UC-NRLF

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&

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
NEW SOUTH WALES.

V

Vegetable
Growing

IN

NEW SOUTH WALES.

A. J. FINN and R. N. MAKIN,

Inspectors of Agriculture.

Issued by direction of
Ths Hon. W. F. DUNN, M.L.A., Minister of Agriculture.

PRICE: HALF-A-CROWN,

SYDNEY :
W A. GULLICK, GOVERNMENT WINTER.

1 920.

01

•

£5,000,000 PER YEAR

is the annual amount lost to fruit, flower and vegetable growers

in ' Australia through insect pests, says Mr. W. Froggatt,

Government Eutomologist.

Take action now and utilize the assistance of the following
pesticides for keeping your plants healthy.

ARS

An e
vermi

In 1-1

BOB

A -«|
other-

*«

ARS

A safe
pricklj
certain
dipping

IAD

Itural
thus

kegs.

3ER

and
loses

>DA

so a

fcttle
ther

In 1-lb,, 2-lb., 4-lb., 7-lb,, 40-lb. tins.

WRITE TO THE MANUFACTURERS—

ELLIOTT BROS., LTD., O'Connell Street, SYDNEY,

OB FROM THE AGEHTS—

ANDERSON & CO., LTD., Seedsmen, 399-401 George St.,

SYDNEY.

The proof of the claim

^^— of Good Seeds ^^^^

is the result you obtain from them, and when you have the evidence placed
before you— well- then your verdict is quite justifiable.
Here you have the evidence, a group of Vegetables sent to us by a customer, and
which were grown from Seeds supplied by us.

We supply \ egetable Seeds for all situations and climates, and for both small

and large gardens. MARKET GARDENERS throughout AUSTRALIA find our

seeds always first class. All Catalogues and Leaflets free.

Send your name and address for record purposes.

COLLECTION OF VEGETABLES GROWN FROM OUR SEED.

Anderson & Co., Limited,

Seedsmen and Plant Merchants,

Warehouse, Mail Order Department,
and General Offices —

188 & 190 Kent St.,

Retail Establishment —

399 & 4O1 George St.,

SYDNEY.

Address all letters to care of Box 1608, G.P.O., Sydney.

CARBONATE OF
LIME

C. P. C.
FERTILIZER

Is finely ground and is a combination of Carbonate and Hydrate of
Lime. This is the best and most economical way to apply Lime, as
part is available for plant food immediately, and the balance later
on as it is needed.

PRICE — On trucks, Portland, 36/- per ton
14 bags\

Present Freight Miles. In truck lots. In ton lots.

»***• 50 5/- 7/11

100 6/6 13/7

200 7/6 21/6

300 9/9 26/4

Single bags 6 6, delivered to any suburb of Sydney.

IT'S USES ARE—

To sweeten SOUR soils. It will CHECK all Fungoid Growths and put all land
in BETTER HEART.

To SUPPLY LIME to soils DEFICIENT in this ingredient.

To SUPPLY LIME to certain crops which require it in LARGER PROPORTIONS
than are usually present in the soil.

To provide the NECESSARY BASE for the growth of SOIL ORGANISMS,
notably the NITRATE producing organisms, on whose presence the FERTILITY
of the soil largely depends.

INCREASING the available POTASH and NITROGEN by liberating them from
compounds already in the soil in which these plant foods are locked up.

To LIGHTEN and OPEN UP stiff clay soils.

To ameliorate loose sandy soils, on which it has a BINDING ACTION.

SAMPLE ON APPLICATION.

The Commonwealth Portland Cement Co., Ltd.,

4 O'CONNELL STREET SYDNEY.

The Makers of " Union " Cement,

VEGETABLE

& FLOWER

SEEDS

of Superior Quality.

ESTAB. iseo.

SEED MERCHANTS
& GROWERS.

OUR SPECIALITIES—

The "Greenfeast Pea," "Golden Ball" Rockmelon,
"Celestial" Cabbage, "Premier" Mammoth Cauliflower,
" Botany Favorite" Carrot, Foster's u First Crop" Tomato, &c.

i94 SUSSEX ST., SYDNEY.

Protect Your Vegetables

and Fruit Trees.

No matter how good
the soil, INSECTS and
DISEASE will destroy
your crops unless you
take sure precautions.

"ORCHARD BRAND" ARSENATE OF

LEAD PASTE AND POWDER kills all chewing
insects, cutworms, cabbage moth, codlin moth,
and vine moth.

"ORCHARD BRAND" ATOMIC SULPHUR

is deadly on Tomato Blight, all farms of rusts and
.mildews ; and can be applied at any strength, at
any time, without injury to tender foliage, better
than lime sulphur.

" ORCHARD BRAND" BORDEAUX PASTE

AND POWDER, on account of its purity, controls,
absolutely, Potato Blight, Downy Mildew of the
vine, and many other virulent diseases.

This AUTO-SPRAY, No. 5,

is the best pump made
for the vegetable grower
to apply these sprays at
high pressure and secure results.

These goods are dependable, and can be obtained from all
Seedsmen and Storekeepers.

7-11 Market Street

Sydney.

THE AUSTRALIAN
LOVES THE OUTDOOR
LIFE, AND THE GARDEN
IS THE BEST AND
HAPPIEST WAY OF
ENJOYING ALL THE
PLEASURES OF HOME
LIFE.

We stock the choicest of

Seeds and Plants, and

specialise in the best of

Garden Accessories.

LET US QUOTE YOU FOR
LATEST SEEDS.

NEW SEEDLESS

LETTUCE

Packets I/- each.

We have proved this to be
the best LETTUCE yet
introduced, and only with
the utmost difficulty have
we been able to obtain Seed
from our Stock Plants.
Flavor, very Sweet and
Crisp.

W. H. Undersoil

LTD.

Seeds and
Plants,

103 Pitt Street,
Sydney.

'Phones ( City 6154
Phones

SOW OUR TESTED
SEEDS "THAT GROW."

YEGEHBLE ftND
FLOWERS

in 3d. & Sd. Pkts.

Try our 5/- collection of
Vegetable Seeds.

Also our 5/- collection of
choice seasonable flower
seeds. Both POST FREE.

EVERY

HOME

worth while
must have a

GARDEN

Let us show you how you
can make it "A Thing of
Beauty and a Joy forever."

Our SUNSET or
ART SHADES of

Antirrhinium the
popular Snapdragon is
"par Excellence." Sow
now— the seed grows
well.

1 /- packet.

CARNATION PLANTS— Ever Bloomers, Non Bursters,
Enormous Flowers and Artistic. Colors.

We will supply 12 of the best and latest for 18/-; post 1/9 extra.
SEND FOR OUR LIST. We also supply 12 named varieties for ll/-.

We issue Special Lists of FRUIT TREES, ROSES and SHRUBS,

' DAHLIAS and CHRYSANTHEMUMS,
SWEET PEAS, CARNATIONS, Etc.

WE GUARANTEE TO PLEASE.

W, H. Anderson Ltd

Seeds and Plants

:: :: 1O9 Pitt Street, Sydney.

'Phones 6154, 11276.

THE MIXING OF FERTILIZERS

SUPERPHOSPHATE

PoTASt-

SALTS

PHOSPHATE

KAINIT

NITRATE OF SOD*

Substances connected by thick line must not be mixed together.

Substances connected by double line must only be mixed immediately before use.

Substances connected by single thin line may be mixed together at any time.

Fertilisers that may be combined.

t 97682— a

No. of Copies issued : 10,000.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
NEW SOUTH WALES.

VEGETABLE GROWING

IN

NEW SOUTH WALES.

A. J. PINK and R. N. MAKIN,

.

'i^pectors of Agriculture.

PRICE: HALF-A-CROWN.

SYDNEY : WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1920.

t 97623— A

"

•I

PREFACE.

INCREASED production is the only practical solution of the problems of high
prices and scarcity, under which every country in the world is labouring at
the present time, and the solution does not rest alone with those who are
farming large areas. Consumers can help themselves and their fellow citizens
by becoming producers according to their own opportunities, and this many
can do by raising vegetables on such small areas as are available round their
own homes. Probably nine-tenths of the residences in New South \fy ales
have a plot of ground large enough to raise a substantial quantity of fresh
vegetables — almost sufficient for the requirements of the household.

Despite the disadvantages of time and distance by which they are seem-
ingly prejudiced, and the wide areas of suitable land in this State that
could easily be made to supply the whole of our own requirements, large
quantities of vegetables, grown in Victoria and Tasmania, successfully
compete with locally-grown produce in our markets. The bulk of the home-
grown vegetables offered for sale in Sydney is raised by Chinamen, while in
Victoria the celestial has long ago been almost forced out of the business by
the white grower. It was one of the impressions derived by many of our
" diggers," Jjhat the supply of vegetables in all European countries was in
the hands of growers of their own nationality. Why it should be otherwise
in New South Wales is not clear.

Contrary to popular opinion, vegetable growing does not, demand such
long hours as the industrious Mongolian suggests. Like any other business
it requires the commonsense application of up-to-date methods, an intelligent
recognition of the principles underlying the control of contrary elements
(pests and diseases), a capacity to apply energy in the right direction, and
sufficient business ability to run the place on comm^cial lines. Sound
methods are reflected in the quantity and quality of the crops, but careless,
unsystematic, labour- wasting practices have their reflex in unprofitable and
unattractive products.

The present publication indicates the methods adopted on the Department's
experiment farms, and 'by the most successful commercial growers in the
State. An effort has been made so to present the various recommendations
that growers in different parts of the State can readily adapt them to their
own peculiar conditions.

The book is particularly intended to be of use to the small market gardener
and the suburban resident. It is hoped that as the initial effort of the kind,
it will prove practically useful, and suggestive.

520130

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Preface '. ... .. 3

Suitable Sites for Market Gardening ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Cultivating the Vegetable Garden 11

Manures and Fertilisers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16

Rotation of Crops ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

Implements and Equipment .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24

The Propagation of Vegetables , 25

Vegetable Crops ... 32

Fungus Diseases 91

InsectPests ~J10

Controls for Diseases and Pests ... ... 128

Planting Calendars 133

Index 135

DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE,

NEW SOUTH WALES.

VEGETABLE GROWING

IN

NEW SOUTH WALES.

SUITABLE SITES FOR MARKET GARDENING.

VEGETABLES are raised in New South Wales under a great variety of
conditions — such a variety, indeed, that many popular edibles are on the
market in Sydney and other towns most of the year round. So easily are
they grown, too, that there is hardly a spot where sufficient for average
household purposes cannot be raised on a small area at no greater expense
than a little manual labour.

Success will depend in part, however, upon the choice of a suitable site.
With this aspect of matters the ordinary suburban resident is not so much
interested, for he is influenced by domestic and business convenience in
choosing his locale, and he must therefore adapt his vegetable growing to
his conditions.

The small market gardener — to whose requirements the following pages
are largely directed — must regard the selection of a suitable district arid
site as one of the first essentials of success.

Upon the choice of the land, indeed, depends a great deal more than
might at first sight appear, for not only must the quality and character of
the soil, the supply of water, and the aspect, be kept in view, but even the
locality in which operations are to be carried on has an important relation to
the ultimate success of the undertaking. The nature of the crop or crops,
the market to be catered for, the facilities for forwarding the produce and
for obtaining supplies of manure, as well as the capital available and the
price of the land, must all operate as factors in the choice of the district in
which the produce is to be raised.

For market gardening, distinctions must be drawn, for instance, between
areas near the city, with their great variety of produce, and those farms
where the ordinary activities of agriculture are combined with the growth of
some vegetable for which a special piece of land and the. climate provide
favourable conditions. It is under such circumstances as the last that

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

cabbages and cauliflowers are raised in considerable quantities in the Moss
Vale and Bathurst districts respectively. A third class of vegetable grower
may be indicated here as likely to be controlled by special conditions when
he comes to the choice of a suitable locality, namely, he who intends to
produce quite a number of crops, but to specialise in one or two as main
lines. This method is found profitable because of the particular knowledge
of the main crop that is gradually acquired, the possibility of treating it 011
an extensive scale, and the reduction of the trouble incidental to marketing.
To carry on operations on such lines it is obvious that a locality and climate
suitable to the main crop must be chosen. The possibilities of failure in one
season, or of an over-supply in another, have to be regarded as disadvantages
of this method, and greater security probably attaches to the number and
variety of crops that are produced in the ordinary market garden, though the
varied knowledge arid skill, and the foresight required to manage such a
venture, are certainly greater.

The man who goes looking for a suitable site for market gardening
requires, therefore, to have some clear idea of his intentions, for upon this,
as well as upon his experience and capital, much will depend.

The Market catered for.

The class of market for which it is proposed to cater may be considered
first. If financial resources and other qualifications limit the venture to a small
area of mixed crops, it will possibly be found that a small town or suburban
market is more suitable for the purpose than the city market, but where
personal preferences would lead to specialisation in one or two crops on a
limited area, it becomes alinost'imperative that the whole or a large part of
the produce shall be forwarded to a distributing centre. In the first case,
the grower will probably find it much «more profitable to make his sales by
hawking his produce from house to house, and he will then require to ensure
that his site does not involve undue waste of time in carting. In the second
case, proximity to the market is perhaps less important, so long as the means
by which the produce can be forwarded are convenient and speedy.

Wljere operations are to be conducted on a larger scale, the locality will
be selected with a view to supplying the metropolitan or some other large
market. A preference for some particular line may necessitate the choice of
a district suitable co that crop, and distance may then be of less importance,
providing the transit is good. Where green vegetables of the class that
perish or depreciate quickly are contemplated; i>, is generally found that no
site is so satisfactory as one close to the centre ihat is to be served, and still
more is this the case if, as some have successfully done, a direct trade with
large hotels or restaurants is contemplated.

Possibilities present themselves for the grower situated close to some
important inland. rail way junction, where crops can be grown that will find
ready market in dry western districts during the summer. Orange suggests

VEGETABLE GROWING IN Nffftr SOUTH WALES

itself as a case in point, being at the centre of practically the whole'central-
western railway system ; but there are other junctions hardly less^worthy of
mention. The importance of , the water supply to such an enterprise is
obvious, but quite a number of -our western towns are fairly well equipped in
that respect.

The Effect of Climate.

Reference has already been made to the effect of a possible preference for
one crop or another upon the choice of the locality in which operations should
be begun. The climatic conditions, in fact, will largely decide what vege-
tables shall be grown. It is quite obvious that the warmer conditions of the
North Coast, for instance, offer completely different possibilities to those
ruling on the cooler upland districts. New South Wales is particularly well
situated in its range of climatic zones, the effect being an almost continuous
supply of quite a number of vegetables.

The warm humid districts are most productive, but at the same time
they are more subject to disease than the more temperate climes. The
warm districts, of course, are the first to place their products on the market,
arid as the weather becomes warmer the cooler districts come forward in their
turn, and are often followed again by late crops from the warm districts.
Potatoes may be quoted as a case in point. They are naturally a cool climate
crop, and are grown in the spring and harvested in the months of November,
December, and January on the North Coast. By the middle of January the
crops of the lower coastal regions are coming forward. The -exhaustion of
this source of supply sees the tableland crops available, and these furnish the
supply throughout the winter and until November, though a small second
North Coast crop generally comes in during May and June. A somewhat
similar rotation can be found in a number of crops. Peas and beans, for
instance, are available in this(way for the -greater part of the year.

Marketing Methods and Facilities.

The method by which the produce of the vegetable garden is to be marketed
should receive some consideration in connection with the choice of a locality.
If the land is some distance from the market, the grower is practically com-
pelled to make his sales through a commission agent. Of growers who
specialise in one or two crops, some follow the consignment to market and
personally dispose of it, and in this case personal expenses must be considered
as against agents' charges. In a vegetable-growing community, co-operation
by growers in transporting their goods to market effects a saving in time and
money.

The question of direct supply to the consumer per rail and by city delivery
has often been raised, but with the present high freights this method of
marketing is not likely to become popular.

VEGETABLE GROWIX& /T SE\V SOUTH WALES.

A word of warning might be interpolated against venturing extensively on
lines for which a market does not already exist. The creation ,of a demand
for a new article is a task requiring particular ability and a good deal of
capital.

Not less important than proximity to the market are the facilities that
exist for forwarding the produce. It is quite possible for all that has been
indicated in the foregoing to be ensured, and yet the means of transport to
be so slow and otherwise unsatisfactory as to spell failure for the enterprise.
Freshness is a necessary qualification where the best ruling rate is to be
obtained, and good road or quick train or steamer transit is therefore essen-
tial. To avoid much of the delay and reduce the damage which usually
attaches to transit by rail, land should be selected that is situated on a main
trunk railway line ; branch lines necessitate extra handling, and therefore
delay. The experienced grower of green vegetables knows that, no matter
how good may be the quality of his produce, there will be little profit if any
avoidable waste of time takes place between the harvesting of the crop and
its sale to the ultimate consumer.

The Manure Supply.

The conveniences and facilities just referred to have also a close connection
with the important subject of regular and ample supplies of manure. The
subject of manures in relation to vegetable gardening need not be discussed
here, but it is opportune to point out briefly that not only are fertilisers
necessary, but-wherever intensive cropping is going on, material must regularly
be added to the soil to maintain its humus content. Stable manure is
the ideal material for the purpose, but is apt to prove expensive if the haulage,
whether by road or rail, is long. Growers who are located near large towns
or cities are in a position to obtain supplies from convenient stables, and to
do the carting themselves on the way back from market.

Growers situated close to the railway line can obtain constant supplies of
city street sweepings from the Sydney Municipal Council, or Flemington
(Homebush Stock Saleyards and • Abattoirs) by arrangement with the con-
tractor. The price of the street sweepings is 15s. per 6-ton truck, f.o.r.
Sydney, and the freights per ton are : — 10 miles, Is. 7d. ; 20 miles, 2s. Id. ;
30 miles, 2s. 7d. ; 40 miles, 3s. 6d. ; 50 miles, 4s. 4d.

Commercial fertilisers are available to all, and the transport cost should
not in any case be a bar to their use.

Suitable and Unsuitable Soils.

From the foregoing it will be gathered that the intending market gardener
must have regard to quite a number of considerations in selecting the district
or locality in which he will settle, but there are several factors of importance
that should influence him in the tinal selection of the piece of land on which
operations are to be^ carried on.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 9

Undoubtedly one of (he main essentials to success in vegetable- growing is
that the soil should be suitable for the purpose. That the soil should be very
rich is not so important as that it should be a suitable medium on which to
build up fertility. Sandy soils are the best, being easy of tillage, usually
better drained, and warmer — matters of considerable importance. There is
no dearth of suitable land in this State, as most classes of soil can be brought
to a suitable tilth, but heavy clay and uridrained soils should be avoided for
market gardening purposes. Where the suburban householder is obliged to
operate under such conditions — as many are in the vicinity of Sydney — lime
should be freely used to improve the texture, and drainage should be pro-
vided for. if possible. If the contour of the land will not admit of under-
ground drainage, a system of raised beds will be found necessary. To make
heavy soil of this class more friable, liberal quantities of organic manure
must be applied after the ground has been broken up.

Some soils are naturally well adapted for the culture of vegetables. The
most important of these are river-flat lands, the soils of which are usually free-
working loams of alluvial formation. By reason of their location they are
usually well drained, but many are liable to inundation by flood waters
There are also many inland soil pockets, situated amongst the hills in
various districts, which are admirably suited for the purpose, and which need
little preparation. Many of the low-lying soils, such as are often found in
swampy areas, are of a peaty nature, and when drained and sweetened are
excellent from a gardener's point of view.

Preference should be given, if possible, to soils that will favour the eirly
development of plants. Generally speaking, sandy soils, being well-drained,
friable, and warm, conduce to early and rapid growth, and thus enable the
grower to market his produce, or a good part of it, before large deliveries
have depressed prices. Unchecked steady development of vegetable crops
of all kinds is always desirable, the effect being apparent to the consumer in
the quality and attractiveness of the goods. Quick-growing crops, too, mean
that the ground is occupied for a shorter period, and that it can be the sooner
and more effectively prepared for the next crop in the rotation.

Generally speaking, it can be stated that good vegetable soils are the
highest priced lands in the district.

• Ensure Plenty of Water.

A reliable water supply is imperative for the production of vegetables,
with most of which good quality is only obtained by quick growth— as
already remarked — and this is only secured when the moisture requirements
are adequately met.

Where ample supplies of water are assured the best returns are obtained,
particularly during dry weather when market supplies are limited. Abun-
dance of water is also necessary for the household, the cleansing of root vege-
tables, and the requirements of live stock. A water service may be obtained
from a local body or from some private supply, or else drawn from a spring,
dam, well, creek, or a river.

10 VEGETABLE GROWING IN XE\Y SOUTH WALES.

Aspect.

The most .favourable aspect for vegetable-gardening is a north-easterly
one ; such a slope is open to the early morning sun, and affords protection
from the westerly and southerly winds — a combination that ensures earliness .
If low, fiat land is to be used for the purpose there should, if at all possible,
be a natural breakwind on the west, whence come most of our cold winds in
winter and hot winds in summer. The low lands are the best suited to the
cultivation of vegetables during the summer, but for winter growth sloping
elevations are preferable, and will result in better air drainage, and less"
damage by frost. Steep hillside land is unsuitable, being difficult to work
and liable to washing. Where there is no natural windbreak some form of
protection should be provided, such as a high fence, or hedge or trees should
be planted for the purpose. The disadvantage of both hedges and plan-
tations is that they draw very heavily on the supples of plant-food and
moisture for a considerable distance around, making the soil less valuable for
the culture of vegetables.

Size of the Area.

No attempt has been made in the foregoing to indicate the area that
might make a profitable vegetable garden. So much depends upon the exact
intentions of the grower, the nature of his previous experience, and the
amount of his capital that it is impossible to make any definite recommenda-
tion. It may be said, however, in general terms that it is always advisable
to commence in the small way, increasing the area as proficiency and con-
fidence are attained as the result of experience. It is a common fault with
beginners to attempt the cultivation of too much land as a start, the con-
sequence being indifferent methods of cultivation and tillage, and therefore a
stagnant condition that is unprofitable.

In the metropolitan district, the area worked by Chinamen under con-
ditions of intense culture averages about one acre per man. It is not
suggested that any reader of this publication should confine himself to that
area. Indeed, larger areas can usually be more profitably worked if the
crops are grown on a less intensive system so as to allow of a certain amount
of horse cultivation.

The Capital Required.

No definite statement can be made as to the amount of capital required,
there being such a variety of conditions under which vegetable-growing may*
be undertaken. The principal contingencies that must be provided for at
the outset may be indicated under the following headings : —

(1) Purchase of land and residence, or rental for saoie.

(2) Clearing of land and preparation, including drainage if necessary.

(3) Improvements, such as fencing, packing shed, hot and cold frames,

and other erections of a more or less permanent nature.

(4) Provision of water supply.

(5) Necessary tools, implements, ancflive stock.

(6) Seed, manure, and fertiliser.

VEGETABLE GROWING AY NEW SOUTH WALES. 11

It will also be necessary to make provision for working and living expenses
until such time as returns can be expected. Necessarily this last will vary
a good deal with the district, the intentions of the grower, and the con-
dition of the land itself ; but careful account must be taken of the item, and
where uncleared land has to be prepared the amount available will have to
be considerable, or some other occupation may have to be followed until the
vegetable-growing venture has advanced far enough to bring returns within
measurable distance.

Of necessity the prospective grower must work out the approximate cost
of everything as listed above, and he would be wise also to make a liberal
allowance for a reserve of capital to meet unforeseen expenses of the kind that'
inevitably occur as an enterprise of this kind develops.

CULTIVATING THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

Choice of a district and of land suitable to the purpose intended having
been made on the lines indicated in the preceding pages, the next concern of
the vegetable grower is the preparation of the site generally and the
beginning of the preliminary tillage. Some consideration will require to be
given at the outset to the lines on which the property is to be laid out with

A well-cultivated crop of Cabbages.

a view to ultimate convenience. It is quite possible so to locate the stable,
implement shed, packing house, hot beds, cold frames, and so forth, as to
make the farm unnecessarily expensive to work when it is has been fully
developed ; and a fairly intimate knowledge of the area is therefore desirable
before anything is done that may afterwards be regretted. On a small area
the placing of the buildings so that advantage is obtained from every
possible yard of good soil may become an important matter.

12 VEGETABLE GROWING L\ NEW SOUTH WALES.

For successful vegetable culture the preparation of the ground requires to
be both deep and thorough. Rapid, vigorous growth, such as is desirable in
vegetables, requires ample soil from which the roots can draw plant-food ;
and, clearly, this is not provided if the subsoil is stiff and unkindly.
Especially must the cultivation be deep, and this involves that the ground must
have been cleared in a conscientious manner. Hence, if it is uncleared land
that is being taken up, arrangements must be made to ensure that not only
is the timber removed, but the roots are " rut),'' and taken out to a depth of
not less than 12 inches — deeper still is better and advisable. If the work is
delegated to a contractor, it will be well to provide (1) that the roots shall be
" run" as stated ; and (2) that after the clearing the contractor shall follow
the plough and subsoiler to clear away any roots disclosed by the first working.

The Value of Deep Working.

The depth to which the soil is worked will depend on the class of soil and
subsoil, but in fair average soils it should be, at the very least, 8 inches
Sandy soils do not require to be worked to such a depth as those of a loamy
or clayey nature. Soils of the latter class should always be deeply stirred,
though not necessarily wholly by inversion, for often it is better at the first
ploughing to follow the mouldboard with a subsoiler than to set the plough
so deep as to bring clay to the surface. Time was when vegetable
gardening would not hare been contemplated if the land were not well
trenched first ; but under present rates for labour the operation, valuable
though it is, is too expensive. In commencing a garden of any appreciable
area, it will be found cheaper to have the preliminary work done by
horse power. Where it is intended to raise crops by intensive methods of
culture, it may not be possible to use horse implements after the ground has
once been laid out and cropping commenced ; hence the necessity for a
thorough tillage and subsoiling in the first place. Only in the small home
garden is it possible nowadays to do the subsoiling by hand. There it will
be found profitable, and, in the great majority of cases, essential.

This point of thorough and deep tillage is of such importance as to justify
emphasis being laid upon it. No amount of intertillage at a later stage will
fully compensate for faulty preparation before sowing. Plants will only grow
to perfection where the root systems are allowed room for full development,
and this is only possible on thoroughly prepared land.

Nor must this advice be restricted to new land. Between each crop the
soil should receive a good deep working prior to the preparation of the seed
bed. Land that i§ not to be cropped during the winter, for instance, should
always be turned over in the autumn and allowed to weather. This working
is not only valuable in connection with the storage of moisture and the
increase of the plant-food prepared by soil bacteria under the improved con-
ditions, but it enables the ground to be brought into better tilth in the
spring, and much sooner than if it had not been so treated.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WAlks. .13

The Effects of Tillage.

It may be convenient at this stage to remark that the effects of cultivation
upon the soil are numerous and complex, but they are of such importance
that the vegetable grower should acquire at least a general impression of
what they are, and of their close relation to the success of any agricultural
or horticultural enterprise.

Left to itself, land usually produces abundantly if the rainfall is a fair one,
but the vegetation is not of the class that is desired by civilised man, .and it
is therefore the rirst business of the grower to destroy the class of vegetation
the soil is, naturally producing, and to make its decay a means by which more
desirable plants can be raised. The object, therefore, is to destroy that which
is already growing upon the land, and to turn it under so that it will be out
of the way of subsequent operations. In that position it will decay, or
humify, thus improving the physical qualities of the soil, and providing the
crop with plant-food.

It is one object of ploughing that it may be possible at a later stage to
reduce the surface soil to a fine tilth by the use of harrows and cultivators,
and it sometimes happens, especially on new land, that though that which
previously grew on the surface has been effectively turned under, the finer
implements cannot be employed until a second ploughing at right angles to
the first has been given. A fine seed-betl must ever be kept in view as one
of the objects of tillage.

Another effect of ploughing is to enable moisture, , whether supplied
naturally or artificially, to sink through the surface soil into the subsoil
where it may be retained. Soils vary much in their capacity to hold moisture
while yet remaining arable and in good physical condition, and on the other
hand, plants also show a considerable range of adaptability. It is possible
for a soil to contain from 20 to 25 per cent, of water and yet not be too moist
for cultivation, while on the other hand plants are able to maintain themselves
and grow when the soil contains only 6 to 8 per cent, of moisture.

The storage capacity of a soil is so much increased by deep cultivation that
this becomes one of the chief reasons for subsoiling. If a heavy rain falls on
land that has only been worked 4 inches deep the tilled soil is in danger of
being water-logged. On the other hand, land that has been worked to a
depth of 12 inches can absorb a much larger rainfall without becoming too
wet, simply because the deep working has provided such a large quantity of
loose friable soil to take up the moisture. Just as a large sponge will hold
more water than a small one, so a big bulk of tilled earth will hold more
water than a small bulk of it. The surface of a deeply worked soil can be
loosened sooner after rain than that of a soil that has only been superficially
worked. Moreover, the disadvantages of shallow ploughing are increased by
the readier loss of moisture ; partly because so much is retained near the
Mirface within reach of sun and wind, and partly because in most situations

H VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

the surplus can escape so much more easily by run-off or gravitation. Again,
the crop will feel the effects of dry weather much more quickly when the
ploughing has been shallow.

The deep breaking up recommended has thus a close connection with the
retention of moisture.

Yet another effect of cultivation of the soil is the admission of air.
Unlikely as it may appear, air is as essential to fertility as water. If a soil
is compact, or if its interstices are filled with water or with fine silt, it
cannot contain the air that the roots of plants require, and that is necessary
to the minute organisms, called soil bacteria, that play an important part in
the preparation of plant-food. Moreover, it is possible for too much
air to be near the surface and too little below, with the result that while
seed may germinate satisfactorily, the plants may not do as well as they
should when the roots strike downwards. Cultivation aerates the soil, but it
must be carried deep enough for the plant roots to get all the air they require.

The disturbance of the soil, too, has some effect upon its temperature. If
the connection of the surface soil with that just below is interrupted by the
plough or other implement, the great heat of the sun in summer, for instance,
cannot be so readily communicated to deeper levels. The most important
action in this connection, however, is the improvement in soil temperature
in spring as a result of cultivation. A soil saturated by winter rains will be
kept cold in spring by the rise to the surface of the water stored below ;
cultivation, however, will break the connection as just stated, and prevent
the rise of the waiter, so that the surface soil will dry to a certain extent,
and be the more quickly warmed by the action of the sun. The value of
this where early, quickly-grown, spring vegetables are desired for the market
needs only to be indicated.

Soils that are of such close texture that water passes very slowly through
them are most unfavourable. Standing water damages the plants and
prevents bacterial activity, so that areas deficient in natural drainage
should not be used for vegetables. In fact, with extensive areas that
are suitable in most other respects, it is unlikely that the swampy lands
of New South Wales will require to be handled for a considerable time.
Where, however, the condition has to be dealt with, only deep, open, or
underground drains can be recommended. Their effect is to carry off the
surplus water, to permit air to pass through the interstices of the soil, and to
facilitate the drying up of some of the excessive moisture.

.r-"

Surface Cultivation.

In addition to the deep cultivation so far kept in mind, it may be pointed
out that moving the top inch or two of soil has also important functions.
Generally speaking, surface cultivation is carried out in gardens for the
purpose of ^destroying weeds, but it also conserves moisture — indeed, so
valuable and appreciable are its effects in this direction that, even in the
absence of weeds, the surface should be kept in a loose and friable condition.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. li>

Exhaustive experiments have proved that to disturb the top soil prevents
moisture from rising to the surface, where sun and wind can carry it off by
the process of evaporation, and that the effect of neglecting the—surface in
summer is simply to allow the moisture (so precious at that time of the
year) to escape into the air. The only convenient way of preventing loss by
evaporation is to maintain a dry, loose surface, freshening it every time rain,
irrigation, or tramping sets it down again. The top 12 or 18 inches of soil
are the most important to plant life, but beneath that is usually stored a
reserve of water which is conducted to the surface by fine capillary tubes.
Once the connection between subsoil and surface is established, and capillary
action can proceed freely, the moisture below will rise steadily to the surface;
where it will pass off into the air. The gardener who wishes to be
successful must register a resolution that, so far as his property is concerned,
compacted and neglected surfaces shall not be tolerated — that, in other-
words, loss of moisture by capillarity and evaporation shall be reduced to a
minimum.

While a soil mulch is perhaps the most convenient method of preventing
evaporation, stable manure and straw are also largely used for the purpose,
their effect being to prevent the sun and wind from too close contact with
the soil surface. In raised beds, where it is often difficult to maintain the
sides in a loose condition without constant washing down, the sides should
be covered with some mulching material in order to prevent loss of moisture.

The only time when the gardener should excuse in his own mind any loss
•of moisture is in the germination of fine seeds. It is then necessary, in
order to obtain a good percentage of germination, to reduce the soil to a fine
tilth, and to roll it after sowing the seed. This brings the moisture to the
surface, by consolidating the soil so that capillary movement of the subsoil
moisture is set up ; germination is thus ensured. But even in such cases the
surface should be broken as soon as the plants are established. In the case
of seeds (such as onions, tfcc.) sown by a hand "seed-so\* er, the rolled portion
between the rows should be disturbed immediately after sowing.

The Eradication of Weeds.

With many, weeds are the chief factor in 'constant surface cultivation,
and — much as the gardener otherwise regardo them — they therefore have
some utility in imposing an operation that in other respects has so
much value as we have indicated above. The seeds of weeds are constantly
being carted on to the garden with manure, and more are also deposited
there by wind, birds, &c., so that their destruction must ever be before
the grower. The old saying that " one year's seeding makes seven years
weeding " is particularly true in a vegetable garden. Seeds which are shed
in one year clo not always germinate the following season — some may be
buried too deep, or where the conditions are otherwise unfavourable, but
they retain their vitality for a long while, and will germinate so soon as they

16 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

are brought near the surface again, or when the conditions become favourable.
For this reason it is always well to prepare land for a crop early enough to
allow a short fallow before the seed is sown or the seedlings planted out ; the
weed seeds brought into favourable surroundings then have time to germinate,
and can be killed oft' by shallow surface cultivation before the growth of the
vegetablevS makes the destruction of the weeds more difficult. This practice
will be found materially to reduce labour during the early growth of the crop.

Some crops, such as carrots, parsnips, <kc., require a good deal of hand-
weeding, but in most cases the cultivation between the rows can be done
with a hand cultivator, which is much quicker than hand-hoeing. For
other crops, which have more space between the plants in the rows, the
weeding can be done by using small pointed hoes. Weeding between
plants should be done before the cultivation between1 the rows, so that
the latter operation may loosen the soil that has been compacted by the
tramping to and fro, though where weeds have become numerous, the amount
of hand- work can be considerably reduced by running the cultivator or hoe
along between the rows before hand- weeding between the plants themselves
is attempted ; in the last case it will often be advisable to disturb the surface
between the rows a second time after the hand-weeding is d«ne. The best
results from weeding are obtained by doing the work on hot sunny days.

Most weeas are killed by cutting them off just under the surface of the soil,
but thoroughly to eradicate some — couch grass and sorrel, for instance — it is
necessary to remove every underground particle, or to cultivate persistently
and repeatedly until the roots die of exhaustion. Nut-grass can only be
controlled by frequent cultivation.

Whore irrigation is practised the drains and channels should be kept free
from weeds, otherwise the seeds will fall into the water and be distributed
over the whole area irrigated.

The greatest trouble from weed-growth is experienced on the coastal areas
of the State, where the conditions are conducive to rapid growth — condition^
by the way, that are also most favourable for early crops of vegetables, and
for the service of the metropolitan market.

MANURES AND FERTILISERS.

Although every attention be given to the working of the soil, it will be
found insufficient to make available the large quantities of plant-food required
for the production of so many crops in quick succession as the well managed
vegetable garden must carry, and fertilisers and manures must therefore be
in regular use. On the other hand, however, no amount of manuring will
produce good crops if the land is not well tilled. Fertility, indeed, depends
on a happy combination of the tsvo factors, and over both the gardener is the
final arbiter.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

17

The greater quantity of plant-food is made up of carbon dioxide (obtained
by the leaves from the air) and water which is drawn up by the roots from
the soil ; the balance (about 2 per cent, only) also comes from the soil.
Development depends largely upon a wonderfully delicate and elaborate
process by means of which the plant makes use of both. Small though the
proportion appears to be, the 2 per cent, is of the greatest importance, being
made up of ten ingredients that are each quite essential to the growth of*the
plant. Most of these ingredients are present in almost all soils in super-
abundance, and as plants get enough of them for their requirements the

A Home-made Hand Seed and Manure Sower.

It consists of a small box with a tunnel-shaped end through which either seeds or manure
can he sown. A slide can be fitted to regulate the sowing of the smallest seeds.

cultivator need not concern himself about them. The exceptions are nitrogen t
phosphoric acid, potash, and sometimes lime. Even of thesf, there is a
plentiful supply in most soils, but not always in such a condition that
plants can make use of it. The object of the gardener, therefore, should be
to do all that he can to enable the supplies in the soil to become available,
and where they are insufficient to enhance the supply by adding materials
that contain them in some form readily available to the plants.

The proper manuring of crops had been greatly neglected in this State until
within the last few years, and even now it is not unusual to hear doubts
expressed as to the efficiency of chemical fertilisers ; occasionally someone even

18 VEGETABLE GROWING IX NEIV SOUTH WALES,

propounds the theory that their use tends to exhaust the soil. On the con-
trary, it is certain that any ordinary soil becomes impoverished by the
constant removal of plant food by the crop, unless some means are adopted
of maintaining fertility.

The materials required to keep the soil in fertile condition may be broadly
classified thus : — (1) Manures that contain the necessary plant-food (princi-
pally potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen) ; and (2), vegetable matter and
lime, which, besides containing plant-food, are of considerable value iii
improving the mechanical condition of the soil, and which thereby have a
material effect in rendering available certain ingredients previously present
in the soil, though not in a form in which" plants could make use of them.

Manures that Supply Plant-food.

(a) Phosphoric Acid. — Manures containing phosphoric acid may be applied
in the forms of bone manures (bonedust, bonemeal, &c.), superphosphate, and
Thomas' phosphate.

Phosphoric acid is undoubtedly the plant food that can be most profitably
added to the soils of the State — at any rate it is the particular plant-food
that, when supplied in the form of a fertiliser, produces the most profitable
response under our conditions. It is most commonly added to the soil here
as superphosphate, that being the form in which phosphoric acid is most
available to plants, and in which they can therefore soonest make use of it.
Hence it is of special use where a rapid return is required, as in the case of
spring-sown crops.

Superphosphate is usually applied at the rate of from 56 Ib. to 3 cwt. per
acre, the amount varying with the nature of the soil and with the quantities
of other manures used in conjunction with it. This manure generally forms
the basis of the "general manures," "special manures," " mixed manures,"
Ac., on the local market ; such mixtures are usually prepared by the addition
of sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda, and some potash salt.

Bonedust, another source of phosphoric acid supply, is also valuable for its
nitrogen content. In place of superphosphate it may be used as a base for
mixtures. It is, however, somewhat slower in its action.

(6) Potash. — Muriate of potash and wood ashes are the only forms in
which potash manures are now obtainable. The former is a concentrated
fertiliser and is chiefly used in mixtures. Until recently the main sources of
supply of this particular plant-food were sulphate of potash and kainit, both
of which are now unobtainable. The results from potash manures are not
seen in our soils on the same scale as are frequently reported from other
parts of the world, in fact, the present writers have never yet seen an
instance of increased production from the use of potash manure alone, and
therefore can only recommend its use as part of a complete fertiliser.

VEGETABLE GROWING^ IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 19

(c) Nitrogen. — Manures containing nitrogen are most required by crops
that make a large amount of leaf growth, like cabbages, lettuce, etc., which
are specially grown for their leaves, and in which quick growth and succu-
lence are desirable. On the other hand it is not usual to employ these
manures in connection with leguminous crops (peas, beans, &c.), as certain
bacteria in the soil associate themselves with the roots of these plants, and
enable them to make use of the nitrogen of the air in a way that other
plants cannot. The best-known nitrogenous fertilisers are sulphate of
ammonia, nitrate of soda, and dried blood. In the first two, the nitrogen is
present in a form that readily dissolves in water, so that it is quickly
available to the plant and produces rapid development of the crop. In dried
blood, however, and in farmyard manure, bones, meat, (fee., the nitrogen is
not in a state in which it can be immediately utilised by the plant, but
requires first to undergo some change while lying in the soil. Hence, dried
blood should be added to the soil some time before it will actually be required
by the plant, or in the case of a slow-growing crop it can be applied when
the seed is being sown.

Sulphate of ammonia is the chemical fertiliser most used for its nitrogen
content in N"ew South Wales. In price it is cheaper than nitrate of soda,
and contains a larger proportion of nitrogen. Neither of these manures
should come in contact with the seed at sowing ; they are better applied to
vegetable crops as a top dressing, but on small areas like kitchen gardens
about 1 oz. or 2 oz. can be dissolved in water and applied through the
watering can. In such instances 1 oz. of the fertiliser per square yard would
be a substantial dressing at any one time.

Generally speaking, however, nitrogen is supplied to vegetable crops in
stable manure of which liberal quantities should be regularly added to the
soil. Thf> importance of this matter is of sufficient significance to be the
subject of a separate section.

Manures that chiefly Affect Soil Condition.

In addition to the foregoing, which are chiefly used for the plant-food
that they supply direct to the plants, there are manures that are more
directly manures for the soil than •for the plants. These are more related,
of course, to the fertility of the soil and have therefore an important relation
not so much to the immediate present as to the future.

Organic Manures.

The most effective means of supplying necessary plant-food to the soil and
generally of maintaining fertility, is the addition of vegetable matter either in
the form of stable or farmyard manure, or of compost manures. The processes
by which the plant food contained in such materials is made available to
growing plants, owe their efficiency in a large degree to th'e production of
humus from the decay of the vegetable matter. It will not be out of place
to discuss briefly, in the first instance, what are the functions of humus in

20 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

the soil and the best means of applying it. Humus (which is partially
decayed vegetable matter) absorbs arid retains moisture in the soil, and
prevents surface evaporation. A surface soil fairly rich in humus, exercises
much the same influence on the underlying soil as does a mulch of dead
leaves or other vegetable matter. During dry spells, and under the influence
of the hot winds usually prevalent under such conditions, the loss of moisture
from the soil by surface evaporation is enormous, and in soils destitute of
humus this loss is so rapid as to result in the drying up of the soil and
the wilting of the crops. The final result of such conditions is the formation
of scalded spots, and the complete removal of the fine surface soil in the form
of dust.

The humus in the soil is the ingredient which is most subject to alteration
and destruction. As soon as it has lost its moisture and become dry it is
rapidly burnt out by the combined action of sun and air, so that it is exactly
in those circumstances where its presence is most essential that it is most
liable to destruction, and where the necessity of renewing it is most urgent.
The presence of humus in the soil also tends to improve its texture by
lightening it and loosening it, and preventing compaction of the surface. It
is thus of special value in the amelioration of stiff soils. It is the principal
source of nitrogen in the soil, and by its decay under the influence of soil
organisms, ammonium salts arid nitrates are produced, which are the forms
in which this important element is assimilated by the plant.

From the foregoing it will be seen that humus is one of the most important
of the soil's constituents, arid any great variation in the amount present
profoundly affects the value of the soil for cultural purposes. Indeed, the
vegetable grower may well regard the addition of material that will in time
increase the humus content of his soil as of much greater significance than
the application of commercial fertilisers that will provide even a large
amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash.

In addition to humus content, farmyard and stable manures and street
sweepings also contain appreciable quantities of these three important items
of plant-food, but those quantities occur in such forms that they are lost or
readily lose their value if the manure is exposed to the action of the
weather for any considerable time. Proper treatment of the manure heap is
therefore necessary prevent loss by leaching or by fermentation, and it is
always better to put such manures in a compost heap. The material is then
better prepared for incorporation in the soil, and weed seeds are destroyed
before they have opportunity to germinate on the land.

The Compost Heap.

The compost heap is a most valuable adjunct to the vegetable garden, and
it is a very great pity that it. is not to be found more frequently even'on the
ordinary farm.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 21

A heap or pit can be made1 very economically, and is of special value in
that it utilises all sorts of vegetable and animal refuse, which would
otherwise be wasted, and converts it into a valuable manure, rich in
vegetable matter and eminently suited for intensive cultural conditions.

The principle upon which the compost heap acts is the fermentation of
easily decomposed vegetable material in the presence of earth and lime. Not
only are substances like peat and straw, which form the usual basis of
compost heaps, thus decomposable, but almost every kind of organic
substance, both of vegetable arid animal origin, can be composted. Dead
leaves, bush scrapings, vveeds, tops and stalks of vegetables, as well as bone
and animal refuse, can be treated in this manner. In the case of animal
refuse the operation is much slower, and substances like bones should be
crushed first. It is also important to be sure that animal refuse so treated
is not derived from a diseased source.

The method of making and maintaining the compost heap will vary largely
with local surroundings. As a general method of procedure the following
will be found satisfactory: — Make a heap with alternate layers of earth,
refuse, and lime. Under the term refuse is included all the waste material,
either animal or vegetable, mentioned above. Cover the whole with a
layer of earth. When a sufficient quantity of refuse is again collected, place
it on top of the heap and cover with a layer of lime, and lastly of earth,
until the heap is 3 to 4 feet high. The heap should be kept moist, and for
this purp'ose all refuse water from the house, slops, urine, &c., should be
added. The heap may be conveniently watered by making a hole into the
interior and pouring the liquid in. The final covering with earth has the
•object of absorbing any ammonia which is evolved in the process of
fermentation and by the action of the lime.

When the heap has been prepared it must be left for some time to allow
fermentation to take place. Probably a few months will be sufficient, unless
very refractory substances, such as bone, &c., are present. Then it should
be well forked over and another layer of lime and finally one of earth should
be added. In the course of another month or two it should! be ready for
Use, and will provide an excellent manure, rich in humus, at a very slight
•cost. It will have utilised for the purpose a great amount of material
that would otherwise be lost or burnt. When refuse material is burnt, the
.ashes, though still possessing manurial value on account of the lime, potash,
.and phosphates they contain, are of incomparably less value than the original
substances ou.t of which they are derived, owing to the absence of humus
material and of nitrogen, which have been lost in the process of burning.

Instead of a heap the compost may be conveniently prepared in a pit. In
-either case the bottom should be cemented, or so drained that the liquid
escaping from the mass can be collected and returned to the compost.

22 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

A second heap should be prepared while the first one is ripening, and being
used. If it is desired to use superphosphate, potash, ammonium salts, and
other more concentrated fertilisers, they may be mixed with compost manure
before it i" added to the soil. Used in this way greater benefit will be
derived than if they were applied direct to the soil, and there will be less
danger of leaching.

Poultry Manure.

Poultry manure, especially in poultry-farming centres where it is in fair
supply, is valuable in the production of vegetables, and in sandstone country
may be safely used with all classes of crops! For legumes (peas, beans, &c.),
it is well not to use too much, as this family of plants does not require
nitrogen to the same extent as the other plants.

Poultry-manure is the most concentrated farmyard manure, and care should
be exercised in its application. The fresh manure should be used either as a
top dressing or in the making of liquid manure. For digging in it is best
composted with other garden refuse.

In applying poultry manure, a dressing of superphosphate or bonedust
can also be given with advantage, more particularly on sandstone country.

Lime.

Plants require lime in small quantities only. The real benefit derived
from liming is its action in sweetening sour and lightening heavy soils.
The application of quick-lime requires great care owing to the chance of
burning out the vegetable matter in the soil. Air-slaked lime, or carbonate
of lime, is slower in its action and not so likely to exhaust the humus.

Liming with freshly-slaked lime is best carried out as follows : — Break the
quick-lime (stone-lime) up into small lumps, place it in heaps about the
garden and cover it with moist loam. Leave it thus exposed to the air and
moisture until it begins to crumble to powder. As soon as this happens
scatter the heaps with a shovel as evenly as possible over the surface of the
ground, and harrow or rake it in very lightly. Liming is most effectively
done in the autumn or winter, but whenever it is done the land should be left
alone for two or three weeks after the application, and no seed should be sown
nor any manures (especially such as contain nitrogen) used during that period.

Clay soils may receive a dressing of about 1 ton per acre, which is
equivalent to about i Ib. per square yard. Sandy soils should not receive:
more than half this amount. Several light applications are more beneficial
than one heavy one.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

In all parts of th,e world where intensive culture is carried on, the practice
exists of changing crops each year arid of growing them in regular succession
to one another, and there is no class of produce with which this is more con-
sistently done than with vegetables. All crops require very much the same
plant-foods, but different crops require them in different proportions; some

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

feed only in the surface soil ; others draw their supplies from the deeper soil
and subsoil. It is the business of the grower to take advantage of these
variations in the habits and characters of his crops to ensure that the fertility
of his soil shall at least be maintained, if not increased.

The supply of organic matter in the soil is much more easily maintained if
crops of varying habits aYid purposes follow one another. Peas and beans,
for instance, though grown only for their pods, produce a good bulk of top
growth, which, when turned under adds humus to the soil. Roots and crops
of the cabbage family, on the other hand, deplete the humus rapidly, and
cannot be grown in successive seasons without a reduction in the fertility of
the soil. Where large quantities of organic manures — stable or farmyard
refuse or street sweepings — are easily available, this may beof less consequence,
but to the grower whose supply is limited and who is obliged to depend largely
on chemical fertilisers, it is very important that there should be maintained
in his soil the proper proportions of decayed and decaying plant matter from
which the soil bacteria can liberate fresh supplies of plant- food. Rotation,
indeed, may thus be a means of saving considerable sums that would otherwise
have to be expended on chemical fertilisers.

Some crops, such as peas and beans, haye the power of obtaining nitrogen
— the dearest of all plant foods — from the air, and storing it in their own
systems and in the soil ; they are, therefore, doubly valuable in a rotation.
Plants of thi» group are called legumes, and to the vegetable grower whose
soil is of lower fertility than he might desire, they have a special utility.

Rotation has the effect, too, of controlling insect, fungus, and weed 'pests.
The eggs and larvae of the insect pests of a crop may remain in the soil to
infest next year's crop if it is of the same or similar habits, while a complete
change of crop may starve them out. In the same way, the spores of a
fungus attacking a crop in one season may remain in the soil, and find easy
prey next year if a similar crop is on the same ground.

One suburban gardener some years ago approached the Department, asking
why his potatoes were diseased — they were so every year now, he said, though
some years ago he got good crops of healthy tubers on the same ground.
Inquiry elicited that he grew potatoes in the same spot each year, peas on
the same trellises, cabbages in the same rows. When urged to change his
crops round, he objected to the work of moving the trellis, &c. ; but it was
not until he complied with the advice that he got better results. His method
of growing the same crop year after year on the same patch was simply
carrying disease forward from one crop to the next, and though the potato
patch was the first to show the effects, the pernicious principle was also at
work on the other patches.

The preparation of a soil for a crop of a different class, as well as the
absence of the natural food, may destroy the larvae or young, or kill the
spores, and thus keep the pests in check. Much the same applies to weeds,
the seeds and the seedlings of which are much more likely to be destroyed if
the land is not devoted to the same crop year after year.

24 'VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

The effect of change of crops is to enable the soil to be cropped more
continuously, and to produce a greater bulk of material from a given area.
On valuable land the grower must get a second — and sometimes a third—-
crop in one season, and this can only be done where a rotation is systematically
practised.

Judgment and experience are necessary to the determination of a really
satisfactory rotation, a succession perfect in all respects being exceedingly
difficult to arrange. It must be remembered that some crops — apparently
very different from one another — are really closely related, and subject to the
same pests. The turnip is cultivated for its root, but it is of the same genus
as the cabbage, and neither should follow the other. Nor do potatoes and
tomatoes appear very much alike when viewed from the point of view of their
products, but botanically they are closely related, and subject— in particular —
to the same fungus diseases, so that land that has carried potatoes that
were affected with Irish blight, will not be cleaned up by planting tomatoes
next year.

Summed up, it may be said that short-season crops should be followed by
long-season ones, shallow rooters by deeper rooters, and residue-producing
crops (for turning under) by heavy-feeding crops. Only by foresight, and a
careful record of what is done with each block year by year, can such a
programme be successfully carried out.

IMPLEMENTS AND EQUIPMENT.

The farmer who is growing cabbages or cauliflowers, or root crops like
turnips or carrots, on a fair scale, is able to employ horses in the preparation
of the land, and even in the inter-cultivation of the crops, but the production
of a large number of vegetables in a small area necessitates the use, almost
exclusively, of manual labour, and the equipment required will therefore vary
accordingly.

Specialty vegetable growing is generally carried out in conjunction with
some other branch of farming, and implements, such as the plough, harrow,
roller and cultivator, are already part of the farm plant, so that only a few
smaller implements, suited to the requirements of the particular crop in
question, will require to be added.

For intensive culture, the following list should cover the implements
required :— Spade, shovel, pick, fork, pronged hoe, dutch and chipping hoes of
various shapes and sizes, rake, hand seed-sower, cultivator, trowel, tape
measure, garden line and reel, manure fork, wheelbarrow, knife, brushes,
baskets, watering-can, buckets, hose, spray-pump, sieve, shears; dibber, axe,
tomahawk, scales, and packing needle. A certain number of tools for repairs-
will also be required, such as hammer, chisel, wrench, punch, saw, square,
brace and bits, and a plane.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 25

THE PROPAGATION OF VEGETABLES.

Although some vegetables are propagated from root pieces or cuttings, the
majority are started from seeds.

There are various methods of raising plants from seeds, which differ
considerably according to circumstances. New South Wales covers a
very wide area and a variety of climatic nnd other conditions, and it is
impossible to lay down a method in relation to any vegetable crop that is
likely to prove satisfactory everywhere. On the other hand, it is impossible
here to describe the methods of every district in detail, and all that can be
done is to indicate certain principles that are of general application, and then
to advise each intending grower to familiarise himself with the practice of
the successful men in the district in which he intends to start operations.

The conditions that must be present to ensure germination of seeds may
be stated as warmth, moisture, air, and light. '-The last is not actually
essential to germination, but it is of importance as soon as the young plant
is above ground. The first two conditions are obtained by a thorough
preparation of the soil or medium in which the seed is sown, and under
certain conditions by the direct application of h^at' and moisture.

In the field it is not always possible to secure ideal conditions for sowing
but by following good cultural methods it is possible to help considerably in
bringing about germination. In the first place it is necessary that the soil
be brought to a fine tilth, so that moisture conditions can be controlled.
After sowing, it is usual to firm the soil over the seed by rolling, in order to
bring about capillary connection with the under soil, allowing moisture to be
drawn to the surface where it is of use -to the seed. This simply means that
the soil moisture is being rapidly lost by evaporation, and it is therefore
necessary that, as soon as germination has taken place, a surface mulch
should be established where possible. As most seeds are sown in drills, this
mulch can be quickly created by intertillage. In the case of seed that is
sown deepj such as peas and beans, the surface can be broken up after being
compacted by using a brush or light harrow.

Field sowing in large areas is usually done by using horse-drawn machines.
"For example, the ordinary wheat drill is often employed for the sowing of
peas. Hand seed-drills that will sow most kinds of vegetable seeds are
also obtainable, and are particularly useful on a commercial vegetable
growing area. In small gardens the drills in which small seeds are sown are
made by drawing the rake or hoe handle along the soil, or by using a garden
hand scriber, made on the lines of the accompanying illustration, the
depth of the drill depending on the seed to be sown.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Tlie scriber may be made on a
larger scale and fitted with a
handle, if such is desired, and
where deeper drills are required
than the pegs make, the marking
will serve as a guide line, to be
followed with a hand or wheel
hoe. If the first drill be struck
with a garden line, the use of a
scriber ensures that all succeeding
drills will be straight and evenly
spaced.

The depth to sow depends on a
number of conditions, but as a
general rule is three or five times
the diameter of the seed. Where
conditions as to moisture can be
controlled, shallower sowings can
be made. During the heat of
summer it will be necessary to
plant deeper, in order to ensure
the seed being placed in the moist
soil.

The Gardener's Seed-bed and
Seed Boxes.

The cultivation of some varie-
ties of vegetables is carried out
with better results when the young
plants are ' raised in seed-beds.
Under this system it is possible
to bestow greater care upon the
plants, and so to encourage quick
growth. Indeed, there are certain
crops that are so delicate in their
early stages that their production
is only possible when seed-beds are
used for their propagation. This
is because it is impossible under
field conditions to prepare such a
satisfactory medium for germina-
tion of the seed as is necessary.
Given those conditions in a seed-bed
or group of seed boxes, it is possible

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 27

to ensure plants of strong growth with good root development, such as are
likely to yield a better and bigger crop than when raised wholly under field
conditions. Seed-beds allow of the greatest possible use being made of all
garden land, as plants can be raised in readiness for transfer to the garden
as soon as other crops nave been harvested.

The soil medium used in the seed-bed or seed boxes should be carefully
prepared by mixing decayed leaf mould or manure from the compost heap
(it is better if sifted) with some good garden loam and a little sand. Such
a, soil will hold moisture well, and is light enough to offer no resistance to
the young plants when germinating. The addition of the mould and sand
will produce a large root development, which is of considerable importance
in the growth of the crop after it has been transplanted.

When the prepared soil (which should be moist) is placed in boxes, it
should be pressed down, care being taken that the edges and corners are well
filled. The boxes should have openings in the bottom to allow of drainage ;
shallow boxes are convenient.

To sow the seed, whether in boxes or larger beds, make very shallow
drills — merely impressions — across the surface of the soil, and sprinkle
the seed evenly along the drills. For light seeding the seeds should be
picked up between the finger and thumb, and slowly dropped with a rubbing
movement. Then shake a little prepared soil over the surface, and press
down firm with a block of wood. A little dry horse manure that is free
from weed seeds can then be sprinkled on the top, to prevent caking and to
act as a mulch. Cover the box with a sheet of newspaper or a bag until the
plants begin to appear, this being the means of retaining heat and moisture.
Once the plants are up, the boxes or beds will need careful watching, and
should be watered as occasion demands. The watering should be done with
a very fine rose and very lightly, so as to prevent the washing of the soil from
the roots and flattening of young plants. The boxes should be on a level
base, so that the effects of watering are uniform.

Certain plants, such as melons and cucumbers, which do not transplant
readily, are sometimes raised in paper pots or veneer bands, or jam tins
prepared for the purpose. Full details of the methods are given in
connection with watermelon culture on page 59.

Hot-beds and Cold Frames.

In order to secure extra early crops, hot-beds and cold frames must be
resorted to. In many of our coastal districts there are localities where frost
seldom occurs, and it is therefore only necessary during the cooler weather to
use arcold frame with a glass cover to secure early plants.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

A cold frame is a simple structure, with either a glass or a cloth top. The
only source of heat in such a case is the sun, and the structure is simply for
the purpose of preventing rapid radiation of heat during the night. It is
useful for mild climates, such as exist on the North and Central Coast, and is
of particular use in hardening off plants which have been raised in hot-beds
and which are about ready to be transplanted. A modified form employed
by the household gardener consists of a pane of glass placed over the seed box

A hot-bed is similar in structure to a glass-covered cold frame, but it is
supplied ,vith bottom heat, either by fire flues or fermenting manures. The
usual method of applying the heat is to make an excavation in the ground

A Suitable Type of Cold Frame.

about 2 feet deep, and to fill it with fresh stable manure which -is thoroughly
tramped down during the filling. The frame (see illustration on page *29) is
then placed over the manure, which is allowed to heat until the temperature
reaches its highest and begins to subside. A light covering of soil is put
over the manure, and on top of this the prepared loam in which the seed is
to be sown. Instead of spreading the loam on the manure in the hot-bed, it
is suggested that seed boxes or " flats " be used and the plants raised in these.
They can then be easily transferred to the cold frame for hardening, and later
to the field for transplanting. If the original seeding has been too thick, the
young plants should be thinned out to allow of full development. Seeding

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

too close produces lanky plants. The thinning may be done when the plants
are in the first rough leaf by pricking out into other prepared seed boxes or
pots.

The watering of seedlings in the hot -bed requires careful judgment. The
mistake most commonly made, especially during the early stages, is the
application of too much water. It is most important that air should be
admitted throughout the day by lifting the sash sufficiently high to allow the
necessary ventilation. During windy weather very little opening of the sash
is needed, and then only on the side opposite to the direction of the wind.
As the plants grow it will be necessary to hasten the hardening-off, and
more air should be given each day until the plants are hardy enough to be
removed to the cold frame, where they will remain until fit for planting in
the open.

Perspective View of Glass Frame for Hot-bed.

^ 3" 0 >j

. Groove here

Section through sashes of above, showing construction.

No doubt many suburban growers have often wondered why tomato plants
that looked so well when purchased from the city shop failed to grow when
planted out. Probably the plants were removed direct from the hot-house to
the shop without being subjected to.any hardening-off.

In the tableland districts, where the temperature is colder, hot-beds are of
considerable use in obtaining early supplies for local requirements, though
it is evident that these districts cannot produce early vegetables for metro-
politan markets in competition with districts where the season normally
favours early production.

30 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining supplies of fresh stable manure for
production of bottom heat in hot-beds, other measures are sometimes neces-
sary. A plan now in use in some districts is that a square ship's tank (400
gallons) . is fitted with an iron grating about half-way down and a small
opening made at the bottom of one side. The seed boxes filled with soil are
placed on the grating, and a coke fire lighted in the bottom, the seed being
sown when the soil has reached a temperature of 60 degrees Fah. In a
case like this it is necessary to exercise great care in the amount of heat
applied at the time of sowing and after.

Transplanting.

In order to allow of as little check to growth as possible it is well to give
every attention to the preparation of the land that is to receive the plants.
The eoil should have been recently stirred to rid it of weeds and to render it
reasonably loose. Before transplanting, the rows should be marked out in
readiness. On small areas a garden line will be found most useful. For the
household plot a board (say 8 or 9 inches wide and of any convenient length)
is useful to stand on, in order to prevent too great a compaction of the soil
<ind the unsightly footprint holes between the rows.

If weather be unfavourable it will be found best to retain the plants in
the seed boxes until the conditions are more suitable. If possible, plant just
before or after rain, or during cloudy weather. Should the days be hot and
the plants too far advanced to be left in the boxes, the latter part of the
afternoon should be chosen for the work, so that the 'cool of the night may
afford an opportunity for the plants to establish themselves. On small areas
it is possible to provide some form of shelter against frost and sun, such as
small bushes, brackenfern, pieces of boards, or even hessian coverings.

In providing this frost-proof shelter it is a convenience to place the stake
,on the southern side, and then to arrange the hessian or other material to
cover the plant completely at night, but so that it can be lifted up on the
northern side in the morning, and the plant exposed to the sun without the
southern portion of the shelter being lifted at all. This arrangement saves
the work of removing the whole covering every morning and restoring it in
the evening.

A quite effective protection against frost can be provided by covering the
plants with wrapping-paper or a couple of thicknesses of newspaper, and
using clods to keep them in place during the night.

Only the strongest plants should be used ; those of inferior growth,
and any that have been damaged should be discarded. The seed-boxes
should be saturated some time previous to the removal, in order that the
plants may retain as much earth as possible about their roots when being

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

31

separated from one another. When the plants have been removed to the
field sprinkle them lightly with water to prevent too great loss of moisture
by transpiration, and keep the roots sheltered from the heat of the sun. In
the case of well-grown leafy plants — such, for instance, as cabbages — -it is
advisable to cut or twist off about one-third of the leaf-ends before planting,
so that too great demand will not be made upon the roots while they are
establishing themselves. If the soil that is to receive the plants is dry, each
plant should receive a quantity of water when Joeing set out.

The best tool for transplanting is a dibber, which is simply a short, pointed
hardwood stick of a little more than the thickness of a broom-handle, and ft
or 7 inches long. When pressed into the soil a hole is made, into which the.
roots of the young plants are put. The soil is then tightly pressed down
with the fingers or dibber, and the surface subsequently loosened to form a
mulch. The plants should be planted deep enough to ensure the roots
coming in contact with moist earth, and in summer it is best to plant a little
deeper than was the case in the seed-boxes. When planting large areas the
work is expedited if the workers are divided into teams of three — two
planting and one dropping the plants just ahead of the two planters. Spread
out the roots of the young plants so that they will come in contact with as
much soil as possible. Machines for planting vegetables have been used in
this State, but do not appear to have created a favourable impression.

A Crop of Broad Beans in an Orchard.

32 VE'.'RT-ABLE dltOWISG /T SEW SOmi WALES.

Vegetable Crops*

In this section, a number of vegetables that are commonly grown in New
South Wales are dealt with in detail. In some cases the cultural methods
are discussed under the heading of one plant, and are not repeated under
other plants of the same class, so that the reader will sometimes find it more
convenient to read the longer article in conjunction with the one on the
subject he wishes particularly to refer to. Thus the fullest information on
the growth of the cauliflower will be obtained by reading the article on that
subject in conjunction with the one on the cabbage.

Sections are also devoted to diseases and pests and methods of controlling
them, and attention may be directed to. the monthly planting calendar at
the end of the hook.

ARTICHOKE (GLOBE).

This plant is a totally different one from the Jerusalem artichoke. It
resembles a very strong-growing thistle, and the head is the edible portion ;
only the thickened base of the flower scales and the bottom of the flower
being eaten. When cooked it has a flavour somewhat resembling asparagus.

The plant, which is a perennial, requires a very rich soil such as is obtained
on alluvial flats or on drained peaty swamps. If grown on upland soils, it
will be necessary to give a heavy dressing of decayed organic matter and a
good deep working.

It is usually propagated by transplanting suckers, but plants may also be
raised from seed. The removing of the suckers from the original plant
requires care, arid it is necessary to detach with each sucker a little of the
root from the parent plant. For this purpose a sharp knife is necessary.
All the suckers should not be taken from the original root, as some are
needed" to produce a crop in place of the old plant when it has died, down.
The suckers are planted singly, 4 inches deep in rows, with 2 feet between
the plants and 4 feet between the rows ; or they may be set in groups of
three. They should be set in n'rmly, well watered, and shaded from the sun
until established. The heads must be cut while still young and tender, or
they will become hard and unattractive.

After the heads have been harvested in autumn, the top growth should be
cut down and the plants given a dressing of stable manure. The soil between
the plants should be kept cultivated throughout the summer. It is necessary
to renew the beds at least once every three years, though under very
favourable conditions they can be made to last longer.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 33

ARTICHOKE (JERUSALEM).

This plant belongs to the sunflower family and grows to a height of 6 to 9
feet, resembling closely in appearance an ordinary sunflower with a miniature
flower. It produces a large cluster of rhizomes or tubers useful for culinary
purposes. (See accompanying illustration).

The Jerusalem artichoke is very persistent in growth, and, if raised in
suitable soil, is difficult to eradicate. Enough tubers, as a rule, are left
each year to continue the crop ; hence it is
wise to set apart a permanent spot for it —
odd corners or waste places of little value
for other crops. It is a crop that requires
little attention once it is established, and is
extremely hardy. While the best crops are
raised on good mellow loams, profitable
yields are secured on stiff clay, light sandy
or gravelly soils ; the land is best suited
where the drainage is good. In fact, any soil
suitable for potatoes will answer for arti-
chokes, but needs thorough cultivation.

The tubers are planted by dropping them
into furrows 3 feet apart, with a space of A cluster of rhizomes.

2 feet between each tuber. If the sets are

small plant whole ; large ones may be cut. Cover by turning a furrow over
them. About 4 cwt. of tubers will plant an acre.

The cultivator should be kept moving between the rows to conserve
moisture and keep weeds in check.

The crop matures in about five months, and after flowering when the tops
droop and die, about April or May, it is ready for harvesting, but should
only be dug .as required. In frosty situations the tops should be left as
protection to the tubers which decay quickly if attacked.

ASPARAGUS.

Asparagus is a branching herbaceous plant, attaining a height of 5 to 6
feet. It is a perennial, possessing a large root-stock and fleshy roots, in
which it stores nutriment to tide it over the winter. It is upon the vigour
of this root-stock and root system that its value depends, for these send up,
upon the return of warm weather, quantities of young sprouts, which are
used extensively as a vegetable. Its period of most active growth is during
the summer, it being dormant throughout the winter.

What are considered to be several distinct varieties are found among the
odible species.
t 97623— B

34 VEGETABLE GROW ISO AV HEW SOUTH WALES.

These are probably the result of differences of soil, climate, and culture.
Of the varieties grown at Bathurst Experiment Farm, Connover's Colossal
and Pride of Brunswick have proved the best. Erfurt Giant, Giant Dutch,
White Mammoth, and Camden Park have also been tried. Among market
gardeners the most popular varieties are Connover's Colossal, Palmetto, and
Barr's Mammoth.

The Soil and its Preparation.

Asparagus can be grown on a variety of soils, in fact any that can be
made into a good garden loam. It thrives best upon sandy loams which are
moderately deep and rich in vegetable matter. River-flat lands that are
moist and well drained are considered ideal. Heavy clay soils, and those
with a hard pan, or any that are cold and wet, should be avoided. Soils

The root-system of a plant of Asparagus — eight years from seed.

containing stones are undesirable as they interfere with the cutting and
cultivation. As asparagus requires all the sun it can get, the land should
have a northerly aspect, and should not be shaded by trees and shrubs. The
crop responds well to irrigation.

Soil which has been worked deeply, manured heavily with farmyard
manure for root crops, and kept free from weeds, is most desirable. The
land should be subsoiled to the depth of from 18 to 20 inches, unless it is
loose and friable to that depth : the old method of trenching to the depth
of 24 to 30 inches is not practicable in field culture, nor is it necessary.
Asparagus is a deep-rooting plant where the conditions are favourable ; the
roots of the 8-year-old plant in the accompanying illustration had gone to

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 35

the depth of 4 feet 4 inches. The land should be thqroughly worked during
the autumn, left to mellow during the winter, and should be again ploughed
and drilled ready for the reception of the roots in the early spring.

The raised bed method, as generally practised in garden culture, is not to
be recommended under Australian conditions, and is only permissible where
an abundance of moisture is ensured. The flat field culture has much to
recommend it.

Raising the Plants.

Fresh seed should be sown in spring in well prepared soil, in rows 2 feet
apart and about 4 or 5 inches apart in the drill. The seed germinates slowly,
and if .previously soaked in warm water for twenty-four hours germination
will be hastened. Cover about 1 inch deep. The land should be well worked
and kept free from weeds. By liberal treatment vigorous yearlings are pro-
duced. In setting out, care should be taken not to expose the roots to the
sun or drying winds. It should be done just prior to their new growth in
the spring.

Only strong-growing plants should be used. Select those that have the
thickest, most succulent and vigorous stems. Choose tall rat&er than shrubby
plantvS. Vigorous yearlings are much to be preferred, but if 2-year-old plants
are used, only those with imperfect flowers which do not bear seed should be
selected ; seed-bearing is exhausting.

Planting Out.

As the beds or fields will, with proper care, last a life-time, it is important
that the planting out be done carefully, and sufficient room be left for root
expansion. In rich, moist soils, drills should be made 4 feet apart each
way, and the roots set in their intersections. In light soils they may profit-
ably be made 5 feet each way. This allows of cultivation both ways, which
is a consideration in the eradication of weeds and conservation of moisture.
The drills should be opened out about 9 inches deep and the roots set in the
bottom, care being taken to keep the crown upward, and to spread the roots
in their natural positions. The crown should then be covered by 2 or 3
inches of soil. If "blanched asparagus " is required, the crown should be
placed about 6 inches below the surface, and if " green asparagus," planting
should be shallower. The natural growth of the crown forces it towards
the surface, and the original depth can be maintained by applications of
abundance of farmyard manure. The drills are levelled by cultivating
towards the plants.

A French Method.

A more economical way of establishing a bed, however, is that known
as the French method, the seeds being sown in the field at once, and the
work of planting out saved altogether. The system is as follows : —

After the land has been ploughed and cultivated, strike out furrows from
5 to 6 feet apart, according to the richness of the soil. The ploughing
should be deep — up to 12 inches if possible — -and it is preferable to plough

36 VEGETABLE GROWING IN JVA'fl' SOUTH WALES.

twice in the one drill, throwing a furrow each way from the centre of the
row. Then work a single-horse cultivator (closed up) in the bottom of the
furrow, to loosen the soil in the bottom of the drills.

Make hills 20 inches apart in the furrow, mixing the soil in each case with
a shovelful of well-rotted, fine manure. Sow four or five seeds in each hill,
and cover lightly with good soil. The hills should then be watered and
kept moist until germination, which will take about three or four weeks.
After germination the plants should be thinned out, leaving only the
strongest plant in each hill.

Keep the soil loose and free from weeds, and, as the plants grow, apply
well-rotted manure and soil, a few inches at a time, round each. The filling-
up goes on steadily (care being taken not to choke the plants) until the
drills are filled.

After-treatment.

After planting out, the land should be kept free from weeds throughout
the summer, and frequently cultivated to conserve moisture. When the
stems turn brown they should be cut down and either carted off or burned
on the beds or fields'. The land should be thoroughly cultivated, and where
possible a liberal application of well-rotted farmyard manure applied ; this
can be more economically applied during winter than in the spring. Early
in the spring the land should be again thoroughly cultivated, and any
artificial fertiliser used should be applied then.

The summer cultivation must be continued each year, as it is most
important. During the summer months the plants are preparing fresh
stores of food in their roots, and require liberal treatment ; neglected plants
are longer in becoming remunerative. In the autumn the steins should be
cut off before the seeds fall, as asparagus seedlings are one of the worst
pests. Where practicable, it would he wise to go through the plants and cut
out all seed-bearing stems rather than cut the whole. Later, the bed should
be treated as during the first year.

Cutting.

Old established roots can be cut for about ten weeks before being allowed
to run up to stem and leaf. Younger roots must be cut lightly and it is
better not to make a cutting till the fourth spring. Throughout the cut-
ting season the small as well as the marketable shoots should be cut clean
away ; otherwise they exhaust the roots, and reduce the marketable output.
The field should be gone over and the shoots cut each day, as the leaf-buds,
which form the tip, should not be allowed to open before cutting.

The method of cutting varies with the demands of the market. If
"blanched asparagus" is required, it should be cut when the tops show
above the ground, and about 8 or 9 inches below the surface ; this system
necessitates the earth being ridged over the crowns. In cutting, care should
be taken not to injure other ascending shoots. For " green asparagus," the

VEGETABLE GROWING IX NEW SOUTH WALES.

37

.shoots are cut when about 7 inches high, cutting about 2 inches below the
surface. An intermediate method is to cut when about 4 inches high, and
about the same distance below the surface ; the product is then half white
and half green. In this State green asparagus is the most popular. After-
cutting, the stalks should be subjected to as little exposure as possible in
the fields. When the dirt has been rinsed off, they should be tied into
bunches with raffia, fibre, or string. If for local market, one string is
sufficient ; if to travel any distance, two are preferable. The stalks should
be graded into different qualities. A bunching appliance will be found
useful in preparing for market. If the bunches are to be kept over night,
they should be dipped in clean water and stood on end upon clean straw
which has been thoroughly wetted.

Manuring.

Asparagus, to be profitable, should be forced, and quick -growing, succulent
shoots should be aimed at. To ensure these, the manuring must be liberal.
Large quantities of farmyard manure mixed throughout the lower layers of

Average bunches of Asparagus grown at Bathurst Experiment Farm.

the soil are not necessary, excepting when required to ameliorate heavy
soils. Fifty or sixty tons of well-rotted farmyard manure to the acre is a
fair dressing, and can be applied most economically after the stems are
taken off in autumn. It should be well rotted previously, to destroy seeds
of weeds. Applications of commercial fertilisers should be made in the
spring, directly after the cutting is finished, and prior to cultivation. Ap-
plications of the following manure have given good results upon many soils : —
250 Ib. nitrate of soda, 400 Ib. superphosphate, and 150 Ib. muriate or chloride
of potash, per acre.

Common salt is now but little used by commercial growers ; the application
of such manures as nitrate of soda and chloride of potash has to some extent
taken its place. Salt is apparently of more use for keeping weeds in check
than as a plant manure.

38

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Asparagus culture has proved a profitable side-line to orcharding in the
Goulburn district — one grower, Mr. F. Stone, getting a particularly good
return. The asparagus is planted in single rows midway between the rows
of trees, and the beds are now a few feet wide. The asparagus is cut in the
morning, and graded, bunched, and packed during the afternoon, so that the
produce is on the Sydney market early the following morning. The bunches,
when tied, are tightened by pushing in a few extra sticks, and are then
placed upright in shallow trays of water, in order to keep them fresh ; each
bunch is carefully scrubbed clean with a brush before packing. When
packing into boxes, moistened paper is placed at the butt of each bunch, and
each layer of bunches is separated by a sheet of moist paper ; consequently
the asparagus arrives at its destination in a very fresh condition.

A prolific Plant.

The growth from a 14-year old plant. The earth has been scraped away to show the number of
shoots since the two days previous cut.

A considerable quantity of asparagus is grown in the metropolitan dis-
trict, chiefly in the vicinity of Mascot, where the soil is of a sandy nature.
The crop is also grown in the Gosford and Camden districts with good
results.

At Mascot the asparagus is planted in single rows either 3 feet or 4 feet
apart, but those distances are considered too close when the plants are fully
grown, and do not allow of earthing up. As the roots cover a wide
surface a large number of shoots are eventually found in the pathways. A
better distance to plant is 5 feet. Usually the pathways between the beds
are filled with long-strawed stable manure to prevent evaporation. The
beds are given an application of salt occasionally.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 39

The cutting of the grass is done with an asparagus knife (usually home-
made), which consists of a few inches of saw-edge on the end of a knife-
blade. A small bread-saw with the end 2 or 3 inches filed and given a fine
serrated edge, acts admirably.

In this locality the bunches, after having been tied with home-grown New
Zealand flax, are made tight by placing a large butt of asparagus, cut wedge-
shaped, into the end of the bunch. This is a practice that should be dis-
couraged in favour of tightening with full sticks. The best " grass " is tied
with two bands. The use of raffia, strips of New Zealand flax, or tape is
recommended, as giving a better appearance than binder twine.

Duration of Beds.

As an instance of the lasting qualities of the crop when properly tended,
it may be mentioned that a small bed of this crop belonging to Mr. Edward
Twynam, of Goulburn, is still bearing heavily, although it was an established
bed when Mr. Twynam purchased the property in the year 1868. This
makes the bed now at least fifty-two years old.

On the other hand, the Chinese growers at Mascot cut the crop for too
long a period each season, and do not allow sufficient top growth for recu-
peration, with the result that the beds remain in cultivation for only a few-
years.

Diseases and Pests.

Asparagus rust (page 92).

BEANS.

There are a number of species of beans, all of which can be grown in
this State. The best known are Broad beans, Kidney or French beans,
Haricot beans, and Lima beans. The first named, which is grown for the
seeds, does best in the cooler portions of the State, or in warm districts as a
winter crop. The Kidney or French beans are esteemed for the edibility of
their pods, and can only be grown in the warm seasons of the year, being
very susceptible to frost. Lima and Haricot beans are grown for their seed,
but must bo treated as summer crops.

The crop is influenced to a considerable extent by the quality of the soil,
a light, shallow soil giving much inferior returns to a rich alluvial one.
Bean plants of all kinds respond readily to dressings of manure, those most
beneficial containing phosphoric acid and potash. As with all other legumes,
there is^ little necessity for nitrogenous manures, but some advantage in the
use of lime. The crop has long been known to farmers as an excellent soil-
renovator, and it is particularly valuable in a rotation.

Farmyard manure cannot always be used with advantage in connection
with beans, its application, particularly on heavy soils, being apt to produce
too much leaf growth at the expense of the crop of pods.

40 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Kidney or French Beans.

The seed should be planted in rows 3 feet apart, and from 3 to 6 inches
apart in the rows, according to the quality of the land, the thicker sowing
being made in the richer soils. They should be covered to a depth of
2 inches. The usual practice is to strike out shallow drills with a plough,
and then to drop the seed by hand at the intervals named. The covering
can then be done with an ordinary light harrow, Some growers have had a
special plate made to fit the maize planter, and sow their seed in that way.
The plate requires to be a very thick one in order to save the grains from
being cracked. Under ordinary conditions, from J bushel to 1 bushel of seed
is required per acre. Seed may also be sown with the -hand seed sower.

Low-lying situations planted to beans require attention as regards drainage.
If this is neglected, the plants become yellow in colour in wet periods or
seasons. The cultivator should be used as often as possible, until the plants
are tall enough to be hilled with the plough. If the weather is dry, or a
heavy downpour of rain pomes, the cultivator can again be used to advantage,
breaking the crust, and also checking any weeds that might spring up after rain.

On land that does not answer to the description " low-lying," the culti-
vation can be confined to intertillage between the rows with a cultivator of
an ordinary type.

In frost-free situations such as are met with in our coastal districts,
sowings cam be made during the winter months, whilst on the Tablelands it
would be t risky to plant before the end of October.

Successive sowings can be made until just sufficient time is allowed to
enable the crop to mature early enough to miss the first frosts of autumn.

Harvesting must commence as soon as the pods are of sufficient size, and
should continue at frequent intervals. If they are allowed to become too
ripe, not only is that particular picking spoiled, but the cropping power
of the plant is considerably reduced. The pods are usually forwarded to
market in full chaff bags, and delivery must be effected as quickly as possible,
in order that the produce may reach the market quite fresh.

There are many varieties of exceptional merit, which may be divided in
three classes, as follow : —

Stringkss. String. Butter.

Bountiful. Canadian Wonder. Brittle Wax.

Stringless Green Pod. Early Refugee. Kidney Wax.

Byer. Pencil Podded Wax.

Startler Wax.
Runner Beans.

This class of bean is grown under similar climatic and soil conditions to
the French bean, though not on such an extensive scale. It is usually sown
in rows and staked, and in gardens it is very useful in covering fences,
thus occupying the minimum of space. As a support for these tall varieties,
wire-netting is often stretched on posts erected along the rows, with a strand
of plain wire to prevent sagging.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 41

In very warm districts, however, wire-netting is apt to become too hot on
days when the sun shines bright and clear, and the vines suffer in conse-
quence; for such conditions wooden stakes must be recommended. Another
common method of growing beans of the climbing class is to put stakes
along each row, sloping them towards each other in. pairs of rows, so that
as the beans grow the}7 climb the stakes and intermingle at the top, each
pair forming a pyramidal mass. Under conditions so favourable as to light
and air, large quantities of pods are produced, and can be conveniently
gathered. Some vegetable gardeners even make use of a couple of pairs of
such rows to afford shelter from winds for more tender crops.

The planting and cultivation in the early stages is similar to that suggested
in connection with the dwarf variety.

The Runner bean that has been most pdpular in recent years is the
Epicure, which is a heavy cropper, producing its bean in clusters. If the
picking is constant, the plant will bear throughout the summer months, and
almost until frost or cold weather cuts it back. Kentucky Wonder is a variety
that can also be strongly recommended. Scarlet Runner is largely grown by
small gardeners.

Broad Beans.

This crop requires heavier land and a better supply of humus and of
nitrogenous manure than the other classes of beans, its growth, in most dis-
tricts, being chiefly made in the winter months. Very good results have
been obtained on heavy clay soil by ploughing fowl manure under during
the early preparation of the land.

Sowing generally takes place during the months of March, April, and
May, though in cool districts the seed is often sown in February.

The method usually adopted is to strike out drills about 3 feet apart in well--
prepared land, and to drop the seeds in the rows about 6 inches apart. The
seeds which are large, should be covered fairly deep — not less than 2 inches.
As evaporation is slow in the winter, broad beans do not usually require so
much intercultivation as the summer beans. They form fairly strong-
growing plants, and if planted in places sheltered from wind should not
require any support.

When the plants begin to flower the tops should be pinched out to promote
the setting of pods. The crop is ready for gathering as soon a? the seed is
large enough, but before the " eye " turns black. The whole pod of the Broad
bean may be used for slicing in the same way as the French bean, provided
the pods are pulled when young. The crop is not grown extensively, its
chief recommendation being its winter habit.

Broad Windsor is the variety most favoured in New South Wales, but the
loner pod varieties are earlier and more prolific. The best of these are
Leviathan, Seville, Early Long Pod, Aqua Dulcie, and Exhibition.

42 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Lima Beans.

There are dwarf and climbing varieties of lima beans, and of these, the
former return the higher yields.

As a vegetable, the seeds are used either fresh or kept for winter use in
the same manner as haricots.

Planting should not take place before the ground has become warm : these
beans do particularly well under fairly warm conditions but will not stand
frost. The best results are obtained by placing the seed with the eyes down,
in drills 4 feet apart for runners, and 3 feet for bush varieties. In the rows
the runner plants should be thinned to about 4 feet apart and the bush vari-
eties to 6 inches. Of varieties, the best runners are King of the Garden,
Leviathan, and Giant Podded, and the bush varieties recommended are Bur-
pees Improved, Bush Lima, and Fordhook Lima.

Haricot Beans.

This class of beans, like the preceding one is largely imported, but there is
no reason why we should not produce locally the whole of our requirements.
The crop has already been grown successfully under the supervision of the
Department at Mittagong.

The method of cultivation is much the same as with French beans, except
that the green beans are not the'object, the crop being allowed to mature its
seed. The late sown crops (approximately January and February in milder
localities) are generally the more profitable, as the beans from early sowings
are subject to the attacks of weevil.

Diseases and Pests.

Anthracnose or pod-spot (page 91); leaf spot (page 102); mildews (page
103); pea-spot (page 104); rust (page 107); sclerotium disease (page 108).

Aphis (page 110) ; eel worm (page 118) ; French bean fly (page I20);pseudo-
looper moth (page 123); tomato and bean bug (page 124).

Bean and pea seeds are attacked by weevils mentioned on page 126.

BEET.

Beet-root is a favourite summer vegetable. It can be grown almost any-
where and on practically all soils, but those of a heavy, clayey nature~are the
least suitable, and good crops of best quality cannot be expected under those
conditions.

Beet has a tap-root, and requires deep working of the soil. Very rich soils
are not altogether suitable, as with this crop extra large roots are not popular.
For the same reason it is well not to over-plant too early in the spring, as if
not quickly used, the roots become too large before the season is over. Smaller
successive sowings will be found to answer requirements much better. The
seed can be planted throughout the year, except during the cold, wet, winter
months. For good quality, the crops should be quickly grown, as otherwise
they become somewhat tough, woody, and coarse flavoured.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 43

The position should be a sunny one, and, for household plots, rows 12
inches apart are sufficient. For commercial culture the rows should be
spaced not less than 15 inches apart, and even up to 30 inches. The seed
as purchased is fairly large and has a corky appearance ; this is really the
seed fruit which contains several seeds. The germination is sometimes
disappointing, but this is mostly due to faulty sowing. Should the surface
soil be dry and light in texture, the seed must be planted deep in order to
reach the moisture, but if damp, a depth of about 1 inch is sufficient. To
get 'the moisture through the corky covering of the seed is always very
difficult, and to overcome this it is usual to soak the seed overnight previous
to planting. Where possible the seed should be spaced about 1 inch apart
in the drills and thinned to at least 4 or 6 inches apart, according to the
variety. When young, the plants can be transplanted if carefully handled
so as not to interfere with the roots, but this course is only recommended
where there are wide spaces in the rows as the result of faulty germination ;
the plants from the thicker portions of the field may then be utilised for this
purpose. The crop needs little attention other than cultivation to keep
down weeds and a sufficient supply of moisture. The roots can be used for
household purposes as soon as they are large enough, but they should not be
forwarded to market until more fully developed. In marketing, neither
roots nor tops should be trimmed.

Great care must be exercised in harvesting, as bruising or breaking of the
tap root is a serious drawback, causing bleeding to take place in cooking,
which leaves the vegetable very pale in colour. The beet is rich in sugar,
and if allowed to bleed a large quantity of this constituent is also lost. In
cooking, if the utensil is large enough it is always advisable to allow the
tops to remain, but if the vessel will not permit of this, screwing off the tops
is preferable to cutting them.

The long varieties are not favoured by housewives on account of the
difficulty of accommodating them in ordinary pots ; for this reason the
turnip-rooted sorts are more popular. Varieties recommended are : — Eclipse,
Egyptian, Crimson Globe, and Electric.

Silver Beet or Silver Spinach.

This is a variety of beet-roo£, the leaves of which have been developed for
culinary purposes. The cultivation is identical with that of ordinary beet,
except that the plant should be spaced at a distance of not less than 15
inches apart. The leaves are used as required, and are boiled and minced
the same as ordinary spinach.

Plants are raised in boxes or seed beds and transplanted to the garden.
The leaves are pulled from the plant throughout the summer, those showing
a broad fleshy midrib being the most suitable.

Diseases and Pests. — This vegetable is attacked chiefly by the same diseases
as cabbage, <fcc. For full list see page 47.

44 -VEGETABLE GROWING AT SEW SOUTH WALES.

BORECOLE OR KALE.

These plants belong to the cabbage family, but do not form a heart
the loose fleshy leaves being pulled from the stem as required. The mild
flavour of most varieties commends this vegetable to many. Providing the
leaves are regularly pulled, the plants are productive over a long season, and
diseases and insect troubles, such a* aphis and " fly," do not trouble them so
much as they do other plants of the same family. The cultivation is similar
to that for cabbage (see below), and the best varieties are Sutton's Al and
Green Curled.

Diseases and Pests. See list attached to cabbage (page 47).

BROCCOLI.

This vegetable is a hardy strain of cauliflower, and should receive the same
cultural treatment (see page 48). Tt is very slow in maturing, however, and
under conditions of intense cultivation, quickly growing crops like lettuce or
certain varieties of turnips are frequently interplanted to make full use of the
ground during the first few months. The best varieties are Adam's Early
White, Late White, Veitch's Self -Protecting, and Walcheren.

Diseases ani Pests. — See list attached to cabbage (page 47).

BRUSSELS SPROUTS.

This voge table is looked upon as a delicacy, and consists of small heads
(like miniature cabbages) formed at the junction of the leaf and stem. The
plant belongs to the cabbage family, but requires a longer season of growth.

Planting is done during the spring and summer months, and the crop
is therefore only suited to localities where water is available during dry
periods. The cooler parts of the State are best suited to its culture ; in the
warmer parts the plant is usually affected by aphis.

The small heads should be gathered when of sufficient size. The heads on
the lower part of the stem become mature first, and as these are harvested
those higher up the stem become fit for use. The sprouts should be severed
from the plant with a knife and not broken off ; it is then possible to obtain
a second crop. The small heads may be marketed in punnets.

The cultivation is similar to that of the cabbage (see below).

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to cabbage (page 47).

CABBAGE.

In spite of the fact that cabbage growing is carried out on large areas in
favourable districts in New South Wales, sufficient supplies are not produced
to satisfy the demand throughout the year ; and other States place large
quantities on our market.

If the market was not subject to gluts, cabbage-growing would be a highly
remunerative undertaking; as it is there are many who are doing well, even
though they have to cart the crop many miles to the railway.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 45

This vegetable has, perhaps, a wider range than any other, being more or
less successfully grown in practically every district in the State. It is
essentially a cool-climate plant, and when grown in the hot districts must
be planted so as to mature before the heat of summer. Nearly any soil will
grow cabbage successfully if sufficient manure and decaying vegetable matter
are added to keep it in good physical and chemical condition. Alluvial soils
and those of basaltic formation will, however, be found most suitable.

The soil should be worked deeply, and any stable manure or compost well
worked in. Should any slow-acting artificial manures, such as bonedust, be
used, it is advisable to work half the quantity into the soil some weeks ahead
of planting.

Good seed is of the utmost importance. Most commercial growers are
fully aware of this fact, and grow selected strains for their own requirements.
Good seed should give a 90 per cent, germination, and should not be kept for
more than three years after harvesting. As there is little difference between
one and two-year-old seed, it is advisable for the grower to buy his supply of
seed one year in advance. This allows of a small portion being planted, so
that its relative value may be gauged one year in advance. Two or three
ounces of seed is more than sufficient to supply plants for one acre.

Raising the Plants.

The best method of raising plants is to sow the seed in drills in the seed-
bed, allowing about four inches between the rows. Plants raised in this
manner are usually sturdy, and differ from the lanky plants obtained from
beds where the seed has been thickly broadcasted. The seed should be sown
thinly, and each ounce of seed should sow a length of about 200 feet.

The seed-bed should be about 4 feet wide, and should allow of half being
weeded from each side. A bed large enough to produce plants for one acre
when seed is broadcasted would be 20 feet long and 4 feet wide. It is always
advisable to put in sufficient seed to raise more plants than are actually
needed. This allows for loss by pests, faulty germination, and the transplant-
ing of healthy plants only.

The young plants should not be forced in the seed-bed and should receive
plenty of light so that stocky plants will be produced.

Under ordinary conditions plants should be ready for transplanting in six
weeks from sowing, cooler weather conditions taking a little longer. If
possible choose a dull day to carry out this work : should the weather be hot
it should be done either early in the morning or late in the afternoon and the
plants given some protection by means of light bush or fern covering.

Distance of Planting.

The distance of planting varies according to the variety used. For the
.smaller varieties, such as St. John's Day, 2 feet 6 inches x 2 feet is sufficient,
and for larger sorts, as Savoy and Succession, 3 feet x 2 feet. If the soil is
of poor quality the plants should be given more room, and should be planted
3 feet x 3 feet. When planted at this latter distance on rich soils there is a
tendency for the plants to become too large.

46 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Manuring.

Soils supplied with an abundance of vegetable matter, such as alluvial
deposits, do not need heavy manuring, even though the cabbage is a gross
feeder and requires a liberal amount of all plant foods, specially nitrogen.
The supply of farmyard manure generally being limited where cabbage
growing is extensively carried out, resort has to be made to artificial mixtures
containing a high percentage of nitrogen.

A mixture of blood, bonedust, and superphosphate in equal quantities,
supplied at the rate of not less than 6 cwt. per acre together with a top
dressing of sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda, at the rate of 1 cwt. per
acre, is productive of good returns.. In top dressing, the manure should be
applied just before the heads begin to form. •

Harvesting.

When the heart is fully developed and does not yield to pressure from the
hand, it is ready to harvest. It is not advisable to allow the mature crop to
stand during frosty or wet weather owing to the danger that the hearts will
crack and quickly spoil. When harvesting cabbage the whole plant should be
pulled up and the stump removed. If left in the ground the stump produces
fresh growth of no commercial value and robs the soil of plant-food.

Varieties.

Succesion (Henderson' s).— This is a very popular variety, and the one most
grown. It is fairly early, has large flat heads, closely packed, carries
well, and is a favourite on the market. It stands the heat of summer fairly
well, and does not run^to-seed quickly. The best all-round variety.

St. John's Day. — This is one of the best varieties for hot climates. It is
very early, produces a firm heart, and is a small cabbage.

Improved St. John's Day. — This is the best of summer cabbages and is
altogether distinct from the small St. John's Day, being somewhat later arid
larger.

London Market. — This is a good main crop variety for autumn planting.

Early Jersey WakefieM.—An early sort, and largely grown in small
gardens. It has ajvery pointed heart, and should be cut as soon as ready
for use, otherwise it will run to seed.

Drumhead.— Earlier than Succession, and a good summer cabbage.

Danish £allhead;— Large, firm headed, and a suitable winter variety.

CopenhogenlMarket. — An early, quick-growing variety.

Savoy.— This^is a very crinkled type of cabbage, having a very dark-
green colour and a distinct flavour. It is especially suitable for the cooler
portions of the State, and is planted in February so as to mature during
autumn and winter, the flavour being considered best after exposure to frost

Pickling Cabbage.— The cultivation of this class of cabbage is identical
with that for thejother varieties. Most of these are red in colour.

VEGETABLE GROWING AY JEW SOUTH WALES. 47

Diseases and Pests.

Black leg (page 93) ; black rot (page 93) ; club-root (page 97) ; downy
mildew (page 99) ; white rust (page 109).

Aphis (page 110); cabbage grub, or diamond-backed cabbage moth
(page 115); cutworm (page 114); eel worm (page 118); Rutherglen bug
(page 123) ; slugs and snails (page 124).

CAPE GOOSEBERRY.

A perennial plant, grown for its berries, which are produced on the new
season's growth. This plant is also known as the husk tomato.

The plants are raised in seed-boxes in the spring, and are afterwards trans-
planted to a distance of about 4 feet x 3 feet. The crop is easily grown, and
the plant is a prolific bearer of berries, which are produced inside a papery
husk. The Cape gooseberry is a plant that will not stand frost, but if
pruned back at the conclusion of the season, and well manured, the heaviest
crop will be obtained in the second year.

On account of their small size, the harvesting of the berries is a costly
operation, and consequently they are sometimes allowed to fall on the
ground before being gathered up. The fruit is useful for jam-making, pre^
serving, tfec.

CARROT.

The carrot is one of the most easily grown vegetables, but is not cultivated
in this State to the extent that it deserves. It is especially suitable to the
householder with a small allotment.

Almost any soil can be brought into a fit condition to grow this crop, but
a deep, sandy loam is best. A fine tilth should be produced, and care must
be exercised in the manuring. Farmyard manure should not be incorporated
with the surface soil just prior to planting, but a plot may be selected
which had been well manured for some previous crop Artificial fertilisers
will prove beneficial, especially on poor soils. A mixture of superphosphate
or bonedust, and sulphate of potash, in the proportions of four parts of the
former to one of the latter, should give satisfactory results arhen applied at
the rate of two or three cwt. per acre, but the quantity required depends
of course, on the richness of the soil. Artificial manures, in conjunction
with a plentiful supply of water, result in early maturity and crispness — the
latter being a most important factor.

The soil should be deeply tilled to allow of the full development of the
roots, and early preparation of the land is recommended. The rows can be
sown fairly close — usually from 12 to 15 inches apart. This permits of
the use of hand wheel hoes for cultivating. The seed can be sown either
by hand or by means of a hand seed-drill, planting to a depth of about half-
an-inch. Fresh seed should be used and may be mixed with sand to allow

4S VEGETABLE G&OW1NG IN HEW SOUTH WALKS.

of a uniform sowing — the seeds have a tendency to stick together on account
of being slightly hooked. After sowing the seed should be firmed in and
then the soil loosened on the surface. If the germination is good it
will be necessary to thin the plants lightly to prevent wedging, and as the
roots develop the larger ones should be removed as soon as they become large
enough for use. By this means the usefulness of the bed is also increased.
A spring sowing should provide carrots fit for use from a few months after-
planting right on throughout the winter. The spring sowings are the most
satisfactory, as the plants become properly established before the hot weather
is experienced. Sowing can, however, be carried out during the summer
months, and with proper care and attention to watering and cultivation,
g6od crops may be obtained. 4 Ib. of seed are required to sow an acre.

The harvesting is a simple matter where the soil is of a light texture, the
crop being very easily pulled out of the ground. But should the soil be at
all compact or hardened or the carrots very long, it will be necessary to
loosen the soil with a fork or* by ploughing a furrow alongside the row.
The crop is usually marketed in bunch form, but may be sold loose by the
bag. For the best returns it is advisable to wash the roots before selling.

For the earliest crop, and on shallow soils, the shorthorn type (Early
Horn or Early Nantes) is preferred ; for main crop, and on deep soils, the
longer varieties are best suited, namely, Intermediate. Altringham, Danvers,
and Manchester Table.

During the cool months the roots may be stored by pitting in sand some-
thing after the method of storing potatoes in pits. It is usual to cut off the
top growth before heaping.

A local firm is now drying carrots and it may pay growers to test the field
culture of the crop for this purpose.

Diseases aid Pests. — In general this vegetable is subject to the same
attacks as cabbage, turnip, «fec. ; for list see page 47.

CAULIFLOWER.

Although belonging to the same family as the cabbage, the cauliflower is
not grown to nearly the same extent. Thie is due chiefly to the necessity feu-
more favourable conditions during the growth of the plant than are required
by other members of the same order.

The cultural directions given for the growing of the cabbage (page 44)
will also be found generally applicable to cauliflower growing, with the
following additions : — The main crop should be planted from -December to
February, and the plants should be set 3 ft. x 2 ft. 0 in. apart, late varieties
requiring a distance of 3 ft. x 3 ft.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

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•50 VEGETABLE GROWING IN 3 EW SOUTH WALES.

Tying.

Owing to the difficulty of determining whether or not the plants are ready
for harvesting the practice of tying the outside leaves over the flower to
protect it from weather influences, is seldom adopted by commercial growers.
Some growers use a different coloured band each day, so that when examining
for fitness for market they can pick out the mature heads by the various
coloured bands. This method is a satisfactory one if the development of the
heads is even.

It is very important that the flower should be kept clean and white.
While the head is small it is well protected by the young leaves surrounding
it, but when the coral head begins to grow rapidly it must be covered in
some manner to protect it from sun and frost. This is usually accomplished
by breaking off some of the largest outside leaves and placing them amongst
the other leaves so as to properly cover the head, or it may be done by
bending over some of the larger inner leaves.

Cauliflowers in the field, cut and ready for carting.

Harvesting.

As soon as any of the plants become fit for harvesting examination of the
field must be made daily, and heads must be cut before they show signs of
the flower stalks breaking away, thus giving the head an uneven, loose
appearance.

The cutting is usually done with a large knife, the plants being cut about
3 inches below the head, keeping all but the outside dirty leaves to avoid
damage in transit. The plants when cut, may be carried to convenient
heaps round the field, or, if the waggon or cart can be taken through the
crop without damaging the growing plants, they may be loaded direct.

The weight of cauliflowers, as marketed, varies with the size, ranging from
fifteen to twenty dozen per ton.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 51

Varieties.

Veitch's Autumn Giant is undoubtedly the chief variety grown. It is a
late variety, with a long stem and large undulating dark leaves. The head ie
large, very white, and well covered by inner leases.

Dwarf Erfurt (also known as Early Erfurt or White Queen) is an early
variety, and is practically the only variety grown by the Long Island (U.S.A.)
growers. It is a plant of medium size, producing a fairly large, solid, heavy
head of good shape.

Snowball. — This variety is a good early sort, and is much favoured in the
Goulburn district. It is a little earlier than Dwarf Erfurt, but not equal to
it in quality.

Early London. — A fairly early variety, grown largely in the metropolitan
gardens.

Diseases and Pests.

In general, cauliflowers are subject to the same attacks as cabbage (for
list see page 47).

CELERY.

Celery is best suited to the cooler districts, where it is possible to i>row
two crops in the year. Good results are also obtained in the warmer areas,
but in these parts it requires to be planted so that the main growth is made
during the cooler months. In the tableland districts, hot-beds are necessary
in raising seedlings for the spring planting ; for summer planting the seed
can be sown in the open.

The crop requires the richest of soil, not only in mineral plant-foods, but
also in organic matter. In the United States of America, where thousands
of acres are planted with this vegetable, peaty swamps are drained and used
extensively for the purpose. In ordinary garden soils it will be found
necessary to trench and apply liberally large quantities of compost (decayed
leaves; sod, &c.) and stable manure. On heavy clay soils it is useless to
attempt the culture of this crop unless previously drained, or the raised bed
system adopted. On newly-drained swamp lands and also on clay soils, a
dressing of lime at the rate of 1 ton to the acre is beneficial. This appli-
cation should be made some months previous to the planting.

The usual method of planting is to sow the seed in seed-boxes, where the
plants are allowed to grow until they attain a height of 3 or 4 inches. The
tops should be then clipped back — an operation again repeated at a later dater
to produce strong, stocky plants. At transplanting it is advisable to
shorten the root growth.

The seed is extremely fine, and takes a considerable time (usually about a
fortnight) to germinate. From three to four months are required from the
time the seed is sown until the plants are ready to transplant.

There are several methods of field culture, namely, trench, level, and level
beds or new celery culture. The main difference in these systems is the
method of blanching the crop.

52 VEGETABLE GROWING IX NEW SOUTH WALES.

Trench-planting. — -In this system the furrows should be set out at a distance
of 4 feet apart, and the plants put in at a distance of 6 to 8 inches in the
trenches. The bottom of the furrows should be loosened and given an appli-
cation of stable manure, and the furrows made wide at the top, so that the
•earth will not fall into them and cover the young plants. On large areas the
double moukjboard plough will be found most useful in making the trenches.

The blanching is done by gradually filling up the tienches as the plants
grow, allowing them to attain a height of 1 foot before commencing to earth
up, and taking care that no soil gets into the heart of the plant. As
the plants develop further bankings can be made. This operation should
alwavs be carried out in dry weather.

Level^planting. — By this method the crop is planted on the ordinary soil
level and allowed to grow to its full height, before commencing to blanch.
The blanching is done by means of boards placed along each side of the rows
when the plants are high enough to show their tops above them. The boards
should be about 1 foot wide, and in lengths of 12 to 14 feet. They are
held in position by means of stakes driven into the soil, and by slats nailed
across the tops of the boards so as to leave H or 4 inches between them at
the top, and a slightly greater distance at the bottom. Where the crop is
blanched in this way the rows are planted at a closer distance — usually 30
inches to 3 feet apart, and self-blanching varieties used.

Level Bed or New Celery Culture. — This method of planting consists of setting
the plants very closely in beds, usually about 6 to 8 inches apart each way.
The beds are made long and narrow, not more than 6 feet wide, so that they
may be weeded from each side. Under such intense culture exceedingly
heavy manuring is necessary, and liquid manure should be applied occasionally.
The plants, when partly grown, form one dense mass, totally shading the soil
in the centre of the bed Towards maturity, the outside of the beds are
boarded up so as to totally exclude the light, and if the plants have been well
grown it will be found that they are as well blanched as if grown in single-
"boarded rows.

It is usual to allow from two to three weeks under both the boarding systems
for the blanching. Other means such as drain pipes, small casks and paper
bands are applicable to small gardens.

When properly blanched the plants can be lifted as required, and after
.any discoloured outer stalks have been pulled off the roots should be trimmed
and washed, and the head tied into bunch form.

Celery is a crop that must not receive a check in its growth, and for this
reason low-land soils, where the water table is not far below the surface, are
suitable for it.

VEGETABLE GROW IS G IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 53

Varieties.

White Plume. — Is largely grown all over the world ; it is characterised by
its silver- white colour.

Solid- White. — Is a vigorous grower with fleshy, tender stalk, which be-
comes yellowish- white on blanching ; one of the best.

Golden Self -blanching. — This is one of the best favoured varieties ; its
stalks have a golden tint, and are easy to blanch.

White Pascal—One of the best winter varieties ; blanches a deep golden
yellow.

Celcriac or Turnip-rooted Celery. — This variety of celery is grown for
cooking purposes, such as flavouring soups, &c. The plant is allowed to make
free growth, and no trouble is taken to blanch it. The root becomes
enlarged, and although stalks are formed they are hollow and bitter, and
unfit for table use.

Diseases and Pests.

Aphis (page 110); celery leaf spot or leaf blight (page 102); early
blight (page 100); eel worm (page 118).

CHILI OR CAPSICUM.

Chilies are easily grown, especially in the coastal districts of this State.

The crop is treated in much the same way as tomatoes, that is the seed is
planted in seed-boxes or beds, and • the plants transplanted. Plant in rows
3 feet apart with 2 feet between the plants in the row. Sandy loams and river
flat lands are particularly suitable.

The pods are, used for seasoning, pickling, and for the flavouring of drinks.
The dried fruit, chiefly of the Bird's Eye variety, forms the base of cayenne
pepper,

The large varieties are milder in flavour and are used for culinary purposes,
especially when filled with finely-chopped me^t or other substances, and served
baked or stewed. i

Bird's Eye and Long Red are the varieties chiefly used for pickling, and
Chinese Giant, Neopolitan,and Ruby King, those used for culinary purposes.

CHOKO.

The choko is a quick-growing climbing plant somewhat resembling the
cucumber, but much more prolific in growth and yield.

The plants are raised from sprouted fruits in the spring, and though at times
slow to start, once established in our warmer climates, they will last for
many years although annually cut down by frost. The best position for
planting is one where moisture is abundant, such as near a drain, and it is
best to support the vines by a trellis or fence. One plant should yield
sufficient fruits for the requirements of the household.

There are two varieties which are of equal value — White and Green.

5i VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

CRESS.

There are two types of cress — land-cress and water-cress. The land-cress
is a very fast growing crop and is utilised as a salad plant — usually in
conjunction with mustard (see page 64).

•Small sowings should be made at regular frequent intervals if a constant
supply is desired. The plant runs to seed quickly, and must be used in the
early stages. During hot weather it should be grown in a shady position ;
for household purposes it is best cultivated in a seed-box.

The crop is most easily grown, and the soil need not be very rich, in fact
wet sand or moss have been successfully used. Where ordinary soil is used,
a strip of hessian is sometimes placed over the surface of the soil, well
watered, and the seed sown on the hessian. This is done to keep the crop
clean.

After sowing, the bed is usually covered unti germination commences
which may be within twenty-four hours after sowing if the temperature and
moisture requirements are favourable. The crop is cut for use when about
2 inches high.

Water-cress, as the name signifies, is an aquatic plant, and the crop is
usually grown in running springs or creeks.

The plant may be propagated by rooted cuttings or by sowing seed. In
the latter case, the seed being very fine should be mixed with sand, and
sown in trenches which are kept constantly moist. When the seedlings
appear, the trenches may be slightly flooded just sufficient to cover the
plants.

CUCUMBER.

The most favourable conditions for the production of cucumbers are a rich
sandy loam and a frost-free situation. The soil should be deeply worked,
and a liberal supply of well-rotted stable manure thoroughly worked into the
hills, which should be placed about 6 feet apart. Plant about eight seeds
per hill and later thin to the three strongest plants. ,

To produce early qucumbers for the Sydney market the seed should be sown
in June or July, in a warm corner with some bottom heat, or in tins or squares
as in the case of melons (see page 59), and when danger of severe frost i&
over the plants should be transferred to the warmest situation available and
protected by covering at night. The plants should be mulched and well
watered if the weather proves dry, and as high winds are prevalent in the
spring the vines should be secured in position by means of pegs, so that they
will not become matted and twisted together.

The fruit should be gathered as soon as large enough and before any signs
of ripening are exhibited in order to allow of the development of the younger
fruits. For market the fruit should be carefully packed in layers, separated
by fine dry straw, in cases having a capacity of about a bushel, and
constructed so as to admit air.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 55

In addition bo the demand for cucumbers for salad there is a market for
cucumbers for pickling ; in this case earliness is not so important, but the crop
is harvested at a much younger stage. It is advisable before planting, to
arrange a contract with some pickle manufacturer, as otherwise it might
prove difficult to place the produce when it is ready.

The varieties that dd best in this State are Apple-shaped (most suitable for
private gardens), Long Green Prickly, White Spine, and Commercial (all
popular in the Sydney J vegetable market), Gherkins (a small variety grown
chiefly for pickle), Fordhook Pickling, and Small Green Prickly (both good
pickling sorts). Guada Bean, a plant recently under public notice and much
boomed, is a species of cucumber but of little value.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to pumpkin (page 74).

EGG PLANT.

The cultivation of this plant is very similar to that of the tomuco. It can
be grown in most parts of the State, but the period of planting is governed
by the seasons. As the plant is susceptible to frosts planting is not usually
made until late spring, when the seed is sown in seed-boxes, and the plants
transplanted as soon as they attain sufficient size. For transplanting the
plants should be spaced 2J to 3 eet apart in rows 3 feet apnrt. Too many
fruit should not be allowed to form on the plant at any one time, and when
they are setting it will be found advisable to pinch off the extremities of the
branches, thus ensuring larger fruit. As the crop ripens it is advisable to
mulch around the plants to retain moisture, and to prevent the fruit from
becoming damaged by resting on the ground.

The varieties recommended are New York Purple, Early Long Purple., and
Black Pekin. There are white varieties, but they are not so frequently grown
as the coloured sorts.

Diseases and Pests. — The diseases of this plant are chiefly those common
to the tomato (see page 89).

ESCHALOT OR SHALLOT.

The eschalot — or shallot — is a plant of the onion family, grown for flavouring,
and eaten largely in its raw state. Single bulbs or cloves should be planted
about 5 or 6 inches apart during the late autumn or winter months. If to
be used green it is lifted when of sufficient size, but if required for use at a
later stage it may remain in the ground until the tops die down in the
autumn, then lifted and allowed to dry, stored, and used as required.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to onion (page 67).

56 VEGETABLE GltOWlNG IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

GARLIC.

This plant is grown for flavouring purposes, but is otherwise of little
culinary use.

The soil and cultivation requirements of garlic are similar to those of
other crops of the onion family. It is propagated either by planting bulblets
or cloves 6 inches apart in rows 1 foot apart, or the- whole bulb envelope,
which consists of about ten cloves, is planted at distances of 1 foot apart. In
either case planting should be very shallow, and may be carried out during
the autumn or winter. Small Red is the variety desired by sauce
factories.

GRAMMA.
See Pumpkin (page 73).

HERBS*

All herbs do exceptionally well in this State, and every householder should
have a few plants of the more important sorts, even if he confines his opera-
tions to growing them in pots. All garden soils will be found suitable for
the purpose. Those plants that are propagated from seed should be raised
in the spring, but where only one or two plants are required it would be
an advantage to buy rooted plants.

For marketing, the tops are either bunched and sold green, or they may be
dried and the leaves separated, in which condition they are in most demand.
Large quantities are annually imported in this dried state, but: as there is a
protective duty of id. per Ib. on imports there is considerable scope for local
growers.

Mint. — This perennial plant requires a situation where there is a constant
supply of moisture, such as a creek bed, &c., where it will spread very
rapidly. The method of propogation is by rooted plants, these quickly send
out underground roots, which can be divided and used for extending the bed.

As grown in suburban gardens mint is harvested green and sold in bunches.

Oils distilled from variecies of mint have high commercial values (spear-
mint <£! per gallon, peppermint 15s. to 18s. per gallon). One local firm alone
requires annually a quantity equal to the product of over 100 acres ; at
present outside sources are depended on for supplies.

English or black mint is the best of the peppermint varieties, and spear-
mint is of a lighter green colour, and longer in the leaf.

Marjoram. — This plant is easily grown from seed, and lasts for many
years.

Parsley. — The seed of this herb is very slow in germinating, and better
results are obtained by sowing in a seed-box containing good quality soil,
and transplanting to the field when the plants are very young, as they form
a very long taproot. Fresh plants should be raised every year.

Sage. — This herb is more in demand than any other in its dry state. The
plant is easily grown from seed, or it may be propogated by root division^
and when established will last for years. Besides the ordinary variety, there
is a giant form known as Mammoth, which has proved of merit.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 57

Thyme. — This herb is easy of cultivation, and may be propagated from seed
or by division of the plants. The two varieties chiefly grown are Broad
Leaved and Lemon Scented.

The gathering of herbs for drying should be done in the height of summer,
just as they are about to bloom, as at that time the plants are at their best
as regards their essential oils. Drying should be carried out immediately
after gathering, under partial shade or in an oven — factors necessary to
preserve colour and flavour. After rubbing the leaves off store in air-tight
receptacles.

HORSE RADISH.

This plant does well in moist situations. It is propagated by rootlets or
pieces of root, and plantings should be made every year to maintain a supply
of useful roots. If large roots are required deeply-worked ground is
necessary. The root pieces are planted in a slanting, almost perpendicular,
position, in rows 2 feet apart and about 1 foot apart in the rows.
Planted in spring the roots may be used the following autumn ; larger roots
require a longer season. If propagated by seed, sowing should take place in
March or April and the crop treated as an annual, being ploughed or dug
the following winter. If allowed to grow as perennials in the same spot the
plants are apt to become troublesome as weeds.

As a culinary vegetable its pungent taste is appetising, and in addition to
its use in a raw state it is employed in making mixed pickles.

KALE.

See Borecole (page 44).

KOHL-RABI.

Kohl-Rabi or turnip-rooted cabbage is grown to a limited extent only in
this State ; its cultivation is similar to that of ordinary cabbage. The
edible portion of the plant is the swollen, turnip-shaped, stem that forms just
above the ground ; this is ready for use about two months after transplanting.
For home use the leaves may be boiled and seived like cabbage.

Two plantings may be made — the first in spring, and the second about
January or February — to mature in late autumn or early winter.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to cabbage (page 47). >

LEEK.

The leek very much resembles the onion in its requirements of the soil
and cultivation. It is largely used in flavouring soups, &c., the stem being
the edible portion. The seed may be sown in seed-beds or boxes in spring,
and the plants transplanted to the field when about the thickness of a pencil.
The seed may also be sown directly in the field, and the plants afterwards
thinned to a distance of about 1 foot apart. The plant requires liberal
manuring as it is a gross feeder.

58 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

In order to blanch the stem the plants are either set in trenches which
are afterwards filled in, or planted on the level and the soil hilled to the
stem. Leeks are usually marketed in bunches. " London Flag " is the best
known variety.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to onion (page 67).

\

LETTUCE.

This crop, which is used extensively in the making of salads in summer
time, grows best on a sandy loam with a high humus content. To procure
good heads rapid growth is necessary, and the crop being a shallow rooter
should not be grown unless there is an abundance of water available. The
soil should be formed into narrow beds about 4 feet wide and raised to allow
for drainage.

Seed should be sown in spring and autumn. Late spring sowings are not
advisable where the plants are transplanted, as the tendency is to run to
seed during the hot months. At that time of the year it is preferable to
sow the seed in rows where the plants are to remain, and to thin out to the
proper distance. Autumn sowings may extend well into the winter months
in favoured localities.

The plants should be set out at a distance of 8 inches to 1 foot apart each
way, according to the variety.

The previous application of well rotted manure to the soil and the later
application of liquid manure will be found beneficial and promote rapid
development of the heads.

There are many varieties of lettuce, and the following are recommended
for their particular qualifications : —

Mignonette and May King. — Small early varieties suitable for household
gardens.

Wayahead, Wonderful or NewT York, Deacon, Neapolitan, Salamander,
and Drumhead are all good varieties, and the best for summer growth.

Big Boston is the best in cooler months.

White Cos and Green Cos — The Cos varieties are upright growers, and do-
not form hearts. It is usual to tie the tops in order to blanch the inner
leaves.

Diseases and Pests. — This vegetable is chiefly attacked by the same
troubles as cabbage (see list on page 47).

V

MARJORAM.

See Herbs (page 56).

MARROW.

See' Pumpkin (page 73).

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 59

MELON.

Like all plants of the cucurbitaceous family, melons are susceptible to
frost, and require rich, warm, and thoroughly well-drained soil.

Soil and situations favourable to the production of maize will suit melons
admirably. They also do pretty well on sandstone ridges, but their culture
in such places should be limited to domestic purposes. Where melons are
grown for market they should be planted in the open, where they can at all
times during the earlier stages of growth, receive cultural treatment in the
way of checking of weeds and conservation of moisture.

Owing to the ease with which all plants of this family are cross-fertilised
at the flowering stage by the agency of bees and other insects, it is difficult
to maintain purity if more than one variety is gro«vn.

Water-melons. — For market purposes melons of fair size, with firm flesh and
good keeping qualities are preferred. The best-known varieties possessing
hese qualifications are Tom Watson, Cuban Queen, Ice Cream, Kolb's Gem,
and Kleckley Sweets.

Rock Melons. — Many of the most delicately-fleshed rock melons are bad
carriers. Elongated, delicate varieties are not as profitable for market
purposes as the globular-shaped, firm-fleshed types, of which the most popular
are Rocky Ford (or Netted Gem), Hackensack Early, Fordhook, and Spicy
Cantaloupe.

Preserving Melons. — There are a number of varieties of preserving or pie
melons which are in considerable demand for jam-making, and also for juicy
stand-by fodder, Citron being a well-known and generally approved variety.
Large overgrown specimens are not as suitable as the medium sized for jam

Cultivation of the Water-melon.

It is important in connection with melon culture that planting should
be early, more especially where melons are being grown for commercial
purposes, so that the fruit shall be available at the season when it is most
desirable — -the height of summer.

Various devices are adopted for germinating the seeds early and ensuring
that the young plants shall suffer no check when being set out. Some
successful growers collect old jam and other tins, and after melting off the
tops and bottoms, arrange them, filled with fine mould, in shallow boxes or
trays. A couple of melon seeds are sown in each tin very early in the season,
and the boxes are placed in some warm and sheltered place. By the time,
the season is sufficiently advanced to permit of safe planting in the open the
plants are a fair size, and can be readily set out. With a little cafe the tins
can be slipped off without interfering with the roots.

A variation of this system is in use in parts of the United States, where
the seed is sown in what are , descriptively called "dirt bands." Thin stripg
of waol venesr, 3 inches wids and 18 inches long, are scored at intervals of
1 in^Vm. so that they cm b3 bant witho it breaking, and are folded into

60

VEGETABLE GROWING IX NEW SOUTH WALES.

squares so as to resemble a small strawberry punnet without the bottom. These
squares are placed close together in a hot-bed, and filled level with fine
rich soil. With a block of wood shaped for the purpose the soil within the
squares or bands is pressed until it is -i- to 2 inch below the top. If only
part of the soil is put in first and pressed down firmly, and the balance is
then added and similarly treated, a more compact square of soil is obtained,
which will hold together better during transplanting. Unless the soil was
very moist in the first instance the bed is then thoroughly wetted. Next,
three seeds are placed in each square, and covered with enough tine, loose soil
to bring all level again with the tops of the bands. The last layer is not
firmed.

Koib's Gem Water-melon.

The hot-bed for melon plants should have full exposure to light, and be
maintained at a high temperature — about 85° Fah. during the day, and 60°
to 70° at night. As much ventilation should be given as the weather will
permit, and care exercised to avoid over-watering.

As soon as the plants are started they are thinned to two in each square
by cutting off the weakest with a sharp knife. When they are about 4
weeks old from planting they are deemed large enough to transplant to the

VEGETABLE GROWING L\ XEW SOUTH. WALES.

61

field. The bed is thoroughly watered, and the band?, enclosing their masse*
of earth and plant roots, are lifted by means of a spade placed on a'flat
surface, and carried to the field, where they are set out with the aid of a flat
trowel, care being taken that the bottom of each square is in close contact
with the soil of the hill. The band is then removed, and fine, moist soil is
drawn in and firmed against the little square.

Cuban Queen Water-melon.

For the production of water-melons on a commercial scale a warm*climate
and an assured supply of moisture are essential; for market purposes, there-
fore, the crop is practically limited to the coast or to areas in the west that
can be irrigated.

Melons respond to a liberal supply of farmyard manure, worked in and
about the hills. Where this is unobtainable a mixture of artificial manure
containing superphosphate, bone-dust, and blood, in equal parts, and applied
at the rate of 2 to 4 cwt. per acre, is useful.

62 VEGETABLE GROWING IN. NEW SOUTH WALES.

In field culture the usual practice is to strike out furrows with the plough,
say 10 feet to 15 feet apart, according to the soil conditions. Hills are
worked up in the furrows 6 to 8 feet apart with ordinary or pronged hoes,
and the seed placed under the surface, or the plants set after having been
raised as described above. If seed is planted out at once, plenty should
be used to allow for losses. Some farmers throw a few handfuls of dry
farmyard manure oil the top of the hill, so that the soil will not cake.

The land is cultivated between the rows as long as the vines will permit,
after which they are left to themselves.

Melons are usually marketed in open trucks, without either bags or crates.
Large numbers of melons, grown on the banks of North Coa*st rivers are
marketed without any packing, the growers simply taking the precaution of
scratching a brand on the rind.

In the case of home-grown crops greater care is taken in preparing the
hills, more manure being used, and the p]ants being specially treated with
liquid manure.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to pumpkin (page 74).

Rock-melon Culture.

A good stiff loam that responds well to cultivation has been found to be
the best soil for this crop. It should be broken up about June, left until
early Spring, and then brought into condition.

A method of raising early crops that has been successfully adopted by some
growers is as follows : — Holes are dug about 6 feet apart in drills which are
about 9 feet apart, and a quantity of poultry manure, which has been
thoroughly decomposed in a pit or trench during the previous year, is thrown
into them. This manure brings the soil in the holes into a very favourable
condition for growing the melons, and the seed is then planted into it.

As early crops are desired the seed is shot before sowing. This is done by
soaking it for twenty-fc-ur hours and placing it in a bag, which is again
placed in a bag of chopped up green-stuff. The heat generated by the
fermenting green-stuff causes the seeds to send out its shoots rapidly, and as
these are naturally very brittle great care must be taken of them when
planting.

Hock-melons may also be grown by the same methods as water-melons,
and the same devices used for transplanting.

Cultivation between the rows should be carried out systematically, and for
as long as it is possible without damage to the plants, which are delicate, and
easy of injury.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to pumpkin (page 74).

MINT.

See Herbs (page 56).

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 63

MUSHROOM.

For the successful culture of mushrooms it is essential that the crop be
grown either in very rich " made " soil or in a prepared manure bed, and in
a temperature that does not exceed 86 degrees Fah., and does not fall below
50 degrees Fah. This second condition is obtained by making use of cellars,
disused tunnels, old houses, &c.

Having obtained a suitable place, the bed must be prepared. Its chief
constituent should be good horse manure that is fairly free from long
straw, but several mixtures may be employed— (a) a mixture of earth and
manure, (b) horse manure with no earth, (c) cow manure and horse manure
are also sometimes used, being mixed in equal quantities.

Where earth and manure are used, it is quite usual to mix a fourth or fifth
part of good soil with manure fresh from the stable. The process of fermen-
tation is then slower, and the heat more constant.

When manure only is used, the bed must be properly prepared, as stable
manure ferments quickly, and produces a degree of heat that is unsuitable for
the purpose. The method usually employed is to mix the manure thoroughly,
so as to make it of even character throughout, place it in square heaps about
3 feet high, and then beat or tread it down well. If it is a little dry it should
be moistened somewhat, and then left to ferment until the heat has increased
to such an extent that portions of the manure in the centre begin to turn
white, which usually occurs in about a week. It is then necessary to break
the heaps up and remake them as before, care being taken to place the material
that has been on the outside of the heap at first in the centre when it is
remade. Within a few days fermentation will have again increased so
much that it will be necessary to remake the heaps a second time. After
this treatment the manure will become a brown colour, and somewhat greasy.
It will be found that, in order to obtain the necessary consistency, the heaps
must not be of less size than a cubic yard.

When in the required condition, the manure should be made into beds
about 2 feet high and 2 feet wide, and should have a flat surface, or, if
made against a wall they may slope from the wall to the floor. Beds are
.sometimes made in old tubs or half-casks. In any case they should be
firmed, and allowed to remain a few days in that condition before spawning.

The correct time for spawning is when the temperature is about 78 degrees
Fah., and it is important that this should be determined with soine
accuracy. A thermometer should be used, a pointed dairy thermometer
being useful for this purpose.

The spawn is sold in brick form by leading seedmen. For some days before
spawning these bricks should be kept in a moderately warm, moist place,
so as to stimulate the mycelium of the fungus. Sometimes they are moistened

64 VEGETABLE GROWING 15 NEW SOUTH WALES.

on each side and spread out between a couple of beds. Before use, the brick
should be broken up into pieces about 6 or 7 inches long, 2 inches wide, and
1 inch thick. Each piece is then inserted lengthwise in the bed and flush
with the surface, in openings that have been made with the hands at
distances of about a foot apart each way. Usually in beds 20 to 24 inches
wide there are two rows, the pieces in one row being opposite the spaces in
the other. The manure must be carefully heaped over and pressed round
each piece, so that it is covered to a depth of about 1 inch.

If the conditions are satisfactory, the spawn should commence to grow in
about seven or eight days. At the end of that time, any pieces that have not
commenced to produce white threads connecting with the surrounding
manure should be replaced by fresh ones. In a fortnight or three weeks after
spawning, the spawn should have spread throughout the bed, and should begin
tb show itself at the surface. At this stage the pieces of spawn should be
withdrawn, or they will become mouldy and- soil the mushrooms in their
immediate vicinity. The empty openings should be carefully closed by
pressing down the surrounding soil or manure. The top and sides of the bed
should then be covered with a layer of about half an inch of light loamy soil
which is in a fairly moist condition, and lightly pressed down. When the
surface becomes dry, light waterings should be given.

It may be explained that the white threads are the foraging portions of the
fungus, but it does not usually produce mushrooms until it comes into contact
'with some medium less favourable for its growth than the manure ; hence the
covering of soil.

Within a few weeks of the last operation the mushrooms should appear,
and should continue to yield for two or three months. The watering of the
bed is usually done with liquid manure, or water containing some nitrogenous
fertiliser, such as nitrate of soda, and the temperature of the liquid should be
between 70 and 80 degrees Fah. Do not water the beds too freely ; damage
is often done this way.

Beds made in open places that are exposed to changes of temperature need
to be covered with straw.

MUSTARD.

This crop grows at an exceedingly fast rate, and although usually grown
as a field crop for its seed or as a green manure, it is also used in the early
stages of growth as a salad crop, or later, the top growth may be boiled as
are other greens. Very little is grown in this State for vegetable purposes.

The crop is usually grown in conjunction with cress (see page 54). As only
small quantities are required at a time, it is better to make continuous
sowings at regular intervals. Seed-boxes can be successfully utilised for
growing this crop.

Seed should be sown in shallow drills, and every attention given to an
ample supply of moisture. The variety usually grown is known as White,
and its leaves are pulled as soon as they are large enough,

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

65

NEW ZEALAND SPINACH.

This plan*; is not botanically related to the common spinach, but it can be
planted in the spring to provide greens for use throughout the summer when
the other vegetable cannot be grown. The plant is hardy, and given a good
soil and water supply will make quick growth. It should be allowed to
attain a fair size before cutting off any of the end growths, which are the
edible portions. With this treatment numerous new shoots will be sent out
and a constant supply kept up throughout the summer. The plants will
grow to a fair size, and should be planted not less than .2 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in.
apart. If not kept within bounds it is likely to become a weed.

ONION

A large quantity of onions is annually imported from other States for sale
in our markets. Local production could be considerably increased ; the plant
is easily grown, providing the soil is of fair quality and good methods of
cultivation are adopted. The chief point to be observed is that the ground

Onion Seed-bed.
PI ,nts ready for transplanting.

66 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES

must be kept free from weed growth ; once weed seed has been worked out
of the ground, little trouble will be experienced, as fresh infection may be
easily checked. Onions can be grown on the same ground year after year, as
the crop does not exhaust the soil as most vegetables do, and is particularly
free from disease. Where artificial manures are required, a mixture of equal
parts of superphosphate and bonedust at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre will be
found useful.

The most suitable soils are well-drained, fertile loams, the heavier class of
soil generally producing good-keeping bulbs which take a little longer to
mature than those grown on lighter loams. On sandy soils, a quick-maturing,
thinner-skinned bulb is produced, which does not as a rule keep so well.

As a field crop, onions should not be grown in larger areas than can be
properly tended, owing to the large amount of hand-labour that is required.

The ground should be well worked and in good condition for this crop.
The seed can either be sown in seed-beds and the plants transplanted to a
distance of 4 to, 6 inches apart in rows with 15 to 18 inches between them,
cutting and pinching back the tops and roots when doing so, or else may
be sown in drills direct in the field, and the plants afterwards thinned.
Seed should not be sown deeper than one inch.

In all cases it is important that the seed should be firmed in, otherwise
germination may be very slow and irregular.

In the warmer districts seed may be sown from March to August ; the
plants from later seedings do not form up well in the warm months. On the
tablelands the main crop is best sown in April and May. From *2 to 3 Ib.
of seed is sufficient to plant an acre, and as onion seed quickly loses its1
vitality it is important that only fresh seed be sown. All cultivation should
be shallow owing to the roots being close to the surface.

\

Harvesting.

Onions take from six to seven months to completely develop. Bending
the stems over is a great aid to ripening. When the tops are withered
and are dry and crisp, the bulbs should be lifted ; the plants are simply
pulled by the hand, three or four rows forming one windrow. They should
be allowed to remain in the sun for about five to seven days, the length
of time depending on the weather, but they should not be allowed to
scald. If the weather is wet it may be desirable to take the bulbs under
cover, spreading them out in an open dry shed and turning them occa-
sionally. Some growers adopt the method of bunching and suspending
tnem. Before bagging, the tops and roots should be trimmed off, leaving
about an inch of the top on the bulb ; sheep shears are very suitable for the
purpose. Great care should be taken not to bruise any of the bulbs, for
decay sets in quickly. Storage is best effected in cases, in a well-ventilated
shed. Under fair conditions a yield of 4 to 6 tons per acre can be expected.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 67

Varieties.

Those recommended are Hunter River Brown Spanish, Brown Globe,
Yellow Globe, Market Model, Danver's Ailsa Craig, and Silver Skin. The
small bulbs of the last variety are largely used for pickling.

Diseases and Pests.

Cutworm (page 114) ; eel worm (page 118) ; onion blight or downy mildew
(page 99) ; onion maggot (page 120).

PARSLEY.

See Herbs (page 56). .

PARSNIP.

As the parsnip is a deep-rooting plant it is obvious that a deep soil is the
most suitable. Even where the soil is of a shallow nature, the crop can be
grown supcessfully, provided that the land be deeply worked. A sandy loam,
if not too light in character, is the best class of soil, but fair results can be
obtained in "almost all soils with proper methods of cultivation.

Manuring of the surface soil with organic fertilisers immediately pre-
vious to planting is apt, as is also the case with carrots, to cause branching
and distortion of the roots, thereby making them unsaleable. Hence, a good plan
is to work parsnips into a rotation so as to follow a heavily manured crop,
such as cabbages. When planted in the spring, the parsnips are ready for
use in early autumn, but, if so desired, can be left in the ground throughout
the winter. It is usually considered thait a frost before harvesting improves
the quality of the vegetable.

Sowing during the hot months of the year is not likely to succeed to the
same extent as the spring sowing, as, in the latter case, the young plants
have a chance of becoming firmly established before the hot weather sets in.

Owing to its poor germinating qualities the seed should be sown very
thickly. Jt is planted in rows 15 to 18 inches apart, covered to a depth of
about 1 inch, and then well firmed in the soil. The thinning of the crop,
when necessary, is different to that of carrots, and should be carried out in
the one operation as soon as the young plants are of sufficient size. A dis-
tance of 3 or 4 inches should be left between the plants. The tops will
quickly make a strong growth, and the only attention required will be the
keeping down of weeds and a thorough cultivation between the rows during
the early stages of growth.

On deep soils this crop lends itself to field practice, and under these
conditions from 6 to 8 Ib. of seed per acre will be sufficient to obtain the best
return. The seed must be fresh.

68 VEGETABLE GROK'IXG IN v#IT >OUTH WALES.

The crop is harvested as required, and if the land is needed for other
crops storing in pits in a cool situation will be found quite satisfactory. For
lifting, it will usually be found necessary to loosen the ground with a fork.
For marketing, the roots should be washed, and may be bunched or forwarded
loose in bags. It is always advisable to grade the produce.

The most popular variety is Hollow Crown, but Student is also largely
grown.

Diseases and Pests.

Cutworm (page 114) ; eelworm (page 118); white rust (page 109).

PEAS.

The popular garden pea can be grown in almost any part of New South
Wales, though allowances must necessarily be made for climatic and other
conditions in considering the proper time to plant.

The pea plant itself is not subject to frost, though an inopportune
"freeze" at flowering time will destroy the pollen, and therefore the capacity
of the plant to set its pods, and will even damage the pods while in their
tenderest stages. Young pods that have been frosted, and that are unlikely
to develop, may be distinguished by H characteristic white mottled appear-
ance on the outside skin. The pea is naturally a cool-climate plant, and little
success can be expected from it in the height of summer, except in cool
elevated districts.

A sandy loam is most suitable for the crop, but almost any soil of fair
average quality will yield good results. As with all legumes, the supply of
nitrogen in the soil is a matter of less moment than that of phosphoric acid,
potash and lime, and hence it is that in some localities dressings of fertilisers
that contain -the last three have a material effect upon the yield. The crop,
has the strong recommendation that in addition to yielding profitably, it
contributes to the fertility of the soil for the purpose of subsequent crops by
increasing the store of nitrogen, and by enabling the gardener or farmer to
add to it a considerable quantity of top-growth of 'a kind than humifies
readily when turned under, It does well on newly-broken land, and can be
used as a preparation crop ; indeed, there are some farmers who own a
decided preference for it as a first crop in their own district.

In coastal districts, planting may be made as early as March in frost-free
situations, and continue till October, vhen the crop for the Christmas market
may be sown.

On the -tablelands, plantings are made from September to a time — usually
December — likely to catch the Easter market.

Sowing, Cultivating and Harvesting.

The water requirements of a crop of peas are considerable, arid the pre-
paration of the soil should be commenced early enough to enable a supply of
moisture to be stored. The land should be cultivated as required to conserve
all rain that falls, to destroy weeds, and to produce a good tilth in which
the roots will find favourable conditions.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 69

Both the maize drill and the wheat drill can be used for planting the seed,
but in the latter case sufficient of the feeders must be closed up to obtain the
proper distances between the rows. It is much the more common practice,
however, to open up shallow drills, drop the seed by hand, and cover to a
depth of about 2 inches by means of a barrow, light cultivator, or hand hoe.

Where hand sowing is carried out the sowing box will be found useful (see
illustration, page 17). It is a good plan to plant two rows at a distance of
6 to 9 inches apart, and to leave a space of 2 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. 9 in. between
each pairs of rows. The seed should be planted 2 to 3 inches apart. This
system of planting assists the plants in maintaining themselves in the soil
and is productive of heavy yields. About one bushel of seed will sow an
acre.

The most suitable artificial manure for peas is a mixture of equal parts of
superphosphate and bonedust applied, at from 1 to 2 cwt. per acre.

In picking, the pods should be gathered immediately they fill ; if left on,
they prevent to an extent the proper setting of immature pods. Peas are
generally marketed in bags of a convenient size.

Varieties.

The dwarf varieties are chiefly grown for market, and are quicker 411
maturing than the tall-growing kinds ; the latter are generally bigger-
podded, and require staking. Those recommended are William Hurst and
Hundredfold for early crops ; and for the main crop, Richard Seddon,
Nottingham Defiance, Yorkshire Hero, American Wonder, Stratagem,
Daisy, and Duke of Albany.

Yorkshire Hero is the standard main crop variety. Other varieties, such
as American Wonder, Richard Seddon, and Nottingham Defiance should be
largely grown for market as they have proved very suitable. Duke of
Albany is about the best of the tall-growing sorts.

Diseases and, Pests.

Cutworm (page 114) ; eelworm (page 118) ; mildews (page 103) ; rust (page
107); weevil (page 126).

POP CORN.*

Pop Corn is a home delicacy which is greatly enjoyed by children. The
cultivation, manuring, preparation of the soil, and planting, are similar to
that given for sweet corn (see page 77).

The pop corn plot should be sown at least three weeks before or after any
other corn, such as sweet corn, as intercrossing easily takes place if flowering
occurs at the same time, to the detriment of both crops.

The corn should be allowed to mature thoroughly on the stalk and should
then be allowed to dry thoroughly before shelling. At least a couple of
months should elapse after harvest before the corn is tit to pop.

*H. \Venholz, B.Sc. (Agr.), Inspector of Agriculture.

70 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

For popping in the home an ordinary frying pan is used and it should be
shaken from side to side over a brisk fire with the corn just covering .the
bottom of the pan. It is preferableN'to have a lid on the pan.

After popping a sprinkling of salt and a coating of butter, chocolate, or
syrup, will improve the flavour considerably.

The varieties recommended for the home garden are Black Beauty, Queen's
Golden, Mapledale Prolific or White Pearl, and White Rice.

POTATO.

Of her annual consumption of potatoes New South Wales produces only
approximately one-half. An ample market, then, awaits the local grower
at his very doorstep, and with rising freights our growers should more easily
compete with the produce of other States. It will be essential, however, for
him to supply graded produce.

Potatoes can be grown successfully on many soils. Sandy loams, loams,
or friable clay loams are most suitable. Light sands and heavy clays are
unsuitable, but not impossible. Sandy' soils are earlier than clay ones.
Small areas worked properly will give better quality potatoes and higher
returns than large ones farmed " anyhow." It is true that good crops are
often obtained even when planted under the sod ; it is also true that the
same methods on cropped lands will spell failure.

The supply of humus or organic matter in the soil must be maintained,
and in some cases increased, to obtain proper soil texture and water-holding
capacity, both so important in producing maximum crops. Organic matter
is applied either as a green manure or in the form of farmyard manure ; but
as the latter encourages u scab," its application is advisable some time before
planting. Continuous cropping with potatoes is ruinous ; rotation means
better crops and less disease. Deep working of the ground — say, 8 inches —
in autumn is recommended, and early spring cultivation is necessary to
conserve moisture and bring the soil to the proper tilth.

The result of this preparation is that the soil is in such good condition
when sowing time arrives, that it is unnecessary to wait for rain before
planting the seed. The grower is thus able to start with the knowledge
that he is sowing at the right time, and that he can sow the whole area
at once. It is well known that cut seed cannot be sown in a dry seed bed
because the seed dries out, and poor germination and a patchy crop result.
If, however, preparations have been made in the way advised, there is
usually ample moisture in the soil.

Selection and Treatment of Seed.

Quality of seed is important. Select the best — continual selection will
increase the yield. " Pig " potatoes or culls should on no account be used
for seed.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

71

The treatment of seed is also important ; variety and treatment often
assert a greater influence on the yield than cultivation and manuring. Seed
exposed to light and air is better than that taken direct from the pit. Where
early crops are grown, more especially on the coast, the question of "boxing"
the seen in autumn should receive consideration. This treatment causes a
greening of the tubers, and develops short, sturdy, green shoots which are
not easily broken off. In addition to this, the crop gets an early start, and
there is less loss in storage.

On coastal areas seed from cooler districts should be obtained at least once
a year. Immature seed is considered better than mature, and to this fact
is attributed some of the superiority of cold-country seed. If a seed is cut,
the sets should be as uniform as possible ; the number of eyes in the set has
not the same influence on the production as the size of the set. The sets
are dropped 12 to 18 inches apart in drills 27 to 30 inches apart, and after-
wards covered 4 inches deep. The manure should be dusted along the
furrows in which the sets are planted.

Manurial Recommendations.

The following, based on financial results from farmers' experimental plots,
are manurial recommendations for various districts : —

District.

Manure recommended per acre.

Approximate

cost
per acre.

North Coast j 2 cwt. superphosphate

or
j \\ cwt. superphosphate and 1£ cwt. bonedust

North Coast Plateau..] H cwt. superphosphate and 1^ cwt. bonedust

South Coast ! 2 cwt. superphosphate and \ cwt. sulphate of potash

Northern Tablelands..

Central Tablelands ..

2 cwt. superphosphate and \ cwt. sulphate of potash,

on sandy soils !

2 cwt. superphosphate on clay soils

\\ cwt. superphosphate and \\ cwt. bonedust

12/-

221-
221-

271-
12]-

Southern Tablelands.. j 1 cwt. superphosphate, 1 cwt. bonedust, and £ cwt.

sulphate of potash 30|-

Time of Planting.

x The time of planting varies with the district. On the coast two crops
are grown, the first being sown from June in the far north, to September
in the south. This crop usually realises high prices, because it generally
comes on a bare market. The second crop is usually planted in February
and harvested during the winter, when' potatoes are cheaper. Seed for this
crop is obtained from the spring crop.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

On the tablelands the main crop is planted during October and November.
A few growers plant in September for early use, but the risk from frost is great.

The amount of seed required to plant an acre is approximately 10 cwt. —
more or less according to size.

Hilling.

Towards flowering time the rows should be slightly hilled to protect the
tubers from sun-scald, frosts, and potato moth.

New tubers always develop over the older ones, and as they become large
they will push out of the soil until perhaps half out of the ground if no
hilling is done.

At the same time the hilling should not be excessive^ as it increases the
tendency of the soil to dry out, ancl also is apt to damage the roots between
the rows.

Hilling is a preventive of rot during outbreaks o£ Irish Blight, inasmuch
as the increased thickness of soil over the tubers to a large extent prevents
the washing of the spores from the foliage on to the tubers.

Varieties.

There are many varieties of potatoes, but a selection may be made from
the list hereunder, which should satisfy any condition or market *. —

Coastal Districts. — Early Manistee, Satisfaction, Manhattan, Up-to-

Date, Carman No. 1, Factor, Brownell's Beauty.

Tableland Districts — Satisfaction, Early Manistee, Manhattan, Carman
No. 1, Brownell's Beauty, Up-to-Date, Factor, Queen of the Valley
Surprise, Coronation, Magnum Bonum. The last four can only
be grown for the main crop, as they are very late in maturity.

Lifting and Storing.

For the harvesting of the crop, machines have only proved satisfactory on
free-working, sandy soils. Digging is mostly done by hand, at a contract
rate of about Is. 6d. per bag, according to crop.

The early coastal crop is lifted as soon as the tubers are large enough and
firm enough to carry ; at this time the haulms are green, but the lower leaves
are yellowing off. Main crops are dug for storage when the haulms have
died off, and the sooner they can be dug after reaching that stage the better.
If left until midwinter, the weather is disagreeable and much time is lost,
while digging is heavier and the tubers do not clean.

Table potatoes are usually stored through the winter in pits. The con-
dition of the potatoes at pitting time is important. They should be as dry
as possible, and if the ^weather permits it is advisable to eave the pits
covered with straw only until sweating has subsided, when earthing-up may
be completed and drainage provided.

Diseases and Pests.

Dry rot (page 100) ; early blight (page 101) ; eel worm (page 118); Irish
blight (page 101); potato moth (page 120); scab (page 107); wire-worm
(page 127).

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 73

POTATO ONION.

This is a class of onion that multiplies by forming a cluster of bulbs or
"cloves" around the original set. It is easily grown, and its cultivation
does not require the raising of plants from seed. On "account of its mild
flavour, it is sometimes preferred to the common onion. Sets or cloves are
planted in autumn, and may be used as green onions in early summer, or
allowed to mature, which usually takes about six months.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to onion (page 67).

PUMPKIN.

Seeds of the pumpkin family require a soil temperature of about 80 degrees
Fah. for a successful germination. Sowing should therefore not take place
until the late spring. The soils most suitable are those containing a good
supply of vegetable matter. They should not, however, be too rich, as this
tends to produce a great growth of vine, and few fruits.

Should artificial manures be used, a mixture of equal parts of superphos-
phate and bonedust is advised. Artificial or farmyard manure should be well
distributed for some distance round the hills, as the plants send out their
roots many feet away from the. main stem in search of plant-food.

About 2 Ib. of seed is required to plant an acre, except in the case of some
of the varieties of squash which have small seed. Two-year-old seed will
often be found to produce better results than new seed, which has a tendency
to produce plants inclined to run too much to vine.

The seed should be sown in hills 8 feet apart each way for running
varieties; for bush varieties of marrows and squash, about 6 feet each way
will suffice. About six to eight seeds should be planted in each hill and
later thinned to two or three strong plants. Weed-growth should be kept in
check until the plants cover the ground,

In order to secure a good setting of fruit early in the season, when, as is
often the case, bees are not numerous, it is advisable to hand-pollinise the
female flowers so that fruit may be set. This is done by taking a flower
containing the pistil and dusting ripe pollen from it on to the organs of the
female flower shortly after the blossom opens. When the crop is setting it is
advisable to pinch back the runners, to throw the strength of the plant into
the production of fruits. Some of the varieties of squash are very early and
mature in a couple of months ; others take five or six months.

Storage.

The keeping quality depends largely on the degree of ripeness. It will be
found that if left until it is difficult to pierce the rind with the thumbnail
they will keep throughout the winter, providing they have been harvested
with the short stalk attached. Pumpkins from early -sown crops keep better

74 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

than those from late crops, as they have longer to ripen off. Care should be
exercised that the fruit is not bruised in handling. They should be stored on
slatted shelves in a dry, airy shed, and looked over from time to time, any
showing signs of decay being removed.

Varieties.

The following are the recommended varities of the various plants in the
pumpkin family : —

Pumpkins. Squashes. Marrows. Rios*

Crown. Summer Crookneck. Mammoth White Bush. Trombone.

Button. White Bush or Patty Pan. Cocozelle. Mammoth

Iron bark. Fordhook.' i Long White Marrow.

Triangular, Pansy, or Hubbard.

Shamrock. Golden Hubbard.

Sugar or Pie.

Diseases and Pests.

Downy mildew (page 99); eelworm (page 118); powdery mildew
(page 104;; pumpkin beetle (page 111) ; spotted ladybird (page 124).

RADISH.

This is a quick-growing vegetable that under our congenial climatic con-
ditions can be grown practically throughout the whole year.

In the elevated portions of the State, the crop will not succeed in mid-
winter unless given some bottom heat in the shape of fresh manure ; but at
least 6 to 9 inches of soil should be placed on the manure, and it may
even be necessary to put some cloth covering over the beds during the cold
night Raising the plants in such localities during cold weather is better
carried out in the hot frame. In the heat of summer in the coastal and
western districts it is advisable to provide shade. The crop is one that can
be profitably grown in conjunction with other crops, such as parsnips, <fcc.,
with which germination is slow ; the radish attains sufficient size for use
before the parsnip plants are large enough to be harmed. This practice has
the additional advantage of indicating where the parsnip seed has been sown,
and thereby allowing of an early cultivation between the rows before the
main crop actually appears.

Where the crop is cultivated in beds, the sowings should be small and
frequent, in preference to several large plantings. The seed may be sown
either in rows or broadcast, the rows varying from 6 to 15 inches apart,
but in all cases the seed should be sown thinly and not covered more than
half an inch deej>. It is usual to firm the surface soil after planting, and a
mulching of fine dry horse manure will be found beneficial.

A sandy soil is the best suited for the growth of the radish, but heavier
soils can be brought into a suitable condition. As with other root crops,
the incorporation of stable manure iti the soil just previous to planting is not

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

advisable ; it is likely to cause forking of the root. This is overcome by
planting after such crops as celery, cabbage, &c., which have previously
received liberal applications of manure.

Moisture and warmth are essential, and on heavy soils the beds should be
raised to ensure proper drainage.

Unless the crop is grown quickly, the roots will become pithy and hot, and
in order to ensure even growth the young seedlings should be thinned out.
Many people never bother to thin radish, allowing the crop to grow as it
germinates, considering the pulling out of roots when 'big enough for use as
sufficient thinning. By this method some roots occupy the ground for a long
time, and become of inferior quality.

Radishes are of several shapes and may be classified as { ' turnip," " olive "
or " intermediate " and " long.7' Of the turnip-shaped varieties, the following
may be recommended : French Breakfast, Red, White. These varieties are
not as largely grown in this State as the longer sorts.

Of the olive-shaped or intermediate class, Rose is a good variety. Of the
long varieties, Long Scarlet may be mentioned as long and slender, smooth-
skinned, good colour, and having a very transparent flesh, tinged with pink.
It grows from 5 to 6 inches in length. Another long variety, used only for
autumn sowing is White Chinese, a very large cylindrical-shaped radish of
mild flavour.

Diseases and Pests. — In general this vegetable is subject to the same
attacks as the turnip ; for list, see page 90.

RHUBARB.

Rhubarb is a perennial plant producing thick, acidy stems of commercial
value. It requires rich soil or heavy manuring with organic matter, such as
stable manure. It is essential that the root crowns be fully formed before
large pullings of the leaves are made. Many people make the mistake of
drawing on the plant almost as soon as any large leaves have formed. As
with asparagus, this treatment does not allow of the development of the
plant, and consequently large yields cannot be expected for any length of
time.

For planting out, the roots of older plants may be divided and set— care
being taken that each root-piece contains a bud or crown — or one-year-old
roots may be used. These can be purchased from any seed merchant, or the
plants may be raised from seed. The latter method takes a year longer in
establishing the plantation, but it is the cheaper of the two. If this method
is adopted, the seed should be sown in the spring in prepared seed-beds.

The plants should be set out 4 feet apart each way, or even more. Unless
the soil is naturally rich, such as is found on alluvial flats adjoining a
river, the places^in the field where the plants are to be set should have been

76 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

fertilised with well-rotted stable manure prior to planting. Where artificial
manures are used, those containing a percentage of nitrogen are advised, such
as blood and bonedust, at the rate of 3 to 4 cwt. per acre.

The first year's cultivation in the field should aim at keeping down weed
growth and stirring the soil ; pulling of stems this season is not advisable.
During the following autumn or winter each plant should be given a dressing
of farmyard manure, which should be dug in later on. Each succeeding
autumn the crop should be well manured and the soil kept loose between the
plants throughout their growth.

When the crop is in bearing only the larger leaves should be pulled, and
these, by holding the leaf stem well down towards the crown and making a
straight pull, or else making a jerk downwards, while at the same time giving
the stalk an outward twist. The leaves should be tied in bunches of suitable
size for marketing, and the stems in the bunches should be of one grade.
The smaller leaves are allowed to grow, in order to recoup the plant for some
of the loss occassioned by the pulling of the larger leaves. Should the plants
attempt to run to seed, the seed heads should be immediately cut out as seed-
bearing is very exhausting. If it is desired that the bed should last for any
length of time, pulling must only be carried out during a few months of the
year, and not too many stalks should be pulled from the plant at the one
time.

In order to obtain extra long stems it is usual to place half barrels or boxes,
without tops or bottoms, over the plants, and thus by partially excluding the
light, to cause elongation of the stems.

Of the several varieties on the market the following may be mentioned as
among the best : — Sydney Crimson Winter, Victoria or Giant, and Topps'
Winter.

ROCK-MELON.

See Melon (page 59).

SAGE.

See Herbs (page 56).

SHALLOT.

See Eschalot (page 55).

SILVER BEET OR SILVER SPINACH.

See Beet (page 42).

SPINACH.

A plant grown for its leaves, which are boiled and served like cabbage.
It is best suited for cool districts, and in the warm districts of the State it
should only be grown in the cool weather. On the tablelands, plantings are
made in the spring and autumn. When the plants are up they must be
kept well watered during dry times else they will run to seed.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 77

The seed can be sown directly in the field, in rows 12 to 15 inches apart/
and afterwards thinned, or may be transplanted.

For home use plants may be cut when of sufficient size for boiling, but for
marketing should have formed a fair sized rosette of leaves. The harvesting
is easily done by cutting through the stems of the plant under the leaves.
On account of top growth being required, the crop is one which requires very
fertile soil.

Giant Viroflay is the largest growing variety, being very suitable for
the cool 'districts. Victoria Dark Green is a suitable variety for the warmer
districts, not running to seed as quickly as a number of other sorts. New
Zealand Spinach is quite a different plant ; for suggestions as to its culture,
^ee page

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to cabbage (page 47).

SQUASH.

See Pumpkin (page 73).

SWEET CORN OR TABLE MAIZE.*

The demand for sweet corn as a vegetable is slowly but surely gaining
ground in New South Wales ; in America it is practically impossible to find
a home garden without it. ,

Sometimes white varieties of dent maize are used in the milk stage for
" roasters " or boiling as sweet corn, but these are by no means to be
compared with the true sweet corn varieties for flavour.

Sweet corn is a warm weather crop, and the site chosen should be one
which gets a large share of sunlight, such as a northerly or easterly slope.

Well rotted stable manure supplemented with superphosphate at the rate
of about 1| or 2 Ib. per cwt. of manure will be found to be about the best
for sweet corn. The growth is somewhat slow at first, and superphosphate
applied in the drills before sowing the corn has the effect of encouraging a
vigorous, early root growth and giving the young plants a good start. The
ground should be well prepared before winter if possible, and the stable
manure should be applied during the operations and well mixed deeply with
the soil.

The rows should be made about 3 feet apart and 6 or 8 grains sown
together every 3 feet in the rows. When the plants are 8 or 10 inches high,
the number of plants should be thinned down to three or four, advantage
being taken to remove the weakest seedlings in the hills, and leave dnly the
most vigorous.

Planting may take place in the Sydney district from the middle of
September to early in January.

* H. Wenholz, B.Sc. (Agr.), Inspector of Agriculture.

78 VEGETABLE GROWING AY XE11' SOUTH WALES.

Cultivation between the rows should be shallow and frequent, the depth
not exceeding 3 inches and the frequency at least once a week for best results.
The removal of the suckers during growth is not advised.

The harvesting stage is usually denoted by the colour of the silks turning
from brown to black. At this stage the grains will be in full milk or just
turning to soft dough. The cobs soon lose their flavour after harvesting, and
should therefore be utilised at once. Roasted and eaten with sauce or butter
or boiled, especially with corned meat they are delicious.

As a rule, the very early varieties of sweet corn are rather poor fielders
with small cobs. The best varieties for the home garden are Mammoth
White Cory, Crosby's Early, Cosmopolitan, Ruby, White Evergreen. Ooimtiy
Gentleman, Stowell's Evergreen and Papago.

Diseases and Pests. — Cutworm (page 114;.

SWEET POTATO.

Sweet potatoes are not cultivated in this State to the extent they deserve.
They have been successfully grown at Queanbeyan, Howlong, and in a few
isolated places in the dry west where water is available, and generally speak-
ing inay be expected to do better in the warmer districts on the coast and
inland than on the cool tablelands. If a little attention be devoted to keeping
down weeds and conserving moisture by hoeing it is surprising how much
dry weather the sweet potato will stand.

The ideal soil for this crop is a sandy one which has been well supplied
with organic matter. In a soil of this character, the plants possess almost
all' the hardiness of weeds, and the root's develop well, being even in quality
and of good shape. As the crop is a deep rooter, a thorough preparation of"
the land is necessary.

It is a good plan to plant sweet potatoes after a crop which has been
heavily manured with farmyard manure. If artificial fertilisers are used, a
mixture of equal parts , of superphosphate and bonedust, applied at the rate
of 3 cwt. per acre, planted in the drill with the plants, is recommended.
In cool districts it is likely that the application of 25 Ib. to 50 Ib. nitrate of
soda to the acre, in addition to the above mixture, will be found beneficial.

Propagation.

The crop is propogated — not by planting tubers in the field — but by means
of shoots or " plants " which grow from the tuber. When bedded or
planted, sometimes as many as fifty " plants " will grow from a single small
tuber (see illustration), and two or three pullings may be obtained in a-
single season.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES, 79

The plants necessary for producing an early crop are obtained by placing
the roots — usually small, slender tubers kept over for this purpose from the
previous season — in sand in a cold frame or hot bed. The tubers should be
placed close together, but not touching, and then covered with 2 or 3 inches of
sand (river sand prefers d) ; the whole bed should then be well watered and
covered with a glass sash or frame of hessian. By raising a corner of the
frame, enough air can be admitted to prevent rot setting in. The bed should
be kept moist, but not wet, and covered until the plants show through the
sand when the covering should be removed during the daytime, but replaced
at night. This is done UK til all danger of frost is past. The " plants,"
when 6 or 8 inches long, are ready for planting out. (See illustration)

By bedding the roots early, the addition of bottom heat is unnecessary in
comparatively warm districts. If tubers are set in the frame about the end
of July or beginning of August, plants will be ready as early as it is safe to
put them out. Plants raised on sandj and without artificial heat, are hardier

Sweet Potato "root," with plants ready for breaking off and planting out.

than if raised in a rich compost and on a hot bed. and in addition, the risk
of introducing disease is lessened. In a cold district, or where bedding-
down has been delayed, it will probably be found necessary to use some sort
of bottom heat.

One or two tubers, bedded in a small box or kerosene tin, if placed in a
sunny situation, and covered at night, will supply sufficient plants for a
kitchen garden.

In mild districts, plants quite early enough for a main crop can be
obtained by bedding the tubers in the open ground in a sheltered situation
with an easterly aspect, or, cuttings 6 or 8 inches long may be made from
the vines of the early-planted crop and set out in the same way as the plants

80

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

obtained by bedding. These cuttings will grow quite readily, and the crop
produced by planting them seems to keep better than the early crop. Small
tubers are the best for producing plants ; 1 cvvt. will produce at one
"pulling," 4,000 to 5,000 plants,, and will occupy 90 to 100 superficial feet
in the cold frames.

V

Planting Out and Cultivation.

The planting is commenced at any time when all danger of frost is past ;
it can be continued in the coastal districts right up to the beginning of
January with every hope of a good crop.

The shoots or' plants should be carefully drawn from the bed and put root
downwards in a bucket of water or a mixture of cow-dung and water. For
planting they should be drawn from the bucket as required and placed 2 feet
apart in rows which are 3 feet apart.

Sweet Potato plants for setting oat raised in a Hessian frame bed.

The plants may be ploughed in at the time the ground is getting its second
or final ploughing. When this method is adopted, the plants are placed the
required distance apart in every third or fourth furrow, the necessary cover-
ing being given by the plough as it turns the succeeding furrow.

A common plan -is thoroughly to prepare the ground first and then dibble
the plants in with a spade. This method is somewhat slower than ploughing
in, but for ordinary conditions it has been proved the most satisfactory. A
man and a boy can plant with a spade 3,500 plants in eight hours.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 81

A point of very great importance when planting by either method is to see
that the soil is thoroughly compacted around the plant ; this is especially
necessary in dry weather. When the plants are dibbled, this compacting is
done by pressing the soil firmly against the plant with the foot, and when
ploughed in a heavy roller with a large diameter should follow the planting.
A roller with a small diameter will drag the plants up. Whatever method
of planting is adopted, if the ground be at all moist, the plants will root
without difficulty. It is the practice of some growers to plant on ridges. In
cold districts this is probably beneficial, but satisfactory results have been
obtained (without this trouble and expense.

The subsequent cultivation given to this crop is such as will keep the weeds
down and conserve moisture. Cultivation with a small-toothed scuffler may
commence as soon as the plants are set out, and can be continued until the
vines cover the ground. Other than disturbing the vines whilst cultivating,
no attempt should be made to prevent them rooting where they touch the
ground.

Harvesting and Storing.

The mature stage can be determined by cutting one of the potatoes. If
the cut surface dries white, and does not turn greenish-black round the edge,
the potato is fit to eat. If a milky juice exudes which, on exposure to the
air, turns black, the potato is not mature enough.

The potatoes will continue to grow until the first frost is experienced ; this
destroys the vines, and, of course, the tubers will cease to grow after this.
The crop may be left in the ground until then, and if the frosts are not very
severe, they may be left until they are required, but the vines should be
removed, or they will decay and communicate rot to the tubers.

During the last two months of the growing sea'son the yield per acre is very
much increased ; in some cases it almost doubles itself. Where, therefore,
bulk is desired it is well to leave the tubers in the ground for as long as
possible after they become fit for the table.

The harvesting is usually done by hand labour. Some diggers prefer to
use a pronged hoe, others a digging fork ; it is a question of use. With some
varieties which produce their roots in clusters around the "plant," the labour
of digging may be lessened by throwing a furrow away from each side of the
potatoes. When digging, care should be taken not to bruise the roots ;' a
bruised potato rots easily, though a clean-cut one keeps well.

No difficulty has been experienced in storing small quantities of potatoes
in dry sand. The tubers on being dug should be allowed to dry in the sun
for a few hours, and then placed away in sand, where they will keep through
the winter perfectly.

82

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Varieties.

There are several varieties, but only two, White Maltese and Pink, have
been grown to any great extent in New South Wales, though one or two
others are worthy of mention. The following brief notes on four that are
probably the best will be of interest : -

Big-stem Jersey Yellow. — A vigorous and very productive variety. The
vines are abundant, with rather large leaves of the ivy shape. The roots are
a good shape, yellow in colour. A rather late variety.

w

WHITE MALTESE

White Maltese. — This is an old reliable favourite. The vine is semi-bushy
in character, with little tendency to root at the joints. The leaf is quite
distinct in shape from most other varieties, except Bush Vineland. The roots
are white in colour, with a tendency to grow very long in loose soil. The roots
are of fair quality, somewhat dry, and many weigh 1 1 Ib. each ; they keep
remarkablyvwell. A mid-season variety.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

83

Pink. — A good yield er, but rather coarse ; more suitable for stock feed than
for the table. The growth of vine is not excessive, but the runners attain ^a
great length and root at every joint. The leaf is small and of the usual
type. A fair keeper, and a late variety.

Pier son. A vigorous grower and good cropper. Produces plenty of vine,
with large leaves of the ivy type. Roots of good shape, but inclined to]crack;
of good quality for the table and keep well ; the colour of the roots is -a deep
cream. This variety is one of the best of the introduced ones. The roots
cluster around the main stem, are attractive and chunky in appearance. An

early variety.

Diseases and Pests.

Convolvulus hawk moth (page 1 13 ) ; curly top (page 98).

THYME.

See Herbs (page

TOMATO.

The extensive cultivation of the tomato is of comparatively recent years,
but it has advanced so rapidly in public estimation as a useful, wholesome,
and delicious fruit or vegetable, that very large areas are annually planted
with it. In this State the production of early tomatoes for domestic use and
mid-season crops for sauce manufacturers is a distinct and profitable business,
occupying considerable areas. Our markets consume some thousands of tons
of tomatoes annually, the greater bulk being used by the various factories at

84 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

which sauce and preserves are made. The method usually adopted is fur
growers to contract with the manufacturer for the quantity of tomatoes
they require.

The best land for tomatoes is a rich mellow loam, with a little sand in the
upper layer, and a good clay subsoil. For early crops a northern aspect is
desirable. Poor and medium quality lands will frequently give early crops,
but not heavy ones. Where this plant is to be grown in quantity for manu-"
facture or the open market, when quantity is of more consequence than
earliness, the soil must be either naturally rich or artificially made so.

Having selected the land for this crop it must be prepared during the
autumn previous to planting in the sprang. If new land be taken it must be
broken up and thoroughly prepared. Planting in the open cannot take
place until the district is clear of frosts unless means be taken to shelter the
young plants every evening. For early crops the young plants must be* got
ready in a cold frame, in order that they may be planted out as soon as the
weather has become favourable.

The Seed Bed.

The seed or plant bed may be made of any desired size, according to the
extent of cropping. A frame of the required size may be built on this plot,
and covered with calico or new hessian ; the latter should be made to shift
or roll up, as will be frequently needed The seed may be sown in shallow
boxes under cover, or in the frame, and covered with a sprinkling of fine
'loamy soil. One to two ounces of seed will produce more than sufficient
plants for one acre. As soon as the plants are large enough to handle ('2 or
3 inches high) they should be transplanted into the frame, which by this
time should have been worked up to the finest condition and tilth.

The plants may be set out in rows 5 or 6 inches apart, with the same
distance between plants, setting each plant opposite the space in the previous
row. Here they remain and grow until time for transplanting into the field,
and by removing the calico, giving them air, light, and sunshine on fine days,
and covering up in the evenings or during cold spells of frost, they should
presently become stout and stocky plants After they are once set out, do
not give them much watering, or they may be inclined to dra\v up and
become lanky and tender.

The main point in a frame or bed of this character is to keep it dry and
warm, and in transplanting into it, care must be taken that the plants are
not much lower than in the seed-bed, as the deeper they are set the more
liable they are to damp off. If any plants have got rather down in the seed-
bed, and become long-shanked, they should be laid slanting, just below the
surface, and they will take root along the stem, and become stout and stocky
plants. The drier the bed is kept (with discretion) the better, as perusal of

VEGETABLE GROWING -IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 85

the articles describing the fungus diseases of tomatoes will show. When the
plants become 5 or 6 inches high, some will want to outrun their neighbours ;
these should be pinched in a little, so as to allow the weaker plants to come
up uniform in strength before putting out. Any suckers that may appear
should also be removed if it is intended to grow for early fruit.

For successive crops seed may be sown at intervals in the open, after the
frosts are gone. Prepare a bit of rich soil, and strike out drills not more
than half an inch deep. Sow thinly, cover lightly, and water sparingly.
The young plants should show up within a week, and if it is desired to push
them along, transplant into a nursery bed when they get their third leaf,
putting them 5 or 6 inches apart as previously advised, and then follow on
as before. Seed may be sown from June to £nd of January, and crops may.
be grown for eight months in the year — in some favoured spots even longer

Protection from Frost.

\

Transplanting.

When all is ready for removing the young plants into the field, they should
'have a good watering some hours before, so that the roots will retain hold of
as much soil as possible. Plant at least one inch deeper than in the frame,
and if the quantity is not very large, evening is- the best time for moving
them, or after showers.

It is better1 to plant in rows 4 feet apart arid not less than 3 feet apart in the
rows, and to stake them up like vines in a vineyard, instead of letting them
trail on the ground, when they do not bear so well and are far more subject
to disease. The land should be kept clean between the rows and plants ;
some growers plant on the square to allow of cross cultivation.

Picking, Packing, and Grading. \

Care should he taken when gathering the fruit that it be not bruised, or it
will decay rapidly. Tomatoes that are to travel long distances, or occupy
days in transit, should be picked when they begin to colour at the blossom
•end.

8(5 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

When packing, the fruit should be graded according to size and ripeness,
all in each package being as near alike as possible. The grading should be
as follows : —

1. Large ripe fruit.

2. Small ripe fruit.

3. Large medium ripe.

, 4. Small medium ripe.
. 5. Large green fruit.
6. Small green fruit.

The fruit will thus look better, sell better, keep better, and pack or travel
better ; the arrangement will be found advantageous to the buyer and more
profitable to the seller, besides establishing a reputation for the brand

Trellised Tomato Vines at Hawkesbury Agricultural College.

amongst buyers. Each package must have the contents and quality faith-
fully marked on the outside, so that buyers may learn to rely on the brands
without wanting to overhaul the fruit.

Culls should not be marketed, but fed to pigs or destroyed, as is done with
other refuse fruit.

Varieties.

There are several -good varieties from which the grower can make his
selection. Sparks' Earliana is an excellent early tomato that has done well
where the vines are trellised. Chalk's Early Jewel is favoured by some
growers for the early crop. Bur wood Prize, which shelters its fruit beneath
abundant foliage, is largely grown in the Hawkesbury district under field
conditions for the purposes of the sauce-making trade. Dwarf Champion is

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

87

also used for field crops, its strong, upright stems saving the labour and
expense of staking. For private gardeners, Ponderosa can be recommended.
Other varieties that do well are Bonny Best, Stone, Trucker's Favourite,
Matchless, and Early Ruby.

Early Tomatoes at HawKesbury Agricultural College.

The prices received for tomatoes raised and placed upon the market before
the bulk crops come in, more than justify the small expenditure and the con-
siderable amount of light labour Required for their special treatment.

At Hawkesbury Agricultural College, a method is adopted that has for
years proved this to be true, and as the College is situated in a belt of

f ' ' •

General View of the Tomato Vines at Hawkesbury Agricultural College.
I

country particularly liable to frost, a brief description of the methods
employed will no doubt be interesting. For the season 1918-19, a return of
£240 14s. was received from a quarter acre plot ; 808 half bushel cases being
harvested, which had an average yalue of 5s. lljd. The actual values
ranged from 12s. to 14s. in early December, to 4s. to 6s. on 31st December,
a,nd to 6s. to 7s. 6d. at the end of February.

The variety used is Spark's Earliana. Seed is sown about the middle of
July, in seed-boxes, and placed in a hot-bed where the growth of the young
plants is forced, and they can be covered from frosts at nfght. When the
'plants are about 2 in. high they are transplanted into 3-in. pots, and the pots
are plunged into the hot-bed, where the young plants can still be protected
at night. About the third week of September they are set out in the field.

88

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

The plants are put in trellised rows 4 ft. or 4 ft. 6 in. apart, and 15 in.
apart in the rows. The trellises are made of 3 in. x 2 in. or 3 in. x 3 in.
posts, 9 ft. apart with light 2 in. x 1 in. battens nailed to them, and lath&
fastened perpendicularly every 15 in. Where long rows can be laid out, it
will be cheaper to use wire to support the laths. A tomato plant is set out
at the base of each lath.

After planting out the weather is watched for late frosts (a peculiar hard-
ness in the air generally indicating a coming frost). In such cases the
practice is to put a ti-tree bush on the south-west side of each plant. This
shelters the plant from the cold winds, but leaves it open to the sun on the
north. No tomatoes have ever been lost by frost.

The following artificial manures are used with great success, being applied
at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre : —

Quantity per
half ton.

Sulphate of ammonia ... ... ... 3 cwt.

Superphosphate ... ... ... ... ... 4J cwt.

^Sulphate of potash ... ... ... ... 2| cwt.

10 CWt.

Pruning is the most important operation in the whole process. It is no-
exaggeration to say that, by careful pruning, the tomatoes are made to ripen
a month earlier than they otherwise would.

All lateral growth of shoots
is pinched off, leaving only the
main stem, which is trained up
the lath. A lateral shoot starts
from just above a leaf on the
main stem. The leaf is not
interfered with, but the shoot
is pinched off as close to
the stem as possible without
damaging the leaf (see accom-
panying figure).

The trusses of bloom which give the fruit are thrown out along the main
stem. Care is to be taken not to injure these when pruning. When the
main stem reaches the top of tne lath it is pinched off, but not before.
This pruning is practised regularly about once a week. Whenever laterals
appear they are pinched off.

* At the present time this salt is unobtainable, but the potash in the fertiliser can be
supplied by using a similar quantity of muriate of potash, or by means of wood ashes
added to the soil two or three weeks previously, 13 to 14 cwt. of wood ashes being,
equal in potash content to 1 cwt. sulphate of potash.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 89

The tomatoes start to ripen from the base of the plant, and the ripening
proceeds gradually towards the top.

i The tomatoes are sprayed occasionally to check black spot, Bordeaux
mixture being used at the summer strength. This is prepared from copper
sulphate, 6 Ib ; lime, 4 Ib. ; water, 50 gallons.

Diseases and Pests.

Black spot (page 94) ; early blight (page 101) ; late (or Irish) blight
{page 102) ; ripe rot (page 106) ; wilt- (page 109).

A physical condition known as " sunburn" is also referred to on page 109.

Cutworm (page 114) ; eelworm (page 118); Rutherglen bug (page 123) ;
tomato and bean bug (page 124) ; wireworm (page 127).

TREE ONION.

The tree onion is a variety of multiplier onion, which, in addition to form
ing " cloves," as with the potato onion, produces clusters of small bulbs on
the tips of the stalks, which are used for pickles. The cloves at the bottom
of the plant (smaller than those of the potato onion) may be used for propa-
gating, as well as the small bulbs obtained from the top ; these latter being
planted about March. The large bulbs produced at the bottom of the plant
are bad keepers and should be used quickly. Some strains of this class of
onion produce extra tall tops, and in all cases it is necessary to give plenty
of room between the sets when planting.

Diseases and Pests. — See list attached to o'nion (page 67).

TURNIP AND SWEDE.

Almost all soils are suitable for the production of Swede turnips, the
governing factor being more the supply of moisture than the richness of the
land. The turnip is a shallow rooter, and every effort must be made in the
cultivation of the soil and in the application of manures to retain the plant-
food near the surface where it can be readily drawn upon by the crop.

The land should be ploughed or dug deeply, and brought to a fine tilth.
This is essential to ensure the proper germination of the seed. On very loose
soils the hand-sower at times shows an inclination to run too deep, and in
order to lighten the work it is advisable .to use the roller to compact the
seed-bed. In most parts of the State it will be found that December to
March sowings will produce the best results. Swedes do not do well in
New South Wales when sown early in the summer, the crop being one that
is native to cool conditions. The attacks of aphis in summer time also
contribute to failure, while the . heavy moisture requirements of the crop
further demand that it shall be grown at a time when the rainfall is most
regular. Autumn sowing avoids the hot weather and the attacks of aphis,
and allows the development of the roots at a time when the rainfall is usually
more regular, and the evaporation very much less.

90 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

White turnips can be grown at almost any time of the year, except in
midsummer, though in vegetable gardens where water is available there is no
need to avoid even that short period. The sowings of these varieties, however,
should only be sufficient to cover the immediate requirements of the season,
especially in hot weather, as they readily run to seed.

In the coastal and tableland districts 1 to 2 Ib. of seed per acre is generally
sown in drills about 2 feet 6 inches apart, and 3 Ib. to 4 Ib. broadcast. In
the drier districts a smaller quantity of seed, say 1J Ib. drilled per acre,
would be ample.

The results of experiments with fertilisers for Swede turnips go to show
that a supply of soluble phosphoric acid is very essential to the crop, owing,
not so much to the quantity taken from the soil as to the peculiar inability
it appears to have, in comparison with many other crops, of utilising the
supplies naturally existing in the soil. Superphosphate, applied at the
rate of £ cwt. to 1 cwt. per acre, supplies a readily available form of
phosphoric acid, and the crop responds to its application with a largely
increased yield. It has a marked effect upon the young plants, inducing a
vigorous, healthy growth from the very start; indeed, no crop is more readily
benefited by the application of this useful fertiliser.

As soon as the young plants are about 1 to 2 inches in height, it is advisable
to thin them out ; for a field crop the plants should be left 6 to 8 inches
apart in the drills. The thinning out is best done by hand or with a sharp
hoe. The soil between the drills must be kept well loosened.

The recommended varieties are : —

Turnips. Swedes.

White Stone, Purple Top,

White Nepaul, Skirving's Purple Top,

Red-top Stone, Laing's Garden Swedes.

Early White Milan,
Orange Jelly.

Diseases and Pests.

Black rot (page 93) ; club-root (page 97) ; downy mildew of cabbage
(page 99) ; white rust (page 109).

Aphis (page 110); cabbage grub or cabbage moth (page 115): cutworm
(page 114): eelworm (page 118).

VEGETABLE MARROW.

See Pumpkin (page 73).

WATER-MELON!

See Melon (page 59).

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 91

Fungus Diseases*

G. P. DARNELL SMITH, D.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S., Biologist.
Most diseases of plants are caused by low forms of vegetable life known as
fungi, which live upon and within the tissues of the higher plants. The
main difference, other than size, between the fungi and the higher plants, is
the lack of the green colouring matter so abundant in the higher order of
vegetation. The methods of development in the fungi are often different
from those of higher plants, and their microscopic\ size renders their study
more difficult. The parasitic fungi spend the winter months mostly within
the living- and dead vegetable tissues, and during the early spring days send
out small spores, which correspond to the seeds of the higher plants. These
spores are disseminated by the wind and other agents from plant to plant.
With favourable conditions as to moisture and warmth, the spores send out
small branches, which penetrate into the living tissues of the higher orders of
plants. By the application. of a fungicide to a plant, we destroy the spores
which have found lodgment upon it, and thus prevent the development of
additional spores, which would cause disease. Just as long as the tissues of
plants are covered with a thin, even coating of fuiigicide, very few fungi can
develop upon them. Thus, if a fungicide were applied at regular intervals
during the growing period, most of such plant diseases would be held in
check. To the vegetable grower, however, this is scarcely practicable, and
the application of the fungicide should begin immediately the disease has
advanced far enough to manifest itself to any extent.

Anthracnose or Pod Spot of Beans.

The disease known as anthracnose or pod spot is caused by a fungus and
occurs all over the world wherever beans are grown, often doing very serious
damage. It attacks pods, stems, and leaves, but the most conspicuous
injuries are the spots on the pods. The fungus penetrates the affected parts
to a considerable extent, and the seeds in the pods beneath the spots are
often spotted or discoloured, so that the fungus is readily distributed
by the use of infected seed. It appears upon the seedling leaves of
the young plants when badly infected seed is sown. The fungus spreads from
the seed leaves to the first-formed true leaves of the plant. The stems of
plants are often so badly diseased near the base that they may fall over
and die. The pods, when quite young and succulent, offer the best con-
ditions for the growth and development of the fungus, which develops best
with continued wet weather or with heavy dews.

92 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Spores from diseased spots on stems and leaves may fall on the pods, where
in the presence of moisture and a sufficiently high temperature, they germin-
ate rapidly and produce the spots, which enlarge and darken until nearly
black. The dead tissue dries and shrinks. Spores are produced bv the fungus
in these spots in great abundance, and ooze out, forming pink masses held
together by a mucilage, which when dry, sticks them to the spot. When dew
or rain falls on these spots the mucilage is dissolved and the spores set free in
the water. At this time any disturbance of the bean plant will scatter these
spores to other plants, and for this reason beans should not be cultivated nor
handled in the early morning while the dew is still on them or after a shower.

Since diseased pods and stems left in the field provide infection for the
new crop, all diseased plants, leaves, and pods should be collected and burnt.
Only clean seed should be used in any ftiture planting ; it should be
obtained from some source known to be free from disease.

These are the best preventives, and if they are rigidly carried out the new
crop may be free from disease.

As a further precaution all seed should be disinfected. The most
satisfactory dip is a solution of about 1 oz. corrosive sublimate or mer-
curic chloride in 6-J- gallons of water. The seed should be soaked in this for
ten minutes. This method of disinfection is also of great service in check-
ing other diseases.

/ \

i A rotation of crops (see page 22) and spraying with Bordeaux mixture

(see page 128) have been found to keep the disease in check, but it is best
perhaps to pull up and destroy a crop affected with this disease.

Soil well fertilised with stable manure some time previous to planting has
been beneficial in promoting active plant growth and also reducing disease,
The grower should also be on the look out for resistant varieties — selecting
seed from any plants that show resistance to the disease at any time. The
wax podded varieties are less resistant than others.

Asparagus Rust.

This disease does not attack the shoots which are cut for market, but is found
on those green ones which are allowed to develop after cutting has ceased.
Affected tops become reddish-brown in colour, and on the stems numerous
small, reddish, pustules appear. These contain the spores of the rust fungus,
1 n severe cases the tops turn yellow and the needles fall prematurely. The
plant, therefore, fails to manufacture and store up the necessary foods
resulting in a reduction of subsequent yields.

The occurrence of the disease is closely allied to certain weather conditions.
Rust is most frequently found during seasons of insufficient rainfall, or on
soils which dry out rapidly ; hence it may be kept in check by irrigation

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 93

where possible. Heavy dews are also necessary for the spieacl of the disease,
and by planting on higher and more exposed levels less subject to dew the
spread may be prevented. American horticulturists claim to have produced
a variety which is resistant to the disease. This distinction does not yet
apply to any variety at present in cultivation here.

/ •

Black Leg of Cabbage and Cauliflower.

This disease occurs on cabbages and cauliflowers, especially when young.
Infection frequently takes place on the stem at the surface of the ground,
just bebw the junction of the leaves, and also at the margins of the leaves.
The disease spreads downwards to the roots and around the stem, often
completely girdling it, giving it a black appearance — hence the name.
Often the fibrous roots and the lateral roots are killed. Before the plant
dies, a purplish tint is developed in the foliage, and persists until the plant
dies. Wilting of the plant is very characteristic, the leaves adhering to the
stem and drooping. Sunken spots occur on the leaves, and later these dead
areas become covered with numerous, minute black specks. The fungus is
harboured for the most part in the soil on decayed steins and leaves of plants.

The best control measures are preventive ; all refuse of present and past
crops should be collected and burnt.

Seed-beds can be sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128), and
only clean seedlings should be planted out.

Blaek Leg of Potato.

This disease, also called black stalk rot, has been met with once in New
South Wales, and it also occurs in Victoria. The seed tuber begins to rot
early, sometimes before the sprouts break through the ground. The rot
spreads up the base of the stem, which turns quite black, shrinks, and rots
as far as the surface of the soil, and often above it. This is the best indica-
tion of the disease. As a result of this injury, the whjle plant begins to die,,
generally without setting any tubers. Wet and cold weather apparently
favour the disease. Other plants, such as turnips, swedes, carrots, and
parsnips are also attacked. As it is practically confined to the underground
parts, the disease may be greatly controlled by carefully digging out and
burning all diseased plants." Selection of seed and dipping in formalin
as recommended for Rhizoctonia (page 106) also assist in preventing its
introduction.

Black Rot of Cabbage and Cauliflower.

This disease, popularly known as black rot, but sometimes as dry rot
brown rot, black stem, black vein, &c., is a bacterial one. Cabbage, cauli-
flower, kale, kohlrabi, turnip, swede, and radish are all liable to attack, but
the following account refers more particularly to cabbage and cauliflower.

94 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

The plants are attacked in all stages of growth. When young plants
are attacked early and severely they may be destroyed in a few weeks, The
severity varies with the season. In moist weather the disease may destroy
an entire crop. In ordinary weather it may take several months to cripple
the plants or destroy a crop. Infection takes place through wounds, but
more often through the water pores on the margins of the leaves. The
bacteria often commence development in the drops of water exuded by the
leaves, and then enter through the pores. They rapidly multiply and spread
through the veins of the leaves, and finally travel down the leaf stems and
the stem of the plant. The affected area of the leaf becomes dry and leathery,
and the veins have the appearance of black streaks. In the thick leaf stems
the black streaks may not show from the surface, but on cutting across or
along them the streaks will usually be seen. Often a part of a leaf or one
side of a plant only will be attacked, and the black streaks can then be
traced down the corresponding side of the leaf stalk and stem of the plant.
Dwarfing, one-sided growth, yellowing of foliage, gradual loss of leaves, and
brown streaks in the leaves, are the 9hief symptoms of the disease. The
gradual and successive shedding of the leaves often result in the production
of a long, dry stem with the conspicuous scars of the many cast-off leaves
upon it.

/

In ordinary weather, the picking off and burning of all affected leaves

helps to check the disease ; but when the plants are about ready for market,
no time should be lost in harvesting them, as they will not keep. It has
been proved that the bacteria are capable of living for months (even a year)
on the surface of the seed, and that infection is spread in this way.

The chief methods of prevention are : Disinfection of the seed for fifteen
minutes in a solution of formalin 1 part, water 250 parts ; or corrosive sub-
limate 1 part, water 1,000 parts. The latter is a very strong internal poison,
and must be handled with care. All insects should be kept down, to prevent
them spreading the disease, and if a field is infected, all refuse of old,
diseased plants should be collected and burnt — not buried — and a crop
rotation (see page 22) practised.

Black Spot of Tomato.

The " black spot " disease of the tomato is very common in New South
Wales, and probably no tomato disease causes greater loss.

Black spot usually makes its appearance first at the flower end of the fruit
as a small brown discoloration. The discoloration spreads, and . the spot
becomes more distinct and definite in outline ; at the same time it becomes
depressed and darkens in colour. The larger spots, which may be an inch
or more across, have a dark-brown or black appearance, and are often

VEGETABLE GROWING IX XEW SOUTH WALES.

some what velvety in texture. Later the whole blossom-half of the fruit may
be involved. The affected tissue collapses and becomes firm and leathery.
This collapsing of the diseased tissue, together with the continued
development of other parts of the fruit, may produce a definite depression
on the blossom end of the fruit, or often it results in .only a flattening of the
surface.

The first effects of the disease are not always superficial. In fruit that,
appears normal from an external view the interior tissue may have collapsed
and be blackened in the parts nearest the blossom. The velvety appearance
that develops on the surface later is due to a growth of a fungus which is
not, of itself, capable of producing the rot, and is apparently a secondary
infection. The disease is not due primarily to bacteria or fungi, but to
various physiological conditions, and is not infectious.

Experiments indicate that water supply is of the greatest importance in
the production and thi control of blac^ spot. The disease has been produced
on vigorous plants by a sudden decrease in the available water supply.
Excessive water supply has also produced the disease more readily and
uniformly than a scant or intermittent one. Plants receiving a moderate
and regular supply of water develop less rotten fruit than either lightly or
heavily watered ones. Too much exposure to the sun also tends to an
increase of the disease, so that methods of growth that allow for the foliage
shading the fruit, assist in checking the appearance of rot.

The effects' of fertilisers on the production of the disease vary with the
nature of the soil and the amount of water supplied. Experiments by
Brooks in Xew Hampshire, U.S.A., gave the folio wing general conclusions : —
" Lime is of value in reducing the disease, especially if the plants are well
watered, but under drought conditions it has little tendency to decrease the
disease : potash has no tendency to increase the disease, but nitrogenous
fertilisers favour its development. Heavy applications of stable manure
increase the disease out of proportion to the increased vigour of the plants."

As the disease is not primarily due to fungi or bacteria, spraying will not
control it.

Brown Fleck of Potato.

This is a fairly common condition. Tubers that to all external appear-
ances are healthy and sound, when cut open show rusty markings of various
sizes and shapes. These discoloured areas consist of dead tissue, and must
not be confounded with blight. In the latter case, the diseased parts are,
at least at first, immediately beneath the skin, whereas in brown fleck the
markings are more internal, scattered, and usually not in contact with the
skin. No si^ns of disease are to be found on the stem or leaf parts of the
plants which produce such tubers, and the cause of brown fleck is not

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

known. It is r yt hereditary, for the disease does not necessarily appear
if seed affected with brown fleck is planted. Many conditions relating to the
nature and composition of the soil, amount of moisture, and weather, have
been investigated as contributing causes, but no definite conclusions have
been arrived at.

Brown Fleck.

Brown Rot of Potato, Tomato, &e.

The cause of this disease is a bacterium which attacks potato, tomato
tobacco, and egg plants. On cutting across an infected branch of the plant
brown discolorations are seen, and a dirty white slimy mass may ooze out from
the cut surface. As the infection spreads, the stem turns prematurely
yellow, shrivels, and wilts, or it may wilt suddenly without loss of green,
colour, and the whole plant may soon collapse. The accompanying brown
stain can often be seen through the younger and more translucent stems as
long brown streaks, although the surfaces of these parts still appear to be
normal. The roots, as well as the stems, are subject to attack.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

97

In the tuber itself, infection first shows as a browning of the vascular
ring at the stem end, and on cutting across, tbe dirty greyish bacterial slime

may ooze out.

Infection may take place in two ways : (1) If slightly infected potatoes are
usec} for seed (the disease will not be noticed unless the tubers are cut), the
bacteria are able to spread to the growing plant ; (2) leaf-eating insects
feeding on diseased plants can transmit the disease from plant to plant.
Thus, the chief means of control are careful selection of seed, and spraying to
keep down insects. The disease has been very rare in New South Wales ; in
fact, its actual existence here is questioned.

Brown Rot, or Bacterial Rot,.

Club-root of Cabbage and Cauliflower.

Plants affected with club-root are characterised by swellings of the roots,
sometimes to as large as two fists. Few or no lateral roots are formed.
The affected plants have a wilted appearance during the day, but recover at
night. Plants ,are generally attacked when young or in the seed-bed, and
when so affected have a stunted and sickly appearance and seldom grow to
maturity. The malformations may be confused with root-knots caused by
eelworms (or gallworms), but these as a rule are not so large as the malfor-
mations associated with club-root.

The cause of the disease is a small parasite which lives within the cells of
the roots of certain plants, especially these belonging to the natural order,
Cruciferae.

t 97623- D

98

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

The parasite is confined either to the soil or to the underground parts of
the plant, and therefore sprayings of any kind are of no use against this
disease. The majority of Crucifene are susceptible, but it appears that
varieties of cabbage vary in their susceptibility. Soils of an acid nature are

Club-root of Cabbage.

(Plasmodiophora brassicce.)
Photo by Bureau of Microbiology.

favourable to the development of the parasite. Lime is the most valuable
substance to use to check it. Applications of two to four tons per acre are
recommended, after all refuse of diseased crops have been removed and
burnt — not buried. Seedlings, should be carefully examined, and, if they
show any signs of club-root, should be burnt. As the soil may remain con-
taminated for some time after the crop is attacked, a rotation of crops (see
page 22) should be carried out.

" Curly Top " of Sweet Potato.

This disease shows itself in the early stages of the growth of the plant,
generally in isolated plants throughout the crop. Minute tubercles, which are
at first the same colour as the leaf, are produced on both sides of the leaves and
on tine stems and roots. Later, the leaves turn black arid the whole plant wilts.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 99

In districts where this disease occurs, it is found that by planting in the
warmer months the vines grow more vigorously and are less susceptible to
the disease. The sweet potato is a tropical plant, and the ground is
apparently not warm enough in the early spring to produce a sufficiently
rapid and vigorous growth.

Downy Mildew of Cabbage and Cauliflower.

This disease produces white to greyish, felt-like patches on the leaves and
stems. The destruction of all plant refuse, and the reduction of the amount
of moisture on the plant by the free access of air and light, will check the
disease, and spraying with Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) is recommended.

Downy Mildew of Pumpkin, Melon, &c.

This disease appears first in the form of spots upon the older leaves, near
the centre of the plant. The spots become more distinct and enlarged,
gradually encroaching on each other and forming large patches, The affected
leaves become pale and sickly, and soon shrivel up and die. The disease
progresses to the younger leaves, slowly in dry weather, but very rapidly in
warm, moist weather, and a field may soon be reduced to a mass of dead
leaves, as if killed by frost.

After its appearance the disease is not readily checked; but by early
spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128), it may be prevented
from commencing its infection.

Downy Mildew or Onion Blight.

The disease of onions referred to as blight, mildew or mould is caused by
a fungus. This disease is closely allied to the late (Irish) blight of the potato,
and resembles it in the rapidity of its spread through an infected field. It
may first be noted in a field in one or two definite areas, and recognised by
the leaves appearing, as if splashed with scalding water.

During warm damp weather, the disease spreads rapidly and destruction is
complete. Examined in the early morning parts of the diseased leaves appear
a peculiar violet tint, due to the furry covering of mildew. The fungus lives
in the tissues of the leaves ; when weather conditions are favourable, spores
are given off which are readily scattered by wind and rain and are able to
infect a healthy leaf within an hour. Thus the area of infection is spread
at a remarkably rapid rate.

Spores are able to remain dormant during the winter until favourable
conditions return in the spring, when germination takes place and the new
crop is infected. These spores pass the winter in the dead leaves left in the
field. If they could be destroyed at this stage the disease would not reappear.
The raking up and burning of all old leaves from a crop than has been

100 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

attacked should be carefully carried out, arid though this will destroy many,
large numbers will still remain in the soil and in small pieces of broken leaves,
As these retain their vitality for a year, or even two or more years where
blight is severe, a rotation of crops (see page 22) should be practised.

The first injury from this Disease is the loss of leaves, but if the weather
becomes unfavourable to the fungus after an attack has commenced, the
affected plants may recover and produce sufficient new foliage to carry the
bulbs to maturity, especially if the attack has been early. Spraying with
weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) should be done to prevent infection.
When the early appearance of the disease is noticed only in isolated areas,
several thorough sprayings should be given to these areas first. Sprayings
to prevent infection should be commenced early and given about every four
weeks, but, in rainy weather, about every two weeks.

Anything that tends to weaken the onions, such as too much moisture or
shelter, should be avoided. Seed should be free from bits of leaves and
stems which may harbour the disease, and before sowing should be soaked
for half an hour in a solution of formalin 1 part, and water 200 parts. This
will also prevent the introduction of onion smut, which does not yet occur in
New South' Wales.

Dry Rot of Potato.

A very common form of potato disease is a dry, whitish, crumbling
condition of the tubers. If such tubers are kept dry they mostly shrink
up and become hard, whereas if kept at all moist, or stored -in a damp
place, they soon become covered with an abundant, white, felt-like growth
of fungus- threads. Investigations have proved that this dry rot ean be
produced by many species of Fusarium, some of which are true parasites
and can entirely destroy the tubers, while others cannot by themselves
destroy the tubers, but only assist in the destruction after the tubers
are attacked by other fungi and bacteria. The species causing dry rot are
not the same in all countries, and although some occur in both Europe and
the United States of America, others are confined to one or other of those
areas. Where there is any suspicion that the seed may be diseased, it would
be advisable to cut all tubers, and any showing a brown ring under the
surface should be rejected, as also should those showing any signs of surface
rotting. As the fungi can live for some time in the soil, fyadly infected
areas should have a rotation of crops (see page 22).

Early Blight of Celery and Parsnip.

This disease, as its name infers, occurs early in the season, [and produces a
more defined spotted appearance than the late blight (see page 102). When
the spots become numerous on a leaf it begins to turn yellow, and assumes a
characteristic ashen colour and velvety appearance. When a leaf becomes
badly attacked it wilts and dries, and numerous spores are produced over
the surface, particularly during muggy weather.

Early spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) will control this
isease.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 101

Early Blight of Potato.

The fungus, causing this disease may attack the plants at anjr stage of their
development. The disease usually appears first on the lower leaves, in the
form of small brown or black spots, which later increase in number and size,
becoming irregularly circular in outline, and often exhibiting concentric
markings. Sometimes the spots may fall out, producing a " shotbole "
appearance. The leaves eventually curl and die. Brown or black spots,
more or less circular and slightly depressed, may develop on the stem.

The disease does not damage the tubers, but by destroying the haulms,
decreases the yield. Abundance of spores are produced on the dead spots
and spread the disease. The fungus probably passes from one season to
another on old diseased parts of the affected plant.

In the control of this disease the destruction by burning of all parts of
old plants is the first consideration. Very often after a crop the refuse of
old plants is turned under, and in this way a resting place is afforded for
the fungus. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) should be
regularly carried out to prevent infection. If the disease is serious in any
year a rotation should be practised, but potatoes should not follow nor
precede the tomatoes.

Early Blight of Tomato.

The appearance of this disease on the stems and leaves is similar to that
described for early blight of potato. With the tomato, however, the fruit
also may be attacked, either while on the plant or after picking ; brown or
black spots appear on the surface and the disease may grow into the interior
of the fruit and rot it.

For control measures, 'see early blight of potato.

Late or Irish Blight of Potato.

This disease may attack any portion of the plant; and may appear at any
stage of its growth. The leaves become yellowish-green in colour, and then
irregular brown patches are developed, commencing at or near the tips and
edges. On the under surface of the leaf, these are seen to be surrounded by
a delicate white or -greyish mould.

If the weather remains cool and damp, the patches rapidly enlarge and
turn black, the plants then appearing as if they had been killed by frost.
Finally the whole plant wilts, becomes black and rapidly decays.

If a warm dry spell occurs soon after infection the disease is checked, the
brown spots do not then enlarge, but become brittle, crack, and dry up. The
tubers are sometimes attacked by spores of the fungus which are washed
through the soil by rain. Tomatoes and potatoes are often grown in the same
area, and thus the fungus finds a living host throughout the whole year.

The most satisfactory control measure consists of systematic and thorough
spraying before the appearance of the disease, with Bordeaux mixture (see
page 128). It is also advisable to use seed from a crop which has been free
from the disease.

102 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Late or Irish Blight of TomatD.

The fungus causing this disease also attacks the potato as previously
described, and its method of attacks on stems and leaves of tomato plants is
similar, but it is not as a rule of serious consequence amongst tomatoes.
The stmptoms on the leaves and stems are similar to those described on the
pocato for late or Irish blight. Fruit in all stages of ripening may also be
affected, the disease appearing in the form of dark spots which may continue
to develop after picking and cause rapid decay. Very young plants are
.sometimes attacked.

Systematic spraying with Bordeaux (see page 128) mixture will prevent
infection.
/

Leaf B:ight of Tomato.

This disease is caused by a fungus, which attacks the stem, fruit and calyx,
and more especially the leaves. It produces small circular brown spots on the
lower leaves, and if these are seriously affected they turn yellow and die. If
weather conditions favour the fungus, the attack progresses upwards, and in
severe attacks little of the plant may remain but bare stems and small
stunted fruit. The withering of the leaves makes the attack look like that
of Irish blight, but the spots on the leaves distinguish it from other diseases.
Affected leaves have a tendency to curl dorsally throughout their length,
and may hang loosely on the stem. With severe attacks, old leaves may be
killed faster than new ones are produced, and the plant is finally checked to
such an extent that little fruit is produced, or what has been produced may
be ripened quicker.

The fungus lives through the winter in old fallen leaves and other parts
of the plant. Thus in controlling the disease all such refuse should be
collected and burnt.

The disease often attacks young plants just after setting out in the field-
Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) promptly sprayed on the plants after the
disease appears will check it. Spraying, however, should be considered as
a necessary operation in tomato-growing,t and not be delayed until some
.disease makes its appearance.

Leaf Spot of Beans.

A disease that has recently appeared on French beans is that known as
leaf spot. The fungus which causes it, attacks the leaves and stems, pro-
ducing brownish patches, and causes the leaves to fall away. The spots
become large and angular, being often limited by the veins. Spraying
•with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) is recommended for its control.

Leaf Spot or Late Blight of Celery.

This disease is frequently overlooked or neglected in its early stages, and
not noticed till later in the season, when its ravages have assumed epidemic
form. The first signs are small discoloured areas on the foliage, mostly on the
lower outside leaves. By holding up the leaf to the light, and looking through

\

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 103 ,

it, dark spots can be noticed. These often form in clusters, and increase in
number and size, until they join up at their margins, and the whole leaf
becomes a dirty greenish brown colour, and withers away. The spots may
appear on the upper or the lower surfaces of the leaves, and the leaf stalks
may also become affected. Inner leaves may be found to resist the disease for a
time, but under warm and moist weather it spreads rapidly from the older to
the younger leaves, and the whole plant is rendered useless. Small black
points, from which spores are produced in moist weather, appear on the brown
dead areas. The blight usually appears after rain or heavy fogs, and spreads
rapidly with a plentiful supply of moisture. If diseased plants go to seed
the fungus also attacks the seed, and passes the winter in it unharmed,
giving rise to actively infectious spores in spring. Seedling plants may
show the characteristic spots on the leaves at a very early age. The fungus,
also passes the winter on diseased foliage and stems.

Preventive measures should commence with the seed. This should be
steeped for three hours in a mixture of formalin 1 part, water 600 parts,
frequently well stirred and then taken out and dried. Weak Bordeaux
mixture (see page 128) should be applied to the plants in the seed-bed.

Care should be taken that only healthy plants are transplanted, and the
first field spraying should be 'given about four to six weeks afterwards*
Thereafter spraying should be given at periods of three or four weeks, but
more frequently in wet weather. Until the plants reach a height of about
15 inches, spraying may be done, travelling in one direction only, but when
above that height the spraying should be done twice, proceeding the second
time in the opposite direction to the first time, thus completely covering both
sides of the plants. The quantity used by this method is found to be about
30 to 40 gallons per acre. Before spraying, go over the rows and remove all
dead or badly affected leaves and burn them. Diseased plants or refuse
from a previous crop should not be left in the field.

Where the disease has been serious, rotations should be made, extending:
over several years. Recent experiments have shown that varieties vary in
their resistance to attack, so that careful observations should be made as to
those most resistant under the local conditions, and cultivation confined to
the least susceptible varieties.

Mildews of Beans and Peas.

Beans and peas are attacked by a number of fungi which produce diseases
known as mildews.

Damping-off Mildew. — The conditions which favour the development of
this disease are a considerable degree of warmth, abundant moisture, and a
crowded condition of the seed-bed. Plants are mostly infected by means of
water which is drawn from a source where the fungus is present. This may
be overcome by watering from a tank supply. Precautions may be taken
against another source of infection, the seed-bed itself, by sterilising the

104 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

soil by steam or fire (see page 132) before the sowing is made. The fungus
attacks the seedlings at or near the surface of the ground, the stem shrinking
and the plants falling over. Thinning out seedlings, reducing the water
supply, and allowing the free access of air and sunshine to the fungus \\ ill
check the further development.

Downy Mildew. — The fungus which causes this disease attacks the leaves,
producing felt-like patches which become dense and whitish to greyish in
colour and spread rapidly in moist weather. The spores can live from one
season to another in any decaying parts of the plant. The destruction of all
plant refuse, the reduction of the moisture on the plants by the access of
sunshine and the free circulation of air will check the disease. Spraying
with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) is recommended.

Powdery Mildew. — This disease which is caused by a fungus is very
common. On peas ia moist seasons it may form a dense mass of fungus
matter, covering stems, leaves, and pods. When mildew attacks young plants
the crop is generally a total failure. The fungus may hibernate in the seed
derived from affected pods.

Spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) is recommended.

Pea Spot.

This disease attacks French, and haricot beans, and garden psas. The first
indication of attack is the appearance of pale green spots of variable size and
irregular shape on the pods. These spots continue to increase in size, and
eventually become whitish, bounded by a dark line, and dotted with minute
black points. The fungus may grow through the pod into the seed and
reduce its germinating power as well as carrying the fungus over to the
succeeding crop, thus furthering its distribution. Similar spots may occur
on the leaves and stem, and often penetrate through the woody part, causing
wilting of the plant.

On young plants the disease often assumes the character of a "damping-
off " disease. Spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 128) on the first
appearance of the disease checks its spread. As the disease is also distri-
buted in affected seed, careful attention should be given to the selection of
good seed, free from any disease spots.

Powdery Mildew of Pumpkin, Melon, &c.

This fungus disease appears as a whitish, flour-like growth on the leaves and
stems, at first forming circular spots, which soon enlarge. It is distributed
by wind and rain, and its effect is to render the fruit bitter and to distort it.

All old plants and parts affected should be collected and burnt, and if the
attack is severe, rotation should be made, or the crop grown on fresh ground.
As in the case of most powdery mildews, sulphur and its compounds are the
best checks. On small patches, dusting with dry, powdered slake lime and
sulphur is effective. On a larger scale, spraying with weak Bordeaux
mixture (see page 128) must be resorted to.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 105

Pumpkin-blossom Tip Rot.

The cause of this disease is a fungus, which produces an appearance closely
resembling that caused by the black rot fungus of the tomato. The first
indication of an attack is the appearance of a dark colour near the tip of the
young pumpkin, where the withered blossom stilJ clings. This colouration
extends backwards, and long before it is ripe the fruit is a worthless rotten
mass. The colour of the rot, as it shows on the surface, varies according to
the plant attacked. Near the base of the withered blossom the colour is
black or dark -green, and velvety, and it is here that the surface of the fruit
first becomes shrivelled and wrinkled. A little farther from the tip of the
fruit the rot is dark-brown, and this shades off through li^ht-brown into the
healthy colour of the rind of the fruit. This description is of a half-rotten
squash about half-grown. When the destruction is more rapid, and the fruit
is killed while very young, the appearances are somewhat different.

Fig. B. Fig. A.

A Squish, showing effects of squash-blossom and squash-tip disease.
Fig. A shows a squash whose tip is discoloured and rotten on account of the attacks of the disease."1^

Fig. B shows the same squash cut open, so as to show the progress of the disease in ths tissues
the young squash. The diseased tissue appears spongy and .darker coloured.

V

When split in halves, so as to show the changes in the flesh due to the
disease, all that portion of the fruit near the tip will be seen to be discoloured
and spongy ; where the outside is seen to be discoloured by the rot, it will be
noted that the flesh has changed to a brown or ochre colour. The mycelium,
or " roots " of the fungus, extends as far as the brown or ochre colouration,
and is found more particularly near the surface.

Accompanying the dark-green velvety-appearance produced by the fungus
near the tip of the fruit, a snowy-white or pinkish growth is usually seen on
the surface of the rotten part.

No remedies have, up to date, been devised for this disease. Dr. Cobb
suggested that as the disease manifests itself almost as soon as the blossom
has set, all such blossoms should be pinched and prevented from fruiting.

106 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Pumpkin-leaf Oidium.

This disease of pumpkins, squashes, and melons is caused by a white and
powdery or mealy fungus which blights the leaves, causing them to turn first
yellow, then brown, and finally to die.

Where practicable burn or otherwise destroy affected material ; do not
plough it in ; practise a rotation of crops (see page 22). Do riot grow
pumpkins two years in succession OH the same land ; when possible, put
them on new land. Weak Bordeaux mixture (see page 1 28) is often beneficial
when applied as a spray.

Rhizoctonia of Potato.

It is quite common to find on the surface of tubers dark-brown lumps of
irregular shape and size, like small lumps of soil, but which become black
and show up distinctly in contrast to the potato skin when wetted. They
do not adhere very firmly to the skin, and can be scratched off with the
finger nail or easily rubbed off ; when removed they leave very little scar on
the skin. This condition is sometimes called black speck scab. Some-
times, however, the lumps may be found to be deeper in the tissues, and
even beneath the skin. The stem of young plants are often rotted round the
collar or beneath the soil. Some die from what appears to be a wet rot.

Various other conditions have been found associated with this fungus,
such as a bunching or rosette appearance of the tops and small potatoes
formed on the stem above the seat of injury, and sometimes in the axils of
the leaves along the stem. Such unusual growths, however, may be caused
by many other conditions, and must not be taken as absolute indication
of the presence of rhizoctonia.

Besides causing the death of plants, the fungus also produces a rotting of
the tubers. This typically consists of a dry brown rot, which extends
inward from the skin, and very much resembles the true rot produced by
late blight when bacteria are absent. This condition is common in Tas-
manian potatoes, and is known as brown rust.

The remedy is selection of seed and the dipping of all seed before planting.
'The following treatment is recommended : —

Dip the tubers in hot formalin (2 pints 40 per cent, formalin in 30 gallons
of water) at 118-122 deg. Fah. for 2 minutes. Then place in a heap 6 to 8
inches high, cover with wet bags and leave them for an hour. Remove the
t>ags and allow the potatoes to dry.

The seed is best treated in half-bushel lots in a sack. A thermometer and
;a«mall boiler or tub of about 15 gallons capacity are required.

Ripe Rot of Tomato.

This disease usually appears when the fruit is ripe or nearly ripe. It is
•due to a fungus, which may cause loss even after pulling, as the rot may
spread and affect fruit carried in contact with the diseased fruit in the case.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 107

Large, sunken, decayed spots appear, which become covered with small dark
spots, formed in concentric rings. Later, the spots become white to pinkish
as the spores are produced and forced out over the surface of the diseased
area.

The fruit should be handled carefully to prevent any injury, as spores;
readily infect sound fruit if the skin be damaged. On no account should a
tomato showing signs of ripe rot be included in a case of sound fruit.
Rotation (see page 22) will act as a control, and diseased specimens should
be all absolutely destroyed.

Rust of Beans and Peai.

Several species of rust fuagi attack beans and peas throughout the world,
and one is common on our varieties of our garden beans. The fungus usually
appears late in the season and is destructive to the foliage, resulting in an
earlier and a reduced crop. At first, small and blister-like spots appear on
the leaves (usually on the under surface, though occasionally on the upper).
These rupture, and the spores produced give an iron-rust colour to the mass-
The fungus is harboured by the old leaves and vines ; hence, when this
disease appears in a crop it is advisable to burn all refuse and neither to-
throw any on the manure heap to be returned later to the field; nor to turn
any under the soil. Early spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture (see page
128) should be given. Later, when the pods are well developed the English
practice is to use permanganate of potash, about 1 oz. in 8 to 10 gallons of
water. The grower should always be on the look-out for seed from any.
resistant varieties.

Another of these species of rust fungi has been recorded in New South
Wales on broad beans. It attacks pods, leaves, and stems, and in other
parts of the world occurs on garden peas.

Scab of Potato.

The confusion in the use of the word " scab " is so great that it would be
better to drop it altogether, but it is in such general use among growers that
this is rendered impossible. The best thing, therefore, appears to be"l;o»
accept the term " scab " as meaning a roughening or abnormal growth of the
skin of the potato, with the proviso that the term conveys no suggestion as to-
how the abnormality is caused.

The skin of a potato is really of the nature of cork ; it is only a thin-
layer, but so long as it is intact it is highly protective. When it suffers an
injury, the potato endeavours to repair it by producing an extra amount of
corky cell substance around tthe seat of injury, and thus isolate it from
tfee healthy tissue. Tn this way a scab is produced, and scabbing may be
regarded as the manifestation of the efforts of the plant to, repair injury

108 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

and to protect itself from further attack. Various conditions have been at
times suggested as the cause of scab, such as the presence of lime, ashes,
fresh stable manure, cinders or grit in the soil ; also the dryness of the
season and the nature of the soil (acid, alkaline, sandy, heavy > &c.). Where
experiments, carefully conducted with proper scientific precautions, have
been carried out, it is becoming evident that some living organism is always
the cause, and that the above- conditions may influence its growth. In New
South Wales the best known scab producers are eelworms, and also the
fungus Rhizoctonia.

Sclerotium Disease of Beans and Peas.

A disease that is common to very many different plants, including beans
and peas, is that" known as sclerotium disease. It attacks the stems, com-
mencing as a white mould at the ground line and working upwards. After
the fungus has developed for some time the leaves become yellow and wilt,
and finally the stem collapses owing to the fungus blocking up all the water-
conducting channels. When the stem of the plant is hollow the fungus is
produced in considerable quantity in the cavity, and forms numbers of lumps
that are white at first, and then black, externally. These lumps vary in size
up to that of a pea, and- form a resting stage of the fungus. They remain
either free in the soil, or in decaying plants, and in the spring, develop small,
brown, mushroom-like growths on long stems, which produce spores that are
able to infect a new crop.

Diseased plants should be burned and not allowed to Jie on the ground.
The ground should be well limed, and the succeeding crop should be plants
of .a different family to that affected.

Soft Rot or Ring Rot of Sweet Potato.

This is not a serious field disease, though it occasionally occurs when wet
conditions prevail at the time the plants are dug. However, it often causes
much damage in forcing-beds and in storage. The symptoms of attack are a
rapid softening of the whole potato, which on squeezing exudes a brown
liquid. Sometimes only a dark ringed area is produced in the root. White
tufts appear on the outside of the potato, and on these a number of black
specks (the fruiting bodies of the fungus) are produced later. Rotted
potatoes are soon invaded by other organisms, and become an evil-smelling
disintegrating mass.

It is impossible to control this disease in the field before digging, but it is
lecommended that, before planting, the roots be treated with corrosive
sublimate (made up of 1 oz. of the chemical in 8 gallons of water), by
soaking them for ten minutes. Rather better results have been obtained with
this solution than with the formalin method.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH h'ALES. 109

In harvesting for storage and for seed, the greatest care should be taken

to avoid bruising.

•

Sunburn of Tomato.

Tomato fruit sometimes becomes scorched by the sun, spots being formed
that at first are pale yellow, and later black. These spots sometimes
resemble the diseased areas produced by ripe rot, and soon become infected by
various fungi. Heavily foliaged varieties are less liable to attack, and if
methods of cultivation, such as staking, are adopted, that will provide for the
foliage shading the fruit, less damage will result. Plant as early as possible,
so that plants will attain good growth before the approach of hot weather.
Spraying will do no good.

White Rust of Turnip and Cabbage.

This fungus attacks nearly all plants belonging to the cabbage family in
every part of the world. Among cruciferous weeds, Shepherd's Purse suffers
most severely, and as this and other related weeds may harbour the pest,
particular attention should be given to their destruction. The fungus attacks
the plants when they are seedlings, and grows up with the plant. At a later
stage it produces on the leaves, stem and flowers, small white areas presenting
the appearance of little blisters. It should be remembered that infection
<3an only be effected during the seedling stage, and therefore the seed-beds
should occupy a fairly dry, open situation.

The fungus effects different hosts in varying ways. In the case of Shep-
herd's Purse, for example, the stems become enlarged and distorted, and
usually no malformations of the flowers or leaves occur, while in the radish
the flowers often become strikingly modified.

The methods of control recommended are : Rotation of crops (see page 22);
destruction by burning of all diseased plants ; destruction of cruciferous
weeds which harbour this fungus, and the application of a mixture of equal
parts of freshly-slaked lime and sulphur, which should be dusted on the plants.

Wilt of Tomato.

This is primarily a disease of the plant, and it is caused by a parasitic
fungus that invaders the vascular tissue and by its action produces wilting.
A plant that is attacked gradually sickens, loses its green colour, wilts, and
finally collapses to the ground. Plants are attacked here and there in the
field, and if a badly-affected one or a dead one be pulled up, the roots are
found to be decayed or destroyed by a dry rot. As the cause of the trouble
is a soil dweller and a 'root parasite, spraying is of no value in controlling it,
and good cultivation and rotation are the chief preventive measures.

110 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Insect Pests*

W. W. FROGGATT, F.L.S., Entomologist, and W. B. GURNEY, Assistant Entomologist.

Vegetables are attacked by two kinds of insect pests — leaf-eating and
sap-sucking — and growers must know to which of these two classes a par-
ticular insect belongs, in order to know what remedy to apply. Insects
which eat the leaves have their mouth-parts formed for biting off pieces of
vegetable matter, and in this way eat their food in much the same manner
as do the higher animals. The insects which suck the plant juices have their
mouth-parts formed into a beak, which is inserted into the plant tissues.
The most notable amongst insects which chew their food is perhaps the larva
of the cabbage moth. These insects can be destroyed by a stomach poison
which when taken into the stomach along with the particles of food, kills
them.. We apply treatment for this class of insect to the plants, and make
no effort to apply it directly to the insects. On the other hand the sucking
insects such as aphis, bugs, &c., must be killed by actual contact — suffocation
and irritation.

Aphis.

Small aphides (some winged and some not) make their appearance during
the summer months on various plants. At this time they are all females,
that have the power of giving birth to their young without the aid of males.
The young aphides are born alive and in rapid succession, so that the
numbers increase very rapidly. Towards the end of summer winged forms
are developed more numerously, and the aphides spread. Winged males are
also now developed and fertilise the females, which lay eggs (known as
winter eggs) in the soil and decaying vegetation. It is these eggs that
enable the aphis to tide the winter over. They hatch in the spring and
start the broods of that season.

The effect of these thousands of tiny insects, each sucking up sap by means
of its little beak is to weaken the plant, to reduce its vigour and profit, and
even to cause it to wilt.

Spraying with tobacco or sunlight soap wash, or even a very dilute kerosene
and soap wash, as directed on page 130, will keep these pests in check on such
crops as peas, beans, cabbage, celery, &c.

When field crops of such vegetables as turnips are attacked, it is very
difficult to spray, and the method of control must be clean cultivation, which
kills the winter eggs. By attention to surface cultivation and manuring,
healthy plants are raised which are more resistant to attack and less damage
will result.

Fortunately there are an immense number of parasites which live upon
and in all kinds of aphis, and they are a great factor in ordinary years in
keeping the pest under control.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Ill

T.

Army Worm Moth (Cirphis unipuntcata).

"he army worm moth winters in the soil as a pupa, as a partly-grown
grub, as an adult moth, and in the egg stage. The female moth may lay up
to UOO eggs in a season (usually depositing them on grass leaves). From
theiU eggs myriads of caterpillars appear. The eggs hatch in about ten clays,
<ind\in three or four weeks the worms or grubs are full grown, wl^en they
burr themselves in the soil, change to the pupal stage, and after two weeks
emerge again as adult moths. The grubs feed and move about much more
freely in the daylight than other cutworms.

The Army Worm Moth (Cirphis unipunctata).
In the caterpillar stage, this moth is one of the worst pests of crops and grass.

When in the crops, the most effective method of destroying " army
worms " and other night-feeding cutworms is the use of poisoned bran bait
mentioned on page 131.

Where there is no danger to stock, poisoning the grass or a strip of the
crop before the advancing caterpillars is effective ; for this purpose use the
following spray : — 1 Ib. of arsenite of soda, 4 Ib. treacle, 16 gallons water;
or 3 Ib. of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water.

The Banded Pumpkin Beetle (Aulocophom).

This beetle is perhaps the worst of all leaf-eaters that attack garden crops.
Tt usually makes its appearance just as the plants have made a good start,
and if the season be favourable the infestation becomes so serious that the
whole bed will soon be destroyed unless steps be taken to prevent it.
Fortunately, the beetles are not often so numerous as this, but they must
seriously reduce the returns in almost every season. In an ordinary season
they appear about the middle of October, and are at their worst until the
middle of November. They swarm on the upper surfaces of the leaves, eating

112

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

off the tissues till nothing but the dried skeleton remains ; then they start
on the next leaf. The flowers are also attacked from the edges and eaten off
in the same manner.

A. — The Banded Pumpkin Beetle

(Aulocophora ohvieri).

B. — Indicating the natural size of
the Beetle.

The 28-spotted Ladybird (EpUachna
28-punctata).

The adult beetle is of a general rich orange-yellow colour, marked with
black, and measures about a quarter of an inch in length. It^is rounded on
the upper surface, and can be readily distinguished from the true ladybird
beetles by its general elongated form, and by the thorax forming a neck
between the head and body. In the ladybirds, the head and thorax fit as.
closely into the hind portion that the whole is almost circular.

Portion of a Pumpkin Leaf, showing ravages of
28-spotted Ladybird.

The larvae are dull, whitish-coloured, elongated grubs, with the hind portion-
yellow, and measure about two-fifths of an inch. They are active little
creatures, and feed on the stem and roots of the vines, sometimes gnawing
their way into the base of the stem. When full grown, they pupate at a
distance varying from 1 to 6 inches below the surface of the soil, and later
emerge as the perfect beetle, to" make a fresh attack on the surrounding
vegetation.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 113

If the plants are freely dusted on the upper surface with dry tobacco dust
and slaked lime (see page 130), the beetles will be kept away. The work
should be done in the morning, when the dew causes a better adhesion of
the dust to the leaves. The beetles can also be collected on the foliage in
the etrly morning, when they are more or less torpid and slow in rising if
disturbed. Large numbers can be destroyed by drawing a shallow dish
between the rows of the plants as described on page

The discovery a few years ago that the larvae infested the stems and roots,
and the pupae the soil beneath, indicated another important means of control.
It is obvious that if all dead pumpkin and melon plants are cleaned up and
burnt with any other rubbish on the ground, the hibernating beetles and
their eggs will be destroyed, and if the soil is turned over early in the seasoM
and thoroughly disturbed, most of the delicate larvae and pupae in the soil
will also be killed. Pumpkins, melons or related plants should not be grown
on the same soil in successive years.

Buff-coloured Tomato Weevil (Desiantha nociva).

This small ground-coloured beetle, not half an inch long, with the head
produced into a snout, feeds at night #nd hides by day in the soil and under
dead leaves and stalks around the plants. It attacks the leaves and stems
of tomatoes, cabbages, &c. The grubs of this beetle similarly attack the
plants at night and hide in the soil by day.

It has been found simpler to trap the adult beetles (see page 132) than to
spray with arsenate of lead (see page 129). Taking advantage of1 the habit
of sheltering under dead leaves and rubbish, a few leaves or a handful of
grass can be laid down alongside each plant, and other rubbish cleared away
Collecting the beetles for several mornings in this way and by shaking them
out of these traps into a bucket with a little oil and water in it will very
quickly reduce the pest to a minimum.

Convolvulus Hawk-moth (Protoparce convolvuh).

A hawk-moth is sometimes a pest of the sweet potato. The caterpillars
also attack convolvulus and privet foliage ; they are of a general green
colour, with paler coloured diagonal streaks along the sides of the body, arid
possess a spine or horn on top, near the hind end of the body. These caterpillars
may vary much in colour ; some are yellowish, and others, especially well-
grown specimens, may be brown and almost black. They feed voraciously,
riddling and even eating the leaves completely off, and grow to 3 inches in
length, with thick bodies. When full grown, they bury themselves several
inches down in the soil, where they pupate, changing into a dark chocolate-
brown pupa, with a curved exposed beak shaped like a jug-handle. The
first brood of pupae produces a second brood of moths, which again lay eggs
on the foliage and give rise to the second brood of caterpillars. The second
brood, on pupating in the soil, may remain over winter as pupae, and produce
the first spring brood of moths next season.

114

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

The adult moth is dark-grey on the body and wings, with two rows of
pink patches on the upper surface of the hind half of the body.

Once an attack has commenced; spraying with arsenate of lead (see page 129)
can be recommended where the foliage is not very thick. This would be
more effective against the young stages of the caterpillars. In dense plots
of sweet potatoes there seems to be nothing to do except to now and again
shake the plants and search for and destroy the caterpillars.

To prevent an infestation, turn up the soil in autumn and winter to
expose and destroy hibernating pupa? in areas where they have previously
attacked the crop.

In January, 1903, caterpillars attacked the sweet potato vines at Hawkes-
buiy Agricultural College, and some of them grew to an immense size while
feeding on the leaves. They completely denuded certain plants of leaves and
stems, but a single application of Paris green destroyed them, after which
the plants threw out fresh leaves, and seemed none the worse for the attack.

Cutworm (Noctuidce).

The cutworm caterpillars, so prevalent in gardens, are generally found to
be the grubs of the small brown Bugong moth. Swarms of this moth are

in evidence about March, and each
female lays several hundred eggs
on weeds and grass. These may
hatch in April, and the cater-
pillars do considerable damage to
seedlings.

It is of interest to note that
though the frosts of winter destroy
numbers of these caterpillars, and
cold greatly retards their activity,
yet they can be quite a serious
pest in early winter. Numbers of
the full-grown caterpillars pupate
at this time, of course, and thus
pass through the cold weather,
emerging presently as the moths
that lay the eggs from which the
spring brood of caterpillars is
hatched.

The habits of other cutworms
differ slightly. They feed at night
or dusk, or on cloudy days, attack-
ing vegetables and garden plants.
During the daytime they shelter
Trench for destroying Cutworms approaching in loose go^ <jead leaves, or at

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

115

the base of plants. The caterpillars make their first appearance during
August or September, and in warm districts there may be as many as four'
or more broods in a season.

They sometimes appear in spring in vast numbers with astonishing
suddenness ; in some part this is due to the fact that some cutworm caterpillars
hibernate as partly-grown grubs through the winter, and suddenly crawl from
the soil during the first warm days of spring. Others again appear as moths
in the spring, and lay eggs, from which the new brood of caterpillars appears

It is difficult to combat the cutworms, but bran poisoned with Paris green,
as described on page 131 has been found most effective.

The Diamond-backed Cabbage Moth (Plutella maculipen ns.)
Under the name of "cabbage grub " or "cabbage worm," the caterpillar of
the diamond-backed cabbage moth, once a European turnip pest, but now
world-wide in its range, is well known to Australian cabbage-growers, as well
as to the cabbage consumer when he finds the little green Avortns among the
leaves of his purchase.

The life-history of this moth is so

well known that it need only be . \ /

briefly outlined. The moth, on the \

wing, appears to be of a uniform /

brown tint, and does not show the
distinct, angular row of pale mark-
ings along the upper margin of the
folded wings from which it takes its
popular name, t( diamond backed,3'
and by which it can be so easily
identified. It measures slightly
over half an inch across the out-
spread wings. Emerging from the
stout chrysalid skins which have
protected them through the winter
months, these active little moths
lay their eggs upon the foliage of
the young cabbage plants, and re-
main in hiding among the weeds

and on the inner side of the cabbage leaves. As soon as fine weather sets
in, if small brown moths are seen rising from the cabbages, it will be found
that the leaves are marked with glassy spots, where the tiny, black-headed,
pale-green caterpillars have been at work. So like the surface of the leaf
are these caterpillars in coloration, that they would be easily passed over
if it were not for their gnawing of the leaf.

Diai

ond-backed Cabbage Moth, viewed from above.
[Enlarged.]

116 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOCfTH WALES.

As they increase in size, they become slender, bright-green caterpillars
(popularly known as " cabbage worms") and rest upon the surface of the
leaves, gnawing holes right through them. At first they confine their atten-
tion to the larger outer leaves, but as they increase in numbers they gnaw
aU through the plant, and if they are allowed to reach this stage the cabbage
•r cauliflower is soon of no marketable value. The caterpillars are active
little creatures, and if touched they roll away or drop from the leaif to the
Around, often hanging suspended on a silken thread, and thus they escape
their many enemies. When full grown, they betake themselves to the
shelter of the under side of the leaf upon which they have been feeding, and
spin a lattice-like, elongate, oval cocoon, or rather hammock, of silken
strands, securely attached to the leaf, but open at both ends. It is such a
flimsy, delicate structure that one can observe the transformation of the
insect. At first a green pupa, it changes to dull brown, and finally reveals
all the delicate outlines of the coming moth, enclosed in the pupal skin.

Our cabbage and cauliflower growers in many districts, grow these vege-
tables'practically all through the year, the young plants often being set out
alongside those ready for cutting, or upon the patches from which the
marketable vegetables have been. cut. Thus, with a continuous crop, the
cabbage moth can breed all the year round. This is one of the reasons why
the cabbage moth is such a serious pest in New South Wales.

Many growers are not careful enough in seeing that the young cabbage
plants which they buy are perfectly free of moth grubs. Anyone going
around the Sydney shops when the suburban resident is busy planting his
kitchen garden, and there is a brisk demand for cabbage plants, will see
plants for sale with their leaves riddled with holes caused by the cabbage
moth, and covered with grubs and eggs.

Unless the young plants in the seed-bed are treated until the time of
planting out, they soon attract the moths from old cabbage patches. If all
cabbage plants were carefully clipped and washed before they were planted
out, they would have a fair start in life, without any aphis, cabbage moth, or
other pests infesting them.

Then again, cabbage and cauliflowers are grown in other fields, and
as soon as they are ready, all the marketable ones are cut and bagged.
The unsaleable ones are left on the ground, to rot or run to seed, and
remain until the owner wants the ground for something else, which may
not be for months. This neglected- plot is the breeding-ground for the
cabbage moth and all other cabbage diseases, insect, and fungus.

There is no doubt that the application of boiling water will kill all the
grubs with which it comes in contact, without doing any serious damage to
healthy plants. It is applied with a watering-can with a fine rose, the
operator walking down between the rows and giving each infested cabbage

VEGETABLE GROWING AY XEW SOUTH WALES. 117

Leaf of Cabbage showing damage caused by Caterpillars of Cabbage Moth,
with larva and cocoons on the leaf. [Reduced.]

—™

CaterpUlar. [Enlarged.]

Pupa (chrysalid) removed from cocoon. [Enlarged.]

r

Cocoon enclosing the pupa. [Enlarged.] Cabbage Moth, side view. [Enlarged.]

The Diamond-backed Cabbage Moth (Pluiella maculivennis).

18 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

or cauliflower a good sprinkle. This is very handy for a small garden patch,
but in a large field it is difficult to keep a large quantity of water at the
proper temperature, and to distribute it over a large area.

Some growers depend chiefly on kerosene emulsion, (see page 130), and
keep the young plants clean until they begin to heart, when the danger is con-
sidered to be over. Lime and tobacco dust (see page 130) is a very effective
remedy.

Start with clean cabbage plants in clean ground, and keep the ground
clean ; and after the crop is marketed clean up the cabbage patch. Then
reinfestation will be less.

Before transplanting dip all young plants in any of the spray solutions
mentioned on page 1 29 for sucking insects.

Poisons such as Paris green and arsenate of lead are not used by some
growers, because they imagine that sufficient will remain to make the use of
the plants unsafe. This is a fallacy. Spraying with solutions made of the
following formulae is recommended, and is quite safe : —

Paris green 1 lb., soap 3 lb., water 50 gallons.

Arsenate of lead 1 lb., soap 3 lb., water 25 gallons.

Eelworm causing Root Knot and Root Gall.

The disease known as root knot or root gall appears to be spreading very
much in New South Wales. Such plants as pumpkins, melons, cabbage,
cauliflower, spinach, lettuce, beans, peas, tomato, potato, carrot, and parsnip
are attacked. The disease is readily seen on- examining the roots. Irregular
enlargements, either scattered or so close that the whole root system is
abnormally thickened, will be seen. These enlargements interfere with the
functions of the roots, and often the first indication of attack is the wilting
and failure of the plant. In the potato plant the tubers themselves are
usually attacked. Blister-like lumps aie formed, and often the surfaces of
these break, thus producing a very scabby appearance.

The cause of the injury is a tiny round worm, often called an eelworm, and
also (from the effects of its attack) a gall worm, which belongs to a group of
worms known as Nematodes. The life history of the worm is briefly as
follows : — It hatches from an egg less than ^i^- inch in length. The young
larvae move through the soil with considerable activity, and, on finding a
root, bore their way into it. Once inside, the young worm ceases its active
movements, and begins to enlarge. By means of a spearlike organ within its
mouth, it commences to feed on the root tissues. Its presence irritates the
tissues, and so stimulates them to enlarge, thus forming the gall. At the
end of two to three weeks the different sexes become apparent, the female
becoming pear-shaped, and large enough to be just visible to the unaided eye.
It requires about four weeks in all for the female to develop from the egg
and commence her own egg-laying. The eggs laid may be ten to fifteen a

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

119

•day, and in warm weather they develop in about three days, but they take
longer in cooler weather. The young worms are not very resistant to
unfavourable weather conditions, and soil treatment aims at destroying the
worms while still young and tender ; the eggs have a resistant coating, and
the mature females are safely protected inside the root. Drying out of the
soil, or flooding the soil, is usually fatal to thfem in a comparatively short
time. Soil kept free from vegetation for about two years usually results in
the worms being killed out.

Potatoes infested with Eel worms.

Tubers and roots used as seed should be free from scab, as the scab areas
may contain the worms.

In a small garden, two or three treatments of the soil, at intervals of about
•eight or ten days, with formalin 1 part, in water 50 parts, applied at the rate
•of 2 gallons to a square yard, should be used. Tt is of advantage to cover
the soil with wet sacking after each application.

120 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

French Bean Fly (Agromyza phoseoli).

This little black fly, about one-twelfth of an inch in length, does a .^xxl
deal of damage to French bean crops in some districts. The fly lays its eggs
upon the stem near the ground, and the resultant maggots tunnel along under
the skin, leaving the stem rusty-red and cracked, so that the plant eventually
dies.

Growers report that spring crops are seldom, if ever, damaged to any
appreciable extent, but as the weather becomes warmer the flies gradually
breed up and develop in such numbers as to be very destructive in the fall of
the year.

In good growing weather some advantage is gained by hilling up the soil
round the plants, so that the stems are covered ; the bean plant then puts out
a fresh supply of fibrous roots above the damaged tissue. The hilling up also
protects the stems from attack if it is done before the flies first appear. No
spray or wash seems to have any effect upon the flies, and as the maggots do-
not feed upon the surface of the plant but under shelter of the tissue, no
poisonous spray would affect them.

As with many other pests, this is a case for clean cultivation. The maggots
pnpate in the bean stems, from which, if the plants are allowed to remain in
the field, the flies emerge in due course. It would be advisable to pull and
burn all infested bean plants as soon as the last lot of beans has been gathered ;
otherwise, if the plants become dead and dry, pupae may drop out of the
cav ties in the stems, and, falling on the earth, remain in the ground 'long
after the dry stalks have been removed.

Onion Maggot (Phorba ceparum).

The worst insect pest of onions is the onion maggot. These maggots come
from eggs deposited on the plant, and require about a week to hatch ; the
larvae burrow into the bulbs and remain there about two weeks, then emerge
and pupate in the ground. Their presence is first indicated by the tops turn-
ing yellow, then withering, and finally drying before the bulbs have matured.

It is difficult to suggest a remedy, but liming the soil is found to be
beneficial, and if the infestation is very severe, rotation of crops (see page
22) should be tried.

Potato Moth (Phtkorimcea operculella] .

This pest is more or less in evidence in every potato-growing district
throughout the State, and the loss caused by it annually is enormous. The
injury produced by the worm is extremely evident to the housekeeper (much
of the infected tuber being cut to waste) and is well-known to all dealers in
potatoes, but very generally they do not understand the nature of the insect
producing the trouble. The inj ury done to the plant in the field is considerable ,
but not so great as that done to potatoes in store.

Potatoes left in the field after the previous season's harvesting provide the
main harbour, and moths bred from these are on the wing and ready to
infect the growing crop. The moths usually lay their 'eggs in the

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 121

B2— The adult Potato
Moth.

THE POTATO
MOTH.

A— A. potato showing
traces of moth infes-
tation on one side.

B1— The larva.

The lines indicate the
natural size.

— The same potato
cut open, showing
how the larvae affect
the flesh.

122 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

generally at the base of a leaf ; the larva when hatched, burrows its way down
the stalk, and when full grown seeks a secluded spot, generally in the wilted
tops, and pupates. If any tubers are not completely covered with soil, they
will be infested. Potatoes are liable to infestation whether left in the
field or placed in store after being dug.

The injury to the tuber is very similar to that done to the plant. The eye
of the potatoes is usually the spot selected by the moth to lay its eggs. The
larva, when hatched, channels its way through just beneath the skin, or
through the substance of the tuber. Its presence can usually be detected by
the castings or excrement which it throws out. Several larvee have been
found in the one tuber.

In suggesting remedies to control this pest, it is as well to point out that
unless every grower does hh part thoroughly and well no diminution need
be expected ; it will be of no avail for one grower to use every means to-
fight it if his careless and negligent neighbour does nothing but harbour the
pest.

The battle should begin when cultivating. Where hilling is the practice
it should be done with care, so that all tubers should be well covered with
well-pulverised soil ; 110 clods should be permitted, as they form crevices
for the moth to make its way in and do its work of destruction. Where flat
cultivation is practised, plant deeply and keep the soil well stirred. When
the potatoes are dug they should be bagged without delay; if they are
exposed even for a short while infestation is almost sure to follow. It will
be particularly noticeable in a season when showers are frequent, that the
percentage of infected tubers when dug, is considerably smaller than in a
comparatively dry one. This is mainly owing to the rain breaking down the
clods and compacting the soil, effectively closing any crevices, and thus
preventing the moth from gaining an entrance to the tubers.

Many growers, after filling the bags, and before sewing them up, cover
the mouth of the bag with stalks and leaves, probably to shade them from
the sun. This practice cannot be too strongly condemned, as the moth is
generally lurking in the haulms, and will immediately leave them to attack
the potatoes. All stalks and foliage should be removed and burnt or
destroyed as soon as possible. The bags should be sewn up immediately
after filling and removed without delay to suitable storage. If it is not
convenient to remove them for some time they should be placed in stacks
and closely covered with some cloth or tarpaulin. Extreme care and watch-
fulness all along the line are necessary, particularly in storage. The
majority of growers think that there the tubers are immune from attack,
Far from it ; more damage is done while in store than elsewhere. But if
suitable storage is provided, the ravages of the moth can be better controlled
than in the field. ,

Frequently potatoes are stacked in an open shed on the farm, and no pre-
cautions taken in the way of securely covering them. To prevent infestation
they should be stacked in a tight room. On top of the stack place a shallow

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 123

vessel, and into this pour some bi-sulphide of carbon, and close the door
tightly. This liquid becomes a gas when exposed to the air, and, being
heavier than air, the fumes diffuse among the potatoes and destroy any moths
and larvae. This should be repeated every ten to fourteen days, in order to
kill any larva; or moths that might emerge from the egg stage. Four or five
charges should be sufficient. About 5 Ib. of liquid bi-sulphide of carbon to
every 1,000 cubic feet of space should be used. As the gas is highly
inflammable, the greatest care should be exercised. No lights of any kind
should be near, or disastrous results will follow.

Of course it is recognised that many growers may not, perhaps, be in a
position to provide themselves with a suitable airtight room, but every effort
should be made to do so, and to adopt the treatment recommended It
will be found that the potatoes free from infestation will realise better
prices, and the trouble and expense will be warranted. In the absence of
such a store-room, the potatoes should be drawn into a heap, a saucer
containing carbon bi-sulphide placed on top, and the whole covered closely
with a cloth.

Covering with grass or hay from some place remote from the potato crop,
and occasionally sprinkling with water, is a primitive method, but is found
to keep the attack in check.

On small areas the moth may also be captured by use of lantern traps (see
page 132).

Pseudo-looper or Silvery Plusia Moth (Plusia Argentifera).

The green caterpillar of this species of moth commonly feeds on the
foliage of beans, creepers, and potatoes. They pupate in loose, silken cocoons,
which they spin on the foliage or stalks and sometimes on the ground.

Brushing into a tray of oil and water, as is described on page 132, is
recommended as a means of control, while spi-aying with arsenate of lead (see
page 129), is also advantageous where the foliage is not too dense.

Rutherglen Bug (Nysius vinitor). ,

This little plant-bug is a tiny brown insect with silvery-grey wings, and
measures about one-sixth of an inch in length. They suck up the sap with
their beaks, and, where numerous, soon cause the plants to shrivel. They
appear in summer from eggs that have been deposited on the grass and
weeds by the autumn brood of the previous season, and are particularly fond
of potato and tomato plants, although they infest many other plants and
trees. They fly very well, and in the warmer part of the day are very active.
For this reason, and because they shelter on the under-surfaces of the foliage,
it is difficult to destroy them with a contact spray. The best method of
destroying them is to use a shallow tray containing a mixture of water and
kerosene, as described on page 130.

124 VEGETABLE GROWING O NEW SOUTH WALES.

Slugs c nd Snails.

Probably the worst pests that the household gardener has to contend with
ara slugs and snails. Slugs are the worst of the two, and often cause sucli
havoc among delicate vegetables as to prevent them coming to maturity ;
even when that stage is reached, they are not infrequently made unfit for
market.

Dusting with tobacco dust mixed with five times the quantity of ashes, or
sprinkling slaked lime around the plants, is recommended for the control of
these pests.

Boards and flat stones scattered about, with a sprinkling of poisoned bran,'
(see page 131) around and under them, act ay traps, and enable one to
'collect quickly and destroy numbers at a time ; if persisted in for some days,
this considerably reduces the number of pests in a plot.

Obviously, too, heaps of stones, boards or rubbish, if only providing shelter
for the pest, should be removed from the vicinity of the crop.

Slugs also dislike soot, sifted wood ashes, and sawdust wetted with weak
carbolic acid and sprinkled along both sides of the row.

(See also .page 131).

Spotted Ladybird (Epilachna).

Much the same damage is done by the 28-Spotted Ladybird (for illustration
see page 112) as by the Banded Pumpkin Beetle. Dusting the plants with
lime and tobacco dust (see page 130), and spraying with arsenate of lead
(see page 129) are recommended as means of control.

Tomato and Bean Bug, or Green Bug (Cuspicona).

This cosmopolitan plant bug is quite a modern introduction into our
vegetable gardens. It first appeared upon tomato plants in the neighbour-
hood of Sydney about ten years ago ; since then it has increased in numbers
and for the last few years has been noted as a pest upon the fruits and
foliage of the tomato, the foilage and young pods of French beans, and upon
potato plants. How far they have extended their range outside the county
of Cumberland it is hard to say, but as the species is known in Florida.
U.S.A., as an orange pest, it may easily become established in the citrus
orchards of New South Wales.

This bug attacks plants by inserting its beak into the tissue and sucking up
the sap. The adult is of a uniform rich green tint and of a typical shield shape.
The legs are well developed, and the insect can run and fly very well when
disturbed from its food plant, but generally it drops to the ground when the
plants are^touched. The female lays her eggs in little patches, side by side,
on1 the surface of the foliage of the young plants ; the baby bugs, when ready
to emerge, push off the flattened lid, leaving the empty eggs like glass cups.

The young bugs on emergence are dark coloured, but during their
successive moults they gradually change to a lighter colour, until at the final
moult they appear perfect, green shield bugs, with well- developed flying wings.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

125

THE TOMATO AND BEAN BUG (Cuspicona).

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. — 1. Cluster of eggs and young bugs immediately after leaving the egg shells.
2 Enlarged figure of young bug just emerged from egg. 3. Second stage after leaving egg.
4. Last stage of immature bug, snowing definite wing pads. 5. Adult bug with fully developed
wings ; leaf green in colour.

126

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

These adult bugs when resting among the foliage of a tomato plant can easily
escape detection even by the practised eye, their colour harmonises so closely
with that of the leaves.

The clusters of rounded, flat-topped, glassy eggs are very noticeable on the
foliage, and 'if the egg-infested leaves were snipped off and dropped into a
tin when the gardener was going over his plants, large numbers would be
destroyed before they had hatched. Later, or whenever an odd bug is
noticed on the plants, if a bag or sheet can be placed on the'ground under the
foliage, or anvold umbrella can be placed against the side of the plants, a
sudden shake of the free hand will cause most of them to fall, when
they can be gathered up and destroyed. In the early stages of the develop-
ment of the little dark-coloured bugs, when their integument is not dense
and the wing-covers are not present, an oil spray or tobacco and soap wash
(see page 130) will act as a contact poison.

Turnip Caterpillar (Godara comalis).

A small light-brown moth in its caterpillar stage attacks the foliage of
turnips and horse-radish. Where plentiful enough to seriously affect the
turnips, a spray of arsenate of lead (see page \ 29) should be used.

Weevil of Pea and

The grubs and adult beetles of a
seeds. Though these beetles lay
are not generally sufficient to be

1

Bean Weevil

(Bruchus obtectus).

Bean Seeds (Bruchus).
weevil commonly attack pea and bean
their eggs in the field, their ravages
noted until after the crop has been
gathered and stored. Then the
grubs become full grown, pupate,
and change to the adult form
within the seed. This brood
will again lay eggs on the &eeds
around them in the store, and
the infestation is thus increased
and with it the damage.

For destroying these pests,
which are the cause of the loss
of a large percentage of stored
seed, fumigation with carbon bi-
sulphide is best, the method
being similar to that described
on page 131. The fumes are
highly inflammable, and no lights
or pipes should be allowed near.
Keeping seed in cold storage
(35 deg. Fah.) destroys the grubs
and beetles, and, even if it does
not destroy the eggs, it prevents
their development.

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

1-27

White Grub.

These are the thick, white, curved grubs so common in the soil, and often
turned up when digging. They are the larval or grub state of the common
" King" or " Christmas " beetles and their allies, the " chafers." They vary
much in size, according to the age or the species, but are all very similar in
appearance. These grubs remain feeding in the soil on grass and crop roots
for two years or more before becoming full-grown, when they construct a
soft, rounded earthern cocoon, pupate therein, and thus pass their last winter
in the soil, to appear the following summer as adult beetles, which feed on
foliage.

Where these grubs appear, rotation is recommended. The change crop in
each case is not so seriously infested, and return can afterwards be made to

White Grub.

the original crop. Deep working of the soil in late autumn is recommended,
as it destroys numbers of those which have pupated, by breaking their
earthen cells and exposing the helpless pupae to other insects, birds, and
frost. Treatment of the soil with lime, apterite, &c., has not been found to
give satisfactory results.

Wireworm.

Wireworms are the hard-bodied, smooth, yellowish-white grubs, commonly
found in the soil, and varying in sizes up to 1 J inches in length. These active,
wiry, quick-moving grubs or wireworms are the larvae of the common brownish
beetles known as " click " or " skip-jack " beetles, and the grubs remain at work
feeding on roots and growing in the soil from three to five years, when, like
the white grubs, they construct a small cell to pupate in, and appear as the
common brown beetle.

Cultivation in the autumn destroys numbers of the cells and pupae, and
rotation of crops is also recommended . I

Wireworms can be destroyed by feeding on bran poisoned with Paris
green (see page 131).

128 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Controls for Diseases and Pests*

Diseases and pests may not be prevalent every year, but experience has
shown that they recur frequently, and in years of serious epidemics the profits
are to the man who takes early protective measures. Success in vegetable
culture depends largely on cultivation, manuring, and the control of pests and
diseases, and the last operation is not the least important.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS.

la the treatment of pests -<and diseases, the principal point is what remedy
t» use. The grower must first identify the cause of his trouble, and then
treat it according to its nature. Treatment must be thorough, or the time
and labour are wasted. A knowledge of the enemies to be treated, and of
the remedies found to be most effective, their preparation, and the proper time
for the application is essential. Pre\entionof fungus diseases is possible;
but their cure is hardly practicable. When failure occurs, it may generally
be attributed to the lateness of the treatment. Success in controlling pests
will only be obtained by thorough attention to details. Be very careful,
in buying mixtures, to obtain them from reliable firms only, and after they
have been thoroughly tested.

SPRAYS.

The principal fungicide used is Bordeaux mixture, and the insecticides,
which have proved the most efficacious, are arsenate of lead, for leaf-eating
insects, and kerosene emulsion, resin wash, miscible oils, and tobacco solutions
for sap-sucking insects.

For applying sprays, the vegetable grower will require a knapsack spray or
a hand syringe according to the area to be treated. If possible spraying
should not be carried out in direct sunlight during the heat of the day.
During periods of rapid growth and after summer rains, spraying should be
carried out frequently, though not before the foliage is dry.

Bordeaux Mixture for Fungus Diseases.

The following formula is recommended for use in spraying vegetables : —
Copper sulphate (bluestone) 1 lb., freshly-burnt lime 1 lb., water 20 gallons.

For the- copper sulphate solution, wooden vessels are preferable, though
copper ones may be used. Iron should be avoided. It is immaterial
whether hot or cold water be used to dissolve the bluestone. If the mixture
is to be made in a hurry, it is best to dissolve the copper sulphate in hot water.
If there is plenty of time use cold water ; but in this case the bluestone must

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 129

be suspended in a porous bag (bit of muslin or sacking) as near the surface of
the water as possible. If the bluestone is thrown into the vessel, and water
poured on the top of it, it will not dissolve in a week. When suspended as
described,^ it should dissolve in about twenty-four hours.

The bluestone solution when made must be diluted until there are 10
gallons of solution, before the lime solution is added to it. This is a very
important point. If the copper solution is too strong, the precipitate formed
is thick and heavy, and liable to clog the nozzle of the spray-pump.

The lime, which should be freshly burnt, should be slacked with a small
quantity of water. Slacking on a board is to be recommended rather than
in a cask, because if the lime is really freshly burnt there will be considerable
heat evolved, and the barrel may suffer. Place the whole of the lime on a
board, and pour over it about a pint of water. The lime, if it is good,
should become very hot, crack asunder, give off a quantity of steam, and
finally crumble into a fine white powder This' is now emptied into a barrel
and the other 10 gallons of, water added. Stir and allow to settle, then
pour off the milky solution through a strainer.

Finally run both the lime and bluestone solutions, at the same time, into
a third vessel.

For diseases such as late (or Irish) blight of potatoes and tomatoen, use
only half the quantity of water given above.

Arsenate of Lead for Leaf-eating Insects.

For the destruction of leaf-eating insects, ar.senate of lead has proved most
efficient. The spray is simply made by taking 1| oz. of dry arsenate of lead
powder and mixing it with 5 gallons of water.. A thin paste is made with
the powder first, and this is stirred into the vat containing the quantity of
water required. It is important to make sure that the powder is thoroughly
wet throughout before the paste is diluted, otherwise some will simply sink
to the bottom and be lost. If arsenate of lead is purchased, twice the above
amount as specified for powder is required. It is important to keep the
mixture well agitated when spraying.

Sprays for Sucking Insects.

Miscible Oils. — There are several brands of miscible oils on the market.
They are for the most part petroleum products that have been so treated as
to make them mix quite freely with water. These oils are efficient and use-
ful (especially for controlling aphis) but must be used with caution, as serious
injury to the plants is caused if they are too strong. The manufacturers
directions should be carefully followed,
t 97623— E

130 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Tobacco Washes. — Highly concentrated nicotine extracts are obtainable
and are more convenient to the vegetable grower than home-made prepara-
tions. The manufacturers supply directions for mixing which should be
carefully followed.

As a contact spray these mixtures are particularly useful in the treatment
of aphis.

Sunlight Soap Wash. — Another useful spray for aphides, Ac., can be made
by dissolving a cake of Sunlight soap in 2 gallons of water, and spraying
when warm. This is easy to mix, and has given satisfactory results.

Kerosene Emulsion. — The prepared spraying oils of heavier nature, under
various brands, have mostly taken the place of kerosene emulsion, but it is
still used by a good many gardeners.

A stock solution can be prepared as follows : —
Hard soap, J Ib.
Kerosene, 2 gallons.
Boiling water, 1 gallon.

Dissolve ^ Ib. of hard soap in 1 gallon of boiling water ; while still boiling
stir in 2 gallons of kerosene, then immediately pump the whole from one
vessel into another. The outlet from the short delivery hose (or iron pipe —
for the rubber perishes) should be small enough to enable a good pressure to
be maintained whilst pumping; a course spray nozzle on the end of the outlet
hose or pipe will suffice.

If any trouble is found in emulsifying these proportions, a greater quantity
of the boiling soap solution should be added, and the whole put through the
pump again.

Treat the above as a stock solution, and dilute it with boiling water to make
the total solution 22 gallons before using. For tender plants more water
should be used. Soft water only should be used for mixing and diluting.

Kerosene is very severe on rubber hoses, and they should have a warm soda
solution pumped through them after use to clear them thoroughly of the oil.

OTHER METHODS OF CONTROL.

In addition to spraying to control diseases and pests, other means are
sometimes adopted. The chief of these are as follows :— -

Lime and Tobacco Dust. — This mixture is particularly useful for insects
like cabbage moth grubs, pumpkin beetles, slugs, and snails. It consists of
freshly slaked lime-dust, and tobacco-dust, mixed dry, in the proportion of
4 to 1. After mixing these well together, dust the mixture by hand over the
plants. Apply during the early morning when the dew is on the leaves.

VEGETABLE, GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 131

About 1,000 cabbage plants can be dusted in an hour, and one kerosene
tinful of the mixture will do 400 plants.

For slugs and snails some growers prefer to use slaked lime by itself and to
sprinkle it around the plants. Others mix tobacco dust with five times its
quantity of ashes and dust the plants with the mixture. (See also page 124).

Sulphur Powder. — Flowers of sulphur are used to control mildews. Tt
should be applied by means of bellows in the early spring, and at any time
later in the season when the disease is observed. The early morning is
generally the best time for the application.

Poisoned bait, consisting of 1 Ib. Paris green or commercial arsenic to 24 Ib.
bran, 3 oz. salt, and 3 quarts of water can be recommended for most cut-
worms. This bait when mixed makes a crumbly mash which is scattered
lightly throughout the crop or along the rows of seedlings at the rate of 50
to 75 Ib. per acre. Another bait is green corn, lucerne or potato tops cut in
the chaff-cutter, and dipped in Paris green water. Such treated areas, of
course, should not be open to stock. A straight-walled deep furrow ploughed
in front of advancing cutworms arrests thousands, which fall into the trench
where they accumulate and can be sprayed with oil sprays or crushed with a
heavy log drawn along the furrow.

Fumigation is used as a means of destroying the moths, grubs, and larvte
of the potato moth in stored potatoes, and for cleansing the seed of such
crops as peas, beans, &c., which are attacked by weevil.

The seed to be treated should be placed in a barrel or bin, or better
still in an iron water tank, and the lid adjusted so that it can be weighted
down and made airtight. A ring of rubber gas tubing can be often success-
fully used for the purpose, or if this is not possible, cloth of close texture
should be substituted.

Better results are obtained if the operation is carried out in the spring or
summer, than in the winter ; the temperature should be about 70 deg. Fah.

The liquid carbon bisulphide, which is used fpr this purpose, is placed in a
saucer or dish on top of the seed in the barrel, and the top securely fastened
down. This liquid readily becomes a gas which is heavier than air, and the
fumes sink down through the seed ; hence the reason for placing it on top of
the seed.

For a well-sealed tank or cask, at a temperature of 70 deg. Fah., use
1 fluid oz. of carbon bisulphide to every 16 cubic feet of space, and if the
temperature is below 65 deg. Fah. — or, where the vessel is not perfectly
airtight — use 1J fluid oz.

One teaspoonful is more than sufficient for a kerosene tin of seed.

The seed should be left in the gas for from 20 to 24 hours, never more
than 30 hours, and at the end of that' time the fumes should be dislodged by
srirring the grain.

132 VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Soil Steriiisatio — Seedlings may be infected by disease spores in the .soil ;
indeed, wilt disease can usually be attributed to that method of infection.

In the island of Jersey, where tomatoes are extensively grown, wilt at one
time threatened to seriously affect the industry. On the suggestion of a
scientist, sterilisation of the «oil by means of baking was adopted and the
trouble ceased. On the larger holdings, kilns have now been erected, and
the soil is sterilised in quantities of one or two dray loads. In addition to
sterilising soil, the larger growers supply seedlings raised in sterile soil.

Wilt has caused considerable trouble in this State, and this method should
be worthy of adoption by small growers. The writer has had excellent
results by baking half a kerosene tin of earth with a cover placed on top to
keep in the steam for an hour in an ordinary kitchen oven.

Not only is this treatment effective in destroying disease spores, but it also
kills all weed seeds, and the labour of weeding the seed-box is thus saved.

Formalin Soil Treatment. — As a preventive measure against fungus
diseases, it has often been found advantageous to treat the soil in the seed-bed
with a formalin solution, made up at the rate of 1 part formalin to 100 parts
water. This should be applied at the rate of 1 gallon to the square yard,
and the soil covered with wet bags to keep in the gas. The treatment is
also effective in the case of eel worms.

Mosquito netting is very effective in protecting seed beds from the infesta-
tion of insects, and during attacks of the pumpkin-beetle has proved most
effective in warding off attacks.

Trapping Moths. — -A simple and effective plan of preventing the attack of
many grubs is to trap the moths before they have an opportunity of depositing
their eggs. The best means of doing this is to use a tarred barrel (such as
a cement cask) in which a lamp is left burning during the night. The light
attracts the moths, and if the inside of the barrel is kept freshly tarred many
will be destroyed.

Shaking Off. — -Several insects are best destroyed by drawing a shallow
trough containing a mixture of kerosene and water between the rows, while
someone following behind beats or brushes the bushes, so that numbers of

the insects are dislodged and precipitated into the trough. ,

/
Rotation of crops (see page 22) and clean methods of cultivation may

be regarded as methods of control for practically all diseases and pests. The
destruction of diseased plant remains by burning must be regarded as an
important feature of clean cultivation.

VEGETABLE GROWING IX NEW SOUTH WALES.

133

Planting Calendars,

COASTAL DISTRICTS.

Crop.

Jan.

Feb.

.March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Artichoke (Jerusalem) •

x

x

x

Asparagus

T

T

XT

x

X

Beans (Broad)

x

x

x

X

x

Beans (other varieties)..
Beet
Cabbage...

X
X
X

X
X

XT

X
X
XT

X*
X

XT

X
XT

X

XT

X*
X

T

X
X
T

X
X

X
X

X

X

X

Carrot

X

v-

X

X

X

X

X

x

x

Cauliflower

X

XT

XT

T

x

Celery

T

XT

XT

T

T

x

Choko
Cucumber .

x

x

T

X*

T

x

T

x

x

x

x

Eschalot

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

Herbs
Leek

...

x

...

x

X

x

X

XT

XT
XT

T

rp

T

XT

XT

x

XT

...

Lettuce
Melon ,

X

X

XT

XT

XT

XT

XT

XT

XT
X

XT

x

X

x

X

x

Onion

x

X

xr

XT

T

...
T

XT

Parsnip

x

'X

X

x

X

x

Y

x

Peas

x

x

x

t

x

x

x

X

x

Potato ....

x

x

X*

x

Pumpkin...

x

x

x

x

Radish

X

x

x

x

X

x

Y'

x

x

x

x

x

x

Rhubarb

T

T

T

XT

x

x

Silver Beet
Spinach '....

X

XT

XT
X

XT

x

XT
X

XT
X

XT

x

XT
X

XT

XT

T

Squash

x

x

x

x

x

x

Sweet potato

T*

T

T

T

T

Tomato
Turnip

XT

T

x

T

x

T*

x

\

X*

x

X*

x

XT*

x

XT

x

XT

XT

XT

Turnip (Swede)

X

X'

x

X

X signifies suitable sowing period.

T ,, ,, transplanting period.

„ plant in frost-free situations only.

134

VEGETABLE GROWING IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

TABLELAND DISTRICTS.

Crop.

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May.

June.

[
July. Autf.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Deo.

Artichoke, Jeru salem . . .

;

X

X

Asparagus

T T

x

X

Beans, Broad

x

X

X

x

X

X

X X

X

,, other varieties

x

x

x

x

X

Beet

X

X

x

X

X

x

X

X

X

Cabbage ..

XT

XT

XT

XT

XT

XT

XT XT

XT

XT

XT

XT

Carrot

X

X

X

X

X

X

Cauliflower

XT

T

T

:

X

Celery

T

XT

X

Choko
Cucumber
Eschalot

X

T

T

T

T

T

T T

T*
X»

T
X

T
X

X

Herbs . .

x

x

T

T XT

XT

XT

.

Leek
Lettuce

XT
X

XI

X

XT
X

XT

x

T

x

T
X

T
X XT

XT

XT

XT

X
X

Melon

X

X

Onion

x

XT

XT

XT

T

T XT

Parsnip ...
Peas

X

X

X

... x

X \

X
X

X

x

X
X

X
X

Potato

X

x

X

X

Pumpkin

,

X

x

X

Radish
Rhubarb

X

X

X

X

X

T

X

T

X X

T T

X

X

x

X
X

X

Silver Beet
Spinach

X

XT
X

XT
X

XT
X

T
X

...

... X

XT

XT

T

Squash

'X

X*

x

X

X

Sweet Potato

T

T

Tomato

X*

XT

XT

XT

T

Turnip

X

X

X •

x

x

X

X

,, Swede

X

X

X

X signifies suitable sowing period.

T ,, „ transplanting period.

,, plant in frost-free situations only.

135

INDEX.

PAGE.

Agromyea phascoli 120

Anthracnose of Beans 91

Aphis 110

Army Worm Moth Ill

Arsenate of Lead 129

Artichoke (Globe) 32

(Jerusalem) * 33

Asparagus 33

Rust 92

AnlocopJwro Ill

B

Banded Pumpkin Beetle Ill

Bean and Tomato Bug 124

Bean Fly, French 120

Beans 39

Diseases, &c., List of 42

Beet 42

— Diseases, &c. (See list under

Cabbage) 47

Beet Silver 43

Black Leaf of Cabbage, &c 93

of Potato 93

Black Rot of Cabbage, &c 93

Black Spot of Tomato 94

Black Stalk Rot 93

Black Stem of Cabbage, &c 93

Black Vein of Cabbage, Ac 93

Blight (Early) of Celery and

Parsnip 100

(Early) of Potato 101

(Early) of Tomato 101

(Irish or Late) of Potato ... 101

(Late) of Celery 102

(Leaf) of Tomato 102

of Onion N. 99

Blossom-tip Rot of Pumpkin 105

Bonedust 18

Bonemeal 18

Bordeaux Mixture 128

Borecole 44

Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Cabbage) 47

Broad Beans 41

Broccoli 44

-Diseases, &c. (See list under

Cabbage) 47

Brown Fleck of Potato 95

Brown Rot of Cabbage, &c 93

of Egg Plant 96

of Potato '. . . 96

of Tomato 96

Bruclius 126

Brussels Sprouts 44

Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Cabbage) 47

Buff -coloured Tomato Weevil 113

PAGE.

Cabbage 44

Diseases, &c. List of 47

Cabbage Moth, Diamond-backed . . 115

Cape Gooseberry 47

Capsicum 53

Carrot 47

— Diseases, &c. (See list under

• Cabbage) 47

Cauliflower 48

— Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Cabbage) 47

Celery 51

Diseases, &c., List of 53

Chili 53

Choko . . -. 53

Girphis unipunctata Ill

Club-root of Cabbage, &c 97

Cold Frames 27

Compost Heap 20

Convolvulus Hawk Moth 113

Cress 54

Cucumber 54

— Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Pumpkin) 74

Cultivating the Vegetable Garden 11

"Curly Top" 99

Cuspicona

324

Cutworm 114

Damping-off Mildew 103

Deep Working. Value of 12

Desiantha nooma 113

Diamond-backed Cabbage Moth . . 115

Downy Mildew of Beans and Peas 104

— of Cabbage and Cauliflower . . 99

— of Pumpkin, &c 99

or Onion Blight . . , 99

Dried Blood 19

Dry Rot of Cabbage, &c 93

of Potato 100

E

Early Blight of Celery and Parsnip 100

of Potato 101

of Tomato 101

Eelworm 118

Egg Plant 55

— Diseases, &c. (See list under

Tomato) 89

Epilachna 124

Equipment and Implements 24

Eradication of Weeds 15

Eschalot 55

— Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Onion) 67

136

INDKX.

PAGE.

Fertilisers and Manures 16

Formalin Soil Treatment 132

French Bean Fly 120

French Beans 40

Fumigation . 122. 131

Fungus Dieseases 91

100

G

Garlic

Globe Artichoke

(rodara comaHs . , ,

Gruimim. (See Pumpkin)

56

32

126

73

Green Bug 124

H

Hand-scriber \... 26

Haricot Beans 42

Hawk-moth. Convolvulus 113

Herbs 56

Horse Radish 57

Hot-beds 27

Humus 19. 20

Implements and Equipment 24

Insect Pests 110

Irish (or Late) Blight of Potato. . 101
of Tomato 102

Jerusalem Artichoke 33

K

Kainit 18

Kale. (See Borecole) 44

Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Cabbage) 47

Kerosene Emulsion 130

Kidney Beans 40

Kohl-rabi 57

— Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Cabbage) 47

Ladybird. Si>otte<l 124

Late Blight of Celery 102

Late (or Irish) Blight of Potato. . 101

of Tomato 102

Leaf Blight of Tomato 10L*

Lent' Oidium of Pumpkin . . , 10(5

Leaf Spot of Beans 102

of Celery 102

Leaf -eating Inset-Us 129

PAGE.

Leek 57

— Diseases, &c. ( See list under

Onion) 67

Lettuce 58

Diseases, &c.

Cabbage)

Lima Beans

Lime

(See list under

47
42
22
Lime and Tobacco Dust 130

M

Manures and Fertilisers . 16

Marjoram. (See Herbs) 56

Marrow. (See Pumpkin) 73

Melon 59

— Diseases, &c. (See list under

Pumpkin) 74

Melon, Rock 62

Melon, Water 50

Mildew of Onion 99

— Peas and Beans 103

Mint (See Herbs) 56

Miscible Oils
Mosquito netting .
Mould of Onion . .
Muriate of Potash
Mushroom ........

Mustard .

129
132
99
18
63
64

N

Xew Zealand Spinach 65

Nitrate of Soda 19

Nitrogen 19

Xoctuidw H4

\iisiiis r hi it or . 123

Onion 65

— Diseases. &c.. List of 67

Onion Maggot 120

Organic Manures 19

Parsley. (See Herbs) 56

Parsnip 67

— Diseases, &c.. List of 68

Pea Spot 104

Peas 68

— Diseases, &c., List of 69

Pliorba ccpariun 120

Phosphoric acid 18

PJitliorimca operculeUa 120

Planting Calendar 133

Plusia Moth, Silvery 123

1'lnsia A ry cut if era 123

INDEI.

PAGE.

PlutcUa maculipennis 115

Pod Spot of Beans 91

Poisoned Bait 131

Pop Corn 69

Potash 18

Potato 70

- — Diseases, &c., List of 72

Potato Moth 120

Potato Onion 73

Diseases, &c. (See list

under Onion ) 67

Poultry Manure 22

Powdery Mildew of Beans and

Peas 104

of Melon 104

— of Pumpkin 104

Propagation of Vegetables 25

Pro/oparce convolvuli 113

Pseudo-looper 123

Pumpkin . . v .* . . . 73

— Diseases, &c., List of 74

Pumpkin Beetle, Banded Ill

K

74

Radish

Diseases, &c. (See list

under Turnip ) 90

Rhizoctonia of Potato 106

Rhubarb 75

Ring Rot of Sweet Potato 108

Ripe Rot of Tomato 106

Rock-melon 62

Root Gall 118

Root Knot 118

Rotation of Crops 22, 132

Runner Beans 40

Rust of Asparagus 92

of Beans 107

Rutherglen Bug 123

S

Sage. ( See Herbs) 56

Sap-sucking insects '. 129

Scab of Potato 107

Sclerotium Disease of Beans and

Peas 108

Seed-beds , 26

Seed-boxes 26

Shallot (See Eschalot) 55

Silver Beet 43

Silver Spinach 43

Silvery Plusia Moth 123

Sites for Market Gardening 5

Slugs 124

Snails 124

Soft Rot of Sweet Potato 108

PAGE.

Soil Sterilization 132

Spinach 76

— Diseases. &c. (See list

under cabbage) 47

Spinach. New Zealand 65

Spinach, Silver 43

Spotted Ladybird 124

Sprays 128

Squash. ( See Pumpkin ) 73

Stable Manure 19

Sulphate of Ammonia 19

Potash 18

Sulphur Powder 131

Sunburn of Tomato .• 109

Sunlight Soap Wash 130

Superphosphate 18

Surface cultivation 14

Swede 89

— Diseases. &c.. List of 90

Sweet Corn 77

Sweet Potato 78

Diseases. &c.. List of . 83

T

Table Maize 77

Thomas' phosphate 18

Thyme. ( See Herbs ) 56

Tillage, Effects of 13

Tobacco and Lime Dust 130

>Tobacco Washes 130

Tomato 83

Diseases, &c., List of 89

Tomato and Bean Bug 124

Tomato Weevil, Buff-coloured . . . 113

Transplanting 30

Traps for Moths 132

Tree Onion 89

Diseases, &c. (See list

under Onion ) 67

Turnip 89

Diseases. &c., List of 90

Turnip Caterpillar 126

Vegetable Marrow. (See Pumpkin) 73

W

Water-melon 59

Weeds, Eradication of 15

Weevil of Pea and Bean Seeds . . . 126

White Grub 127

White Rust of Turnip and Cab-
bage 109

Wilt of Tomato 109

Wireworm 127

Wood Ashes 18

t 97623— F

Sydney : William Applegafce Gullick, Government Printer— 1920.

RENTON'S REAUTEOUS RERRIES.

The Productive " Caringberry,"

As grown by Govt. Experimental Farms, Hawkesbury, Yanco, Etc.

The Caringberry was brought to Australia some five years ago. The original was a native

of Montana, U.S.A., and is a cross between the Mulberry and Raspberry on the parent

plant of the American Blackberry. Has the combined flavours of the Raspberry and

Mulberry.

The Caringberry is used extensively in all large cities of America in fruit salads. Many

growers of the Strawberries in America are discarding them, as it is so much easier to grow

CaringberrJes. Not affected by pests or birds like Strawberries or other fruits.

3 Plants 7/6. 12 Plants £!/!/-. 100 Plants £7.
Fruit Farmers cannot afford to be without them.

The Prolific "Bluberry/'

Five years ago the Bluberry — which is a cross between the Lawtonberry, Mulberry, and
Red Logan — was first propagated by us. It combines the flavours of the Lawtonberry,
Red Logan, and, like the Caringberry, not having so much waste as the Strawberry, it
commands a higher price for the fruit. In fact, one-time Strawberry growers are giving
the Bluberry preference, as it is not .affected by pests or birds, and is consequently so much
easier to grow. Being disease proof, it does not require replanting for at least 20 years.
It fruits between November and March, just when fruit salads are required. The fruit
carries and sells well ; as it does not require much room, and is easy to pick, there is a great
future for the Bluberry in Australia.

Last season, ending ist April, we sold fruit to the value of £250 from J acre of z\ year
plants, using old manure and Fertilisers as top dressing, which gives best results.

3 Plants 7/6. 12 Plants £!/-/-• 100 Plants £7.
Fruit Farmers cannot afford U without them.

The Luscious " Lawtonberry."

The Lawtonberry is a cross between the Loganberry and American Blackberry, being very
hardy, and bearing large, fine-flavoured fruit, much superior to Loganberries. Can be
used with cream, like strawberries, raspberries or mulberries, and make beautiful pies.
Fruit may be stewed. Makes delicious jam.

Plants 2/6 each. 6 Plants 10 - 12 Plants 15/-

The Wonderful

Mexican Passion Fruit Vine*

As grown by Govt. Experimental Farms, Hawkesbury, Yanco, Etc.

This vine, as its name denotes, is a native of Mexico. It has been greatly improved by
us, is easily grown by any novice : it bears most beautiful large fruit of a distinctly permeating
flavour, very superior to the ordinary passions, and for fruit salad and ice cream, &c., is
delicious. Last December we picked 75 half-bushel cases of fruit from 50 plants at first
picking, realising 255. per half-bushel case, and selling in shops at zs. $d. per dozen and
3d. each.
3 Plants 4/6. 12 Plants 10/- 100 Plants £3/5/-

Benton's Blooms of Beauty

Gladioli Garden Glories.

Our descriptions are brief and fail to convey, as we would desire, the choice colourings and
formations of these exquisite examples. They need be seen to be appreciated.
Renown. — Immense flowers of great substance ; delightful shade of deep vieux-rose.
Sydney. — Large, bold open flowers, handsome, well-formed spike. Colour, rich deep red.
Touch ikoi. — Enormous flowers at exquisite beauty, ivory-white with crimson blotch in
throat ornament of each of the lower petals.

Set of 3 Gladioli Bulbs, 7/6 post free.

"BENTON'S," 12-14 IOFTUS ST., SYDNEY.

LASSETTER'S

Specialise in Everything that
will Advance the Cause of

GOOD GARDENING.

Everything that's
good for Good
Gardening, from
big power-driven
Lawn Mowers to
Garden Trowels.

FIRST-CLASS TOOLS
AT THE LOWEST
POSSIBLE PRICES
consistent with long
and satisf actory service-
giving.

Every good gardener uses Lassetter's Garden
Tools, and recommends them to his friends.

F. Lassetter & Co., Limited,

" Where Quality la always Higher than Price"

George Street - Sydney.

PERDRIAU

GARDEN HOSE.

The welfare of the vege-
table garden depends
entirely on regular
watering.

Pcrdriau

"Watershed"

(Rcgd.)

Hose.

"WATERSHED" is
the original red rubber
garden hose. Made
from selected rubber and
stout British canvas, it
will withstand highest
water pressures and most
severe climatic con-
ditions.

GUARANTEED
THREE YEARS.

SOLD BY ALL HARDWARE STORES.

"Manufactured in Australia by

Perdriau Rubber Co., Ltd., Sydney,

AND ALL STATES.

CARLYLE

HAYMARKET

FERTILISERS

We Specialise in

FERTILISERS

To Suit the Requirements of

Professional and Amateur

Growers.

INCLUDING:

Nitrate of Soda, Blood and Bone, Nitrate of Lime,
Fish Guano, Dried Blood, Steamed Bone Dost, Green
Bone Grit, Nitrate of Potash, Muriate of Potash,
Rock Phosphate, Super Phosphate,
Basic Super, Sulphate of Lime
(Gypsum), Carbonate of Lime, Ground
Limestone. Special Complete.

WE ALSO STOCK—

Spraying Outfits and Materials, Garden Hose and Fittings,
and are Importers of all Agricultural Implements*

WRITE FOR
PRICE LIST.

RUSTICIDE

A Preventative of all Fungoid Diseases.

WRITE FOB
PRICE LIST.

Corner of

Hay &: Thomas Streets, Haymarket.

Fruit and Vegetable Pests

HOW TO DESTROY THEM.

Spray with the Sunlight Soap
compound to avoid potato
blight.

Your Pumpkins and Melons
will always be shapely
because you can spray with
Sunlight Soap while the
vines are in blossom.

Sunlight Soap kills all leaf-
eating insects, all scale
pests, and costs less than
any other.

Add Sunlight Soap to any of
the compounds you are
now using and . you will
find that the results are
infinitely better.

Sunlight Soap is a safe In-
secticide. Does not burn.

Sunlight Soap Emulsion is
the only spray known
which will not injure the
blossom.

Sunlight Soap contains no
Loading Matter. It is
always ready for use.

Sunlight Soap keeps your
spraying machine clean.

Sunlight Soap is a perfect
Emulsifier.

Sunlight Soap Spray is a
Fertilizer as well. Does
not taint the fruit.

Sunlight Soap Wash is an
ideal vegetable spray, and
remains active longer than
any other wash.

FOR SPRAYING FRUIT TREES,
GROUND CROPS, PALMS, &C.;

SUNLIGHT SOAP

CANNOT BE EXCELLED.

Mr. W. J. ALLEN, Chief Fruit Expert to the N.S.W. Government,
says in his Booklet on Spraying : " Sunlight Soap is the only wash
that can be used on Trees or Plants while they are in bloom without

doing injury.

Write for Free Booklet, " Fruit and Vegetable Pests, fife.," to —

Lever Brothers, Limited, Sydney.

YC 61973

Strain and Qrcxwth

ARE ALL IMPORTANT.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

QUALITY and
RELIABILITY.

WRITE FOR CATALOGUES.

Arthur Yates & Co., Ltd.,

184-186-188 Sussex St., Sydney.

Seed Farms and Trial Grounds—
CONCORD and EXETER •.• N.S.W.
MACQUARIE PLAINS .-. TAS.
WAIAU .-. NEW ZEALAND.

Letters .-. •.• BOX 1501 G.P.O.
Telegrams ••• SEEDSMAN, SYDNEY.
Phone •.• •.• CITY 6426

(3 lines).

Buy Your Seeds,

Plants, Trees, Fertilizers, Sprays,

FROM

J. D. REID £ CO.

(Established 1885^

WHOLESALE AND RETAIL

SEED AND PLANT MERCHANTS

430 PITT ST., HAYMARKET, SYDNEY.

(HOTEL SYDNEY BUILDINGS.)

NURSERY-
CANTERBURY.

MARKET GARDEN DEPOT & BULK STORE
VEG. MARKETS, HAY STREET.

EVERYTHING FOR

THE

KITCHEN GARDEN
FLOWER GARDEN

FARM

ORCHARD

WE WANT YOUR BUSINESS!

Once we get it we will
retain it.

We sell only HIGH QUALITY Seeds
tested at our own Nursery.

Correspondence cordially invited.

Phone* City 766 and U 1707.