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USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
BY
FRANCES DENSMORE
EXTRACT FROM THE FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THB BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: WASHINGTON 1928
ay a1 UP
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
BY
FRANCES DENSMORE V")\
EXTRACT FROM THE FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON 1928
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
By FRANCES DENSMORE
275
CONTENTS
OLE WOR ese ee ee ee en IN Pa Pd parte PET O TIT) SU CS eee ee ee i ee en OTE U1 0S eae ess ee ee, ee ee ee ae BTITI TTS 0 CL ULC El © Thee ee ee ae ee ee ee ee List of plants arranged according to botanical name______ Se. List of plants arranged according to common name_____- ; se ar List of plants arranged according to native name __———__—~- ee
Medicinal properties of plants used by the Chippewa____----------_-_---
Principal active medicinal constituents of plants used by the Chippewa_— DET era Se a See 0) Ch eae ee mere ec aN os 2 a IGFET Cone | OVER MASH Yb Sel CS) ie LOYs Le ee SRE eee eee AN Ted Destro Oe ra 0 1 ores UL SNe eee ee eS ee ees Giatheningwild’rice = =e ee eee ee BB CYCLE SCS Bee ree 5 eee eee ee ee SGhiSio) chil oke\Sis = eS re ata Se ee eae ye ee aa Cereals: ee eee ee eee a ee BVESC Ga CS seat te a nee Ce ee ce ea ee ULES Fan OM DOR) CS 2 ee ee ee eee PlantSwas em eG ClnCke se ee eee eee ee ee ee ireatment py means Of planis= =e-= ===) = ne Substances other than vegetable used as remedies_——--- = Medically appliances: = ee ee ee ee eee Surgical treatment and appliances_________-___------__------__-____ BLA) E37 ANTI SUTIN Ve ered ee se ee ee eee Classification of diseases and injuries__--- = List of medical plants and their uses________-_-_-- Works containing lists of plants used medicinally_______-___-_-_-_-_-_-_ PANGS USCA eine y.cS men = eee eee see ee oe IPTOCESSHOL Cy Cll Cee = eee ee ee ee eee ee List of plants used in dyes___-__________________________-__ Mineral substances used in dyes__-_--_-- HormuUlae honMidyeS =a ae a= eee eee ee ee eee SPST EATDNUG SUS (ted See LD ETS T1002 ee isi OL plants used inichanms22 22 2= sees ee 2 eee Plants used in useful and decorative arts__-.---- = 5 GUSH ep eke 0) WV Se es ep tae Oem Rp os yD gn Wee ee IVE EUTA YM TOS Cbs, US Cate, sae aw ee eee ce oe ek ee ee ee Se ee ees Legend of Winabojo and the bireh tree_.---- Legend of Winabojo and the cedar tree_---- Gathering birch bark and cedar bark_.-_____-_-_-_--§- =» ATHICIESSMaAderor birch) batik =] ==.) B= 2 BO A Se a ie alg RR ANS AI BEE en AP CEN RS ET aw
217
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33. Birch-bark transparencies_______________-__-§_--
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
. Group of birch trees, White Earth, Minn ~~ ~~~ . a, Pine and balsam trees, White Harth, Minn,; b, Trees at Cass Lake ;
c, Norway pines at Cass Lake________________________-_-____--_-
. a, Cass Lake, Minn.; 0, Stream, White Earth, Minn_______-------__ . Frame of lodge in which maple sap was boiled, and storage lodge for
TEEN ST Se (CLOSE Cli) eee ec BY A Se ee ae
. a, Storage lodge (open); 6, Birch-bark containers; ¢, Birch-bark Cone wm dish sand sho S sass mee mes oe ee a Ba SS eee
. a, Boiling maple sap; 6, Maple trees tapped___________-__--_--___- . Granulating trough, stirring paddle, granulating ladles, and makuk Oferanulated Maple Swe aie es ae = eee ee ee eee
. a, Cakes of maple sugar and makuk filled with same; 6b, Stacked dishes and empty cones, the latter to be filled with sugar_________
. a, Waist worn when tying rice (back view); 0, Woman in boat, iy) OWeIs| CC meee a ee ee ee eee ee ee ee Med’ tice wand Tice N00 pee ake sess ena eee See ee
. Process of tying rice__________________________-_____-____---_-_-_- . Tied rice, showing stages of preparation___-_________________________ . a, Rice field; b, Poling boat through rice; c, Harvesting rice________ . a, Rice spread to dry; 6b, Parching rice; c, Mortar formerly used TAPS TOUT) CUM Oey CO See se ee ae ee ee ee te ee ee
. a, Winnowing rice; b, Pounding rice; c, Treading rice_______________
. a, Prepared medicinal substances tied in cloth; b, Packet wrapped in
thin birch bark; c, Packets of leaves and twigs, ready for use; d, Packets of bark, ready for use________-______-________-____-_____ a, Mrs. Brunett; b, Mrs. Gagewin; ec, Mrs. Louisa Martin_____-_______
. Bag in which medicines have been kept__~---_----____-----__-_____ SI SULZICAleeA pM Aan CCS ses 2 eee ene oan eee Se RS . a, Taking basswood bark from water; 6, Coils of basswood fiber____ . a, Rush mat in frame; b, Woman carrying pack of birch bark; ¢,
Storage shed) QUeN ee eee eee sha SE ret ero . Sweet grass and materials smoked in pipe in natural and prepared iL TSTY1S eee ae Pan eveeine Es RONEN OW Klee na io eo Eg er Ne . a, Headbands of leaves and birch bark; b, Doll made of leaves_______
. a, “Coaster” made of slippery elm bark; 6, Birch bark showing
“nicture of thunderbird”; c, Figures cut from birch bark________
. a, Cutting birch bark preparatory to removing; 6, Removing birch
bark from tree; c, Making a container from birch bark___________
» Meat bac. open and iclosedus = = a a . Fans made of birch bark and feathers_______________ HMSUINESiCut trom Dircheb ark 2 eee . Patterns cut from birch bark____-____________________________-_+_ . Leaves in which patterns have been bitten__________________-_ P Birch-park transparencies=— = ae
Birch-bark transparencies___________________-___-_____-_______-__
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FOREWORD
The varied uses of plants by the Chippewa indicate the large extent to which they understood and utilized the natural resources of their environment. The present study is related, in two of its phases, to the study of Chippewa music which preceded it.'| Herbs were used in the treatment of the sick and in the working of charms, and songs were sung to make the treatment and the charms effective. Songs of these classes having been recorded, the Indians were willing to bring specimens of the herbs and to explain the manner of their use. A ma- jority of the informants on this subject were women and they became interested in describing the former methods of preparing vegetable foods. Both men and women related the uses of plants in medicine, economic life, and the useful and decorative arts. Plants and data were obtained on the White Earth, Red Lake, Cass Lake, Leech Lake, and Mille Lac Reservations in Minnesota, the Lac Court Oreilles Reservation in Wisconsin, and the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario, Canada, the work continuing until 1925,
The writer gratefully acknowledges the assistance of those who have contributed to the result of the present undertaking. The specimens of plants were identified and their common names supplied by Mr. Paul C. Standley, of the United States National Museum. The reports on the recognized medicinal properties of the plants used by the Chippewa ancl on their active medical constituents were pre- pared by Dr. W. W. Stockberger, physiologist in charge of drug, poisonous, and oil plant investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, and valuable assistance in the classification of diseases and injuries treated by the Chippewa was given by Dr. D. S. Lamb, who at the time was pathologist at the Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C. Assistance has also been received from members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the United States National Museum in their special fields of research.
The work on the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario was made possible by the courtesy of John P. Wright, Indian agent of the Canadian Government at Fort Frances, Ontario.
The collection of the material herewith presented would have been impossible without the cooperation of members of the Chippewz tribe. Their assistance is gratefully acknowledged, especially that of the principal interpreter, Mrs. Mary Warren English, of White Earth, Minn., which began in 1907 and continued about 15 years.
Frances DENsSMORE.
1 Chippewa Music, Bull. 45, 1910, and Chippewa Music IJ, Bull. 55, Bur. Amer. Ethn., POV:
55231°—28 19 281
INFORMANTS?
WHITE EARTH, MINN.
Mrs. Mary Razer....____-_.-_- Papa’gine’. (Grasshopper.)
Mrs. Louisa Martin__..________ A’jawac’. (Wafted across.)
INosdinén se eens ee ee ee Little wind.
Gage wintsee = = ae eee Everlasting mist.
Mrs. Gage’ wim. 252-22. == 2_ Niséd’/nagan’ob. (Nised, corruption of the
French Lizett, or Elizabeth; Naganob, name of her father, who was chief at Fond du Lac,
Minn.)
Mrs. Wa’ wiékim’Ig3________-_- Na/waji’bigo’kwe. (Central rock woman.)
Mrs. Star Bad Boy_----------- Nenaka’wibi’kwe. (Woman who is sitting with every other one.)
Wiase’y ain ae 2c = eee eee Light.
IMbds, ISyabbetnh ea Be Cai’yagose’. (Shaken loose.)
Mrs. Annie Davis___..-------- Ca/yabwiib’. (Sitting through.)
Mrs: Sharrett © 22222552 s== === Ca’nodéns. (Diminutive of Charlotte by slightly changing word and adding ens.)
Mrs. Sophia Agness..__-__--___ Memacka’/wanamo’kwe. (Woman with a
powerful respiration.) Mrs. Margaret White.
Mrs. Roy.
Mrs. Mary Warren English.’
Mrs. Julia Warren Spears.®
Mrs. Sophia Warren.
Mrs. Charles Mee.
Albert Little Wolf ®_-._..------ Main’gans.
Oldinikc tne === Shoulder.
En’ diisopinig 02222-2222 Every day.
Rev. Clement H. Beaulieu ¥____ Ka’waéns (diminutive of his father’s name
Ka wa, which was the Chippewa mispronun- ciation of Clement).
PONSFORD, MINN. (WHITE EARTH RESERVATION) Mrs. Fineday.
Mir. @RoOCki2:= 222 — 3 Nee = ee A’sini/okim/ig. (Stony ground.) INesy aie a oe eee ee Point of land.
1101 Crs eee ee ee ee Diminutive of English “ Dick.” Wezaiwan ees see = eee = ae Yellow wing.
1 The purpose of this list is to identify the persons who chiefly contributed to the material herewith presented. ‘The name given first is therefore the name by which the person is generally known.
2 Died October 23, 1919. 8 Died June 21, 1925. 3 Died September 16, 1923. 8 Died April 6, 1927. 4 Died April 4, 1921. 10 Died October 24, 1926. 5 Died April 29, 1926. 11 Died July 4, 1926. 6 Died April 14, 1925. 12 Died January 21, 1920.
7 Died August 15, 1925.
282
INFORMANTS 283
RED LAKE, MINN.
Mirss Defoesss< =. os-ss-55-25-< Meya’wigobiwik’. (Standing strongly.) Mrs; .Ward...22.2-2-------=-< Ni’gida’wananik’.
Mrs. Joker ._.____-___-_-_--_-- Bewa’becodenistik’.
Mirss ROY 22 cose soes5-22555-6 Zo'zéd (corruption of Josette).
Mrs. Roy (daughter of above)__ Ma/’gidins (diminutive of Margaret). Mrs. Lawrence.
_ Mrs. Gurneau.
Mrs. John English.
Mrs. Ca/wanokitim/igisktin’_____ Gi’wita’wisék’. (Walking around.)
MILLE LAC, MINN.
Tom Skinaway____-_---_---_-- Manido’bijiki. (Spirit buffalo, or cattle.) Mrs. Tom Skinaway__________- Na/cine’kwe.
CASS LAKE, MINN.
William M. Rogers__--_-------- Bin’digegi’jig. (In the sky.) Mrs. William M. Rogers-_------ Bin'dige’ose’kwe. (Walking woman.)
LAC COURT OREILLES, WIS. Mrs. John Quaderer_______-___ Ogima’bInési’kwe. (Chief bird woman.) MANITOU RAPIDS RESERVE, ONTARIO, CANADA
Mrs. Wilson. Mrs. Lewis.
PHONETICS ALPHABET
The vowels and consonants employed in this work do not repre- sent every sound that occurs in the Chippewa language. Thus an obscure sound resembling / in the English alphabet sometimes occurs in the middle of a word and is not indicated. No attempt has been made to indicate a slight nasal sound that frequently occurs at the end of a word. Prolonged vowels are also not indicated. The following letters are used:
Vowels.—a, pronounced as in father; e, as in they; é as in met; é as In marine; 7, as in mint, o, as in note; u, as in rule; UW, as in but; w,as in wan, y, asin yet. If two consecutive vowels are pronounced separately, two dots are placed above the second vowel.
Diphthong.—ai pronounced as in aisle.
Consonants.—b, d, f. k, m,n, p, 8, t, v, have the ordinary English sounds. s is always pronounced as in sense, g as in get, and 2 as in zine. c represents the sound of sh, 7 the sound of zh, te the sound of te in watch, and dj the sound of jin judge.
284
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 28
GROUP OF BIRCH TREES, WHITE EARTH, MINN.
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USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
By Frances Densmore
INTRODUCTION
A majority of the plants to be described in this paper were ob- tained on the White Earth Reservation in Minnesota. Specimens were also collected on the Red Lake, Cass Lake, Leech Lake, and Mille Lac Reservations in Minnesota, the Lac Court Oreilles Reser- vation in Wisconsin, and the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario, Canada. Many of these were duplicates of plants obtained at White Earth but others were peculiar to the locality in which they were obtained.
The White Earth Reservation is located somewhat west of north- central Minnesota, on the border of the prairie that extends west- ward and forms part of the Great Plains. It also contains the lakes and pine forests that characterize northern Minnesota and extend into Canada. This produces an unusual variety of vegetation, so that the Chippewa living on other reservations are accustomed to go or send to White Earth for many of their medicinal herbs. Birch trees are found in abundance, either standing in groups (pl. 28), covering a hillside, or bordering a quiet lake. There are large tracts of sugar maples and forests of pine, cedar, balsam, and spruce. (PI. 29.) Many of the lakes contain rice fields, and there are pretty, pebbly streams winding their way among overhanging trees. (PI. 30.) Toward the west the prairie is dotted with little lakes or ponds, shining like mirrors. In June the air is sweet with wild roses and in midsummer the fields are beautiful with red lilies, bluebells, and a marvelous variety of color. In autumn the sumac flings its scarlet across the landscape and in winter there are miles of white, untrodden snow. The northern woodland is a beautiful country, and knowing it in all its changing seasons, one can not wonder at the poetry that is so inherent a part of Chippewa thought.
285
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USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
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[ETH. ANN, 44
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
290
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291
PLANTS
LIST OF
DENSMORD ]
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[ETH. ANN, 44
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
292
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VV veounl oseprjog worree === "7 sineorxey oseprpog
TT vaoeqioy xeprurg
TT wnyeroj1ed wanrYdyg
Gps (ysind) eyeITIO vIsIOAdIS aah | == aga TUBA SNpI[eA sndag ‘JT voindind vidaoevieg ign Rene 'T sIsuepeueo v[norues
‘[ sIsuepeueo erieumnsueg
[BTH. ANN. 44
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
294
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Wo ssvGIIOMIEY]) BUTOIpeU |~~~ ~~ >>> leis ee orunig ,eses |-----7 TT yooruey | --- ~~~ Ae) (JT) stsuepeuvo VsnsL
* (189 JO Ssouia.los pue ‘sdure1o “Qst[Rg “USIP RVULNG Yd) OUIDIPOUL > 5 9-5-7 ~-----mns,asIqip,UpMIO Jur |----7 7-77-77 UIGOI-dyRM | (XW) WNIOYIpueAs WANT --- AAD ‘ornsveyd ‘petuoutadad |~ ~~ ~~ >> 777 SSBIZ JOOMS [~~~ ~~~ >> ~TS,OHONUITG,OYOTAA |~-~> 7-7 SSBIBJOIMS | --- ~~ aOWH (-7T) VIBAOPO VISALIO T,
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DENSMORE]
LIST OF PLANTS
295
List oF PLANTS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO COMMON NAME
Common name !
Botanical name
Common name
Botanical name
(white
Arborvitae cedar). Artichoke, Jerusalem Arrowhead_.--------- Arrowwood -__.-.--- Ash, black__-------- Ash, prickly_._....--
Baneberry, red___--- iBasswood..........-
Birch; iblack==22----- Birch, white____.__- Bittersweet ________- Blackberry____------ Blazing-star___.__.--
Bloodroot___-------- Bluebell, (Scotch harebell).
Blueberry.-.222.-..2 Blueflag:.........-.. Bluestem __________- iBoneset==2- +--+. Bugle-weed______-_- UE VIN gh Boj ater eee ee Bunchberry___--_-_- Burdock-22..2...-.. Butternut_____.__... @alamuss22 2222-25
Cedar; red: 222. 2.
Cedar, white (arbor- vitae).
Cherry, wild___+___-
Chickweed___-.-_---
Chokecherry — _____- Cicely, sweet_______- Cinquefoil____-______- C@lingonla- fase =2|
Cohosh, blue_______- |
Cone-flower__- (60) Hot ee = -| @owslip-=----- -<..-- | Cranberry
Alnus ineana (L.) Moench, Heuchera (species doubtful). Heuchera hispida Pursh. Thuja occidentalis L.
Helianthus tuberosus L.
Sagittaria latifolia Willd.
Viburnum acerifolium L.
Fraxinus species.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Zanthoxylum Mill.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Aster (species doubtful).
Aster nemoralis Ait.
Aster novae-angliae L.
Aster puniceus L
Geum canadense Jacq.
Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd.
Tilia americana L.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.
Betula nigra L.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Celastrus scandens L.
Rubus frondosus Bigel.
Lacinaria scariosa Kuntze.
Sanguinaria canadensis L.
Campanula rotundifolia L.
(?)
Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. Iris versicolor L. Andropogon fureatus Muhl. Eupatorium perfoliatum L. Lycopus asper Greene. Scirpus validus Vahl. Cornus canadensis L. Arctium minus Bernh. Juglans cinerea L.
Acorus calamus L.
Smilax herbacea L.
Nepeta eataria L.
Typha latifolia L. Juniperus virginiana L.* Thuja occidentalis L.
Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill.
Prunus virginiana L.
Osmorrhiza claytoni Michx.
Potentilla monspeliensis L.
Clintonia borealis Ait. (Ca- nadian specimen).
Caulophylium thalictroides (L.) Michx.
Rudbeckia laciniata L.
Zea mays L.
Caltha palustris L.
Oxycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Pers.*
americanum
(L.) |
Cranberry, highland_ Culver’s-root___-----
Cup-plant__.....-.-- Currant, red Currant, wild_._._-- Currant, wild_-_-.--- Dandelion. -___------ Dock, bitter_..._..-- Dock, yellow____---- Dogbane.. 22.5... Mogbane:=---=------
Dogwood.--_.------- Dogwoods..:-..-.-- Dogwood, red-osier__ Elm, slippery False Solomonseal _ —
Mem ladyicossen cee
Fern, rattlesnake____
Fir, Fireweed___--.------
Fungus, shelf___-__-- Geranium, wild____- Ginger, wild_______-
| Goldenrod _-____-----
Goldenrod_--__------ Goldenrod---------- Goldenrod’ a2. 222-622 Goldenrod _-__------- Goldenrod_-_-__---__- Goldenrod _-________- Goldthread -_---_----- Gooseberry-___--_-_-
Ground-pine-_-_____- Ground-plum______-
Harebell (Scotch bluebell).
Hedge-nettle________ Hemilock__...2.....- Hemlock, poison___- Hepatica__.:--.-=.-- Hepatica-_ 2:-...._.. (ERT q)) ieee Sy ea
| Honeysuckle_______- | Honeysuckle, bush__
Viburnum pauciflorum Pylaie.
Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt.
Silphium perfoliatum L.
Ribes triste Pall.
Ribes species.
Ribes glandulosum Gauer.
Taraxacum officinale Weber.
Rumex obtusifolius L.
Rumex crispus L.
Apocynum species.
Apocynum androsaemifoli- um L.
Cornus alternifolia L. f.
Cornus rugosa Lam.
Cornus stolonifera Michx.
Ulmus fulva Michx.
Vagnera racemosa (L.) Mo- rong.
Athyrium filix-foemina (L.) Roth.
Botrychium (L.) Sw.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Epilobium angustifolium L.
Drymoeallis arguta (Pursh) Rydb.
Fomes applanatus.
Geranium maculatum L.
Asarum canadense L.
Euthamia graminifolia (L.) Nutt.
Solidago altissima L.
Solidago flexicaulis L.
Solidago juncea Ait.
Solidago rigida L.
Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.
Solidago species.
Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb.
Grossularia oxyacanthoides (L.) Mill.
Vitis cordifolia Michx.
Onosmodium hispidissimum Mackenzie.
Lycopodium obscurum L.
Astragalus Nutt.
Campanula rotundifolia L.
virginianum
crassicarpus
Corylus americana Walt. Corylus rostrata Ait. Stachys palustris L.
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Cicuta maculata L. Hepatica americana Ker. Hepatica triloba L.
Hicoria alba (L.) Britton. Lonicera species.
Diervilla lonicera Mill.
1 Attention is directed to the fact that the common name of a plant frequently differs in different locali-
ties and that, in some instances, a plant is known by more than one common name. presented contains the names by which the plants are most widely known.
* Plants are marked with an asterisk if specimens were not submitted.
The list herewith
296
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN, 44
List oF PLANTS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO COMMON NAME—Continued
Common name
Botanical name
Common name
Botanical name
Hornbeam, hop (ironwood). Horsemint_-2222-=-- Horseweed___-_-_--- Hyssop, giant__.___-
Ironwood (hop hornbeam). Jack-in-the-pulpit__-
Joe Pye weed_-__-__- June berry (shad- bush).
Lily, white water___
Lopseed____-------_- Maple, sugar_______- Marshlocks_-_______- Milkweed, common- Milkweed, swamp_. Mint, mountain____ Moosewood________- Mugwort__________-
Mugwort-_____-____- Mustard, wormseed_ Nettle... 23.52... Nettle, false_________
Painted-cup_________
Parsnip, cow-------- Parsnip, meadow - __
Pasque-flower_______
Pea, wild_....2.6... Peanut, hog_-_______ Pearly everlasting___
Ine. Tedessse 422-2 Pine, white..______- Pipsissewa-_---------
Pitcher-plant______- Plantain. -...2.:.-. Plum, wild_______-- Poplar, balsam______ Prairie-clover______-
Prairie smoke-_____-
soraledeessss-— ees
Ostrya virginiana (Muill.) Koch. Monarda mollis L.
Erigeron canadensis L. Agastache anethiodora (Nutt.) Britton. Ostrya virginiana
Koch. Arisaema triphyllum Torr. Eupatorium maculatum L. Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. Juniperus communis L. Cypripedium hirsutum Mill. Allium tricoccum Ait. Lactuca canadensis L. Lilium canadense L. Castalia odorata Woodv. & Wood. Phryma leptostachya L. Acer saccharum Marsh. Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop. Asclepias syriaca L. Asclepias incarnata L.
(Mill.)
(L.)
(Ait.)
Koellia virginiana (L.) MacM |
Dirca palustris L.
Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh.
Artemisia gnaphalodes Nutt.
Erysimum cheiranthoides L.
Urtica gracilis Ait.
Urticastrum divaricatum (L.) Kuntze.
Quercus species.
Quercus macrocarpa Muhl.
Quercus rubra L.
Allium stellatum Ker.
Heliopsis scabra Dunal.
Castilleja coccinea Spreng.
Heracleum lanatum Michx.
Thaspium barbinode (Michx.) Nutt.
Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh.) Britton.
Lathyrus venosus Muhl.
Falcata comosa (L.) Kuntze.
Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B.& H.
Pinus resinosa Ait.
Pinus strobus L.
Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Nutt.
Sarracenia purpurea L.
Plantago major L.
Prunus americana Marsh.
Populus balsamifera L.
Petalostemon purpureus (Vent.) Rydb.
Sieversia ciliata (Pursh) Rydb.
Psoralea argophylla Pursh.
(L.)
Raspberry, black___- Raspberry, red_____-_ Rattlesnake-root____
Rose, wild_________- Sage, prairie_________ Sarsaparilla, wild___- Scouring-rush _______ Scouring-rush_______ Selfheal 2 Lo. 8
Shepherd’s-purse____
Smartweed_________- Smartweed_________- Snakeroot, bur______ Snakeroot, Seneca__- Snowberry--__-_--_--
Snowberry, creep- ing.
Solomonseal _______--
Sphagnum: ....-..-..
Spikenard___________
SDIUCGn= === ===nmas
Spruce, white______-
Squirrel-tail___.____- Strawberry, wild___-
Sumac, staghorn__-__ Sweetgrass_____.___- Tamarack.__________-
Tea, New Jersey_--- "Mbistle=s 2. nesses Thornapple--------- Twisted-stalk______- Umbrella-plant_____- Wervalii..-ccs-es2022 Wakerobin..<_...--
Willow... -ce-2 see Willow, spotted__-__- Wintergreen________- Woodbine-_-_---------
Lithospermum carolinense (Walt.) MacM.
Calvatia craniiformis Schw.
Cucurbita pepo L.
Rubus occidentalis L.
Rubus strigosus Michx.
Prenanthes alba L.
Phragmites communis Trin.
Zizania palustris L.
Rosa species.
Rosa arkansana Porter.
Artemisia frigida Willd.
Aralia nudicaulis L.
Equisetum hiemale L.
Equisetum praealtum Raf.
Prunella vulgaris L.
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic.
Bursa bursa-pastoris Britton.
Polygonum persicaria L.
Polygonum punctatum Ell.
Sanicula canadensis L.
Polygala senega L.
Symphoricarpos albus (L.) Blake.
Chiogenes hispidula (L.) T. & G.
Polygonatum commutatum.
Sphagnum species.
Aralia racemosa L.
Picea rubra (Du Roi) Dietr.
Picea canadensis (Mill.) B. 8. P.
Cucurbita maxima Du- chesne.
Hordeum jubatum L.
Fragaria virginiana chesne.
Rhus glabra L.
Rhus hirta (L.) Sudw.
Torresia odorata(L.) Hitche.
Larix laricina(Du Roi) Koch.
Tanacetum vulgare L.
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder.
Ceanothus ovatus Desf.
Cirsium species.
Crataegus species.
Streptopus roseus Michx.
Allionia nyctaginea Michx.
Verbena hastata L.
Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb.
Salix species.
Salix species.
Gaultheria procumbens L.
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Greene.
Dicranum bonjeanii De Not.
Artemisia absinthium L.
Achillea millefolium L.
Taxus canadensis Marsh.
(L.)
Du-
DENSMORE] LIST OF PLANTS 297
There is no exact terminology of Chippewa plants, although there are some generally accepted designations of common plants and trees. In obtaining the names of plants it was found that the same name is often given to several plants, and that one plant may have several names. Individuals often had their own names for the plants which they used as remedies. It was also customary for a medicine man, when teaching the use of a plant, to show a specimen of the plant without giving it any name. Thus the identity of the plant was transmitted with more secrecy than would have been possible if a name had been assigned to it. The names by which plants are desig- nated by the Chippewa are usually compound nouns indicating the appearance of the plant, the place where it grows, a characteristic property of the plant, or its principal use. To this is often added a termination indicating the part of the plant which is utilized, as root or leaf. .
Examples of these classes of plant names are as follows:
Name indicating appearance of the plant: Be’cigodji’bigik (blue cohosh), becig, one; djibiguk, root; the plant having a tap root.
Name indicating place where the plant grows: Mi’ckigwa’tig muckig, swamp; atig, termination indicating wood.
Name indicating a characteristic property of the plant: Dado’cabodji’bik (dandelion), dadocabo, liquid, or milk; odjibik, root.
Name indicating characteristic use of plant: A’gimak’ shoe; ak, termination signifying wood.
(tamarack ),
(ash), agim, snow-
List or PLANTS* ARRANGED ACCORDING TO NATIVE NAME
Native name Common name Native name | Common name | Abo’djigGn___--________- Reed. A/sisdwe’minaga’/wuanj_-_| Chokecherry. A/djidamo’/wano--______ Yarrow, squirrel- tail, || Aya’ bidjidji’biktgi’sin__| Spikenard. goldenrod.! Le ptgth aoa se Se PAU Dit ak (sees ee eee Ash, iBa‘sibiguk’ 2-22 2-225- 2 Mugwort, prairie clover. Ago’bisowin____-._-____- Ladyslipper. Ba‘sunukiik’..2__....._. Mugwort. Agong’osimintin’_______- False Solomonseal. Beba’/mokodjibika’gisin_| Dogbane. Agwin’gisibtig’ ________ Twisted-stalk. Be’cigodji’bigak_________ Blue cohosh, wild gera- Aktin’damo____________- Cup-plant. nium. ioe a iba ee See Bulrush. Be’dukadak’igisin_______ Umbrella plant. Ande’gobtig____..-_____- Hedge-nettle. Bepadji’ckanakiz’it ma/-| Nettle. Ande’gopin.-._.-.--__-- Honeysuckle, bugle- zana tig. weed. Bi’ bigwe’wuantick_______ Cow parsnip.
Amb Sincwaess nec e a ae Arrowwood. Bibi/gwanaktk’________| Horsemint. Amnibicéns’22222ac--22-22 Goldenrod. Bi’jikiwi’bagesan’_______| Ground-plum. ING oybenb bales eae Cranberry. Bi'jikiwi’ginig__._.______ Wild rose. Anib’/imintga/wtnj-__-_- Bi’‘jikiwin’gack_________ Prairie sage. Anidji’minibiaig’________- Bi‘jikiwdck’____-_______ Seneca snakeroot. A’ninandak’ _._._..-..+- Balsam fir. Bima kwud-.2 2.250. Bittersweet. A’nina’tig_____.__-_____- Sugar maple. Ibintetbug.oe2ccceeacce= oe Marsh locks. A’nimu’sid_ Hepatica. Bi’gesana’tig___.______- Wild plum.
Cat-tail. Bi giso wil... 22 oo Mugwort, swamp milk-
Aspen. weed, Joe Pye weed.
W ood-moss, sphagnum. Buigwiudj’miskodi’simin_| Hog peanut.
Lady fern. Busidji’/bikugik_________ Meadow parsnip.
Jerusalem artichoke. | Cabo’minaga’/wunj___-_-_- Gooseberry.
1 It will be noted that one name is frequently given to several plants and that one plant is frequently
called by several names.
55231°—28 20
298
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN, 44
List oF PLANTS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO NATIVE NAME—Continued
Native name
Common name
Ciwade’iminaga’wunj-__- Dado’cabodji’ bik -______-
IDjibe’gGbs.22=- vanes Gababi’kwuna’tig______- Gabisan’ikeig’-__...___- Gaga’ gimic..-2- 2-2. Ga’gawan’dagisid_______ Ga’ gige’biig____-.__-_--- Ga’jugéns’ibtig_________- Gawa’komic------.----- Gijib’indskon’_________- Gijikan‘dtig--------=__- Gine’bigwtck__________- Ginoje’wuktn__________- Gi’ tciode’iminidji’ bik ___ Gi’ziso’ bugons’__________
Gi'ziso’miicki'ki_..-.._.- Gi/zuswe’ bigwa’ nis_____- Gogeda’djibug---_______
Gizigwa’kominaga’ winj|
V’ckode’biig___--__---_-- V’ckode’wadji’ bik Ge Dic wemilGs22222-2eees 2s Ini/niwutnj Ini’ niwin’dibige’gin____ Jingwak’___-__---------- Jin’gwakwan’dtg------- Jo’minaga’wunj-______-_- Main’gamiuna’tig-__-__- Ma‘kibiig-...- 22.2... -2 Ma’kodji’bik__.-.._.___- Ma’‘kwona’gie obji’bik _- Ma/nanons’-__---------
Man/asa’di
Manido’bima’kwud_____ ManOUNIN =. s2ecenctae ss Ma/‘zana’tig_.....-.....- Me’skwana’/kak_________ Micidji’/minaga’winj___- Mi’giséns’ibag_-________ Minaga’wuinj-_-_--_____- Mine’saga’/wtinj_-______- Mi'’nisino’wuck -_______- Mis’kodji’bik---__..___- Mis’kwabi/mic_________- Mis’ kominaga’wtnj_-___- Miskwa’wak IMMtiZO °C» 22a eee Mitigo’mizine...._____-- Mi’tigwabak’_______.__. Muckig’obig
Bunch berry. Red currant. Spruce. Alum-root. Alum-root. Rattlesnake-root, dande- lion. Moosewood. Horseweed. Hepatica. Hemlock.
Juniper.
Pipsissewa.
Catnip.
Slippery elm, prickly ash.
Scouring rush.
Arbor vite.
Plantain.
Yellow dock.
Five-finger.
Ox-eye, psoralea, flower.
Goldenrod.
Cone flower.
Pasque flower.
Shadbush.
Mugwort.
Shepherd’s purse.
Wild cherry.
Common milkweed.
Wake-robin.
Red pine, white pine.
Mugwort.
Grape.
Snowberry.
Sumac.
Carrion flower.
Dogbane.
cone
| Hop hornbeam.
Balsam poplar. Corn. Woodbine. Wild rice. Nettle, thistle. Joe-Pye-weed. Wild currant.
| False gromwell.
Blueberry. Thornapple.
Wild pea. Bloodrceot. Red-osier dogwood. Red raspberry. Red cedar.
Bur oak.
Oak.
| Hickory. | Labrador tea. Miu’ckigwa’tig.-......_- |
‘Tamarack.
Native name
Common name
Muckode’cigaga’winj-__- Mickode’kanés-_-_-__---_- MiU’ckosija’bosigtn-____ WI}(OM | Saas eee MUj’ota’bak______._____ Miaktde’widji’bik-_____ Muse’odji’bik___._______ Ne’bagandag’__________- Na’buagogwis’simaiin’_ __ Na’bugtick’.___-.-_____- Name’ gosibtg’ INSINC pineeses see eee Name’wtckons----____-
Ne’baneya’nekweiig’____ Niya’wibGkdk’_-________
Oda’tagago’minaga’wtinj
Ode’iminidji’ bik --______ Odiga’dimanido’_______-_ Odiisbikensaees== 222224 Odji’biknamin’ Odjici’gomin___________- O’gima’/wiick___-__-_____ Ogini/minaga’winj
Ofpitei bug sas eee Ogwis’simatin’ Oja’cidji’ bik Ofie’imin’. 22222-62222. O’mukiki’/bag_____-______ O’mukiki’wida’stin______ O’mutcko’/zowa’no______- O’saga’tigom_.._.._____- O’zawa’ bigwtin
Oza’ widji’bik__-----___-
Ozi’sigo’ bimic___...____- Saga’/komin’agtin)’_____- Sasa’bikwan Siga’gawtnj’ Wadutb’
Wabos’obtigons’_--.____-
Weza/wtintckwik’______ Wicko’ bimticko’si-_____- Wi'cosidji/bik__._.-..__- Wigubiimijess-.222.-22— Wi'gwasa'tig...:-2 22-2: Wiken® 222i 23h Sess 3 Winabojo’bikwtk’_____-
Wild onion.
Bluestem.
Calamus.
Dogwood.
Arrowhead.
Bur snake root.
Wormwood.
Yew.
Squash.
Calamus.
Aster.
Wild ginger.
Mountain mint selfheal) .
Prairie smoke.
Boneset.
White mugwort.
Tansy.
Blackberry raspberry).
Wild strawberry.
New Jersey tea.
Goldenrod.
Puccoon.
Wild lettuce.
Mugwort.
Rose (term refers to the rose-berry).
Cowslip.
Pumpkin.
Fireweed.
Smartweed.
Plantain.
Pitcher-plant.
Elk tail.
Sweet cicely.
Wormseed, mustard, goldenrod,
Goldthread, bitter dock, yellow dock.
Willow.
Bearberry.
Dogbane.
Wild leek,
Alder.
Pearly everlasting (and other plants).
(also
(also black
Horsemint.
Wild sarsaparilla (also wild currant).
Creeping snowberry.
Giant hyssop.
Sweetgrass.
Red baneberry.
Basswood.
White birch.
Calamus.
Lily.
DENSMORE] MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTS 299
List oF PLANTS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO NATIVE NAME—Continued
Native name Common name Native name | Common name |
| | |
Winabojo’ noko’mis | Painted-cup. Wi’stigibtig’_...______._- | Burdock. wi‘nizistin’. | Wi'stgi’ mitigo’mic______ Bitter oak.
Wi'nibidja’bibaga’no__._| Chickweed. Wi’stgidji’bik___._______ Culver’s root. Wini’sibtigons’_________- Wintergreen. ZeSuDese-252522228e-e False nettle. Winl’sikéns____________- | Aster. Zi’gini’ce____._.____..___| Harebell.
An investigation was made to determine whether the plants used medicinally by the Chippewa have a recognized use by the white race. Two reports on this subject were courteously prepared by Dr. W. W. Stockberger, physiologist in charge of drug, poisonous and oil plant investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. The first report shows the medicinal properties of such plants and the second report shows the principal active medicinal constituents of these plants.
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTS USED BY THE CHIPPEWA
The following 69 plants used by the Chippewa are regarded as medicinal by white people, although opinion as to their therapeutic value varies greatly. The few species now officially recognized in the latest editions of the United States Pharmacopoeia and the Na- tional Formulary are designated in the text by the abbreviations U.S. P. IX and N. F. 4, respectively. Species recognized in the eighth revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia but no longer official are indicated by U. 8S. P. VIII.
The remaining species, some of which were recognized in the earlier Pharmacopoeias, have long been used either in medicine as practiced by certain physicians or as domestic remedies.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Balsam. Pinacreag. Pine family.
Canada balsam, a liquid oleoresin obtained from this tree, is stimulant, diuretic, occasionally diaphoretic and externally rubefacient. U. 8. P. VIII. Achillea millefolium L. Yarrow, Milfoil. Co.rposirar. Composite family.
The plant is slightly astringent and has been used as an alterative, diuretic, and as a stimulant tonic.
Acorus calamus L. Sweetflag, calamus. ARACEAE. Arum family. The rhizome has been employed as an aromatic stimulant and tonic. U.S. P. VIII.
Actaeca rubra (Ait.) Willd. Red baneberry. RANUNCULACEAE. Crowfoot family. The rhizome is said to be emeto-purgative and parasiticide.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Speckled alder. FaAgacrear. Beech family. The bark is alterative, astringent, and emetic.
300 USES OF PLANTS BY 'THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
Apocynum androsaemifolium L. Spreading dogbane. ApocyNACEAE. Dogbane family. The root is diuretic, sudorific, emetic, cathartic, and anthelmintic. U. S. P. VIII. Aralia nudicaulis L. Wild sarsaparilla. ARALIACEAE. Ginseng family. The roots have been used for their gently stimulant, diaphoretic, and alter- ative action. Aralia racemosa L. Spikenard. ARALIACEAE. Ginseng family. The root is alterative, stimulant, and diaphoretic. Arctium minus Bernh. Burdock. Compostrak. Composite family. The root is diuretic, diaphoretic, and alterative. U.S. P. VIII. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (l.) Spreng. Bearberry. EricaAckAr. Heath family. The leaves have mild and slightly antiseptic diuretic properties. U.S. P. TX. Arisaema triphyllum (.) Torr. Jack-in-the-pulpit. ARrAceAr. Arum family. Mentioned in unofficial part of United States and King’s Dispensatories. Artemisia absinthiwm L. Wormwood. ComMpostTak. Composite family. The leaves and flowering tops are tonic, stomachic, stimulant, febrifuge, and anthelmintic. Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh. Fuzzy-weed. CoMPOSITAE. Composite family. The plant acts as a topical irritant and diaphoretic. Asarum canadense L. Wild ginger. ARISTOLOCHIACEAR. Birthwort family. The rhizome and roots are used as a carminative agent and flavor. N. F. 4. Asclepias incarnata L. Swamp milkweed. ASCLEPIADACEAE. Milkweed family. The root is alterative, anthelmintic, cathartic, and emetic. Asclepias syriaca L. Milkweed. ASCLEPIADACEAE. Milkweed family. The root is tonic, diuretic, alterative, emmenagogue, purgative, and emetic. Athyrium filiz-foemina (L.) Roth. Lady fern. PotypoprackAr. Fern family. Reputed taenicide and formerly so used. Bursa bursa-pastoris (l.) Britton. Shepherd’s Purse. Cructirerar. Mustard family. This plant was formerly thought to be antiscorbutic. Caltha palustris L. Marsh marigold. RANUNCULACEAE. Crowfoot family. The plant has been popularly used in the treatment of coughs. Caulophyllum thalictroides (.) Michx. Blue Cohosh. BERBERIDACEAE. Bar- bery family. The rhizome and roots are said to be sedative, diuretic, and emmenagogue. N. F. 4. Celastrus scandens L. Bittersweet. CELASTRACEAE. Staff tree family. The bark is said to be emetic, diaphoretic, and alterative. Cirsium sp. CompostraE. Composite family. The related species Cirsium arvense is said to be tonic, diuretic, and astrin- gent. Cornus alternifolia L. f. Blue or purple dogwood. CorRNACEAE. Dogwood family. The bark of the root of the related species, Cornus florida, is a feeble, astrin- gent tonic. Cypripedium hirsutum Mill. Showy ladyslipper. OrcHIDACEAE. Orchis family. The rhizome and roots have been described as tonic, stimulant, and diapho- retic. N. F. 4.
DENSMORD] MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTS 301
Dirca palustris L. Wicopy. THYMELAEACEAE, Mezereum family. The berries are said to be narcotic and poisonous. The bark is purgative and emetic and when fresh vesicant. Epilobium angustifolium L. Great willow-herb. ONaGcracean. Evening prim- rose family. The plant is tonic, astringent, demulcent, and emollient. Erigeron canadensis lL. Horseweed. Compositar. Composite family. The plant is diuretic, tonic, and astringent. Eupatorium maculatum L. Spotted boneset. Composrrar. Composite family. The dried leaves and flowering tops are used to prepare a domestic diapho- retic tea. N. F. 4 Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. Wild strawberry. Rosacear. Rose family. The leaves are slightly astringent ; the roots diuretic. Gaultheria procumbens L. Wintergreen, Checkerberry. Ericackar. Heath family. The leaves are aromatic and astringent. Geranium maculatum L. Cranesbill. GrrRANIACEAE. Geranium family. The rhizome is an absolute intestinal astringent. N. F. 4. Heracleum lanatum Michx. Cow parsnip, beaver root. UMBELLIFERAE. Pars- ley family. : The leaves and roots are rubefacient ; the root is said to be carminative and stimulant. Koeltia virginiana (L.) MacM. Virginia thyme. Lapratar. Mint family. The plant is diaphoretic, carminative, and tonic. Lactuca canadensis L. Wild lettuce. ComposiTag. Composite family. The juice of the plant is said to be mildly narcotic. Laria laricina (DuRoi) Koch. Tamarack. PINAcEAE. Pine family. The bark is said to be laxative, tonic, diuretic, and alterative. Ledum groenlandicum Oeder. Labrador tea. ERicacEAgE. Heath family. The leaves are expectorant and tonic. They are said to have been employed instead of tea leaves during the Revolutionary War. Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt. Culver’s-root. ScHROPHULARIACEAE, Figwort family. The rhizome and roots are alterative, cholagogue, and cathartic. N. F. 4. Nepeta cataria L. Catnip. Lapratan. Mint family. The leaves and flowering tops have long had a domestic use as a mild stimu- lant and tonic and as an emmenagogue. Nymphaea americana (Proy.) Miller & Standley. Pondlily. NYMPHAEACEAE. Waterlily family. The rhizome of the closely related species Nymphaea advena is astringent and demulcent, Osmorrhiza claytoni (Michx.) Clarke. Sweet cicely. UMBELLIFERAE. Parsley family. The root of the closely related Osmorrhiza longistylis is aromatic, carmina- tive, and stomachic. Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch. American hop hornbeam. BETULACEAE. Birch family. The bark and inner wood are antiperiodic, tonic, and alterative.
302 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
Plantago major L. Large plantain. PLANTAGINACEAE. Plantain family. The roots and leaves are alterative, diuretic, and antiseptic. Populus balsamifera L. Balsam poplar. Sa LicacmaE. Willow family. The leaf buds are resinous, aromatic, and expectorant. Populus tremuloides Michx. American aspen. SALICACEAE. Willow family. The bark is tonic and febrifuge. Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop. Marsh five-finger. Rosackak. Rose family. The roots are bitter and astringent, but do not appear to have been used in medicine. Prunus serotina Ehrh. Wild black cherry. Rosackar. Rose family. The dried bark is tonic, sedative, pectoral, and astringent. U.S. P. IX. Prunus virginiana lL. Chokecherry. Rosacear. Rose family. The fruit is very astringent. Psoralea argophylla Pursh. LEGUMINOSAE. Pea family. The root and leaves of several species of Psoralea appear to possess the properties of a mild, stimulating, bitter tonic. Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) Britton. Pasque flower. RANUNCULACEAR. Crowfoot family. The plant has been recommended as an alterative, sedative, and antispas- modic. N. F. 4. Quercus rubra L. Red oak. Facacrear. Beech family. Oak bark is slightly tonic, powerfully astringent and antiseptic. Rhus glabra L. Smooth sumac. ANACARDIACEAR. Cashew family. The dried ripe fruits are astringent and refrigerant. N. F. 4. Rubus strigosus Michx. Wild red raspberry. RosackEaE. Rose family. The juice of the ripe fruits is used for flavoring. N. F. 4. Rudbeckia laciniata L. Composirar. Composite family. The herb is said to be diuretic, tonic, and balsamic. Rumex crispus lL. Yellow dock. PoLyGoNAcEAE. Buckwheat family. The root is astringent, slightly tonic and has been supposed to have alterative properties. N. F. 4. Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot. PAPAVERACEAE. Poppy family. The rhizome and roots are irritant and narcotic, expectorant in small doses, but in large doses nauseant and emetie. U.S. P. IX. Sanicula canadensis L. Black snakeroot. UMBELLIFERAE. Parsley family. The root is said to be astringent, antispasmodic, and antiperiodic. Silphium perfoliatum L. Cup-plant. Composirar. Composite family. The plant is tonic, diaphoretic, and diuretic. : Solidago rigida L. Goldenrod. ComposiTar. Composite family. The herb is astringent and styptic. Solidago rigidiuscula Porter. Goldenrod. ComposiIrarE. Composite family. Supposed to have properties similar to the preceding species. Stachys palustris L. Woundwort. Lasiarar. Mint family. The herb is said to be expectorant and vulnerary. Stellaria media (l.) Cyrill. Common chickweed. CARYOPHYLLACEAE. Pink family. The leaves appear to be a cooling demulcent.
DENSMORE] MEDICINAL CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS 303
Symphoricarpos albus (L.) Blake. Snowberry. CAPRIFOLIACEAE. Honeysuckle family. The root is alterative and tonic. Tanacetum vulgare L. Tansy. Compositrar. Composite family. The leaves and tops are tonic, emmenagogue and diaphoretic. Tararacum officinale Weber. Dandelion. Composirar. Composite family. The rhizome and roots are used as a bitter tonic and as a mild laxative. U.S. P. IX. Thuja occidentalis L. Arborvitae. PINAcEAr. Pine family. An extract prepared from the leafy young twigs has been recommended as a febrifuge, expectorant, and anthelmintic. N. F. 4. Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. LitrAckar. Lily family. The rhizome has been used as an astringent and tonic expectorant. Tsuga canadensis (l.) Carr. Hemlock. PINAcEAE. Pine family. Canada pitch obtained from this tree is a gentle rubefacient. Urtica gracilis Ait. Nettle. Urricackar. Nettle family. Several related species of nettle have been used in medicine as local irritants and as diuretics. Viburnum acerifolium L. Arrow-wood. CAPRIFOLIACEAE. Honeysuckle family. The bark was formerly used as an astringent. Zanthorylum americanum Mill. Prickly ash. Ruracear. Rue family. The bark is sialagogue, stimulant, alterative, and emetic. U.S. P. IX.
PRINCIPAL ACTIVE MEDICINAL CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS USED BY THE CHIPPEWA
Abies balsamea. Constituents: A true turpentine consisting of 24 parts essen- tial oil and 60 parts resin. By fractional distillation the oil has been resolved into bornyl or terpinyl acetate, pinene, and a fragrant oil resembling oil of lemon.
Achillea millefolium. Constituents: A blue volatile oil containing cineol and a bitter principle, achillein.
Acorus calamus. Constituents: The rhizome yields a volatile oil which has the composition of a terpene.
Actaea rubra. Constituents: Two resins which have a physiological action resembling that of the active principles of Cimicifuga and Helleborus.
Alnus incana. Constituents: Tannin, volatile oil, and resins.
Apocynum androsaemifolium. Constituents: Resins, caoutchoue, a volatile oil, and a bitter principle consisting of the glucosides apocynamarin, apocynein, androsin, and the glyceride androsterin.
Aralia nudicaulis. Constituents: An acrid resin, and araliin, a yellowish glucoside.
Aralia racemosa. Constituents: Same as A. nudicaulis.
Arctium minus. Constituents: Inulin, sugar, volatile oil, and a bitter glucoside.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Constituents: Tannic acid, gallic acid, gum, resin, urson, arbutin, and ericolin.
Artemisia absinthium. Constituents: A volitile oil and absinthin, a_ bitter principle.
Artemisia dracunculoides. Constituents: (7?)
Asarum canadense. Constituents: A phenol C.H.O:, pinene, a blue oil, a lactone, palmitic acid, acetic acid, and a mixture of fatty acids and oleoresin.
304 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
Asclepias incarnata. Constituents: A volatile oil, resins, and the glucoside asclepiadin.
Asclepias syriaca. Constituents: Similar to those of A. incarnata and in addi- tion asclepion.
Athyrium filix-foemina. Constituents: The active principle resembles filicic acid.
Bursa bursa-pastoris. Constituents: A volatile oil identical with that of mustard, and the alkaloid bursine.
Caltha palustris. Constituents: Berberin and an alkaloid similar to nicotine.
Caulophyllum thalictroides. Constituents: Resins, a substance similar to saponin, and the glucoside leontin. ree
Celastrus scandens. Constituents: A volatile oil and celastrin.
Cirsium arvense. Constituents: A volatile alkaloid and the glucoside enicin.
Cornus alternifolia. Constituents: Cornine.
Cypripedium hirsutum. Constituents: A volatile oil and the glucosidal resinoid, cypripedin.
Diervilla lonicera, Constituents: Alkaloid believed to be narceine; a glucoside similar to fraxina in D. lutea.
Dirca palustris. Constituents: Undetermined.
Epilobium augustifolium. Constituents: Undetermined.
Erigeron canadensis, Constituents: A volatile oil.
Eupatorium maculatum. Constituents: Undetermined.
Fragaria virginiana. Constituents: The glucoside fragarianin.
Gaultheria procumbens. Constituents: A volatile oil containing the terpene gaultherilene and methyl salicylate.
Geranium maculatum. Constituents: Tannin,
Heracleum lanatum. Constituents: A volatile oil.
Kocllia virginiana. Constituents: (7?)
Lactuca canadensis. Constituents: The bitter principle lactucin, lactucie acid, lactucopicrin, lactucerin, and a volatile oil.
Larix laricina. Constituents: A volatile oil which contains pinene, larixine, and the ester bornylacetate.
Ledum groenlandicum. Constituents: The glucoside ericolin.
Leptandra virginica. Constituents: The glucoside leptandrin.
Nepeta cataria. Constituents: A volatile oil.
Nymphaea americana. Constituents: Undetermined.
Osmorrhiza claytoni. The related species O. longistylis yields a volatile oil composed chiefly of anethol.
Ostrya virginiana. Constiluents: Undetermined.
Plantago major. Constituents: Not well known.
Populus balsamifera. Constituents: Chrysin, tetrochrysin, salicin, populin, resin and a volatile oil.
Populus tremuloides. Constituents: See P. balsamifera.
Potentilla palustris. Constituents: A bitter principle, mucilage and tannins.
Prunus serotina. Constituents: A glucoside.
Prunus virginiana. Constituents: A glucoside.
Psoralea argophylla, Constituents: (7)
Pulsatilla hirsutissima. Constituents: A volatile oil containing a camphor.
Quercus rubra. Constituents: Tannie acid, a terpene, resin and quercitrin.
Rhus glabra. Constituents: Tannic acid and gallic acid.
Rubus strigosus. Constituents of fruit: Citric and malic acids.
Rudbeckia laciniata. Constituents: (7?)
DENSMORD] MEDICINAL CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS 305
Rumeox crispus. Constituents: Tannin, albumen and iron.
Sanguinaria canadensis. Constituents: The alkaloid chelerythrine, sanguina- rine, gamma-homochelidonine and protopine.
Sanicula canadensis. Constituents: A resin and an essential oil.
Silphium perfoliatum. Constituents: Undetermined.
Solidago rigida, Constituents: A volatile oil.
Solidago rigidiuscula. Constituents: A volatile oil.
Stachys palustris. Constituents: An aromatic substance and an alkaloid.
Stellaria media. Constituents: Saponin.
Syniphoricarpos albus, Constituents: Invertin, a glucoside and emulsin.
Tanacetum vulgare. Constituents: The bitter principle tanacetin and a vola- tile oil.
Taraxacum officinale. Constituents: The bitter principles taraxicin taraxa- cerin.
Thuja occidentalis. Constituents: The coloring matter thujin, the glucoside, penipicrin, and a volatile oil containing dutro-pinene, laevo-fenchone and dextro-thujone.
Trillium grandifiorum. Constituents: Undetermined.
Tsuga canadensis. Constituents: Resin and a volatile oil which contains laevo- pinene and laevo-bornylacetate.
Urtica gracilis. Constituents: A volatile oil.
Viburnum acerifolium. Constituents: Probably viburnin and valerianic acid.
Zanthoxylum americanum, Constituents: Zanthoxylin and an alkaloid resem- bling berberine.
PLANTS AS FOOD
The strength of the Chippewa in conquering the Sioux and estab- lishing themselves in new territory indicates that they were well nourished, that suitable food was available, and that it was prepared in a proper manner. This was the work of the women, who were very industrious and bestowed much care on the provisioning of their households. <A staple article of food was wild rice, which was seasoned with maple sugar or combined with broth made from ducks or venison. An important food value was obtained from maple sugar. Fish were extensively used, as the Chippewa, lacking horses, lived along the lakes and watercourses as much as possible. It is said that they had squash and pumpkins before the coming of the white man, and the country abounded in berries and wild fruit of many varieties. Thus it is seen that the Chippewa were a people subsisting chiefly on vegetable products and fish, though they secured deer and other animals by hunting. The making of gardens was an important phase of the industrial year, and a portion of the food thus obtained was stored in caches for winter use.
While the present chapter concerns the use of vegetable foods it may be added that fish were stored by drying and by freezing; and that meat was dried, after which it usually was pounded and mixed with tallow for storage. The Chippewa cooked and ate all trapped animals except the marten. Rabbits were caught in snares and formed a valuable food during the winter months. Deer and moose were available, and bear meat was liked because it was so fat. The bear was an especially useful animal, as all parts of it were either eaten or utilized.
306
DENS MORD]
PLANTS AS FOOD
307
List oF PLANTS USED AS Foop
Botanical name
Acer saccharum Marsh Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic-__-_ Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng- - Asarum canadense L Asclepias syriaca L Aster species Chiogenes hispidula (L.) T. & G Cornus canadensis L Corylus americana Walt Crataegus species Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Cucurbita pepo L Falcata comosa (L.) Kuntze
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne Gaultheria procumbens L Helianthus tuberosus L Koellia virginiana (L.) MacM____--_-- Ledum groenlandicum Oeder Lycopus asper Greene Oxycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Pers___ Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Greene.
Populus tremuloides Michx__-_-_-_--- Prunus americana Marsh Prunus serotina Ehrh Prunus virginiana L Quercus macrocarpa Muhl Ribes triste Pall IRibes'species:..2 2.2.22... ..2 22-222 Rubus frondosus Bigel. (?) Rubus strigosus Michx Sagittaria latifolia Vahl Scirpus validus Vahl Tilia americana L_________________-
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr Vaccinium angustifolium Ait_________ Viburnum pauciflorum Pylaie Vitis cordifolia Michx______________- Zea mays L Zizania palustris L
Common name Part of plant used IM Ey o)Kepe 2 ee eee Sap. Juneberry_________- Fruit. Bearberry__________ Fruit. Wild ginger_________ Root. Common milkweed__| Flowers. Aster__-____________ Leaves. Creeping snowberry__| Leaves. om es ah ee ES Fruit. Wazeleete a ea a Nut. Thornapple_______-_- Fruit. SOUGS eee ee Fruit. Pumpkin___________ Fruit. Wild bean or ‘‘Hog | Root. peanut.”’ Strawberry. _______-_ Fruit. Wintergreen________ Leaves. Jerusalem artichoke__| Root. Mountain mint______ Hlowersandbuds. Labrador tea________ Leaves. Bugleweed ________- Root. Cranberry________-- Fruit. Woodbine (Virginia | Stalk and = sap creeper). next the bark. Poplans= 9... =- eee. Sap. Chokecherry______-- Twigs. Wild cherry__-____-__ Twigs. Chokecherry_______- Twigs. Bur oak____________ Fruit (acorns). Red currant ________ Fruit. Wild currant ________ Fruit. Blackberry __..--_-- Fruit. Red raspberry ____-_- Fruit. Arrowhead_________ Root. leyolbepisos Se Root. Basswood_________- Sap next the bark. Hemlock________--- Leaves. Blueberry _-__-___-_- Fruit. Highland cranberry _| Fruit. Grape see eas. ee Fruit. @ome ss See. sen Fruit. Indian rice_________ Fruit.
308 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [grTH. ANN, 44 Maxine Mapie Suaar 2
The two most important vegetable foods were maple sugar and wild rice. The obtaining of these commodities was attended with much pleasure, though the temporary camps were busy and there was work for young and old. Each family or group of two or three families had its own sugar bush, as it also had its own part of the rice field, and the people went there in the early spring to make the year’s supply of sugar. Two structures remained in the sugar camp from year to year. These were the birch-bark lodge in which the utensils were stored, and the frame of the lodge in which the sugar was made. (PI. 31.) The former was generally round in shape, but the one visited by the writer was constructed with a “ridge pole” to give more room at the top. The latter was made in a substantial manner and consisted of a stout framework of poles covered with sheets of elm or cedar bark. Rolls of birch bark might, if desired, be substituted for the heavier bark on the roof. The size of the lodge varied with the number of families in the camp. The lodge visited by the writer was of average size, the length being 1814 feet, the width 19 feet 3 inches, and the height at the eaves 10 feet. There was an entrance at each end and a plat- form extended the entire length at each side. These platforms were about 5 feet wide, 12 to 18 inches high, and might be on one or both sides of the lodge. They were intended primarily for sleeping, but the edge next the fire was used for sitting and eating, after the bedding had been rolled and placed next to the walls of the lodge. If possible, the platform on one side was reserved for the sugar- making utensils. In a small lodge the platform might be on only one side, the utensils being placed on the ground at the opposite side of the lodge.
The fire space extended the length of the lodge beneath the ridge of the roof, and a large log of green wood was placed at each side of it. <A structure for holding the kettles was erected above the fire space. This structure consisted of four heavy corner posts, 6 or 7 feet high, with crotches at the top. Between the crotches of the posts, crosswise of the lodge, were laid stout poles, upon which were poles laid lengthwise. and between these, over the fire, were placed the horizontal bars from which the kettles were suspended. Thus it was possible by moving the horizontal bars to place a kettle over any part of the fire. The largest kettles were hung in the center
*It is said that “the primitive Indian method of making sugar before the introduction of metal kettles was to throw red-hot stones in vessels of bark or wood, or again, to freeze the syrup repeatedly in shallow basins and throw off the ice.” Dr, V. Havard, U. 8. A., “Drink plants of the North American Indians,’ Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Lancaster, Pa., 1896, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 42-48.
30
FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
, MINN.
CASS LAKE
a
STREAM, WHITE EARTH, MINN
b,
(G3SO19) STISNSLN YOA 3ADGOT AOVYHOLS GNV ‘CATIOd SVM dvVS AIdVA HOIHM NI 35d071 AO SIWWWYs
le ALVId LYOdSY IWANNV HL&YNO4-ALYO4 ADOIONHLA NVOIYAWV 30 NVAYN|
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE
a, STORAGE LODGE (OPEN)
6, BIRCH-BARK CONTAINERS
c, BIRCH-BARK CONE, DISH, AND SPOONS
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 33
a, BOILING MAPLE SAP
6, MAPLE TREES TAPPED
DENSMOrD] PLANTS AS FOOD 309
of the lodge. They were suspended by strips of green bark, later by chains and iron hooks made by blacksmiths. The smaller kettles were placed over the ends of the fire, and usually were hung on wooden hooks made of tree crotches, ironwood being frequently used for this purpose.
To add to the comfort of the lodge, a double shelf was fastened to the side of the framework for holding small articles. This was placed near the door, where it could conveniently be reached by the mistress of the lodge.
The capacity or size of a sugar bush was not estimated by the number of maple trees but by the number of “taps,” as it was not unusual to make two or three taps in a large tree. Nine hundred taps was an average size. The number of taps was reckoned by hundreds, the larger camps being mentioned as having 1,200 or 2,000 taps.
The season of sugar making began about the middle of March and lasted about a month. It is said that the best sugar was made when the early part of the winter had been open,-allowing the ground to freeze deeper than usual, this being followed by deep snow. The first run of sap was considered the best. A storm usually followed the first warm weather, and afterwards the sap began to flow again. This sap, however, grained less easily than the first and had a slightly different flavor. Rain produced a change in the taste and a thunder- storm is said to have destroyed the characteristic flavor of the sugar.
The procedure of moving to the sugar camp depended somewhat upon the condition of the lodge. If repairs with sheets of heavy bark were needed, it was customary for the men to go early to the camp. The following account presupposes a lodge with birch-bark rolls as its roof covering. If such a lodge were in use the women went first to the camp, making their way on snowshoes through the forest. On their backs they carried the rolls of birch bark for the roof covering. These rolls were carried perpendicularly by a pack strap across the forehead. They were not heavy, but towered high above a woman’s head.
Arriving at the camp, the women shoveled the snow away from the sugar lodge and soon made themselves comfortable. A ladder of tree branches was among the articles stored during the winter, and placing this against the framework of the lodge they ascended and spread their rolls of birch bark on the roof. On the platforms in the interior of the lodge they spread cedar boughs, if such were avail- able, and on these were laid rush mats, over which were spread blankets and warm furs. The storehouse was opened, the great rolls of birch bark being turned back, one at a time, until beneath the weather-worn coverings were seen the heaps of bark dishes, makuks, and buckets, white outside and warm yellow within, others a soft gray or dulled by age to a rich mahogany color. (Pl. 32, a.) The
310 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [fTH. ANN. 44
odor of balsam and dry sweet birch bark came from the lodge. There was also a supply of birch bark for making new utensils (pl. 32,6, ¢), if such were necessary. ‘The material which the women brought with them from the winter camps depended, of course, on their knowl- edge of what had been left in the storing lodge the previous season.
Having opened this lodge, the women examined the utensils. The bark dishes for gathering sap were tied in bundles of 10 and placed upside down when stored. They were about 12 inches long. There were the makuks in which the sugar was stored, and utensils somewhat similar in shape, but provided with handles, thus resem- bling buckets. In these the sap was carried to the sugar lodge. The makuk varied in size from those holding a small quantity of sugar to those holding 100 pounds or more. Although birch bark was plenti- ful it was not wasted. Bark utensils were washed and dried at the close of each sugar making, and with «his care could be used 5 or even 10 years. The women looked them over and mended with balsam gum any that needed repairing. The color of the sugar depended on the whiteness and cleanness of the utensils. They also made new utensils if necessary, using the supply of bark left in the lodge for that purpose. In addition to the birch-bark utensils there were troughs made of logs, basswood being commonly used for that pur- pose. Outside one or both entrances to the sugar lodge there was such a trough, into which the sap was poured from buckets. Some of these troughs would hold several barrels of sap. They were covered with sheets of birch bark to keep out twigs and bits of moss. A trough was also used in the process of granulating the sugar. Cer- tain utensils were commonly made of maple, among these being the
‘large wooden spoons used in dipping the sap, the paddles with which the sirup was stirred, and the granulating ladles with the back of which the heavy sirup was worked into sugar.
When all arrangements were completed the women returned to the camp and prepared for the removal of their families and house- hold equipment. These were carried on either toboggans or sleds, drawn usually by dogs. Among the articles that were not stored but carried each year to the camps were the large brass kettles for boiling the sap. Small children or members of the family too feeble to walk were placed comfortably on the sledges among the packs. The women carried the smallest children on their backs, and the party started for the annual sugar making.
On arriving at the sugar camp it was sometimes necessary to erect a tipi for temporary use, while the men repaired the structure for holding the kettles. Great care was taken to have this in perfect condition, as the fall of a kettle would be a serious accident in a lodge. The tapping of the trees was begun as soon as the people took up their abode in the sugar lodge, provided the sap was running at that
DENS MORN] PLANTS AS FOOD oll
time. Tapping was done only by those who were expert in the use of an ax, though women as well as men engaged in the task. (PI. 33, 6.) The trees were arranged in paths so that the collecting of the sap could be conveniently done. A good worker could make 300 tappings ina day. The tapping consisted in making a diagonal cut in a tree about 31% inches long and about 3 feet from the ground. Below the lower end of this cut the bark was removed in a perpendicular line for a distance of about 4 inches. A wooden spile was inserted below this point. The wooden spiles were commonly made of slippery elm and were about 6 inches long, 2 inches wide, and curved on the under surface. The distance of a spile below the cut in a maple tree depended on the grain and hardness of the wood. If it were inserted too near the cut there was danger that the wood might spht. The cut in which the spile was inserted could be made with an ax, or with a tool resembling a curved chisel, which was pounded into the tree and removed for the insertion of the wooden spile.
The sap dishes were distributed in the early morning, being placed on the ground or the snow beneath the taps. If the weather were cold the sap did not run during the night, and accordingly in the late afternoon when it stopped running the people began to gather it, pouring from the dishes into bark pails carried by the women, or large buckets carried by the men. In the very large camps it was some- times necessary to have barrels stationed at a distance from the sugar lodge, and to fill them and haul them on sleds. A shoulder yoke enabling a man to carry two buckets was used among the Chippewa to some extent, but it is said that the use of the yoke was learned from the French, and did not represent a native custom.
When the sap was taken to the camp it was put into the kettles or poured into the troughs at the doors. The large kettles were at first filled only partially, the sap being heated in the smaller kettles near the ends of the fire and emptied from these into the large kettles, in which the actual boiling was done. By this means the entire quantity of sap was heated gradually. (PI. 33, a.)
All night the fires were kept burning and the kettles boiling, cer- tain people taking turns in watching them. If a kettle boiled too rapidly a branch of spruce attached to a stick was dipped into the froth. The motion was little more than a brushing of the froth with the spruce, but the bubbling at once subsided. By early ‘morning the sirup was slightly thickened and ready to strain. In the old days a mat woven of narrow strips of basswood bark was placed over an extra kettle, and the sirup was strained through this mat, being dipped from the kettle with large wooden spoons. In more recent times the sirup is slowly strained through a burlap, and it is said that a clean threadbare white blanket was occasionally used for this
312 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [x7H. ANN. 44
purpose. Straining completed this stage of the process of sugar making.
The “sugaring off” was postponed until a day when there was a storm, or when the sap boiling was discontinued.
Before replacing the sap in the kettles they were thoroughly cleaned, bunches of stiff rushes which commonly grow near sugar bush being used, and the kettles polished with them. All the utensils were washed and everything made ready for the final process, which required special care. The sirup was.replaced in the kettles and slowly heated. When it became thick, small pieces of deer tallow were put init. This was said to make the sugar soft and not brittle. A maple-wood paddle was used in stirring the sirup, and when it had thickened to the proper consistency it was quickly transferred to the granulating trough, where it was again stirred with a paddle, and at the proper time “rubbed or worked” with the back of the granulat- ing ladle, or in some instances pulverized by hand. This had to be done very rapidly before the sugar cooled too much. The stirring of the thick sirup and the granulating was a heavy task, and it was not unusual for men to assist in the work. From the granulating trough the warm sugar was poured into makuks. (PI. 34.)
Granulated sugar, however, was not the only form into which maple sap was converted. When the reboiling for sugar was begun it was customary to pour some of the thick sirup into small con- tainers where it hardened solidly. (Pl. 35.) Little cones were made of birch bark and fastened together with strips of basswood bark so that the group resembled a cluster of berries. These cones filled with sugar were a favorite delicacy among the children. The upper mandible of a duckbill was similarly filled, several of these being fastened together in a row by a little stick. Little birch-bark dishes of the shape commonly used for all purposes were also filled, and sugar cakes were made in fancy shapes, the molds being cut from soft wood and greased before the sirup was put into them so that it could easily be taken out. These molds were in shape of various animals, also of men, and of the moon and stars, originality of design being sought. A product called gum sugar was highly prized. This was a sticky substance and was kept in packets of birch bark tied with basswood bark. In making the latter delicacy the sirup was taken from the kettle just before it was ready to grain. It was then poured on snow and not stirred. When cold it was placed in the birch-bark wrapping.
As already stated, the last run of sap had a different taste than the first and grained less easily. This was boiled as thickly as pos- sible and placed in makuks. Sometimes these makuks were buried in the ground and covered with bark and boughs to keep the contents
DUNSMORP] PLANTS AS FOOD 313
cool during the summer so that it would neither become sour nor freeze. Makuks of this substance were often placed in the storing lodge of a sugar camp where the women could get them at any time. If left an entire year, the women, on returning to the sugar camp, found it as fresh as when placed in storage.
The uses of maple sugar were many and varied. It was used in seasoning fruits, vegetables, cereals, and fish. It was dissolved in water as a cooling summer drink and sometimes made into sirup in which medicine was boiled for children. The granulated sugar and the sugar cakes were commonly used as gifts, and a woman with a goodly supply of maple sugar in its various forms was regarded as a thrifty woman providing for the wants of her family.
A pleasing diversion of the young people was the making of birch- bark transparencies, described on pages 390-396.
A Chippewa living in Canada where there are few maple trees said that his people tap the white birch trees and boil the sap into sirup. He said that the sap of these trees does not run as long as maple sap.
Gatruertne Witp Rice
Wild rice constitutes the chief cereal food of the Chippewa. It abounds in certain lakes, ripening earliest in the shallow lakes fed by streams and later in the lakes fed by springs. The soil of some lakes seems to produce more rice and larger kernels than that of other lakes. By a wise provision of nature the seed of the rice is carried by wild ducks, which also afford food for the people at the season when the rice is ripe.
In the old days each family or small group of families had a por- tion of a rice field, as it had a “sugar bush” for making its maple sugar. The portion of a rice field was outlined by stakes, and a woman established her claim to it by going to the field about 10 days before the rice was ripe and tying portions of it in small sheaves. Basswood fiber is used without twisting for the tying of rice. One length is tied to another, making a large hard ball that unwinds from the middle. The ball is placed in a tray behind the woman as she sits in the canoe. For this work she wears a special waist (pl. 36, a), which, with the care of Chippewa women, is reenforced on the shoul- der where the basswood fiber passes through a little birch-bark ring. This method of carrying the “ twine ” keeps it ready to her hand and free from becoming tangled. (PI. 36,6.) She draws a little group of rice stalks toward her with the “ rice hoop ” (pl. 37) and winds the fiber around them, bending the tip of the sheaf or bundle down to the stalks. The process in detail is shown in Plate 38. The rice is left standing until ripe, when the sheaf is untied, the rice shaken out,
55231°—28——21
314 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [nTH. ANN. 44
and kept separate from the rest of the crop. (Pl. 39.) It has a shghtly different flavor than other rice and the kernels are said to be heavier, requiring longer boiling.
When the time came for harvesting the rice a camp was established on the shore of a lake where rice was abundant. (PI. 40, a.)
In this, as in the making of maple sugar, the unit was the family or group of immediate relatives, all of whom assisted in the process. Three rice camps were visited and photographed by the author dur- ing the harvest season. The equipment for: “ rice-making ” com- prised a canoe or boat with a propelling pole and two rice-beating sticks, one or more birch-bark rolls, the same size as for a wigwam cover, a kettle or tub for parching rice, and a peculiar paddle used tor stirring the rice in the kettle; also a barrel sunk in the ground for the first pounding of the rice, and several pestles used for that pur- pose, several “ winnowing trays” made of birch bark, and a small barrel sunk in the ground and having two bars beside it, this portion of the equipment being for “treading out” the final chaff from the rice. Receptacles for storing the rice were also provided, these in the older days being bags woven of cedar or basswood bark.
The manner of going through the rice field was by means of a canoe or boat pushed along by a pole forked at the end. (PI. 40, b.) This was a heavy task and was usually performed by a man while a woman sat in the stern of the boat and harvested the rice.
In the early morning the canoes started for the rice field and did not return until about the middle of the afternoon, the time depend- ing on the distance to be traveled. Sometimes the rice to be har- vested was at the farther side of a lake, requiring considerable time to reach the spot. A canoeful of rice was considered a day’s gather- ing. The harvesting of the “free rice” (that which had not been tied) was done by knocking the kernels off the stalk and allowing them to fall into the canoe. Two “ rice-sticks” were used for this purpose. The stalks were bent down with one of them, and a sweep- ine but gentle stroke with the other stick liberated the kernels. (Pl. 40, ¢.) The rice at the right as well as the left of the boat was harvested in this manner, a woman using one hand as easily as the other in knocking off the kernels. It was considered a test of a good rice gatherer to free the ripe rice kernels without dislodging those which were unripe. Thus it was possible to go over the same part of a rice field several times at intervals of a few days, allowing time for more rice to ripen. It was not the intention, however, to harvest all the rice, a portion being allowed to fall into the water, or being sowed on the water as seed. The ideal weather for rice gathering was warm and still, as wind or rain dislodged the kernels.
YVONS A1IdVW G3SLVINNVYES AO YMNAVW GNV ‘SSA10V1 ONILVINNVYS ‘3100Vd ONIYYILS ‘HONOYL ONILVINNVYS
ve SLV1id LYOd3ayY IVANNVY HLYNOS-ALYOS ASOIONHLA NVOIYAWV 3O NVAYN|E
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 35
a, CAKES OF MAPLE SUGAR AND MAKUK FILLED WITH SAME
b, STACKED DISHES AND EMPTY CONES, THE LATTER TO BE FILLED WITH SUGAR
FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 36
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
)
(BACK VIEW
a, WAIST WORN WHEN TYING RICE
IN BOAT, TYING RICE
b, WOMAN
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 37
TIED RICE AND RICE HOOP
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 38
PROCESS OF TYING RICE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 39
TIED RICE, SHOWING STAGES OF PREPARATION
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 40
ce, HARVESTING RICE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 41
a,RICE SPREAD TO DRY
c, MORTAR FORMERLY USED IN POUNDING RICE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT » PLATE 42
er. 4 aes ct CFP at a
a, WINNOWING RICE
6, POUNDING RICE c, TREADING RICE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY , FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 43
a, PREPARED MEDICINAL b, PACKET WRAPPED IN SUBSTANCES TIED IN THIN BIRCH BARK CLOTH
c, PACKETS OF LEAVES AND d, PACKETS OF BARK TWIGS READY FOR USE READY FOR USE
DENSMORD] PLANTS AS FOOD 315
In some camps the parching and threshing of the rice was done in the late afternoon and evening, and those who gathered the rice assisted in this portion of the work, but in a large camp this part of the process was carried on simultaneously with the gathering, those who remained in the camp parching and threshing while the rest were gathering.
When the canoes arrived the loads of rice were carried to the camp and spread on sheets of birch bark. (Pl. 41, a.) These had been placed where the sun would shine upon them, but not with such direct- ness as to heat the rice, which was frequently stirred so it would be evenly dried. This was important, as at the season of rice gathering the nights are frequently cold with very hot sun in the middle of the day. About 24 hours was usually allowed for this preliminary dry- ing, after which the rice was either parched in a kettle or dried over a slow fire. The first was the more common process, the rice being placed in a large kettle, or a metal tub, which was propped in a slant- ing position over the fire so that a woman seated beside it could stir the rice with a paddle. (PI. 41,6.) The fire was carefully regulated and considerable skill was required to parch the rice without burning it. The quantity parched at a time was usually about a peck, and the required time about an hour. This parching loosened the husk and also imparted a flavor to the rice. The stirring paddle was slender and different in shape from that used with a canoe. The second is undoubtedly the oldest process, and produced what was known as “hard rice.” This was greenish black in color, much darker than parched rice and requiring longer to cook. This rice could be kept indefinitely, and could be used for seed. In preparing “hard rice,” a frame was made similar to that on which berries were dried. It was covered by a layer of hay on which the rice, either on stalks or in the husk, was spread to a depth of about 3 inches. A slow fire was kept burning beneath the frame. In this manner the rice was dried as vegetables or berries are dried.
The next process was the “pounding” of the rice. For this process the rice is frequently put into a barrel, but the best container for the purpose is a wooden mortar with sloping sides. (PI. 41, ¢.) This was about the size of an ordinary barrel, and was made by the Indians and kept for this purpose. With this were used wooden pestles somewhat pointed at the end. In pounding the rice these moved up and down near the edge of the mortar, the pointed ends being adapted for this purpose. It is said these disturbed the kernels with the least breaking of the kernels. (Pl. 42, 6.) Another form of a pestle was blunt at the end, nearly resembling a mallet. Both varieties were about 514 feet long and in the correct pounding of the rice they were not heavily forced downward but allowed to drop
?
316 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS _[STH. ANN, 44
of their own weight. This process was supposed to loosen the husk entirely without breaking the kernel. If the work was done carefully, the rice kernel was entirely freed from the husk.
The rice was then winnowed, either by tossing it in a tray or by pouring it slowly from a tray to birch bark put on the ground. The place chosen for this work was a place where the breeze would assist the process by blowing away the chaff. (Pl. 42, a.)
The final step in the process was the treading of the rice to dislodge the last fragments of the husk. For this purpose a small wooden receptacle, holding about a bushel, was partially sunk in the ground, and on either side of it was placed a stout pole, one end of which was fastened to a tree about 4 feet above the ground, the other end resting on the ground. ‘The treading was done by a man wear- ing clean moccasins, and the poles were for him to rest his arms upon during the process. (Pl. 42, ¢c.) The sole of the foot was peculiarly adapted to this work, as the husks having been removed, the kernels would have been easily broken by wooden instruments. In treading rice the action resembles that of dancing, the entire body being in action, with the weight not heavily placed on the feet. Leaning on the poles, straightening to full height, or moving his body with undulating, sinuous grace, the treader accomplished his part of the task. It is said that in old times a hole was dug in the ground and lined with deerskin, the rice being placed in this instead of a barrel. The chaff from this treading was usually kept and cooked similarly to the rice, having much the flavor of the rice, and being considered somewhat of a delicacy.
The stored rice was sewn in bags of various sizes, which were some- what similar in use to the makuks in which maple sugar was stored. On top of the rice was laid straw, and the bags, like the makuks, were sewed across the top with basswood twine.
While rice making was an industry essential to the food supply, it had, like the sugar camp, a pleasant social phase, which was ap- preciated by old and young. Thus the writer in driving through the rice country late one afternoon came upon a camp of three or four tipis. The rice gatherers had returned from the fields, and the men were sitting on rush mats and smoking while the younger women stirred two parching kettles and an older woman tossed a winnowing tray. At a fire one woman was preparing the evening meal and at a distance another was seen chopping wood. Dogs and little chil- dren were running about, and the scene with its background of pines and shining lake was one of pleasure and activity.
An important part of the camp was its provisioning. Indians did not carry many supplies with them, and it is probable that in the old days many carried no provisions to a rice camp except maple
DENSMORE] PLANTS AS FOOD 317
sugar, which was used for seasoning all foods. At night the women set their fish nets and in the morning they drew them in, thus securing fish, some of which they dried. In one of the camps visited by the writer the top branches of a young Norway pine had been broken, and it was said that fish had been dried on these branches, the splinters forming a convenient frame. If ducks were available the hunters went out in the morning, and occasionally a deer was secured for the camp. The principal food, however, was the fresh rice, which was eaten either parched or boiled.
BEVERAGES
It is interesting to note that the Chippewa did not commonly drink water encountered in traveling but boiled it, making some of the following beverages from vegetable substances that were easily available. Fresh leaves were tied in a packet with a thin strip of basswood bark before being put in the water. (Pl. 48, ¢, at left.) Dried leaves could be used if fresh leaves were not available. The quantity was usually about a heaping handful to a quart of water. Beverages were usually sweetened with maple sugar and drunk while hot. The botanical name, common name, and portion of plant used are shown in the following list:
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder. Labrador tea. Leaves.
Chiogenes hispidula (L.) T. C. G. Creeping snowberry. Leaves. Gaultheria procumbens L. Wintergreen. Leaves.
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Hemlock. Leaves.
Picea rubra (Du Roi) Dietr. Spruce. Leaves.
Rubus strigosus Michx. Red raspberry. Twigs.
Prunus virginiana lL. Chokecherry. Twigs.
Prunus serotina Ehrh. Wild cherry. Twigs.
In preparing this last beverage the twigs of the chokecherry and wild cherry were tied in a little bundle by a strip of bark long enough to permit the lifting of the bundle and dropping it into hot water without burning the hand. The bundle of twigs for one infusion was about 4 inches long and each packet was perhaps 1 inch in diameter. (PI. 43, c, at right.)
Maple sugar was dissolved in cold water and served as a drink in hot weather. This was offered to the writer and found to be pleasantly refreshing. ;
A Cass Lake informant said that his wife gathered all kinds of flowers and dried them in a wire basket, beginning with the first flowers in the spring and putting in a few of each variety as it appeared. He said that by the first of July she had more than twenty varieties. In the fall she pulverized them and stored them. A winter drink was made in the following manner: A quart of water was allowed to come to a boil and in it were placed a spoonful of
318 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [8TH. ANN, 44
the powdered flowers and a tiny bit of red pepper. The water was then removed from the stove and the mixture allowed to steep a short time.
SEASONINGS
Koellia virginiana (l.) MacM. Mountain mint.
The flowers and buds were used to season either meat or broth. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. Bearberry.
The red berries of this plant were cooked with meat as a seasoning for the broth. The leaves were smoked (see p. 337).
Asarum canadense L. Wild ginger.
The root of this plant was regarded as an “appetizer,” being put in any food as it was being cooked. It was also used for indigestion (see p. 342).
The silk of corn (called “corn hair”) was dried before the fire and put in broth to season it. The corn silk was said to thicken the broth slightly as well as to impart a pleasing flavor.
Pumpkin blossoms were dried and used to thicken broth.
A Canadian Chippewa said that in old times his people had no salt and that more maple sugar was used as seasoning than the quan- tity of salt now used by white people. In the early days the Minne- sota Chippewa had no salt and some of the older Indians have not yet acquired a taste for it. In a treaty known as the “Salt Treaty,” * concluded at Leech Lake, August 21, 1847, with the Pillager Band of Chippewa, there was a stipulation that the Indians should receive 5 barrels of salt annually for five years.
A sirup was sometimes made from the sap of the woodbine and wild rice was boiled in it to give an agreeable flavor.
CEREALS Zizania palustris L. Indian rice.
Wild rice was the principal cereal food of the Chippewa, being cooked alone and also with meat or game. The manner of procuring it and the first processes of its preparation have already been de- scribed. The following are among the ways in which rice was cooked :
(a) Boiled in water and eaten with or without maple sugar.
(6) Boiled with meat.
(c) Grease was put in a kettle and the rice parched in the grease, after which it was seasoned with, maple sugar. Dried blueberries were often combined with this, and the rice and berries stored for use on journeys.
(d) Rice (not parched) was stored with dried blueberries during the winter and the two were cooked together in the spring.
3 A compilation of all the treaties between the United States and the Indian tribes, now in force as laws. Washington, 1873, p. 212.
DENSMORB] PLANTS AS FOOD 319
(e) Rice (parched when gathered) was prepared as follows: Boil- ing broth, either of meat or fish, was poured over parched rice, which was then covered and allowed to “steam” for a time until softened.
(f) The chaff from the treading of the rice was cooked similarly to the rice and was considered a delicacy.
Zea mays L. Corn.
Corn was cultivated in gardens by the Chippewa and prepared for use as follows:
(a) Fresh ears were roasted in the husks.
(6) The corn was cut before it was fully ripe. It was then shelled and dried by spreading it on sheets of birch bark. This was boiled and seasoned with maple sugar.
(c) The husks were turned back and the corn dried by suspending the ears by the husks from the ceiling.
(d) Corn was parched in a hot kettle, some of the kernels popping open and others drying. The corn was then put in a leather bag, laid on a flat stone, and pounded with another stone until it was like meal. This was made into “parched corn soup,” to which deer tallow or deer meat, either fresh or dried, was added.
(e) Corn was made into “hominy.” <A lye was first made from hardwood ashes. The corn was boiled in this, rinsed, and boiled in clear water. Bones were sometimes boiled with it, and grease was added as seasoning. In addition to using the corn, the water in which it was boiled was considered very palatable.
VEGETABLES
Pumpkins and squashes were cultivated in gardens and either eaten fresh or cut in pieces or in strips for drying. These were laid on frames or were strung on long pieces of basswood cord and hung above the fire where the drying was slowly accomplished. They were stored in bags and sometimes kept for two years. Dried squash and pumpkin were boiled with game, or boiled alone and seasoned with maple sugar. The flowers of the latter were dried and used in broth for seasoning and also for thickening.
Other vegetable foods were obtained without cultivation, among them being the following: .
Helianthus tuberosus L. (The original of the cultivated Jerusalem artichoke.) The root of this plant was eaten raw like a radish.
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Arrowhead.
This is commonly called the “ wild potato,” and grows in deep mud. At the end of the tubular roots are the “ potatoes ” which are
320 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
gathered in the fall, strung, and hung overhead in the wigwam to dry. Later they are boiled for use.
Lycopus asper Greene. Bugleweed.
These were called “ crow potatoes ” and were dried and boiled. Moss growing on white pine.
The moss was dried and stored. When used it was “ put in water
to freshen it up,” and it was then boiled and put in fish or meat broth. It was said to be very nourishing.
Asclepias syriaca L. Common milkweed.
The flowers were cut up and stewed, being eaten like preserves. It is said that this plant was sometimes eaten before a feast, so that a man could consume more food.
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (.) Greene. Woodbine.
The stalk was cut in short lengths and boiled, then peeled. Be- tween the outer bark and the wood there was a sweetish substance which was eaten somewhat after the manner of eating corn from the cob. The water in which the woodbine had been boiled was then boiled down to a sirup. If sugar were lacking, wild rice was boiled in this sirup to season it.
Falcata comosa () Kuntze. Wild bean and hog peanut.
The root of this plant was boiled and eaten. It also had a medici- nal value (see p. 289). ; Scirpus validus Vahl. Bulrush.
On the root of these rushes there is a small bulb occurring at the turn of the root. If the rushes are pulled in midsummer this bulb has a sweetish taste and may be eaten raw.
Aster (species doubtful). Aster.
This plant grows near Lake Superior. The leaves are boiled with fish and eaten with the fish. Populus tremuloides Michx. Aspen.
If the bark of the poplar is cut and turned back from the tree in the early summer there is found between the bark and the wood a sweetish sirup which can be put in birch bark and kept for a short time. This is especially liked by children and young people.
Quercus macrocarpa Muhl. Bur oak.
Sweet acorns (mitigo’ minim) were frequently gathered in the late fall and buried for use in the winter or spring, or they could be used as soon as they were gathered. They were cooked in three ways: (1) They were boiled, split open, and eaten like a vegetable; (2) roasted in the ashes; (3) boiled, mashed, and eaten with grease. They were said to be especially good with duck broth.
DENSMORE] PLANTS AS FOOD SPAll
Tilia americana L. Basswood.
The sap next the bark was used similarly to the woodbine sirup.
A Canadian Chippewa said that he peeled the outside bark from the poplar and also the white birch, and scraped the inner bark, obtaining a little sap which they put in a small makuk. He said that it had a sweetish taste and “ would keep quite a while.”
Fruirs anp Berries
Orataegus (species doubtful). Thornapple.
These were prepared by squeezing them in the hands, after which they were made into little cakes without cooking, dried on birch- bark and stored to be cooked in winter.
Prunus virginiana lL. Chokecherry.
These were pounded, stones and all, between two stones, and dried similarly to the thornapples. Vitis cordifolia Michx. Grape.
Eaten raw.
Cornus canadensis L. Bunchberry.
Berries eaten raw. Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. Strawberry.
Berries eaten raw.
All the following berries were eaten raw as well as dried for winter use.
Prunus serctina Ehrh. Wild cherry. Ribes triste Pall. Red currant. Ribes species. Wild currant. Prunus americana Marsh. Chokecherry. Rubus frondosus Bigel (?). Blackberry. Rubus strigosus Michx. Red raspberry. The berries were cooked without sugar, spread on birch bark in little cakes and dried, the cakes then stored in a birch-bark makuk for winter use.
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. Shadbush.
These are called “ Juneberries”” by the Chippewa and are found abundantly in their country. They are considered the simplest form of refreshment. “Take some Juneberries with you,” is a common saying among the Chippewa. A certain song contains the words “ Juneberries I would take to eat on my journey if I were a son-in-law.” 4 Ozycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Pers. Cranberry. Cooked, probably with sugar. Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. Blueberry.
4 Bull. 58, Bur. Amer. Ethn., song No. 169.
a22 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS s[ETH. ANN, 44
A Canadian Chippewa said that his people combined dried blue- berries with moose fat and deer tallow.
All dried berries were boiled when used, and either seasoned with maple sugar or combined with other foods.
PLANTS AS MEDICINE TREATMENT BY MrANS or PLANTS
It must be conceded that the use of plants by the Indians was based upon experiment and study. The Indians say that they “ re- ceived this knowledge in dreams,” but the response of the physical organism was the test of a plant as a remedy. As the physical or- ganism is the same in both races it should not be a matter of surprise that some of the remedies used by the Indians are found in the phar- macopoeia of the white race. An observer of the Cree Indians writes: “Although the list of materia medica is a small one there is remarkable judgment shown in the choice of remedies. Thus... the bark of the juniper and Canada balsam tree are doubtless as good an application to wounds as a people unversed in antiseptic application and ignorant of the existence of bacteria could devise. The use of Lobelia as an emetic and of [ris versicolor as a cholagogue and purgative approaches closely to the practice of more civilized nations.°
Health and long life represented the highest good to the mind of the Chippewa, and he who had knowledge conducive to that end was most highly esteemed among them. He who treated the sick, by whatever means, claimed that his knowledge came from manido (spirits), and those who saw a sick man restored to health by that knowledge readily accepted its origin as supernatural.
Two methods of treating the sick were in use among the Chip- pewa." Both methods depended upon what was termed “ super- natural aid,” but material remedies were used in one and not in the other. The “doctors” who used material remedies were usually members of the Midewiwin, and their remedies were among the se- crets of that organization. He who treated the sick without material means was called a djasakid (commonly translated “ juggler”)? His procedure included the apparent swallowing and regurgitating of short tubular bones. (PIL. 46, ¢.)
It is a teaching of the Midewiwin that every tree, bush, and plant has a use. A country of such bountiful vegetation as that of the Chippewa presents a great amount of this material. Although the
5 Holmes, E. M, (F. L. S.), ‘‘ Medicinal plants used by the Cree Indians, Hudson’s Bay Territory,” The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, 3d ser. vol. 15, pp. 303-304. London, 1884-85. See also Bur. Amer. Ethn. Bull. 61, p. 271.
®Cf. Bur. Amer. Ethn, Bull. 45, pp. 92-125; Bull. 61, pp. 244-278; Bull. 75, pp, 127- iad;
7See Bur, Amer. Ethn, Bull. 45, pp. 119-125.
DENS MORB] PLANTS AS MEDICINE Syn
Midewiwin was a respository of knowledge of herbs it did not have a pharmacopeeia accessible to every member. The remedies are individual, not general, and an individual when questioned invariably replies, “I can tell you about my own medicines. I do not know about other peoples’ medicines nor their uses of the same plants.” Thus it is frequently found that different people have different names and uses for the same plant. Members of the Midewiwin were not taught many remedies at once, except at the time of their initi- ation. Their instruction at that time comprised what might be termed a “ ground work in the practice of medicine,” with the identifi- cation and use of a number of plants. The same sort of instruction accompanied their advancement from one degree to another, and was made more extensive as they went into the higher degrees. Aside from these times of special instruction a man learned one or two remedies at a time as he felt inclined to go to the old men and buy the knowledge. Among the Chippewa, as among other tribes studied by the writer, it is not common for one man to treat a large number of diseases. A Sioux said:
“In the old days the Indians had few diseases, and so there was not a demand for a large variety of medicines. A medicine man usually treated one special disease and treated it successfully. He did this in accordance with his dream. A medicine man would not try to dream of all herbs and treat all diseases, for then he could not expect to succeed in all nor to fulfill properly the dream of any one herb or animal. He would depend on too many and fail in all. That is one reason why our medicine men lost their power when so many diseases came among us with the advent of the white man.” ™
While many remarkable cures were said to have been wrought by the Mide remedies, it was said that if no improvement were seen in a reasonable time the treatment was usually discontinued, it being said that the medicine evidently would not “take hold” in that particular case. From this it seems possible that they recognized a self-limited, and also an incurable disease, and in such cases did not wish to raise the hopes of the patient.
The men and women who at the present time (1918) treat the sick by Mide remedies are well poised and keen eyed, with a manner which indicates confidence in themselves, and which would inspire confidence in the sick persons to whom they minister.
As already indicated, the medicinal use of herbs has been handed down for many generations in the Midewiwin. It is said that mem- bers of the Midewiwin “follow the bear path” in proceeding from a lower to a higher degree in the society and that some of the best Mide remedies were received from the bear. Thus one of the
74 Bull. 61, Bur. Amer, Ethn., pp, 244-245,
324 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [nra. ann. 44
strongest medicines in the accompanying series (Apocynum sp.) is known as a “bear medicine.” The roots of the “bear medicine” were cut in pieces about 2 inches long and strung on a cord when stored for use. Such a string of roots bore some resemblance to a necklace of bear claws. In this connection we note that the bear was highly esteemed by the Sioux medicine men, two of whom made the following statements:
Two Shields said:
“'The bear is the only animal which is dreamed of as offering to give herbs for the healing of man. The bear is not afraid of either animals or men and it is considered ill-tempered, and yet it is the only animal which has shown us this kindness; therefore the medi- cines received from the bear are supposed to be especially effective.”
In somewhat similar manner Siyaka said:
“The bear is quick-tempered and is fierce in many ways, and yet he pays attention to herbs which no other animal notices at all. The bear digs these for his own use. The bear is the only animal which eats roots from the earth and is also especially fond of acorns, June berries, and cherries. These three are frequently compounded with other herbs in making medicine, and if a person is fond of cherries we say he is hke a bear. We consider the bear as chief of all animals in regard to herb medicine, and therefore it is understood that if a man dreams of a bear he will be expert in the use of herbs for curing illness. ‘The bear is regarded as an animal well acquainted with herbs because no other animal has such good claws for digging roots.” §
The material in the following chapter was obtained from three classes of informants: (1) Those who are active adherents of the Mide but were willing to tell of its remedies in order that a record of them might be preserved for posterity; (2) those who have re- nounced the Mide but continue to use its remedies either personally or in treating sick persons; and (8) those who have never been mem- bers of the Mide but have received a knowledge of its remedies from relatives who were members of the society. Among the principal informants on this subject at White Earth were Mrs. Brunett, Mrs. Gagewin, and Mrs. Louisa Martin. (PI. 44.)
In the old days a person would not transmit any facts concerning medicines to even a member of his own family without compensation, one reason for this restriction seeming to be a fear that the informa- tion would not be treated with proper respect. So great was the secrecy surrounding these remedies that names were seldom given to plants, the person imparting the information showing the fresh plant. It was difficult, if not impossible, to recognize a root after it had been dried and rubbed into shreds, but medicine men frequently
§ Bull. 61, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 195.
NILYVIA VSINOT ‘SYW ‘2 NIM4DV)59 ‘SUI ‘a LLANNYA ‘SY “»
vy ALV1d LYOd3aeY TIWANNVY HLYNOsA-ALYOS ADOIONHLA NVOIYAWV AO NVAYNE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 45
BAG IN WHICH MEDICINES HAVE BEEN KEPT
DENSMORE] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 325
combined an aromatic herb with their medicines as a precaution against their identification. The fact that persons were willing to impart their knowledge of these ancient remedies for publication indicates that the attitude of the Chippewa toward their old customs is passing away.
There seems to have been something symbolic in the appearance of certain medicinal roots. The writer showed a certain root to a medicine woman and asked her if she knew what it was. She replied that its use was familiar to her, but that she would have known it was a medicinal root if she had never seen it before. On being ques- tioned further she said it was evidently an old root which had sent up a new stalk each year and had long roots extending downward. The stalk and the small roots were gone, but the life remained in the root itself, and this would be the part used for medicine. A class of plants highly valued as medicines are those having a divided tap root supposed to resemble the legs of a man. An example of this is spikenard. The medicine woman already quoted brought the writer a plant which she said she had hesitated a long time before showing. Her affection and admiration for the plant itself were evident as she caressed its straight stalk, delicate leaves, and fine white roots, reluctant at the last to part with it.
In some instances the fertile and sterile plants were considered separately. It will be noted that a remedy for dysentery stipulates that the flowering plant of Artemisia dracunculoides (mugwort) be used, and that in a decoction for strengthening the hair it is stated that a sterile plant of the same be used. The writer was informed of a remedy in which both sorts of “rattlesnake root” were used, but it was impossible at the time to secure specimens for identification.
Vegetable remedies were usually gathered in the late summer or early fall, when the plants are fully developed. At that season it was customary for the Chippewa to take journeys or to send to other localities to obtain plants which grew in various soils.
An unfailing custom of the Mide in gathering plants for medicinal use is to dig a little hole in the ground beside the plant and put tobacco in the hole, speaking meanwhile to the plant. Gagewin, who is a member of the Mide, said that when he dug a plant he spoke somewhat thus: “ You were allowed to grow here for the benefit of mankind, and I give you this tobacco to remind you of this, so that you will do the best you can for me.” This, of course, is only rep- resentative of part of such a speech. On one occasion the writer saw the tobacco put beside a tree whose bark was to be used. The medicine man was a member of the Otter Tail Band of Chippewa. He said this was commanded by the mando, who gave all knowl- edge of plants to the Chippewa. He seemed to require no other authority or reason.
326 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [kvu. ANN. 44
The part of the plant most commonly used was the root. In a ma- jority of instances the whole root was used, but in some plants the healing power was supposed to be strongest in a certain portion of the root. Thus in dogbane the part preferred was the elbow of the root, the plant having a root which descends straight downward for 15 to 18 inches and then turns sharply to one side. In other instances the part used was the fine white roots depending from the larger root.
If stalks, leaves, or flowers were to be used as remedies they were dried by hanging them with the top downward and kept as clean as possible. After being dried, each variety was tied or wrapped sepa- rately for storage. Bark was gathered when the sap was in the tree but roots intended for future medicinal use were gathered before the sap started in the spring or after it had gone down in the fall. An informant at Cass Lake said that roots were not washed, the dirt be- ing carefully shaken from them, but informants at White Earth said the roots were washed. After drying, they were tied in packets and. stored in bags unless it was desired to have some special root ready for immediate use. Such a root was pulverized and stored in that form. Certain roots, when used, were broken in short pieces and boiled or steeped, but a majority were prepared for use either by pounding until they were in shreds or by pulverizing them in the hands, the latter being always done if the roots were small. The most common method of pulverizing roots was to place them in the palm of the left hand and then to rub them either with the thick portion of the right hand below the thumb or with the fingers of the right hand. Some Chippewa used a small round stone for this purpose, the stone having a shallow depression in which the medicine was mixed by rubbing with the thumb. If several sorts of roots were to be used in combination they were usually “ pounded together” be- fore they were stored, in order that they might be fully blended. Mrs. English said that she was once in a lodge where the medicine men were pounding their medicines on a stone and putting them in little bags. A stuffed owl was placed beside them. After leaving the lodge she asked about the owl and the reply was, “They always have to have someone watch to see that they do it right.” ®
The detailed instructions given concerning medicines is shown by the following example. An informant at Red Lake said that her ereat-grandmother taught her the use of herbs. This informant de- scribed one remedy for a certain injury and said that if it were not effective she would use another plant which was about a foot high and had no flowers. (A specimen was obtained but it was not perfect
® At a remote point north of Vermilion Lake, Minnesota, the writer visited the house of a medicine man and saw two owls (or owlskins) swinging from the branches of trees, suspended by a cord around their necks and drying. Several small animals were drying in other trees.
DUNSMORD] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 327
enough for identification.) She said,‘ The plant has a very long root and the leaves come up from joints of the root, not from the knuckle of the root which projects above the ground and is bare. I look for the knuckle or knob of the root and then look about 3 or 4 inches away for the leaves. The plant grows in soft ground, like that near a lake.”
Medicinal barks were so generally available that they were usually gathered when they were needed. The barks of chokecherry and wild cherry, in quantity for one decoction, are shown in Plate 48, d, as they would be prepared for a patient.
As already stated, the roots and herbs were usually stored in bags. Some men used the square bags woven of yarn; others preferred bags woven of the inner bark of cedar. One old medicine man had a bag peculiarly adapted for holding medicinal roots. It was made of leather and was smaller at the top than at the bottom to preclude the possibility of dampness. The prepared pulverized roots could be kept in either birch bark or leather, the latter being preferred. A bag used for this purpose is shown in Plate 45. A packet of medicine tied in cloth ready to be delivered to a sick person is shown in Plate 48, a This contains four vegetable substances pounded together and was said to be a sufficient quantity to make four liquid preparations of the remedy. This has no distinguishing mark, the ingredients being known only to the medicine man who prescribed the remedy. A medicine man, however, has various means of marking his herbs. One man identifies his prepared herbs by the knot in the string with which the packet is tied, the identification and use of the herbs being known only to himself.
The storing of roots in bags has already been noted and refers to a man’s supply of roots and herbs for an entire season. Apart from this stored supply a member of the Mide usually carried a large number of medicines in his Mide bag. Sometimes he carried a small quantity of some particularly strong medicine in a buckskin bag, which was placed in the skull of the animal which formed his Mide bag. Poisons were not infrequently carried by the Mide, and they were instructed in their use. An instance was related of an aged man, a member of the Mide, who came to a lodge one winter night tired and cold. He said, “ Never mind, I have some medicine which will soon warm me.” He then took a packet from the skull of his Mide bag, put a little of the contents in water and drank it. A few moments later he said, “I have taken the wrong medicine; I shall die.” And in a few hours he was dead.
In addition to the vegetable substances believed to have an effect when administered internally or externally there were herbs and roots believed to act by their presence independent of actual contact.
a See Bull. 86, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Pl. 78, 0.
328 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [n7TH. Ann. 44
These comprised substances which attracted (as love charms and the hunting or fishing charms); also those which repelled (as those which, carried on the person, were said to keep reptiles away) ; and those which acted as an antidote to “bad medicine” carried by another person. Among the latter is a certain plant the smoke of which was supposed to counteract the effect of poison placed where a person would step on it; also a combination of plants rubbed on the limbs of a dancer to counteract the effect of medicine worn by others with the intention of “ tiring him out.” Certain roots were also chewed for the same purpose. In some instances it was said that plants acted in both these ways, being worn as a protection, and taken internally as a healing agency. Such were some of the medi- cines carried by warriors. Certain remedies were used exclusively for horses, and some were used for both men and horses.
In addition to the special knowledge of plants held by the Mide, there was a general knowledge of the simpler remedies, each house- hold having a supply of such herbs for common ailments. If these failed and the illness appeared to be serious, they sent for the man whom they believed to have the proper remedy.
The names of plants are of several sorts. Thus we note (1) names which indicate the place where the plant grows, as “prairie sturgeon plant”; (2) names which describe the appearance of the plant, as “squirrel tail” or “plump root”; (3) names which describe their taste, as “ bitter root”; and (4) names indicating the part of the plant to be used, as “ crow leaf.” The names of the uses of a plant, or a designation of the remedy is sometimes given as the name of the plant itself, as (1) names indicating the use, as “ head medicine ”; (2) names indicating the origin of the remedy, as “Wina- bojo remedy ”; and (8) names denoting the power of the remedy, as “chief medicine,” which is applied to several highly esteemed plants. With such a system of nomenclature it is evident that plants of different species will have the same name and that in many in- stances a plant may be called by several different names. Thus the purple mint was given three names by as many people.
The manner of preparing roots has already been described. Stalks, leaves, and flowers were usually pulverized in a similar man- ner, though in one remedy it was prescribed that eight stems be used in 1 quart of water. If bark were to be used the outer skin was removed and the “inner bark” scraped or removed in long thin strips which were boiled, either with or without pulverizing. An informant said that the only regulation concerning the scraping was that the root of alder must be scraped toward the plant.
Vegetable substances were further prepared for use by combining them with water. Some were boiled a few moments, others were allowed to come to a boil, then removed from the fire, and others
DENSMORP] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 329
were scalded or steeped. Some roots were boiled in a thin sirup made of maple sugar, to give a pleasant flavor. Poultices and com- presses were made by moistening the pounded fresh or dry roots or herbs. The strength of a decoction varied with the nature of the root and the age of the patient. A common proportion was a “ hand- hollow-ful ” of pulverized root to about a quart of water, but some roots were exceedingly strong and required special direction. Thus one root (calamus), although only about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, was so strong that the quantity used was measured by the length of the patient’s index finger, whether an infant or an adult.
It was the author’s intention to collect herbs which have medicinal tse When administered singly. This presented some difficulties, as the Chippewa use combinations of herbs, sometimes as many as 20 vegetable substances being combined in one remedy. One medicine woman who practices medicine widely for money at the present time called special attention to the value of herbs in combi- nations. She appeared to attach more importance to combinations than to specifics, except in instances of simple definite value. While the tabulated lists (pp. 836-367) contain some combinations it will be noted that almost without exception each herb is considered effica- cious if used alone. In some instances the combination of the herbs shows an interesting and intelligent purpose.
The quantity for a decoction and the size of a dose were difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy. One medicine woman who was particularly careful in her statements brought the pail in which she usually prepared her remedies, and it was found to hold about a pint. It appeared that she prepared smaller quantities than other persons, as a majority said they prepared their medicines in a lard pail, filling it to within 11% or 2 inches of the top. In the tabulated lst of remedies the quantity of water is given as a quart, except in remedies prepared by the above-mentioned woman, for whose preparations a smaller amount is designated. Decoctions were usually boiled five or ten minutes. In only two instances (see pp. 339, 865) was there anything partaking of a ceremonial character in the preparing of liquid medicines, it being said that “ the talking was all done when the roots were dug.” In one of these instances there was something resembling a divination, the doctor watching the manner in which the powdered roots lay in the water and deciding thereby whether the medicine would be effective. The person who described this remedy was well versed in the ways of the Mide and said she had never heard of this being done in the preparation of any other remedy.
Liquid medicine was not measured when taken. <A “large swal- low” constituted an average dose, but a cupful was occasionally
55231°—28 22
330 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [®TH. ANN. 44
taken. The interval between the doses varied, as might be expected among a people who in old times were without timepieces. If the patient were in great suffering he was told to take the medicine, “at short intervals,’ understood to be about half an hour. In what was probably a majority of cases the patient took the medicine “at frequent intervals,” or whenever he felt inclined. Sometimes he was instructed to “drink it freely,” or drink some after an attack of coughing. These directions were given by the person who pre- pared the medicine, and who gave various other instructions, such as rest after taking the medicine, or abstinence from food. In a majority of cases it was expected that improvement, though per- haps shght, would be evident after three or four doses had been taken.
Remedies were administered externally in the following manner:
(1) Fresh roots or leaves were macerated and applied.
(2) Dried roots or leaves were pulverized, prepared in the form of a decoction, and applied.
(3) Dried roots or leaves were pulverized, moistened, and applied like a poultice.
(4) Dried roots or leaves were pulverized and strewn on hot stones, the treatment being by the fumes.
(5) A decoction was sprinkled on hot stones, the treatment being by steam.
(6) Herbs were boiled with grease for a salve.
(7) Dried and powdered roots were mixed with grease and used as an emollient.
Remedies were administered internally in the following manner:
(1) Dried powdered roots or leaves were either boiled or steeped in water,
(2) Dried powdered roots were used as snuff, or prepared with lukewarm water.
(3) Fresh roots or herbs were chewed.
(4) Slight incisions were made with a bit of sharp glass or flint, and dried, powdered roots placed over the incisions.
(5) Remedies were “ pricked into the skin” with a set of needles used for that purpose.
(6) Pulverized roots were mixed with “red willow” or tobacco and smoked in a pipe.
(7) A decoction of herbs was administered as an enema.
Supstances OrHuer THAN VEGETABLE Usep AS REMEDIES
(1) Deer tallow and bear grease were used as emollients, either alone or mixed with vegetable substances.
(2) Bear’s gall, dried, was used in connection with cedar charcoal, being * pricked into the skin” with needles. (See p. 333.)
6
DENSMORE] PLANTS AS MEDICINE oor
(3) Bumblebees, dried, were used with the root of alder. (See p. 359.)
(4) Red pipestone was used as a remedy for scrofulous neck and was said to cause the swelling to go down gradually without breaking into an open sore. The directions were: “ Grate red pipestone to a powder, take a teaspoonful dry, then drink water. Take it once a day, two or three times a week.”
(5) Clamshell was used as a remedy for ulcer, the directions being as follows: “ Burn a clamshell, powder it finely in the hand, mix it with bear’s grease or any soft grease, using only enough to hold it together. The mixing is usually done in a clamshell. Apply to the sore or ulcer.”
MepicaL AppLiaNces
(1) The lodge in which a sweat bath was taken has been described in connection with customs of the Midewiwin.”” The same procedure was used if a person were suffering from a very bad cold and was feverish. No medicine was put in the water which was sprinkled on the stones. After the bath the person was thoroughly rubbed, warmly wrapped, and put to bed. This bath was taken by hunters when they returned weary, or by anyone who wished to be refreshed; also by those inclined to rheumatism,
(2) Another method of steaming was used chiefly for rheumatic limbs, and with the water they put any sort of medicine which was supposed to be good for that ailment. In giving this treatment a hole was dug in the ground the size of the kettle containing the hot decoc- tion. They put the kettle into this hole and the person sat beside it, covering his limbs closely with a blanket. A medicine frequently used in this connection was identified as willow (species doubtful). The prepared root was put in hot water and allowed to boil a short time. It was usually cooled before using.
(3) Dry herbs were also placed on heated stones and the fumes were inhaled, this treatment being used chiefly for headache. The stones were somewhat smaller than those used in the sweat lodge, being “about the size of a small bowl.” The patient covered his head and shoulders with a blanket, inclosing the stones and inhaling the fumes. A mixture of many varieties of flowers was said to be an agreeable preparation for this use.
(4) A simple appliance was a strip of slippery elm bark which was often used in place of an emetic, the soft inner bark being used and inserted in the throat.
(5) Apparatus for enema. It is said that the early Chippewa understood the administering of both nourishment and medicine by means of enema. The apparatus for this consisted of a syringe, a small birch-bark tray on which the syringe was laid, and two meas-
®> See Bull. 86, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 94,
Sac USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
ures for the medicine, a larger one for adults and a smaller one for children. The syringe was composed of the bladder of the deer. The proper amount of medicine was put into this bladder, then a short piece of clean hollow rush was tied in the opening by means of a strip of wet slippery elm, the rush projecting about an inch. This was used only once and then burned. The principal medicines ad- ministered in this manner were (a) the inner bark of the common white birch. This was scraped and about a hand-hollow steeped in water; (b) the wood of a tree identified as Frawinus. A hand- hollow of this was steeped in water. A small spatula for powdered herbs and a measure for liquid medicine are shown in Plate 46, a and h, SurcicaL TREATMENT AND APPLIANCES
(1) The letting of blood was a remedial measure frequently used among the Chippewa and was resorted to for numerous causes. The principal instrument used in this treatment was a small pointed blade set in a handle about 3 or 4 inches long. (PI. 46.) By means of this instrument blood was taken from the forearm or from the ankle. In using this instrument the part to be cut was firmly stroked downward, forcing the blood to the extremity; a bandage was then applied above the point at which the incision was to be made. In making the incision the instrument was held close to the flesh and lightly snapped with the thumb and finger of the right hand, thus inflicting a slieht incision of the vein. If too much force were applied, the result might be fatal; thus an instance was related in which the vein was entirely severed and the man died. It is said that about “half a basin” of blood was usually taken. A medicine to check the bleeding was then applied and the upper bandage removed. The root commonly used for this purpose was identified as Drymocallis arguta (Pursh.) Rydb. The prepared root was either used dry or was moistened with warm water, placed on soft duck down, and laid over the incision. It was said by three informants that this treatment was used especially for persons who had met with an accident, as a fall or an injury to the back, and that the medicine “ prevented the blood from settling in one place.” This treatment was also used for “ persons who seemed to have too much blood.”
(2) A surgical treatment in common use consisted in cutting small gashes from which a small amount of blood was removed. These gashes were formerly made with a piece of sharp flint, but in later times a piece of thick glass is carefully broken so as to leave a sharp splinter, which is used for this purpose. This is kept in a leather shield or covering (pl. 46, c,d), and is used as a lancet according to the general use of that instrument. These cuts might be made in various parts of the body, The writer saw a woman whose elbow had
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DENSMORD] PLANTS AS MEDICINE Ban
been cut with 15 or 20 gashes about a quarter of an inch long. This treatment was given for a sprain, her elbow having swollen to twice its natural size. The most common use of this treatment was for headache, as described below, but it was used for any inflammation. A remedy for the bite of a snake was administered in this manner, the plant being identified as Plantago major L.
(3) In connection with the incisions above described there was a small horn (pl. 46, e) if the treatment was for headache. In this treatment about six very short, deep incisions were made on the temples with the flint or glass, after which the doctor placed the larger end of the horn over the incisions and applied his mouth to the smaller end, sucking until the blood came to the surface. He then quickly removed his lips from the horn, placed his finger over the small end of the horn and lowered it so that the blood would run into it. When enough had been removed he wiped the skin and applied a healing medicine, as noted above, or some remedy for headache, or he might place a moist compress or “ grease ” over the cuts. This cutting of the temples was also used for inflammation of the eyes.
(4) An instrument for applying medicine beneath the skin consisted of several needles fastened at the end of a wooden handle (pl. 46, 7). This was used in treating “dizzy headache,” neuralgia, or rheuma- tism in any part of the body. In giving the treatment the medicine was “worked in” with the needles. If only a small part were to be “gone over ” it was customary to hold a knife in the left hand and to use the blade as a guide for the needles. These were “ worked up and down ” close to the blade, “ which kept the medicine from spread- ing.” The remedy used most often in this manner was made as follows: Hazel stalks or cedar wood was burned to a charcoal and a small quantity of the charcoal (or ash) was mixed with an equal quantity of the dried gall of a bear. It was mixed well and placed in a birch-bark dish. When used it was moistened a little with water and stirred, after which a little was taken on the blade at the end of the wooden instrument and laid on the affected part. It was then “worked in” with the needles. The dark spots seen on the temples of many Indians are left by the charcoal in this medicine. A remedy for rheumatism was applied in a similar manner. The plant was identified as Trillium grandifiorum (Michx.) Salisb., and it was used in the form of a decoction.
(5) The use of a knife in amputation was mentioned by Main’gans, whose limbs were amputated below the knee, the only instrument used being a common knife. When he was a boy his feet and limbs were badly frozen and in a hopeless condition. The pain was so intense that he begged a man to amputate them in this manner, and
334 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [eTH. ANN, 44
he did so. This was followed by a dressing of pounded bark (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) appled dry and renewed as often as it became damp—usually twice a day. Nothing else was used and the healing was perfect.
(6) Another use of the knife in surgery was described by Weza- wange, who said he had treated a case in which this became necessary. It was a gangrenous wound, and he used the knife, not to remove, but to “loosen” the affected flesh, which was taken out by the medicine he applied. He said that in a case of this sort everything must be very clean, care being taken especially that the knife or remedies did not come in contact with rust. In this treatment he said that he used a medicine which had been handed down by the Mide and was particularly valued. It consisted of the inner bark of the white pine, the wild plum, and the wild cherry, it being necessary to take the first two from young trees. The writer saw him cut a young pine tree for this purpose and place tobacco in the ground close to the root before doing so. In preparing the medicine he said that the stalk of the pine was cut in short sections and boiled with the green inner bark of the other two trees until all the bark was soft. The water should be renewed when necessary, and the last water saved for later use. The bark was then removed from the pine stems and all the bark mashed with a heavy hammer until it was a pulp. It was then dried, and when needed it was moistened with the water which had been kept for that purpose. He said this medicine was usually prepared when needed, as the materials were so readily at hand. This wet pulp was apphed to any wound or to a fresh cut and was a healing remedy, but was especially used for neglected wounds which had become gangrenous.
(7) Splints were placed on fractured limbs. The splints were best when made of very thick birch bark similar to that used for canoes. The birch bark was heated and bent to the pfoper shape, after which it was as rigid as plaster of Paris. Splints were also made of thin cedar. Tying the splint with basswood twine added greatly to its rigidity.
The treatment of a fractured arm was described as follows: “‘ Wash the arm with warm water and apply grease. Then apply a warm poultice, cover with a cloth and bind with a thin cedar splint.” The roots used for the poultice were Asarwm canadense L. (wild ginger) and Aralia racemosa L. (spikenard).
These two were dried and mashed together in equal parts. The directions added “ when poultice becomes dry it should be renewed, or, if the arm is very tender, the poultice may be moistened with warm water without removing it.”
(8) Old women whose limbs or knees were weak often made sup- ports by taking wide strips of fresh basswood bark and binding it
DENSMORB] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 335
around their limbs in a kind of splint. When dried it was very hard and supported their limbs so that they could travel.
(9) The splinters from a tree struck by lightning were always car- ried by medicine men and used as lances, especially for lancing the gums. If a man were suffering from toothache they cut the gum with these splinters “so that the blood ran.”
DENTAL SURGERY
If a tooth were hollow the Chippewa sometimes heated an awl or other metal instrument almost red hot and put it into the hollow of the tooth.
If it were considered necessary to pull a tooth they struck it forcibly to loosen it.
If a tooth were partly loosened they tied a sinew around the tooth, close to the root, attached it to something solid and pulled the tooth by jerking backward.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES AND INJURIES”
1. Nervous system: 6. Skin: Convulsions. Inflammation. Headache. Boils. “ Craziness.” Sores.
2. Circulatory system: Eruptions. Heart. Warts. In the blood. Hair.
3. Respiratory system: 7. Wounds: Cold. Incised. Cough. Internal. Lung trouble. Bites of poisonous reptiles. Hemorrhage from lungs. 8. Bruises.
4. Digestive system: 9. Burns. Sore mouth. 10. Ulcers. Toothache. 11. Fevers. Sore throat. 12. Serofula. Indigestion. 13. Hemorrhages. Pain. 14. Diseases of women. Colic. 15. Diseases of the eye. Cramps. 16. Diseases of the ear. Dysentery. 17. Diseases of the joints, including Physic (use of). rheumatism and sprains. Emeties (use of). 18. Baths. Worms. 19. Tonics and stimulants. Cholera infantum. 20. Enemas.
5. Urinary system: 21. General remedies. Kidney trouble. 22. Diseases of the horse. Stoppage of urine. Gravel.
Jn determining this basis of classification the author received the valued assistance of Dr. D. 8S. Lamb, who at the time was pathologist at the Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C.
336 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [BTH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms | Botanical name Part of plant used
Nervous system_______- Convulsions. .222-c--- Lathyrus venosus Muhl. (Wild | Root 1________.___ pea.) WO. wee eee ee oe tee Gol. See cesses Lathyrus venosus Muhl_________- Apocynum androsaemifolium L.t (Dogbane.)
1D Oo Ae ey eel Bas (6 (0 rene Hepatica americana Ker. (He- patica.)
Solidago juncea Ait. (Goldenrod) __
Polygala senega L. (Seneca snake-
root.) Artemisia frigida Willd. (Prairie |____- does s Seer ese sage.) Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt. |____. (3 (a yepn gee Se ed
(Ground plum.) Rosa arkansana Porter, (Wild rose) _|
I) Oseet eee Headache__...-..-.--- + Apocynum androsaemifolium L.t (Dogbane.)
1) bee eas oe ee aelen eee (60 ieee te ae Achillea millefolium L.t (Yar- | Leaves_._.--.----- row.)
1 Yo SE = ane ce Ue ee (0 0 eee ee ea Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) |_---- do.te 2. eee
Spreng.t (Bearberry.) |
Dp fee oeecleeoee dOsa2ftaeaseseeee Polygonatum commutatum.(R.& | Root_-_-_---_----- 8.) Dietr. (Solomonseal.) ) ape Ae Sa (Ee (6 (0 eee kee Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) | Leaves_____-------
Britton.t (Pasque flower.) 1 Unless otherwise stated, it is understood that roots, leaves, flowers, and stalks are dried and rubbed into powder or shreds before using. (See p. 326.) 2 A decoction was boiled. Concerning the manner of making decoctions and the dosage see p.329. Certain remedies were steeped instead of boiled, a distinction being made between the two modes of preparation.
DENSMORD] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 2 HE
How prepared How administered Remarks and references
Mecoction4ees seo eee see eeee eee Internally__........_.______-
If the convulsions were so Decoction; the first-named root severe that only a little was so strong that the amount of the decoction could be used was measured from the forced into the patient’s |}There were said to be 8 varieties of the last joint to the tip of the little mouth the decoction was first plant which were equally good.
finger. The amount of the sec- sprinkled on the chest and See hemorrhages and tonics. ond was about 1 foot of the root. applied to the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Decoction; 1 root to 1 quart of | Internally__--.-------------- Used chiefly for children. water. ee eae (0 pesee se eeeeenuas cabuese aces eee lO oos ese see eee
See Hemorrhages; tonics and charms IDX Ano ee es (6 (0 ae EE ee ere (for the latter use the first-named plant is used alone).
(1) Dried and pulverized __------ 4 pieces of dried root about | This herb was used not simply for a the size of a pea were pul- pain in the head but for a serious verized and the dry pow- affection of the nerves of which the der snuffed up the nostrils. headache was the symptom. It was
(2) Reed OS eee rt The powdered root was put given for ‘‘excessive nervousness as on hot stones. Patient when the mouth twitched, for dizzi- covered his head and in- ness, and with one herb added for in- haled the fumes. sanity.’’ Asaninstance ofits success-
(B)pateed Osenen esos caseton socee The powdered root was ful use Gagawin said that a certain moistened with lukewarm woman said someone had threatened water and applied to in- to poison her. Gagawin told her to cisions on the temples by steep this root, keep it in a bottle and means of soft duck down. drink some occasionally, and if this (See p. 332.) did not have the desired effect, he
would give her something else to take withit. Thisremedy, however, was sufficient, and she did not return.
a elo ried Ge a eee eee Ghewed. 2.20. see cccu cscs See Nosebleed and charms.
() PD ecoctionas= see =) nee eee LL bern al yee = ae ees
IDYeofenteyoe, we ee Sprinkled on hot stones and | See Eruptions, tonics, and remedies for fumes inhaled. the horse.
Dried and pulverized _________- Combined with tobacco or | See also Charms.
red willow, smoked in a pipe, and the smoke in-
haled. IDYeoY Hols. Sd Sprinkled on hot stones and the smoke inhaled. Dried and pulverized___________- pummeled?” 2. saendeneusacs See Lung trouble.
8 This root grows straight downward and then turns sharply. The strongest medicinal value is at the elbow where the root turns. 7 Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
338
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used Nervous system-___-_-- Convulsions _________- Hicoria alba. (Hickory.)---..---- Small shoots______ Once fe. oe eee eee Osean ste. on ase Thuja occidentalis L.t (Arbor | Wood-__---._.-.--- vitae.) | D [ee = eae oy eee (6 (0 eee oe eed Corylus americana Walt. (Ha- | Stalk_____________ zel.) WOO-6 [oes eee [eee do__...-----------| Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.t (Bal- | Gum____.________- sam fir.) 1) 0a ae ee ees oe (6 Vo Se eS rape ROE nce Drymocallis arguta (Pursh) Rydb.| Root______.._-____- (Five-finger.) 1D) Oe ee eae ne si@raziness* zon censeee Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. | Flowers____...--_-
{7 Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia.
Heart palpitation___-_-
(Blueberry.)
Petalostemon purpureus (Vent) Rydb. (Prairie clover.) Quercus macrocarpa Muhl. oak.)
Quercus rubr: L.f (Red oak) __--
Populus tremuloides Michx. (As- pen.)
Populus balsamifera L.f (Bal- sam poplar.)
(Bur
Polygala senaga L. (Seneca
snakeroot.)
Apocynum androsaemilifolium L. (Dogbane.)
Artemesia dracunculoidest Pursh. (flowering plant). (Mugwort.)
Leaves and flow- ers. Inner bark
Equal amounts of root, bud and blossom.
(1) Leaves and
flowers.
(2) eaves: -2--2 (See p. 299.)
DENSMORE ]
PLANTS
AS MEDICINE
339
U
How prepared
T1ow administered
Remarks and references
Pres Ns saeco oe ae en eencions ane
Burned and charcoal used - ------
No preparation necessary--.------
Dried and pulverized_-___-_------
Decoction; handful of leaves and flowers in 114 pints water.
Seraped and dried; equal parts of this and two next following were powdered in the hands. This medicine was prepared ceremonially. (See tonicrem- edy similarly prepared, Bull. 63, p. 65.) A pail was made ready containing about a pint of water. A little of the mixed bark was placed on the water at the eastern side, the medi- cine man saying “‘Wa’ bun- ong”’ (eastward); thesame was repeated at the south, west, and north with similar words. He then placed on the top of these piles a smaller portion of the powdered Polygala Sene- gala root, saying the same words. The medicine was then allowed to steep. It was said to be very powerful so that care must be used not to take too much of it. The dose was measured in a small receptacle made of birch bark (pl. 46, h) and marked with a symbol of the remedy, or ‘‘oneswallow”’ was taken, the dose being re- peated in an hour.
Take 4 pieces of the dried root, about 2 inches long. Putin 1 quart of water. Let it come to a boil, and boil about 2 min- utes.”
Dried; a handful steeped in 114 pints of water.
Placed on hot stones and fumes inhaled.
Combined with bear’s gall, pricked into the temples with needles.
Administered as above. -_.--
Placed on warm stone until it melts; fumes inhaled. (1) Applied on incisions in the temples (see p. 332). (2) Moistened root inserted
in nostrils. Placed on hot stones and fumes inhaled.
Dose, 12 cup; repeat in half hour if necessary. Intermallyeeecee-=sseneeeen =
A “good drink”’’ of the de- coction was taken as often as desired.
Administered when partly cooled; dose, 14 cup, after which the patient reclined; dose repeated every half hour until patient was re- lieved.
The shoots thus used were the very small shoots that grow beside the leaves.
The manner of administering this is described on p. 333.
See Hair.
See Dysentery and hemorrhage.
This was said to be one of the remedies given by Winabojo. These remedies are the most highly regarded.
The root of this plant was said to grow to a great length, and usually to be found running north and south. A weaker decoction was used as a rem- edy for earache, and a very weak decoction was said to be good for a baby’s cold.
See Diseases of women, hemorrhages, dysentery, tonics and remedies for the hair.
340
USES OF PLANTS BY- THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN, 44
System or part affected
Symptoms
Botanical name
Part of plant used
Circulatory system __-
Respiratory system ___-
+ Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia.
“Humor in the blood”’
lungs.
C0225, 2a oaees hee
GO sce csseceveceee
from
Aralia nudicaulis L.+ saparilla.) Acorus calamus L.f (Calamus.)__
(Wild sar-
Allium stellatum Ker. (Wild onion.) Caltha palustris L.f (Cowslip)--
Apocynum androsaemifolium L. (Dogbane.)
Agastache anethiodora (Nutt.) Britton.t (Giant hyssop.)
Apocynum sp. (Dogbane)
Aralia racemosa L.¢ (Spikenard) - Arctium minus Bernh.t (Bur- dock.)
Ceanothus ovatus Desf. Jersey tea.)
(New
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch.t Hop hornbeam (ironwood).
Thuja occidentalis L.t (Arbor vitae.)
Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx.{ (Blue cohosh.)
Euthamiagraminifolia (L.) Nutt_ (Goldenrod.)
Lonicera sp. (Honeysuckle)
Rubus frondosus Bigel.(?) (Black- berry.)
Quercus macrocarpa Muhl. (Bur oak.)
Silphium perfoliatum L.f (Cup- plant.)
Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.t (Goldenrod.)
Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) Britton.t (Pasque-flower.) Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.t (Goldenrod.)
Prunus virginiana L. (Choke- cherry.) Corylus:sp:*> “(flazel)c2 22-2 oeeeae
White oak (specimen not ob- tained).
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch. (Ironwood.)
Root: 22. 2eeeseee es
Heart of the wood.
(See p. 299.)
DENSMORE]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
341
How prepared
Tlow administered
Remarks and references
IDECOCtIONe sesseeesn- seas ee aees G)meilverized=.5- 2 22o2ess-e- =e (2) Decoction Decoction, sweetened_-___--------
“Chop 2 roots, boil in scant tea- cup of water; remove from fire when it boils; strain and cool.”
Very weak decoction of root
Steepedewsccccustcuccnuuaceasses
Dried and pulverized__________--
Mecoction.=-2__-- ~~~ ---e- eee
Infusion; made from a handful of leaves and a teacup of boiling water.
Decoction; made from 5 inches of root, grated, and 1 quart of water.
These were used with other in- gredients in making a cough sirup.
Decoction; made from 2 roots and 1 quart water. BD CCOCLIONE fae see canes sneecnoen]
Decoction; with other dients not designated.
ingre-
1) @COCLION Pee ae aaa sn eeeene seen
Decoction; made from a double handful of the pulverized roots to 2 quarts of water.
Decoction; made from 1 root and a quart of water.
Steeped together_._..-.__._..___-
Tm tenn ale ne ee
Snuffed up nostrils_________-
Drink entire amount at once. This was said to produce perspiration, loosen phlegm, and act as an emetic. Drink warm water after medicine has acted; repeat five days later. ‘This is usually suf- ficient; it was said that too much was an injury.
intone yee see eee
Snuffed up nostrils_-_______-
Internalliye 222s sees eae |
Internally. Dose is 1 swal- low.
|xemay ee eee ee ee rod Internally. Dose is 1 swal-
low. Malcypar Why
Umtermmallyfesso ssa meee
See Diseases of women and nosebleed.
|
| See Toothache, sore throat, and physic.
Used chiefly for children.
This use of the herb was said to be a great secret. See also Scrofula and diseases of women.
Used only for infants.
This was used for an internal cold with tendency to pneumonia, also for pain in chest.
This was used for a heavy cold in the head, and was said to cause sneezing and relieve the head.
See Boils and fracture.
This was used for a hard dry cough and taken after a coughing spell.
See Kidney trouble.
See Emetics.
This was said to be particularly good for pain in the chest.
The second named was used for cramps.
This was used for hemorrhage from the lungs, also for pain in the back and chest with tendency to consumption.
This remedy was used to check a sud- den hemorrhage from the lungs. See Pain in back, sprain, diseases of women, and remedies for the hair.
342 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [krH. ANN. 44
System or part affected | Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used i} Digestive system______- Sore mouth = =. .2222 22 Heuchera (species doubtful). | Root __-._...--___- (Alum-root.) Blossom cut when Rhus glabra L.f (Sumac)-_--____- white bloom is on. LB Ys tae eens BEERS i Se WOE 2c sees lac Castaiia odorata (Ait.) Woodv. | Root__....------_- & Wood. (White waterlily.) 1D OMe ee secs (6 1 a ee Geranium maculatum L.f (Wild |----- dolso ese eee geranium.) 1D 0 eee ee oe | Toothache._____-___-- Acorus calamus L.f (Calamus) ___]_---- dovses-2 sare t DY Sead ees Spee | eee 0s ee ee Cypripedium hirsutum Méill.f }|----- 0s [0 eps ess = (Ladyslipper.) Digaee eae [emu 0cac sees ee seee | eet se ee Fungus; it is gath-
| ered about mid- | dle of August.
ID) Ome e ee ee Sore throat______--__-_- | Tanacetum wilgare Lf. (Tansy).| Root..2222222e-=
DO ase cee wae G0! 5. see eee Heracleum. lanatum Michx.f |----- do =e (Cow parsnip.)
NO Oe een oe eee ane see are Ee eae | Solidago flexicaulis L. (Goldenrod) |_---- dO: 24.2252 2 =
1 De Sl ee eee |e G00 oe eeeeeeen eee | Osmorrhiza claytoni Michx. |____- d0w2 = sseeseee (Sweet cicely.)
(1D) (Beer: eee Sener | oc chee 02552 seen eee Acorus calamus L.(t) (Calamus.)_|----- 0:22.22
| Phrymaleptostachya L. (Lopseed.)|_--_- do. .242 8 Potentilla monspeliensis L. (Cin- | Root and stalk____ quefoil.)
Wigtsenes ss eee loGmeel Giicosce oho oees | Prunus virginiana L. ¢ (Choke- | Inner bark________ cherry.) 1) On Stews ae ee ee dOte== eee Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.t | Root___._.___.-.__ (Prickly ash.) DO. doc) cseeeee elas 02 ceseeceeeee ore | Ulmus fulva Michx. (Slippery | (1) Bark_--__-_-.. elm.) | (2) Root 222222222 1D 0S- os eee Indigestion__--._------ | Asarum canadense L. t+ (Wild |_---- dos oases eee ginger.) | NB Yo epee eee eeape ral Pape) WO0po-waccoreenses Sieversia ciliata (Pursh) Rydb. !----- doisce sess sae (Prairie smoke.) Heuchera (species doubtful). |----- (3 Cs ae ee (Alum-root.) | B Ya Yee ee eet | a oe dos Soe eee Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) |----- doy 2-22 Michx.t (Blue cohosh.) Rudbeckia laciniata L.t (Cone- |----- (0 Ko epee flower.) 1D 0:32 eee ees Co Ce ee aie eee Sagittaria latifolia Willd. (Ar- |----- (oo eee ae | rowhead.) LB [eee ee oe ese ere D022) 2. eee Cypripedium hirsutum Mill.f |----- (5 oye ieee eae (Ladyslipper.) 10) een de ee ceeee dl aoeen (6 (ee Som Salix (species doubtful). (Wil- | Inner bark__---__- low.) | Andropogon furcatus Muhl. | Root__--------.--- (Bluestem.) Betula nigra. (Black birch) ----- Diervilla lonicera Mill. (Bush honeysuckle.) TD) Oe ee ee (6 oj eea een ae Erigeron canadensis L. ¢ (Horse- | Root and leaves-_-- | weed.)
+ Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENSMORD]
How prepared
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
343
How administered
Decoction; made from one root and one blossom in a teacup of water, strained and cooled.
Dried and finely powdered_...__
Dried and powdered
(1) Dried (2) Decoction
Dried, powdered, and moistened_
The top is removed and the soft interior substance dampened and used as a poultice.
(1) Decoction
(Oh 1B aC a eee
(1) Decoction
(2) Dried
Decoction for children; chewed root used by adults. Decoction, or chewed
Combined with many other herbs to increase their action.
A decoction was made from 4 roots of first named, 1 root of second, and 1 quart of water. The first-named root was also used alone in decoction.
Equal parts of these 2 roots were steeped in water.
Combined with bark of other trees in decoction.
Decoction made from 1 root and 1 quart of water.
Decoction
Decoction made from 2 roots and
“Put it on something soft and wash the child’s mouth.”
Chewed___- Internally
Put on decayed teeth__--__-
Used for toothache or put inside a decayed tooth.
Gorelote 6. ae rere Chewed Gare lesteee mee ge Chewed
Gargle
Internally, also as a gargle___
Internally, given in small doses. Imtenmalliv=eceseeese==-eascee
some leaves in 1 quart of water.
Remarks and references
This was used for the sore mouth of a child when teething, and was said to heal the gums quickly. The first named was used for dysentery. A fungus growing on the latter plant was also used for dysentery.
Used especially for children.
was used for children. See stomach
["s Cold; physic and sore throat. This trouble and inflammation of the skin.
It is said to be so strong that it some- times draws out the nerve.
age used for fevers and for diseases of women.
| This was used for ulcerated sore throat. J} See Boils.
See ulcers,
This is said to be very astringent. See Cramps and disinfectants.
This was used for quinzy and swelled or ulcerated throat. See Tonics.
If food does not agree witha person, put about an inch of this root in whatever food is being cooked for him. See tonics and inflammation.
This remedy was Said to be very strong, so it was taken only occasionally. One preparation was enough to last 2 or 3 days. See Diseases of the horse.
Diseases of the horse. Used also for
burns.
This was used if a ‘“‘person’s food did not agree with them.” See Toothache and inflammation of skin. Do.
See Burns and retention of urine.
Used only in combinations.
344
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPFWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN, 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used Digestive system _____ Pain in stomach_____ Heuchera hispida Pursh. (Alum-]| Root____--_-___--- root). (DO eee eee lee (oe ee re ee Polygonum persicaria L. (Smart- | Flowers, leaves___- weed.) & A 0 7 eee eee eee | (ears ae U0_.ogs-kesceeeeee Polygonum punctatum 1 ee dol Sees (Smart-weed.) i BT Nee ene ee ee em 76 [5 mpi enero per Rhus hirta(L.).Sudw. (Staghorn | Flowers___..___-_- sumac.) 1 {See em para eee Colit.2.22cecosceuee eae Stachys palustris L.t (Hedge- | Leaves fresh or dry. nettle.) 1) Ox eee eee a |Peeee 0s 2225 sense Thaspium barbinode (Michx.)| Roots-222---2-=— Nutt. (Meadow parsnip.) DD ilceueaes2enaseo- (EAM Gre cesses eee ee Quercus macrocarpa Muhl. (Bur |____- dois 2 eres oak.) i) Ooms eee eee | ae don. 2 eee Viburnum acerifolium L.t (white | Inner bark________ oak). (Arrowwood.) DO Oiscenectaeeeaoice-teae- GOs ceocnusesenene ; Prunus virginiana L.t (Choke- |----- doseasre ee cherry.) Do____- See eweneeaa|poaee d0kss eens eee Solidago. (Goldenrod) --.-------- Roots. 422672. 2es* 5 Yo Vice ea nee ee | [ (0 Ko See See ane Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) |----- Colo mpariyee eee ak f Michx. (Blue cohosh.) Sanguinaria canadensis L. (Blood- |_---- (3 (op teje ak ae root.) 2 BY er rae es ee el IDysenteryeo=-sseso-—= Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh+ | Leaves and top-_- (flowering plant). (Mugwort.) 9 | a See tl Meng 2) a ee Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Brit- | Entire plant____.-- ton.t (Shepherd’s purse.)
D0 eee oe (6 0 ear ee ly Urtica gracilis Ait.¢ (Nettle)__-_| Roots. 2222222222 Witt sce neseesece eels ae G02 oo csseeeeoescaae Salix (species doubtful). (Wil- |----- 0.275.222.2226 low.)
1) Oe ea eee (6 {0 eee eee eae Drymocallis arguta (Pursh) Rydb. |__-_- do Ae ae
(Five-finger.) Heuchera (species doubtful). |----- (s (ohare (Alum-root.) iB [0 ere Tee on Shae COs. eee | Amelanchier canadensis (L.) |----- doe Medic. (Shadbush.) 1 | Sl a ae eee |e 0-522 oe eee | Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop.f |----- d0s2c aes see (Marshlocks.) 1D One ee see GO". eee Rhus glabra L.f (Sumac)------- The portion used is a growth which some- times appears on the tree. (DL) Oe ee eee eee (6 0 apse en epee ee tare Rubus strigosus Michx. (Red | Root-------------- raspberry.) DON Mees sees cee Physic (use of)_--_---- Acorus calamus L.t (Calamus) _-|----- dow. < Resets 1 Ys eee pee Rs |e (0 (0) epee er Celastrus scandens L. (Bitter- |----- 0:25 55 22e=eee
y+ Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia.
sweet.)
(See p. 299.)
DENS MORB |
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
345
Ilow prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
Decoction, strong medicine, yet lsprig not enough for a treat- ment.
Decoction
“Put leaves in hot water and drink it.” Decoction
Decoction made from 1 root and 1 quart of water.
Decoction made from equal amounts of the two roots.
I ecoctione 5... -seces-censaassu
Steeped
Used alone and also in combi- nation with other roots.
Decoction; the first named root was also used alone in de- coction.
Decoction made from this com- bined with roots of cherry and young oak.
Decoction made of 1% root and 1 quart water.
Dried and pulverized; decoction.
IDecoctiON coo ncsscncceesccanscon
The measure for preparing this root was according to the age of the patient, the measure being the length of the index finger, whether an infant or an adult. This quantity of the root was scalded (not boiled), and taken warm. Dose about a half cup-
“Chew the root and swal- low the juice.” Internally
Externally, applied hot
Internally
£=2=00.
ful. Same dosage for all physics.
Decoction. Used especially for babies.
55231 °—28——_23
See Diseases of the eye.
Used alone and also in combinations.
Used only in combinations.
This is used for sudden colic.
This is a child’s remedy.
See Lung trouble.
See Emetic.
See Sore throat and disinfectant.
Do. See Lung trouble. Do.
This was used for chronic dysentery. See Diseases of women, hemorrhages, and remedies for the hair.
This remedy was used for cramps.
See Stoppage of urine.
See Indigestion and sweat lodge cus-
toms.
For other uses of first-named root, see Headache and hemorrhages.
See Diseases of women.
This remedy was used for obstinate dysentery. The blossom of same plant was combined with alum root and used as a remedy for the sore mouth of a child when teething. See p. 343.
See Cold, toothache and sore throat.
See Eruptions,
346 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH ANN. 44
System or part affected
Botanical name
Digestive system_____-
Physic (use of)
WORMS =e eeeeeeaens
Dirca palustris L.t (Moosewood)--
Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt.t (Culver’s-root.)
Falcata comosa(L.) Kuntze. (Hog peanut.)
Prunella vulgaris L. (Selfheal)__-_-
Smilax herbacea L. (Carrion- flower.)
Symphoricarpos (Snowberry) - --_-
Allium tricoccum Ait. (Wild leek)
Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx.t (Blue cohosh.)
Viburnum acerifolium L.t (Ar- row wood.)
Alnus incana (L.) Moench.f (Alder.)
Viburnum acerifolium L.f (Ar- rowwood.)
Prunus americana Marsh. (Wild plum.)
Prunus serotina Ehrh.t (Wild cherry.)
Monarda mollis L. (Horsemint) -
Prunus serotina Ehrh.f (Wild cherry.)
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne.f (Wild strawberry.)
Smilax herbacea L. (Carrion- flower.)
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.)¢ Koch. (Hop hornbeam.)
Urtica gracilis Ait.t (Nettle)____-
Part of plant used
Roovtc..csccess-eae
Wiood!:2)-23822=35
Root...22222 2223
7 Plants thus marked ere mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENSMORB]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
347
How prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
“Cut up the stalk and dry it, pulverize, put about a table- spoon in warm water, steep but do not let it boil. Do not eat after taking it. Green stalk may be chewed.’’
Decoction made of 5 roots and 1 quart of water.
Decoction made of this com- bined with other roots.
Decoction, combined with catnip
Decoction, combined with other roots.
Decoction made of 2 inches of dried root in a little water. Decoction, 1 root proper amount for a dose; quick in its effect. “Serape the root fine. Tie a small quantity ina white cloth and squeezeit in warm water.”
“In preparing these, scrape the stalks carefully, removing only the thin outer covering and using the green part under- neath. Put the scrapings of this green bark from both trees in boiling water to make decoc- tion.’’
“Break up the bark, put it ina cloth and put the cloth in hot water, squeeze it until the waterisgreen. Letit cooland take it with plenty of water.”
DecoctlOns.22-s-22- te cecsaccses-
“Boil a handful of the prepared roots in about 1 pint of water.”
“Steep 2 or 3 roots in 1 quart boiling water. Let the child drink freely until the effect is evident.’”’
Mecoctlonss22-222-s-sessesacces
The wood at the “heart of the branches’? was cut in small bits and boiled, making a de- coction.
HM ecoctionae sees stat see eee eae
tah} 6 121 6s se ee ae eee Meare
See use of root as a hair wash.
It was said that this physic also “cleansed the blood.’’
mete: (LO eee aaa ae Meee oe a
SN 6 0 ees, Dee ane a cae ea
epee COL Oeenaaene = eecaeeeienss See Kidney trouble.
PR 6 (0 9 Re a nn te eS This was said to be a very strong remedy. See Stoppage of urine.
sees OOsuus se ceenwesseneenacne
mac 200! 2 Seveanweuwapocawes => This is also used as a remedy for bil- iousness and for hemorrhages from the lungs.
SepcUcuoceseesewasuwwecness
ee eLO es. saee ce oe eee ee See Cramps.
mers Ql eee eee oe ee The first named was also used as a dis- infectant wash. The second named was used for ulcers, cholera infantum, and scrofulous neck.
paws Onseemewauenoseas seecae See uses of flowers and leaves for erup tions and burns.
Seer CO Meare os niece soa ne iS See Worms, ulcers, and scrofula; also disinfectant wash.
regu t (ie ee et Sn eee ee
Ben OO bssee aoe ce onsen eee This remedy was used also for pain in the back. It is an old Mide remedy and the root was always carried ina bag made of bear paws. Such a bag was used only by men holding a high degree in the Midewiwin. The native name means ‘Bear root.””
Sees Osean eee eee See Cough.
joes O Sec ieen slececdeceact es See Dysentery.
348 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [nru. ann. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used Urinary system______-- Stoppage of urine_____ Athyrium filix-foemina (L.) | Root___.__--_____- Roth. ¢ (Lady fern.) Urtica gracilis Ait. (Nettle)_-----]_--- Ba Fs Papers ayaa i 0 WO oes a cone | PS Gee elose cusses Celastrus scandens L.{ (Bitter- |__-_- (6 Co eee ere sweet.) fs SS ee eR en ae 11 ee arena Solidago rigida L.t (Goldenrod) -}_---- dO: 2 WG. 2 2 Soo eas (Soeee doze ct ear Andropogon furcatus Muhl., |___-- dowsi ss (Bluestem.) Symphoricarpos albus (L.) Blake.t |--_-- GOA (Snowberry.) WD) Q 2a eee eae | es d02 2... eee Caltha palustris L.t (Cowslip)_-| Leaves and stalks_ Ribes sp. (Wild currant) -__--_-.--|----- Oven she ee (DOL sn ane ee Gravelee ee eee Ribes triste Pall. (Red currant)_} Root and stalk____ Skin.) 2 oes. ee Inflammation____.___- Plantago major L. { (Plantain)__| (1) Leaves________ (2) Root=-=a es WO meee cote eee | seen (eae Plantago major L.f---------------- Root... .- Asarum canadense L.f (Wild |----- de ginger.) A 1 Ye Jape pe es a ap [nce oa G0 se. ae ee ees Eupatorium maculatum L.f |----- dO. seen
(Joe-Pye-weed.) TD) Of 2 oe ee eee (0 Uo ees Paras a Cypripedium hirsutum Méill.f |----- d0! 22 eee (Ladyslipper.)
Doe ees IBoils:S2 a2... 2 ace Solidago altissima L. (Golden- |----- do! t=2eeee rod.)
+ Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENSMORD]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
349
How prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
“Cut the first-named root into bits and take a small handful. The root of the second named has lobes on it. Take 4 of these lobes with the first- named root and boil them up quickly. Use as soon as cool enough to drink.”
Mecoctlon vices ccaceseseecascese|s
of water. Dose was ‘‘a swal- low occasionally.’’
be also used alone.
to 1 quart of water. ‘Boiled quite a while.”
Fresh leaves are best. Spread any grease (bear’s grease is best) on the surface of the fresh leaves, apply to the in- flamed part and as soon as the leaves become dry or heated renew them. If desired for winter use the leaves should be greased, packed in a pile, and wrapped tightly.
Chop fresh roots, spread on a ~
fresh leaf, and apply as a poultice.
plantain leaf, and apply as a | poultice.
wash for inflammation of the joints.
use fresh root. Do not cook but moisten it and apply as a poultice to any inflammation.
(not cooked), and applied as a poultice.
1 root was steeped with }-pint |_ pene the first-named could |-
aac Seren ee meme |”
Decoction made from 4 plants |-_
Chop fresh roots, spread on fresh |. Decoction used luke warm as a |-
Chop dried root or in emergency |-
Pulverized root was moistened |-
Internally. <...o..2+-..52-25 This is known as a ‘ Winabojo rem-
edy,’’ as it is supposed to have been received from him.
Pape pe 0 fs Re nn wy OER ‘This, like the preceding, is one of the
thing
Winabojo remedies, the native name being Winabojo onagic, ““Winabojo’s intestines.’’ end is that Winabojo was once walk ing on the ice when he heard some- rattling behind him. He looked back and saw that his intes- tines were dragging behind him and
meaning The leg-
part had become frozen to the ice. He broke off part and threw them over a tree, Saying, ‘‘This shall be for the good of my future relatives.’’
ee COO season na cbecceaceascs
ee” 0 eee eee ee The first-named was also used for pain in the stomach and burns.
Ss (Ra eee Saas ee The root of the first-named was also used for colds, scrofula, and diseases of women.
PRE 8 (0 en eal a piper
Externally__........-...___- See use as a charm, also rheumatism and bites.
eeee Osean. vasuacaeesee cee
SOP EEN G(s ates eee ee These two were often chopped together and kept in a wrapping of leather.
Bee 0 (1 ee eee eee eee ore
Se Re 6 a DE Oe ee ee aoa See stomach trouble and toothache.
eer 0 eee eee =e eee The flowers of this plant were used
for burns.
300
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used SKintesse. os ae eee BOS ss Se eee Heracleum lanatum Michx.f |} (1) Root__--.-__-- (Cow parsnip.) (2) Root and flowers.
WOls. 222s se een ale neee C0. 22 eee eee Araliaracemosa L.t (Spikenard.) | Root___.---------- AD Yo nee aa cope te ee, Sores: 2: 2a eee Aralia nudicaulis L. (Wild sarsa- |_____ doe eae parilla.)
Dita ee ee Eruptions____________- Celastrus scandens L.f (Bitter- | Stalk___-__....-._- sweet.)
PE) One ease eee eae |enees d0k= 22a Rumex obtusifolius L. (Bitter | Root_..-.-.-.----- dock.) | OF ee ae ees ney eel eer G0. = one eee Erysimum cheiranthoides L. |----- do?s.23 42224
(Wormseed mustard.) WD) Oe ec enon elses GOne ates ee eeeaee Achillea millefolium L.f (Yar- |_--__ d622 =e row.) Oise sssecee steaesulene ee WGsecescesueeeeee Monarda mollis L. (Horsemint.)-| Flowers and leaves. ID Ofoo¢ soe aoc oon neces! GO fee ee eee Rumex crispus L.f (Yellow |) Root... =.s2.22222-2 dock.) 5 1 Yo Sen eae ee ee (ees is Fs ee apap aa Erysimum cheiranthoides L. |----- d0s. 2255-25 (Wormseed mustard.) Daotc.. 1 WantS sees ete ee eee Lactuca canadensis L.f (Wild | Juice..__....._-__- lettuce.) 1) OMe ees nee eee (Pela ee ae ee eee Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.t | Either root or (Goldenrod.) stalk. DOF se sce ee eee | eee OSS eaeee. nee Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.¢ (Bal- | Gum_-____.__--____ sam fir.) 1) Oo See ees Fi (+ Vee een nO ey Artemisia dracunculoides Pursht | Root_------------- (sterile plant). (Mugwort.) Dirca palustris L.t (Moose- |_---- (0 Co peepee ents Seed wood.) Dor eS eee eee (2 ee ee Prunus virginiana L. (Choke- | Bark__-_._--.--_-- cherry.) WioundSe=-0- ssseeeeeee Ciltsso 222s sees Populus’ tremuloides Michx.f |_---- C0 Ce eee trp as (Aspen.) IDO eee ee | ee (0 Fs ope ieapeeeess Seeaeaes| Drymocallis arguta (Pursh) Rydb.| Root_------------- (Five-finger.) 00 cee ooo aes eee eee OS eae aoe Rumex crispus L.f (Yellow |_-__- dois 983 dock.)
7 Plants thus marked are mentioned in
the United States Pharmacopeia.
(See p. 299.)
DENSMORP ]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
351
How prepared How administered
Remarks and references
Boil root and use as a drawing | Externally_........----_- a
poultice. Dried root and flowers were |.__-- GO ve een cscccccansteceess pounded together and made into a poultice without boiling. Pounded in a cloth and applied |_____ (6 (1 ee Set ae ee as a poultice. The fresh root was mashed and |____- (6 (ele tate A ee applied as a poultice. Mecoctions.2.cs-cloet-aaaseee=2|ice on Cs (ops a aaa pe SleeNed a2 ceensceascacuosueeeseson| seasu 3 (5 ra ae =e Decoction made from one root to |____- (1 Us enepape epee, ee ey a 1 quart of water. IDecoctloneae ess sasceeeee seen] EE: ( PEA ly pee ne Steeped. ‘‘Bathe child with the |_____ dO ee a ee eee tea and thenrub it with tallow, venison tallow if possible.”” Dried and powdered root is |-___- C0 Cs Year ct i ae eee moistened, spread on a cloth and applied as a poultice in eases of great itching of the skin and eruptions. Decoction made from 1 root and |-____ C6 V0 oe Sel rpeae ei Se 1 quart of water; 3 or 4 roots may be used. “Gather the white liquid which |____- 5 (6 ie Soe Se ba ee eet oozes out when the stalk is broken and rub this on the wart.” Combined with bear’s grease as |_____ (6 (0 Ap ee Re an ointment. eases 0 seem eee a ces aetna desea eee Ort oe Se aro ewes a caeee’ at a ee ee ee {Used as wash to strengthen aia it the hair and make it grow. eee GO Renae eee meee nee | See Oman oe ieneern mee one “Spit on the cut and draw the | Externally_-...__-___-_-____ edges together, then chew this bark and apply thickly like a poultice as soon as possible. Dried root may be used in the same manner.” Moisten the dried and pulver- |-_--- C6 {Seer es ee ae eee cae ized root. Dried and pounded.-_.-_.....----|----- OO geeee es eee te cece seceee
Tt was said that dried root could be used without cooking. See Sore throat.
This poultice was said to be healing as well as “‘drawing.’”’ See Cough and fracture.
Used internally as a remedy for the blood.
The root of this plant was used for stop- page of urine.
Used especially for children.
3 or 4 roots may be used.
See stimulants, headache and diseases of the horse.
Used especially for children. See Worms, and burns. Used especially for children. See Cuts.
This remedy is used only from the fresh plant.
See Lung trouble, sprain and diseases of women. See Headache.
Concerning the first plant, see Heart stimulant, dysentery, hemorrhages from wounds, tonics and diseases of women. The second plant was also used as a physic.
See Diseases of women.
See Dysentery and headache.
This was used for a ‘‘clean cut.’? See
Eruptions and ulcers.
352
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN. 44
Botanical name Part of plant used
System or part affected Symptoms Wounds.22 222222 22-2. Outs S22. oe seeen eee DoMsseexeeeceseaa 4 sane cs een er dD Yo eee aes eee Bites of poisonous reptiles. 8B Yo Re es eee ei Para Co (o ae a ee See, 5] Bo Yay pa eats = es ed [ene OOoscsescsseesesee Bruise. l 2. scene acens |e at ce eas aeeeoenee anaes IS UD So ee ee | ee ee ee WOso nc vansececgascs |ococcnsutecsneuscansess= 1 DY eee Se Spa eS ae ee
j{ Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia.
Pinus strobus L. (White pine)_-| Trunk of young
tree.
Prunus serotina Ehrh.t (Wild | Inner bark_______- cherry.)
Prunus americana Marsh. (Wild | Inner bark of plum.) young tree.
Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.f | Root_.__._--.____- (Goldenrod.) |
Lilium canadense L. (Lily)------ eeeee dois. 3 ree
Plantago niajor L.f (Plantain)---| Leaves and root_-
Botrychium virginianum(L) Sw. | Root_..----------- (Rattlesnake fern.) Epilobium angustifolium L.f | Leaves__-__------- (Fireweed.) Agastache anethiodora (Nutt.) ; (1) Leaves__------ Britton. (Giant hyssop.) / (2) Leaves and stalk. Solidago altissima L. (Golden- | Flowers__--------- rod.) Rudbeckia laciniata L.f (Cone- |--_-- dor. hae flower.) Agastache anethiodora (Nutt.) |----- dowiist SaeeeS Britton. (Giant hyssop.) Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch.f | Inner bark-----_-
(Tamarack.)
(See p. 299.)
DENS MORE]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE 353
Ilow prepared
How administered
“Cut the first named into sec- tions and boil with the barks until soft, strain, keeping the decoction, pound the woody material into a mash and dry; when needed, soak the mash thoroughly in the decoction and apply; care should be taken that the barks after boil- ing do not come in contact with rust or dirt.”
Decoction made from 1 root and 1 quart of water. Taken cold.
Root used in decoction____-------
Fresh, chopped fine, and applied to bite. This was sometimes spread on a fresh leaf of the plant.
A poultice of the fresh root, mashed, was applied toa snake bite.
Fresh or dried leaves were mois- tened and made in a poultice. Dried and powdered leaves mois- tened with water and applied.
Chew the fresh leaves and stalk. Apply as a poultice.
A “small sunflower’? was com- bined with these, the flowers being dried and used as a poultice. When needed the flowers were moistened, ap- plied, and covered with a bandage; when this became dry it was not removed but was moistened with cold water.
Fresh or dried, chop fine and apply to burn. Apply in morning, wash off partially at night, and renew.
Internallee sess = snes seee ee
Externally
(6 (Lee ee oe eee
Remarks and references
The informant stated that he used this successfully on a gunshot wound after gangrene had set in. This could be applied to any form of ‘‘rot- ten flesh,”’ after which a knife was used to cleanse the wound.
This remedy is used to check the hemorrhage when a person has been wounded and blood comes from the mouth. See Lung trouble, and dis- eases of women.
| This was also used “when a snake
blows on a person and causes a swell-
Inge:
| An incident of the use of this plant was related. Mrs. Razer had a relative who was bitten by a poisonous snake while picking berries. Her husband put a tight bandage around the arm above the bite; then searched for the plant. Before he could find it the woman’s arm was “badly swollen. He cut little gashes in the arm, mois- tened this root, appliedit, and the woman's life was saved. See Rheu- matism and inflammation.
“If a snake got into the wigwam a de- coction of this root was sprinkled around and the snake did not return.”
The same poultice might be used to re- move a Sliver.
This was said to prevent blister and take out the fire. See Colds and charms.
The leaves of the last named were used alone for a burn, being dried, powdered, and applied asa poultice. This combination of medicine was very strong and was called Wabuno- wuck (eastern medicine). It is said that if a small handful of flowers of the plants were steeped in a quart of water and a person ‘‘washed their hands” in this decoction they could thrust their hands in boiling water and not be scalded. The root of the second plant was used for indigestion. (Cf. Bull. 45, p. 103.)
304 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS s[E&TH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used (BUTS 6 ane eee | Clintonia borealis (Ait.) Raf. | Leaf.__.......-__- (Clintonia.) Lb: ee oe rere rear perks Py nee ear ere ere eer Monarda mollis L. (Horsemint)_| Flowers and leaves Gens eo eae | ee, ee ee ee Solidago altissima L. (Golden- | Flowers____---.__- rod.) Dusen eee ae ee eae erate beaeesasdaeen = Prunus serotina Ehrh.f (Wild | Root___-__--_-___- cherry.) Ledum groenlandicum Oeder.f |----- dost cere (Labrador tea.) ID) One eee se. Se A eee ee ee Prunus (species doubtful)_________|_---- (0 (ees ee WD) Osetia |e ee ee Rumex crispus L. (Yellow dock)_|----- dOi2225 ee eoeees 10 [5 Re ee eee See ene em eee mre ee pam eer Osmorrhiza claytoni (Michx.) |_---- do... Britton. (Sweet cicely.) IRGV CUS tees | ae ee ee ee Nepeta cataria L.f (Catnip) --_--- Leaves...-_ -2.==..- DO0tisccccectouncess|Soeesssasene aescoeeeaaee Koellia virginiana (L.) Mae M.f |-_---- 0.2522 eee (Mountain mint.) Nepeta cataria L. (Catnip)___.__|--_-- do: #4 WD Of ae cs ok 5 oe ee eee ee eee Tanacetum vulgare L.t (Tamnsy)_|_---- (0 Ko ae re ert Nepeta cataria L.t (Catnip)-----|-..-- do= 22 eaaee™ ID Osa cc ccc coe neeee (See ee eee eee Solidago (species doubtful). |----- (6 (oe papa (Goldenrod.) Scrotulass ee ee | SOLCS Me eens eens ea ee Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt.f | Root.__..-.-_.---- (Culver’s-root.) Prunus virginiana L.t (Choke- | Inner bark__--_--_- cherry.) DO 2. ee eee (6 (0 eee ae 2 per Prunus serotina Ehrh.t (Wild | Root or bark_----- cherry.) 1D) O2aee see ee ween yee (0 (oe eee ey Caltha palustris L.t (Cowslip)----| Root_------------- Do Ree ee een ee Oks. oe eee Clintonia borealis Ait. (Clintonia) | Leaves.....-------
} Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENS MORD]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
395
How prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
Ir éshe2 Seen ees aoe eee es
Dried, powdered in the hand, moistened with water and applied to burn.
Dried, moistened with cold water.
Dried, powdered and mixed, but not cooked. After this pow- der has been on the flesh for a time it becomes damp. It is then removed, thesore washed, and a fresh application made.
Decoction of dried root or scraped and mashed fresh root.
Dried and pounded___--_--------
Dried and pounded, moistened with warm water.
WeCOCHON a aacn sce eneseccoueee os
Decoction made from equal parts of leaves of 2 plants. Direc- tions are as follows: “If a person feels chilly he should take 1 cup of this medicine as hot as possible, repeating the dose after a short time. He should also wrap up and go to bed; when the fever comes on he should take the same decoc- tion, but cold and whenever desired.”
Equal quantities of the leaves of these plants were steeped together.
Dried and a decoction made -__-_-
Decoction made from 4 roots of first, a large handful of bark of second, and 1 pint of water. Dose, 1 swallow taken before breakfast and at frequent intervals, usually before eat- ing.
Use fresh roots mashed as a poultice; or scrape the inner bark, boil, and use water as a wash.
Dried, powdered and moistened, or fresh root mashed. ‘“‘ Re- new the application night and morning.”
Decoction.=. -.2s2222-s-25-22---
Internally (used with the external remedy which follows).
xtermally.e02o- 28 2sseeesue
Especially good for a scald.
See Boils. -
Applied to a severe burn or ulcer or any condition in which the flesh is exposed. Concerning the _ first- named plant see Cholera infantum, and scrofula.
See Diseases of women.
See Cuts and eruptions. Used especially for a running sore.
This remedy was used to produce a profuse perspiration and break up a fever. The first root was used also for sore throat and for diseases of women.
The action of this remedy is a mild cathartic intended to cleanse the blood.
This remedy is especially for scrofulus neck. See Ulcers and cholera infant- um.
See Colds and diseases of women.
306
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ ETH. ANN, 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used Hemorrhage.-.--------- From the nose- -__---- Calvatia craniiformis Schw..|-l22) 222 sss (Puffball.) 1) O23 coe eee ee a eee |S eee (0 a ies arenes ape Aralia nudicaulis L.f (Wild sar- | Root.._-.----____- saparilla.) fo ie ee ae oe ree (6 (eee ee ea Verbena hastata (L.) Morong. | Flowers__--------- (Vervain.) ID) Of cen oe eee oe | eee (o Co papegre Separate eeporys e Apocynum androsaemifolium L.f | Root_...--_.------ (Dogbane.) DD Ossecesene seo From wounds--------- Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.t | Inner bark.-----_- (Hemlock.) ) Qtgusencsae ees ses eae (60 Page ey pes ee Lathyrus venosus Muhl. (Wild | Root...-..__------ pea.) WOsessessceoscee ses |222 2 GOLe 22s scesssceees Quercus (species doubtful). |----- do... 3332222 (Oak.) 118 Ts SRS te eee ace Fare Pa ae ee oe Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh. ¢t | Leaves and flow- (Mugwort.) ers. () Onaeee canes eae ee | oer dose see seen Rosa arkansana Porter. (Wild | Root__------------ rose.) D023 a oacesec ces ee O0es 22 22st sacceeee! Artemisia frigida Willd. (Prairie |_---- dO: so20222522 2 sage.) TD) ORS eee ene O22 esse eee Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt. |----- cc (se se (Ground-plum.) DD) Oba eee | eee (6 Ko eee reaper ere Silphium perfoliatum L. (Cup- | Large part of root- plant.) Diseases of women_-___- Female weakness - ---- Amelanchier canadensis (L.) | Bark____---------- Medic. (Shadbush.) — DO foe eee eee coe C6 ( eee Erigeron cahadensis L. (Horse-| Entire plant—_----- weed.) Dor ee eee (a (eee Geum canadense Jacq. (Avens)-| Root__------------ D0 seer ane eee Pain in back and fe- | Cirsium sp.t (Thistle)-.--.------|----- do. 3. ee male weakness. Populus balsamifera L.t (Bal- |----- dos 2222 s2582 22 sam poplar.) DOs. wee nas senses ence G0 ceceueseunaenee Crataegus sp. (Thornapple)-----|----- dons) <2 7saeee 1D Oeme sone eee een eee ro (1 Wegener ees sige oak Grossularia oxyacanthoides. | Berry_.----.------ (Gooseberry.) D Oa ee ee eee (6 (0 pee oe ae Ribes glandulosum. (Wild cur- | Root_-.----------- tant.) Gl cect chek. tee eee | cece 0.5242 555 ceeee eee Rubus occidentalis L. (Black rasp- |----- (6 (cy ee berry.) ‘ AD Ya Se nee eee a el heme 0c. 2 ean eeee Vagnera racemosa (L.) Morong. |----- dot =atewees (False Solomonseal.) WOscaccssteneeeaces| Stoppage of periods___| Artemesia dracunculoids Pursh ¢ | (1) Root---------- (sterile plant). (Mugwort.) 1D Ys eae ee eet | eee 0.3 sicsaes a2 eee G0: 2 2-cecacetecnsaceceseanee ee Root:..-= 24-2342. 1B Yo eee are eR. | Pree (0 Ue Pa ncemee ta ot pee Artemisia dracunculoides Pursht-| (2) Leaves and stalk. Donne nee Difficult labor__.---..-|__-.- 02). .-22 222 eee (3) Leaves, stalk, and root.
7 Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia.
(See p. 299.)
DENS MORP]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
357
How prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
Use soft inner part to plug the nostril, or apply it externally. Dried and powdered, or fresh root chewed and inserted in nostril. Dried and ‘“‘snuffed’’_____.-___--
Decoction made from 1 arm length and a very little boil- ing water.
Pulverized and applied dry. This is also used in many com- binations.
Boiled and used as a poultice. Alsoin a decoction taken inter- nally.
Fresh root chewed, or poultice made from dried root.
Fresh or dried, chewed and used as poultice.
| These three were combined with the root of Polygala senega L. in a decoction.
Dried; cut up and pounded; used as a moist compress.
Decoction, in combination with pin cherry, choke cherry, and wild cherry.
Steepedien-=s2 ese +2 8- oo cee cues
Manner stated.
Decoction made from equal por- tions of 2 roots, a handful of the roots being used with 1 quart of water; boiled thoroughly. “Take often and freely, about a quart a day.”
Decoction, in combination___
of preparation not
Decoction made from 8 roots to 1 quart water, all of which could be taken in a day.
Another informant stated that she used 4 dried chopped roots in about 34 cup of water These were not boiled but steeped thoroughly, and the tea taken at frequent intervals.
Decoction, varying in strength according to cases.
Decoction= 22: ssscs=nescesccose
Stuff nostril with cotton moistened with decoction or in severe cases use the mashed root as a plug.
ixtermnalliveeucs. sseceueseses!
Externally and internally —-_
See Diseases of women and humor in the blood.
See Headache.
This decoction was said to act as an emetic if blood from a wound had accumulated inside patient.
For a fresh wound, let it bleed a little before applying poultice.
See Tonics and diseases of women.
See Fits and tonics.
See Lung trouble and diseases of wo- men.
The buds of second named were used for sprains,
Same remedy was used for excessive flowing. This root must be pulled up, not dug. The informant stated this was the only root which must be pulled, uot dug.
This remedy was considered so im- portant that its native name is Ogima wuck, meaning ‘‘ chief medicine.’’
358 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [nxru. ayn. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used Diseases of women_-_-__- Stoppage of periods___| Koellia virginiana (L.) MacM. ¢ | Root.---.--..-_-_-
(Mountain mint.)
B05 laees Selcetaeelewe se O02. cpeaceceees Sanicula canadensis L.t (Bur |----. dossceets snakeroot.)
WO ae ane eeeeee tates GO ta celee esos Ribes triste Pall. (Red currant) _ Aralia racemosa L.f (Spikenard)_ Aralia nudicaulis L.j (Wild sar-
saparilla.)
DO ft an ee ee ee eee doses eee Tanacetum vulgare L.t (Tansy)_| Leaves....--.----- 1D Os.--- ee ee |e (0 (oan Pa eS Rubus frondosus Bigel. (Black- | Root__----..------- berry.)
1 71 Fees aa ete | Pens G0.<+ eeetccceeeeee Silphium perfoliatum L.f (Cup- |_--_- 00:2.2822=s eee plant.)
TD) Qa ee Excessive flowing -- --- Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd.t (Red | Root of plant
baneberry.) which has white berries. DO2r sewesesccccen: |aclee GOs ee ceicncuneus Amelanchier canadensis (L.) | Root.---.---------
Medic. (Shadbush.)
D0 see | cee C6 [0 eng py ae nen Populus tremuloides Michx.f |_---- dO: cocoeeeseee (Aspen.) Populus balsamifera L.f (Bal- |_.--- doi. teset2 23
sam poplar.)
Dorset ee Difficult labor_..------ Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.{ |---.- GO0icsd-cecccue>, (Goldenrod.)
0 Fs eens ep ere toe| Ha gee OGs2ecceeeeseeene Alnus incana (L.) Moench. |.-.-.. OOscssesdeeceet (Alder.)
; Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENS MOR] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 359
How prepared How administered Remarks and references
Decoction made from a handful | Internally__.._.------------- See Tonics and fevers. of the powdered root and 1 quart of water.
Decoction made from a handful |____- 0) eee of the powdered root and 1 quart of water.
Decoction; the third named was |-_---- (ol ie Ee Smee eee a This remedy was used if the diMculty sometimes omitted from this threatened to lead to consumption. combination. It could also be Concerning the first, see Stoppage of used alone. urine, the second, see Boils, cough,
and fracture, and the third, ‘‘Hu- mors in the blood.”’ Decoctlons-.2=2----~---s--e-s—=5|--ac- C6 («ree ee oem The native name of this plant means young women’s drink. In old times the medicines given to maidens were different from those given to married women. This was said to be a rare remedy, and was used as a regulator for young girls. See Fevers and diseases of the ear and throat.
Leead LO eee eee eee ee eee 2 2s Ossates cane feeecasosaces| Sec uuune trouble.
Decoction; this root was used |____- (6 (ot eens eee ee et ee See Hemorrhages and lung trouble. alone and also as an ingredient in many other remedies of this
sort.
WM ecoction:: s<cssvesassesenns-=<55|.2--2 OO i seeds scorer ee toecesces There was said to be another variety of this plant which had red berries and was used for diseases of men.
Steeped’ aac an ence aes | pees QO... cence cae saeaccesds This was given to a pregnant woman who had been injured, to prevent miscarriage.
1 root of each is put in 1 quart of |_____ (6 [yee Se nae er pees age This is used for excessive flowing during water and is steeped, not confinement or to prevent premature boiled. Drink about every birth. The bark of the first named hour. was used for cuts and the buds of the
second for sprains.
1 root was steeped in 1 pint of |_____ dOvsss2ssnsssseseseceseee See Pain in the back, lung trouble, water and taken in 3 doses sprain, and remedies for the hair. about 2 hours apart.
In preparing this remedy the |____- (0 (oe nen ee Senate eae The plant is also used for diseases of root must be scraped upward. the eye.
A weak decoction is made from a few inches of the root and a pint of water. The following ingredients are added to this: 4 bumblebees are caught and put in a box to die of them- selves. In catching the bees they must be stunned but not injured. It destroys the effi- eacy if the bees are treated otherwise. The bees are dried, ground to a powder, and put in a leather packet until need- ed. When the medicine is to be used, a pinch of this powder is put in a small half teacup of the above decoction. The dose is about a tablespoonful. Two doses are usually suffici- ent. A specimen of the bee was obtained and identified as a common bumblebee.
360 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used |. Diseases of women_____ Confinement !_________ Caltha palustris L.t (Cowslip)_-.| Root ---..-..___-__ Sanicula canadensis L.f (Bur |____- dol. 2a eee snakeroot.) Dob 2 2 ane eee eee hs | eee ee ea Asclepias syriaca L.f (Common |__--- do. 4. sien milkweed.) 2 6 Seen pi Pie bl BN, ca ( Paes Pee Prenanthes alba L. (Rattlesnake |____- d0. ee root.) DOtsze nt ee eee Gols 2 ee ee Cirsium (species doubtful).f |_.-_- do: 42 Sees (Thistle.) Taraxacum officinale Weber.t |____- Gove es es (Dandelion.) 0% sneer ee ees Broken breast_________ Prunus (species doubtful). |____- (0 (see te (Plum.) Disease of eye__________ Soreness_____._________ Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Torr. |____- d023.2 ee (Jack-in-the-pulpit..) A Oe os Sb ee oe | ee ee eee s Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Nutt. |_____ €0u2..-2:0-0- (Pipsissiwa.) Die oo eee | ape R ane ae Cornus alternifolia L.f. ¢ (Dog- |-__-- do ee ees wood.) AE) QS eee ae ern a Saree oe eS ee ne Cornus alternifera L. f.f-.-....----].---- do eee Cornus stolonifera Michx. (Red- |.___- do: 223-2 Sean osier dogwood.) Alnus incana (L.) Moench. |____- dos ae (Alder.) TD Oe ee ee | ee Se ee Heuchera hispida Pursh. (Alum- |__.-.do___-_-__-_____ root.) | D Xo ae aa 98 tim are Soreness sae eae Stellaria media (L.) Cyril]. t------ IuGaVeSa= eee eae AD Yopeee spe Ne (OPW AEG Ae el Rosa (species doubtful). (Rose)_-| Inner bark of root_ Rubus strigosus Michx. (Red |_____ doliiesssusess raspberry.) 1D) O22 eo ee eee Sty or inflammation | Hordeum jubatum L. (Squirrel- | Root__---.----_--- of lid. tail.) | Bh a nee eS Styses see ee eee Streptopus roseus Michx. (Twist- |____- dou. see ed-stalk.) Disease of ear_________- Soreness____-._-------- Apocynum androsaemifolium L. |----- doi. 2s ‘ (Dogbane). * 1) Ose eee ees | een Opes ee ee ee Aster nemoralis Ait. (Aster)--._|._._- do: ae
1 4 young Chippewa woman whose husband was unable to support a large family said that her mother told her of an herb to prevent childbearing and that she took it. In this connection it is interesting to note that a physician of more than 20 years’ experience in the Indian Service told the writer that on all the reservations where he had been stationed he was aware that the Indian women used such an herb and that he had not seen any injurious results from its use. ,
j Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENSMORE] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 361
How prepared How administered Remarks and references
The first-named root was used also for
Mecvetioneeaaceeencse2cneeeeece = Internally... 22-5 acceceencue colds and scrofula and the leaves and stalk for stoppage of urine. Take ¥% a root, break it up and |-----do____-------__-_--_----- This remedy was used to produce a putit ina pint of boiling water, flow of milk.
let it stand and get cold. Whenever the woman takes any liquid food, put a table- spoon of this medicine in the food.
MriedandipowdereG. — Was put |... 222... soca sone no cce ne Do. in the broth a woman drank.
Take 4 roots of each to one quart
of water, steep and use as a | Internally_.-___---____-_---- Do. drink. The dried roots were used in | Externally____...._.__-____- See Ulcers.
decoction or fresh roots were scraped and mashed. Mecochlonvesaesee-eeeeeseseases | anaas do
ane: Ob asee see eee nee ee OTOp an. bheeyereaccaeses oan
Scrape and steep the root, using | Bathe the eye and let some | See Charms. ahandful to about a pint anda of the liquid get into the half of water. Let it cool and eye, or use it on a vomipress. strain well.
Decoction made from equal parts As awash or compress_...-- |{ The last named is used also for diseases of these roots. of women. Decoction made from whole root_| Externally__..__..._-_-__--- See Pain in stomach.
Put a handfui of the leaves in | Externally (wash) hot water, do not let it boil long, let it stand and strain it.
These two remedies are used suc- |__---------------------------- It was said that these would cure cata- cessively, the first for removing ract unless too far advanced, and that inflammation, and the second improvement would be shown for healing the eye. They are quickly if the case could be materially prepared in the same way, the helped.
second layer of the root being scraped and put in a bit of cloth. This is soaked in warm water and squeezed over the eye, letting some of the liquid runintotheeye. This is done 3 times a day.
Dried, pounded, put in a cloth | Externally__-_-.-.-_..._--.-- This remedy was so strong that one which was moistened with root would have an effect. warm water and sopped on the eye.
Steeped root was used as a pouk |____- do tice.
Decoction made with about 1 | Pouredintoearfrom aspoon_| See remedies for headache. inch of the root
DMecoctlonwess n= see: -secesoceses Drop in ear or apply on cloth; use lukewarm wa- ter.
55231 °—28——24
362
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN, 44
Part of plant used
Chips cut from “heart”? of the
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Disease of ear______-_-. DOTENCSS a ean nesses ee Campanula rotundifolia is (Harebell.) WO, scsese-eaeaeeseale seas GOs 22 ceceeeees Tanacetum vulgare L.f (Tansy)- Do. ee eee GO s2aerascraceesae Trillium grandiflorcum (Michx.) Salisb.t| (Wake-robin.) Diseases of joints._____- Rheumatism_-.__.___- Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.¢ (Bal- sam fir.) oD Yo epee a ey Perc 0 (0 pear eae peas Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & H. (Pearly everlasting.) 0.n eo esaeeteeet se leeeee 020 geso a ceeee Castilleja coccinea (L.) Spreng. (Painted-cup.) 1D) Oseeeeeeeee seen sean (6 Fo Pee eens eee Juniperus virginiana L. (Red cedar.) Taxus canadensis Marsh. (Yew)- 1) Oe ee ee eee (0 Cope a eens Sm i a Vitis cordifolia Michx. (Grape) __ 1D) On 2 ote eee ee dose. ees Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb.t (Wake-robin.) DD Oper eee agane see beeen (6 0S apa an aya Plantago major L.f (Plantain)___ 1D) OS Seee eee eras eee (6a ee eee a Any variety of evergreen_.__.-.--- iW Ps See eee ENS ROG (6 (oe eee re appe Lycopodium obscurum L. (Ground-pine.) Picea canadensis (Mill.) B.S. P. (White spruce.) Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch. (Jronwood.) 1) Oe eee ee Sprain or strained | Artemisia absinthium L.t (Worm- muscles. wood.) Dae a ere es eae (0 ecsseeeee see Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.t (Goldenrod.) | 1 Ye eager een ae ere men] feces fs ene ee ee eee rl Populus balsamifera L.t (Balsam poplar.) TD) 0% 2 ee | Ca GOs teen neers Allionia nyctaginea Michx. (Umbrella-plant.) 1D) 02 ee eee | ees G02 4:22-4. eee ee Aralia racemosa L.f...----.------- Bathse.so-2> ees o eee (ere en a eee Soe ee Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh. f (Mugwort.)
7 Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia.
wood. Entire top of plant.
Either stalk or root.
Buds before they open.
Root, the best part was the fine fi- bers.
(See p. 299.)
DENS MORE]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
363
How prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
Take 1 root to one half cup of water; steep and strain.
Weak decoction_-_..-.----------
Scrape the second layer of the bark of the root, put in hot water and boil.
Mecoctlons2-- sees=-c.-csccccue~
seas were boiled together______
Hleepedeeent a aecseeconcsses WD ecoction assess eee eece aes e ae
Prepared and applied as for in- flammation.
Placed on hot stones__-__.------_-
Decoction made from these three_
(1) Steeped and used as a poul- tice. (2) Boiled in grease (about a handful of buds to a cup of grease), strained and kept for use when needed. Deer tallow is not good for this purpose, but bear’s grease is excellent.
Dried root in decoction or fresh root pounded and applied as a poultice.
Use lukewarm water and drop a very little in the ear.
Dropped in ear lukewarm__.
Dropped in the ear_________-
Sprinkled on hot stones, the decoction being very hot. This was used to “steam”’ rheumatic joints, especially of the knees, the patient being covered closely and letting steam warm the knees. See Headache and reme- dies for the hair.
-| Used in combination with
wild mint, sprinkled on hot stones, said to be good for paralysis.
Used singly or in combina- tion, said to be good for paralysis; also good for a cold.
Decoction sprinkled on hot stones or taken internally.
Internalliyensesseeseeenssee=
“Pricked in with needles.”’ (See p. 343.)
extermmallysessosoeeoseeeeean
Used for steaming rheu- matic joints.
Used for steaming stiff joints_
.| Strengthening bath for a
child, also used for *‘steam- ing old people to make them stronger.”
See Remedies for headache.
See Throat, fever and diseases of women.
See Rheumatism.
The informant, a woman of advanced age, said this remedy came from her great-grandmother.
See Diabetes in general remedies.
See Diseases of the ear.
See Inflammation and bites.
This was used especially when asprz.in was followed by swelling. See Tonics and remedies for the hair.
The root of this plant was used for the diseases of women.
Various parts of this plant were used for diseases of women, hemorrhages from wounds, and dysentery; also in tonics and a remedy for the hair.
364 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [pTH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name Part of plant used Baths. ono che scenes he eee es te eeseeuewes Asclepias incarnata L.t (Swamp | Root_------------- milkweed.) DO tees tower ccs (4 Gere eteanvaaseneaace Eupatorium maculatum L.f (Joe- |____- do. Seats Pye-weed.) D0eeec cs ese ee ee eon eee eee Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.f_|_.-..do__._.-_--_--- Tonicssand stimulants.|-- == --2scneceseseeee— Heliopsis scabra Dunal. (Ox-eye) _|..--do_____-----_-_- i Grameen eet en hc loes are eeaceeneness? Sieversia ciliata (Pursh) Rydb. |-_--- Oe. 2 eee (Preirie-smoke.) * Polygalasenega L. (Seneca snake- |_____ d0s22523e2c2225 root.) Artemesia frigida Willd. (Prairie |____- do. fae D sage.) aaa tee cmt ce Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt. |____- 0: 23s (Ground-plum.) Rosa arkansana Porter. (Wild |-_-_- doizaen sare ee rose.) ID) Obes se ee | Lathyrus venosus Muhl. (Wild |_-_-- do! See | pea.) WO 0ce cecesacan see eel saueecseect aot Fraxinus (species doubtful). | Inner bark_------- (Ash.) Dotrera==-= 5-2 can | eee ee ee Solidago rigidiuscula Porter.t | Roots and stalks-_- (Goldenrod.) 1 8 Ys Soe ae eRe 1d, ae ea eines ea hoe Achillea millefolium L.f (Yar- | Root_.------------ row.) O16) a 612) ea a | L EPR ae Pe a eM Solidago rigida L.j (Goldenrod)-|_---- doe ee TD) Qe See ne Serene | meee en, eae Fraxinus (species doubtful). |_-__- dos. See (Ash.) 1D Oren a eee ee | Oe eee eee Betula papyrifera Marsh. (White | Inner bark-------- birch.) General remedies_______ Biliousness___..__--_-- Artemisia frigida Willd. (Prairie | Leaves_____-_----- sage.) D0: eras eee Diabetes... -.-_-- -_-- Vitis cordifolia Michx. (Grape) --| Root_-_-----------
7 Plants thus marked are mentioned in the United States Pharmacopeia. (See p. 299.)
DENSMORE] PLANTS AS MEDICINE 365
How prepared How administered Remarks and references
Put 1 root whole ia 1 quart of | Externally____._._.-.____--- water, steep, strain, and when cool bathe the childinit. Also good for grown people when sick or tired. Soak feet in it and lie down.
Decoction; somo of which was |----- do_....------------------| Ifa child is fretful this will make it go put in child’s bath. to sleep. WD GCOCHIONG 2 seen a sweeten ee aea| sees (6 (oferta eae eee one This bath was used to strengthen legs
and feet of a weakly child, especially if the limbs were partly paralyzed. See Tonics and sore throat.
Decoction of dried root or the }-.---- (0 Soressee see eaecdsneee This was used to strengthen the limbs. fresh root chewed and spit on the limbs.
Dried and chewed_-____---------- Internally 22seeneaeceseseaoe= These roots were chewed before feats of
endurance, acting as a strong stimu-
lant. See Indigestion and diseases
of the horse.
Dried; the first named is pound- ed and kept separately. Equal parts of the last three are pounded together until pow- dered. This medicine is pre- pared similiarly to that de- scribed on page 339. A quart of water is heated and about 144 of a teaspoon of the mixed in- gredients is placed on the sur- face of the water at the 4 sides of the pail. A very little of the first (principal ingredient) is placed on top of each. The ingredients soon dissolve. A stronger decoction was secured by boiling. The medicine was taken 4 times a day, the dose being small at first, and grad- ually increased to about a tablespoonful. A measure made from birch bark was used for this remedy.
IDECOCtIONGesee ese aee se one ea aae ee IntertiallVecsoss sees eeceences One dose of this had no effect, results
being obtained only by considerable
quantity of the remedy.
besos 0 ee ee ne ee 2 |S dOseenen sseeecessccee ee | Hee enemas
Bie poecaces scaeaceseetasceoes The first-named herb could also be taken dry as atonic. (See Bull. 53, p. 64.)
weet do_...---------------------.-|-----d0.....-----------.-.----| See Lung trouble, sprains, diseases of women, pain in back, and remedies for the hair.
Dried, chewed, and spit on the | Externally-------.---------- See Headache, eruptions, and diseases limbs. of the horse.
Decoction made from a handful |__---_------------------------ See Stoppage of urine. of the root.
Cease (Ch ea ee |e ee oe ee te oe oe ee 2 FSeo er onics;,
BLlOGQ6U 2. .2<-cccseccnneceaescenc|ameodeadsuuanesconssesensenseu
{@ Burned and vapors inhaled__|......------------------------ (2) iD ecoctionsessssees== ass aeea a Internally seasons = eee Sleeped oe ee sec cueceun sceee le eoan (0 einen kee Seen ee See Rheumatism.
366 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [f£7TH. ANN. 44
System or part affected Symptoms Botanical name¢ Part of plant used General remedies ____-_- Fracture.2<so-2--s---4 Asarum canadense L.f (Wild | Root _____--_--_--- ginger.) Aralia racemosa L.t (Spikenard)-|_----- d0j-ceeeenenee DOs. 2oo cose see celeaves d0s22-224 eee Araliaivacemosala|sscessee eee eee aaa d6-22--- =e DOtee sss eee Swellinge=22esseese==4 Iris versicolor. (Blueflag)__-_.___|_--_- dol D0 See eas eee dons 2 fs eee Rumex crispus L. (Yellow dock) -_|__--_- do: ae DOs2 see ee Disinfectant_-......--- Equisetum hiemale L. (Scouring- | Leaves._...------- rush.) DD Yo Seen aera na | poe C6 (0 eee er oe PP Prunus americana Marsh. (Wild | Bark___-__--__------ plum.) 1) One ee eee |e (sone Aen ae Artemisia frigida Willd. (Sage)__| Leaves.....-.----- 1D Xo ae a ea een eel Be Cc (eee ee er Prunus virginiana L.f (Choke- | Inner bark__------ cherry*) : Amelanchier canadensis (L.) |__--- d0222te eee Medic. (Shadbush.) Prunus americana Marsh. (Wild |__--- (a Coe eae a plum.) Prunus serotina Ehrh.t (Wild |__--- do. ae cherry.) ID On Seewcenenc cess Antidote for ‘‘Badj} Artemisia gnaphalodes Nutt. | Flowers__-...----- medicine.’’ (White mugwort.) Diseases of the horse_-_-_|..-.---.---------------- Psoralea argophylla Pursh.f | Root--------....-- (Psoralea.) Aralia nudicaulis L.t (Wild sar- |_---- doAzsseeseeeee saparilla.) Fy Seg | Uefa ce I ie deere Pe Rudbeckia laciniata L.f (Cone- |_---- G0sceccseeeeeee flower.) DOL sere ee |seLee ete ee eee eee eee Achillea millefolium L.f (Yar- | Leaves and stalk__ row.) 1 7 ip ape Seg apo We AOE ree ete Ry a Laciniaria scariosa (L.) Kuntze. | Root......-..----- (Blazing-star.) ID Ostoaee seen sateen soo ee ashes ean eee Sieversia ciliata (Pursh) Rydb. |----- (6 (0 pea eer (Prairie-smoke.)
DENSMORDP]
PLANTS AS MEDICINE
367
How prepared
How administered
Remarks and references
Dried and equal parts used; mashed and applied as a poul- tice. If the arm is very sore and the poultice has become dry the poultice may be moist- ened with warm water before removing.
IDCCOCLLONeeanee seas ase e a= aaeee
Poultice; said to be very strong_-
Poultice, less strong than pre- ceding, but would cure a swell- ing in one day if there were no suppuration.
IBN Cd eeeee eee eee = se eee eae
(1) Dried, crumbled, and placed on a hot stone.
(2) Fresh leaves __-....-.--------
Decoction sees eee see
Dried and placed on coals__--__-__
Chopped and other herbs.
steeped with
Decoction made from 1 root and 1 pint of water.
Dried and powdered......_-.----
EXDOMMA Yo ccceaeeanaeuouwa
Hold the hands and head over it so the fumes get thoroughly into the cloth- ing.
Stuffed in nostrils and held in the mouth.
Externally and internally ___
Put in a horse’s feed____-___-
The first named used also for indiges- tion, inflammation, and for tonic and food. The second named used for boils ,cough, and diseases of women.
The necessary quantity was said to be “about as muchas 4 willow leaves.” This was used frequently in cases of contagious disease, the smoke filling the room.
This herb was thus used as a protection by a person ‘‘ working over the dead.”
The first was used for gargle and cramps; second, for dysentery and diseases of women, the third for worms, and the fourth for ulcers, cholera infantum, scrofula, and worms.
Fumes acted as antidote.
When a horse gives out and is ready to drop, apply this decoction liberally to chest and legs; the second-named plant is used also for nosebleed, humors in the blood and diseases of women.
Do. (See Indigestion.)
Used as a stimulant. eruptions, and tonics.
This was given to a horse before a race, and also sprinkled on his chest and legs.
This was used before a race so the horse would not get winded. See Indiges- tion and tonics.
See Headache,
Works ConTaIninG Lists or Puants Usep MEpicInaLLy
DENSMORE, FRANCES. Chippewa Music—II. Bull. 53, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1913, p. 64.
Teton Sioux Music. Bull. 61, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1918, p. 271.
GiILMoRE, MeLtvIN R. Uses of plants by the Indians of the Missouri River Region. Thirty-third Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1919, pp. 43-154.
HorrMan, W. J. The Midewiwin or ‘Grand Medicine Society ”’ of the Ojibwa. Seventh Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., 1891, pp. 197-201, 226, 241, 242.
Hunter, JoHN D. Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of North America. London, 1828. Chapter on ‘ Observations on the Materia Medica of the Indians,” with numerous names of plants, pp. 401-447.
Moonry, JAMES. The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees. Seventh Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., 1891, pp. 324-328.
Roppins, W. W., HArRineTON, J. P., and FREIRE-MARRECO, BARBARA. HEthno- botany of the Tewa Indians. Bull. 55, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1916.
SmitH, Huron H. Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians. Bulletin Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, vol. 4, 1923.
Speck, FRANK G. Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians. Pro- ceedings Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, Washington, 1917, pp. 303-321.
STEVENSON, MatinpA Coxe. The Zuni Indians. Twenty-third Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1904, pp. 384-892. (No plant lists.)
Swanton, JOHN R. Religious beliefs and medical practices of the Creek Indians. Forty-second Ann, Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1927, pp. 639-670.
368
PLANTS USED IN DYES Process or Dyrine
The general process of dyeing among the Chippewa consisted in the use of a vegetable substance to secure a color and of a mineral substance to “set” it. Porcupine quills were the articles most easily dyed, and they retain their color longest. Rushes are the hardest material to dye and often require several “dippings” before the desired shade can be procured. Yarn and ravelings of blankets were among the materials most frequently colored by the Chippewa women. Wooden implements were colored by rubbing them with the fresh root of the blood-root, producing an orange shade.
Both plants and tree products were used in dyes. The latter could be obtained at any season of the year, and the trees used were com- mon trees, so they were usually obtained when needed. An exception is the butternut tree, which does not grow in all parts of the Chip- pewa country. The inner bark of this is used for black dye, and packets of it are taken from one locality to another and kept as care- fully as medicinal roots. Whenever a woman sees a plant that she may at some time need in making dye she gathers it, dries it, and stores it for use.
List oF PLuants Usep In Dyers
Botanical name Common name Part of plant used Alnus ineana (L.) Moench__________- Alder===2. 22 5-522 Inner bark. Betula papyrifera Marsh____________ White birch_________ Do. Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb____________ Goldthread ____ ____ Root. Cornus stolonifera Michx____________ Red-osier dogwood__| Inner bark. Corylus americana Walt____________- Haze lees ss ae ee Green bur. Juglans cinerea L__________________ Butternut____.....- Bark and root. EA COT ee ere te ee ee ee ee Maple (any variety) -| Rotted wood. Juniperus virginiana L___________-_- Cedaret = — ee ae. Inner bark. Lithospermum carolinense (Walt) | Puccoon._-_______-- Dried root.
MacM. Prunus americana Marsh____________ Chokecherry ________ Inner bark. Quercus macrocarpa Muhl_______ ___- Bur oaks. es Do. Rinusvelabra Wee 2222) 2 ees Sibi Se Se oe Le Pulp of — stalk, also inner bark.
Sanguinaria canadensis L___________- Bloodroot___-_-___- Inner bark. Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr__________ Hemlock _______-_- Do.
369
370 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [kTH. ANN. 44
MINERAL SusstTANnces Usep In Dyrss
The reddish substance that rose to the surface of certain springs was collected, dried, and baked in the fire. It then “ became hard like stone.” This was powdered and the fine red powder kept in buckskin. When mixed with grease it made a paint that was reddish but not vermilion and was used on arrows and for painting faces and bodies. The “scum ” contained iron oxide, and the powder is referred to as ochre in the following formulae.
A black earth which “ bubbled up in certain springs” was used in black dyes. The writer visited such a spring on the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario and was told that the Chippewa women buried their rushes in the black earth for a few days and thus secured a satisfactory black color. A specimen of this mud was obtained and submitted to a chemist in Washington who stated that “it is full of compounds of iron with organic acids.” He suggested that the method of staining is the action of these irons on the tannin in the wood, producing an ink.
It is said that the material used in earliest times to “set a color” was obtained by putting a piece of “black oak ” in “dead water ” and allowing it to remain for about two years. Thus it became so hard that it could be used as a whetstone, and the dust from this whetstone was combined with vegetable matter in dyes. At the present time the substance commonly used to “set the color” is the dust from an ordinary grindstone. A specimen of this dust was submitted to Dr. G. P. Merrill, of the United States National Museum at Washington, who pronounced it silt. On testing it with hydrochloric acid a greenish color was produced, showing the presence of iron.
ForMULAE FoR Dyss + RED DYE First FoRMULA
Betula papyrifera Marsh. White birch.
Cornus stolonifera Michx. Red-osier dogwood. Outer and inner bark. Quercus species. Oak.
Ashes from cedar bark.
Hot water.
Directions.—Boil the barks in the hot water. Prepare the ashes by burning about an armful of scraps of cedar bark. This should make about 2 cups of ashes, which is the correct quantity for about 2 gallons of dye. Sift the ashes through a piece of cheesecloth. Put them into the dye after it has boiled a while, then let it boil up again, and then put in the material to be colored. Do not let a man or any outsider look into the dye.
1 Unless otherwise stated, the portion of the tree used in dye was the inner bark.
DENS MORE] PLANTS USED IN DYES Spl
SEcoND FORMULA
Lithospermum carolinense (Walt) MacM. Puccoon. Nine inches of the dried root or an equivalent amount of the pulverized root.
Hot water, 1 quart.
Ochre, 1 teaspoonful.
Directions —If this is being used for dyeing porcupine quills, let it boil up a little, then put in the quills, which have previously stood for a while in hot water. Let the quills boil half an hour to an hour, keeping the kettle covered, then remove from the fire and let the quills stand in the dye for several hours. If they are not bright enough they may be redyed, letting them stand in the dye as before. The process is substantially the same in dyeing other materials. °
THIRD ForRMULA
This formula was used by Mrs. Razer in dyeing porcupine quills for the writer, the result being a brilliant scarlet which closely re- sembled analine dye. The quills were seen in the dye.
Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot. 2 handfuls. Root. Prunus americana Marsh. Wild plum. 1 handful. Cornus stolonifera Michx, Red-osier dogwood. 1 handful. Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Alder. 1 handful. Hot water, 1 quart. The inner bark of the trees and the root of the bloodroot were used, all being boiled before the quills were put in the dye.
FourtH ForRMULA (Dark Rep)
Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot. 1 handful. Root. Prunus americana Marsh. Wild plum. 1 handful. Hot water, 1 quart.
FirtH ForRMULA (MAHOGANY COLOR)
Tsuga canadensis (.) Carr. Hemlock. Bark. A little grindstone dust. Hot water.
SrxtH ForMULA (MAHOGANY COoLorR) Juniperus virginiana L. Red cedar.
The bark of this tree was used by Chippewa women in Ontario for coloring the strips of cedar used in their mats. A decoction was made of the dark red inner bark and the strips were boiled in it.
SEVENTH FORMULA
The following formula was used by Mrs. Razer in coloring pieces of white blanket for the writer. The resultant color was a pretty
372 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [z1H. ANN. 44
light red. The piece of blanket was exposed to the weather for several weeks and showed slight change of color. Cornus stolonifera Michx. Red-osier dogwood.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Alder. Hot water.
The bark of these trees was used in equal parts.
BLACK DYE
The black rushes in the mat illustrated in Plate 48, a, were colored with the first of these formulae. It was necessary to dip rushes every day for about two weeks, boiling them a short time and then hang- ing them up to dry. These rushes are a clear, heavy black. When the process was completed and the black rushes were dry they were rubbed thoroughly with a little lard “to make them shiny and
limber.” First FoRMULA
Juglans cinerea L. Butternut. Corylus americana Walt. Hazel, green.
These two were boiled together.
SECOND FORMULA
Quercus macrocarpa Muhl. Bur oak.
Juglans cinerea L. Butternut. Inner bark and a little of the root. Black earth.
Ochre.
Hot water.
Directions —Boil the barks and root; after a while put in the black earth and later add the ochre. The more it is “boiled down” the blacker will be the dye. It can be kept in a kettle and heated
when used. THIRD FORMULA
Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Alder. Cornus stolonifera Michx. Red-osier dogwood. Quercus species. Oak. Either grindstone dust or black earth. Hot water. FourtH FoRMULA
Quercus macrocarpa Muhl. Bur oak.
Corylus americana Walt. Hazel. Green-burs. Juglans cinerea L. Butternut.
Black earth.
Hot water.
Directions.—Put the inner bark of the oak and the green hazel burs in hot water and boil; add other ingredients later. Let it stand a long time before using.
DENS MORE] PLANTS USED IN DYES Sia FirrH ForRMULA
Juglans cinerea L. Butternut. Grindstone dust. Hot water.
SrxtH FoRMULA
Black earth. Grindstone dust.
SEVENTH FORMULA
The following formula was used in dyeing a piece of white blanket for the writer. The result was not a heavy black, but this was said to be due to the insufficient quantity of the dye.
Inner bark of oak. Green hazel burs. Grindstone dust. A little ochre dust. Hot water. YELLOW DYE
The simplest Chippewa dye is in shades of yellow, as the materials for these shades are easily available and often one substance is sufficient.
First FORMULA
Used in coloring yarn a light yellow, the process being seen by the writer.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Alder. Hot water.
Directions —It is best to use only the inner bark, though both inner and outer bark can be used. Either green or dried bark can be used. Pound the bark until it is in shreds and steep it, putting in the material while the dye is hot and letting it boil up. Nothing is needed to set the color.
Seconp FormMuLta (LicHt YELLow)
Rhus glabra L. Sumac. Pulp of the stalk. Ochre dust (this may be omitted). Hot water.
THirD ForRMULA (DARK YELLOW) Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot. Root. Hot water.
Either the green or dried root is pounded and steeped. Nothing is needed to set the color.
374 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [Erdu. Ann. 44
FourtH FoRMULA (DARK YELLOW)
Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot. Double handful of shredded root. Prunus americana Marsh. Wild plum. Single handful of shredded root. Hot water.
Boil these together. FirtH FoRMULA (BRIGHT YELLOW)
Coptis trifolia (1) Salisb. Goldthread. Roots. Hot water. This plant has long slender roots and a great many were required. As in other formule, the material was boiled in the dye.
SixtH ForRMULA
Rhus glabra L. Sumac. Inner bark. Sanguinaria, canadensis L. Bloodroot. Root. Prunus americana Marsh. Wild plum. Inner bark. Hot water. The inner bark of the plum was scraped, and it was said that this was used “to set the color.”
SEVENTH FORMULA
The formula next following was used in coloring a piece of white blanket for the writer, and produced an ecru or “ khaki” color. The piece of blanket was exposed to the weather for several weeks and showed no change in color.
Sanguinaria canadensis L. Bloodroot. Prunus americana Marsh. Wild plum. Cornus stolonifera Michx. Alder. Hot water.
PURPLE DYE
The material used to secure this color is rotten maple wood. It is difficult to obtain, as the wood must be very old. Rotten maple, double handful.
Grindstone dust, single handful. Hot water.
The material is boiled in the dye, as in other colors. GREEN DYE
The Chippewa in Minnesota do not color green with native dyes but a birch-bark basket decorated with dried grass in a bright green color was obtained in Ontario. The Chippewa woman who colored it said that she used green dye, one plant ingredient in the dye being obtained. It was impossible at that season of the year to obtain the principal ingredient.
DENSMorn] USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 375 PLANTS USED AS CHARMS
It was the belief of the Chippewa that many herbs, as well as other substances, possessed the power to act without material contact, affecting the actions or conditions of human beings and animals. In order to make these substances effective it was considered necessary to “talk and pray ” over them when they were used, and, in the case of an herb, to “talk and pray ” when it was gathered. The Chippewa refer to all such substances or combinations of substances as “ medi- cine,” indicating a belief in their extraordinary power. Thus it is said that a man “carries a great many medicines,” or “ uses medicine all the time,” meaning that he has in his possession a large number of materials, probably in little buckskin packets, with which he can produce such effects as safety on a journey, the loss or winning of a race, or the finding of lost articles; or he can cause starvation in a certain lodge, insanity in an individual, or enable a man to bewitch another man’s wife. It is said that “the Chippewa were greater medicine people than most of the Indians,” the knowledge and use of such substances being transmitted in the Midewiwin together with remedies for treating the sick.
The term “charm” used in this chapter has no Chippewa equiva- lent. Songs were not used with the working of these charms, the efficacy being secured, as indicated, by “talking and praying.” With the “ Song of the fire charm” (Bull. 45, Bur. Amer. Ethn., No. 86) a decoction of herbs was applied to the feet, enabling a man to walk in fire without harm. A similar use of herbs, in the present work, is classified as a remedy for burns on page 353.
Charms are considered in the following classes: Love charms, charms to attract worldly goods, charms to insure safety and suc- cess, charms to influence or attract animals, charms to work evil, and protective charms. In some instances the charm was carried by the individual working the magic, and in other instances the material was applied to articles belonging to the person who was to be affected by the charm. Herbs were used alone or together with substances believed to increase their power.
Attention is directed to the use of certain plants as charms and also as medicines. A large proportion of the plants used as charms had some value as either medicines or food, but the following are of special interest as the condition supposed to be affected by the charm, and the ailment for which the plant was administered, are alike connected with a disturbance of the nervous system.
Dogbane was used as a protective charm against evil influence or “bad medicine,” and also as a remedy for headache.
376
USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS
[ETH. ANN, 44
Wild pea was used as a charm to insure success, especially when the person was in extreme anxiety concerning the outcome of circum-
stances.
It was also used as a remedy for convulsions.
Seneca snakeroot was used as a charm for saféty on a journey, which in the minds of the old Indians was attended with some anxiety. It was also used as a stimulating tonic.
List oF PLants Usep 1N CHARMS
Botanical name
Part of plant used
Acorus calamus L_____-----~-
Agastache anethiodora( Nutt.) Britton.
Apocynum lium L.
Aralia nudicaulis L__-------
androsaemifo-
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. Artemisia gnaphalodes Nutt-
Asclepias syriaca L___-_-_----
Aster novae-angliae L_------
Aster puniceus L_____--_----
Cornus alternifolia L. f__-___-
Eupatorium perfoliatum L__
Hepatica triloba L_...._----
Lathyrus venosus Muhl_---_-
Onosmodium hispidissimum Mackenzie. Plantago major L_________-
Polygala senega L_________-
Manner of use
Root combined with Aralia nudicaulis L.
Root combined with Acorus calamus.
Root combined with root fibers of Kupa- torium perfoli- atum L.
Fine tendrils of root__-
HO @ (eae ee
Root fibers combined with Asclepias syri- aca L.
(1) Decoction made from roots put on fish nets. (2) Decoction used ‘‘to
rattle snakes away.” Protection.
Chewed to evil charms.
counteract
Smoked in pipe to attract game.
Placed on coals; fumes as antidote to bad medi- cine.
Applied to whistle for call- ing deer.
Smoked in pipe to attract game.
Smoked with tobacco to attract game.
Put on muskrat trap.
Applied to whistle for call- ing deer.
Put on traps for fur- bearing animals.
Carried on the person to insure successful out- come of difficulties.
Love charm; also to attract money or worldly goods.
Carried on the person as protection against snake bites.
Carried on person for gen- eral health and for safety on a journey.
DENSMORD]
PLANTS
USED IN ARTS
377
PLANTS IN USEFUL AND DECORATIVE ARTS
The collection of every tree and plant that entered into the economic life of the Chippewa is not necessary to the present under- taking. The following list is representative, and the familiar quality
of many materials is suggestive of their use.
Thus, the maple, oak,
ash, basswood, ironwood, and pine are so manifestly adapted for the making of household articles, snowshoe frames, sleds, etc., that a detailed account of their use is unnecessary. Brief notations are therefore given concerning the more familiar trees and plants, espe- cially noting the uses which are peculiar to the Indians.
List oF PLANTS IN USEFUL AND DECORATIVE ARTS
Botanical name
Common name
Use
Acer saccharum Marsh_-~----
Allium stellatum Ker___-----
Arctium minus Bernh_____---
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.
Betula papyrifera Marsh_- --
Bovista pila B. and C_______ Cicuta maculata L________-
Clintonia borealis Ait_______
Cornus rugosa Lam_______.- Cornus stolonifera Michx___- Corylus americana Walt____- Corylus rostrata Ait________ Crataegus sp___--_--________ Dicranum bonjeanii De Not_ Equisetum hiemale L_______ Fira xinsis ps. see ae See ee
Fraxinus nigra Marsh_______
Hicoria alba (L.) Britton___- Juniperus virginiana L______
Larix laricina (Du _ Roi) Koch. Lithospermum — carolinense (Walt) MacM. | Ostrya virginiana (Mill) Koch.
Picea rubra (Du Roi) Dietr_
+
55231 ° —28——_25
Maple_____---____-
Wild onion_______-
Poison hemlock -_ _ _ Clintonia___-___ ___
Dogwood________- Red-osier dogwood_
Thornapple_______ Woodmoss_______~ Scouring rush_____ FASS nara reese ae
Black ash_____.____ Hickory ___-
Red cedar_______- Tamarack
Puccoontes= a2.) Tronwood_________-
Syorangs
Paddles for stirring maple sap, etc.
Toys.
Leaves for head covering.
Smoking.
Utensils, coverings for dwell- ings, patterns for work in decorative art.
Paint for the dead.
Seeds mixed with and smoked.
Patterns bitten in leaves for entertainment.
Smoking.
Do. Drumming sticks, ete. Do.
Thorns used as awls.
Absorbent.
Scouring.
Making of snowshoe frames, sleds, ete.
Bark used in covering wig- wams.
Bows, ete.
Mats, etc.
Roots in weaving bags, etc.
tobacco
Face paint. Frames for dwelling, etc.
Gum used in making pitch, roots in sewing canoes, etc.
378 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [Eru. ANN. 44
List oF PLANTS IN USEFUL AND DECORATIVE ArTS—Continued
Botanical name Common name Use Phragmites communis Trin__| Reed_____________ Woven frames for drying berries. Pinuisispeeeea eee aes Sece = Pine! eee = sree 5. General utility. Pinus resinosa Ait_------__- Red pine_-__---_-_- General utility and toys. Quercus sp_-----------------} Oak _____.-._._.____| Avwls, etc. SENbbe joe Bee ee Willow__________- Smoking and general utility. Sarracenia purpurea L_____- | Pitcher plant_____ Toys. Scirpus validus Vahl________ Bulrush__.--.-_=- Mats and toys. Sphagnum_____.._-_-_.___- Moss______________]| Absorbent. Tilia americana L_________- | Basswood_________ . Twine and general utility. Torresia odorata (L.) Hitche. Sweet grass_._...__| Ceremonial, economic and pleasurable. Typha latifoladie- 2) 2.222. 5 | Cat-taills 22 = Mats, baskets, ete. Ulmus fulva Michx___------ | Slippery elm__-__-- General utility. Urticastrum divaricatum (L.) | False nettle_______ Twine. Kuntze. Grass22- 22) 2-22 Loys:
Manner or Use
Twine was one of the most important articles in the economic life of the Chippewa. It was made chiefly from the inner bark (fiber) of the basswood, though slippery elm bark was also used for this purpose. The twine was used in the weaving of mats and the tying of large and small packets. For some purposes the fiber was used without twisting, the width of the fiber depending on the strength required; thus a strip of fiber as soft and fine as cotton string could be obtained, or a heavy fiber that would hold a consider- able weight. The fiber was boiled to give additional toughness if this was especially desired. In preparing the fiber it was customary to cut the bark from the basswood tree in long strips, put it in the water at the edge of a lake, among the rushes, for a few days, after which the soft inner bark could be separated from the outer bark. (Pl. 47.) The fiber thus obtained was separated into strips less than an inch wide and stored in large coils until needed. The twisting of the fiber into twine could be done at any time. Twine was also made from the dry stalks of the false nettle. This was used in sewing and, in two grades of fineness, was used in making fish nets. It is said that a cloth was once made of this fiber and used for women’s dresses.
The thorns of the thorn-apple tree were gathered by the women and used as awls in their sewing. Awls were also made of oak.
Bulrush mats for the floor were woven on frames, the basswood twine being passed “ over and under” the rushes. (Pl. 48,a.) Reeds
DENS MORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 379
were used in making the frames on which berries were dried, the stiff, clean Phragmites conmmunis being used for this purpose. It was desirable that rushes, bark and similar materials be kept somewhat moist, and a dark, cool shed was adapted to this purpose. PI. 48, ¢.)
The leaves of the bearberry and the inner bark of red-osier dog- wood were smoked for pleasure. (Pl. 49.) ‘The plants smoked as charms are noted in the section on that subject.
Coverings for dwellings were made of sheets of birch bark sewed together with basswood twine, these being used on the dome-shaped wigwam. Sheets of jack pine or of elm were used on the dwellings shaped like the white man’s cabin. Cedar boughs were used for bedding. The leaves of the burdock were sewed together or sewed on a strip of birch bark as a head covering for those obliged to work in the hot sun. (PI. 50,a.) The juice of puccoon was used as a paint for reddening the cheeks. A brown fungus (Bevista pila B. and C.) was used in painting the faces and garments of the dead, preparatory to their joining the dance of the spirits where the Northern Lights are shining. The flaring lghts in the north were said to be the motion of the spirits in their dance, and a woman in a trance saw the spirits paint their faces with this material.
Spruce gum was considered best for use in calking canoes and birch-bark pails. It was prepared by boiling the gum in a wide- meshed bag which retained the bits of wood and bark, allowing the gum to pass into the water. It was skimmed from the surface and stored until a convenient time when it was mixed with charcoal made from cedar. Slippery elm bark was chewed and used occasionally to calk small containers made of birch bark.
Tamarack roots were used in sewing the edges of canoes and in making woven bags.
Rushes were tied in small bundles and used for scouring utensils, the two varieties thus used being Yguisetum hiemale L. and Equi- setum pracaltum Raf.
Toys were made for children from many sorts of plants. The children themselves cut the stems of the wild onion and made little whistles. The stem, or “top,” was allowed to dry a little and a sound hole was cut in the side, after which a sound was produced by blowing across the end. The leaves of the pitcher plant were called “ frog-leggings” and used as toys, or filled with ripe berries. Red berries were strung and used as necklaces. Dolls were made from the broad leaves of trees, the leaves being fastened in place with little wooden splints and sometimes a collar of birchbark added. (PL. 50,6.) Flat dolls were cut from the stiff inner bark of slippery elm, or formed of twigs covered with the same sort of willow used for baskets. Dolls were also made of grass. It is interesting to note
380 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [EVH. Ann. 44
the lengthened proportions of these dolls and the small bodies which were well adapted to the grasp of a little hand. This was the more advantageous among a people who moved frequently from one camp to another. In these migrations it was necessary for a child to keep possession of its own toys.
The outer covering of cat-tail rushes was formed into toys repre- senting human beings and ducks. (Pl. 51, a.) The latter were usually made in groups of five. They were placed on the surface of smooth water, and the child agitated the water by blowing across it, which caused the ducks to move in a lifelike manner.
Little figures were made of tufts of the needles of the red pine or “ Norway pine,” by cutting across the needles at different lengths to represent the arms and the hem of the dress. (Pl. 51,6.) These little figures were placed upright on a sheet of birchbark or, better, on a piece of tin, which was gently agitated in such a manner that the figures appeared to dance. Considerable skill could be shown in producing a motion of the figures.
Grass was used in the making of dolls, as noted, and also in the making of a game implement. The purpose of the game was to toss up the little bundle of grass and catch it on the pointed stick. In the “ring and awl” game the ring was of wood. Numerous other toys and game implements were made of wood.
A “coaster” was made of slippery elm bark (pl. 52,-a), a stiff piece of bark being selected, turned up at the end, and a piece of stout twine attached to this portion. A child stood on this with one foot, held the twine in its hand, and coasted down hills in winter.
The down of the cat-tail rushes was put around an infant in its cradle board, and sometimes put inside a child’s moccasins for addi- tional warmth in winter. Sometimes it was mixed with moss for added warmth.
Three types of uses of sweet grass were noted among the Chip- pewa—1. e., ceremonial, economic, and pleasurable.
An instance of the first use occurs in the narrative of a hunting in- cident in which a party of men placed sweet grass on the fire when the camp was in danger of starving and they were going again to hunt. The use of incense is more characteristic of the Plains Indians than of Algonquian tribes.’
Medicine men kept sweet grass in the bag with their medicinal roots and herbs.
Strands of sweet grass were made into “coiled basketry ” by means of cotton thread. This took the form of bowls, oval and round, and of flat mats. Birch bark was sometimes used as the center of such articles, the coils of sweet grass being sewed around it.
10 See Handbook of American Indians, Bull. 30, Bur. Amer, Ethn., pt. 1, p. 604.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 47
6, COILS OCF BASSWOOD FIBER
Muvd HoOUld (N3d0) G3HS ADVHOLS “o AO MOVd ONIAYEVO NVNIOM ‘9
AWVds NI LVI HSNY ‘2
Hint
fy
I ma
i
ppl
h
ine
i
Saree!
8y 3ALVId LYOdayY IVANNYVY HLYNOsA-ALYOS
ADOIONHLA NVOIWAWV JO NVAYdN
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 49
SWEET GRASS AND MATERIALS SMOKED IN PIPE, IN NATURAL AND PREPARED FORMS
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 50
a, HEADBAND OF LEAVES AND BIRCH BARK
6b, DOLL MADE OF LEAVES
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 51
a, TOYS MADE OF CAT-TAILS
6, DOLLS MADE OF PINE NEEDLES
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 52
LE:
a, “COASTER” MADE OF SLIPPERY ELM BARK
b, BIRCH BARK SHOWING “PICTURE OF THUNDERBIRD”
c, FIGURES CUT FROM BIRCH BARK
pENSMORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 381
Young people, chiefly young men, carried a braid of sweet grass and cut off 2 or 3 inches of it and burned it for perfume. (PI. 49.) Young men braided sweet grass with their hair for the perfume. Young men wore two braids of sweet grass around their necks, the braids being joined in the back and falling on either side of the neck like braids of hair.
The birch and the cedar were regarded as “ sacred” by the Chip- pewa. The two reasons for this “sacredness ” are closely connected. One is the great usefulness of these trees to the Chippewa and the other is their connection with Winabojo, yet these two reasons are really one, for everything that is a benefit to the tribe is traced to Winabojo, the mythical character who, it is said, taught the Chip- pewa to live in their natural environment and yet, by his apparently witless actions, gave them an endless supply of humor. The amus- ing stories of Winabojo are told and retold by the old people around the winter fire. A misunderstanding of these humorous stories has given to some students an impression that Winabojo was a fantastic deity, but the old, thoughtful Indians understood him to be the source and impersonation of the lives of all sentient things, human, faunal, and floral. He endowed these sentient things with life, and taught to each its peculiar ruse for deceiving its enemies and prolonging its life. His “tricks” were chiefly exhibitions of his ability to outwit the enemies of life. He was thus regarded as the master of ruses, but he also possessed great wisdom in the prolonging of life. It was he who gave the Indians their best remedies for treating the sick, and who taught the animals the varied forms of protective disguise by which their lives can be extended. His own inherent life was so strong that, when apparently put to death, he reappeared in the same or a different form. This character, under slightly differ- ent names, appears in many Algonquian tribes, among the spellings of his name being Nanabush, Minabozho, and Nenabozho."'
The stories of Winabojo and the birch and cedar trees were told by Mrs. Razer, whose ceremonial felling of a birch tree is described on pages 386 and 3887.
LEGEND OF WINABOJO AND THE BIRCH TREE
There was once an old woman living all alone on the shore of Lake Superior. She had a little girl living with her whom she called her daughter, though she did not know exactly where the child came from. They were very poor and the little girl went into the woods and dug wild potatoes or gathered rose berries for them to eat. The little girl grew up to be a woman, but she kept on doing the same work, getting potatoes and berries and picking up fish that were
1 See Handbook of American Indians, Bull. 30, Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 2, pp. 19-23.
382 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [ETH. ANN. 44
washed ashore. One day when doing this she had a strange feeling as though the wind were blowing underneath her clothing. She looked around her but saw no signs of anyone. After a while she went home.
As soon as she entered the house her mother saw that she looked troubled and bewildered. Her mother asked, “ Did you see anyone? Did anyone speak to you?” The girl replied, “I saw no one and heard no one speak to me.” After a time the mother noticed that the girl was pregnant and questioned her again but the girl replied as before, that she had seen no one. The only thing strange to her was the sensation of the wind blowing about her which she had described to her mother. When the time came for her to be delivered there was a sound as of an explosion and the girl disappeared, leaving abso- Jutely no trace. The old woman threw herself on the ground and wailed because her daughter had disappeared. She searched every- where but could find no trace of her. Finally, in looking among the leaves, she saw a drop of blood on a leaf. She picked it up carefully and put it beside her pillow. After a while, as she lay there, she thought she heard some one shivering and breathing near her head. She lay still, not knowing what to do. She heard the breathing near her head constantly. As she lay there wondering what it could be she heard a sound like that of a human being. She said, “TI guess I am going to be blessed.” '* As she lay there a voice spoke and said, * Grandmother, get up and build a fire. I am freezing.” The old woman arose and looked around, and there beside her lay a little boy. She took him up and caressed him. She got up and made a fire to warm him, and behold the child was Winabojo. All the spirits that roam the earth were frightened at the birth of Winabojo, for they knew his power. Throughout his human life he was a mysterious being with miraculous powers. He grew rapidly in strength and soon began to help his grandmother. He dug potatoes and brought fish and berries for her.
One day, when he had grown to be almost a man, he asked his grandmother what was the largest fish in the lake. She replied, “Why do you ask? It is not good for you to know. There is a large fish that lives over by that ledge of rock, but it is very powerful and would do great harm to you.” Winabojo asked, “Could the ereat fish be killed?” His grandmother replied, “No; for he lives below the rocks and no one could get down there to kill him.”
Winabojo began to think about this and he made up his mind that he would learn to fight so that he could kill the great fish. He got some wood and began to make bows and arrows. Then he asked his
“This phrase is commonly used to designate a supernatural visitation or other direct evidence of supernatural favor.
DENS MORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 383
grandmother if she knew of any bird whose feathers he could put on the arrows to make them effective. The old woman replied “ No. The only bird whose feathers would make the arrows effective is a bird that lives in the sky, at the opening of the clouds. One would have to go up there to get the feathers.” Winabojo began to think how he could go up there and get the feathers that he was determined to have. At last he said to himself, “There is a high cliff on the edge of the lake. I will go up there and stay a while.”
When he reached the high cliff he wished that he might change into a little rabbit. So he became a little rabbit and lived there. One day he went on a very high part of the cliff and called to a big bird, saying, “ Eagle, come here. I am a cunning little animal. I would be a nice plaything for your children.” The bird flew down and saw the little rabbit playing there. The rabbit was the cunningest thing he had ever seen. The big bird was the thunderbird and he alighted on the top of the high cliff, near the little rabbit. Finally he took the little rabbit and flew up, up toward the opening in the sky.
When the thunderbird came to his nest he called to his children, “JT have brought you something very cunning to play with.” His wife spoke to him very crossly and said, “ Why did you bring that rabbit up here? Have you not heard that Winabojo is on the earth? There is no knowing what you have picked up.” But the little rabbit was very meek and quiet, letting the children play with him as they liked. The big birds were seldom at home as they went away to get food for their children.
All at once, one day, Winabojo began to talk to himself and he said, “ These children throw me around as though I was nothing. Don’t they know I came here to get some of their feathers?” The next time the old birds went away he changed into his human form, took a club, killed the little thunderbirds and pulled off their feathers. He hurried around and tied the feathers up in bundles for he was sure the old birds would soon be home. When all was ready he jumped off. He was not killed because he was a manido (spirit) and nothing could hurt him. He was unconscious for a time after he fell on the earth but he was not hurt. Soon there was a great roaring in the sky with flashes of lightning. The thunderbirds were coming after him. Winabojo jumped up when he saw the flashes of lightning and heard the thunder. The lightning was the flash of the thunderbirds’ eyes and the roaring was their terrible voices. He snatched up the bundles of feathers and ran for his life. Wherever he went the flashes and the roaring followed him, but he held on to the feathers. He had gotten what he wanted and he did not intend to lose them. The thunderbirds kept after him and at last he felt
384 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [grTH. ANN. 44
that they were tiring him out. He began to fear that he would be killed after all. The thunderbirds came so close that they almost grasped him with their claws. He was getting bewildered. They were almost upon him when he saw an old, fallen birch tree that was hollow. He crept into the hollow just in time to save his life. As he got in the thunderbirds almost had their claws on him.
The thunderbirds said, “ Winabojo, you have chosen the right protection. You have fled to a king-child.” There they stopped. They could not touch him for the birch tree was their own child and he had fled to it for protection. There he lay while the thunder rolled away and the fiashes of the thunderbirds’ eyes grew less bright. He was safe.
When the thunderbirds had gone away Winabojo came out of the hollow birch tree and said, “As long as the world stands this tree will be a protection and benefit to the human race. If they want to preserve anything they must wrap it in birch bark and it will not decay. The bark of this tree will be useful in many ways, and when people want to take the bark from the tree they must offer tobacco to express their gratitude.” So Winabojo blessed the birch tree to the good of the human race. Then he went home, fixed his arrows with the feathers of the little thunderbirds and killed the great fish.
Because of all this a birch tree is never struck by hghtning and people can safely stand under its branches during a storm. The bark is the last part of the tree to decay, keeping its form after the wood has disintegrated, as it did in the tree that sheltered Winabojo.
The little short marks on birch bark were made by Winabojo but the “ pictures” on the bark are pictures of little thunderbirds. (Pl. 52, 6.) It was said that the bark in some localities contains more distinct pictures of the little thunderbirds than in others."*
LEGEND OF WINABOJO AND THE CEDAR TREE
Many generations ago after Winabojo disappeared from the earth he lived on an island toward the sunrise. The direction of the sunset indicates death, but Winabojo was still alive and he lived in the east toward the sunrise. He could not be destroyed because he was manido, neither could he be permitted to roam at will as he had done, so he was placed on this island to stay there as long as the earth endures. .
At that time there was a man who had only one daughter and she died. He felt that he could not live without her and kept telling his friends that he wanted to go to the spirit land and get his daughter.
18 A collection of stories regarding this hero may be found in Jones's Ojibwa Texts, ed. Truman Michelson, vol. vil, Publications of the American Ethnological Society. The works of Schoolcraft, Radin, De Jong, Skinner, and George E, Laidlaw should be men- tioned in this connection,
DENSMoRE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 885
He was told that if he could find Winabojo he would learn the way to the spirit land, for Winabojo was the only one who could tell him. So he talked it over with the other Grand Medicine man, and five of them said they would go to the spirit land with him if they could first find the way to Winabojo. They went to the graves of their friends and called to their spirits. Finally they got a response. They asked, “Can we find Winabojo?” And the spirits of their friends answered, “ Yes, for he is still on the earth.” Then the spirits told them how to find him. They went until they came to this island, far in the great lake (Superior). There they found Winabojo. He was too old to travel, and on his head was a beautiful cedar tree. Winabojo wore the cedar tree as an ornament and its roots were all around him. Beside him was a great round stone. One of the men asked if he could live always, as Winabojo was doing. Winabojo replied, “No. You can only live your allotted years. The only way you can become perpetual is by becoming a stone.” The man said, “ Yes. I will do so.” Then the man became a stone and remained with Winabojo. The others wanted to go to the spirit land. Winabojo gave each of them a “snake chain” *** and told them to be sure not to untie these chains from around their waists. He said, “ You must stay only four days and four nights. You will not see the spirits by day, but at night they have a dance in the long wigwam."* Go in quietly and sit down.” To the father he said, “ Your daughter is there. Watch for her at the dance of the spirits in the long wigwam. Perhaps she will come and you will see her. Carry a bag with you. Put her in the bag and hold her tight. This is the only way in which you can get her.”
The Grand Medicine men did as Winabojo told them to do. There were only five remaining, as one had been turned into a stone. They went to the land of the spirits and sat quietly, watching the dance of the spirits in the long wigwam. All went well until the second day when one of the men wanted to untie his “snake chain” and see what would happen. He did this, and in a moment he became a spirit and his friends never saw him again. The remaining four men went to the dance every night and the father watched for his daughter. On the fourth night toward morning he saw her come into the wigwam. Her head was covered by her blanket but he recognized her, and when she came near he grasped her in his arms. She struggled, but by the help of his friends he got her into the bag. Then they all returned to Winabojo, and he told them how they could get her back to the earth. He told them to start on their way, and when night came they were to tie the bag in a safe place, then retrace
isa This is a plaited chain worn as a protection against reptiles or other harm, 4 This refers to the long dome-roofed structure in which the Midewiwin held its meet- ings. Cf. beliefs concerning the northern lights, p. 379.
386 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [Eru. ANN. 44
their steps as far as a person’s voice could be heard and make their camp. They were told to dothisevery night until they reached home. They did as Winabojo had instructed them and reached home safely. Winabojo had told them to make a sweat lodge and they made it. He also said there must be no crying nor wailing. Inside the sweat lodge he made a bed of cedar boughs and on it he laid the bag that he had brought from the spirit land. He did everything as Winabojo had commanded and sat down outside the lodge. After a while he heard his daughter say, “Come and let me out.” He went into the lodge, untied the bag, and his daughter came out. He greeted her, but there was no outcry, as Winabojo had commanded. Then his daughter was the same as before she went to the spirit land.
GATHERING BIRCH BARK AND CEDAR BARK
It was customary to gather as much bark as possible in June or early in July as the bark is more easily removed at that season. The gathering of birch and cedar bark was attended with a simple ceremony, as both these trees are believed to be connected with Wina- bojo. The foregoing legends concerning these trees have stated that the birch is so powerful that Winabojo went to it for protection, and the cedar is so beautiful that he wears it as an ornament. Many sorts of birch bark were cut, the heaviest being used for canoes or similar purposes, and the lighter for utensils and various containers, or for roof coverings. Cedar was needed for parts of canoes and for numer- ous other uses. In old times the procuring of birch and cedar bark was an event in which all participated. A number of families went to the vicinity of these trees and made a camp. A gathering was held, at which a venerable man, speaking for the entire company, expressed gratitude to the spirit of the trees and of the woods, saying they had come to gather a supply which they needed, and asking permission to do this together with protection and strength for their work. He also asked the protection and good will of the thunderbirds so that no harm would come from them. The reason he asked the protection of the spirit of the woods was that sometimes people were careless and cut trees thoughtlessly, and the trees fell and hurt them. The speaker then offered tobacco to the cardinal points, the sky, and the earth, murmuring petitions as he did so. He then put the tobacco in the ground at the foot of the tree. Filling a pipe, he offered it as he had offered the tobacco, again murmuring petitions. He then lit and smoked the pipe while tobacco was distributed among the company, who smoked for a time. This simple ceremony was followed by a feast. The next day the company divided into small groups and proceeded to cut the trees and remove the bark.
In order to observe the felling of a birch tree the writer asked Mrs. Razer to cut down a tree. This she and her husband consented
DENSMORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 387
to do. Mrs. Razer habitually follows the old custom of placing tobacco in the ground when gathering any of the products of nature, so the old ceremony was performed in all sincerity. Considerable care was bestowed on the selection of a suitable tree, and one was at last found in the center of a large grove. It was a straight tree with smooth bark, and, after felling, was found to be 38 feet long, 27 inches in circumference next the ground, and 18 inches in cir- cumference at the top of the stump. Burch trees grow slowly, and it was said this tree was probably 25 years old. Mrs. Razer offered tobacco to the cardinal points and the zenith, murmuring petitions, and buried it at the foot of the tree. She then wielded the ax and cut the tree, the cut being 28 inches above the ground, after which her husband completed the felling. It is the rule that all the chop- ping of a birch tree shall be on one side so that the tree after felling will rest on the stump. This prevents the bark being soiled by fall- ing on the ground.
In removing the bark a vertical cut is made, the bark is turned back with the left hand, passed under the trunk of the tree and removed by the right hand. (PI. 58, a,b.) The width of the strips depends on the intended use of the bark. An average width is about 24 inches. The uppermost branches of a tree are observed with special care as the bark on the upper branches is often clear and smooth, though the trunk of the tree has been scarred, or has had its bark removed at some previous time. The tree is permitted to remain as it falls, and when thoroughly dry is used for fuel.
Utensils are often made as soon as a tree is cut. (Pl. 53,¢.) The sheets of bark for future use are tied in thick packs by means of strips of freshly cut basswood trees that usually grow among the birches. One hundred sheets usually constitute one of these packs. A pack is carried on a woman’s back by a strap. (PI. 48,0). This is stored at her home in the village, a larger supply being in a birch-bark store- house at her maple sugar camp. The uses of birch bark are many and various.
In the southern part of the White Earth Reservation the writer witnessed the offering and burying of tobacco by a medicine man who wished to cut pine bark for medicinal use. The remedy was his own and he described several instances of its successful use.
ARTICLES MADE OF BIRCH BARK
Before entering upon a partial enumeration of articles made of birch bark it seems fitting to note some of the properties of this sub- stance, which formed so large a factor in the economic life of the Chippewa. First, and most important, is its varied thickness.
388 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [&1H. ANN. 44
The heaviest bark, from large trees, comprises six to nine distinct layers and is so strong that it could be made into canoes carrying many persons. The thinnest birch bark is like tissue paper but so tough that it was used in wrapping small packets tied with a thin strand of basswood fiber. (PI. 43, 6.) Between these extremes were many grades of thickness into which the bark of moderate sized trees could be split. <A proficient woman worker could usually obtain the quality she desired either from her supply in storage or by felling a tree of suitable size. A peculiarity of birch bark is that it keeps from decay whatever is stored in it. Edibles were stored in makuks, even a gummy maple sirup being safely stored for a year in this manner. Heavy birch bark was wrapped around the bodies of the dead. Two contradictory qualities are interesting to observe. The bark was highly inflammable, being used as tinder and for torches, and yet it was possible to use freshly cut bark as a cooking utensil, the inner surface being exposed to the fire.
Birch bark was commonly available and was used for hastily made containers of various sorts. Thus a person gathering spruce gum or a few berries would cut a piece of birch bark, fold it into a “scoop” and use it temporarily. If birch bark articles split they were mended with balsam gum. With this care a makuk or tray might be used for 10 years.
It was said that when a woman was cutting birch bark sne often “ sharpened her knife” by drawing it across her hair.
Birch bark can be unrolled only by exposing it to the heat of a fire. When heated it becomes pliable, and retains any form in which it is placed when thus softened.
Makuks.—These were of various sorts, according to their use. The most common makuk was that used for storing maple sugar. (PI. 34.) These makuks were sewed with split roots, and had a thin piece of basswood bark around the top, sewed over and over with split roots, like the top of a canoe. They ranged in size from makuks holding about 1 pound of sugar to those holding 20 or 30 pounds. A cover with slanting sides was sewed over the top. A similar makuk of medium or rather large size was used as a bucket, the seams being covered with pitch and a handle attached.
The makuks used for gathering and storing berries had straight sides, and the storage makuks were frequently made with the rough outer surface of the bark on the outside. A berry gathering makuk had a loop of fiber attached to one side so it could be hung from a woman’s belt as she worked. (Pl. 32, 6.) These small makuks for gathering fruit held about a quart, and the storage makuks or those for carrying the berries frequently held 12 quarts or more. The storage makuks had no binding around the top, and were frequently made with one side higher than the other so it could be lapped over
DENSMoRH| PLANTS USED IN ARTS 389
and tied. This sort of makuk was used for storing fish, over which maple sugar was sprinkled. ‘This preserved the dried berries or fish, and it was easier to get at the contents in this type of makuk than in the sort used for maple sugar.
Funnels or cones.—These varied in size from the tiny cones filled with hard sugar and hung on a baby’s cradle board and the some- what larger cones similarly filled for the delectation of children to the large funnels made of heavy bark and sewed with split roots that were used chiefly for pouring hot fat into bladders for storage. Spoons made of bark were also used. (PI. 32, c.)
Dishes and trays —¥ or temporary and household use the birch-bark dishes were not always stiffened and bound at the top. The dishes for common use were made of birch bark folded and fastened with one or two stitches at each end. (Pl. 32, b, at right-hand end.) These were tied in bunches of 10 for packing or storage. The com- mon size was about 10 inches long and 5 inches deep, though smaller and larger ones were frequently made. The shallow trays are more often seen with better finish, the superfluous bark being cut away at the ends, the overlapping edges sewed with split roots and the top finished with a stiff piece of bark, firmly sewed in place. Slip- pery elm bark was sometimes chewed and applied like gum to the inside of the seams on birch-bark containers to make them water- tight. The largest trays were those used for winnowing wild rice. Somewhat smaller trays were used for various household purposes, including the carrying of coils of basswood fiber for making into twine. An old and rarely seen form of birch-bark dish was round, about 9 inches in diameter and 3 inches deep. The bark was adjusted in folds around the sides and the dish or tray was finished at the upper edge with two rows of sweet grass.
Cooking utensils —It was possible to make a cooking utensil from green bark in which meat could be cooked. A Canadian Chippewa said that he had done this himself, making the container with either side of the bark outward. He said that he filled it with water and “put it right on the fire,” that the part above the water might burn but the part below the water would last so long that the meat would be cooked. He said that he had heard of the putting of hot stones in the water in such a dish to heat the water, but he had not done this himself.
Coverings for dwellings —Sheets of bark were sewn together with basswood fiber (not twisted) and made into the “ birch-bark rolls ” used as covers for dwellings, the sheets of bark being placed hori- zontally. Sticks across the ends of the roll kept it from tearing. These rolls were used most frequently on the tops of the wigwams, or lodges with frames of bent poles, but were also used on the conical
390 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [srH. ANN. 44
tipis, and sometimes on the roof of the lodge in which maple sugar was made, this lodge having a frame like that of a house.
Meat bag.—This was commonly made of birch bark covered with soft tanned leather (pl. 54), but was also made of rawhide. It was carried on a pack strap and was used for carrying dried meat or other provisions needed on a journey. It was customary to open the bag and allow the flap to become a sort of table, from which the fragments of food were easily returned to the bag, a custom which illustrates the lack of wastefulness among these people.
f’ans.—These were made in the woods whenever needed, two pieces of bark being sewed together and slipped into a cleft stick, which served as a handle. (PI. 55, b.) A man might carry a fan orna- mented with feathers, one specimen having the bark cut off squarely and a row of stiff feathers forming the upper portion of the fan. (Pl. 55, ¢.) Plate 55, a, shows an owl-feather fan with handle of birch bark. A woman never used an ornamented fan.
Torches and tinder.—Various forms of torches were made by twist- ing birch bark into cylinders, some of which would last an entire night, and were used by travellers. Slender torches, which could be stuck on the end of a stick that was upright in the ground, were used by women when working around the camp. A woman kept a supply of scraps of thin birch bark for use in kindling fires.
Figures.—A variety of figures were cut from birch bark. (Pls. 52, c; 56.) Some appear to have been for pleasure, while others represent dream symbols and totem marks (clan symbols).
Patterns—Every woman who did beadwork had patterns cut from stiff birch bark which she laid on the material to be decorated. Mrs. English said that she remembered when patterns were pricked with a stiff fishbone around the outline and then cut with scissors. In this way the pattern was evident to the eye before the cutting was begun. With very few exceptions the cut patterns collected by the writer show no trace of a marking implement, the appearance being that the patterns are cut without tracing. (PI. 57.)
Transparencies —The most primitive form of Chippewa art is that in which the only material is a broad leaf or thin piece of birch bark and the only tools are human teeth and deft fingers. The leaf or birch bark is folded and indented with the teeth, this process being repeated according to the elaborateness of the design. The result is a transparency, the surface of the leaf or bark forming the back- ground and the tooth marks forming the pattern. The native word for this is composed of two words, one meaning picture, and the other he bites, or gnaws. The leaf and bark are not wholly opaque and the tooth marks do not cut entirely through them, so the finished work shows a heavier and a lighter density of material which is
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE
ec, MAKING CONTAINER FROM BIRCH BARK
53
qgaso10 GNV Nido ‘Svq@ LVAW
S$ SALVW1d LYOd4aY IANNV HLYNO4A-ALYOS ADOIONHLA NVOIYAWY AO NVAYENG
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 55
FANS MADE OF BIRCH BARK AND FEATHERS
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 56
FIGURES CUT FROM BIRCH BARK
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 57
PATTERNS CUT FROM BIRCH BARK
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 58
| ee
LEAVES IN WHICH PATTERNS HAVE BEEN BITTEN
DENSMORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 391
soft and pleasing to the eye. The teeth used in making the impres- sion were the eyeteeth and “side teeth,” the folded material being indented in a variety of ways, ranging from a sharp prick, like the prick of an awl, to a broad mark produced by slightly twisting the bark between the teeth. More than 200 birch-bark transparencies have been collected by the writer, and some of the best patterns were made by a woman who had only one upper tooth. The bark used
vas the soft, fine inner layers of the white birch, and it was slightly warmed to render it more pliable.
The origin of this art is obscure, but it seems probable that it arose in a somewhat casual manner. A woman seated on the ground or in the wigwam might take a broad leaf or bit of thin birch bark, fold it, bite a few lines in it, unfold it and hold it up to look at it. As the result was pleasurable she might seek to improve upon her first work and others might seek to copy or emulate it. Leaves best adapted to the purpose would be selected, it would naturally be found that the birch bark could be folded and indented better if it was first warmed before the fire, and gradually a more elaborate folding of the bark would produce more interesting patterns. The informa- tion obtained from aged members of the tribe and the specimens of the art which they have been able to execute give no evidence of the influence of the white race nor of any connection with textile or ceramic art except that some of the patterns were copied in bead- work. It had no connection with a ceremony, and no symbolism, except that dream symbols might be indented and used as patterns for beadwork in the same manner that the svmbol of a man’s dream might be outlined in paint. It was an art with a recognized tech- nique, producing results of a wide variety in the form of articles that were kept, exchanged, and compared, and in which the work- ers felt a personal pride. It was peculiar to the Algoquian tribes and was a phase of the tribal life that has passed away, and with the passing of that life the art has become almost extinct. It formed a pastime of the winter evenings, when the young people were seated in the wigwam with no other light than the fire, and it was especially practiced during the sugar camp, in early spring, when there was an abundance of birch bark at hand, and it was softer than later in the season, thus being better adapted to the making of transparencies. A few women of the younger generation (30 to 40 years of age) can indent the bark, but their patterns, as will be shown, have lost the artistic value of the earlier period.
The art had two branches, one of which appears to have been an outgrowth of the other and to have been practiced less exten- sively. The principal, and apparently the first, phase of the art was intended chiefly for pleasure and had a secondary use in sug-
392 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [eTu. ANN. 44
gesting patterns for woven beadwork. In this phase the indenta- tions were of varying sorts, producing an agreeable art object. The patterns that appear in such transparencies are geometrical and conventional, but include life forms and some representations of tipis and houses. Such are the “pictures” that were admired, kept, or exchanged among members of the tribe. Those intended as suggestions for patterns in woven beadwork were purposely adapted for their special use as knee bands, headbands, etc. The second branch of the art is clearly related to the period in which the delicacy of the old perception was passing away. (See p. 395.) Thicker bark was used, the outline of a leaf or flower was sharply indented and the pattern cut out, after which it was fastened to cloth and outlined in beads. Mrs. Julia Warren Spears, 89 years of age, said that she saw the Chippewa girls using these patterns for beadwork when she was matron of the school at Leech Lake, about the year 1865. At that period the present floral patterns were either coming into use or were at a height of popularity, and the rather clumsy patterns made of bitten bark may in part account for the lack of artistic value in these patterns. .Mrs. Spears said that they “took a leaf or flower to go by” when biting the pattern, which marks it clearly as belonging to the imitative, not the inter- pretative, period of culture. The influence of Government schools had taken the place of that admiration of nature and appreciation of its mysteries which underlies all effort at interpretation. The Chippewa were being taught to become copyists, and the essentials of art were lost forever.
Only two mentions of this art have been found in writings on the subject. The earliest refers to the old form and the later to the modern appl-cation of the art. Schoolcraft states that “amongst the Ch. ppewas of Lake Superior there exists a very ingenious art of dental pictography, or a mode of biting figures on the soft and fine inner layers of the bark of the betula papyracea, specimens of which are herewith exhibited. This pretty art appears to be confined chiefly to young females. The designs presented are imitations of flowers, fancy baskets, and human figures. There are so many abate- ments to the amenities of social life in the forest that it is pleasing to detect the first dawnings of the imitative and aesthetic arts.” This paragraph is accompanied by an illustration “ from the origi- nals,” with the title “ Chippewa toothwork, dental pictorial figures on the inner bark of the Betula papyracea.” The reproduction by drawing and engraving does not represent the method with any de- gree of accuracy, but the work itself is clearly the same as that de- scribed to the writer and illustrated in Plates 58-63.
% Schooleraft, Henry Rowe. History of the Indian Tribes in the United States, vol. 6, p. 651. Philadelphia, 1857.
DENSMORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 393
The modern application of the art is mentioned by Speck, who says that among the Montagnais “the patterns for decorating birch bark consist of thin paper-bark stencils made by folding and biting designs in them with the teeth.” Also, “ The bitten paper-bark copy patterns supply practically all of the motives of these people.” '®
The Mille Lac Chippewa made little or no mention of the biting of patterns in a broad leaf, but Mrs. English said she remembered seeing it done by the Chippewa at La Pointe, on Lake Superior, and the writer was informed that it was commonly done on the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario. A specimen of the leaf was obtained there, and was identified as Clintonia borealis. This leaf with a simple pattern bitten in it is shown in Plate 58.
The technique of biting birch bark is impossible to describe beyond the statement that the bark is placed between the upper and lower teeth, usually the eyeteeth, and that the teeth are brought together, either sharply or with a slightly grinding motion. One informant said that the bark was slightly twisted between the teeth. The simplest technique is shown in the patterns used for beginners in beadwork, the intention being to use one bead for each prick. The manner of folding and refolding the bark is also an important part of the technique. The pattern is in the mind of the worker and she does not hesitate or unfold the bark during the process of biting the pattern. In reply to an inquiry, a woman said that when she un- folded the bark she found the design to be what she expected because she “had the pattern in her mind before she began to bite it.” One transparency is never copied from another, but an attempt to vary a pattern is suggested by Plate 59, a and /, made by the same woman. In one pattern it was found that 24 thicknesses of bark had been indented at the same time, yet the pattern was clear and the marks were uniform. It was not unusual for 12 thicknesses of bark to be indented at the same time.
The range of subjects is wide and includes geometric designs, flowers, leaves, and stars, men and women, tipis and houses, animals and insects. The vegetable and life forms are natural and also con- ventionalized. The patterns comprise borders or “ running patterns,” and units based upon the circle, square, pentagon, hexagon, and octagon, and the trefoil and quatrefoil. The simplest patterns re- quire only one folding of the bark, after which a pattern is indented along this fold. These are what may be termed “running patterns.” An example of such a pattern is Plate 59, ¢. A strip of bark is folded across and the fold placed between the teeth, the pattern being “bitten” along the fold. When the bark is unfolded the pattern is
16 Speck, Frank G. The Double-curve Motive in Northeastern Algonkian Art. Depart- ment of Mines, Memoir 42, No. 1, Anthropological Series, pp. 11, 12. Ottawa, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1914.
55231°—28, 26
594 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [TH. ANN. 44
seen, its opposite sides, of course, being alike. Other patterns pro-— duced by one folding of the bark are Plates 59, d, g; 61, 6, h,; 62, g. Sometimes a “ running pattern ” was made by folding the bark twice, one fold being crosswise and the other the length of the strip. Ex- amples of such patterns are Plate 62,7 and *%. More elaborate pat- terns of this sort were made by folding the strip of bark crosswise and also diagonally, producing such patterns as Plates 61, f, and 62, f. Such patterns as these were copied in long strips of beadwork used as chains for the neck or as narrow headbands. The manner of fold- ing the bark for patterns Plate 59, e, h, and 7 is clearly shown. Several units were indented at the same time, forming a sort of “running pattern,’ but without an actual connection between the units. The most elaborate pattern of this type is Plate 61, ¢, in which five figures were indented at the same time, representing a row of dancers.
The Indians seemed to prefer to indent two units at a time, in the simpler unit patterns, while the larger and more elaborate unit pat- terns were indented singly, thus securing fineness of detail. The patterns shown in Plates 60, ¢, f, and g, and 62, c, were made double; that is, two units were indented at the same time, the photograph showing the clearer of the two. Distinct from these were the patterns made singly which required several foldings and refoldings of the bark. Such patterns were regarded somewhat as an artist regards his sketches. ‘They were exhibited and compared, and even exchanged among persons proficient in this craft.
Patterns which require only folds that are equally spaced and radiate from a common center are Plates 59, a, 6, f, z, kh; 60, a, e; and 61, g, & Such a pattern may be inclosed in a line which is folded and indented after the rest of the pattern is finished, as in Plate 60, 2 and ’. A close inspection of the specimen shown in Plate 60, 7d. suggests that the border was indented with the rest of the pattern. The folding in Plate 60, A, is shown in detail and includes a diagonal fold intersecting the diagonals that radiate from the center. A pentagonal form is shown in Plate 60, 7. A somewhat complicated folding was required for Plate 60, e, the bark being folded crosswise, lengthwise, and diagonally, the pattern being smoothed out between the several foldings and then creased for the next part of the design. In Plate 61, a, we find a crease with inden- tations along only a part of its length, beyond which the line divides into two diagonals. These lines form the framework of the pattern, like the stems of a cluster of flowers, which, with leaves, are pro- duced by additional foldings of the bark. The pattern appears to represent two conventionalized fiowers, with leaves below them. This pattern was made at White Earth. The design Plate 62, a, bears a resemblance to it, and was made on the Manitou Rapids
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 59
BIRCH-BARK TRANSPARENCIES
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 60
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BIRCH-BARK TRANSPARENCIES
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 61
BIRCH-BARK TRANSPARENCIES
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 62
BARK TRANSPARENCIES
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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 63
BIRCH-BARK TRANSPARENCIES
DENS MORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 395
Reserve in Canada. Other interesting designs from that reserve are Plate 62, d and e, the former showing curved lines (or creases) which are unusual in birch-bark transparencies. ‘The bark available by the Canadian Chippewa women was too stiff and heavy for delicate work. The season was July, and the bark is less pliable than in early spring if freshly gathered, and the Canadian women had not stored so generous a supply of bark as the Minnesota Chippewa. As already noted, the bark needed for use during the summer was gathered in the spring and stored in a dark, cool shed, which preserved its soft texture, and this storage of bark was being carried on by the women at White Earth when the present research was in progress. The pattern Plate 62, ¢, is different from any collected in Minnesota and required twelve foldings for its pro- duction.
Both straight and diagonal folds were required for the patterns Plate 62, 6 and h, the latter showing the features of the woman in the tipi with as much clearness as those of the dancer in Plate 61, c. Attention is directed to the difference in the shape of the faces in these two patterns, also to the variety in the markings on Plate 62, 6, showing a distinct technique. These are from White Earth.
The patterns here illustrated were selected from a collection of more than 200, obtained from the older women at White Earth and Red Lake in Minnesota, and the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Canada. The decline of this interesting craft is seen in the work of Indian women of the younger generation, one example being shown as Plate 61, d. It will be noted that the outlines are blurred by a process that approaches a nibbling of the bark, while the desien lacks the grace and repose of the older examples. The clear thinking of the old days has passed away, and in its place has come a belief that by doing a thing uncertainly, over and over, one can accomplish as good results as by a carefully planned, definite procedure.
The designs shown in Plate 63 were made on the Manitou Rapids Reserve in Ontario, Canada, and show a somewhat different type than those in the previous illustrations. As stated, they were made when the bark was rather heavy, which can be seen in the texture of the pieces. The creases are more apparent and the marks less sharp than in thinner bark. Some of the designs would form “ running patterns ” while others are single units which could readily be placed side by side to form extended decorations.
The following story is related concerning the custom of making birch-bark transparencies :
There was once a man who lived with his parents. At sugar- making time he noticed that they were getting old and the work was hard for them, so he brought home a wife to help them. The
396 USES OF PLANTS BY THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [tu. ANN. 44
family were in the sugar camp and he sent his wife to get some birch bark for making dishes as the other women did. She took an ax and was gone all day. When she came home at night she had a great bundle of bark on her back. This made him glad, for he thought she had been very industrious. She opened her bundle and said, “ See what I have been doing ail day.” Then she showed him quantities of patterns and pictures bitten in birch bark. Her bundle was full of them. She had been biting patterns all day instead of making dishes.
The man was so ashamed that he hung his head and died. He could not bear to have people know that he had brought home such a good-for-nothing wife.
Etching and self-patterns on birch bark.—Bark taken from birches in the early spring has the tender “ sap-bark” of the previous year next to the outer bark. If the bark gathered at this time is put in hot water the “ sap-bark” turns dark brown while the outer layers of bark remain light in color, This renders possible a wide variety of decoration in contrasting colors. Dishes are made with this dark color as a foundation and the decoration is supplied with a sharp implement, the lines showing the light color of the under layer of bark and the contrast remaining after the bark has- dried. The implement used for this purpose was a pointed stick or the “ splint- bone” from the heel of a deer, preferably a young doe. The bark is in the right stage for this work at the season of sugar making, and many sugar makuks are made with the dark surface of the bark on the outside, etched with simple decorations. A typical example is the sugar makuk in Plate 84, which is etched with parallel horizon- tal lines between which are vertical, diagonal, or zigzag lines arranged in simple groupings. ‘The fresh sugar was often stored in them and used as a gift, the decoration making the gift more attractive. At the present time this work is frequently done in a freehand drawing of leaves and flowers, the designs being without artistic value.
Another type of decoration made possible by the condition of the bark at this season may be called “self-patterns” in birch bark. Sometimes the pattern appears in the light color on a dark back- ground and sometimes the colors are reversed, the design being in the hght shade. In a typical example of this work a rather large, conventional pattern cut from birch bark or paper is laid on the bark and a line is drawn around it. This is still done at Grand Portage, where old methods of work are continued. The design is etched on the inner surface of the freshly cut bark, cutting through the “sap-bark,” after which, if desired, the work may be laid aside. When it is to be finished the bark is moistened with hot water, and on the portion which is to be in light color the thin tissue of bark is removed in small particles or shreds with a sharp knife. Thus if
DENS MORE] PLANTS USED IN ARTS 397
the makuk is to be dark in color with light-colored leaves the surface within the etching of the leaves is carefully removed. If the colors are to be reversed it is necessary to remove all the surface except that within the etching. As indicated, if the makuk is to be filled with fresh sugar it is finished at the camp, but if the article is to be for some general purpose, the woman does the part of the work which must be done while the bark is fresh and takes the article with her, to finish at leisure. The completion can not, however, be deferred too long or the dark surface of bark can not be removed with
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