar species of
trees which should predominate in the plantation, and point out the dis-
tances at which they should be placed. If the soil is tliin and of a light
texture, the fir tribe should occupy the largest proportion, if not the whole
space of land ; if clayey, the oak, elm, ash, &c., should be the principal trees
in the design ; and, if a deep sandy soil, or if the soil be calcareous, elevated
land, the beech, hornbeam, &c., ought to have the preference — all with
the view to the ultimate produce of timber. The following table may be
useful for readily pointing out the number of trees required for a statute
acre of land, when planted at any of the uudermentioned distances: —

Number of Plants.

435
360
302
257
222
193
170
150
134
122
108
69
49

In profitable forest-tree planting, the nearest distance at which young
trees should be planted on their timber sites, is a yard, or three feet, and
the widest space tive feet ; the medium distance of four feet jdant from
plant is, or ought to be, that most generally adopted. Seedlings of three
years' growth, or jilants which have remained two years in the seed-bed
and one year in transplanted nursery rows, should be planted on their timber
sites three feet apart every way, it being understood at the same time that the
soil is thin, light, or sandy, and that the slit or holing in method of plant-
ing is used. But should the soil have been prepared by ploughing and
trenching, and be in a clean fallow state, the medium distance of four
feet, or three and a half feet, if the species of trees to be planted are ex-
clusively of the fir or pine tribe, will be the most proper. Trees of the
age now alluded to will vary in size from nine to twenty inches in
height, exclusive of some species of poplar, elm, &c., which grow faster
than the generality of forest trees. In well-prepared Ian dof a deeper surface

Distance apart.

1 foot

Number of Flsints.

. 43,560

Distance apait.

10 feet

H

J)

. 19,360

11

?)

2

?>

. 10,890

12

2i

JJ

6,969

13

)J

3

)>

. 4,840

14

^)

?

J)

3,556
. 2,722

15
16

33

^

5

2,232
1,742

17
18

33 .

33

6

7

3>

3>

1,210

889

19
20

33
35

8

3)

680

25

33

9

J)

537

30

33

PLANTING. 41

soil than the above, plants from eic^hteen to twenty-fonr inches in heig^ht
of the fir tribes may be planted with advantac:e ; and deciduous trees, as
the oak, chestnut, elm, &c., from three to four feet in hei{jht, may be
planted at the distance of five feet apart. In tlie last case a return of
profits from thinnings will be obtained at least two years earlier than from
transplanted seedlings, under the like circumstances of soil. Trees
planted as nurses for assistinj^ the progress of those intended for timber
are of quick growth, and in the course of from seven to twelve years will
have attained to a size fit for the purposes of fencing", or to be used as
poles, coopers' ware, &c., according to local demand. When the nurse
trees have arrived at this stage of growth, they will require to be partially
thinned, to make room for the timber trees, or pri»c/j!;«/s of the planta-
tion, as they are termed. Whenever the branches of the former interfere
with those of the latter, no time should be lost in remedying the evil, by
pruning- the nurse trees, or cutting' them down. If the different operations
of planting- have been judiciously performed, the value of the trees thinned
out at this ])eriod will cover the rent of the land, with compound interest
on the capital expended in planting it. Hence the importance of nurse trees,
and the propriety of furnishing the ground at first with a sufficient number
of young plants to be cut down and taken away periodically, until the
principal timber trees have attained to maturity. In poor soils, where the
original outlay of capital and the rent of the land are both small, the ex-
penditure will be covered by the periodical crop of thinnings, and vice
versa in better soils, authorizing a larger expenditure in the prejjaration, in
the size of the plants, and in the mode of planting, a comparatively
superior number of trees of increased value will be produced at each
periodical thinning. These results are certain to follow judicious planting.

The third and last mode of rearing forest trees proposed to be discussed
at the head of this chapter, is that of selecting the superior shoots of
coppice stools, and training them to full-grown timber trees. The oak,
on account of the value of its bark, is more frequently reared in this way
than the elm*, ash, and chestnut. The timber of coppice trees is in
general faulty, and of inferior quality to that reared from seeds. Where
care, however, is taken in the selection of the shoots from healthy and
not over-aged coppice stools, timber of the best quality may be obtained
from them.

The produce of coppice stools consists of materials for fence wood, fuel,
besoms, &c. Poles and bark are the most valuable of this produce, where
the practice is to leave no standards, or saplings for timber. It is, how-
ever, perfectly clear, that when a wood or coppice offers to the purchaser
produce of various sizes convertible to various uses, along with full-grown
timber for navy purposes, the sale is more readily effected, and generally
on better terms, than when the produce consists of smaller wood only.
In making choice of the shoots of coppice stools to be trained for timber
trees, great care should be had to select none but such as are straight and
vigorous, and which originate as near to the roots of the stool as pos-
sible. The neglect of this latter circumstance is the chief cause of the
unsoundness of coppice-reared timber, particularly at the root or butt end
of the bole. The parent wood of coppice stools is most frequently suffered
to rise too high from the roots, consequently the shoots emitted from it never
grow with so much vigour, or attain to so great a size in a given space of

* ^ great pari of Ike elms (ulmus campestris) reared in Devonshire are from layers,
and frequently defective at Ike most valuable part. — Fide Vancouver' s Survey of Devon.

One or two fertile tracts in Devon, where the soil is of the nature termed red sand-
stone, is more favourable to the growth of the elm than to any other tree. — Mr, Kingston.

42 PLANTING.

time, as when the stool is kept within an inch or two of the surface of the
ground. When the parent stool is a foot or more in heii>ht from the root,
it becomes divided into pointed rug-g'ed parts, and if a tiller or shoot, left
for a tree, is situated near to one or other of these, the stub is in time
encompassed by the bark of the young tree wholly or partially, which
causes blemish and unsoundness in the timber, as well as obstruction to
its prosperous growth. The stum))s of coppice stools should, therefore,
be cut near to the surface of the ground, and the face of the stubs as
level and free from fractures as can be. The kinds of trees most
profitable for coppice produce are those which possess the reproductive
power in the highest degree ; these were before enumerated at pai^e 34.
It may be unnecessary here to observe that the non-reproductive trees, such
as all the pine and fir tribes, are unfit for the purposes of co))])ice. The
shoot, or tiller, being selected with due attention to these essential points,
all other shoots belonging to the parent stool should be cut away close to
the root. The young tree should then receive the same treatment as other
trees reared by seed or transplanting. Although, under any circumstances,
it cannot be recommended to convert a coppice wood into a timber grove,
nevei tlieless, should the circumstance of local demand for timbt-r trees be
considerable, it is a highly profilal)le practice to allow a certain number of
the most select oak tillers to remain for timber. Sliould the number
finally left to become timber trees not exceed thirty on the space of an
acre, the coppice produce will not receive any injury to be put in competi-
tion with the value of the trees retained. Were one hundred select
tillers left on the cutting or fall of a coppice, and were the periodical
falls made at eighteen years intervals of time, on the second cutting
these tillers would be thirty-six years old, and worth from 10s. to 12s.
each. At this period of growth twenty-five of the number should be
taken away, leaving an average distance between those that remain of
about twenty-four feet. At the next fall the trees will have attained to
filty-six years' growth, and will aflbrd seventeen trees to be thinned out,
of the value of 22s. each. At seventy-two years' growth the value will be
increased to 38s. each tree, and allowing fifteen trees to be thinned out.
At the fourth, or last thinning, the trees will be ninety years of growth,
and worth at least 50s. each, leaving thirty timber trees, of which a part
will be fit for ship-building, and exceed in value the fee-simple of the
land. Land requiring a period of eighteen years to produce coppice-wood
fit for cutting or a fall, cannot be worth more yearly than 10s. per acre in
husbandry ; consequently the rent of the land and cost of culture of the
coppice is covered by these thinnings of the timber trees, leaving periodi-
cally the proper coppice produce, and at the termination of one hundred
years the valuable trees above mentioned as clear profit.

The age at which coppices should be cut down varies according to the
soil and their quickness of growth. Nine years may be considered the
sliortest period, and thirty years the longest, as oak-bark, which constitutes
a valuable part of the produce, does not improve in quality alter that age.
Eighteen years' growth is about an average period for coppice-wood, and
the average returns from bark and wood 21/. an acre*.

The comparative n\erits of the three difierent modes of rearing forest
trees, proposed to be considered at the head of this chapter, will have
appeared, from the facts brought forward, to be greatly in favour of
transplanting young trees of proper sizes and age, from nursery beds to
their timber sites, whether in regard to economy in the first and subse-i

There are instances of coppices affording returns of 50/, sterling profit per acre.

]?LANTING; 45

quentoutlayoif capital, in malviriG^ and rearing' the plantation, or in respect
to the quantity and quality of tiuiher produced on a piven space of land,
and in a given space of time. The rearing' of oak timber from seed on (he
spots where the trees are to remain for timber is, however, an exception to
the above conclusion under the following' restrictions ; namely, that the
acorns of the best variety of oak (^Qverais robur vel lovgipeduncvlata) can
be obtained of good quality, at a reasonable cost, in siifhcient quantities ;
that the land to be sown is in a perfectly clean state of culture, in good
heart on the surface, and free from stagnant moisture ; that labour is
cheap ; and that ample and complete protection from the attacks of vermin
can be ensured to the acorns, and to the seedling- plants till ihey equal in
size three years' old nursery plants. When all these circumstances can be
combined, then the mode of rearing the oak on its timber site from seed
should be adopted, but not otherwise, or disappointment will be certain to
follow.

Simple plantations consist of one or two species of trees only ; mixed
plantations of many diflerent species. The latter, on suitable soils, are
the most profitable ; they afford an earlier, more permanent, and a larger
return for capital than simple plantations. The judicious arrangement
of the different forest trees, not only promotes the greatest returns of pro-
fit from the plantations, but likewise effects the highest embellishment to
the estate and surrounding country*.

Shelter in winter and shade in summer are also important points.
Evergreen trees, and such deciduous ones as retain their leaves to a later
period of the year (the hornbeam, beech, and some varieties of the oak)
aflbrd much greater shelter in winter and in early spring-, when it is most
wanted, than those which lose their leaves early in autumn, and should,
tlierefore, be planted wherever shelter is most desired. Shade is best
afforded by trees which, rising with naked stems to a certain height, after-
wards send out an extended series of branches, as the oak, beech, chestnut,
and elm, which can be readily trained to that state by pruning, and their
spreading branches and umbrageous foliage are highly superior for this
intention than those of the ash, sycamore, plane, &c.

Although mixed planting, as just now observed, is the most profitable,
and, under skilful massing and grouping, the most embellishing- to the
landscape, yet there are certain circumstances connected with the growth
of the various species of forest-trees, which, when lliey occur, eflectually
control the choice of the planter in his modes of arrangement: tliese are,
first, the peculiar nature of the soil to be planted ; secondly, the climate, or
the exposure and elevation of the site of the j^lantation. In planting, soils
may be divided into simple and mixed. The latter allows of the fullest
scope to mixed planting. Siniple soils are those which contain the
smallest number of ingredients in their composition, or which consist
chiefly of one substance ; as sandy soils, containing from nine-tenths of

* Planting the same sort of trees in masses was originally jiractised at Blair Adam,
e. g. Halt' an acre of oaks, half an acre of beeches, half an acre of elms, half an acre of
Si)anish chestnuts, &c. This was altered for a mixture of different forest-trees, but Lord
Chief (Commissioner Adam has resorted recently to the original practice, especially on the
sides of hdls. His reason for this is, that mixing trees of dilferent sorts (their growths
being unequal) leads in thinning to sparing the more forward tree, though the tree of less
vaUie : whereas, uniting the same species of tree in masses, insured tlieir growing pretty
nearly in an e([ual degree, so that the choice in thinning secured the preservation of the
best growing tree; and with regard to the effect of embellisliment, the large masses of
different colours, especially on the slope of a hill, apjjcars to have more effect jn jjoint of
grandeur than intermixture, the latter being more adapted to pleasure-grounds and the
woodlands near a residence.

44 PLANTING.

sand (the maximum at which the successful culture of the white field-
turnip is supposed to be limited) to one-twentieth, the supposed point of
absolute sterility for even common herbage, are properly termed simple
sandy soils, and on which the pine, fir, larch, and perhaps the birch, can
only be planted. Soils consisting of from seven-eig-hths lo a larger pro-
portion of chalk will rear the beech chiefly; and when the proportion of
one-half of vegetable matter to one-half of sand and loam meet in a soil, it
i:, projjerly simple vegetable earth, and comes under the denomination of
peat, of which there are several kinds, but which will be more particularly
mentioned under the head of soils. On this last-mentioned soil the
planter is chiefly confined to the abele, poplar, and alder : the willow and
birch only partially succeed, or when the vegetable matter is in a less pro-
poi tion to the other ingredients above stated.

The elevation of the site of the intended jilantation above the level of
the sea, where that is considerable, influences the local climate so much as
often to confine the choice of the planter to one or two species of trees
only, even though the soil should be otherwise favourable for mixed
planting.

It is calculated that an elevation of six hundred feet diminishes the
temperature of a site equal to that of one degree of north latitude ; the
degree of dryness or humidity of the atmosphere, and the force of the
winds seem also to increase in proportion to the elevation of the land.
Accordingly we find that ditterent species of trees occupy different regions
and degrees of elevation on the mountains of the torrid, temperate, and
frigid zones.

According to Humboldt, the trees which grow in the highest elevation
are the pine and the birch, (these also it may be observed will flourish in
the lowest situations, the birch in particular will grow in soils periodically
overflowed or covered with water for two or three months in a year). The
highest altitude of the growth of the pine is stated to be from twelve
thousand to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, in latitude
20° ; and the limits of the growth of the oak appears to be confined to ten
thousand three hundred. The last species of trees found nearest to the
limits of perpetual snow on Mount Caucasus, in latitude 42^°, and on the
Pyrenees, are the common birch (Belula alba), and the hooked pine
(Pi/n/s vnciiiata), and the red spruce fir (Pinus rubra). On the Aljjs,
latitude from 45° to 46°, the common spruce appears limited to an elevation
of about five thousand nine hundred feet. In Lapland the birch is foimd
at the altitude of one thousand six hundred feet in latitude 67° and 7U°,

The influence of different altitudes on the distribution and growth of
forest trees, is evident even in the inferior elevations of the forests of
Britain. The pine, fir, and birch occupy the highest points* ; next the
sycamore and mountain elm ; lastly, the oak, beech, poplar, ash, and
chestnut. When the ground to be planted is, therefore, so high above the
level of the sea, as to influence materially the nature of the climate, the
forest trees to be planted should be selected according to the above
principles. In practice this may be termed region planting. By imitat-
ing the natural process in this respect, not only the most profitable returns
which the site and soil are capable of producing will be secured, but also
the most ornamental effects produced on the landscape, and the useful ones
of judicious shelter obtained. It generally happens in extensive planting
that the soil varies in different parts of the site in its properties and fitness

* The Mountain ath »ccupies some of the most exposed^ of the Dartmoor Fens. — Mr.
Kingston.

PLANTING. 45

to rear one species of tree better than another. When these difTerent soils
are, therefore, planted with the different trees best adapted to eacli, masses
of diversified outUne will adorn the landsca[)e, having all the effect of a
tastefid design, and the trees will be individnally of the most healthy
gTowth, a point of the last importance in ornamental effect.

Experience proves that, for elevated situations, the Scotch fir, Pinu/i
sylvestris, the Norway spruce, Pinvs abies, the larch, Pi/ntx larix, the
hooked pine, Pinux juicinatus, the birch, Betula alba, the sycamore, Acer
pxevdo-platanus, and the mountain ash, Pyrus aucuparia, are the most
profitable : these, with the silver fir, Piiius picea, black Italian poplar,
Populus nigra, the alder, Alnus gbdinosa, and the Bedford Willow, Salix
Russelliana, according to the soil, are also the best adapted to plant as
nurses for rearing the more valuable timber trees.

For low, damp, and boggy soils, the alder, ash, birch, abele-tree, and
the willow, are the best.

To resist the effects of the sea-blasts, the sycamore, pinaster, yew, and
laburnum have all been found superior to most kinds of trees. The live
oak is a very tender tree, and will not exist in England. The habits of
the live oak (Quercus virens) offer a prospect of this tree being serviceable
for the above important purpose. It is a native of South Carolina, and
there it is seldom found above twelve miles from the sea-coast. It thrives
best when growing on isolated spots or little islands entirely surrounded
by salt water. On the estate of Middleburg, situated on the Cooper river,
twenty-four miles from Charlton, South Carolina, belonging to J. Lucas,
Esq. of New Cross, Surrey, live oak trees averaging twenty-five feet in
height, and nine inches in diameter, were selected from the woods by that
gentleman and planted in the form of an avenue to his residence. The
trees were taken up with as many of the fibrous roots as possible. The
tops were lightened by partially reducing the size and number of the
branches. Every tree succeeded well, and in the space of two or three
years from the time of transplanting they were not to be distinguished from
those in the neighbourhood which had grown unmolested. These facts
shew that this tree is of hardy vivacious habits, and being also an ever-
green, warrants a fair trial of its merits on the coasts of England.

Transplanting trees of large growth for immediate effect properly belongs
to another division of the subject, ornamental planting. It may not be un-
necessary, however, to state shortly the principles of the practice as lately
brought forward by Sir H. Stewart, in his Planters* Guide. These are to
take up the tree, with all its roots, fibres, and rootlets, and also the green
or external system of branches and buds entire and unbroken, then to
transplant these roots, rootlets, and external system of the tree in the same
perfect state. The soil into which such trees are transplanted should be
of a superior quality to that from whence they were taken, or at least that
portion of it applied immediately to the rootlets should have an addition of
very rotten manure. A point of great importance to success is the selec-
tion of the subjects. 1st. The tree should have a superior thickness and
induration of the bark compared to that of trees which have grown up in a
crowded state. 2d. Stoutness and superior girt of stem. 3d. Numerous-
ness of roots, fibres, and rootlets. And, 4th, extent, balance, and closeness
of branches. Where a tree, otherwise desirable, possesses not these pro-
tecting properties, it should be provided with them previous to transplant-
ing by uncovering the roots partially, so as not to injure the stability of the
tree during the process. To these exposed roots is applied a compost of
fine earth, into which they shoot, and produce in two or three years nume-
rous rootlets fit for transplanting. The overgrown branches are reduced so

<6 PLANTING;

as to balance the top on every side, if it require it. To assist the bark,
such trees as intercept the air and solar rays are removed. These effects
are also produced to the roots by cutting a trench at a proper distance
from the stem round the roots, and filling up the trench with good soil ; in
two or three years, the roots will be increased in numerous ramifications as
in the former mode.

Chapter IV.

Of the Soils and Sites most profitably employed in the Growth of Timber ;
intimate Nature of different Soils peculiarly adapted for the Growth of
particular species of Forest Trees.

From what has been said respecting the advantages of judicious planting,
the lands and sites most proper for the growth of timber will have been
generally understood. There has been a difference of opinion whether
land under woods or under tillage is the most profitable and beneficial
to the proprietors and the public ; the question is similar to that which
exists respecting the comparative value of tillage land and permanent
pasture, and may be solved in the same manner, viz., that the prosperity,
if not the absolute existence, of the one is dependent on the other, and the
interests of individuals as well as the public on both. The occupiers of
land where woods are scarce, or wanting altogether, and those where they
are in too great abundance, will coincide in the truth of this observation.
The proportion which woods should bear to tillage and pasture lands in
any one district of country depends on the nature of the soil, and the
local demand for certain kinds of produce.

I" , There can be but one opinion as to the advantages of planting exposed
waste lands, and those that are steep, rocky, or precipitous. The loss to
individuals and to the nation, by such large tracts of lands as those now
alluded to lying utterly unproductive, is incalculable.

Lands of rather a superior quality to those, or which are accessible to
the plough, and the barrenness of which is owing to exposure and ungenial
climate, offer great inducements to forest-tree planting. For when the
improvement is completed it is, to its extent, so much added to the
territorial extent of the empire, in affording the means of sustenance as well
as the enjoyment of human life*.
^ Lastly, where the local climate and soil are good, but where, at the

* From among the many instances to be found in Scotland of these effects produced
hy judicious planting in changing the face of nature from that of a desolate waste to
comparative fertility and riches, may be particularly mentioned Blair Adam, the seat of
the Lord Chief Commissioner Adam. Here land which, in its natural state, would
scarcely afford any rent, has been so much improved by the skilful adaption of the
different species of forest trees to the soil and site, the subsequent culture, and, above
all, the judicious disposition or arrangement of the masses and narrower spaces of the
plantations, as to render the shelter and amelioration of the local climate so genial as
to produce coru and green crops as well as permanent pasture capable of rearing
and fattening the improved breeds of stock («). In England, barren moor soils have,
in many instances of late years, been successfully planted. At East Court, in Berkshire,
the seat of Charles Fyshe Palmer, Esq., M.P., a tract of extremely poor heath soil has
been successfully planted by that gentleman. In a few years the aspect and climate
of this before dreary, barren tract of land, will be completely changed. The plantations
of Robert Denison, Esq., at Kilnwick Percy, Yorkshire, are arranged in the most judi-
cious manner for shelter and improvement of the local climate. Mr. Hazlewood's larch
plantations at Slaugham Park, in Sussex, are also arranged in the most effective manner
for the improvement of the local climate. But there is scarcely a county in England
where such barren soils existed, where examples may not be found of the beneficial effects
of judicious planting.

(a) Fide Appendix to ihe Agricultural Report of Kinroi$hin,

PLANTING. 4f

same time, a scarcity of limber exists for the periodical wants of afrrlcnltural
and manufacturing' operations, as for the various purposes of buildings,
implements of husbandry, fencing, poles, machinery, fuel, &c., planting is
of great importance and utility to the community *. In many cases,
where the soil is of greater value, the planting may be confined to the
angles of enclosures, and to hedge-rows.

In this last case it may be necessary to observe, that the land of the
lowest comparative value for corn crops, and the most eligible for shelter
and shade where required, should be chosen for planting.

When it happens that not all of these peculiarities of soil and site call
imperiously for planting, it is proper to consider whether the value of
timber or of coppice produce will not be greater from a given space of
ground than that of corn or grass. The rent of the land will assist in
determining the point, with the local demand for these crops. From
numerous estimates of the returns from woodlands, compared to those of
corn and pasture lands, under a variety of different circumstances, as to
market for the produce, soils, and situations, 10s. per acre, per annum, of
rent is considered the general maximum value of land, above which it ought
not to be planted, but retained in corn or grass, and all land which rents
under that value affords a very superior revenue under woods or plan-
tations. There are undoubtedly many local circumstances which make
exceptions to this rule; as where timber is scarce, or where the demand for
certain kinds is unusually great, as in the neighbourhood of mines, hop-
plantations, &c. There are instances on record of produce of the value
of from 201. to 60^. per acre, per annum, being afforded by woodlands;
these, however, are extreme cases, and are here mentioned merely to show
that exceptions may occur to the above mentioned rule ; and that such
returns are greater than can be expected from any other kind of crop what-
ever, particularly considering that the cost of culture, as repairs of fences,
cutting down, and perhaps carting, is comparatively trifling to that of tillage
and manuring, which every other crop of value besides wood requires.

It may be useful to take a more intimate view of the nature or compo-
sition of those varieties of soil which have now been alluded to. It is
proper, however, to observe, that the following statements of the nature
or constituents of these soils are not intended to convey the idea that
they are the best sorts respectively for the different kinds of forest-trees,
but principally to show that on such soils these trees have attained to
great perfection of growth. The soils were selected from the spots
where the trees mentioned in connexion with the soils were found by
the writer of this treatise, and the trees were, on an average, the finest
of the respective kinds which have come under his observation.

* The plantations made by the present Duke of Bedford are highly worthy of notice
under this head of the subject, as being planned and executed in the most judicious
manner. A statement of the number of trees and quantity of ground planted by John,
Duke of Bedford, from the year 1802 to the present period, 1829 ; viz.

Quantity of Ground. "^ Number of |

A. R. P. Tices.

■ Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire . f>33 2 24 2,545,357

Exclusive of 400 bushels of acorns
and other seeds dibbled in.

A. R. p. Trees.

• Devonshire and Cornwall . .819 0 0 2,859,754

Huntingdon and Northamptonshire . 94 1 34 330,750

Exclusive of 280 bushels of acorus
dibbled in.

• " A. R. P. Trees.

Total quantity of ground planted . 1547. 0 18 . 5,735,861

Exclusive of 680 bushels of acorns,
and uther seeds dibbled in.

48

PLANTING.

The f^reat importance of precision in the nomenclature of soils, whether
in the details of plantings or in husbandry, must be so clear and evident
to every person who may be desirous to profit by the results of others'
experience in these subjects, that it would be superfluous here to add more
on the point.

1st. — Heath soil, or siliceous sandy moor soil, incumbent on shale or
ferruginous stones, and frequently on siliceous sand of great depth.

400 parts consisted of fine siliceous sand . , 320

Carbonate of lime . . . . 2

Carbonate of magnesia . ... 1

Decomposing vegetable matter, chiefly composed of the de-
caying leaves of heath . . .55
Silex, or impalpable earth of flints . . .11
Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . .3
Oxide of iron . . . . . 4
Soluble matter, principally common salt, or muriate of soda . 4

400
The Scotch fir, Pinus sylvestris, the birch, and the beech, are found to
succeed better on a soil of the above description than any other kind of tree.
For the latter, however, it is necessary that the subsoil should be a deep
sand. The larch and spruce, under the like circumstances as to subsoil,
will also attain to good perfection on heath soil ; but where the subsoil is
rocky, or impervious to a free circulation of moisture by indurated sand,
which is sometimes the case, these last-mentioned trees never succeed ; the
Scotch fir only maintains its growth.

2nd. — 400 parts of poor sandy soil, incumbent on shale, or very coarse
gravel.

Fine sand, principally siliceous . . . 360

Impalpable earthy matter, 40 consisting of carbonate of lime . 0

Decomposing vegetable matter, destructible by fire . 4

Silex, or pure earth of flints . . . 22

Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . . 7

Oxide of iron . . . .5

Soluble saline matters, chiefly muriate of soda . . 2

400
The pine, larch, spruce, birch, and sycamore are the most proper for
this kind of soil.

3rd. — Sandy loam, incumbent on siliceous sand, containing a
proportion of oxide of iron. — 400 parts.

Fine sand, partly calcareous, and partly siliceous

Coarse sand ...

Carbonate of lime

Decomposing vegetable matter

Silex, or the earth of flints

Alumina . . .

Oxide of iron . . .

Soluble vegetable matter, containing sulphate of potash

vegetable extract, and common salt ,

Loss , ,

large

200
84

6
15
56
12

5

4

24

400

rLANTING/ 49

The larcli, pine, and fir tribe in g'eneral will siicoeetl well oiv a soil of
this texture, although the beech comes to the g-reatest perfection, or is,
perhaps, the plant most profitable to employ in planting soils of tliis
nature, particularly when the subsoil happens to be deep sand, as is the
case of the soil on which tlie celebrated beech trees grow in AV'oburn
Abbey Parle. A figure of one of the finest of these trees is given in Pontey's
Forest Pruner.

4th. — Light sandy siliceous soil, incumbent on a damp clayey subsoil.

Siliceous sand, of various degrees of fineness . , 290

Gravel partly calcareous . . . .40

Impalpable loamy matter, consisting of carbonate of lime . 5

Silica, or earth of flints . . . .38

Alumina or clay . . . . .9

Oxide of iron . . . . 5

Decomposing vegetable matter . . .8

Moisture and loss . . • 5

400
The oak grows rapidly on tliis soil, and should constitute the principal
timber tree of the plantation. The sweet chestnut also attains to great
maturity in the same kind of soil. The nurse trees most proper are the
larch, spruce, and particularly the silver fir. The elm planted on this
soil had not attained to the size of the above mentioned trees in the
same period from planting, but the timber was considered of a superior
quality.

5th. — Clayey loam, incumbent on a clay subsoil.

Coarse gravel, partly calcareous . . .40

Fine sand '. . . .190

Carbonate of lime * . . , . 16

Decomposing vegetable fibre . . .14

Silex, or pure matter of flints . . . . 90

Alumina, or pure matter of clay . . .30

Oxide of iron , . . .7
Soluble vegetable extract and saline matters, containing

gypsum, common salt, and sulphate of potash . 5

Loss and moisture . . . .8

400
This soil brings the oak to the highest state of perfoction. The above
results of analysis w'ere aifordcd by an average sample of the soil of a part
of Woburn Abbey Park, where some of the finest oaks proliably in Eng-
land mav be seen, excepting those of Lord Bagot at lilylhfield Park.
The following nine trees grow^iear together on the soil above described,
and are therefore here selected to show the powers of a soil so constituted
in the production of oak tiuiber.

Oak No. 1. — The bole or stem measures, in timber, upwards of 50 feet in
height, and the limbs extend from the stem 40 feet. j-,. i,,.
At 3^ feet from the ground

At 10

ditto

ditto

At 20

ditto

ditto

Ocl

,k>]o.-2.

—At 4

ditto

ditto

At 7

ditto

ditto

At 13

ditto

ditto

At 20

ditto

ditto

17

3 circimiference.

14

6

14

0

17

9

15

6

13

6

12

9

E

60

PLANTING.

Ft.

In.

Ook No. 2. — At 35 foet from the p;ro(nKl

11

4

Oak No. 3.— At 4

ditto

ditto

13

oi

At 10

ditto

ditto

13

0

At 20

ditto

ditto

12

0^

Oak No. 4.— At 3

ditto

ditto

12

01

At 18

ditto

ditto

10

0

At 66

ditto

ditto

8

oi

OakNo. 5.— At 4

ditto

ditto

14

0

At 20

ditto

ditto

12

01

At 56

ditto

ditto

9

01

Oak No. 6.— At 3

ditto

ditto

14

4

At 34

ditto

ditto

12

6

The limbs extend from 40 to 46 feet

Vom the bole.

Oak No. 7.— At 4

ditto

ditto

12

0

At 50

ditto

ditto

8

H

OakNo. 8.— At 4

ditto

ditto

13

01

At 12

ditto

ditto

11

Of

At 50

ditto

ditto

8

01

Oak No. 9.— At 3

ditto

ditto

. 13

H

At 20

ditto

ditto

. 12

0

At 48

ditto

ditto

. 8

Of

The lowest estimate of timber in these nine trees is 3,200 cubic feet of
the very best quality for naval architecture. It is remarkable, that though
they must be of a great age, no symptoms of decay appear in the growth
of these trees ; they are perfectly sound and free from blemish*.

6th. — Damp clayey soil incumbent on clay.

Coarse siliceous gravel . . .

Fine sand . " .

Vegetable tnatter, destructible by fire . ■

Carbonate of lime .

Silica, or earth of flirtts ' .

Alumina, or pure clay ° . . .

Oxide of iron

Soluble saline matter, with vegetable extract, and gypsum

60

120

9

15

130

48

10

8

400
The oak, elm, ash, and hornbeam attain to greater perfection here than
any other kind of forest-tree. The tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipiferci) grows
freely on this soil when it is properly prepared by trenching. The
Norway spruce, pinaster, and Weymouth pine appear to be the only
species of the resinous tribe of trees that make tolerable growth on a soil of
the nature above described.

* Lord Cowper's Pensanger Park oak, near Hertford, grows in a clay and sand soil
or sandy loam.

Cubic measure.

In 1814, the stem of this tree measured G4 feet high . . 629 feet.

One limb, 54 feet long . . . . . . G7

Other limbs measured

696
290

986

This tree was again 'measured in 1826, and had increased to 1100 feet cubic measure.
The first length of the tree, up to the first branch, is 17 feet, and 19 feet 6 inches in cir-
cumference, measuring in cubic contents about 400 feet.

PLANTING.

«1

7th. — Fertile peat moss, incumbent on clay or marl.
Fine siliceous sand
Undecomjiounded veg'ctable fibre
Decomposing- vegetable fibre
Silica, or impalpable earth of Hints
AJumina, or pure mattej' of clay , .
Soluble matter, principally veg-etable extract
O^tidc of iroij . ^ . , •

Moisture and loss • .

. 231

13

57

50

18

4

2

. 25

400
This variety of -peat soil when prepared for planting by draining- off the
superfluous moisture, with whieh it is found almost always saturated, is
capable of growing- very profitable trees, as the birch, abele, poplar, willow,
and even the Scotch fir. A piece of ground of this nature, prepared by
cutting- open drains at such distances from each other, as to leave a sufficient
breadth or body of earth to retain a due proportion of moistin-e in dry
weathei-, and yet- prevent saturation of» moisture in the wettest weather,
was planted with a variety of trees. The trees above mentioned
succeeded remarkably well, and made an improved return of a hundred
per cent, in comparison to that afforded by the natural produce of the
surface. The following variety of peat, which is not uncommon, is to be
carefullv distinguished from the above : —

8th. — Inert* peat soil.

Fine pure siliceous sand . •

Inert vegetable matter destructible by fire

Alumina . . ,

Oxide of iron . .

Soluble vegetable extractive matter, sulphate of iron, and

sulphate of potash . ,

Sulphate of lime . ,

Loss and moisture • .

29

289

14

30

II
12

15

"ioo

The outward characters or appearance of this soil is so similar to those
of the first-mentioned variety of peat, that they are scarcely to be dis-
tinguished by common observation. The above soil, in its natural state,
is absolutely sterile. Large applications of caustic lime and of common
salt, in a smaller proportion, had the effect of improving the nature of this
soil so much, as to render it capable of vegetating- turnip seed, and of
bringing the roots to the size of small turnips. It has not been proved,
however, what the results of planting- forest-trees might be on this soil,
improved in the manner now stated.

9th. — Chalky soil, incumbent on chalk-rock.

Calcareous sand . . . 280

Carbonate of lime •

Decomposing vegetable fibre

Silica . .

Alumina ,

Oxide of iron

Vegetable and saline soluble matters

Moisture and loss

60
5
28
10
8
4
5

400

* The inert or sterile property of this peat appears to arise chiefly from the excess of
siilpliate of iron and sulpluite of jiotash and Inne which it contains. When burnt, the
ashes are found to be a valuable manure for chalky soils.

E 2

5^ PLANTING.

The beecli, ash, and oak thrive better on a soil of ll)e above composition,
than any of the resinous or fir species of trees.

10th. — Rich alluvial or marsh soil, on the estate of Lord Saye and

Sele at Belvidere, near Erith, in Kent, situated partly below and partly

above the level of the river Thames. g„i„3

Fine sand . . • , ,98

Aluminous f>;pit or stones . . .68

Carbonate of lime ' . -■ , - . ,15

Decomposing animal and ven;etable matter . . 40

Silica or impalpable earth of Hints . .115

Alumina or pure matter of clay , . ,32

Oxide of iron . . . .12

Sulphate of lime or gypsum . . .3

Soluble vegetable extract and saline matters, givino- indication

of not more, or rather less, than the usual quantity found in

soils generally of the muriate of soda or common salt . 6

Moisture and loss , , , ,11

400

This soil had the character in the neighbourhood of being incapable of
growing any kind of tree : it was supposed to contain an excess of common
salt. The Hon. Twisleton Fiennes has put this interesting question to the
test of trial. We examined this soil chemically as above, and found that
common salt entered but little into its composition. The stagnant moisture
with which it was surcharged appeared to be the chief, if not the only defect
of the soil. The subsoil in part is peaty and incumbent on a clayey marl.
A large open drain was made so as to command the water in the space
set apart to be planted. The ground was properly trenched and thrown
up into broad ridges, as recommended at p. 22 of this Treatise, with
secondary drains between each ridge, communicating with the principal
one. The ground was planted with a numerous variety of trees for the
purpose of experiment. The results now obtained show that the poplar
(^Poplusjiigra), willow {Salix alba et Riisselliana), elm (Ulniim montana),
sycamore (Acer psctido-platajins), ash {Fraxinus excelsior), alder (Alnus
glutiosa), locust (Robinia pseucio- acacia), birch {Bctula), oak (Qiiercus
robur), horse-chestnut (JEsculus /lippocasfajiiuyi), Spanish chestnut (Cas-
tanea vesca), hornbeam (Carpi/uis betulus), lime (Tilia eiir popci), spruce
fir (Pi?27ts abie.t), with dog-wood {Cornus coccinea), privet {Ligustnim
vnlgare), \\o\\y {Ilex aquifolium), and hazel (Corylus aveUara), as un-
derwood ; — these different species of trees have succeeded in the order
nearly as they have been enumerated, the first eight-mentioned sorts
having, up to this period, a decided advantage over the others. The Hon.
Mr. Fiennes purposes to continue and extend this interesting investigation ;
the results of v;hich will decide the question, which is one of importance
to the owners of soils of this naturcv.

Of the above varieties of soils, if we except the sandy loam No. 3, and
the clayey loam No. 5, there is not one which, on its natural site, could
be profitably cultivated under corn or green crops, but which, by skilful
planting, might be made to^ return considerable profits to the owners, and
also to the public the. many advantages which judicious planting always
confers.

Although there may be found shades of diiference in the proportions
of the constituents of soils receiving the same designation, such, for
instance, as the poor sandy soil, containing ten per cent, more or less of
sand in one situation more than another, yet the actual produce of timber.

PLANTING. 53

all other circumstances being* equal, will be found to vary but little, if any.
But wliere the ditreronce in the proportions of the ingredients is found so
great as exists belwceu the sandy loam No. 3, and the poor sandy soil
No, 2, or, in a wood as between any two of the soils now attempted to
be described from practical experience in their culture, as well as from a
careful chemical examination of their properties and constitution, a very
marked and decisive diilerence will be found in the comparative produce
of timber, and in the peculiar species or kinds of trees which should have
been planted in the greatest number, or in preference to others.

Chapter V.

Of the inost approved Modes ofineparing different Soils for the reception
of the Plants — Fencing, Draining, Ploughing, Trenching. Of the for-
mation of Rides or Carriage-Ways into the interior of Plantations. O
the best Mode of covering these with Herbage.

In no improvement of landed property is economy in the first outlay of
capital more essentially required than in forest planting. Want of attention
to this important point has caused much loss to the country as well as to
individuals, it having had the effect of discouraging forest planting generally,
and more particularly of those lands emphatically termed wastes. The evil
is perpetuated by statements confounding- the expenses of planting different
descriptions of land, such as that of a superior soil immediately connected
perhaps with a mansion, and that of a distant hill or waste heath. In the
former case the return of produce is early, great, and fully ample for every
expense judiciously incurred in the plantation ; while, at the same time,
something must be allowed for obtaining the more immediate ornamental
effect of wood. In the latter case the returns of profit are more distant,
though equally certain, and the outlay of capital or expense of formation
proportionally less. To estimate or make them equal to those of the first
description of land, would be absurd, because unnecessary, and, in fact,
impracticable, as in the case of rocky sites or thin heath soils, where the
more expensive processes of the preparations of soils cannot be carried
into effect. To say, therefore, that land cannot be profitably planted
under a first outlay of ten pounds sterling an acre, or that the expense of
planting should not exceed two, or at most three, is equally erroneous ;
althougli both statements, individually with reference to local circumstances,
may be perfectly true and accurate.

Fencing is one of the most expensive but essential concomitants of
planting; for unless young trees are completely protected by proper
fences, extensive failure will be the certain consequence.

In general the materials fit for constructing plantation fences may be
found on the spot. On sandy heath soils, the turf interwoven Avith the
roots of heath or coarse herbage affords a ready and cheap material. We
have seen a wall or dyke, built entirely of turf, last for a great number of
years without wanting any repairs whatever. The turfs were cut to the
depth of from three to five inches; according to the depth they were per-
vaded with the tough roots of grasses and heath, which tend to keep them
firm and less assailable by the weather. This wall of turf was two feet
wide at the foundation, and four feet and a half high, terminating at sixteen
inches in thickness at the top. The turfs were built in rows alternately
edgeways, and flat with the turf side downwards. The coping consisted
of a row of turfs laid with the grass side upwards, and this continued per-
manent for many years. When the soil is clayey, or of a texture liable to

54 PLANTING.

crumble by the effects of the weather, banks are thrown up four feet wide
at bottom, four feet and a half hifi;h, and eighteen inches wide at the top. ,
On the top a double row of furze should be sown, and the face of the bank
defended from cattle by drivina; in stakes of forked larch or thorns, from
two to two feet and a half in leno-th. These stakes may be fixed in the
bank about a fourth of the whole height of the bank from tlie furze, and
pointing- obliquely upwards. Where these stakes could be conveniently
procured about the thickness of an inch and a half or upwards, we have
found them to answer the purposes of a protection to the furze remarkably
well : these are the cheapest modes of fencing a plantation. Where
stones fit for building a dry stone wall prevail on the site, they may be
used with great advantage for constructing the fence. In building a dry
stone wall, i. e., without mortar or cement of any kind, it is of importance
that occasional courses of stones of a size to reach across the thickness of
the wall should be laid in ; these act as ties, and render the wall strong and
lasting. The coping is another point of importance to be attended to :
the best coping is that composed of flat stones placed edgeways, and
made compact and immovable by driving in wedges of stone at such dis-
tances from each other in the coping as will produce the desired effect,
and a very little experience or practice will teach the workman to place
these wedges in their proper points. The expense of constructing this
kind offence varies according to local circumstances. The cost of fences
of tliis description is stated by Sir John Sinclair in his highly valuable
work, the Code of Agriculture, to vary from 4s. Grf. to 6.9. the perch, which
agrees with the results of our inquiries and experience on the subject.

When neither of the above simple fences can be conveniently adopted, a
quick or thorn hedge is the most generally used, and in fact is the best and
cheapest. There are several kinds of quick fences, which differ merely in
the mode of planting the thorns {Cratcegus oxycanthm). The white thorn
is a plant much checked in growth by every other, whether herbace-
ous weed or shub, that mingles with it in the soil. It delights in a
strong loam, on poor sands, or damp clay ; its growth is much slower,
and requires great attention in the preparation of the soil, in the selection
of the plants, and in the mode of planting. It must be carefully protected
from cattle and rabbits, which, by nipping off the tender first shoots of the
spring, seriously injure its growth, and defeat the intention of raising an
effective fence at the least cost, and in the sliortest space of time.

On poor sandy soils, the depth of earth for the reception of the plants
shoidd be made as great as possible, and they should be placed on the top
"of the bank*. Manure of rotten leaves, compost of marl or clay, and dung,
ashes, or any substance that will enrich the line of planting, should be dug
in if possible for the encouragement of the roots of the young quick,
"Where the soil is damp and clayey, planting tlie thorns on the face of the
bank is tlie best practice. The ground should be perfectly clean, or the
cost of weeding it afterwards will be considerable, and the fence will make
little progress, if it do not fail altogether.

The cost of the manure above alluded to will be amply repaid by the
more rapirl growth of the quick, saving much of the expense of weeding,
and of filling up blanks and gaps in the hedge, which always accompanies
the rearing of this kind of fence on poor or badly prepared ungenial land.
The size of the plants deserves particular attention, for by planting strong
three year old transplanted thorns, the success of the fence is secured,
and the distance of time for its completion shortened by three years. To

The Salix cinerea and one or tiuo kindred species make ttseful and hardy fences if cut
in the form of stakes, and driven in on the top lattice-form, seldom fail to strike root, a/iU
in the mean time form an effectual barrier.— J\h\ Kinyston.

planting: 55

protect the thorns from cattle, a ditch with post and rails are ado])ted.
(Fig. 8. a). When rabbits abound in the nein-libourhood of a young; quick
fence, they are often very destructive to the plants. The means of pre-
venting' tliese animals from havinij; access to the \onni>- thorns is too ex-
pensive to be adopted for ibrest fences*. A row of tliickly planted dead
hedge on each side of the row of quick, is, perhaps, the best temporary
protection; but the most effectual mode is to keep down the number of
t!ie rabbits, or, if possible, to take them away altogether.

When stones can conveniently be had, the facing of tlie bank with these,
and planting the quick so as to spring through the wall, (Jig. 8. 6,)
forms the most secure and lasting fence. The expense of weeding is saved
by it ; and, under such circumstances, the plants generally make great
j)rogress.

In the management of the hedges wlien planted, weeding is most

essential, for if coarse grass or rampant weeds are suffered to mingle with

the lower branches and foliage of the quick, tlie injury is very considerable.

The top of the hedge should be kept level from the first cutting, until the

p.^ o plants have attained to the desired

°' ' height. The sides of the hedge ought

i &, A a to be kept also of an even surface ;

/^t j fi ^1^' V by shortening the side branches every

1|~ ^5 year to within an inch more or less
" J of the preceding year's wood, the

bottom of the hedge is maintained
equally thick and impenetrable with the upper portion. The most gene-
rally approved form of a hedge, is that of the hog's mane ; however, if the
soil has been properly prepared, the plants selected of the largest size,
and the keeping clear of weeds, and most judicious mode of pruning
persevered in, the hedge will flourish in every shape.

By keeping the top of a hedge level, it is not meant that all the plants
shoidd be shortened in the leading shoot of the stem, but only those which
overtop their thin neighbours. If this be properly attended to, the evil
effects which follow the practice of shortening without exception the lead-
ing shoots of every plant of the hedge will be avoided, as well as those
which occur when the upright growth of any plant is left uncontrolled
until it reach to the desired height.

Where a hedge has been neglected, is overgrown and irregular, the best
mode is to cut it down level with the soil, and then to dig the earth about
the stumps, inserting plants of strong quick in the gaps where they occur.
It may happen that the fence cannot be dispensed with, for the time the
young shoots from the old roots require to renew the fence. In this case,
tlie mode of cutting a fourth part of the stems to the desired height, and
another fourth part a few inches from the ground, and warping' the
remainder with these, is found a useful practice.

Besides the white thorn or (juick, and the furze (Ulex eiiropeeus), there
are many other shrubs which may be planted under certain circumstances
with effect as fences. In exposed cold soils, the Huntingdon willow,
beech, birch, and alder, may be used with advantage. '

It may be unnecessary to mention, that where larch poles can be had,
they afford an excellent material for fencing, particularly when used with

* For protection fo gardens against the depredations of rabbits, or turnip crops exposed

in the fields, &c., a wire netting has been invented, which completelj' answers the purpose.

The expense for these pur[H)Ses is so moderate, as to render the ad<.ptii.)n of ihe wire netting

no matter of ditficulty. ^^Vc witnessjd the eHl-cts of tlu'- practice at Ciuitley Hall, the seat

f Johu W. Childers, Esf^. ' '

56 PLANTING.

the bark, which tends to preserve the wood from the effects of moisture
and air*.

Drainiiig is essential wherever stagnant moisture prevails in the soil.
Boi^ijy lands and tenaceons clays are chiefly the soils which require it, for
trees will thrive in a degree of moisture that would be highly hurtful to the
nutritive grasses, and to corn crops. Under drains are of little service
for forest-trees, as their roots soon render these ineffective. In general,
therefore, open cuts should be used. Where the excess of dampness is
caused by springs, as in most bogs and morasses, it is essential to ascer-
tain the source of the principal springs which feed the secondary ones, and
their numerous outlets over the surface. Sub-aquatic plants, as the alder,
rushes, &c., often point out the spots where the search should be made,
although these plants are frequently supported by stagnant surface water.
Boring with the auger is the best mode of ascertaining the source of the
spring, or at least that level of its course in the strata which conducts the
water to the boggy land, and where it can be effectually cut off from sup-
plying the secondary springs and outlets in the lower levels. When the
source is ascertained, a drain should be cut to the depth of the strata
through which it passes, so as to obstruct its progress. It should be
made sufficiently deep, or the water will continue to jiass under it, and the
work will be useless. From this main drain formed across the declivity,
other secondary drains shoidd be made to conduct the water thus collected,
from the source to the most convenient outlet. It would be incompatible
with the space of these pages to enter into details of this subject. Elking-
ton's mode of draining, as given in Johnstone's Treatise on the subject, is
on the above principle, and shews with precision the advantages of it, and
with how much facility lands, which by the old method of draining were
considered incapable of being profitably improved, may be made fit for
planting and returning a valuable produce of timber.

Clayey soils which are rendered barren by surface water stagnating upon
them, may be made to produce valuable timber by the simple process of
constructing open drains, and forming the surface between these into
ridges, as before mentioned in Chapter III.

On steep acclivities, rocky soils, and thin heath, or moor lands, incum-
bent on rock or shale, where ploughing or trenching is impracticable, a
depth of pulverized soil cannot be obtained for the reception of the roots
of trees of more than two, or at most three years' growth ; the mattock
planter, diamond dibble, and spade, can be used with the best effect. To
attempt any more expensive preparation on such lands, than may be made
by these implements for the reception of the individual plants, would be
injudicious. The number of valuable woods which have been reared in
this way, are too generally known to need particular mention here. The
cost may be stated to be from two to five pounds per acre. For the pre-
paration of heath soils, incumbent on sand or loose gravel, an improved
paring plough (7?^. 9 and 10), which we call Fyshe Palmer's planting
ploughf, is a valuable implement.

The plough consists of two mold boards as in common use, but resting
on a triangular and somewhat convex plate of iron {fig. 9). Tliis iron

* It is the opinion of some practical persons, that the bark being left on larch poles,
encourages or attracts insects to nestle under it, and thereby hastens the decay of the
wood, unless it happen that the trees are cut down in winter, or when the sap is down. —
A/r. Lance.

•f Charles Fyshe Palmer, Esq. M.P., in planting a large tract of waste land on his
estate of East Court in Berkshire, after various trials, found this plough wliich he invented
a most efiective implement in paring off the heath-turf. It economises time as well as
expense.

PLANTING.

57

Fis. 9,

Fi'r. 10.

])lale is furnished with sharp steel edj;es riveted to it (^^. 10, c). The
iixed share (a, Jig. 10), which divides the turf ibr each side of the double

nioldhoard, is six inches hig;h at the
shoulder, with a sharp edge taperinjv
to a point at (6). The sole of the
])loui>h is screwed and bolted to the
instrument by the bolt sockets (e),
and the nut screw sockets (rf). The
f baseof the triangular plate/"(y?|g-. 9)
is twenty-one inches, willi a curve
of one inch, which facilitates the
action of the instrument when paring
in gravelly or stony ground. The
whole length of the plate is thirty-
five inches from the base (/) to the
point of the share (i>). Wherever
the land is of a moderately level
surface, and when paring is de-
sirable, this plough will be found
a valuable implement. The whole
surface may be pared as in clayey
soils, where burning the turf is
essential ; or spaces of twenty-one
inches, as in heath soils, may be pared off with intervals of thirteen
inches, on which the reversed turf may rest to decay, and become food
for the roots of the trees. When the soil is of sufficient depth to allow
of trenching, the common plough, following the track of the paring
plough, will effect this object at a comparatively small expense.

Much difference of opinion prevails on the comparative advantages and
disadvantages of trenching ground for forest trees ; nothing is more certain
than that trenching and manuring is more advantageous to the trees than
holing, or any other mode of preparation. But there are certain soils which
will produce valuable timber, and that cannot be ploughed or trenched ; these
have already been mentioned: there are others whicli are capable of re-
ceiving benefit from this mode of preparation, but where it would be inex-
pedient to bestow it. There is one instance in which trenching cannot
on any account be dispensed with, which is that of ground near a mansion,
where the value of trees in respect to landscape effect, shelter, sliade,
concealment, and the improvement of local climate, have equal if not
superior claims to that of the actual value of the timber produced by
the individual trees of the plantation. The question as regards other sites
and soils, intermediate between these two now mentioned, and of a nature
as regards texture and quality similar to tlie soils described in Chapter IV.,
under the numbers 3, 4, 5 and 6, which are capable of rearing mixed plan-
tation, or a variety of different species of forest trees in perfection, tlie
process of trenching or ploughing, and also manuring when possible,
ought to be adopted. In this instance, however, it is highly necessary,
before adopting the more expensive preparation, to ascertain exactly the
cost of each mode of planting, and the probable return of jjrofit from
the outlay. As many local circumstances interfere with the performance
of these different ])rocesses, as the comparative cheapness of labour, of
manure, the facility of obtaining the most proper sized plants, to anticipate
two or three years' earlier return of produce, &c., it woidd be of little use
here to give any calculations of expense and profits, as data by which to
estimate the results of either mode of practice, that would be applicable

58 planting:

to every soil and site alluded to. Where the local demand for the smaller
sized products of plantations are "Teat, the more expensive process of
trenchiiio; should be adopted, inasmuch as the p;rovvth of forest-trees to the
size of poles, and of materials for fencing-, &c., is highly promoted by
trenching- and manuring-, and the returns of profits from these products
of planting are in proportion earlier and larger. That this superiority
extends in the same proportion to the ultimate produce of timber in
trees, may not appear so clear, because it may be urged by those who
vmdervalue trenching- and manuring as preparation of the soil for
planting forest-trees, tliat there are no satisfactory records of the com-
parative rate of increase of timber, or of solid vegetable fibre, after the
first twenty or thirty years' growth of the diflerent species of forest-trees,
which have been planted on trenched and manured grounds, and the
contrary, being under all other circumstances the same vuitil their last
stage of perfection ; and yet the truth of such continued superiority of
increase, is the only test by which the question can be decided, and
an unerring rule of practice be obtained. The results of mere observation,
or conclusions drawn from the apparent contents of trees, will not be
found to warrant the adoption of any new mode of practice. But the
comparative increase and ultimate produce of timber should be ascertained
up to the period of the trees attaining to perfect maturity in the most
satisfactory manner, by actual admeasurement ; and correct records kept
of the age of the trees, comparative value of the plants when planted as
to their size, roots, and constitutional vigour at the time of planting- ; as
also the intimate nature of the soil, subsoil, and local climate. lu the
oak, after the first fifty or sixty years' growth, the annual rate of increase
of the diameter diminishes greatly. The Lambert pine-tree {Pi/ius
Lambertiana), mentioned in the Trans. Linn. Society, vol. xv. p. 497,
exhibited an increase of diameter of four inches and a half only at the
base, during the last fifty-six years of its growth.

These last remarks apply to the question generally ; but in all cases of
exception before mentioned, and in the instances of clayey, tenacious soils,
and compact gravelly loams, trenching ought doubtless to be adopted as a
preparation for the reception of forest-trees*.

* The advantages of trenching have been zealously and ably advocated in a late publi-
cation by Mr. Withers, to which we have already referred, and the proofs brought forward
in support of his arguments are satisfactory as far as they go ; but the most important
facts are those of the superior increase, and the comparative quality of the timber when
the trees have attained to full maturity. Registers of the facts stated by Mr. Withers,
continued until the trees attain to full timber size, and of the buildings or pur-
poses to which, in certain cases, the timber is applied, are what would afford invaluable
information, and for which posterity would be grateful. A distinguished writer asserts
that after the first twelve or twenty years of growth of trees planted on land jirejiared by
trenching, all distinction is lost between the apparent growth of these and of those which
maj' have been planted by the simple process of holing. In general cases, the observations
of the writer of this have led to precise!)' the same conclusions. It is improbable, how-
ever, that the superior growth which so distinctly marked the progress of the plants on the
trenched ground during the first years of growth should wholly cease, but that it diminishes
in proportion as the soil, which had been loosened hy the process, becomes consolidated to
its original state, and in proportion as the roots advance in the subsoil which had remained
equally undisturbed in the execution of lioth modes of preparation, is quite ' certain.
Whether this superior rate of produce, though reduced in degree, continues until the tree
attains to perfect maturity, or ceases before that period, we have certainly no records of
facts to shew. Farther, as regards the progressive increase of wood in trees, difFerent
species vary in this particular. The loctist, for instance, will make shoots of six feet in
length for a few of the first years of its growth, or, if cut down when in a healthy state,
will jiroduce in one season shoots of three yards or more in length; but to conclude from
this circum.stauce that the locust is one of the fastest growing trees, or even that it is equal
in this respect to the slow growing oak, would be erroneous, inasmuch as. at its fifteenth

PLANTING. 6§

In order to have at all times the most convenient as well as the most
pleasant access to the interior of the plantation, rides or broad drives
should be marked out and left implanted. On heaths and gravelly soils
the surface is in general so level and unbroken as to require the lines or
edges of the rides merely to be cut out iu the form of a shallow water-course,
any inequalities of the surface to be made good with the turf or earth taken
out. In damp, clayey soils, the rides should be made higher in the middle
and sloping on each side to an open drain, marking the line of each side*.
The earth should be made fine and sown with the following grass seeds,
viz., Alopecurus prateiisis, Daclylis glo?nerata, Lolitim pere}i/ie, Cynosurns
crisfalus, Phlcujn pratense, Anthoxaidhum ndoratum, Poairiviatis, Festuca
pralcnsis, with red and white clovers combined, at the rate of four bushels
and a half to an acre. For dry, sandy, heath soils, which can scarcely be
covered with verdure, the following will be found effectual : — Festuca

year of growth, the annual rate of increase in heif^lit is found to be reduced to inches
instead of yards or feet, and at the age of thirty cir forty years it may be said to cease
altogether to advance in stature ; while the oak, which has before this period overtopped
the locust, continues its comparatively steady annual increase for a century. And, with
certain moditications of the rate of annual increase between the first and subsequent stages
of growth to perfection, the same principles will apply to the willow (a), pojilar, alder,
birch and the pine tribe, on the one hand, and to the oak, chestnut, elm, beech, ash, &c.,
on the other.

(a) The Bedford willow (Salix Russelliana") when planted on a damp, cla3rey loam on
a rising site, has been observed by the writer of this to attain to the height of thirty feet in.
five j'ears, but after that the annual rate of increase diminislied to inches, and tlien the
tree became in appearance stationary. The celebrated willow in Staffordshire, known
imder the name of Doctor Johnson's Willow, is of this species. Since the above was
sent to the press we have had the gratification of perusing the Saiic/iim JFohurnense, or
a catalogue of the willows indigenous and foreign in the collection of the Duke of Bedford
at Woburn Abbey. This contains the fullest accoimt of all the dirierent species of this
interesting tribe of plants that has yet appeared. As regards the willow above alluded to il
is observedin the introduction to the work by the noble author, that ' the Rev. I\Ir. Dickenson
assured Sir James Smith and myself that the great willow at Lichfield (commonly called
Johnson's willow, from a belief that it had been planted by him) was of this species.
Dr. Johnson never failed to visit this willow when he went to Lichfield.' In 1781 it was
reporteil to be nearlj' eighty years old, and Mr. Dickenson says, ' the venerable sage de-
lighted to recline under its shade.' The noble author further observes, ' I can state another
instance from my own personal knowledge of this species of willow attaining a <'-reat size
within the ordinary period of a man's life. A willow-tree on the south lawn at Gordon
Castle, in Scotland, was planted by the late Duke of Gordon about 1765 ; it was then in
a small box four feet square, floating on the surface of the lake, and shortly sank on the
spot, where it took root. The lake has long since disappeared, and the tree was blown
down iu a storm on the 24th November, lS2fi, the tree being then sixty-one years old. I
examined this tree a few years ago, and found it to be the Salix Russelliana of Sir J. E.
Smith.' — Salictum IVuburnense, Introduction, vi.

* At Blair Adam, in many instances, the plantations were originally made with broad
rides; in others where that was omitted in the original planting, it has been accomplished
by cutting out the trees. These, while the plantations were young, served the double
purpose of access, for the convenience of carrying out the thinnings and fur pleasin-e,
because then it was possible to proportion the loading of the carriage, by putting a greater
or smaller number of trees, according to the state of the rides in point of moisture or
distance; but now that one tree makes a load, and that its weight cannot be diminished,
the injmy done to the ridings was so great as to impede both the convenience and the
pleasure of the rides, and great expense was incurred in putting them in repair. To
avoid this, what are called wood or thinning lanes have been adojited, by cutting out
trees in proper lines for them ; this shortens distances to the place of deposit (for rides
are always circuitous) and is of benefit to the woods by admitting air more generally, care
being taken that they are so twisted as not to incur tlie risk of being blown down. It is
proposed (as they are easily got) to fill the rutts with bruken stones. AVhere stones are
not easily to be got, the rutts mi;,'ht be filled with trees not otherwise useful, so as to
make a sort of coarse railwaj'. This plan will, in the end, save a great deal of expense
and labour, and secures at all times the proprietor's access to the woods and his seein"
Ifhat is going on. . .

CO PLANTING

oviiia, Fcsliica dinivscula, Alia cocspitosa, Aira Jlcxuosa, Cynosurus
crisldd/s, Jposds slalonifera and vulgaris^ Achillea millefolium, Trifulium
vri/ius, and ^^hite clover. Game are fond of these "grasses.

Chapter YI.

Of the Culture of Plantations ; Soil; Pnniiiig; Thinning; reinedica for
accidental injuries and Natural Diseases of Forest Trees. Of the
Tanning afforded by the Bark of different Species of Trees.

The judicious culture of plantations is a point of the last importance to
secure a full return of profits from the capital expended in their formation,
as well as for every other advantage that judicious planting confers ; for let
the care and skill employed in their formation have been ever so great, if
the proper culture be not continued from the period of planting to maturity
of growth, disappointment in obtaining the effects of wood, and loss of
jnofits will be the certain results. The numerous instances to be seen
almost everywhere of the bad effects resulting from the neglect of judicious
])riming' and thinning of the trees of plantations, and the great loss caused
thereby to the proprietors, evince fully the importance of this branch of the
subject, which embraces the following points : —

1st. Culture of the soil.

2d. Pruning.

3d. Tliinning.

4th. Remedies for accidental injuries, or natural diseases.
First. The culture of a trenched soil of a newly-formed plantation, consists
in keeping the surface clean of weeds until the shade of the trees prevents
their growth. It is true that these weeds take a portion of nourishment
from the soil, but from what was before stated regarding the food supplied
to the plants by the soil, it is clear that the growth of herbaceous weeds
can injure but little, if in any degree, the growth of forest-trees. When
the trees are young and of a small size, however, the mechanical effects of
tViese weeds are extremely hurtful when they are sutfered to grow and
mingle their shoots with the lower branches of the young trees, by ob-
structing the free circulation of air, and preventing the genial influence of
the solar rays from reaching to their tender shoots, and this is evident to
common observation in the decay or death of the branches subjected to
contact with them, and in the consequent unhealthy appearance of the
leading shoot of tlie tree.

i Hoeing the surface as often as may be required to prevent perennial
weeds from forming perfect leaves and new roots, and annual weeds from
perfecting seeds, is all tliat is required. Two seasons of strict adherence
to this rule, even in the worst cases, will render the labour or expense of
future years comparatively trifling, and the healthy progress of the trees
will reward the care and attention.

On soils planted by the slit, or holing-in mode of planting-, it is essentially
necessary to prevent the natural herbage of the soil from mingling with the
lateral branches of the young tree. An active workman with a steel
mattock-hoe will clean round the plants on a large space of ground in a
day. Summer is the best season for the work, as the weeds are more
effectually destroyed, and the partial stirring of the soil about the roots of
such plants as require cleaning benefits their growth.

Should the planting and culture now described have, been faithfully

PLANTING. (51

executed, tlicrc will l)o few failures. Wlien (liese happen, liowevcr, the
vacancies must be filled uj), at the proper season, with stout plants, and
the holes be properly prepared for the reception of the roots. It is a p^ood
practice for the first two or three years of a trenched ])lantation to take a
crop of potatoes, nuuii^'el wurzel, or carrots, according- to circumstances.
The rule, which must be strictly adhered to in the introduction of these
crops, is, that no part of the foliage or tops of the g-reeu croj) touch or even
approximate near to the young trees ; a rule of practice which, if broken
through, produces equal damage as from a rampant crop of weeds to
the plantation.

Second. There are three difierent kinds or modes of pruning, which, in
practice, have been named close pruning (a, Jig. 11). Snag pruning (6), and
foreshortening (c).

By leaving a snag (6) of the branch, it in
time forms a blemish in the timber, in con-
sequence of young wood forming round the
stump, and embedding it in the tree. Snag
pruning is the most rude and injudicious
mode that can be practised, being invariably
attended with injury to the quality of the
timber: it should never be adopted under
any circumstances whatever. Close pruning
(a) is performed by sawing or cutting off a
branch close to its parent stem or primary
leading branch (c). This is the only mode
to be adopted in training, or rather improving, the stem or bole of a tree,
or wherever it is desirable that iio reproduction of branches from the point
should ibllow. The most perfect manner of executing the work is to saw
the branch off close to the parent stem, and smooth any roughness that
may be left on the surface of the wound with a sharp knife, taking care
not to reduce the edges of the bark which surroimd the wound more than
is actually necessary to remove the lacerated surface. To prevent the
action of air and moistiue on the naked wood, a dressing should be applied,
composed of ingredients that will adhere to the spot, and resist the action
of drought and rain. Three parts of cow-dung and one of sifted lime will
be found a very effective substitute for the more compound dressing of
Forsyth. Tlie dressing should be laid on one-quarter of an iiicli in
thickness, or more when the wound is large : when rendered smooth and
firmly pressed to the i)art, powdered lime should be thrown over the sur-
face, and pressed into it by the flat side of the pruning knife, or a spatula.
The bark will sooner cover the wound when protected from the influence
of the weather by this or by any similar means, than wlien left naked and
exposed*.

In general forest pruning this process is unnecessary, or rather the
benefit is not sufficiently great to warrant its cost; but for particular trees
connected with ornamental effects it is well worth the trouble.

Fore-shorleni/ig pruning (r) is the only one that can be usefully practised

* The fate of Mr. Forsytli's discovery of a composifion applietl to heal tlie wounds of
trees, and to renovate decaying vital functions of vegetable growth, is similar to that of
all other discoveries where the principles of such are pushed too far. Henre, one party-
ridicules it as good for nothing, and another pronounces it as infallible ; while the truth
lies between. In a long practice the writer of this has always used it with beneficial
effects in every case where it was more than usually desired to have the bark speedily
closed over a wound in a tree, but for the ordinary cases of forest-tree pruning it has never
been used, and for the reasons before stated.

C2, PLANNING.'

in reducing- the size of lateral branches. When these become tod crowded,
or when particular ones assume a disproportionate vigour of growth and
increase, it is hig'lily useful to reduce the number or size of sucli over-
luxuriant branches. The chief point to be attended to in the operation is
that of dividing- the branch at a point from whence a healthy secondary
branchlet springs, that it may become the leader to that branch. When
the shoot is of one year's growth only, and has no lateral shoots, as in
stone-fruits trained on walls, the division is made near to a strong healthy
bud, which will become the conducting shoot.

For young forest-trees which require the branches to be regulated and
balanced, so that one side may not have a disproportionate number or weight
of branches to the other, and for trees in hedge-rows whose lateral branches
extend too far on either side, injuring the quick fence or the crops of the
field, fore-shortening is the most useful mode of pruning.

For non-rej)roductive trees, such as all the different species of the pine
or fir tribe of forest-trees, this mode of pruning is improper, as the
branch thus shortened does not produce a second slioot, but remains with
all the objectionable properties of a snag, to the great injury, in time, of the
quality of the timber. Where the purposes of evergreen masks, near the
ground, in the margins of plantations are desirable, the foreshortening of
the leading shoots of spruce firs, &c., is highly useful, as these trees do not
afterwards increase in height, but only extend laterally by thin side
branches.

The most effectual pruning instruments are a strong- knife, hook, saw,

and chisel. For pruning elevated branches a small saw firmly fixed to a

Fig. 12. long handle is highly useful (^g-. 12, c) ;

a chisel, likewise furnished with a long

,^^^^j;zz::;:zzjs:^:::z=z=z — -Trrrr-r-=zz=r=:z: handle (6), and driven by a hand mallet,

^ is very effective in taking off branches

close to the stem or bole, in circum-

[->- ^_ _^ stances where the saw cannot be freely

'^ - -ii r— — used from the upright direction of the

branch, or the situation of the adjoining branches. Such are the manuals
of forest-pruning. It may be justly said that in no one process of the
culture of forest-trees is a just knowledge of vegetable physiology, or that
of the structure and functions of the organs of vegetable life of more
importance than in this one of pruning', which directly and especially
applies to the assisting and directing-, as well as the checking, of these
functions in the production of wood as in forest-trees, and in that as well
as of flowers and fruit in garden-trees. Some of the leading points of
vegetable physiok)gy which bear directly on the practice of pruning, have
been mentioned in Chapter III., and full details may be obtained in the
work there cited.

A timber tree, as before observed, is valued for the length, straightness,
and solidity of its stem. Judicious pruning tends greatly to assist nature
in the formation of the stem in this perfect state. In natural forests, boles
or stems possessing properties of the most valuable kind are found, where
no pruning-, trenching, or any other process of culture ever was applied
to the rearing of the trees. It should not, however, be concluded from
this circumstance that these processes are of little value. If we examine
the growth of trees in this climate, when left to the unassisted efforts of nature
by the neglect of pruning and thinning, we find that but a small number
only, on any given space of planted ground, attain to perfect maturity, com-
pared to those which never arrive at any value but for fuel. The like results,
though varying- according to local advantages, are exhibited in the produce.

PLANTING 63

of self- pi anted forest?. Hence, instead of an averag'G of two or tliree perfect
trees on any given space (suppose an acre) left by the unassisted elibrts
of nature, we shall have irom Ibrty to three hundred perfect trees, accord-
ini^ to the species of timber, by the judicious application of art in the pre-
paration of the soil and the after culture of the trees, and probably on
soils, too, which, without such assistance, could never have reared a single
tree.

But though judicious pruning greatly assists in the production of a tall,
straight bole, free from blemish, yet unless those circumstances before
mentioned are favourable, as a vigorous, healthy constitution of the plant
in its seedling stage of growth, transplantation to its timber sites at a
proper age, and a soil suitably prepared and adapted to the species of tree,
pruning will be found but of small efficacy*.

It was supposed that when branches are taken from a tree, so many
organs of waste are cut off; and ii has been practically insisted upon that,
by tiie removal of large branches, the supply of sap and notu-ishment which
went to their support would go to a proportionate increase of the stem.
From what has already been stated respecting the course and movement
of the sap, it may be unnecessary to add that this opinion is erroneous in
principle, and that when a branch is cut off a portion of nourishment to
the stem is cut off also specifically from that part of it which lies between
the origin of the branch and the root, downwards to the root. Every
branch of a tree, of whatever size it may be, not only draws nourishment
and increase of substance from that part of the stem which stands under
it, and from the roots, but also supplies these with a due proportion of
nourishment in return, and by which their substance is increased. If the
branch, whether large or small, acted merely as a drain on the vessels of
the stem, and that the sap it derived from it was elevated to the leaves of
the branch, and from thence returned no farther than to the origin or point
of its union with the stem, then the above opinion would be correct: on
the contrary, however, when it is found that the existence and increase of
every twig-, branch, and leaf, depends on a communication with the root,
and that this communication passes through the stem downwards to that
organ, and from it upwards periodically, and, moreover, that every
periodical series of new vessels thus formed in the branch has a corre-

* At Blair Adam pruning was resorted to, in some instances, where the trees were too
far advanced in age for that operation, bnt it was rendered necessary, in those instances,
by due attention not having been paid to those portions of the wood at an earlier period.
The ruU^ tlien and there followed was, not to cut off any branch which left a horizontal
surface exposed : they were cut so as to have the surface of the cut in the line of the stem,
with a very sharp heavy bill, at the time the sap was rising : the effect of this was
uniformly to secure a considerable growth of the bark over the wound before winter
set in. This has obtained stem for the trees that were so treated, but it is greatly feared
that when they are put to use, there may be weaknesses (in the dockyards called blanks)
at the parts where the pruning has taken place.

To make valuable wood, length of stem is essential, and the practice at Blair Adam, in
consequence of experience, has been to obtain this by knife pruning in the earlier years,
by bill pruning as they grow older (say to twenty-five years, when the lateral branches are
easily cut and soon barked over), then by leaving them to press upon each other more
severely than vigorous thinners would permit.

Two effects seem to be produced by this : — First, they draw each other up to stem ; —
secondly, they produce a certain decay in the lower lateral branches. When those effecta
are sufficiently attained, and before any risk is incurred to the power of the tree to obtain
thickness, the thinning is commenced by gradually, and according to the best judgment
that can be Ibrmed, taking out the inferior trees and those best grown trees which injure
each other, but taking care to do this so gradually as to secure against any chill or
sudden effect of cold, so as to bring about (what may be called) the injury of being
bark-bound, — the most effectual impediment to growth either in height or thickness.

6i PLANTING.

spnndinp; series of vessels formed in the stem from its point of emiltin|]^
the branch to the root, it is clear that a branch not only increases in sub-
stance by the functions of its own org-anization, but must, of a necessity,
periodically increase the substance or diameter of the trunk.

The results of practice agree with this ; for if an overgrown limb or
branch of a free-growing tree be pruned off, the annual increase of the
diameter of the stem is not found to exceed its previous rate of increase ;
or the excess, if any, is not equal to the contents of wood which had
been periodically formed by the branch or branches thus separated from
the stem*.

It is reasonable to inquire, if the sap or nutritive fluid, periodically sup-
plied by the roots immediately connected with the large branch taken off
goes not to a proportionate increase of the stem, to what channel is it
directed? It has already been mentioned (in Chapter III.) that the
vessels which convey the periodical supplj', and tlie roots which collect it,
are annually produced ; and the fact is, that when the primary organs and
stimulus of production, (i. e. the leaves and green system of the plant,)
are taken away, the annual rootlets and spongeols connected with these
vessels cease to be renewed, until another branch, or series of branches,
are reproduced by the vital power acting on the sap in the vessels of the
stem connected with (he numerous latent germs of buds in the bark near
to the wound, or those dispersed in its neighbourhood. Hence it is, also,
that should the season of the year of pruning the branch be that in which
the sap is accumulated in the largest quantity in the leaves, and in the
smallest proportion in the vessels, scarcely any reproduction of branches
follows the operation of pruning ; and hence, also, the dillerent elfects of
summer and of winter pruning as regards this point.

When branches are not allowed to perfect one year's growth, but are
pruned off annually within a bud or two of their origin with the stem, they
act rather as organs of waste than those of increase of wood to the stem.
But although the rate of periodical increase of the diameter of a tree
be thus lessened, in a certain extent, by the loss of a full grown lateral
branch, yet the increase of the stem in height or length is not thereby
retarded, the ligneous vessels of the root corresponding with those of the
stem or wood, probably act Vvith but little diminished force in sending up
sap to the higher extremities of the treef.

It is of great importance that branches which indicate an over-luxuriant
growth should never be sulfered to become large, or to exceed the
medium size of the majority of the boughs of the tree, but should be
pruned off close to the stem when the general interests of the plant will
admit of it. These over-luxuriant branches, which, when suffered to take
the lead in growth of the general boughs, become so hurtful to the per-
fection of growth of the stem, are evidently produced and supported by the
accidental circumstance of a superior portion of soil being in the way of,

* 111 numerous and varied trials made by the writer to ascertain this point, the results
have alwa3's gone to prove the above facts.

f In a few instances, for tlie sake of particular cfTect, and to enable carrlap^es to pass,
there have been, at Blair Adam, limbs of considerable size cut from oaks of fifty years
old and upwards. The cut would have been horizontal ; but by making the surface of
much greater size, thcj' were made perpendicular. By great attention, all injury was
prevented to the trunk, and the wounds are now healed over (at the distance of twelve
or fifteen years from the date of the operation). Whether it has accelerated or retarded
the diameter-growth or thickness of the trees cannot be stated, as observatian was not
called lo it, but they have certainly increased as much in that respect as the trees around
them of the same sort and age. In one instance, the cutting of a limb, where the tree
cleft, has had the effect of setting the other stem upright, so that it appears now exactly
in the perpendicular line, and like the original stem of the tree.

PLANTING. 65

and into which the roots immediately connected with these bouj^hs pene-
trate and afterwards keep possession. By taking- off such branches earlj',
therefore, the extra supply of nourishment afforded by such local circum-
stance of soil is directed to the stem and useful lateral branches.
ii It has been already observed, that, by depriving- a tree, to a certain extent,
of its side branches, the g-rowth of the stem in length is promoted, but
the diameter, strength, or thickness of it is not increasetl in the same
proportion. When the side branches are destroyed by natural causes, or
by the neglect of judicious thinning-, the like injurious effects ensue to the
primary object here in view, that of obtaining- the largest quantity of timber
of the best quality on a given space of land.

When the lateral branches perish or cease to be produced, except
towards the top of the tree, from the want of pure air and of the vital
influence of the solar rays on the foliage, the existence of the tree may
continue for years, but the produce or increase of timber of any value
ceases, and it dies prematurely, affording at last a produce comparatively
of no value, after having obstructed the profitable and healthy growth
of the adjoining- trees during- its latter unprofitable stages of life. In
the contest for the preservation of existence which takes place after a
certain period of growth among the individual trees of a plantation which
has been neglected, or left without the aid of judicious pruning or
thinning, there will be found trees which, from the accidental circumstance
of having originally a vigorous, healthy constitution, and from partially
escaping the numerous injuries and obstructions of g-rowth that accrue
to trees by neglect of culture, have attained to a valuable timber size.
The timber of the few such trees, however, as have thus gained the su-
])remacy, is frequently much blemished by the stumps of the dead branches
having become imbedded in the wood; and this serious injury to the
quality of the timber and value of the tree, is the invariable consequence
of neglecting to prune off these stumps as soon as they appear, or rather
neglecting to cut away close to the stem such branches as indicate decay,
and before they cease growing.

The time at which pruning should begin, depends entirely on the
growth of the young- trees. In some instances of favourable soil and
quick growth of the plants, branches will be found in the course of four or
five years to require foreshortening, and in case of the formation of forked
leaders, to be pruned off close to the stem. When the lateral branches of
different trees interfere with each other's growth, pruning, so as to fore-
shorten, should be freely applied in every case, in order to prevent the
stagnation of air among the branches, or the undue prepoiulerance of
branches on one side of the tree. Perfect culture, in this respect,
requires that the plantation should be examined every year, and by keeping
the trees thus in perfect order there will never be any danger of nudung
too great an opening, or depriving a tree too suddenly of a large pro-
portion of branches. The operation will also be so much more quickly
performed, as to render the expense of management less than if the
pruning were delayed, or only performed at intervals of years, as is too
frequently practised. By this management there will be little, if any,
necessity for pruning close to the stem, until the tree attain to twenty feet
in height, or even more than that, provided tlie stem be clear of lateral
branches from five to eight feet from the root. When the lateral branches.
are regular and moderately large, the smaller length of clear stem may be
adopted, and where the branches are larger towards the top, tiie greater
space of close pruning. Five years from the first close pruning will not be
too long before the second is performed ; one, or at most, two tire of branches

F

66 PLANTING.

may then be displaced in like manner. The increase of diameter of
the stem, is the only certain test for deciding: whether the larger or
smaller ninnber of branches may be pruned oif to most advantage, or
•whether it may be prudent to take any away from the stem until it attain
greater strength and thickness. By examining the trees of a plantation
annually, the critical time for pruning every branch for the best interest of
the trees is secured. Some trees may be pruned with great advantage
successively for years, whilst others may only require it every three or
five years, and others again not at all.

It has been disputed whether resinous or non re-productive trees are
benefited by pruning ; but the value of judicious close pruning to that
tribe of trees cannot be doubted : at the same time it is but too true that, in
numerous instances, it has been carried to a mischievous excess. Young
firs and larch trees, when deprived of their lateral branches, to within four
or five tire of shoots of the top, are frequently seriously injured by the
winds acting on the tuft of branches, which become as a lever loosening the
roots, and producing all the evils of a suddenly checked growth, besides
those of excessive bleeding or loss of the resinous sap, and the want of
the periodical supply of nourishment to the stem afforded by these
branches. At sixteen years of growth, larches standing at four feet apart,
will be benefited by moderate pruning; i.e., of two or three tire of the
lowermost branches, particularly should these appear to be decreasing in
their former vigour of growth ; and afterwards in every third or fourth
year, successively, the like treatment should be adopted to these lowermost
branches evincing a decline of healthy growth. The same rule applies to
the pine or Scotch fir and the spruce ; but the former, having large and
compound branches, should be pruned at an earlier age than the latter, or
before the lateral shoots are more than two inches in diameter. When
the branch to be taken off is several inches in diameter, the wound is so
large, the excavation of resinous sap so great, and the heart-wood, or the
vessels which constitute it, so indura'ed, as to render the perfect union of
the new and the old wood less certain than in young branches, all which
make the removal of large branches productive of more evil than service t
the growth of the tree and quality of the timber. On the contrary, when
the pruning of the pine is altogether neglected, and the dead or rotten
stumps or snags of branches are left to be embedded in the wood, or to
form cavities for the accumulation of water or other extraneous matters
in the substance of the stem, all the purposes of profit and of pleasure are
sacrificed to neglect or imskilful culture.

Judicious thinning may be said to be productive of the same valuable
effects to a plantation of timber-trees in the aggregate, as those which
judicious pruning produces on every individual tree composing it: by the
admission of a proper circulation of air and the solar rays, and permitting
the free expansion of the essential lateral branches of the trees, as well as
by preventing an unnecessary waste or exhaustion of the soil by the roots
of all supernumerary trees.

The great advantages of judicious thinning are not confined to the
object of obtaining the largest quantity of timber of the best quality on a
given space of land in the shortest space of time ; but the produce of the
trees thus thinned out ought to alford a return sufficient to pay the ex-
penses of culture, interest of capital, and the value of the rent of the land.
In many instances the profits arising from the thinnings of well managed
woods have covered these charges before the period of twenty years from
the time of planting. The time at which the process of thinning should
be commenced, depends on the like causes as those which regulate pruning,
and need not here be repeated.

PLANTING.

67

In general 'the freest pjrowing plantations require to have a certain
number of trees taken out by tlie time they have attained to eig^ht years of
growth from planting. On forest-tree soils of a medium quality, the
age often or twelve years may be attained by the young trees before thinning
is necessary ; but sliould fifteen years elapse before the trees demand
thinning, it will be found that tiie plantation has been im])crfectly formed.

No certain rule can be given to determine the number of trees to be
thinned out periodically, which will apply to all plantations and to every kind
of forest-tree in them. A well-grounded knowledge of the principles ot
vegetable physiology, and of the habits of trees, is absolutely essential, to
execute with success this very important branch of arboriculture. We may,
however, quote the following statement from practice as one example, taken
from an average of acres on an extensive plantation in Sussex :

One acre of siliceous sandy soil, worth 7s. per acre, when under pas-
turage, being properly prepared and planted with larch, at three feet and
a half apart, required thinning for the first time, when the trees had
attained to ten years of growth.

Number of trees when planted 3555 on one acre, of which 100 had
failed during the first ten years of growth ; therefore when the thinning
commenced the number was 3455,

Number of Number of Trees Distance of

Years Growth left on eacb occasion the Trees,

when thinned. of thinninij. Ft. In.

10 3097 3 9

15 2722 4 0

20 2411 4 3

27 2073 4 7

35 1440 5 6

43 1031 6 6

51 680 8 0

Number of

Trees

tbinneit out. s. <l.

100 worth 0 4 each.

200 0 3 !> 4 13 0

58 0 2

100 vacancies from accidents

7 4 2

55

0

10

100

0

6

120

0

4

100

0

I

20

1

6

91

1

0

150

0

4

50

fuel 6

8

£0 worth 2

0

25

1

6

100

1

0

193

0

6

25

2

6

100

1

6

275

1

0

233

. 0

9

30

worth 3

0

50

2

6

200

1

6

129

1

0

40

3

6

100

2

6

150

2

0

61

1

0

8 17 8

13 14 0

^32 3 3

y3g 4 0

^37 II 0

The future returns of income from the plantation, now rest on six hun-
dred and eighty trees nearly arrived at their perfection of growth. The
distance of nine feet apart is considered a sufhcient space for the larch,

F 2

68 PLANTING.

spruce, and silver firs, to attain to their maximum of timber e;rowth, on
soils of an averap:e quality adapted to their habits ; and as the above trees
may profitably occupy the soil for twenty or thirty years more, or without
ceasina: tr> produce timber annually for that period, the thinninf^ now
should depend on, or be reg-ulated by, the circumstances of demand for
the produce, more than for the benefit of the individual trees which
remain.

In the above details of thinning, it will seem to demand an explanation,
why certain trees of the lowest value at fifty years' n;rowth should have
been left apparently to encumber the grcfund, while trees of a value equal
to these are cut down at ten years' of growth. The answer to this question
brings us back again to the difficulties before alluded to, of giving any
data, or rules applicable in all cases, founded on number, size, dis-
tance and time, for the execution of the different processes of culture,
relative to assisting and controlling the functions of vegetable life, so as
to produce a given result, or obtain a specified quantity of timber from
certain trees under different circumstances of soil, site, local climate, and
culture.

If all trees were produced from seed with the same degree of constitu-
tional strength, and were the soils on which they might be planted of the
like nature throughout, and vuider equal circumstances with regard to
moisture and exposure, as well as to every other iniluential point, then
statical rules of practice for the culture of trees might with equal certainty be
given, and of as general an application to suit every variety of case, as
those for the execution of any mechanical art : but the reverse of all this is
the fact ; and every variation in the soil, and in the exposure and growth
of the trees, must be met with a corresponding variation in the process of
culture, as regards the number of trees to be thinned out, the distances at
which they should stand, and their size and age. The trees above
mentioned, which at fifty years' growth were not of greater value for the
purposes of timber, than several trees thinned out at ten, assisted the
growth of the more valuable trees, which immediately or more remotely
adjoined them, by the shelter they afforded against cutting winds, and
by ameliorating the local climate, to that degree as to fully warrant
their continuance. Those trees which were of equal value to these wlien
cut down at ten years' of growth, stood so close to others of greater pro-
mising value as to injure the growth of both, and had they been suffered
to remain, would have prevented some of the most valuable trees of the
plantation from attaining to perfection. Thus, on tlie one hand, by re-
moving the former description of plants, the most valuable trees are
promoted in growth, and on the other preserved from injury, by suffering
less valuable ones to remain.

Various tables have been calculated to assist in deciding on the number
of trees to be thinned out of plantations at stated periods; one of these by
Mr. Waistell*, appears to be brought to as near a correct average, as the
nature of the suljject will permit.

' The following table shews the number of trees to be cut out in thinning
woods, and the number left standing at every period of four years, from
twenty to sixty-four years, reckoning that the distance of trees from each
other should be one-fifth of their height, and that the trees should have
increased twelve inches in height, and one inch in circumference annually,
and to have been at first planted four feet apart.'

* Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxvi., and Withers's ' Memoir on planting
and rearing Forest-trees,' p. 37.

PLANTING.

Years old

and
foot hi^h.

20

Gill.

21

Conlen
Ft. In.

0 10

SI.

ris.
5

Distances.

4.

Number of Tfecs
on an

2722

Contents
oftliu

wliolu
in IVel.

2362

Number

to be
cut out.

839

Contents
Feet.

727

24

3

1

6

0

4.8

1SS3

2824

494

741

28

31

2

4

7

5.6

1389

3308

326

776

32

4~

3

6

8

6.4

1063

3779

223

792

36

4^

5

0

9

7.2

840

4252

160

810

40

5

6

11

4

8.

680

4722

118

819

44

51

9

2

11

8.8

562

5194

90

831

48

6

12

0

0

9.6

472

5664

70

840

52

61

15

3

0

10.4

402

6130

55

838

56

7

19

0

8

11.2

347

6611

45

857

GO

7

23

5

2

12.

302

7076

37

866

64

8

28

5

4

12.8

265

7537

69

When there is a deficiency of access to certain parts of the plantation,
and additional rides or drives must be made, the lines should be marked
out by barking the trees in the course of it, or, what is better, by a circular
mark with whitewash or lime. The roots should be grubbed up, and the
surface of the ground prepared and sown with the seeds mentioned in
Chapter V. When there are steeps or hills, the drives should be formed
wiUi the most easy ascent for the convenience of timber carts. The ascent
ought not to be greater than one foot in thirty. The most useful instru-
ment for determining the ascent or descent of forest drives, is constructed
in the form of the common level, furnished with an index divided into
ninety degrees. When the plummet line hangs at the forty-fifth degree,
iQ the legs of the instrument indicate a perfect

level {fig. 10), and when it hangs at a lesser
or greater number, it indicates the degree of
ascent or descent accordingly. In plantations
the thinning of which has been neglected, the
trees next the sides ofthe drives are always the
largest and most valuable, and afford a test at
all times to judge how far judicious thinning
has been practised or neglected. When this
essential part of culture has been neglected,
the greatest caution is necessary in perform-
ing the work. The trees being grown up slender, weak, and deficient of
side branches, a too sudden exposure to the winds or currents of air, will
be found injurious, if not fatal. The outside trees should be continued in
their thicket state for several years after the first relief is given to the
interior trees, and even then should only be deprived of decaying com-
panions, or of branches unnecessary for the purposes of shelter, but
which it may be advantageous for the trees to lose. Trees weakened by
growing in a crowded state, become more obnoxious to disease, and to
the attacks of insects, and to that of parasitic plants, such as mosses
and lichens, which rarely or never appear on healthy and vigorous frees.
The number of trees to be taken out on the first occasion of the thin-
ning of a neglected plantation should be very limited, and confined
to those which have become the most exhausted. The process should
be carried on for six or seven years, until completed. The pruning
of such trees should be confined to the removal of decaying or dead
branches, until the gradual introduction of fresh air, and the solar rays by
the thinning process has renewed lateral shoots and invigorated the
branches*. Forest-trees are, like other organized bodies, confined to a

* It is a great error to suppose, that by leaving trees in an individually crowded state,
the object of a close cover is secured ; on the contrary, tliis object will only be gaiutid for

76 PLANTING.

certain period of existence, in which the stages of growth are distinctly
marked, from the first development of the plant in its seedling state, until
its ultimate decay by the course of nature. Diflerent species of trees have
different periods of existence. The oak is considered to be of the longest
duration, and, perhaps, the larch of the shortest. The oaks in AVoburn
Park, mentioned at page liO, as being of such large dimensions and in per-
fect health, cannot be supposed to be under three hundred years of age.
The elm may be placed next in order with the chestnut, ash, beech, and
hornbeam, the pine, and lastly the larch*. These estimates of the compa-
rative duration of different species of trees are, however, given from
observation only, and are not founded on such certain data as to render
them more than an approximation to the truth ; for soils, local climates,
and the various other causes which promote or retard the progress of
veo-etable health and growth, interfere with the completion of the perfect,
natural term of vegetable life in numerous instances. Under the most
favourable circumstances, however, of soil and culture, trees are subject to
various diseases and accidents, and from what has already been mentioned,
as to their structure and living functions, this will be no matter of surprise.
The diseases of forest-trees may be comprised under those of a general
nature, wherein the internal functions are interrupted or partially de-
stroyed ; and secondl}', those of a local nature arising from external
causes, as accidents of various kinds, and the attacks of insects. Neglect
of judicious planting and of after culture, are the chief causes of the first
mentioned kinds of disease, and tend to aggravate the bad effects of other
accidents. When a tree puts forth leaves of paler tint than their natural
green colour, and never assumes it again during that and succeeding sea-
sons, and when the growth of the branches is very small and frequently
imperceptible, some of them also decaying at the extremities, the disease
is termed chlorosis. It originates principally from an ungenial subsoil.
The effects of confined air by a crowded state of the plantation, or a too
sudden exposure to sharp blasts, will also induce this disease. Topical
remedies are of no use, and the means of prevention should be used in
planting, and in the after culture.

Spontaneous bleeding, or great loss of sap, generally ends in the disease
termed tabes, which, when once confirmed, is incapable of being cured.
The elm is of all forest-trees the most subject to this disease. Whenever
the branches become disproportionate to the stem and roots, or the foliage
too scanty to receive and elaborate the periodical flow of sap, spontaneous
bleeding takes place. The neglected stumps of dead branches having
formed cavities, afford ready outlets to the sap. Branches which have been
suffered to grow too large in proportion to the rest of the tree, and are bent
down or project in an horizontal direction from the stem, are frequently
attacked with hcsinorrhagy, which, according to our observation and ex-
perience, never heals, but continues periodically until the death of the tree.
The fluid which is thus discharged by the elm, appears to ditl'er in no respect
from the ascending sap of the plant, affording extractive and mucilaginous
matters, combined witli potassa and lime; the solid matter deposited by
the fluid in its course of descent over the bark, leaves a whitish tract at
first, but in time becomes blackened by the weather, smoke, &c. The
track thus marked out by the haemorrhage, will point out the wound with
certainty and readiness. Grass and herbage on which this fluid drops

a few years at first, or until the trees interfere with each other's healthy growth, and hegin
fo contend for existence. Bj- judicious pruning and thinning, or by keeping any individual
tree in its most perfect healthy state, a perpetual cover will he obtained, as complete as the
species of tree and the nature of the soil will admit.

* The Pinus Lambertia before iDcutioned, found on the north-west coast of America,
was estimated of nine hundred years' growth, although sound in the timber.

PLANTING. 71

is destroyed by it. When there is made a strong efFort of the functions of
the plant to heal np the wound, and, after it is ahnost wholly closed with
healthy bark, a substance of a dark coloiir and resinous appearance is
exuded. This substance is termed ulmin ; as a pigment it produces
the most beautiful brown, and appears to consist of u pecidiar extractive
matter and potassa*. The oak, under the like circumstances, exudes a
substance having- similar external characters. The birch and maple,
when cut or lacerated through the bark into the wood, suffer much i'rom
the loss of sap which flows from such wounds.

The pine and fir tribe of trees have a resinous juice, which exudes freely
from wounds of the bark. When larg'e branches are injudiciously pruned
off, the injury is considerable from the waste of sap. In the cases of fuU-
gTown trees of the elm being- affected with this disease, the best course is
to take them down for timber; but where it is desirable to preserve the
tree for landscape or ornamental effect, the decayed stumps should be cut
away close to the sound bark, and the wound dressed carefully to protect
it from the weather. If a cavity exists out of which the sap has, for a con-
siderable period, been in the habit of exuding, the aperture should be
cleared of the dead bark covering its sides, and then the mouth should be
securely closed by the composition before recommended, or by any other
substance that may be found more effectual to prevent the admission of
rain, and of air. Whatever tends to increase the number of healthy branches
and leaves on the tree, will tlie most effectually restrain the disease.

Tabes, or the wasting of trees, is brought on not unfrequently by para-
sitical plants, as ivj% covering- the cutis of the barks, and preventing the
healthy functions of that organ. The loss of the green colour of the
leaves, the gradual wasting of the branches, and diminution of the
foliage, indicate the confirmation of the disease. If taken in time the
remedy of cutting the ivy at the root is speedy and effectual. When
lichens pervade not only the stems but the branches of trees, the functions
of the bark are disturbed, and disease ensues. On damp soils, where
proper thinning is neglected, lichens and mosses propagate to the ex-
tremities of the branches, and flourish in a surprising degree. Caustic
lime water thrown upon the parasites will destroy them without injuring
the tree, provided it be done during the fall of the leaf A hand-engine
will apply the lime water to a great many trees in the course of one day.
The necessity of topical applications, however, of this sort for forest-trees,
ought to be avoided by timely thinning and pruning, thereby admitting
a circulation of pure air, and the solar rays into the interior of the jilanta-
tion, which check the propagation and growth of parasites.

The number of different species of insects which infest forest-trees is

very great; they are all productive of more or less injury to the growth of

the plants. The most destructive are : —

*Noctua pinastri, Lin. xyhna. Hub.

fimbria oak moth

j)yra7nidca copper underwing

macileiita brickmoth

citrago sallow moth

alniaria canary-shouldered moth limes

erosaria

olivaria green carpet moth

hetuUtana . . . . ,,

* AjrricuUural Chemistry, p. 105. Ulmin is elsewhere stated to be an acid sui generis,
and, like other ve^etal)le acids, to be a comjiound of carbon, hydroijen, and oxygen — that
it combines with potassa like an acid, and is again precipitated from it by acids having a
stronger affinity for potassa.

Ihcy appear.

pine mo

ith

June.
August.

oaks

,,

elms

»

limes

j»

limes

>?

limes

September,

birch

August.

72-.

PLANTING.

Noctua rapezana

diamond-back moth

, ^

August

iciana

white backed

willow

>>

upsilon

dismal moth

.

>>

retma

double kidney moth

.

j>

niipta

red iindervving

.

)5

*Scolylus destructor

bark beetle

oak and elm

March.

*Lasiocam2)a quercus

efTger moth

oak

July.

crataegi

hawthorn moth

white thorn

5>

'^Coccus lariceo

larch scale

larch

>>

abietis

spruce fir bufj

. fir

>>

aceris

maple bug

maple

»»

at id

alder bug

alder

J>

hetulce

birch bug

birch

quercus

oak bug,

oaks

June, July.

salicis

willow bug

willows .

June, July.

til ice

lime bug

limes

June, July.

car pint

hornbeam bug

hornbeams

June, July.

caprecB

crack willow bug

salix caprea

June, July,

oxycanllice

thorn fly

white thoru

>>

Apihis iilini

elm fly

elm

June, Aug.

quercus

oak fly

oaks

pini

pine fly

pines

tilicB

lime fly

limes

fraxini

ash fly

ash-tree .

betulo}

birch fly

birch-tree

fugi

beech fly .

beech-tree

alii

alder fly

alders

salicis

willow fly

willows

hursaria

black poplar fly

black poplar

aceris platanoides

maple fly

maples

Cynips quercus folii

gall fly

oak

The pine moth nestles in the leading bud of the pine, and destroys its
principal shoot. The attack of this insect often injures a whole plantation,
as they propagate fast, and prefer the terminal bud of the stem. If on
the first appearance of the insect, or before it had affected more than two
or three trees, means were immediately had recourse to for destroying
them, and guarding every season to prevent them from establishing them-
selves in numbers, the prevention of their ravages would be thus effected
at a moderate cost of laboiw or expense.

The scolytus destructor is a formidable insect. It penetrates through
the bark into the alburnum, on which it feeds, destroying the organization
of the bark, and annihilating its functions. In time the bark separates in
large masses li'om the wood, and the tree dies. The elm is most obnoxious
to this insect *. The pine is also subject to attacks of the same kind, and
attended with the like fatal effects.

* It has been supposied to be the effect of tlisease rather than the cause of it, or of Hving
on the dead and decayhig juices ; but when we never find the insect in hfe on a dead
tree, but always on a living one, and that oftentimes in the full vigour of health, we
cannot conclude otherwise than that the scu/i/fus destructor, if not the only cause of labcs
or a wasting of the plant, is one of the primary ones, and is never an effect. \'ery re-
cently a ninnber of elm trees, of a considerable age and size, in the neighbourhood of
Camberwell, died in a very rapid manner. The bark became detached from the stem,
and fell ofi' in large pieces, or could with small force be removed by the fingers for a space
of five feet from the root upwards.

The bark was jierforated by the scolytus in numerous instances, and their ravages on
the alburnum were evident by crowded tracks through its substance. There were a veiy
few of the trees which escaped destruction ; but even these had perforations of the bark,

" PLANTING. 73

The larva of the lasiocampa quercus sometimes strip the leaves entirely
of the branches of the oak. When the trees are young, and the attack
is perceived before it has made great prog'ress, the application of caustic
lime water, served by the hand-engine before mentioned, is the only
topical application we have found practicable, as regards cost, time, and
effectiveness.

The different species of coccus or scale-like insects which infest most
trees, seldom attain to such numbers as to endanger seriously the health
of forest-trees.

The aphis or fly is more common and injurious. Almost every distinct
species of tree has a species of aphis peculiar to itself. The glutinous
substance which, in hot arid weather, apjjcars so general on the upper
surface of the leaves of trees, is produced by these insects. This sub-
stance, by attracting other insects, and by arresting smoke and dust
on the surface of the leaves, prevents the leaves from perlbrming their
healthy functions. For large trees and extensive plantations topical
remedies are of course out of the question. In confined cases a solution of
soft soap, or of water impregnated with caustic lime and sulphur, are either
of tliem very effectual cures.

The gall fly {cynlps quercus folii) deposits its eggs in the membrane
of the leaves of the oak, and produces those tumours on the leaves called
oak galls. The extent of injury inflicted on the general health of the tree
has never been observed to be great, or such as to warrant any expensive
trial for a cure.

The last disease, or rather defect, that may be mentioned here, is
termed shake, and should be carefully guarded against in the culture of
forest-trees. Trees, though outwardly to all appearance sound in the
stem, are often found with splits of 'several feet in height from the root
upwards. This is frequently caused by strongly bending the stem of a
tree from the top when young. The stem of trees in plantations which
have been neglected in judicious thinning and pruning, being tall and
slender in proportion to the branches of the top, these act as a lever to
the wind, and in time produce this blemish in the timber. In carrying out

although in smaller number. Before the bark began to peel off, gas pipes had been laid
near the foot of one row of the elms, the time had been only about six weeks, and the
mischief was imputed to the escape of the gas among the roots. This reason, however,
was untenable, inasmuch as trees removed to a considerable distance from the gas pipes
were equally affected; while a few already mentioned adjoining it escaped. Besides, the
foliage shewed no signs of being affected, which all gaseous poisons have the imme-
diate effect of shewing first on the leaves. In this instance the state of the trees, previous
to the introduction of the gas pipes near to the roots, showed that the sco////us destruclor
had been one of the several causes that produced the death of the trees. These elms were in
rows, and formed an avenue. They had been planted too close in the rows, and had also
been neglected in thinning and pruning. The remains of dead stumps, and the numerous
cavities left by others, marked out by the discoloured traces on the bark of the long
existence of an yearly hcemorrhage of sap, and also the scanty tops in proportion to the
size of the stems, all proved that the disease tabes had been confirmed. Add to this the
bad effects of drains, and deep foundations cut out in the immediate neighbourhood of the
trees, accompanied by two excessively dry seasons (1S25 and IbJG) so favourable for the
propagation of the sco/i/tus destructor, and the crisis and results of the disease will not be
any subject of wonder. A tree of the pinus pinaster, which had been reared in a pot, was
subjected to the influence of gas the same as that supplied to the routs of the elm, but withoiit
producing any perceptible efiect. A large ox bladder was tilled by the writer of this with
the carburetted hydrogen gas, and connected by a pipe with the draining aperture of the
pot, in which the roots of the pine were confined. This quantity of gas was made to pass
through the earth in the pot during the space of forty-eight hours, and renewed and
continued for three weeks ; but, as just now observed, without producing any ill etfects on
the health of the plant. The pine is liable to be injured and destroyed by the insectg
before mentioned, in the same manner as the elm.

74 PLANTING.

the produce of the thinnin^ of a plantation, as well as in executincf the
work in a careless manner, the same bad effects are not unfrequently
produced in young' saplings. The decay which is observed at the lower
end of the stems of larch trees, when planted on chalk, or on very damp
clay, is clearly the fault of the subsoil, and sometimes appears when
the tree is only eig'hteen years old. In numerous instances we have
found it commence at the seventh year's annual layer of wood, and
never earlier, and to extend to the thirty-fifth year's layer, but not beyond
that growth. In all our observations it appeared to be either within seven
and thirty, or thirty and thirty-five years' layers. The fungus, which
appears in the defective wood, commences at the higher portion of the
main branch of the root connected with the annual layer affected, and
proceeds upwards. Its characters are extremely similar to those of the
dry rot (jmeruliiis dcstntdens), so much so, that until more minute ob-
servation determine to the contrary, they must be considered identical. It
is highly probable, therefore, that the dry rot exists in the interior of
timber, while the tree is yet growing, although possibly in too inert a state
to be distinguished by the naked eye. In the living plant no remedy has
yet been discovered for this disease. Judicious planting will ensure pre-
vention by furnishing each distinct variety of soil and subsoil witli
those species of forest-trees only which are best adapted to them ; and this
))rinciple, whether in the herbaceous plants of liusbandry, in fruit trees in
gardening, or in timber trees in forest planting, is never violated with im-
punity. Various means have been tried, from time to time, to prevent the
appearance of dry rot in timber, as well as to arrest its progress when
once begun. The first of these objects is suj)posed to be gained by
scasoiiiig the timber previously to using' it. Some recommend tlie bark to
be taken off the tree to a certain height a year before it is felled, and the
practice has been tried long ago on the oak*, and more recently with the
larch. It would appear, however, in the latter case, that when the trees
are young, the alburnum or sap wood becomes soft rather than hard under
the process.

Another mode of seasoning* timber is by immersing the trees in water
for a period of one or more years. This practice is considered vei'y bene-
ficial, but it is clear that the necessary proofs cannot be obtained under a
period of many years comparative trials of seasoned and unseasoned wood
in the same building, and under the same circumstances in the building.
The seasoning of wood by subjecting it to a strong heat by means of
steam has also been tried, but, as in the former case, time is required to
determine its efficacy. When wood is left to the process of nature to be-
come seasoned, the desired effects are more perfectly produced by pro-
tecting the wood from rain and sun. Knowles, in his Essay on Dry Rot,
recommends the timber to be ' kept in air neither very dry nor very moist ;
and to protect it from the sun and rain by a roof raised sufficiently high
over it, so as to prevent by this, and other means, a rapid rush of air.' Con-
fined air and a moist temperature encourage the propagation and growth
of the ?nerulius desirnctem in a high degree. When unseasoned wood is
painted, the latent seeds of the dry rot are thereby encouraged and assisted
in vegetating and spreading the fungus or alga) with destructive
rapidity.

The proper season for cutting down timber-trees is that in which the sap
is most quiescent, viz., midwinter and midsummer ; but particularly the

* In 1737 BufiFon disbarked three oak-trees, forty feet in height, where they stood, and
they remained in that state for three years; they were then cut down, and tlie results were
found to be in favour of the practice.

PLi\NTING. 75

former. Trees whose bark is valuable require to be felled before the
complete expansion of the leaf From the middle of April to the end of
June is the proper time for the oak; the larch should be peeled earlier.
The birch havins; a touj^h outer cuticle of no use to the tanner, and as
this is more easily separated from the proper bark after the sap has par-
tially circulated in the leaves, it is g-euerally left standing until the other
species of trees are felled and barked.

The ])rocess of barking- is, in g-eneral, well understood. The harvesting
of the bark is of the greatest importamce, for if it be suffered to heat or
ferment, it loses its colour, becomes mouldy and of little value. The
best mode is to make what the foresters term temporary lofts of about two
feet in width, and of a length sufficient to hold a day's peeling of bark.
These lofts are formed by driving forked stakes into the ground for
bearers, about three feet in height in the back row, and two and a half feet
in the front; a sloping floor is then constructed by laying lop])ings between
the forks of the bearers. The bark is then placed on the sloping floor
with the thick ends towards the top or higher side, the smaller bark is laid
on to the depth of six or ten inches, and the broad pieces placed over the
vrhole as a covering to carry otf the wet, should rain happen before the
bark is sufficiently dry to be stacked. In three or four days it should be
turned to prevent heating or moulding, and in ten days, more or less, it
will be sufficiently dry to be stacked until wanted for the tanner. In order
to prevent fermenting when stacked, the width of the pile should not
exceed eight feet. The roof should be formed and thatched as a corn or
hay stack. In preparing the bark when ready for the tanner, it is cut into
pieces about three inches in length, and weighed. It is sold by weight.

The quantity of tannin contained in the bark of different forest-trees has
been ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy, and although the proportion of
tannin afforded by the bark varies according as the spring may be
favourable in temperature, the following numbers will be found to express
nearly their relative values, if the larch cut in autumn be excepted : —
Average of entire bark of middle-sized oak, cut in spring 29

of Spanish chestnut . . 21

of Leicester willow, large size . '33

ofelm ... . 13

of common willow, large , 11

of ash ... . 16

of beech ... 10

of horse-chestnut . . 9

of sycamore . , . 11

of Lombardy poplar . , 15

of birch ... 8

of hazel ... 14

of black thorn ... 16

of coppice oak ... 32

of oak cut in autumn . , 21

of larch cut in autumn . . 8

white interior cortical layers of oak bark . 72*

In general the bark of the larch is not worth more than half the price of
oak bark, and the proportion given to larch in the above table may, there-
fore, be considered too small. The great disproportion between the pro-
duce of tannin aflbrded by the inner bark and that of outer layers, shevvs
with what care the harvesting of the bark should be performed to prevent

• Agricultural Chemistry, p. 79.

of timber affords i
lbs. Ib3.

at bark

9
10

to

12
16

8

i>

10

11

14

9

i»

11

76 PLANTING.

fermentation, which destroys the tannin principle first in that portion of the
bark containing- it in the largest quantity.

The weight of bark afforded by given contents of timber, varies accord-
ing to circumstances connected with the growth of particular trees, as
whether grown in confined air, or in healthy, open situations, also as regards
the age of the trees. The statements given by Mr. Monteith, in his
' Planter's Guide,' are, perhaps, as near to the truth of an average as the
nature of the subject will admit, at least they are consonant with the results
of our own practical experience.

Every cubic foot <

An oak 40 years old . . from

Ditto from SO to 100 ditto . „

Larch timber, per foot . . ,,

Birch timber, large ditto . . ,,

Willow, ditto . . . „

The most judicious mode of felling forest-trees is by grubbing up, or
taking the solid part of the root with the bole, in every case where coppice
stools are not wanted, for the expense of taking up the roots afterwards
when either planting or tillage may be demanded on the sites of the felled
trees, will be found to exceed that of taking up the root with the stem in
the first instance, besides the injury to the immediate fertility of the soil
by the introduction of fungi and insects, the first agents generally of
decomposition of the roots of felled trees which do not stole or reproduce
shoots. Besides the advantages now alluded to, there is another, that of
the value of the solid part of the roots of trees. The peculiar structure of
many roots afford the best materials for what is termed ornamental rustic
work ; and also the compact texture of the wood, and the diversified lines
of the medullary rays and concentric circles, fit it for the manufacture of
very interesting cabinet works.

The root of the larch affords a valuable material for forming knees of
boats. Admiral Fleming was the first, we believe, to point out this pro-
perty of the larch. The lower part of the stem, with the solid root attached,
is quartered, and, when joined, form knees of a lasting nature, — that
part of the wood, the solid root produced under ground, and always in
contact with damp, being probably more adapted to withstand the effects
of moisture than the proper wood produced in the open air.

Chapter VII.

Of the. progressive increase of size or produce of wood in di^e rent species
of forest-trees. Of the mode of valuing 2}l(tntations — present value
— j)rospectivc value of certain individual trees lohich have attained to
great inaturity . Ofthe2)roductsofj)lantations,and of the terms used
by foresters to denote these products.

It is a common observation, that the slower a tree grows the harder
is its wood. This statement, as applicable to trees of different species
or genera, as, for instance, between the poplar and the oak, is gene-
rally correct, but between individual trees of the same species, two
oaks, for example, the observation will be found not to apply; indeed
the reverse will be found proved if we examine into the facts which
bear directly on the point. In every plantation we find that the individual
trees composing it vary considerably in what is termed quick or slow growth.

PLANTING. ^-7

and that in all plantations where the pruninr^ and thinning- have not been
judiciously executed, the trees wliich stand on the outside of the plantation,
or on the sides of the drives, are larfj^er, say double the size, or have been
of much quicker growth than those in the interior of tlie plantation. Now
the g'reatest comparative degree of streno-th and hardness of the woods of
the two trees is proved to be in that of the larger, or the tree whose growth
was most rapid and \igorous — the sap wood being of course larger in
the fast-growing tree, as are all the annual layers of the heart wood. If the
reader will look back to page 8, where the structure of the wood of different
species of trees is described and figured, it will be seen that the wood of
the oak, a comparatively slow-growing tree, is distinguished from the wood
of the poplar, a fast-growing tree, by having the cellular structure compa-
ratively confined to the concentric circles which mark the annual increase
of wood ; that the number of cells between these concentric circles are
few, though of a larger diameter, while in the wood of the poplar they are
dispersed in great number, or crowd the whole surface of a section of the
wood. If the hard wood of the locust (Jig. 7i, p. 10) be compared to the soft
wood of the fir (Jig. o), to the laburnum (Jig. q), the lime (Ji<:.j),p. 11),
sweet chestnut (Jig. e), to the horse-chestnut (jfig. h), and every hard and
durable ^vood to the soft and non-lasting kinds, the same clear and marked
distinction will be evident, z.e. the hard, tough, and durable woods have
the cells chiefly confined to the annual rings, or thinly scattered in irren-ular
groups, leaving comparatively wide intervals of apparently solid fibre, while
all the soft or non-lasting woods have the entire substance pervaded with
minuter cells, in number and regularity that may be compared to the texture
of fine lace or network.

These then are the external discriminating characters of hard and of
soft woods ; and let us now apply these to distinguish the woods of fast
and of slow growing trees of the fta77ie .<ipecies, and we find that the
wood of the fast-growing tree has wider intervals between the concentric
circles, or congeries of cells, or, in a word, fewer cells to the size or diameter
of the wood, and is consequently wood of greater strength, toughness, and
durability. The experiments of Professor Barlow on the strength of dif-
ferent woods confirm the above conclusions*. The opinion of Thomas

■ * Mr. Withers, in his Letter to Sir H. Stewart, p. 115, states, that he received from Mr.
Boorne, of Erpingham, a respectable timber-merchant, two specimens of oak, one taken from
a fast, and the other from a slow growing tree. No. 1. was grown upon a very stnmg yood
soi/, the age of the tree about sixty yeai-s, and it contained from thirty-eight to forty feet
of timber. No. 2 was about one hundred and twenty years old, and was grown upon a
light soil, with gravel about two fi^et below the surface. These specimens being submitted
to Professor Barlow, of the Royal Academj^, Woolwich, were tried, and gave the follow
ing results : —

No. 1.

Deflected one-fiftieth of Comparative

Spetific gravity. its length with Broken miih strength.

903 6601bs. ygyibs. 15G1.

No. 2.
856 4141bs. G771bs. lO.jSlbs.

No. 1, it appears, is, therefore, of about medium strength, my mean number beino- for
English oak, 1470.

No. 2 is very weak, my weakest specimen being 1205. (See Essay on Strength cf
Timber.)

Mr. S. Farrow, timber-merchant, Diss, Norfolk, states to Mr. Withers, that ' It has
always been a custom with me when I wanted a mild, tender piece of oak for any purpose,
to look out for a slow-growing tree to cut it out of; and, on tlie contrary, when hard wood
was wanted, to take the fast-growing tree, one which, before being felled, was in fidl and
rapid growth, and I have ever found the latter much the most durable wood.' Two speci-
mens of oak commiuiicated by Mr. Farrow, No. 1, of a tree reared close to the rick-yard of
the farm, and by the side of a ditch into which ran a great deal of moisture from the yard.

78 PLANTING,

Andrew Knig'ht, F.R.S., on this important subject is, tliat the toughest
and most durable oak timber is obtained from trees of vigorous, rapid
growth. Tlie property of quick growth, in some species of trees, however,
is confined to tlieir earlier stages ; in others it is not developed until they
have stood several years in the soil, and in several the rate of annual
increase of wood continues steady comparatively until the trees attain full
maturity.

The \ocust-iree (Robinia psei/do-acacia), for instance, will outstrip the
oak in the first ten years of their growth by a rate of increase at least
double that of the latter, but afterwards the oak will gain upon the locust,

This tree grew rapidlj', and, contained, when taken down, one hundred and sixty cubic
feet of timber. The tree from which No. 2 was cut grew in the same fielJ, and beheved
to have been planted at the same time. Tliis tree grew well, but not in any degree so fast
as the other, and contained about ninety cubic feet of timber. The age of the trees was
estimated at one hundred and twenty years growth. These specimens were forwarded by
Mr. lAVithers to Professor Barlow, for examination as to their comparative strength, and
the following interesting results were obtained : —

No. 1. — Fast Grown Oak, Manureu.

Weight wben deflected the Comparative

Specific gravity. piece l-50th ofits length. Broken with strength.

972 6061bs. 9'J91bs. 156 libs.

No. 2. — Slow Grown Oak, Natural Soil.

835 4391bs. 9431bs. 1473.

The strength of the fast-grown oak timber is, therefore, in this instance, superior to that
of slower growth, as 15 to 14 nearly.

On these facts Mr. Withers observes, that ' the tree, which had no support but the
natural soil, produced ninety feet of timber in one hundred and twenty years ; the other,
whose roots were continually nourished by manure, made one hundred and sixty feet in
the same period, being a difference of seventy feet. The manured tree made, on an
average, one foot one-third of timber in each year. Estimating, therefore, according to
that rate of increase, this tree was, fifty years ago, of equail size, and of greater value, to the
unmanured tree at the time it was cut down. Now, if we reckon the value of the timber at
only 8/. a load, and allow compound interest for the fifty years, the difierence of value
between the manured and unmanured tree amounts to upwards of 165/. This,' continues
Mr. Withers, ' is the amount of profit arising upon one tree ; let a calculation, founded
upon such data, be applied to the millions of acres which might be covered with forest-
trees; and then let land-owners and statesmen reflect, whether o?/r o?i'« coim/r// does not
afford ample and profitable employment for all the " surplus agricultural labourers." '
The cost of trenching and manuring, according to Mr. Withers' own experience, is stated
to be as follows : —

Planted in April, 1824.

Twenty loads of marl, at Is. 3t^. ....

Twenty ditto muck, at 5*. , .

Ploughing land ......

Trees, carriage, and planting ....

Total cost per acre . . , . . 15 5 0

The results afforded to Mr. Withers by the above preparation of the soil, and by subse-
quent culture of the surface of the soil, were such as to be perfectly conclusive in favour
of trenching and manuring to ko/ing in unprepared soils. Now making every rea-
sonable deduction for the uncertainty of the two oaks last alluded to having been
reared under the same circumstances in every particular, which influences and governs the
growth and progress to perfection of forest trees, (as already mentioned in Chapter II.,)
except that of the sujiply of liquid manure to the tree No. 1, and making a similar deduc-
tion for the uncertainty of obtaining manure, and also that of the comparative rate of
increase of timber between trees planted in the mode Mr. AVithers recommends, or by the
cheaper mode of holing, after the first twenty or thirty years of their growth, there are
evidently advantages left sufficient to warrant the adoption of this mode of planting all
soils of the nature mentioned at p. 39, whether on private estates Or in the royal forests.
In either case a certain sum can only be afforded, and it is then to be considered whether
that suni had better be employed on a limited space of land annually, by which a speedier
return of profit will be obtained, and the ultimate object, tliat of a stronger and more
valuable quality of timber reared to perfection in a shorter period of time, or by covering a
larger space of land with plants which will give inferior returns in a much longer
extended period of growth.

/. s.

d.

1 5

0

5 0

0

1 10

0

7 10

0

25

ditto..

20

ditto.

60

ditto.

50

ditto.

60

ditto.

30

ditto.

25

ditto.

15

ditto.

PLANTING. 79

and"its rate of progress will continue superior. The silver fir increases
comparatively at a much inferior rate to the larcli and other fast-Q,Towing
trees, for ten or more years, but in general it passes all these Irees in
heig-ht and in circnmlerence by the thiitieth or fortieth years of its growth.
The comparative rate of increase annually of the following forest-trees is,
in the average of cases, nearly in the following order:

Poplar, for the first 50 years of growth.

Bedford willow . do.

Birch . . do.

Larch . do.

Sycamore . do.

Pine , . do.

Silver fir, after the first

Alder . . do.

Locust . . do.

Trees of slower growth, but more equal in the rate of annual increase
throughout their progress, are

Elm, asli, beech, sweet chestnut, oak.

On comparing a variety of measurements made of different trees on the
same soil, and also of these in soils of different natures, the increase of the
oak to that of the larch, at sixty-five years of growth, proved to be as
6 to 3.6 neariv. The silver fir stood to these in the proportions of 8 to 6
and of 8 to 3*6 *.

When a tree has attained to full maturity, or to as large a size as
the nature of the soil and situation are capable of inducing, the annual
production of shoots from the extremities of the top branches is scarcely
perceptible. When these begin to decay, and the tree gives indications
of soon becoming what is called stag headed, the profitable increase
of timber has ceased in that tree, and it no longer occupies the ground
profitably. The most profitable stage of growth, however, at which a tree
may be taken, must be determined by the state of the market and the
demand for particular produce. The only certain rule is, to ascertain the
annual increase of timber in the tree, and determine thereby whether the
value of that increase be ecpial to the annual interest of the sum the tree
would bring, if felled, in addition to the charges of the land it occupies.

The following statement of the increase of trees at seventeen years of
growth in the cfmiate of Devonshire, on a porous soil, prepared by
trenching, and planted in the most judicious manner, according to in-
structions by the Duke of Bedford, will show the comparative value of
different species of forest-trees, as regards their property of affording early
produce on a soil of the nature mentioned.

Girt or Circumlcrcnce at Girl or Circumference at

Two Feet from the Root. Seven Feet from the Koot.

In. In.

. 37

• 32i:

. 251

. 26

. 25

. 22

. 23

* Well-autlienticated facts relative to the comparative rate of increase of wood in the
different species of forest-trees are much wanted. Without such facts, ascertained by
carefid and minute consideration of all circumstances influencing the growtli of the trees,
as soil, local climate, age, and cultuix', unerring or scientific priaciides cannot be obtained
to guide the practical planter.

Popla

. 41

Larch

. 37

Pine

. 321

English elm

. 32

Silver fir

. 28i

Spruce

. 27

Chestnut

. 27

go

PLANTING.

Girt

or Circumference at

Girt or

Circumference nt

Two

■ Feet from the Root.
In

Seven Feet from the Root.

Birch

. 25 .

20

Sycamore

. 24 .

20

Beech

. 23 .

21

Oak

. 23 .

13

Ash

. 20 .

17

The heights of the trees were in full proportion to the girth, and the
measurements are an average of the dimensions of six trees of each of the
species respectively ; there were numerous instances of individual trees
exceeding any of the above in girth and length *.

Comparing the above with the former order of the rate of annual
increase, the silver fir is found to be much lower in the rate of early
produce in the first instance, but the genial climate in which the trees
mentioned in the latter statement were cultivated will readily account
for the discrepancy. In the higher grounds of Blair Adam before referred
to, the silver fir is of slower growth than any of the trees mentioned in its
early stages, hut after that overtops them to a considerable height.
The sweet chestnut, in the soil and local climate which thus rear the
silver fir ultimately to such a high superiority, stands at the lowest
point on the scale, while, in the more southern latitude and lower
elevation, the chestnut takes precedence of the birch, sycamore, beech, oak,
and ash. Local circumstances connected with soil, climate, and culture
interfere with the idea of drawing general conclusions from these facts to
he considered as data to guide the practical planter in every case ; but to
the valuer of plantations, which have only reached to their first stages of
o-rowth, these facts are of more extensive application, as showing the im-
portance of estimating justly the etfects of these agents in the progressive
or annual rate of produce of timber in different species of forest trees.

The present value of a plantation is that which the market will afford
for its produce at the time tlie valuation is made.

Prospective value is that to which the trees will attain at a remote
period, or that to which they may arrive at full maturity, according to
their respective species, and best fit the purposes for which they are most
esteemed.

When a plantation is only of a few years growth, the value of the pro-
<luce is too insignificant to be estimated, and the growth of the trees is
often then so undeterminate as to render it diflicult to calculate the ultimate
results in this case ; and when property is to be transferred, the cost of
planting and the rent of the land occupied, with the sum of compound
interest on the amount of these, must he taken as a just valuation.

When trees have reached to eight years of growth, their value is so
small as to be below estimating ; they will, however, by this time afford
certain evidences on which to found calculations of their ultimate produce
and value Until trees have attained to a full timber size, the valuation of
a plantation ought to proceed on the principle of prospective value. This
includes, first, the nmnber of years the trees will require to arrive at full
maturity ; secondly, the marketable value of the trees when at that perfec-
tion of growth ; thirdly, the value of the periodical thinnings and of under-
wood. From the total amount of these sums must be deducted compound
interest for the period the trees require to attain maturity ; the remainder
will represent the present transferable value of the plantation.

Thus on three and a quarter statute acres of a sandy soil, worth from five
to twelve shillings per acre per annum when under pasturage, larch had

* Communicated \>y Mr. John Forester, at Endblcigh, Devousbire, from the Duke of
Bedford's plantations.

PLANTING.

81

been i)lantC(I in 1810, and in 18-20 il was desired to ascertain the prospec-
tive value of the plantation for 1851 *.

The trees amounted to 3311, of which 1€00 were fit for fuel only, and
required to be removed for tlie benefit of tlie healthy trees. The periodical
thinnings being estimated every five years, tliis plantation would adbrd
in

Trees. .v. d.

1831, thinnings GOO worth 0 10 each
1836, '560 16 . .

1841, 504 2 6 . .

1846, 212 6 0 . .

Underwood cut at three periods, including 1000
stunted trees, fit only lor fuel

£

a.

d.

25

0

0

42

0

0

63

0

0

63

12

0

6

0

0

119 12
Timber Trees sta?idiiig in 1851,

Largest sized trees 68, containing", on an average,

each 30 feet of timber, at Is. per foot • . 102 0

Second size 238 worth lOs. Od. . . 119 0

Third size 129 do. 6s. 3d. , . 40 0

0

Total value of periodical thinnings, and of standing
timber in 1851

Deductions.
Deductions for present payment.
£. s.

0 value of cuttings in
0 ditto

0 for thinnings in
0 ditto ^

0 ditto

380 12 0

•iscomit on 3

Ditto

3

Ditto

25

Ditto

42

Ditto

63

Ditto

63 12

ditto

£.

s. d.

9 years

1

1 4

9

1

1 4

5

5

8 3

10

16

4 4

15

32

14 0

20

39

16 8

96

5 11

.

380

12 0

•

96

5 11

Therefore prospective value as before
Deductions as above

Present or transferable value of the above plantation 284 6 1
From these details it will appear that an intimate knowledge of the
habits of growth of the different species of forest-trees, and of the influence
of soil and local climate on their periodical increase of timl)er, is absolutely
required in the business of valuing plantations prospectively.

In settlements and divisions of landed property an accurate knowledn-e
of the prospective value of all the plantations under full grown timber on
the estates, is doubtless of great importance. The question of the com-
parative advantages and disadvantages of the occupation of land by forest-
trees, and by corn and herbage, is one about which there has been much
difference of opinion. There are those who contend that the former is

* The plantation in question formed a part of an extensive wood. From various
causes, as the attacks of vermin, and the nej^lect of judicious culture, in suflerini^ the
natural produce of the soil to injure the young trees, and allowing trees of a more vigorous
growth to injure those of a weaker, and partly also, from many of the plants having had
an originally weak constitution, the failures had been considerable, but where the trees
had escaped the effects of these evils, they had made good progress, and afforded evidence
of future value as above detailed.

G

/

82 PLANTING.

most advantapreous, and others ag-aiu ar^ue, that for every purpose of
private and public advantat^e, the latter is immeasurably superior. The
truth Hcs between ; for the flict is, neither of the two can profitably exist
without the aid of the other, and the question becomes then narrowed to
that of the proportions in which each should stand to the other. This
point, however, has already been discussed as far as the limits of these
pages permit, and it may be further only necessary to add, that the produce
of timber in the United Kingdoms is very far from being siifficient to meet
the demand for it. From a report of a select committee of the House of
Lords, relative to the timber trade, made in 1820, it appears that the
average quantity of foreign timber and deals imported into Great Britain
during the four j)receding years, amounted to 322,069 loads ; the duty
alone on which, in the last year of that average, 1S19, amounted to
1,019,31H. 18s. l^fZ. The statements of extraordinary profits from wood-
lands must be considered rather of a local than of a general interest;
that of Lord Barham's chestnut plantation in Kent, which at nine years
growth afforded a produce for hop-poles, which sold for 104Z. per acre ; a
plantation of larch, for the same purpose, but on a soil not worth more
than from 6s. to 7s. per acre, for cultivation, produced at the rate of 9n.
per acre*. Of the willow, oak, &c, numerous instances of the like great
profits might be adduced.

As a general estimate of the profits arising from forest- planting may not
be uninteresting, the opinions of three professional planters of considerable
experience on the subject are here mentioned.

Mr. Pontey of Huddersfield, the author of several esteemed treatises on
planting, states, that from careful calculations of what might be reasonably
expected from an acre of land suitable in itself, tolerably favourably situated,
and in every respect well managed as a plantation of larch, the result is,
a net profit — after paying for the rent of the land and every ordinary ex-
pense— of much nearer five than four hundred pounds in forty-two years.

Mr. Monteath, the well known author of the Planter's Guide, estimates
the entire cost of planting, after the establishment of a nursery, at 22s. to
30.S. per acre, with that of enclosing in large clusters, at about 10s. The
periodical returns from an acre of larch only, after payment of the expenses
of cutting, he calculates at from 5/. to 71. at the expiration of the first ten
years ;

at least . £2b ditto second ditto.

if300 at forty years growth.
And assuming the average rent and annual cliarges on an acre of light sand
adapted to the growth of larch to be 12*., the amount of profit and loss
■will stand as follows :

£. s. d.

Enclosing and planting . . .200

Compound interest at five per cent, during ten

years . . . . 1 12 6

Charges at 12s. per annum, with compound in-
terest at five per cent, for ten years . .7110

11 3 6

Deduct the medium value of the first thinnings ;

i.e. bio 7 . . .600

Balance 5 3 6
* Kent Keport, p. 146.

PLANTING. 83

£. s. d.
Compound interest, at five per cent, on balance for

ten years . . . .346

Annual charges, with componnd interest during

ditto . . . . 7 11 0

15 19 0

Vahie of thinnings at twenty years growth .2500

Profit per acre 9 10

Tims, according to this estimate, doubling the capital, with compound
interest, in twenty years, besides leaving timber standing ou the groundi
which in twenty years more is calculated to be worth 300^.

Mr. George Sinclair, F.L.S., calculates, that the thinnings on an acre
of land, of the value of from 5s. to 10s. per acre, planted with a mixed
proportion of larch, beech, pines, hazel, birch, and oak — the latter with a
view to the growth of navy timber, will, at the end of ten or fifteen
years, according to local circumstances, repay the average expense of
planting, rent, and management during that period, together with com-
pound interest at five per cent. ; and he estimates the clear profits of the
future falls as follows :

In thirteen years, or at twenty-three years growth £2^ 10 0 per acre.
In thirteen years, or at thirty-six years growth 39 0 0 do.

And after that period a triennial profit of about 12/. per acre, until the
oak left standing may be supposed fit for the naval yards, and worth at
the present prices, 264Z., which leaves a balance superior in the proportion
of 300 to 7 to the fee simple of the land*. But let it be remembered,
that these calculations are all founded on the supposition of judicious
planting and subsequent culture.

M. Chaptalt estimates the forests or woodlands of France to occupy
about sixteen millions nine hundred and four thousand acres, or about
one-seventh of the whole productive land of that kingdom. According
to M. Herbiu de Halle, there are of forest lands belonging to

The State . . . 2,802,652

Crown . . . 164,565

Princes of the Royal Family . 479,348

Public Bodies , . 4,834,284

Private Individuals . . 8,623,555

The produce is estimated at five millions three hundred and forty-
seven thousand poimds sterling, or about from six shillings and four-
pence to seven shillings and fourpence per acre. Compared to this of
woodland, the production of arable land is estimated at ten shillings,
and grass land is placed on a level with that under the vine, vix. thirty-
three shillings and eightpence an acre + .

* These calculations were made at the same time by the three individuals mentioned,
but unknown to each other ; and as the results agree in all material points, except as
regards the cost of planting in the second statement, which is very low, the general coa-
clusion receives mucli weight. — Prospectus of British Forest Plunling, lb'26.

-j- Journal des Forils, tome premier. A Paris, 18'29.

X ' Les pn's sont places sur la meme ligne, malgrg le proverbe populaire qui dit que la
vigao rachete le pre,' — Ibid,

G 2

84

PLANTING.

The royal forests of Britain occupy about 125,000 acres of land * ; but
of these the i^reater portion are subject to claims of various sorts for
common of pasture, turbary, &c. There are 3:2,768 acres of forest-land
enclosed and planted principally with oak, and with other trees where the
soil is not adapted to oak. Of these 13,700 acres may be laid open when

* A Return, showing the number of acres in each of the Royal Forests, distinguishing
the open commonable Jaiuls, and the lands appropriated to the growth of timber, in each
forest ; also, the number of acres of other lands, the property of the Crown, appropriated
to the like purpose.

Xumc of tlie Forest.

New Forest, in the county of\

Southampton . . .J

Dean Foiest, in the county of (

Gloucester . . . .1
Woolmer Poorest, in the county )

of Southampton . . . )
Waltham Forest, in the county }

of Essex . . . . j
Alice Holt Forest, in the county ]

of Southampton . . . )
Bere Forest, in the same county .
Salcey Forest, in the county of (

Northampton , . . )
Windsor Forest, in the county of )

Berks . . . . )

Delamere Forest, in the county \

of Chester . . . . )
Parkhurst Forest, in the county |

of Southampton . . . j

Whitf]pwoodForest,in the county ■)
of Northampton . . . J

WhichwooJ Forest, in the county 1
of Oxford . . • . )

Olhn- Lands approprialedpr Ihc
Biowlh of Navy Timber.

Freehold lands in New Forest, 1
in the county of Southampton J

Do. inandadjoitiingDean Forest, |
in the county of Gloucester . ;

Do. do. Woolmer Forest, in the |
county of Southampton . . j

Do. do. Bere Forest, in the same \
county . . . . j

Woodlands at Eltham, Gining-"j
ham, &c. in the county of [
Kent )

Parcels of the Crown Estate at "|
Chopwell, in the county of !
Duriiam . . . .J

Uninclosed Lands, arising partly'
from inclosures thrown open,
and partly from woods of
spontaneous growth, which
are so stocked with trees as
to be reckoned in the quantity
of productive timber, esti-
mated at about .

Lands now appropriated for the^
growth of Timber . . jl

Acres.
C.6,678

21,473

5,949

3,273
1,892
1,417
1,285

4,402

4,C41
900

3,709

Acres.

60,678

10,473

4,249

3,278

1,122

1,808

Lands

appropri

ated foi

the groH-l

of fimbc

6,000

11,000

1,700

1,892
1,417

1,285

4,402
4,641

3,378

1,811

971

3,708

183

132

1,000
896

7,500

52.850

. Subject to rights of common, the in-
I closed lands to be thrown open when
I the trees are past danger of deer or
r rattle, when an equal quantity may
I be inclosed out of the waste in lieu of
) what shall be restored to common.

Subject to rights of common.

>The property of the Crown in fee.

, 517 a. 3 r. 31 ;)., the property of the
Crown in fee remainder, subject to
rightsof common'; the inclosed lands
in tliis and in Whichwood Forest
consist partly of coppices, which are
by law thrown open to deer and cat-
' tie at the end of 7or 9 vears from the
timewhen first inclosed,ar.d at which
period the young trees are not past
danger of deer and cattle, and are,
in consequence, in a great measure,
destroyed.

Subject to rights of common.

An

PLANTING. 85

the trees are past danger of deer or cattle ; and an equal number of acres
to tliose thus laid open, may be enclosed and planted. The remainhig
14,068 acres belong- to the crown in tee, and will always be kept enclosed.
There are 6211 acres of other freehold land bcloniring; to the crown, which
are also appro])riated to the (growth of timber, makiiio- in all 38,979 acres,
the whole of which liave been enclosed and ])lanted within the last twenty
years. In Nesv and Dean forests, Hainault forest, Whiltlevvood forest,
and Wychwood tbrest, there are open woods or coppices of considerable
extent, containing trees of all descriptions, from shi|) timber down to sap*
lings ; but the number of acres so covered, or the number of trees occu*
pying the surface, appear to be unknown.

Tlie soil of the royal forests of Britain contain almost every variety of
soil, — deep strong clay, rich deep loam, light loam on freestone gravel,
bog, &C. The quantities of these ditfercnt soils should be estimated. It
is quite true that a field of ten acres may contain two or three different
varieties of soil ; but that is no substantial reason for not classifying the
quantities on which to found a practical plan of management, so as to
obtain the largest and speediest return of produce of the best quality,
and that every portion of the land be occupied to the best advantage.
Without an estimate of the spaces of the different soils, no accurate calcu-
lation can possibly be made of the produce the lands in question ought to
and would afford under the most judicious culture ; and consequently
there is no check whatever to the practical management, but that of vague
opinion.

As the most judicious, because the most profitable and certain in the
result of obtaining the largest quantity of timber of the best quality in the
shortest space of time, on a given space of land, the preparation of the
soil for the reception of the plants by paring and burning the surface,
afterwards trenching, and manuring when possible, and taking from' the
soil thus prepared an ameliorating fallow crop the season before planting,
has been urged at pages 22, 27, and 39, as a general principle of culture
for the soils of the nature specified. But if this mode of culture be there-
fore so superior as it is proved to be for planting lands under ordinary
freehold tenure, how much more beneficial, or latlier essential, must the
adoption of it be in cases such as of those belonging to the crown, where
the rights of common render it imperative to open the fences of the young-
plantations to stock or to sheep and deer in seven or nine years from the
period of planting. The trees so cultivated will in that period be com-
paratively out of danger, and the ultimate object, that of timber of the best
quality the soil is capable of rearing, secured. But besides these advan-
tages, that of atlbrding profitable employment to labourers out of work,
in the parishes adjoining the lands in question, and at a season of the
year when labour is most scarce, cannot but add powerfully to the reasons,
sufficient of themselves, already offered on this head ; besides the valuable
example for imitation by the public which the Government would, in this
important branch of rural economy, afford, and by it encourage those

All account of the quantity of land, cultivated and waste, in the Biitibh Dominions,
including Scotland.and Ireland, and the British Isles, according to the evidence of Mr.
AVilliam Cowling, before the Emigration Committee, in 18'-7.

Cultivated acres.

Uncultivated acres.

Unprofitable acres.

Total.

England . . .

25,63-2,000

3,454,000

3,25G,J00

32,342.400

Wales . . .

3.117,300

530,000

1,105,000

4.752,000

ScutlanJ , , .

5,265,000

5,950,0U0

8,523,9;»

19,73S,930

Ireland . . ,

12,125,280

4,900,000

2,416.6G4

19,441,944

British Islands .

3S3,G90

lt'6.000

5G9,46'J

1,119,159

46,522,970 15,000,000 15,b71,4G3 77,394,43a

86 PLANTING.

who may possess waste or unproductive land to plant it, for a present
benefit to the unemployed labourer, and as an accumulating capital for
the young-er branches of his family and posterity, as well as for the general
good of his country.

The following statements will shew that the cost of preparing the dif-
ferent soils of the nature and properties described at pages 48, 49, and 50
of this Essay, and numbered 3, 4, 5, 6, for planting forest-trees in the
best manner, that is to say, by paring and burning the coarse surface,
trenching, draining, and manuring when expedient, and afterwards taking
a green fallow, or ameliorating esculent crop as a precursor to the forest-
tree plants, will be repaid by a judicious choice and culture of the kind of
crop best adapted to the soil, and the produce of which is in a greater
local request. It may be perhaps unnecessary to observe here, that the
nature of different varieties of soil, comprehending their texture, chemical
properties, the nature of the subsoil or mineral stratum on which they are
incumbent, and their local climate and site, have all a great and active
influence in determining the probable cost of the culture of the crops best
adapted to be raised or cultivated upon them.

The local demand for the produce of particular species of husbandry
crops have also a considerable influence on the comparative marketable
value of these crops: hence it is impracticable to make a perfectly clear
comparative estimate of value of different crops in the present case appli-
cable to every different soil, unless those different circumstances alluded to
under which each is placed were accurately known ; but which, under
ordinary circumstances, may be readily ascertained in the locality. The
potato, Swedish turnip, cabbage, carrots, mangel worzel, khol rabi, tares,
or vetches, &c., have each a superior local value, according to circum-
stances, besides that of their absolute or intrinsic value generally, as crops
in husbandry. We may take the first-mentioned crop, therefore, as an
example, its culture, comparative value as a fallow-crop, and the
marketable value of its produce being, perhaps, more generally under-
stood than that of the others. The soil is, taken of a second-rate quality,
worth a rent of from fifteen to twenty shillings per acre.

Paring and burning

Trenching

Draining or grubbing up

Potato sets or seed, 16 bushels

at Is. 6d.
Planting, ditto .
Hoeing and earthing up
Reaping

£. s.
1 16
4 0
0 15

d.
0
0
0

1 4

0

0 16

0 16

1 10

0
0
0
— ^10

17 0

Produce

6 tons of potatoes from a virgin soil,"!

1 I

prepared by paring, burning, and > . 13 4 0

trenching, at 44s . . J >

Balance remaining . . . .270

after preparing the soil in the best manner for planting, to go towards
paying the purchase of plants and planting, as in the case of lands
belonging to the crown, or, in other cases, towards the charges of rent,
interest of capital laid out in fencing, payment of tithes, taxes, and other
public imposts.

PLANTING. 87.

T)\e above mode of preparing the soil would afford seventy-three days
work an acre to labourers, at two shillings a day, chiefly in that portion of
the year when labour is least in demand, viz., from the middle of Sep-
tember until April. Were fifty acres set apart every year on an average
from each of the royal forests, and planted according to the plan now
recommended, there being twelve royal forests situated in the counties of
Southampton, Gloucester, Essex, Northampton, Berks, Chester, Oxford,
Durham, and Kent, labour or work alike profitable to the unemployed and
to the country would thus be given to six hundred men in the parislies and
neighbourhood in which such lands are situated. The profitable results,
as regards the attainment of the principal object in view, viz., timber of
the best quality tlie soils employed are capable of affording, and that in
the largest quantity on a given space of land, and in the shortest period
of time, have already been discussed and shewn to follow the mode of cul-
ture described.

There is stated to be but one-sixteenth part of the timber used at the
royal yards supplied by the extensive forests of the crown, the other fifteen-
sixteenths having to be purchased from private estates, and from abroad.
There is good reason to believe the planting and rearing of oak and of hard
wood in general have not kept pace in England with the consumption of
that article. The policy of depending on foreign countries for an article of
such paramount importance as that of timber for naval and civil architec-
ture, need not be discussed in these pages. But let us consider, however,
whether the forests abroad are always to remain unexhausted for our
demands, or the supply of our wants herein, while the neglect of planting
continues ; — we believe not ; and that other countries will, at no very
distant period, be in the condition that the North American states now
are, as regards the supply of timber from their natural forests. That
condition is described by an accurate observer, A. H. Hillhouse, a citizen
of the United States, and the translator of Michaux's ' North American
Sylva.' His words are, ' Though three-fourths of our soil (North
America) are still veiled from the eye of day by primeval forests, the best
materials for building are nearly exhausted. With all the projected im-
provements in our internal navigation, whence shall we procure supplies
of timber fifty years hence for the continuance of our marine? The most
urgent motives call imperiously upon government to provide a seasonable
remedy for the evil : from a government like ours, which is a faithful
expression of the public will, and which has no concern but the prosperity
and honour of the nation, and from which prospective wisdom is reason-
ably demanded.'

It is observed by Mr. Loudon, in his EncyclopEedia of Gardening,
that in planting, as in every other branch of culture, extraordinary profit is
attended by extraordinary production, which soon sinks the market value
of the article ; and also, that in a commercial, free, and highly taxed
country, whenever any article attains a very high price, substitutes are
found at home, or imported from abroad, so that no particular crop should
be considered the be.st to cultivate without exception, nor extraordinary
profits calculated prospectively on any crop vvhatever.

This opinion, however ju.st, as applied to annual or biennial crops, is
but slightly applicable to forest planting, and, indeed, not at all as regards
the planting of waste or inferior soils, because, as before stated, the value
of a crop of timber or of a forest plantation depends not alone on the rela-
tive or positive worth of the timber itself, as is the case with the kinds of
crops alluded to, but also greatly on the circumstances of improving the
climate and the soil of the adjoining lauds, fitting them for the growth of

88 PLANTING.

the more valuable husbandry crops, and the rearing and fattening of the
more valuable domestic animals, which, without the aids that judicious
forest-planting confers, would be withheld, and the land continue waste
and unprofitable to the owner and to the nation.

The high perfection to which some individual trees of the different
species have attained, is an object of much interest to the profitable
planter of forest-trees as well as to all ; for who does not derive pleasure
of the highest order from the contemplation of woodland scenery ? The
limits of these pages admit but of a few short notices on this point.

The oak which was felled in April, 1791, in the park of Sir John
Rushout, Bart., at Northwich, in Worcestershire, and judged to be about
three hundred years old, and perfectly sound and fine timber, measured

Feet.

In circumference, or girt, at five feet from the ground . 21

Smallest girt . . . . . . . 18

Length to the branches . . . .30

Solid contents of the body .... 634

Estimated timber in the arms .... 200

Cubic feet of timber . . 834

The celebrated Fairlop oak, in Hainault Forest, Essex, is stated to have
measured at three feet from the ground about thirty-six feet in circum-
ference, and the extremities of the branches gave a circle of three hundred
feet.

In Welbeck Park an oak is mentioned as one hundred and eleven feet
in height, seventy feet up to the branches, and the circumference at the
bottom twenty-one feet.

In Ilolt Forest, near Farnham, an oak in 1759 girted thirty-four feet
at seven feet I'rom the ground ; in 1778, or in nineteen years, it had in-
creased only half an inch.

At Oakley, in Bedfordshire, the seat of the Martpiis of Tavistock, there
is an oak now in perfect health, which contains about five hundred and
twenty-seven cubic feet of timber, and the branches overspread a s})ace
of five thousand eight hundred and fifty superficial l(2et of ground.

Mr. I\ookes, in his account of the oaks of Welbeck, mentions that an oak
cut down in Birchland, had the letters I. 11. more than a foot within the
tree, and about a foot from the centre. It was supposed to be two hun-
dred and ninety-two years old. It was perfectly sound, and measured
about twelve feet in circumference.

The oaks in Woburn Park have already been alluded to as being trees
of remarkably fine growth. There is one situated in the park, to the
east of the Abbey, which measures ninety feet in height, the main stem of
which is fifty feet, and head above the forks forty feet. This tree contains
four hundred and ninety-two cubic feet of timber. The circumference at
four feet from the ground is fifteen feet two inches.

There is another fine oak, in perfect health, which contains six hundred
and sixty-six cubic feet of timber, on the west of the Abbey. The circum-
ference near the ground is thirty feet, and the height to the boughs sixty-
six feet. Four of these oaks measures two thousaiul and sixty-eight cubic
feet of timber, after deducting one-eighth, the allowance for the bark. The
variety of oak in this park is chiefly of that called the foot-stalked oak,
Qiiercus robur peduiiculata.

The elm may be placed next to the oak for utility and ornament. The
■wych elm is the most hardy. There is one mentioned by Evelyn in Sir
Walter Bagot's Park, in Staffordshire, which measured forty yards in

PLANTING. 8D

leno'th, and at the stool seventeen feet in diameter. The weight was
estimated at ninety-seven tons.

The ehestnut (Castaiiea vesca) may dispute the order of precedence
witli tlie elm, but tliat it is less hardy, and recpiires a milder climate, and
more c^eiiial soil. On the banks of the Tamar, in Cornwall, there are
some of the finest specimens of this tree. A very remarkable tree of this
kind in England is at Tortworth, in Gloncestershire. A figure of it
is given in tlie Gentleman's Magazine for 17G6, ]>. 321. The age of this
tree is supposed to be upwards of one thousand years. In 1791 it mea-
sured forty-four feet four inches in circumference. The soil in which it
grows is described as being a soft loamy clay.

The finest tree on record of tlie beech appears to be that in Woburn
Park, situated on a rising ground south of the Abbey, in a fine grove of
that species of tree. The height of the tree at this period is one hundred
feet. It has a clear and nearly equally cylindrical stem of the height of
fifty feet, and the top, which is of the most graceful proportion in every
respect, occupies fifty feet in height. Tiie solid contents are four hun-
dred feet. Tlie soil in which this remarkable tree grows has already
been described at p. 48.

Of the larch (Pinus larix), the finest specimens have been produced in
the extensive woods of the Duke of Athol, at Diinkeld, in Perthshire.
One tree of fifty years of age measured eighty-six feet and a half in height,
and contained eighty-two feet of solid wood. There are instances of the
larch attaining to upwards of one lumdred feet in height, and of twelve
feet in circumference.

The s])ecimens of the silver fir (Pinus picea) at Blair Adam before
mentioned are remarkable for size and symmetry ; but the finest specimen,
perhaps, in Britain grows in Woburn Park. The height of this tree is
one hundred and ten feet, and the circumference at four feet from the
ground, ten feet six inches ; the solid contents or cubic feet of timber
contained in it being three hundred and seventy-five feet. The age of the
tree is about one hundred and ten years, and the average increase of
heig-ht has, therefore, been exactly one foot every year, and the periodical
produce of timber upwards of three, or nearly three and a half, cubic feet
per annum. This appears to be the largest periodical increase of timber,
continued for so many years, that is recorded.

Three black Italian poplars, planted by the present Duke of Bedford
in 1806, are now of twenty-three years growth, and measure as follows : —

Feet. Inches. Solid Contents.

No. 1. Height . . . 31 0 1 gy ^^^^

Circumference or girth .67]

The stem at fifteen feet \ girt, 19^ in.

Ditto at sixteen feet above -L, 13^ in.
No. 2. Lost its top in a blast in 1828.

Measures — Height . 23 0 \ i- *• .

One- fourth girt . . 16f 0 J *

No. 3. Height . . . 26 0 \ ^^ r .

One-fourth "irt . . 0 16 | ^^ '^*^^-

These trees were planted on a light soil, but well prepared by trenching.

The jjroducls ojf plantations have already been incidentally mentioned.
The terms used by practical men to denote these products are not the
same in all places, but frequently the same term is used in dilferent coun-
ties to mean dilferent products, and sometimes a term used in one place is
totally unknown in another. As in legal instruments, relative to the
transfer or holding of woodlands, the nusuuderstanding of these terms has

90! PLANTING.

not unfrequently been the cause of serious inconvenience, it may be of use,
therefore, to enumerate these names and synonyma.

Butt-end. — That portion of the stem of a tree which is situated nearest to
the root.

Bush, in gardening and planting, applies exclusively to every perennial
ligneous plant (mostly with several stems from its root), which in its
natural state seldom attains to a timber size, e.g. having a stem girting
six inches. We understand currant-bush, gooseberry-bush, rose-bush,
holly-bush, laurel-bush, &c., but never oak, elm, or ash-bush, &c. The
limits between a shrub or bush and a tree cannot be more precisely defined
than by the girt or diameter of the stem, under ordinary circumstances of
culture, never attaining to, or exceeding the above dimensions.

Bavins. — House-faggots, bound with two withers or weefs, chiefly used
by bakers for the oven.

Binders. — Long pliant shoots of hazel, ash, &c., which have pliancy
and length enough for binding down newly-plashed hedges, making close
fences round rabbit-warrens, sheep-folds, hurdles, and binding faggots.

Bole. — The stem, trunk, or body of a tree, after it has attained to upwards
of eight inches in diameter, or to that size which constitutes timber. Vide
Timber.

Cane, Smart-hoops. — Shoots of the hazel, six feet in length ; they are
cleft for hoops, and are used by sugar-refiners for their earthen pots ; also
for salmon kits, small tubs, and other purposes of the cooper.

Cio7i, scion. — Properly a shoot one or two years old, or a cutting of a
branch of that age for the purpose of grafting. Used sometimes to denote
the shoots of a coppice stool. (Worlidge.)

Coojjers' ware. — The lower ends of ash poles cut from six to eighteen
feet long, according to the length of the shoot. They are cleft for the use
of the cooper, waggon-tilts, &c.

Dead woods. — The same as kiln-faggots, which see.

Edders, Roders. — The same as binders, which see.

House-faggots. — Tlie long branches of the hop and fence poles. The
tops of hedge-stakes, coopers' ware, &c., bound with one wither or tcef.
Vide Bavins.

Kiln-faggots. — The lowest product of a plantation, being made of the
brushings of the wood previous to the commencement of cutting the copse,
and are made of brambles, dead-wood in the stubs, and refuse of plants
on the surface of the ground ; used for burning lime, bricks, &c.

Girt, girth, of the bole — Is sometimes understood as the circumference
of the stem, but more generally as the fourth part of the circumference or
side of the square of the stem. Gilpin (in ' Forest Scenery,' vol. i. p. 59
and p. 141) uses it in the former sense, when he says, 'at Wimly, near
Hitchin Priory, Herts, a chestnut-tree, in 1789, girted somewhat more
than fourteen yards.' He could not mean the tree to square forty-two
feet in the side. Grose also appears to use the term girt in the same sense,
when speaking of the limb of a chestnut-tree at Forlworth, in Gloucester-
shire : — ' One limb measured twenty-eight feet and a half in girt, five feet
above the crown.' — Philosophical Account, p. 17G. Of the same tree he
says the stem ' girted fifty-one feet at six feet from the ground.' And
Professor Martin quotes from an inscription placed under an etching of it,
stating that 'the tree measures nineteen yards in circumference,^ \y\\\c\\ suf-
ficiently proves 'the sense in which the word ' girt' is understood by the
above. The word girt is doubtless derived from girth, quasi, to gird or
encompass, notwitlistanding its general acceptation is to denote the
fourth part only of the circumference, or side of the stem when squared.

PLANTING. 91

Log. — The trunk or body of a timber-tree prepared for the sawyer.

Maiden-'plant. — A yount^ tree raised from seed, in opposition to one
produced from an old root or stub.

Moot, in Devonshire, is the same with stool in other counties. Vide
Stool.

Nascent stem. — The development of the stem of a seedling' plant, just
previous to the exhibition of the first leaves.

Poles. — Shoots from coppice-stools on the stems of young- trees of various
lengths, according- to the ])urpose for which they are wanted ; those for hops
should be from ten to eighteen feet long.

Red- hearted. — A discoloration of the central point or heart-wood of a
tree, most frequently arising from bad management in the early culture of
the tree, by neglecting to prevent or remove every cause of stunting the
growth in the earliest stages of culture. An ungenial soil produces this
defect likewise.

Sapling. — A young tree under six inches diameter at four feet from the
ground ; in some places it is used to denote a young tree raised imme-
diately from the seed, which is then termed a maiden-tree ; in others it is
considered a young tree, the produce of a coppice-stool, old root, or stub,
and, by a few, a long young tree, the produce of either.

Sears, or low faggots. — Made similar to bavins (which see), but longer,
and generally bound with three withs : used for sheltering- farm-yards,
hovels, and for various other purposes.

Fall cutting. — A term used to denote the period of cutting a copse,
which varies from twelve to eighteen and thirty years, according- to the soil
or produce of the copjjice, and the judgment of the proprietor.

Shaky — shakes. — The fissures, cracks, or longitudinal openings often
found in the timber of trees which have suffered from injudicious culture
and an ungenial soil, vide p. 73.

Shoot. — Indifferently used for the young, lateral branch of astern, or that
of a coppice-stool or stub.

Sprig of wood. — In some instances understood as the branches of a
tree. Vide act.

Stajidard. — The shoots of a coppice stool, selected from those cut down
as underwood to remain for large poles or timber-trees.

Slivery. — Small, straight shoots of large ash, &c., cleft into hoops for
the purposes of the cooper. Vide Cane and Coopers' ware.

Stem. — The body of a tree in all its stages of growth, from a seedling
to that of a full-grown tree. See Bole.

Stole. — The first stage of growth of a shoot emitted or sent out from
the sides of a root or stub or coppice-stool. See Tiller.

Stool. — The root of a tree which has been left in the ground, the pro-
duce of another tree, or shoot for saplings, underwood, &c.

Stub. — See Stool.

Sucker. — Properly the young plants sent up by creeping-rooted trees, as
in the poplar, elm, &c. These suckers are oftentimes very troublesome,
under the circumstance of their often appearing- in lawns, or grass fields
near a mansion. The term sucker is also applied in some places, to
denote the side shoots from a stool or stub. See Stool.

Tap-root. — The first root produced by the seed of a tree, which descends
at first perpendicularly into the earth, and supports the plant until the pro-
per leaves are produced, which, in their turn, assist in the production of
fibres or proper roots.

Tellow.—See Tiller.

92 PLANTING.

Tidar.—See Tiller.

Tilar.—See Tiller.

Tiller, or Tdlar, a shoot selected for its superior streiig-th and healthy
habit from those produced by a coppice-stool to stand for a timl)er-tree,
or for maiden bark, if an oak, to stand for the space of two or three falls.

Timber. — When the wood of a stem or branch of any species of plant
attains to the dimensions of 24 inches in circumference, or ui)vvards of
ei<'ht inches in diameter, it is termed timber. Those plants whose wood
never, or but seldom., attains to the size now meniioned, come vuider the
denomination of shrubs or bushes, poles, &c. Hence the popular dis-
tinction between tree and shrub or bush.

Here it may be proper to state the usual mode of determining the
quantity of timber in trees. The customary method of measuring timber
is by fjirtiitg the piece in the middle, i.e. from the butt-end or root to the
top, where it terminates, at 24 inches in circumference. The mean be-
tween these two points atfords the nearest average of the circumference or
diameter. The fourth of this circumference, squared and multiplied by
the len"th, gives the contents. Thus suppose a stem or bole measures
75 4 inches in circumference, or 24 inches in diameter, and 15 feet in
length : then 75^5-^4 = 18/^ x 18f^^=2ft. 5.5 X length 15ft.= 36ft. 9.3 in.
But by taking ^ of the circumference and twice the length, the result is
more accurate, thus — 75y^jj -f- 5 = 15 ; then 15 X 15 X 30ft. = 46ft. 10.6.
But it need hardly be remarked that neither the fourth nor the fifth of the
circumference can be used to determine accurately the cubic contents,
although in common practice the first is considered sufficiently so. The
nearest approach to the truth of the contents is to multiply the square of
the circumference of the stem by its length, and that multiplied by .07958
will give the number representing the solid contents, thus — 'J'S^'g- X
.079574 X 15ft. r= 47 1.5. Or square the diameter thus, — 24 X 24
X .7854 X 15 = 47 1.5. But whatever mode of measurement and
calculation be adopted, an allowance must be made for the thickness
of the bark. Different species of trees differ much in this respect, and the
ao-e of individuals of the same species diifer likewise, according to the age
of the tree. It is customary in the oak, elm, and trees having a rough
bark, to deduct at the late of one inch for every foot of quarter girt,
that is, if the circumference is four feet, the quarter girt is one foot or
12 inches, and the allowance for the bark will reduce it to 11 inches.
IjCSS than one foot quarter girt down to six inches, the allowance is made
at the same rate, and so for any increase above the example quoted.
In ash, and other trees having a thin bark, the allowance is half an inch
for every foot of quarter girt. In Scotland, according to Mr. Monteath,
the rule is to allow for bark two inches in circumference from 12 to 24
inches ; three inches in a circumference of from 24 to 36 ; fVom 36 to 48,
four inches ; from 48 to 72, five inches, and above 72 inches in circum-
ference, to deduct six inches.

Trunk. — The body or stem of a forest-tree. See Bole.
JFil/iers or weefs. — The pliant shoots of hazel, ash, willow, &c., for
binding the spray and prunings of trees into faggots, brooms, &.c. See
Binders.

( 03 )

Chapter VIII.

Enumeration of the different species of Fore.s-t Trees.

In tlie foUowiiio; list the trees are arraiii^'ed in the order in whicli tliey are
supposed to stand in natural alliance with each other ; but being* a selec-
tion from the whole vegetable kingdom as regards one properly, oidy that
of producing' timber in the climate of Great Britain, there will be found
therefore g^reat breaches in the natural connexion between many of the
individuals comprising- a list so formed ; and on this account, and the want
of space, as well as that the Linnean botanical descriptions are equally
eflicient in distinguishing" one family of plants from every other, and dif-
ferent species of plants from each other, the Linnean descriptions only are
civen.

MAGNOLIACE^.
Polyandria Poly. Linn.

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

CUCVMBER-TREE OV M.VGNOI.I.i. M.\C;n6lIA.

Generic Character — Calyx, three-leaved ;
petals, nine ; capsule, two-valved, imbri-
cated • seed, berry, pendulous.

Time of sowing seed — as soon as it can
be procured from abroad. Sow in
pots filled with a mixture of loam
and peat, and plunge them into an
old hot-bed of tanner's bark. They
may also be propagated by layers.

Uses — Veneering, the purposes of the
turner, and those of timber in general
for in-door works.

Species /or Ornament, Shelter, or Underwood.

MAGNOLI.A. CrCUMBER-TREE. N.ntive of Ft.

Umbrella-leaved . tripclala . . . N. Amer. . . ;iO

Bluish flowered. .ncK?«;»"/«. . 25

Heart-leaved ... .co7v/rt/r(. .. . —

Great flowered. . .[/randiJJora. —

Loni!;-'ieaved cu-) . , ,
° , . >auriculata .

cumber-tree. . j
Large-leaved. . . .macrophylla

60-70
20
30

Mag7i6Iia grandijii'ra. Big laurel and
lariremasnolia of America, andlaurier
tulipier of the French, is first seen in
North Carolina, near the river Nuse,
in the latitude of 35° 31'; and pro-
ceeding from this point, it is found in
the maritime parts of the southern
States and of the Floridas, and as far
up the Mississippi as Natcher, 300
miles above New Orleans, which em-
braces an extent of 20 00 miles. Accord-
ing to Michaux, the magnoUu gnmdi -
flora claims a place among the largest
trees of the United States, as it some-
times reaches ninety feet in height and
two or three in diameter, but its ordi-

nary stature is from sixty to seventy
feet. Its trunk is described as being
commonly straight, and its summit
nearly in the shape of a regular py-
ramid. The same author observes,
that they who have seen this tree in
its native soil, bioominii with its large
white fragrant flowers disposed amidst
the ricii foliage of the tree, agree in
considering it one of the most beauti-
ful productions of the vegetable king-
dom. In Carolina it blossoms in I\Iay,
and the seeds are ripe about the be-
ginning of Octol)er. The wood is
soft, and remarkable for its whiteness,
which it preserves even after being
seasoned ; it is said to be easily
wrought, and not subject to warp, but
that it is not durable when exposed to
the weather ; for this reason the boards
of the magnulia graiidiftura are used
only in jouiery in the interior of build-
ings. In its native climate it grows
only in cool shady places, where the
soil is composed of Inown mould, and
is loose, deep, and fertile. The seeds
preserve their vegetative powers seve-
ral months out of the ground. A
single tree sometimes yields four hun-
dred cones, each of which contains
from 40 to 50 seeds. The most north-
ern point which this tree passes the
winter in the open air, is about Nantes,
in lat. 4 7° 13', but it begins to bear
ripe fruit about Grenoble, in lat. 45°.
In a garden near Philadelphia, l\Ii-
chaeux saw a tree of this species, which
bore uninjured tiie rigorousclimate of
this part of Pennsylvania, which is
much more severe than that of Paris
or London. In J^ngland the niagndtia
gruiidijUra is more injured by being

94

LIST OF FOREST-TREES,

planted in an ungenial soil than from
the severity of the climate. The fact
is, the soil should be that above de-
scribed, but not an insulated portion,
as is mostly the case in practice, by
digging a hole and supplying it to the
plant merely to that extent, whereas
it shovdd be general over a large extent
of surface, so as to effect the atmo-
sphere by its peculiar exhalations, thus
acting on the leaves as well as on the
roots. The inagnoliagrandiJlorawA^
introduced into England about 1731.

Magnvlia giduca. — This tiee is found
common in Lower Jersey, but is also
found in latitude 45° 50', near Cape
Anne, in Massachussets, N.America.
In the Carolinas and in Georgia it
does not ordinarily exceed twenty or
thirty feet, although it sometimes at-
tains to forty feet in height. At New
York it yields fruit at the height of
five or six feet. The wood is not con-
sidered to be of any value in building.
The flowers are flagrant, and the bark
of the roots has an aromatic odour
and a bitter taste. The country people
in Lower Jersey drink an infusion of
this bark in brandy as a remedy in
rheumatic affections, and an infusion
of the cones in whiskey is regarded
by them also as a preventive against
autumnal fevers. (Michaux, 1 1 .) This
tree appears to have been introduced
into England in 1GS8.

MagnuHa acumvitita is common in all
parts of the United States of America,
where it is generally known under the
name of the cucumber-tree. Its sta-
ture is similar to the magnolia grandi-
flora, rising to sixty or seventy feet,
and sometimes even as high as ninety
feet. It is found as far north as the
43rd degree of north latitude, near the
celebrated cataract of the Niagara
river. The inhabitants of the coun-
tries bordering on the Alleghanies ga-
ther the cones about midsummer,
when they arc half ripe, and steep
them in whiskev : a glass or two of
this liquor, which is extremely bitter,
is a preservative against autumnal fe-
vers: on this Michaux remarks, that
though he does not deny the efficacy,
the remedy has not been made suffi-
ciently evident to induce any physician
to attempt its verification. In its na-
tive soil, Michaux describes the trunk
as perfectly straight, of an uniform
size, and often destitute of branches

for two-thirds of its length, the sum-
mit ample, and regularly shaped ; the
flowers are five to six inches diameter,
of a bluish white, having a feeble
odour, but as they are so large and
are numerous, they have a fine effect
in the midst of the super-foliage. The
wood is soft, and like that of the poplar,
is fine grained, and susceptible of a
brilliant polish, but it is neither strong
nor durable when exposed to the wea-
ther. In England this tree is perfectly
hardy, and attains to a considerable
size. Introduced into England in
1736.

Magnolia corddta, heart-leaved cucum-
ber-tree, in its native soil of the banks
of the river Savannah in Upper
Georgia, and those of the streams
which traverse the back parts of South
Carolina, attains to forty and fifty feet
in height, and from twelve to fifteen
inches in diameter. The leaves are
from five to six inches in length, and
from three to five in width ; the flowers,
which appear in April, are yellow, and
are nearly four inches in diameter.
The wood is of no determinate use,
but the tree is very hardy and orna-
mental in parks. Introduced into
England in 1801,

Magnolia tripvtala, umbrella-tree, is
found in soils deep and fertile in the
northern parts of New York, and is
common on some of the islands of the
river Susquehanna. Near the great
swamps of South Carolina and Georgia
it is almost invariably accompanied
by the magnolia grandiflora and swamp
chestnut oak. It is of humblergrowth
than the magnolia grandiflora, seldom
attaining to thirty or thirty-five feet
in height, with a diameter of five or
six inches. The leaves are eighteen
or twenty inches long, and seven or
eight broad ; the flowers are white,
and seven or eight inches in diameter.
The fruit is four or five inches long
and two inches in diameter. The
wood is light and porous, and unfit for
use. The tree is highly ornamental
and very hardy. Introduced into Eng-
land in 1 752.

Magnolia auriculata, long-leaved cu-
cumber-tree, is equally remarkable
with the magnolia tripetala, for the
beauty of its loliage and the size of its
flowers, which are also of an agreeable
odour, and is found, Michaux observes,
only in a small tract far retired in the

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

95

country, at the distance of 300 miles
from the sea, on a part of the Alle-
phany mountains. In its native soil
it attains to forty or forty-five feet, and
a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches.
The leaves are of a liuht green colour,
of a fine texture, eii^ht or nine inches
Jouij, and from four to six inches
broad ; the base of the leaf is divided
info roiuided lobes, whence the name
ear-leaved. The flowers are white,
and from three to four inches diameter.
The wood is lioht and spongy, and
luifit for tlie purposes of the carpenter.
The bark is stated to have an agree-
able aromatic odour, and an infusion
of it in ardent spirits is employed as
an excellent sudorific in rheumatic
affections. It is a hardy tree, and very
ornamental for parks. Introduced
into England in 1786.
Magnolia macrophy'lla, vel Michaiixii,
large-leaved cucumber-tree, is more
remarkable for the superior size of its
leaves and flowers than any other
species of tliis genus. It resembles
most the magnolia tripetala in its ge-
neral habit of growth, and it is gene-
rally found g)owing in company with
it. The leaves are sometimes thirty-
five inches long, and nine or ten inches
broad. The flowers are white, fra-
grant, and larger than those of any
other species of magnolia, being some-
times eight or nine inches in diameter ;
the buds are compressed, instead of
being rounded at the end, as in the
magnolia tripetala, and they are co-
vered with a soft and silvery down:
this circumstance affords a ready dis-
tinction between these species at that
season when the flowers and leaves are
absent. The wood is of an inferior
quality. The tree is highly ornamental.
In its native soil, accordnig to Mi-
chaux, it grows to the height of
thirty-five feet. Introduced into Eng-
land in 1800.

The other species of magnolia or cu-
cumber-tree in the gardens of England,
come at present, or as far as experience
of their habits in this climate indicates,
exclusively under the head of ornamental
plants or shrubs, and consequently they
are omitted in this enumeration.

Time of sowing .ye^t/— spring. Soil,
lisrht earth, to be shaded from the
heat of the mid-day sun.

Uses — The wood is esteemed for its
lightness and durability, and in the
western states of North America it is
used as a substitute, in building, for
the wood of the pine. The inner bark
of the branches and root is used as a
substitute for the Peruvian in remit-
tent ,and intermittent fevers. It de-
lights in a light rich loamy soil. It
has been known to measure 22 feet in
circumference, and to rise to 120 feet
in height. Introduced into England
in 1688.

Species forOr-namail, Shelter, or Underwood.

Common tulipifera . .N. Amer. . .60

Var. Entire Ivd. ./rt/e^rjyb/i'a —

TILIACE^.

Polyamlria Polygynia.

Linn,

Tulip-tree.

LiRIODENDRON.

Calyx, three-leaved ; petals, six ; seeds, into
a strobule, or cone.

Trees of the habits atid general appearance
of the common Lime or Linden-tree.

LniE-TREE, TlI,IA.

Calyx, five-parted ; corolla, five-petaled ; cap-
sule, coriaceous, pflobular, five-celled, and
five-valved, openinj:^ at the base ; seed,
one or two iu each cell, roundish, covered
with a coriaceous globular-sliaped capsule,
which has five valves, five cells, and open-
ing at the base.

Time of sowing seed — Autumn, in a
shady border of moist, light soil ; but
the usual mode of propagation is bv
layers. Soil — in almost any kind of
soil, if moderately damp.

Uses — The wood is light, delicately white,
and of an uniform texture, useful for
some domestic purposes, and for those
of the carver. Gibbon's inimitable
carvings of flowers, dead game, &c.,
were of this wood, Br. Fl., vol. iii. p.
18. The bark of this, and probably
of other species of lime, makes the
Russian mats called bust. As an
ornamental tree, the lime is esteemed
for the fragrance of its flowers, of
which bees are very fond.

Mr. Boutcher says, at eleven years old
the plants will be twenty feet high ;
and at sixteen years old, from thirty
to thirty-five feet hi>;h. Tiie com-
mon yellow twiirged lime, called also
linden tree, and smooth -leaved lime,
was formerly more than now a great
favourite with planters. Whether it
be properly a native of Britain, seems

9G

LIST OF rOREST-TREES.

to be unccrlain, but that it has been
long- naturalized in this country is cer-
tain. A lime tree is described by Dr.
Turner as e;ro\ving near Colchester,
Avhich must have been cultivated in
Euirland before 1562. Du Hamel
states that the French, in the reign of
Louis XIV., growingtired of the horse
chestnut, adopted this tree ; and Sir
James Smith, in his English Flora,
observes that it generally composes
the avenues about the residences of
the French as well as English gentry
of that date, and that Fenelon, in
conformity to this taste, decorates
with ' flow-ery lime trees' his enchanted
isle of Calypso. The fragrance of the
flowers are well known ; they consti-
tute an useful ingredient in pot-pourri.
Bees are attracted, in great numbers,
to collect honey from the flowers, in
the season of flowering. The wood is
smooth, delicately white, and uniform
in its texture (vide p. 11, fig. p.) ; it is
oljserved to be little subject to the
attacks of insects. The beautiful
carvings of Gibbon, before mentioned,
which are dispersed about the king-
dom, as in the choir of St. Paul's,
Trinity College Library, at Cambridge,
the Duke of Devonshire's, Chats-
worth, &c. are stated to be of this
wood*. It is also used by the turner
in manufacturing light bowls, and
boxes tor the apothecary. The bark
contains much mucilage ; by macera-
tion it separates into thin tough layers,
which are manufactured into garden-
mats, sometimes termed bast mats.
These are well known to form a con-
siderable part of the exports from
Kussia.
The broad-leaved lime, titia grandifnlia,
attains to as large a size as the com-
mon linden ; the young wood of the
shoots is often red. The leaves have
rather longer foot-stalks, the ribs and
vei7is minutely hairy, or curiously
fringed above the origin of each ; all
the under side of the leaves is finely
downv, but not glaucous, as in the
tilia parvifoHa and American limes
This species, or, perhaps, variety, has
been found in woods and hed<:es at
Whitstable, Surrey; on the banks of
the Mole, near Boxhill, by l\Ir. E. Fors-
ter ; near Streatham Wells, Surrey,
by Mr. Dubois; and in Stoken-church

♦ Evelyn's Sylva,

woods by Mr. Bicheno, but appa-
rently planted*. This is stated to be
the wild lime of Switzerland and the
south of Europe, as the common spe-
cies, luropcsa, is of the north. The
coral lime is so nearly allied to this
species, as to be considered by some
botanists a variety cnl}'.
The small-leaved lime, tilia parvifulia,
flowers about a month later than the
last-mentioned tree. It is supposed
to be the only true native species of
lime. It is to be found frequent in
Essex, Sussex, and Lincolnshu-e, and
elsewhere, according to Ray. The
leaves are much smaller than those of
the above, being about two inches
broad, dark green, and quite smooth
above, glaucous underneath, with
brown hairy tufts at the origin of each
of their principal veins, as well as
broad hairy blotches frequently found
scattered over their surface. The
comparative value of the timber of
these last-mentioned species has not
yet been determined. Among the
American species of this tree the
smooth or bass-wood, tilia America7ia,
is distinguished. Michaux informs
us that he found it most abundant in
Gennesse, which borders on Lake Erie
and Ontario. In some districts be-
tween Batavia and New Amsterdam,
it constitutes two-thirds, and some-
times the v.hole of the forests. It
attains to the largest size in a loose
deep fertile soil. It is found 80 feet in
height, and 4 feet in diameter. The
wood is white and tender, and is, in
some places, substituted for that of
the tulip-tree for the panels of car-
riage bodies, and the seats of Windsor
chairs.

The white lime, tilia alba, is chiefly
found on the Ijanks of the Ohio, Sus-
quehanna, and those of the streams
which empty into them. The same
authority observes, that it rarely ex-
ceeds 40 feet in height, and \1 or 18
inches in diameter.

The downy lime, tilia fubescens, is a
native of the Floridas, and Southern
parts of the United States. It re-
sembles the American lime tree more
than the preceding. The leaves are
very downy on their under side, ob-
liquely truncated at the base, and
edged with fewer teeth than the other

* Engl, Fl., vol. iii. p. It).

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

97

species. The flowers are also more
numerous, and produced in hu-<:er
bunches. The wood has not been
jn-oved as to its properties. All these
trees are ornamental, and afford a coo!
shade in summer.

Timber or Forest Species.

LnrE-TREE. TII.IA. Native of Ft.

Red-twigged Liine-

tree riibrii Britiiin ... .50

Yellow eiiropaa. . . Britain .... .'JO

Var. Jagged-lvd../<JCi/»a/a. . .Britain. . . .30

White a/ba ..... .Europe ... .30

Downy-leaved . . .piibc'sc.'n^ . . Carolina. . .20

Smooth grandifoliu Britain —

\ ar. coral-twigged C()rfl///«a . . Britain • —

Broad-leaved . . . .glabra . . . . N. Amer. . .30
Silvery-leaved . . .argentea . . Hungary —

Species for Ornament , ifc.

Long-petaled, . . .pf/iy/ii>'js —

ACERINE^.— A'a;. Sijs.
Polygamia Monoecia. Linn.

Eng. Name.

JIapi.e-tree.

Bot. Name.

Acer.

Sycamore ;>seii(/o-p/a/a«;« Britain. 50

On ScotLiiid, riane-tree.)

Su":ar* saccharmum^. Amer. 40 — 70

Species for Ornament, Shelter, or Underwood

Striped-leaved, oripscudo-pldtanus^r,,-. ■

variegated . . . ( varicgdtum, J

Blunt-leaved . . . .obtusttin . . .

Sir C. Wager's. . .dasycdrpum N. Amer.

Bastard hyhridum . . .Hybrid

,, . , , (platunoides \-rf

Cut-leaved i', ■ ., >Jiiurope

\l(icintutum ) '

Mountain rnontdnum. .N. Amer. . . 8

Ash-leaved . . . . i r^""''",.,. \— 30-40

Scarlet-leaved . . .ritbrum ....

Tartarian latdricum . .Tartary

Calyx, five-cleft ; corolla, five-petaled ; germs.
two or three superior ; style, simple ; sced^
single, roundish shaped, its capsule termi-
nated by a wing-like membrane.

Time of solving — as soon as possible
after the seeds are ripe : some are of
opinion that the seed should be pre-
served in dry sand until February or
the beginning of March. Soil — This
genus will thrive in coarse land, but
the European species attains the
greatest size in a deep, moist soil,
free of stagnant moisture ; those
which are natives of America re-
quire a drier soil than the above.

Uses — The wood of the common maple
or sycamore is considered superior to
tliat of the beech for the uses of the
turner, in making domestic utensils,
and also for the uses of the joiner
for inlaying. It is sometimes also
used by musical instrument-makers ;
but it is chiefly valued for its })ro-
perty of quick growth as coppice or
underwood.

Timber or Forest Species.
Polygamia Moncpcia, Linn,

MAPLE-TREE. ACER. Native of Ft.

Common camp£stre . .Britain . . .3:3

Italian upalus Italy 50

Horway pUUanoides .Europe . . .50

* In America this tree is called rock maple, hard
maple as well as sugar maple. It is no where more
abundant than between the 4(;th and 43d degrees
of latitude, which comprise Canada. According
to Dr. Rush, there are ten milUons uf acns in the
northern parts of the states of New Yorkand Penn-
sylvania, which contain these trees in the propor-
tion of tliirty to an acre. The wood is rejected in
civil and naval architecture, but the wood of old
trees is esJteemed for inlaying mahogany, and is
termed bird's-eye mnple. To obtain the finest etfect
caused by the i n flection of the medullary rays, which
I produce spots resembling the eye of birds, the log
should be sawn in a direction as nearly as possible
parallel to the concentric circles. The ashes are
rich in alkaline principle ; and it is asserted that
t'ourfifths of tha potash exported to Europe from
Hoston and New York, are furnished by the sugar
maple. The sugar maple begins to be found wild
in Canada, near the 4»th degree of latitude, a little
north of Lake St. John, and, as above stated, is most
abundant between the 4fith and 43rd degree. It is
very rare in the lower parts of Virginia, the Caro-
linas, and Georgia. It flourishes best where the
soil, though rich, is cold and humid, and situated
on elevated declivities. But the great value of the
sugar maple in America consists in the superior
quantity of sugar afforded by the sap of the tree.
In February or March, while the ground is covered
with snow, and the cold is still intense, the tree is
bored to the depth of half an inch within the wood,
with an auger three-quarters of an inch in diame-
ter, and in an obliquely ascending direction, on the
south side of the tree, and at about eighteen or
twenty inches from the ground. There are two
holes made in this manner, four or live inches
apart. Tubes of eight or ten inches long, and three,
quarters of an inch in diameter, made of elder or
sumac, having a portion of their length laid open,
are inserted into them to conduct the sap into
troughs, which are made to contain two or three
gallons. The sap continues to flow or yield sugar,
Michaux observes, for six weeks, after which it de-
clines in quantity and quality. Four gallons of
sap are considered to give one pound of sugar, and
from two to four pounds is mentioned as the pro-
duce of a tree. Sheds are erected near the trees,
where the persons who conduct the process of
l)oilingthe sap and extracting the sugar, are shel-
tered. 'J'hree persons are allowed to be sufficient
to tend S.^O trees, which give lf»00 lbs. of sugar. It
is stated that eighty millions of pounds of sugar are
consumed in the United States, of which fifty mil-
lions are imported, ten millions furnished by the
sugar cane of Louisiana, and ten mil'linns from the
maple. Of the other maples above enumerated,
their comparative value, as timber trees, has not
been sufficiently proved to allow of separate notices
in the limits of these puges,

H

98

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

Moiitpelier monspessulamim France

Oblong-leaved . . . ohlomjitm . . . Nepaul
Striped-barked . . .striatum . . .N. Amer.
Opalus-leaved . . . .opa/i/oUum.S. Emope

Hunj^arian obtitsdtum . .Hungary

Cretan crtticum . . . Levant

Evergreen heterophyllum

Bearded barbdtum . . N. Amer.

Black Sugar nigrum ....

Palmate pa/mntum . . China

Large-leaved. . . .macropfii//liiin. Columbia

Iberian il^i-icum Iberia

Round-leaved . . . circinnatum . . Columbia

HIPPOCASTANE^. Nat. S>/s.

Eng. Name. Bot. Name,

Horse-Chestnut. j^SCULUS.

Heptandria Monogynia. Linn.

Calyx, one-leaved, five-toothed, ventricose ;
corolla, five-petaled, irregularly-coloured,
inserted into the culijx ; capsule, three-
celled ; seeds, two, sub-globular, enclosed
in a roundish-shaped capsule, containing
three cells, and opening with three valves
to emit the seeds.

The seeds should be preserved in dr)'
sand till spring, and sown early in that
season ; but should the soil be dry,
and free from the attacks of vermin,
it is advantageous to sow as soon as
the seeds are ripe. Soil — The horse-
chestnut grows to the largest size in a
sandy loam, but will grow in almost
any kind of soil.

Uses — for fuel ; but chiefly planted for
the beauty of its flowers and its habit
of growth. The common horse-chest-
nut, though a native of the northern
parts of Asia, is never injured by cold
in Britain, into which it was intro-
duced about 1689, or, according to
some, in 1683. It is sufficiently known
for the beauty of its form when in full
foliage and in flower, particularly
when planted singly or in rounded
groups, in lawns, and parks. For
avenues it is less desirable, or where
it overshadows roads, as the leaves
fall early in the autumn. The spe-
cies enumerated below, natives of
North America, are all more or less
ornamental, and deserving of a sta-
tion in the margins of forest planta-
tions. The comparative value of their
timber has not yet been proved.

Timber or Forest Species,

HORSE-CHESTNUT. A;SCULUS.

Common, ...... .kippocastdnumAsia, , , .40

Species for Ornament, ^c.

nORSE-CHESNUT. .ffiSCULUS. Native of Ft.

Golden-striped. . .hippocastanum, fol.aur.

Silver-striped . . , , fol. arg.

Double-flowered. .Jlore plino . .

Flesh-coloured. . .caniea

Ohio ohioensis . . .Nor.Amer.

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

Bl'CKS-EvK-TrF.E. PAVl.i.

Pale-flowered pallida .... N. Amer.

Smooth-leaved . . .gldbra

Long-spiked macrostachya -^—

Variegated-flowered hybrida . . .

Dwarf discolor ....

Neglected negUcia ....

Red flowered .... rubra 1 0 — 8

Yellow-flowered, .fidva 40

RHAMNEACEiE. Nat. Sys.

Ciirist's-thorn. Zizyphus.

Peniandria Monogynia. Linn.

Calyx., tubular ; the scales of the corolla are
inserted in the calyx, and support the sta-
mina. Seed, a two-celled uut, ^covered by
a berry.

Time of sowing seeds — Autumn, in pots.
So//— Sandy loam. Uses — Chiefly
planted for the singularity of its spines
or thorns.

Species for Ornament, SfC.

Common paliuriis . , S.Europe, In-
troduced in 1640.

Holly.

Ilex.

Tetandria Tetragynia. Linn.

Calyx, four-toothed ; corolla, wheel-shaped ;
style, wanting ; seeds, four, solitarj-, horny,
oblong, rounded on one side, cornered on
the other, enclosed in a roundish four-
celled berry.

Time of soumtg — The berries should be
placed under ground m a pot or large
tub for one year, and then sown in the
autumn upon a bed of sandy loam.
Soil — The holly flourishes best in a
dry, sandy soil, but will grow on land
of almost any description. Uses — for
the purposes of the turner, the inlayer,
mill-wright, and engineer. The tree
is in great esteem for the ornament of
its evergreen foliage. Bird-lime is
manufactured from its bark. The
common holly, besides being a native
of England, is also found wild in
many parts of Europe, Japan, Co-
chmchiua, North America, &c. As
an evergreen fence it is superior to
every other plant. It bears clipping

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

99

well, and is nevev injured by flie
severest frost. When reared to the
heiffht of two feet, by transplant insr
from the seed bed to a rich sandv
soil, (he plants may be removed, and
planted as a hed2;e with perfect safety
on well trenched and manured ground ;
this removes the only objection to the
holly for fences, which is its slow
growth. "We have moved plants four
feet in height successfully, and thus
made a comparatively impenetrable
live-fence the first season.
The Carolina, or American Holly, at-
tains to a gi-eat height in its native
soil. Its wood is held in great esti-
mation, but in this respect it is not
considered superior to that of our
native species.

Species for Ornament , 8fc.

HOLLY. ILEX.

Common aqiiiJ'6liitm..'Br\i. , 20 — 30

Var.\'arious-lvfl-. ./teterophylla —
,. Thick-leaved . crflTssjyo/j'a . . —

,, Hedgehog . . .ferox —

3, Striped do.. . .echinata ... —

„ Yelio\v-berried../fnia —

„ White-mar- i d/ba marffi-\

gined \ nata ... J

';, Gold-edged . .dureamargindia

., Painted media picta. —

,, Spineless . . . .sentscens. . . —
., Milk-maid . . Jactdria. ... —
j_, Carolina opdca. .N. Amer, 30

JUGLANDE^. Nat. Si/s.
Monoccia PolyanJria. Linn.

Eng. Name.

"Wai.nlt-tree.

Bot. Name.
JUGLANS.

Male Flower — ament or catkin, imbricated
— ca/yr, scaly ; corolla, six-parted ; Jila-
nients, manj-, seven or more. Female
Flower — ca/yj-, of four divisions, superior;
corolla, with four divisions ; styles, two ;
seed, a nut with four divisions, marked by
inti'r\'ening membranes, substance of the
seed grooved — it is covered by a corticated,
dr}', oval-shaped, two-valved drupe.

Time of sowing — Preserve the nuts until
February in their outer coverin<r, after
which they may be sown. Soil — A
rich loamy soil is that in which the
walnut attains the largest size, but it
will succeed in very light, siliceous,
sandy soils, as well as in clayey ones.
Uses — The wood of the walnut is
highly valued for many puqioses, such
as gun-stocks, domestic utensils, fur-
niture, wainscoting, &c. Among the
American Walnuts, the black, Juglans

nigra, is considered to have wood of
a more valuable quality than the
common walnut, but this latter has
a decided superiority in the excellence
of its fruit and properties of its oil.
The black walnut is considered to be
one of the largest trees of America.
On the banks of the Ohio, and on
the islands of that river, Michaux
states that he has found them from
sixty to seventy feet in height and four
feet in diameter, and that it is not
rare to find them six or seven feet. Of
the Hiccories, the Pignut, or Carya
porcina, is perhaps the most valuable,
not for its fruit, but for its wood,
being comparatively the best. The
comparative value of these trees has
not yet been proved in England —
hitherto they have been looked upon
as merely ornamental park trees, or
subjects for botanical investigation.
Some of them, however, rank among
the largest trees in North America,
where, according to Michaux, the
general opinion there formed of the
wood of the different species cut out
from the natural forests is, that it is
ofgreat weight, strength, and tenacity,
but liable to a speedy decay when ex-
posed to damp, heat, and to worms

Forest or Timber Species.
Filaments of the female flower many.

WALNl'T-TREE. JUGLANS. Native of Ft.

Common rtc/ia Persia. . . .50

\'a.r. Dhle.-iruited. rer/Midxima. — —

„ Late-fruited, .reg.serotina. — 30

Black nigra N.Amer.. . —

Shell-bark cinerea ....

Ash-leaved fraxinifolia

Winged- fruited . .pterocdrpa .Caucasus
Hiccorj'-nut cdrya

Filaments of the female flower 4 to G

W hite hickery, or 1 ,,,

Shagback.. .. j' " *'

Olive-friiitedor. . 1 ,-• ^,
„ . }o(tvccturmis.

Pecan nut . j

Flat-fruited compi-essa . .

Smooth-leaved . . .gldbra.

Narrow-leaved . . .angustifulia .

Bitter nut anidra. 70to80

Pig nut porcina ....

CONNARACEyE. aw. Sys.
Polygamia Monwcia. Linn.

Eng. .Name. BoU Name.

Tree ok Heaven, Ailantuus,

Male Flower — calyx, one-leafed, five-

• Michaux gives the character of the fruit as

the finest tiavoured of all the American walnpts,

and to be more delicate than the European s-pecies.

lie advises it to be grafted ou the common walnut,

il -•

60*

m

List of I'OkES'f.TREfiS.

parted, very small ; corolla, five petals,
acute, convolute at the base ; stamina, fila-
ments tea, compressed, the lengtli of the
corolla.

Female Flower — calyx, as in the male ;
corolla, as in the male ; pistil, germs 3 — 5 ;
styles lateral ; capsules, compressed ; seeds,
solitary; lens-shaped. ^Bisexual flowers
as iu the above.

Naliveof Ft.

Tall Ailanthus, or) , , ,, ^, • r,^

r,, c TT iqlandulosus Clima oU

ireeot Heaven J^

Though a native of China, this tree bears
our winters without injury. It grows
fast, and attains to a great height ;
there are many trees of this kind in
England from thirty to forty feet and
more in height. It is a handsome
tree, and the wood is said to be hard,
heavy, and glossy, like satin, and
susceptible of the finest polish. It is
well worthy the attention of those who
have it in their power to benefit them-
selves and the nation, by determining
the comparative value of the different
species of forest-trees. Some remark-
able fine specimens of this and of com-
paratively rare American forest-trees,
are in the grounds of the Duke of
Northumberland at Syon.

Time of sowing the seeds — As soon as
they are received from abroad in
boxes of light earth, or sand and peat,
protected under glasses.

LEGUMINOS^. Nat. Sys.
Gleditschia, ot Sweet Locust.

Bisexual Flower — calyx, four-cleft ; co-
rolla, four-petaled ; stamina, six; pistil,
one. Male Flovvlr — ca/yxjthree-petaled;
stamina, six. Female Floweh — calyx,
five-leaved ; to/-o//rt, five-petaled ; }jisiil,onii

Seeds, solitary, roundish, hard, shinin}^, en-
closed in a legume or pod, which is broad,
much flatted, and divided by several trans-
verse partitions.

Time of sowi?ig the seed — Seeds pro-
cured from America, sow half an inch
deep; they frequently remain two
years in the ground before they vege-
tate. Soil — A sandy loam. Uses—
This plant is valued for the beauty of
its habit of growth. If planted in ex-
posed situations, the branches are apt
to be broken by the winds.

Polygamia Diacia, Linn.

sweet locust, gleditschia. Native of Ft.

Thr.-thoruedacacia/H(uu«//»/* ..N.A.40 to CO

Var. Spineless . . .intrmts, . . . 30 to 40

Sintrle-seeded, orl

" , • > monospcrma

water acacia J '^

Strong-spined acacia horrida. , . Cliina
(^Subordo, PapilioTiacece.') Nat. Sys,

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

SOPHORA. SoPHOKA.

Decandria Monogamia. Linn.

Calyx, four-toothed; corolla, pea-flowered;
seed, pod, long, slender, one-celled, nume-
rous, I'urming prominent knobs on the sur-
face of the pod.

Time of sowing seed — as soon as it can
be procured ; sow in pots filled with
light earth. Plant in a sandy loam,
and in a sheltered situation. Use —
Valued for its handsome foliage and
habit of growth.

SOPHORA. SOPHORA.

Japanese sophora .japonica . . . Japan .... 40

The wood of this tree, when fresh cut,
emits an odour offensive to insects.
In England we have seen it attain to
upwards of 20 feet in height, with a
proportionate diameter. Its pinnated
leaves, which are smooth and of a
beautiful green, give to the tree a
graceful appearance. It is a native of
Japan, and was introduced into Eng-
land in 1 753.

Furze, Whin, GosE. Ulex.

Munadelphia Decandria. — Linn.
Calyx, of two ovate-oblong concave leaves,
rather shorter than tlie keel ; the upper
with two small teeth, the lower with three ;
corolla, of five petals ; standard, ovate-
cloven ; wings, oblong, rather shorter
than the standard ; keel, of two petals,
straight, obtuse, cohering by their lower
edges ; filaments, in two sets, both united
at the base ; anthers, roundish, of two
lobes ; germen, oblong, nearly cylindrical,
hairy ; legi/me, or seed-pod, oblong, turgid,
scarcely longer than the calyx of one cell,
and two rigid elastic concave valves; seeds,
from six to eight, polished, somewhat an-
gular, slightly compressed, with a cloven
tumid crest.

Species for Underwood, Fencing, S,-c.

furze. ulex. Native of Ft.

European, or Com-
mon europof'us . . Britain.

Dwarf nanus

Provence provincidlis, S. Europe.

Time of sowing the seed — as soon as
ripe m the autumn, or in March. Soil.
— Dry, sandy, and gravelly soils suit
best the growth of furze. It does not

LIST OF FOREST TREES.

101

however p;row well on very thin heath
soil, nor on damp clays. In Cornwall
the common sort (idex europenus) at-
tains to 8 feet in height. In Devon-
shire, accordinj; to Vancouver, this
species is termed French furze, al-
though we suspect the ulex prnvin-
cialis is the species which ought to
come under this name. In some places
the u/px nana is called French furze.
The botanical distinctions are as fol-
low : —

The Common Furze, Ulex Europerus,
Branches, erect, somewhat villous ; calijx,
pubescent, teeth obsolete converging, brac-
teas densely downy, oval, loose.

French Furze, Ulex Provincidlis.
Branches, erect, somewhat smooth ; cn/yx, a
little pubescent, nearly as long as the co-
rollii, teeth lanceolate, distant, bracteas
minute, compressed.

Dwarf Whin, or Furze, Uiex nana.
Branches, decumbent, hairy ; teeth of the
calyx, lanceolate, distant, and spreading ;
bracteas, xaimxie, rounded, and close pressed.

From the above it is evident that the
common furze and the French species
are nearly allied ; the dwarf furze has
the leaves or spines shorter and closer,
and the branches decumbent. These
points of structure distinguish this spe-
cies lYom the others at the first sight.
Its value is estimated, in comparison
to that of the common, as two to one
inferior.
The common furze generally attains to
its full size in four years, and it ought
not to be cut more frequently. In
V , local cases, as in the neighbourhood
V of potteries, Vancouver observes it
' " makes a return of from 15*. to 20*. an
acre annually. The wood is very hard,
but never attains to a size available
for the business of the carpenter. It
is chiefly used for fuel, fences, and
food for cows, horses, and sheep. On
soils suchasnow alluded to, it makes a
good fence, but requires peculiar ma-
nagement to prevent it becomingnaked
at the root. Sowing in three tiers on a
bank is perhaps the best mode, as it
allows of one to be kept low by the
shears or bill, the second of higher
growth, and the last to attain its natu-
ral stature. Respecting its merits as an
article of fodder, a good deal has been
written; as, for instance, by Duhamel in
France, Evelyn in England, and Doc-
tor Anderson in Scotland ; and at this

time, and for that purpose, ai? we are
informed, it is cultivated successfully
by Mr. Attwood of Birmingham. It
requires to be chopped or bruised, as
a preparative to its mastication. It
would be valuable information to know
the comparative value of the Whin to
that of Lucern, Turnip, Red Clover,
cultivated separately, or a combination
of Ddctylis glomerata, Lolium pe-
rhine, Festuca duriuscula, Pua pra-
ti'nsis, Cynosurus cristiitus, Lotus
corniculdtus, Phh'um pratense, Trifd-
liuni repens, Trifulium minus, Medi-
cugn lupulina, and a small portion of
Achillea millefolium. The produce of
plants constituting the richest pasture
plants, when combined on a furze soil,
are proper to compare with the pro-
duce of furze, to ascertain the most
profitable crop with which to occupy
the soil in question, and this point has
not yet been determined.

Eng. Name.

Laburnum.

Bot. Name,

Cytisus.

Calyx, labiate ; legume, or seed-pod, tapering
at the base ; seed, kidney-shaped, com-
pressed.

Time of sowing seed — March. Soil —
This tree attains the greatest perfec-
tion on a sandy loam, but it may be
planted in almost any kind of soil,
except where stagnant moisture pre-
vails. Uses — Although an ornamental
tree, yet its wood or timber is valuable
for various kinds of fimcy wood- works,
such as musical instruments, handles
of knives, &c. The wood is very hard,
takes a fine polish, and, when of suffi-
cient size, may he manufactured into
the most elegant kinds of furniture.

In the species here enumerated, the pods
are one or two-jointed, joints glo-
bular.

Species for Timber as well as for
Ornament, <^c.

Monade.lpkia Decandria. Linn.

LABURNUM. CYTISUS.

Com. laburnum . . luburnuni . .Eur. . 10 — 25

Scotch laburnum .ulpinus. . . .

RoBiNiA, or Locust-tree,

False Acacia, &c. Robinia *.

Calyx, one-leafed, four-cleft; legume, com-
pressed, long, gibbous ; seed, kidney-form.

Time of sowing the seed. — The end of
March, on a bed of light earth. The

• So named by Liniireus in honour of J. Robin,
a French botanist, who lirst introduced the tree
into France from Canada, in the rcigi^ of Henry
lY,, about the year 1601.— Mich.

102

LIST OF FOREST- TREES.

following spring transplant the seed-
lings in nursery rows about the end
of March, the rows to be three feet
apart, and the plants a foot and a half
asunder in the rows. In one or at
most two years they shovild be planted
out where they are intended tinally to
remain. Soil — It will grow in almost
any soil, but attains to most perfection
in such as is light and sandy. Uses
— The wood is hard and very durable.
It is esteemed, in America, preferable
to the best white oak for axle-trees of
carriages, trenails for ships, posts for
rail-fencing, and for withstanding the
bad effects of moisture when fixed in
damp ground. It is frequently sub-
stituted for box by the turners, for the
manufacture of sugar-bowls, salt-cel-
lars, candlesticks, forks, spoons, &c.
It was cultivated in England in 1640,
by Mr. John Tradescant, or nearly
two hundred years ago. But the
only satisfactory authenticated state-
ments we can find of the greatest age
of Locust trees now growing in Eng-
land (with that of their produce of
timber) does not exceed sixty years.
A locust-tree, in the grounds of the
late Charles Bloomfield, Esq., Bury
St. Edmond's, of sixty years growth,
in 1829, measured in height from
forty to fifty feet, and the circum-
ference at three feet from the ground
six feet seven inches, the solid con-
tents being fifty-four feet of tim-
ber*. The limits of these pages do
not permit further details, except to
observe that, owing to the brittle na-
ture of the wood when young, the
leading shoots of the stems, as well as
the branches, are very liable to be
broken by the wind, and probably
it is from injuries of this kind that
many trees are found unsound even
before forty years of growth : great
attention to early training or pruning
appears to be required by the locust.
The comparative strengtli as to frac-
ture of its timber compared to that of
oak, appears to be in favour of the
former, according to Professor Barlow,
fine Eniilish oak 1G72 to locust 1867.
The comparative value of the timber
of the other different species of lio-
binia mentioned below, has not yet
been ascertained: their value for
ornament is well known.

• Withers MS. Correspoodence.

Diadelphia Decandria. Linn,

ROBINIA. ROBINIA. Native of Ft.

Locust-tree, or) , ^ ■ xt a or t;^

p, . '• tpseudo acacia^i .Am. 3b-b0

Clammy visciisa 30-40

Spineless inirmis .... — ^— —

Long-leaved macrophy/la Siberia —

Parasol utnbrnculijera —

Upright stricta —

Pendulous pindula . . . —

Ornamental only.

Rose Acacia kispida .... Carolina 60

Purple purpurea. . . —

Smooth-branched . rosea Carolina —

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

Kentuckv Cokfee-Tree,

OR Hardy Bonduc. Gymnocladus.

Dicecia Decandria. Linn.
Male Flower — Calyx., five-toothed ; corolla,
five petalled. Female Flower — the same
as the male ; stile, one ; legumen, one-
celled ; seeds, several, embedded in a pulp.
Propagated by suckers from the root, as
well as from seed.

Kentucky Coffee-tree Canadensis N.Amer. 40

There is only'one species of this tree. In
its native soil of that part of Genesee
which borders on lake Ontario and
lake Erie, and in the states of Ken-
tucky and Tennessee, Michaux states
it to attain to fifty or sixty feet in
height, and that the stem is often
destitute of branches for thirty feet,
while the diameter seldom exceeds
twelve or fifteen inches. In summer,
when it is fully grown, it has a fine
appearance. On young trees the
leaves, which are doubly compound,
are three feet long and twenty inches
wide. The bark is very rough, and
detaches itself in small vertical strips.
The name of coffee was given to this
tree by the early emigrants to Ken-
tuckj^ The seeds appear to possess
no culinary value. The wood is very
compact and of a rosy hue, which fits
it for the use of the cabinet-maker.
Michaux observes that, like the locust,
it exhibits almost nothing but heart-
wood, for that six inches in diameter
has only six lines of sap-wood. These
qualities, he observes, recommend it
for culture in the forests of the north
and centre of Europe. It was intro-
duced into England, in 1748, by
Archibald Duke of Ar^yle, but its
culture appears not to have extended
beyond the garden.

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

m

AMYGDALIN^E. Nat. Sys.

Eng. Name,
AlMONl>-TREE.

Hot, Name.

Amyodalus.

Eng. Name

Peak-tree,

Bol. Name.
Pyrus.

Icosandria Monogyinit. Li>in.

Caly.T, five-cleft, inferior ; pefa/s, five ; seed,
a nut, oval-shaped, compressed, acute, with
])rominent sutures on each side, netted in
four rows and dotted, enclosed in a villose
or woolly drupe.

Time of souing seed — Autumn ; cover
with light dry earth, three inches deep.
Soil — A sandy loam, in a sheltered
situation. Uses — Gay and ornamental
flowers in the spring: : the naked seed
of the almond, properly so called, yields
an essential oil, and, by trituration,
forms an emulsion, or cooling bever-
age, much used.

The naked seed or almond of the Amyg-
dalus amara affords an oil of similar
properties to that of the Amygdalus
communis, but the bitter prmciple
contained in the farinaceous part of
the seed is deleterious, containing
prussic acid.

Species for Ornament, ^-c.

ALMOND-TREE. AMYGDALUS. Native of Ft.

Sweet almond. . . . communis . .Barbary . . 18
Bitter almond. . . .amara —

Double blossomed-^ -vL' '^"^ IPersia . . . . —
t i^Ptrsica) )

Chinese cochinchintnsis China

POMACES. Nat. Sys.

Mespilus. Mespilus.

Icosandria Di-pentagynia. Linn.

Calyx, five-cleft ; petals, five ; berry, inferior ;

seeds, five, bone-like, enclosed in a globu.

lar berry.

Time of sowing the seed — autumn, or
as soon as ripe. Soil — a rich loam ;
but it will succeed in any description
of soil free from the extremes of mois-
ture and dryness. Uses — for its orna-
mental habit of growth and its fruit.

Species for Ornament, ^c.

mespilus. mespilus.

Medlar, common. . Germanica England . 12

Var.Lprt. medlar. i/rk/a —

„ Dutch diffusa —

Quince-leaved mes-1, ,, (

^ ., uomentusa J

pilus j \

'^Thom'''^!'^^.''''.'}'''''""''^"'^^*"^'"''"^ . . .12

Large-flowered 1 ,■„. r, -c

° ., >«ra«aj/?ora S.Europe. —

mespilus )^ •' *

Calyx, five-cleft ; petals, five ; seeds, several,
oblong, blunt, accuminate at the base, con-
vex on one side, flat on the other, enclosed
in a pome or apple, fleshy, with five mem-
branous cells.

Time of sowing the seed — Spring: pre-
serve the seed during winter in dry
sand. Soil — rich clayey loam, but
also on gravelly and chalky soils on
elevated, exposed situations. Uses —
for underwood, ornamental blossoms
and fruit: the white beam (pyrus
aria), however, is considered by some
to rank as a timber-tree ; the wood,
tough and hard, is sometimes used for
axletrees, handles of tools, &c. The
wood of the wild service-tree (tormi-
nalis) is likewise applied to the same
purposes, and its fruit is frequently
brought to market.

Species for Ornament, Sfc.

pear-tree.

Arbutus-leaved . . .

Var. Red-fruited

arbutus-leaved

„ White-fruited

arbutus-leaved

„ Black-fruited

arbutus-leaved

Snowy

Wild pear-tree . . .

Woolly-leaved . . .

Crab-tree

Chinese apple . . .

Siberian crab . . . .

Sraall-iruited crab

Sweet-scented crab

Narrow-lvd. crab .

Com. quince-tree. .

Willow-lvd.crab. .

Wliite beam-tree .

Swedish do

Wild service pear-
tree

Amelanchier.

PYKUS.

.arhutiful.
\ rubra , . .

NatiTe of

. Virginia

yd/ba — ^

\ nigra ....

nivalis . . . .
communis . .
pollveria . . .
mdlus

spectabilis .
prunifolia . ,
baccuta . . . ,
corondria . .
angustifolia
cyddnia ...
sulicifolia . ,

Austria.

England

Germany

Britain

China

Siberia

Virginia
, N. Amer.'
Austria
Levant
Britain
, Sweden

.30

intermedia. ,
tormindlis Eng. .30 — 40

Amelanchier.

Icosandria Pentagynia^ Linn.
Snowy Amelanchier. io/rya/»»M»».N. Amer.

CrATjEQUS.

Calyx, five-cleft ; berry, inferior ; seeds, two,
roundish, umbilicated, body somewhat long,
distinct, cartilaginous.

Time of sowing seed — Autumn. Soil —
will succeed in almost any kind of
soil of intermediate quality as to mois-
ture and dryness : the most ornamental
and useful of the species are the vari-

104

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

eties of the common hawthorn (oxya-
cantha), the Glastonbury is remarkable
for the season of the year in which it
comes into flower, which is usually in
January or February, and sometimes
at Christmas, accordinj^ to the state of
the weather then, and of that during
the previous summer and autumn.
The wood of the common Hawthorn
is hard and tough, and is esteemed
for axle-trees, handles of tools, &c.
When planted singly it not unfre-
quently rises to 20 or even 30 feet in
height ; and we have measured stems
of individual trees of this species,
varying from 3 to 7 feet in circum-
ference. The merits of this and the
interesting species and varieties men-
tioned below, for ornament in park
scenery, come more properly for dis-
cussion under the second division of
the subject of Planting, proposed in
the introduction to this treatise : but
though their value, in an economical
point of view, has not yet been deter-
mined, their natural habits and growth
offer matter well worthy the attention
and'investigation of the forest -planter,
and they are therefore here enume-
rated. Uses — The common hawthorn,
it is well known, is used for making
quick or live fences. It is of great
importance to have the plant strong
and large before finally planting it in
the hedge-row. This plant delights in
a deep soil, and where it is not natu-
rally such, its depth ought to be in-
creased. When the plants or quicks
are large, they produce a fence in a
short space of time, and save much
expense in weeding, nursing, and tem-
porary fencing.

Species for Ornament, S^c.

;:)

Native of

N. Amer.

CRATAEGUS.

G reat American i cratcp(jus coc-

hawtborn . . . .\ cinea..
Maple-leaved . . . . — corddta . ,

Pear-leaved — pijrifolia

Oval-leaved — elliptica ,

Hollow-leaved . . . — glandulosa

Yellow-berried . . . — Jldva . . . •

Goosuberry-loaved — parvifolia

Great red-fruited . . — punctata .

Var .Yellow-fruited — durea . . .

Common cocksjmr — crusgdlU

Var. Py racautha- f — pyrucan- \
leaved \ tIdfoUa . )

„ Willow-leaved — sa/icifilla

White-thorn — oxijacdntha'Bviia.m

Var. Common. . . .-^vulgdris.

CRAT^GUS.

Var. Great-fniited.

„ Glastonbury .

,, Dbl.-flowered.
Yellow-berried .
Parslej'-leaved .

Elegant red

Sweet-scented . . .
Woolly-fruited . . .

Sloe-leaved

Cut-leaved ,

Comb-shaped . . . .

Frosted

Crimson

Black-berried . . . ,

Native of Ft,

— major . . .

— pra-cox.,

— p/ena . . .

— durea . . ,

— azarolus .S.Europe

— (■legaris

— Of/o/'fl^/ssi/na. Crimea
— eriocdrpa. .Britain
— priiji e//i/()/i(/ .N . Amer.
, — dissect a. . . .Persia

— pectindta . .

. — pruinosa. . . — ^

— punicea . Dahuria

, — me/anocd7-pa.T!Xuviis,

OLEIN^. Nat. Sys.

Eng. Name.
ASH-TIIEE.

Bot. Name.

Fkaxinus.

Folygamia Dicecia. Linn.

Bisexual. Male Flower — calyx, none, or
a four-parted perianth ; corolla, none, or
four petals ; stamina, two ; pistil, one ;
capsule., one-seeded, terminated by a spear-
shaped membranous wing. Female
Flower — calyx., none, or a four-parted
perianth ; corolla, none, or four petals ;
pistil, one ; capsule and seed, the same
as in the bisexual flower.

Time of sowing the seed — Autumn, as
soon as ripe, or dry the seed in a cool
airy loft, and preserve them in sand
during the winter : and then in April
sow them on beds of fresh mellow
soil ; the plants will appear in the
following spring; but if sown in the
autumn as soon as ripe, most of the
plants will appear in the same season.

Soil — Clayey loam brings the ash to the
greatest perfection, but it will grow
on every description of soil. Evelyn
mentions an ash-tree of 132 feet in
height, and Young, in his Irish Tour,
states the length of an ash, at thirty-
five years growth, to be 70 feet.

Uses — This wood is hard and tough,
and much esteemed for implements
of husbandry, and also for the pur-
poses of the coach-maker, cooper,
turner, &c. It makes a profitable
kind of underwood, and may be cut
every eight years for hoops, and every
fourteen years for hop-poles, &c. It
is said that the leaves, when eaten by
cows, give the butter which is made
of their milk a rank taste; butter,
however, in the spring, and towards
autumn, has frequently a rank taste,
when the cows yielding it are com-
pletely out of the reach of leaves of
any kind of forest-trees whatsoever.

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

105

When planted in hed2:e-rows, the ash
is apt to impoverish the soil around it
in a greater degree than most other
trees. This tree is by many con-
sidered to stand next in value to the
oak. It is mentioned as such by the
oldest writers*. Where pollard trees
are permitted, the ash makes one of
the most profitable. Dr. Withering
states, that a decoction of two drachms
of the bark has been used to cure
agues. The Manna Ash, Fraxinus
rotundifdlia, in England seldom
attains to more than 20 feet in
height ; the leaflets are shorter, of a
deeper green colour, and more deeply
serrated on the margins than those
of the common ash. It is a native
of Italy, and is most abundant in Ca-
labria, where it grows spontaneously
on the lower parts of the mountains.
This tree affords the 'well known
medicinal laxative substance termed
mayina. It is obtained by making a
horizontal incision in the stem of the
tree towards the end of July. The
fluid gum is received into cups formed
of the leaves of the maple, and con-
ducted into them by the foot-stalks of
the leaf, or by straws inserted into
the incisions. The manna continues
to exude from the wounds of the
bole for about a month after the in-
cision is first madet. The compa-
rative merits and value of the other fo-
rei£:n species of ash mentioned below,
remain yet to be proved by the British
forester ; and we shall here, therefore,
only observe, that the white ash of
North America, among those enu-
merated below, is the only species
that at present is considered to ap-
proximate to, and rival the common
ash in value. In New Brunswick
and Canada it most abounds, and is
most multiplied in the United States,
north of the river Hudson. Its most
favourable sites are the banks of
rivers and the edges and surrounding
acclivities of swamps ; it there some-
times attains to eighty feet in height.

• Vide Gentleman's Magazine, 1"85; Hunter's
Evelyn ; Withering's Arrangement of Britisli
Plants; Pennant's Tour, 1772, p. "29 ; Gilpin's
Forest Scenery, Vol. II., p. 280; Martyu's Ed.
Miller's Gard. ijict. ; Art. Fraxinus.

t See Traas. Royal Soc, vol. Ix,

Timher or Forest Species.

ASII-TREE, FRAXINUS. Native of Ft.

Common excC/xior . . . Britain ... 70

V^ntWa-leiLVcd ., . .simp/icifolia 30

White American .amencnMa. . N.Amer... 40

Var. Black do. . . .puhiscens. . . —

„ Red do rubra —

Species for Ornament, S^-c.

Weeping excpLptaduUiUxWaXw ... "0

Horizontal ,, horizontalis

Erose-leavcd ,, ei-osa..

Striped bark. ... „ striata. 30

W^alnut-leaved . . .juglandifolia

Aleppo lent iscif cilia . Aleppo

Flowering ornus Italy

Many-dowered . . .fioribiimla . Nepaul

Manna rotundifolia Italy

Cloth-leaved pannosa . . .N.Amer. ]

Four-sided quudrangidata

Flat-seeded platacarpa. ,

Long-leaved longifoha . .

Red-veined ruhicunda , .

Green-branched . . viridis

Cinereous cmirca ....

Grey-branched . . .alba •

Richards' Richardi . . ■

Sharp-leaved oxycurpa

Klder-leaved sambiicifolia N.Amer.

Silver-leaved argtntea . . .Corsica

Elliptic-leaved .. .e////)^'ca. . . N.Amer.

Oval-leaved ovdta

Mexican mexicana . . .Mexico

Dotted-.stalked . . .epip/era. . . . N. Amer.

Red-veined rubicu/ida . . .

Powdered pulverulenta .

Mixed mixta

Expanded expansa

ELi^AGNEiE. Nat. S>/s.

£ng. Name.

Oleaster-tuee.

Bot. Name.

El^agnus.

Telrandria Monogynia. Linn.

Calyx, four-cleft, bell-shaped ; corolla, none ;
drupe^ inferior ; seed, a nut, oblong, obtuse.

Time of sowing seed — Autumn : may be
sown in pots or propagated by layers.
Soil — A sandy loam is what it aftects
most. Uses — It is admired for the,
fragrance of its foliage. The compa-
rative value of its wood has not yet
been proved.

Species for Ornament, 8jC.

OLEASTER-TREE. EL.EAGNUS. Native of t.

Narrow-leaved . . .angustifolia.S. Europe . 18

106

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

URTICE^. Nat. Sys.

Eng. Name.
Mui.BERRY-TREE.

Bot. Name.
MORUS.

Monoecia Tetrandr'ia. Linn.
Male Flower — calyx, four divisions; co-
roUa,no\\e. Female Flower — calyx, ionr-
leaviid ; corolla, none ; style, two ; seed,
sinf^le, ovate, acute, covered by the calyx,
which ripens into a large fleshy berry.

Time of sowing seed — March, f^in light
earth, with gentle artificial heat ; or
propagate by layers, ^oil — It flou-
rishes best on a rich sandy loam ; but
it will thrive even on very sandy soils,
if of proper depth. Uses — The black
mulberry is chiefly cultivated for its
fruit, and the white mulberry for its
leaves, which are considered the best
food for the silk- worm. It has been
long ago recommended that, instead
of pulling the leaves off singly for the
food of the silk- worm, they should be
shorn off, together with their young
branches, by which the tree is much
less injured.

Timber or Forest Species.

MULBERRY-TREE. MORUS.

Common nigra Italy 30

Red rubra .... .N.Amer.. . —

Species for Ornament, 8fc.

White alba ...China 20

Paper . . ._ papyrfera. .Japan

LoTE or Nettle-Tree. Celtis.

Polygamia Monaicia, Linn.

Bisexual Flower — calyx, five-parted ; co-
rolla, none ; stamina, five ; styles, two ;
drupe, one-seeded.

Male Flower — calyx, six-parted ; corolla,
none ; sta7nina, six ; seed, a nut, roundish.

LOTE or NETTLE-TREE. CELTIS.

EuropeanNet-1 ^^^^^^.^ S.Eu..20to40

tie-tree .... J

Eastern orientdlis Levant — —

American occidentalis ...N.Am. — 50

Willileuow's. . . ^Fi//f/e?Jotf!a/ia China — —

Chinese ..... .sinensis —

Tournefort's . . . Tourneforlia . . Levant — —

. Time of sowing the seed — March, or,
if it can be procured in time, sow in
the autumn, in a mixture of peat and
loam, placed in pots or boxes, shel-
tered from the frost, and shaded in
hot weather from the sun. These trees
require protection for the first two
years, or while young ; afterwards
they may be planted in any moderately
exj;osed situation. The soil best
adapted to them is a sandy loam.

Uses. — the wood of the European
nettle-tree is considered to be one of
the hardest ; and Evelyn says, that in
former times it was used for the ma-
nufacture of musical instruments.
The American nettle-tree is similar
in its foliage and general appearance
to the European species ; the branches
of both are numerous and slender,
and the limbs take their rise at a
small distance from the ground,
and grow in a horizontal or an in-
clined direction. Michaux observes,
that the comparative value of the
wood has not been proved in Ame-
rica, but that it is similar in proper-
ties to the former species. As yet
those other species enumerated above
are considered as merely ornamental.

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

Elm-Tree. Ulmus.

Pentandria Digynia. Linn.

Calyx — five-cleft, inferior, permanent; co-
iolla, none ; seed-vessel, compressed, flat,
one-seeded; seed, roundish, slightly com-
pressed.

Ti7ne of sowing the seed — As soon as
ripe in May, on a bed of fresh loamy
earth to be shaded from the mid-day
sun, until the plants appear to be well
rooted. The Wych elm is almost the
only species raised from seed ; the
other species are raised by layers.
The American elms produce seed, but
it seldom retains its vegetative powers
long enough to be brought to Eng-
land. A deep loam grows the elm to
the greatest perfection. Uses — The
wood is hard and tough, and resists
the effects of moisture better than
most other kinds of wood. Its tena-
cious adhesive quality renders it va-
luable for many important purpose.s,
keels of ships, naves of wheels, &c.

ELM-TREE. ULMUS. Natiie of Ft.

English campeslris.BntMn.80 100

Cork-barked subenisa. . . ■ — —

Dutch cork-barkedwn/o;- .

Wych inontana. .. __ —

Smooth .glabra .... — —

Pendulous, or . .7 , ,,

( pendulum. — —

weeping.. ..j*^

American Americana N.Am.

White Hungarian alba Hung.

Curled crispa. . . . N.Am.

Dwarf pumila . . . Siberia

Slippery .fulva .

Chichester vegela . . . .N.Am. — — .

Winged aldta — —

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

107

There are new varieties of the elm of re-
cent introduction, as the Huntin<rdon,
Chichester, fan-leaved, &c. These
exhibit a more rapid and luxuriant
growth than the other species men-
tioned ; but their comparative value,
as regards the quality of the timber,
has not yet, as far as we know, been
satisfactorily determined. There is a
difference of opinion as respects the
comparative value of the wych and
the English elms. The weight of
opinion is in favour of the Enslish
elm, ulmus campestris. The corked
barked elm is held on all hands to be
very inferior, particularly the Dutch
species. Where hedge-row timber is
at all admissible, the elm is perhaps
of all other trees the most to be pre-
ferred. The practice of lopping and
pollarding these trees sadly disfigures
the general appearance of the coun-
try where it is practised to any ex-
tent, and the timber of such pollards
is almost always found defective. The
wych elm attains to a great size;
Marshall (on Planting, vol. ii.) men-
tions a tree of this kind near Bradley
church, in Suffolk, which, in 1754,
measured twenty-five feet five inches
in circumference, and in thirteen years
after measured twenty- six feet three
inches, at five feet from the ground.

AMENTACEiE. Nat. Sys.

Eng, Name.

Willow-tree.

Bot. Name.

Salix.

Dicscia 1,2, 3, 5, Andria. Linn.
Calyx, aments composed of scales ; corolla,
none. In the Male Flower, the nectary
consists of a meUiferous gland ; in the
Female Flower, the style is bifid. Seed
~— vessel or capsule one-celled, two-valved,
downy, numerous, ovate, very small.

Time of sowing seed — March ; but ge
nerally propagated by cuttings or sets
in the spring. Soil — Moist soils of
almost every description will suit this
tree. Uses — The osier (salix vimina-
lis) affords the materials of the basket-
maker ; also binders, thatching-rods,
rakes, scythe-handles, &c. The other
species enumerated, but especially the
Salix Russelliana, which is perhaps of
more rapid growth than the rest, af-
fords poles and rails, and is made use
of for a great variety of other purposes.

The bark of the sulix alba, Doctor A.
T. Thompson observes, supplies the
place of the Peruvian bark, in the

case of intermittent fevers. It owes
its efficacy to a peculiar alkaline prin-
ciple which has been termed sulicina,
and which can be separated from the
other components of the bark.

Timber or Forest Species.
Species, with subserratc villose leaves,

willow-trees. salix. Naiiteof Ft.

Common white , . . alba Britain ... 40

Ash-coloured .... cinerea .... 20

Osier (bushy). . . .viminalis . .

Round-leaved .... caprea 30

Species with leaves smooth, serrate.

Lonp--leaved tri-) . •/ , ■ -n i ■ on

°, \frmndria . . .lintaiu ... JO

androus . . . . J

Peach-leaved amygdalina. ■ —

Duke of Bedford's Russelliiina . —

Sweet, or bay-lvd. penlandria .

Crack .fragilis .... 1 5

Halbert-leaved . . . hastata .... —

Rose htlix —

Golden Vitellina. . . . —

Weeping babylonica. . 40

Eng. Name. { Bot. Name.

Poplar. Populus.

Dimcia Octandria. Linn.

Calyx of the ament, a flat scale, torn at the
edge ; corolla, turbinated, oblique, entire ;
stigma of the Female Flower, fuui-cleft ;
seeds, many, ovate, furnished with capillary
pappas, which act as wings to carry the
seeds by the wind, enclosed in a one-celled
capsule.

Time of solving seed — Propagated by
cuttings, suckers, and layers; the
first mode preferred. Soil — It af-
fects a moist soil, but will grow in
almost every description of soil. Uses
— The chief use of the wood of the
forest species is for the turner in the
manufacture of trays, bellows, and
various domestic utensils. The wood
of the Abele poplar is found to be
very useful for water-works, having
been proved to keep sound for a long
series of years when so used*.

The common grey poplar is sometimes
confounded with tiie abele or white
species. The leaves of the former are
smaller and rounder shaped, and but
little cottony underneath, sometimes
smooth. The bark of the stem be-
comes of a beautiful silvery grey hue.
This species is of slower growlii, but,

• Notwithstanding the general disrepute of the
wood of tlie Loinbardy poplar lor ont-door works,
there are instances of its durability being proved,
in mal<ing close palings, wlien well saturated with
coal-gas tar.

108

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

in time, becomes a handsome tree,
with the branches of the top more
compact than in that of the abele.
The leaves of the abele are densely
cottony underneath, as are also the
young shoots and footstalks of the
leaves. The root is powerfully creep-
ing, which unfits the tree to be planted
in fields where pasturage or tillage
exists. The creeping roots send up
suckers, used in propagating the tree.
Layers are also used, as well as cuttings
of the branches, for the same purpose.
It having been doubted whether this
or the former was the true abele of
the Dutch, where in Holland the abele
is highly valued, we procured speci-
mens from a celebrated grower in that
country, and these proved, beyond a
doubt, that the abele of Holland is the
Populus alba, or abele of Britain, and
not the Populus canescens, or grey
; poplar. The value of this tree, in peaty
J and low damp soils, is well worthy the
I attention of the forest-tree planter.
f Besides the uses of the wood before
remarked, it is considered good for
■wainscoting, floors, laths, and pack-
ing cases, indeed, from the boards of
it not splitting by, but closing on, the
heads of nails, it is considered superior
to deal for the latter purpose- The
wood of the Lombardy poplar is held
in esteem for the like purpose. The
bark of the abele is recommended in
the cure of intermittent fevers. It
should be gathered in summer, when
full of sap, and dried by a gentle heat.
When powdered, a dram of it is given
every four hours between the fits. A
white poplar in St. John's College
Walks, Cambridge, blovvn down in a
hurricane, Nov. 6, 179.5, was forty-
two feet in length, and nine feet ten
inches in circumference, which, with
the limbs, gave 328 cubic feet of timber.
The black Italian poplar attains to a
large size in a comparatively short
space of time, as is proved at page 89.
It delights in moist situations, but
grows fast in almost every kind of
soil. It is a more valuable tree than
the Lombardy poplar, and for up-
land soils superior to the abele. The
timber is used for the like purposes
as those of the former. The pro-
perty of slow combustion seems
general in the wood of all the different
species of poplar, and this property,
which renders the wood valuable for

floors and internal works in buildings
in case of accidents by fire, renders it
of inferior value for fuel.

The]aspen, aspe, or trembling poplar, at-
tains to a large size and succeeds well
in almost every description of soil, ex-
cept clay. The roots are very im-
poverishing to the land, and the aspen
is, therefore, confined to local sites.
The well-known property of being
moved by the slightest current of air
possessed by the leaves of this tree,
appears to originate in the structure
of the petiole, or footstalk of the leaf,
the planes of which (being a com-
pressed petiole) are at right angles to
those of the body of the leaf, which is
itself furnished with two glands, run-
ning one into the other. Such are the
opinions of Linnaeus and of Dr. Stoke
regardino; this point. But the flatiened
footstalk is common to all the poplars
with which we are acquainted, and all
are more or less subject to have the

~: leaves easily put in motion ; in fact ther
structure of the petiole, as now de-

5 -scribed, will readily explain the matter
to the observer, and that in proportion
to the length and slender structure of
a petiole so constituted to that of the
body of the leaf, depends its sensi-
bility of any cause of motion. Light-
foot mentions, that this almost con-
stant trembling of the leaves of the
aspen had given rise to a superstitious
opinion in some parts of the High-
lands of Scotland, that our Saviour's
cross was made of the wood of this
tree, and that therefore its leaves could
never rest.

Among the North American species of
poplar, the Canadian {monilifera) of-
fers great merits, as far as experience
in its culture in Britain affords the
means of drawing satisfactory con-
clusions. It affects a moist, deep,
rich soil ; such are fertile peat and
alluvial soils. Mr. Hursthouse of
Tydd, near Wisbeach, planted trees
of W\*i. Populus monilifera; in 1822,
and nine years after he had trees of a
size to saw into scantlings, which, for
toughness of texture, his carpenter
stated to exceed any he had before
met with. This species is more nearly
allied to the Populus anguli'da, or Ca-
nada poplar, than to any other species.
The Canada poplar is distinguished
at first sight by its angular branches.
These arise from the lower side of the

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

100

base of each footstalk, one from the
centre of the base, and one from each
side of it. The leaves being arranp;c'd
alternately on the shoot, and these
anjiles or wings falling or proceeding
from the base of each, and terminating
at or just before they reach the next
bud, or leaf, form five angles of the
shoot. "Wlien a shoot is divided, the
pith exhibits five angles, corresponding
to these nerves of tlie leaf-stalk. A
similar arrangement takes place on the
shoots of the Canadian poplar, with
this exception, that the angles are
seven in number instead of five ; they
are also much less prominent. The
botanical characters are specifically
distinct ; but as these are not often
within the reach of the inquirer, the
above may be found useful in distin-
guishing these two species, often con-
founded together. The magnificent
broad shining leaves of the Carolina
poplar, with the peculiar habit alluded
to, its rapid growth, and general ap-
pearance, when advanced to the size
of a timber tree, render it well worthy
a place in sheltered glades of planta-
tions. The lower part of Virginia, Mi-
chaux informs us, is the most northern
point at which this species is found
in America, it being more common in
the two Carolinas, in Georgia and
Lower Jjouisiana, on the marshy banks
of the great rivers, where it attains to
eighty feet in heiirht, with a propor-
tional diameter. He terms the Ca-
nadian poplar Populus Canadirnsis:
and he gives our monil'ifera to another
species, having a smooth cylindrical
stem, but similar to the Pi'ipulus Icpvi-
giita. He calls our Canadian poplar
cotton-wood, and states that it rises
to seventy or eighty feet in height, and
three or four feet in diameter ; and it
is })referred as a useful tree. The
Ontario, or smooth-leaved poyjlar, may
rank next in order to those just now
mentioned, for rapidity of growth and
beauty of its foliage. The compara-
tive value of its timber remains to be
determined by time. Those other
species enumerated below are all de-
serving of a place in plantations to
prove the comparative value of each.

Timber or Forest Species.

POPLAR. POfULUS. Native of Ft.

Com. grey, sue. .canescens. , .Britain . , .40

Black, sue. cut.. . . nif/ra 30

J-ombiirily, cut. ,,Ui(aldta, , , .Italy 70

POPL.VU.

Balsam „

Atheuian ,,
Canadian „
Aspen ,,

Abele-tree, sue.

POPITLUS. Native of

. hahamifera . N. Anier. . ,
. Grcrca . . . .Greece . .
. munili/era . . N . Amer. .
.tremula. . . .Britain . .
. d/ba ——

Ornamental Species.

Carolina, lay. anguldta . . . N. Amer. .

Heart-leaved ,, cnndicans , .

V'arious-leaved „ heteruphijlla •

Smooth-leaved „ lesvigata . . . ■

Weeping ,, pindula .... .

Treniljling „ trtpida ....

Large-dented „ grandidentata

Laurel-leaved „ /(iM/'i/o/i«. . . . Altay.
Slender-twigged „ viminai. . , .N.Amer.

(^Subordo, BetulincB.) Nat. Sys.

.40
20

30

Eng. Narae.

Aluer-tkee.

Bot. Name.

Alnus.

Moncecia Tetrandria. Linn.

Male Flower — receptacle of the ament,
wedge-shaped, truncated, composed of three
flowers ; calyx, scaly ; corolla, four-parted ;
stamina, four. Female Flower — Ament
calyx, scaly, or two-flowered ; corolla, none ;
seed, compressed, oval, naked.

Time of solving seed — Autumn or spring:
if left until spring, preserve them in
dry sand. Soil — Moist or damp soils
are the most fit for the growth of the
alder. Uses — This tree is the most
valuable of the sub aquatic forest-trees.
The wood (see p. 9, tig. 1.) is esteemed
for under-water-work, as piles, pipes,
pumps, sluices, &c. The charcoal
made of its wood is highly valued for
the manufacture of gunpowder. The
bark and young shoots afford a yel-
low dye, and also afford a basis for
black colours.

Besides the uses just mentioned of the
wood of the common alder, the roots
and knots furnish a valuable material
for cabinets, tliis part of the wood
being often beautifully veined. The
bark is used by dyers, tanners, and
leather dressers, and for tanning nets.
An ounce of the bark powdered and
boiled in three- fourths of a pint of
water, with an equal quantity of log-
wood and solution of copper, tin, and
bismuth, six grains each, and two
drops of solution of sulphate of iron,
will dye a strong deep Ooue da Pca-is.
The Laplanders are said to chew the
bark, and dye tlieir leathern garments
with their saliva. The shoots cut in
March are said to dye a line cinna-
mon colour and a handsome drab or
tawney when preyiyusly dried and

110

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

powdered. The value of the charcoal
in the manufacture of gunpowder is
well known.

Linnaeus says that horses, cows, sheep,
and iroats eat it, but that swine refuse
it. The tongues of horses feeding
upon it are said to turn black during
its use. It is very astringent, and most
probably unwholesome to animals as
food. In low damp situations, by the
sides of streams, &c., it makes the
best hedges, as it grows in such situa
tions freely, where the thorn or quick
will make little or no progress. In
damp situations it is an useful coppice
wood. The economical properties of
the varieties of the common alder
enumerated below have not hitherto
been proved ; they are ornamental, and
deserving of a position iu the damp
margins of woods.

The American species are considered to
be inferior to the common alder as
regards the uses of the wood and the
bark ; nor as yet are there any proofs
of the comparative value of the Si-
berian and European species, beyond
that of giving variety to the effects of
foliage in plantations.

Timber or Forest Species, and for Orna-
ment, 8[c.

ALDER-TKEE ALNUS Native of Ft.

Common glutimm. . .Britain . . .25

Var. Silver-striped /d/iisor^cH/eis —

„ Emarginate e«ia?'^ma/a.. > —

,, Cut-leaved .iwc/sa —

5, Jagged-lvd. lacinidta .... ■ —

\,, Oak-ieaved .ry?<ercJ/o//a ,. —

„ Oblong-lvd. oblonyala . . .S. Europe —

„ Elliptic-lvd. e///p/fca —

Koarj'-leaved . . Ancana Europe —

Var. Angular-leaved —

., Winged —

Eroad-leaved . . .?n«fro/)A^//a . —

Siberian Siberica .... Siberia —

Saw-leaved serruldta. . . .N. Amer. —

"Wave-leaved , . . .unduldta. . ..Canada —

Glaucous ylauca N. Amer. —

Red rubra —

Dwarf pamila —

Heart-leaved .... cordifolia. . . —

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

Birch-tree. Betui.a.

Moncecia Polijandria. Linn.
Ai.E Flower — scales of the ament, imbri-
cated, shield-shaped, and three-flowered ;
calyx, one scale ; corolla, none ; staviina,
ten to twelve. Female Flower — ament,

^ imbricated ; scales of the calyx, two-flow-
ered ; corolla, none ; seed, one, winged.

Timeqf sowing seed— Aviiwmw or spring ;
to be kept m dry, cool sand, from the

time it is ripe until it is sown. Soil —
The birch will grow in every descrip-
tion of soil, from the wettest to the
driest. Uses — The wood is chiefly
used by the wheelwright and turner ;
it affords good charcoal ; its soot is
esteemed as an insiredient in printers'
ink ; the bark is of use in dyeing wool
yellow; but the chief use of the tree
is for underwood. The spring sap of
the birch-tree has a saccharine qua-
lity, and is sometimes made into wine.
The weeping birch is a very orna-
mental plant.
The common birch is found in the
highest latitude or limits of the growth
of trees. In the 70th decree of north
latitude, its stature is reduced to that
of a shrub, and it is singular that the
opposite extreme of a warm or dry
atmosphere has a similar effect in
preventing its growth. Michaux as-
sumes the 45th parallel as the limit
below which the common birch is only
accidentally found in forests, unless on
high elevated sites where the tempera-
ture is sufficiently low. Although the
merits of the wood of the birch will
not allow of its ranking as one fit for
planting on soils where the more
valuable forest-trees will attain to due
perfection of growth, yet for certain
poor elevated soils it is highly valuable,
and on very wet or springy land it will
be productive ; there are instances
known of its produce on soils so poor
as scarcely to carry any thing else but
moss, affording in ten years growth
the value of ten pounds per acre. In
the northern parts of Europe it attains
to seventy feet in height, and two feet
in diameter. In Sweden, Norway,
and Finland the inhabitants avail
themselves of its wood, bark, leaves,
and sap, for a great variety of eco-
nomical uses, for almost all the
implements of husbandry, elegant
articles of furniture, for bowls, plates,
spoons, chairs, &c. The bark is used
for the manufacture of boxes, baskets,
and sandals ; its durability is so great
that it is used in preserving parts from
decay by wrapping it round them.
The Laplanders prepare the skin of
the rein-deer with the bark. They
cut the bark into small pieces, which
they macerate, and afterwards boil in
water, with the addition of a little salt.
The skins are plunged repeatedly into
this decoction warmed, and are allowed

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

Ill

to remain in it several days. They are
then taken out, and rendered plial)le
and soft, and in this state they are
scarcely permeable to \vater. In
Russia, by slowly burning: the bark in
kilns, an empj-reumafic oil is obtained
with which leather is prepared, highly
esteemed for durability. |^velyn enu-
merates a great variety of uses to
wiiich the birch is applicable, and
Lightfoot gives details of its uses in
the Highlands of Scotland. In Ame-
rica, the black birch is considered the
most interesting of the species of that
country. In some parts of the United
States, it goes by the name of black
birch ; in Virginia, mountain maho-
gany; and in Connecticut, sweet
birch ; and in Canada, cherry birch.
In deep loose soils Michaux has ob-
served some seventy feet high, and
two to three feet in diameter. The
habit of this species is admired for its
foliage, and its odoriferous flowers.
In the Annals of the Arts a stock of
this species is stated to have attained
the height of forty-five feet in nineteen
years. It is highly deserving a place
in British forests.
The white birch, as it is called in Ame-
rica, or Betula Populifolia, seldom
rises to more than twenty-five feet in
height. The distinctness of its foliage
is its only recommendation at present
known, for its wood is considered of
inferior quality. The red birch of
i\Iichaux, or the Betula Icmulosa of our
list, is chiefly found in Maryland,
Virginia, and the upper parts of the
Carolinas and of Georgia ; it is seldom
found farther north than New York
The epidermis of the bark of trees
not exceeding eight or ten inches in
diameter, is of a red or cinnamon
colour, but on large trees (it some-
times attains to seventy feet in height)
the bark is of a greenish hue. The
twigs of this species are considered
superior to those of any other species
for the purpose of making brooms
The paper birch is considered by some
to surpass the common species in size
and value of its wood. In Canada,
and the district of Maine, the
country people place large pieces of
the bark immediately below the shin-
gles of the roofs of their houses, as it
forms a lasting and very impenetral^le
barrier to the rains. Various articles
are manufactured of it, such as port-
folios, Ssc. which are sometimes em-

broidered with silk of different colours.
When divided into very thin sheets, it
forms a substitute for writing pajjer ;
but the most important use, Michaux
observes, to which it is applied, is in
the construction of canoes. To pro-
cure proper pieces of the bark for
this purpose, the largest and smoothest
boles are selected. In the spring two
circular incisions are made several
feet apart, and two longitudinal ones
in opposite sides of the bole; after
which, by introducing a wooden wedge,
the bark is easily detached. These
plates are usually ten or twelve feet
long, and two feet nine inches broad.
To make the canoe, they are stitched
together with fibrous roots of the
white spruce, about the size of a quill,
which are deprived of the bark, split
and made supple by immersion in
water. The seams are coated with
resin of the balm of Gilead fir. Great
use is made of these canoes by the
natives and French Canadians in their
longjoarnies into the interior of the
country — they are very light, and are
easily transported on the shoulders
from one lake or river to another. A
canoe calculated to carry four per-
sons, with their baggage, weighs from
40 to 50lbs. — some of them are made
to carry as many as fifteen persons*.
Upon the whole, this species appears
to be well worthy the attention of the
British forest-planter of certain de-
scriptions of soil. Of the other species
of birch enumerated below, the last
seven are of dwarf stature, and fit
only for cover, or for the margins of
woods ; at least the experience that
has as yet been had of their culture
does not warrant any further recom-
mendation of them at present ; but
with these, as with numerous other
species of trees, extended experience,
and careful observation of their pro-
perties, and most suitable soils, are
wanted, before satisfactory conclu-
sions can be arrived at, as to their
relative or comparative values.

Timber or Forest Species.

BIRCH-TREE. BETULA. 1 NaUve of Ft.

Common d/ba Britain ... 40

* North American Sylva, vol. ii., p. 83.
t The Rhododendron ponticum is an instance to
shew that a plant may be long known only for its
ornamenlal properties. It was introduced into
Enwtlaiid in 1763, and it is only of late years tliat
its value for uuaerwood and cover, iu sandy and
peaty soils, has been discovered and talceu advaa»
tage of,

112

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

BIUCH-TREE. BETULA. Native of Ft.

\ ar. Warted verrucosa,. ■ —

,, Weepinfj . . . .ptnduki. . . , —

J, Palmate-lvd. .dalecdrlica . —

„ Eastern pontica . . . .Asia

,, Large-fruitedwacrocnr/jfl

Pubescent pubtscens . . Europe

Poplar-leaved . . . .populifolia. . N. Amer.

Tall exctlsa — —

"Woolly Innulosa ....

Yellow liitea

Black nigra

Daurian davurica , . . Dauria

Paper papyrdcea .N. Amer.

Soft lenta

Hornbeam-leaved .carpinifoUa

Carpathian carpathica CarpatliianMt.

Species for Ornament, Shelter, &c.

Oval-leaved ovata Europe

Alnus viridis decand. —

Shrubby frulicosa. . Siberia

Glandular ff/atidu/6sa,N. Amer.

Hairj'-dwarf pumila ....

Smooth-dwarf . . . .nana Scotland

Var. large-leaved, .macrophylla

Dark tristis Kamtschatka

Eng. Name.
HoRNBEAM-TltEE.

Bot. Name.

Cakpinus.

Male Flower — amenl^ imbricated ; scale of
the calyx, ciliate ; corolla, none ; stamina,
ten. Female Flower — «?«(?«/, imbricated;
scale of the calyx, two-flowered ; corolla,
three-cleft ; seed, a nut, ovate, angular,
furrowed.

Time of soumig the seed — Autumn.
Soil — Poor clayey loams, incumbent
on sand, and chalky gravels, are well
adapted for the c:rowth of the horn-
beam. Uses — The wood (see page 9,
fg. f) of the hornbeam, as its name
would imply, is extremely tough, or
iiexible, and hard, and valuable for
many useful purposes ; but the tree
being chiefly cultivated for underwood,
few opportunities are offered to the
carpenter to prove its value in large
scantling. Its value for every purpose
where the properties above mentioned
are essential, such as mill -clogs,
lieads of beetles, stocks and handles
of tools, yokes, &c., is well-known.
Like the beech, it is good fuel, makes
superiorcharcoal, and affords excellent
potash. It grows in exposed situa-
tions, and on very poor, cold, thin,
damp soils, where many other species of
forest-trees would make little progress.
The leaves continue to adhere to the
branches long after vegetation in them
appears to have ceased. This pro-

perty renders the plant valuable for
tlie purposes of shelter, whether when
singly planted or in rows, to be cut as
a hedge. On soils of the nature men-
tioned, the hornbeam should always
have a place, if not exclusively, at least
in a considerable proportion to other
species (rf trees. The varieties of the
common hornbeam, mentioned below,
are not otherwise interesting to the
forest-planter than as regards the ef-
fect of foliage, and as subjects il-
lustrative of the laws of vegetable
economy.
The American hornbeam is found wild
as far north as Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, and Lower Canada. By
the French inhabitants of Upper
Louisiana it is called Charme. It
never exceeds thirty feet in height,
and its more ordinary dimensions
scarcely entitle it to rank as a timber
tree. The trunk is similarly fluted
as that of the foregoing species.

Timber or Forest Speciis.
Betulin^. Nat. Sys.

HORNBEAM-TREE. CAKPINUS. NaUve of Ft.

Monaecia Polyandria, Linn.

Common betulus Britain . . .30

Var. Oak-leaved . , (jue?-cif6lia . .

., Striped-leavedi'arief/a/a. . .

,, Cut-leaved . .incisa 15

American americana . .N. Amer... 20

Species for Ornament, Sfc.
Eastern orientdlis . . Levant ... 1 2

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

HoP-HORNBEAM. OsTRYA.

Monvecia Polyandria. Linn.

Male Flower — ament, imbricated ; calyx,
one scale ; corolla, none ; filaments, ra-
mose. Female Flower — ament, naked;
calyx, none ; corolla, none ; capsule, in-
flated, imbricated ; seed, one at the base.

Propagated in England by grafting on the
common hornbeam and by layers.
Uses — The wood oft he hop-hornbeam,
or iron wood of America, is heavy,
compact, and tough, and is used in
America, Michaux informs us, for le-
vers, brooms, and scrubbing brushes ;
the latter are made by rolling back
very thin slices of the wood, adhering
to a piece of suitable dimensions. In
America it is considered a tree of the
third order as to size, rarely exceeding
thirty-five feet in height, and twelve
or fifteen inches in diameter. It is
never found in masses, but scattered

LIST OP FOREST-TREES.

113

in the forests, and is more common
near Lakes Ontario and Erie, than
elsewhere. TiieViri^inian or flowerinc;
hop-hornbeam attains to a greater
height than tlie former, It is a more
ornamental tree, the leaves beinglarger
and of a finer tint of green • the value
of the wood is similar tcT that now
mentioned.

Species for Ornament, S(C.

! HOP-HOnNBEAjr,

oil I RON- WOOD. OSTRYA. Native of

Common vulgaris . . . Italy . . .

Virginian vhyinica . . .N.Amer.

CupuLiFER.5:. Aat. Sys.

Eng. Name.

Hazi.e-thee.

Bot. Name.
CoKYLUS.

Moncecia Polijandria. Linn.
Male Flower — anient., imbricated ; calyx, a
scale ; corolla, none ; stamina, eight. Fe-
male Flowek — calyx, two-parted, lace-
rated ; corolla, none ; styles, two ; seed, an
oval nut, fixed in the calyx, which remains
permanent.

Time of solving— Fehruairy : should be
preserved in sand moderately dry,
during the winter. If the fruit be an
object, the best kmds must be propa-
gated by layers. L^se*— Underwood
or coppice, which, being of under size,
is applied to the purposes of making
hoops, spars, forks, hurdles, withes,
wattling, crates, &c., for which it is
esteemed. It may be cut every seven
years. Mr. Belcher, in Young's
Annals, vol. viii. p. 186, mentions,
that in Kent the best soil for the
tilbert is a strong loam, the fruit pro-
duced ? on which is large and not
maggoty ; and that an acre has some-
times been sold for 50/. They are
generally planted at 12 feet apart,
the intervening gi-ound being occu-
pied with green crops, the culture of
which requiring the frequent use of
the hoe, is productive of benefit to
the filbert plant, which is kept pruned
to the height of six feet, and the
diameter of the bush thus formed to
about the same dimensions. The
Constantmople hazel attains to the
size of a tree. It was introduced
into Enirland in 1665, by Mr. .John
Kea. Linnaeus mentions a very large
tree of it in the Leyden Garden, m
1736, sown there by Clusius, above
a century before. It is too much
neglected by planters in England.
The raceme, or fruit-bunch, is' very
large in this species, and the indi-

vidual nuts are twice the size of those
of the common hazel.

Species for Ornament, S(C.
hazletree. corvlus.

Common avelldna . . .Britain

Var. White filbert alba

„ Red filbert . . rubra . .

„ Oval-fruited , oviita .

„ Barcelona . . . barceloucnsis Spain

„ Cobnut griindis .... Britain

„ Clustered . . .ylomerdta . .

Lambert's tiibulosa . . . S. Europe

Dwarf American Jmmilts ....N.Amer.

Cuckold americuna , . .

Common do rostrdta. . . . .

Constantinople. ..colunia . . . .Constan.

CuP'JLiFER.E (subordo third). Nut. Si/s,

Oak-tree. Quercus.

Moncecia Polyandria. ~Linn.

Male Flower— ca/y.r, bell-shaped, half fine-
cleft ; corolla, none ; stamina, five to ten.
Female Flower — calyx, bell-shaped, en-
tire, rough; corolla, none; style, one;
stigma, ihve& ; seed, a nut (acorn), ovate,
cylindrical, fixed in a short hemispherical
cup.

Time of m«'?V?^— Beginning of Novem-
ber ; or if deferred till spring, lay them
upon a cool dry floor, to prevent their
sprouting or vegetating. Soil— A rich
loam, with a clayey subsoil, brings the
oak to the greatest perfection ; but it
may be profitably cultivated on al-
most every description of soil, except
boggy or peaty. Uses— The value of
oak timber is too well known to need
any description here. It has already
been mentioned at p. 24, that there
are two species or varieties of the
British oak, Quercus robur, which
differ considerably from each other in
the value of their timber. They are
considered by some botanists as
merely varieties, Quercus robur ped-
unculata, et Quercus robur sessili-
flora; while others, as Sir James
Smith, makes them distinct species,
Quercus robur et Quercus sessiliflora.
The footstalks of the fertile flowers,
acorns, and leaves, afford the most
obvious character of distinction : in the
former or more valuable variety, the
footstalks of the flowers and acorns
are longer, while in the inferior variety
the footstalks are very short, or scarce-
ly perceptible. On the contrary, as
regards the leaves, the footstalks of
the Quercus robur are shorter than
in those of the Quercus sessiliflora,
and the body of the leaf is likewise

114

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

less equally and regularly divided.
The Durmast oak, Quercus pubescens,
lias been considered a variety also,
but having an inferior quality of wood,
it is perhaps better to consider it a
distinct species. The distinguishing
character of this species is in having
the under side of the leaf pubescent ;
in other respects it nearly agrees with
the Quercus sessilifiora, in having
the leaf and fruitstalks almost sitting,
and the leaves less deeply indented.
The leaves of the inferior species are
also observed to hang longer on the
tree ; sometimes they continue all the
winter, approaching towards the cha-
racter of an evergreen. This last
distinction, however, is not always
to be depended on, as the soil and
health of the individual tree influence
its habit in this respect. In our own
experience we have by no means found
this inferior species, Quercus sessili-
flora, and its near ally to the Dur-
mast oak, Quercus pubescens, so com-
mon as the foot-stalked oak, Quercus
robur ; but, on the contrary, compara-
tively uncommon. Although there
are not such clear and specific facts
recorded of the comparative difference
of vaUie between the quality of these
two species of oak, as to determine
the exact amount of loss which is
occasioned every time the acorns of
the inferior species are used for plant-
ing, instead of those of the more valu-
able above mentioned, yet the general
opinion being so strong in favour of the
superiority of the foot-stalked oak,
that it is of much importance to col-
lect and sow the acorns of that species
only*. We have already, at p. 23,
24, 25, described the mode of rearing
the oak from the acorn on the spot
where it is to remain for the produc-
tion of timber ; the soil on which it
attains to great perfection (p. 49),
■ and the best size of plants, from nur-
sery rows, when the more general
mode of rearing oak by transplanting
is adopted (p. 34.) We have before

* The specific botanical characters are, accord-
ing to Sir J. Smith, as follows : — ' Quercus ri/hur —
Leaves, decidnous, oblong, wider towards the ex-
tremity; their sinuses rather acute ; lobes obtuse.
Fruitstalks, elongated.' — ' Quercus sessilijlurit —
/.tores on elongated stalks, deciduous, oblong, with
opposite acute sinuses. Fruit, sessile.' — Engl. Fl.
p. 149—150.

The above discriminating characters are, ac-
cording to our experience, as clear as the nature
of the distinctions described will admit, but
scarcely sufficient to constitute species.

also mentioned some oak trees re-
markable for the perfection of growth
they had attained ; and did the limits
of these pages permit, we could add
greatly to the number from specimens
which were, or are now in Earl
Povvis's Park, near Ludlow ; Earl of
Surrey's, AVorksop ; Lord Bagofs in
Staffordshire ; Lord Holland's, Ampt-
hill Park*, Bedfordshire; WTthy Park,
Shropshire, Dennington Park, Berk-
shire, in the weald of Kent, New
Forest, Hampshire, &c. These two
species of oak constitute a consider-
able portion of the forests, from the
sixtieth to the thirty-fifth degree of
north latitude, extending over a por-
tion of the north of Asia, and the
northern point of Africa.
The common oak is considered to be
the longest lived tree of the British
forests. Those in the New Forest,
mentioned by Mr. Gilpin in his Forest
Scenery, v. ii, p. C3, which • chronicle
on their furrowed trunks, ages before
the Conquest,' give an idea of the very
great length of existence this species
of tree is capable of maintaining ; but
for facts, on which to found a satisfac-
tory conclusion of the average dura-
tion of vegetable life in this, and other
forest-trees, we have only the test
mentioned at p. 5, that of ascertaining
the number of the concentric circles
in the transverse section of the root,
stem, or branch of the tree, and how-

* The circumference of one of these oaks at its
base measures upwards of 40 feet, at its mean
height about 30 feet : it is nearly hollow, and exhi-
bits a concavity apjiarently sufficient to contain
four or five middle-sized persons standing together
withinside. The branches have been of very large
dimensions, and one that still remains is equal in
size to many a parent oak. The age of this tree
must be very great, but the loss of the central wood
will prevent the period of its age or duration bein^
ascertained ; and we believe there are no records of
the planting of these oaks otherwise to determine
this interesting point. The following lines are in.
scribed on a plate affixed to this remarkable oak :
Majestic tree ! whose wrinkled form hath stood.
Age after age, the Patriarch of the wood ;
Thou who hast seen a thousand springs unfold
Their ravel'd buds, and dip their liowers in gold.
Ten thousand times yon moon relight her horn.
And that bright star of evening gild the morn; —
Gigantic oak ! thy hoary head sublime
Erewhile must perish in the wrecks of time.
Should round thy head innocuous lightnings shoot,
And no fierce whirlwind shake thy steadfast root,
Vet shalt thou fall ; thy leafy tresses fade.
And those bare, scatter'd antlers strew the glade :
Arm after arm shall leave the mould'ring bust.
And thy firm fibres crumble into dust.
The Bluse alone shall consecrate thy name.
And by her powerful art prolong thy fame ;
Green shall ihy leaves expand, thy iiranches play,
And bloom for ever in th' immortal lay !

LIST OF FORE&T-TRKES.

]1!j

ever satisfactory this tost may be for
this important object, it is but too
seldom employed, if we are to judire
by the few records of the ages of
valuable trees, not only of the oak,
but of all others of the first class of
timber that are to be found. Were
records of planting kept in the family
archives of those who plant; contain-
ing the facts of the age of the plants,
\vhen transplanted to their timber
sites, the nature and preparation of
the soil at the period of planting, and
the after culture until the trees at-
tained to a timber size, the benefit to
science and to practice would be great.
(See note, *p. 11.)

The Turkey oak, Quercus arris, was
introduced into England in 1739. It
is a handsome growing tree, and is
perhaps the most valuable species
next to the British oak. It will thrive
on most kinds of soil ; but a strong
loam is that which it most affects.
The wood exhibits all the good pro-
perties of that of the common oak ;
but the period of its introduction into
England has not allowed of any suffi-

,' cient trial to determine its compara-
tive durability. It is highly deserving
of a place in every plantation of fo-
rest-trees, where the soil is adapted to
the growth of the oak, elm, and chest-
nut. The acorns are oblong, and the
cup mossy. The leaves are deciduous,
and readily distinguished from those of
the common oak by their ovate-oblong
shape and slightly flat sinuate margins.

Michaux informs us, that there are forty-
four species of oak found in America
between the iOth and 48th degree of
north latitude : of these he has de-
scribed and figured twenty- six spe-
cies*, which are all interesting for
their different habits of foliage and
growth ; for general utility, however,
there appears to be not one equal to

• His arrangement is as follows : — First, fructifi-
cation annual, with lobed leaves.

White-oak quercus dlba.

European oak rulur.

European white oak. . .rubur jiedunculuta. ]

Jlossy-cup white odk. .uUvaJurmis.

Over-cup oak viacnudrpa.

Post oak ubtitsil'Jba.

Over-cup oak lyrdta.

Second : — Leaves toothed.

.Swamp-white oak dlscnlor vel Michauxii.

Chestnut-white paltislris.

Kock-chestnut muntana vel munticola.

Yellow oak acuminata vel castunca.

Small chestnut oak.. ..prinus veiprinoides.

Division 2d. Fructilication biennial; leaves

our own native species, Quercus ro-
bur. The white oak before noted ap-
proximates nearer in valuable pro-
perties to the British oak than any
other. In favourable situations it
rises to seventy or eighty feet in height,
and six or seven feet in diameter. To
inquiries made to English, French,
and American shipwrights, this in-
telligent author learnt that the gene-
ral opinion agreed in the conclusion,
that European oak was tougher and
more durable from the superior close-
ness of its grain, but that the Ameri-
can species was more elastic, and re-
quired a shorter time, and only half
the weight to bend it ; and he judi-
ciously adds, that this advantage,
though important in ship-building,
does not compensate for the openness
of its pores. In America it is much
used in the construction of mills and
dams, where it is exposed to be al-
ternately wet and dry. The wooden
bridge — nearly three thousand feet
long, that unites Boston and Cam-
bridge— is supported by posts of white
oak, from sixteen to twenty feet in
length, which have replaced those of
white pine, on which it originally-
stood.

The American mossy-cup oak has the
lobe of the leaves so deeply indented
as to give them the appearance of
pinnate-leaves. The branches of the
first and secondary limbs have a pen-
dulous habit, which, with its generally
handsome top, claims for this spe-
cies a place in plantations. The qua-
lity of its timber has not been proved
in England. In America it attains
to sixty or seventy feet in height.

The over-cup white oak is distinguished
for the largeness of the leaves. In

mucronated, except the thirteenth species.
Section lirst — leaves obtuse or entire : —

Live oak virens

Cork oak suber.

M'illow-leaved phellos.

'•'^"rel imbricdria vel laurifolia,

Upland cinerca.

Running pumila.

Section second — leaves lobed : —

Bartram oak hctcrophylla.

Water oak aqiiatiia.

Black oak iiiyra \c\ferruginca.

Bear oak Banht^H.

Third section— leaves multifid, or many cleft :—

Barren-scrub oak qiicrcus CaUsbcei.

Spanish oak Julcdta.

Black oak tinctdria.

Scarlet oak cucciiiea.

Grey oak ambic/ua.

Pin oak palustris.

Ked oak rubra.

I 2

IIG

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

the United States they are found to
measure frequently fifteen inches long
and eiijht broad. The acorns are
large, and the lips of the cup are fre-

• quently fringed with a series of flexi-
ble filaments. This tree is also de-
serving of a place in British planta-
tions.

The lobed-leaved, or post oak, is a tree
of a secondary size. Michaux states,
that the preference given in the West
Indies to the staves from Baltimore
and Norfolk is due, in a great mea-
sure, to their being made of the wood
of this species. It is an ornamental
tree, but its merits for the produce of
timber have not yet been proved in
England.

The over-cup oak, or lyre-leaved, affects
a moist soil, and is of a large habit
of growth. The shape of the leaves
and general habit of the tree render
it interesting. It has not yet received
in England the requisite time and
culture to prove its properties for the
produce of timber. In America Mi-
chaux states its height to be eighty
feet, and its circumference eight to
twelve feet.

The swamp oak, Quercus discolor, is
much less common in America than
many of the other oaks. We have
seen only one plant of it in England.
Michaux describes it as a beautiful
tree, more than seventy feet high ;
the leaves six or eight inches long
and four broad, smooth and of a dark
green above, and downy underneath.
We believe this species to be nearly
allied to the British durmast oak,
Quercus pubescens.

The chestnut white, or marsh oak, Quh--
cus Michaiixii, is considered to be
one of the most majestic trees of the
American forests. It is described,
according to the above, as rising to
ninety feet in stature, with a straight
clear stem of fifty feet, crowned with
an expansive summit. The timber of
it is considered inferior to the white
oak, though superior to some other
species. We have seen young trees
only of it in England.

The rock chestnut leaved yellow oaks
are as yet only distinguished for the
shape of their leaves, which more or
less resemble those of the sweet chest-
nut. The last mentioned is considered
the most interesting. The acorns are
of an inferior size, but of a sweeter

quality than those of the other species
mentioned. The small chestnut oak
rarely exceeds thirty inches in height,
and ought perhaps to have been passed
over here without notice ; however,
it is very prolific, and where acorns
are in request for the food of game,
pheasants for instance, this dwarf oak
may be planted with advantage. The
acorns are very sweet. ' Of its ha-
bits in its native soil,' Michaux re-
marks, that ' Nature seems to have
sought a compensation for the dimi-
nutive size of this shrub in the abund-
ance of its fruit ; the stem, which is
sometimes no bigger than a quill, is
stretched at full length upon the
ground by the weight of its thickly
clustering acorns.'

The live oak, Quercus vlrens, was men-
tioned at p. 45,* as highly deserving
of a trial in situations on the southern
coast. Michaux remarks, that it is
never found farther than from fifteen
to twenty miles from the shore. The
eminent success of Mr. Lucas in trans-
planting trees of large growth of this
species selected from the woods, oa
his estate at Middleburg, prove clearly
its vivacious habits. It appears to
be confined to the southern states of
North America, viz. the Floridas
and Louisiana, as its natural soil and
climate, extending no farther north
than Norfolk in Virginia. He further
mentions, that in the course of four or
five hundred miles between Cape Ca-
naveral in East Florida, to Savannah
in Georgia, he frequently saw it on the
beach, or half buried in the movable
sands on the downs, where it had
preserved its freshness and vigour,
though exposed during a long lapse
of time to the fury of the wintry tem-
pest, and to the ardour of the sum-
mer's sun. Its usual height in its
native soil is from forty to forty-five
feet, and one foot in diameter. The
leaves are evergreen. The wood
is extremely hard, tough, and very
lasting. It is used for ship-building,
screws, cogs for mill wheels, and other
purposes, for all which it is preferred
to the white oak.

The cork-tree, or cork oak, is a native
of the south of Europe ; it was intro-
duced into England about ninety or a

• We here beg to correct a passage by inserting
an omission at page 45, line 18 from tlie top ; after
the words,' tlie live oak will not exist in England,'
add, ' in elevated exposed iituations,'

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

117

hundred years ago*. It is found
growing naturally in the south of
France, in Spain, Portugal, and in
some parts of the states of Barbary.
It rarely exceeds forty feet in height
and three feet in diameter. The wood
is considered to be less durable than
the common oak, although it is com-
pact and heavy. Its growth in Eng-
land is confined to warm sheltered
situations. In exposed situations it
cannot be reared. The largest we have
seen in England is in the Royal Gar-
dens, Kew,where its characteristic pro-
perty, that of producing in perfection
cork-bark, was, when we saw it a few
years since, very evident and interest-
in?. Abroad the cork is considered
fit to be first taken from the tree when
it reaches twenty-five years of growth,
but this product is not of a quality
to be used for better purposes. In
ten years it is renewed, but it is not
imtil the tree has attained to the age
of forty-five or fifty years that the
bark possesses all the requisite pro-
perty for good corks. July and Au-
gust are the seasons for taking it from
the trees, which is carefully done, so
as not to wound the alburnum ; for
should this happen (it may be unne-
cessary here to state), the cork bark
is not asfain renewed on that part.
The acorns should be sown as soon
as received from abroad in small sin-
gle pots, and shifted into larger as
the roots increase, until the plants are
from one to two feet high, when they
may be transplanted for good ; they
may, however, be kept until they are
six feet or more in height, provided
care be taken to prevent the tap-
root from passing down below the pot
to any great length. The ilex, or
evergreen oak, may be reared with
advantage in the same manner as
that now described. It is more hardy
than the preceding tree. Its merits
for ornament and shelter are well
known ; it appears to have been in-
troduced into England from the south
of France in 1581.
The kermes oak, Qi/t'rctis cnccifera, is
worthy of remark here, although of
so humble a habit of growth as not
to attain the size which constitutes a
timber tree. The scarlet, or red pur-

• The Hortiis Kewensis states it to have been
introduced into England in 1699, by the Duchess
of Beeutort.

pie dye of the name, which supplanted
the substitute obtained from a species
of the mure.r, shell-fish, and used for
the anciently celebrated Phoenician
purple dye, is afforded by this oak-
shrub (for the plant seldom rises above
five feet, and often does not exceed
two,) in the form of small red galls,
caused by the puncture and subse-
quent deposition of the egirs of an
insect, called coccus ilicis. This dye,
in its turn, however, has been sup-
planted by the cochineal coccus cacti,
an insect itself, found on one or more
species of the cactus, or Indian fig,
but more particularly the Cactus cochi-
mllifer or the Opimtia cochinilllfera.
The kermes oak is a native of the
south of Europe, and was introduced
into England about 1683.
Of the other species of oak enumerated
below, the dyers' oak, Quercus tincto-
ria, demands notice, on account of
its bark furnishingthe yellow dye, </Mer-
citron, a substance much used in
dyeing wool, silk, and paper-hangings
It is I the cellular integument of the
bark that supplies the colouring mat-
ter. Doctor Barncroft states, that
one part of quercitron is equal to ten
parts of woad. It is stated, that to
dye wool it is sufficient to boil the
quercitron with an equal weight of
alum ; in dipping the stuff the deepest
shade is given at first, and afterwards
the straw-colour*. This species of oak
appears to have been introduced into
England as early as 1 739 ; but its
useful property now alluded to seems
not to have been proved, or, in fact,
tested in this climate. Its wood is
considered inferior to that of the com-
mon oak.

Timber or Forest Species.

OAK-TREE. QUERCUS. Nati»eof Ft.

~ (robur pe-lr> -i • m

^'""""on I duncuhita P"*^"* ' • '^^

40

England. . —
S. Europe . 50

Sitting acomed . .sessilijlora

^Voolly-petioled, j „^^,,„„
or Durmast . . J'

Tiu-key-mossy-ciipsc^r»-is . . .

Var. Rough-lvd do.bulldta . . .

J, Nar.-lvd. do.. «(«««/« .... —

„ Fulham dcntala ....

Everojreen Hex —

Var. Notch-lvd. do. serruta .... —

J, Long-leaved .ot/ow^ff ... , —

„ Lucomb's . . .liicombediM. Levant —

Champion red. . . .riibra N.Ainer.. .80

Var. Mountain red vionldna . . . — .

« North American Sylva., i. p. 93.

118

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

. ....40

. S. Europe

. 2 to 15

. ....80

Species /<»• Ornament, or whose value for
Timber of British growth has not yet been
usc°rt(tinecl.

OAK-TREE. QUERCUS. Native of Ft.

White* alba c N.Amer. . . 70

Willow-leaved. . . .phtl/os .... .... 50

Live virens 40 to 45

Ash-coloured ....cincrea .... ■ 18.. '20

Laurel-leaved . . . .laurifolia, . . . . . .40

Var. Blunt do. . . .<ibtasa

Tile-cupped imbricdta .

Holly-leaved . . . .gramiLiitia

Cork-tree suber . . . .

Kermes coccifera.

Broad chestnut-lvd./iy/««s . .

Var. Long leaved .oblongata. . .

Common water. . .aqudtica . . .N.Amer

Var.Vari-lvd. do. .heterophylla . .

J, Lon<;-lvd. do..e/owy«i'a ... ..

J, Entire-lvd. do. i«i:/a'(saf. . . .

„ Nar.-lvd. do.. .o/^''WMrt/«. . .

Black nigra

Three-lobed triloba. . . .

Downy-leaved .... elongdta . »

Dyers tinctoria . .

Scarlet coccineu . .

Marsh paliistris . .

Ilex-leaved ilicifolia . .

Gt. prickly-cupped 1 , .,
orVelanida .. ]'^9^loP' •

Italian ^sculus ....

Starred stelldta . .N. Amer. 40, 50

Lyre-leaved lijnita ■ 80

Grey boredlis .... 50

Bear-oak banistcri . . . 3, 4

Beech-like faginea . . . .S.Europe

Hisped-cupped lialiphleos . .France

Soft-ja<^ged-leaved Tauzin . . . . S. Europe

Austrian Austriaca . .Austria

Amer.-mossy-cup .ovalcefdrmis N. Amer.

Clustred conglo)nerdtaHuro^&

Cypress .fastigidta . . . Pyrenees

Repaud repdndn . . . . N. Amer.

Cork-like pseudo-suber S[)aia

Over-cup-white . . .macrocdrpa .N.Amer. .60

30

.S. E

urope

Barren-scrub .... cutesbcei

Dwarf nana ....

Spiny-leaved agrifdlia . ,

Dwarf-chestnut . . .prinoides . .
Yellow-chestnut ,
Swamp-white . . ,
Rock-chestnut. .
Two-coloured . .

Turner's Tumerii .

Levant infectoria

, .castaneu. .
.michduxii
. . montdna .
, . bicolor . . .

10, 20

....70

....80

40, 60

70

. Levant

* The white oak is in high estim.ition in North
America. Michaux states that the vahie of staves
made of this species of oak received by England
in 1S08 amounted to 146,000 dollars, and the num-
ber of staves sent to the West Indies exceeded
.')3,O00,000. The price has varied greatly within
the last hundred years : 1/20, three dollars a thou-
sand ; in 17!)ri, eighteen dollars; and in 1808,
thirty dollars. In 1807, before the American em-
bargo, they were advertised at fifty-five dollars,
and in 1803, after that municipal regulation, at
one hundred dollars I

0.\K-TREE. QUERCUS. Native of

Subdeciduous . . . .castelldna . . S. Europe

Glossy-leaved . . . .lezermidna .

Spreading expdnsa . . .

Calycine calyci/ia . . .

Portugal lusitdnica .

Crenated crendta . . .

Running sericea . . .

Sea maritima .

. Portugal
. S. Europe
.N.Amer.20in.
. *3,8

CupulifercB. Nat. Sys.

Eng. Name.

Beech-tree.

Bot. Name.
F.A.GUS.

Alonoecia Pulyandria. Linn.
Male Flower — cn/yx, bell-shaped, five-cleft;
corolla, none ; stamina, five to twelve. Fe-
male Flower — calyx, four-cleft ; corolla,
none ; styles, two or three, three-cleft ;
seeds, an angular or three-corner shaped
nut, one or two contained in each muricate
capsule, which opens with four valves, and
emits the seeds or nuts.

Time of sowing the seeds — from October
to February : they require particular
protection from -field-mice and other
vermin. Soil — Sihceous, sandy soils
are well adapted for the growth of the
beech ; or it will attain a great size in
elevated clayey loams incumbent on
sand : it will prosper on chalky, stony,
barren soils. Uses — It is used by
cabinet-makers, turners, mill and
wheel-wrights, for cogs, spokes, and
felloes. In the dockyards it is used
for wedges, &c. It is also used by
musical-instrument-makers for sound-
ing-boards, &c. ; by coopers for clap-
boards. Near large towns it is in
great demand for billet-wood. It
affords a large quantity of potash
and good charcoal.

In Devonshire, where the severity of the
western winds is great, the beech ap-
pears to withstand the bad effects bet-
ter than most other kinds of trees, and
this hardy habit of it renders it valu-
able for planting in high chalky and
gravelly soils, where shelter is of so
much importance to the surrounding
lands. According to Vancouvert, the
beech and sycamore are found most
powerful to resist the rigour of the
westerly gales. The nuts, or must, of
the beech afford an oil % by expression,

* Michaux, in his ' North American Sylva,'
states, that there are found forty-four species of
oak between tlie 20tli and 48th degrees of north
latitude of that continent.

t Survey of Devon, p. 251,

X It is considered next in fineness to the olive
oil. According to Michaux, the forests of Eu and
Cr^cy, in the department of the Oise, have yielded
in a single season two millions of bushels of beecU-
nuts. — Ibid.

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

119

which the poorer inhabitants of Silesia
are said to use as a substitute for but-
ter. The nuts are sonielimes roasted,
and used for cotfee. This tree is a
native of tlie greater part of Europe,
but is not found so far north as the
northern pi-ovinces of Sweden. In
England it prevails most in the range
of chalk hills which run from Dorset-
shire, through Wiltshire, Hampshire,
Surre}', Sussex, and Kent, and more
partially in Berkshire, Buckingham-
shire, and Hertfordshire. It is not
imcommon also ontheCotswold Hills
in Gloucestershire, and in some parts
of Monmouth. In Scotland, where
its being indigenous is doubled, large
plantations have been made, particu-
larly by the Earl of Fife in Murray-
shire, and by George Ross, Esq., of
Cromarty. In certain cantons of Bel-
gium, particularly near the village of
St.Nicholas, between Ghent and Ant-
werp, very solid and elegant fences
are made by planting young beeches
seven or eight inches apart, and bent
in opposite directions, so as to cross
each other, and form a trellis. During
the first season they are bound toge-
ther by osiers at the points of inter-
section, and in time become grafted,
forming apertures of four or five inches
in diameter.
The bark of the American white beech
is used for tanning leather, when there
is a scarcity of oak bark : the leather
made from it is white and durable, but
inferior in this last respect to that
tanned with oak bark. The purple
or broad-leaved American beech is
held in higher esteem in North Ame-
rica than the former. It is a hardier
and a larger-growing tree. The tim-
ber is described as being less compact
or solid than that of the English
beech ; planks of it, however, three
inches thick, are exported to England.
In summer, while the sap is in the
vessels of the wood, it is considered a
superior season for felling the beech
to that of winter ; and Michaux states
that experience has demonstrated the
fact, that the timber felled in the for-
mer season is greatly more durable
than that which is felled in winter.
Timber or Forest Species.
Cupidiferce. Nat. S>/s.

BEECH-TBEE. FAGUS.

Monacia Folyandria. Linn.
Common. ...... .sylvdtica . . .Britain . . .70

Species /or Ornament, 8^'c.

BEECH-TREE. FAGUS. Nativeof Ft.

Var. Purple purpurea . .Germany .i^O

,, Golden stripe! „.,•■
' , , ^ ifolus aiireis
leaved y

Copjier-leaved .... cuprea

Broad-leavud. . . . .ferruginea .N.Amer.. ,40

White sijlvtsiris. , . ... ,30

Fern-leaved comptoniafol. •

Cupuliferce. Nat. Sijs.

Eng. Name.

Chestnut.

Bot. Name.
CaoTANEA.

Moncecia Polyandria. Linn.

Male Flower — «we??<, naked; rn/yj*. naked;
ccii-olla, five petals ; stamina, ten to twenty.
Female Flower — cnA/.r, five or six-leaved,
muricate, or covered with soft spines ; co-
rolla, none ; stigma, pencil-shaped ; seeds,
nuts, three, ovate, three-sided, enclosed in
a roundish capsule, covered with soft spines.

Time of soioing the seeds — February,
Soil — A rich sandy loam raises the
chestnut to the greatest perfection as a
timber-tree ; but it appears to come
to great maturity in clayey soils, if
free from stagnant moisture. It will
thrive also in gravel or sand, if not in
too bleak or exposed a situation.
Uses — The timber of the castanea
vesca, or sweet chestnut (see page 9,
Jjg. e), is said to be equal to that of
the oak. For underwood or shelter,
in a favourable climate, there can
be no doubt of its great value, af-
fording a fall in every ten or twelve
years for hop-poles, hoops, &c. The
chestnut, if not originally a native
of Britain, has at least been long na-
turalized in the climate. The most
ancient tree of this species on record is
probably that mentioned by Bradley*
in Lord Ducie's park, at Totworth,
Gloucestershire, He states that, in
1150, it was styled the great chestnut
of Totworth; and that, in 1720, it
measured fifty-one feet in circum-
ference at six feet from the ground.
The same tree is mentioned, in 1791,
by Lysons, who etched two views of
it. This chestnut, it is highly probable,
had lived a thousand years, and hence
we may conclude its long duration
in the soil. At Buckland, the seat of
Robert Throckmorton, Esq., M. P., are
to be seen some remarkably fine speci-
mens of this tree ; in several places in
Kent, and on the banks of the Tamer,

* Gentleman's JIagazine for 1706, p. 321, See
also Martyu's Miller's Gurd. Diet.

120

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

in Cornwall, all evincino; the great per-
fection to which it arrives on a sandy,
gravelly, or clayey loam. The wood,
as already mentioned, is considered to
be of equal value to that of the oak,
and is applied to the same purposes:
opinions, however, vary on the subject,
and it is probable that the conclusions
drawn from the supposed facts of the
.-woodofthechestnut being found sound
in very old buildins^s, are liable to
some degree of doubt, inasmuch as a
decisive proof of such wood being
chestnut and not oak does not appear
to have been brought forward. We
have at pages 8 to 1 1 pointed out a
certain means of identifying the wood
of different species of trees. The value
of the bark of the chestnut for tanning
is inferior to oak bark, and the tree is
not so hardy ; with these deductions,
and they are considerable, the two spe-
' cies of trees may be considered of equal
interest to the planter. The value of
the chestnut for coppice wood for the
produce of hop poles, is well known.
The varieties of the common chestnut
mentioned below are very ornamental
trees. The American chestnut differs
but little from the English. It is most
common in the mountainous districts
of the Carolinas and of Georgia, and
it does not appear beyond the 44th
degree of north latitude. It flourishes,
Michaux states, on the sides of moun-
tains, where the soil in general is gra-
velly. The nuts are smaller and sw^eeter
than those of the European species,
and are sold at three dollars per
bushel in the markets of New York,
Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The
wood is thought to be inferior to the
European species. In France that of
the common chestnut is held in high
esteem for coppice wood : it is cut
every seven years for small hoops,
&c. ; at fourteen years for large hoops,
and at twenty-five for posts and light
timber. Land so occupied, it is stated,
yields a rent superior to that under
other kinds of crops in the propor-
tion of four to one. The Chmcapin
chestnut is not otherwise remarkable
than for the beauty of its foliage and
the diminutive size of its fruit.

Timber or Forest Species.

CHESTNUT. CASTANEA. | Native of Ft.

Sweet or Spanish . I't'sca England. .50

American , Americana .America >—

Species for Ornament, S^-c,

CHESTNUT, CASTANEA. Nativ of Ft.

Var. Gold-striped .vtsca England.', 50

„ Fern-leaved. . —

„ Shining-leaved > —

„ Dwf. orChin-1 / ., „ «

cjjpin "^pumila N.Amer.. .—

PLATANE.E. Nat. Sys.

Eng. Name. Bot. Name,

PhANE-TKEE. PlaTaNLS.

Monwcia Pohjandria. Linn.

Male Flower — anient, j^lobe-shaped ; calyx,
none ; corolla, scarcely perceptible ; «»-
thers, growing around filament. Female
Flower — calyx, ; ament, globular ;

corolla, many-petalled ; stigma, recurved ;
seed, roundish, with a foot-stalk, terminated
by an awl-shaped style, with a capillary
pappas at the base.

Time of sowing the seeds — immediately
after they are ripe, in a moist, shady
situation, or by layers and cuttings in
March. Soil — This tree pi'efers moist
loam, but free from stagnant moisture.
Uses — Except for fuel, the timber ap-
pears to be of little value. The trees
are admired for their beautiful shade.
The oriental plane is hghly praised by
ancient writers. yElian and Pliny
extol it for the magnitude of its growth
and beauty of form. It is generally
believed that this tree was introduced
into En<rland by the great Lord
Chancellor Bacon, although its intro-
duction, according to Turners Herbal,
is set down as in 1562, or one year
before the birth of that illustrious man ;
one thing is certain, that his plantation
of it at Verulam first brought this
tree into public notice. Its culture of
late years has fallen into disrepute
from the inferior quality of its timber.
The American plane, or button-wood,
is also a tree of large growth. Mi-
chaux measured one on the banks
of the Ohio, whose stem, at five feet
from the ground, gave forty-seven
feet in circumference. This tree being
more tender, or liable to be injured by
the late spring frosts, has been spar-
ingly planted of late years in England,
and its wood is not of more value
than the former.

Timber or Forest Species.

PLANE-TREE. PLATANUS.

Oriental oiientalis. . . Levant ... 50

American occidentdlis ,N .Amer . . ,70

Spanish acerifolia , , Levant

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

121

Species /of Onianicnf,^-c.

I'tANE-TREE. PLATANUS.

Wave-leaved cuneata . .

Eng. Name.

Sweet Gum-tree.

Native of Ft-

. .Levant . . .50

Bot. Name.
LlQUIDAMBEK.

Mai.f. Flower — ament, conical, common ;
calyx, or invulucre, foiir-leavcd ; corolla,
none ; Jilamenls, numerous. Female
Flower — calyj', in a globe, four-luaved ;
corolla^ none ; styles, two ; capsules, two,
enclosed at the base by the calyx, one-
celled ; seeds, many.

Ti7ne of solving; the seeds — Spring.in pots
or boxes of light earth ; to be shaded
during summer, and protected from
severe frost in winter : may be pro-
pagated also by layers. Soil — It will
succeed best in a sandy loam, but
will thrive in most kinds of soils of
an intermediate quality between mois-
ture and dryness. Use — Ornamental.

Species for Ornament, 8fc.

SWEET GUM-TREE. LIOUIDAMBER.

Maple-leaved . . . .sfyracifora.'N.Amev,. .30
Oriental imbtrbe .... —

CONIFERS.

Suhordo TaxinecE. I'J'at, Sys.

Maidenhaired-tree. Salisburia.

Monoecia Polyandria. Liitn.

Male Flower — ament, naked, filiform ; co-
rolla, none ; anthers, incumbent, deltoida ;
Female Flower — solitary ; calyx, i'our-

■ cleft ; seed, a drupe with a triangular shell.
Propagated by cuttings.

Time of sowing — Propagated by layers.
Soil — A sandy loam. Uses — Habit
of growth and ornamental foliage.

Species for Orna?nenl, ^'c.
Maidenhair-tree . .adiantifolia ..Tapan . . .20

Yew-tree, Taxus,

Diacia Monadelphia. Linn,

Male Flower — calyx, none, except a four-
leaved perianth like a bud ; corolla, none ;
stamina, many ; anthers, buckler-shajied,
eight-cleft. Female Flower — corolla,
none ; style, none ; seed, ovate, oblong,
projecting with its apex beyond the berry,
which is seated in a globular cup.

Time of soicing seeds — Autumn, as soon
as they are ripe. Soil — Sandy loam ;
but it will also grow in most kinds of
soil, particularly such as are chalky.
Uses — Hedges for shelter. The wood
is used by turners, inlayers, and cabi-

net-makers. It i.s much valued for
flood-gates for fish-ponds, axletrees,
cogs of mills, &c., ])owls, wheels, and
pins for puUies, and by turners for
spoons, cups, &c. It has been dis-
puted whether the yew is poisonous or
not : the facts, however, in confirma-
tion of the poisonous nature of the
whole plant are too numerous to
admit of rational doubt, and, conse-
quently, great caution should be em-
ployed in plant in<r it out of the reach
of the more valuable domestic animals.
That the berries have been eaten in
very small Iquantities with impunity
seems to be admitted; and also that
sheep and goats, according to Lin-
naeus, are less alfected by taking it
into the stomach, than horses and
cows. The yew is a native of Britain,
as well as of other parts of Europe,
of North America, and Japan. The
yew tree was formerly what the oak
now is, the basis of our strength, for
of it the old English yeoman made
his bow,* as he now makes of the oak
his seventy-four gun man of war.
The number of remarkable yew trees in
different parts of the country are very
interesting; and how much more so
would they be rendered, had we re-
cords of the periods when they were
planted I but we must, from want of
space, refer the reader to Evelyn, Gil-
pin, Barrington in Archa;ologia. vii.,
xlviii., and liii., and to Martyn"s Edi-
tion of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary
on this point.

Species for Ortiament , S^c.

YEW-TREE. taxus. Native of Ft.

Common baccdta .... Britain ... 20

Var. Striped-leaved

Upright or Irish . Hibernica. . . ■

Eng. Name.
JUNIPER-TREE.

Bot. Name.

Jlnu-erus,

Subordo Ciiprcssince.

Male Flower — calyx of the ament, a scale;
corolla, none ; stamina, three. Female
Flower — Cff/ya*, three-parted; /Je/a/s, three;
styles, three; pericarp, or covering of the
seed, a fleshy berry, irregular with the
three tubercles of the calyx ; seeds, three,
bonelike, convex on one side and cornered
on the other, oblong-shaped.

Soil — Light, silicious, sandy soils. Uses
— The common juniper-bush is es-
teemed for its beauty as a shrub, and

• Gilpin's Forest Scenery, vol. i. p. 92.

122

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

likewise for its berries, which are used
by disiillfrs and rectifiers of ardent
spirits. Tiie plants are useful for
ornament, when planted by the mar-
gins of woods. The red cedar, Jun'i-
perus Virgi/ma, attains to the size of
a timber tree in deep sandy loam
soils. In that part of Woburn Abbey
Park called the Everjrreens, said to
have been planted by Miller, the cele-
brated author of the Gardener's Dic-
tionary, are to be seen some remark-
ably fine specimens of this tree. In
North America it is found wild as far
as the foriy-fourth and forty-fifth de-
grees. Michaux observes, that it be-
comes less common, and diminishes in
size as it retires from the sea-coast. In
favourable situations, as in the middle
of small islands, and on the borders
of the narrow sounds that flow be-
tween them and the main, it is forty
and forty-five feet in height, and
twelve or fourteen inches in diameter.
The wood is fragrant and fine grained,
strong and durable. In America, the
wood is not plentiful, and is reserved
for those more important purposes
for which these properties are most
required.
The white cedar* grows naturally in
wet grounds in the marine lands of
Maryland, Virginia, and New Jersey.
There it attains to seventy and eighty
feet in height. The wood is lighter
than that of the red cedar, and is less
durable. It is of slow growth in
England, and even in its native soil,
for Michaux counted two hundred
and seventy-seven annual growths in
a stem only twenty-one inches in dia-
meter. The wood is fabricated into
pails, wash-tubs, and churns.

Specise for Ornament, Sfc.

JUNIPER-TEEE. JUNIPERUS. Native of Ft.

Spanish thurifera . . . S. Europe

Tall exctha .... Siberia ... 20

Red cedar virginidna . . N.Amer. . . 30

Savin sabina S.Europe

Var. Striped-leav'd vuriegata . . . •

„ Tamarisk-lvd. tamariscifo/ia

Dauriau daurica .... Dauria

Common communis . . Britain

Var. Swedish .... suecica N. Europe.

„ Brown-berried oxyctdrus . . Spain

Phcsnician phamicia . . . S.Europe

Lycian lycia

* Properly belongs to Thuja sphceroldea of
Sprenge/,hal ranked here according to Willdenow,
under Viipressus thyoides.

JUNIPER-TREE, JUNIPERVS. Kative of Ft.

Scaly-branched. . .sqiunndta. . .Nepal
Pn)strate-Juniper.;j/-osi/Y(7c( . . .N. Amer.
Hemispherical. . .hemisphdnca'^icWy.

Oblong oblonga Armenia

Daurian ddurica . . . .Dauria

Eng. Name. Bot. Name.

Arbor-Vit.b. TllUJ.l.

Calyx, five-parted ; petals, five ; capsule, three-
celled ; seeds, solitary, very smooth, obtuse
at the base, mucronate, and curved inwards.

Time of sowing the seeds — Spring, or as
soon as the seeds are ripe. Sow in
pots filled with a mixture of peat and
loam. The plants are, however, gene-
rally propagated by layers — the first
sort .sometimes by cuttings. Soil —
Moist, sandy loams suit these trees
best : they however attain to fine trees
even in damp clayey soils, or in dry
sandy soils. Uses — They are orna-
mental evergi-eens for the fronts of
plantations. The American arbor-
vitse is the only species which comes
properly under the notice of the forest-
planter. The value of the wood is
considerable ; it is slightly odorous,
very lisrht and soft grained. In Canada,
according to Michaux, it holds the
first place for durability. Fences
made of it last three or four times as
long as those of any other species.
The leaves are made into a salve with
hog's lard, and used in Canada for
rheumatic pains.

Species for Ornament, S^-c.

ARBOR-VIT.E. THUJA.

American occide?itulis ,ii. Amer. . .25

Var.Close-branchedf/ewsa —

Chinese oritntdlis . .China —

Plaited plicdta NootkaSnd.

Weeping pindula. . . .Tartary

Lucas's Caroliniana Carolina

Cyphess-tkee. Cl'PUESSUS.

Male Flower — amcnt, imbricated ; calyx,
of one scale ; corolla, none ; anthers, four,
and sitting, without filaments. Female
Fi-ower — anient, changing to a strobile ;
calyx, one-flowered ; corolla, none ; stigma,
two, concave, points : seed, an angular nut.

Time of sowing the ^eerfs— Spring, in a
warm situation, or in pots, in dry-
light earth : to be kept in the cones
until the period of sowing. Soil —
This tree delights most in a sandy
loam, but it will also thrive and grow
to a considerable height in clayey
soils. Use — Ornamental and econo-
mical, as regards the wood of the

LIST OF FOREST.TREES.

123

evergreen and deciduous cypresses.
The wood of the upriijht evero-reen
cypress is said to resist the attaciis
of worms, and all putrefaction for
many years. Professor Martyn says,
that the doors of St. Peter's Church
at Rome were built of tliis wood, and
which lasted eleven hundred years, or
from Constantine to Pope Euiz;enius
the Fourth's time. This tree deserves
to be more attended to by the British
planter than it is at present. The
deciduous cypress attains to a timber
size in Eniiland, althousjh it is of slow
growth. Havinti been hitherto planted
with a view to ornament rather than
to economy for timber, its merits
have not been proved in England. In
North America its wood is highly
valued, and in Louisiana, it is said to
be profitably substituted for the white
oak and pine. It attains to the largest
size in low, damp, or swampy soils,
in the southern states, rising to one
hundred and twenty feet in height,
and from twenty-five to forty in cir-
cumference.

Species for Ornament, Sfc.

CYPRESS-TREE. CUPRESSUS. Native of Ft.

Upright sempervirensCundia. , . .20

Var. Spreading. . ./iorjso«/a/is. —

Portugal, or Ce-1, ■., ■ „ , ,
J f p tlusiiamca . .Portugal . . —

White thyoides . . . N. Amer.

Com. deciduous . . distichum . .

Var. Long-leaved. «u/a«s

Twisting furulusa Nepal

Eng. Name.

Norfolk Island Pine.

Bot. Name.

Aral'caria.

Dioecia Monade/phia. Linn.

Male Flower — anient., imbricated ; calyx
a woolly scale ; corolla, none ; anthers, teti
to tweh'e, ia the scale connate. Female
Flower — ainent, strobile-shaped ; calyc _
one-scale, spear-shaped, leathery ; corolla,
none ; .stamina, none ; seed, a nut, leathery,
wedge-shaped.

Time of sowing the seeds — In pots as
soon as obtained. Soil — A sandy
loam, in a warm sheltered situation.
Use — Ornamental. The Norfolk
island pine is a most magnificent tree
in its native climate. In England it
is properly a conservatory plant. How
far it may be capable of being accli-
mated has not yet been determined.
Of the Chilian species of Araucaria,
planted in the open air, there is a fine
specimen in the Royal Gardens, Kew,
and one atLordGrenville's,Dropmore.

Governor King states, that he mea-
sured some of the former species in
Norfolk Island, which were two hun-
dred and twenty- eight feet in height
and eleven in diameter.
The wood is white, close grained, and
tough, and it appears to contain no
resin. The bark, however, aflbrds a
fluid partaking of the properties of
that substance. Lamb. Pin.
Species for Ornament, 8(C.

NORFOLK-ISLAND PINE. ARAUCARIA.

SirJosephBanks's.i?wi/-/c«/a . . Chili

Brazilian hrazilidna .Brazil

Norfolk Island . . . excelsa Norf. Isl,

^ Eng. Name.

Pine-tree.

Bot. Name.
PiNUS.

Monoecia Monadelphia. Linn,
Male Flower — calyx, four-leaved ; corolla
none ; stamina, numerous ; anthers, naked.
Female Flower — calyx, scale of the
strobile two-flowered ; corolla, none ; pis-
iil-, none. Male Flower — scales of the
a?«e«/, buckler-shaped ; corolla, noim; an.
titers, adhering to the scales, sitting, or
without filaments. Female Flower — ea-
lijx , scales of the ament, two-flowered ; eo-
rolla, none ; pistil, none. Seed*, a wing
nut.

Time of sowing the seeds — March : the
seeds should not be taken out of the
cones until the time of sowing arrives.
»Soz7— All the fir and pine tribe affect
siliceous, sandy soils, but they will
flourish on rocky, and comparatively
barren soils, for which they are pe-
culiarly adapted. The/r*, pi7ies, and
larches constitute a perfectly natural
genus, or family of trees. The most
obvious or ready character of distinc-
tion between them is to be found in
the natural arrangement of the leaves.
The firs have the leaves solitary, or
issuing from one scale or sheath on
the bark of the branches, over which
they are scattered. The larches have
their leaves in tufts, or little bundles,
which are deciduous, and the pines
have from two to five leaves issuing
from one sheath at their base, and
have the habit of an evergreen. One
property is common to all the species
of this genus, that of affording resin-
ous matter, either from the wood,
bark, or cones. The property of re-
producing a leading stem or branch
when divided, common to all other
trees more or less, is wanting in this
family of trees ; and hence they are

• Sir J. Smith, in Cortip, H.B.

124

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

called non-reprorluefive trees (see
p. 33.) The universal use of the
wood (patre 10,/'o-.o.) renders its pro-
perties and comparative value so well
known as to relieve the reader from de-
tails here on that point. The species
which experience hitherto has proved
to he most deserving: of the attention
of the profitable British planter are —

The silver fir, which attains to the height
of one hundred and ten feet and up-
wards, with a proportionate diameter,
in this climate. — (See pages 80 — 89.)
It is very apt, during its first stages
of growth, to have its young shoots
cut by the spring frosts ; and this cir-
cumstance, we believe, is the cause of
the great neglect of planting this va-
luable fir. It has already been re-
marked, that it takes the lead of the
larch, Scotch pine, and spruce after
the first fifteen years of growth, and
therefore its slower progress at first
ought not to prevent its being more
extensively planted than it has hitherto
been in every situation where the fir,
pine, or larch are proper to be planted
for profit or ornament.

The 13ubn of Gilead fir in habit and
api)earance approaches near to the
silver fir, but it is evidently inferior
in every respect, although a very hand-
some evergreen tree. These two species
are often confoimded together*. The
leaves of the silver fir are arranged
nearly on opposite sides of the branch,
comb-like. The under sides of the
leaves have two white lines running
lengthways, which give them a silvery
hue. The leaves of the balm of Gilead
are shorter, blunter, and stand nearly
upright, in double rows, on the upper
side of the branches ; while, in the
silver fir, they are flattened and irre-
gularly single-rowed. According to
Michaux, the resin of this tree is col-
lected in America, and sold under the
name of Balm of Gilead.

The Norway spruce is considered to at-
tain from one hundred and twenty-five
to one hundred and fifty feet in height.
With the Scotch pine it is said to con-
stitute the greatest proportion of the
vast woods of Denmark, Sweden, and

* Silver Fir — Leaves solitary, flat, emarginate,
pectinate ; scales of the cone, very blunt, pressed
close.

Balm of Gilead Fir — Leaves solitary, flat, emargi-
nate, subpectinate, almost upright above, never
flat , scales of the co7ies, when in flower, acumi-
nate ,reflex.

Norway. The timber is held to be
inferior to that of the Scotch pine.
The latter is called red deal, and the
former white deal. This tree attains
to a large size on cold damp clays,
situated on declivities*. The white,
black, and red spruces are of inferior
value to the Norway. In America
the wood of the black spruce is sawn
into boards, and exported to the West
Indies and to England ; Michaux
states that they are sold at one-fourth
cheaper than those of the white pine.

The Scotch pine, Finns si/lresfris, whe-
ther as regards its hardy habits, grow-
ing in severe climates and in soils
ungenial to almost every other kind
of tree, or to its value in the produc-
tion of useful timber, must .stand in
the fir,st rank of forest -trees. The
great elevation in which this tree will
grow was mentioned before at page
44. A large exportation of the tim-
ber takes place from Riga, Memel,
and Dantzic to England. In the
former places, according to Mr. Lam-
bert, it is called red deal, and in Lon-
don yellow deal. According to re-
spectable authority, this species fur-
nishes four fifths of the tar consumed
in the dockyards of Europef.

The pinaster, having an inferior timber,
claims but httle notice from the pro-
fitable planter ; however, it will grow
in situations exposed to the sea air,
and is an ornamental tree.

• The resin, which concretes on the bark after
a wound, being boiled in water, and strained
through a linen cloth, is then called Burgundy
pitch. By boiling tbe resin until the water is
evaporated, and by then adding wine vinegar, the
substance known under the name of colophonium
is formed.

t In 180/ tar and pitch were exported to Eng-
land from the United States to the amount of
2t!.'),000 dollars. The process of extracting the tar
is nearly as follows : — The wood is stripped of the
sap, and cut into billets two or three feet long, and
about three inches thick. A circular mound is
prepared, slightly declining from the centre to the
circumference, which forms a shallow ditch. The
diameter of the pile is proportioned to the quantity
of the wood; to obtain one hundred barrels of
tar the diameter should be eighteen or twenty feet.
In the middle a conduit is made to the ditch, in
which is a reservoir to receive the resin as it
(lows from the ignited mass. The top of the
mound is coated with clay, and made hard and
smooth, and on which the wood is laid in rays.
The pile, when finished, is twenty feet at the
l)ase, and, at eight feet in height, twenty-five or
thirty feet in diameter, terminating in a cone four
feet above. It is then strewed with pine leaves,
and covered with earth. It is ignited at the top
similar to the process of charcoal making. The
fire should act slowly, so that a pile of the above
dimensions should continue burning eight or nine
days. Pitch is tar reduced by evaporation. — Wic,
Amer. Sylva., vol. iii. p. 142.

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

125

The stone pine is more celebrated for
its seed, which is eaten as a fruit, than
for the value of its timber. In Italy
and the South of France the seed is
served up in the dessert ; andaccordine;
to Sir Geor2;e Staunton it is known
and relished by the Chinese. It is a
handsome tree.

The hooked pine, Plnus uncinuta, is re-
markable for the very hij^h elevation
of the site on which it will grow, men-
tioned at page 44. Those other pines
belonging to this group, enumerated
below, are all more or less interesting
and deserving of notice, but as the
facts relative to the comparative value
of their timber are not yet sufficiently
numerous to lead to satisfactory con-
clusions, we must necessarily omit
any further mention of them here.
The frankincense, Virginian, or pitch,
swamp, and pond pines are all natives
of North America. The most va-
luable of these in their native climate
appears to be the swamp, or long-
leaved pine, as Michaux terms it. He
remarks, that its mean height is from
sixty to seventy feet, with a diameter
of fifteen or eighteen inches for three-
fourths of its length. The timber of
the swamp pine is extensively used in
the Floridas, Georgia, and the Caro-
linas. It has not yet exhibited any
merits as a forest-tree in the climate
of Britain.

The Weymouth pine is of very quick
growth in sheltered situations, and
moderately moist sandy soils ; but
the timber is of a very inferior quality.
It is extensively used in America, un-
der the name of white pine ; it is
considered to have little strength, and
atlbrdmg but a feeble hold to nails.
It is stated to reach the height of one
hundred and fifty feet, and five in
diameter.* It was cultivated in 1705,
by the Duchess of Beaufort.

The Siberian stone or Cembra pine, is a
highly ornamental species in England ;
but its merits for timber have not
been satisfactorily determined. It
abounds in the Tyrol, where the wood

* The quantity of timber of this species of pine
which passed down the Sorel for Quebec, betwi-en
the 1st of Slay, 1807, and the 30tti of July follow-
ing, was 132,7^0 cubic feet of square wood, KJO.UUO
of common boards, (>7,U0u feetof planks two inclies
thick, 'M masts, and 4.')-15 logs. It is brouglit to
the market of New Orleans from a distance of
29U0 miles. At Liveri)ool, in 1808, the cubic foot
was 60 cents, and planks of two inches by twelve
four cents a foot, — N. A, Sylva, toI, iii. y. 171.

is preferred to common deal for floor-
ing, wainscoting, and other kinds of
joiner's work. It appears to have
been confounded with the Pinus pyg-
meca, but the species are very distinct.

The Pinus Lambertiana was introduced
in 18'27, by Mr. Douglas, collector to
the Horticultural Society of London.
In its native soil, the north-west
coast of America, it appears to be a
tree of gigantic growth, and of great
longevity. See (*) p. 70.

We come now to consider the last group
or section of the pine tribe, or those
with leaves disposed in tufts or little
bundles surrounding a bud. The
first and most valuable of these is the
common larch. Scarcely any species
of forest-tree has received so much
attention and favour from planters,
in a given series of years, as this tree ;
and our space will not allow of the
simple mention of the names of the
numerous eminent individuals, who
have put its real and assumed merits
to the test of trial, much less enable
us to detail the various facts and opi-
nions brought forward on the subject.
Its merits are stated to have been
known so early as the time of Julius
Caesar, vvlio calls it lig7ium igni im-
penetrabile* It is a native of the
South of Europe and of Siberia, in-
habiting the sides of the mountains,
in the local hollows of which it attains
to the largest dimensions. The first
mention of its culture in England is
given in Parkinson's Paradisus in
1629 ; and Evelyn, in 1664, mentions
a larch tree of good stature at Chelms-
ford, in Essex. It further appears to
have been introduced into Scotland
in 1734 by Lord Karnes. But the
merit of making known its valuable
properties as a timber tree for the cli-
mate of Britain, appears to be due to
the Duke of Athol, who planted it
at Dunkekl in 1741. The rapid growth
of these and of other trees of the same
species planted successively by that
nobleman, and the valuable properties
of the timber of such as were felled,
realized the high character previously
bestowed upon it by foreign and
British authors, who were followed by
others, such as Doctor Anderson,
Watson, Bishop of Landaff, Marshall,
Professor Martyn, Nicol, Ponty, Sang,

• Hnrte's Essays, Professor Martyn in Mill,
Gard. iiict.

126

LIST OF FOREST-TREES.

and Monteith, all confirmins: and fur-
ther extolling: the valuable properties
of the tree, which has induced a some-
what general belief, that the larch is
the most valuable of forest-trees, even
takiriir precedence of the oak. It is
no wonder, therefore, that the larch
has been planted, and largely, in al-
most every kind of soil ; and as it is
not exempted from the influence of
that natural law to which every other
species of tree is subject, namely, that
which restricts to peculiar soils the
perfect development of all the parts
of their structure and successful pro-
gress of growth to the state of full
maturity or perfection — in many in-
stances plantations of it have failed
in making a return of the expected
advantages, inferior even to the Scotch
pine, not to mention the oak, elm,
and ash, of greater value on a similar
soil. On soils of the nature alluded
to, namely, wet clays, springy gravels,
and wherever stagnant moisture could
not escape, the larch, after attaining
to eighteen or twenty-five years
growth, gives evidence of premature
decay, or a suspension of healthy pro-
gress of growth, and when felled ex-
hibits unsound timber, commencing
in the centre of the leading roots, and
penetrating upwards into the body of
the tree. — (See page 74.) The in-
stances are numerous which have
come under our own observation of the
fact now stated ; and we mention it,
not with a view to detract from its
intrinsic value, or to discourage its
propagation, but as a caution against
the indiscriminate planting of it in
soils without exception or without due
examination. On declivities, and even
in hollows, where clays abound, but
where there is also a drainage for the
superfluous water, the larch we have
found to attain to great perfection*.
The pruning of larch and other non-
reproductive trees was mentioned at
page 66.
The comparative value of the red and
black species of larch has not yet been
sufficiently proved; so far, however,
as the trials have proceeded, the opi-

* Where stagnant moisture of the soil prevails,
a comparatively great humidity of the atmosphere
accompanies it, lience it is that the had efl'ects of
unseasonable frosts or such as happen late in
spring or early in autumn are always most severe
on trees in such situations, andto which the larch
is very obnoxious at that season when its shoots
are in a young and tender state.

nion is greatly ia favour of the com-
mon or white larch.
The Cedar of Lebanon, P/w«5 cedrns, so
celebrated by the ancients for the va-
luable properties of its wood, such as
continuing sound for a thousand or two
thousand years, yielding an oil famous
for preserving books and writings, de-
stroying noxious insects, &c. has not
been proved in the climate of Britain
to afford timber of a valuable quality ;
it is also more difficult to propagate
and of slower growth in its first stages
from seed than the firs, pines, and
larches to which it is allied : its cul-
ture, therefore, appears to have been
confined in this country to parks and
lawns, and doubtless there is no fo-
rest-tree that, when placed singly, or
in small groups, confers such an air
or impression of ancient grandeur and
dignity upon a mansion and its grounds
as a full grown Cedar of Lebanon.
It is a native of the coldest parts of
Mount Libanus, where now% accord-
ing to the accounts of travellers, it is
found in small numbers, Rauwolf,
in 1575, saw only twenty-four sound
trees and two old decayed ones.
Maundrell, who visited the supposed
site of this most ancient forest in 1696,
could reckon only sixteen large trees,
but many small ones. The largest mea-
sured twelve yards six inches in gi7-ih
and thirty-seven yards in the spread of
its branches. Professor IVIartyn re-
marks that Solomons four-score thou-
sand hewers must have considerably
thinned the forest of Libanus. The
same excellent author further observes,
that we have now probably more ce-
dars in England than are left on Mount
Libanus— a fact which, whenconjoined
with that regarding the present state
of the natural forests of America, men-
tioned at page 87, should afford matter
for deep and serious reflection to those
who have it in their power to plant
land, comparatively waste or unpro-
ductive, in a judicious manner, but
who hesitate thus to benefit their
posterity and their country, from the
fallacious impression that the natural
forests of America and of the north of
Europe, unrenovated, as they continue
to be from the neglect of planting,
are inexhaustible, and will continue
to supply the wants of the civil and
naval architectural sciences and arts
of this country.

LIST OF FOREST-TREES,

127

Forest or Timber Species.

First — ^Those with leaves solitary, scattered
round the branches.

riNVS. Naliveof Fl.

.picea Switz.30— 80

FIR-TREE.

Silver

Balm of Gilead .
Hemlock spruce .
Norway „
White „ .
Black „ .

Red „ .

Dwarf

Oriental

Bushy

Yew-leaved

Pnriile-coned . . .

Fischer's

Douglas's

Double balsam. .

.ba/samica . . Viririnia . .50
.ranaJe lists. .N.Am. 10 — 30

.dfjies N.EuropelOO

.a/ba N.Am.50— 80

.nigra 45 — 50

.rfibra _. 30—50

.clanbrassiliana —

. orienttUis . . . lievant —
.f/;/OTiis«. .. .Nepal —

./rtTi/o/ia .. .Columbia —
.s/jpc/nW/s. .Nepal —

.pichta Altay —

. DovgUisii . . N . Amer. —
. Frasiri .... —

Second — Those with leaves in pairs, or two
proceeding from the base of a sheath.

PINE-TREE. riNUS.

Scotch sylvhtris. . . Scot.30_100

Cluster pinaster. . . . S. Europe (iO

Stone pinea 40

Ornamental, or whose value as Timher-trees
has not yet been ascertained in England.

Upright-coned . . .pumilio. . . . Caruiola

Nodding-coned . . .milghus. . . .

Pungent pungens . . .N.Am.40 — 60

Hudson's Bay . . .banksidna . . 60

Sea-side maritima . . S. Europe . 40

Aleppo halepensis. . Alep. .20 — 30

Jersey inops N.Am.40 — 50

American pitch- 1 . . rn

^ tresinvsa . . . . • JW

tree J

Corsican laricio .... Corsica —

Hooked uncindia . . .Pyrenees —

Pallas' s Pallasidna . Crimea —

Yellow liitea N.Amer. —

PINE-TREE. PINT'S. Katirc of Ft.

Ileavy-wooded. . .ponderosa . .N.W.Am. 50

Gerard's Gerdrdi . . .Nepal —

Oooked adu/ica. . . . — •

Roman Romdna . . . Italy —

Siberian Siberica . . . Siberia —

Third — ^Those with leaves varying from
two to three.

Two and i^^ree-^^^bm, ,,UAmA0-6Q
leaved J

Fourth — Tliose with leaves in threes.

Frankincense .... t'ada N.Amer. . . 30

Virginian, or 1 , . , nn

Pitch-pine *. . J ^

Swamp palustris .N.Amer.60 — 70

Pond, or fox-tail . . serotina .... ■ -^

Fifth— Those with leaves in fives.

Weymouth strobus . . . .N. Amer. 100

-,., . . Icembra, or I Sib. I-^ ^^

Siberian stone .. •{ , ' , fc •♦ f^O — 60
{aphernousu^awn.)

Lambert's lambertidna N.AV. Am.

Pigmy pijgmcEa . . . Siberia — •

Bhotan. . excilsa . . . .Nepal —

Leaves numerous in little bundles from the
bottom or base of a sheath.

Timber or Forest Species.

PINE-TREE. PINUS. Native of Ft.

Com. white larch . Idrix Switz. 50 — 80

Intermediate . . . .inter midia. .Altay
Dahurian dakurica . . . Dahuria

Species /or Ornament, ^c.

Black larch pendula N.Amer.. .30

Red larch microcdrpa . 80

Cedar of Lebanon ctdrus Levant — ■

Indian cedar .... deodara .... Nepal —

* Cultivated before 1759 by the Duke of Bedford
Mill. Diet. Ed. 7. D. 10.

Inlookino; over the above list of forest-trees, it may seem to require a reason
for not arranginffthe names of the trees in alphabetical order, instead of adopting
the natural system of classification mentioned at the commencement of this
enumeration, at page 93 ; particularly as such a mode, under the circumstances
of a partial selection from the whole of the vegetal:)le kingdom, must necessarily,
as there slated, exhibit a broken series of connexion between the individual
families or groups of trees brought forward. The index, however, will supply
this apparent inconvenience, and the advantages to the young forest-planter of
1 eing early acquainted with the affinities or natural connexions of different
families and species of trees with each other, will, by a little experience in the
practice of planting, be fully appreciated by him, should he even confine his
examination to the structure of the seed, which is givimin the botanical character
of each genus or family of trees. The classes and orders of the Natural and
Linnean systems, under which eacli genus of forest-trees stand, will also point
out to him where may be found the discriminating characters of distinction of
the different species, as in the Species Piantarum, or in systematically arranged

128 LIST OF F0RE5;T-TREES.

Floras, where such have been published, of the plants of different countries ; and
in tlie perusal of tliese, should a doubt occur, the above enumeration will show
Avhether the tree or trees in question have been introduced into British planhn^.
The heii^ht of the trees mentioned in the list is either such as we have ascer-
tained by actual measurement, or have been assured of by respectable authority.

The advantages resulting to individuals locally, and to the whole community,
from judicious planting, have been noticed at page 2, and subsequently in the
course of these pages ; and what judicious planting consists in, and what are the
consequent profitable results from it, have :ilso been pointed out by an appeal to
facts obtained from culture, observation, and experience ; which, if examined, can
hardly fail to arrest the attention of those who have given little of it to this im-
portant subject, but who, nevertheless, possess the means thus to enrich their
landed possessions in their own life-time, benefit their posterity, and their
country. But it is not planting judiciously at first, it has been shown, that will
accomplish those important results, without the essential addition of subseque-nt
attention to skilful culture and management of the plantations throughout the
entire progress of the trees to maturity, according to the purposes for which the
produce of individual trees or species of trees are most valuable, and consequently
their proper period of duration in the soil ; these important points have been
dwelt .upon, and frequently urged in the course of these pages (16, 32, 61, 64,
C6, and 45, 50, 67, 68, 71); and it may be here added, that there is more
absolute loss to individuals who possess plantations, but who neglect the applica-
tion of judicious cvdture to such, than accrues from the like neglect of the
healthy progress of any other agricultural crop whatever. Besides, it is an evil,
that this neglect leads to an erroneous opinion of the utility, and important
private and public value of judicious planting, and induces many who have it in
their power to plant extensively to omit it, and leave that land barren and waste,
which might otherwise be so beneficially occupied in the growth of timber, and
amelioration of defective local climates. The great extent of waste-land in this
kingdom has been stated at page 85.

By referring to the county surveys, and to other sources of information, it will
be found that a large portion of the waste, or comparatively unproductive lands,
in this kingdom, is capable of being profitably employed in the growth of timber ;
and, taking the proportion of one-twentieth part only of the whole, there will be
upwards of three millions and a half of acres available for the purpose, or say,
one million and a half of acres for trees, and two millions of acres for conversion
to down-pasture, or partly tillage, by the aid of the shelter and amelioration of the
local climates produced by the judicious disposition of the plantations. The
facts and observations brought forward in evidence of the public necessity for the
extension of forest-tree planting, as well as the advantages accruing from it to
private estates, need not here be repeated ; neither need it be recalled to mind,
that the perpetual consumption of timber from the natural forests of this country,
without any aid being aftbrded in return to renovate or keep up a succession of
trees by plantinsj, at last caused that scarcity of timber for civil and naval archi-
tecture which first led to the culture of timber-trees as an article of profit, and
which has brought the art of arboriculture to a higher degree of perfection in
Britain than in any other country. But a similar consumption without renovation
is now going on in those countries from which we fallaciously expect an inex-
haustible supply of timber; and we cannot but press upon the attention of those
in whose power it rests, and whose duty it is to provide more largely for posterity
than our ancestry has provided for us, that with the more perfect knowledge now
possessed of the art of planting, the large extent of fit, but unoccupied soil, and
the superabundance of unemployed labourers, to effect the work to its fullest
extent, — this important object ought to be forwarded with that zeal, energy, and
skill, which have been already displayedby some few individuals, and have been
unitbrinly attended with success.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

In the preceding parts of this treatise we have confined ourselves almost
entirely to planting for profit, and have merely enumerated with brief
remarks those trees, which, though incapable of being cultivated with
advantage in our climate for economical purposes, produce striking efFecls
in landscape scenery, and are of great value in the adornment of parks
and pleasure grounds. They are not for the most part scarce in the
nurseries of Great Britain, yet as we have observed that the planting of
exotic trees is comparatively neglected, a few pages may be not unpro-
fitably occupied, in pointing out such as seem peculiarly deserving of
attention.

The beauty of English park scenery is universally admitted : the con-
stant source of fresh admiration to foreigners, and of delight to our-
selves, it may, perhaps, be briefly described, as the art of imitating, in
small compass, the most lovely scenes of external nature. In a pursuit so
fascinating, the most elegant mind may find amusement, the most active
benevolence room in which to dilate. In eliciting from crude materials
new forms of beauty ; in opening the valley ; converting the barren hill-
side into wood ; in expanding the lake, and clothing a once naked district
with luxuriance, the worth of an estate is increased, health improved, and
charity the most useful dispensed, for

' Hence the poor are clothed, the hungry fed,

Health to himself, and to his children bread,

The labourer bears.'

The general practice cannot be much improved, but some beauties of
detail may be gained, by a more frequent employment of foreign vege-
tation. Every one is aware of the charming effect of the weeping willow:
this is a case in point. The light ramifications of the Robinia contrast
beautifully with the bolder form of the oak ; the hiccory, or black
American walnut, relieves the heavy masses of the elm; the lucid green
of the Spanish chestnut is well opposed to the dinginess of the beech ;
and the brilliant tints of many North American trees when in decay add a
new and remarkable feature to the autumnal landscape. But the interest
arising from the adoption of foreign trees into domestic scenery is not
confined to their picturesque efiects. They remind us of the climes
whence they come, of the scenes with which they were associated. In
exploring a well-selected arboretum, the eternal snows of the Himalaya,
the savannahs of the Missouri, the untrodden forests of Patao-onia, the
vallies of Lebanon, pass in review before us : we seem to wander in
other climes, to converse with other nations.

Although few foreign trees become permanent with us, many bear our
climate well, yet, tried by the test of spontaneous propagation seem
not to be capable of perfect naturalization. No genus is of more frequent
occurrence in England than the hardy lime-tree, of which at least three
nearly allied species inhabit the continent. In European Russia they
abound, and supply the bark from which the mats so largely used in our
gardens are made. Here, though with attention the lime may be raised
from seeds, nothing is rarer than to meet with a spontaneous seedling,
even near individuals of great size, covered with myriads of seeds, ma-
ture, but, l)y some unsuitableness of climate, bereaved of competent vigour

K

130 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

to rear themselves unaided by art. The common English elm, (Ulmus
campestris,) which peoples the hedge-rows of our southern counties,
rarely perfects its seeds in England, and propagates itself by suckers. So
near to us as Paris, it finds a congenial climate, and ripens them
plentifully. The horse-chestnut, a native of the mountain-chains of
Asia Minor, tried by the same test as the lime-tree, that of spontaneous
propagation from seeds, appears to be one of the few instances of an
exotic tree perfectly acclimatized in England. Perhaps another instance
may be found in the Turkey oak, (Quercus cerris,) and some cases exist
among coniferous trees. But though the laws of nature forbid us to hope
for the perfect naturalization of many trees of other climates differing but
little from our own, they allow us to embellish our domains with the rich
variety resulting from the elegance of their forms, and the diversity of their
tints. We have already alluded to the tree usually called the Turkey oak,
(Q. cerris,) a native of the middle elevations of the Papal states,
Tuscany, and southern Italy: it is always distinguished by the Italian
writers from the common oak, (Q. robur,) as the cerro. About the
lake of Perugia, and the scene of the memorable battle of Thrasymene, it
attains to enormous bulk, and is very picturesque in its form, though
its branches are not so abrupt and angular as those of our native oaks.
In England it seems to be perfectly at home, grows fast, and produces
abundance of acorns, bears bleak exposures, and thrives in lighter and
more silicious soils than suit the oaks of England. It retains its leaves
far into the winter, a valuable property when shelter is desirable.
There is, perhaps, cause for apprehending that it will not thrive so well
in a confined or crowded, as in an airy situation. Mr. Atkinson, the
eminent architect, having converted a specimen of good size, which he
found at the seat of the Marquis of Downshire in Berkshire, has proved
ex|)eritnentally its valuable properties for ornamental purposes in domestic
architecture. Its wood is closer in its grain, bears a higher polish, is
richer in colour, and more varied in its markings than the wood of our
indigenous oaks, or that which is brought down the Rhine from the forests
of southern Germany, and imported into this country by the name of
wainscoat oak, being, in point of fact, the produce of the Q. robur,
and Q. sessiliflora, and owing its peculiarities to a more rapid
growth in a more genial climate. We cannot too strongly recommend this
beautiful and fast growing tree to our readers, combining as it does beauty
of form, rapidity of growth, and much indifference about its soil, with a
constitution of singular hardihood. We have seen it thrive in exposures
where our own native oak and beech became stinted. A sub-variety of the
Tin-key oak, or more probably a distinct species, is known in the nurseries
by the name of the Fulliam oak, (Q. dentata, page 111,) after the parent
tree, a magnificent specimen, now growing in the nursery ground of
Messrs. Whitley and Co. at Fulham : it is highly deserving of cultivation.
The Luccombe oak, supposed by some to be a hybrid production
between the Turkey and Cork oaks, but more probably an indigenous
Spanish species, is a pyramidal tree, apparently of moderate growth, and
almost an evergreen. The Cypress oak, (Quercus fasligiata, page 111,)
a native of the Pyrenees, and of the mountains of Portugal, resembles the
English oak in leaf; but is of habit probably unique in this genus, carry-
ing all its branches upright like a Cypress or Lombardy poplar, a circum-
stance of some value in landsca])e planting. Q. tauza or toza, the
Chene taussin of the French, indigenous to the landes of Bourdeaux and
sandy soils of the south of France, is of low growth, with a very indented
leaf, pubescent on its under surface ; it is said to trace much from its root.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 131

The ornamental qualities of the ilex are universally appreciated ; the cork-
tree, whose siniiular beauty of form and foliaa:e are tlie admiration of all
travellers in southern Spain, too tender to thrive except in a few favoured
spots in our southern counties, is sufficiently described in the list of forest-
trees, (pajre 111.) But the oaks of North America claim the deepest
attention from the ornamental planter. Ilanpfinp; throug;li many degrees
of latitude, and jrrowing at very ditferent elevations, consequently under
much variety of climate, some of them are hardy with us, some tender;
but all abhorrent of wet or clayey soils. Deprived of the cloudless sun
and higli temperature of an American summer and autumn, they cannot
ripen their shoots sufficiently to be frost-proof, except upon soils of a light
and warm nature. Their foliage is beautiful, frecpiently singular : with the
effect of their autumnal tints of crimson every British tree fails in compa-
rison. We shall only advert to snch of those described by Michaux and
Pursh, as we believe to be calculated to succeed in this country. In the
garden of the Petit Trianon, at Versailles, the favourite retreat of the ill-
fated MarieAntoinette, a fine specimen ofthe willow-leaved oak, (Q. phellos,)
is very ornamental ; it is not unusual in sheltered villa gardens in the neigh-
bourhood of London, but in an inland situation in Hampshire, elevated
about 600 feet above the sea, its shoots have been killed every winter.
Q. humilis, maritima, sericea, cinerea, (Pursh,) are all related to Quercus
phellos, and probably tender. Q. imbricaria is hardy and very de-
serving of notice, on account of its beautiful, shining, almost entire leaves,
little resembling the familiar appearance of the oak. Q. tinctoria,
discolor, coccinea, alba, rubra, montana, olivseformis, all hardy upon light
soils, all attaining to large size, all beautiful in their perfect foliage, are
superb during its decay. Q- tinctoria, one of the largest and finest trees
of the North American forests, produces the valuable material so well
known in commerce as quercitro-n bark. An oak of great size and pro-
mise, with fine broad leaves, and immense acorns, (Q. macrocarpa,) was
introduced by the late Mr. Lyon, from the state of Tenessee. We have
seen it only in the high situation in Hampshire before mentioned, where
it has been unable to ripen its shoots. Most of the oaks enumerated by
Michaux, as varieties of Q. prinos, but by Pursh as distinct species,
must be tender in England, except under very favourable circumstances ;
perhaps by grafting them upon the Turkey oak, thus furnishing them with
roots of hardier constitution than tlieir own, their shoots may be ripened
with greater certainty. The oaks of Spain, upper Italy, Croatia, Bosnia,
and Turkey, are very imperfectly known; some of them are allied to
Q. cerris, but are sufficiently distinct to make it desirable that we
should possess them. Mr. Walsh, in the Transactions of the Horticultural
Society of London, vol. vi., describes an oak growing near Constan-
tinople, (Q. pubescens,) as a fine and beautiful tree ; its leaves covered
■with down beneath, and its branches when young, pendulous, like those
of weeping willows. It is probable that interesting species exist in
the unexplored and classical regions of Asia Minor, now by the advancing
civilization of the Ottomans, and the improvement in their government,
laid open to the researches of travellers. But by far the most curious
additions to ouroaks, perha|)s to the arboretum generally, are to be derived
from the mountains of the Himalaya. We earnestly invite the attention
of individuals connected with India, to the vegetable treasures of this
region ; whose valleys, more elevated above the sea than the top of Mont
Blanc, contain within their bosoms most interesting species of oak, birch,
walnut, fir, cedar, and other genera of cold climates, calculated by
their beauty to adorn our parks and gardens in the highest degree. Some

K2

132 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

of these have been made known to us by the active researches of Enghsh
botanists. Q. grandifolia, with immense shining; leaves, equalh'ng those
of INTag-noha grandifolia in size and texture, has been figured in Mr.
Lambert's splendid work on the genus Finns. Q. .spicata, with entire
leaves from six inches to a foot long, and acorns numerously crowded
upon an upright spike from ten to eighteen inches in length ; Q.
lamellosa, with firm leathery leaves, smooth and glossy above, mealy and
nearly white beneath, sometimes a foot in length, and as much as five
inches in breadth, are both figured in Dr. Wallich's magnificent work, the
Plantse rariores Asiaticae, now in course of publication, and we hope of
encouragement, commensurate to its extraordinary claims upon every
lover of natural history.

The coarse foliage of the elm, in our opinion, degrades it from the first
class of ornamental trees, but in some situations, particularly in deep and
somewhat damp soils, it succeeds better than many, and grows to vast size.
Its varieties are curious — the variegated leaved elm is not without merit —
the weeping elm is sometimes picturesque — the small leaved Cornish
elm is perhaps the most elegant. The American elms seem to be de-
serving of attention. Mr. Hodgson, a recent traveller in the United
States, was much impressed with the stupendous stature of specimens of
the ulmus Americana around the neat villages of New England.

The giant bulk and extraordinary beauty of the oriental plane tree
(Platanus orientalis) have made it, in all ages, the object of marked at-
tention. Every classical reader is aware of the favour with which it was
regarded by the Greeks and Romans, the latter of whom, according to
the Latin writers, carried their admiration of this beautiful tree so far as
to occasionally irrigate it with wine. Hardly less beloved by the Turks in
modern days, it is with them a usual practice to plant one at the birth
of a son. In the court of the Seraglio, as we are told by Mr. Walsh, is
a venerable specimen, planted by Mahomet the Second, afier the conquest
of Constantinople, in commemoration of the birth of his son Bajazet the
Second ; it is now fifty feet in girth, the increment of three hundred and
seventy years. At Buyukdere, on the Bosphorus, is another of almost un-
equalled size : it stands in a valley, and is forty-five yards in circumference,
but, in fact, now consists of fourteen large trees, growing from the same
root-stock, coalescing near the ground, but, at some distance from it, di-
verging into distinct trunks. The oriental plane is indigenous throughout
Asia Minor, ranging to a considerable elevation, but attaining its greatest
size upon low levels and in deep soils. The specimens, whose remarkable
bulk has conferred upon them an almost historical notoriety, are all situated
not much above the level of the sea. In England this tree is perfectly
hardy, and of the first beauty. It is remarkable, tliat though intro-
duced here three hundred years ago, under the auspices of Lord Chancellor
Bacon, it has been comparatively neglected since the introduction of the
North American plane (Platanus occidentalis), which, being propagated
with much greater facility from cuttin<>s, has long been in almost undi-
vided possession of the nurseries. Much inferior to the Oriental in
beauty of leaf, though, according to American writers, not in size or
majesty, the occidental plane, which attains its utmost luxuriance in the
"warm valleys of the Ohio, and upon the limestone soils of Kentucky and
Tenessee, has proved incompetent to contend with our spring frosts, our
sunless summers, and our clouded autumns. About twenty years ago,
a great proportion of all the individuals in England, without respect of
age or bulk, were killed outright by a late spring frost. Since then we
have seen them repeatedly injured, and, when half recovered by the

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. I33

operation of a summer of more than averai^e warmth, again replunged
into the same state of debility, whilst the oriental plane has remained
quite uninjured. The intermediate species (P. cuneata, P. acerifolia) seem
to be hardier than the American plane, but less so than the oriental piano.
Another American tree, of large stature, hij^h beauty, and hardihood,
is the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), which, as its name imports,
unites the charm of abundant pale yellow flowers, bearing* some resem-
blance to tulips, with beautiful broad leaves, of very ornamental form and
colour. When placed near the American oaks, its foliage contrasts with
them finely, particidarly when, in autumn, it opposes its yellow tint to
their shades of crimson. It is perfectly hardy, and becomes a larg'e tree
in England when planted in dry and deep soil.

Though our ])rincipal object is to treat of exotics, yet we cannot avoid
mentioning the lime-tree, one of our most stately forest trees. Naturalists
decide that three species are natives of England ; but that which has the
fairest pretensions to be so considered, according to the authority of Sir
James Smith, Tilia parvifolia, is far less common in parks, than its
congeners, though, in our opinion, it excels them in beauty. The North
American species are very soft-wooded trees, and, in this country, of small
stature : we have observed a very extensive gangrene, sometimes extending
several inches down the trunk, to follow frequently upon the amputation
of one of their branches, even of moderate size. They deserve little
attention, except perhaps Tilia heterophylla, introduced about twenty years
ago by Lyon, the industrious collector. Tilia alba, said by some to be a
native of Hungary, a round-headed, thickly branching tree, of rapid
growth, and somewhat formal outline, with broad leaves, green on their
upper, and white on their lower surface, an attribute well displayed when
they are agitated by wind, possesses the merit of being almost the latest
deciduous tree to drop its leaves at the approach of winter.

We briefly advert to the Spanish chestnut, so superb in its stature, in one
memorable instance, in this country, reaching to a girth of above fifty feet*;
so beautiful in its foliage, so stately in its maturity, so venerable in its
age, so rapid in its progress on warm gravels or deep fertile sands, together
with its elegant variety the fern-leaved chestnut of the nurseries, and pass
on to that delightful exotic, whose tumid bud is the well-known harbinger
of spring, whose magnificence is perhaps undervalued, because it meets us
in every walk, the horse-chestnut, the x'Esculus hippocastanum of botanists.
A species nearly related to it, if indeed it be not a mere variety, /Esculus
rubicunda, with fine red flowers produced apparently in great abundance,
should be universally planted. It has been lately introduced, along with
/Esculus rosea, of nearly e([ual beauty, from the continent, where greater
attention appears 10 have been paid to trees than in this country. iEsculus
flavaand neglecta, with flowers of but moderate beauty, are elegant in foliage
and habit ; the flowers of Esculus Pavia are high coloured, though small ;
several other hardy species are rather shrubs than trees. But all of them
deserve distinguished places in the arboretum or garden, and should, if
possible, be raised from the nut. Generally they are propagated by budding
upon the common horse-chestnut — an operation of great facility ; but,
in such case, the stock is apt to swell in a ratio much greater than the
graft, becoming, not only unsightly, but rendering the specimen short-lived.
The whole genus Betula is ornamental, yet perhaps the most beau-
tiful species it contains is our common birch (Betula alba), and its variety
or kindred species, the weeping birch. These trees are of n)uch too
rare occurrence in park scenery ; they are picturesque ia outline, light

* Vide page 117.

134 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

in foliag'e, silvery in bark, very effective when disposed in groups, and
contrasting' finely vpith the heavier forms of our native larj^er trees, but,
like almost all trees of small growth, too apt to be neglected. The
American species exceed them in size, but are inferior to them in elegance.
They are nevertheless most interesting trees, and should be in every col-
lection. With their tou^-h bark, which is readily detached in large
sections, the North American Indians roof their houses, and manufacture
a variety of domestic utensils. Of it are formed those light canoes which
float the Canadian over the vast lakes, or down the rapid rivers of his
native regions, at one moment bearing along the trader, his valuable
cargo, and adventurous companions ; at the next moment carried upon
their shoulders across the intervenient portage. It is not too much to
say, that, without the assistance of this invaluable material, the fur trade
would have been confined within narrow limits instead of pervading half
a continent; and the progress of geo2:raphical discovery, the long labours
of a Hearne, a Mackenzie, and a Franklin, would have been incom-
plete for another century.

A near relation to the birch is the neglected alder, neglected because
common, and rarely seen, except in the shape of coppice-wood, yet
reaching, in favourable situations, to a size not generally suspected.
At Gordon Castle, in Bamffshire, some exist of extraordinary stature,
when seen at a distance, having much the appearance of oaks. Three
of them, which are described by Joseph Sabine, Esq., in the Seventh
Volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London,
measured, one, seventy-one feet high and nine feet four inches in girth ;
one, sixty-one feet and a half high and seven feet four inches in girth ;
and another, fifty-eight feet high and eight feet in girth, the girth being
taken at five and six feet from the ground. To those who wish for trees
capable of enduring abundant moisture, we recommend the cut-leaved
alder (Alnus glutinosa, var. laciniata) a derivative apparently of equal
size, and of growth as rapid as its type, which it greatly excels in elegance ;
several other curious varieties of the common alder are to be found in
the nurseries, Alnus quercifolia is probably of smaller growth, and the
habit of Alnus oxyacanthifolia appears to be feeble ; but Alnus cordifolia
of southern Italy is a fine ornamental and hardy tree. There are some
other species, rather shrubs than trees, which may be used advantageously
in moist localities, where a low growth of definite height is desirable.

We attribute the comparative disuse of the common ash in park scenery,
and its rare occurrence as an insulated specimen, to the extreme avidity
with which it is attacked and barked by deer, those enemies of the
planter. Yet it is a tree of singular elegance, both in itself, and contrasted
with trees of heavier foliage : it grows to immense size, attains to great
longevity, and when old is strikingly picturesque in outline, in bark, and
in the almost horizontal disposition of its main branches. The entire-
leaved ash (Fraxinus simplicifolia) is an interesting variety; the weeping
ash (F. excelsa, var. pendula) is well known, yet hardly enough appre-
ciated. When large, it is remarkably beautiful, but it must be planted in
an inclosed spot, free from the approach of cattle and sheep, who, by
browsing upon its pendulous branches, would destroy the whole beauty
of the specimen, and irretrievably check its growth. Fraxinus onuis,
the flowering ash, is a beautiful small tree, especially in early spring, when
in flower. Fraxinus lentiscifolia is a charming small tree; most of the
American ash are fine in foliage, and deserve a trial in the arboretum.
Many of them exist in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, where they cannot
fail to attract the attention of any person interested in forest trees.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. l35

The common walnut — disfi^rnred in Enp:land by spring frosts, coming? late
into leaf, and losinn: the whole beauty of its folia<?e prematurely in autumn
— cannot be termed picturesque here, whatever it may be in the warm
valleys of Switzerland and Upper Italy ; but we hardly know a more
picturesque tree than the black American walnut (Juirlans nijira), which,
in North America, is one of the most stupendous inhabitants of the forest.
It is quhe hardy, and of moderately quick lirowth, but certainly possesses
the fault with which we have just reproached the common walnut, of tardy
leafan^e in the sprino-. Its pinnated foliane is much more dense and
tufted and of a livelier colour than that of the common ash. With the
remaining American species we are not acquainted, but it would appear,
from the statements of travellers, that none of them are trees of great
beauty.

Several species of maple claim the attention of the ornamental planter ;
a few are large trees ; the greater portion are of small growth, and upon
that account are, in our opinion, of great value in the creation of park
scenery, where the object being to produce much effect in moderate
space, it is frequently desirable to impart artificial height to small eleva-
tions, by crowning them with high trees, and, at the same time, to occupy
the low grounds and middle distances with trees of humbler stature.
It is in this point of view that the genus Maple, of which we are treating,
is of importance. The common maple (Acer campestre) is rarely
planted, and comparatively unknown as an ornamental tree, though few
objects are more beautiful than it is when old, and arrayed in its bright
yellow autumnal livery. The Norway maple (A. platanoides) excels
the common maple but little in height, and is rather remarkable for its
sturdy formal character. In early spring, just before the appearance of its
leaves, it is covered with a multitude of yellow flowers; in autumn, when in
incipient decline, few trees can contend with it in beauty ; its leaves assume
decided but various colours, singularly effective, owing to the distinct
masses in which ihey are apt to arrange themselves. Whilst the greater
part of the tree remains green but little faded, a whole branch suddenly
becomes dull red, then another mass bright yellow, a tint which, gradually
creeping over the whole foliage, is the forerunner of its fall. The ash-
leaved maple (A. negundo), somewhat loftier than the Norway maple,
and not possessing its formality, requires especial notice. Hardy, free
growing, and graceful, when placed, as we are in the habit of seeing it,
near trees of sombre hue, the very vivid green of its light foliage stands
out distinct and brilliant, oflering one of ihe best examples of the great
beauty to be attained, by bringing into contrast trees of different tints.
Set-eral of the American maples are beautiful small trees; the sugar maple
is of large growth, and curious from its valuable economical properties;
but the most interesting species of this genus is A. macrophyllum, a
huge tree, with broad leaves and most valuable dense timber, which has
been lately introduced from the banks of the Columbia in North Western
America, a region of stupendous vegetation, by Mr. David Douglas, the
enterprising collector of the Horticultural Society of London. A. cir-
cinatum of the same country, also introduced by him, is a very handsome
small tree, with deeply incised leaves, the graceful habit of which very
much attracted his attention during his investigation of these countries.

The merits and demerits of the common beech, its peculiar adaptation to
calcareous and dry gravelly soils, and the great bulk it attains upon them,
its somewhat formal and little varied outline, its heavy autumnal tint, are
too well known to detain us here ; but we must not pass, without notice.

136 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

its curious but puny variety, the fern-leaved beech (Fas^us Comploniaefolia),
nor its very remarkable variety the purple beech, whose leaves in early
sprini^ of blood red hue, in suninier uniform dull purple, are too sina:»iiar,
(having-, we believe, no parallel amono,- hardy trees, except a remarkable
variety of hazel,) not to ensure it a place in every collection. Situations
may be found in the neighbourhood of ruins, or the recess of a se-
cluded grove, where it may be employed with happy effect. We have
found the North American beech not to succeed in our climate in dry
calcareous soils ; and they are described by Pursh as growing- upon rich
deep levels. Some most interesting; s])ecies exist in Patagonia and
in those regions, which every effort should be exerted to procure.
Perhaps the greatest desiderata in British parks are evergreen trees,
not being of spiral forms. The cedar of Lebanon, the evergreen oak,
and the yew, begin and end our list of such. But Captain King, in
his recent arduous survey of Terra Magellanica, that region of storm,
of snow, and glacier, found, we believe, three species of beech in
those countries ; two of them he mentions by name, Fagus anta-
rctica and Fagus betuloides. The latter, an evergreen tree of frequent
occurrence, was met with in peculiar abundance in the neighbourhood of
Cape Famine: trees of three feet in diameter were plentiful, of four feet
there were many, and one was measured by Captain King, which maintained
a ""irth of seven feet, as high as seventeen feet from the root, and then
diver"-ed into three immense limbs, each of them being three feet through.
Live specimens of those trees were brought to England by Captain King,
but have unfortunately, we hear, been lost. Every effort should be
made to re-introduce objects of such interest. The true Winter's bark,
(Wintera aromatica,) a native of the same inclement countries, is also an
evergreen tree of small stature, but on every account interesting. It is
most probable, that many important acquisitions to our shrubberies are
to be found in the same regions. Fuchsias of great beauty were dis-
covered growing to be considerable shrubs in the vicinity of perennial
snows ; barberries producing excellent fruit for tarts ; veronicas of great
size. We mention these facts, in the hope of directing attention of ama-
teurs to these countries generally, including the southern parts of Chili,
and the archipelago of Chiloe.

Pursuing our immediate subject, we must not omit to mention a very
beautiful tree resembling the sumach in leaf, Ailanthus glandulosa, a
native of China, which, to singular beauty of foliage, unites great hardi-
hood. It has the defect of coming into leaf perhaps the latest of any
hardy tree ; but compensates in some measure for this fault by its extraor-
dinary gracefulness. It is easily propagated by cuttings of the roots.

The Robinia pseudacacia, or locust tree, is universally known and appre-
ciated as being singularly well adapted to garden scenery. Rapid in its
n-rowth when young, it seems to lessen its pace materially, after twenty or
thirty years, apparently in consequence of its roots penetrating into a
colder subsoil, and it appears to be short lived on chalk soils. We do not
think it likely to become a large tree in England, except in a few very
favoured spots. Its timber possesses great durability. The various species
of sweet locust, or Gleditschia, are slender trees of elegant pinnated foliage,
and derive some interest from the very remarkable thorns investing some
of them: they are rather garden than park trees, and require deep soil,
to"-ether with a warm substratum. The same remarks as to soil apply to
the genus Celtis, or nettle tree. In England we have rarely met with a
good specimen ; in France we have seen them of great elegance.

The willow tribe affords us one exotic of pre-eminent beauty, the Salix

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 137

Babylonica, or weeping' willow. It adorned the banks of the Euphrates in
the days of prophecy, and has been rendered memorable by its connexion
with the captivity of the house of Israel. As might have been expected
from its Assyrian origin, it is somewhat tender, and in high situations is
liable to be injured by spring frosts. Nothing can exceed its beauly when
properly applied. Hanging over a rock, jutting from a promontory, or
reclining over an urn, few objects in nature more delight the eye of taste.
The common white willow, (Salix. alba,) is a tree also of great beauty,
but strangely overlooked, being generally degraded most unworthily to
the condition of a pollard. It grows, when indulged with its favourite
situation, a deep rich soil by the side of water, to a very large size ; and so
placed, we have seen it attract great notice by the fine contrast between
its slender silvery leaves, and the dark foliage, and dense masses of the
oaks and beeches which crowned the adjoining heights. Such an
example is to be found on the banks of the lake at the Grange in
Hampshire, the magnificent seat of A. Baring, Esq.

No other species of willow is of equal importance in ornamental plant-
ing; but the POPLAR tribe must not be overlooked. Amongst its species,
the most important, as an ornamental tree, is also the one Which, because
it is of the most common, hacknied occurrence, has hardly escaped the
reproach of vulgarity. Yet how beautiful is the spiral Lombardy poplar
when judiciously used, and when, being planted in rich deep soil, and forced
into something like the bulk which it reaches in its native climate, it is
tastefully contrasted with large trees of rounded forms, and its clear fine
green at the same time brought into opposition with their heavier tints !
Next in point of ornament is the English black poplar. The aspen derives
some interest from its tremulous leaves, agitated by the slightest breath of
wind ; the Canadian pf)plar from its habit intermediate between the pyra-
midal Lombardy poplar, and the spreading black poplar ; and the Ontario
poplar, lately introduced, from its very ample leaves and singular rapidity of
growth. The other species are rather subjects for a general collection, and
cannot be described as decidedly trees of ornament ; but the very rapid
growth of the black Italian poplar, which is not a native of Italy, nor a
variety of Populus nigra, but an indigenous North American species, fits
it, in a peculiar manner, for many purposes of ornamental planting. The
hornbeam can scarcely be deemed an ornamental tree, yet, where indi-
viduals of small growth are requisite, it may be advantageously employed.
Its varieties are curious in foliage, and are more graceful than their type.

The few deciduous trees which remain for us to mention are rather garden
than park trees, and require every advantage of soil, shelter, and protection :
among these the genus Magnolia stands pre-eminent. Three species only
can be considered as trees in this climate, and one of them, (M. grandi-
flora,)the loveliest tree perhaps of temperate climates, whether for its lucid
foliage, or its superb and fragrant flowers, though growing in its native
climes to the stature of eighty feet, with us is a small tree, under twenty
feet in height, not reaching even this elevation except in sheltered spots,
and within the protection and reflected heat of walls. M. acuminata,
a deciduous tree, not gifted, as most of its race, with showy or fraarant
flowers, possesses a splendid leaf, is much hardier than M. grandiflora,
and grows in England to be a larger and loftier tree. M. auriculata,
strictly a garden tree, is slender in form, spiral in habit, and ele"ant
in foliage, every branch being terminated, in a healthy specimen, with a
handsome and fragrant flower. The other hardy species, except per-
haps Magnolia conspicua, are rather large shrubs than trees, thou"h
under favourable circumstances, some of them reach to considerable

13d ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

hei"-ht. The Himalaya contains within its recesses a noble and lofty tree
of this g'enus, M. excelsa, magnificent in its foliag-e and bulk, and
covered, when in bloom, with innumerable splendid flowers. Liquidamber
styraciflua is a small, but interestinji; g;arden tree. Koelreuteria pinnata,
a native of China, comes under a similar class; but is entitled to much
consideration on account of its very elegant pinnated leaves, and feathery
flowers profusely produced in warm autumns, and occasionally succeeded
by ripe seeds, from which we have propagated it. The very exotic foliage
of Salisburia adianlifolia, the maidenhair tree, ought to ensure to it a place
on every lawn ; higher claims to distinction are possessed, in our opinion,
by Viroilia lutea, a small tree of peculiar beauty of form and foliage, in-
troduced about twenty years ago, from the mountains of Tenessee, by Mr.
Lyon, and still uncommon in the nurseries. It has not yet produced its
elegant papilionaceous flowers in this country, though we have heard that
they have been seen at Paris. We must not omit to mention an indi-
genous tree, which, delighting in chalky soils, should never be overlooked
by any person residing upon them, the white beam, (Pyrus aria.) The
whiteness of the under surface of its leaves and the wildness of its
habit are valuable properties, but indifferently shared by its near rela-
tion, Pyrus intermedia. The value of the common hawthorn in park
scenery, and the remarkable union which it exhibits of beauty of
flower with picturesque rudeness of form, need not be dwelt upon. Its
beautiful pink variety has been long known ; another pink variety, of
colour more intense, and scarcely to be surpassed in the loveliness of its
tint, has lately made its appearance in the nurseries, under the denomi-
nation of the new scarlet Thorn. The meritof the double-flowering variety
is great, uniting to luxuriance of the individual flower, equal luxuriance in
their produce. Several other curious varieties of hawthorn have been
collected by the Horticultural Society of London, at Fulham. Crataegus
grandiflora is a valuable small tree ; and many species of Pyrus,
Mespilus, and Crataegus, should find room in an extensive arboretum.

We have nearly concluded our remarks upon ornamental deciduous
trees : before we proceed to the Coniferae, so important in themselves,
and so interesting from the additions lately made, and still making, to
their number, we shall briefly advert to the mode of transplantuig
lar"-e trees, so well described by Sir Henry Stewart of AUanton in his
Planters Guide, and adverted to in page 45 of this treatise. By caretul
observance of the precautions laid down by Sir Henry Stewart, trees of very
lar«-e size may be safely transferred to new spots ; but the practice is not
new: it has Ijeen more or less followed in all ages. The Due de St.
Simon describes what Louis XIV. accomplished in this way at Ver-
sailles and Marly. Thirty-three years ago large and successfiil operations
of the same nature were performed by the late Earl of Carnarvon, at his
beautiful park at Highclere in Hampshire, principally upon limes, beech,
and horse-chestnuts.

We have ourselves removed large trees without failure, and have
seen reason to conclude, that notwithstanding the careful prepa-
ration of the tree, the preservation of its roots and rootlets, and the
careful adaptation of the soil, the success of the effort, and the immediate
<rrowth of the tree, will still depend much upon its removal at the be-
"■innino- of winter, and upon copious watering early in March, to be con-
tinued at least every fortnight during the first summer after transplan-
tation, and into the second summer if the leaves shall appear to flag in
Avarm weather.

We observed that the principal want experienced by the ornamental

ORNAIMENTAL PLANTING!. 139

planfer in this climate, is the scarcity of evergreen trees, not being
coniferous.

The everfrreen or holm oak, is, in point of fact, our only park tree of
this description ; thoup,h of garden shrubs there is no want. The defi-
ciency is partially supplied by the very interesting^ tribe of coniferous trees.
But their forms being; fjcnerally spiral, they cannot contend, either sing^ly
with the bold and varying; outline, the extended, tortuous limbs, the swell-
in<r masses of tufted foliage, which give to a stately deciduous tree a cha-
racter of impressive grandeur; or when aggregated over a large surface,
in which case, their general monotony of tint, the tameness of their lights
and shadows, and the pyramidal termination of the majority of the indivi-
duals composing the mass, deprive it of much of the beauty so universally
felt in woodland scenery composed of deciduous trees.

One illustrious exception to the tirst clause of our proposition will at
once occur to many of our readers, in the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus
Cedrus, p. 127.) In our enumeration, we have said that no tree confers
such an air of grandeur and dignity upon the grounds surrounding a
mansion, as a full grown cedar of Lebanon, not only the most beautiful
of the whole tribe of hardy coniferous trees hitherto known to us, but
perhaps altogether the most majestic tree which can be cultivated with
perfect success in Great Britain, peculiarly suited to the character of park or
garden scenery, and harmonizing better than any other with architectural
objects. Thinly scattered in the more elevated vallies of Lebanon, of Taurus,
and of other lofty mountain chains and groups in Asia Minor, its somewhat
rare occurrence is to be accounted for, probably, by a peculiarity of constitu-
tion, which renders a free circulation of air around it quite essential to its
vigour. When planted in a wood, or even on a lawn, closely surrounded
by other trees, it becomes thin of leaves, feeble in habit, and incapable of
swelling to large size. To its full strength and beauty, it is indispensable
that no check should be opposed to the horizontal spread of its branches.
Even the operation of shortening its lateral shoots, for the purpose of
forcing up a leader, cannot be often repeated without injuring its health.
These peculiarities render it a scarce tree in a state of nature, where it is
only found in elevated, but sheltered vallies, whose vegetation is subdued by
the browzing of cattle. It will never abound but in the seats of civilization,
and it is exceedingly probable that the parks of England can show more
cedars than the whole of the wide range of its native regions. This most
interesting and majestic tree is sometimes neglected, in consequence of a
groundless apprehension of the slowness of its growth, — an apprehension
which we shall proceed, from authentic documents, to dispel. Highclere
park, in North Hampshire, the creation of the late and present Earls of
Carnarvon, claims a high rank among the most beautiful domains in our
southern counties. Some fine cedars of Lebanon adorn the immediate
vicinity of the mansion. Their history is interesting. The lawn on
which they stand, elevated about 600 feet above the level of the sea,
is at the foot of the bold northern escarpment of the Chalk Downs,
which rising about 400 feet above the house, extend for twenty miles to
the southward. The soil is thin and sterile ; the immediate subsoil hard
plastic clay, with flints ; its substratum chalk, not three feet from the surface.
The climate is cold, foggy, windy ; the spring very backward, the summer
temperature low. We shall proceed to give a tabular view of the progress
of the six largest trees, from authentic memoranda, to which we have been
allowed access. The two oldest specitnens. No. 1 and 2 in the table,
were raised from a cone gathered upon Mount Lebanon by Dr. Pococke,
the celebrated oriental traveller. The seeds were sown in 1739. Two

J40 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

only came up, and being planted out, remained stinted plants. They were
transplanted to their present sites in 1767, being at that time about 17
inches in girth, at one foot from the ground. The other four trees were
raised from a cone brought from Wilton House, the well-known seat of
the Earl of Pembroke, in 1772, and were planted out where they now
stand in 1778. A very healthy beech, transplanted in 1777, to a spot near
these cedars, is of very inferior girth. The following table will afford
a view of their progress and present condition.

1787. 1799. 1812. 1827. 1832.

No 1 Cone from Lebanon, raised ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 3 feet from
1*739, measured in 1777, 1. 10| 2 11| 4 llj filOj 8 11 9 3^ ground.

No. 2. Cone from Lebanon . . 1 10| 3 11 6 0^ 7 10 8 6 Ditto.

No. 3, Cone from Wilton, planted

out in 1778, next to No. 2 . ... ^7 6 7* 9 4 10 0 Ditto.

No. 4. Cone ftom Wilton, oppo-
site north-east angle of house,
planted 1778 . • 3 7i 6 6 9 6 10 2a Ditto.

No. 5. Cone from Wilton, oppo-
site south-east angle of house,
planted 1778 6 6| 9 5 10 3 Ditto.

No 6. Cone from W^ilton, in the

park, planted 1778 9 6 10 6 Ditto.

' A second species of cedar (Pinus Deodara) exists in the Himalayan
mountains. It attains to a great size, and in all ages has been regarded
with o-reat consideration by the natives of these countries : usually planted
by them around the temples of their gods, it would indeed seem, from
its name, (devadara or deodara, which means God's tree,) to be, in
some meas\He, dedicated to that especial purpose. It bears some resem-
blance to the cedar of Lebanon, equals it in size, but, judging from some
views of scenery in tlie Himalaya which we have seen, is, probably, of
more aspiring habit. Seedlings have been raised in this country, and its
hardihood has been ascertained by a specimen, several feet in height,
which thrives in the open ground at Hopetoun House. As it can only
be propao-ated from seed, we recommend this fine tree to the peculiar atten-
tion of individuals connected with the country of its growth.

Next in beauty to the cedar, as a park tree, we may, perhaps, reckon the
Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris.) Nothing can well be uglier than a dravvn-up
grove of Scotch firs. A large, undulating, and sloping wood, consisting of
this tree is, on the contrary, an object of striking beauty, — beauty indeed of
a peculiar and sombre character, suiting well with heathy forest land of
varied surface, and finely adapted to invest with an effect novel, and im-
pressive in this climate, a lake entirely surrounded by such a wood. Some
such effect of scenery may be seen around Virginia Water, in Windsor
park. The Scotch fir is also fine as a single specimen, when it becomes
broad and umbrageous, and tufted ; or condensed into small groups com-
posed of a few specimens only. But, upon the whole, we are of opinion
that the most appropriate application of coniferous trees, in our climate,
is not to intermix them with deciduous trees, but to assemble them into
what has been appropriately called a Pinetum. This has been admirably
done by Lord Grenville, at his beautifiil seat, Dropmore. Such an ever-
o-reen quarter is an invaluable winter refuge. The individuals composing
it are derived from many countries throughout the northern hemisphere ;

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 141

they possess a geographical interest; they are of great and diversified
value, for sundry economical purposes ; they differ much in habit, hue,
and general appearance. When all other trees are despoiled of their
leaves, these, unscathed by the vicissitudes of the seasons, remain un-
changed. In deciding upon the site of a Pinetum, attention should
be given to the nature of the soil ; for though pines, in their native
places, grow sometimes in very poor soils, — from the crevice of
the naked rock, on the barrenest hill side, or in the most sterile sands ;
here, where the natives of very different climates are assembled together
by human enterprise and ingenuity, to contend with conditions differing
much from those to which nature liad originally submitted ttiem, every
compensation that is possible should be made. Shelter is indis-
pensable,— many of the species are delicate, — variety of surface is desir-
able,— some prefer a less sunny situation than others ; depth of soil is
essential, — the last degree of vigour should be aimed at ; a deep sandy
loam is to be preferred, for almost all the species should be carefully
guarded from stagnant moisture, and on a cold subsoil few will thrive.
To describe in detail every coniferous tree, would be but to repeat what
has been already done in this work. We shall pass them in review rapidly,
glancing at those which are either new, neglected, or desirable to be added
to our vegetable wealth.

Among the species most generally known, the silver fir and the
Norsvay spruce fir are conspicuous. They are both of considerable
beauty, pyramidal in form, of great size and bulk, and are sometimes
very stately, when standing singly. The silver fir, in England much
the largest tree, grows slower than the Norway spruce, during the first
twenty years of its age, but then, continuing its growth with accelerated
pace, passes it by rapidly. The balm of Gilead fir (Pinus balsamea),
nearly allied to the silver fir, perhaps handsomer in foliage, is not worth
planting. During the first years of its existence in England, it grows with
sufficient quickness, but soon relaxes, becomes diseased, and dies. We are
inclined to attribute its premature fate to the average summer temperature
in our climate being insufficient to ripen its rootlets sufficiently ; for the
tree seems to die so soon as, in the natural progress of its growth, its roots
have penetrated some depth beneath the surface. The white spruce of
North America (Pinus alba) is sufficiently distinguished to merit a place
in the pleasure-ground ; it differs from the Norway spruce by the peculiar
blue hue of its foliage. Pinus nigra and rubra, spruce firs of much
humbler growth, are rather subjects for the Pinetum than for the park
generally. A most magnificent tree, resembling a silver fir upon a large
scale, (Pinus spectabilis,) has lately been introduced from the mountains
of the Himalaya. Nothing in the fir tribe can easily surpass in beauty
this fine tree, whose silvery bark, bright green leaves, white beneath, and
purple cones, studded with drops of transparent resin, render it an object
of high attraction. It grows to large size, and, in the south of England
at least, is hardy, though, owing to the earliness of its spring growtii, it
will be liable to receive injury from frost. It is still exceedingly scarce
in the nurseries, where it has been increased by cuttings, a mode of
propagation ill adapted to produce a fine tree. Every exertion should be
made to procure its cones ; no matter of difficulty now that the British
dominion has extended over the remotest recesses of the Himalaya.

We revert to the Norway spruce, so universally known, only to
mention the vast mischief done by squirrels in plantations of this va-
luable tree, and to caution all planters against allowing these animals
to multiply. In winter, when pressed by a deficiency of other food,

142 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

they bite off the smaller shoots over the whole surface of the tree, finding-,
apparently, at the gibbous base of the shoot made in the preceding-
summer, a small portion of pith ; at least, we have never seen any but
the shoot of one season's growth to be bitten off, and always to have
been gnawed only at its base. Being astonished at the wide extent of
the ravages committed by these animals, in a large plantation of spruces,
scarcely a tree being untouched, we caused the shoots, which had been
bitten off and were lying under one tree, to be collected. They filled two
corn-sacks. The effect upon the specimen is extremely destructive to its
beauty and its growth.

Among the firs long introduced among us is the hemlock spruce
fir (Pinus Canadensis) a tree of vast growth in its native regions
in North America, and of beauty so striking that we wonder it should
still be rare in our gardens. In foliage it resembles the yew, but is
of a light and cheerful tint, and is free from that rigidity of habit,
which is the general fault of the trees of that section of the genus
Pinus, which bear solitary leaves, and are generally called firs in con-
tradistinction to the pines, which bear their leaves in distinct sheaths,
enveloping more or less crowded fascicles. A most interesting fir of
this section has been recently introduced into this country by the in-
defatigable collector of the Horticultural Society of London, Mr. David
Douglas, from the north-western regions of North America, where it is
found abundantly between the rocky mountains and the Pacific ocean.
Pinus Douglasii, which is, perhaps, the Pinus taxifolia of Menzies, is a
stupenduous tree, growing from 150 to 200 feet in height. One specimen
is said, by a traveller upon the Columbia, to have measured 230 feet
in height, and fifty feet in circumference. Its timber is singularly
close-grained and heavy, its bark surprisingly thick, its foliage very
elegant. It is quite hardy, and apparently of rapid growth. Judging
from the appearance of young specimens, we deem it the most lovely of
its class yet known to us. Reverting to the section, the leaves of which, like
the Scottish fir, are borne in sheaths, we must mention another fine hardy
tree, brought from the same regions by the same distinguished traveller,
Pinus ponderosa, so named from the great specific gravity of its valuable
wood. It appears to resemble the Scotch fir in habit, has longer leaves,
grows rapidly, but is understood not to arrive at the gigantic stature of
Pinus Douglassii. Its wood is singularly close in the grain, and of great
durability, probably excelling in value that of any other species of the whole
tribe ; and as it appears to us to grow as fast in this climate as the Scotch
fir, we are inclined to think that it ought everywhere to supersede that
species. But as the whole of the individuals among us were probably
raised from the cones imported by Mr. Douglas, a fresh importation is a
most desirable matter, to which we invite the attention of the public. A
tree well known to the Romans (Pinus Laricio) has lately travelled to our
collections from the mountains of Corsica. Though its native habitation
was so near to us, it had entirely esca])ed the notice of British collectors,
till the overthrow of Napoleon introduced to them a specimen thriving
conspicuously in the arboretum of the Jardiu des Plantes at Paris. Since
then it has been raised in considerable numbers in some of the London
nurseries. It is a native not only of the mountains of Corsica, but of the
loftier summits of the Grecian archipelago, and has been found upon
Mount Ida. Handsomer when young than the Scotch fir, it is equally
hardy, has longer and finer foliage, is of more elegant habit, produces
timber of greater specific gravity, and is very deserving of the marked
attention, not only of the ornamental planter, but also of the planter for

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 143

profit. Another very interesting tree from the East, introduced into
the country about twenty years ago, — Pinus Pallasiana, — has been
better known by the name of Pinus Taurica. In the central regions
of the Crimea, on the western declivities of the mountains, wliich stretch
along the shores of the Black Sea, this tree, called tzaam by the
natives, forms considerable forests, and grows to a great size. Its
Avood is very knotty, resinous and durable, but is not well adapted to the
purposes of the joiner, on account of the knottiness of its texture. It
throws out its branches, almost from the base of its trunk, in a horizontal
direction, and is said to be strikingly picturescjue in its habit. It abounds
with a resin singularly odorous, and will probably be one of the most
distinguished inhabitants of the Piuetum. But the experience of Mr.
Lambert has assigned to this tree a station of singular utility. He has
ascertained practically its capacity of flourishing upon the most barren
chalk downs, where the thinness and aridity of the soil combine to forbid
almost every other tree from succeeding. A few trees which he planted
at Boyton about twenty years ago, where the soil was little more than
two inches thick upon a bed of hard chalk, are now nearly thirty feet
high, and very luxuriant. Many were planted by the present Duke of
Marlborough at White Knights. Their cones produced in this country
have never perfected seeds, but it cannot be difficult to procure ihem from
the Western Coast of the Crimea. It maybe as well to remark here, that
in bringing home cones of any fir, peculiar care should be had in placing
the box containing them, in an airy situation, in the cabin or between the
decks. The high temperature and confined air of the hold of the ship
destroy the life of seeds speedily. A very magnificent pine was discovered
by Mr. David Douglas in sandy plains in Northern Calilbrnia, and appro-
priately named Pinus Lambertiana, in honour of the very distinguished
botanist, Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq., whose magnificent work on the
Genus Pinus, to which we have been largely indebted, has contributed in
a remarkable degree to elucidate the history of this extensive genus. It
is a plant of vast size, growing in its native plains from 150 to 200 feet
high: one specimen which Mr. Douglas measured was 215 feet in
length, and 19 feet in diameter. The cones of this splendid tree are
sixteen inches in length and nine inches in circumference. We apprehend,
from some observations which we have made, that in Great Britain it can
only be regarded as a specimen tree, confined to very sheltered and warm
spots. But the recent and still-pending researches of the same enter-
prising traveller and enthusiastic botanist, in the same regions of North
America, the regions which bound the Northern Pacific Ocean, bid fair
to enrich the Pinetum in no common degree. In the mountain valleys of
the Alps of New Albion, surrounded by snow peaks exceeding Mont
Blanc in elevation, he has lately discovered several most interesting
species, which must all be hardy in England: — Pinus nobilis, and Pinus
grandis, equalling Pinus Lambertiana and Pinus Douglasii in hugeness of
stature ; Pinus monlicola, two varieties, resembling in elegance of foliage
the Weymouth pine ; Pinus Menziesii, of smaller growth, but curious
habit ; Pinus Sabiniana, — are all plants of great interest, and will be
acquisitions of uncommon value. We suspect that mountain trees,
from elevations correspondent in temperature with the climate of Bri-
tain, will be found to succeed in it better than trees from lower regions,
even when situated more northerly. The larch of Switzerland and the
Tyrol countries, to the south of us, succeed better here than the larches of
Siberia and Canada. The Pinus Laricio of the mountains of the genial
countries of the Mediterranean is more at home in England than the

144 ORNAMENTAL PLANTING

Pinus balsamea of Nova Scotia ; and it may be expected that the trees of
North Western America will do better with us than the trees of corre-
spondent latitudes in the United States, where the extremes of summer
and winter temperature are more violent than in the countries bordering
on the Northern Pacific Ocean.

In treating- of garden trees, we have omitted to mention Pinus cembra.
Even in its native climate and soil, among the mountains of Switzerland,
it is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, and in England the Swiss
variety preserves the same character; but it is also indigenous to Siberia;
and we have observed that the Siberian variety, which is not uncommon in
our nurseries, makes less rapid progress than its Swiss congener. Pinus
cembra, when it has attained to considerable size, is one of the most orna-
mental trees of the whole tribe, and should find a place upon every
extensive lawn.

It would be superfluous here to discourse upon trees so well known
as the larch, whose wood almost rivals the oak in durability, and whose
bark is about half the value of the bark of that tree; of the Weymouth
pine, whose stem furnishes masts ; of the Stone Pine, whose vast canopy,
supported upon a naked column of great height, forms one of the chief
and peculiar beauties in Italian scenery, and in the living landscapes of
Claude ; of the pinaster, whose clustering cones and fine foliage entitle it
to rank high among the most picturesque of its congeners; of the Mugho
pine, and Pinus pumilio, whose low dwarfish growth are of great value in
the picturesque arrangement of a Pinetum. There are several other species,
which, though neither of size nor of beauty to entitle them, in this brief sketch,
to a distinct notice, should be included in the range of a well-ordered
collection. We shall, however, pause a moment to advert to Pinus excelsa
and Pinus Gerardiana, both lately introduced from the regions of the Hima-
laya. The former is a tree of large size, growing from 90 to 120 feet high ;
the latter a fine tree, said to resemble the Stone Pine, and known to the natives
by the name of the Neoza pine, produces an abundance of edible seeds. Se-
veral other species exist upon the Cordillera of the Andes, stretching from
the northern side of the equator, through Mexico to New Albion, and at
intervals rising into the region of eternal snow ; some perhaps upon the
mountain chains of Caucasus and of Central Asia. A few coniferous trees
of other genera remained to be mentioned. A noble tree of most exotic
appearance (Auraucaria imbricata) graces the more southerly plains of
South America, and with slight protection endures the climate of the south
of Enn-land. Another species of too tender constitution (Auraucaria
Brasiliensis) is supplied by Brazil ; others exist upon the shores of Aus-
tralia : the noblest of all, and the fairest (Auraucaria excelsa), whose
beauty and stateliness are faintly represented by a few specimens con-
fined within !the narrow limits of our conservatories, is found, exclu-
sively we believe, in Norfolk Island, one of the loveliest spots in the
southern hemisphere, (the penal station of the penal colony of New
South Wales), where it rises to the magnificent height of more than
200 feet, and reaches to bulk correspondent with so vast a height.
A very pretty tree, nearly allied to Auraucaria, — CunniTighamia lanceolata,
— is becoming general in collections. It is a native of China, and
hardy in light soils. Being always in this country propagated from
cuttings, it requires some management to make it throw up a vigorous
leader, and assume the habit of a tree. If, however, it be planted out in
a sheltered situation, and in good soil, and if then, when it shall have made
a considerable mass of roots and is well established, its shoots be depressed
into a horizontal position, and so confined with pegs, it will ultimately

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING. 145

throw up a strong: perpendiculur shoot from its roots, and make quick
proi>'ress. Sometimes these stronj;' shoots, after a year or two of rapid
growth, relax their speed, and discontinue tlie function of a leader; in
such cases they must be depressed as before, and the practice will be sure
to succeed at last.

The Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), so conspicuous and so
beautifully applied in the terraced scenery of Italian villas, cannot be said
to attain to full vig'our even in the south of England. It is essentially the
tree of architectural gardens, and ought never to be forgotten when the
climate and soil admit of its application. A tree nearly allied to it, but
deciduous (Cupressus disticha of our enumeration), now separated into
a distinct genus, under the name of Taxodium distichum, is one of the
largest and nu)st ornamental of all the trees which thrive in temperate
climates. Nothing can well surpass the loveliness of its light and deli-
cately-coloured foliage. Though a native of Mexico, and of the southern
sections of the United States, inhabiting the deepest deposits in the valleys
of their vast rivers, and luxuriating in the deadly swamps of the Mississippi,
yet in England it appears to be perfectly hardy, — affording one of many
instances, that trees vary in hardihood of constitution, and are not to be
absolutely tested by the latitudes, or even by the elevations, where nature
has originally placed them. It should have a deep, and, if possible,
humid soil. When we say that no pleasure-ground should be without it,
we but faintly express our sense of its elegance. Another species of
taxodium (Taxodium sempervirens), an evergreen tree, exists on the
North-Western shores of America, and should be introduced into this
country. One, if not two, true species of cypress are known to be found
on the same shores. In China and Japan several species of conifera are
among the most remarkable characteristics of their vegetation. Cupressus
pendula, which equals the weeping willow in the charms of its pendant
branches, in China is generally planted to hang over the tombs of the
departed. Nothing can be better in unison with this purpose than the
dark and weeping branches of this tree. Several species of thuya,
inhabitants of the same countries, are great desiderata. Amono" them
Thuya dolabrata calls upon us for the most earnest endeavours to intro-
duce it. This plant is described by KiEmpfer and Thunber-j-, who saw it
in its native soil, as a lofty, vast, and beautiful tree, of all evernreens the
fairest. It is unquestionably hardy. The policy of these remarkable
nations opposes the most inflexible resistance to European intercourse.
Still the perseverance of individuals, and of the Horticultural Society of
London, have procured us many of their beautiful plants. The camellia
is the chief spring ornament of our conservatories ; their mao-tiolias their
azaleas, their pa^onies, decorate our pleasure-grounds; the corchorus
and the numerous varieties of the china rose, adorn our humblest cottaires •
but scarcely a forest-tree has yei taken its station upon our lawns. We
cannot doubt that this may also be achieved. To China, to Japan, to the
Himalaya, and other mountain chains of Central Asia, — to the alpine
vallies of North-Westeru America, — to Patagonia, the hills of Southern
Chili, and the archii)elago of Cliiloe, — we look as to the sources almost
unexplored of additional vveallli to the arboretum. Our intercourse with
almost every corner of the habitable globe is so intimate, communications
with the most distant nations are so frequent, so many accomplished
individuals inhabit coimtries the most renu)te. that we are persuaded it
is only necessary to invite general attention to our favourite object, in
order to place it in a fair train lor accomplishment.

INDEX.

Abele, 27.

Acer, 34 — general list of, species of, 97.

Acorns, how sown, 24.

Adam, the Right Honourable Lord Chief Com-
missioner, his judicious planting, 46.

jEsailiis, 34, 98.

AUdntlius, 27, 100.

Aildnlhiis ghntlulosa, merits of in ornamental
planting, 136

Air, atmospherical, free circulation of essen-
tial to the growth of trees, 19, 21.

Alder, uses of, 108 — species of, ib. — compara-
tive merits of in ornamental planting, 134
— fine specimens of at Gordon Castle, ib.

Almond-tree, 102

Alnus, 34, 109. 110.

Amelanchier, 103.

Ami/tjrlaltis, 103.

Arboretum, properties of the structure of cer-
tain trees have an interesting effect in, 129.

Arbor-vitac, 20.

Ash, uses of, 104 — species of, 105 — compara-
tive merits of different species of in orna-
mental planting, 134.

Aspen, 27.

Atmospheric air, importance of, to trees, 19 —
what composed of, 19 — plants that grow
best in the atmosphere of London, 19 —
to be free of stagnation essential to its
being useful to trees, 21 — when stagnant
affects the quantity and quality of bark of
trees, 76 — when surcharged with moisture
made more injurious by frosts to the ten-
der shoots of plants, 126*.

Auraiicaria, 34, species of, highly ornamental,

Bark, what, 5 — root bark, 7 — stem bark, 7 —
comparative value of in different species of
trees, 75.

Barlow, Professor, his important experiments
on the comparative strength of different
species of wood, 77.

Bedford Conservatories, 19 — Bedford, John,
Duke of, K. G., plantations made by him,
47 — plough for furrow planting, lieath-soils
used by, 38 — numberof trees planted by,*47.

Heech, different species of, 16, 117 — remark-
able specimen of the, 49, 89 — comparative
merits of, in ornamental planting, 133 —
three new species of discovered by Captain
King, ib.

5e<K/rt, .34, 108—110,133.

Birch, uses of, 109 — species of, 110 — compa-
rative merits of, in ornamental planting, 133
—134.

Blair Adam, plantations at, 21 — rides in, how
first planned, *59 — how afterwards im-
proved, ib.

Bole of trees, what, 7.

Bonduc-tree, 101

Branches of forest-trees, wlien to be pruned,
41 — effects of separating large ones from
the bole of a tree, 64 — of oaks fifty years
old ami upwards, mode of cutting at Blair
Adam, *64

Bucks-eye tree, 98 — general enumeration of
species of, ib.

Capital in the first outlay on planting, 53 —
calculations of the amount of required often
erroneous, ib.

Carbon, the basis of wood, 19.

Carnarvon, late and present Earls of, remark-
able cedars of Lebanon planted by, 140.

Carpinus, 34.

Castdna, 34,

Cedar, Indian, 125

Cedar of Lebanon, uses of, 124 — ancient and
modern state of the original site of, ib. — re-
markable specimens of, raised from cones
planted by the Earl of Carnarvon at High-
clerc Park, 140.

Cellis, 104.

Chaptal., M., his estimate of the extent of the
forest lands in France, 83.

Cktne /«MMi«, what, 130.

Chestnut, sweet, 17 — valuable properties of,
ib. — species of, 118 — Spanish, comparative
merits of, in ornamental planting, 133.

Childers, J. W., Esq., *55 — fences of wire-
netting effectual protection against rabbits,
&c. used on his estate at Cantley Hall.

Christ's Thorn, 98.

Clayey soils ought to be trenched for planting
forest-trees, 39 — with a coarse surface should
be pared and burnt previous to planting,
22, 23.

Coffee-tree of Kentucky, 102.

Coniferous trees, value of, to the ornamental
planter, 139 — 145.

Coppice stools, produce of what, 41 — should
be kept low, 41,42 — kinds of trees most
useful for, 42 — trees unfit for, ib. — tillers
of, how to be trained, ib. — comparative va-
lue of, ib. — land employed in, comparative
value of as regards husbandry crops, 42.

Cork-tree, 116 — mode of taking off the bark,
117.

Corylus, 113.

Cover, object of securing a close one how de-
feated, *69.

CratcBgus, 103, 104, 138.

Culture of plantations, 60 — of the soil pre-
parative to planting, 86.

Cunninyliiimiu lanceolataf merits of, in orna-
mental planting, 145,

Cuprissus, 34, 145.

L 2

148

INDEX,

Cyprus, deciduous, 34— list of species of, 120

— uprifiht evergreen, 34, 145,
Cyprus oak, what, 130
Cytisus, 101.

Diamond dibble, what, 35 — figure of, ib. —
(fig. 6.)

Diseases of trees, 70 — insects which induce,
71, 72 — case induced by the scolytus de-
structor, *72.

Distance at which forest-tree plants should stand
when planted, 40.

Draining, 56 — mode of required for soils to
rear forest-trees, ib.

Dutrochet, Mr., his labours to advance the
knowledge of vegetable physiology, 17,

Elevation, limits of the growth of different
species of trees, 44,

Elm, different species of, 105 — remarkable spe-
cimen of, 88 — comparative merits of, in or-
namental planting, 130.

. Engli>^li, seldom perfects seed in England,

but in the climate of Paris it ripens abun-
dantly, lb.

Epidermis of trees, what, 6 — experiment on
the effect of removing the, *6.

Extractive matter, contains the elements of the
substance of a tree, 18 — found in all fertile
soils, ib. — peculiar properties of, *18.

Fagus, 34.

Felling trees, most judicious mode of, 76.

Fences, materials for, often to be found on the
spot where wanted, 53 — cost of, 54 — dif-
ferent kinds of, 55.

Fiennes, Hon. Tsvisleton, his interesting trials
in planting marsh soil, 52.

Fir, common spruce, 33 — Scotch, ib. — size of
different species of for transplanting, ib. —
silver, remarkable specimen of, 89 — list of
different species of, 124 — in ornamental
planting, 141.

Fleming, the Right Hon. Admiral, a valuable
property of the larch pointed out by, 70.

Food of plants, what, 17 — atmospherical air an
essential ingredient in, 18 — soluble sub-
stances wliich chiefly constitute the, 21.

Forest lands belonging to the Crown of Bri-
tain, 84.

Forests of France, extent of, 83.

Forest-trees, diflerent modes of rearing, 22,
32 — management of a nurseryof, 2G — mode
of rearing by coppice-stools, 41 — manure
iiseful to in poor soils, 78 — valuation of, 80
— diflerent kinds of woods of, 8, 9, 10, — sec
Trees, general list of, 93.

Fraxinus, 34, 103, 104 — comparative merits
of, in ornamental planting, 134,

Fulham oak, what, 130.

Furrow planting, what, 38.

Furze, different species of, 100.

Game, certain grasses on rides in plantations
of which tliey are fond, CO — wire-netting
fence protection against, 55 *.

Gleditschia, 100.

Gorse, 100.

Grafting of foresl-trees, what, 30, 31 — kinds of
foresl-trees reared or propagated by, 31 —
stocks for, 32.

Grasses, the essential permanent pasture spe-
cies of cannot be established on certain ex-
posed soils without the aid of forest-trees,
2 — kinds best adapted to cover the surface
of rides permanently, 59.

Gtjmnocladus, 102.

Hawthorn, comparative merits of, in ornamen-
tal planting, 138.

Hazle-tree, 113.

Hiccory, 99 — species of, ib,

Himalaya Mountains, the vegetable produc-
tions of, offer valuable subjects for the ob-
jects of the ornamental planter, 132 — 145.

Holing, what, 37 — kinds of soil in which it is
never attended with success, ih.

Holm oak, comparative merits of, in ornamen-
tal planting, 139.

Holly common, 99 — American, ih.

Holland, Lord, his oaks in Ampthill Park, 1 12.

Hornbeam, 112 — different species of, 112 —
varieties of, advantageously employed in
ornamental planting, 138.

Hornbeam-hop, 112.

Horse-chestnut, 98 — general list of species of,
98 — comparative merits of, in ornamental
planting, 130.

Ilex, 98.

Insects which injure trees, 71, 72,

Italian cypress, 145.

Juglans, 99.
Juniper, 34, 121, 122.
Jnntperus, ib.

Kermes oak, 117.

King, Captain, his interesting notice respecting

three new species of beech found by him on

Terra Magellanica, 13G.
Knight, T. A. Esq.. his researches in vegetable

physiology, 10, 17, 78.
Koelreuteria, 138.

Laburnum, 101.

Lambert pine, increase of wood in the later
fifty-six years' of growth of, 58.

Lambert's pine, 34, 125.

Land, rent of, one test to determine the pro-
priety of planting it, 47 — extent of waste in
Great Britain and Ireland, 85*.

Larch, 33 — disease of, 74 — comparative rate
of increase of, the wood of, and the silver
fir, 79 — of the oak, ib. — remarkable spe-
cimen of the, 89 — general list of speciesof
127 — pruning the, GO.

Layers, what kinds of trees chiefly propa-
gated by, 27, 28, 29.

Layering, process of, 27.

Leaves of trees, uses of, 11 — of what com-
posed, ib. — kinds of, 12,

Lime, 34, 97 — general list of species of, 95 —

INDEX.

149

97, comparative merits of, in ornamental
plaining, 1.33.

Liquid aiulier, 121. 138.

Live oak, 116 — valuable properties of, ib. —
passage respecting the, corrected, ib.

Locust tree, its liabit of growtli at ditVerent
periods of its progress to maturity, 58* —
wood texture of, 10 — increase of growth of,
compared to that of the oak, 78 — uses and
some properties of, 102.

Lote-tree, 106.

Lucas's arbor-vitce, 34 — Lucas, Mr., his suc-
cessful transplantation of large plants of live
oak, 45.

Luccomb oakj what, 130.

Mai/no/ia, 93 — comparative merits of, in orna-
mental planting, 137.

Maiden-hair tree, 118 merits of, in ornamen-
tal planting, 138.

Management of a nursery of forest-trees what,
26.

Manna^ how obtained, 105 — Ash, tb.

Manure to forest-tree plants, important object
of, 39 — first brought fully into notice by
Mr. Withers, 58 — comparative trial of, * 78.

Maple, general list of species of, 97 — compa-
rative merits of tlie different species of, in
ornamental planting, 135.

Marie Antoinette, her favourite garden at Petit
Trianon, remarkable specimen of Quercus
phell'/s in, 131.

Mattock planting, what, 37.

Mespilus, 103.

Mixed planting, generally the most profitable
and ornamental, 43.

Modes of planting forest-trees, 34.

Moor-planter, what, 35 — figure of, 35 («).

Morns, 106.

Mulberry-tree, 106.

Neoza pine, 144.

Non-reproductive trees, list of, 33.

Norfolk Island pine, 123.

Northumberland, Duke of, K.G., fine specimens

of some species of American trees in his

grounds at Sion, 100.
Nurse-trees, when required to be thinned, 41

— importance of, ib.
Nursery for forest-trees, important points to

be considered in the formation of, 26.

Oak, mode of rearing from seed, 22 — pre-
paration of the soil for the, 22, 23 — two
varieties of the British, 24 — specific cha-
racters of, 114 — treatment of the plants of
in the second year's growth, 25 — of chemical
analysis of the soil on whicli it attains to great
perfection, 49 — best size of the plants for
transplanting the, 34 — comparative trials,
by Professor Barlow, to determine the
strength of the wood of slow, and of fast-
grown trees of, *78 — annual increase of the
wood of compared to the larch, 79 —
markahle trees of the, 88 — enumeration of
the diflcrent species of, 113 — 118.

Oaks, those described by Michanx and Pnrsh
adverted to, 131.

. of iurkey, where it attains to enormous

bulk, 130 — valuable properties of, ib. — ICx-
pcrimeut on the ciimparalixe value of the
timber of, by Mr. Alkitison, the architect, ib.

of North Ameri( a, claim the deepest at-
tention of the ornamental planter, and how,
131.

Ornamental planting, what, 129 — subjects,
pleasures and advantages of, I'i.

Palmer, Charles l<'ysshe,M.P., his improvement
in planting waste land*, 46 — planting
plough, 57, {fig. 9.)

Panshanger oak,* 50.

Parenchijyna, cause of the green colour of, G
— what composed of, ib.

Pear-tree, 103.

Pine, what, 12.3 — Scotch pruning of, ib., 66.

Piniis, species of, 33 — Lnmbertia, * 70 —
general list of, 127 — species of, highly or-
namental in park scenery, 141 144.

Pinus Deodarn, 140.

grandis, 143.

inonticola, ib.

menziesii, ib.

^—— sahimann, ib.

nobi/is, ib.

Pith, what, 4 — uses of, 4, 5.

Plane, oriental, comparative merits of, in orna-
mental planting, 132 — remarkable specimen
of, in the Court of the Seraglio, ib. — North
American, inferior properties of, for the
climate of Britain, 133.

Planting, subject of, how divided, 1 — heads
of to be discussed in this Essay, ib. — judi-
cious, some of the advantages resulting from
diflerent modes of, 34, 36, 37 — the best and
most expeditious mode of, by the spade, 38
— judicious, beneficial results certain to
follow from, what, 41 — in masses, as ori-
ginally practised at Blair Adam, *43.

Plantations, simple, what, 43 — mixed, what,
ib. — products of, what, 89 — terms used to
denote the products of, 90 — mode of valu-
ing, 80 — extraordinary profits from, 82 —
estimates of the profits from, by three pro-
fessional planters, ib.

Plane, 34 — list of tlie diflcrent species of, 120.

Plants, best size of to plant in extensive works
in forest-planting, 33.

Platanus, 34, 1 20.

Populus, 27, 106, 107.

Poplar, 27 — rapid produce of timber bv the
black Italian {Popu/ux nigra), 89 — list of
the different species of, 108, 109 — compa-
rative value of the species of, in ornamental
planting, 137.

Povvis's, Karl, oaks in his Park, near Ludlow,
114.

Products of plantations, what. 89 — terms in
common use to denote the, 90.

Profits of thinnings, how early obtained, 41 —
estimates of the profits arising from judicious
planting, by three experienced planters, 82,

150

INDEX.

Pruning forest-trees cannot safely be per-
formed by any one without a just knowledge
of vegetable physiology, 16 — a moderate
degree of for young plants possessing the
power of repro'luctioH useful, 32 — to non-
reproiliictive trees often hurtful, 32 — on
every occasion to be accompanied with a
requisite knowledge of vegetable physioiocry
— different kinds of, 61 — inquiry respectin;^
the sap of the tree destined to support
branches pruned off, 64 — the period at which
to begin that of young trees, 65 — of resinous
trees, 66 — pine, ib. — fir, ib. — instrument
of, 62— practice of at Blair Adam *, 63.

P^/rus, 103.

Quercus, 34, 113—118.

gnmdifolia, merits of, in ornamental

planting, 132.

spicata, merits in ornamental planting,

132.
camellosa, ib.

Rearing of forest-trees by coppice-stools, 41

Red cedar, 34, 122.

Region planting what, 44,

Re-productive trees what, 34 — proper height
of plants of, for transplanting, ib.

Rides, how best covered with herbage in plan-
tations, 59 — formation of, 69.

Rhododendron ponticum, use of for cover and
underwood, fill.

Robima, species of, 101 — structure of valu-
able in ornamental planting, 129.

Robust or healthy plant, definition of*, 26.

Rocky and elevated soils, proper size of forest-
tree plants for, 33.

Root of forest-trees, kinds of, tap what, 3 —
creeping what, ib, — fibrous what, ib.

Salicina, 106.

Sa/isbtiria, 13S.

Salix, 34, 107.

Sap of trees, its ascent, 16, 17.

Seasoning timber, different modes of, 74.

Sea-blasts, species of trees which best resist
the, 45.

Seeds of scarce or recently-imported pines or
firs should be sown in pots, 33 — of what
composed, 13 — different kinds of, 13, 14 —
how preserved, 14 — covering required by
different species of, 14, 15.

Shade of forest-trees, its importance, 43.

Shelterof forest-trees, its importance, 43.

Silver-fir, valuable properties of, 80, 89.

Sinclair, the Rigiit Hon. Sir John, an improved
mode of slit-planting described by, 36.

Sinclair, George, F.L S., calculations on the
profit and loss of forest-tree planting, 83.

Slit-planting, what, 35 — defects of, what, 36 —
valuable plantations have been made by, 38.

Soi/.t, termed waste, inquiry proposed to de-
termine the question why unproductive to
individuals and the nation, 2— of a nur-
sery for forest-trees, what, 26 — rocky, the

limited size of plants for planting on, 33 —
on wliich the mode of planting by holing is
not successful, 37^nature of to determine
the kinds of trees to be planted on, 40 — and
distance of one from another when planted,
ib. — simple, what, 43 — mixed, what, ib. —
most profitably employed in the growth of
timber, 45 — analysis of, where trees have
attained to perfection, 47 — heath, what, 43
— poor sandy soil, what, (6. — light silicious
soil, what, j6. — clayey loam, what, 49 — damp
clayey soil, what, 50 — fertile peat moss,

what, 51 — inert-peat, what, ib chalky soil,

what, ib. — alluvial, or marsh soil, what, .52
— most approved mode of preparing for the
reception of forest-tree plants, 53 — by tak.
ing an ameliorating green crop as a pre-
cursor to that of forest-trees, profitable, 86.

Sophora, 100.

Spade-planting, 36 — to what state of the land
properly ap|)lied, 37.

Stem, what, 7.

Stewart, Sir Henry, his mode of transplanting
trees of large growth, 45, 46, 138.

Suckers, what, 26 — kinds of trees chiefly pro-
pagated by, 27.

Sweet gum-tree, 121.

Sweet locust, 100.

Tabes, disease, what, 70.

Tanning, different proportions of, in the bark
of different kinds of trees, 75.

Taxodium, 34.

Tamis, 121.

Terms in use to denote the products of plan-
tations, 90.

Thinning of forest plantations, table to assist
in determining the number of plants to be
taken away, 40, 69 — advantages of, 66 — pe-
riod to begin, 67 — statement of, from prac-
tice, 67 — why certain trees of little value
are sometimes left, and others of greater
value thinned out, 68 — bad consequences of
neglecting, 71.

Thomson, Dr. A. T., his remarks on a property
of the bark of the Salix alba, 107.

T^iya, 34, 122.

dulabrdla, merits of, its introduction to

the British garden greatly to be desired, 145.

Ti/ia, 34, 97.

Tillers what, 92 — value of trees reared from,
42.

Timber, proportions of supplied to the royal
dock yards by the royal forests, 87 — appre-
hended scarcity of in the forests of North
America, ib.

Timber, what, 92 — of different species of trees
how distinguished, 8, 9, 10 — how seasoned,
74.

Transplanting, inquiry respecting, 3 — advan-
tages of compared to those of culture from
seed, 4.

Transplanting of forest-trees, 32.

Trenching, as a preparation of land for forest-
trees of great value, 57 — where it ought

INDEX.

151

particularly to be adopted, i6.— Mr. Withers'

successful advocacy of, *58.
Trees, natural agents which influence their

growth, 2 — age of a natural duration of dif-
ferent species, 70 — structure of, 'J — diseases

of, 70 — parts of their structure distinguislied

by physiologists, 3 — error to suppose a poor |

quality of soil in any case advantageous lo, 25

— iiindsof, propap;ated by layers, 28, 29 — by

cutting, 29, 30 — by grafting, 31 — spontane-
ous bleeding of, 70 — species of which best

resist the sea-blast, 45 — transplanting such as

are of large growth, 45, 138 — most judicious

modeof lelling, 7G— progressive and compara-
tive produce of wood in different species of,

ib. — individuals that have attained to great

perfection, 88 — fast growing supposed to

have soft wood, 77 — slow growing supposed

lo have harder wood, 76 — comparative rale

of increase of wood in different species of,

79 — most profitable stage of growth to fell

or cut down, ib. — foreign, picturesque effect

of, not confined to domestic scenery, 129.
Trunk of trees, what, 7.
Tulip-tree, soil on which it freely grows, 50 —

value of, in ornamental planting, 133.

Value, comparative of the different modes of
rearing forest-trees, 42 — prospective, what,
80 — present, what, ib.

Valuing plantations, 76, 80 — example of pro-
spective, from practice, 81.

Vapour, value of, to healthy vegetation, 20 —
experiment on the effect of, *20.

Vegetation, general view of the process of, 15.

TJlex, 101.
Ulmus, 34, 106.
Underwood, see Coppice.

Walnut, 99 — species of, ib. — comparative me- Zizyphus, 98.

rits of, different species of, in ornamental
planting, 135.

Wallich, Dr., oaks figured in his meritorious
work, Plantce rarwi-es Asialicce, 132.

Waste lands, extent of, in Britain, 85.

Whin, 101.

VViiiiebeam, 103 — 108 — merits of, ib.

White cedar, 34.

Willow, 34 — Dr. Johnson's, *59 — at Gordon
Castle, ib. — forest species of, 107.

Willow, Weeping, fine effect of the structure
of, in ornamental planting, 129 — tribe of,
137.

Wmtera aromalica, 136.

Winter's Bark, an interesting species of tree
for ornamental planting, 136.

Withers, William, of Holt, Norfolk, his tracts
on forest-planting, *39 — advocates success-
fully trenching and manuring as the best
preparation of certain soils for the reception
of forest-tree plants, 58 — results of his in-
quiries respecting the stiength of different
kinds of wood, ^77, 78.

Woburn Abbey Park, oaks in, 49 — silver-fir
in, ib. — Beech in, ib.

Wood, what, 5, 7 — examination of different
kinds of, 8, 9, 10, 11 — of the oriental plane,

10 — aider, ib sycamore, ib. — pophir, ib,

— locust, ib. — lime, 11 — laburnum, ib.-^
elm, 8 — oak, ib. — ash, ib. — beerh, ib.—.
chestnut, 9 — hornbeam, ii.— birch, 26.—

horse-chestnut, tb yearly increase of, in

trees how ascertained, 5 — how far quick or
slow growth of trees influences the hardness
or softness of, 77, *.

Woodlands, great profits obtained from certain
kinds of, 47.

Yew-tree, 121.

London : W.Clowks, Stamford Street.

■•',--5;?^