VEGETABLE GARDENING.
SAMUEL B. GREEN.
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VEGETABLE GARD: NING.
A Manual on the Growing of Vegetables for Home Use and Marketing.
Prepared for the Classes of the School of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota,
BY SAMUEL B. GREEN,
Professor of Horticulture in the University of Minnesota. Author of
‘‘Amateur Fruit Growing’’ and ‘‘Forestry in Minnesota.’’
WITH 123 ILLUSTRATI _NS:
L ° = 5
FIFTH EDITION.* 22+ 255-2259 3" REVISED.
ST. PAUL. WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY. 1903.
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COPYRIGHT, 1901,
BY SAMUEL B. GREEN.
Preface to Fifth Edition.
This book was prepared primarily for the School of Agri- culture of the University of Minnesota, where it has been used as a text book for four years. In this edition some changes have been made to bring it up to date in the matter of methods of culture and varieties recommended. The material has also been re-arranged and more attention paid to the classification
of vegetables than in the first edition. A few other new minor features have also been introduced which experience seemed to show desirable.
I wish to acknowledge the kind assistance received in the preparation of this manuscript from Prof. Harry Snyder and my assistant, R. S. Mackintosh. In previous editions I have taken pleasure, as I do now, in acknowledging the assistance which I have received in many ways from Dr. Otto Lugger and Major A. G. Wilcox, and it pains me now to have to record the death of both within the past year, but the memory cof the many pleasant associations with them will always be fresh in my mind.
Figures numbered 52, 67, 69 and 121 are from D. Landreth & Sons; 26, 27, 31, 32 and 92 are from W. Atlee Burpee; Nos. 22, 23, 81 and 96 are reproduced from publications of the Depart- ment of Agriculture; No. 5 is from Bateman Manufacturing Co.; Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43 were loaned by Dr. iuesser; Nes. 58, 61, 63.65, 66;. 106, 108; 1125-119; 120 and 122 from various sources. All other figures are original.
SAMUEL B. GREEN.
St. Anthony Park, Minn., February 1, 1903.
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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
The Vegetable Garden.—Location and soil for early crops. Location and soil for late crops.
Irrigation.—Cultivation and irrigation. Humus an aid to irri- gation. Amount of water required for irrigating different crops. Pumping water for irrigation. Making reservoirs. Application of water. Rules for applying water. Sub-irrigation.,
Rotation of Crops.—Reasons for.
CHAPTER II.
Manures.—Most valuable elements in manures. Direct and indirect manures. Composition of vegetables. Manures and fer- | tilizers.
Animal Manures.—Horse manure. Hen manure. Cow and Swine manure. Sheep manure. The manure pile. The compost heap. Commercial manures. Tankage. Ground blood. Ground bone. Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia. Superphosphate. Wood ashes. Kainite. Lime. Land plaster. Effect of manures on crops. Manures for early and late crops. Manures for legu- minous crops. Manuring the growing crops. Liquid manure.
CHAPTER III.
Garden Tillage.—Prevention and killing of weeds. Im- portance of not allowing weeds to go to seed. Weed seeds in manure for the garden. Plowing. Subsoil plowing. Ridging land. General cultivation of garden crops. Cultivation to de- velop plant food.
Garden Implements.—Horse hoes and horse cultivators. Hand cultivators. Seed drills. Combination seed drills and cul- tivators. Markers. Scuffle attachment to hand garden cultiva- tors. Scuffle hoe. Plant drag. Potato diggers. Spray pumps.
CHAPTER IV.
Seed Sowing.—Depth to plant. Time for sowing. Sowing in stiff clay soils. Sowing seed with machine. Sowing seed by hand. Using the feet for firming the soil around seeds. Thin- ning. Protecting seeds against insects and birds. Transplant- ing. Avoid transplanting as much as possible. Conditions of suc- cess. Shortening the tops of plants. Firming the soil about the roots of plants. Tomato cans for flower pots. The Farmer’s Kitchen Garden.—Arrangement of.
CHAPTER V.
Seeds and Seed Growing.—Good pedigrees in seeds. Test- ing seeds. Simple germinating apparatus. Curing and storing seeds. Changing seed. Stock seed. Seedsmen’s specialties. Seedsmen’s humbugs. Novelties. Development of varieties.— Rules for improving plants. Cross and self-pollination of plants. Mixing of varieties. Distance between varieties to prevent mix- ing.
CHAPTER VI.
Glass Structures.—Cold frames. Hotbeds. Hotbed manure. Fire hotbeds. A greenhouse hotbed.
Greenhouses.—Cheap kinds of. Methods of heating. Sash for hotbeds and cold frames. Shutters. Mats. Ventilation and temperature. Watering. Soil. Boxes. Substitutes for glass. Shading the glass. Fifteen things to remember in connection with building glass strucures.
CHAPTER VII. Insects Injurious to Vegetables.—Insecticides and methods of destroying insects. Pyrethrum. Paris green. London purple. Tobacco. Kerosene emulsion with soap and with milk. Carbon
bisulphide. Catching insects by light at night. Application of insecticides.
Common Garden Insects and Methods of Destroying Them.— Colorado Potato Beetle. Imported and Native Cabbage Worms. Cabbage Plusia. Wire Worms or Drill Worms. Cutworms. Striped Cucumber Beetle. White Grub or May Beetle. Maggots. Cabbage Flea Beetle. Leaf Lice or Aphis. Cabbage Lice or Aphis. Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm. Parsley Worm or Celery Caterpillar. Chinch Bugs. Bean and Pea Weevil. Squash Vine Borer. Squash Bug.
CHAPTER VIII.
Classification of Vegetables—Warm and cold climate vege- tables. Frost tender and frost hardy vegetables. Botanical classification. Characteristics and directions for the cultiva- tion of vegetables. Mushrooms. Corn. Asparagus. Onions. Leeks. Garlic. Rhubarb. Beets. Swiss Chard. Spinach. Cabbage. Cauliflower. Radishes. Rutabaga. Turnip. Brussels Sprouts. Kale. Kohlrabi. Horseradish. Cress. Water Cress. Beans. Peas. Okra. Parsnip. Parsley. Carrot. Celery. Cel- ariac. Sweet Potato. Tomato. Potato. Egg Plant. Peppers. Strawberry Tomato. Martynia. Cucumber. Squash. Musk- melon. Watermelon. Pumpkin. Gourds. lLettuce. Salsify. Endive. Dandelion.
Garden Herbs.—Balm. Catnip. Lavender. Peppermint. Sage. Sweet Basil. Sweet Marjoram. Spearmint. Summer Savory. Thyme. Winter Savory. Anise. Caraway. Coriander. Dill. Borage. Rue.
Tables.—I. Weight of one quart of seeds and a number of seeds.in one ounce. II. Longevity of garden seeds. III. Amount of seed required to sow one acre. IV. Average time required for garden seeds to germinate. V. Standards of Purity and Germina- tion of Agricultural Seeds.
Monthly Calendar of Garden Operations,
Vegetable Gardening.
CHAPTER I. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.
Location and Soil.—The land for vegetable gardening should be free from stones and stumps, and easily cultivated. Wet land should be avoided unless it can be drained at a reasonable out- lay; if it cannot be drained it is of little worth as scarcely any- thing of value can be raised on it. All land for vegetable garden- ing should be well drained either naturally or artificially, since crops on well drained land suffer less from drought as well as from excess of water. Drained land also gives best and most uniform returns from the manure applied to it. When drainage is lacking in the land, the raising of plants on it is so very much a matter of chance that in the long run it will generally prove unprofitable. Most of the land in cultivation is sufficiently drained naturally, while some land that needs no drainage when used for grass or grain would be greatly improved by being under-drained when it is to be used for some garden crops. Land which has a gently rolling or undulating surface with a southern exposure is the most desirable for general gardening operations, since it receives the full sunlight and allows the most perfect control of the water that falls upon it. When irrigation is to be practiced, such sloping surface aids very much in the distribution of the water. For a few crops, such as celery, cab- bage, etc., the slope makes very little difference, as flat and even very moist (not wet) land is best. There is a very great difference in the value of northern and southern slopes for vari- ous crops. This difference will frequently amount to one crop a year where the soil is closely tilled The soil on a southern slope can be worked much earlier in the spring than that having a northern exposure, and often by proper management two crops may be grown in one year in such places, while on a northern
8 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
slope perhaps only one crop could be raised. Then again, such crops as melons and tomatoes that require a long season and a warm location to mature could do so On a southern slope, while on a northern slope they might not ripen.
Location and Soil for Early Crops.—When the object in vegetable gardening is to grow very early crops, it is important to have quick-acting land. Such a soil contains a large amount of sand in its composition. Soils of this class warm up very quickly, and decomposition goes on very rapidly in them. They also give the quickest returns from manures. If such land has a southern slope, and, in addition, is protected from the north and west winds, the situation will be an ideal one for the early vegetable garden and for tropical plants, such as tomatoes, beans, corn, etc. However, land and locations of this character suffer most from drought, therefore every precaution should be taken to protect them from it. Shndy soils are especially adapted to irrigation, and sometimes what were barren sands become very fertile when irrigated.
Location and Soil for Late Crops.—When the intention is to raise cabbages, potatoes, turnips, beets, ete., for marketing in ihe autumn and for crops that require but a short time to mature or that prefer a cool location, a good clayey loam is generally the best, and if it has a northern exposure so much the better. If obliged to use a stiff clay soil, it will be found to give best results if subsoiled and drained. Such land should be fall-plowed and left in ridges. It will also be improved if coarse manure is worked into it, since this has a tendency to make the land open and more easily worked. A_ retentive clayey loam will be more difficult to work than a sandy soil, but will generally withstand drought much better, although a somewhat sandy loam with a retentive, porous clay sub-soil is often considered more desirable on account of the greater ease with which it is worked, and it resists drought nearly as well as a clayey loam if proper precautions are used in its management.
IRRIGATION.
Irrigation is generally considered unnecessary in this sec- tion, since we raise fair and even abundant crops nearly every year without its aid, but in almost any season there are periods
IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 9
when if water could be applied to growing crops it would im- prove them. It will seldom if ever pay to irrigate ordinary farm crops, if it is necessary to pump the water used. In order to have irrigation practical for farm crops the water should be carried and distributed on the land by the force of grav- ity. It may pay to pump water to irrigate some garden crops if the conditions are favorable and the work is done intelli- gently. In this section irrigation should be used to supple- ment the rainfall which should ordinarily be kept from run- ning off the surface of the land by every possible precaution.
Mulching the surface of the soil is practicable only around trees and in the case of a very few garden crops, such as strawberries and raspberries. The intelligent use of mulch on land in well known cases has caused the soil under it to hold an amount of water equal to thirty-three per cent more than was retained in soil near by not mulched, the amount in one case being equal to an increase of over two quarts of water to every cubic foot of soil, or to an increase of over 680 barrels in the upper one foot of soil of one acre. If this amount of water had been applied at the critical stage in the growth of some crops suffering for moisture, it might have made a success of what would otherwise have been a failure. Where practicable it is always desirable to have a good mulch on land that is watered, since it retards evaporation and prevents the surface soil from baking.
Cultivation of the land prevents evaporaticu and so saves the moisture in it. In one instance the amount of increase of water in a good soil due to cultivation was equal to thirty- three per cent of what it contained when not cultivated. This increase, however, is somewhat more than was found in other trials, but in every instance there has been a marked increase in the drought resisting qualities of the soil due to continued cultivation. In some experiments made by Professor Levi Stock- bridge in 1878, it was clearly shown that on one occasion in eight days of very dry summer weather thorough cultivation of the Jand resulted in saving 256 barrels of water in an acre of heavy loam by preventing evaporation from its surface. These facts show the great value of cultivation as an aid in
10 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
irrigating operations. Cultivation of the land or mulching should always go with irrigation.
Humus is rotten organic matter. In the soil it increases its retentive qualities. On this account new land which con- tains much organic matter does not suffer as seriously from drought as that which has been cultivated for some time with- out manure. Likewise, land, heavily manured with rotten ma- nure, which is largely humus, has its drought resisting quali- ties increased, while the application of undecayed manure to the land has a directly opposite result until it has been in the soil long enough to become thoroughly rotted.
Amount of Water Required for Irrigating Different Crops.— Sometimes a very small amount of water applied at the right time will make the difference between a good crop and a total failure, as, for instance, when dry weather comes on just as the strawberry crop is almost ripe, when it has happened that so small a quantity as 600 barrels of water per acre has been sufficient to ripen the crop. In western Kansas it is esti- mated that a storage capacity of 5,000 barrels per acre in ad- dition to the ordinary rain supply is needed to mature a crop in dry seasons. In this section a storage capacity of 1,500 barrels per acre would probably be enough to insure against serious injury from drought in any but very exceptionally dry years. Enough water to cover an acre one inch deep is termed an acre inch. About $00 barrels equal one acre inch.
Pumping Water for Irrigationn—Where valuable crops are- grown, it will sometimes pay to pump water for them. There are many localities in this section where a large amount of water may be controlled by lifting it less than thirty feet. In such places windmills may be successfully used for pumping the water, providing reservoirs of large capacity can be cheaply made into which water may be pumped the year around to be used as needed. Thresher engines, which are seldom used except in the late summer and fall, may sometimes be used to advantage for pumping water and often at very low cost. Gasoline engines are occasionally used in some irrigation works. They are very desirable, but at present the price is too high to warrant their general use. In putting in a pumping plant the pump should be put as near the water supply as possible.
IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 11
Reservoirs should be on some elevated point. They are easily made by digging out the earth and puddling the bottom and sides with thick clay, which should be at least one foot in thickness and well packed when wet. A good way to pack it is to drive horses over it. When clay cannot be obtained the bottom may be made tight with a thin coating of coal tar and sand, but clay is preferable, and what is known as blue clay is generally best. Cement is liable to crack badly from frost and is not adapted te this purpose. Made in this way, reser- voirs are very cheap and easily repaired. It is important to have them very large where the supply of water is limited; where the supply is large, the reservoir may be much smaller.
Application of Water.—Sloping land is necessary for most successful irrigation, as it is very difficult to apply water to the surface of level land. The slope should be sufficient to permit the water to flow quickly along its surface and yet not enough to cause it to wash. For irrigation purposes the rows should not be over 300 feet long. The best results are gener- ally obtained from soils having considerable sand in their com- position. Drifting sands may often be made to produce good crops by irrigating and manuring, and lands having some sand in their composition are much better adapted to irrigation than clay soils, since the latter often bake badly or become sticky so that they cannot be cultivated immediately after applying water.
Rules for Applying Water to Land.—Water should not be applied unless the crop is suffering for it, but the soil should be eultivated thoroughly and frequently, and thus waste by evapo- ration may be saved.
Cultivate at once after irrigating, if the land will permit of it, so that the soil will not bake; evaporation will thus be prevented, and water will be saved in the soil.
Do not apply more than enough water to nicely moisten the land and avoid getting it water-soaked.
Do not think that irrigation will take the place of cultiva- tion, for it will not, since without cultivation irrigation is sel- dom successful.
Water for irrigating purposes should be somewhat warm when applied. Cold springs do not afford a satisfactory supply
12 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
for some crops unless first pumped into a reservoir. A tem- perature of 60 degrees is desirable, though not always necessary for the best results.
Aim to wet the roots of the plants and avoid getting water on the leaves.
Wooden troughs afford the cheapest conduits for water and
Figure 1.—One method of irrigating crop planted in rows.
should be used whenever practicable. Iron pipe is expensive and much more difficult to manage than wooden troughs. Sub-irrigation is a new term that refers to the application of water to the roots of plants by means of underground chan- nels, such as tile or other drains. It works best in sandy soils. In clayey soil the water runs too slowly through the sides of the tiles. Land tiles make as good channels: as any for this purpose. They should be buried a few inches below or by the side of the plants to be watered, being laid level with open joints. Some experiments seem to show that it is a very waste- ful way of using water, while others have shown this system to be economical. As practiced for watering plants in green-
house benches, especially for lettuce, it has given excellent results.
IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 13
ROTATION OF CROPS.
By rotation is meant the special succession of crops grow- ing upon the land for a series of years. This is very desirable even on land in the highest state of cultivation, but it is very difficult to lay down exact rules to be followed.
Reasons for Rotating Crops.—We rotate crops for at least six reasons. (1) To avoid -insect enemies, as in the case of onions and turnips, which are often liable to serious insect in- juries when grown more than one year on the same land. Tur- nips are especially liable to injury from insects when grown in the same place successively. (2) To avoid injuries from fungous diseases, i. e., in case of potato and beet scab, onion and melon rust, corn smut, etc. (3) To increase the amount of humus in the soil, and for this purpose we may seed down the land to grass or clover. (4) To deepen the soil and add nitro- gen to it as well as humus, as when clover is grown on the land. (5) To get rid of weed seeds in the soil. (6) To use the plant food in the land to best advantage, since crops vary very much in the amount of the different elements which enter into their composition. Leguminous crops, like clover, peas, beans, etc., improve the land on which they grow, while most other crops exhaust the soil. Some plants excel others in their power to search for plant food, or to take plant food from the soil. Some plants feed near the surface largely, while others take their food mostly from a lower level. Root crops should not follow root crops, nor should vines follow vines for many years in suc- cession on the same land. .
CHAPTER IL MANURES.
Most Valuable Elements in Manures.—While there are twelve or more elements that enter into the composition of our cultivated plants, yet only nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, and in a few cases lime, are lacking from our agricultural soils. These three elements enter largely into all our cultivated crops and are necessary for their growth. The other elements are usually present in abundance.
Humus.—While humus in itself is not a plant food, it is of great importance in the soil. It is formed by the decay of organic matter and is composed principally of carbon. It promotes chemical action by which plant food is set free in the soil, and it increases the power of the soil for holding the water and gases which it gives up slowly to the roots of plants. Rotten stable manure contains a large amount of humus- forming materials, which undoubtedly add very much to its value, and it is probably on this account that it often gives better returns than commercial fertilizers containing the same quantities of what are termed the essential elements.
The Action of Manures in the Soil can be and generally is both direct and indirect. They act directly when they con- tain actual available plant food or when by their decay they yield it to the plant; they act indirectly when they start chem- ical action in the soil and thus set free soluble plant food in the soil itself. Almost all manures act in this indirect way to some extent. A moderate application of stable manure by its decomposition (which is chemical action) in the soil has been known to increase the temperature of the soil by three degrees. Lime in itself is a plant food and is largely used by some crops. Most soils, however, contain it in great abundance, yet if quick lime be added to a soil already rich in common limestone it generally serves to increase growth. This is not due to the plant taking up more lime, but rather to the fact that the quick lime starts chemical action in the soil by which some
MANURES. 15
of the locked-up stores of plant food are made availab'c. The
same may be said of unleached ashes, though it contains much
more valuable fertilizing material than lime. Common salt also
acts to some extent indirectly as a fertilizer, while it is of very
little value as a plant food.
COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES, MANURES AND FERTILIZ- ERS.
In the following tables is shown the amount of fertilizing elements required by vegetables and the amount of these ma- terials which is contained in the various farm manures and com- mercial fertilizers. ‘These figures are from eastern United States and European sources. The climatic conditions in these places are quite different from those in many sections of the Western states where the actual amount of ash ingredients in plants, especially in dry years, may greatiy exceed the amounts here given. The relation of these tables to one another is worthy of special study, since they show what the plants need and what the fertilizing materials supply.
TABLE I.—Composition of Vegetables.
: Phos- W ater.| Ash. THEO phorie | Potash 25 acid Per ct. | Per ct.| Perct. | Perct. | Perct PGP UGHONES )-icccu sees stnas+oeteinasceadenenes 81.50 0.99 0.36 0.17 0.48 NSDAE AGUS SEEMS. yc ccucsetcteesescecees| 290.90 0.67 0.29 0.08 0.29 FR QONS ele ae aao cesses orchee onset cess one. 68.46 NEO Sa nelgaoal Nigecicitde! PobamAnt IFCANSMSUMIM Seca nena Sae se iesceeccnecaseace 87.23 OO AS eecteelleobocdoel|ésqqncre BEE ESTEE COS. concsccsses weave haere aineedaikoee 88,47 1.04 0.24 *0.09 #*0.44 WaDDAGeSietesccnsis tcsasscncesveosss secs ceuse 90.52 1.40 0.38 *0.11 *0,43 WAGE OUST creases ocesnecenascog st skaewaeaine: 88.59 1.02 0.16 0.09 0.51 C@AWHMOWET. cae os dsstese ccs ocnccnoaceccseae 90,82 0.81 0.13 0.16 0.36 CHOROID CES aeate cose aee tec cacanectecs 78.90 1.09 1.92 0.19 0.64 Choroci, whole plant: ....22.:<02+.c--0- 78.33 TEO2S lertrasceialoee on acsll eae CWCWINDEUS ieee eer cce usa nctsnssecctescceeecor 95.99 0.46 0.16 0.12 0.24 Bolan saaees saccee ce oecene aes es Dee eaat cence 92.93 (OS (ed Maer tees oll maitre | ae ornate nc FVORSE-TAGISH) VOOb. ccs. ssccoserecsseeess 76.68 1.87 0.36 0.07 1.16 COMER AD ees nec cae cos eee ese en cna cceaetaeaee 91.08 eos 0.48 0.27 0.43 WE CHICEs MO AVES ccractoveccatetscosuasersee 86.28 ae Peat octets: HE Bele PIGS TOUIGE) SCOMSe so sac srs casccscsicccsevecsee 88.46 TENS lee ees celts kcorte ee ee Lettuce, whole plant.............s00css. 93.68 1.61 0.23 *0.07 *0.37 Muskmelons, interior juice............ 92.61 1.01 Sore ee Maske lonsh pul pzcessacees scuceces ecssrs 76.44 NEA We ee eave eee avctsiene teres aeto eave Muskmelons, pulp juice................. 90.53 (Gia earners eet kant lie rere MitSMteTONS. TING: mee. ceccaseseeneces's 91.15 OUGS Settee lteeeteeiecnres ace Se WIGSTATG WANEBES.. 2 csccscoseessensenseteecs 84.19 2.25 Pale geacs ak cose sewelat's cae secoersseos wees soces 87.41 D7 eS i eri RS ee el eee carne ATA OTIS. S20. s cases coboccsrecccesceseressasseesns 87.55 0.57 0.14 0.04 0.10 VESTN See aneen canes cesece meee ce oeeeces 80.34 1.03 0.22 0.19 0.62 HeasnCanagG@aflelae sis csscccsesssccceses 12.48 2.36 Pas at CASH ALOCIER, cocicsccscscegnsessdectvewecss 12.62 Bei! 3.58 0.84 1.01 CASE E Ol) cos cciciewinscualeiee s peels soe eases 79.93 Oe7Suc less etree eaieerrnede
16 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Composition of Vegetables.+—( Continued.) | : Phos- Water.| Ash. NEE phoric |Potash Ben) | Agia: Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct,| Per ct. Peas, smail (Lathyrus sativus), WAhOLE LPIA .. cspencseeeseeceT a sees 5.80 5.94 2.50 0.59 1.99 1 Aui emo) kat oS ole Oe Saag ncobacdocdedoossodaeocoe 93.39 0.67 aye. ae |oyanerereerolei|| eee Je(iloayo)tabalsh THUGKO laannsasAbbobranannoSonca sone 86.23 SO (eae ea ¥i|(o steie,yeterel ee Pteiae ere Pumpkins, seeds and_ stringy MAUL CL aaccniassosiscsmeessenncereee re 76.86 yo) lied Mee meareerl Mepeerers Gis if ch c a aistens Pumpkins whole truitsecscsssscenesses 9227-5 = 0:63 *0.11 *0.16 *0.09 Lad NGO WAO 1OKONRS) Goonoesonbor 74.35 2.28 0.55 0.06 0.53 RMU AnD SEMIS sccoceecesoaeereenr cee 92.67 Uo Ca eter tater. linea acalduepiedl here oreo Rhubarb, stems and leaves............ 91.67 ets 0.13 0.02 0.36 UTADA MASS. wee seceeccemecteehuetteteaet erence 88.61 1.15 0.19 0.12 | 0.49 SJ OME YO aetna rama in hee Re RR eae 92.42 1.94 0.49 0.16 0.27 SCMASMES MAES ee cae ean ete eee 88.09 APA BE Pat IROCB cSccad co SGmashess rinGisccce cere seseuecer eee. 82.00 1220+ | Rcaieines lar enn ee squashes, seeds and _= stringy WVAUGETY nics ceseccaa case chiceeh weescncconne 74.03 DBO) h coccistsietsins|laustert ts ie Reet Squashes, whole fruit ................. 94.88 OF 5 a Oe ma GOR cere O lcirog coo 5 IWC ba COMN = CODS scene enseene eee 80.10 0.59 0.21 0.05 0.22 Sweet corm, WUSKS scikeoessccene see 86.19 0.56 0.18 0.07 0.22 Sweetcorn) kernels. o.ieescssccscces $2.14 0.56 0.46 0.07 0.24 Sime etc Onur Sballkxs-cecseetecsa ese te eee 80.86 1225 0.28 0.14 0.41 Sweet potatoes. tubers...............| 71.26 1.00 *0.24 *0.08 *0.37 Sweet potatoes, vines.................. 41.55 Dito! leek vise alleen Perret: MOMAtOeS Se trultieencsecstee ome nte see 93.64 0.47 0.16 0.05 0.27 MomatOeSSrOOtS:rcene cesar ececceceeee 73.31 Ae 0.24 0.06 0.29 Momavo SSavaiNeSnowecceieesseecce oak 83.61 3.00 0.32 0.07 0.50 ARISTA TOS Se weeee sete crc nen eek ieee aee Soseene 90.46 0.80 0,18 0.10 0.39 Wratermelonsy ji@eyns.ccsscssceecee: 93.05 0.20 eveve ill teverateieleate 5. snes Mia eEEMelOnS nile ences nae eee 91.87 0.33 Sactic Wid GeLMeloOnS niles ecco cece 89.97 1.24 Wratermelons, SC6GS:)c.sccs sc ecreenec 48.37 1.34 * W olff. +Sugar in fruit, 3.05 per cent; acid (malic), 0.46 per cent. +Compiled by office of Experiment Station. TABLE II.—Composition of Farm Manures. : Phos- Mois- | Nitro-| Pot- : : ture. gen. ash pene Lime. Per ct. | Perect. | Perct..| Perct, | Perct Cattle excrement (solid, fresh).......|........0+ 0.29 0.10 OULT || sceeneenees CattlemiminerGhreshi te aeccdesaecscecccests lneceeseeses 0.58 0:49) |: casasireetellemeemecenee Fentmanune (GGeSh) iereeessceateers seers 0 60.00 1.10 0.56 O:8D ile zeesceeee EIOTSeLEXCLeEMenite(SOMG) ie. sececean cence Nias thaaes 0.44 0.35 OMG cleat cereemer FLOTSeUninieN(freshi) hark cnscteseteiece ccahitsaceece. L595) 1.50) | ieee deoctealtecsect tees Human exerement ((Solid))..-...:.26+-..-- 77.20 1.00 0.25 1.09" |i cscsateaee EUUMATMTINC UT ee nce sete tered Maohienanne 95.90 0.60 0.20 OWT Scoweapertr Pigeon Manure (OGY) ec. vese-cenekcee. eet) VLOL00 3.20 1.00 1.90 2.10 Poudre tel (nigshtisoil)pesurecceoeettesse: 50.00 0.80 0.30 1.40 0.80
Composition of Farm Manures.—( Continued)
Phosphorie acid.
Mois- | Nitro- | Pot- Lime. ture. gen. ash. pe eae a: Total.
LRA Gin || [AARC \\ JRAP Cig AG ee Per ct. Perct. | Perct- Sheep excrement
(SONGMETES Di) pcncdeccal sscsowse ese 0.55 ONS cee geamean lees ste ies OrSIe Wecteesccess Sheepurine (fresh)]........... 1.95 PRO GE eocceaa cael tecesec ees USO) al ph eeeeseere Stable manure (HVDC SG) ) Basaaeteoa seeps 73.27 0.50 OLGOV eee cncctecell eae cece ese OVSO eco ccs es Swine excrement (SoliGy TTESH) 2222-2. | +-.<0-< one 0.60 OST |e s.20 sae scullnsccesesnes OMA e Ne cece ceee Swine urine ‘(fresh)|........... 0.43 OLB eeccacee cual nae deuce ste O075 Slececaclances Barnyard manure
(AVETAZE) ........... 68.87 0.49 OFA Sel icconcseseel| cee Paice O32 Recescccces
TABLE Iil.—Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials.
PA Ue eee ta ar |r eae Mee all ters seo saaah laze daaieseiss Fe ener Gacneeecens BOLOB™ Wescescesees Ashes (anthraicte
COMI rect ce ea scces cc tewelllecc eee ceets (Ua) Ol Beocsnocon| secnedeneen O10) iseusteeeas se Ashes ee none
EXD ENG aes a ne eR ol aria Sea OFAOM Bente e ace vellsiacessniese’ 0:40) Jiikccestecsec Ashes (lime kkiln),..//< 15:45. }2.-.:...... TIRBAOY bl boccesoeeas| Sebooabaced 1.14 48.50 Ashes (wood
econ: Eee oa SOL Uae ee ace 127s erseeee | ceaeats osiek 1.51 28.08 Ashes (wood, un-
He aehed)he.cecece ea) esaaasetions By) Nlonecocdanes nooenaeens- 1.70 34.00 Bat GUANO. .<..005.20+0: A0.09 8.20 1.31 2.37 1.24 Se an ieee ere Bone ASH ccc sence: CUE bre Grneces| Vannocdcsppat cooccucnocal jboeoaasecaG 35.89 44.89 Boe (Ollie aes cetene AGO Picci cok [MACE AeP oe Mlaaacieaula cen, |aedaeeaes OSS ell cassaanes
one black (dis-
solved) ...... ( BES Pons setcceslSsaeowee ea icascen caces 15.40 1.30 17200" |. See Bonemealemence ce. (aa ARQ lncesecneoce 0.40 7.60 DR ZW all scacesctece Bone meal (dis- eS aS
rj 0.| rire 6) ee | Ae 2G ne sccaeees 13.53 EPsGO. Wecsers see = Bone meal (free
ME OMS hat) secs sssk esses sees (BP lleadsabcecee| socoscoacds |Sconcadade? POT Dialeiseese tess Bone meal (from
glue factory)...|..-........ TED) Neasescecosallecnncatoce lecaaccooane 29.90 stoaasapenc Carribean guano.. Gs) || pedtesacecal Mebcccedasal décaonscosa | jeqsocosatce 26.77 39.95 Castor pomace..... 9.50 5.50 WOW ekecesceselhscceoceees TGS) aileapiten dete Cotton-hull ashes.. Thatel0 ell Sesto 22.75 25 6.50 8:85 9.60 Cotton-seed meal
(decort)... ccs: 7.75 710 AGRON Be eaceece «= line scenenens SO) |seccenecs as Cotton-seed meal
Gund ECOL fh) Sescce loses sean 4 30 RESO) Sone eececa| sence anos, B10 |seseeeseee Cubaguwano......0.0-s: 24.27 1 eG Pa US As ae he a tT er IS Sm i eeccetesnee Dried blood........... 12.50 OU esta ctetals liecsertecte sariticeteistors sees LO | escesees Dried fish.. ee |e ASS (ae \oadaccmeee 0.55 2.60 S25 a aeescsues GAS TUIMNE eassccce ita c ce PND i Meee e line SH EE Were cnce vel Sees corseacl| sees cidaiece’ 43.66 Horn and hoof
Wid SUC) eonccceeeces 17 FM one cece nel lose sincamrels [esate actress ARBs |beecercacae LECT TINT oe eae eee ; S20 Mier ees B57 Gil ey ae eed Ieee ace Seal a ee 1.15 PERUGIA). 3.3 chccscass esas ASD hittes RAs eee de foe | aeenrct verge teacar ee cease 12.45
18 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials. —( Continued.)
Phosphorie acid.
Nitro-| Pot- Lime. Solu- Re- ‘gen. ash. Se. aSoeadl. Total.
| Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct.\ Per ct..| Per ct. \ Per'ct.
Meat SCrap........-+s Mono Island Guano.
WIIENCS BG) rarceceimsccle Muriate of potash.. Navassa phosphate Nitrate of potash... Nitrate of soda...... Oleomargarine re-
Peruvian guano...... Phosphates from
OTIC aineccesecee Plaster (DULe) iaeeeerilsecseesees hae aa tears legoosbcopnol gaapaacedaloasoscnaras| loonccesooada Sewage sludge
(precipitated).. SOOti ssc sees cesesecseee Spent tanbark
USWES ee eeseacesece Sumac waste........ Sulphate of am-
Sulphate of potash and magnesia... Sulphate of potash (high grade).... PANKAGC scccc-casodeinecs Tobacco stalks...... Tobacco stems...... ; : WiOOLSWBSHIN ES eae cel cteeserc css ateecace ents B92) tl Seestencctillacsness Rovallieccisewitin oviaeellteaigemeeieen - Wool waste........... 15.80 6.50 FACQO Ni vate neniealiccsce Aaies 0.35 0.11
*Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. *tNova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent carbonate of lime; Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 18-28 per cent carbonate of lime.
Animal Manures.—Manure from the same animals may vary greatly in quality according to the kind of food and the condition and age of the animals from which it comes. Fat animals fed on food rich in nitrogen (grains) produce the best manures. Young growing animals that are fed on poor food, such as straw, swale hay, etc., produce very inferior manure. The manure from young growing animals or from milking cows is much inferior to that from fat steers, since, in the case of
MANURES. 19
the young animals, a large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid is required to build up the animal body. In the case of the milking cow a large amount of nitrogen is required for the production of the casein of the milk, while very little of the nitrogen in the food is retained in the body of the fatten- ing animal. The fats, oils and starchy materials which ani- mals use largely are of no value as manures. The nitrogen, potash and phosphorus are thrown off by the fat animal in the waste products. Manures rich in nitrogen ferment most rap- idly, other things being equal. The urine is generally rich in nitrogen, and since all it contains is soluble it is of more value than the solid excrements of animals, and special effort should be made to save it.
The Heating of Manures and other organic material is gen- erally due to the presence of ferments which are minute organ- isms that break down the composition of the materials in which they grow and produce chemical changes that result in the formation of heat. They are nearly allied to the yeast that is used in bread-making. Fire fanged is a term applied to ma- nure which has heated to a very high temperature without suf- ficient moisture and has dried out. It is generally white in color and has lost much of its texture, and parts of it may appear to have been burned to ashes. When in this condition manure is of little value, for it has lost much if not all of its” nitrogen and all the ferments which it contained are destroyed. And it is probable that the ferments which are added to soils by manure are often of much importance to them.
Horse Manure is loose and light, and ferments very quickly. On this account it is especially valuable for early spring crops, as it makes the soil loose, thus permitting the air to easily penetrate it, while by its rapid fermentation it warms the land. It is valuable to mix with cow and swine manure on account of its hastening fermentation. On account of its heating quali- ties it is used to warm hotbeds.
Hen Manure is one of the richest manures formed by any of our domestic animals, for the reason that poultry live on highly concentrated foods and the liquid and solid excre- ments are voided together. It heats quite readily and vio- lently and should be used very sparingly and with caution,
20 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
since if put in contact with the roots or stems of plants it is very liable to burn them. It should be handled with great care and be kept dry. If wet it ferments and parts with its nitrogen in the form of ammonia gas, which is readily perceptible to the nose. For the same reason it should not be mixed with lime or wood ashes unless used at once. It acts very quickly and on this account is valuable for early crops or to apply during the growth of a crop when the available manure in the land appears to have been exhausted. It may be composted with dry peat or muck when it is more safely applied than if clear and there is less danger of loss from heating. Twenty to thirty bushels of hen manure is generally considered sufficient for one acre when used with stable manure.
Cow and Swine Manures are rather slow in action, conse- quently they are not as desirable for early crops as horse manure, while they are excellent for late crops. For this latter purpose they are often better than horse manure. If they are mixed with horse manure they ferment very rapidly.
Sheep Manure is a very concentrated manure which heats rapidly. It is one of the best farm manures.
Mixing Manures.—It may often be a good plan to mix the different kinds of animal manures for general application, as in this way all seem to be improved. Hen manure is an ex- ception and, as a rule, should be applied separately. Lime, wood ashes or other material of an alkaline nature should never be mixed with stable manure of any kind unless a considerable amount of loam, peat or other material is added to absorb the ammonia, which is always liberated when nitrogenous and alka- line substances are thus mixed. It is a good plan to mix ground bone, tankage and other slow acting fertilizers with heating stable manure, as by so doing the plant food they contain is made more available and the stable manure is greatly improved in quality.
The Manure Pile.—If early garden crops are to be grown, it is necessary to have fine, well rotted. manure, and this makes the manure pile necessary. It should be placed so that as little waste as possible will occur from leaching by rains. When a manure pile is to remain in one place for a considerable time it should be made upon a bed of leaves, peat, loam, rotted sods
MANURE, 21
or other absorbent, about one foot in thickness, which will catch and retain any fertilizing material that may leach through the pile. If practicable, the pile should be made where it will be protected from the sun and drying winds. The height of the pile should depend somewhat on the kind of manure and the season of the year when it is made. Manure that will heat readily should be piled about six feet deep. When the pile is quite warm the manure should be turned over. This operation should be performed very thoroughly as often as the pile gets very hot. All the lumps should be broken up and the whole pile turned to the boitom of the bed on which it is placed. The absorbents of the bed should be mixed evenly throughout ihe pile and the cold manure from the outside be put on the inside of the pile so that it may heat the more rapidly: If the pile ap- pears dry on the inside water or, what is better, the urine from the stable should be added to assist fermentation, as this cannot take place satisfactorily in dry manure, and the lack of water may result in serious loss. The’‘fAumber of times a ma- nure pile should be turned over will dépend on the crop to which it is to be applied and the kind and condition of the manure. This is a matter which must be left to the good judgment of the individual manager, but some of the factors bearing on this will be found discussed farther on.
The Compost Heap can be made a prolific source of home made manure. Every farm and garden should have one of sufficiently large proportion to take care of all refuse organic material about the place. It should be made about as follows: Select a place handy to get at but where there is no standng water and put down first a bed one foot deep of old sods or muck and on this pile all the refuse material as it collects in various places. It may consist of old straw, leaves, an occa- sional load of heating manure, rotten vegetables, etc. This should be turned over occasionally, by hand if necessary, but the best plan is to have the compost heap in a hog yard and to it haul manure as it collects near the stables. If manure is piled upon a good bed of rotten sod it will not lose much by leaching, nor will it lose anything by heating if a sufficient number of hogs have the run of it to keep it well worked up.
Commercial Manures.—By commercial manures is meant
22 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
those manures which are commonly sold by the trade. When of a high price they are generally of a guaranteed composition and they should be bought at a valuation based on the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which they contain in condition available to the roots of the plants. The most available the form in which these materials exist in the fertilizer, the more valuable it is generally considered. Most of the older states require a guaranteed analysis to accompany the packages in which the fertilizers are sold and exercise some supervision over the business. Among the most common of this class of fertil- izers are the following:
Tankage.—This is the refuse product from slaughtering establishments, which after being relieved of its fat is brought to dryness and ground. It is very rich in nitrogen and phos- phoric acid, but contains very little potash. Most of the nitro- gen and phosphoric acid which it contains is available to the roots of plants. It is probably the cheapest source of nitrogen and phosphoric acid to be found in the western states. It varies considerably in composition, and this may sometimes be ac- counted for by the fact that in some establishments the blood is separated from the other offal, thus reducing the percentage of nitrogen in the tankage. It is rather a slow acting fertilizer. Tankage may be safely used in quantities of less than 1,000 pounds per acre if applied broadcast and worked into the soil. Four hundred pounds per acre is generally considered a good application. It may be safely used in these quantities around growing plants of cabbage, corn, lettuce, etc., provided it is spread out evenly and does not come in contact with the roots of the plants.
Ground Blood is very rich in nitrogen and quite difficult to dry thoroughly. If it is at all moist it is likely to heat badly. It is a quick acting fertilizer, and is seldom used without being mixed with other materials.
Ground Bones are always rich in phosphoric acid, but round fresh bones are better than dry bones since in addition to phosphoric acid they have quite a large percentage of nttro- gen, which amount is very small in bones that are old and dry. It is always best to break or grind the bones that are to be used on the land and in many cases to then mix them with fer-
VEGETABLE GARDENING. 23
menting stable manure. Ground bone is said to be a lasting fertilizer because its effect can be seen for several years. If bones are burned the nitrogen is wasted. If fresh bones are mixed with unleached wood ashes they will be made soft so they can be easily broken up. It is generally applied in muzh the same way and for the same purposes as tankage.
Nitrate of Soda, called also Chili saltpeter, is imported from Chili. It looks like common salt and contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen that is perfectly soluble and in form most available for the plant. On this account only very small quan- tities should be applied at one time, because if not taken up by the plant it may be washed deep into the soil out of reach of the roots. It is especially desirable for early leaf crops such as early spinach, cabbage and lettuce, and to apply when a cron comes to a standstill. It acts with wonderfui quickness—-almos3t like magic. It may be applied several times to the growing crop at intervals of two weeks, using from 75 to 100 pounds per acre at each application. It may be sown near the hills if ap- plied to cabbage, but for spinach or similar crops it should be
suueieipaiaiannetaant ae fee ey
2 Be ea ae a a ed
=
gece ts
Figure 2.—Spinach plants grown on land rich in rotten stable manure. The larger plant received in addition to the stable manure nitrate of soda at the rate of one hundred and fifty pounds per acre.
24 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
sown broadcast when the plants are perfectly dry or during a hard rain. If it sticks to the leaves it is:Iiable to burn them. If sown during a hard rain it is quickly dissolved and washed to the roots of the plants without injury to the leaves. It is expensive and should never be used when a cheaper supply of nitrogenous manure will do just as well. It may occasionally be used to good advantage in water at the rate of one-half an ounce of nitrate of soda to one gallon cf water. Such a solution will not injure the foliage and is of sufficient strength.
The use of very large quantities of nitrate of soda on the land has been found to make it necessary to continue using it in large quantities, while if used at the rate given it is not followed by such consequences. The supposed reason for this is that so much nitric acid in the soil destroys the nitric acid- forming ferments, and these must be slowly replenished before the soil is able to continue yielding its ordinary supply of nitrogen.
Sulphate of Ammonia is a by-product from gas works and contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. It does not act as quickly as nitrate of soda, but for late crops, to be applied dur- ing warm weather, it is one of the best sources of nitrogen,
Superphosphate is made by treating ground bone or nodu- lar phosphate with sulphuric acid to render the phosphates soluble. It is rich in phosphoric acid, and some kinds contain a considerable quantity of nitrogen. They vary much in quality. The better kinds are generally used at the rate of about 400 pounds per acre.
Wood Ashes is rich in potash and a valuable fertilizer in many cases provided it has not been leached; if it has been leached it is practically worthless as a fertilizer. Ashes from hard wood is much more valuable than that from soft wood on account of its containing much more potash. Ashes is one of the best fertilizers for fruit trees and plants. About twenty bushels of unleached hard wood ashes is generally sufficient for one acre, but much more may be safely used.
Kainit.—Potash is also applied to the land in the form of German Potash salts. a grade of which, known as kainit. is very commonly used as a fertilizer. These salts are more or less mixed with common table salt and other impurities and form
MANURES. 25
a cheap and very useful supply of potash. They are gener- ally sold on a valuation based on the percentage of actual potash they contain. Kainit contains 13 per cent of potash which is more than twice as much as there is in ordinary un- leached wood ashes. From 200 to 600 pounds of kainit is gen- erally applied per acre.
Lime is found in abundance in most western soils, but burned limestone, whether as freshly slacked or as quick lime, may often be used to advantage in small quantities when large amounts of stabl@ manure have been used upon the land for a number of .years. It should not be used alone, because it ex- hausts the soil.
Land Plaster is a sulphate of lime. It is not a direct fertilizer, and its method of action is not exactly known. It may occasionally be used to advantage for leguminous crops, such as clover, beans, peas, etc., in applications of from 2900 to 600 pounds per acre spread broadcast.
There is Little Need for Commercial Fertilizers at present in most of the western states and they should never be used until the home sources of manure have been exhausted, and then they should be used to supplement rather than replace farm manures, and as aids in close cultivation of gardens. They are generally expensive, and results from their use here have not been as satisfactory as in the eastern states. Only the more common kinds to be met with here have been mentioned.
Those who use commercial fertilizers of the better kinds for the first time are very likely to use too much and Seriously injure the crops to which they are applied. It is much better to use too little than too much, and to experiment along this line in a small and inexpensive way to begin with.
Effect of Manure on Crops.—The proportion of the various plant foods used by diferent crops varies considerably, some using a larger amount of one element and seme of another. Their visible effects when in excess are also quite different. Garden plants that are grown especially for their foliage use large quantities of nitrogen and require it in order to be per- fectly healthy, and seed producing plants use large quantities of phosphoric acid and potash. Where nitrogen in a soluble form is very abundant so as to be in excess in the soil it will be
26 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
found that the plants growing on it are noted for their dark green color and rank leaf and stem growth, and for late ma- turity of fruit and seed. In the case of small grain, it may result in such a weak, soft, succulent growth that the stems cannot support themselves and they become “lodged,” and such growth may be gained without an increase in the yield of grain. In the case of lawns a soft, thick sod is made; in the case of spinach, cabbage and other leaf crops, vigorous, large plants result; while tree and bush fruits, under such conditions, make a soft, late-maturing growth that easily winter kills.
On the contrary, when soluble potash and phosphoric acid are in excess in the soil, the plants will have a tendency to pro- duce a large amount of seed and fruit in proportion to straw or wood and to mature early. This is a desirable condition for heaviest grain and seed crops. In the case of bush and tree fruits, it conduces to fruitfulness, early maturity of wood and hardiness. These qualities will be most evident if the nitrogen is under a normal quantity in the soil.
It must not be understood from this that any of these ele- ments are hurtful, for they ave absolutely necessary in proper proportions to secure best results; but these effects follow when they are greatly in excess.
Except in few instances, fresh manure in the soil is not beneficial, and its presence prevents close cultivation and causes the land to dry out very quickly. Such manure does not afford plant food for some time, since it must first be thoroughly de- cayed before it is of any value to plants. Rotten manure has much of its plant food in an available condition.
Manure for Early and Late Crops.—Much more manure and more thoroughly rotted manure is required for early than for late crops. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that early in the season fermentation goes on very slowly, and unless plant food is supplied in a quickly available form it is of no immedi- ate use to the plant. On account of the rapid fermentation which goes on in the soil later in the season, crops that ma- ture later than the middle of the summer may be able to use the plant food that was locked up in fresh manure in the spring. For instance, the results from fresh cow manure may be almost nothing if applied in the spring to a crop of early
MANURES. 27
cabbage or spinach, while for a late crop of cabbage or for corn it may answer very well. Where an abundance of well- rotted manure cannot be obtained in the spring and it becomes necessary to use partially rotted manure for an early crop, it is a good plan to use nitrate of soda or some other quick acting fertilizer to afford plant food until the manure has rotted.
Manures for Leguminous Crops.—Leguminous crops, such as peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc., do not need as much nitro- genous manure as most other crops that are so rich in nitro- gen, since their presence encourages the growth of nitric acid ferments in the soil. Such crops improve the land on which they grow by increasing the amount of nitrogen in it, and in this respect they are different from all other garden crops, and are sometimes referred to as nitrogen producers and other crops as nitrogen consumers.
Animal Manure should generally be spread evenly on the land and then be thinly covered with the soil; yet for some crops it may sometimes be most desirable to apply the manure in the hill or furrow. The amount that should be applied per acre varies with the crop, soil and manure, so no exact rule can be given. For a midsummer or late maturing crop, probably eight cords of well rotted stable manure per acre would be suf- ficient in almost any case, and much less will sometimes be enough, while for an early crop twice as much rotted manure might be used to advantage. Well rotted manure should be covered with soil soon after it is applied to the land, or it may waste by drying. If it is put on frozen land it may waste by the soluble parts being washed away. But in the case of fresh animal manures there is little chance of loss in these ways.
The effect of the application of animal manures to the land will remain apparent for several years. It is generally consid- ered safe to estimate that not more than one-third the full value of these manures is taken up by the crop growing on the land the year it is applied.
Manure the Growing Crop.—Sometimes a crop comes to a standstill on account of having exhausted the available ferti- lizing material in the soil. In such cases it may be a good plan to fertilize the growing crop with hen manure, nitrate of soda or other quick acting fertilizer and cultivate the land at
28 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
once. This may be done in many cases by applying such ma- terials to the crop during a hard rain or in a dry time by plowing a furrow near the crop and placing the fertilizer in the furrow. But in any case it should be cultivated into the soil so as to become well mixed through it, and much care must be taken to prevent the dry fertilizer from coming in contact with the roots of the plants.
Rotating Manures.—It is a good plan to _ occasionally change the manures applied to land, i. e. when stable manure has been largely used for some years apply some commercial ferti- lizer, lime or land plaster, and when commercial fertilizers have been used for some time recourse should be had to stable manure.
Liquid Manure.—Liquid manure is sometimes used for en- couraging the growth of plants. It should never be made from fresh manure, but from that which is thoroughly rotted. Urine may be used as a liquid manure if well decomposed, but it should always be used with great caution and never applied to plants if fresh or undiluted. Cow and horse manure are gener- ally preferred for making liquid manure. The, vessel in which it is to be made should be one-third full of manure and filled up with water. The whole should then be stirred and allowed to settle. The clear water is then used for watering plants.
Liquid fertilizer is also made by dissolving nitrate of soda in water as mentioned under that head. Ammonia is sometimes used in very small quantities in water applied to plants, espe- - cially to house plants, with good results.
CHAPTER III. GARDEN TILLAGE.
By the proper cultivation of the garden we accomplish three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants which we desire to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into best condition to resist drought, that is, into the best condition to avail itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. (3) The inert plant food in the soil is made soluble by cnemical action, which is increased by the cultivation of the soil.
Prevention and Killing of Weeds.—The methods _ best adapted for keeping weeds out of the garden are many and varied. They depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow, and upon the kind of crop and the habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the har- rowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done thoroughly the weeds do not have any better chance than the crop. If this is not done the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started ever so little when the crop is planted the result generally is that the crop is seriously over- grown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated.
When garden seeds that require a long time to germinate are sown, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake even before the crop appears above the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to dis- turb the seeds. This is an easy matter in case of the larger garden seeds, while it would be impossible with the finer seeds, as they are invariably planted shallow. When the seed is sown with a drill the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cul-
30 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
tivating in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as car- rots, onions, beets and parsnips, which are quite delicate when young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden culti- vator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate it with a horse implement and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse im- plement now in use as with the best hand implements. Careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since if the weeds are removed when they are young the work of weeding is small. If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to remove them or to plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of the greatest value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants and which seriously interferes with their growth. Like all surface cultivation it is also an aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil.
Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to go to Seed.—A com- mon source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gath- ered. To some persons it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economi- cal in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and saves much useless expense if the weeds that are going to seed are destroyed. If the preventives for weeds here suggested are closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum
-and will often be unnecessary with any crop.
Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden.—While the dis- cussion of the subject of manures for the garden is not the special object of this chapter, yet some reference to the subject is quite necessary in considering the subject of weed eradica- tion. The people of this section have not yet learned the great yalue of barnyard manure and its proper preparation for best
GARDEN TILLAGE. $1
results in the soil. This is a subject of vast importance and one that in the future will receive far more thought than at present. The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds and is a fruitful source of weed in- fection. If the manure intended for the garden contains the seeds of weeds it should be piled up and allowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted, which process will kill the weed seeds in it. It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure in the garden, and it should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds and then only for some late maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it.
Plowing.—In the western states, where the summers are often very dry, vegetable land should generally be plowed in the autumn so that the subsoil may become sufficiently com- pacted by spring to readily transmit the subsoil moisture to the surface. Such treatment, by forming a dust blanket, retards evaporation from the land during dry autumns and dry winters when there is no snow on the ground. Fall plowing also puts the land in the best shape for the action of the elements and the development of plant food, and may ve a means of killing very many cut worms, white grubs and other insects that winter over in the soil. If plowing is left until spring in this climate it should be done as early as practicable and not so deep as when done in the fall. Deep spring plowing leaves too much of the upper soil loose and not sufficiently compact to enable the subsoil water to easily reach the surface roots—but where irri- gation is practiced there is not much difference in this respect. The soil for the garden should ordinarily be plowed to a depth of about eight inches, yet in the case of some light soils half this depth may be preferable.
Subsoil Plowing or Subsoiling, are terms applied to the loosening of the land just below where the plow ordinarily goes. In doing this, the subsoil is not brought to the surface, but a special plow is used which follows an ordinary plow. This has no mold board, but has a good point and shoe, and these loosen the subsoil without raising it. This process may be hurtful or of no value to subsoils already so loose as to permit the roots of plants to readily push into them, and should not
32 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
be applied to them, but for some of the very stiff subsoils of this section it is a great improvement, since it deepens the till- able land so that the roots of the plants can push more readily into it. This loosening of the stiff subsoil also puts it into just the right condition for receiving and holding water. It is thus sometimes a great help in carrying plants over droughty periods. Subsoiling gives best results when performed in the autumn. If done in the spring and the operation is followed by dry weather, the land is apt to be left too loose to hold moisture well that year and consequently will suffer from drought. It is seldom, even on stiff land, that subsoiling is needed more than
Figure 3.—Root of onion plant with earth washed off. The roots went to the depth of eighteen inches in the earth.
once in four or five years, for after being once loosened the roots of plants penetrate it and keep it open. The roots of our garden crops push deeper into the land than is generally known; even the onion, which is, perhaps, as shallow rooted as any gar- den crop grown, often pushes its roots to a depth of eighteen inches in good soil, while corn roots have been followed to a
GARDEN TILLAGH®. 33
depth of four feet. It is probable that in good land almost any of our garden crops will send their roots eighteen or more inches deep.
Ridging the Land.—If the land is liable to be too wet for planting in early spring, it is sometimes a good practice in plow- ing it to turn several furrows back to back and thus leave the land in ridges over winter. If these ridges or “lands” are made fifteen or twenty feet wide, they may be dragged and planted in the spring without further plowing. For some crops it is often best to open the furrows again in the spring and thus leave the land level. This method of treatment permits of working
Figure 4—Cross section of ridged land.
the land much earlier in the spring than it otherwise could be worked if plowed flat. It also leaves the soil in very good shape for the action of frost on its particles during the winter. For early crops on flat or heavy soils it is a most desirable treat- ment. The objection to it is that if not turned back in the spring the dead furrows interfere with cultivation; if the land is thus turned back in the spring, it may be left too loose. But admitting these objections, even then there are often cases where this treatment would be very desirable. It snould be borne in mind, too, in cultivating the garden that, while the soil in it may be too loose, it cannot be too rich nor too deep, nor can the subscil, if not of too impervious a nature, be too compact, and yet it must be loose enough to permit. of the roots entering it and the water percolating through it.
General Cultivation of Garden Crops.—The methods to be pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops vary some- what according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation. The most important part in this section is to so fit the soil that it may best with
34 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
stand drought. This is accomplished by frequent shallow culti- vation during the period of drought. The first implements to use in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth close to the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As soon as’the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked with- out endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drought results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from pass- ing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow dust blanket, say three inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact sub- soil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil in
Figure 5.—Iron Age horse hoe.
the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by the blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper sub- soil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the crop. Loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the growth of a crop the surface soil should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or artificial watering.
GARDEN TILLAGE. 35
Cultivation to Develop Plant Food.—Nearly all land in this section contains immense quantities of plant food. Professor Snyder has shown that our average wheat-producing soils con- tain enough nitrogen to raise one hundred and twenty-five suc- cessive crops of wheat. But only a very little of this material is ever at one time in a condition in which the plant can take it up; nearly all of it is insoluble. By chemical action and fermentation in the soil, plant food is set free. This is increased and made more complete by admitting air into the soil. Hence the reason for deep plowing in the fall, which allows the air and water to enter and thus develop plant food. This, also, is an important fact to be kept in mind in cultivating land. Where the soil can be kept moist through the summer deep spring plowing is an advantage as it opens the soil to the air; but on account of the liability to injury from droughts to soils thus worked the practice is generally a poor one for this section.
Figure 6.—Planet Jr. fine tooth cultivator.
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. Implements, such as plows, harrows, ete., used for prepar- ing the land for ordinary farm crops are also used in fitting the land for garden crops. In addition, however, there are a
26 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
number of tools and implements which are not commonly used in growing the farm crops. These may be roughly classed as follows:
Horse Hoes and Horse Cultivators are much alike in general construction, but each is adapted to special purposes, and both are very desirable. The horse hoes are for use when the land is very hard and weedy; they may also be used for ridging the land and drawing the earth from or harrowing it towards the plants. For this purpose they have various attachments.
The cultivators are especially for the purpose of stirring the surface soil and ping a dust blanket; they do not remove weeds that are well established. They throw very little soil side- ways and on this account may be used for cultivating very close to small plants. Among the best of these are those known under the names of Planet Jr. and Iron Age.
Figure 7.—Opening and closing furrows with hand garden cultivators.
Hand Cultivators.—There are many good forms of hand cul- tivators on the market, and they are a necessity in every garden containing over a quarter of an acre. They are made so as to be adjusted to various widths between the rows, and kinds called “straddle cultivators” are made so as to cut on two sides of a row of plants at one time, which is often quite an advantage. They also have various attachments for special purposes. Among
GARDEN TILLAGE. oy)
the best of these are Jewel wheel hoe, New Universal whcel hoe, Gem garden cultivator and the several kinds manufactured by the Planet Jr. Co.
Seed Drills—These are necessary in every garden. There are many good kinds offered by dealers. Among the best are the New Model drill, Planet Jr. Hill-Dropping drill and Mat- thews drill.
Combined Seed Drills and Cultivators.—These are very eco: nomical and useful implements for a small garden; for a large garden it is important to have the seed drill and cultivator sep-
Figure 8.—Garden drills. (1) A. H. Mathews. (2) Planet Jr. combined drill. (2) Mathews combined drill. (4) New Model drill. (5) Planet Jr. Hill Dropping drill.
arate, but in a small garden these combined machines can be used to good advantage, and thereby make a saving in first cost. Among the best of these is the combination drill and cultivator made by the Ames Plow Co., of Boston, Mass., and the Planet Jr. combined drill and cultivator.
Figure 9.—A simple garden marker.
38 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Marker.—The illustration shows a good form of a marker
for the garden. It is easily made by any one who is handy with tools and is used for marking out rows.
Figure 10.—Common wooden Figure 11.—Improved flat dibber. steel dibber.
Dibbers are generally made from a crooked stick shod with iron and are very useful in transplanting (Fig. 10). A better form made of steel is shown in figure 11.
Scuffle Attachments for Hand Garden Cultivators.—Fig. 11 shows two sets of implements designed to be attached to the
Figure 12.—Home made attach- Figure 13.—Scuffle hoe. meuts for garden cultivators.
ordinary wheel cultivators which will work close up to the young plants so as to cut off the weeds just under the surface of the soil, and will be found very useful in many places. They
GARDEN ‘TILLAGE. 39
should be made out of tool steel and any geod blacksmith can make them. The length of blades may be made to suit the work.
The Scuffle Hoe, shown in Fig. 13, is an excellent old-fash- ioned implement for shallow cultivation, such as is needed in early spring in the garden. Besides, it is very cheap and simple and can be made by any handy blacksmith. It cannot be recom- mended to take the place of the improved wheel hoes for large gardens, but in small gardens it may be used for the work of shallow cultivation to good advantage. It does not work the soil deep enough for the best summer cultivation.
Fignre 14.—Plank drag for smoothing the surface of land.
Plank Drag or Smoothing Board.—The form of this is clear- ly shown in Fig. 14. It is used for crushing lumpy soil and smoothing off and levelling the land preparatory to seed sowing or planting and will be found very useful. It can be made by any one. The planks are two by ten inches on the ends and eight feet long, lapped two inches and nailed. These are strengthened by two six-inch cleats securely bolted on. It is drawn by a chain fastened at the front corners.
Potato Diggers.—Of the cheaper forms of potato diggers, probably the Hallock Improved is the most perfect. It does very good work, and where not over five acres of potatoes are to be dug it is probably all that is needed. Where the potato is raised on a large scale, however, it is generally desirable to use an elevating digger. Of these the Hoover and the Dowden are probably the best to be had. They both work on the same principle.
Spray Pumps.—Almost every farmer and gardener needs a good spray pump for applying Paris green to potatoes and vines and for spraying trees, vines, etc., with fungicides or in- secticides. For this purpose some form of the knapsack spray
40 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
pump is most desirable where the work to be done is not very extensive. Hor applying these subtances on a large scale some special apparatus is needed, and there are many kinds offered by manufacturers. In Fig. 15 is shown the barrel spray pump, which has been found most convenient at the Minnesota Exxperi- ment Station for general work about the grounds, such as spraying trees of different kinds where the knapsack sprayer is
Figure 15.—Barrel spray pump, showing cone shaped strainer to the left.
insufficient. The barrel is fastened to a wooden frame and may be placed in a wagon or on a stone boat when it is to be used.
The essential parts are a good hardwood barrel, such as a linseed oil barrel mounted on and securely fastened to a light framework of oak. At one end of the barrel is mounted a powerful force pump with attachments capable of throwing two
GARDEN TILLAGE. 41
or three fine strong sprays at one time. The liquid in the barrel is kept agitated by a small stream of water passing through a one-fourth inch pipe, having a one-sixteenth inch wide opening near the feed p.pe of the pump, in the bottom of the barrel. On one end of the barrel is shown a cone shaped strainer which is much the best form to use. There are many styles of spray nozzles on the market. For general use the McGowen, Vermorel or Bordeaux are best.
The lower end of the feed pipe is covered with a fine brass screen. In the center of the side of the barrel is an open- ing eight inches in diameter with a tight fitting cover. This is so large that the barrel may be easily cleaned. The whole expense of making this machine was as follows: One linseed oil bar- rel, $1; pump, $6.50; 50 feet of one-half inch hose, $3; strainer, $1.50; two nozzles, $1.25; bolts, etc., 50 cents. Total cost, not including labor, $13.75.
In buying machinery it is well to regard with suspicion those that are very complicated, as the simplest is generally the most durable in the end.
CHAPTER IV.
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING FARMER'S KITCHEN GARDEN.
For the Successful Germination of Seed in the land it should be placed so as to have a reasonable amount of heat, moisture and air. To secure these conditions in practice, the seed should be imbedded in mellow soil, and this packed around it just firm enough to bring it into actual contact with and make sure capillary action in the soil. If the soil is left loose over and around the seed, capillary action cannot continue, and the seed is liable to dry out unless the season is very wet; on the other hand, the soil must not be allowed to become too com- pact over the seed, or the young seedling will not be able to push through it. No matter how carefully the sowing may have been done, the successful germination of the seed is largely dependent upon the condition of the ground. Unless the seed is carefully and properly placed and covered, the crop cannot get a good start no matter how well the land has been prepared or how good the seed is. Seed will not sprout in the absence of air, and on this account when deeply buried some weed seeds may retain their germinating power for many years. Cases are on record of_ yellow mustard seeds germinating after remaining in the land for eighteen years. Very frequently, on plowing land that has not been stirred for a long time, the weeds of certain kinds are very abundant, showing that they must have been in the soil a long time, but could not germinate away from the air.
Depth to Plant.—Most of the common, smaller garden seeds are planted one inch deep; celery and some other fine seeds cannot be planted nearly so deep. Peas and corn are generally planted from two to three inches deep. Peas, however, are some- times planted as deep as six inches. These matters will be found referred to under their respective heads.
Always Sow in Freshly Stirred Ground, as the seed is far
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 43
more liable to get a good start in it than in soil that has lain untilled long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then, if the seeds are planted immediately after cultivation has been given and while the soil is still moist, the weeds will hardly get the start of the crop planted if reasonable care is used. In fact, following this rule will generally insure success as long as there is life in the seed and moisture in the soil. Again, it is preferable to sow seeds immediately after a rain rather than just before it comes, since in the case of the finer seeds the crust which forms immediately after a rain may be so compact that the young seedlings cannot push through. When a crust thus forms over seeds it is sometimes a good plan to go over the land before the crust is very compact and break it up with rakes, but this should be done in a most careful manner so as not to disturb the seeds. If a crust forms over fine seeds, such as celery, tobacco and others, it is a good plan to keep the crust moist, at least, until the seeds have pushed through it. Soil that is much dried out in midsummer is often quite an obstacle to the ready germina- tion of seed sown at that time, but if the seed is sown shortly after the ground is plowed and somewhat deeper than it is generally sown, in the early spring and care is taken to firm the earth very carefully immediately after sowing, the seed will generally come up very quickly at this season. But the land should not be worked for seed sowing or for any other purpose when very wet and sticky, as seeds cannot be properly planted in soil in such condition. :
The Time for Sowing the various seeds varies greatly and will be founnd referred to separately under the several heads. Some seeds, such as spinach, onion, lettuce and radish may be sown as soon cs the ground can be worked, while the seed of such tropical plants as corn, cucumber and squash should not be sown until the ground is well warmed. The early sown hardier seeds are often frozen up in the ground and, perhaps, covered with snow without injury; in fact, a covering of snow seems to help seeds of the hardy kinds to grow.
Sowing in Stiff Clay Soils.—It is comparatively easy to make seeds germinate in sand, sandy loam, muck or soil rich in humus, provided they contain a reasonable amount of moisture, but in stiff clay soils this is often quite a different matter, as the land
44 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
becomes crusted over so completely as to prevent the smaller seedlings from pushing through. For such land it is desirable to use rather more seed than would be needed in more porous soil for the reason that while a few plants could not push up the crusted surface yet the many can do so; and while thick seed- ing increases the total cost of seed, yet the certainty of thus securing a full stand is so great an advantage as to well repay this additional outlay and the expense for thinning, if it has to be done at all, is about the same for thick as for thin seeding.
Sowing Seed With Machine.—When the soil is prepared for best work with a garden drill it is generally in the best condition for the germination of seeds. The whole surface should be fine, mellow and even. There are only one or two garden seeds that cannot readily be sown with any of the half dozen good garden drills that are offered in the market. Garden drills when properly used will sow and cover seed much more uniformly than it can possibly be sown and covered by hand, and they are a necessity in any well-managed garden. It is of the utmost im- portance to have straight rows in the garden, for they are more economical of space than crooked rows and are more perfectly cultivated with the wheel hoes and cultivator, besides, crooked rows are unsightly and slovenly. It is generally desirable in using a garden drill to mark off the first row with a line to get it straight. If this is done to begin with the subsequent rows may be kept parallel by using the marker always found on such machines, providing constant care is used. Some growers prefer to mark out all the rows with a marker and then run the seed sower in the marks, but for a careful workman this is useless labor. Seed drills are made with a point to open fur- rows, a coverer for filling in after the drill, a wheel for compact- ing the soil on the seed and a marker for the next row. To use a garden seed drill most successfully requires good judgment, but a little careful experimenting will soon enable any one ac- customed to tools to handle these most useful implements to good advantage. Sometimes it is desirable to sow seed when the ground is so wet that it is not safe to firm the soil over it. When such is the case the rear wheel is removed in sowing. In other cases when it is desirable to firm the soil more com- pactly, the press wheel may be used for this purpose, by going
° +
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 45
over the rows a second time. It is a good plan in doing this to remove the drill point or else tip the machine until the point is off the ground. In the case of a few seeds that are rather delicate about germinating, it is a good plan to sow the rows a second time with the seed drill and thus mix the seed up with the soil. This method puts in a large amount of seed, leaves the seed at various depths, and some of it is sure to grow.
Sowing Seed by Hand.—When only a very small quantity of seed is to be sown it is often best to sow it by hand. When this is the plan the rows are made by the garden maker and the seed distributed in them evenly by hand. The rows are then eovered by the soil being drawn into them with a rake and are firmed by passing over the seed with the feet. If the soil is dry it cannot be made too firm; if moist, care must be used to prevent packing it too hard. In the case of very fine seed sown in dry weather, many devices are used to bring about germination such as watering, shading the soil with boards, covering the earth with cloths and the like.
Using the Feet for Firming the Soil Around the Seeds.— Many seeds are lost from the failure to properly firm the soil over those sown during dry weather. Many devices have been suggested and used for securing this desirable condition, but for general garden purposes no method or implement ever used can vie with the proper use of the feet for this purpose. While this matter is referred to elsewhere, it is put under this special head to call attention to this useful fact. Peter Henderson was the first to call attention to the importance of this method, and describes it as follows: “After plowing, harrowing and leveling the land smoothly, lines are drawn by the ‘markers,’ which make furrows about two inches deep and a foot apart. After the man who sows the seed follows another who, with the ball of his right foot, presses down his full weight on every inch of soil where the seed has been sown; the rows are then slightly levelled longitudinally with the rake, a light roller is passed over them and the work is done.’ Those who have practiced this method know it gives most excellent results. In my own practice, in sowing seed in dry weather, even with a
46 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
seed drill which has a wheel for ‘firming the soil, I have fre- quently, and to advantage, walked the rows with the heel of one foot close to and in front of the toe of the other, pressing down on the row.
Thinning.—It is generally best to sow the seed of most gar- den vegetables much more thickly than the plants should stand when mature. This is done to make sure of having enough plants to stock the land, and it is a good practice. It is im- portant, also, to let every young plant in the garden have room enough for perfect development, and this can only be secured, where thick seeding is practiced, by thinning out. It is a very general fault of beginners in gardening that they try to grow too many plants on their land. This is a common mistake and is no better in result than permitting weeds to grow. Every plant in excess of what can properly mature on the land is in its effect a weed and should be treated as such. In the home gar- den, where the thinnings are valuable, as in the case of beets, lettuce, etc., the work of thinning need not be done all at once but as the plants need room. In the market garden it is best to thin out the full distance at one time. Do not allow the seedlings to get drawn and spindling before thinning, but do it while they are young and before they crowd one another. The proper distances between plants seem very large when the plants are small, but it must be remembered that later on any- thing less than the proper distance injures the crop. One must have determination enough to throw away many nice plants in order to make room for those that are to mature. It is better to give too much than too little room to plants.
Protection to Newly Planted Seeds against insects and birds may often be given by slightly moistening them and then stirring in red lead until all the seeds are Larousse coateil. The seed should be dried before sowing.
Crows and Gophers May be Kept From Eating Corn by coat- ing it with coal tar as follows: Wet the corn with hot water and drain off all surplus. Spread it out about four inches deep on the floor of a warm room and sprinkle it with hot coal tar using about a tablespoonful to a half bushel of corn and stir thoroughly until every kernel has a thin coat of tar on it. Then
ny
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 47
dry the corn by coating it with dry ground plaster or other fine absorbent. This treatment does not seem to hinder germination.
TRANSPLANTING.
Avoid transplanting as much as possible.—Whatever may be said of its merits elsewhere does not apply in this section, since the dry weather so common here in the season when transplanting is done often makes the operation unsuccessful. Undoubtedly one of the reasons why transplanted plants some- times give better results than seedlings allowed to grow where the seed is sown, is that they are allowed more room to develop in, but if seedlings that are not moved are given the proper room to develop they are just as good and generally far superior to those that are transplanted. Transplanting, as a rule, is an in- jury to plants and yet it is a necessary operation in the growing of some of our most valuable vegetables.
Figure 16.—A box of young lettuce plants after being transplanted from the seed box. These plauts may be moved tothe open ground or to hotbeds or cold frames as soon as they crowd oneanother. Thisis a convenient way to grow plants in dwelling houses and in front of windows. This style of box is often referred to as a “‘flat.’’
Success in Transplanting is dependent on a variety of con: ditions. In moist weather the setting of plants in the open ground is a very simple operation and any One can succeed with it without much effort, but during dry weather the gardener’s skill is taxed to the utmost to move plants successfully. One of the most important elements for success in transplanting is a
48 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
supply 3f first-class stocky plants that have not been crowded in the seed bed. Such plants make success reasonably certain. A most important requirement in any case is that the soil be moist and not wet and sticky. If it is very dry it must be watered or failure will be a sure result.
Shortening the Tops of Plants.—It is a good plan to shorten the tops of cabbage, celery, cauliflower and similar plants when they are to be moved. This may be done by twisting or cutting off a third or even one-half of the tops. If the plants have ex- cessively long roots it is a good plan to shorten them enough to permit of their being handled easily.
Migure 17. 1.—Cabbage plant with long stem set deep. 2—Cabbage plant with top twisted off before planting. 3—Cabbage plant wrapped in manilla paper to protect from cut worms.
The Digging of Plants should be done carefully and every precaution taken to get good roots. If the bed is very dry the
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 49
soil should be thoroughly wet before digging so that the small roots will not be broken in separating the plants. The best time of day for transplanting is generally after 4 p. m., as after that time the moisture in the air increases rapidly and the plants have the cool night air in which to recover before being subjected to the intense rays of the sun. Of course if the weather is cloudy the plants may be set out at any time of the day. If a little shade can be provided for the newly set plants so much the better. This may consist of boxes, boards slightly raised from the ground, shingles, inverted flower pots, paper bags,
Figure 18.—Tomato plants grown in a compartment box to facilitate ; transplanting. Such boxes can be bought for a very low price and
are very convenient aids for transplanting many kinds of plants.
They are especially desirable when plants are to be sold at retail. a handful of green grass, strawberry boxes or similar material that will protect the plants from the fierce rays of the sun.
Firming the soil about the roots is fully as important as firming the soil over the seeds and for the same reasons. It should be so firmly and closely packed that the plants cannot be pulled up without considerable effort. ‘The drier the soil
50 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the greater the necessity for packing it firmly about the roots. If the soil is wet and inclined to pack hard it should receive only moderate pressure until somewhat dried out. The firming is gen- erally done by pressing with a dibber or the ball of the foot against the soil on one side of the roots of the plant. When the transplanting is finished it is a good plan to give the plants a good hoeing at once, drawing a little loose, dry soil around them to act as mulch and prevent evaporation. The holes for the plants are generally made with a dibber (Fig. 10 or 11.) A spade is often used for this pur- pose and such plants as small on- ions are most conveniently set in small furrows made with a wheel hoe. In every case, however, the plants should be set a little deeper than they grew in the seed bed and in the case of spindling tomato,
cabbage and some other plants itis a good plan to bend the stems and bury a large part of them im the seid as shown in figure 17.
Figure 19.—Transplanting aided by the Balbridge transplanter, which takes up a ball of earth with each plant. The illustration shows a box of strawberry plants just taken up and ready for planting out. In planting out the holes are made with the same implement. There are several other similar implements for the same purpose.
Hardening off the Plants.—Hardening off is a term used to denote the checking of the growth of plants in such a way as to cause their tissues to become firm and hard. It is very important to have the plants accustomed to cold weather when they are transplanted to the open ground, or they may be killed by a frost that otherwise would do them no harm. This is true of the
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANT 51
cauliflower, celery and of course of all our native frost tender trees and many other plants. When cabbage plants are properly hardened they take on a dull blue color that at once indicates their condition to one acquainted with their peculiarities. This hardening off of the plants is accomplished by gradually subject- ing them to a lower temperature than that in which they grow freely or by drying them a little, and, finally, thus nearly check- ing their growth. The result is a sort of ripening up of the tissues of the plants and, in consequence, they will stand great hardship.
Tomato Cans are very convenient substitutes for flower pots when plants are grown for transplanting. The cover on the end openzd may be melted off and a half inch hole made in the
Figure 20.—Use of tomato cans as an aid in transplanting. A box of plants in the cans, ready for removal to the field and one can opened, showing the ball of roots. The cans are held together by wire twisted around them.
bottom for drainage. Another way to use them is to melt all
the joints and use the body of the can by tying it together with
a piece of wire. Thus prepared the tins may be set in the hot-
bed or cold frame and filled with earth into which the seed or
VEGETABLE GARDENING.
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SEED SOWING AND 7RANSPLANTING. 53
the plants may be placed. When the time comes for planting into the open ground the tine with the plants in them may be lifted with a trowel and placed in boxes, to be carried to the field where the plants are easily placed in the ground. The tins may also be set around the plans on top of the ground to protect them from the sun and wind. (See Fig. 20.)
FARMER’S KITCHEN GARDEN.
When Properly Conducted the kitchen garden should be the most profitable part of the farm. Too often its confined area and the laborious methods employed in its management makes the labor of cultivating it out of all proportion to the returns. Instead of confining the garden to a small area, it is better to enclose one or two acres of good rich land with a good wind- break of some kind so that it will make a garden plot twice as long as wide. Leave a headland in grass about fifteen feet wide all around as good crops cannot be grown next to a windbreak. The rows should run the long way of the land, somewhat as shown in figure 21. If the garden is surrounded by a fence it is found a good plan to have the part at the ends of the rows made of movable panels, so they may be removed when cultivating.
The Arrangement of a vegetable garden in the manner shown in figure 21 makes it large enough for practicing some- thing of a rotation of crops in it and permits of hand labor being reduced to a minimum by the use of horse implements. The land should be cultivated flat, except for a few special crops such as celery. There is no advantage to be gained from hilling up around plants and it is a laborious process that can be dis- pensed with as well as not. When irrigation cannot be prac- ticed it is important to have such crops as celery and late cab- bage on moist soil, but for general gardening purposes a porous clay soil overlaid with a sandy loam is best, although @ good clay. loam will do very well when properly cultivated. Light sandy soils, especially those that are underlaid with sand or gravel, are too liable to injury from drought to be reliable for general garden operations. The garden should be near the house, so as to be easily accessible.
In planning the garden it is important to put all the peren- nial crops together, and so arrange the other crops that those
54 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
that grow best in rows of the same width will come together. The accompanying figure shows one plan by which this may be done; it also provides for a part of the garden to be kept in clover, to be broken up about once in three or four years and used for vegetables in alternation with that shown laid out in rows, which part should then be seeded down for a while. This is a very desirable feature of this plan.
CHAPTER V.
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. DEVELOPMENT OF VARIE- TIES.
Good pedigrees in seeds are of the utmost importance in order to grow good crops. No single factor that enters into pro- duction of a crop is more important. Where many kinds of plants are grown it is better and cheaper as a rule to depend on some careful seed grower for seeds than to go to the expense of raising them, although it may be best to raise a few of the more important kinds of seeds for which one’s conditions are best adapted. When one makes a specialty of crops like onions, cab- bage and some other vegetables, it is often advantageous to raise the seed oneself, since their purity and pedigree are then known and no risk is taken about it.
Some seeds can be grown to better advantage in one section than in another. For instance, cauliflower seed cannot be raised profitably in many parts of the United States, but near Puget Sound and in a few other places in this country it can be raised to good advantage. Most of the cauliflower seed used in this country is still imported from southern Europe. As a general rule, however, the seeds raised in one’s own vicinity or in a similar climate elsewhere are best to plant if they are properly selected. Experience seems to show that seed grown in cold climates generally produces an earlier crop than seed grown in warm sections.
Testing Seeds.—No matter how carefully our seeds may have been raised or who the person is from whom Wwe received jthem it may save much trouble and loss to test them before ‘sowing. This may be done by sowing them in a box of fine loam kept at a temperature of from 60 to 70 degrees. The temperature of an ordinary living room is about right. For ,this purpose use a box about four inches deep and the size of ‘a soap box; sow the seed in shallow drills and cover the box
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56 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
with grass to prevent rapid evaporation. One hundred seed should be counted out just as they come, and be sown. By count- ing the seedlings the per cent of germination of the seed is easily obtained.
A Simple Germinating Apparatus.—A simple method of test- ing seed is as follows:—Take two plates and in one of them
Figure 22.—Simple device for seed testing (open).
place a folded cloth, woolen flannel is preferable, since it must remain moist for a long time, but any cloth will do. The cloth should be free from dye stuffs since they may contain injurious chemicals. Wet the cloth, pressing out the surplus water, leav- ing it very damp, but not soaked. Place the counted seeds be- tween its folds and mark plainly with a pencil on a piece of paper the number of seeds put in and the date. Then cover with the second plate, as shown in figure 23. Plenty of air will get in
Figure 23.—Simple device for seed testing (closed).
between the plates, and the upper one will prevent evaporation. The temperature should average as recommended. Common newspaper or wrapping paper may take the place of the cloth, but requires much more attention.
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 57
Sometimes seeds that barely germinate under the excep- tionally good conditions that exist in a sitting room or green- house will not grow readily when planted outdoors, so that in testing seeds it is very important to note the vigor of the sprouts. Seeds that start strongly in the house may be safely planted at their proper season outdoors, while those that start only weak sprouts indoors may be worthless for outdoor planting. An in- stance bearing on this occurred a few years ago at Chester, N. Y., where an onion grower planted seeds three years old which germinated fairly well in his conservatory but failed to grow outdoors, while fresher onion seed sown at the same time grew perfectiy.
The Curing and Storing of Seeds are matters of much im- portance and greatly influence their germinating qualities. Seeds should be thoroughly ventilated while being cured, or they will mould or sprout, either of which seriously injures their value. Seeds of some kinds will sprout several times before entirely losing their germinating qualities, but they lose much of their vitality, even by once sprouting. Moulded seeds may some- ttmes retain their vitality unimpaired, but if to be offered for sale their dark color is objectionable, for it must always be re- garded as an evidence of neglect in curing. It is important also to prevent seeds, especially tropical seeds as those of melons, squashes, corn, cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., from being frozen un- til fully dry. The freezing of green or half cured seeds in- jures their vitality and often destroys it. This is well known in the case of corn where the seed taken from an ordinary crib in the spring often fails to grow while seed corn from the same crop properly cured in a dry warm room grows perfectly.
Seeds are much influenced by the temperature and humidity of the place in which they are kept. A dry place is absolutely necessary for successfully keeping garden seeds, and if warm so much the better for tropical seeds The temperature and con- dition of a good living room are almost ideal for storing all kinds of garden seeds. Most if not all our garden seeds are unimpair- ed by even severe freezing while perfectly dry. In a moist place garden seeds lose their germinating qualities much quicker than when they are kept dry.
Changing Seed.—There are locations so well adapted to cer-
58 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
tain particular crops that some varieties seem to lose nothing of their pristine vigor and productiveness when grown there for many years, or they may be greatly improved in such locations; but, as a rule it is a good plan to change seed occasionally and it often results in increased productiveness. This sems to be a fact while the reason for it is not so plain.
Stock Seed.—When seed raising is a large business it is out of the question to have all the specimens planted, perfect in every respect, but nothing should be planted except it is near the desired type. Each year enough perfect specimens, or those closely approximating perfection, should be selected to raise the seed for the grower’s use the following season. In this way the quality of the grower’s seed stock is kept up and without such care the stock of seed is liable to seriously deteriorate. Seed so selected and improved from year to year is termed stock seed. (
Seedsmen’s Specialties.—Most seed growers and dealers have some few kinds of seed in which they are especially interested. These they select with more than ordinary care. It is always desirable to order seed of our specialties from those making a specialty of our favorite kinds unless we raise them ourselves. To secure the best it is well to order early in the season.
Seedsmen’s Humbugs.—Almost without exception every dealer in seeds sells humbugs, that is, worthless or very inferior varieties. If he is honest he offers them simply because his customers want them. If he is dishonest he is very apt to mis- represent and praise them in order to make customers pay a big profit.
Novelties.—It is desirable to test novelties in seeds and plants, but this should be done cautiously and, as a rule, it is best not to be in too great haste to try new things. It is the general experience of growers that not more than one in ten of the novelties in seeds, fruits and plants is any better than those generally cultivated. In the history of the Minnesota Experiment Station the average of desirable seed novelties has been even less than this.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIETIES. There are laws that govern heredity and descent in plants
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 59
as well as in animals, and by intelligent selection and breeding one may greatly improve or even originate new varieties of vegetable as well as of other plants. The seed stock of desirable new or improved varieties may often be sold at profitable prices, or by retaining the sole ownership of suc new or improved kinds, one may perhaps raise crops that have highly esteemed qualities as to size, shape, color, flavor, hardiness, season of maturity or other features, and so command an advanced price. Thus a grower may sometimes be well rewarded for his care and attention in improving his specialties, but careful study and persistence is necessary to success and few persons are keen enough in their powers of observation, to succeed in this line of work.
There is constant tendency for cultivated plants to vary widely from the original form, though this feature may not mani- fest itself for many generations after cultivation has com- menced. The higher the state of cultivation to which a plant is subjected, the higher are the chances of its producing new features. In nature plants grow under fixed conditions, so they do not vary much. When a plant once commences to vary from the original type, the changes ofttimes come very rapidly, and the possibilities are endless. Thus from a wild plant two or more feet high with only a few leaves has been developed (1) the modern cabbage of (a) the wrinkled, (b) the smooth, (c) the red-leaved, and (d) the many ornamental kinds; (2) Brussels sprouts with numerous small cabbage heads on a stem two or more feet high; (3) cauliflowers, in which the inflorescence becomes thick and fleshy; (4) the various kinds of kale; and (5) cow cabbage, which in the Jersey Islands has been known to grow to the height of sixteen feet and strong enough for rafters of cow sheds. The many varieties of garden and field plants are conclusive evidence of the variation of plants under cultiva- tion.
All of our valuable garden vegetables are the result of al- most endless care in selection and in a few cases of artificial as well as chance crossing. They must be regarded as artificial productions having a constant tendency to revert to the inferior wild state, which we must constantly try to overcome if their desirable qualities are to be maintained.
60 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
It is necessary for the most successful breedinng of plants to have in view a well defined purpose and in selecting seed not to vary the ideal standard of excellence sought, for such varia- tion increases the difficuliy of fixing desired characteristics.
It is found to be quite a general law obtaining among plants that the qualities of the parent are much more potent and thus more liable to be transmitted than some especially desirable qualities of a few individual fruits, which may occur on a plant otherwise defective. For instance, Liivingstone, who has done much to improve the tomato, selected seed for fifteen years from the best tomatoes that approached most nearly in size and other qualities the best modern tomatoes without noting much im- provement. He says, “I was then no nearer the goal than when I started. Such stock seed would reproduce every trace of their ancestry, viz: thin fleshed, rough, undesirable fruits.” It finally occurred to him to select from the special merits of the plants as a whole instead of from the best fruits without re- gard to the plants on which they grew. Improvement then came easily and rapidly and in a few years he obtained the Paragon, Acme and Perfection, varieties which were vastly superior to and have entirely supplanted the old varieties of tomatoes. Again, in selecting seed corn it is more important to save seed from plants having ears approaching the desired size of cob, kKer- nel, etc., rather than to select the largest kernels alone or to select from ears after they have been pulled.
When it is desired to hasten the ripening period of a variety, only the seed from the earliest maturing specimens from a plant having the largest number of early specimens should be planted. In order to fix late maturing qualities, seed should be saved from the late maturing fruits on plants possessing these feat- ures to the greatest extent.
The continued selection of any seed from inferior specimens results in the fixing of the poorer qualities even more surely than the selection of seed from the better plants results in im- provement. By judicious selection the cabbage has sometimes been changed from a biennial to an annual producing no head at all but going to seed the first year. When cabbage has been grown for several generations from stem sprouts and not from
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 61
head sprouts the effect has sometimes been to lengthen the stem at the expense of the head, until the seed stock becomes run out entirely and is in effect no longer true modern cabbage seed, since it has partly reverted to the original type. An instance of this occurred in a neighborhood in Nova Scotia where, for the sake of economy for a number of years cabbage seed was grown by cutting off the heads and planting out the stumps only until the stems became nearly two feet long and the heads not much bigger than twice the size of a man’s fist.
The practice of sowing the seed from plants remaining in the garden after the best specimens have been gathered for home usé, as often happens, is a very poor one. Under such treatment there is a very general tendency for the stock to degenerate. Where seed is to be saved in a mixed garden, a few hills of plants should be allowed to go to seed for this special purpose, without being picked at all. It is very important to save seed from well ripened fruits Very immature seeds will often grow but they give a weak though perhaps very early maturing plant and are very liable to disease. According to Professor Arthur, it is not the slightly unripe seeds that give a noticeable increase in earliness but very unripe seeds gathered from fruit (tomatoes) scarcely of full size and still very green. Such seeds weigh scarcely more than two-thirds as much as those fully ripe; they grow readily but lack constitutional vigor. Professor E. S. Goff has made a great number of experiments along this line and remarks that the increase in earliness in tomatoes following the use of very immature seeds, “is accom- panied by a marked decrease in the vigor of the plant and in the size, firmness and keeping quality of the fruit.”
A few years of careful observation and experience in follow- ing out these principles in the breeding of plants with a special object in view, will convince the most skeptical of the wonderful power which man possesses to adapt plants to his needs.
Cross and Self-pollination of Plants.— The flowers of plants are said to be either ~elf-pollenized or crossed. By self-pollina- tion is meant the pollination of the female organ (pistil) by the male element (pollen) of the same flower or, in some cases of the same plant but different flowers as in-corn and
62 MONTHLY CALENDAR.
squashes, which have two kinds of flowers. By crossing or cross-pollination is meant the pollinization of the female organ by pollen from another plant. The crossing of different varie- ties generally gives increased vigor in the progeny, but its effect is variable and may result in the loss as well as in the increase of their desirable qualities. Most of our cultivated plants are crossed by natural processes. The crossing of differ- ent seed stocks of the same varieties of plants is generally a great advantage, since it generally results in increased vigor . without loss of desirable qualities. Seeds from self-pollenized flowers are not as productive as crossed flowers. Darwin ' found that cabbage plants from seeds that had been crossed produced nearly three times the weight produced by self-pollen- ized seeds. In the case of Indian corn, experiments made at the Illinois Experiment Station show that while cross-fertilization is not necessary, it is very desirable. Corn grown from crossed seed in nearly all cases was clearly increased in size as the result of crossing. “Plants grown from self-fertilized seed corn were in most cases notably inferior in size and vigor to the plants grown from hand crossed seed or from seed simply select- ed which was probably naturally crossed.” “One plat from self- fertilized seed had nearly half the stalks deformed in such a manner that instead of standing up straight they turned off at a right angle at or near the point where the ear was produced, thus showing the tassel on a level with the ear. Many of the tassels were very deficient in pollen.” In another plot from | self-fertilized seed, nearly all the tassels were abortive. All the plants. from self-fertilized seed produced a greater proportion of barren stalks or poorly filled ears than plants of the same varieties from hand crossed seed or from seed naturally fertil- ized. On the other hand the flowers of barley and wheat are so constructed that their flowers seldom open and hence are natu- rally self-fertilized, but even here artificial crossing results in increased productiveness.
The Effect of Cross-pollination is not always apparent in the progeny of the first generation, but is frequently plainly to be seen in the crossed fruit or seed the first year. However, differ- ences may appear as the result of the cross the second or later generation which were not suspected. When corn is crossed it
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 63
is generally believed that the effect of the cross is apparent the first year in the grain, but careful experiments plainly show that this is not so, and that flint corn grains which do not show a trace of the admixture of sweet corn the first generation may produce ears the second generation, showing some of the char- acteristics of the sweet corn, and the same is true of other kinds that are crossed. The same truth undoubtedly holds as good in the case of other plants.
Mixing Varieties.—Practically varieties of plants can be mixed only in the blossom; and in order to mix the different varieties both must be in blossom at the same time. On this account potatoes do not mix in the hill. The varieties of some species of plants are much inclined to mix. Any two varieties of corn, melons, squashes and cucumbers are especially liable to be crossed if growing in the same field and in flower at the same time. However, two kinds of corn, of beans and of other plants may be grown on adjoining pieces of land withut danger of mix- ing, providing that they are not in flower at the same time: e. g., Cory and Evergreen sweet corn if planted at the same time may be grown for seed close together and will not mix, since the Cory would be entirely out of flower when the Evergreen came into flower. Melons and squashes never mix together, for although this belief is widespread the most careful experiments have failed in getting any fruit when the one has been pollen- ized by the other. Neither do musk-melons and water-melons mix together.
Distance Between Varieties.—The distance which should in- tervene between varieties liable to mix is variously estimated by different growers and is influenced by various conditions. The pollen of corn, grasses and many other plants is moved by the wind; and when different varieties of corn flowering at the same time are planted for seed there will be more liablity of their mixing when the pieces of land on which they grow are in line of the prevailing winds than when east and west of each other. If a grove or hill intervenes between varieties it will often prevent crossing. When varieties of each plant are not on a line of pre- vailing winds, they are reasonably free from mixing if 500 feet apart: otherwise, at least 1,000 feet should intervene.
64 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Such plants as melons, cucumbers, squashes and onions and most other plants with conspicuous flowers, are pollenized by insects to whose bodies the pollen becomes attached and is thus carried from one flower to another. This pollen is not light and powdery as in corn and many other plants but is rather heavy. It is obvious then that the direction of the wind has little effect in crossing such plants. It is generally agreed that different varieties of plants pollenized by insects should have at least 1,000 feet between them to prevent mixing, but which will often occur | to some extent even with these precautions. The greatest care should be taken to keep stock seed from being mixed.
CHAPTER V1.
GLASS STRUCTURES.
Glass structures are becoming more numerous each season for raising vegetables and flowers, and are destined to continue to increase in use as the wealth of the country increases. They are referred to here under the head of cold frames, hotbeds and greenhouses.
Cold Frames.—The term cold frame is applied to frames cov- ered with glass and used to protect plants in winter, or for for- warding them without any heat other than that derived from the sun. It is the simplest form of glass structure. They are
SG, Z ) le
No co
Figure 24.—Movable frame which may be stored out ofthe way in the summer. It is generally made of one inch boards and is very cunvenieut for those using only a few sashes.
generally made 4% or 6 feet wide and of any length or depth which convenience may suggest. The sashes for covering them are generally 4x4% feet or 3x6 in size. The location should be near to water and the house, preferably sloping to the south and well protected on the north and west by buildings, trees, etc. If there is no protection on the north and west, a tight board fence six feet high will answer the purpose. In making the bed the following are requisites: Enough 2x12 in. plank to go the length of the north side and the same length of 2x6 in. plank for the south side of the bed and 2x4 in. stakes, two or more feet long,
vo VEGETABLE GARDENING.
for each corner and to support the sides firmly in place and sash and shutters to cover. The plants should be made into a box with its width equal to the length of the sash and extending east and west. See figure 24. Those forming the north side should be six inches above ground, and the top edge of the plank forming the southerly side should be five inches lower. Thus when the sash is put on, it will slope five inches to the south, as shown in figure. The planks should be nailed to the stakes, and end pieces put in. The earth inside the frame should be thrown out to the bottom of the planks and used to bank up the outside of the frame. The soil of the frame should be of the best quality if plants are to be grown init. The frame is now ready for the sash and plants. More durable and expensive frames are sometimes made of brick or stone for the sides, and sometimes four-inch strips are put on wherever two of the sashes come together, to serve aS a support. Frames are also frequently made several feet deep, but the same general rule applies in the building of them as are here given.
Cold frames are used in the middle states to winter over cabbage and lettuce plants. The plants are started in September and planted into them when grown to a good transplanting size. In severe climates this is not a safe method.
Cold frames are used here in the spring for forwarding let- tuce and other early crops, and still later for melons, cucumbers and other tropical plants. They are also used to extend the season of growth during the autumn months and to protect some of the half-hardy plants, such as spinach, during the winter. They require ventilation during the day in mild weather, and on cold nights should be covered with mats and shutters or shutters alone. They are very inexpensive and very useful in the garden, but where the materials for making them can be had at low cost hotbeds are much more satisfactory for forcing vegetables.
Hotbeds.—Hotbeds are made very much like cold frames, only they are warmed by fermenting horse manure or other material placed under the soil, and hence they must be dug out deep enough to make room for it. The amount of manure neces- sary to properly warm a hotbed will depend very much on the season of the year at which the bed is made up and the crop to be grown. In the colder northern states when the hotbeds are
GLASS STRUCTURES. 67
made up at the beginning of March from 24 to 30 inches of ma- nure should be used, and covered with six or eight inches of rich soil. Later in the season 18 inches or even one foot of manure
Figure 25.—Cross section of hotbed.
may be sufficient. In favorable locations hotbeds may be used all winter for growing lettuce, radishes, ete. This is not often practicable in the extreme northern states and cheap greenhouses are generally used there during winter and hotbeds only during the spring.
The Hotbed and Frames for Early Spring Use should be pre- pared in the autumn, so that no digging will have to be done in the spring. The soil for spring use should generally be put into them, covered with leaves, and the shutters and mats put on to keep out the frost. If this has not been done the sash may be put on in the early spring, which will partially thaw out the soil in the bed; or, by another method, more manure may be used, putting it on the surface of the frozen land, and the frame may be set on top of it. In the latter case the manure should ex- tend at least one foot beyond the sides of the frame and be one- half again as deep as when placed in a pit and the frame should be banked up with manure. It is quite common practice to make movable frames of one-inch boards large enough for three or four sash, as shown in figure 24. These are kept from year to year, being set om top of the manure and the earth put into them.
Hotbed Manure.—The material generally used for heating hotbeds is fresh horse manure, but sheep manure and even spent hops may serve the purpose. Of animal manures, that. from horses fed on highly nitrogenous foods, i. e., on grain foods, will
68 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
heat best. The preparation of the manure is very simple. It should be gathered together in a pile, as fresh as may be, when if moist it will generally heat, no matter how cold the weather. If it does not start to heat readily, a few buckets of hot water poured into the center of the pile will often start it. When it gets nicely started the pile should be turned over, throwing the outside manure into the center of the pile and breaking up all the lumps. In a few days it will heat again and will then. be ready to go into the frames, but do not put it into the frames until it is heating thoroughly. Clear horse manure heats too violently and should be mixed with about its own bulk of leaves or fine straw. The leaves used to keep frost out of the frames during winter now come in to good advantage for mixing with the manure. Of course, if the manure gathered has considerable straw in it this admixture is not necessary.
The way of putting manure in the frames calls for some little care. It should be broken up very fine, mixed with leaves or other material and spread as evenly as possible over the whole bed, taking special pains to have the frame well filled in the center, as it settles there much quicker than at the sides. As the manure is put in it should be packed down quite firmly by the feet, taking great care to have it evenly packed throughout. Now put on the sash and cover until it heats well all through the bed. If it does not start to heating quickly enough, a few buckets of hot water should be added. When well warmed through, level off the top of the manure and cover with soil six inches deep. This soil should have been prepared in the autumn and protected from frost by mulching or put under the leaves in ithe bed; but if this provision has not been made the soil may be searched for in cellars, under strawstacks, in the woods under leaves or elsewhere, or the soil may be thawed out by the use of sash and manure. As this latter process is tedious all experi- cneed growers prepare their soil in autumn.
After the soil is put on it should be left until it is warmed through and the weed seeds near the surface have germinated. Then remove the sashes and make the surface fine with a rake and the bed is ready to receive the seed. A hotbed made up in this way in March will continue to give out heat five or six weeks, after which it will be practically a cold frame, but since
GLASS STRUCTURES. 69
after the middle of April the sun is pretty high and the bed well warmed, the plants will continue to flourish.
Hotbeds require more water than cold frames and more care in the matter of ventilation. They should not be started until a short time before one is ready to use them. If seedlings are to be raised in them to be later on transplanted, start only enough sashes to grow the seedlings and do not start other hotbeds until the seedlings are big enough to be removed into them.
For the ordinary farm garden four or five hotbed sashes are a great plenty and no more should be started than can be prop-
Figure 26.—Fire hotbed.
erly attended to. These should be started about the first of March. This number will be found sufficient for all the early radishes, onions, lettuce, cress and other greens for the table in early spring, and for raising tomatoes, cabbage and other vege: table plants to be set out later in the open ground.
Shutters and mats are used for covering the sash of hot- beds and cold frames at night to prevent too rapid radiation of the heat.
Fire Hotbeds.—Horse manure will undoubtedly continue to
70 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
be used for warming hotbeds, no matter how much greenhouse construction or means of artificial heating may be cheapened, but there are some situations where it may be more economical and convenient to use a forcing bed or what is sometimes called a fire hotbed. This closeky resembles a hotbed in out- ward appearance, but instead of being heated with manure a flue is used to take its
Be coe aces place, and it is warmed
pecan «Cee aes by the smoke of wood, item, Mab en Nan a2 aot coal or other fuel. In
| gerne mon necwens.,
TH] LW is case a pit shou . — v4 ie excav 4, A pat,
\. XS: nished with permanent
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<> walls and a_ good
strong floor to support the soil in which the crops grow. Ten inch terra cotta or glazed drain tile is a cheap material for the flue, or brick may be used for this purpose. The furnace and the first eight or ten feet of the flue should be made oi common hard brick and have a lining of fire brick set in fire clay. If the pit is not over thirty feet long the fire box should be at one end and the chimney at the other; but if much longer it is better to have the chimney over the fire-box and to run the tile to the end of the house and return back to the chim- ney. This chimney should have dampers so arranged that when kindling the fire a direct draft may be had into it, and after starting the fire the heat and smoke can then be forced to go through the whole length of the pipe. This arrangement is de- sirable on account of the difficulty in getting a draft through a long, flat, cold flue. In laying such a flue, it should rise slightly throughout its whole length from firebox to chimney. The fur- nace should vary in size according to whether coal or wood is to ‘be used for fuel. For wood the furnace should be 18 inches wide and arched over the required length, generally 4% feet, with cast iron grate bars set in the walls. There should be an ash pit of suitable size, and both it and the fire-box should have suitable iron doors set in brick. The illustrations herewith show the gen: eral arrangement of such a house. It is a good plan to build a low shed for fuel on the end where the furnace is located.
GLASS STRUCTURES. 71
The heat from a fiue is very dry, and much more water is required when hotbeds are heated in this way than when manure is used as the source of heat.
A Greenhouse Hotbed.—A greenhouse may be heated by manure or a combination of manure and other artificial heat. In the following lines and illustrations is given the plan of what may be called a greenhouse hotbed which has been in very suc- cessful operation at the Minnesota Agriculaural School. The de- scription is from an article on the subject by R.S. Mackintosh, of the Division of Horticulture.
“There are disadvantages in hotbeds, as, for instance, the transplanting, ventilating, watering, etc., must be done from the outside even in severe weather, while in a house like the one
. ee
P BLEVATION..
PLAN. Figure 28.—Plan and elevation of hotbed greenhouse.
shown in the figure these operations can be carried on easily. The house is simply a hotbed built so as to allow a person to go
72 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
inside to do all the work of caring for the plants. Figure 28 shows the general plan of the house. The size is 12x24 feet. The roof consists of sixteen sashes, each 3x6 feet. Any number of sashes may be used according to the size of the house desired. ~ To receive the most sunlight the house should extend north and south; the light will then strike both sides of the plants. The south end of the house is glazed from the surface of the bed up to the rafters. It is not necessary to excavate the full depth of four feet, because the earth that is thrown out can be used to bank up with on either side, making a terrace as sloping as desired.
The heat is furnished by two to three feet of well prepared manure in each bed, over which is placed five inches of soil.
SECTIONAL VIEW. _
— 7 Seote inge.— ~ 75
ir aes Ta DL
Figure 29.—Sectional view of hotbed greenhouse.
The sashes are fastened to the rafters by screws which prevents their being lifted by heavy winds and at the same time allows them to be removed very easily when desired to replace soil or manure. Ventilation is provided for by fastening one or more sashes with hinges at the bottom so they may be raised as high as necessary at the top.
Many kinds of building material may be used in the con:
GLASS STRUCTURES. 73
struction of the wall, beds, etc. Lumber is used in the building shown in the figure, but brick or stone would be more durable, though it would add considerable to the first cost. The posts are three feet apart, extend about two feet below the planks and are braced. The inside rows of posts need not be quite so strong as the outside ones, and need not be braced. When a house is not more than twenty-four feet long it will not be necessary to support the roof in more than one place. This is done by extending two of the middle posts to the rafters.
In figure 29 is shown a cross section of this greenhouse and the way the sashes and rafters are joined at top and bottom. The sashes are cut so as to fit tightly at the top and the plate is beveled a little so as to allow water to run off quickly.
There are sixteen wooden shutters for covering the sashes on cold nights. These are made the same width as the sashes but six inches_ longer. One cleat is put on the upper side at one end, and the other on the lower side at the other end. When put on, the upper cleat is against the ridge pole which leaves the shutters clear for the water to run off. They are made of second fenc- ing matched and dressed.
In this house there is glass over. the _ path, which is not necessary in the lean-to plan, shown in figure 30, where the sash is all on the Figure 30.—Cross section of lean-to green- a ge ou NS gL
house hotbed. It is important to have crops grow as close to
the glass as may be, and this fact should be carefully borne in mind. This style of house is susceptible of many modifications. It may be used as a lean-to on the south side of the dwelling,
74 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
where it may receive a little heat from the house. Its limita- tions are about the same as those of hotbeds. When such a house is intended for use in winter, it might be an advantage to so plan it that the manure from one-half could be renewed every five or six weeks.
GREENHOUSES.
Greenhouse is a term applied rather loosely to glass strue- tures of the larger sort having special heating apparatus, and used for growing plants. The more expensive structures are not referred to here, but only the simpler ones such as are most economical for use in the market and home garden.
A Very Cheap, and Yet Withal Serviceable Greenhouse, is described in “How to Make the Garden Pay” and the publishers of it have kindly con- sented to the use of it here. It is called the “Model . Foreme fi. Figure 13 shows a cross section of this house which is made with a valley in the center, so that in point of fact it is two houses. The total width of both houses is twenty-six feet. The alleys are dug into the ground in each house eighteen inches wide and eighteen inches deep and boarded up on each side. The beds on each side are four feet wide, and the attendant can cultivate them when standing in the alley. The peak of the green- house is only four and a half feet above the ground level or six feet from the bottom of the alleys. The sides are only one foot above the ground, and are made of plank nailed to cedar posts and banked upen the outside with horse manure in winter. The roof is covered with movable sashes 7 or 7% feet long and of any convenient width. Common hotbed sash (3x6 feet) might be made to answer, but sash having larger glass than is generally put in them is best. Large sized glass is preferable, 12x16 inches being a good size. <A light framework for the sash to rest on, similar in construction to that shown in figure
igure 31.—Market gardeners’ greenhouse.
GLASS STRUCTURE 75
of a greenhouse hotbed is necessary, and the sashes should be screwed down and ventilation secured in the same way as there explained. In the center of B, where the two roof sections meet, the sashes rest on a plank 12 inches wide cut out % by 8 inches, to form a guiter to carry off water as shown in figure 32. The center planks rest on two rows of 2x3 inch posts, two and a half feet long and twelve inches above the beds; these posts are four feet apart in each row. The total length of the houses here described may vary according to circumstances. The house from which this plan is taken was 100 feet long. It was heated with a second hand tubular steam boiler which at an outside temperature of zero, has io) scarry about: “five pounds pressure to main- tain a temperature of 65 or 70 degrees. Two inch pipes conduct the heat from the boiler, one line of pipe running up each side of the house and both returning through the center at B, back to the boiler. The furnace Figure 32.—Valley ia market gardeners’ room is an excavation greenhouse showing the way the Ben eee atdcix feck sashbars are attached to the plate. deep at the northerly end of the house, built with a good wall and roof. The length of pipe required is 450 feet. In the ex- treme northern states more pipe radiating surface would per- haps be required for best results. The entire cost of material for a structure of these dimensions, boiler and pipes included, amounts to about $450. The cost of steam fitting will have to be added to this, but the rest of the work can be done by any man of ordinary intelligence. Mr. Greiner, whose description has been largely foilowed in the above, says that he likes the pipes all above ground as here recommended for forcing vegetables, but if wanted for starting seedlings and for general propagating purposes the pipe had better be placed ten to twelve inches under the surface, and encased in an ordinary three inch drain
76 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
tile as shown at D, figure 31. In sections where fuel is high priced the beds might be partially heated with manure.
Figure 33 shows a cross section of a lean-to house that is - easily adapted to most locations, but especially suited to side- hills. It is twenty feet wide and may be made of any length desired. It should have a boiler room on one end or at the back side as is most convenient. It should, of course, extend east and west so that the slope will be entirely to the south or south- east. The walls are made of cedar posts tightly boarded up on both sides. The alleys are two feet wide and planked on each side. The roof is shown made of permanent sash bars but these
Scale in§t- 1
Figure 33.—Cross section of lean-to greenhouse,
might be made of movable sash as recommended for the model forcing pit. One ventilator is at the top of the roof and another is in the side wall. Two purlins extending the length of the house are supported by small gas pipe posts. The northerly bench is four feet wide, raised three feet above the alley and is filled with six inches of soil or it may be used for seed boxes. The center bench is 2ight feet wide and may be solid or raised. The southerly bench is shown filled with stable manure and is practically a hotbed. The same treatment may also be given the center bench. But where the plan is followed of making up a part of the benches with manure, it is well to have some or all of the roof glazed with movable sash, to facilitate the work ot
GLASS STRUCTURES. 77
putting in and taking out the manure. The use of stable manure to supplement the heating apparatus is a practice that may be economically followed in locations where coal is high priced and stable manure abundant. The heating arrangement could be either steam or hot water with the flow pipes high up near the roof, as shown at A and B and the returns at C and D.
Methods of Heating.—There are practically three methods of heating greenhouses, viz.: by smoke flue, by hot water and by steam. Heating by smoke flue is described under the head of fire hotbeds. It has the merit of being easily and cheaply con- structed by anyone having some little ingenuity. Even when made on the best principles it is probably more wasteful of fuel than a good steam or hot water apparatus, but where inferior fuel can be cheaply obtained a smoke flue may often be used to advantage. As for the relative merits of hot water and steam apparatus for heating, it is probably enough to say that each system nas its earnest advocates and that very often there is little advantage in favor of either. Where a very large heat- ing plant must be used, making a night watchman necessary, it is best to plan for steam heating at low pressure. For small greenhouses perhaps a hot water plant is best. It costs more to put in the hot water apparatus because it requires more radi- ating surface since the pipes are not heated as hot as when steam is used. Some exclusive merits are perhaps justly claimed for a combination of hot water and steam, in which system hot water is used for heating in mild weather, while in severe weather the water is lowered in the boiler, a regulator is put on and the pipes are filled with steam. It is probable that an ordi- nary tubular steam boiler is the most practical kind to use either for a hot water or steam heating apparatus.
The amount of radiating surface necessary for heating a greenhouse wiil depend on the temperature to be maintained and the location of the house. In a general way, one should figure that glass houses will require at least four times as much radi- ating surface as an ordinary dwelling house similarly situated and enclosing the same number of cubic feet of space. In estimating the amount of radiating surface necessary it is always advisable to consult some practical person acquainted with such problems,
78 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE BUILDING AND CARE OF HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES.
The Sash for Hotbeds or Cold Frames should be about 3x6 feet or 4x4%% feet in size; the glass free from blisters, of double strength and lapped not more than one-fourth of an inch. If lapped more than this water is liable to freeze the laps and crack the glass, and dirt will collect largely between the glass. It should be bedded in putty and nailed in, not puttied ine Common window sash might be used for the purpose in a small way and temporarily, but it is not strong enough to last well and besides as the sash bars run both ways and project beyond the glass the rain water cannot run off, but soaks the wood and leaks through into the hotbed, making it too wet in places. Also, the cross bars in common window sash make a needless extra shadow that is objectionable. Regular hotbed sash is made with sash bars running only one way so that the water falling on it runs off easily and quickly. Hotbed sash can be bought of sash manufacturers or may be made at home by any person having a fair amount of mechanical ingenuity.
Shutters are desirable for covering the glass of hotbeds and cold frames. ‘lhey are generally made of second fencing, match- ed and dressed, and in size of the same width as the sash but about six inches longer with a six-inch cleat on each end.
The Mats are often made of straw, but cloth and burlap mats are sometimes used. Straw mats are probably as good as any kind and are easily made as follows Make a frame of | 2x4 inch lumber the size of the mats desired; four feet wide and one foot longer than the sash is a convenient size. Stand this frame up against a wall and tightly stretch four or five tarred strings eight to ten inches apart from top to bottom so as to evenly divide the four feet of width. Have as many balls of lighter tarred strings as there are strings fastened to the frame and fasten one to each upright string at the bottom. Commence at the lower end by laying a wisp of straw, cut ends out, on the string at the bottom and fasten it there by twisting each of the smaller strings once around the straw and the upright strings. Next put on another wisp of straw and so continue until the frame is covered. Mats thus made are an admirable protection
GLASS STRUCTURES. 79
against frost and far better than shutters alone. The advantage of having shutters in addition to the mats is that they keep the mats from getting wet, which makes them so heavy that they break easily in handling or they freeze solid and do not lie close or are clumsy to handle. Rye straw is best for mats and it is most tough and durable when cut partially green. It is often threshed by hand so that the straw can be kept straight, but it - may be cleaned by a threshing machine by holding the bundle and only putting the heads into the machine.
Ventilation and Temperature are subjects of greatest impor- tance in growing plants under glass. The various classes of plants require different degrees of heat to reach their best development. For instance, lettuce, radish, cress and similar plants grow best at a low temperature, say about 75 degrees in the day and 40 to 50 degrees at night, and may even be frozen without serious injury, while tomatoes, egg plants, cucumbers and melons grow best at the higher temperature of 85 to 90 de- grees in the day and 60 degrees at night. If the former plants are kept at a higher temperature than that given they are liable to become diseased and infested with insects. This is especially true of lettuce. On the other hand if the high temperature plants are kept much cooler they become sickly and weak, al- though tomato plants will grow in quite cool temperature. In ad- mitting air to glass structures care should be taken that the wind does not blow in on the plants. This is generally best ac- complished in hotbeds and frames by blocking up the sash at the ends or sides with notched pieces of wood.
The temperature of any place, unless otherwise specified, is the temperature there of a thermometer in the shade. A ther- mometer with the full sunlight shining on it, will record about fifteen degrees higher than in the shade, which is a point always to be borne in mind in ventilating.
In the weather of early spring when the sun is getting high the middle of the days will be very warm and the nights still quite cool and frosty. It is then that a beginner often makes the mistake of leaving the sashes of his hotbeds open late in the afternoon, and the beds cool off more than is desirable. At this season of the year but little ventilation is necessary, and frames and greenhouses should be shut up quite early in the
80 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
afternoon, and the covering put on to retain the heat as soon as the sun is low. In the warm weather of later spring, the sash of the hotbeds and frames may be removed in the day and kept on only at night. No exact rules can be laid down for ventilating, but it is quite a simple matter to learn, if one is observant and uses constant vigilance. Many persons just be- ginning to use greenhouses and hotbeds fail to get best results from them because they neglect the matter of ventilation. On cloudy mornings it may not be needed, but if the sun comes through the clouds it may warm the house or the beds in a very short time, so that when they are examined the whole crop has been injured by the heat. This is a most common cause of failure by amateurs in charge of greenhouses and hotbeds.
In nature the night temperature in which plants grow aver- ages from fifteen to twenty degrees below that of the day, and it has been found in practice that when this condition is reversed the plants do not do well. This, of course, can be easily avoided by a little forethought. It is a bad plan, generally speaking, to ventilate much in cold weather, when the leaves are wet. On this account it is best to water early in the day, so that the leaves may dry cff before much ventilation is required.
Watering.—Plants that are growing slowly do not need much water, while those that are growing vigorously need a great deal of it. Growing plants need water whenever they are dry. In bright warm weather a rapid growing crop in hotbed or cold frame will need watering every day while in cloudy moist weather perhaps no water will be needed for a week. In fact, watering in cloudy weather seems to encourage disease. When applying water see that the soil is wet as far down as the roots extend. It is only the beginner who just wets the surface soil and thinks the plants sufficiently watered.. If plants are wilting for want of water in the soil give it to them no matter what time of day, but it is always a great advantage in such cases to shade as well as water them if the sun is shining. If a long continued spell of cloudy weather is followed by a period of bright sunshine it is not uncommon to see plants wilting that have plenty of water in the soil surrounding them. In such a case it may be desirable to shade them somewhat in the middle of the day until they get used to the sunlight. In cold weather
GLASS STRUCTURES. 81
it is a poor plan to water most of our plants at night since the water will cool off the air and the plants may be checked in growth, but in hot weather the reverse is true and plants seem to get more benefit from a good soaking in the evening, when they can have all night to take the water in, than if it is applied in the morning and followed by a hot sun. In watering hotbeds in very cold weather use a fine rose sprinkler and if practicable tepid water. At other seasons good lake or cistern water is perfectly safe, and is generally used by commercial growers at all seasons of the year. Avoid getting the soil water-soaked.
The leaves of lettuce and some other plants are liable to burn if watered when the sun is shining brightly on them.
The Soil should vary somewhat in texture for different plants, but all garden vegetables will flourish in much the same kind of soil. For use in glass structures a light, friable rich, sandy loam is best. This is easily obtained when one has been using hotbeds by mixing some of the old rotted manure which has been used for heating them the preceding year with any good sandy loam. If sandy loam cannot be had, clay loam may be used and sand added to the mixture. The manure from old hotbeds is especially good for this purpose and should form about one-third of the bulk of the soil.
Boxes.—In the case of many plants having small seeds, it is a good plan to start them in boxes instead of growing them in beds, on account of the better care that may thus be given them. When plants are to be marketed it is often best to grow them in the boxes in which they are to be sold. Frequently, too, where plants are started in the greenhouse and then moved to the open ground it is must convenient to have them in boxes. For this purpose boxes should be about four inches deep and the size of a soap or cracker box, Which may be cut down for tke purpose and thus make very cheap boxes. Of course where the market demands a certain number of plants in “boxes, they will have to be made for the purpose. The lumber for these can be obtained at any box factory and what would perhaps be other- wise idle moments may be used in putting it together at trifling expense.
Substitutes for Glass.—Frames of the same size as hotbed sash are sometimes covered with prepared cloth or paper sub-
82 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
stitutes for glass. Such covering, however, will not allow the sun’s rays to penetrate it easily nor is it so effective in prevent- ing radiation of the heat as glass, but under some circumstances it may be very desirable. Sash thus covered may often be used to advantage in the latter part of spring by alternating it on the frames and thus doubling the amount of sash at small ex- pense. Or, they may be used in the warm weather of spring when the sash needs to be removed entirely in the middle of the day. They are excellent for covering beds filled, with recently transplanted crops, since the light is less intense and evapora- tion less under them than under glass. A convenient way of forming these sashes is to make frames without sash bars but with one or two wires stretched across them to support the cloth or paper covering. Unbleached heavy cotton cloth may be used for this purpose, and the material for dressing it should be made of three pints pale linseed oil, one ounce acetate of lead and four ounces white resin. Grind the acetate in a little oil, then add the resin and the rest of the oil. Melt in an iron kettle over a gentle fire until well mixed and apply warm to the cloth. When paper is used it should be what is known as manilla wrapping paper. Paste this firmly and tightly on the frame with fresh flour paste. Dry in a warm place. Then wipe the whole of the paper with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly. Dry it again, and apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of it and dry in a warm place. Use linseed oil that is free from cotton seed oil. )
Shading the Glass.—In the hot weather of late spring or sum- mer the sunlight is too warm for many plants in the greenhouse and it is customary to shade them. The amount of shade neces- sary will depend somewhat on circumstances. This shade may consist of lath screens laid on the roof, but more commonly it is given by sprinkling the glass on the outside, with a wash made of white lead and gasoline, put on with a spray pump or syringe. This is easily and cheaply done. It will generally come off by autumn or may be rubbed off with a coarse rag or brush. Whitewash is sometimes used for this purpose but it is too easily washed off by heavy rains to be desirable.
———_
GLASS STRUCTURES. 83
SOME THINGS TO REMEMBER IN CONNECTION WITH BUILDING GLASS HOUSES FOR PLANTS.
(1) That all joints should be made tight and so far as pos- sible so placed that water will not lodge in them.
(2) There should be just aS much room in the beds and as little in the paths as possible.
(3) The glass should be as close to the beds as it can be and allow room to manage the crops grown in them. It should be of larger size for greenhouses than for hotbeds and in size not smaller than 10x12 inches, laid on sash bars 11 inches apart. The larger the glass the better. There is not so much breakage in large as in small glass.
(4) A permanent water supply is very desirable.
(5) The glass should be of good quality, free from blisters, bad waves or other imperfections and what is known as double strength glass.
(6) The heating arrangements should be sufficient to heat the house easily in coldest weather; in other words, it should be more than sufficient to maintain the proper temperature if crowded.
(7) Having the heating plant insufficient and then crowd- ing it in severe weather, injures the heating plant and wastes fuel besides being a trial of patience.
(8) The ventilators should be large and carefully fitted so they will close tightly. When in the roof they should be open at the top. If they open at the bottom the moisture that condenses on the glass forms an ice ridge on them in cold weather and prevents their shutting tight.
(9) The smaller the sash bars and framing material in the roof the more sunlight can reach the crop.
(10) The greenhouse roof may be covered with movable sash, but it is generally found most desirable to use permanent sash bars. Where severe hail storms are frequent it might be well to use movable sash and take them off in the summer, but such places are rare exceptions. It requires a very severe hail- storm to break double strength glass, when at an angle, as in a roof, and practically there is little risk from this source.
(11) In the framing of greenhouses, for instances for pur-
84 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
lins and posts, gas pipe can be used to good advantage. It is cheap and durable.
(12) All joints should be painted before being put together; all wood and iron work should be kept well painted.
(13) If putty is used in glazing the glass it should be bedded in it and nailed in, in this way: paint the sash bars, then run a thin coat of putty along them; bed the glass in it commencing at the bottom of the sash and lapping the glass one- fourth of an inch, on the same plan that shingles are laid on a roof. Fasten the glass with round three-quarter inch brads, us- ing four to each glass; put more liquid putty along the glass next to the sash bars and smooth it off with a knife even with the glass,
(14) Liquid putty is made by mixing one-third boiled lin- seed oil, one-third white lead and one-third common putty. If too thick, as may be the case in cold weather, add a little tur- pentine or benzine. It may be applied with a brush but the best way is to put it on with a bulb bought for the purpose; or a bulb may be made with leather, having a large quill through which to squeeze the putty. In the latter case there must be a hole in the side or end by which the bulb is filled and which may be drawn together by a string.
(15) Perhaps the most popular way of setting glass in greenhouses at present is by using square glass and butting the ends together. To do this to hest advantage no nails or putty are used and a special wooden cap is put on the sash bar which holds the glass in place. If desired to have the glass tight the abutting edges may be just touched with white lead before being put together. This makes a very satisfactory roof.
CHAPTER VII.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLES.
In this chapter only the more common insects infesting garden vegetables are referred to. There are many others that almost yearly cause some damage to our crops and which in occasional years cause serious loss. But to enumerate them would require more space than can be afforded here. In dealing with them it is well to remember that biting insects, such as potato beetles and blister beetles, are generally most surely de- stroyed by arsenical poisons such as Paris green and London purple; while sucking insects, such as plant lice and chinch bugs are not affected by them but are most readily destroyed by external applications such as tobacco water and kerosene emul- sion. We should also remember that in our war upon injurious insects we have the support of most of the birds and of the moles and shrews, and these should be protected as the friends of man rather than be destroyed as is too often the case among thoughtless or ignorant people. Moles and shrews are especially useful since they work under ground, and feed largely on various insects that are difficult to destroy on account of their living in the soil. It is perhaps no exaggeration to say that the shrew (often called mole) will eat its weight of insects each day. In- sects are also liable to attacks of parasites or of fungus and other diseases, which destroy them in large numbers and often in a very short time. _
When insects appear in small numbers hand picking is often a very efficient remedy, but when they become very abundant some other method of destroying them must be devised.
INSECTICIDES AND METHODS OF DESTROYING INSECTS.
Pyrethrum is the insect powder of the stores. It is made by grinding the flowers of the pyrethrum plant which closely resembles the common oxeye daisy. It is not poisonous to higher organized animals although very destructive to many kinds of insects. It is frequently adulterated and can seldom be obtained
86 INJURIOUS INSECTS.
of good quality. It also deteriorates very quickly when exposed to the air. On these accounts it is often very difficult to get sat- isfactory results from that obtained at the stores. When used it should be diluted with about five times its bulk of flour, with which it should be kept in a tight vessel for at least twenty-four hours before using in order to get best results. When thus con- fined it takes up the poisonous principle of the pyrethrum. It should always be kept in an air-tight receptacle.
Paris green is a refuse product composed of arsenious acid and copper and is probably as safe as any arsenic compound. It is only very slightly soluble in water, and is used with water at the rate of one pound to one hundred or more gallons of water; it is also used when mixed with dry substances, at the rate of one pound to fifty pounds of flour or one hundred pounds of land plaster, road dust or sifted coal ashes. In using it with water the addition of an equal amount of milk of lime often prevents injury to leaves.
London purple is composed of arsenious acid and lime. It is often much cheaper than Paris green but varies more in its com- position. On account of its being lighter than Paris green it does not settle so quickly when put in water. It is used in the same manner as that substance. When used in water an equal amount of milk of lime should always be added to neutralize the free acid which it sometimes contains in injurious quantities, and which may burn the foilage of tender plants. London purple adheres to the foilage of plants longer than Paris green.
Tobacco 's very useful for destroying some kinds of insects in the garden and greenhouse. It is especially effective aginst plant lice and soft-skinned hairless caterpillars. Where smoke from it can be confined around the plants, as in greenhouses and hotbeds, it is common to use it in a smudge, but when thus used it should be kept from blazing. It is also used in powdered form to keep off some insects. A more common and effective way of using it, is as a decoction in water at the rate of one pound of tobacco stems, leaves or dust to two gallons of water. The tobacco should be boiled in the water for twenty minutes. When cold the decoction should be used undiluted with a syringe, spray or otherwise. The decoction will not keep more than a few days
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 87
without spoiling. Tobacco is an excellent fertilizer as well as insecticide.
Kerosene emulsion is a valuable insecticide. It kills by con- tact and is of greatest importance for destroying sucking insects such as lice, scale insects and soft caterpillars, but also kills many biting insects. It is made as follows:
Kerosene oil, 2 gallons, 67 per cent; common soap, or whale oil soap; % pound, 33 per cent.
Two pounds of soft soap may be used in place of the soap recommended.
Dissolve the soap over a brisk fire, remove and add the kero- sene while the water is hot. Churn the mixture or stir rapidly until a creamlike emulsion is secured. If well made the kero- sene will not separate but on cooling the emulsion will thicken into a jelly-like paste that adheres without oiliness to the sur- face of glass. Soft water will give far better results than hard water for making kerosene emulsion, and soap that is made with potash or soda lye, such as home made soap, is far better than most of the soap of the stores, as they do not emulsify easily. For plant lice, dilute the emulsion recommended with from twenty to twenty-five parts of cold water. The strength of the application will necessarily depend on the insects to which it is to be applied. For such insects as soft-skinned caterpillars the emulsion should be diluted with not more than ten parts of water.
Kerosene and milk emulsion may be used as follows:
PMOTE SOMES pac oiehits wcierthal Wel stare cre''e "se a6 « 2 gallons. SETI E Tots 000 UN ap eae ae ae ore ee Oe er ee 1 gallon.
These readily form an emulsion when thoroughly churned together. It should be used the same as other soap and kerosene emulsion mentioned. Sweet milk does not emulsify readily but if a little sour or even if very sour, it unites easily with the kero- sene. This is the best emulsion where the water is very hard.
Carbon bisulphide is a very inflammable material with a disagreeble odor and readily vaporizes. It should be handled with the same precaution as gasoline which resembles it in appearance. The fumes which it gives off are very heavy and are poisonous to animal life when confined with it. On account ™ of these properties it is used for killing weevils in grain or peas,
88 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
beans and other seeds, and for killing gophers, mice or other creatures in their holes. The method of using it for grain weevils, is to fill a barrel or other tight receptacle nearly ful] of seed, then sprinkle on an ounce of the liquid for each one hun- dred pounds of seed and cover the vessel tightly for several hours. It does not hurt the grain which is just as good and looks as nice as ever after being treated. The germinating qualities of the seed are not injured by this treatment. When used for killing moles, gophers and mice, the material should be put on cotton or other absorbent and placed in their holes closed with earth over the cotton.
Catching Insects by Light at Night.—By suspending a lan- tern at night over a tub of water having its surface coated with kerosene many night flying insects can be destroyed. Among those that can be caught in this way are cut worm moths, the clicking beetle (which is the mature form of the wire worm), and the May beetle (which is the mature form of the white grub). When these insects become especially abundant this method of catching them is worthy of trial. The objections to it are: (1) that it is the larvae and not the flying form of these insects that do serious injury; (2) few persons are so far sighted that they can be persuaded to attack insect enemies until they are suffering from their ravages, and the benefits of this method will not be felt until perhaps the following year. (3) The obser- vations of Dr. Otto Lugger show that insects have generally laid their eggs before they fly much, and only the male insects of some species fly, and the females are nearly or quite wingless. It is obvious that in such cases catching the flying insects will do little if any good.
Applications of Insecticides.—In applying insecticides it is generally important to begin their use as soon as the insects appear and not wait until the plants have been weakened and set back by their attacks. There are many and various machines for distributing insecticides. The machine best adapted to this purpose will cepend much on the insecticide used and the extent of the operations contemplated. For applying liquid compounds some of the many forms of spray pumps will be found best. For the small garden where there is a variety of crops grown,
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 89
perhaps what is known as knapsack spray pump is as convenient
Figure 34.—Colorado potato bee- tle in all stages.
as any general purpose ma- chine. Where potatoes are grown on a large scale some special spray pump that can be geared to the wheels of a wag- on may often be the best to use. Where insecticides are used in powder form it is a good plan to scatter them on the plants through a coarse lin- en bag or fine wire cloth. When such material needs to be eject- ed with force, a fan or bellows may be used. It is always best to use poisons in a liquid form when practicable since it is the most economical and effective method of applying them. No insecticide should ever be used in a large way, until it has been tried on a small scale to see what its effect will be on the crop to be treated, since plants may be more susceptible at one time than at another to applications of this nature.
COMMON GARDEN INSECTS AND METHODS OF DESTROYING THEM. The Colorado Potato Beetle (Doryphora decemlineata.)— The Colorado potato beetle is so common and so well known by every farmer and gardener in this country that it needs no
description here.
It came originally from the Rocky Mountain
region where it fed on the native sandbur (Solanum rostratum) which is closely allied to the potato, but when this insect came to know the cultivated potato it preferred it to its original food and has since become a very dangerous pest to this vegetable. The orange colored eggs, varying in number from a dozen to fifty, are generally laid on the under side of the potato leaf.
90 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
They hatch in about a week into sluggish larvae which feed upon the leaves, never leaving a plant until all the leaves are gone. They also feed to some extent upon tomato and egg plants. When fully developed the larvae descend to the ground where they pupate and emerge as perfect beetles. There are three broods each season. The beevles winter over in potato fields.
Remedies.—The number of these pests varies greatly from year to year. The chief remedies are arsenical poisons applied to the foilage. For this purpose Paris green and London purple are commonly used. The method of applying them varies much. It is a common practice to use one pound of Paris green to 150 gallons of water. This must be constantly agitated while in use or the poison wiil settle to the bottom of the vessel. London purple may also be applied in water, but as it varies somewhat in composition and is liable to contain a dangerous amount of free acid, it is safest to use with it an equal amount of milk of lime. It is also a good plan to use milk of lime with Paris green. Some experiments show that about one pound of lime, one pound London purple and about seventy gallons of water, is a safe and satisfactory formula to use for this crop. When thus applied the work may be done with a spraying machine, a water- ing pot or brush broom, but the spray pump is the most eco- nomical. On a large scale, some kind of a spraying apparatus is necessary.
These poisons may also be safely applied when mixed with one hundred times their bulk of flour, sifted ashes or road dust or mixed with one hundred pounds of land plaster. When thus used they are easily applied by means of a coarse linen bag. There are a number of proprietary insecticides for the potato beetle but they generally depend for their success on the arsenic they contain. But no matter what insecticide is applied, in order to do the most good it should be used as soon as the young larvae can be seen on the leaves.
The Imported and Native Cabbage Worm (Pieris sp.).— The imported cabbage worm resembles our native species and both of them are very cestructive to cabbage, turnip, cauliflower and similar vegetables and to such flowering plants as mignon- ette, stocks and nasturtiums. They feed on the leaves and will often destroy the cabbage crop unless preventive measures
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 91
are taken. The worms of the imported species are green in color, while our native species are bluish with yellow stripes. The butterflies of both species are much alike. They are gener-
Pe Ree ee
jl
ia F 13 ty ‘9
ws
Pw der vy ! i | Ss ak’ ie ao SS ie of ae a ~: 4
Fig, 35. ‘Imported Cabbage Wérm. fa) Latve. (b) Chrysalis. 1¢) Male butterfly.
ally white with indefinite black marks above and yellow or green markings on the underside, and are commonly seen filit- ting over fields of cabbage or of other of its food plants during the day time. The full grown caterpillar is about an ine -and--a, bali done. The winter is passed in the chrysalis stage hidden away in sheltered places and from these the adult butterfly emerges in the spring and lays her eggs on the under side of the leaves where they hatch in about one week. There are several broods in a season.
Remedies.—Pyrethrum powder, mixed with five times its bulk of flour and dusted into the cabbage just at nightfall is a good remedy. The flour should be mixed with the pyrethrum overnight. In a small way hand picking may be successfully resorted to. If the worms are troublesome where cabbage is grown on a large scale it is customary to use arsenical poison mixed with flour as recommended for the potato bug. The poison cannot be applied in water as it will not stick to the leaves.
92 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
These, it is evident to anyone, can be safely applied before the plants commence to head, and recent careful trials and analy- ses of cabbage thus treated with Paris green, show there is very little danger in using it at any stage of the plants. It is the sim- plest of remedies and effective yet not dangerous. There are parasites that attack and kill the worms and chrysalides, and Dr. Lugger has shown clearly that they sometimes may be destroyed very rapidly by disease as well as insect parasites. It is not uncommon to have nearly all these worms die in the latter part of any season from one or both of these causes. Cabbage Plusia. (Plusia brassicae.)—The cabbage plusia eats irregular holes in the leaves, and burrows into the heads of the cabbage. The parent insect is a moth of a dark-gray color
Figure 37.—Snapping beetle or wire worm with larvae.
distinguished by a silver mark on each wing. The eggs are laid on the upper surface of the leaves singly or in clusters. They soon hatch into pale green translucent worms, marked with paler longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. When full grown these are about two inches long. They resemble span worms in their mode of locomotion, hence are easily distinguished from the cabbage worm. The full grown caterpillar spins a cocoon, generally on the under side of the cabbage leaf, in which it undergoes its changes. The insect winters over in the pupai state. The remedies for this pest are the same as those
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 93
recommended for cabbage worms and it is also subject to dis- eases and parasites.
Wire Worms or Drill Worms (Elator).—Wire worms cause damage by boring into potatoes and some seeds in the ground. They are the larvae of a snapping or clicking beetle, so called from the ease with which, if laid on their backs, they spring into the air with a clicking noise. The larvae are slender wire- like worms having a glassy tough skin of a yellowish or brown- ish color. The larvae stage lasts for two and possibly five years; it is therefore no small job to clear a piece of land badly in- fested with the pest. Naturally, wire worms live in grass land where the harm they do is not apparent, but when such land is planted to corn or potatoes and the worms are thus depived of their natural food they may become very troublesome.
Remedies.—Late fall plowing is desirable for land infested with wire worms since it exposes and thus kills all that are ready to pupate. By clean summer fallowing the land one season the worms are starved out, if no plants whatever are permitted to grow on it.
Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.).—Cut worms often cause serious injury by eating vegetable plants. They are generally most in-
Figure 38.—Cut worm and moth.
jurious while the plants are small, when they often bite off young cabbage, bean, corn or other plants close to or just under the ground and thus destroy them. Their work is most percep- tible in the spring on account of the small amount of growing vegetation at that time, yet they also work in the autumn. True cut worms are the larvae of several night flying moths which appear late in summer. The female deposits her eggs late in the summer. These soon hatch into worms which enter the
94 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
ground and live near the surface on the tender =30ts of grass and other plants until the approach of cold weather. They then descend deeper into the ground and remain torpid until spring, when they come to the surface and again commence their depre- dations. Cut worms when full grown, are from one and a quarter to one and three-quarter inches long and rather large in diameter as compared with the length. Their skin is of some dull color, smooth, with often dull stripes and bands.
Remedies.—Cut worms are most injurious in sod land or land on which weeds have been permitted to grow in autumn, or in land adjacent thereto. They are not liable to winter over on any land that is kept free from weeds and grass in autumn, since there is no food for them in such places. The worms feed almost entirely by night and hide during the day time under clods or just under the surface of the ground near where they have been working. In a small way they may be dug out and destroy- ed, but in fields and on a large scale this is impossible and a good remedy is to scatter baits of poisoned clover through the fields. This is easily prepared by dipping clover into Paris green or Lon- don purple and water. A dough made of bran and Paris green sprinkled about the plants will often be found very satisfactory in destroying cut worms, and sometimes will work even better than clover for this purpose. Where cut worms are abundant a larger amount than usual of seed should be planted that a good stand may be secured even if the worms do get some of it. When plants such as cabbage, cauliflower and tomatoes are plant- ed out, it is a good plan to wrap the plants with pieces of stout paper extending about an inch below and three inches above the ground. When boxes or tomato cans are set around plants for shade, they afford a good protection from this pest. Protec- tion from cut worms to hills of melons, cucumbers and similar plants, may be given by pieces of pasteboard or tin. These should be cut about three inches wide and sufficiently long to encircle the hill. They should be set about an inch deep in the ground. Spraying the plants with London purple or Paris green is a good remedy. The moths of cut worms, as well as such insects as adult wire worms and grub worms may be killed at night by means of a lantern. suspended over a tub of water having a little kerosene on its surface. This should be done late in the summer when the moths of cut worms are abundant,
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 95
Striped Cucumber Beetle. (Diabrotica vittata.)—This little beetle attacks squashes, cucumbers and melons when they are young. By eating the foliage and tender stems they may cause the death of the young plants. When abundant it is a very
difficult pest to combat. It appears in the spring pieee eee at just about the time the young squash plants are out of the ground, having wintered over in brush piles or other places affording protection. The beetle lays its eggs on the roots of corn where the young do considerable damage. These worms, are full grown in about one month from hatching They then leave the roots, make a little cavity in the earth near by, and undergo their changes. The insects spend the winter in the beetle stage. The beetle is about a quarter of en inch long and is striped with yellow and black. It is very quick in its movements but does not fly much except in the middle of the day.
Remedies.—An extra amount of seed should be sown so as to secure a good stand and still allow some for the beetles. Dusting the vines, stems and leaves when they are moist, with air slaked lime, road dust or similar material containing a little Paris green or other poison, is quite a protection, and if per- Ssistently followed up aft- er every rain will gen- erally prevent serious loss. But care’ should be taken to put the dust on the stems as well as the leaves. Paris green and water is also a good
Figure 40—Cheese cloth screen for protecting Temedy and is applied cucumber, squashes and melon vines from the same as for the the striped beetle when young.
96 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
potato beetle. Tobacco dust is also an excellent preventative used in this way. Some gardeners having quite extensive plant- ings, and many who are working in a small way, prefer to cover each hill with a box or frame covered with cheese cloth. In this case, the edges of the box or frame should be sunk an inch or so in the ground to keep out the bugs. Frames for this purpose are readily made of barrel hoops cut in halves and fastened together or of three slender sticks forming a sort of tent. This method allows the light and air to circulate freely around the plants, while at the same time they are perfectly protected and at slight cost.
White Grub or May Beetles (Lachnosterna fusca.—Theinsect known as_the_ white grub is the larval stage of the May beetle. It lives in the land where it feeds on the roots of plants. The mature in- sect is a dark brown beetle, often nearly black with breast cover- ed with yellowish hairs. The body is three- fourths of an inch long and about a half inch in diameter. They fly at night and are well- known insects of the spring of the year. AS beetles they feed on the leaves of various plants. The females lay their eggs among the grass roots in a ball of earth. These hatch in about a month and the grubs be: gin to feed on the roots near by. It requires two or three years fer the grubs to get their full growth and they then undergo their
Figure 41.—May beetles at night.
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 97
changes and emerge in the spring of the third or fourth year as the beetle described.
Remedies.—The grubs are eaten by birds, moles and skunks. They are not apt to be abundant in any but grass land recently broken up. They are exceedingly hard to destroy on account of their remaining so long in the soil. When young plants are seen to be wilting from the effects of the grub, they may sometimes be taken up, the grub removed and the plant reset. When lawns or other grass lands are badly affected they should be broken up and grown in some cultivated crop for two years. The beetles should be trapped when they become very abundant as recom- mended for cut worm moths. Such animals as moles and shrews should generally be permitted or even encouraged in our lawns and gardens and the little damage they generally do suffered patiently, since they are among our best friends and destroy im- mense numbers of white grubs and other insects that live in the ground and are difficult for us to reach. They are seldom abundant except where insects are numerous.
Bat Maggots (Anthomyia sp.)—They are often de structive to the seed or
7? roots of a variety of plants pe including onions, cabbage, \/PX ‘ cauliflower and _ similar 4 ee plants; they also attack the , seed of corn, peas, beans and other vegetables in some seasons.
Life History.—The mag- got here referred to is the larvae of a fly somewhat resembling the house ily, but brown in color. The gr 7 a eggs are laid in cr near the Tiere Beni and onion “mar surface of the ground, gen-
gots on young bean plants. erally on the food plants and hatch out in about two weeks into maggots, that commence to feed at once and finally become one-half inch long; these
98 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
change in two weeks more to flies. This insect winters over in the pupa state in the ground.
Remedies.—When this insect attacks onions the infested plant turns yellow and looks sickly and they should be pulled and destroyed. The same treatment should be given to any onions that may be found infested at harvest time. When onion land becomes badly infested with this pest crop rotation should be practiced and no onions should be raised near it for a year or two. When beans, corn and peas are affected, the seed should be treated with a very thin coating of coal tar and afterwards rolled in plaster or other dust. The coal tar may be applied as follows: Spread the grain out in a warm room on the floor about six inches deep and wet it with warm water; sprinkle on a very little warm coal tar (about one tablespoonful to one-half bushel) until each grain is coated; then roll it in plaster to dry it off. If this is carefully done the grains will not stick together and may be planted by seed planter. This treatment also prevents crows, gophers and squirrels from pulling newly planted corn.
When it attacks cabbage, cauliflower and similar plants it may be destroyed by kerosene emulsion, since the maggots work on the stem and roots of the plant near the surface of the ground and such an application would be practicable in this case, while in the case of many other crops such as onions, beans, etc., it might be quite out of the question on account of the large number of plants that would have to be treated to make it effectual. In the case of cabbage however it may be prevented from entering by inserting the plant through a small piece of tarred paper, that is allowed to remain flat on the sur- face of the ground.
Cabbage Flea Beetle (Halticus sp.)—There are several in- sects closely resembling each other and known as cabbage flea beetles that feed on the surface of the leaves of cabbage, tur- nips, radish, cauliflower, etce., and various wild plants. They are very injurious to the very young plants if allowed to have their way, but when the plants are nicely started they do not seem to be seriously incommoded by this pest. These beetles are very small and move very quickly. The adult insect is black or nearly so; some of them lay their eggs near the roots
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 99
of the food plants, where the larvae do some damage; in other cases the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaves and the larvae mine into them and live between the upper and lower surfaces. But their chief damage is as beetles, in which form they pass the winter. One species of flea beetle is sometimes destructive to potato vines.
S do —
Figure 43.—Different species of flea beetles with their larvae.
Remedies.—Since these are biting insects they are readily killed by Paris green or London purple in’ the usual propor- tions. If the plants are kept dusted with air slaked lime or plaster they are measurably protected from this insect. But the latter applications are greatly improved by adding a little poisor to them.
Leaf Lice or Aphides (Aphis sp.)—The various kinds of leaf lice, otherwise called aphides, that live on plants have very much the same general habits. They are all sucking insects and increase with great rapidity when their food plants are abund-
L of C.
100 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
ant. They generally winter over in the egg state. The summer broods are often brought forth alive without the intervention of the egg state. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco water are the usual remedies, but hot water and pyrethrum will also de- stroy them. Leaf lice are eaten by the larvae of lady bugs and they are also subject to attacks of parasites. When the lice are coated with a meal-like covering that sheds water and pre- vents their being wet by insectides, they should first be sprayed with strong soap suds to remove the mealy covering and then the insecticide may be applied successfully.
Cabbage Lice or Aphides (Aphis brassicae).—These are light brown insects covered with a floury substance. They at- tack turnips, cauliflower, rutabagas and similar plants, as well as the cabbage. They work generally on the lower side of the leaves where they collect most abundantly. They are most numerous in dry seasons. The remedies for them are those given under the general head of leaf lice but in addition to those it is a good plan to burn or compost all the old cabbage leaves and stumps, since the eggs winter over attached to them.
Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm (Heliophila unipucta.)— This is the boll-worm of the south. It eats into the green grain of the corn. But is seldom very troublesome at the north. Dr. Lugger thinks that it does not winter over in the extreme north- ern States, but that the moths come from the south each year. The only remedy is hand picking. It is doubtful if they will ever become very injurious in the northern states, since they do not begin their work there until late in the season.
Parsley Worm or Celery Caterpillar (Papilio asterias.)—This worm eats the foliage of celery, carrot, parsley and allied plants, but is not very often injurious. The mature insect is a beautiful large black butterfly having yellow and blue spots on its wings. The eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch into small caterpil- lars less than one-tenth of an inch long, which when full grown are one and a half inches long. It has bright yellow mark- ings. The remedy is to hand pick the worms, which are seldom abundant.
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 101
Chinch Bugs (Blissus leucopteris.)—The chinch bug does tt trouble any of our garden products except corn, but is some- times very injurious to this vegetable and may kill it in a very few days if neglected. This is a sucking insect that winters over in the adult state under leaves and in dry pro- tected places generally. When full grown it is about one-seventh of an inch long with white upper wings which have two well de- fined black spots on them. When crushed they have an offensive bed-bug-like odor, This insect is not affected py cold weather, but succumbs quickly to moisture. The fe- male deposits her eggs near the ground upon the stem or roots of wheat, oats, grasses, etc.
Remedies.—The burning of rubbish accumulations along headlands, fences, etc., in the winter or early spring in infested localities will destroy many. They always infest the small grains before they do corn.
While these insects have wings they use them but little in their migration in summer, but they travel on foot and often in sreat numbers. Taking advantage of these peculiarities they may be kept from corn fields by piowing deep furrows in their way, which should be turned back as soon as filled with bugs and new furrows made. Fences of boards six inches high with the upper edge kept covered with tar will keep them out, but holes in the ground should be made at intervals along the line of the boards, which when full of bugs should be filled in with earth, and new holes made. A dusty headland or road is very difficult for them to go through. If they finally reach the corn they will readily succumb to kerosene emulsion. Much is being done to rid the grain fields of this pest by infecting the bugs with disease. This works most rapidly in moist weather, but other remedies should not be put aside for this one.
Bean and Pea Weevil (Bruchus sp.)—The insects known as weevil are quite common in some sections. They work in the seed of beans and peas. The adult insects are small beetles which lay their eggs in the flowers where they soon hatch and
102 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the young larvae eat their way into the immature seeds. The hole by which the larva enters the seed grows completely over, so that the seed appears unimpaired externally. In the seed the larva does not touch the germ, though it may eat up a large part of the starch. The larva undergoes its changes in the seed, and when these have been completed the beetles emerge through quite large holes in the shell of the seed. While seed that is infested may germinate it forms only weak plants that are very sure to fail to mature a full crop. Similar insects also attack corn. There is another species that breeds in stored grain, peas and beans, etc., but it is not common here as yet.
Remedies.—These insects are generally somewhat local in range. Whenever any locality is infested the date of planting should be delayed two weeks, by which means the beetle fail to find the crop ready when they are ready to lay their eggs. This trouble generally comes from sowing infested seeds. These may be separated from the good seed by throwing them into water, when the good will sink, but those infested will float. — Another method is to treat the seed with carbon bisulphide as recommended under that head. If the seed is kept over two years the beetles will have come out. The species that breeds in the grain is most easily destroyed and kept out of the seed by using bisulphide of carbon as recommended.
Squash Vine Borer (Aegeria cucurbitae.)—The squash vine borer is the larva of a moth. The eggs are laid on the stems of the young plants near the roots of cucumber,squash and melon vines. The larvae on hatching burrow into the stem and follow along the center, which causes the plants to wilt ané4 finally to die. The full grown borer measures about one inch in length and has a whitish body with a brown head. The borers leave the stem the latter part of the summer and winter over near the surface of the ground in cocoons composed partly of earth. The moth emerges the following spring.
Remedies.—This insect is not yet found in this section but is common in the eastern states, and where it is found all withered or dead vines should be destroyed. When vines have only commenced to wilt the borer may often be cut out and the vine recover. It is also a good plan to cover several of the
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 103
lower joints of squash vines with earth to encourage the for- mation of extra sets of roots at these places.
The Squash Bug (Anasa tristis.)—This insect makes its appearance the latter part of June or the first of July. The females deposit their brownish-yellow eggs in small patches on the under side of the leaves. These hatch into nymphs that suck the sap of the leaves, often seriously injuring them. The full grown bug is a little over one-half inch long and a rusty black color above and yellowish beneath. They emit a disagreeable odor when touched. They winter over in rubbish, under boards or anywhere they can find protection.
Remedies.—Hand picking in the morning and evening at which times the bugs are somewhat torpid, is the most practical remedy. Boards laid among the plants at night will be found to have many bugs under them in the morning, and these may be crushed or otherwise destroyed. Large numbers may be killed in this way.
CHAPTER VIII. GARDEN VEGETABLES. CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES.
Vegetables may be classified in many ways, but perhaps the most helpful way is to divide them according to the conditions under which they grow best into (1) warm and (2) cold climate vegetables:
(1) Among warm climate vegetables (often called tropical) we have tomato, corn, beans, pepper, egg plant, cucumber, musk melon, watermelon, squash, pumpkin, and okra. These plants all require hot weather for their growth, are severely injured by first hard frost and should not be planted in open ground until warm weather is assured. They are generally at their best on a warm southern exposure and in soil having a little sand in its com- position. These plants are all natives of hot climates and will not survive long in cold climates when left to themselves.
(2) Among cold climate vegetables, we have practically all those commonly grown not mentioned above (1) such as aspara- gus, rhubarb, horseradish, safsify and parsnip, which stand our severest winters without injury, and those that are less hardy, such as onions, leeks, peas, beets, spinach, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cress, kale, kohl rabi, radishes, rutabaga, turnip, carrot, parsley, celery, celariac, lettuce, endive, potato, strawberry, tomato, and others. These all grow well at a cool temperature and most of them will stand some frost without injury. They may be divided into those with tops that are frost hardy or frost tender as follows:
By frost tender is meant those whose tops are injured by a light hard frost such as potato. asparagus, strawberry, tomato, and of course all the tropical plants mentioned above (1). Some plants like asparagus and our native oak tree may have foliage that is very susceptible to frost but are hardy in winter.
MUSHROOM. 105
By frost hardy is meant those having foliage that is not injured by light frost, such as horseradish, rhubarb, onions, leeks, garlic, peas, spinach, beets, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauli- flower, cress, kale, kohl rabi, radishes, rutabaga, turnip, carrot, parsley, celery, lettuce, endive and most of the garden herbs.
Botanical Classification.—All plants may be divided into fam- ilies, each of which has its distinguishing features. Our garden vegetables and herbs belong to at least seventeen families. The special features of each of which will be found with the cuitural directions for the plants grouped under them, but for convenience a list is here given of all the vegetables referred to herein, ar- ranged under their proper family names:
The Fungi Group or Family, mushrooms or toadstools.
The Grass Family (Gramineae), corn.
The Lily Family (Liliaceae) asparagus, onion, leeks, garlic.
The Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceae), rhubarb or pie plant.
The Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae), beet, Swiss chard and spinach.
The Cabbage Family (Cruciferae), cabbage, cauliflower, rad- ishes, rutabaga, turnip, Brussels sprouts, kale, kohl rabi, horse radish, cress and watercress.
The Clover Family (Leguminosae), beans and peas.
The Mallow Family (Malvaceae), okra.
The Parsnip Family (Umbelliferae), parsnip, parsley, carrot, celery, calariac, caraway, dill, anise, coriander and fennel.
The Morning Glory Family (Convolvulaceae), sweet potato.
The Mint Family (Labiatae), sweet basil, lavender, balm, spearmint, peppermint, summer savory, winter savory, sweet marjoram, thyme, sage and catnip.
_ The Potato Family (Solanaceae), tomato, potato, egg plant, peppers and strawberry tomato.
The Martynia Family (Martiniaceae), Martynia.
The Gourd Family (Cucurbitaceae), cucumber, squash, muskmelons, watermelons, pumpkin and gourd.
The Sunflower Family (Compositae), lettuce, salsify, endive and dandelion.
106 VEGETABLE GARDENING. The Rue Family (Rutaceae), rue.
The Borage Family (Boraginaceae), borage.
THE FUNGI.
The Fungi group includes a large number of flowerless plants which are propagated by division and by spores. Besides the cultivated and wild mushrooms, which are below referred to, this group includes some that are poisonous, although they form but a small proportion of the whole number of species that are liabie to be taken for edible kinds. The wheat rusts, mildews, grain smuts and other similar diseases also come in under this head. The spores (seed bodies) are distributed in various ways, but very commonly by their becoming light and powdery and being blown about by the wind as in the case of the common puff ball and corn smut. There is no sure way of telling the poisonous mushroom from the edible kinds but most of the species have been studied and their value for food is well known.
MUSHROOMS. (Agaricus campestris.)
There are many edible wild mushrooms, and they differ in no particular from the so-called toadstools, but the species re- ferred to above is the kind commonly cultivated. The part eaten is really the fruit bearing portion and not, as many sup- pose, the plant itself. The true plant is the white network of fibres which grow in the soil, and it is this part that is used in propagating them.
Culture.—The cultivation of the mushroom is often attended with uncertainty. It is, however, being grown on an increas- ingly larger scale, and the demand for it constantly increases. The conditions essential to success in growing it are a rich soil and a steady temperature of from 50 to 75 degrees. It is for the purpose of securing this latter requisite that cellars and old caves are often utilized in its culture, as light Is not necessary. Horse manure is a practically indispensable material for the growth of mushrooms. If possible, it should be from animals fed on rich, nitrogenous food and as free from straw or other litter as it can be obtained. This should be thoroughly mixed with a fourth or fifth part of good garden soil and is then ready
MUSHROOM. 107
to go into the beds. Care should be taken that the beds are in a well drained damp place. They may be of any size or shape de- sired but should be about ten inches deep. Some of the largest growers use tiers of shelves or boxes, each one of which is eight or ten inches deep, into which they put the soil. What- ever the shape of the beds, the soil should be packed into them firmly and evenly and be left smooth on the outside. A ther- mometer should then be inserted in the center of the mass. As soon as fermentation sets in, the temperature will rise until probably over 100 degrees will be indicated, and when it falls to 80 degrees the bed is ready to receive the spawn. This may sometimes be obtained from old mushroom beds, but it is best to depend on that sold by seedsmen, as it is more certain to be free from other fungi. The operation of spawning consists in put- ting pieces of the spawn bricks the size of small hens’ eggs in holes made about two inches deep and ten or twelve Inches apart. Afterwards the holes should be filled with the soil and the sur- face firmed and smoothed off.
If the work has been well done and the conditions are fav- orable, the spawn should commence to grow in seven or eight days; at the end of that time it should be examined and any pieces that have not started should be removed and be replace¢e by fresh spawn. A failure in germination is indicated by the absence of white threads in the manure around the spawn. When the spawn has nicely started and begins to show itself on the surface, the bed should be covered with a layer one inch. thick of fine, slightly moist soil, which should be pressed down smoothly and firmly. In damp cellars mushroom beds do not need water, but if the surface gets dry they should be watered with tepid water from a fine rose watering pot. The mush- rooms should show in from five to eight weeks, and the bed continue to yield for two or three months. The spawn bricks, as they are termed by seedsmen, are simply flat square pieces of a mixture of manure and loam into which spawn has been put and has grown until it fills the whole piece. Afterwards these bricks are dried and form the mushroom bricks or spawn of commerce.
Native Mushrooms.—There are quite a number of native
108 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
mushrooms that are edible, but since there are also several poisonous kinds one should be careful about trying unknown sorts. Among the edible kinds are the several sorts known as puff balls (Lycoperdon). When these first appear, they are white balls of a fleshy texture with little or no stalks; as they ripen the flesh turns gradually to a dark brown, and finally the speres are ejected by the ball being crushed or naturally breaking open. They are not fit to eat after the flesh begins to turn brown. The smaller sorts are most common, but the giant puff ball is occasionally met with and is often ten or more inches in diameter.
Another common native mushroom is shown in figure 45.
Figure 45.—Native Mushrooms. On the left is shown the giant puff ball (Lycoperdon giganteum); on the right Maned Agaric (Coprin- us comatus), in various stages of maturity.
It has a stem several inches high, but the top does not expand and is one of the most delicious of all the mushroom tribe when young. It is called the Maned Agaric (Coprinus comatus.) It srows in waste and grassy places, lawns and meadows. The cills (layers on the under part of the head) are at first white or pink, melting into an inky, fluid-like substance when more mature.
Little attention has ever been paid in this country to crowing our native species. They could undoubtedly be propa: gated by digging up some of the earth where they grow abun- dantly and mixing it with the soil where it is desired to grow
U
THE GRASS FAMILY. 109
them. The kinds mentioned mature in the latter part of sum- mer and are especially abundant in old pastures or other places containing much decaying organic matter and during moist weather. If an attempt was made to grow them, it would prob- ably be necessary to keep the ground moist all summer to se- cure the best results.
THE GRASS FAMILY. .(Oder Gramineae.)
The Grass Family has many well known general character- istics. It includes many species and produces the greater part of the food of the human race either directly as seed or indireci- ly as meat and yet only corn is ordinarily grown in vegetable gardens. Among the most important food plants belonging here are wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice, corn, sorghum and sugar cane. The wild rice grows in great abundance in some portions of this state and is an important article of food among the Indians.
CORN. (Zea mays.)
Native of America.—Annual. The male flowers are in the tassel and the female flower on the cob. While cross-fertiliza- tion is not absolutely necessary for the production of seed, it is necessary for a good crop. The varieties of corn may be easily grouped under four classes: (1) Sweet corn, which in- cludes varieties with soft and generally much wrinkled kernels, that are especially desirable for use in a green state on ac- count of their being sweeter and more delicate in fiavor than other kinds. (2) Flint corn, which includes field varieties hav- ing a very hard, smooth grain. (3) Dent corn, which includes field varieties rather softer in texture than the flint corn, each kernel having a depression in the end of it. (4) Pop corn, which has a kernel of flinty hardness and is used almost entirely for popping purposes. These classes will all cross together. But there are numerous verieties in each of the classes varying from one another in height of stalk, size and color of the ear and ker- nel, time of ripening and various minor particulars. The color of the grains may be white, yellow, red or purple, but white and yellow are most common. Corn is quickly improved by judi- cious selection, and new varieties are frequently originated in this way.
110 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Cultivation.—For early use, the seed should be sown as soon as the ground begins to get warm in the spring. Very early planting is not desirable for the main crop, since in cold, wet weather the seed is liable to rot in the ground, or the plants may be frozen on coming up. It may, however, be desirable to plant some of the earliest kinds as soon as the weather is warm, and, selecting the most favorable location, run the risk of failure, as the profits are correspondingly large if the crop is very early, while the expense of planting is a small matter. The main crop of corn should be planted from the middle to the last of May. The land can hardly be too ric’ for corn, and it should be in a finely pulverized condition. The seed may be planted in rows at about nine-inch intervals, with rows three to four feet apart, or in hills three to four feet apart each way, according to the growth of the plants and method of cultivation to be followed. It should be covered above two inches. If grown in hills, three or four plants should be left in a place, which means planting about six seeds to the hill. If planted in hills, they may be cultivated both ways, which is an advantage over planting in rows. In rows, however, the plants develop rather better than in hills, and it is the method preferred by many good growers, though field corn is generally planted in hills. Corn should be cultivated shallow and never deep enough to cut the roots; until it is six inches high it may be harrowed with a slant tooth harrow. In order to have a long season of this vegetable in its best condition for table use, plant- ings of the very early and some good second early kind should be made at the same time; and then plantings of the second early kinds should be made once in two weeks, thereafter up to about the twentieth of June. If planted later than this there is much doubt about its getting large enough for table use before the autumn frosts set in. The very early kinds, however, may be planted in this section as late as the fourth of July, with good prospects of their becoming of marketable size; but the very early varieties are small in size and not as sweet and desirable as the larger second early or late kinds, and a few varieties re- quire the whole season in which to obtain table size. If properly planted, sweet corn may be had in a young and tender condition from the middle of July until the cold weather of autumn.
CORN. 111
Marketing.—There is a large demand for green corn in every city and village. It is marketable as soon as the’ kernels are well formed and is generally sold in the husk, by the doz- en or by the barrel. There are several canning factories in this section and many in other parts of the country that make a specialty of canning sweet corn. Grown for this purpose or for evaporating, it is a farm crop that may be made to pay very well in some locations, and extensive tracts of land are de- voted to raising it. Where the crop is marketed at canning factories the fodder is left on the farm and is in admirable condition for feeding. The ears are best for table use when first picked and quickly lose in quality after gathering; if they heat in piles or packages they are of very inferior quality.
Varieties—For very early use the White or Red Cob Cory is a general favorite and is probably earlier than any other kind.
Figure 46.—Early Cory Corn.
It will often mature in eight weeks. Early Minnesota is a little later, but a much better table variety. For second early and mid-season use, Perry’s Hybrid, Moore’s Concord, Potter’s Excel- sior and Landreth’s Sugar are excellent. Perhaps the Perry’s Hybrid is the most popular second early market sort.
| For late use, requiring a long season, Stowell’s Evergreen, and Egyptian Mammoth are desirable. These kinds have large ears and are particularly desirable for canning purposes. The Country Gentleman is a peculiar late variety of great merit. The
112 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
kernels are narrow and long and not arranged in rows but irreg- ularly on the ear. It has, perhaps, the smallest cob of any known variety. While it requires a long season to get it to
Figure 47.—Late Sweet Corn.
an edible size, it is of fine quality and very desirable for home use.
Pop corn is grown in the same way as sweet corn. For home use, a very little will suffice; in some sections, however, it is raised in large quantities. It is usually marketed on the cob and is seldom salable until at least one year old. Among the best varieties are White Rice and Golden Pop.
Varieties of corn run out and change very quickly, and there is often much difference in the strains of different kinds. Those that it is desired to keep pure should be grown at least 1000 feet away from other kinds that flower at the same period. Va- rieties of corn of every description, including all those belonging to the sweet, dent. flint and pop corn classes, will mix together when near by each other.
Curing Seed of Sweet Corn.—The seed of the late varieties
CORN. 113
of sweet corn is difficult to cure thoroughly and is very liable to mould during drying process, unless it is given plenty of light and air. A good way is to tie the ears in small bunches and Suspend in a dry, hot, airy room after it has ripened as nearly as may be on the stalk.
Preserving Green Corn.—Green corn is often preserved in a small way by cooking and then cutting it from the cob and drying it in the sun, oven or evaporator. It is also preserved in brine by first cooking it and then treating the same as recommended for cucumber pickles. It may also be cut from the cob after cooking and packed in a vessel ia layers alter- nating with salt, using about seven pounds of salt to a bushel of kernels.
Mrs. T. T. Batchelor has been very successful in canning corn for winter use as follows:
When the Stowell’s Evergreen corn is ripe, the fresh pulled ears are slightly shaved with a sharp knife, so as to take off the ends of the kernels. The corn is then scraped from the cob and packed solidly in Mason jars. The covers are put on, leaving them only a little lose so water will not get in. The cans are set in a boiler, covered with cold water, which is brought to the boiling point and allowed to boil for two hours. The tops are then screwed tight, and they are allowed to boil for two hours longer. No water is used with the corn, and no salt. They have been very successfull in keeping it when put up in this way.
Cutting off the Tassels.—It has been recommended to cut off half of the tassels from the young corn, on the ground that one-half the tassels would produce all the pollen needed by all the kernels. While some experiments have shown this to be true, many other experiments show there is little if anything to be gained by the practice.
Insects.—Corn is quite free from serious injury, either from insects or diseases. The most injurious insects are the cut worms and boll worms, for discussion of which see chapter on in- sects.
Smut (Ustilago maydis) is almost the only disease seriously
114 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
injurious to corn. It is a fungous disease that works in almost any part of the plant, causing swellings which contain black _ spores. When ripe, the swellings burst and the spores are scattered to continue the disease another’ year. There can be no question but that gathering and destroying the bunches of spores by burning or burying them deeply in the ground would result Figure 48.—Corn Snut. (Ustilago Maydis.) in greatly lessening the
loss from this cause. It is, however, such an expensive remedy as to seem almost impracticable. Some experiments seem tc show that soaking the seed in a solution of sulphate of coppe1 may assist in prevexting this trouble in corn as well as smut ir wheat, but other experiments apparently prove the contrary. and it may be taken as a doubtful matter at the best. Prac tically, then, we know of no sure remedy for smut in corn.
THE LILY FAMILY. (Order Liliaceae.)
The Lily Family is made up of plants that with few excep tions have parallel veined leaves. The flowers are regular and symmetrical with perianth of six parts, six stamens and a superior three-celled ovary. Fruit a many-seeded dry pod or soft berry. Besides the asparagus, onion, garlic and leek, whose cultural directions are here given, there occurs in this family the tiger and other lilies, the hyacinth, tulip, Spanish bayonet, cen- tury plant, smilax, lily of the valley and many other familiar flowering plants.
ASPARAGUS. (Asparagus ° officinalis.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial.—The asparagus is an her: baceous plant, growing to the height of about four feet. The
ASPARAGUS. 115
flowars are small and generally yellow. They are perfect but in many plants the pistils are abor- tive, so that only about half of the plants produce seed. The seed is produced in spherical berries, that are vermilion in color when they ripen in the autumn. The seeds are black and triangular, num- bering about 1400 to theounce. Asparagus is one of the most valuable garden veg- etables. It is per-
Figure 49.—Asparagus plant full grown. fectly hardy, never fails to produce a crop, is one of the first vegetables to be obtained in the spring and may be used until the middle of June. Perhaps, no other vegetable is more highly esteemed by those who are accustomed to its use. It may be grown with success in any good corn land, but is worthy of the best of care, as it responds readily to rich manure and high culti- vation. On sandy loam the crop is much earlier than on clay soils; wet land is not suited to it.
Propagation.—It grows readily from seed, and one ounce of seed is sufficient for about fifty feet of drill and should pro- duce with good care about four hundred plants, though no particular care is necessary for success. The seed should be sown in good soil early in the spring, in drills which may be as close as sixteen inches, and it should be covered about one inch deep. As asparagus seed starts slowly, it is a good plan to sow radishes or other early appearing crops with it, so that the rows may be seen and weeding commenced early. This practice does not interfere with the growth of the aspara- gus as the radishes will be ready for use and out of the way before it needs much room. The seedling’ asparagus ‘roots
116 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
will be large enough for transplanting to the permanent plantation when one year old, and it is the best plan to do so, but they may be allowed to stand two years in the seed bed. The young seedling plants which often come up in or near asparagus beds may be transplanted in July of the first year directly to the permanent bed and will do very well if handled carefuny. At whatever age they are transplanted the plants should be dug and set out in the spring or early summer, as they are likely to fail when removed in the autumn. Aspar-
Figure 50.—Asparagus root with edible shoots.
agus may be increased by dividing the crowns, but this is an expensive process, and plants so grown have no peculiar merit over those from seed. By buying the plants instead of sow- ing the seed to start with, one or two years’ time may be saved, and frequently it is cheaper to buy the plants than to raise them. It is said that plants that do not bear seed produce
ASPARAGUS. 117
more sprouts than those that do. Such plants may be increased by divisions.
Planting—wWhile asparagus should always be moved in the spring, it is not necessary to move it very early, though it is better to do so; but it may be successfully transplanted as late as. the first of June. Any long sprouts that may have started should be broken off when the plants are set out. The land for planting should be heavily manured, deeply plowed and finely pulverized, and it is important to do this work well, as asparagus beds well made should last at least twenty years. The opinions of different growers as to dis- tance between plants vary much. It has been advocated to set the plants four feet apart each way and if the soil is re- markably fertile this distance will not be too great; if the land is not very rich, it is customary to put the plants at in- tervals of three feet in rows four feet apart. If a bed for a family garden is desired where space is limited, it is probably best to set the plants three by three feet apart. About 100 plants will produce all the sprouts needed in an ordinary home garden.
Depth to Plant.—For ordinary purposes asparagus roots should be planted about six inches deep; the deeper they are planted the later they will be about starting in the spring; if planted much less than six inches deep, the roots citen push up to the surface and interfere with cultivation. The piants should not be covered to the full depth of six inches at once or tke shoots may never be able to push up to the surface. The fur- rows should ke made with a plow to the proper depth, the plauts placed in the bottom of the furrow and covered about three inches to begin with, and the furrows filled in by after cultiva- tion as the tops grow. By the middle of the summer the fur- rows should be level full.
Cultivation during the first year can be done almost entirely with a horse, though some hand hoeing will be necessary be- tween the plants. By autumn of the first year, the tops should be three feet high. As soon as they are dead they should be cut off close to the ground with a heavy, sharp hoe or similar tool, and then the land should have a light plowing or be worked
118 | VEGETABLE GARDENING.
up with a harrow to a depth of four inches. No care need to be taken about the plants when cultivating at this season of the year, but the whole surface may be cultivated or plowed three inches deep as though no crop was in the land. In the spring the land should be cultivated as soon as it will work well in order that it may warm up quickly. There will be no crop to cut until the spring of the third year; a very little, however, may be safely cut the second year after planting if the plants do well. The cultivation in subsequent years should be very much the same as that given above, but in addition, when the crop has been all harvested and cutting is to cease, which will be about the middle or last of June in the northern states, the whole bed should have a thorough cultivation to the depth of three inches without regard to the rows, and if manure is to be used it should be put on at this time. Under this method of treat- ment it is unnecessary to do much hand weeding, and it is very easy to keep the soil in the best condition by horse power. After the thorough cultivation in June, all the sprouts that come up from the roots should be permitted to grow until autumn, by that time they should be about five feet high if in good soil and will have ripe seed. It is necessary to allow the top to grow to this extent in order that plant food may be stored up in the roots. Very late cutting weakens the growth of the plants.
Cutting.—When the crop is grown for marketing, it is not desirable to cut the shoots until the third season after plant- ing the roots; however, in the case of small beds in the gar- den where the planter is very anxious to test the fruit of his labor, it may be well to note that no harm is liable to come from a very slight cutting the second season. The sprouts should be cut as they appear in the spring, and all of them should be cut when of the proper size, although they may not be needed at that time. If permitted to grow they interfere with subsequent cutting and prevent the growth of new sprouts. They will also be in the way of cultivation later in the season. The sprouts are generally cut off about two inches below the surface when they are about six inches high above the ground, and in this case all but two inches of the asparagus is green,
ASPARAGUS. 119
which is the right condition for most markets. Some people prefer to have white sprouts and in such cases they should be cut four or five inches deep in the ground. In case white sprouts are wanted it is also a good plan to mound up around the hills or to cover them with fine manure to keep the sunlight away from the shoots. The time between the cuttings is largely de- pendent on the weather. In early spring, if the weather is rather cold, the plants may not give more than one cutting per week, but later in the season a good cutting will perhaps be secured once in two days. A severe frost will kill all the shoots above ground but will not injure subsequent cuttings. Asparagus is
Fi ure 51.—Method of bunching asparagus, showing loose sprouts, boxes for tying up in and completed bunches.
marketed by tying the sprouts in bunches, and the size of the bunches depends much upon the market and, in some places, on the season and whether the supply is pientiful or not. It is very desirable, however, to have all the bunches of one size. It is preferable to tie the sprouts when they are just a little wilted and then set them in water to swell and make the bands tight. Thc shoots will easily keep for a week if kept cold and moist. It is customary to stand the bunches on end in water in keeping them.
Manuring.—If manure is applied to the asparagus bed in autumn or before the frost is out of the ground in the spring, it prevents the frost from coming out of the ground and so keeps back the growth unless the manure applied is very fine
120 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
and is at once cultivated into the soil. Sometimes such treat- ment will keep the sprouts from starting for a week or more at a season when it is most relished and the market price is the highest. On this account it is an excellent plan to manure asparagus in June at the close of the cutting season, as it can then be thoroughly cultivated into the soil and does not inter- fere in any way with the growth of the plants in the spring. Asparagus is a rank feeder and needs lots of manure for the best results. Salt may be applied to asparagus to such an extent as to kill all the weeds without injuring the plants and yet careful experiments seem to show that salt is of no special value as a manure for this crop.
Asparagus seed is readily taken from the fruit in which it grows by macerating the fruit in water and then drying it.
Forcing Asparagus for early use is being done to some ex- tent near large cities where it is often a profitable undertak- ing. For this purpose the roots must be dug in the fall and carefully stored in earth in a cellar. In March, make a good, slow hotbed and put the roots in it in good soil. It is im- portant to start the roots slowly or the shoots will be spind- ling and weak. The roots stored as recommended may also be forced into growth in a warm cellar, shed, greenhousee, or a part of a permanent bed may be enclosed in glass or cotton sheeting.
Varieties.—-There are a number of varieties, and they are all desirable when given good cultivation. Among the best kinds are Conover’s Colossal, Moore’s and Palmetto.
ONIONS. (Allium Cepa.)
Native of Central or Western Asia.— Biennial, sometimes perennial. The original home of the onion is not known. It has no true stem, but this is represented by the base of the bulb. The form, color and shape of onions vary greatly in dif- ferent varieties. The free portion of the leaves is elongated and swollen in the lower part. The flowers, which are white or litac in color, are borne in dense, round heads on long, slen- der, hollow stalks; sometimes, instead of flowers, a head of small bulbs is produced and no seed at all. This may occur oc- casionally in all kinds, but is the almost invariable characteris-
ONIONS. 121
tic of the tree and top onions. The seeds are black, angular and flattish. Usually the plant after seeding dies and disap- pears entirely, but sometimes seed onions produce peculiar pointed bulbs, called cloves, as well as seeds. Such plants may be considered perennial as well as the potato onion which never seeds and is propagated by the division of its bulbs. The onion has been cultivated from remote antiquity, and there are very many varieties that have been developed for different purposes. These are almost without exception grown for their bulbs, but in a few cases no bulbs are formed. The bulbs in color are white, red and yellow, with intermediate shades. In the suc- cessful raising of the onion, good judgment and experience play an important part. Perhaps no vegetable crop is more certain to pay the skillful grower for his time and labor and none more liable to cause trouble to the careless beginner, and yet its cul- tivation is quite simple. The prices for onions vary greatly. They seldom are so cheap as to make the crop unprofitable; but occasionally they get down to fifteen cents per bushel, at which price they cannot be grown at a profit. There are few cu nals that eat onions, and if not sold they cannot be fed to stock on a large scale, as is the case with most vegetables. As a money crop for careful growers in many sections they are among the most reliable, and if a reasonable amount of them is raised each year without regard to the price the preceding year, it is a crop that will generally average a good profit.
Land.—Onions may be raised on any good retentive soil. Sandy land is too apt to dry out in summer for best results. On drained muck land, large crops may be easily raised; although onions grown on such soil are often a little looser in texture than those raised on drier land. The land should be rich, fine and free from weeds and any strawy manure or other material that would interfere with close cultivation. Too much stress cannot be put on having the land free from weed seeds, since it is a crop that requires much hand weeding and the plants are quite delicate when young. The soil should be rather firm for onions and plowed in the fall rather than in the spring. Fall plowing leaves the soil firm and in excellent condition for the crop.. Sometimes when the land is rich it is desirable not to plow at all, especially it is was in onions the preceding year, but instead
122 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to make a seed bed by the use of a disk or other good harrow and plant at once; in fact, better results will generally be ob- tained from spring. harrowing than from spring plowing of land to be used for onions. Of course, if the land is to be harrowed only to prepare it for the crop, it is very important, if manure is. to be used, that this be very fine, so that the harrow will cover it.
Old land is generally preferred for onions, and this crop is often successfully raised on the same land for many years. From the fact that onion land is always most carefully attended to and gets much manure and tillage, it is generally in better condition for onions than land used for almost any other crop. However, it is a good plan to occasionally change the land for onions, since on new land there is far less danger from disease and insect enemies than on old land. Land that has grown any crop requiring high culture and heavy manuring and is free from weed seeds will generally grow good onions. Sometimes onions are raised on newly cleared woodland or prairie sod with greatest success, simply by sowing the seed broadcast and har- rowing it in; but this is seldom attempted. -
Sowing the Seed.—Before sowing the seed the land should be made very smooth. It is very important to get the seed in the ground as early in the spring as possible. As soon as the land can be worked in the spring, the seed should be sown and the earlier it is sown the better. The seed of some kinds can be sown in the autumn to advantage, but on land that is in- clined to “bake,” it is a bad practice and is seldom attempted. There is, however, a fair chance of a crop even if the seed is sown as late as the first of June, but a first-class crop from seed sown as late as this is almost out of the question. By the mid- dle of May, all onion land should have been sown. The distance between the rows will depend somewhat on the variety grown, but for ordinary purposes the seed should be sown in rows fif- teen inches apart and covered one inch deep. About eighteen good seed should be sown to each foot of row, which will make it necessary to use four or five pounds of seed per acre. If there is danger of much loss from the depredations of the onion maggot, more than this amount of seed should be used; where maggots are very troublesome some growers use as much as six
ONIONS. 123
pounds per acre. The seed sower should be carefully tested on a floor or other smooth surface before using it in the field to see how it works. It is very important to know the germinating qualities of the seed sown, since if it is of low germination more must be used than if it is of best quality. Ninety per cent of good onion seed ought to germinate if the conditions are favor- able. It is important to closely study these matters, as it is de- sirable to have the land well stocked with plants and yet not over stocked. It is better to fail of getting quite so much seed on the land as is desired than it is to get very much more than is wanted, for in the first case the onions, although somewhat scattering, will be of good size, while if the plants are too thick they must be thinned out, or the onions will be small and in- ferior. The work of thinning onions on a large scale is a very expensive operation, and every precaution should be taken to avoid having to do it. If the seed is sown only a little thicker than the plants ought to stand, it is sometimes a good plan in- stead of thinning them out, to put on an extra dressing of some quick-acting, easily-applied manure, such as hen manure, which will probably make it possible for the land to mature the whole crop in good shape. Onions have the quality of crowding out to the sides of the rows and on top of one another, so that they may grow pretty thick and still be of good size, providing other conditions are favorable to their development. It is important to have the seed sown in straight rows. If the first row is laid off with a line or otherwise made straight, the subsequent rows are easily made parallel to it by means of the marker on the seed sower. If there are found to be some vacancies in the rows after the onions appear, these may be filled by sowing onion seed in them by hand; late in the season such vacancies may be sown with carrot seed.
Cultivation.—As soon as the plants commence to break the surface soil, cultivation should be commenced with a hand cul- tivator that will work both sides of the row at one time and throw a little earth from the plant; hand weeding should fol- low at once. At the second hoeing, the plants being now pretty strong, the soil should be cultivated somewhat deeper. This will enable a careful man to work the soil very close to the plants. Onions naturally grow in the surface of the land and
124 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
not below it and should never be hilled up. The onion crop should be hoed and weeded as often as the weeds appear or whenever the ground packs hard around the growing plants. The weeds should be destroyed when small. This means that until early summer the onions should be hoed about once every two weeks. When the plants get so large that they will no longer pass under the straddle cultivator without being bruised the work of cultivation must be continued between the rows until the bulbs commence to form, after which it is not a good plan to work much among them, since pushing the tops about tends to make them die down quicker than otherwise. When the onions are about the size of a half dollar and before the tops fall over, it is a good plan, if the land is not very rich, to apply some quick-acting fertilizer such as hen manure or a commer- cial fertilizer broadcast over the crop. This should be done just before or during a rain if possible. For this purpose dry, fine hen manure is good, but any rich, nitrogenous fertilizer will answer.
If the plants are going to make good onions they will be- come weak in the neck just above the bulb when nearly grown and fall flat on the ground, where they should be allowed to lie undisturbed until the tops and roots are entirely dried, then the bulbs can be easily pulled out of the ground with a rake or onion puller. In the vicinity of St. Paul, this time will be in August or the early part of September. About four rows of bulbs should be thrown together, and they should be turned with a rake every few days until perfectly dry and then be put under cover to protect them from rain. If they are allowed to get wet several times after being pulled, the outer skins are liable to come off and thus make the bulbs unsightly. If not pulled for some little time after they are ripe, especially if the season is moist, new roots are very sure to start and the roots become grown so firmly into the soil that the work of pulling and dry- ing them is increased. The work of cutting or twisting off the tops, called topping, may be left until the onions are marketed, but they will be found to keep much better if “topped,” since if the tops are left on they prevent a free circulation of the air through the bulbs. :
“Scallions” or “Thick Necks.”—Sometimes, too, the tops of
ONIONS. 125
the plant do not die down as they should, but remain green and continue to grow after the bulbs are well formed, and become what are called “scallions” or “thick necks.” This is generaily due to the planting of poorly selected seed, but sometimes it is not to be accounted for. In such cases it is generally recom- mended to break the tops down, which certainly does no harm, but it is of doubtful value. A better way is to pull such plants as soon as they begin to grow vigorously after once having formed good bulbs, dry them as much as possible and remove the tops. However, such onions do not generally keep well and had better be used during autumn and early winter.
Keeping Onions.—Onions should be kept in a dry, cool place. In a damp cellar they will sprout and grow no matter if the temperature there is near the freezing point. They will stand quite a little frost without much injury, but if frozen and thawed several times they become soft and do not keep well, but start to grow very quickly. The best way of keeping onions is in a cold, dry room in slatted bins or on shelves so arranged that the air can circulate through them. A very practical plan is to put them in barrels without heads, having holes in the bot- tom and sides and pile these on top of one another two tiers high, first putting down scantling or other material to allow the air to circulate under and around them. If our common onions are frozen solid in the autumn and kept so all winter, they will generally come out right in the spring. A good way to do this is to lay them eighteen inches thick on the floor of a loft and cover with a foot or so of hay. Thus arranged they will not freeze until severe weather sets in and will remain frozen until spring. They may also be put in water-proof bins in the field where grown and treated in the same way. They should never be handled when frozen, as they are apt to bruise. Freezing and. thawing several times seriously injures them, but if kept frozen and gradually thawed out they come out in very nice condition. After thawing out, they will not keep well, but quickly start to grow, and should be disposed of at once. They Prizetaker and similar kinds are an exception to this rule and are liable to be ruined if frozen.
Onion Sets is a term applied to small onions which are planted out in the spring instead of seeds. If onions under
126 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
three-fourths of an inch in diameter are planted out in the spring, they do not go to seed as do larger onions, but form a new bulb, and form it much earlier than they are formed when grown from seed. Taking advantage of this fact, it has become a common practice to raise these small onions (sets) and plant them out for early summer use. It does not matter how small the set is, and one the size of a pea is as good as one much larger. The size generally preferred is about one-half an inch in diameter.
Planting Onion Sets.—The method of planting sets is to have the land in the same condition as recommended for onion seed and plant the sets as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring. In doing this mark off the land in drills twelve inches apart and push each set down firmly three inches deep into the mellow soil, leaving them three inches apart. This is done by hand, and each set is handled separately, so as to have them right side up. The drill is then closed in with the feet or rake, so that each set is entirely covered up. If the ground is dry, it is sometimes rolled to make it still more compact around the bulbs, but it is generally quite moist when the sets are planted in early spring. As soon as the rows can be seen, the wheel hoe is used, and the plants kept free from weeds and the soil well stirred. By this method we will have onions of good table size by the first of July, and some may be marketed in bunches in a green state in June. Onion sets seldom, if ever, fail to produce good crops and are well adapted for use in the home garden and by those who will not take the pains necessary to grow onions from seed. No matter how poor the soil or the cultivation where the sets are planted, they always increase in size and ripen early. There is no danger of their being injured by freez- ing after being planted. From six to ten bushels of sets are re- quired per acre, depending on their size.
The raising of onion sets is carried on to a large extent in some localities, and it is a crop that requires much skill in handling. Sandy soil of rather inferior quality but free from weeds and in fine tilth is best for this purpose. To keep the sets from growing too large, it is customary to plant from thirty to fifty pounds of seed per acre, and not plant it until the latter part of May. This treatment crowds the seedlings so
ONIONS. 127
that they cannot grow large. In sowing the seed, it is best to go over the rows with the seed sower three or four times, sow- ing only a part of the seed each time. This spreads the seed out in wide drills and permits of more even work than would be possible were it attempted to sow all the seed by going over the rows once. If onion sets grow too large it is often almost impossiple to use them for any purpose, since they are too small to sell well except for pickling, and the demand for this purpose is very limited. On this account, if it is feared the sets
Figure 52.—At the left: onion plants asdug. Onthe right: omion plants trim med and ready for transplanting.
will grow too large, they are pulled when of the proper size, even if still quite green. The further cultivation of plants for sets is the same as for a field crop of onions. The sets should be taken up in August, or as soon as ripe, with a rake or onion set puller. When dry they should be stored, tops and all, about four inches deep, in a loft, where they should be covered with a foot of hay or straw on the approach of hard frost and left until wanted for planting in the spring. In other words, they should be kept
128 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
frozen all winter. Treated in this way they will require to be cleaned in the spring, and this is done by rubbing them in the hands to loosen the dirt and tops and then running them through a fanning mill. After this they are run over a screen with a three-fourths inch mesh, and only those that go through it are saved for sets. This work of cleaning may be done in autumn before storing and the sets mixed with chaff to aid in keeping them over winter.
Transplanting Onions.—Within a few years some market gardeners have adopted a plan of raising onions by sowing the seed in March in a hotbed and then transplanting the seedlings
Figure 53.—Transplanting Onions in the Fiela.
to the open ground as soon as it works well. This system has the merit of doing away with the first few weedings in the open ground, reduces the expense of seed to a minimum and makes it possible to raise some of the more delicate foreign varieties of onions, which command the highest price in the market. It is, however, very doubtful if the common field onions can be raised at a profit under this method, but it is desirable if the
ONIONS. 129
Spanish kinds are to be raised in this section. The selection and preparation of the land for this purpose is the same as for a field crop. The seed is sown in a hotbed in rows three inches apart, or on a small scale a few plants may be raised in a box in the window of the living room. The soil for this purpose should be a somewhat sandy loam of only moderate quality, and that which has no manure in it is most certain to grow healthy plants. If very thick in the row, the plants must be thinned out so as not to crowd one another too much, but still they may be grown very thickly; as many as twelve to fifteen plants to the inch of row is about right, and to secure this amount about twice as many seeds will have to be sown to the inch. Too much importance cannot he attached to the raising of strong plants, since those that are weak and spindling are very cer- tain to fail when moved.
For a week or two previous to setting out the plants, they should have plenty of fresh air, and it is a good plan to remove the sashes entirely from over them except when there is dan- ger of frost, so that the plants may become hardened off, as otherwise they are liable to serious injury by freezing when moved to the open ground, although they stand some freezing when hardened off. They do not transplant so well when soft and succulent as when properly hardened. The land and prep- aration required is the same as for a field crop of onions. The plants should be set two or three inches apart in rows twelve inches apart. Before setting them out the tops should be most- ly cut off, and this is especially important if they are weak and spindling, as they are then very sure to turn yellow and die. If the roots are excessively long, they may be shortened to facil- tate transplanting. The plants are generally set in small fur- rows opened with a hand cultivator or with a marker. The lower part of the bulb should be about an inch deep in the ground. ‘Tae plants are easily moved, and if the soil is well firmed they are very sure to live. About 150,000 plants are re- quired for an acre, and it is a big job to transplant them. For this purpose children can generally be employed at low wages and they will do the work very well if carefully looked after. The expense of transplanting is variously estimated at from $25
130 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to $50 per acre. Subsequent cultivation is the same as for a field crop of onions.
Marketing.—In a general way the directions for marketing onions apply to any other crop. They should be sold as soon as a fair price can be obtained for them and not stored unless there is a good chance of a rise. In some lacalities there is a large demand for onions for bunching purposes before the bulbs are formed. In these places it will sometimes pay to pull and sell the crop before the tops have died down, but generally it shouid be allowed to ripen. The foreign kinds, such as can only be raised here by the transplanting method, are generally high- est in price in early autumn and should then be sold. The tops should always be removed before the bulbs are marketed, and all small bulbs should be picked out and sold separately for pickling purposes. Most markets prefer onions of medium size, globular rather than flat in shape, and yellow or white in color rather than red. Very large onions of the common type are not so salable as those of medium size; but of the foreign kinds, the larger the better, and good specimens sometimes weigh as much as two pounds.
Figure 54.—Varieties of Onions. 1—Southport Yellow Globe. 2—Silver Skin. 3—Red Globe. 4—Prizetaker. 5- Yellow Danvers.
~ Onions for the Home Garden should be raised partly from
seed and partly from sets or transplanting. The small onions
picked out from one season’s crop may be used as sets the next
ONIONS. 131
year, when they will give a much earlier crop than those grown from seed. ;
Varieties-—For general field crops in this section no onion is more certain than Red Wethersfield. The Yellow Danvers is the best yellow kind for this purpose. The earliest maturing large kind is Extra Early Red. For raising sets the Yellow Dutch, called also Yellow Strasburg, is the best kind, but any variety may be used for this purpose. For growing in hotbeds, greenhouses or window boxes to be transplanted to the open ground, the Prizetaker and Southport Yellow Globe are most in demand.
Potato Onions and Shallots are always grown from the bulbs, which increase in size and also produce a cluster of bulbs (cloves) around the one that.is planted. They are especially adapted to early marketing in the same way as onion sets.
Egyptian, or Perennial Tree, Onion.—This kind is perfectly hardy and does not form bulbs, but the bleached stem is used in a green state. It produces no seed, but instead has a small clus- ter of bulblets where the seed cluster should be. These bulb- lets are planted in September in the same way as recommended for onion sets and are ready for use as bunch onions very early the following season.
Top Onions is a name applied to a class of onions that pro- duce no seed, but where the seed should be have a cluster of small bulbs. These small bulbs when planted grow into large common onions and when these common onions are planted they produce a crop of sets.
Onion Seed is raised by planting out the bulbs in the spring in rows four feet apart, and for this purpose, bulbs of the great- est excellence are used. It is best to set the bulbs about six inches deep and six inches apart in each furrow, and to do this planting out very early in the spring. The seed stalks will attain a height of about three feet. The seed clusters ripen somewhat unevenly, but should be gathered before they are quite dry, or the seed will shell out and be lost. When gathered, they should be dried in airy chambers and afterwards threshed out and cleaned with a fanning mill or they may be cleaned by being thrown into water. The latter method secures the best seed.
132 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
All the seed that is full and plump will sink in water, and as the chaff and light- er seeds float they are readily separated from the good seed Some of the seed that floats will grow,- but. it isnot very desirable for planting. The same land that grows a crop of onion seed is sometimes used for growing acrop of cu- cumbersor melonsat the same time, since the onions do not shade the land or take much nourish- ment from it except early in the spring.
Figure 55—Onion plants in flower.
COMMON GARLIC. (Allium sativum.)
Native of southern Europe.—Perennial.—All parts of the plant have the well-known strong burning taste. The bulbs or beads are composed of about ten cloves enveloped by a very thin, white or rose-colored membranous skin. The plant hardly ever flowers and is grown by means of the cloves, for which purpose those on the outside of the cluster should be used. These should be planted in good rich soil in about the same way as onion sets. They should be gathered after the bulb clusters are well formed. This vegetable is scarcely used at the north, while in southern European countries it is quite common. It is said that it has a much stronger burning taste
ONIONS. 133
when grown at the north than when grown in the south. What is known as common garlic is the kind most generally used.
Figure 56.—1—French Shallots. 2—Top Onions (red). 3—Jersey Shallots. 4—Garlic. 5—Potato Onions.
LEEKS. (Allium porrum.)
Said to be a native of Switzer- land.—Biennial.—The leek is closely allied to the onion, which it resem- bles in flavor, color of seed and flower. However, it does not form a bulb but a straight bunch of leaves, that are used almost entirely in a fresh or un- cooked condition. The leaves are flat instead of round and hollow, as is the case with onions. As yet this vege- table is little grown in this country, except around the large cities.
Cultivation.—Its requirements are
Figure 57—Leek. about the same, and it may be culti- vated in much the same way as the onion, but it is more
1-4 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
common to sow the seed early in spring and transplant in summer, settling plants very deep, as the market value de- pends on the blanched condition of the stem; and for the same reason in hoeing the soil is drawn up over the stem. They transplant very easily when the soil is moist, but should have the tops trimmed off as recommended in transplanting onions. If they are not transplanted, especial care should be taken to draw the soil towards the plants in hoeing. They may be stored in the same manner as celery, and are marketed in bunches the same as green onions.
Varieties.—There are several varieties which vary in form and color.
Large Flag leek is a popular sort and, perhaps, more largely grown than any other.
Scotch Flag or Musselburgh leek is longer than the above, but not quite so thick.
CHIVES. (Allium schoenoprasum.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial.—A hardy plant growing in ‘ thick tufts. Bulbs oval, scarcely as large as a hazelnut, forming compact masses; leaves very numerous, grass-like in appear- ance and hollow. Flower stems in terminal clusters of violet- red flowers and usually barren. The tops have an onion-like flavor and are used in seasoning.
Culture.—Chives are propagated by dividing the tufts. They are not much used and are generally grown as edgings for beds in the garden. Of the easiest culture.
THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. (Order Polygonaceae.)
The buckwheat family includes herbs which alternate entire leaves and stipules in the form of sheaths above the swollen joints of the stem. Flowers mostly perfect with a one-celled ovary bearing two or three styles or stigmas. Fruit usually an achene either flattened or three or four-angled or winged. Some- times agreeably acid as in sorrel and sometimes cathartic as the roots of rhubarb. Only rhubarb is here discussed, but other familiar plants that belong to this order are Sorrel, Bitter Curled and other docks, Knotwood, Smartweed, Bindweed or Wild Buckwheat and Field Buckwheat.
RHUBARB. 135
RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. (Rheum rhaponticum.)
The cultivated varieties of rhubarb are generally supposed to have come from Mongolia, though it is quite possible that some varieties may have sprung from a North American species. The plant is an herbaceous perennial whose leaf stalks are used for sauce, pies, etc. It sends up a flower stalk often four feet high, and produces a large amount of seed each year. It is perfectly hardy in gardens, even in very severe situations, and when once planted continues to yield abundant crops for many years. The seeds are large and triangular.
Culture.—Rhubarb is readly increased from the seed, which germinates quickly. Seedlings vary considerably but not enough to prevent this method of propagation from _ being the one most commonly practiced. They attain good transplanting size in one year. It is customary to sow the seed in rows three feet apart early in the spring, and set out the plants when one year old where they are to grow; the plants may also be thinned out and a few ail- lowed to remain where the seeds aresown. When Figure 58.—Rhubarb plant in flower, it is desired to propagate
the specially valuable qualities of individual plants, it is done by dividing the roots, using care to take at least one good bud with each piece of root. This is the only sure way of getting the best plants.
It is preferable to set the plants out in the fall where they are to grow, but spring planting is often followed. They should be set in the richest of land four feet apart each way. The stalks should not be pulled up untii the spring of the second year and then only to a small extent; the third year they should give a good crop. The only culture needed is to keep the ground
136 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
free from weeds and loose, and to use plenty of manure. In gathering rhubarb the stalks should be removed from the crown by a jerk downward and sideways, and care should be taken not to be so rough about it as to pull the buds from the crown at the same time. There is little danger of pulling more leaves than the plant can stand without injury, but in the case of a young plantation it would not be well to remove more than one- half of the leaves at any one time. The stalks are most in de
Figure 59—Pieces of rhubarb roots cut off for planting out.
mand early in the spring, but there is more or less call for them all summer. The seed stalks should be cut off as soon as they appear, so as to throw their strength into leaves and to prevent the formation of seed, if the largest amount of stalks is wanted.
Forcing Rhubarb.—For winter and spring use rhubarb is often forced in greenhouses and cold frames. The roots of any age are taken up in autumn, crowded together under the benches in greenhouses or placed in boxes or barrels with a little soil be- tween them, and put in any convenient place in the greenhouse or a warm light room or cellar where they start into growth in February. They are also planted out in warm sheds. Still an- other way of forcing rhubarb is by putting a cold frame over the plants in the early spring where they are growing in the open
BEETS. 137
ground. This method may be improved by heavily mulching the plants so as to keep out the frost in winter. The roots are some- times lifted in autumn, planted close together in a deep cold frame and covered with leaves to keep out frost. In March the leaves are removed and the sashes put on. This method has the advantage of using the sashes to the best advantage, but roots . that are dug and then forced are worthless for further planting. In order to increase the length of the stalks it is a common practice where but a small amount is grown to put headless bar- rels over each plant in the spring when the leaves are starting into growth, and in striving to reach the light the leaf stalks naturally grow long and-tender. An old sash laid over the bar- rel is an improvement on this method. :
Varieties.—There are several varieties, but the following kinds are the most highly esteemed:
Myatt’s Linneus.—An early sort having deep green stalks and attaining to a large size.
Myatt’s Victoria——A much later kind than the preceding. Stalks red, very thick and large.
THE GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. (Order Chenopodiaceae.)
The Goosefoot Family includes chiefly homely herbs, with in- conspicuous greenish flowers. The ovary is one-celled and one- seeded. Leaves chiefly alternate. Besides the beet, mangel wurt- zel, Swiss chard and spinach, whose cultural directions are here given, it includes such weeds as Russian thistle, goosefoot and lamb’s quarter or pigweed.
BEET. (Beta Vulgaris.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial—This plant in the first year of its growth forms a fleshy root, and goes to seed the second year. The seed stalk is about four feet high. What is usually sold and planted as beet seed is in reality a fruit and is made up of several seeds imbedded in corn-like calyxes; the seed itself is very small and kidney-shaped, with a thin brown skin. The roots vary greatly in form and size and in color from a reddish white to a deep dark red. Some varieties have special] quali- ties for table use, while others are valuable for feeding stock or for sugar only.
The garden beet is easily grown and is a very reliable crop.
138 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
It prefers a very rich, sandy, well-worked soil, but will grow in any land that is fit for corn. For early use some early-ma- turing kind should be selected and the seeds should be sown in rows sixteen inches apart in the open ground as scon as the soil can be worked in the spring. Ten seeds should be sown to each foot of row and covered one inch deep. The young plants will stand quite a severe frost without injury. As soon as the seedlings ap- pear they should ve cultivat- ed with a wheel hoe, and the cultivation repeated at fre- quent intervals. When they are eight or ten inches high, thinning should be commenc- ed and continued until the plants are six inches apart in the rows. These thinnings make excellent greens. If sown as recommended, they will be large enough for table use in June and will Figure 60.—Bunch of Eclipse beetS. be good for use the rest of the summer. For winter use, the seed should not be sown mntil. the Jast of May “ior first;-of-— June For late plant- ing some growers’ prefer to put the rows two _ feet or more apart so that when the plants are nicely started they can be cultivated by horse power. Stock and sugar beets should be sown in rows about thirty inches apart, to allow of easy cultivation. These should be sown from the middle to the last of May and ccvered somewhat deeper than is recommended for early table beets, perhaps one and one- half inches deep. The importance of very early and constant cultivation cannot be too strongly insisted on. Beet seed may be sown by a machine seed sower, but most of the sowers in use will need a little more careful watching when sowing this
ea : —
i 1 } | i
BEETS. 139
than with most other seeds, as the rough seeds (fruit) are liable to clog the feed hole. There are a few beet seed sowing ma- chines adapted for horse power thai it will probably pay one to use where a large amount of land is to be cultivated in beets. About six pounds of seed is required per acre, and it is always a good plan to sow an abundance of seed, as it does not start very uniformly.
Forcing Beets.—Beets are easily forced by sowing the early maturing kinds in February or March in hotbeds, where they may be left to mature or may be transplanted when of proper size. It is, however, best to allow them to grow to table size without transplanting, as this always puts the plants back, and they recover from it slowly.
Harvesting and Keeping Beets.—On the approach of severe weather—in this section about the middle of October—beets should be pulled and the tops cut or twisted off, but the top of the root should not be cut off. Light frosts do not hurt them much especially when they are protected with a heavy growth of foliage, but when the surface of the ground freezes hard there is danger of permanent injury to the roots. Beets are easily kept in a cold cellar. It is generally best to put them outside when dug and allow them to remain there until severe weather sets in. If the air of the cellar is very dry the beets should be covered with earth after being put in bins, or they will wilt and become corky. Beet seed is grown by planting out the roots about the middle of May, two feet apart in rows three feet apart. The seed ripens in the summer and is generally threshed off as soon as ripe.
Varieties.—There are many varieties of garden beets, and they vary considerably in size, form and color, time of matur- ing and other characteristics. Among the most valuable are the following:
Eclipse—A very early dark-red turnip-shaped beet of good quality. Valuable for early or late sowing. A favorite with market gardeners.
Egyptian.—Valuable for early sowing.
Bastian’s Early Turnip Beet.—A valuable early sort, tender, sweet and good in every way; one of the best for early or late
planting.
140 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Dewing’s Improved Blood Turnip Beet.—A first-class beet in every respect; valuable for winter or summer use.
Diseases of Beets.—The beet is subject to several diseases, and it is most healthy when grown on new land.
Beet Scab is a disease which ruptures the skin of the beet in a manner similar to scab on potatoes. Recent investiga- tions show that this disease is the same as potato scab. On this account, beets should not follow potatoes on land that has grown a scabby crop unless there is an interval of several years between them. Beets are sometimes subject to a rust that in- jures the foliage, but seldom very seriously.
Stock Beets (often called Mangel Wurzel). Stock beets are gross feeders and prefer rich soil. They require the same care as table beets, but the rows should be thirty inches apart, so as to allow of cultivating them with horse implements. The seed may be sown with any common * garden seed drill after first laying off the rows with a marker, or it may be sown with a common grain drill by stopping the flow of seed through a part of the holes. It is a very good plan to sow radish or rutabaga seed with the beet seed, as it starts quickly and the line of the row is thus easily seen, so that cultivation may be started early.
Bigare 6 Seeae Bee This is very important in land that is somewhat weedy. About six pounds of seed to the acre will give about twelve seeds (fruits) to a foot.
There are many good varieties of stock beets. Among the best are Long Red, Yellow, or Golden Tankard, Yellow Globe and American Sugar. The latter is not a true sugar beet, but is much richer in sugar than the ordinary varieties of stock beets and, possibly, of better feeding value.
Sugar Beets, from which is made a large amount of the sugar of commerce, are grown in a similar way to stock beets, but on a large scale require a rather different and special
BEETS. 141
treatment. There is no trouble about raising them with a large percentage of sugar in any of the northern states, but the drawbacks to its becoming a more general industry are the very expensive machinery required to extract the sugar eco- nomically on a large scale, the small margin of profit and the low price the manufacturers have been willing to pay for the beets. Sugar beets grow entirely below ground, which makes them difficult to dig, and they do not grow to large size, seldom weighing more than four pounds. The part of a beet above ground does not contain much sugar. It is recommended to sow about 18 lbs. of seed of sugar beets per acre.
LEAF BEET OR SWISS CHARD.
Native of Southern Europe.—Biennial.——This appears to be exactly the same plant as the beet root, except that in its case cultivation has developed the leaves instead of the root. The botanical characteristics, es- pecially those of the fruit seed and flowers are precisely alike in both plants. The root is branched and not very fleshy, while the leaves are large and numerous, with the stalk and midrib fleshy and very large. The plants vary in color from deep red to nearly white. The fleshy leaf stalks are cooked and served like asparagus.
Culture.—The plants are grown in the same manner as the com- mon table beets. Among the best varieties is one known as the Silvery Swiss chard.
Figure 62.—Swiss Chard.
SPINACH. (Spinacia oleracea.)
Properly a native of Western Asia.—An annual plant cul- tivated for its leaves which form popular spring and early sum:
142 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
mer greens. It has a seed stalk about two feet high. The varieties. are divided according to their seeds into round and prickly -seeded sorts. The latter have sharp, hard prickles on the seeds. This division is so pronounced that some botanists have treated these classes as distinct species. The prickly-seeded sorts are considered the hardiest, while among the round- Figure 63.—Spinach. seeded kinds are _ per- haps the most desirable varieties for table use, but this difference is not always very clear.
Culture.—The seed of spinach may be sown in hotbeds or cold frames very early in the spring or outdoors as soon as the ground can be worked. It is of the easiest culture. A supply may be had during the whole growing season by making a succession of sowings at intervals of about two weeks. Under good conditions it will be ready for table use in about six weeks from the time of sowing the seed. In planting it outdoors the rows should be about twelve inches apart. The seed should be covered about one inch deep and about forty seeds or more sown to the foot or row. It is well to use plenty of seed and since it often starts poorly in dry weather extra precautions are taken when sowing it at that time. The plants may be thinned out when too thick, and, no matter how small they are they form a good vegetable. Spinach is often sown in the spring between early peas; cabbage, potatoes or other slow growing crops. For early spring use the seeds of the hardiest kinds should be sown in this section in the latter part of August. The plants should grow well and attain a good size during the cool weather of autumn, and on the approach of winter they should be covered with about two inches of straw, hay or similar material. When thus treated the crop generally comes through the winter in this
SPINACH. 143
section without serious injury and after making a little growth in the spring is marketable. It is harvested by cutting the plants off at the top of the ground. For this purpose a short push hoe is run under the plants. They are then freed from dead leaves, and after being washed are ready for marketing. Spinach requires a very rich soil and plenty of well-rotted manure. To secure the best results from early spring sowings, it will pay those raising it for market, to use nitrate of soda on the land in small quantities, say, two applications at the rate of seventy-five pounds per acre at intervals of two weeks after the crop has started. This material has a wonderful effect on early leaf crops. Where nitrate of soda is not used hen manure is very desirable The effect of nitrate of soda on this crop is very marked and often results in more than doubling its size. Spinach generally is very free from insects and fungous diseases.
Varieties.—There are a number of varieties of spinach dif- fering in earliness, hardiness and in the time they remain in edible condition, as well as in many minor matters. Among the best are the following:
Long Standing.—An excellent sort for spring and summer sowing, since it stands longer than any other sort before going to seed.
Prickly, or Winter.—A prickly seed variety that is very popular. It will withstand very severe weather without serious injury if lightly protected by hay or straw and is probably the best sort for autumn planting in this section.
Bloomsdale.—A nice hardy sort with long, curled leaves of excellent quality. Very hardy.
THE CABBAGE FAMILY. (Order Cruciferae.)
The cabbage family is made up of herbaceous plants having watery juice, a pungent (peppery) taste, and floral envelopes arranged on the plan of four, with their petals generally spread out in the form of a cross. Stamens six, two of which are short- er than the other four. Seed all embryo. This is a large family and includes besides the cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel’s sprouts, kale, kohl-rabi, horseradish, cress, water cress, whose cultural directions are given under this head, among common weeds, the mustard, French weed, false flax, pepper cress, shepherd’s purse
144 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
and many garden flowers such as nasturtium, gillyflower, candy- tuft and alyssum. CABBAGE. (Brassica oleracea.)
Native of Europe and Western Asia.—Biennial.—It grows naturally to the neight of three or four feet and scarcely resem- bles any of our cultivated kinds. The part eaten is termed the head and is simply a cluster of leaves enwrapping the top of the stem, or in other words, a large bud. It attains the height of three or four feet when it goes to seed. The flowers are gener- ally yellow in color and conspicuous, though uot large. There are three great groups of cabbages distinguished respectively by their (1) red leaves, (2) smooth leaves and (38) wrinkled leaves. Red cabbages are chiefly esteemed for pickling. The varieties with smooth, light green leaves (common cabbage) are com:
‘ie
ac ec a Bee |
Figure 64—Cross section of cabbage head, showing arrangement of stem and leaves and that it is simply a big terminal bud.
monly cultivated, while the Savoy cabbage, which has wrinkled leaves, and is of the best quality, is little grown because it does not produce so abundantly as the common kinds. The original species from which the cabbage has sprung is also the parent of the cauliflower, kale and Brussel’s sprouts. The seed of the cab. bage is dark brown in color, smooth and round.
CABBAGE. 145
Soil.—The best soil for cabbage is a rich alluvial or prairie loam, moist, yet well drained and in fine condition. While some varieties will mature on poor soil yet they all require the highest cultivation for the best development. This is especially true of early cabbage, which needs mucu richer soil than the late crop. It is a good plan to occasionally change the land used for cabbage; in some eastern sections it is necessary to do this each year on account of the prevalence of the disease called club- root, which is not yet found in this section.
Manure.—The cabbage is a gross feeder and needs lots of rich manure. Most of our best growers apply manure broadcast, but when there is a necessity of economizing with the manure, it may be applied to better advantage in the hill, providing the land is in good condition. In growing early cabbage it is an ex- cellent plan to apply a handful or so of dry hen manure aroun! the hills when the plants are half grown. This should not be put close to the plants, but scattered over a radius of a foot or more from the plants and then cultivated into the soil.
Early Cabbage.—The methods of cultivating adapted to the growing of early cabbage are quite different from those followed in raising late cabbage, and the subject of cultivation naturally groups itself under these heads. The soil preferred for early cabbage is a light, rich, sandy loam, well drained and sloping to the south, providing it is not too liable to injury from drouth. In milder sections of the country it is customary to sow the seed for early cabbage in September, and winter the plants over in cold frames. This method is impracticable in the extreme Northern states, and the best plan to follow in such sections is that of sowing the seed in greenhouses or hotbeds from the mid- dle to the last of February. As the plants need room they are transplanted so as not to be crowded. If they are kept growing freely they will be large enough to transplant to the open ground by tke first of April.
Setting the Plants.—Cabbage plants will grow at a low tem- perature, and it is a great advantage to plant them out early in the spring, although the weather may be damp and cold. At this season of the year they may not show any great increase in leaf surface, but they form roots rapidly, and these are a great
146 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
help in providing a vigorous growth later in the season. As a rule, early cabbage should be set out as soon as the frost is out in the spring and the ground nicely settled. It is important to set the plants deep in the ground at this season, and since the stem is the part most liable to injury from hard frosts, it should be set deep enough to bring the base of the leaves below the ground. This is very important and frequently mukcs the differ- ence between success and failure in growing the early crop. I? severe weather is threatened after the plants are set out, it is a good plan to draw a hoe-ful of earth over each plant, for if frozen when they are covered with earth they will not be injured, and they can remain buried in the ground several days in cold weath- er without serious injury. However, the earth should be removed as soon as good weather is assured. The distance between the plants will depend somewhat on the varieties to be culti- vated; under ordinary conditions the large, early kinds should be set out two feet apart in rows three feet apart. This arrange- ment permits of horse cultivation both ways when the plants are young and one way when they are full grown.
Cultivation s’iould cemmence as soon as the rows Can be clearly seen, and should be repeated after each rain or at least once a week until the crop is grown. For this purpose a fine- tooth horse cultivator is the most desirable instrument, and if the work is carefully done there will be very little need of hand hoeing. It is a good plan to draw the earth slightly toward the plants when they are about half grown.
Harvesting the Crop.—Treated in this way, under ordinary conditions they will be nicely “headed up” by the first of July and ready for marketing. The season for marketing, however, will depend largely on the kinds grown. If the land is at once plowed when the crop is harvested, it can be used for growing some late crop, as late beans, spinach or celery. By care in sowing and the selection of varieties early cabbage may be con- tinued till late cabbage is in the market.
Retarding the Heading of cabbages may be accomplished by starting the roots on one side of the head or by slightly pulling the plant so as to break some of the roots. This is very impor- tant some seasons, as it is not uncommon to find the market over- stocked with this vegetable just as the crop is full grown, and
CABBAGE. 147
if the plants are allowed to remain growing when once a hard head is formed they are very sure to burst and be spoiled. By starting the roots a little, the growth is checked and heads may be kept from spoiling for a week or more.
Late Cabbage is a term generally given to cabbage grown from seed sown in the open ground. It may be ready for use in September or in the late autumn and be kept all winter.
Soil_—Any land that will produce a good crop of corn is in good condition for late cabbage, but the richer the land the bet- ter the chances of success. Less manure is required for late than for early cabbage. Late cabbage is generally raised by sow- ing the seed in the hills, or by sowing it in a seed bed and set- ting the plants in the field when of sufficient size. Each of these methods has its advantages and will be referred to separately further on.
Sowing Cabbage Seed.—Late cabbage may be raised by sow- ing the seed in a seedbed, in rows twelve inches apart, in the spring, and when the plants are large enough transplanting them to the field where they are to be grown. ‘This is the com- mon way of growing cabbage. Its advantages are that the plants may be set out on land that has grown some early crop, as peas, or on sod land after cutting the hay. It also ensures having the plants all together in a small space, where they can be easily cultivated and guarded when they are young and most liable to serious injury from cut worms, flea beetles and other insects and from dry weather. It has the disadvantage of requiring the plants to be moved during the dry weather of early summer, when they are very liable to fail from lack of water in the soil. Sowing the seed of cabbage in the field where the plants are to mature and then thinning out to one plant to a hill, has the advantage of not requiring the transplanting of the plants during dry weather, and as the plants are not set back by transplant ing they. mature in a shorter time than transplanted plants. This makes it practicable to sow the seed later than when the plants are to be removed and is sometimes an advantage. It has the disadvantage, however, of having the plants scattered over a large area when they are small and are liable to serious in- sect enemies, and they are more difficult to cultivate than when
148 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
in a seed bed. The thinnings from the land where seed is sown in the hill may be set elsewhere.
Raising Cabbage by Transplanting.—If the plants are to be raised in a seedbed and then transplanted to the open ground the seed of such varieties as Late Flat Dutch should be sown about the 10th of May; but if Fotler’s Improved Brunswick or other second early kind is to be grown, the seed should not be sown until at least ten days later; and such large, early heading varieties as Early Summer may be successfully raised for winter use when its seed is sown as late as the first of June. In any case the plants should be ready to set out by the last of June, when they should be carefully transplanted. The land should be thoroughly pulverized and marked out three feet apart each way, unless it is to be manured in the hiils, when it should be furrowed out one way and marked the other way. The plants should be set at the intersections of the marks, but it is not a good plan to sé. them on top of the manure, but rather to put them a little to one side of it. This is especially important if the manure is not well rotted. The cultivation and after treatment are the same for late as for early sabbage.
Cabbage from Seed Sown in the Hill.—If the seed is to be sown in the hills, the land should be treated as recommended when the plants are to be transplanted. It is generally neces- sary for success to have the soil moist wren the seed is sown. After the land is marked out, seven or cight seeds should be sown at each intersection covered with about half an inch of soil © and pressed down with the sole of the foot. The plants gen- erally come up inside of a week and should be hand-hoed at once, and when large enough cultivated with a horse implement. When big enough to stand alone take out all but one plant from each hill and treat as directed for those that have been trans- planted.
Harvesting Late Cabbage may be done by selling directly trom the field or by storing for marketing during the winter. If the heads are nearly ready to burst they cannot be kept long and should be disposed of at once. There is generally a good demand in the late autumn for this vegetable for general mar- keting and also by the pickling factories for making sauer kraut. Cabbages will stand ten degrees or more of frost, but severe
CABBAGE. ; 14¢
freezing is very injurious; they are seldom injured by frost un- less the stump is frozen solid. If there is danger of severe freez- ing before the crop can be marketed or stored, it is a good plan to pull the plants and put them into piles, with the stumps in- side, and cover the whole with straw litter. Piled and covered this way, they may be left in the field until severe freezing weather and will generally be safe in such a condition in this section until the first of December. At harvesting there may be some heads that are quite too loose for marketing, and such cab- bage will often improve very much if stored as recommended for seed cabbage.
Storing Cabbage.—In order to have cabbage keep well far into the winter, they must not be headed very solid when gath-
Figure 65.—Cabbage pitted for winter.
ered but should be a trifie soft, but there is quite a difference in the keeping qualities of the different varieties. If late varie- ties are sown too early, they will not keep well and if early va- rieties are sown late so as to be in good keeping condition when harvested they often keep very well. In order to store cabbages successfully, they must be kept cold and moist but never allowed to get warm or wet. Providing the cabbage is in good condition for storing it will generally keep until spring if the heads are set together with the roots up, in a trench and covered with from six inches to a foot of soil and mulch enough to prevent hard freezing. If they are frozen while buried and thawed out in the ground they are seldom seriously injured. In this sec- tion, however, a better plan is to keep them in a cold, damp cel- lar, stored in bins about four feet wide so as to allow a circula- tion of air through them. For commercial purposes, it is a good
150 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
plan to build store houses, half in and half out of the ground; in a small way, they may be kept by burying the heads in sand in a cellar, or a few cabbages for home use, may be heeled in by the roots in the cellar—but it should be borne in mind that de- caying cabbage is dangerous material to have under a dwelling house, and it should not be permitted under any circumstances. In storing cabbage the loose outside leaves should be removed and the stumps always left on, except when they are to be stored in bins.
Cabbage Seed is a somewhat difficult crop to raise in this section, the trouble being in keeping the plants over winter. However, it may be done if care is used. For this purpose heads should not be permitted to get very hard; they should be gath- ered before the stumps have been frozen and be set close to- gether, heads up, in a trench and covered with about a foot of soil and mulching enough to prevent severe freezing. Cabbage
Yr Ay, 7/7, UW MIs GUM ISM YS BST G fa eine IU Sfp HMA YD y ty Ly MY)
Figure 66.—Seed cabbages pitted for winter.
seed may be raised from the stumps after the heads are cut off, and this is a very simple matter as the stumps can be buried like turnips or even kept in bins, providing they are covered with earth and kept cold, but such seed is not desirable, as the evi- dence seems to show that there is a tendency to increase the length of the stump at the expense of the head under such treat- ment. It is generally agreed among our best seed growers that cabbage seed should be saved from the terminal buds of the stem which are in the cabbage head. Providing the seed cab- bage are successfully wintered over, they should then be planted about the 1st of May in deep furrows about three feet apart, in
rows four feet apart.
Figure 67.—Part of cabbage
stalk showing seed p
Landreth). other early kinds, since the head is of good size. The Early Win- ningstadt is a very de- sirable variety, form- ing very solid heads. It is the most reliable of ai! varieties for early or late use in unfavor- able situations. Fotler’s Improved Brunswick is a valuable variety for
CABBAGE.
151
Sometimes the seed stalk cannot burst
seed ods. (After
through the head leaves, and it is a good plan where the outer leaves are very thick and tough to cut through the outside leaves on the top of the head a little so as to allow it to push through. The seed is gathered branch by branch as the pods be- gin to turn yellow, and it generally takes several cuttings to harvest the seed pods. These are dried in buildings having tight floors and the seed is then threshed out. Varieties. — For very early use the Early Jer- sey Wakefield is perhaps the most popular variety, but the head is quite small. For second early the Early Summer is per- haps the best and is gen- erally more profitable than
Figure 68.
—Early Winningstadt cabbage.
152 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
second early use or for winter use, and it is the earliest of the large heading kinds.
Flat Dutch and Stone Mason are desirable winter sorts and ere good keepers. The best red cabbage is perhaps the Mam- moth Red Rock. The Savoys are of better quality than the ordinary drumheads but do not produce so heavily. Tney are desirable for home use. The best of this class is the Ameri- ean Drumhead Savoy.
Insects.—The insects injuri- ous to the cabbage are the flea Fig. 69—Premium flat Dutch cabbage. beetle, . cabbage worms, cut worms and flea, for treatment of which see chapter on insects.
Diseases.—There are very few diseases that seriously injure the cabbage. The most common is club-root, also called club- foot. The life history of this disease is not known. It attacks the roots of cabbage, cauliflower, turnips and other plants of the same family, causing them to form large irregular swell- ings. The plant is checked in growth and often dies from the effects of the disease. This is not yet a common disease in this section, but in some of the Eastern and Middle states it is very common. The best way of avoiding it is to not use the same land for cabbage or similar crop without at least three years interven- ing, during which time it is preferable to have the land in grass or clover. This disease is also transmitted by Pepper Cress,- shepherd’s Purse, Candytuft and similar plants. This disease may also be distributed in manure from animals fed on diseased plants.
Sauer Kraut.—The following recipe for sauer kraut is a very excellent one: Slice cabbage fine in a slaw cutter; line the bottom and sides of an oaken barrel or keg with cabbage leaves, put in a layer of the sliced cabbage about six inches in depth, sprinkle lightly with salt, and pound with a wooden beetle until the cabbage is a compact mass; add another layer of cabbage. etc., repeating the operation, pounding well each layer until the barrel is full to within six inches of the top; cover with leaves, then a cloth, next a board cut to fit loosely on the inside of the
CABBAGE. 153
barrel, kept well down with a heavy weight. If the brine has not raised within two days, add-enough water with just salt enough to taste to cover the cabbage; examine every two days and add water as before, until brine rises and scum forms, then lift off the cloth carefully so the scum may adhere, wash well in several cold waters, wring dry and replace, repeating this opera- tion as the scum arises, at first every other day, and then once a week, until the acetous fermentation ceases, which will take three to six weeks. Up to this time keep warm in the kitchen, then remove to a dry, good cellar unless made early in the fall, when it may be at once set in the pantry or cellar. One pint of salt to a full barrel of cabbage is a good proportion; some also sprinkle in whole black pepper. Or, to keep until summer: In April squeeze out of brine and pack tightly with the hands in a stone jar, with the bottom lightly sprinkled with salt; make brine enough to well cover the kraut in the proportion of a table- spoon of salt to a quart of water; boil, skim, cool and pour over; cover with cloth, then a plate, weight and another cloth tied closely down; keep in a cool place, and it will be good as late as June. Neither pound nor salt the cabbage too much, watch closely and keep clear from scum for good sauer kraut.—Buck- eye Cook Book.
Black Rot of Cabbage is a disease that has not attracted much attention until the last few years but has during that time caused much damage to cabbage and cauliflower.
The first indication of this disease is upon the outer leaves of the plant which turn yellow and die in spots usually near the margins. Such leaves are also liable to wilt and careful exami- nation will show that the veins in and near the dead areas are . blackened. These spots enlarge and gradually involve the whole leaf, from which it passes to the stem and to the rest of the plant, causing it to rot. The dark colored veins in the freshly cut stem and leaves are the best indications of this disease and are its characteristic marks.
Cabbage that is even slightly affected will not keep, for this rot spreads rapidly in stored cabbage, and in selecting cabbage for storage, the stems and outer leaves should be examined for the blackened vein so characteristic of this disease.
154 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
The germs of the disease may pass the winter in the soil and reinfect cabbage, cauliflower, turnips or similar crops and even such nearly allied weeds as Pepper Cress and Shepherd’s Purse the following season. If diseased cabbage is fed to stock the disease may be distributed by the manure.
Remedial Measures.—In view of the above facts, it seems reasonable to take the following precautions: (1) Do not plant cabbage a second year on land where the disease is observed without several years intervening, during which no nearly allied crop has been grown on it. The seed bed should also be made in new soil each year as the plants may become diseased when vary young. (2) Do not use manure for cabbage crops from animals that have been fed uncooked diseased cabbage. (3) Since the disease may be spread by insects which fly from one plant to another, they should be kept in check aS much as possi- ble. (4) When the disease ap- pears the field should be gone over systematically and all dis- eased leaves removed and de- stroyed as soon as they appear. If the disease has entered the stem the whole plant should be destroyed This destruction should consist of burning or deep burial. (5)Since this disease may - be continued on Wild Mustard, Pepper Cress, Shepherd’s Purse Figure 70.—Brussells Sprouts. 0d other allied plants, they
should be carefully kept out of land that has been once infested if it is intended for cabbage. BRUSSELS SPROUTS. (Brassica oleracea.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—This is one of the many varia- tions which the cabbage has taken on under cultivation. In this case where the head of the cabbage is ordinarily found there are loose green leaves and seldom a head. The stem is generally two feet or more high, with leaves, and at the base of each leaf is a small cabbage which seldom attains a diameter of over two inches. These little cabbages are the parts eaten; they are
CAULIFLOWER. 155
much more delicate than the common cabbage and highly es- teemed by many. The plant requires the same treatment as cab- bage except the plants can be grown nearer together. While easily grown it is doubtful about its becoming a popular vegeta- ble, since in most of our markets very little attention is paid to quality, and the common cabbage will probably continue to take the place of this vegetable on most tables. The variety most esteemed is known as Dwarf Brussels Sprouts.
CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea.) Native of Europe.—Biennial.—Cauliflower is a form of cap. bage in which the inflorescence becomes fleshy and distorted.
Figure 7i—Snowball cauliflower. It is, however, considered much more delicate than cabbage and brings a higher price. It is grown in much the same manner as cabbage; the plants, however, are not so hardy in resisting cold weather as cabbage, are more sensitive to adverse condi: tions and should have more manure in the soil. As soon as the head commences to form, the outside leaves of the plant should be drawn together over the head so as to keep the sunlight away from it. Treated in this way the heads will be nearly snow
156 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
white, while if not protected they become brown in color and are
Figure 72.—Cauliflower plant with leaves tied together to keep the sunlight off the head. This should soon as the head can be seen, and the leaves should remain tied until the
head is cut out.
be done as
KALE, or BORECOLE. Native of Europe and Asia.—Annual or biennial.—The seea is like that of the cabbage or kohl-rabi. Under this head is
grouped a number of vegetables closely re- lated to the cabbage and _ kohl-rabi_ that are used for greens. None of them are sufficiently hardy in the extreme north to stand out over winter. They are here cul- tivated in the same
Figure
not as salable. The crop ripens somewhat irregu- larly When danger of hard frost is appar- ent the immature heads Should be pulled with roots and leaves and be planted out in a cold cellar or cold frame, where many of them will form good salable heads. The insect ene- mies are the same as those of the cabbage.
Varieties.—There are many varieties, but per- haps, the most desir- able are the Snowball and the Early Dwart Erfurt.
(Brassica oleracea var.)
73.—Dwarf Purple Kale.
manner as turnips. In sections where the winters are mild, some of them are esteemed for planting in autumn for early spring use.
KOHL-RABi. Lae KOHL-RABI. (Brassica oleracea var.)
Kohl-rabi has been derived from a plant nearly allied to the cabbage, and its seed resembles cabbage seed. Its peculiarity is its swollen stem just above the ground, which is used for the same purpose and grown in the Same general way as the turnip. It is more highly es- teemed than turnips for early summer use where well known. Liketurnips it shouid be sown where it is to mature and used when young and ten- der. It may be stored in winter like tur- nips.
Varieties.—There are small tender va- rieties especially de- pg signed for table use S TAINS and others that grow to large size and are valuable for feeding stock. Two of the best for table use
are the White and Figure 74.—Kohl-Rabi. Purple Vienna.
" i ee Se
TURNIP (Brassica napus) and RUTABAGA, or SWEDISH TUR- NIP (Brassica campestris.)
Native of Europe or Asia.—Biennial.—Cultivated for their swollen, fleshy roots. The varieties of turnip and rutabaga vary much in form, size and color of the skin, and the flesh is white or yellow, pungent or slightly acid. There is more difference in the varieties of the turnip than of the rutabaga. The flower stalks are produced the second year and bear a large number of yellow flowers. The seeds are smooth and round like the seed of the cabbage and cauliflower and in similar shaped pods.
158 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Turnip.—The turnip is essentially a cold weather plant and does best when most of its growth is made during the autumn. It is grown to some extent in the spring, but there is very little call for it until cool weather.
Figure 75.—White Strap Leaved Turnip.
Culture.—The turnip needs to be grown very rapidly to have the best quaiity. The best soil for it is a friable, rich, sandy loam, free from fresh manure; sod land that has been recently broken up is excellent for this purpose, but on old land, i. e., that which has been cultivated for several years, or where there is fresh manure, the roots are often wormy. When grown for early use some quick maturing kinds should be planted as early in the spring as the soil can be worked in rows fifteen inches apart. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the seedlings thinned out two or three inches apart after all danger from the flea beetle has passed. (This insect is the same as that which attacks the cabbage.) Turnips grown for late use generally come in as a second crop after grain, strawberries, early pota- toes, cabbage or other crop that is off the land by the first of August, since after this time a good crop of many varieties of late turnips will mature before winter, though some of the large kinds need to be sown earlier in the season. The seed is some- times sown broadcast just before a shower or else it is harrowed
TURNIP AND RUTABAGA. 159
in. It is also grown in rows about two feet apart and cultivated by a horse cultivator, or the rows may be put nearer together and a hand cultivator used.
Varieties.—Some of the best varieties of turnips are: Early Flat and Extra Early Milan for early use; Red Top Strap Leaf and White Egg or White Globe for autumn use.
Rutabagas, (also called Swedish Turnips), are grown in the same manner as the common turnips, but require about four weeks longer to attain edible
Size, and, on this account, should be planted by the mid- dle of June or first of July. They are grown in rows thir- ty inches apart and culti- vated with a horse hoe. Ruta- bagas are sometimes grown in beds and transplanted, but this is seldom, if ever, done with turnips.
The seed of both turnips and rutabagas is so smooth and fine that it is generally sown too thick. Mixing the seed with flour is a good way to prevent its running too rapidly through the seed sower. The crop should be aliowed to stay in the ground until the approach of severe cold weather. They will stand some little freezing without injury, but will not live in the land over winter. They should be stored in frost proof pits or cellars. In dry cellars they should be covered with a few inches of sand or other ma- terial to prevent wilting. (See directions for keeping carrots.)
Figure ‘6—Rutabaga.
Varieties.—Improved Purple Top Swede, and White Rock, are both excellent varieties of rutabagas.
HORSERADISH. (Nasturtium armoracia.) Native of Europe.—Perennial,—Flowers white and small, in
160 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
long clusters; seed vessels small, rounded and almost always barren. Propagated by cuttings of the roots.
Cultivation.—This plant delights in deep, moist soil, but will grow in almost any situation and is very hardy. For home use it is customary to let it remain in some neglected corner, where it kills out everything else, and though treated in this way it yields sufficient roots for home use; yet the roots are so crowded that they are scarcely salable. When grown as a market crop it is planted anew each year. Straight pieces of roots six or eight inches long, called “sets” are planted about twelve inches apart, in rows two feet apart early in the spring. The roots must be set right end uppermost or they will not grow smooth or straight. An iron bar is the most convenient tool for planting the ‘‘sets.” The top of the sets should be about two inches below the surface. It is customary to grow horseradish as a sec- ond crop after peas or cabbage, by setting the roots between the rows of the first crop and cultivating the soil without re- gard to them until the first crop is harvested. It does not seem to hurt horseradish ‘sets’ much if they are cut off a few times in cultivating early in the season. When the first crop is gath- ered the land is thoroughly cultivated, and the horseradish plants given good care. This plant makes its greatest growth in autumn a”d is dug on the approach of winter or can be left until spring. It must never be left two years on the same land, or else great labor will be required to get rid of it, and the roots will be so crooked as to be almost unsalable. Horseradish is used almost entirely after grinding or grating the roots and mix-- ing with vinegar. It will keep for any length of time when thus prepared and kept in air-tight packages. It is also ground and dried, and the young leaves are sometimes used for greens. The demand is limited, though considerable quantities are sold each year. Under some conditions it is a paying crop, but the busi- ness is very apt to be overdone. There are no varieties.
WATER CRESS. (Nasturtium officinale.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial.—An aquatic plant with long stems, which readily take root in moist soil or water. It is es- teemed for use as a salad on account of its pleasant pungent flavor. Leaves are compound, with roundish divisions; flowers
WATER CRESS. 161
small, white, in terminal spikes; seeds, usually few, very fine, in slightly curved pods.
Culture.—It can only be cultivated successfully in moist sit- uations and generally does best along the edges of streams, where it grows partially in the water. It may, however, be grown successfully in any moist soil, even in a greenhouse. It is very hardy, but for best results should be covered with water during winter. Most of the supply for our markets comes from along the courses of natural streams. In Europe, trenches from 16 to 20 feet wide for growing water cress are often excavated, into which running water may be turned at pleasure. In the bottom of these trenches, the roots of the cress are planted. The water is then let in, and the plants are not interfered with until they have grown strong enough to yield a crop of leaves. It is often practicable to make narrow beds about springs or slow running streams for this purpose.
CRESS, or PEPPER GRASS. (Lepidium sativum.)
Native of Persia—Annual.—An early spring vegetable, used as a salad and for garnishing, and of the easiest culture. It should be sown very early in the spring in the hotbed or out- doors in rows one foot or less apart. As it quickly runs to seed, a succession of sowings should be made every eight or ten days. It is only in demand in the early spring or in winter. It can easily be grown in a window box in a dwelling house. Flowers white and small; seeds comparatively large.
RADISHES. (Raphanus sativus.)
Probably a native of Asia.—Annual or, in the case of the winter radish, biennial.—The flower stalks are branched, about three feet high and have white or lilac-colored flowers, but never yellow. The seed is roundish or oval, but somewhat flattened and much larger than cabbage or turnip seed and much more variable in size. Some recent experiments show that the large radish seeds germinate better and produce marketable roots sooner and more uniform in shape than small seed.
Culture.—The radish is a vegetable of very easy culture. The roots of some kinds reach edible size in three weeks when grown in best conditions and are a favorite vegetable of early
ees é
162 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
spring. It is a common practice to sow the seed of early kinds in hotbeds between rows of lettuce and outdoors between, or in the rows of beets, carrots, parsnips, etc. They will grow in a)l- most any soil, but new land is best for them. The seed may be sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring, and if sowings are made once every two weeks thereafter a succession of tender roots may be had.
Winter radishes are grown and stored in the same manner and fully as easily as turnips. The seed is sown in June or July. and the roots gath- ered in autumn and stored in cellars or pitted outdoors. They keep very well. Win- ter radishes closely resemble the early kinds in quality, but are firmer in texture, Thecabbage flea bee- tle affects the young radish plants in the late spring and sum- mer. (See chapter on insects for reme- dies.) The roots are sometimes infested with maggots, but these are. seldom troublesome except
S Oe where fresh manure Figure 77.—White Strasburg Radish. is used or in land
where radishes have been grown for several: years. It is Dest not to manure the land for radishes but use rich soil that has been put in good order by some previous crop. Varieties——There are many kinds, differing from each other in color, form, size time of maturity and taste. They are gen- erally divided into early or forcing varieties, summer and au-
x
RADISHES. 163
tumn varieties and winter kinds. A few of each are here men- tioned:
French Breakfast.—One of the best very early radishes for the market, but small. It remains in good condition for only a short time, consequently is not desirable for the home garden.
Early White Tipped Scarlet Turnip Shaped.—A handsome, round, early, popular radish, maturing very quickly.
Early Deep Scarlet. —Very early,round and of deep scarlet color.
Long Scarlet Short Top.—A well known de- sirable early kind hav- ing long scarlet roots.
White Strasburg.— One of the finest half long kinds for summer use. Grows to good size; white and tender.
Figure 78.—French Breakfast Radish.
Rose.—The most popular of the winter sorts. Skin pink.
Black Spanish.—Skin very black, flesh white, firm, tender but very pungent. A good winter sort.
THE CLOVER FAMILY. (Order Leguminosae.)
The Clover family is made up of trees, shrubs or herbs which with few exceptions have a butterfly-shaped corolla, 10 stamens, 9 of which are generally grown together. The fruit is known as a legume and is a pod that opens like the pea or bean pods. The leaves are alternate, chiefly campound, and have stipules. Besides the beans and peas, whose cultural di- rections are here given, the following are members of this fam- ily: Clovers, Vetch, Alfalfa and Lupine among farm crops, and the Common Locust, Kentucky Coffee Tree, Honey Locust and Yellow Wood among trees.
164 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Annual. The common beans in this country are natives of the warmer parts of South America. They are sometimes re- ferred to as kidney or French beans (P. vulgaris). Besides these, the Lima beans (P. lunatus) are culti- vated to a limited ex- tent. The common broad bean of Europe is an entirely different vege- table from the kinds generally grown here and is not sufficiently prolific in this section to make it worthy of cultivation. There are many varieties of beans, and the varieties ofeach species readily cross together, the flowers being especially adapt-
Figure 79.—Bush Bean. ed to crossing. They
vary from one another
in many particulars; some are low, bushy and erect, while others are twining and have stems that grow ten or more feet in a season.
There are many gradations between these extremes, as well as in size, color and shape of seed and plant. The twining stem kinds always twine from right to left around any support they can lay hold of. MHorticulturally, beans are divided into the bush and pole varieties. Under the first class are included all the field varieties that are grown to be used as shelled beans and some snap and string beans. They have stout, erect or slightly running stems. Under pole beans are classed all the kinds that have twining stems and which are benefited by having sup- port of some kind. There are, however, dwarf bunch beans havy- ing the same general features as the pole kinds except the tall stem. While this division is by no means distinct, yet the methods of cultivation adapted to each growth are different. Ati
BEANS. 165
beans are quite tender and should not be planted untiil the soil is warm and all danger of frost is over. They are sown for early use about the time for general corn planting. For the main crop they should be planted about the first of June.
Bush Beans.—These are very easily grown and are adapted to a great variety of purposes. For a field crop on a large scale, the seed is generally sown with a horse drill or with a hand garden drill, in rows three feet apart. It is sometimes best to mark out the land first and then follow with the drill in the marks. Seed should be sown two or three inches deep. On a smaller scale, the land may be furrowed out with a one-horse plow or with a wheel hoe and the seed sowed by hand. After culture consists in keeping the land well cultivated with a horse hoe and free from weeds. Varieties of dwarf beans for use in a green state, such as string or snap beans, may be sown at any time from the middle of May to the first of August and with good prospects of a good crop of green pods even at the latter date. Some kinds have edible pods in less than six weeks from the time the seed is sown.
Harvesting Beans.—For use in a green state, the pods of some kinds of beans are picked as soon as large enough to use and when they are tender and fresh; in other cases the beans are used when still fresh, but not until they are large enough to shell from the pods. Field beans are harvested by being pulled by hand or gathered with a bean gatherer when they are ripe, laid in rows until dry enough for threshing, then threshed at once or stored for threshing later on. Great care should be taken in storing the pods to prevent molding of the beans, and in threshing no’ to break the beans. In a small way beans may be threshed out by hand, but on a large scale any common threshing machine may be used, providing suitable changes are made in it so it will not break the beans.
Varieties of Bush Beans.—There are many varieties of bush beans having desirable qualities, but only a few of the most valuable are mentioned here:
Field Beans.—White Marrow, Burlingame Medium, Navy and Snowflake.
166 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Waxen Podded Beans.—Dwarf Golden Wax and Dwarf Black Wax.
Shell and String Beans.—Yellow Six Weeks, Early Mohawk, Cranberry and Dwarf Horticultural.
Japanese, Soy or Soja Beans.—These are easily grown, but on account of their inferior quality are not much used here.
Dwarf Lima Beans are highly esteemed by those who know them and, although smaller in size than the pole Limas, are supplanting them in this section and coming into quite gen- eral use, on account of their being more certain to mature well and requiring less labor in cul- tivation. They require the same methods of cultivation as other dwarf beans but should not be planted until the land is thor- oughly warmed. The best va- rieties are known as Hender- son’s Dwarf, Durpee’s Dwarf, Jackson Wonder (black spotted) and Kumerle Dwarf Lima. The common dwarf sheil beans are early, productive and good, but not so rich in quality as these.
Pole Beans.—The twining va- rieties of beans are little grown in this section, as the improved dwarf kinds take their place to a great extent. However, tall Lima beans are highly esteemed by many and the dwarf varieties of this class are not so desirable as the pole kinds. There is also a demand for such shell beans as the pole Horticultural, Cranberry and Caseknife varieties. Pole beans require stronger land than do the dwarf kinds. The ordinary way of growing pole beans is to set poles six feet long in hills four feet apart each way. It is customary to put a shovel- ful of good compost or rotted manure in each hill if the land is poor. Seed should not be planted till the ground is quite warm— the pole varieties are more particular in this respect than the dwarf kinds. About six seeds should be planted two or three
Figure 80—Dwarf Lima beans.
BEANS. 167
inches deep around each pole. In the case of Lima beans the general belief is that the beans should be planted edgeways with the eye downwards, but good results are often obtained by sowing the seeds without regard to this matter. This latter method is customary in sowing the dwarf Lima, and some who sow the large Lima beans in furrows and train them to trellises pay no regard to the position of the seed in the soil, but sow an abundance of seed so as to be sure of a good stand. Lima beans are generally shelled by hand when fresh but full grown and are sold by the quart. In warm climates they are sold in large quantities after being dried. The Cranberry and Horticultural kinds are generally sold in the pod. As soon as the seedlings commence to “run,” it is customary to assist them in getting started, and some seasons’it is necessary to tie the Lima beans to the poles until they are well started. Lima beans require an extra warm !ocation and soil.
+9
Beans may be Transplanted if removed with much care when the soil is moist. Some very successful gardeners find that it Ts a pays them to start their pole Lima pee” Ge E beans on pieces of sod or in pots or boxes in hotbeds and in this way they advance the period of ripening two weeks or more. This is a very desirable practice with pole Lima beans in this climate, since the short season often fails to mature much of the crop when the seed is planted in the open ground. The varieties of pole Lima beans best adapted to this section are probably the Large Lima and Dreer’s Lima; both of these are of fine quality and productive. The small Lima or Sieva bean is Mie el Anthracnose of hea sarlier than those mentioned but pod. Mf inferior quality.
Preserving Beans in Salt.—String beans are easily preserved
168 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
in salt for winter use, using about seven pounds to the bushel of pods. In doing this the fresh tender pods are put at once into the brine as they come from the field. When wanted for use, they should be freshened out and cooked in the ordinary way. They are very good, and are nearly as desirable as the best canned beans.
Diseases and Insects.—-Beans are quite free from the attacks of any injurious insects or diseases. An- thracnose of the bean (Gloeospori- um lindemuthianum) shows itself by black spots on the stems or pods or both. It is sometimes very in- jurious in moist weather, but only in occasional years have we any- thing to fear from it. It is not gen- erally considered profitable to ise any of the fungicides, such as Bor- deaux mixture, which would read- ily prevent it. Beans grown in Jo- cations where there is a good cir- culation of air are less liable to injury than those protected from a good circulation of air.
Figure 82—Nott’s Excelsior pea.
PEAS. (Pisum sutivum.)
The pea is an annual plant of uncertain origin, but probably a native of central Europe. The flowers are either white or violet colored, but the most desirable garden kinds, almost with- out exception, bear white flowers.
Varieties of peas are divided into three classes, those having wrinkled seed, those having round, small seed, and those having edible pods. Wrinkled seeded varieties do not germinate as well as the smooth skinned or round sorts, nor do their germinat- ing powers last so long, nor are they ‘so hardy in resisting the adverse conditions of early spring. On account of the latter reason, gardeners plant the round seed first in the spring, and
PEAS. 169
do not plant the wrinkled kinds until the soil is in best condi- tion and somewhat warm. The wrinkled kinds are better in quality than the round and smooth varieties. Peas having edible pods are not popular in this country, probably because of the ease with which string beans are grown.
Culture.—Peas may be grown successfully in almost any good soil; they even do well on rather poor soil. The kinds hav- ing smooth seeds should be planted as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring—even a hard freeze does not hurt the plants as they are coming out of the ground, and they will stand considerable frost when well up The distance between the rows and the seeds in the row depend somewhat on the kinds grown. Some kinds branch out far more than others and, con- sequently, need more room in the _ row. They also vary in length of stem from a few inches to _ six or seven feet. The tall kinds require the rows to be five or six feet apart, while dwarf varieties are generally planted in rows thirty inches to three feet apart. The growing of tall kinds is mostly confined to private gardens, where it is customary to use brush or other material in the rows for support. Formerly, among tall varieties, were those far excelling in quality any- thing found among those of a dwarf habit, but recent introduc- tions of the latter kinds have shown a great improvement in quality, until now the dwarf sorts are generally grown, even by the most fastidious. In common practice, the seed is sown about four inches deep, in rows three feet apart, putting about ten seeds to each foot of row. It is best to sow plenty of seed in order to secure a good stand. The land should be well cultivated between the rows. Unleached wood ashes or some other fertilizer rich in potash and phosphoric acid is most bene- ficial for this crop. As it belongs to the leguminous section of plants, it is a nitrogen producer and, consequently, does not need much nitrogen in the soil. Early peas as generally grown are out of the way in time to allow the land to be used for late cabbage or string beans. When it is desired to extend the season of table peas, successive showings should be made at intervals of two weeks, up to the tenth of June. During the summer the vines are too liable to mildew to make late spring planting successful. The pea is distinctively a cool weather Piant and on this account
170 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
it will often do well when sown in the latter part of summer for use in autumn.
The Canning of Peas is an important industry in some sec- tions and could be more generally introduced into this section to advantage. In sowing peas for canneries it is the practice in some sections t- sow them with a common grain drill, leaving a path between each strip for the pickers.
Varieties.—Of the many varieties only a few of the best are referred to here. For very early use, almost every seedman has a strain of smooth, round peas, which he sends out under his own peculiar name. The early sorts are generally derived from the old Daniel O’Rourke, and among them are varieties known as the First and Best, Earliest of All and Improved Extra Early. Asa rule, these should be used for first planting only, to be followed by plantings of the wrinkled sorts.
American Wonder is a very dwarf early pea of unsur- passed quality and very hardy for a wrinkled sort. A rich soil and extra cultivation are required to get the best results from it. If only one variety is to be grown, this is perhaps the best to plant.
Stratagem.—Very productive and justly very popular, having remar-:- ably large pods filled with rich, sweet peas. It does better on light than on heavy soils.
Yorkshire Hero.—An_ excellent variety.
Marrowfat.—Among the most pop- ular of the old varieties.
Champion of England.—A (all growing, popular sort, of best quality, that does best when supported by brush or wire netting. Late.
Telephone.—Of excellent quality. Pods and seeds large. One of the most productive and, consequently, very poplar. Late.
Figure 83—Dwarf Okra.
OKRA. 171
Bliss’s Abundance.—Half-dwarf, branching, of excellent qual- ity and very productive. Late.
Nott’s Execlsior.—A new, very productive, early dwarf va- riety that is becoming very popular, and in some sections much preferred to the American Wonder.
THE MALLOW FAMILY. (Order Malvaceae.)
The mallow family is known by its numerous stamens which have their filaments grown together and are attached to the base of the petals. The petals are twisted together in the bud. Seeds kidney-shaped. Herbs or shrubs mucilaginous with very tough fibrous bark, none of them poisonous. Okra is the only plant of this family which is frequently grown in gardens, but the common cotton plant also belongs here as well as the abutilon mallow, hibiscus, althaea and hollyhock of our gardens,
OKRA. (Hibiscus esculentus.)
Native of South America.—Annual.—The seed is round and of medium size. It is cultivated for its green seed pods, which are highly esteemed for soup. Little grown except at the south. It is of the easiest culture. The seed should be sown about two inches apart in rows two feet apart and in rich, warm soil, at about the time for planting beans. The pods are produced abun- dantly but are perhaps not as tender when grown in our dry atmosphere as they are in the south. The flowers are large, yel- low and very pretty.
The varieties known as Dwarf Green and Long Green are best for our climate, THE PARSNIP FAMILY. (Order umbelliferae.)
The parsnip family is made up of herbaceous plants some of which are aromatic and others that are acid-narcotic poisons.
172 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
The flowers are small and generally arranged in compound um- bels; no calyx, but in place often have five minute teech, five petals, five stamens and two pistils. The dry fruit usually splits into two parts and the seed of most species has oil tubes. The leaves are alternate and more commonly compound or decompound. Besides the parsnips, parsley, car- rot, celery, whose cultural directions are here given, dill, anise, caraway, cori- ander and fennel will be found under the head of garden herbs.
PARSNIPS.
(Pastinaca sativa.)
Native of Hurope.—Blen- nial.—Cultivated for its long, tender root. Seeds light brown in color, flat and marked with five rais- ed lines or ridges. Seed stalks three to five feet high with large umbels of greenish flowers.
Culture.—The parsnip is grown in the same manner as the carrot, but is rather more particular about the soil on which it grows. Then, too, in manuring the land for this crop, it is important to use only manure which is well rotted, as the ap- plication of fresh manure seems to encourage the formation of side roots. Also on hard jand. there is often a tendency for the roots to form side roots, and, aS what is desired is a rather thick tap root, side roots are to be avoided. lt is important *
Figure 84.—Parsnip plant in flower.
PARSNIPS. 173
sow the seed early and quite thick and then to thin out in order to be sure of having a good stand of plants. The seed germinates rather slow- ly. It is a very hardy crop and may be left in the ground until late autumn or even over winter. In fact, many believe that freezing parsnips in the ground im- proves their quality. They may be safely pitted outdoors by putting them in heaps, covering with a few inches of hay or straw and then a foot of earth. Treated in this way, they can be taken out at any time during the winter or early spring. It is not advisable to leave the crop in the ground over winter, since it cannot then be dug out until the frost is out of the ground in the spring, by which time the demand for parsnips will have consid- erably lessened. If kept in an ordinary cellar, they should be covered with earth or sand to prevent wilting.
Figure 85—Hollow In marketing the parsnip, it is often Crown Parsnip. customary after trimming off all side shoots, to sell them by the basket without washing. A ‘ar bet- ter and more equitable plan is to sell them by weight. In some of the best markets, the roots, after being carefully washed and trimmed, are packed evenly in boxes, sixteen inches square and eight inches deep, which hold just a bushel. Packed in this way, they present a very neat appearance.
The Hollow Crown or Student Parsnip is the best kind to grow for table use.
Turnip Rooted Parsnip, which is short and round, is used to some extent. It is a good form on light soils, but for rich land the Hollow Crown is to be preferred.
PARSLEY. (Carum petroselinum.)
Native of Sardinia—Biennial.—The leaves of some varieties of this plant are used in a fresh state for garnishing and sea- soning, and in the case of a few kinds the fleshy roots are used. In
174 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
habit of growth parsley resembles the parsnip, to which it is closely related. The leaves, however, are variously cut and di- vided. A few varieties are grown for their fleshy roots.
Culture.—Parsley is grown in much the same manner as the parsnip, and, like, it, its seed germinates rather slowly. The seed is often sown for winter and early spring use in green- houses and hotbeds. The leaves may be used as soon as big enough. The roots may be taken up in autumn and grown ina greenhouse or in a box in a sunny window for “2 winter supply. The demand is quite limited. It is sold in small bunches and may be found in the larger markets at any season of the
Figure 86.—Fine curled parsley. year. It seldom comes through our winters safely when left exposed outdoors but sometimes does so when well protected.
The Varieties commonly grown are the Double Curled and Fine Leaved, either of which makes a border that is pretty enough for a flower garden, and it is often used as an edging for small kitchen gardens.
CARROTS. (Daucus carota.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial——In the wild state this root is valueless, being slend*r and woody, and the plant is a bad weed. Under cultivation it exhibits the widest difference in shape, size and color. Some kinds have roots that are broader than long and extend not over two or three inches in the ground, while others attain a length of two feet, and still others may be found having the various intermediate forms between these extremes. There are also varieties having red, white and yellow flesh. The leaves are very much divided and deeply cut. The flowers are white and crowded together in compound umbels on stalks two to five feet high. The roots of the cultivated kind will stand con-
CARROT. 175
siderable frost, but not severe freezing. Two seeds are pro- duced by each flower; they are flat on one side and convex on the other, and are partly covered by minute bristles. When sold, the bristles have generally been removed. Carrots are used to some extent as a table vegetable, but they are especially valuable as a food for horses and other stock.
Cultivation.—The carrot is of the easiest culture. It re- quires a fine mellow, rich, upland soil. On moist land the roots are apt to branch and are much liable to dis- ease. The _ seedlings are quite delicate when they first come up and every precaution should be taken to have the land clean, so that the small seedlings will not be overrun with weeds; the surface soil should be kept loose and mel- low throughout the sea- son. It is a good plan to sow a few radish seeds with the carrot seed so that cultivation may be commenced early, as the latter start slowly. Tt. the
Figure 87—Carrot plant in flower. seed of the small kinds are sown very early in spring they will pro-
duce roots big enough for table use by early summer; but for the main crop the seed should be sown about the middle of May in rows fourteen inches apart. A fair crop may be ex- pected even if the seed is not sown until the middle of June, although the dry weather which generally prevails at that time of the year is liable to prevent or retard the germination of the seed or to burn up the seedlings just as they are pushing out
176 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
of the ground. The crop is sometimes sown in rows two feet apart and cultivated with a horse implement. If the seed is good, two pounds per acre, or about fourteen seeds to the foot of row, is plenty to sow. Very thick seeding is not desirable, as the cost of thinning in such a case is considerable. It is best for the experienced grower to have all the conditions just right and then to sow the seed so that little, if any, thinning will be neces- sary. However, the beginner will very likely find it safest to sow a large amount of seed, perhaps three pounds per acre, and thin out so that the plants will stand three inches apart in the row. The richer the soil the more room the roots require in the row; if small roots are wanted they may be left an inch apart in the row.
Gathering.—One of the greatest outlays in raising carrots is in gathering and topping the crop. .The topping may be done
Figure 88.—Harvesting long carrots and parsnips by plowing the earth away on one side, and then pulling the roots by hand. by hand, after being plowed out, but hand labor is very costly. Some growers go over the rows and cut the tops off with a sharp hand hoe. If the tops of the roots are cut off a little no harm is done, as it does not increase the liability to rot as is the case with beets. The roots are, perhaps, most easily dug by plowing close to each row and then pulling them out by hand. For this purpose a subsoil plow is best, but any good plow will answer the purpose fairly well. If a short rooted variety is grown and
CARROT. 177
the land is mellow, the plow may often be run soastoturn the roots out on top of the furrow slice.
Storing.—Carrots are easily kept over winter in cellars,
Figure 89.—Varieties of Carrots. 1—White Belgian. 2—lLong Orange. 3—Orange Danvers. 4—Ox-Heart. 5—Pointed-Rooted. 6—Blunt- Rooted Horn. 7—Extra Early Forcing. (After Landreth.)
providing they are in a temperature near the freezing point and
are not too ripe when dug. If the seed has been planted too early, the roots will ripen up early in the fall and will cease to grow, and many of the leaves will turn yellow. Such roots do not keep well, but are liable to sprout badly long before spring,
178 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
even if kept cold. To have the roots keep best they should be growing rapidly when dug. In dry cellars, it may be necessary to cover with loam or sand to prevent those on top of the bin or pile from wilting. If they are to be fed early in the winter, they may perhaps be piled in the barn and covered with chaff and straw sufficient to keep out the frost until used.
Carrot seed is raised by planting out the roots in the spring, about two feet apart, in rows four feet apart. The seed heads ripen irregularly and are gathered as they ripen and threshed when dry. The seed is generally rubbed against a sieve having a fine mesh to take the bristles off, otherwise it would be a difficult matter to sow it in a machine.
The torcing of carrots is carried on to a limited extent, for which purpose they may be sown between rows of radishes in the hotbed or greenhouse.
Varieties.—For very early table use the Short Scarlet is best. For general use in summer and for winter use, perhaps there is no better variety than the Danvers. The Guerande Half Long, or Oxheart, is a variety that is very thick and short and yields nearly as much as the Danvers. It has the advantage, moreover, of being easily pulled by hand without any digging. The White Belgian is a large cropper, but only of value as food for stock. Thirty tons of carrots are sometimes raised on one acre, but in ordinary practice seldom more than half that amount is raised.
CELERY. (Apium graveolens.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—The plants are grown for the fleshy leaf stalks, which are very tender when blanched; one form is also grown for the large fleshy roots. The whole plant has a pleasant aromatic flavor. The seed stalks are branching and grow from two to three feet high, and have very smal] yel- lowish or greenish flowers in compound umbels. The seed is small, triangle and five-ribbed, having the characteristic aro- matic flavor of the plant.
Celery is a crop that is very liable to suffer from the want of rich, nitrogenous marures and from a superabundance of or a lack of moisture in the soil. On this account it should be
CELERY. 179
grown on retentive, yet well drained, rich land. Well drained bog land with the water about eighteen inches from the surface is often excellent for this purpose.
Early Celery.—The seed for early celery is generally sown
Figure 90.—Celery plants. Those on left have been transplanted and show in consequence an improved root system for planting out. Those on right were only grown in seed bed without transplanting and have not as good roots for planting out. The plants with tops trimmed are ready for planting out.
the latter part of February or early in March in boxes in a green-
180 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
house. As soon as the plants are of sufficient size to handle well, they are pricked out into other boxes or into hotbeds, where they remain until large enough for planting out, which is some- time in May. The tops of the plants should be sheared off once before they are pricked out and again before they are planted to the open ground, as this makes them stocky and helps them to recover from transplanting. If the leaves are all left on the plants when they are set out, they generally dry up an in so doing take away much moisture from the roots. The plants should be hardened off before being set out. Karly celery should be bleached by being covered with boards or with boards and Straw, since the ordinary way of bleaching it by banking with earth is liable to bring on disease in warm weather.
Late Celery.—The greatest demand for celery is during the autumn -and_ winter months, and very little is marketed during the sum- mer. The seed for au- tumn and winter celery is generally sown in April in the open_ ground, al- though some of our best growers sow the seed in 3 Me hotbeds or cold frames April, before the land outdoors can be all. If the seed is sown outside, a piece land is generally selected. The seed is drills about nine inches apart and one- deep, and the soil is well firmed over it ing. Some growers do not cover cel- ery seed at all, except by rolling or patting it down with Bas j the back of a spade. If there is dan- ger of the ' ~ seed drying out, some growers shade the bed with Fig. 91.—White cotton cloth or with a lath screen rais- ed about Plume Celery. one foot from the ground and so made as to keep off about one-half the sunlight. Another plan is to cover the bed with burlap after sowing the seed and water the seed through it; in this latter case, however, it is very im-
early in worked at SRR of fine rich SiOuWall. ion) quarter inch after cover-
CELERY. 18]
portant to watch carefully and remove the cloth covering as soon as the plants appear. The seed germinates slowly. The seed- lings are quite weak and should receive almost constant cultiva- tion. The tops should be sheared off once or twice, as recom- mended for early celery, to make the plants stocky; they should also be thinned out so that there will not be over twenty or thirty plants to the foot of row. When sufficiently large, they should be moved to the field where they are to grow. Treated in this way, the plants will be strong and stocky; if left to crowd one another, they probably will be weak and poor. Some successful growers prefer to transplant once to narrow rows before setting in the field where the crop is to mature. This makes the final transplanting most certain by increasing the fibrous roots, but is not generally necessary, although a good plan under unfavorable conditions.
In the growing of celery plants it will often be a good plan at the first transplanting to make up a special bed for them. This should be done as follows: A place feur feet wide and of any length should be selected, the top soil to the depth of about three inches thrown off, and then rotten manure such as that which comes from spent hotbeds or similar material put in to the depth of about three inches. The topsoil should then be returned and the plants set out in it. Treated in this way the young plants will develop a compact root system in the manure, and may be transplanted with a ball of roots almost as well as if they had been grown in pots. Plants grown in this way are especially desirable when transplanting must be done in a dry time, but seedbeds require much water.
Planting.—Having good plants, the next thing is to set them so as to get a good crop. It is quite a common practice in some sections to grow celery as a second crop after early peas, lettuce, cabbage or beets. In such a case the plants, perhaps, had better not be set out until the first crop has been gathered; but where only one crop is to be grown the plants may be set as soon as big enough. This will generally be from the middle to the latter part of June anc for latest use the latter part of July. The land should be thoroughly plowed, harrowed and smoothed off. Fur- rows six inches deep should then be made where the plants are
182 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to go, and in these about three inches of fine, well-rotted ma- nure or compost should be placed. This manure should be thor- oughly mixed with the soil, and the furrow nearly filled. For mixing the manure and soil perhaps there is no better imple- ment than a one horse cultivator with the teeth set close to- gether. If the land is unusually rich in plant food, there is no need of going to this trouble, but the plants may be set right after the marker. In any case the rows should be four or five feet apart for the common kinds that have to be bleached by banking up with earth, but the self-bleaching and dwarf kinds can be managed in rows three feet apart. The plants should be about six inches apart in the rows.
Before the plants are dug from the seedbed, it should be thoroughly soaked with water; the plants should have the tops cut off, trimmed, and the roots dipped in water. If the roots are very long they should be shortened so they may be easily han- dled. The place where they are to be planted should be moist, and every precaution taken to prevent the plants drying out when they are being moved. Special attention should be given to planting on freshly plowed land and to firming the soil around the roots. If the land is dry it must be watered before it is safe to set out celery plants, and if the weather is very hot and dry the plants must also be shaded from the sun. The ground should be kept clean and mellow between the plants with a horse culti- vator throughout the season.
If, while the crop is growing, it is thought the plants re- quire more food, it may be supplied by plowing a shallow fur- row away from them on one side and putting in fine well-rotted stable manure, hen manure or compost and covering it with soil. This treatment supplies the food directly to the roots and is very effective. Nitrate of soda or other nitrogenous fertilizer may also be used to advantage in this way.
Celery and Onions Together.—In some sections celery is grown as a second crop with onions. In this case every fourth or fifth row is left vacant when the onion seed is sown, and this space is set out to late celery plants at the proper time. If the onion seed is sown by the 20th of April, almost any of the well- known commercial sorts like Yellow Danvers or Red Wethers-
CELERY. 183
field will be ripe by the middle of August, when they can be harvested; and then the celery can occupy all the land during the caol weather of autumn, when it makes its most rapid growth.
Figure No 92.—Celery plants which have been transplanted from the
seed box into moist soil that is rich in rotted manure. Thus treat-
ed, the celery forms a close, compact root system, to which the
soil adheres in lumps when taken up, and on this account the
plea sane very sure to start well when set out permanently in e field.
Handling.—As celery grows naturally it spreads on the sur- face of the ground, like the carrot. The term handling refers to the process by which the leaf stalks of each plant are drawn together and some earth pressed firmly around them by the hands, to hold them in an upright position. After this is done more earth is drawn towards the plants with a hoe, until there is enough to prevent their spreading open. All celery plants should have this upright form before being stored, and it is all
184 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the bleaching treatment necessary for the self-blanching kinds. The land should be thoroughly cultivated and a furrow turned towards the plants on each side of the row before the handling process is begun, so there may be plenty of loose earth to work with.
Bleaching with Earth or “Banking.”—If the celery is in- tended for marketing previous to the first of December, it should be banked up or otherwise bleached in the field. Banking up is done immediately after “handling.” It consists in plowing earth against the celery to begin with and then finishing it off with a shovel or wide hoe until the earth is banked up to the full height of the celery. This had better be done in several operations as the plants grow and need it.
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Figure 93—Celery banked up for bleaching.
Bleaching with Boards.—Celery that is to be marketed early should be bleached with boards, because if “banked” with earth it is more liable to become diseased. Boards ten inches wide are the best but narrower boards may be used nearly as well, providing the earth is first drawn towards the plants for them to rest on. The plants are generally handled before the boards are put on, but this is not absolutely necessary, although desira- ble. A board should be put upon each side of the row quite close to the plants and be held in place with a peg. If for any reason there are vacancies in the row or the plants are not close enough to exclude light from the stalks when the boards are put up, the vacancies may be filled with hay or straw. For
CELERY. 185
late autumn use it is probably best to bleach the plants with earth, as it also protects from frost and is much cheaper than bleaching with boards when the first cost of the boards and the handling of them is considered. In fact, almost all growers use earth to bleach their late celery.
Planting in Beds.—Some growers prefer to plant celery in beds four feet wide and to have the plants set ten inches apart each way in the beds; in which case a four foot path is left
Figure 94—Celery grown in beds and earthed up to bleach. between the beds for convenience in cultivation and weeding.
In this way a very large amount of celery can be grown on a very small piece of land. By putting boards up on both sides of the paths, the plants will take on the upright form, so that handling will be unnecessary. For late use the plants may be taken directly from the bed to the cellar without banking, but it will generally be found a good plan late in the fall to pack the spaces between the plants with hay or fill them with earth from the paths, as they will then be protected from frosts. If the celery is to be blanched in the bed, this, of course, would be necessary. To grow plants so close together successfully requires the utmost care in the preparation of the land. It should be covered with fine rich manure, preferably in the spring; the plants also require to be frequently and heavily watered, since the land will be free of roots.
186 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Digging Celery.—Celery will stand many light frosts, but hard freezing is liable to injure it, and it should never be han- dled when frozen. It is seldom safe to allow it to remain un- protected in the ground in this section after the middle of Octo- ber, but by covering the plants with straw or other material they may often be safely left in the field until the middle of Novem- ber if well banked up. The plants are generally lifted with a spade after a furrow has been plowed away from the row on one side. Most of the soil should be shaken off the roots and the old outside leaves removed before storing. In this section, to keep well, celery should be stored in a cold, moist cellar or frost- proof shed. If it does not whiten quickly enough the plants may be watered and kept warm and thus started into growth, which results in forming the tender white shoots very quickly.
Storing Celery.—For home use a good way to keep celery is to pack the plants closely together, upright, in boxes twelve to eighteen inches wide, with the bottom covered with several inches of moist sand, a little of which should be worked in among the roots. There is no need of having sand between the plants. These boxes, when packed, should be kept in a cold, damp cellar. In storing for market use, where there is plenty of storage room, the plants are sometimes “heeled in” in sand on the floor; the cheapest practicable way, however, is to pack them between boards about nine inches apart. To do this, place the first board on one side of the cellar or shed nine inches from she wall, with its upper edge at a height from the floor a little less than the length of the cellar. The boards may be supported by stakes and should not rest on the ground. In this narrow di- vision the celery should be packed upright, as described for pack- ing in boxes. As soon as the first tier is filled, erect another board division at nine inches from the first, and so continue until the whole surface is covered. No soil or sand is packed among the stalks of celery, but three or four inches of either is placed on the floor, into which the roots are bedded. The temper- ature of the celery should be kept very low, and even a little frost in the cellar will not hurt it. If dry, it must be watered, but water must not be put upon the leaves, as it may bring on rot. If celery is wanted for immediate use, it may be stored in
CELERY. 187
barrels or troughs containing an inch or two of water. This is also a very good way of hastening the bleaching process.
The green stalks of celery do not become white, and the term “bleaching” is a misnomer. The “bleaching” of celery is simply the result of the plant making growth in the dark. Bleached celery will keep but a short time and should be used as soon as white. Celery for use in the latter part of winter should be quite green in color when put into winter storage; for early winter use it should be partly bleached when stored. For winter use celery should be left out as late as is safe in the fall, so that the cellar or pit where it is to be stored may be thoroughly cooled off before it is put in.
The Time Required for Bleaching Celery in the field will de- pend upon whether it is growing rapidly or not. During the first part of September, when it is making a rapid growth, it will probably be fit to use in three weeks from the time it is banked up; while later on, when the weather is cool and the celery is growing slowly, four weeks will be found necessary. The same conditions affect the bleaching process after storing. In an ordinary frost proof cellar, it may easily be bleached in three weeks by watering it and then raising the temperature to fifty degrees.
Celery Seed is raised by wintering the roots and planting them out in the spring, in much the same way that seed of the carrot and other biennial plants is grown.
Diseases.—There are two diseases, rust and leaf blight, that sometimes seriously injure celery, but they are not commonly very troublesome. As a rule, celery growers do not attempt to fight them, but select the healthiest varieties and trust to good cultivation to enable the plants to resist them. The diseases re- ferred to are described as follows:
Leaf Blight. (Septoria Petroselini var. apii.) All parts of ‘he celery plant except the roots are liable to the attacks of this fungous disease. Watery spots appear on the stems and leaves, vhich soon show small, black dots. This disease may be spread ny the seeds, which are likely to become infected.
Treatment.—The first precaution is to plant clean seed. That which is spotted or speckled with the black spots of disease
188 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
should be avoided. In addition it would be a good plan to spray the young plants with Bordeaux mixture on the first appear- ance of the disease.
Celery Blight, Rust or Sun-Scald. (Cercospora apli.—[Fries.]) The first indication of this disease is the ap- pearance of yellowish spots on the _ leaves. These finally run _ to- gether and turn the en- tire leaves yellow and then brown.
Treatment.—Secure as healthful conditions as possible. Where the plants are somewhat shaded, they are less lia- ble to the disease than if in the full sunlight. This disease is especial- ly bad in very dry loca- tions. It is reported that the Bordeaux mixture and other standard fungicides will entirely prevent it.
Varieties of Celery.—The dwarf kinds are the best to grow; the red varieties are of excellent quality but do not take well in the markets. For early marketing the White Plume is highly esteemed and probably the most profitable variety for general marketing. Its stalks and leaves are white without going through the bleaching process but are not of as good flavor as when bleached. Golden Self Blanching is another similar variety, that is considered by some growers superior to White Plume. One of the best flavored as well as best keeping kinds is the Golden Dwarf, or Golden Hearted Dwarf. Other good varieties are the Perfection, Hartwell, Giant Pascal and the Boston Market.
Celeriac, or Turnip-Rooted Celery, is a form of celery culti- vated for its roots, which are eaten either cooked or raw. The stalks are generally hollow and quite worthless. The plants are raised by the same method as that for celery but may be planted
Figure 95—Turnip-rooted celery or celeriac.
SWEET POTATOES. 189
in rows not over twelve inches apart. The roots are generally kept by storing them in moist sand the same as carrots.
Marketing.—Celery is marketed when well blanched. In preparing it for market most of the roots are trimmed off and the green and decaying leaves are removed. About a dozen roots are generally tied together for a bunch, although the size of the bunch varies in different markets. Celery can be easily shipped long distances when trimmed:and packed in tight boxes. Much of that which is supplied to the markets of this section comes from Kalamazoo, Michigan, where it is raised on drained swamp land.
THE MORNING GLORY FAMILY. (Order convolvulaceae.)
The Morning Glory Family includes mostly twining, trailing or rarely erect plants (some tropical species are shrubs or trees, ours are herbs.) Commonly with some milky juice, alternate leaves, no stipules, regular gamopetalous flowers; fruit a 2-4- valved capsule. The Sweet Potato is the only vegetable that occurs in this group which is here mentioned. This family also includes the Morning Glory, Bindweed and Man of the Earth.
SWEET POTATO. (Ipomea batatas.)
Native of South America.—Perennial, but cultivated as an annual.—It is a near relative of the morning glory and scarcely resembles the common potato in any particular. It probably can- not be profitably raised in the extreme northern states, but may be grown in a small way in warm, sandy soil as far north as Minnesota and will produce even there very large tubers. The plant never flowers at the North and is never cultivated from seed.
Culture.—The sweet potato is raised from sprouts, which are produced abundantly if the tubers are planted in a hotbed in the early spring. The sprouts are carefully pulled from the tubers and are planted out after the soil has become warm. They should be set two feet apart in rows four feet apart. They need considerable care until started, after which they require good cultivation only and are easily grown. The vines spread on the ground and have a tendency to root at the joints, which should be discouraged by moving them at every hoeing. They are very susceptible to cold weather and should be pulled as soon
190 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
as the tops are frosted. There are many cultivated varieties in the South. For the northern states, Early Carolina is perhaps the best.
THE POTATO FAMILY. (Order Solanaceae.)
The Potato Family is made up of mostly herbaceous plants with rank-scented herbage (this and the fruit more commonly narcotic-poisonous/, colorless juice, alternate leaves, regular flowers with the parts usually in fives. There are many poison- ous plants in this group, which fact led to the tomato being re- garded with much sus- picion for many years and the tops of pota- toes and even tubers that have become green by exposure to sunlight contain a poisonous principle. Besides the potato, tomato, egg plant, pepper and strawberry tomato, whose cultural direc- tions are here given, the Tobacco, Petunia, Nightshade, Datura, Salpiglossis, Jerusalem Cherry and Nierem- bergia of the gardens, belong to this family.
Fig. 96—Sweet potatoes and piece of vine.
POTATO. (Solanum tuberosum.)
Native of the high mountain regions of South America.— Grown as an annual, but truly a perennial through its tubers. Its stems are more or less four angled. The flowers vary ir color from white to purplish. Many kinds do not flower, and most varieties seldom if ever produce fruit. The fruit is a round: ish or slightly oval berry, of a green color or tinged with violet brown and averaging about an inch in diameter. The puip is
POTATO. 191
green and very acrid. The seeds are white, kidney-Shaped and flat. The seed is never sown except for producing new varie- ties. Seedlings vary greatly and often do not obtain full size until three years old. The tubers are com- monly referred to as “seed,” but they should be regardedas cuttings or sets; they are only swollen underground branches filled with starchy matter. They vary much in size and shape and in color of skin, from white to al- most black, including yellow, red and blue. There are a thousand or more of named va- rieties, but many of tu.em are scarcely dis- tinguishable from oth- er named kinds.
Figure 97—Potate plant showing tubers and roots
Origin of the Modern Potate.—Fifty years ago potato rot can over western Europe and the United States to such an extent as to bring starvation in regions where potatoes were the princi- pal article of diet; no one knows where the potato came from that was cultivated previous to that time. Rev. Chauncey Good- rich, of Utica, N. Y., urged before agricultural societies and the agricultural committees of the New York legislature that potato rot resulted from lowered vitality of the potato plant, due to its being grown under high cultivation and in climate; and soils not wholly congenial to a sub-tropical plant, native to a small section only of the earth’s surface; and he claimed that the way to restore its vigor would be to get warieties from the part of South America that was the home of the potato. His thecries “were laughed at by scientific men, and the legislative committee told him he knew more about theology than abcut plant diseases.
192 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Being thus repulsed, he attempted on his own account what he felt should be undertaken by the state. Mr. Goodrich commenced his experiments about 1848 and at various times for many years imported potatoes from South America, and from these and their progeny he raised many seedlings. Among eight kinds reteived at one importation (probably from Chili) was a variety that he called the Rough Purple Chili. It ripened late in the season and was generally hollow, but it had flesh of fine texture and was free from rot. From seed saved from this he raised the Garnet Chili, which was a popular variety for many years in New York state. The Garnet Chili was parent of the Early Rose and of Brazee’s Prolific and other Brazee seedlings and, indeed, of nearly all of the desirable varieties of Europe and America which have been prized for half a century. Although from some of his other importations he also raised a few very good sorts, yet the progeny of the Rough Purple Chili gave him the most valuable kinds. Among Goodrich’s other seedlings were Gleason, Calico, Harrison and Early Goodrich. The latter was the parent of the Chicago Market.
Mr. Goodrich is said to have raised about sixteen thousand seedling potatoes from 1848 to 1864. Out of this large number he found only about one in a thousand that he thought enough better than the old sorts to make it appear probable that they would be desirable for cultivation. The work that he did in this line has been of great value to Europe and America.
Soil and Manure.—If given proper treatment, potatoes can be grown on soil of almost any composition, provided it is well drained, but a light, rich soil is best. The kind of soil to some extent affects the quality of the tubers; grown on sandy soil, they are generally of better table quality than on clay soils, and when grown on muck land the skin is generally dark col- ored and the flesh not mealy. New soil is most desirable, and in it the tubers are generally healthy; sod land is most excellent for this crop, but the “seed” should always be under the sod and not on top of it. If planted on the sod the crop is very certain to suffer from drouth in dry seasons. It ts not generally advisa- ble to manure the land the season of planting potatoes, but preferably to apply it to some previous crop, but if manure is to
POTATO. 193
be applied, it should be well rotted. Raw stable manure is gener- ally to be avoided, unless it can be applied a year in advance. In applying manure, it is very important not to use that from animals which have been fed on scabby potatoes, as such ma- nure is liable to cause scabbiness in the crop.
The Sets (commonly called “Seed.’”)—The tubers for plant- ing should be sound and not sprouted—though if sprouted they may do well; sprouting injures the vitality of the potatoes and is harmful. We should regard the potato much as we do a willow or other plant that grows freely from dormant cuttings if it has the right soil conditions, for the tuber is truly a stem. Given good sound seed potatoes for planting and good soil conditions, it matters little how the sets are cut, provided that every eye that grows is on a piece of potato large enough to nourish the young sprout until it has a good root system and enough ex- panded leaves to gather and digest its own food. In practice the “sets” should have one, two or three eyes according to whether the tubers have few or many eyes. Varieties with few eyes such as:-the Rural New Yorker No. 2, should be cut to about one eye to a piece, while those having many eyes should have two or three to each piece. Very small seed pieces will not give a full crop, consequently large pieces are desirable. The biggest crops are not likely to come from the planting of whole tubers, but such sets generally give a larger proportion of small potatoes than cuttings made as recommended. The constant use of small tubers for sets undoubtedly causes varieties to “run out,” and, although it is a practice that may be occasionally followed without serious results, it should generally be avoided.
Varieties of potatoes seldom retain their pristine vigor and productiveness many years except in very favorable locations. On some land, even with the best of care, they are apt to “run out,” and, as a rule, it is a good plan to occasionally get seed stock from locations very favorable to the best development of the potato or, at least, to change for seed potatoes grown on a different kind of lend.
In saving potatoes for seed, it is desirable to select them in the field from hills having the largest number of marketable tubers, as there is then a tendency to fix this desirable quality.
194 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
When selecting from the bin, take smooth, even, medium-sized potatoes; the largest tubers will not necessarily give the largest yield. If planting is done on a small scale it will probably be found more economical to cut them by hand. Some of the auto- matic seed potato cutting machines leave a good many pieces without eyes, and on this account hand fed potato cutters are most desirable for general use, although where land is very cheap the automatic feed machines may sometimes be the more eco- nomical.
Early Planting.—For early use potatoes should be planted as soon as the ground is nicely settled. Light, sandy loam is best for this purpose. The tops are quite sensitive to frost, but, as they start slowly, they seldom get up until all danger from frost
is past. If when pushing out of the ground there is danger from frost, the tops are easily protected from it by covering
them lightly with loose earth from between the rows, through which they soon push again. If frozen off when several inches high the crop is generally seriously lessened, even though new sprouts take the place of those injured. For early crops, the ground may be plowed several times in the spring to expose it to the air and to warm it before planting. The sets for the early crop should not be covered quite so deep as for the main crop, but in other particulars the crop should be treated the same way, and the quickest maturing kinds only should be planted. If the tubers for early sets are spread out in a light, warm room for three or four weeks before planting, healthy green sprouts will start from the eyes, and, if in cutting these sprouts are care- fully handled so as not to break them off, the crop will be much earlier than if the sets were not thus started; they may also be started in a hotbed before or after being cut and afterwards transplanted to the open ground; but these methods are seldom practiced except i. avery small way, although in some sections they might perhaps be made profitable.
Main Crop.—For the main crop of potatoes, it is desirable to have the seed in the ground pretty early. It is customary in this section to plant from the middle of May to the first of June. When planted later they are liable to suffer seriously from drought, and earlier planting is more desirable. The results of Many experiments show that the sets should be planted about
POTATO. 195
four inches deep, at sixteen inch intervals, in rows three feet apart. This work may be done by furrowing out with the plow or horse hoe, planting by hand and covering the sets with the plow, though when planted on a large scale the work is generally done by a potato planter. There are several excellent potato planters on the market. Some good growers prefer to plant the sets in check rows three feet apart each way when the land is weedy, but so much space between the plants is not generally desirable, since under ordinary circumstances thorough harrow- ing when the crop is young will destroy alt weeds. If the sets are planted four inches deep, very little hilling up is required; if planted much deeper the digging is quite difficult; if planted nearer the surface, the tubers are liable to push out of the ground and require to be hilled up, which is not desirable. The land should be harrowed or thoroughly cultivated with a Breed’s Weeder as soon as the smallest weeds can be seen or a crust forms on the land after planting. It is entirely practicable to harrow potatoes at least three times, the first time just before the plants show, the second when they are just above ground and the third when the plants are three or four inches high. Little if any harm will be done the plants by this work, provid- ing a slanting tooth harrow is used. Such treatment will do more to remove weeds than a good hand hoeing, and the expense of the operation is almost nothing. If the work is properly done, there is seldom any need o* hand work with this crop. Subse- quent cultivation should consist in keeping the soil loose between the rows, and a little earth should be thrown against the plants. For this purpose a good horse hoe will do excellent work, but a still better implement is a two-horse cultivator that works both sides of the row at one operation. It is not a good plan to hill up potatoes, and it should not be done unless they are pushing out of the ground, when they will turn green if not covered up. Cultivation should be thorough when the plants are young but is not desirable after the tops have made most of their growth.
Digging Potatoes.—Early potatoes are generally dug as soon as they are big enough for cooking if there is a good market for them; for winter use it is very desirable to have the tubers well ripened; if not ripe the skin will peel off when handled, and they do not look well. When potatoes are high in price it may
196 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
pay to dig them by hand, for which purpose tined garden forks are desirable; the best potato diggers, however, do as good work as can be done by hand, and are generally used by those who raise this crop on a large scale. When potatoes are cheap, they should be dug with a potato digger or plowed out; though when pivwed out some tubers will get covered up, most of these may be brought to the surface by the use of a straight tooth harrow. If the tubers are keeping well in the ground, it is a good plan to delay the digging until the cool weather of autumn, when they may be carried directly from the field to the cellar. If they are rotting in the ground or are “scabby,” they Should be dug at once, and if the cellar is cool they may be put at once into it, but, otherwise, it is a good plan to pit them in the field until cool weather comes.
Pitting in mild weather is done by putting the tubers into heaps and covering them with straw or hay and a few inches of loam. The straw should be allowed to stick out along the top
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of the heap for ventilation, so as to allow the moisture to pass off. In the colder weather of late autumn, the covering, ot course, should be heavier, and when potatoes have ceased to sweat there is no need of ventilation. In milder sections, pota- toes are stored through the winter in such pits, but it is imprac: ticable here. However, even in Minnesota, potatoes may be safe-
POTATO. 197
ly kept over ‘~vinter in trenches or pits made below the ground, although a good cellar is a more desirable place. For this purpose the pit should not be large; a good size is four feet wide and deep and not more than six feet long. It should be filled heaping full with the potatoes and covered with six inches of straw and eighteen of soil. Ventilation is given until cold weath- er sets in and the potatoes are cooled off. The whole pit should then be covered with enough litter or manure (generally about two feet) to keep out the frost. Such pits can only be opened in mild weather. If this work is well done, the potatoes will be in fine condition in the spring, but beginners are very apt to fail of success in this method of storing, and they should attempt it only on a small scale. It is better to make several pits close
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Figure 99.—Six good varieties of early potatoes. 1—Ohio Jr. 2—Early Ohio 3—Buroee’s Extra Early. 4—Early Harvest. 5—Freeman. 6—Good News.
together rather than one large one, since in a large one the pota- toes are more likely to sweat. The sunlight should not be al- lowed to shine on them for any length of time, since it causes them to turn green and develops a poisonous substance in them. If kept in a cellar, the bins are improved by having slatted floors and sides, so that there may be some circulation of air through them to prevent heating at the bottom. The bins should not be large nor more than five feet deep. There is a great difference in the keeping qualities of varieties; as a rule the early kinds are
198 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
hard to keep from sprouting in the latter part of winter, and the late kinds keep the best.
Starch.—When potatoes are low in price, they can often be profitably worked into starch, but for this purpose starch fac- tories must be near by. Such factories are not expensive and should be more common in this section.
The demand for potatoes seems destined to increase very much. There is a growing demand each year from the eastern and southern states for northwestern grown potatoes. Under ordinary cultivation, in this section, they seldom yield more than 150 bushels per acre of marketable tubers, and the average even in favorable years is probably not over 120 bushels per acre. There are, however, recorded yields here of 800 bushels per acre, and they often yield over 400 bushels.
Sp er — =
Figure 100.—Six good varieties of late potatoes. 1—Rural New Yorker No. 2. 2—American Worder. 3—Irish Cobbler. 4—World’s Fair. 5—Woodbury White. 6—Carman No. 1.
Varieties.—There is a very great difference in varieties, but many kinds closely resemble one another. There is quite a difference in the adaptability of varieties to soils. The large coarser kinds are good for starch but not desirable for table use. Most markets prefer a white or pink potato, rather long, oval in form and smooth, but the fashions change and vary considerably. Some of the varieties at present regarded with much favor are the following:
PULEATU. 199
Early Ohio.—The most popular early kind and a good sort for the general crop, productive and very early.
Burbank, or Burbank’s Seedling, is an excellent late kind and a good keeper, but seems to be running out in some sections. It cooks a little soggy until winter, when it is of excellent table quality. Form long and ~ound.
Rural New Yorker No. 2.—Form flat, roundish oblong, very productive. Quality a little inferior and sometimes inclined to be hollow. Very popular in some sections. It is undoubtedly much influenced by the soil in which it grows.
Early Rose is the progenitor of most of our good kinds. It was introduced into cultivation about 1868 and is still productive in the best potato districts of this section but is not now adapted to general use.
Other varieties of special merit of the early kinds are Early Acme; of medium and late kinds are American Wonder and White Prolific.
Note on Propagation.—New varieties of potatoes are gener- ally high in price, and it is desirable to increase them rapidly. This may be done as follows: Place the tubers in rich soil in boxes or in pots, without cutting them, in a warm, light room, hotbed or greenhouse. As soon as the sprouts are nicely fur- nished with roots, break them off at the surface of the potato below the roots and plant separately in pots. New sprouts will start from the eyes again, and the process may be repeated until the tuber is exhausted. By another way, the tubers are cut up and planted in good rich loam. As soon as the shoots are six inches or more high, about three inches is cut off the top of each. These pieces are put in moist sand, watered frequently and al- lowed all the sunlight they will stand without wilting and treat- ed the same as it is common to treat cuttings of house plants. In two or three weeks they will be rooted and may be potted in rich soil. These shoots may again be cut when nicely started, and so on. The plants thus grown are planted out when the weather is settled in the spring. For best success with these methods of propagation, the work should begin in the late winter or very early spring.
Insects.—There are but few insects that do serious injury to
200 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the potato in this section, and the most important of these is the Colorado potato beetle, or “potato-bug,” but it may also be in- jured by blister beetles, wire worms and white grubs. (For reme- dies for these pests, see chapter on insects.)
Diseases.—There are several diseases that sometimes injure the potato. The most common of these are known as the scab and the blight. Scab is a term used to refer to the rough patches with which potatoes are frequently covered. Potatoes so infected are lessened in yield, and on account of being unsightly and rough do not sell readily. The term blight refers to a disease that kills the tops.
Scab of Potatoes is caused by a fungous plant working in the surface of the potato. The germs of it are very abundant and live for many years in the soil and also over winter on the pota- toes. If these germs are fed to stock they undoubtedly grow in the manure, and the use of such manure may often be the cause of infection. Also they may be spread in the soil by natural drainage and land receiving the drainage from infected fields may become infected with tne disease without ever having had pota- toes on them. Scabby seed potatoes when planted on new or old potato land will generaity produce a scabby crop, but the amount of the disease will generally be much more on the old land than on the new.
Perfectly clean seed potatoes planted on land which is free from the scab fungus will always and in any season produce a crop of smooth, clean potatoes, no matter what may be the char- acter of the soil; but apparently clean seed potatoes may have the germs of the scab fungus on their surface. This is often the case where they have been sorted out from a lot that is some- what infected with scab. In this latter case the tubers should, at least, be thoroughly washed in running water to remove any germs that may be present or, what is better yet, be treated with corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride) as recommended be- low.
Land infected by the germs of potato scab will produce a more or less scabby crop, no matter how clean and smooth the seed used.
Scabby potatoes should be dug as soon as mature, since the
POTATO. 201
scab fungus continues to grow on the potatoes as long as they are in the ground.
Treated. Figure 101—Potato Scab. Not Treated. Both plates grown from the same lot of scabby seed.
Scabby potatoes may be safely used for seed provided they are first treated in such a way as to destroy the germs of the scab that adhere to them. There are many methods of doing this but the most practical now used are as follows:
Corrosive Sublimate Treatment.—Procure from a druggist two ounces of powdered corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichlor- ide); put this into two gallons of hot water in a wooden or earthenware vessel and allow it to stand until dissolved. Place thirteen gallons of water in a clean barrel, pour in the solution of corrosive sublimate and allow it to stand two or three hours, with frequent stirrings in order to have the solution uniform. Select potatoes as nearly free from scab as can be obtained; put the seed potatoes into bags, either before or after cutting them, and then dip them into the corrosive sublimate solution and allow them to stay in for an hour and a half. If seed pota- toes are treated in this way and then planted on land free from scab, the resultant crop will seldom be seriously injured by scab. The expense of this treatment, including labor, should not ex- ceed one dollar per acre, as the material may be used repeatedly.
202 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
But the treated potatoes should never be fed to animals, as cor- rosive sublimate is a deadly poison.
Formaline Treatment.—This material should be mixed with water at the rate of eight ounces (one half pint) cf commercial formaline to fifteen gallons of water. The potatoes should be soaked two hours in it. If this methcd is used the seed should be planted within two or three days after treatment. This ma- terial gives equally as good results as corrosive sublimate. It is slightly more expensive, but the expense is light in any case. it has, however, great advantages over the latter in that it is not poisonous and being a liquid is easily diluted for use and may be placed in any kind of a receptacle. This material does not in any way injure the tubers or make them dangerously poisonous. One pound of formaline, costing not more than 50 cents, will make thirty gallons of the disinfecting solution and is enough to treat fifty bushels of potatoes. If the solution stands a long time it will probably lose strength.
Exposing to Light.—If the tubers are exposed to the full sun- light for several weeks before planting the scab germs will be largely destroyed. It would be a good plan to turn such potatoes occasionally in order to expose them fully to the light.
Blight of Potatoes is a disease which attacks the leaves and stems of potatoes, and sometimes even the tubers are affected. It is most prevalent during moist, warm weather, when some- times the fungus may be seen as a delicate white mildew on the stems and leaves of the potato vines. In seasons favorable to it, the tops of an entire field may be killed in a few days from the time the disease was first noticed; at other times the tops die so gradually that it is mistaken for a natural dying of the vines. Rotting of the tubers often follows the dying of the tops. It has been quite clearly shown that this disease may be kept in check or the trouble entirely prevented by spraying the tops with the Bordeaux mixture occasionally. It is, however, somewhat doubt- ful about the benefits being sufficiently certain in this section to justify the expense; but should this disease become more abun- dant it may prove to be a paying operation. The cost of treating one acre with the Bordeaux mixture is about $5. There is lit- tle use of applying this material after the damage from the dis-
POTATO. 203
ease is apparent, as it must be used as a preventive and used before the disease is seen.
Bordeaux Mixture is made as follows: Dissolve five pounds of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in ten gallons of water in a wooden or earthenware vessel. As this substance dissolves very slowly in cold water and solutions of it are very heavy, it is well to suspend it near the top of the water. (It dissolves more quickly in hot water.) In another vessel, slake five pounds of good fresh quicklime in ten gallons of water. When the mixture is wanted, pour the blue vitriol and lime slowly at the same time into a barrel containing thirty gallons of water, stirring all the time. When thoroughly stirred the mixture should be of a clear sky blue color. After being mixed for a day or two the mixture loses much of its strength, so it is well to use only that which has been mixed for a short time. There are many formulas used, which vary as to the amount of lime and water, but the above gives good satisfaction when used properly.
Internal Brown Rot is the name given to a disease which has recently appeared in a few potato growing sections of this country. It is first noticed by the darkening more or less of the starchy portion of the tubers, without any manifestation of its presence on the outside; later on the potato rots. The life history of this disease is not known, nor are any remedies known for it. Ordinary pru- dence, however, would indi-
se cate that seed potatoes in the Figure lv2.—Internal brown rot of the least affected with this trou- Be ble should not be planted.
EGG PLANT. (Solanum melongena.)
Native of South America.—Annual.—Stem erect and branch- ing; flowers solitary and violet in color; seeds flat, of medium size. The egg plant is but little used in this section, but can be grown to perfection in our hot, dry summers. The seed must be sown, even earlier than tomato seed, in the greenhouse or hot- bed, but when only a few plants are wanted it will be found best
204 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to buy the plants, as they require delicate handling. The plants are set in rows three by two feet apart, after the ground is well warmed up, which is seldom before the 10th of June.
The fruit attains marketable size by the last of August. The plants are very liable to the attacks of the potato beetle. The best variety is the New York Purple, but the variety grown asthe Long Purple is somewhat earlier.
Figure 103.—_Egg Plant.
TOMATO. (Lycopersicum esculentum. )
Native of South America.—Perennial, but generally treated as an annual.—The tomato is a branching plant, generally with flexible stems that require support to grow erect. Its flowers are yellowish and grow in loose clusters on the stem, opposite or nearly opposite leaves, not axiliary; fruit, a true berry, red, pink or yellow in color; seed, kidney-shaped, flat, with a rough- ened surface. In many parts of this section, the tomato can be successfully grown as a market crop, and there is no place where it cannot be grown in sufficient quantities for home use. The cultivation of this vegetable for canning purposes is already occupying the attention of farmers in a few localities in this sec- tion, and it is an industry that is destined to greatly increase in the future. It is ome of the easiest and surest crops to grow, providing one has good plants to start with.
Growing the Plants.—It is especially important to sow the seed before the first of April, and the middle of March is thought about the right time by most growers. The seed grows easily but needs considerable heat and rich soil to do its best. The plants should be transplanted after they have their second leaves and again when they get crowded, so that they may become stocky and strong. The seed may be started in greenhouses or hotbeds; it is also easily grown in window boxes. If too close together, they grow weak and poor. It is very important that the plants should be well hardened off before they are set in the open ground.
The land preferred for tomatoes is a rich, retentive sandy loam, but they will do fairly well on almost any well drained
TOMATO. 205
soil, and even if on rather poor soil will do better than most crops. A southern slope is preferable, but they will ripen almost anywhere if properly managed. The tomato pre-eminently needs a warm place, and if rich manure is plowed into the soil it is beneficial, since by its fermentation it raises the temperature of the land.
Transplanting and After-cultivation.—The plants should be moved to the open ground as soon as all danger of severe frost is past, which will senerally be about the 20th of May in south- ern Minnesota and not until the Ist of June in more northern sections. They should be set about five feet apart each way and about six inches deep. If the stems of the plants when planted out are very long, they should be partly buriec under ground. They need thorough cultivation, which can best be given by a horse cultivator on a large scale.
Pruning and Training.—Tomato plants under field cultivation are generally allowed to run over the ground in any direction and are nottrained; but even under this method of management itis a good plan to cut off a foot or more of the ends of all growing shoots about the middle of August if they are growing rap- idly, so that all the strength of the plant may go toripen the fruit that is well formed and still green. Some grow- ers advise pruning off all but one main stem and two or three laterals and training to a stake,
Figure 104.—Tomato plant growing in a and then pinching off all pilieee trained against side of flower clusters after a few have set fruit. The result of this practice here is still some-
=
206 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
what doubtful. It is a good plan in a small garden to cover the land under the vines after they set fruit with a little hay, so that the fruit may be kept from getting dirty in case they are not trained. This covering should not be heavy enough to keep the ground from getting plenty of sunlight.
Tomatoes in Very Severe Locations.—When there is danger of frost in August, a sufficient supply of tomatoes for family use may be grown on the south side of a house, wall or other protec-
Figure 105.—Varieties of Tomatoes. 1—Dwarf Champion. 2—New Imperial. 3—Thorburn. 4—Virginia Corker. 5-Landreth’s110 Days. 6—Wandreth’s 95 Days. JT—Landreth’s 100 Days. 8—Landreth’s 105 Days. 9—lWLandreth’s 1145 Days. 10—Waldorf. 11—Qandreth’s 105 Days. 12—Fordhook First. 13—Early Wilcox. 14—Clover Crest Giant. ;
tion, especially if the plants are covered on cold nights. Where this seems to be impracticable, a most excellent way is to grow a few plants in barrels placed in warm corners about the build- ings. To do this, at planting time select a barrel as large as a coal oil barrel, bore three or four holes in the bottom, sink the barrel about one-third its depth in the ground and pack the earth around it. Fill it about half full of fresh horse manure well tramped down and pour a bucketful of hot water on this manure. Then put on eight inches of good soil and then a mixture of well- rotted manure and rich black loam in about equal quantities, until you reach within about twelve inches of the top of the
TOMATO. 207
barrel; then heap up manure around the outside. Set three plants in this and trim to two shoots each. Train one of these shoots from each plant to stakes or near-by building, but allow the other three shoots to grow naturally over the sides of the barrel. Be careful to give plenty of water daily—a gallon each day will be none too much. Three or four old barrels treated in this way and placed in sunny exposure will produce all the toma- toes needed by a family of four or five persons.
Prolonging the Tomato Season.—In autumn the tomato sea- son may be prolonged by pulling the plants with the unripened fruit on them and hanging them in a shed, where they will continue to ripen fruit for some time. The larger tomatoes will ripen very well if picked off and kept in a shady place.
Saving Tomato Seed.—Tomato seed should be saved from the best tomatoes from vines producing the largest amount of good fruit. The tomatoes should be thrown into a barrel as fast as they ripen and be allowed to ferment until the seed separates readily from the pulp, when they should be put into water and thoroughly stirred. The skin and pulp being lighter, the seed is readily separated from it. The seed should be dried at once by spreading it out thinly in a dry place.
Varieties.—There are many varieties of tomatoes adapted to general cultivation. Among the best of these are Acme and Dwarf Champion, which are early, smooth kinds having a pink skin. Of the red-skinned sorts Perfection and Beauty are very good. The-earliest varieties are not always the best to grow for a general crop, as they are inferior to the varieties men- tioned. However, in many unfavorable locations it may be best to grow them, as they do very well for home use. Of these the earliest is called Earliest of All, but there are several other very early kinds.
Insects.—The tomato is subject to few insect pests. It is sometimes attacked by the potato beetle. The remedy is Paris green and water, as recommended for the same insect when it attacks the potato.
Tomato Rot.—There are several diseases that attack the tomato when grown in greenhouses, but only that known as the “rot” is often seriously injurious to plants grown in the open
208 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
field. This is a fungous disease, the germs of which lodge in the end of the fruit when it is very small, probably often just as the flowers fall off. By their growth, they rot the end of the tomato and often cause much loss.
Figure 106—Tomato rot.
Remedies.—The disease lives over winter in the ground where the rotten tomatoes have fallen. The diseased fruit should therefore be gathered and burned or buried a foot or more deep, where they will not be disturbed in the spring. Some varie- ties are much more liable to rot than others. The Dwarf Cham- pion is perhaps less affected than many other kinds. Experi- ments with spraying the young fruit with Bordeaux mixture or a solution of sulphide of potassium at the rate of one-half ounce per gallon, are said to Lave given good results in some cases, but it is generally considered impracticable to do this, on account of the labor necessary to do the work well. They are less liable to rot when growing on new land than on land that has been used for several years in tomatoes.
GROUND CHERRY, or STRAWBERRY TOMATO. (Physalis sp.)
Native of North and South America.—Perennial.—There are several species of Physalis that produce edible fruit. Among those indigenous to northern United States is one quite common in old timber land in northern Minnesota and elsewhere. The
PEPPERS. 209
fruit resembles a tomato but is about the size of a cherry and is enclosed in a husk formed of the calyx. The seed is dark colored, flat and round. The fruit is used for pre- Serves and sauces.
Culture.—It is a plant of the earli- est culture and when once sown gen- erally covers the ground in following years from self sown seed. The seed should be planted about the first of May. The plants spread about thirty inches.
PEPPERS. (Capsicum annuum.)
Native of South America.—Peren- nial, but in cultivation grown as an annual.—There are many varieties, \ differing chiefly in the shape of their Figure 107--Ground Cherry fruit. All of them have erect,
or Strawberry Tomato, branching stems, which become al- most woody. The leaves are spear- shaped; flowers, white, star-shaped, solitary in the axils of the leaves; fruit generally hollow with a somewhat fleshy skin, at first dark green, but when ripe turning yellow, red or dark violet. The seeds are flat, and, like the flesh of the pods, have a very acrid, burning taste, for which the plant is cultivated and used in giving flavor to pickles, etc. Their germinating power lasts about four years after being separated, but if left in the pods they will keep much longer without injury.
Culture.—Peppers need practically the same cultivation as the tomato or egg plant, except that they may be planted two feet apart, in rows three feet apart.
Varieties vary much in the shape of the pods and the acridity of their juice. The kinds most commonly grown are as follows:
Ruby King.—Fruit very large, bright red, smooth, mild fla- vored and prolific. The best for general use.
210 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Long Red Cayenne.—Fruit long and slender. Very pungent.
Figure 108—Varieties of Peppers. 1—Bird’s Eye. 2—TomiatoShaped. 3—New Crieans. 4—Golden Bell. 5—Very Small Cayenne. 6—Sweet Spanish. 7—-Cluster. 8—Ruby King. g9—Celestial. (Ajter Landreth.)
THE MARTYNA FAMILY. (Order Martiniaceae.)
MARTYNIA. (Martynia probosidea.)
Native of southwestern United States.—Annual.—A coarse- growing, spreading plant, having a peculiar shaped fruit that is used for pickles. The flowers are large, irregular and rather pretty. The fruit is tender when young but is nearly as hard as horn when ripe. The seeds are black with a rough surface.
Culture.—This is a plant of the easi- est culture. The seed should be sown as soon as the soil settles in the spring, in hills about three feet apart each way. Where seeds are allowed to ripen, plants usually appear the following spring. There is only one kind.
Figure 109—Martynia. THE GOURD FAMILY. (Order Cucurbitaceae. )
The gourd family is made up of mostly tendril bearing herbs,
SQUASH. 2i1
with succulent but not fleshy herbage, watery juice, alternate palmately ribbed and mostly angled or lobed leaves, pistillate and staminate flowers separate and both kinds generally on the same plant. Calyx grown to ovary, petals commonly united, stamens usually three, of which one has a one-celled and the others two-celled anthers, but commonly the anthers are much twisted and often all combined into a head and the filaments are sometimes grown into a column. The fruit is unusually fleshy and the seed is flat and made up entirely of embryo. It is commonly believed that some of the species in this group readily cross, but if it occurs at all it is but rarely, and squash and pumpkins have never been successfully crossed with melons. Besides the squash, pumpkin, muskmelon, watermelon and cucumbers, whose cultural directions are here given, there occurs here the gourds and wild cucumbers of the gardens.
SQUASH. (Cucurbita.)
The term squash does not signify any botanical division, but is an American name that is applied to a large number of varieties of gourds which in common parlance have come to be classified separately. The term often includes what are sometimes called pumpkins.
The term gourd is applied to all the members of Cucurbita pepo and includes the Scallop and Crookneck Squashes, field pumpkins and the small, very hard-shelled fruits of many shapes and colors borne on slender vines that are grown chiefly as curiosities under the name of gourds. The latter are what are commonly known as gourds.
Pollerizing the Flowers.—The flowers resemble those of the cucumber and melon, being separate on the same vine. The pistillate flower is produced at the end of the miniature squash; the staminate flower is often called the ‘false blossom,” and its office is to produce pollen only. They are naturally pollenized by insects.
The crop is made more certain by having bees near by to pollenize the flowers. In some places, the absence of many in- sects is the reason why cucumbers, melons and squashes, which are similar in the construction of their flowers, fail to produce much fruit, though the vines may grow freely. This is a
212 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
common complaint in some new prairie sections, as there is often a deficiency of pollenizing insects in such places. Where small cucumbers, squashes and melons fall off and fail to mature,
Figure 110.—Flowers on the Squash. To the left two staminate (male flowers; to the right two pistillate (female) flowers.
this matter of pollenization should be closely looked into, and if insects are not present the work can be quickly and easily done by hand. For this purpose a rather large camel’s hair brush 1s used which can be filled at one time with enough pollen from a few male flowers to pollenize twenty or more female flowers.
The seed is oval and flat generally white or yellow, but varies greatly in size. There is a common belief among garden- ers that vines from old seed do not grow so strong as those from new seed and produce more fruit. This seems to be borne out by some experiments.
Cultivation.—The cultivation of the squash and the pumpkin
SQUASH. 213
is much the same as for cucumbers. About six seeds should be put in each hill. The hills should be eight feet apart each way for the longer growing kinds and five feet apart for the bush sorts. The plants should be thinned out after they are established so as to allow two plants to each hill. They are affected by the same insect pests as the cucumber and the same remedies are in order. In addition, however, to these, some kinds are affected in the eastern states by a borer which works in the stem, and by the squash bug. (See chapter on in-
sects.)
The early varieties of the squash are sometimes started in hotbeds or cold frames to advance them and thus avoid serious injury from the striped beetle.
Harvesting.—Summer squash are not grown for storing and are not desirable for table use except before the skin hardens, when they are used entire. Winter squash are excellent for use in a green state but are not gathered for storing until the skin is hard. They should always be gathered upon the approach of frosty weather, as a very little frost injures their keeping quali- ties, although the injury may not be apparent when gathered. It is a good plan in harvesting them to place them in piles in the field, leaving them exposed to the sun during the day and covering them with the vines or other material every frosty night until they are thoroughly dried and the skins have become hard and flinty. In gathering, cut the stem off not over an inch from the squash, for it the stem is left on it is liable to be used as a handle and be broken off and thus leave a spot that is very sure to start to rotting. Squashes should be handled with the greatest care if they are to be kept successfully, and each one should be placed in the wagon or on the shelf separately; if handled roughly they will not keep. They should be carried in a spring wagon or on a bed of hay or straw.
Storing.—Winter squash keep best in a dry atmosphere and at a cool temperature. They will, however, keep well in a warm or even hot cellar or room, providing it is dry, but will quickly rot in a moist atmosphere. They will shrink more in weight in a warm than in a cool place. They should be laid on shelves one tier deep, and never piled up if it is desired to keep them
214 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
long. When well hardened without exposure to frost before stor- ing and kept dry, many of the winter sorts are easily kept until March.
The quality of squash varies somewhat according to the land on which it is grown. Sandy loam is generally believed to produce the best fiavored dry flesh squash, but the quality also varies according to the season.
Summer Varieties.—(Cucurbita pepo.)—Summer Crookneck
Figure 111.—Varieties of summer squashes. Crookneck. Boston Marrow. Scalloped.
is a summer sort, generally with a crooked neck, that is highly esteemed. A form of this with a straight neck is also grown.
Bush Scalloped.—Yellow and white varieties of this for summer use are much grown by market gardeners, differing from each other only ir color of the skin. They are round-flat and have a scalloped edge.
Boston Marrow.—Much grown for marketing and very highly esteemed for summer and fall use.
Orange Marrow—A form of the Boston Marrow.
Fall and Winter Varieties.——(Cucurbita maxima.)—Hub- bard.—This is the best known and most largely grown of the winter varieties. It varies somewhat in form, is generally dark green in color and sometimes marked with red. When well grown it has a rough shell of flinty hardness and thick, heavy flesh that cooks dry. The quality varies much according to the
quality of the land on which it is grown, sandy loam generally producing the best.
SQUASH. 215
Marblehead is a variety that resembles the Hubbard in qual- ity of flesh, and by many is considered superior. It differs from the Hubbard in form and color, is ashy gray and the flesh is
. Pe eee ea eee Ge eee ae
Figure 112—Hubbard Squash.
much thinner. It yields less in weight but generally produces more squashes per acre.
Essex Hybrid.—Very fine grained, rich, sweet, and a good keeper; excellent for autumn and winter.
Bay State.—A good variety.
Miscellaneous Varieties —Winter Crookneck.—One of the hardiest, most reliable and best keeping squashes, but in quality no better than some of the pumpkins. Very little in demand for marketing, but popular in some sections for home use.
Cocoanut, Perfect Gem and Chestnut are varieties produc- ing a large number of small squashes of excellent quality and are very easily raised.
PUMPKIN. (Cucurbita pepo.)
Native of warm climates.—Annual.—Under the name of pumpkin are grouped a number of gourds, greatly varying in shape, color, size and quality. Some of them are very good for ooking purposes, but they are not generally esteemed for table
216 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
use by those who have become accustomed to the better kinds of squashes; some of them are great yielders and are used for feeding cattle. They may be grown as recommended for squash or, as is most commonly practiced, grown amongst the corn, where the seed is planted aS soon as warm weather is assured. The seed varies much in size. For remarks on its flowers == ‘and pollination see squash Figure 113—Cheese Pumpkin. with which they are nearly
identical. The variety most generally grown is known as Connecticut
Field, which is of large size and is used mainly for feeding stock. Sugar and Cheese pumpkins are varieties much grown for cook- ing purposes.
MUSKMELON. (Cucumis melo.)
Native of the warm parts of Asia.—Annual.—Cultivated from a very remote period of antiquity. It resembles the cucumber in habit of growth, and, like it and the squash, the different sexes of flowers are separate on the same plant and in nature re- quire the agency of insects to pollenize them; however, they may be pollenized by hand, and the directions for pollenizing cucumber flowers apply here. In quite a few cases the flowers of the musk- melon are perfect, that is, have both stamens and pistils; but it is likely that even in these cases cross-fertilization is neces- sary. The seed resembles cucumber seed in size and form. The fruit varies in shape but is commonly round or oval. The flesh varies in color from nearly white to deep orange. This is one of the most healthful and delicious of fruits, and our warm, bright summers are especially favorable to its growth. As far north as Minneapolis, this fruit is often so plentiful as to glut the markets in September.
Culture.—The culture of muskmelons is practically the same as that recommended for cucumbers, and the insect pests are also the same. A warm soil is, if anything, more desirable for this crop than for cucumbers, and in moist seasons it does
MUSKMELON. 217
especially well on very sandy land, providing it has been well manured. It is a good plan to pinch off the ends of the vines after they have grown several feet for the purpose of forcing out the laterals on which the fruit is borne, although this is not customary in growing them on a large scale. Late settings of fruit may be removed to advantage in September, as they then have not time to mature. The fruit is not ripe until the stem separates easily from it. Fruit ripened on the vine is of the best
Figure 114—Muskmelons. 1—California Citron. 2—White Japan. 3—Miller’s Cream. 4--Extra Early.
quality, but for shipping purposes it should be picked when still green. Almost without exception, melons with finely netted skins are of better quality than those with smooth or coarsely netted skins. So true is this that buyers often refuse to buy the smooth kinds. In order to make the fruit ripen earlier and to avoid the attacks of the striped beetle, the plants are often started in pots and on sods in hotbeds or frames, as recommended for cucum- bers. It is a good plan also to place a piece of glass or board under the melons when those of the best quality are desired, since this keeps them off the ground, and they ripen more evenly in consequence.
_ Varieties——Melons vary much in size, form, color of skin and flesh and in quality. There are many kinds, but only a few are referred to here. Z
Christiana, or Early Christiana is a popular melon, of extra good quality, with salmon colored flesh.
218 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Osage, or Miller’s Cream.—A iarge melon kaving firm salmon colored flesh, very productive and highly esteemed for the market and home garden. Perhaps, the best shipping sort now grown.
California Citron muskmelon is a variety especially popular in some northern markets for home market and for shipping.
Emerald Gem is a very prolific melon, with smaii but very superior fruit that is valuable for home use.
WATERMELON. (Citrullis vulgaris.) Native of Africa—Annual.—A vine of the same general habit as the muskmelon, but the leaves are deeply lobed,
Figure 115—Varieties of Watermelons. 1—fron Clad. 2—Cuban Queen. 3— Light Ice Rind. 4—Monte Cristo. 5—Dark Ice Rind.
and the whole plant is covered with soft, grayish hairs that
give it a grayish aspect. The flowers are the same in general
structure as those of the cucumber or muskmelon. The seeds are
WATERMELON. 219
large but vary much in size, color and markings. The fruit varies in color of skin from pale yellow to deep green and is often mottled; the flesh varies from white to pink or yellow. Some are tasteless and insipid and others are sugary and re- tieshing. The fruit often weighs as much as fifty pounds in good seasons when grown in favorable locations, even in the extreme northern states.
Culture.—The method of culture is the same as for the cucumber and muskmelon, with the exception that the vines should not be pinched, and they require rather more room in which to grow. They should be planted about eight feet apart each way.
Varieties——There are many kinds of watermelons offered by seedsmen, diiffering from one another in many particulars. Sev- eral of the most esteemed are the following:
Dark and Light Icing, or Ice Rind.—The best two varieties for general use. Well adapted for home use or marketing.
Hungarian.—A melon of good quality, adapted for the home garden.
Volga.—An early variety with light colored skin and very red flesh. Fruit rather small but of excellent quality and very productive.
Citron, or Preserving Melon.—Resembles watermelon, but the flesh is hard and only fit for preserves. There is but a limited demand for it.
CUCUMBER. (Cucumis sativus.)
Native of the East Indies.—Annual.—A creeping plant with angular, flexible stems, rough to touch and furnished with ten- drils. The tiowers are yellow, in the axils of the leaves, some male, others female; the latter flowers are on the ovary, which later becomes the cucumber. The plants produce flowers and fruit in succession over a long season, and these are naturally Lollenized by insects. The seed is long-oval in form and yellow- ish-white in color.
: Cultivation.—The land for cucuinbers should be a deep, rich. i scraewbat retentive loam, and yet this vegetable will do very well ‘with only moderately favorable conditions. For ordinary use and for the home garden, cucumber seed should be planted after
220 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the ground is warm, say from the middle to the last of May, but it may be planted with good results as late as the middle of June. HF is quite customary to furrow out the land six feet apart one way, mark crossways of the furrows with a six foot marker, and put a shovelful of well rotted manure or compost in each intersection. Cover this manure with soil and plant the cucumber seed. Of course, when the land is in the best condition, it is not necessary to put manure in the hills; in such cases, all that is necessary is to mark out both ways and plant at the intersections. About ten or a dozen seeds should be put in each hill and covered about one inch deep, and the soil packed over the seeds. As soon as the plants are up, and after each rain, they should have the soil loosened around them ‘They should also be kept dusted until well established with Paris green, land plaster or some other dust, to keep off the striped beetles, which are often very troublesome and may destroy the plants when they are small unless preventive measures are used. (See chapter on insects.) The land should be cultivated both ways until the vines prevent it, so that very litle work will have to be done by hand. About three good plants are enough for each hill, and the rest should be removed after the danger from serious insect injuries has passed.
Gathering the Crop.—If for table use or for marketing in a green state, the cucumbers are gathered when full grown but still green; if for pickles, the cucumbers are gathered as soon as of the required size, which is generally when they are about three inches long. Some factories put up larger and some smaller- pickles than this size. To gather them of just the right size requires that the whole bed be picked over about once in two days. This is a matter of much labor and is generally paid for by the piece. No cucumbers should be allowed to go to seed if pickles or table cucumbers are wanted, for as soon as seed is ripened the plants commence to die off, while if constantly gathered when green and not allowed to ripen, the plants will continue bearing a long time. In the vicinity of pickling factories, cucumbers for pickles are often raised in large quantities as a farm crop and are contracted for at a specified price per thousand or per hun- dred pounds, for the season. For home use or for storing and
CUCUMBER. 221
marketing in the winter, the cucumbers are packed in salt or salt brine when gathered. Growers generally use about seven pounds of salt to a bushel of cucumbers. They may also be packed in dry salt in layers, which has the effect of taking the water out of the cucumbers, causing them to shrivel up and lie in their own juice. When wanted for use they are freshened out in water, which causes those that are shriveled to swell up plump; they are then put in vinegar. Cucumber pickles are easily kept until the following spring in this way, but when kept later than spring they get soft and are not so desirable. Cucumbers will stand a great amount of dry weather without injury, if frequently cul- tivated.
Starting Cucumbers in cold frames and hotbeds and then transplanting them to the open ground when all danger of frost
Figure 116—Chicage Pickling Cucumber.
iS over is a common practice where they are wanted for early use. Under this system the seed is sown in old strawberry boxes, tomato cans, flower pots, etc. Square pieces of inverted sod are also used for the same purpose, four or five seeds being sown on each piece five inches ¢quare and covered with good soil. The plants in this latter case root into the sod and are easily moved. Starting cucumbers this way has the merit of advancing the period of maturity of the plants, and as they are well started
222 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
when set out there is little danger of attacks of the striped beetle, and the fruit is earlier than when sown in the open ground. In following out this plan, the seed should not be sown before the first of May, or the plants will be too large to move well. Before the plants are removed from the frames to the open ground, they should be exposed without the sash for several days until well hardened off. When these plants are moved to the open ground, they should be set rather deeper than they grew in the frames. They then are cultivated the same as plants from seed sown in the hill. Another way for advancing the cucumber season when hotbed sash is used is by planting a hill of them very early, in the center of each sash of the hotbed, while the rest of each sash may be used for an early crop. The cucumbers will not need much room for several weeks, which will give time to grow the early crop and get it out of the way of the cucumbers. The sashes should be removed when warm weather comes, and the vines allowed to grow in the frames all summer.
Insects.—The cucumber has a serious enemy in the striped beetle and is also liable to injury from the cut worm. (For reme- dies see chapter on insects.)
Seed.—Cucumber seed is easily raised, and in some _ loca- tions it is a product of some importance. In raising seed it is important to save it from the early fruit, which in a small way are easily saved; on a large scale, however, the fruits are allowed to ripen but not to rot on the ground. When the vines are dead, the ripe cucumbers are split open, the pulp scooped out with the seed and allowed to ferment for a few days, when it readily sepa- rates from the seed. The whole mass is then thrown into a sieve with a mesh small enough to not allow the seeds to pass through, and the pulp is washed through the sieve, leaving the clean seed, which is carefully dried. If the cucumbers are al- lowed to get rotten before the seed is taken out, the skins will become mixed with the seed, and the seed will be discolored, and such seed is very liable to sprout in the cleaning and curing pro- cess.
Varieties.—For general home use and marketing, the White Spine is a favorite variety. For pickles the most profitable kinds are those producing many small cucumbers, such as the variety
LETTUCE. 223
known as the Boston Pickling. There are many good varieties of cucumbers and they are offered under various names. For earliest use the Early Russian is perhaps the best, but it is small and seedy.
THE SUNFLOWER FAMILY. (Order Compositae.)
The sunflower family (order compositae) is the largest group of flowering plants, yet it has given us only a very few garden vegetables and those are of little importance. Its plants are distinguished by what the older betanists termed the “compound flower.” This consists of several or many flowers in a head, sur- rounded by a set of bracts. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla (generally five), their anthers grown together by their edges. Ovary one-celled, inferior, containing a single seed. Be- sides the artichoke, lettuce, salsify, endive, and dandelion, whose cultural directions are here given, there occur here the tansy, sunflower, daisies, corn-flower, ageratum, cineraria, chicory, bur- dock, thistle, wild lettuce, compass plant, ragweed, fireweed, chrysanthemum, marigold, goldenrod, aster, yarrow, zinnia, dahlia and many other well known plants.
LETTUCE. (Lactuca sativa.)
Native of India or Central Asia.—Annual.—Flowers yellow, on seed stalks two or more feet high; seeds small, flat, white or black, but sometimes yellow or reddish brown in color. The shape and size of the leaves also vary greatly; sometimes they form a head like the cabbage and again only a loose bunch. The foliage is generally of some shade of green, but some varieties have leaves of a reddish color.
Cultivation.—Lettuce is largely grown in greenhouses during the winter, in hotbeds and cold frames in the early spring and outdoors in the late spring and until severe weather in autumn. It is a very important crop for the market gardener, as there is some demand for it at all seasons of the year and a large call ior it in the spring. Some growers making a spe- cialty of this crop have it in marketable condition every month of the year. In some sections, the plants may be start- ed in September and when of good size transplanted to a cold frame, where they may be safely wintered over. In the spring
224 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
they are used for planting in hotbeds and in the open ground: In the extreme Northern states, however, although plants fre! quently come through the winter safely when thus protected, it is not a method to be depended upon. It is customary here to raise the plants for spring planting, in greenhouses or early hotbeds. Lettuce may be transplanted to the open ground as
Figure 117—Black-seeded Simpson Lettuce. (Typical curley sort.)
soon as the soil will work easily in the spring, but it should be well hardened off before being planted out; it will, however, stand quite a severe freeze if properly hardened off, and, as ‘is the case with many other crops, the plants may be protected with earth on the approach of hard frost, providing it does not remain over them more than a day or two. In the open ground, lettuce plants should be set out about twelve inches apart each way. It is frequently grown between rows of early cabbage, cauliflower or other plants where it fills up otherwise unoccupied space and comes off the land long before other crops need the room it occupies. For late use, the seed is often sown in the open ground in drills one foot apart and the plants thinned to the same distance apart. It is customary also in the home garden to sow the seed and then cut off the young plants as soon as they are
LETTUCE. 225
large enough to use; such lettuce, however, is not nearly so good as head lettuce where the center is white, crisp and tender. It is a far better plan to thin out the young plants so that they stand three or four inches apart in the rows and in cutting con-
Figure 118—Head Lettuce.
tinue the thinning process so that the later plants will form good heads. Of course, it is necessary to make successive sowings of lettuce in order to have it fit for table use over a long season. Like all leaf crops, lettuce needs plenty of rich, easily avail- able nitrogenous manure and responds very quickly to small ap- plications of nitrate of soda.
Varieties —here are many varieties and each year finds many additions to the list of those offered by seedsmen. In the matter of quality, those forming a head like the cabbage have the preference. Varieties that form only a bunch of leaves are largely raised by market gardeners to supply the common demand, since they are more easily grown and are less liable to injury in handling than the heading varieties. Some of the most desirable kinds are as follows:
White Tennis Ball, or Boston Market.—A very popular market variety adapted for hotbed and early spring use only. It forms a solid head of medium size but quickly goes to seed in warm weather.
*
226 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Hanson.—Forms large solid heads and is a general favorite; excellent for spring or summer use.
Black-Seeded Simpson.—A popular -forcing variety that stands well without going to seed and does not form a head but a mass of curled leaves.
Grand Rapids.—A very desirable lettuce for forcing. It re- sembles Black-Seeded Simpson, but is a better shipping variety.
Black-Seeded Tennis Ball.—A popular sort for forcing or early garden culture. It forms large, solid heads and is highly esteemed.
Salamander.—A good heading sort for summer use.
Buttercup.—Bright chrome yellow in color, very beautiful; tender and desirable. A popular new sort.
Insects and Diseases.—There are few insects or diseases that seriously affect the lettuce when grown outdoors. In the green- house and occasionally in the hotbeds, it is sometimes attacked by the aphis and mildew. For remedies for aphis, see chapter on insects.
Mildew frequently injures the lettuce crop when it is grown in greenhouses in winter. It is most liable to be caused by over- watering and especially by frequent watering in cold or cloudy weather, which keeps the leaves wet much of the time. It is a good plan to water heavily when the crop is planted and to avoid repeating it until the soil is quite dry and then water heavily again in the morning of a bright day, so that the foliage may dry off before night. Sub-irrigation has been used with excellent suc- cess for this crop in greenhouses in winter.
SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. (Tragopogon porrifolius.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—A plant with long fleshy tap- root and grass-like leaves. The flower stalks grow three feet high; the seed is long, ridged, generally curved and pointed at both ends. It is rather difficult to plant with a seed sower be- cause of its peculiar form, but when the points are rubbed off it is often so planted.
Culture.—The cultural directions given for the parsnip apply to this plant. It is very easily grown and hardy, and generally comes through the winter in the extreme northern states without injury; it is safer, however, to dig the roots in autumn, and put in
SALSIFY. 227
pits until spring or for use during winter. The root is highly es- teemed and has the flavor of oysters; it is used for soups, but may be cooked in the same manner as parsnips.
The best variety is the Mammoth Sandwich Island, which is far superior to any other.
ENDIVE. (Cichorium endivia.)
Native of East India.—Annual.—Endive resembles the dan- _delion in habit and growth. It is esteemed by some as a de- Sarees ae sirable fall and winter salad since it has a pleasant bitter taste when blanched. It is of very simple culture and may be grown in much the same manner as lettuce. For summer use, sow the seed early in the spring; for autumn and winter use, sow in July. It is blanched be- fore being eaten. This is accom- plished by tying the leaves lightly together when the plants have nearly completed their growth. After this treatment, the leaves in the center of the plant will have become blanched in about three weeks. Do not tie the plants too rapidly, since the hearts are liable to rot scon after blanching, espe- cially if the weather is warm. On the approach of severe weather, the plants may be set in boxes in a cold cellar, where they will continue to produce nice blanched leaves dur-
ing the early part of the winter. Varieties—A variety known as Green Curled Endive is generally grown, but other varieties are of-
g. 119—Sandwich Island Salsify. fered by seedsmen. DANDELION. (Taraxacum officinale.)
Native cf Europe.—Perennial.—The dandelion is a familiar
228 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
plant to almost every one. It is now of spontaneous growth here and is used for greens in its wild state; but the cultivated varie- ties are quite an improvement on the wild plants. The best method of growing it is by sowing the seed in the spring in drills ten inches apart and thinning out the plants to three inches apart in
rows. The seed is somewhat dif- ficult to start, and it is a good
plan to go over each row twice with the seed sower, So as to mix
the seed up with the soil, since by this method some of it will be sure to be properly covered. It Fig. 120.—Curled Endive. is Sometimes used in the fall, but not generally until spring. It is often forced by covering the bed with the hotbed sash or by transplanting to hotbeds or cold frames. It is sometimes blanch- ed and used as a salad, for which purpose it is much like endive. While the plant is a perennial, yet only one crop should be har- vested from each sowing, since after the first cutting there are many sprouts produced from each root so that none of them are large enough for good mar- ket plants. The plants should always be plowed in before they ripen seed unless seed is to be saved, to prevent its scattering and becoming a nuisance. A va- riety called the Improved Thick-Leaved is the most esteemed.
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. (Helianthus tuberosus.)
Native of North America.—Perennial.—Stems herbaceous, six or more feet high, roots tuberous. Flowers yellow, resem- bling those of the common sunflower, but comparatively small.
5 1A is Figure 121.—Dandelion.
ARTICHOKE. 229
For best results the artichoke requires exceedingly rich soil. it can be grown from the seed, although this is seldom attempted, but it is customary to grow it by planting the small tubers whole or cut the large tubers in the same way as potatoes. They should be planted about four inches deep at twelve inch intervals in rows three feet apart. They are used chiefly for feeding stock and are often harvested by turning hogs into the field. They will frequently remain in the land many years even if not cultivated. They are easily injured by frost when not covered with earth but in the ground they are perfectly hardy.
GLOBE ARTICHOKE. (Cynara scolymus.)
Native of Barbary and South Europe.—Perennial.—A large thistle-like plant growing two to three feet high, producing large flower heads, the scales of which are large and thick, and are highly esteemed as a garden vegetable in England and Southern Europe. It has, however, never become popular in this country and is rarely grown. In Southern Europe it is grown by divisions and there are many varieties. It may also be grown from seed, but seedlings are generally very much inferior to the best named sorts. The roots must be very carefully protected in order to bring them through our winters.
GARDEN HERBS.
Under this head are grouped a number of sweet culinary and medicinal plants that are cultivated to some extent in gardens. They are generally easily grown in mellow, open soil. Those having foliage that is esteemed for its aroma should generally be cut on a dry day, just as they reach full flowering stage, and should be dried quickly in the shade. As a rule, herbs should be cut before being frozen, though freezing does not always injure them. When dry they should be kept in dry air-tight boxes or vessels. The demand is very limited for most of them. Only a few of the most common kinds are referred to here. In the ex- treme northern states, many of the perennial kinds will kill out in severe winters unless protected.
THE MINT FAMILY. (Order Labiatae.)
The Mint Family includes little other than herbs (with few exceptions) which have aromatic herbage, square stems, op-
230 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
posite simple leaves, 2-lipped corolla and a deeply 4-parted ovary which separates into the same number of seeds. Besides balm,
SUMMER : 5 SAGE SAVORY DILL CARAWAY FENNEL LAVENDE
a : ’ ee BORAGE THYME RUE ANISE CORIANDER SAVORY
Figure 122—Characteristic portions of garden herbs.
catnip, lavender, peppermint, sage, sweet basil, sweet marjoram, spearmint, Summer savory, thyme, and winter savory whose cultural directions are here given, this order includes garden coleus, hyssop, flowering sage or salvia, and horse mint. The plants of this group are mostly grown for their aromatic herb- age.
Balm.—(Melissa officinalis.)—A native of the south of Eu- rope.—Perennial.—A plant growing about eighteen inches high having aromatic herbage. The seed is very small. Sow in spring where the plants are to remain.
Catnip.—(Nepeta cataria.)—Native of Europe.—Perennial.— Often a common weed around buildings and along roadsides here, It is used in a small way for seasoning. Easily grown from seed or by division.
THE MINT FAMILY. 231
Lavender.—(Lavendula spica.)—Native of southern Europe.— Perennial.—A low undershrub grown chiefly for its flowers which are used in the manufacture of perfumery. Generally in- creased by dividing the old roots. It delights in a fine, rich, rather calcareous soil.
Peppermint.— (Mentha piperita.)—Native of northern Europe. —Perennial.—Propagated by divisions of the stems; occasionally a roadside weed in moist places. It is cultivated in the same way as spearmint. Used mostly for its essential oil which is ob- tained by distillation. The raising of this plant forms a con- siderable industry in a few locations in the northern states.
Sage.— (Salvia officinalis.)—Native of southern Europe.—Per- ennial.—Plants forming broad tufts about sixteen inches high; flowers in heads of three or four in terminal clusters, usually bluish white but sometimes white or pink. The seeds are round and of medium size. Plants come readily from seed, which should be sown in early spring. It is cus- tomary in a small way to sow the seed outdoors and allow the plants to remain where they grow for sev- eral years. Where it is grown on a large scale, however, the plants are generally put out as a_ second crop, following early peas or cab- bage. There is some uncertainty about its coming through very se- vere winters in the northern states, but it generally does so in good shape; it is more reliable if banked with earth or covered with litter in winter. Broad-leaved sage is an improved kind.
Fig. 123—Branch of sage plant.
Sweet Basil.—(Ocymum basilicum.)—Native of India.—An- nual.—Stem about one foot high; very branching. The leaves and other green parts have an agreeable aromatic odor and are used in seasoning. Sow indoors in March or April and trans- plant as soon as the weather is settled. It may also be sown in the open ground early in the spring.
232 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Sweet Marjoram.—(Origanum marjorana.)—Native of Asia.— Perennial but generally grows as an annual.—The leaves and other green parts are used for seasoning. The seeds are very small. Sow early in spring in any good garden soil.
Mint or Spearmint.—(Mentha viridis.)—Native of Europe.— Perennial——A plant with vigorous creeping root stock, very hardy and sometimes a troublesome weed in moist soil. It is — grown by planting the roots in the spring. There is a small de- mand for this plant in winter as well as in summer, which is met by a greenhouse supply. The leaves and young shoots are used for seasoning.
Summer Savory.—(Satureia hortensis.)—Native of southern Europe.—Annual.—A small plant eight or ten inches high. The seed, which is very small, should be sown the latter part of April or in May. The leaves and young shoots are used for flavoring.
Thyme.—(Thymus vulgaris.)—Native of southern Hurope.— Perennial.—A small plant with small aromatic leaves and stems.
It starts easily if sown in early spring. It is customary to sow the seed where the plants are to remain but it may be trans-
planted. It is in demand for flavoring and is generally hardy at the north. Eroad-leaved thyme is the only variety worth grow- ing.
Winter Savory.—(Satureia montana.)—Native of southern EKurope.—Perennial.—Stems woody, at least near the base; twelve to sixteen inches high. Used for the same purposes as Summer Savory. Not hardy here unless well protected.
PARSNIP FAMILY. (Order Umbelliferae.) For characteristics see page 172.
Anise.—(Pimpinella anisum).—A native of Asia Minor.—An- nual.—Attains a height of sixteen inches. The seeds are aromatic and used in medicine and confections. Sow in April or May where the plants are to remain during the season.
Caraway.—(Carum carui.)—Native of HEurope.—Biennial.— Stem straight; two or three feet high. The seeds resemble those of carrots and are esteemed for flavoring. It should be sown in May in drills and does not produce seed until the following sea- son; very hardy and of the easiest culture.
PARSNIP FAMILY. Zoo
Coriander.—(Coriandrum sativum.)—Native of southern Eu- rope.—Annual.—Two to two and one-half feet high. Stem leaves much divided. Grown from the seed which should be sown in the spring. ‘he seed is used for flavoring purposes; the foliage exhales a very rank odor.
Dill_—(Ane:hum graveolens.)—Native of souchern Europe.— Annual.—Height, from two to two and a half feet. It is of the easiest culture. The seed is much used as flavoring for pickles of various kinds. It should be sown in the spring in rows about one foot apart and cultivated the same as for carrots. Where the seed ripens, an abundance of plants generally spring up the fol- lowing year. Probably botanically the same as fennel but the latter is more in use in the green stage for its foliage.
BORAGE FAMILY. (Order Boraginaceae. )
Borage.— (Borage officinalis.)—Native of Europe and North Africa.—Annual.—Twelve to eighteen inches high. Used in the manufacture of cordials. Flowers blue, pretty. Of the easiest culture, growing freely from spring sown seeds.
RUE FAMILY. (Order Rutaceae.)
Common Rue.—(Ruta graveoleus.)—A bushy herb, woody, or almost shrubby at its base. The leaves are very bitter and some-
times used in seaconing. Grown from seed or by division of the roots.
234
VEGETABLE GARDENING.
TABLE I.—WEIGHT OF ONE QUART OF SEEDS AND NUMBER OF SEEDS IN ONE OUNCE.
KIND OF SEED. aes Seeds in | Ounces. Cne Ounce. ASDATAQUS, scscls. votocscses tive nc accdeesencecrreceieces 32 1,400 AIIM ace v ences cesccscscea cece os cceveccsecceue Oscosvecerases 20 56,600 gS 1 Rei am one ees Re ne eae ee eRe 20 22,665 BGAN eeee rene ae vee scceds ce cv scaasiec aves oeesevsenie essere 24 to 33 200 to 225 BEG iivesicaeceesceesc eee ees ease eee 10 1,400 Borecole, OPUG ale sissiecc eo ccsose een ceeestenecseseee 25 8,500 IBN SCO lS se ce cerca ce con cree ce eae este Sie 25 10,525 Cana wes. i cc eee eocseec Sete 25 8,500 CAT AW.AY jesceeccscccovesccsascsoess ce cate core cucetcaseauss 15 9,915 Carrot, WILK, SPINES, --.----2.-<-<seccaneseererensuss 9 19,835 NVIEMOME SPINICS) 22. :oncsaeseesece= co-stars 13 26,915 Gabimiintireccct cocere seccr ace aren en cent cdoene de eoncae 28 3,400 Gailifl Owen. scccocc-cnccocstcccseecsccsccsescrescon es 25 10,525 WelOR ii. Secces costs ecsteteccc eae ante crore doen eee 17 70,835 CHICORG eso eer ere eee eee once 14 19,830 Cress; ,AMmeriGan,*.-.c- cs acsteressecee eawsasee ea 20 16,915 2s Common Parden c----ccc-cssesonesen esse 28 ee + WiAtehiecsclticadtoivececdccactevees seen cue oees 2024 HS 335 Cucumber, CONMMLON Eas acceccscs~svesesesees deeseees 18 1,103 prickly fruited her kin, Steeeees 20 3,680 ID Amedelio mene ee cnicaeccce nese teas eon eee oe aheanene 9% 34,000 to 42,500 DDI oeceneceas casanote cee ase es scuaen eine Goose ieee 11 25,500 BS Se PI AIM E stcosc cence coe seceseseceseedeeueteawecsaseen: 18 6,520 IB NGives. ::2sccesesceeces Gibas caccsenawate sacosmetweeous .a25 12 18,000 Koh Ga Dive ecoareeree eee eos eee eae ees 25 8,500 WOOK i cs ccerkeesecoesns Rest sAacap icine cesar: se cuneslooedanne 20 TAC S35 ACO ECU CEG stocces cc cccccsee ue ceren eter caecceotes stereo ceouies 1514 22,665 Maize, of Indian’ COrnh.-1-..ccccccee tee eecsen ee PHS} 113 to 140 Marjoram, SWGCOU sic c55 sescosscscsnevesetesercsescecse 20 113,355 winter, woomasetane secaieteeedcenesencees 24 340,000 WATE VIN A otc ccecsccssececconeceuscaccodenes Seieseueonts 1014 565 NES Kar OlOn ere ssccece coe scaccaeecenaetac tens ceeeeenaeee 13 1,560 Okita ee. sritectsetecsdcwncctccuscssoas st ndviessoacwedeeueenr 22 425 to 510 ONION ei cesreces cccsenseessesccecteteescenswieaeeseeweoeel 18 7,080 PG aire ocncasceauus cus ts eos bheccs dees ensesennes sn seeseseeeee 25 to 2814 56 to 142 Ss BRAY oOM Meld ius. - coc cecosdecscoceccoe encctsetence 21 to 28% 142 to 225 IPAESNIP ye: coe via nce ae v5. cece acsetiessdacenalos ces Sealed soncacall Seerceecee ase eesaee 6,605 PEP POE) -cccbsccscnssceretestesthestides soceectacaaiscces ose 16 4,205 Pst PRN 5252 s2 5 cnc cocccececsscstsncsdecseeceteactiovec coscs 9 85 FRA GMISH Sic rcscacceoscoccacteuer ave ae eee ost eaten Pas 700,835 RAM PION oowceseessaccecesoscasere cn ceceeeeceessuecereov 28% 3,400 RhuBar Di ateceeseccccbesscaccbe scores conocer etessemace ...| 3to4l 1,415 SABC Ki scisecstewadecdaacccse saeco eer e cue eoaeoatenoniae 191% 7,080 Sal Sify: fc oveatacecscuonesenace epee es ean ote eae eens 8 2,835 Saviory,.SUmmeneccccssesscecceseseeee haececcsseaecant 18 42,500 “¢ WTEC 8 sase Seice tence coun teee os denseoeeeeann alUES 70,835 Spinach, prickly-seed €G)i-2..<..ccmsaecceceesccuces 13% 2,550 “8 round-seeded Ldonvesedechcsecseioteaeeneeact 14% roy sto) “ New Zealand 2... ccsecccccececetecccscavces 8 280 to "34.0 Sqtiash,-Mubbardl:..2..c-..2ccoss<scecccesesccsereree 14 93 iy Bush Sealloped ..22.32.2:..-ceccssoccccces 1514 280 Strawberry TOmMaALtCO sss. ic.c.ccccccccressdusctess 23 28,335 SPAY ING :ei oc scccccowes socvionesrubecesceceasneececeh net eneaes 24 170,000 TOMATO S scsccc.ccosccresoascecaccecead nS ee en atest! 8,500 to 11,335 CBUENIP 2 oo. idscccceesecesecsssavaeees ecuceecnaenousenraceen 24 12,715 Watermelon’ «...55..cceoesasee ae edidenaciersesduanaune 18% 113 to 150
Weight of a
Number of
KIND OF SEED.
TABLES. TABLE II.—LONGEVITY OF GARDEN SEED WHEN PROPERLY
CURED AND STORED.
235
Average Years.
SPR OeweRe meee ee ee eee eeteeetes
SOR eee eee et ee eset sereeeeee
ss NVAEOR Gocck seaccecressve.
Cucumber common........ oe
Prickly-fruited Gherkitee--)-.es
BW SL= PIANC. H.cecssecducseeeecees
ESIC Gs ccesccecessaes oo oe conde ces
Wetince commorn--:.-:..cs
Maize, or Indian Corn....
10
CUS Co kor (Ol Cd) Cr
PPP eee ee ere ee. ee 2 err
KIND OF SEED. gales Ma TEV NIA. <..<.c2-ceeseseenceseee lor2 Nia SKM elOn.c...csccesceee eae 5 Mustard, white or salad | 4 OURTAR scses casesiccavseuectseseeccses 5 ONTO 5. catet sncsetessccesensetes 2 IPATSHIP: 2 \s.c2s<08-5- ac Odean 3050 2 IA TSIEE nce. cocesccevescossevosles | 3 Pea. Gardenor field......| 3 REP PGhieccrs -acpsesoessebesvsacecs os Pei p Kiten yc cactosesiscexs ness 4or5 IaH S bt oreccscaseercdeev scones scese UAT POM cass ssaassosetercecececs 5 Rta tb irscsoccss~cseroccers sens 3 ROSCRIATY) .c.cecsenscee<aantseses! r Ste vemenelnceswenenaseeces Senasseosee | 2 SAVE eacceetaes beenecessecowees 3 SAIS EY? const cchoce ceseaus secsn acess | 2 Savory,summer or wint'r 3 Spinach, all-kinds.,.......... 5 Squash, Hubbard........... 6
wer Bush scalloped.. 6 Strawbery PONIBtO.. 56.052 8 Bi 2 6:5 00 Sera ore Ree ee rere 3 Tomato....... ccpagosctenacecacco 4 LUENUD: cs ssseeeeseesbasaceceecenee 5 Wiatermielon®..c-..5<-s-0--5-5:6 6
VEGETABLE GARDENING.
TABLE III.—AMOUNT OF SEED REQUIRED TO SOW AN ACRE.
KIND OF SEED
METHOD OF SOWING
Amt. per Acre
4 to 5 Ibs. 11% bus.
10 to 12 qts. & to 6 lbs. yy |b.
2to 4 Ibs.
2 lbs.
Cee e emer terest eee| weet ere eeeeoreeeseuee
30 lbs. 6 to 12bus. 4 to 6 Ibs. 1to 2bus. 2to 3bus. 7 to10bus. 4to 5 lbs. 8 to 10 Ibs. 8 to 10 lbs. 8 to 10 lbs.
1 to
BAIS WA TalP tS yal cacuesesweadeeeeces 1OZ MOT OOM Old rillemOteeeaeee. Beans Mow ati seco ascstece Dra Pls res, soeneeccotwieen eoteaeewene ae a POlE eit. ieatenweces Be Mee edsshcinencnina whack oscoaunictracaseeneee BG Gti acesannece ii acconcanesaeneasce Vit 4 § Whsilaears gt aja Seales see seee Cason ane CA DDA LES accrasdeteeoseees vce: Injbeds!to transplaniticrc.-csresccers ALT Oly oedews ine desseeesninen seal Maa rillsytececcseeotentes aewstceoeen acs ene ae Walitlowererecacteevecsesees AO Ze fOr LOOO) plants Heise. cdessss sone cadececsteeceeeeeeee WS CLE Ry aoa See scacceeessometcces ATO ZALOT ZOOODOIAICS cenecscocwusesaase|eses-eeesemeceneetnas COED fain dedi test esiccmbacosenss Merah dan Sore chet ateeecssecaeteatoawenveeaners MW CUNDIDET cccesennitsseecccesee Rood tere cu meta tets newaisieesetat cea seas en ese lerenr Cress wateror uplands || Maya eiliste cre. cccsstscssccctoscseaccnceecessees igen lamtyccescses sesecnacer 1502, 108 LOOO) plamwts ec saresdessesse ac |dosten see cuaeeoeet ones i<ale} Or SProiwts:..cessees. Mins rill sreseeecc sa seehees set swan ciaseweciosees MCLE CE Was rostcerccceesecevneeen 1 oz. for 1000 plants Mitts Kirt lO tay eens cose berone Tora vall Sree aes, Sone thes oo ot aoourcheeenccesenes ENGCLOTS MWe tet cccceccsceweeee Teg She oh tete wchece ce saeosescoeessectenscwes MONVONER 4 laa eanmatantddoiedeoss DG ole lo) CARR asap eco cetmarpe erence tuncontet er s seed for sets........ Praia lS) sssee.cteweceaccemensoeescecuseeoeeees Pease SEUSS aiotaet escalate pee smuiaaiavecta des inn asetraadnasptesesiteen PPALSINI Di woccececcssicecssoesce: eh SR SABIE SORES RARER e Oneness WE AS tijsas cat cusancen ceeubniesoorerae PRLWes pa onie So saa< Cacaeace nickclnwineme moeaeehenae SD dete aw seeanislealeesiauleweecee weiss Broadealstiisecccsscosccscsecccsorsechonserss Potato (Gut ul Ders) zs cccclisgeaetesnactoscchccctisa necctssecneine becotonatoactece Prmp kink erccessueseccsseesec Eh 6 0 80 oD Kee eee auistegestoeecaaceceeen TVG SH toy secnceadesnnscoses aes IGTuGhSN)ICy aes eMeaone NBeSecce Rar cosa anne Pearce ADO acre scacasceacuceevaseseseee Dee pb ahaa Beinn aideciaseusien eSeame case caeemeen ne AUS fyyicaeontsccwacareusen oven nt SGilt | Baaedhsicwcsueacsacs miceneieme daciedeecons S Pilla chy Lex cnaceeaseeneese. US. ip Sathaa kh swueduatsnicane'e nes degmaee aces saeeh Squash, Bush ijissoiises cass Tiga: US sateack seen detocnace segeacioe seesisenmeeee Running, Laie meee See So CaRb econ teciase dacne nceustoatenvoea eee SL OMA TO hawdedcaadasee se saceetvs TOUCH ANIS PLAC eee caceca ners smsanectnens SE UTD odes «seco seceescue sees Letra Seek aosaseeccewsscaeweceesescestencs rid) a Caleaeaneiebet aeenoeeeee ee Broadeals Cir winwewaceticcdaccnoteneuteee
TABLE IV.—AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEEDS TO GERMINATE UNDER GOOD CONDITIONS,
aa
KIND OF SEED.
eee eee eee eee ee eee ee)
Cabbage,...... eneninee yeep tikaad, Carrot;
Cucumber, Endive,
Peres ewwweeerssesses
Ce
Ce er er ry
No. Days.| KIND OF SEED. No. Days. a} ey EOL Olli, ett CO me cansasicececcciasts<lsaterels 6 to 8 sult “eater 249 lll OkebWOr es soacomoconch anooneacaacoone 7 to 10 Bea W ae Sit © tals Oilll ee SA ects araciiasisieitecisiecierecinciose «sls 6 toed epol| UZAY Koy ais} I eke Weyl O)jpbaonecnoospnoanodaseca 10 to 20 Apa) etsy Xo) 3 CONN 2250015 eoannconaqndoodocoobncedere: 9 to 14 Be LOPE Owe Olli Wa GIS pec eetenciecinsie aetseerreee 33 jo) AS: sali Br C0) Sl Sallsifiy jocscacc cco cctane-tiercticrrar @ EO n2 eal, Be £OeLO)lil TOMA} n-ccceiescsiccinciean siyeess 6 to 12 ceo OPO! LO) | AEN py. ewacmeraeeriacescnnast 4to 8
TABLES. 23
TABLE V.—STANDARDS OF PURITY AND GERMINATION OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.
The United States Department of Agriculture has adopted the following standards as the base for its decisions as to the value of seeds:
The seeds must be true to name, and practically free from smut, bunt, ergot, insects or their eggs or larvae, and the seeds of dodder (Cuscuta spp.), wild mustard (Brassica spp.), wild flax (Camelina spp.), Russian thistle (Salsola kali tragus), Canada thistle (Carduus arvensis), cockle (Agrostemma githago), chess (Bromus secalinus),quack grass (Agropyron repens), penny cress (Thlaspi arvense), wild oats (Avena fatua), and the bulblets of wild onion (Allium vineale). It must not contain more than one per cent of other weed seeds, and should come up to the percent- ages of purity! and germination given in the foliowing table:
SSS SSE :
— atta aa Sees ne
KIND OF SEED. !Purity,| Geum : <3 ae: “f *) uation KIND OF SEED. See ——— Fd ee oe bang Der cent,
Otatanceen se ok ete 98 $5-90 Melous water. oe. EXSPAL AGUS s. sees cae oN 80-85 Millet,common(Chae- Barley.. ora Bo eh i 99 90-95 tochloat ttalica}.... CaS ceases: 99 90-95 |! Millet, hog Tac CGD Fanon ove on 299 140-150t milraceum)...... .-- Blue grass, Canadian 90 45-50 Minit peatlen s.r soar Blue grass, Kentucky. 90 | 45-50 (ORUIGE 5546 sposHe coco Brome, awniless....... 90 75-80 Olas jGee ano es : Duclwitteat.----.. 52.0. 99 90-95 Quitonks st pecs 9. 'Cabbages- ce. 2. %s.0es,: 99 90-95 PAGS Sines oir cesses 99° 70-75 Carrot sso. sis Noes 5 95 80-85 JPR NESTy acon cedwedocc 95. 7TU-1> eeetonee 99 80-85 REASte ce ety meee: 99 90-95 Celety. 0) sidan oh. 198 60-65 Paimpicims] 22h saan 99 85-90 Clover, alsike....... 95 75-80 Radish.........--=+--- 99 90-95. Clover, crimisow....... 98 85-90. WRAPCsos. es co oo ria~ emciec 99 - 90-95 WlOverwued ss ee vac 98 85-90 [Rah ae ane deccnaond ox 99 90-95 Clover, white. .... >... 95 75-80 Salsify.: ..-. : 98 75-80 ROMANE es oc oisoes ee rath oT OD, 90-95 Sore siitic. co25 + ose 98 85-90 Corn, held... 20.22.55. = 99 90-95 Spitiaeh - 2. <.~.<.-=* 99 80-85 @Cocuy sweet. .<..0.0.- 99 85-90 Satiashe reece teresa 99 85-90 Cotton; ....'5- saccsces 3: 99 85-90 Lb Mir(odilyia5e=nnocmedcc 98 85-90 Cow Peas. a mens «sie == 99 85-90 Tomato.. B 98 -85-90 Cucwmberuer- sce: 9s 85-90 Turnip... 99 90-95 Wee? Platte .s. ce. . 99 75-80 Mobacco...5 .--.--+>. 98 75-80 ‘Fescue, meadow...... 95 85-90 Vetch, hairy.......-. 98 70-75 dhetttceine ccs selec, ce 99 85-90 Vetch: kidttey......-.- 95 85-90 Katincorn: a.....s 98 85-90 WI G@ALS cece secicisieieie ser er A | 90-95 Melon, musk.......... 99 85-90 Rie ee aE OT |
*Impurity allowed refers to inert matter and one per ceut (only) of weed seeds other than those practically prohibited, as above noted. pee aes ares tEach beet fruit, or “ball,” is likely to contain from 2 to 7. seeds. “One hundred
balls should yield 150 sprouts. a iThis means purity of grain, not purity of stock.
238 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
TABLE VI.—QUANTITY !OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN NUMBER OF HILLS:
Cot UP RRR cP ERE EE arian ener cornea Rea Bn 1 qt. to 200 hills GN Ge TLIO ES oe ose cle neato nee ek eet ersearee te eareee cater oat OZ bO moms AVE as Fearn OM ao eee oa eee ee hare OZ tOm GOs [Bey ce Byeren ever) yi eilhe \ ea epe ne ene cceebodsoccoseaciaga ncoscan so 1 qt. to 100 “ Pole Beans, Wax IGG toml50ke ws (Erol oat o} rela peeeeapose emacs choses a a rSJ0 RU sl aepeenoe ce pneaeaac acer euncge Koy YD) YY UU eIeINne | Oras ie oo oue clon. caaetaasena siete nos satane cdr easepersicen Oo sau eee
TABLE VII.—QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN LENGTH OF DRILL:
TING) Oe Was US cake Be nesoc deed secu aba: oer ore sec euee tech ecaseee 1 oz. 50 feet of drill TOY EYS Be eer HOD ENS EEE Mago Sa dbac cont canoacemarnd ean oe RnAGoBnean: il OYA, Pe Beans. waiter ccce notice once see creer ee 1 qt. 100 Ee GO Geese orcs one ign esenec nario es et anette 1 oz. 100 st TNT VO MATS) eM Nate cecalpeasdt co adedaurl sodcleu cuiaeeo be sn sebetDane 1 oz. 100 : (Ov Fal ls oadeenoAne Hoa ou pabesnoen succtase bate enrseacoR spnedcscnaded 1 oz. 40 re 76 AC oe eRe Pere PERE coir oeeeer Sencraenrre Se Rene a 1 oz. 100 of TOM GELS coi cor- cs eer eeete sete nce es eeeeeoseeen tere 1 qt. 50 - [Er ell jp seeponconeb ant onpaene ap pecocceo-r sna -ereeeacrea Bas. 1 oz. 125 Decl) So eayeectisd oten Ue eepodeuce “edhe hc Uodanr ceca 1 oz. 200 . [ CPECNIS) Suge Wee hey. saan User ORMBEEEse ata arrer arena oeceetan cy Iqt. & is TEdY(o ltl aY hero BonBeeer ab cbnedece costed aaocaneoenhoaanemnseaco 1 oz. 100 BS re Elhetiits 7a ouuaeiser dee nasa 9,0n0a0 @ bean accaducpsa saaBen ee snos IWO75 e400 NTT (011 eee eee Sete Sa ee eae See eer eee eenae 1 oz. 100 S
MONTHLY CALENDAR.
Under this head some of the principal operations of the year in the more northern states are referred to, but these can be re- garded only as suggestive, since individual conditions as well as the weather vary from year to year. The point should be borne in mind that it is of the utmost importance, and for the greatest profit, to have all garden worx done at the proper time; and to do this considerable planning and studying will be necessary in laying out each day’s work, as well as the work of the season, so as to make the most of the opportunities offered by weather and season.
January.—The outdoor work is generally quite at a stand- still this month, except that manure may be drawn from the stable to the fields needing it, where it may be piled and forked over. Plan out the work of the season, aiming to have the ground and the time of your help occupied all the time. In do- ing this it is generally best to plan to raise those crops that will not require a large amount of work at the same season, but rather those that will give a succession of work. Market any celery, squash or other vegetables for which there is a demand.
Send for seed catalogues of leading dealers. Decide what you are going to want. Test the quality of the seeds you have on hand and get your new stock of seed early. Test the seeds received for planting. ;
February.—The work of this month differs but little from that of January, but, in addition, the following may be men- tioned: During the latter part of the month prepare manure for early hotbeds to be started the first of March. Inspect tools, wagons, harness, boxes and crates for marketing and hotbed sash, and get them into shape for the busy season. In the green- house, cabbage and cauliflower plants may be started; and as
2!uU MONTHLY CALENDAR.
soon as of transplanting size they should be removed to cold frames, where they should remain until the ground is ready for planting out.
March.—Make up hotbeds and sow in them tomatoes, pep- pers, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, cress, onions for transplanting, carrots, beets, celery, etc. In the latter part of the month cold frames may be used for the hardy vegetables.
If the ground is fit to work, onion sets may be planted and spinach, hardy peas, and other plants which are generally not sown until April may be sown at this time. Harden off the early cabbage and cauliflower plants.
April.—The hotbeds and cold frames should be in constant use. Plantations of asparagus and rhubarb may be made during this and the following month. Plant onion sets.
Sow hardy (smooth) peas, lettuce, celery, radishes, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, onions and spinach, and plant early pota- toes as soon as the land is fit to be worked. By the end of the month, wrinkled peas, salsify and parsnips may be sown. See that tomatoes sown last month are transplanted into beds or, boxes so as to have plenty of room. Transplant cabbage plants for the early crop, putting them in deep enough to completely cover the stems.
In the latter part of the month, all the early planted crops may need cultivating and some of them thinning though but lit- tle of this is generally necessary until May. Radishes, lettuce, spinach and onions from sets and from seed sown in hotbeds 7" March should be fit to eat or to market.
Haul out manure and plow land for planting next month. Transplant onion plants from the hotbeds to open ground.
May is the month when the larger part of the vegetables are planted.
By the middle of the month it is often safe to plant the more tender vegetables, sucu. as cucumbers, squash, melons and beans,
in the open ground, althovgh nothing is gainea by so doing if the ground is cold, waen it would be better to wait until ten days later. Corn is frequently planted by the middle of the month, and in early seasons it is a good plan to venture a little
VEGETABLE GARDENING. 241
of some very early kind during the first week of May. Plant po- tatoes for general crops.
All the early planted crops need cultivating trequently, and those in drills need te be thinned.
Plantings for succession may be made of all vegetable seeds and sets put in last month. Sow cabbage for winter use.
Lettuce, radishes, beets, spinach, asparagus, rhubarb and bunch onions should now be large enough for use.
Harden off tomato plants and set them out the first part of next month.
June.—Set out tomatoes, celery for early use, peppers, egg plant, late cabbage and cauliflower plants and sow winter beets.
Plant cucumbers for pickles and beans for main crop. Plant Lima beans the early part of the month. Market the same vege- tables as last month and in addition early peas and, perhaps, early cabbage.
Weeding commences in earnest this month and should be- gin early, since if neglected it may be cheaper to plow up the whole crop rather than weed it out.
Keep the soil well stirred with the cultivator.
Sow rutabaga turnips.
Stop cutting asparagus by the twentieth of the month. Clean up the bed, manure and plow it.
July.—Plant celery for main and late crop.
Sow string beans, winter radish and rutabaga turnips.
Early potatoes, string beans, cabbage, summer squashes, cu- cumbers, green corn, onions from sets and cauliflowers are now of edible size in addition to those vegetables nearing maturity iast month.
Continued cultivation is necessary to protect from drought and to keep plants growing.
August.—Sow string beans and flat early turnips, spinach for spring use, winter radishes and early peas.
The late crops are now maturing, and we have tomatoes, squashes, the better kinds of sweet corn and egg-plant, onions from early sown seed, and those transplanted are now dry and
242 MONTHLY CALENDAR.
marketable. Lima beans will be ready for use the latter part of the month.
Keep weeds from going to seed.
Sow lettuce for growing in hotbeds or cold frames for Thanksgiving.
September.—The cool nights of this month are especially favorable to such crops as celery, cabbage and cauliflower, and they should be carefully cultivated.
Melons, winter squash and celery are now marketable.
Handle celery; i. e., partially earth up around it.
First frosts may now be expected by the fifteenth of the month, and the half-ripened tomatoes should be picked and al- lowed to ripen in some shady place. Winter squash should be gathered before it is at all injured by frost.
Dig potatoes.
Transplant lettuce to hotbeds or cold frames. Plant out hardy perennial onions for bunching in the early spring.
October.—Winter celery should be banked up to protect it from severe frosts, and on severe nights it should be covered with straw or hay for protection. It should all be stored away by the end of the month unless plenty of protection is provided in the shape of straw, in which case it is safe to leave it out un- til the 10th of November. Such crops will not stand with im- munity as much frost in the western states as in the eastern states. Pull and store cabbage, dig beets, carrots, parsnips, sal- sify and potatoes and store in pits or put at once into the celiar. Some parsnips and salsify may be left on high land to be dug in the spring. Plant out rhubarb roots.
Attend to fall plowing and leave in ridges any very heavy land that is needed for early spring use.
November.—Inthe more northern states this month generally closes up the work of the season. All the crops should be gath-
ered in the early part of the month.
Clean up the garden, frames and hotbeds and get them ready for spring work.
The lettuce sown in August and transplanted to hotbeds or cold frames should be mt to market this month.
Market all the vegetables on hand that will bring a fair
VEGETABLE GARDENING. 243
price, unless wanted for some special purpose or at an assured price.
Cover winter spinach and hardy onion sets with hay as soon as the ground begins to freeze hard at night, to prev2nt freezing and thawing.
December.—Clean up the garden and continue the marketing of vegetables if it is not already attended to.
Carefully study the season’s work, note the profits or losses en the last crop, and what has been learned that will be useful another year.
At Odd Times the following may be attended to:—Gather manure, make crates and boxes for marketing fruits, vegetables and plants, repair tools, wagons, harnesses, sashes, hotbeds and cold frames. Clean up!
INDEX.
Page
Acre inch of water.........- 10 NG SY aE ors Sean CROSSED CRCNGEO 232 Artichokes Glope ssi... == 229 Artichoke, Jerusalem........ 228 Ash, per cent in vegetables. 15 ANEAOUEEAIE) oeislo se colori. 00 OOS 114 UMC frac s. 2 is erletle oe ie 119 GuILVANoOe spotondenaaooe os I Ur Guibtime Settee mc ts eee ee 118 HOCUS are ol ate csvede sie ceere nc eiesa, aixane 120 TMUAVTNC TNS yaye crotsetovarsiees aortowe 119 Toe ey tial = See Weis ceseloc ckctoeimocic ity OLOpPaAgacionwe ose eek cee iLIUss VATICTICS! Aexesance eters orca rcneusisueuets 120 LIM, Yaerererevarexe.o-acone) svalevana eenererstcts 128 Beans Bott os ac haleyei eran lee 164 MOUSTD Fiersiars ces essens) sha ote tere. 5 ate 165 (OLIVEROS "Gon Pum Go a aime D Oe 168 lavshiayeiobaves 5 dob ao ood moO Oo 165 NORV Socmgu ob ooo o do bole o 168 Ole sodeocooouco UN OnoDOmO OF 164 HEshasaeyANvOVe” Soon oodoq0bgos 167 preserving in Salt... .. 35. - 167 WA OLLO Seen sva wierenenslicie tes eels </ore 164
| EY YS) ee eee aio oo CIRO OREO OES cacoat eo eBE 132 GISGASCS Mee acid cierecchcvene cuatienens ais 8 PON CUI eye eee sete oven rehetenets 139 NATVEStiNG shes eects cack 139 KEG DIN fens crores etn ees 139 SWISS ACHALG 45 cies cpereins 141 SO CLO iaverere oie enotic oie eraneus ciewacuens 140 VEAL EGUTOS® lire; 2 oretererehstetoayerene aces 139 Ui toewalet oxesenekonoererai sre meuenene 140 IBOrTrarinaceae’ ~ sa-isesciee ae 233 WOPALS. Sao oo eee cetasonr dase 233 Borage Bamiullys (isi... 106-233 Bordeauss IMmixtune. =. 203 IBOKEGCOlSY 246 oe iens avoir tue. cretortone 156 Botanical classification...... 105 Brussels” Sprouts] o.- sce 154 Buckwheat Family....... 105-134 Cab baAG eee i rercetets cieekeroree oer 144
CON]Y: eS ae aussie tes selec 145
Cabbage—Cont’d. rage 1212 ae RR ETE orc a 5.5 0 0 < 147 StOrING oc. ese eee 149 GISGASES? sh5.286 aS oe 152 harvesting. = o40.culon see 146 Hill. Sowansie sano 148 INSECTS: <1. 55)3y00e oars eee 152 manure “for fs ies aoe 145 DPCUIN GE «0:55 Fee ere eee 149 retarding heading of...... 146 TOU oS Scn iw sua releve’ s/s, scevolese ore eee 115)34 sauer Krauts 22.4 5.5.0.inn ee 152 Seed “raisins co.) 150 Seed SOWIMES seo series Lord AN, Settings plamits) ssceneutenernean 145 SOll. Sass Soh bee sine 145 Varieties... o<.. d.0tc.ee eee 143
Cabbage: Hamill Vere mecrrere 105-143
@alendar monthly ieee 238
Caraway sscasses sehen EEeer 232
Carbon bisulphide esc ecer 87
Carrot! c.clswieie tds ce eee 174 Cultivation a... 175 TOY CIWE x !5 ore acdsee ore ne 178 gathering’ S6)4..-\ coe oer 176 SCEQ> ci cucs ooh 3 Rika eene eee 178 StOrIN Gs)... Sue ss tiorets eee UTC Varieties. 2.5... Oona 178
Catnipr 2 ...css5 hese ener 230
Cauliflower singe 155 VarietieS -<. ccs: «sere ee 156
Celaria@: ocisvkiastnce ents ears 188
Gelery™= 85.0 ho shoe eee 178
bleaching with boards. ...184 bleaching with earth. ....184 bleaching, time req: 2d
TOR a0 s4. sel ee .187 Gigeing: aacupassaeee .186 diSGaASES” 23.22 shan aeets .187 6arly cece Eee 179 handling > poe 3 .183 Late ia pescien mee oleae .180 Marketing «is. 16sec .189
INDEX. 245 Celery—Cont’d. Page | Page
GHione With «s0< decswras soe Cultivation, general.....29-33-35
PIAHEIN SE? 5 csi os oie oan ve woe LO Dandelion «....60 “<5%% Sets tietensieten
RLOTING A cieccisleiclersierelsisiasts Sraltel® DDD revaqe Shave ores creas svececdapsretoushereteo Oo
seed Sars teiaerabelenens oe ci Diseases—
WEIGH eeos Goododon oc 188 anthracnose of bean....... 168 (Sinneol way Sageuacsq00Unt 219 DEE SCA Se... ce o2es-es eteweterererere 140 Whenonpodiaceare s.cc cis she a 137 blight or rust of celery..... 188 GiNVeSe ite es) sieves G aetfoue one berene 134 club root of cabbage....... a2
CUNIUINES syejse) shen shene a shoe keffens 134 leaf blight of celery....... 187 Classification of Vegetables. .104 lettuce’ mildew <1). vic... suis 26 Clover Hamily, si sc! 105-163 pouro) DSH E se cee. ec cic ere 202 Cold Climate Vegetables..... 104 DOLAEONSCADE sien. eco 2e choral steve 200 Cold frames (see greenhouses) 65 SMUG OL) COL. wieicrete cous st tee alee Cold frames, for early spring Hees plant ies pr austepatevamavais 2038
WSC ceegane suaieu verSisaste sheroress 66 IBIVGIGVG over voter stMeneteter oheis bi duapeye eran
Sais nh Oeesiaaeicrad over are ange 78 FON MEL c5i rece seuavecevessueusnake aioe aa ee O Commercial fertilizers ...... zal Formaline for Potato Scab...202 OTN BOSILOIC ates cee aie > a Sais oueds 223 Frost Hardy Vegetables...... 105 Compost Neapy.<.... so 5.2 sissuere © 21 Frost Tender Vegetables..... 104 ConvolviulaeceaAe i ee -1ec ers ere 189 DTN US ea te eas so vetsiecnreucgek eo eMereue 106 Garis... ROME ne vayes | 8 bate 109 Garden herbs ...... Ste 1s kersne te 229
PINROA Cen Cee ic os ee 109 Garlic, common..... Petree
GWitivatloncas. Gewese eee ns 110 Glass structures ..... ceeeeee 65
eurine Seed ji. kes els Sis 119 Germinating apparatus ...... 56
cutting off tassels......... 113 Germination, conditions for
MIRBHSER) ui selene i.e omer 101 successful ..... ......-- 42
INHCCER cs bt ees r 113 Gourde Sueleyetartnwe iehone eee ZA
marketing ..... ...... beetle Gourdshamily..-se.es = ol Os-210
TLIC A nd let en gE 112 Goosefoot Family .......105-137
MTPRELVING <S ¢ 1 cc, seu es alee é T1383 GramineGhe: s.52-,« werelew uvielcals 109
pth Be eee aI eee ce 113 Grass Family ...... cee e 105-109
varieties run out.......... nial? Greenhouse hotbed .......... 71 Gavimndde .. k. Pica ius ; 233 Greenhouses ..... scGoanons Us
“OS ee ee 111 BOKER: «oe see nc sissies eines Bl Corrosive for Potato Scab....201 eee Sikeastia ae peo rage CST tel arn ne ey en er Se 161 sip ct ama is Seea ast hee
heating. sa. sce aierevevcvarencte muah ll
WALLETS Sorates ax<lernys = %/a0 wile oxeye = 160 leanctor cnc. : 73 PUCILERERG «S008 o Anns 6 diavercs 2 143 ai ee Rak haar Wate - “78 Mucumbers s..) bases sees 219 imcnlinncnes ey t Sheers “3 78
emMbAONAsars 2 wei ea: 219 rare eine ue ty 8
: radiating surface ........ 77
gathering the crop ........ 220 fon 78
EN SECHS, «snk sa <0 Sec Sa ee e FO i i ae Ni ee i yc
ees. =u Eee te SEAMING) <ivrsrd nino ineie oY Ree 82
ee oie oe eS SHUGiCRE +. 6 oS ke eee cvs
starting in cold frames... .221 SO iat eeyrs fie eye eee ee ole o! SL
WAAR BeBe. SL eb es ok 299 substitutes for glass....... 81
Gueurbitaecese .... ......:5. 210
temperature < Ru ienete: LO
246 INDEX.
Greenhouses—Cont’d. Page WET ETOMU scciel sister ea leNeltene- 7 WKN S64 GomccodoooDS 80
Ground Cherry. oes sss) e) deter er 208
Uardening off of plants...... 50
PTGPDS) Sere oh ieiieus, ss oc! thei olonenel 229
Elorseradish 22. <.....---- = 159
Hotbeds (see also greenhouses) 66
12 Royle eY216 (tere, ode woud? UsoecanuorDag cioud cl 66 PEHAINRS AOR gag blo go poo Se oc 67 early spring use.......... 67 HUTEG ae a ay oatocdotenette eiSoke eke tere 69 SEYSb 1HOe pac Ow pend Ob thOow TO 78 SHWMECCES LOLs rene) leer «le uene er 78 TVIDUSMLOT: worcutieres tease aioe eae eve 78
1B Rohani0lsto taacareeaotonokce abecee oko oe 10-14
jhany SEV TAVENNEE SS SG bl ico oo 8 Oe bac 35 combined drills and cultiva-
LOLSES se Tae he ee aa es 37 GUNNS Ao op. acho colo dai 38 ATG. «is 602 nce eie ee eee 36 MOLESCresmiccne) sects: aresuse Leteemeeene ss 36 PONSA NE 6S Wes hea eGia ctd.o'S oo Guest 38 DIDMK ARAL ae wecta GS ciete's Sono = 39 potato Wigsersen..s 6. se ss 39 NONGO INGS Sodbe00 coo mood 39 SCUMEFHOCW cree paso eras uae @ ene 39 Rereol volillis 555 oe 6 om oon oc om SPLAY. PUN Sy ewe tecswero ee oqar rene 39
IMSECEICIGES Since cle gece 85 ADP MCALONGOL wie. i =) toto et 88 carbon bisulphide ......... 87 kerosene emulsion ........ 87 london purples eeees oe 86 Bans Tereeme tres) ds tis sere eu 86 OVARY BS oe coe) Beno 85 CODA CCOLg. feccveto len reve ses ane eeleceners 86
TRUSE CES rer verenatiel musket enol tokememctonod 85 AP WIS Gs Aes a. is ers fo Ge Olen e eremehe 99 beamswieevill jini tercrotesohobovene ie 101 cabbage flea beetle........ 98 cabbaeealicer irr... ciewrainc: 100 cabbage worms ........... 90 CACHING? 500642! seas dole eee 88 celery caterpillar ....4.... 100 GhinchG buss eyo set ce noe 101 cucumber beetle .......... 95 CHER WOLDIS occas escne ereneiconek. 3
Insects—Cont’d. Page COrn ‘Moth: 2.5 J see eee 100 leat Mee. ¢ sac i. cone 99 MASCOTS A Acs «ois eee 97 May. beetle ..¢ i =< oi acne 96 parsley wool +2.) .-seene 100 potato beetle: ':.x. 2s one 89 pea weevil .........-...::; 101 squash bug .:..:.5: + setcneeee squash vine borer ........ 102 tassel “worm ~. 2 22s 100 WHITE STUD” J. fare colleen eee 96 Wine. WOLIMS' as... teste mere 93
[rrigation.— (9%... c..cce enone 8
acre inch of water amount of water needed.... 10
application of water ..... aa cultivation as an aid to.... 9 humus; an aid) toa. eee 10 pumping “water tore. are 10 TOSEIVOILS. 2h ..uceieley hereto ean iti! rules’. fOr sc os sa soe ee ifn storage capacity for....... 10 SUD=1Prigation’ \.-1.) eee cree 1p temperature of water...... 11 15 @2 i (eee INT Occ L010 6.6 156 Kerosene emulsion .......... 87 Kitchen garden. =... = see 53 Kohlsrabi-s sc. 2 ee 157 VarietieS <a. sis «2 eee LU SIFE Liabiataé. oS. .a4.. (2s oe 229 PiAVENGEL: cass < ssod aes | olen 230 TiO: she ido ss 0) oe eee 133 eultivations 0.4025 = ae 133 VALICCICS. c.. s.seas0 cee Bee 134 UsUMINOSAe sei. 5 eee 168 Te@ttwCe@ns cs ks Ahonen 228 Guilbting NAOT woo! odooc cere ee MUlGEW ©. olbielete ee 226 varieties: 5. ..: 40s ae 225 TiaecGae < 22h .055-— oh as oe 114 Tail yeramillliyo Wwe enone eee os all Opal Lima, beans... 2c 3« eeeteeee 166 London. pULbple ee eee 86 Malvaceae™ + oo.) tans onnteneteee Wy Manure <pille@) cerersncss orcs etn eit 20 Manure, hotbed ~..<...2. fan 2 GF Manures ...... 3 a eietel mee Perera
INDEX. 247
7 Manures—Cont’d. Page Page PEELOWU OE. = si csicneiel = jepeitorsrel 14 Morning Glory Family. ..105-189 SUIDUMIAA Fe cacvonelc y cisisr sie shonebaras 18 Monthly calendar .......... 238 POMMOETCIAL...coes as Saree col MEGHAN. Wooo, ee ome (NiNNOPS a caplene ere Bn td eee 25 Mushrooms.) 5 sce os oo -106 composition of ........--- aE native species of ..... serene On composition of farm....... 16 INOVEIGIES eys)ecc.0 oc S60 cooce Se compost heap .......-++-+- 21 ADE ras er a seo. es, eer Meee (2. GOWN A bidio Bolo tcc ade eaters Sees 20 WEL PIGLIGS cfs 's, 59k? eovosena tae son nd lt(2 , for early and late crops .. 26 Onions for home garden......130 for leguminous crops...... 20 (OIL IVON IIS, 20s eo eee re Ge ae tee 120 ground blood ...........-- De, enltnyationy ca... sh ground bones ......-.+++-- 22 Keeps ooo. i. Sobuaa Riayees we 125 egbinter Ol 2 aac wes pes ei 19 LAM OOT OP iain Sacem oi tan eA GTi eee Ee cao speccce, LG MAGKetn Oy es era scohee wi ske Se 131 MOLES Dy (ba Bcteen eS Oe nO oe 19 PETen nT alley ars sia eeettere Seo.cllsa (MEBUOLS I on OS CPS caaLe ist DOCAEOM sera wile ek bee 5 ata odiou ea oie = aroints bon. nnjaere ins 24 Scallionsiee. «5 2,<:28 oS Set oF RA, GASLORs occ ciacons 6 ee Sees + 25 sets.. Siete, matakoere : ~125 aM Curses is ee he nah seh rszers 25 SCCM nr cress aw Aan sate 131 iGO! Reo eo tag oc sa codocd 28 BOWIE = BCE e-bay oe kee 122 NICE Do hs, oe 2 Snepee ae 20 SLOPINg 5.5" Ghee a aes oe 125 most valuable element in... 14 EOD een ee Se eee 131 MitraerO fr SOUdn c1-.- «ors 0-0) secs 23 Eransplantine: Am pee 128 FC) Sane nS Pe an stare Oe VATICUIEN(.. ahrerT pose & see oe 131 SVG C Teaver cig crak sik se ance terete aecce 20 Ovster. plant? ccc. «01. sa see 226 sulphate of ammonia ...... 24 Parsnip Family ..... sae lOsS sik superphosphates...... cose 24 Leis Veh ae Sa OCR Mee, Fe 173 SWAMC!E. een) oles ES OCRCIOO OE e520 CWNEMTEn ae ee ee .174 (F250) 2 er 22 WATICRIOSS Or oc ete s somes 174 HISEJOF ECCS oo 2 oro de wece«8s,0 26 | if: ci OD 6 ee er ee in welslae WOOG WASHERS. 25's clss.5 oc. cs,48 24 eCulmuines ase sheies oatedcwabe hie 2 Mallow Family ... .2.... 105-171 Veit CERO yea, tie Ode eee 173 Manuring growing crops..... 2. PATIS +20EOW <a ainn sei ered - . 86 MATEY DIACCAC) ve -.re-s-<:c5ei ste cies 2 210 WCBS, Ficerege oie ee ee 168 MEST EVAUTAT coe phe iore osie cveustbecetecs 210 CUILUNC 2. 5 nt eee Supe cd G8) culture ..... Sita Bu stetts AeLO canning of..... ......... 170 Martynia Family........105-210 te Ree, gh - i re oe sara Melon. “musk: 7 So paesis:ejeed 3 sie 3 216 culture ...... Me Oe SNe CUNLURG. © <tiee is os ae plea LG apts De ae) Ceding J. \ & aes 217 VE@RICLICS irs sre eisves ethcha seers 209 Melon, Preservilie =. eds... 217 PEPPErMiInte. ss srne er eee. Dei RECTOR OG AVAECE. oR wine bc voce ess 218 ICs PATE eters ecb orahaustionone oder ace Ue culture .....-.. ......0e. 219 Plow Hie yn: s Ss Gost ere 31 yg : aoe | 55 feMad ae gone rene aaaes A Mint aWamitly ec. | 63... 105-229 POLE ZRH Se BOW EES te oa se eie G1
Mixing varieties ........ See eo Polygonaeceae a. . 562.2 eee 2 134
48 INDEX
Potato Family ..........105-190 PGOtHtOGS) 6. dive we sce eee iekoO
OMIM GEA modaonao coo 202 digging 2:5. Se Stee al ih eancale-s 195 GHES@RISES) Vas cule Riera eave ere ahere 200 sphoky jilininhiee 4s occ o6 194 NIVS CELA e. cue one Tenatederoreherctwielers 199 HVA CLOP Mercy cieeie eso) srerene 194 TIVADAUTLN OS weal cre etere! cous etielets 192 ORME. ve ecereustc ceneler el oie! el eke 191 OPEN ONS = Bon ees rio © Opeloloro-cicun ceOic 196 propagation, notes on ..... 199 [RUNNING OWL TOL. . sian sess 193 SAVIMSUSCCOS ces fe letetrenclsie ss 193 SCA Shuscsre Siti eas) ala eachetetes ee 200 Seustone SCS? <2 che cos es cneils 193 SOM C itreets ett soto wis Kew ore 192 SEATON: .csevs, aioe eels et aiaeeess 198 use for seed of scabby ..... 201 VATUCEIGS: osteitis feteremssienae 198
Protection to newly planted seeds against insects.... 46 against crows and gophers. 46
RGU KINGS yeneyeve 6 s,e1ete.e. ss eee ee 215 Py rebnrumi cess cic + NEE OC: CR RORD RS 85 FVATHISIIES IS soe roc yaverefgtenl ste sree 161
CUEUTE Bares rsiekoretalete, eaccre ete- ss 161
WATIO CIC Se cvesetsye usc e neers 6 suave 162 FUTURA DY octaves: eterors tous share sins 135
CAUNGAIEE (5) crete eve’e © oreo iecosouent 135
PORCH Pens) << hav oubtes sheushor eke ers 136
WEUTIE CICS see cieveuexe © ors ecenare ¢ 1337/ Ridsino lands ot. @ 4 srasensre sere 33 Rotating of manures........ 28 Roration sof crops) =. cic sae cle 13
FEASOMS TOD ciarclsve ec ciere ae als: RUG ws. cece ets ji Sitch need easha lees 233 Rue = Pamily, (ieecc. «sce sOG=239 FUCA CCH: a's = cee ser woe eee eelo 233 RUUD DAZAS) cereeccts arctan cise eae oie a RSI7¢ Saeco acs.s aioe’ a cheve Piet oieieteeK 231 SAME VKCAUE secre «eet eee ee TZ Saviony, wittter.. css sacs 232 DNPIIOES 2% ete soe) iste) tele 133 SCCQ Acie sie eo es one fe mee cee ee a8 ay
Seeds—Cont’d. Page CUTING cers +s 85s mole) olensietohelersmnenn germinating apparatus .... 56 germinating standards ....257 SUOCK. gevcjee.c. siefelelsteuenenenenoneas 58 STOTING” ..<<.0c + ose crete ei eeterenneae EQSTING crepe 0 ce se: crake pean renrmmeyE
Seed sowing ..ssessvnsuus 3 oe ee GePth sissies weiecs Creech 42 IGLETLCY caver citciieteevevane: one henner ee oe firming by feet ....... sisters LO in Stilt SOUS) 2. eee es eeetene 43 with machine <5... siais erence by hand... </.cc vas) bereueeoienete 45
Seedmen’s humbugs ..... cits
Seedmen’s specialties ........ 58
Seed: tables: 2... <2 ste een 234-237 aAMouUmE fOr ACLs. -neteneneerene 236 LON @PVITY.-..2~...<.2.sre seeneneueeens 235 DULity, Standards... - eee Zo number of seeds in an ounce.234 time tO Serminaiee ace 236 weight of seeds...... be c2oe
Seeds, pedigrees of ...... sefelee SOD NOVeILICS 2. .'.. 6 serenntene en oe
Solanaceae 4...) ..c1s a ctarcte cies 190
NOllSeno oer sis e) She Stele egemeneles 8 for early. crops: : s..aneenee 8 for Jate- crops... eee as 8 elements necessary ....... 14 elements lacking in..... .. 14
Spearmint woes exe BUG, Seewatene 232
Spinaches ce. oie | Slenelelaneievenehens 141 CULTURES «ye steers Sle, oe Metoponcenee ees VALICCIES!. «15.000 cic é Svcrevette seme
SqQuashi =... o-ceetee soe oyauene Zieh CulGlivatlone sei Aig On oe HATVESEING -oc16< s teeeae sper eiles pollenizing flowers ...... ari lil Storing .-.. 55 ise sister WATICTICS'. 200. .2.. ces 3 hee 214
Sunflower Family........ 105-243
Strawberry tomato .......... 208 Culture «... . dsc ce eee 209
Sub-irrigation: .. 2... .2.5eeee 12
SUDSOMIN Saw ee poe oetac. a2!
Summer savory ........ Be ees2
Sweet basil 45 5c. cone eee 231
Sweet marjoram, ... «+= enaneete
INDEX. 249 Page Transplanting—Cont’d. Page eel ba LELOLEGTUON emp Ricco canoe & 189 shortening the tops in..... 48 (Siaissiy Celatehecl=“baog Boowoe Gbd non 141 diesines plamits sOr. se: sc 48 AMattovaiines OleNshE “Senne occaod: 46 firmins) the Soi: im... eee 49 BAe rinse ae ae ee th eee ar 232 =| with tomato cans.......... 51 bili eres wreate hae eal wo Gre ueacr caw On 29 AAUEEYD DP! £2 (2's, shone: atone’ shes atelayetoreroie ten 157 RG TMO TAN eye eye races ele cr ale eta eto sere 30 (UU RUNGE chor Grtiticke Gan Oko Store 158 Tomato, prolonging season. .207 PUCADAP AN Fes ce evederone scetare oars 159 EMOMMVAL OM ere vas decd <isisceeieve secre sels 204 VALICTIES “sia « cities oiele esreteres oh 159 Uta OMs were osisetsre ororere one fe 204 Waminelliterecae, A. s.s6 cco -1en 171-232 BISCACC Ra ele, cer ccschet iow ae rales 207 Varieties, Gevelopment of... 58 UMS ECES EME cot ks Le aee eee 207 mixing Of ...,......sesees. 3 in severe locations......... 206 distance between ......... 3 TRNEVSES CT gain Arete af Oeil Nae 204. | Vegetable oyster (see sal- DEOVASACIOME erates tat Sen 204 | STEaya) I asec nev ole sans cee ave oteten crapecenaice 226 SEMIN ES ig sd = ctevcrere Neo oeke Di tality, (Of - SECS, 222. e-.rie.- 235 pave ese yon fc do osc 207. +| Vegetables, composition of.. 15 healt ee eek 205 | Warm Climate Vegetables. ..104 ELAM STATUE MAS conse eet ee sk 205 | WCE US i ictste rd oe euckche eres tare atenas 30 STP LSS a ae ea 2004 cultivation to Kill.......... 29 eaten ee Gia Le. xo ee ate 86 Ci Killing of ..............+6. 29 Beane plantine in ae tce:. Oe AT PEE VEMILIONT. Ol wa elete s/eie los) s0ste 29 PinOnliint ao nate we ehh os wes seeds in manure........... 30 conditions of success...... 47 AMAL PESE NANA? Go adaouonoe.s AB OLY
Weights of seeds............204
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