'Cu,

VEITCH'S MANUAL OF THE CONIFERS,

VEITCH'S MANUAL

OF

THE CONIFERJE,

CONTAINING

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE ORDER ; A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES CULTIVATED

IN GREAT BRITAIN ; THEIR BOTANICAL HISTORY, ECONOMIC PROPERTIES,

PLACE AND USE IN ARBORICULTURE, ETC., ETC.

A NEW AND GREATLY ENLARGED EDITION

BY

ADOLPHUS H. KENT.

" Science has its own peculiar terms and, so to speak, its idioms of language ; and these it would
be unwise, were it even possible, to relinquish ; but everything that tends to clothe it in a strange and
repulsive garb, and especially everything that assumes an unnecessary guise of profundity and obscurity>
should be sacrificed without mercy." — Sir John Herschel.

JAMES VEITCH & SONS, LTD.,

ROYAL EXOTIC NURSERY, 544, KING'S ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W.

1900.

All rights reserved. +

II IS 1 Illil

H. M. POLLETT & Co., LTD.,
HORTICULTURAL AND GENERAL PRINTERS,

FANN STREET,
ALDERSGATE STREET, LONDON.

PREFACE.

lx this revised edition of VEITCH'S MANUAL OF CONIFERS I have
endeavoured to collect from the best available sources every item of
information that should prove useful and interesting to amateurs of
this remarkable family of trees and shrubs and also to foresters and
horticulturists. The descriptions of the species have been drawn
up from fresh materials and from an inspection of the subjects
themselves wherever practicable, and trees of the same species
growing in different and distant parts of Great Britain have been
visited with this object. In the comparatively few instances in
which this has not been done, the descriptions are those of
the authorities quoted. With the view of conveying an idea as
accurate as can be obtained of the condition and aspect of the most
important coniferous trees as seen in their native forests, the
accounts of them given by those who have explored the forests are
transcribed wholly or in part in preference to any studied
paraphrasing of their statements. Especial attention has been given
to the geographical distribution of the species and the climatic
conditions under which they grow in their native homes, on the
conviction that correct information on these points affords material
aid to the successful cultivation of them in Great Britain.

My obligations to those who have assisted in the compilation of
the work either by their writings or by supplying materials for
critical examination and description are very great ; to Dr. Maxwell
T. Masters my best thanks are due for permission to use the

PREFACE.

valuable papers on the subject contributed by him to the " Journal
of the Linnean Society " and " The Gardeners' Chronicle ; " to the
Director and Curator of the Royal Gardens at Kew and the staff
for their kindly help during frequent inspections of the extensive
collection of Coniferae in the Koyal Gardens ; to the Keepers of the
Herbariums at Kew and the Natural History Museum for the
facilities they afforded for examining original herbarium types under
their charge ; and to many correspondents for their untiring kindness
in supplying specimens of foliage and flowers of rare and valuable
species which are duly acknowledged in their respective places.

THE AUTHOR.
Royal Exotic Nwsery, Chelsea.

GENERAL REVIEW

OF

THE CONIFERS

CONIFER/E, or Cone-bearing, is the name given to a Natural Order
of Plants consisting of trees and shrubs, chiefly evergreen, of almost
cosmopolitan distribution, and distinguished from every other Order
of Plants by certain characters or properties, by the presence of
any of which the coniferous plants may generally be recognised.
The most noteworthy of these characters are to be found in the
minute structure of their wood or stems, the resinous nature of
their secretions, the form and structure of their leaves, the extreme
simplicity of their flowers, and their fruit. The foliage and fruit,
together with the physical aspect of the plant or tree, or its general
appearance as presented to the eye, are the most easily observed ;
they are, therefore, except by the Botanist, almost the only characters
by which Horticulturists and others -recognise coniferous plants.

The fruit of nearly all the species included in the Fir and Pine
tribe (Abietinese) which greatly resembles a cone in shape, doubtless
suggested the name Coniferse as a suitable designation for the Order,
and this name has been generally accepted ever since it was applied
by Linnaeus to the group of Gymnospennous plants known to him.*
The most prominent exception is Lindley, who, in conformity with the
rule almost universally observed in designating the Natural Orders — the
selecting of one of the contained genera as a type around which the
others may be grouped — -adopted the name PINACE.E (excluding the
Taxads) in his excellent work, "The Vegetable Kingdom.''! It may,
however, be observed, that if the name Coniferse as applied to the
Order on account of the form of the fruit borne by a large number
of the most important species belonging to it is not a sufficiently
•comprehensive one to be applicable to the whole, the mode of growth
of a far greater number of species, especially in their young state, is
strictly that of a cone in outline.

Many authors include in the Coniferse the group of trees and
.shrubs known as Taxads, of which the Yew is the type, assigning

* Philosophia Botanica, p. 28 (1751). t Edition III. p. 226 (1853).

4 MORPHOLOGY.

to the group tribal rank in contradistinction to the other groups
constituting the Order Ooniferae as circumscribed by them.* But the
fruit of the Taxads which has usually a succulent covering enclosing
a single seed, and which greatly resembles a drupe, e.g., a cherry or
damson,t is very different from the ligneous scales and numerous
seeds that make up the fruit of the true Coniferre.J This structural
difference, together with other characters that will be noted in the
sequel, separate the Taxads from the true Conifers in a manner more
marked than is usually indicated by tribal characters, and therefore a
higher place in the series of groupings forming the systematic arrange-
ment of the Vegetable Kingdom seems to be a more natural one for
them. This view of their systematic place was taken by Dr. Lindley
very many years ago, and is adopted by Dr. Maxwell Masters in his
recently published notes on the Genera of Taxacere and ConifeneJ
The Taxacere are thence here recognised as a Natural Order distinct
from, but closely associated with the Conifene. The two Orders thus
associated are of the highest importance to Man in many respects :
they supply a larger amount of the most valuable timber for con-
structive purposes than is at present obtained from any other Natural
Order ; their resinous products are important articles of commerce that
are largely used in many of the arts ; in no other family of trees and
shrubs are found so many subjects suitable for the decoration of the
garden, park and landscape, or more valuable for forestry and other
purposes in rural economy ; and there is no existing race of plants,
that can awaken a deeper interest in their relation to the distant
Past than Taxads and Conifers, vestiges of whose ancestry can be
traced through a long series of geological ages till the primeval forms
become as mere shadows that finally vanish in the unfathomable
antiquity of palaeozoic aeons.

MORPHOLOGY.

THE SEEDLING PLANT.

THE seedling is the development of the embryo or rudimentary plant
enclosed in the resting seed. The embryo of Taxads and Conifers, like
that of most flowering plants, consists of two distinguishable parts, viz.,
the rudimentary cotyledons or seed-leaves, and the short axis or

* Taxinece, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. p. 367 (1868). Taxece et Podocarpece, Bentham
and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. pp. 422, 423 (1881). And others.

•I- The fruit of Taxads is drupe— or berry-like in appearance only; the drupe and berry in
their botanical signification are developments of the ovary and contain the seed or seeds ; but
in Taxads the seeds are always solitary and enclosed in a fleshy aril originating from the ovule.

£ The so-called berries (galbuli) of the Juniper have a superficial resemblance to the fruits of
Taxads, but structurally they conform to the strobiles or fruits of the Coniferse, the confluent
scales being fleshy or succulent, instead of ligneous.

§ Journal of the Linnean Society, XXX. p. 1.

THE SEEDLING PLANT.

stein-like portion from which the cotyledon rudiments originate,
and which from its position with respect to them is called the
hypocotyl. The process of germination of the seeds of Conifers and
Taxads is the same in all essential points as that of flowering plants
generally. When the seed is placed on damp soil of a temperature
sufficient to induce growth,* the endosperm or fleshy part that
surrounds the embryo swells and bursts the husk (testa) that encloses
it, splitting the testa into two parts, but which usually cohere at
one end. From the opposite open end the radicle or first formed
root protrudes and pushes its way downwards into the soil, while
the rudimentary stem (the tigellum or caudicle of the older botanists,
the hypocotyl of recent authors) lengthens in the opposite or upward

direction, bearing at its summit the 'cotyle-
dons still partially enclosed in the husk
till it is thrown off by their further
lengthening and consequent tension.
The seedling plant then presents the
appearance of a rather long slender axis,
from the lower part of which a minute
rootlet has been here and there given off,
and terminating above in a tuft of narrow
leaf-like bodies, the cotyledons, which
vary greatly in number in different genera,
and in a small degree, even in the same
species. From the centre of this tuft
originates the rudiment of the future stem.
No trace of an epicotyl is to be seen in
the embryo state of Taxads and Conifers,
and it is not till after the development of the cotyledons into the
leaf-like bodies already mentioned that it appears as a prolonga-
tion of the hypocotyl.

THE COTYLEDONS. — The number of cotyledons varies considerably, but
in this respect the species readily fall into two groups, one having

* The temperature necessary for the germination of the seeds of Taxads and Conifers has
not been accurately ascertained. It is, however, known that it varies in the different
species more or less according to the latitude of their habitat and their vertical range on
the mountains they inhabit. Thus, the seeds of the Siberian Larch ; the common, black
and white Spruces ; the Banksian, Mountain and Cembra Pines ; the alpine and common
Junipers, and others spreading into high latitudes or ascending to a high vertical elevation,
will germinate freely in a temperature ranging from 1°— 5° C. (34° — 41° F.) ; whilst the seeds
of those species inhabiting the warmer parts of the temperate zone require a higher
temperature, and those of sub-tropical species still higher. It is scarcely possible to
discover from the ordinary nursery practice a constant temperature for the germination of
the seeds of the species commonly cultivated in Great Britain, and which are usually sown
in the open ground Avhere the temperature may vary from day to day. The question is
still further complicated by the impossibility of estimating the amount of heat given out
by the seeds themselves during germination, which, it is known, they must do in con-
formity with the universal law of Conservation of Force.

Fig. 1. Seedling plant of
Piceai Glelinii.

THE SEEDLING PLANT.

dicotyledonous and the other polycotyledonous embryos. The first group

includes the whole of the Taxads, the greater part of the Cupressineae and
Taxodinese and some of the Araucarinese ; the second
group includes the Abietiiieae, the section Eutassa of
Araucaria, the Sequoias, Callitris and probably
a few others. In the Journal of the Linnean
Society * Dr. Masters gives a comprehensive list
of the number of cotyledons in seedlings examined
by himself and others, from which we select a
few well-known species. In Abies pectinata and
A. sibirica the number is 3 — 7, Abies nobilis 6 — 8,
Cedrus Libani 6 — 11, Larix europaea and L. GrffifMi
5 — 7, L. sibirica and L. americana 4 — 5,
Pinus Laricio 4 — 8, P. Pinaster 5 — 8, P. radiata
6—9, P. ponderosa 6—11, P. Cembra 8—14,
P. excelsa 8—12, P. Coulteri 10—14, P. Sabiniana
12 — 18, the last named being the highest observed
number. A few instances are added selected
from about forty species
observed by the author
and not contained in
Dr. Masters' list. Abies
amabilis and A. magni-
fied 6 — 7, Picea sitchensis
4_5, p. Glehnii 5 — 6,
P. obovata 6 — 7, Tsuya
carolimana 3, T. Albert-
iana %_^ T Mertensiana

3, Pinus mitis 6 — 7, P. muricata 4 — 6.

From the two series of observations it may

be assumed that the number 3 — 4 of cotyledons

in Tsuga is fairly constant, also the number

9 — 11 in Cedrus is fairly constant, while in

Larix the number varies from 4—7, in Abies

from 5 — 8, in Picea from 3 — 11, and in

Pinus from 5 — 18.

The size of the cotyledons also varies in

different genera and in species of the same

genus. In Pinus pinea they are two inches

long and somewhat stout, in P. canariensis

they are as long but more slender, in P.

Coulteri 1-5 inch long, P. muricata and P.

Cembra 1 inch, Abies grandis 1 inch, Tliuia

yigantea 1*5 inch, Cupressus sempervirens 0*75

inch, Picea Glehnii 0'5 inch.

The form of the cotyledons is nearly always

linear or linear-oblong, the most notable excep-

tion being Ginkgo. In the Cupressineae they

are flat or with rounded surfaces, frequently with

a median line on the upper side. In Abies and

Picea they are flattened with rounded surfaces and with a distinct midrib

in most of the species of the former ; either obtuse, emarginate or acute
* Vol. XXVII. p. 235.

Fig. -2. Seedling plant of Pinu

Fig. 3. Seedling plant of

( 'u)>rrssus scmperrii'i'))*.

THE .KOOTS.

- 7

at the apex in Picea. In the three- and five-leaved species of Piims
the cotyledons, like the foliage leaves, are three-sided and terminate in
a sharp point, the outer side rounded and green, and the inner sides
flat and glaucous. In Ginkgo they are thick, fleshy, oblong, contracted at
the base into a short stalk, leaving the endosperm enclosed within the shell.

THE EOOTS.

THE radicle, or primary root of the seedling plant, is slender and
descends straight downwards into the soil, and, as it lengthens, gives

off fibraline rootlets that are often arranged
in two ranks ; but in many cases they are
scattered or given off at irregular intervals.
As the growth of the axis proceeds, the
changes that take place in the size and direction
both of the primary root and its branches are
greatly influenced by the circumstances of
-e soil and other conditions under which the
plant is growing. In species of the Fir and
Pine tribe that have their home on the slopes
of lofty mountains and on hill-sides that are
constantly undergoing denudation by the weather,
or where the soil is very shallow or only
accumulates in hollows or crevices of the
rocks, the downward course of the primary
root is soon arrested ; but the secondary roots
increase in diameter and lengthen greatly,
creeping over the surface of the ground to a
great distance, sometimes to such an extent as
to excite the surprise of the beholder.* But
in the plains where the soil is deeper and
the sub-soil more or less penetrable, a decided
tap-root is often developed from the primary
radicle which descends vertically to a
considerable distance or till it meets with
some obstacle to its progress. Instances of
this are seen in several of the Pines planted
for purposes of utility, as Pinus Pinaster on
the sand-dunes in the south-west of France ;
P. Laricio nearly always, whence this Pine is
sometimes difficult to transplant ; Taxodium distichum likewise sends

* Among some remarkable recorded instances may be noted the Araucarias on the
rocky slopes of the Andes of Southern Chile, the roots of which have been compared
to gigantic serpents ; Abies bracteata on the summits of the Santa Lucia in South
California ; the Larch and Mountain Pine on the Tyrolese Alps ; the red and white
Pines of Japan which escape destruction by growing on inaccessible rocks on the central
mountain chain, where their roots are said to spread to a prodigious distance.

Fig. 4. Seedling plant of Ginkgo

h Unix!,. c, cotyledon ; p,

primordial leaf.

8

THE ROOTS.

down a long tap-root deep into the mud of its native swamps.
Abies grandis, Thuia gigantea, Sequoia .sempervirens and other species
which inhabit the alluvial plains of Oregon and the low- lying
maritime districts of California are deep-rooted, both in their native
country and when transplanted in Great Britain; but in all these,

as well as in the other species
that attain the dimensions
of large trees, strong secondary
roots branch off' from the
primary or main axis, and
with their ramifications spread
horizontally through the soil
near the surface or with a
slight obliquity downwards.
Generally — the roots of
coniferous trees and shrubs
are produced freely from the
seedling plant ; at first but
slender thread-like organs
ramifying at short intervals,
and sub-dividing repeatedly
as they increase in size,
they form a network spread
over an area which in all
the kinds cultivated in
this country is never less
than the spread of the
branches of the stem, whence
the newly-formed rootlets are
brought within reach of the
rain dripping from the foliage.
In the adult trees the spread
of the roots very often exceeds
the spread of the branches ;
they thence not only form
a broad base for the support
of the superincumbent mass
of stem and branches, but they are also exceedingly tough in texture,
and cling tenaciously to the soil through which they penetrate and
to the rocks over which they creep. Hence it is that many coniferous
trees are so well enabled to withstand the force of high winds without
being blown down. The rootlets are exceedingly numerous, and must
therefore possess in the aggregate an enormous absorbent power — a

Fig. 5. Seedling plant of CepJmlohixus drttj «!<•<•«.
c, cotyledon ; p. primordial leaf.

THE HOOTS. 9

power evidently necessary to the well-being of the tree on account
of the great height and distance the absorbed fluid his to travel
in order to reach the extremities of large and lofty trees, especially
during the season of active growth.

Like other Exogenous trees inhabiting temperate climates, the roots
of Conifers have a period of comparative if not absolute repose, during
which, except in frosty weather, the plant may be taken out of the
ground and removed to another spot, even after it has attained a
considerable size.* The vitality of the roots of coniferous plants is
remarkable, especially in the Fir and Pine tribe. Many instances have
been observed in which the roots not only live but continue to grow
for many years after the trunk has been cut down ; this is especially
the case with Abies pectinata.

The foregoing characters are, generally speaking, common throughput
the Taxaceas and Coiiiferse, but a few peculiarities that are met with in
the different tribes require separate notice.

In the Yew the plexus of fibrous rootlets is always very great even
at an advanced age of the tree, so that the absorbent power of the roots
of a large Yew must be enormous. There can be no doubt that this
is one of the causes that contributes to the longevity of the Yew ; and
it is probable, too, that these rootlets have a limited power of selection
in the substances taken up by them, since the Yew will live and thrive
in soils of the most opposite description and maintain a tolerably constant
habit and colour of foliage everywhere.

In the Sequoia tribe (Taxodinese), all the principal members of which
arc not only among the largest of Conifers, but also among the largest
of trees, the roots lengthen very rapidly from early life, and spread over
a large area always near the surface. A striking peculiarity is seen in
the roots of the deciduous Cypress (Taxodiuni distichum) when this tree
attains its maturity and is growing in swampy places, as it most
commonly does in its native forests in North America, or in close
proximity to water in England ; they form hollow conical or beehive-
shaped protuberances that rise several inches above the surface of the
ground in this country, but often much higher in their native swamps,
and which have never been noticed to produce buds from which shoots
proceed ; these protuberances are popularly called " knees." The roots
of the large deciduous Cypress at Syon House, the subject of our
illustration in the article on Taxodium, have spread to a distance of
more than twenty yards from 'the bole.

In many of the species belonging to the Cypress tribe (Cupressineae),
and which are mostly of fastigiate or strict habit, the primary roots
lengthen but slowly, although they increase in thickness considerably
during the first years of the life of the tree ; but the rootlets form a
dense plexus, occupying a circular area not much greater than the spread
of the brandies above. It is not till the tree has acquired some age,
and the soil in immediate proximity to it lias become quite exhausted,
that the roots lengthen to any considerable extent in search of nutriment,

* It is not, however, advisable to remove large trees, especially of the Fir and Pine
tribe, whose roots extend far from the trunk, and which cannot even with the greatest
cure be removed without destroying and injuring a large proportion of the rootlets.

10 THE HOOTS.

which they do in conformity with a law universal throughout the
Vegetable Kingdom. The fibrous rootlets then become more spreading,
and those formed during the earlier life of the tree having fulfilled
their functions, die.

Roots are occasionally emitted from the lowermost branches resting on
the ground at or near their extremities, especially when the soil is kept
moist by the shade of the branches xobove, or from other causes. A very
remarkable instance is described and figured by London. — At The Whim,
situated on the northern slopes of the Romano Hills in north Peeblesshire
at about 1,000 feet elevation, the lower branches of a Norway Spruce
growing in the centre of a piece of mossy ground had taken root wherever
they had come in contact with the soil, and had formed a double series
of young trees in two concentric circles around the parent tree. At the
date of the publication of London's "Arboretum" there were upwards of
thirty rooted stems surrounding the mother tree.* One of the lower-
most branches of a Pinus excelsa, in the gardens of Eastnor Castle,
resting on the ground has rooted in a similar manner ; the extremity of
the branch has ascended and developed into a stem with branches exactly
like the parent tree. At Fota, near Cork, the lower^most branches of
a Cryptomeria japonica have emitted roots into the soil below, and have
formed erect stems like the parent trunk which is now surrounded by
over twenty young trees of various heights, the whole forming a dense
copse of Cryptomerias. In the moist climate of Cornwall and the
south and west of Ireland, the rooting of the lowermost branches of
Cryptomeria japonica, var. elet/an*, when in contact with the ground is
quite a common occurrence ; and this rooting has also been observed in
various places in Tlmia occidenfaxlis, Cupressus Lawsoniana, 0. macroearpa,
in some of the Junipers, the Cedar of Lebanon and in the common Yew.

The power of forming roots by pieces detached from the parent plant
or from "cuttings" is very considerable, but differs much in the different
tribes. It appears to exist nearly in the same ratio as that of produc-
ing leaf buds ; thus in the Cypress tribe, in which the branchlets
ramify repeatedly from the axils of the scale-like leaves, and produce
lateral shoots very freely when the leaders are, in garden phraseology,
"headed back," cuttings take root very readily when placed in circum-
stances favourable for their development. In the Sequoia and Yew
tribes the power of rooting from cuttings is almost as great as in the
Cypress and its allies. It is much weaker in the Fir and Pine tribe ;
some of the Araucarias and the Cunninghamia possess it in a high
degree ; the Spruce and Hemlock Firs less so ; it is feeble in the Silver
Firs, and wanting, or nearly so, altogether in the true Pines.

* Arboretum et Fraticetum Britannicum, Vol. IV. p. 2,298. The tree with its progeny
here figured and described has since disappeared, but in a plantation about 200 yards south-
west from the mansion may be seen many Norway Spruces whose lowermost branches have
taken root in the soft damp earth, some with three, four and even more series of young
trees around them. To my late excellent correspondent, Mr. Malcolm Dunn, of Dalkeith,
who visited The Whim for the express purpose of inspecting these trees, I am indebted
for the following particulars respecting them: "The soil in which the Norway Spruces
arc growing is a deep peat bog, the surface of Avhich is covered with sphagnum moss, heath,
bilberry, etc. The branches of the Spruces become loaded with moss and lichen, and when
bent to the ground by their weight, the sphagnum soon covering them, they root freely
into the soft bog earth. There are two fairly distinct varieties of the Norway Spruce at
The Whim, one with short crowded leaves, and the other with looser, longer ones ; trees
with the first named foliage most readily root from the lower branches, while those with
the other kind rarely do so."

11

THE STEM.

THE stein or trunk of taxaceous and coniferous trees is the direct
prolongation of the axis of the seedling plant, which is itself a
development of the axis of the embryo. Usually, under cultivation
and perhaps always in a wild state, if the seed germinates in spring,
the axis of the seedling continues to lengthen after the development of
the cotyledons during the same season ; it then produces foliage
leaves that are often very different from those subsequently produced
on the older parts of the stems and branches. The termination of
the first stage of growth is marked by a scaly winter bud in all
the species included in the Fir and Pine tribe (Abietineit), in most
of the cultivated Taxads, in Sciadopitys, Taxodium, and Sequoia
scmpervirens.* From this bud the axis continues to lengthen in the
following season and to produce leaves that gradually take the
form characteristic of the species. In the Abietineie, at the
termination of the growth of the axis in the second, and still
more conspicuously in the succeeding seasons, the apical bud is
surrounded by a variable number of smaller buds from which
branches are developed in the following year. In the TAXACE^E, the
apical bud is usually solitary, but other buds are distributed
irregularly over that portion of the stem formed during the current
season's growth from which branches are developed in the following
year ; it is thence evident how greatly the position and number
of both terminal and lateral buds influence the habit of the tree,
and how greatly the form and beauty of coniferous trees depend
on the branching. Throughout the Cupressinese, in Araucaria and
Cunninghamia, and in the Taxodineie, with the exceptions named
above, no true winter buds are formed, but during the season of
rest, the apex of the shoots is protected by the latest-formed leaves
in different stages of development, the older ones usually arching
over and enclosing the younger imperfect ones, and which for the
time being perform the function of bud scales.

In all Taxads and Conifers that come under the denomination of
trees, the stem or primary axis always grows more rapidly than the
branches given off from it, until the upward progress is diminished by
age, or arrested by physical causes, the yearly rate of increase being
fairly uniform according to age, in each species, but often modified in
Great Britain by the varying climatic conditions of the seasons. In
this way the stems or trunks continue to ascend year after year; they
are for the most part cylindric-conic, gradually tapering from the base

* In this species the bud formed at the apex of each shoot is intermediate in structure
between the true winter buds of the Abietineae and the terminal leafy envelopes of the
Capressineee.

12 THE STEM.

to the apex, perfectly erect except where thrown out of the per-
pendicular by the action of the wind, and attaining dimensions varying
from a few inches* to more than 300 feet in height,f and with
diameters generally small in proportion to the height, but in this
respect the Yew, the Cedar of Lebanon and the deciduous Cypress
afford occasional exceptions. The size attained by stems of the same
species is far from being uniform except under like conditions, the
growth being greatly influenced by soil, situation or climate, or by ti
combination of these causes. Some species of Pinus and Abies, for
example, having the slopes of mountains for their habitat, at and near
their lower limit grow from 60 to 100 feet high, or even more; but
this height is found to diminish in proportion to the elevation at
which they grow, so that at the highest point, often at the limits of
perpetual snow, they are dwarfed to a more scrubby bush over which
a man may step. A similar change is observed in species whose
habitat extends over many degrees of latitude ; thus, the Cembra Pine
on the Swiss Alps, and under cultivation in our own country, grows
from 50 to 70 feet high ; at its northern limit, in the Siberian plains
and Kamtschatka, it is dwarfed to a low bush the height of which
ranges between 50 and 70 inches.^ The American Tideland Spruce,
Picca sitchensis, which in the swampy littoral tracts of Oregon grows to
a height of 250 feet, is reduced to a low scrubby bush at its extreme
northern limit in Alaska. Pinus Banksiana, which is botanically allied
to the Scots Pine of our own country and often seen upwards of
100 feet high, is a straggling shrub of from three to five feet high
among the rocks in the dreary wastes of Labrador.

The chief cause of the great difference just noticed is the diminished
amount of solar heat which the dwarfed forms receive, and by which
their growth is constantly retarded. At high elevations, this diminution
is owing to the rarity of the atmosphere, which permits a rapid
radiation of heat into space without affording any such checks as
' are present in the denser strata of lower altitudes and at the sea
level where the atmosphere is always more or less surcharged with
vapour. In high latitudes, the diminution of solar heat is due to
the slanting direction in which the sun's rays strike the earth, owing
to the convexity of its surface, and whence their power is greatly
weakened; also the short period the sun is daily above the liori/on
during nearly half the year, owing to the obliquity of the earth's axis.
The size and height/ attained by the trunks or stems of -coniferous
trees, and more especially of the same or allied species, are also greatly
influenced by the amount of moisture of the climate in which tin-
trees are growing, or which amounts to nearly the same thing, the
annual rainfall of the region or district. It is observed, in reference
to the distribution of the Coniferse, that their abundance and rate of
* Juniper us r»nti»t(iii>> comprcssa, native of the Pyrenees.
t Sequoia Wellington ia, the Mammoth tree of California.

i This form is described as a distinct species under the name^of Pinus jnuniln l>y
Dr. Heinrich Mayr, in " AMetineen des Japanischen Reichs," p 80."

THE STEM. 13

growth follow pretty nearly the general laws relative to the distribution
of rain : — thus (1). — In mountainous regions of the temperate zones
more rain falls than in the level districts, because mountains arrest the
clouds, and a condensation of vapour ensues from collision with their
cold summits, and there are found the densest forests and most luxuriant
growth. (2). — The precipitation of rain decreases in proceeding from the
Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle; in like manner it may be roughly
stated that, except in maritime districts, the size attained by coniferous
trees and their rate of growth diminish in a like ratio. (3.) — The rainfall
also decreases in passing from maritime to inland countries ; it is also
found that the growth of coniferous plants is influenced by the same
law. The same general facts are observable in England : thus in
Cornwall and Devonshire the average annual rainfall exceeds 40 inches,
while in the Eastern Counties it is often below 20 inches. The
numerous reports published in the horticultural journals show that
the rate of growth of Coniferse in the south-west and west of England
is much greater than in the eastern counties. And so in Scotland.
On the west coast and in parts of Perthshire the annual rainfall
reaches 50 inches, in particular spots very much more, while on the east
side of the country it is not more than 30 inches. The finest Coniferae
in Scotland are found where the temperature and rainfall are highest.

In further illustration of these laws, the following are well-attested
instances. The mountain ranges in the Xorth American continent in
the neighbourhood of the Pacific Ocean, extending through California,
( )regoii, and British Columbia, were, and are still in places covered
with the densest coating of coniferous vegetation known, and there
the summer temperature is high and the annual rainfall
copious. In the eastern parts of the Continent, where it is much
drier and colder, the Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus) attains a height
of 100 feet; in nearly the same latitude, near the Pacific Coast, its
near ally, the Sugar Pine (Pinus Lambertiana), towers to nearly
three times that height. The Balsam Firs of Canada and Carolina
(Abies balsamea and A. Fraseri) are low short-lived trees, not often
more than 50 feet high ; their congeners, the Western Balsam Firs of
California and Oregon (A. yrandis and A. concolor) are giants 200 feet
high, and live for centuries. In the humid climate of the
Himalaya, the Deodar Cedar, Hemlock Fir (Tsuya Brunoniana) and
some of the Junipers attain dimensions far exceeding those of their
nearest allies in other parts of the eastern continent. In Europe all
the principal mountain ranges abound in coniferous forests, affording
valuable timber; while in the plains, where the rainfall is much less,
many kinds are dwarfed, and others cannot be made to thrive even
under cultivation. Under the tropical rains of Mexico the deciduous.
Cypress rivals in size its great Californian cousins, while further north,
in the United States, it is often a moderate-sized tree 120 feet high
or thereabouts.

The stems or trunks of the larger coniferous trees increase in
height and diameter very rapidly after the first years of their
" infancy," when the plant has become established. Thus the
Wellingtoiiia in this country grows at the rate of from 24 to 30 inches
in one year, and Thuia yiyantea and Cupressus man-ocarpa have
been known to make an addition of nearly four feet to their height
in one season. Abies Nordmanniana and A. nobitts, which commence.

14 THE STEM.

their growth late in the season, will add to their leaders from 15 to
18 inches in the short space of six or eight weeks. Ahii-tia /)<>H<i/<t*it
makes an average growth of from 21 to 27 inches annually, and Finn*
i-wliafa* even more. The rate of growth varies in each kind
according to the soil and situation; it is also influenced by the
state of the season, being greater or less according as the temperature
is higher or lower than the average mean. Every annual increase in
height is, of course, accompanied by an increase " in the diameter of
the trunk indicated by one ring.

Theoretically, the trunks of coniferous trees might increase in size
and height indefinitely, were there no counteracting^ causes at work to
check and finally to arrest the progress ; but such sooner or later are
sure to arise, and among the principal are undoubtedly the gradual
exhaustion of the soil in which the tree is growing, and the choking
up of the channels of circulation by the deposition of insoluble
matter taken up by the roots. The functions of the various organs
become enfeebled by age, as they do in the animal frame, although the
period of the life of the one is in most instances immensely prolonged
compared with that of the other, so that the cause of decay is so
much the slower in its action. The vigour with which coniferous
trees increase in size during the earlier period of their existence is
sensibly diminished in process of time, till at length the counteracting
causes balance the growing power ; the tree has then reached its full
maturity ; the period of decay sets in which is never permanently
arrested till the death of the individual and the subsequent decomposition
of its tissues is complete.

X cross section of the trunk of a large coniferous tree shows that
the annual rings nearest the central pith are the broadest, and that
their width diminishes as they recede from the centre to the bark.
In trees felled in Great Britain the diminution is not symmetrical ; a
ring of a certain width in any part of the section is not precisely
so much narrower than the one within it, or so much broader than
the one immediately without it. On the contrary, the irregularity
in this respect is very considerable, so that a ring is often found
which is broader than the one nearer the centre. This irregularity is
believed to be due to climatic changes. During a long and warm
summer a coniferous tree will make much more growth than during a
wet and comparatively cold one, and it is not improbable that the
fluctuations of the seasons are represented by the different widths of the
rings. But in regions like California and that of the Himalaya where
the alternation of seasons is regular and the average annual tempera-
ture and rainfall almost constant, the diminution in breadth proceeds
very symmetrically ; but there are throughout the sections circular
spaces of considerable breadth in which there is an appreciable
uniformity in the width of these annual rings, so that the gradual
diminution is not perceptible unless a series of the inner rings is
compared with a series nearer the circumference. The general principle
is, however, never departed from : the rings more remote from the

* The growth of Pinus rod-iota in the warm and more equable climate of Xew Zealand
is very rapid. A correspondent in the Canterbury district informed Messrs. Veitch that
he had measured shoots of the preceding year's growth nine feet long ; the average growth
of a number of trees in a plantation was quite six feet. Its growth is equally rapid
in South Australia, Victoria, and other sub-tropical lands possessing a moderate rainfall
similar to that of South California.

AGE OF CONIFEROUS TREES. 15

•

centre diminish in width as they approach the bark. In very aged
trees the rings near the outside are so close together that they can
only be counted with difficulty, upwards of one hundred of them
scarcely occupying a breadth of more than from one to two inches.

The AGE attained by coniferous trees varies very much in the
different families. Some members of the Cypress tribe complete their
evolution in a few years ; the gigantic Sequoias of California have
been living during the greater part of the time that separates us from
the commencement of the Christian Era. Between these extreme cases
are numerous examples of greater or less longevity ; thus the Yew is
known to live over a thousand years, whilst the American Balsam Fir
rarely attains the " appointed age of man."

The nearest approach to accuracy in estimating the age of a coniferous
tree is obtained by counting the number of rings in a transverse
section of the trunk near the base. Such sections have been made
for the express purpose of ascertaining the age, and others preserved
in National Museums for the purpose of showing the texture of the
timber are useful for the same end. Thus, in the Museum of
Economic Botany at Kew there is a section of Pinus sylvestris from
Inverness-shire that was 145 years old. when felled and was sound
throughout } one of Larix europiea, 126 years old, blown down in
Northumberland in 1863, and others whose ages have not been
ascertained. And in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington
there is a section of Sequoia gigantea showing 1,335 rings. (This tree
must have been standing in the earlier period of the Saxon Heptarchy.)
There is also a section of Abie.Ua (Pseudotsuga) Douglasii with 533,
and of Abies grandis with 317 rings.

It is evident that while such sections indicate very nearly the age
of the individual trees at the date of being felled, a number of trees
of the same species would have to be felled if the average age
attainable by that species is to be ascertained with any approach to
accuracy. Where the geographical range of the species is restricted as
in the case of the Sequoias, Cryptomeria, some of the Abies, Tsugas
and Pinus, the ages ascertained from sections of some of the largest
trees is practically a sufficient basis for the estimate of the age attained
by the species in its own habitat. On the other hand, in the case
of species which have a wide geographical distribution, and thence are
growing under varying conditions of climate and environment, as Pinus
sylvestris, P. ponderosa, Picea niyra, Juniperus virginiana, Taxus baccata
and others, a considerable divergence in the size and age attained in
different localities and arising from different causes, undoubtedly occurs.

The following estimate, given by various authorities, of the ages
attained by some of the largest coniferous trees must IDC accepted only
with a degree of reservation corresponding to the difficulty experienced
in ascertaining anything like an approximation to the truth.
The California!! Big Tree (Sequoia

Wellingtonia) . . . . . from 1,500 to 2,000 years.

The Red Wood (Sequoia sempervirens) . ,, 1,300 ,, 1,750 ,,
The Yew (Taxus baccata) . 1,100 „ 1,250 „

Deciduous Cypress (Taxodium distichum) ,, 750 ., 1,000 ,,
Himalayan Cedar (Oedrus Deodara) . . ,, 750 ,, 900 ,,
Cedar of Lebanon (Oedrus Libani) . . „ 500 „ 800 „
Swiss Stone Pine (Pinus Cembra) . . „ 500 „ 800 , „

oni 450 to 750 years.

450 ,

600

i

350 ,

500

f

350 ,

500

t

300 ,

400

t

300 ,

500

t

300 ,

500

250 ,

400

.

16 KAMIFICATIOX.

Douglas Fir (Abietia l)tnujla*ii)
Silver Fir (Abies pectmata)
Roman Cypress (Cupressm seniiH'ri-imi*) .
Sugar Pine (Pinus Lambert iana)
Moreton Bay Pine (Arauearia Bidinlli) .
Kauri Pine (Ai/athis australis) .
Colombian Hemlock ¥\\- (T*n<ja Albert iana)
Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensi*) .

KAMI FIG ATION.

As every branch originates from a bud, and upon the arrangement of
the buds and their development into branches the habit of the plant
depends, it would seem that an account of the buds should naturally
precede a description of the ramification. Practically the buds and the
young shoots that arise from them can be better studied on trees
whose branches have attained considerable development than on young
plants passing out of the cotyledonary state. For this reason pre-
cedence is given to ramification.

The ramification of Taxads and Conifers is normally mbnopodial, that
is to say — the principal axes or mother shoots continue to develop
more strongly than all the lateral shoots, and the lateral shoots of each
successive order behave in the same manner in respect to their mother
shoots. As pointed out by Dr. Masters, the variations in the mode <>f
growth depend primarily upon the development of the buds in
particular situations, and upon their non-development in others.
Development and non-development occur in rhythmic alternation as
regards time, and in relatively definite positions as regards space. • The
unusual degree of regularity with which these phenomena do or do not
occur, brings about a style of ramification characteristic of the
Coniferse.*

Throughout the Fir and Pine tribe (Abietinese) with the exception of
a few species of Pinus, and some abnormal states of Picea excel ^a ; and
also in nearly all the Taxodinese, the Araucarinese, and in many of the
Cupressineae, the development of the trunk is often enormous compared
with that of the branches. In the first named tribe, and also in the
Araucarinese, the primary branches are in whorls, or perhaps moie
properly, pseudo-whorls, f that is to say — they are produced from the trunk
on every side, nearly in the same plane, in tiers of from three to seven
each, rarely more, five being the predominant number, lu Great Britain,
owing to climatic causes, the intervals between the tiers of branches vary
in length, but in the more constant climate1 of California and other parts

* Joum. Linn. Soc XXVII. 281 (1890).

t In young plants of Annif<n'ui rxcelsa, cultivated in Conservatories in Great Britain,
the primary branches are strictly verticillate, that is, produced in a ring around the
common axis in exactly the same plane. And this is apparently the case in young trees
of Abies, Picea, and perhaps Pinus. In older trees one or more branches in the same
whorl are oiteii displaced from the common plane by unequal development of the stem
during growth, such as is shown by longitudinal and transverse sections of trunks
preserved in the National Museums, etc.

RAMIFICATION. 17

of ^sorth America the intervals are strikingly uniform. The general
direction of the primary branches is horizontal, but the higher ones are
often more or less ascending, while the lower ones are deflexed by the
weight of their appendages. Very often single branches are produced
between the whorls, but these are adventitious, and their development is
generally much weaker than the others.

Of the branches comprising a single whorl, it often happens that the
growth of one or two is more vigorous than that of the others ; a
rigorous uniformity of growth is the exception rather than the rule.*
In the remaining CONIFERS and in the TAXACE^E, the primary branches
are produced around the trunk, usually at close irregular intervals,
and their general direction is much the same as in the Abietineee
and Araucarineae ; but there are many exceptions, especially where the
disproportion between the stem and primary branches is not so marked.
The resulting habit from this mode of growth is, that so long as the
stem or main axis continues to ascend, the branches gradually decrease
in length from below upwards, and those trees that are furnished with
branches from the base have the outline of an elongated cone or spire.

Among the Cupressinese and Taxaceae, and even among the true
Pines, instances occur in which the primary branches and their ramifica-
tions take an upward direction, either parallel with the principal axis,
or at a small angle to it ; the spire-like - habit then becomes modified
into the tapering or flame-like, the fastigiate, the globose, or even the
bush form. Well-known examples of the flame-like are afforded by the
Roman Cypress and the erect variety of Lawson's Cypress. The fastigiate
habit is seen in the Irish Yew, the Swedish Juniper, the upright form
of Cephalotaxus pedunculata, and others ; in these fastigiate forms of
Taxus and Cephalotaxus correlative changes are observable in the leaves
which do not become twisted at the base, and consequently not pseudo-
distichous. The globose habit is represented in gardens by varieties of
TJiuia orientalis, Cupressus obtusa, Juniperus cornmunis and others ;
and the bush form by Cephalotaxus, Saxe-gothsea, varieties of the
common Yew, many Junipers, several varieties of Cupressus obtusa, C.
pisifera, TJiuia occidentalis, etc. When the primary branches are short
and nearly of equal length from below upwards, the tree takes a
columnar form, such as is often seen .in Pinus Cembra and Cupressus
Lawsoniana, and always in Libocedrus decurrens in this country. In a
few Junipers, in one or two varieties of the common Yew, in a
remarkable variety of Cryptomeria japonica which originated in Japan,
in Thuia dolabrata Icetevirens introduced from the same country, and
in a few others, the principal axis fails to ascend, while the primary
branches and their ramifications spread over the surface of the ground.
This prostrate habit is one of the least common amongst the cultivated
Taxads and Conifers, but at high altitudes and at the extreme northern
limit of arborescent vegetation where the annual periods of growth are
short and the temperature low, the prostrate habit is common to well
nigh all the species found under those conditions.

Much variation exists in the amount of branching. In Arauearia
imbricata, A. Bidwillii, A. brasiliensis, A. Gookii and probably other
species, often conspicuously in the first named,! also in some of the

*It is most frequent in the Araucarias and some of the Abies during the early period of their life,
t Primary brandies of Arauearia imbricata have been noted by the author 7—10 feet
long without a single lateral shoot.

18 RAMIFICATION.

long-leaved Pines, Pinus Coulteri, P. Montezuuuv, etc., the secondary
branches are comparatively few. A remarkable instance of sparse ramifi-
cation occurs in a variety of the common Spruce Fir, known in gardens
as Picea excelsa monstrosa. It is a curious fact, too, that other varieties
of the same species, as P. excelsa Cla?ibrasiliana, pygmwa, Gregoryana,
have the very opposite tendency ; the trunk and primary branches
remaining short, whilst the smaller ones become excessively multiplied.
Shoots from adventitious buds on the upper side of primary horizontal
branches, and often on those of a lower degree, usually take an upward
direction, and in that case the leaves spread from them on all sides, as
on the principal axis.

In a large proportion both of Taxads and Conifers the primary
branches ramify laterally only, the secondaries branch in the same way,
and likewise the tertiaries and so on. In the Cupressinese this lateral
branching is continued to braiichlets of the sixth, seventh and even lower
degree ; the primary branch with its system of ramifications has
consequently a flattened or fronclose form. In the Abietinese this
frondose manner of branching is common throughout Abies except in
A. Pinsapo, also Picea, Tsuga, Cedrus, Larix, Abietia (Pseudotsuga),
and Laricopsis ; but in some species, as Picea Smithiana, Tsuga
Albertiana, Larix europcea pendula, it is obscured by the pendulosity
of the lateral growths. Lateral branching is also common throughout
the Araucarinese ; in the Taxodinege it occurs in Cryptomeria, Taxodium
and Sequoia sempervirens ; among Taxads it is conspicuous in Taxus,
Torreya and Cephalotaxus.

In most of the genera included in the Cupressinese as Thuia,
Libocedrus, Cupressus (in part) and some of the tropical genera
too tender for the open ground in Great Britain, the smaller
branch systems are also flattened or frondose ; * in these cases — that
is, where the production of braiichlets is in one plane only, the
lateral leaves are regularly conduplicate and imbricate, and the
branchlets arise from their axils, while the median leaves are flattened
and closely appressed to the stem. The position of these frondose
braiichlets is either horizontal, slightly ascending or slightly
descending, as in Cupressus nutkatensis, C. obtusa, Thuia occidental is,
or vertical as in Thuia . orientalis, Libocedrus decurrens and in
the fastigiate and globose forms of all the Cupressinese except
Juiiiperus. In. Cupressus Lawsoniana and its varieties almost every
position occurs.

"Variations further occur, arising from the degree of ramification,
as in bi- tri- quadri -pinnate ramification. In some cases this pinnate
mode of branching may take place regularly 011 both sides of the
shoot or on one side only, and in the latter case generally on the
distal side, or that farthest removed from the axis, often as in Thuia
causing a curvature of the braiichlet whose concavity is directed towards
the main axis."f

It is worthy of note that these latest formed groups of braiichlets
or branch-systems, whether in the flattened or frondose form, or whether
produced from all sides of the younger shoots as in Juiiiperus, fall off

* An exception occurs in Cupressus thyoides known in gardens as the American White
Cedar, and especially in its variety leptodada in which the ultimate branchlets are in
corymbiform tufts.

t Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXVII. 286.

(IEMMATION. 19

as the growth of the primary branches and their principal ramifications
proceed just as the individual leaves of deciduous trees and shrubs do
and by a similar process.

GEMMATION (BUDS).

LEAF buds may be regarded as young undeveloped branches. When
leaves arise from the formative tissues rapidly one after the other
as in the Conifene and most Taxads, they envelop the end of the
shoot, in the centre of which lies the growing point. In the
autumn the growth is temporarily arrested, and " this arrest is
frequently accompanied by a corresponding check in the development
of the leaves which assume the form of perulce or bud scales, the
perulse being dilatations of the petiolar part of the leaf. In the
unexpanded bud the peruhv are free at the base, but as the shoot
lengthens they are sometimes cast off, sometimes remain attached to
it, in which latter case they are uplifted with the growing shoot."*
When the rudimentary or imperfectly formed leaves at the end of
a shoot are so enclosed by peruke, they form what is called true
winter buds. In all broad-leaved (Angiospermous) trees and shrubs,
a bud is formed, not only at the apex of every shoot, but also in the
axil of almost every leaf.f But in the Conifers, or more properly
speaking, in those members of the family which form true winter buds, the
circumstances are somewhat different as will be presently pointed out.

True winter buds are formed throughout the Fir and Pine tribe,
Abietinec-e, in some of the Taxodinere (Taxodium, Sequoia sempervirens,
Sciadopitys) and in many Taxads (Yew, Torreya, Cephalotaxus, G-inkgo).
But throughout the Cupressinete and Araucarineie, and in the Taxo-
dinect: and Taxaceae in part, the arrest of growth is not accompanied
by a corresponding arrest of development and the growing point is
not protected by peruke or scales, but by the latest formed leaves
in different stages of development and which in the following
season attain their normal form and size like the rest. Intermediate
stages may often be found between the peruke and the primordial
leaves showing the perfect homology of the two.

The arrangement and behaviour of the buds of coniferous trees
have been so lucidly discussed by Dr. Masters in the oft-quoted paper
in the Journal of the Linnean Society J that we cannot do better than
reproduce his observations in an abbreviated form.

The very marked peculiarity of the ramification of Conifers and Taxads
depends mainly on the alternate development and non-development of the
buds. A very common feature in the arrangement of the buds is the

* Masters in Journ. Linn Soc. XXVII. 271.

t From some of these buds the inflorescence is developed in the place of a new shoot ;
morphologically the one is but a modification of the other.
; Vol. XXVII. pp. 226—325.

20 GEMMATION.

development of one apical bud at the end of the shoots whether terminal
or lateral, and of a circlet around it at the base. In the erect leader the
circlet is complete, but in the lateral branches it usually happens as seen
in the species of Abies and Picea, that the uppermost buds of the circlet,
if developed at all, remain in a rudimentary condition. This is evidently
connected with the horizontal position of the branches ; but it is curious
to note that it is the uppermost buds, those most exposed, that are not
developed, but are checked in their growth to the advantage of the
lower buds.

In Pines, on the other hand, the lateral buds in the first instance are
erect like the terminal bud; but as they grow they assume a horizontal
direction as in the species of Abies, but with this important exception,
that they generally turn up at the tips as growth goes on, and thus
allow of the access of light to the branches beneath. Hence in Pines
we find the circlet of buds, whether on the terminal or on the lateral
shoots, complete and equally developed on all sides. The relative absence
of lateral buds, except near the ends of the shoots, is also a marked
feature in the Abietinese.

The bud scales are arranged spirally and are frequently compacted

together by a felted arrangement of
the hairs or fringed margins of the
scales as in many Pines, or by an
exudation of resin as in many Firs.
These arrangements are evidently
adapted for the protection of the
young buds from cold or wet. In
some Spruce Firs, additional protec-
tion is afforded by the arrangement of
the leaves near the end of the shoot,
and which, .instead of spreading
laterally, are directed parallel to the
long axis of the shoot, and thus close

Fig. 6. 1, Tubular. 2, Calyptrate deperulation. over the buds. The form of buds

and bud scales sometimes afford useful
means of discrimination between certain species.

The bud scales, or perulse as they are technically called, present
variations in texture and duration, being coriaceous in some species, long,
thin and membraneous in others; they are either entire, fringed or
lacerated at their margins. As these perulas serve a uniform and
temporary purpose only, they are less liable to variation and modification
during growth from the operation of external causes, than organs of
lono-er duration and more complex function, and hence, from their
relative invariability, their utility for classificatory purposes is greater
than might be supposed.

The manner in which the bud scales are removed or thrust aside by
the orowiiio- shoot is also worthy of attention. The variations observed
depend of course, on the relation between the nature of the scale,
the amount of resistance they offer, and the degree of vigour and
direction of oTOwth in the bud beneath. In some cases the bud scales
are least resistant to the pressure of the growing shoot at the apex of
the bud, in which case the shoot makes its way through a ring or tube
of scales which persist around the base of the branch for a long time.
Illustrations of this occur in Abies amaUlis, A. noWte, A. Frasen,

GEMMATION.

21

A. Veitchii, A. firma, Picea polita, P. Smithiana, and many others. In
other species the bud scales offer the least resistance at the base of the
bud, and when this happens, the bud scales are pushed off in the form of
a cap. This is observable in Abies bradeata, A. cilicica, A. Pinsapo,

Picea pungens, P. obovata, and others.
Instances have also been observed in
which both processes have occurred,
as Picea Engelmanni*

The order of development of the
terminal and lateral buds at the end
of the erect or of the horizontal
shoots should also be noticed. The
general but not invariable tendency
in the Abietinese is for the side buds
to expand before the central or
terminal one, even when that is larger
than the others. In some of the
Pines where the cone is apparently
but not really terminal the central bud
does not start into growth and develop
into a shoot until the originally erect
cone bends downwards ; hence the
shoot in question is a season behind
the cone in development though formed
at the same time.

In Pinus the young shoots present
differences which are useful for specific
distinction, in colour, degree of hairi-
ness, form, etc., some being cylindrical,
others with prominent angles with
intervening furrows ; but the most
remarkable difference is the presence
or absence of leaf fascicles at the base
of the shoot. When the growth is
uniform, the whole length of the shoot
is covered with leaf tufts as in Pinus
pinea, P. La/'icio, P. sylvestris, P.
eontot'ta, P. Cembra, P. riyida and
many others ; but when growth is
disproportionately rapid near the
base, there the base of the shoot is
destitute of leaves for some distance,
as in Pinus Strobus, P. excelsa, P.
Sabiniana, P. Coulteri, P. ponderosa,
P. Bunyeana and several others. This

Fig. 7. Branchlet of Larix europcm Avith
tufted foliage.

* The process of casting off the bud scales is technically called " deperulation. " Dr.
Masters calls the first of the two processes described tubular, and the second calyptmte.
Instances of tubular deperulation observed by the author occur in Abies homolcpis, A.
cepJtahnica, A. balsamea, A. magnified, Picea ajanensis, P. nigra, and many others,
including most of the commoner species of Pinus ; and of calyptrate deperulation in Abies
sachcde nens is, Picea pungens, P. Engehn/mni, Abietia ( Pseudotsuga) Douglasii, but it is
not absolute in all, if in any of these species. In Pinus generally the bud scales are
carried forward with the young growth till the leaves are partially developed, when they
drop off in centrifugal order.

22 FOLIATION.

character, however, is no more absolute than any other, for in P.
monfana while the central shoot is leafy at the base, the lateral shoots
from the same cluster of buds are naked at the base.

The species of Cedrus, Larix, Laricopsis (Pseudolarix) and Ginkgo
are remarkable for the production of two kinds of branches, the one
long and slender with the leaves distributed at intervals, the others
short and thick with the leaves in tufts at the extremities.*. The
former are the extension or leader shoots in which growth and develop-
ment are rapid ; the latter are analogous to similar growths in the
Apple, Pear, Laburnum, but are in the TAXACEJK and COXIFEFLE not
' necessarily connected with the production of fruit, although in Cedrus
and Laricopsis (Pseudolarix) the spurs bear the staminate flowers, and
in Ginkgo both the staminate flowers and the fruits are produced from
the apex of the spurs. The leaves on the extension or leader shoots of
Cedrus and Larix are generally longer and more glaucous than those
on the spurs, and are stomatiferous on both sides.

The mode of development of the spurs may readily be traced in
the Larch and Cedar, and confirm the view that the appearances are
due to the more vigorous growth of the basal and peripheral parts in
comparison with the central and apical portions. Thus, if a bud at
the end of a shoot be examined in October, the apex will he found
to be dome-shaped ; the young leaves emerge in succession from the
base of the dome, leaving the apex naked, so that the development
of the leaves is centripetal. If one of the lateral buds be examined
at the same time, the axis will be found to form, not a dome, but
a cup from whose margins the leaves protrude, those at the upper
edge of the cup being the . oldest and corresponding . to those at the
base of the dome. These lateral buds are those destined to form the
tufts of leaves on the spur; the greatest energy of growth is in the
one case at the apex of the growing axis, in the other at the base
of it.

FOLIATION.

THE term is here restricted to foliage leaves only, and to
organs that function as such, as the phylloid shoots of Seiadopitys
and the cladodes of Phyllocladus. The morphology of the leaves in
the cotyledonary state has been already noticed.

The cotyledonary leaves are almost always followed by leaves that
differ in form and arrangement both from the cotyledons and from
the adult leaves of the same species ; they are known as primordial
or protomorphic leaves. Except in Ginkgo, they are linear in shape,
and are either spirally arranged around the axis (Pinus, Abies,
Picea, etc.) ; scattered (Cedrus, Larix, Sequoia, Taxus, etc.) ; or in
decussate pairs (Cupressus, Thuia, Libocedrus, etc.) Sometimes they
are separated by a distinguishable interval, but there are cases in
which they are so crowded as to appear tufted ; there are also
cases in which they are seen to pass gradually into the adult state,
These primordial leaves can be readily recognised in most species ; in

* In reality the leaves are arranged in a spiral as on the longer shoots, but thfv arc so
closely packed that the spiral arrangement is often very much obscured.

FOLIATION. 23

Ginkgo they are almost of circular form ; in Sciadopitys they are
alternate and not whorled like the phylloid growths that perform the
functions of leaves in older plants ; in Pinus they are solitary,.
and not in clusters of two or more.* In the Cupressineaa the
primordial leaves are often produced for many years in succession,.

and are thence frequently seen
simultaneously with the adult
foliage as in Juniperus, Thuia,
Cupressus (section Chamsecy-
paris'. In these genera, and in
a remarkable variety of Cryp-
tomeria japonica known in
gardens as C. elegans, there are
forms in which primordial leaves
only are produced during the
whole life of the plant, f

Narrowness in comparison
with length is the prevailing
characteristic of the adult
foliage of the majority of the
species cultivated in Great
Britain, the exceptions occurring
chiefly in the Cupressinese with
heterornorphic foliage, of which
the adult form is small, scale-
like, almost as broad as long,
especially on the terminal
growths. A more conspicuous
exception is Ginkgo, in which
the leaf expands into a fan-like
blade that is usually much
broader than long but with-
out any true midrib ; the
numerous veins of nearly equal
size diverge from the top of
the stalk and are unconnected
by any lateral reticulations.
Notwithstanding the prevailing
narrowness in comparison with length, there is a considerable
diversity in the shape of the leaves in the different genera, and

* The protomorphic leaves of Pinus should not be confused with the metamorphosed
primordial leaves of the adult foliage, which consist of small membraneous envelopes,
called for convenience of description "basal sheaths."

t These forms, often called in gardens "juvenile," can only be perpetuated from cuttings.

l-'ig. 8. Young plant of Libocedrits decurrens.
c, cotyledons ; PR, primordial, TR, transitional leaves
AD, adult foliage.

24

FOLIATION.

even in species included in the same genus. Some of the more easily
observed forms may be here mentioned as they afford in many
cases a simple mark for distinguishing the genera.

In Finns the leaves are linear or filiform (thread-like); in some species
of remarkable tenuity and exceeding a foot in length (P. longifoUa,
P. pafu/a, P. Sabiniana) ; in others they scarcely exceed an inch in

length (P. Parry ana, P. mono-
plujlla, P. Bcdfouriana). Their
form is modified according as
they are in fascicles of two
(geminate), three (termite), or five
(quinate) ; in the first named
they are semi-circular in section,
that is, they have one convex
and one plane side ; in the
other two they are triquetrul
(three-angled) with one convex
and two plane sides. Much
discussion has arisen respecting
the true nature of the "needles"
or adult (secondary) leaves of
Pines which need not be intro-
duced here. " The evidence
derived from comparative mor-
phology including teratology,
development and minute anatomy
is entirely in favour of the
view that the ' needles ' are
true leaves borne upon a shoot
whose apical development is
usually arrested after the forma-
tion of the verticil of leaves,
two, three or five, as the case
may be."*

In the group of genera known
under the common name of
Firs (Abies, Picea, Tsuga, etc.)
the leaves are linear or acicular
(needle-shaped), flattened or
tetragonal (four-angled) with
their apex spine-tipped, acute,
blunt or emarginate. In some
species of Abies the leaves on
the fertile branches are different
in form, size and direction from

those on the sterile (usually lowermost) branches ; this difference is notice-
able in A, re-phalonica in which the leaves on the cone-bearing branches
are acicular and spread equally on all sides, whilst those on the barren
branches are longer, flattened, spine-tipped and pseudo-distichous. In A.
Jirma the leaves on the barren branches are longer and narrower than those
on the fertile ones, and they are also deeply notched. In A. roncolor

* Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXATII. 267.

Fig. 0. Ternate leaves of Pin us radiata.

FOLIATION. 25

vfir. Loiciana and in A. t/randis the leaves on the barren branches
spread away from either side of the axis markedly in one plane, whilst
those on the cone-bearing branches are much shorter and curve inwards
like those of the Colorado type (A. concolor). Another peculiarity observable
in the leaves of Abies is that those on the latest growths of the
principal axis (leader shoot) are in most species much smaller and more
distant than those on the branches, and never assume the pseudo-
distichous arrangement.

In Cryptomeria, Sequoia r/igantea, the Araucarias included in the
section Eutassa, and many Junipers, the adult leaves are awl-shaped

Fig. 10. Quinate leaves of Pimis Strobus.

(subulate) or some slight modification of that form, and often falcately
curved. In Taxodium, the Redwood, the Yew and other Taxads they
are linear, flattened, and pointed at the apex (in Torreya spine-tipped).
In the Cypress and its allies (Cupressinese) the leaves are often hetero-
morphic, that is to say, they occur in two, three or even more different
forms; primordial leaves are often produced simultaneously with adult
leaves, the former being always linear or acicular and more or less
spreading, whilst the latter are scale-like, often in two different forms,

26

ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.

and more or less appressed to the shoot or concreseent with it. But in

species in which the branchlets are sub-terete or rounded as in Li'Iidi-ofm.*

tetragona and in some belonging to the Australian genera Callitris and

Aetinostrobus the leaves are uniform in size and shape.

The arrangement of the leaves of the adult foliage in regard to their

insertion on the principal and lateral axes is either spiral, decussate,

or whorled.* The spiral arrangement is usually very clearly marked,

and is by far the most predominant one; it occurs throughout the

Fig. 11. Sterile branchlet of Abies grandma with leaves spreading in one plane.

Abietinere (the close-set leaves on the short spurs or arrested
branchlets in Cedrus, Larix and Laricopsis are apparent exceptions
only), also throughout the Araucarinect, the greater part of the
Taxodineie, and the Taxacea?. This spiral arrangement of the leaves is

* There is no essential distinction between decussate and whorled (verticillate). The
difference consists only in the number of leaves completing the circle — decussate two,
whorled more than two. ami in the relative position of tin- Iwivi-s of one circle to those of
the next above or below.

ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.

27

due to a torsion or gyratory movement made by the shoot during its
growth ; in those cases where the growrth is rapid, as the " leader
shoot " of species of Abies and Picea, notably Abies Nordmanniana and
A. Veitcliii, Picea sitchensis and others, this gyratory movement may be
detected by watching the progress of the shoot at frequent intervals.
Were the gyratory movement that gives rise to the spiral arrangement
absent, it is evident that the leaves would then be in straight lines,
an arrangement unquestionably detrimental to the well-being of the
plant since the area of leaf surface exposed to direct sunlight would
be enormously reduced.

Fig. 12. Branchlet of Tsuga Mertensiana with leaves spreading in various directions.

The decussate arrangement — that is to say, when each pair of
opposite leaves is placed at a right angle to the pair immediately
above and below it — is common throughout the Cupressineae except in
those species of Juniper in which subulate (awl-shaped) adult leaves
predominate (Jumperus communi*, J. rigida, J. drupacea, J. oxyccdrus,
etc.), and these are always in whorls of three each. The whorled
arrangement occurs only in Juniper us and in the phylloid growths
(cladodes) of Sciadopitys.*

In all the Firs and in many Pines the leaves are inserted on out-
growths of the suberous or corky layers of the bark called pulvini
(pulvimis, a cushion), and these pnlvini are prolonged into spiral ridges

* The arrangement of leaves, whether foliage, floral or carpellaiy (fruit bearing), on the
axial structures that produce them is described in Botany under the name ot Phyllotaxis.
The subject is treated of in all the best text books.

28 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.

around the young shoot and always at a very small angle to its long-
axis ; their form in connection with that of the cicatrice left by the
leaves varies so much in the different genera as to afford a characteristic
of each. These outgrowths have sometimes been wrongly described as
the " decurrent bases of the leaves." The position taken up by the
leaves Avith respect to the axis that bears them is subject to much
variation, but in every case with the evident purpose of enabling them
to perform their functions to the greatest advantage. On the principal

Fig. 1& Decussate foliage of Libocednts decu ;•/•</<>•.

axis or " leader shoot," not only in Abies, Picea, Tsuga, etc., but also in
the Araucarias, Sequoia sempervirem, Taxus, Torreya and others, the leaves
spread on all sides. This is also the case with side shoots which
suddenly quit the horizontal direction and assume an upright position,
as is frequently the case in Picea ajanensis, P. sitchensis and others,
and normally so in the fastigiate varieties of the common Yew and
( Vphalotaxus. In Ta.<-<><l!iiin <'H4it'lmm and Sequoia semperrirens the

MOVEMENTS OF LEAVES.

29

leaves are distichous, that is to say, they are arranged in opposite rows on
either side of the shoot, and spread in one plane. In the common Yew,
Torreya and Cephalotaxus the leaves are sub-spirally arranged around the
shoot but spread laterally in two directions only, except in the fastigiate
forms already noticed. In Abies, Picea, (with some exceptions,)
Tsuga and Abietia, the leaves on the under side of the lateral shoots are
twisted at their base so as to bring them either into a horizontal position
or at a small angle to it, arranged in two, three or more ranks ; whilst
those on the upper side are nearly parallel with the long axis of the shoot,
more or less appressed to it, and are always shorter than those pointing
laterally,* as in Abies amabilis, A. Nordmanniana, Picea excelsa, P. nigra,
P. ajanensis, etc. ; but in Abies yrandis, A. balsamea and A. concolor all
the leaves of the sterile branches are pseudo-distichous. It is now well
known that these positions are taken by the leaves in order to bring
them into the most advantageous relation to direct sunlight, and thence
for the object of promoting their main functions to the greatest benefit
of the tree, viz., the assimilation of food stuffs, respiration, and the
exhalation of superfluous water vapour.

In connection with the same objects may be mentioned the movements
of the leaves of some Conifers that have been observed during the

their cicatrices.

A. Ahics pectinata. B, Tsiiga canadensis. c, Abietia Douglasii. D, Picea excelsa..
Libani. F, Larix europcea. G, Laricopsis Kcempferi.

(From Engler and Prantl's Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien).

K, Ci'dnts

season of active vegetation, as Abies Nordmanniana, Pinus halepensis
and other Pines, notably those with long filiform leaves as P. excelsa,
P. Strobus, etc. The leaves of these Pines in winter collapse and
hang in clusters that are quite pendulous; but in summer, especially
under the influence of sunlight, they become divergent and even spread-
ing. More observations covering a larger range of subjects are, however,
wanting before any certain deduction can be drawn from these
movements.

In many of the species included in the Cypress tribe, especially those
in which the branchlets are frond-like, the decussate pairs of scale-like
leaves are frequently dissimilar, markedly so in Libocedrus, the lateral
pairs being larger and free at the apex, whilst the dorsi-ventral pairs,
those on the upper and under side of the shoot, are smaller and

* Among the Abies, A. Pinsapo is a constant exception to this rule, and A. cephalonica
in part ; in these species the leaves spread equally in all directions on the branches, and on
their ramifications. Among the Piceas, P. polita and P. SmitMana are exceptions so far
as the trees growing in England have been observed.

30 PERSISTENCY OF THE LEAVES.

eoncrescent with it ; on the latest growths both pairs are generally
similar and equal.

Mention may here be made of leaf-like structures that occur in
two well-defined genera, and which are popularly called leaves but
are not true foliage leaves in the scientific acceptation of the term,
although they perform all the functions of such. These are the
" needles " of Sciadopitys and the cladodes of Phyllocladus. The
" needles " of Sciadopitys present greater resemblance to axial
structures than to foliage leaves ; they occupy the axils of leaves
of the first order —scale-like bodies of deltoid shape which soon fall
off, and thus correspond in position with the fascicles of leaves in
Pinus but are not necessarily of the same morphological significance.*
From the evidence derived from their anatomy and from other
circumstances they are more properly regarded as phylloid shoots than
as true leaves.

In Phyllocladus, a genus of Taxads occurring in New Zealand,
Tasmania and Borneo, the primordial leaves are small linear organs
that usually disappear before th3 end of the third year, and the
adult leaves are minute scale-like bodies produced at the base of the
shoots in the early spring but soon fall off.t The functions of
foliation in this genus are performed by flattened, fan-shaped, leathery
expansions of the branchlets termed phyllodes; these phyllodes are
arranged laterally on each side of the axis that produces them, much
in the same manner as true leaves.

The persistency of the adult leaves of Taxads and Conifers varies
from a single season to several years. In Ginkgo, Larix, Laricopsis,
and Taxodium the leaves are deciduous ; in Araucaria imbricata their
persistency is the longest yet observed in this country, in many
instances from fifteen to eighteen years.J The Kauri Pine of New
Zealand, Agathis austrahs, probably retains its leaves under certain
circumstances for a still longer period. The greatest variability in a
single genus occurs in Pinus ; in P. halepensis, P. Strobus and a
few others they fall off at the end of the second year, whilst in P.
Balfoiiriana and other species which have their home in the dry
climate of the western plateau region of North America they are
persistent from ten to fifteen years. In Abies and Picea it is not
unusual to find green leaves from seven to nine years old, but the
average persistency throughout these genera is from five to seven years.
In the Cupressinre the leaves continue green from three to five

* Masters in Journal of Botany, XXII. (1884), 97, and Journal of the Liimean Society,
XXVII. 276, where the subject is fully discussed.

t In Phyllocladus glauca they are similar to the primordial leaves but rather broader.
—Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, sub. t. 99.

J In Araucaria imbricata the length of time during which the leaves remain green
on the branches is modified by situation and environment.

COLOUR OF THE FOLIAGE. .'31

years, but remain in a withered or effete state on the principal axial

growths for a much longer period.

The. colour of the foliage is also worthy of note. From the deep
sombre hues of the Austrian Pine and Common Yew to the light
and airy deciduous Cypress and Maiden-hair Tree, the silvery lines of
the Weymouth Pine and the greyish foliage of Cupressus pisifera var.
xyuarrosa, there is found in the different Tribes an endless variety of
tints which the green of Xature alone displays. The deep glossy
green of the leaves of Abies bradeata renders that remarkable tree
distinct from every other Abies. The pleasing glaucous hue of the
Deodar Cedar is almost unique, and the rich deep colour of Libocedrus
tlecurrens is scarcely less so ; Pinus radiata is distinguished among all
Pines by its cheerful grass-green foliage which affords a striking contrast
to the dull grey hues of many of its congeners ; the difference in
colour between Abies nobilis and A. Nordinanniana is not less marked.
The foliage of Cryptomeria eleyans changes in winter to a deep bronzy
^•reeii tinged with crimson which makes this plant particularly ornamental
at that season, and a similar change takes place in Cupressus thyoides
var. ericoides, 'which becomes violet-purple.* The common Arbor Vitae
is brownish green, while varieties of the Chinese species have their
foliage of a rich golden yellow during the growing season. Many of
the Jumpers have a bluish glaucous tinge peculiar to them, and others
are quite grey.

Besides the difference in -tints above sketched, the foliage of coni-
ferous plants is subject to two changes in colour, viz., VARIEGATION and
GLAUCESCENCE. Variegation is due to changes taking place in the minute
granules called chlorophyll bodies imbedded in the protoplasm of the
cells of the leaves (and stems) immediately beneath the epiderm or
skin, and which gives the foliage not only the prevailing green, but also
other tints as purple, crimson, brown, etc., characteristic of the foliage of
certain plants when in active growth.! Variegation shows itself in the
young growth of the plants, which, instead of appearing in the shade of
green natural to the species, takes some shade of yellow that varies in
the different kinds from a deep golden hue to a creamy white. In some
cases the whole of the newly-formed branchlets with their foliage is pro-
duced coloured. As the season advances, the tint gradually changes, first
by becoming deeper, then taking a perceptible shade of green, and finally
in the course of the second season, assuming the green natural to the
species, but not till a new coloured growth is formed. This kind of
variegation is observed to be tolerably constant in whatever description
of soil the plant is growing, but the intensity of the colouring is
slightly different in different soils, being most developed in clayey loams
In other cases the tips of a portion of the branches only appeal-
coloured, the extent of the variegation ranging in different and in the
same species from a mere spot to a considerable portion of the branch,
It is only in this form that a white variegation appears. Plants
* The foliage of all or nearly all the Coniferae of temperate climates cnanges colour

in winter more or less. This is due to the low temperature of that season, which

causes a peculiar transformation of the blue-green constituent of chlorophyll. A higher

temperature restores the normal condition.

t The giving of colour to the foliage of plants is a subordinate function of chlorophyll.

Under the influence of sunlight it is the agent that converts the inorganic matter taken

up by the roots, and the carbonic acid absorbed from the atmosphere, into the organic

matter of which the plant is built up

32 ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAVES.

variegated in the manner first described, continue to produce coloured
foliage year after year without manifesting any special signs of debility
or decay ; bnt their rate of growth is always slower than that of the
normal forms. Plants partially variegated often show signs of disease
in the coloured parts, which turn brown and die, in some cases
within a few weeks after it is produced, especially if the plant is exposed
to the direct action of the sun's rays. Partial variegation in vigorous-growing
kinds often disappears entirely in the course of a few years ; it is also
greatly influenced by' the soil in which the plants are growing, being
heightened in some situations or soon becoming obliterated in others.

Glaucescence is quite distinct from variegation ; it makes its appear-
ance indifferently in young and old plants. It is always present in
the foliage of many species, in some of which it becomes greatly
heightened by age ; it also frequently appears with great intensity in
the young plants of species that are normally quite green or show it
but very faintly. The effect of glaucescence, as regards the aspect of
the trees, is to give them a greyish silvery hue, particularly pleasing
and beautiful in many plants belonging to the Cypress tribe and to
the Firs ; while it imparts a venerable hoary appearance to aged
Pines and especially to the Cedar of Lebanon. It is due in one form
to the stomata of the leaves, and it is not improbably an optical
effect arising from their close proximity and formal arrangement,
especially in the case of the white lines seen on the under surfaces of
the leaves of the Silver and other Firs, and in the leaves of Pines,
Junipers, etc. In another form it is caused by a resinous secretion
which is easily rubbed off by the finger, leaving the leaf quite green.
The minute structure of the leaves of Conifers afford a most
interesting study for those desirous cf gaining an adequate conception
of the apparatus by which the physiological functions of nutrition,
respiration, etc., are carried on, but a satisfactory treatment of the
subject would far exceed the limits of this work. The anatomical
structure of the leaves as seen in transverse sections of them, or
the most salient points of structure have of late years been so
frequently given with the descriptions of species, chiefly of the
AMetinecV, that the subject must not be entirely passed over. Much
stress too has occasionally been placed on certain anatomical characters
in the leaves as marks of generic differences, such as the position and
number of the resin-canals, which on account of their constancy in
the different genera into which the trees known under the general
name of Firs are now distributed, are frequently mentioned in
connection with them. But the similarity of the structure of the
leaves of species included in the same genus together with some
variability that has been observed in a single species does not admit
of much reliance being placed upon the anatomical characters as a
means of distinguishing species. The illustrations here given have
been especially prepared for this work by Mr. N. E. Brown, of the
Kew Herbarium, and are intended to convey a general idea only of
leaf structure of the Abietine?e.

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAVES.

33-

Fig. 15, Transverse section of leaf of Picea excelsa

Fig. 15 represents a transverse section of a leaf of the common
Spruce Fir, Picea excelsa, magnified fifty diameters. The row of small
polygonal cells with thickened walls immediately beneath the epidermis
or skin is technically called the hypoderm, the individual cells,
strengthening cells. In the common Spruce the hypoderm consists of

a single layer of cells, but among
the Pines there are instances of
the hypoderm consisting of two
and even more layers, whilst in
some species of Tsuga it is either
absent or restricted to certain
parts of the leaf. The shape of
the hypoderm cells varies con-
siderably iii the different genera.
The small shaded cells in the
centre of the leaf denote the
elements composing the single
fibro- vascular bundle /, passing along the mid-rib ; it is separated from
the principal tissue of the leaf by a well-defined circle of small cells
(endoderm) ; the large circular opening r, beneath the fibro-vascular
bundle and close to the epidermis, is the resin-canal ; this is lined
with a layer of small cells called epithelium cells. In sonie leaves
of this species, the resin-canal is either entirely absent or does not
traverse the whole length of the leaf. The substance of the leaf filling
up the greater part of the area of the transverse section is called the
parenchyma or mesophyll. As shown by the figure, the mesophyll
in Picea excelsa is wholly cellular and fairly uniform throughout ; the
greater part of the cells composing it contain the chlorophyll granules
which give the green colour to the leaf and perform the important
functions already alluded to.

Fig. 16 represents a transverse section of a leaf of Tsuya Brunoniana,
the Himalayan Hemlock Fir, magnified thirty diameters. In this case the
hypoderm is confined to the two marginal sides of the leaf. In the

fibro-vascular bundle / in
the centre, the principal
elements called phloem and
xylem are more clearly
differentiated than in the
Spruce Fir ; immediately
below it is the single
resin-canal r lined with a
layer of very minute

epithelium cells. In the Hemlock Firs the cellular tissue forming the
mesophyll is not of uniform structure, the cells immediately beneath the
epiderm being mostly elongated in a vertical direction to it. This form of
cell is strongly marked in Tsut/a Brunoniana ; from their formal
appearance they have received the name of palisade-cells.

Fig. 17 shows a transverse section of a leaf of the common Silver. Fir,
Aid?* pectinata, magnified thirty-two diameters. Here the hypoderm
consists of a single row of small cells continuous only in the centre of
the leaf above and beneath the midrib and much interrupted or
entirely absent in other parts. The midrib consists of two fibro-vascular
bundles surrounded by a sheath (endoderm), whilst the resin-canals r r

Fig. 1(3. Transverse section of leaf of Tsuga Brmioniana.

34

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAVES.

Fig. 17. Transverse section of leaf of Abies pectinata.

are very distinctly shown near the inferior epiderm at a short distance
from each margin. This position of the resin-canals is characteristic of
Abies throughout, differing in some of the species only by being wholly
within the parenchyma (mesophyll) or close to the epidermis of the
under side, and by their distance from the margin. Comparing Fig. 17
with that preceding it, and also with Fig. 19, the structural difference

between the leaf of an
Abies and a Tsuga is
manifest, whilst the close
similarity of Abies to
Abietia is scarcely less
evident. For further
illustration, Fig. 18 shows
a transverse section of a
leaf of Abies i-owolor.

Fig. 19 shows a transverse section of a leaf of the Douglas Fir, Abietia
Douglasii, magnified fifty diameters. In the leaves of this Fir the
hypoderm, according to the late Professor McXab,* is very variable ; in
the section here given, it occurs only along the region of the midrib
under the epiderm of the upper surface. The resin-canals are two and
traverse the mesophyll near the epiderm of the lower surface as in Abies.
Fig. 20 represents a transverse section of a leaf of Pinus Laririo
enlarged thirty diameters. The hypoderm is here a very narrow band of
thick walled cells, following the contour of the leaf, whilst the mesophyll
consists of a broad band of cells containing chlorophyll between it and

the parallelogram enclosing the
two fibrovascular bundles / and
marked off in the centre by a
layer of smaller cells. Traversing
the mesophyll about midway
between the • hypoderm and the
central parallelogram are eight
resin-canals r r lined with thin-
Fig. IS. Transverse section of leaf of Abies concolor. walled epithelium cells. Ill the

triquetral (three-sided) leaves of

the Pines, with three and five leaves in a sheath, there are fewer
resin-canals, and where there are but three, there is usually one in or
near each of the three angles.

The STOMATA or minute pore-like perforations of the epidermis of adult

leaves should also be
mentioned here on account
of the important part they
play in the economy of
the plant. The chief
points observable in their
relation to the species,
irrespective of their phy-
siological significance, are
their position, distribu-
tion or arrangement, and
their number. As regards

their position, they occur on the under surface chiefly, on the upper
* Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 2nd ser. II. 703.

Fig. 10. Transverse section of leaf of Abietia Doiiglasil.

INFLORESCENCE. 35

surface chiefly, or on both, and where the leaves are three-sided as in
many species of Pinus, they occur chiefly on the two flat sides. The
first-named position is the most common ; it predominates throughout
the Taxacese, Abies, Tsuga, the flat-leaved species of Picea, Larix, etc.
The species in which the stomata occur chiefly on the upper surface are
mostly included in the Cupressinese, that surface being the only exposed
one in nearly all the genera; even those species of Juniperus with
acicular free or partially free leaves form 110 exception. Instances in

which stomata are found on both sur-
faces occur in Cryptomeria, Sequoia
(Wellingtonia), Athrotaxis and a few
others. The arrangement of the stomata
is for the most part quite formal ; in
Pinus they are disposed in longitudinal
roAVS, the position being indicated by
grey lines which add so greatly to the
beauty of the foliage of these trees,
especially those with five leaves in
each bundle ; in Abies, Tsuga, the
flat-leaved species of Picea, Larix, also

T"T™aS.i0n°fleaf0f in some of the Taxace^ (Cephalotaxus,

Prumnopitys, etc.) they are disposed in

a longitudinal band on each side of the midrib on the under side
of the leaf, forming the characteristic white bands of these species, and
frequently, for descriptive purposes, called the stomatiferous bands.
The silvery band on the upper surface of the acicular leaves of
Juniperus is also a stomatiferous band. In Arancaria the stomata are
arranged in bands composed of few or many rows ; according to
Bertrand there are as many as seventy rows on each side of a leaf of
A. imbrif'ata. Whilst the formal arrangement prevails throughout the
majority of the species, there are instances in which the stomata are
irregularly disposed or confined to certain localities on one or both
surfaces of the leaf.

INFLOBESCENCE.

THE flowers of Taxads and Conifers are always unisexual, and the
plants therefore are either monoecious when flowers of both sexes
are borne 011 the same individual, or dioecious when the staminiferous
(male) and ovuliferous (female) flowers are borne on different
individuals. In the TAXACE.E, dioecity is probably absolute in Ginkgo
and in two or three of the Australian genera; it is relatively so in
Taxus, Cephalotaxus and Torreya, in which flowers of both sexes have
been observed on the same tree. This is not uncommon in the
Yew, and when it occurs the two kinds are on different branches.
En the CONIFERS the flowers are monoecious throughout except
in Fitzroya, Araucaria and Juniperus, but in the last named genus
the two sexes are often found on different branches of the same
tree ; and in Araucaria, at least in A. imbricata, dicecity is not
absolute. The Australian genera Callitris and Actinostrobus are also
probably dioecious.

36 INFLORESCENCE,

The structure of the flowers of Taxads and Conifers will be readily
understood by reference to the accompanying figures, or still better,
by comparing with them specimens gathered fresh from the trees.

TAXACE^. The common Yew affords an easily accessible type. The
staminate flowers of the Yew, Tcwus- laccafa, are borne in the axils of
foliage leaves and consist of an elongated axis surrounded at the base by

an envelope of imbricating scales spirally
arranged in three or four series, above which
is a capitulum or head of peltate scales
(staminal leaves) each bearing about six (three-
eight) pollen sacs which dehisce lengthwise
when mature.* The ovuliferous flowers are
solitary and axillary, but occasionally terminal,
and like the staminate flowers consist of an
elongated axis wholly enveloped by numerous
scale-like imbricating bracts spirally arranged
in |- phyllotaxis, of which the terminal one
bears an erect ovule and is surrounded by a
fleshy appendage termed an aril, which after
Fig. 21. i, staminate. 2, Ovuliferous the fertilisation of the ovule develops into
flower of the common Yew. the re(1 fleshy covering of the seed. Rudi-

mentary ovules are sometimes found on some of the lateral scales.

The flowers of Cephalotaxus and Torreya deviate but little from this
type except that in the ovuliferous flowers of the first named the bracts
are in decussate pairs. But in Ginkgo the staminate flowers are
produced in catkin-like umbels on the ends of short arrested branchlets
or " spurs," and the ovuliferous flowers are simply stalk-like elongations
bearing at their apex two, rarely more, ovules from one of which the
fruit is generally developed. In Podocarpus the staminate flowers are
catkin-like upon a short stalk surrounded at the base by involucral
scales, solitary or clustered (umbellate in P. Nag&id) and with the
two-lobed anthers spirally arranged around the axis. The ovuliferous
flowers, usually solitary or in a lax spike, consist of a slender stalk-
like axis, bearing at the apex small decussate scales, the ovules being
seated on the uppermost pair, one of which is usually abortive, and
the fertile scale becomes fleshy ; the flower is thence one-seeded as in
Ginkgo. In Dacrydium the staminate flowers are small and the two-
celled anthers are crowded spirally around a central axis ; the ovuliferous
flowers are composed of one, three or more seed-scales, each bearing
an erect ovule which after fertilisation becomes invested by a tubular
arillus. In the curious moiiotypic genus Saxegothsea the floral organs
are a sort of compound of those of Podocarpus and Agathis, whilst
the fruit and seed are those of a Juniper .and Dacrydium. Saxe-
gothsea is thence a connecting link between the Taxaceae and
Coniferse.

CONIFERS. The inflorescence of Pinus Laricio, or of one of its
varieties, which has been planted almost everywhere, and which bears
staminate flowers and cones in abundance almost annually, may be
selected to illustrate the floral structure of the Abietinese.
* The staminate flowers of Taxads and Conifers are frequently called catkins, the vernacular
name of the flowers of the Amentaceous Orders which are spikes of unisexual apetalous
flowers. The view now generally accepted is that in Taxads and Conifers the aggregate
of stamens constitute but a single flower.

STAMIXATE FLOWERS.

37

The staminate flowers are collected in dense clusters near the ends
of the previous year's shoots. Each flower consists of a central axis
around which the stamens are spirally arranged, according to Dodel-Port,
in T53 phyllotaxis, the whole flower being of nearly cylindrical shape, of
a yellowish brown colour and surrounded at the base by several
membraneous, s.cale-like bracts.* Each anther is attached on the under-
side to a short filament, or sporophyll as it is sometimes called,
inserted on the axis, and which dilates at the apex into a subpeltate

Fertile branchlet of Su.wyothfm conspiciia.

expansion or connective analogous to that commonly seen in the
anthers of angiospermous plants. This connective varies in shape and
size in the different genera, and is the part that is highly coloured
in several species, not only of Finns but also of Abies and Picea ; it was
called the crest of the anther by the older botanists, and its form in
Finns is often a characteristic of species. Each anther has two pollen sacs

* The number of these involncral bracts varies considerably in the different species
of Finns, from 3—4 in P. sylvcstris to 10—15 in P. Lanibertiana.

38

OVULIFEROUS FLOW1ES.

Fig. 23. 1, Staminate flower of Pinus. Larido.

•2, Longitudinal section of same x 3.

which dehisce longitudinal ly* when the pollen is ripe, and which is
then set free, and is wafted by the wind to the ovuliferous flowers.
After the pollen is discharged from the anther sacs the staminate
flowers increase in length for a short time and then wither and drop.f
The ovuliferous flowers are either solitary or in small clusters on the
ends of young shoots of the preceding year. They arise in the
axils of scale-like leaves like the foliage leaves and where a leaf-bud
would otherwise have been formed; the seed-bearing cone is thence a

metamorphosed shoot; it consists of an
axis around which the ovuliferous scales
are spirally arranged in the same
phyllotaxis as the anthers of the
staminate flowers, viz., T5S. Each scale
is made up of two structures, of which
the one that bears the ovule and seed
is axillary to the other, usually called
the bract. In several species of Abies,
in Abietia and Larix,| the bract and
ovuliferous scale are separable and the
former conspicuously exserted ; in Cedrus,
Tsuga and Picea the bract does not

advance beyond the rudimentary state, and in Pinus it coalesces
entirely with the scale or soon disappears after the fertilisation of the
ovules. This two-fold structure also occurs in the Taxodinese, although
traces of the bract are quite obliterated in the ripe cone. Traces of
it are also discernible throughout the Cupressiiiese in the microscopic
anatomy of the scales. The ovules are exposed, that is, not enclosed
in a receptacle (ovary) as in flowering plants generally, and are in

pairs placed at the base
of the scales somewhat
obliquely in respect of the
median line ; these ovules
arc inverted, the micropyle
or small opening through
which the pollen tubes
enter being turned towards
the base of the scale.

In the Araucarineae
the general structure of
the AbietinesB is observ-
able both in the staminate
and ovuliferous flowers.
In the genus Araucaria

* This mode of dehiscences is common throughout the Abietinere with the exception
of Tsuga and some species of Abies in which it is transverse.

t It may here be noted that although two is the predominant number of pollen -sacs
in each anther throughout the TAXACE/E and CONIFERS, exceptions occur in the
Cupressinese 2 — 4, in Cephalotaxus and Cunninghamia 3, in Taxus 4 — 8, and in some
others.

£ If a young cone a few weeks old, of any species in which the bract is exserted,
that is, protrudes more or less beyond the ovuliferous scale as in the common Larch
Larix curopcea, or the Silver Fir Abies pedinata, and ripe cones of the same species
be subsequently examined, it will be found that the scale has increased in size faster
than the bract, so much so in the case of the Larch that the bract is quite enclosed
within the scale ; and in the Silver Fir it is relatively much shortened.

Fig. 24. 7, Ovuliferous flowe.r of Pinus Laricio. 8, Longitudinal

section of same x 3. 0, dorsal— 10, ventral view of scale

and bract with ovules x 5.

OVULJFEROUS FLOWERS.

39

the chief deviation occurs in the anthers, from the prolonged connective
of which hang three to six pollen-sacs instead of two, the number
common throughout the Abietinese, and on the scale of the semini-
ferous cone the ovule is solitary instead of being in pairs. In

Fig. 25. Tsuga Br,unoniana, 1, Staminate. 2, Ovuliferous flower, nat. size. 3, side— 4, front view of

stamens before dehiscence ; 5 and 6, after dehiscence x 10 ; 7, pollen grains x 120 ;

8, back — 9, front view of bract and scale of ovuliferous flower x 5.

Cmminghamia the scale of the seminiferous cone bears three ovules.
In the Taxodinese and Cupressinese, whilst the staminate flowers are
constructed on the same general plan as in the Abietinese, the number
of ovules 011 each scale of the seminiferous cones varies in the

different genera from
three to nine ; they are,
moreover, erect, that is
to say, the micropyle
through which the pollen
tubes enter, is at the
top. In the Cupres-
sinese the anthers of
the staminate flowers,
and the ovuliferous
scales are, like the adult
foliage leaves, in decus-
sate pairs, the only
exception occurring in

, connective; B, three anther cells ; c, filament. 5, Pollen grains. JuiliperilS ill which the
(i, A pollen grain as .seen when placed in water; ft, the empty , \ . , ,.,

•extine of the bursted pollen grain ; &, the swollen contents of the SeeCl-bearillg Scales like

the acicular adult leaves
are in whorls of three.
Those who have studied Botany and are acquainted with the
transformations which the foliar structures of flowering plants undergo
from the seed-leaves (cotyledons) through the various stages of
stipules, foliage leaves, bracts, sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
^seed-bearers) — the last named being regarded as the highest state of

Fig. -2(>. 1, Staminate flower of Sequoia Wdlingtonia. 2, Stamen
attached to axis, side view. 3. The same, dorsal — 4, ventral view ;

.same. 1, Xat. size; 2, A and 4 magnified five diameters; 5 and C,
^40 diameters.

40

OVULIFEROUS SCALES.

development of the foliar organs — will not fail to recognise that,
although some of the states of development here named are wanting
in Taxads and Conifers, the bracts and stamens are really meta-
morphosed foliage leaves with which they strictly agree as regards
position and arrangement.

Direct evidence of the bract being a metamorphosed foliage leaf is
sometimes afforded by abnormal cones as that here figured, which is
a proliferous cone of Abies Veitchii gathered many years ago by
Mr. Maries in Japan, the bracts of which had reverted to foliage
leaves.* That the stamens also are meta-
morphosed foliage leaves is shown by the
occurrence of intermediate states in monstrous
growths, such as may be sometimes observed in
Callifris robusta, a beautiful Australian Conifer
cultivated in the Temperate House at Kew, in
which the uppermost leaves pass into stamens
bearing anthers at their base, and these into
true peltate stamens with the anthers on the
under surface. A similar sequence has also been
observed in species of Juniperus, Cupressus, etc.

But the morphological interpretation of the
ovuliferous or seed-scale is by no means so clear,
and various hypotheses respecting it have been
broached, the discussion of which lias given rise
to a mass of literature far too voluminous to
admit of quotation in this place. Whether it
is simply a modified leaf (Lindley), an open
carpellary leaf (R. Brown), a dtdouUement of
the bract (Brongniart), a rachis (F. Mueller),
a cladode (Baillon), a greatly developed placenta
(Sachs), or any other form of growth, this much
may be accepted as consistent with the facts of
morphology and anatomy : " That the fruit-scale
is something super-added to the bract ; that it may
arise either from the base of the bract or apparently
from the axis just within or above it ; that its struc-
ture is neither that of a leaf proper, nor that of
an ordinary shoot ; but that it does present close
resemblance in structure to a cladode. "f
The position of the staminate flowers and the cones in respect of
the branches or axial growths that produce them is either distinctly
terminal or lateral in the axils of the leaves. In the TAXACE^E — Both
sexes are lateral and axillary in Taxus, Torreya, Cephalotaxus,
Podocarpus ; terminal in Saxegothaea and on the short arrested
branchlets or " spurs " of Ginkgo. In the CONIFERS — The staminate
flowers are terminal at the points of the young shoots nearly
throughout the Cupressmeae, whilst the strobiles or cones are either

[•'-, * Cones of Tsugn Brunoniana in which some of the bracts had reverted to foliage leaves
were sent to the author by Mr. Imbert Terry from Strete Raleigh, near Exeter.
t Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXVII. 327.

Fig. -2~. Proliferous cone of Abies
Veitchii with the bracts transformed
into foliage leaves, and with the axis
prolonged into a branchlet with
ordinary foliage. Nat. size.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE FLOWERS. 41

lateral or terminal on very short lateral branches. In the Taxodinete
both positions occur; terminal in Sequoia, Sciaclopitys, Taxodium and
Athrotaxis ; lateral in Cryptomeria. In Araucaria both kinds are
lateral, or terminal on short lateral branchlets ; in Cunninghamia both
kinds are apparently terminal. Throughout the Abietineae, except in
Cedrus, and there perhaps only pseudo-terminal, the staminate flowers
are lateral ; the cones are lateral in Picea, Abies, Larix and Pinus ;
and mostly terminal on short lateral branches in Tsuga, Abietia and
Cedrus.

The staminate flowers are, probably without exception, far more
numerous than the seminiferous ones. The reason of this is manifest :
the agency by which the pollen is conveyed to the ovules is the wind ;
but the wind being an uncertain mode of transport, it is of great
consequence that the pollen should be produced in such quantities
as to admit of its being disseminated as thoroughly as possible to
ensure the pollination of the ovules. Throughout the Abietineae
and Araucarineae the production of pollen is very abundant, and
occasionally even surprisingly great, of which instances will presently be
adduced.

With respect to arrangement and form, the staminate flowers are
capitate (collected into small heads) in Taxus, Torreya and Cephalo-
taxus; solitary in the CupressinetTe, Sequoia, Athrotaxis, Araucaria,
Cedrus and others ; umbellate in Ginkgo, Sciaclopitys and Laricopsis ;
paniculate in Taxodium ; occasionally spicate in Pinus ; often crowded in
Abies ; sessile and dispersed in Larix. The ovuliferous flowers are
solitary or clustered, but rarely in large numbers ; frequent instances
occur in Pinus in which pseudo-whorls of three, five, or more are
common as in P. Pinaster, P. muricata, P. radiata, P. tuber culata and
others; and in Cephalotaxus they are sometimes clustered on axillary
peduncles.

Being destitute of calyx and corolla, the flowers of coniferous plants
are also wanting in the brilliant hues that distinguish the flowers of most
of the higher orders. Nevertheless there are some species which have the
connective or exposed part of the anthers of the staminate flowers highly
coloured ; in Pinus pondevosa the flowers are bright red, and being pro-
duced in large clusters are very conspicuous; in P. Laricio and its allies
they are yellow ; in P. excelsa, purple ; in Abies Pinsapo, rose-purple ;
in A. arttabilis, coral-red ; in A. nobilis, violet-crimson ; in Cupressus
Laicsoniana, crimson ; in the Chinese Juniper, the Thuias and most of the
Cupressinese they are yellow. Xor are the young seminiferous cones
always destitute of a pleasing colour as in the common Larch and Douglas
Fir, in which the scales are a soft pink and in the Siberian Larch dark
purple before pollination. The quantity of pollen produced by the
staminate flowers of a single tree is often surprisingly great; a puff of
wind has been observed to scatter the pollen of an Araucaria imbricata
like a cloud of dust ; the surface of the ground beneath a Spruce Fir that
lias shed its pollen is made quite yellow with fine dust; and in Pine
and Fir forests the quantity of pollen is sometimes such as to produce

42 POLLEN OF CONIFERS.

effects almost exceeding belief. "In years peculiarly favourable to the
flowering of coniferous trees, vast clouds of pollen are borne on gentle
winds through the Pine forests and are often swept right beyond them so
that not only the seminiferous flowers, leaves and branches of the trees are
powdered over with the yellow pollen, but also the leaves of adjoining-
trees, and even the grasses and herbs of the meadows around. In tin1
event of a thunder-storm at such a period, the pollen may be washed oft'
the plants and run together by the water as it flows over the ground, and
then, after the water has run off, streaks and patches of a yellow powder
arc left behind on the earth — a phenomenon which has given rise on
various occasions to the statement that a fall of sulphurous rain has
taken place."* Many wel] -authenticated instances have been recorded :
Dr. Kngelmann found in the streets of St. Louis, after a rain-storm
from the south, in March when no Pines north of Louisiana were in
bloom, Pine pollen which must have come from the forests of P.
palustris on Red River, a distance of about 400 miles in a direct line.
At Bordeaux during the months of March and April these so-called
sulphur rains are not infrequent ; they are caused by clouds of pollen dust
wafted by westerly winds from the plantations of Pinus Pinaster which
cover the sand dunes of the Girond. "In Inverness-shire, a great shower
of the pollen of the Scots Pine took place in 1858 ; the ground was
covered by a layer of this substance in some places to a depth of half
an inch, and the deposit was noticed at places thirty-three miles apart.
The whole surface of the great lakes in Canada is not infrequently
covered by a thick scum of the same pollen. Similar occurrences have
been noticed in the forests of Norway and Lithuania." t
But the most remarkable part played by the pollen of Conifers
when dispersed by the wind and carried beyond the reach of the
seminiferous cones it was formed to fertilise is the nutrition it affords
as an organic constituent of the dust which supports the so-called
" red snow " — a phenomenon that has always excited the wonder and
admiration of the naturalists who have studied it, even in a higher
degree than it has of the more general observers of Nature who
are unacquainted with its structure.

"This red snow is now known to be a microscopic Alga of almost
ubiquitous distribution on the higher mountain ranges above the snow
line, a wonderful organism consisting of a cell wall furnished with a
pair of minute cilia, and with numerous chlorophyll grains coloured by
a red pigment thickly dispersed through the enclosed protoplasm ; it
thence belongs to a fascinating group of cryptogamic plants named
FLORIDB^: in reference to their brilliant colours. These minute plants
derive their nutrition from the carbonic dioxide absorbed by the
melting snow from the atmosphere and from the inorganic and organic
constituents of the dust distributed in it, of which the pollen
grains of Conifers forming the forests below the snow line are found
to be an ingredient, and whose occurrence in situations where one
might suppose all vital functions would be extinguished is scarcely less
remarkable than the simplicity of their structure and the richness of their
colour. Red snow is found on the Alps of Switzerland and the Tyrol,

* Kerner's "Natural History of Plants," Oliver's Translation, Vol. II. p. 151.
f "Coal," by the Professors of the Yorkshire College, p. 24.

FERTILISATION. 43

on the Carpathians, on the Pyrenees, on the Sierras of California, and
even in Greenland. On the Alps, amongst the materials which
constitute the dust, pollen grains of Conifers occur with great frequency
especially those of the Fir (Picea excelsa), the Arolla (Pinus Cembra),
and the Mountain Pine (Pinus mcmtana). These pollen grains have
been swept up into the high Alps by storms and soon become partially
decayed."*

In all the material investigated by Professor Kernel1 red-snow cells
were found mixed with pollen grains of these Conifers.

FEKTILISATIOK

Tin-: essential facts of fertilisation in Taxads and Conifers, viz., the
fusion of the male sexual cell contained in the pollen grain with
the female sexual cell within the ovule, are the same as in all
flowering plants, but the apparatus by which it is effected, as shown
in the foregoing section, is much simpler. In Great Britain the
fertilisation of Taxads and Conifers usually takes place in May,
earlier or later according to the season. At that period the pollen
is ripe and the scales of the ovuliferous flowers, although for the

_

Fig. -JS. Anther of Pinus Larido : 3, side— 4, dorsal— and 5, top-view.
Magnified six diameters. Pollen grains x 200.

most part closely imbricated or appressed when first developed,
separate sufficiently to afford safe and easy access to the pollen
grains wafted to them by the wind.

The structure of the pollen grains is essentially the same throughout
the Taxacese and Coniferse, but there is a slight difference in size and
in the number of contained cells in the different genera. To the naked
ey<- the pollen grains appear like dry homogeneous dust, but under the
microscope they are found to be not simple bodies, but composed of
distinguishable parts. They are spherical or egg-shaped; each grain
is made up of two, three or more cells enclosed by a cell-wall which
consists of two layers, a thinner outer yellowish layer termed the extine
(analogous to the exospore of the spores of ferns and other cryptogams),
and an inner colourless thicker layer termed the .intine (analogous to
the endospore of ferns, etc.).f The entire inner space of the pollen
grain is at first filled with granular protoplasm which afterwards
divides into two portions, a larger and smaller, separated from each

• Reiner's " Natural History of Plants," Oliver's Translation, Vol. I. pp. 37, 38.

t In the Cupressirieae the pollen sacs and their contents bear a still more striking
resemblance to the corresponding organs of fructification in Lycopodium, Selaginella, etc.
(The sporangium and its contained microspores).

44 FERTILISATION.

other by a thin septum, and each is provided with a nucleus. It is the
larger of the two that grows out into a pollen-tube when the pollen
grains are brought into contact with the ovule ; the outer cell wall, the
extine, ruptures, and the thicker inner wall, the intine, presses through
the chink in the form of a teat-like outgrowth which lengthens into
a pollen- tube ; the whole contents of the larger pollen-cell effuses
gradually into the pollen-tube ; the nucleus shifts to the end of the
pollen-tube which pushes its way through the tissues of the ovule into
the embryo-sac. In Pinus the pollen grains have, in addition, two
small outswellings, one on each side, filled with air which diminish
considerably the relative weight of the grain and act as wings for
its transport through the air; these wing-like appendages arise from
the outer layer of the cell- wall and increase rapidly in size when the
pollen is ripe.

The ovules at the time of pollination consist of small masses of
spongy tissue which are thus differentiated : — There is the nucleus or
embryo-sac* in which the ooplasm or egg-cell is embedded ; joined to

this on the under side are several cell-layers
that form an enveloping sheath, whilst on
the upper side is a funnel-shaped opening
called the micropyle on which the pollen
grains fall. In the Abietinese the micropyle
is turned away from the free margin of the
ovuliferous scale, in the Cupressineae it is
turned towards it. The nucellus or embryo-
sac just before fertilisation becomes filled
with a tissue called the endosperm, and
produces at its apical end egg-cells which
vary in number in the different tribes from
two to fifteen, and which are always in
close proximity to each other beneath the
micropyle. When pollination takes place, the
lining of the micropyle is rendered sticky by
drops of a mucilaginous fluid secreted from

it by which the dry pollen grains are retained and afterwards drawn
through the micropyle, when the pollen-tube issuing from the larger
cell makes its way through the tissue of the endosperm, and with
the nucleus at its end enters one of the egg-cells and its fertilisation
is effected. The tissue on the under side of the ovule increases in
size by cell division, closes over the micropyle and ultimately forms
the testa or shell of the mature seed which in some species of Pinus
(P. Cembra, P. edulis, P. Saliniana) is so much thickened that the
seed resembles a nut.

The process of fertilisation here described is that which takes place
in all those species whose seeds are matured in the autumn of the
same year in which pollination is effected. But in Pinus, Cupressus
(excluding the section Chamsecyparis), Juniperus and those genera in
which the seeds do not ripen until the second or third season after
pollination, the fertilisation of the egg-cell is temporarily arrested. The
manner in which this retardation is brought about in Pinus Laricio
has been carefully worked out by Dodel-Port — "After pollination the
ovuliferous flowers, with the exception of the bracts, grow rapidly
* The archegonium of some authors.

345

Fig. 29. Abies firma. 1 and 2, anthers

after dehiscence x 10 ; 3, 4, and 5,

pollen grains x 120.

FRUCTIFICATION. 45

till they attain about half their natural size ; the seed-scales thicken
in such a way as to press closely one upon the other so as to leave
no space between them ; the weight of the cone causes a bending of
the short foot-stalk, so that in the autumn of the first year the
half-grown cone takes a sub-pendent or horizontal position which
remains unchanged through the winter; the pollen-tubes within the
ovules not having completed the fertilisation of the egg-cells also
cease growing. It is not till the beginning of the second summer of
the cone development that the pollen-tubes reach the egg-cell of the
embryo-sac, so that actual fertilisation does not take place till
twelve or thirteen months after the pollination of the ovule. After
this has been effected, the maturation of the cone is completed in the
course of the second season; the cone scales become lignified, and the
ovules are transformed into ripe seeds."

It is easily conceivable that pollen wafted in large quantities by
the wind may fall on the ovuliferous flowers of a different species,
and that hybridisation would ensue to a greater or less extent where
different species of the same genus are growing in proximity to each
other. Direct evidence of hybridisation among the Coniferse is, however,
of the slenderest description, the number of recorded instances that have
come to the knowledge of the author not exceeding half-a-dozen,* and
from these no definite conclusions can be drawn ; they only show that
hybridisation has taken place between two closely allied species or
between geographical forms of the same species. In one instance in
which the cones of Abies Pinsapo had been fertilised with the pollen
of A. Nordmanniana the seeds were sown in a French nursery, with
the result that the greater part of the progeny conformed to the seed
parent and comparatively few plants showed intermediate characters. '

FRUCTIFICATION.

AN essential distinction exists between the mature ovuliferous flowers
or fruits of the TAXACE^E and • those of the CONIFER/E, the seeds of
the former being solitary and enclosed in a succulent or fleshy
envelope, .whilst those of the latter are numerous and enclosed by
ligneous separable scales ; in Juniperus only are the scales fleshy and
"•coalesce into a berry-like fruit.

TAXACE^E. In Taxus, the ovule after fertilisation becomes invested
with a fleshy envelope, -technically called an arillus, which grows from
below upwards, but is open at the apex. In Cephalotaxus, Torreya and
Ginkgo it is the testa or outer covering of the ovule that becomes fleshy,
the seed itself being enclosed in a hard woody shell. In Podocarpus and
Saxegotheea it is a part of the floral axis which bears the scales and
seeds that becomes fleshy ; and in the curious Tasmanian monotypic
Microcachrys, a connecting link between the Taxaceae and Coniferae, it
it is the scales of the young cones that become pulpy and highly

* Abies Pinsapo x A. Nordmanniana, Revue Horticole, 1890, p. 231. Abies lasiocarpa x
A. amabilis, Silva of North America, XII. p. 126. Pinus Tliunbergii x P. densiftora,
Abietineen des japanischen Reichs. 83. Pinus sylvestris x P. montana, Flora helvetica,
XLVII. 145. Abietia Douglasi var. StandisMi, from A. DouglasiixA. pectinata, Gordon,
Piiietum, ed. II. p. 26. Juniptrus Kanitzii, from J. cotnmunisxj. Sabinioides (?), Kerner
Natural History of Plants, II. 565. A progeny from Abies Pinsapo X A. cephalonica was
obtained artificially by the late M. Vilmorin, of Paris (Revue Horticole, 1889, p. 115).

46

FRUCTIFICATION.

coloured. But in Phyllocladus, a remarkable Australian genus (Tasmania
and New Zealand) with an outlying representative in Borneo, the scales
of the young cones which are, at first fleshy become hard and ligneous
in the mature fruit.

CONIFER/E. The Abietinese claim the first notice on account of the
large size and handsome appearance of the cones of many of the
included species, and also as affording a simple type of structure by
which that of the other tribes will be easily understood ; this structure
is shown in the accompanying figures. The seed-bearing scales are hard
and ligneous in texture, imbricated) closely appressed and spirally
arranged around a common axis; they are nearly of the same thickness
throughout except in the species of Finns in which the leaves are in
fascicles of less than five, and in which the scales of the cone are
thickened at the apex on the dorsal side (the side away from the

Fig. 30. 1, Branchlet of Yew (Taxus baci'ataj with ripe fruits. 2, Tip of ovule projecting from between the
scales of the female flower of Yew. 3, Longitudinal section of the same. 4, Young seed of Yew partly enclosed
in an aril. ">, Longitudinal section of ripe seed. 6, Branchlet of Arbor Vita- (Thniu occidentrt.lisj with ripe
fruits. 7, Fertile branchlet of common Juniper (Juniperus commutiisj. 8, Longitudinal section of ripe fruit.
9, Ovuliferous flower of Juniperus communis. 1, 6 and 7, Natural size ; the others enlarged.

This and Figs. 30 and 31 from Kerner's "Natural History of Plants," by permission of Messrs. Blackie and
Son, Ltd., and the Bibliographisches Institut of Leipzig.

*

near

the

base of the scale on the ventral side, the side
towards the axis, the seeds are seated. At the base of the. scale
on the dorsal side in those genera coming under the general denomi-
nation of Firs and in the Larches is attached the bract which is
developed into a separable organ.

The fruits of the Abietiness are generally of conical form modified more
or less in different genera, being nearly cylindric in Abies, globose in
Cedrus, ovoid in many of the Pines and greatly elongated in others.

The fruits or strobiles of the Cupressinese are constructed on the same
plan but consist of fewer scales often bearing more than two seeds each ;

* This thickening is sometimes called the apophysis, a term borrowed from Oyptogamic
Botany.

FRUCTIFICATION.

47

the scales are arranged in decussate pairs and are attached to the axis in
a peltate manner (Cupressus) or coalesce with it at the base on the
ventral side (Thuia). In Euthuia the seed scale is approximately of the
same, thickness throughout ; in Cupressus and Thuia, section Biota, it is
much thickened at the apex ; in Libocedrus and Fitzroya it is thicker at
the base than at the apex, and in Juniperus the scales become fleshy and
by their coalescence form a berry-like fruit technically called a ijalbulus.

The fruits of the Taxodineae (Sequoia, Cryptomeria, etc.) may be
regarded as intermediate between those of the Abietinese and Cupressinese,
combining the spiral arrangement of the scales of the former with much
of the structure of the latter. The cones of the Araucarineae closely
approach those of the Taxodinese in structural details, differing chiefly in

the scales (except Cunninghamia) bearing
but a single seed and in the spheroidal
form of the whole fruit.

The fruits or cones of the different
tribes, genera and species differ enormously
in size and weight. The galbuli of the
Savin Junipers are smaller than the
smallest of garden peas, whilst the cone
of the Moreton Bay Pine, Arauearia
Bidii-iUi, is almost as large as a man's
head. The small cones of Larix ameri-
cana do not much exceed half an inch
in length ; the cones of the Calif orniari
Sugar Pine, Pinus Lariibertiana, are often
two feet long. It takes several cones
of the common Hemlock Spruce to weigh
an ounce ; a single cone of Pinus
Coulter i weighs from four to five pounds
and occasionally more. It is a note-
worthy fact that nearly all the species
of Fir and Pine which bear the largest
cones inhabit the Sierras of Oregon and
California, and their continuation into

Mexico, Aides nolriUs and A. magnifi(;a among the Firs, and Pinus
Lambert iana, P. Sabiniana, P. Coulteri and P. Aywaliuite among the
Pines.

Although the cones of a great majority of the species are of a dull and
unattractive colour, there are some remarkable exceptions — -the cones of
Abies Webbiana during the period of -growth are a deep violet-blue and
strikingly beautiful ; those of A. hoinolepis, A. Veitchii, Tswja Brunon-
iana and Larix Griffitliii are, under like circumstances, marked
ornaments of the trees that bear them 011 account of their colour. The
cones of Allies nobilis are bright pea-green during their progress towards
maturity which, with the symmetrically arranged scales with their
protruding bracts, renders them very beautiful objects. The ripe arils of
the common Yew are bright coral-red, in one variety orange-yellow, which
when produced in quantity impart to the tcees by contrast with the deep
green foliage a very ornamental appearance.

The fruit of all the Taxads with very few exceptions,'55' so far as

* The fruits of the Bimu of Kew Zealand, Dacrydium cupressinum, require fifteen or
sixteen months to attain maturity. — Kirk, Forest Fl. N. Zeal. 29.

Fig. 31. Longitudinal section of a cone of
the Stone Pine, Pinus pi-nun, showing the
. relative positions of the axis, scales and seeds.
Two-thirds natural size.

48 FRUCTIFICATION.

known, ripen in one season. In the CONIFERS a large proportion of
the species also maturate their fruits in one season. In Finns, Ceclms,
Araucaria, Cupressus in part and Juniper maturation is not complete till
the second season.* The seeds are dropped either by the falling away of
the scales (Abies) or by a separation of them at a sufficient distance to
allow of their escape. The hard cones of the Pinaster group of Pines,
notably the California!! species P. muiicata and P. tuleivulata, often

Fig. 32. 1, Cone of Abies pectinatu. 2, Bract and ovuliferbus scale of the same seen from the outside.
3, The same seen from the inside and showing the two-winged seeds. 4, Longitudinal section of bract
and ovuliferous scale showing a seed inserted on the latter. 5, A winged seed of Abies pectinata. 6, Longi-
tudinal section of seed. 7, Ovuliferous scale of Scots Pine. 8, Ovuliferous scale of the Larch fLarix
I'Ki'iijiii'nj showing two ovules and bract below it. 9, Longitudinal section of the ovuliferous scale of the
Larch. Fig. 1 natural size, all the others enlarged.

remain closed and attached to the trees for years, only opening when a
forest fire or an exceptionally hot and dry season causes the scales to
split asunder and liberate their seeds.

* The seeds of Pinus pinea are not mature till the third season, and this may probably
be the case with other species of Pinus.

49
THE SEED.

As already stated, the seeds are produced • singly, in pairs, or in greater
number according to the ovules in each scale, but sometimes fewer
by abortion in those species in which the ovules on each scale are
more than two (Cupressinete and Taxodineae). They are enclosed in
a bony, leathery or membraneous tegument called the testa which
in the Abietinea1 is usually expanded into a membraneous wing.
The endosperm enclosing the embryo consists of a farinaceous or
fleshy albumen more or less impregnated with resin, but which
in the case of a few of the larger seeds of Finns as

Fig. :>:5. 1, Branchlet of Larch, Larix europcm, with ripe cone. 2, Branchlet of Pinus rigida with ripe cone.
3, Ovuliferous flower of Cupi-essus sempervirens. 4, Longitudinal section of the same. 5, Ripe cone of the
same, ti, Single carpel of the same with numerous ovules. 7, Fruiting "spur" of Giiikgo Uloba. Figs. 3, 4,
and t> enlarged.

P. pinea, P. edulis, P. Sabiniana is edible and occasionally used for
food by the poorer inhabitants of the countries in which these
Pines are abundant.

The seeds vary much in size and shape in the different genera, and
even in species included in the same genus. Tims in Pinus they are
mostly ovoid or obovoid, with the greater diameter of the smaller seeds*
as those of P. Strobus not more than one-fifth of an inch, whilst those

50

THE SEED.

of P. Sabiniana are almost as large as a filbert. In Abies and Cedrus they
are broadly wedge-shaped ; in Taxodium angular ; in Sequoia disk -like and
compressed; in some of the Cupressineae ear-shaped, etc. In Araucaria
the scale, bract and seed all coalesce into an elongated wedge-like body.
The seeds of Taxads and Conifers differing so much in size, it follows
also that there is a corresponding if not a proportionate difference in
weight. A few instances for illustration are selected from a table
compiled by Mr. E. J. C. Preece.* In this table the gramme is taken
as the unit of weight which is equivalent to about 15 '5 English grains,
or in other words the English ounce is equal to 28 '3 grammes. Thus,
in Abies the small-seeded A. balsamea has 157 seeds to the gramme,
whilst A. cephalonica and A. Nordmanniana have but twenty. In Picca,
the common Spruce, P. excelsa has 150 seeds to the gramme, whilst the
small-coned P. alba has 340, and the Sitka Spruce nearly 1,000. In
Pinus, whilst one seed of P. Sabiniana almost weighs a gramme, and
only two of P. pinea and three of P. Coulteri, it takes 200 of
the Scots Pine to make up the same weight. It requires over 300

of the small seeds of Wellingtonia
and 360 of Cryptomeria japonica
to weigh a gramme, a larger number
than Lawson's Cypress which takes
about 250.

It is a very remarkable fact
that some of the largest of trees
spring from the smallest of seeds.
Thus, the gigantic Sequoias of
California, the Wellingtonia and
the Redwood have seeds less than
one-tenth of an inch in diameter,
and each seed contains no more
matter than a grain of mustard
seed. The seeds of the Deodar
Cedar are smaller than those of
some of our garden herbs, and
the seeds of the Hemlock Firs are
among the smallest of tree seeds. The seeds of Pinus monopJiyUa and,
P. koraiensis, both low trees, are half as large again as those of their
congener, P. Lambertiana, which towers to ten times their height, and
many other instances might be cited. There is, however, no necessary
connection between the size and weight of seeds and the dimensions of
the plants that spring from them. The essential physiological condition
consists in the albumen or food material stored up in the seed being in
sufficient quantity to supply the embryo plant with nutrient matter
during germination and until the cotyledonary leaves and rootlets of the
young seedling are sufficiently developed to assimilate it from the
atmosphere and soil.

Various provisions are met with which serve the dispersion of the
seeds of Taxads and Conifers. The bright colour and sweet flavour
of the aril of the Yew doubtless attract birds, and the contained
seed is carried by them a considerable distance from the parent tree ;
and this probably happens with the succulent fruits of Ginkgo,
Cephalotaxus, Torreya and Juniper. The membraneous wing into
* Forestry, VII. (1883), p. 186.

l 2

Fig. 34. Scale of cone of Finns pinea. 1, Inner

(ventral) face with two seeds. 2, Outer (dorsal)

face showing the swollen apical portion called the

((pophysis with -its central protuberance. Nat. size.

ABNORMAL GROWTHS. 51

which the testa of the seeds of most of the Abietiness is expanded;
is evidently designed as an aid to their dispersion by the wind. Soon
after the maturation of the cones, the persistent scales fall backwards
or outwards from the axis to permit the ripened seed to escape. The
scales are very sensitive to moisture, and in many species exhibit
rapid movements when wet. This is especially well seen in the cones
of Tsuga canadensis in which the widely open scales become completely
closed in twelve minutes. This property of the cone-scales is found
to be very efficient, first in loosening the winged seeds from the
scales which bear them, and secondly in favouring the wide dispersion
of the seeds, as the cones open and close many times before all the
seeds are sown, thus securing their transport in different directions by
the varying winds.*

The seeds of each species produce plants "after its kind," but
innumerable departures from a fixed type are of constant occurrence,
and many of them so remarkable, that were their origin unknown
they would, on superficial glance, be taken for quite distinct species.
Among such may be noted the Irish Yew, Clanbrasil's Fir, the erect
Lawson's Cypress, and the Whipcord Arbor Vitae. Besides these, which
may be called extreme forms, every bed of seedling plants shows
numberless variations in habit, foliage or some minor particular.
Taxads and Conifers therefore, like many of the lower forms of
vegetation as Ferns, are polymorphous, a principle that manifests itself
throughout the Order, but is much more common in some tribes than
in others ; it is less frequent in Pinus than in Abies, very usual
in the Yew, and most common in the Cypress tribe (Cupressus,
Thuia, Juniperus, etc.). It is most observable in plants in their
young state, but when the departure from the usual type is not very
great the difference gradually disappears as the plant becomes older.

ABNORMAL GROWTHS.

EXCEPTIONAL formations or deviations from the ordinary mode of growth,
or monstrosities as they are called, are of frequent occurrence among
Taxads and Conifers. Many such malformations are due to diseases
caused by fungi, the attacks of insects and other animals, and even
to the operations of Nature as winds, storms, etc. Those due to
diseases and insect agency are treated of under their respective
heads ; but there are some which cannot be traced to either cause,
and which require separate notice. For the following selected
instances the author is almost wholly indebted to Dr. Maxwell Masters,
the eminent authority on vegetable Teratology, from whose writings on
the subject .they have been extracted.

The malformations occurring amongst Taxads and Conifers not
caused by disease or insects may be grouped under several distinct
headings, but by far the greater number of observed instances are
referable to the following : —

O

I. — ANDROGYNY in which both sexes occur in the same axis or
parts of the same cone.

* Prentice in Botanical Gazette, 1888, pp. 236, 237.

52

ANDROGYNOUS CONES.

II. — PKOLIFICATION restricted in the cases here noticed to the
prolongation of the axis of the seminiferous cone along which
are produced foliage leaves, sometimes also transitional forms
instead of the usual seminiferous scales.

III.— FASCIATTON by which is understood the union of parts
usually separate in their adult condition, and its opposite or
FISSION which implies the division of organs usually entire.

ANDROGYNOUS CONES. — Many
instances have been recorded of
the presence of staminate and
ovuliferous flowers on the same
axis. Malformed cones of J'/rccf.
exceha have been observed in
which the lower part of the axis
was covered with stamens whilst
the upper terminal portion pro-
duced bracts and scales like an
ordinary seminiferous cone. The
stamens of the lower division
were serially continuous with
the bracts above. Some of the
lower scales of the ovulifcrous
portion were in the axils of the
uppermost stamens which last
were somewhat modified, the
anther cells being diminished
whilst the scale-like connective
had become more elongated and
pointed ; in fact more or less,
resembling the ordinary bract.

Similar changes have been
observed in Picea alia, P. nu/ra,,
Pinus ITwnbeir/iy and Lai'i.i-
americana, and a very remark-
able case in Cupressus Latrxou-
iana in which the lower scales
of the staminate flower that
were serially continuous with
the leaves bore anthers, whilst
the upper scales also serially
continuous with the leaves bore
ovules. One scale even bore
an anther 011 the outer and
an ovule on the inner or upper
surface of its basal portion.

PROLIFICATION Foliar prolification of the inflorescence is frequent,.

especially in Cryptomeria japonica and the common Larch. The elonga-
tion of the axis which occurs in the seminiferous cone is frequently
associated with a more or less foliaceous condition of the bracts, which
seem to be serially continuous both above and below with the ordinary
leaves. The scales too become notched and bipartite, and show between

Fig. 35. Bisexual cone of Pinus Thunbergi! with
details of structure and pollen grains.

Fig. 36. Scale of Cttpressvs Luicsoniana bearing

an anther on the outer, and an ovule on

the inner surface x 5.

PROLIFEROUS CONES.

the lobes the rudiment of a bud which in a further stage develops into
a shoot bearing- leaves. This form of prolificatioii is not uncommon,
and the appearance presented by it in various genera is essentially the

same. The bracts become more or less
leafy and pass gradually into the condition
of ordinary leaves, so that the general
appearance is as a branch growing through
the cone. An instance of this kind of
prolification was sent to the author of this
work by Captain Xorinan, R.X., of
Cheviot House, Berwick-on-Tweed. The
axis of a cone of the common Spruce,
Picea excelsa, had grown beyond the
apex from one to two inches, the prolonged
part being clothed with ordinary foliage
leaves ; the bracts serially continuous
with them below were much modified,
differing only from the ordinary foliage
leaves in being shorter and thinner ; the
scales seated in their axils bore two
rudimentary ovules, apparently imperfect
as none of them had been fertilised.

l-'i.u. :;~. Branchlet of Cryptomeriajaponica

v.ir. Lobbii with proliferous cones.

In a proliferous Larch cone the
woody scales were found to be
more or less winged at the sides,
notched and bipartite at the apex.
Sometimes the lateral lobes of the
scales were infolded so as partially
to conceal the ovule at the base
and suggest the idea of a partially
closed carpel. The proliferous cones of AUetia Doufjlasii are chiefly
remarkable for the fact that in passing to the leafy state the bracts
gradually lose the tricuspidate apex which usually characterises them.

Fig. 38. A, proliferous Larch cone ; B, leafy
bract and seed scale ; c, leafy bract, the scale rudi-
mentary ; D E, abnormal scales with traces of
ovules. Nat. size.

54

FASCIATION.

The proliferous cones of Sciadopitys vertidllata are of great interest ;
in the ordinary cones of this species the bracts are nearly completely
concrescent with the seed scale, but in the specimen figured the bracts
and the seed scales are more or less detached one from the other ;
moreover the bracts gradually assume the condition of the perulae
such as surround the buds. In this plant, then, the bracts instead

of becoming more leafy as they do
usually in proliferous cones, revert to
the vaginal or perular condition. The
metamorphosis is, in this case, retrograde
instead of progressive, or to speak more
correctly, development has been arrested
instead of enhanced. From the axil
of each of these perulse proceeds a
" needle " or phylloid shoot of the
ordinary character, so that in these
cones we have it in evidence that the
perulffi are modifications of the leaves,
that the "needles" or phylloid shoots
arc axillary to them, that they
occupy the same relation to the peralse
as the seed-scale does to the bract
in ordinary cases, and further that
they have the same essential structure
as the seed-scales of this and all other
genera.*

FASCIATION. Although malformations
referred to this heading are more common
among other families of plants, especially
herbaceous species, they have been
occasionally noticed in Taxads and
Conifers — in the branchlets of Pinm
Pinaster, P. sylvestris, P. excelsa, Larix
europcea ; in the leaves of Taxus
bacc-ata, Cupressus obtusa, Juniperus
communis, J. cliinensis. The opposite
phenomenon or FISSION as it is tech-
nically called, is probably of less frequent
appearance. In the Kew Museum is
preserved a cone of Picea excelsa dividing
into two, each part bearing bracts and
scales. A ' similar occurrence is some-
times seen in the staminate flowers of
Cedrus Libani.

A curious instance of fasciation in the Scots Pine was sent to
Messrs. James Yeitch and Sons by a correspondent in Buckinghamshire ;
it resembled very closely that figured in the "Gardeners' Chronicle" of
April 10th, 1886, which was sent to the Editor from Chatsworth, and

* Many other instances of malformation in the sexual and other organs of Taxads
and Conifers are figured and described by Dickson in Journ. Bot. Soc. Edinb., July, 1860.
Caspary, De Abielin. flor. fcein. Struct. Morph. 1861. Parlatore in Ann. Sc. Nat, ser. 4
p. 215 (1865). Carriere in Rev. hort, 1887, p. 509. Also by Eichler, Oersted and
others.

Fig. 39. Proliferous cone of Sciadopitys
vertidllata. Nat. size.

PATHOLOGY. 55'

a similar instance was seen by the author on Pinus Coulteri at The
Frythe, near Welwyn. These out-growths, frequently called " burrs,"
are sometimes the result of injury by mites or other insects. In the
branch from Buckinghamshire the fasciation took a circular form of
about nine inches in diameter, and presented the appearance, on
superficial view, of a cushion of the common garden Thrift, Armeria
maritima.

Fig. 40. "Burr" on a Scots Pine. (From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

PATHOLOGY.

THE DISEASES OF CONIFEKS.*
BY PROFESSOR MARSHALL WARD, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S.

SPEAKING broadly, there are two great classes of diseases which
imperil the life of Conifers. There are, on the one hand, diseases
due to the more or less directly injurious action of other living
organisms — animals and plants — which injure or destroy the roots,

* Reprinted from the Report of the Conifer Conference held at Chiswick, October 7th
and 8th, 1891, by permission of the Council of the Royal Horticultural Society.

56 DISEASES OF CONIFEKS.

stems, leaves, etc., of the Conifer, and so bring about the death
of the whole or of parts of it ; and, on the other hand, there
are dangerous physical conditions of the soil, climate, atmosphere
and so forth, which render the life of the Conifer more or less
precarious or even impossible.

As a matter of fact, however, these two classes of dangers are
frequently found acting together, and so a given case of disease may be
complicated owing to the co-operation of many factors. In other
cases it is found that the symptoms known to be characteristic
of a particular disease are so closely simulated in diseases due
to quite other causes than those which produce the primary malady,
that confusion results, arid barren lines of action are started by
the practical man who fails to discriminate between the various
cases.

Instances of this kind are so instructive that we may take as an
example the well-known disease of Pines characterised by premature
shedding of the leaves, as yellow and brown needles, which collect
in dense heaps beneath the trees. In some cases it is certain that
the leaves of young Pines are cast suddenly, and in dangerous
quantities, after a sharp frost, or at least after a night so cold that
the still soft foliage is chilled below a point which we might call
the death-point for these organs. In other cases, however, similar leaf-
casting occurs under conditions which are very different in their
action. Young Pines suddenly lose their " needles " in warm sunny
weather when the ground is frozen hard ; or these organs fall in
showers after a period of drought in a hot summer.

Now although the symptoms which preface and accompany the above
cases of premature leaf-casting are in the main similar — the green
leaves turn yellow, and then brown, and rapidly fall, shrivelling in
heaps, to the ground below — the disease is a different one, and is
caused by different agents in each instance, and it is even possible
to obtain fairly obvious evidence of this. In those cases where the
fall is due to the direct action of frost or of cutting cold winds —
i.e., where the leaves are killed by the sudden abstraction of heat
from their tissues — keen observers have found that those basal parts
of the " needles " which are enclosed in and protected by the
sheathing-scales of the short branches (" tufts ") may remain fresh for
some time after the exposed parts have turned brown and shrivelled
up. In the second class of cases, however, no such partial shrivelling
of the leaves is seen ; the tissues dry up all along the " needles "
from tip to base completely, and this is because they have been killed
by drought — either because the roots in the frozen soil cannot supply
water to replace what is being transpired in the bright sunshine,

DISEASES OF PINES. 57

or because the weather is so hot and dry that there is not enough
water in the immediate environment at all.

Different as are the above causes of premature leaf-casting, there
are still others, of which the following is the most prevalent and
difficult to deal with. The leaves turn yellowish, with brown and
purplish spots and patches on them, and fall in showers as before ;
but this time the disease is found to be epidemic in character.
Towards the end of the summer numerous tiny black spots may be
observed on the dying and dead leaves, and these are the spermo-
gonia of a definite fungus (Hysterimn Pinastri, one of the Phacidiaccce
of the Discomycetes). In wet seasons, or if the leaves be kept moist
through the winter, the higher fructifications and asci may be obtained.
Researches have shown that Goppert* was quite right, so long ago
as 1852, in attributing this epidemic to the ravages of the mycelium
of the above fungus ; the hypha: invade the leaf tissues during wet
seasons, kill the cells, and so bring about the browning of the
" needles." When large quantities of needles have been thus ruined,
they suddenly fall in the showers which bring dismay to the forester
and horticulturist, and give the name " shedding " (Scliutte of the
German foresters) to the disease.

These are not the only causes of premature leaf-casting in Conifers,
but they are good examples of the commonest types, and I have
brought them forward here to show you how very easy it is for
anyone unacquainted with the facts to draw erroneous conclusions as
to the causes of the phenomena; and it must be remembered that
wrong conclusions — i.e., wrong diagnoses — lead to improper treatment
in plant-diseases, as they do in human diseases. The diseases of
Conifers are, in fact, like the diseases of other living beings, cases
of disturbances in the struggle for existence going on among the
structural elements of the tissues, etc. The discussion is here confined
to only two categories of these diseases — those due to fungi and those
due to disturbing action of the inorganic environment ;j- the simplest
plan will be to take some of the groups of Conifer* seriatim, and
touch briefly on their prominent maladies.

I. The Pines. Owing to their very resinous nature, the Pines generally
are not so apt to suffer from injuries which result from the exposure of
open wounds as are many other trees, and it is astonishing how much
knocking about the hardy species will endure ; breakages from wind, heavy
snow, the cutting and biting of man and other animals, and so forth,
are readily healed* over by occlusion in the case of most of the species.

A very common cause of disease and death in Pines is the breaking of the
ascending water-current from various actions of an unsuitable environment.

* " Verhandlungen des schlesischen Forstvereins," 1852, p. 67.

t Those diseases which are due to the injurious action of animals, especially insects, being
treated of separately.

58 DISEASES OF PINES.

Speaking generally, the Pines require light, open, and well-drained
soils, as deep as possible ; and many aspects of disease in them are due
to the non-fulfilment of these conditions. Unquestionably one of the
worst of these dangers results from the clogging of the soil at the roots,
whether due to wet clay, stagnant water, the covering up or hardening of
the surface — e.g., by means of pavements, etc. — or other processes.

The general course of events is much the same in all these cases. The
primary cause of the injury is want of oxygen at the roots, for without
due supply of that gas in the water to which the living and absorbing
parts of the smallest root-fibrils have access the cells of the latter cannot
do their work. That is to say, the roots are unable to take up water
containing oxygen and mineral constituents in solution, at periods when
the " evergreen " leaves are transpiring large quantities of vapour into the
atmosphere. Consequently the young branches and tips of the tree may
die off rapidly, and if the source of mischief is permanent the whole plant
will die.

But the class of diseases due to " wet feet " — as it is often called — is
even more complex than this. The persistent rotting of dead rootlets in a
wet soil not only implies loss of root-power as above referred to ; it also
entails the direct consumption of oxygen and the fouling of the water by
poisonous products of decomposition which diffuse through the dying tissues
to higher ones which were still healthy, and might have sufficed to supply
new rootlets, etc., had the state of undue moisture been merely temporary.

Moreover, the presence of excessive moisture and heavy wet soils
prevent the necessary warming of the absorbing rootlets, and cases are not
uncommon where the stiffness and moisture of a soil, though insufficient
to cause the death of the absorbing cells by asphyxia — i.e., the deprivation
of free and dissolved oxygen — or by direct poisoning, are still so powerful
in preventing the necessary rise of temperature which must take place
before the absorbing living cells can obtain, and pass on, the proper
supply of water which the losses from the aerial parts of the plant
demand, and by means of which the minerals needed can alone be
furnished, that symptoms of death by drought make their appearance,
the leaves turn yellow and then brown, shrivel and fall, and the tree
may even die.

I have already shown how a very similar state of aifairs may be
brought about when young Pines have their aerial parts exposed to dry
air and hot sunshine at a time when the soil is frozen hard, and
the roots are rendered inactive by the low temperature of the ground.
The proper understanding of all these matters in detail requires con-
siderable acquaintance with the microscopic anatomy and physiology of the
plant, but anyone may readily grasp the main points concerned, and
will see that preventive measures can only be put into action intelligently
and with hopes of success if these points are apprehended.

Obviously young Pines in beds should not be exposed to powerful
insolation at a time when their roots are in hard frozen soil as above
described, and in those cases where such dangers are imminent a piece of
gauze or other shelter will reduce the chances of disaster.

Equally obvious is it that suitable drainage operations may make all
the difference to a locality not quite fitted for growing such plants, and
I want to take this opportunity of insisting upon the very important
fact — which applies to other plants as well as Conifers — that the operation
of drainage does not consist in merely removing superfluous moisture ; far

DISEASES OF PINES. 59

more important is the pressing into the interstices of the drained soil of
atmospheric oxygen, which does so much work of various kinds in the
labyrinth of passages which it traverses, that a whole lecture would not
nearly exhaust the treatment of this subject alone. Another extremely
pertinent point in this connection is that the drained soil can be warmed
by the sun's rays, or by the higher temperature of the air referred to,
not only more easily, but also more equably.

Passing now to the diseases due to unsuitable conditions in the sub-
aerial and atmospheric environment, the following points may be considered.

Pines, especially when the foliage is young, and still more particularly
when the plants themselves are young, are apt to lose many leaves, and
even to be killed, by undue chilling of the surfaces, cold dry winds being
perhaps the most fatal agents in this country. I have already referred to
that form of leaf-casting which is caused by this ; but it is perhaps
commoner to see parts of the tree only, in the case of the more tender
Pines, with their foliage brown and shrivelled, than to have a general fall
of the leaves.

A curious class of diseases, not common in the Pines, perhaps, but
stated as occurring in P. Strobus and some others with thin cortex, are
the various kinds of "rifts" — i.e., more or less vertical fissures — -which
extend up and down the exposed trunks of trees facing the south-west.
The particular kind of rift here referred to rarely, if ever, appears in trees
grown in the open from their youth onwards, but is very apt to occur on
the south-west aspect if older trees previously closed up and well sheltered
are exposed by a cutting. I see no reasons for rejecting the explanation
that such rifts are caused by the direct rays of the sun beating on the
thin cortex when the air is at its highest temperature ; whether the cells
are killed directly by the sun's rays, or whether the damage is due to
excessive evaporation of their water, is as yet not certain.

Of all the sub-aerial agents which damage Pines, however, none are
perhaps more to be feared than the acid gases of our larger manufacturing
towns. Sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, coal-gas, and such-
like chemicals are fatal to Pines even in very small quantities j and it is
no doubt to these, rather than to the increased percentage of carbon
dioxide, soot, or to the diminished light, that the foggy exhalations of
large towns owe their enormous power for evil. Nor can we wonder at
this when we reflect that many Pines are mountain species, growing
normally in those purest of atmospheres which attract us for the very
reason of their purity.

I now pass to the consideration of those diseases of Pines which are
directly traced to the injurious action of fungi on or in their roots,
stems, or leaves.

These fungi belong almost exclusively to the groups of parasitic
Ascomycetes, Uredineae, and Hymenomycetes. It is true that Phytophthora
omnivora (one of the Peroiiosporeae) attacks and destroys the seedlings of
these and other Conifers ; but the rule is that Conifers are exempt from
diseases due to the Peronosporese, Ustilagineae, Gymnoascese, or Gaster-
omycetes, and also from those caused by Bacteria (possibly with one
exception*) and Myxomycetes.

* Vuillemin, " Sur une Bacteriocecidie ou Tumeur Bacillaire du Pin d'Alep," Comptes
Hendus, November 26th, 1888. It may also be remarked that the roots of certain Conifers
may have hyphre of Gasteromycetes attached to them, though, so far as I can discover,
they do not induce diseased conditions in the tree

60 FUNGI INJURIOUS TO PINES.

A complete list of the parasitic fungi which injure the Pines would
carry us too far, and I must content myself with the following selection
of them.

Some of . the most mischievous are Tram^f'* radinpenla (known
also as Forties annosus, Pohjpoms annosus, Heterobasidion annosuni), Tr.
Pini, Polypoms mollis, P. mpomnus, P. Schweinitzii, and Ayaricus
inelleus,

These fungi, which are distinguished by technical characters the
discussion of which must be passed over here, differ considerably in their
mode of action and manner of inducing disease,* but they all agree
generally in that they eventually destroy the timber of the trees, by
dissolving and consuming the structural elements which compose it.
Now since the timber of the Pine furnishes (1) the channels up which
the water and nutritive materials have to pass from the roots to the
leaves, and (2) the supporting columns by the strength of which the
crown of foliage can alone be held aloft and exposed to the light and
air, it follows that such destruction results in disease and death to the
tree as a whole.

Trametes radiciperda, now known very ' thoroughly from the recent
researches of Brefeld,f who also proposes to re-name it Hetero-
basidion annosum from the remarkable conidial forms which he
has discovered, attacks the living roots of Pinus sylvestris, P. Strobus arid
others, sending its snow-white mycelium beneath the cortex, and travel-
ling thence up the stem, to finally penetrate the wood by way of the
cambium and medullary rays. The rotting of the wood rapidly follows,
with symptoms so peculiar that the presence of this fungus can be
concluded with certainty from them. Owing to the reddish discolora-
tion of the timber which results, this disease has been termed the
" red-rot," a name Avhich involves confusion however, as several other
similar diseases of timber cause such discolorations.

Tliis disease is extremely difficult to eradicate, because the mycelium
travels from root to root in the soil, and the spores are carried by
subterranean animals from one place to another; moreover, the matter
has become more complex since Brefeld discovered the second form of
conidial spores. Of course the fructifications should be destroyed by
burning, as also the dead and dying branches, stumps, etc. Hartig has
found that moats, dug so as to cut off sound trees from infected ones,
have been of service.

Ayaricus inelleus, though a less pronounced parasite, is not less
destructive ; the details of its action on the timber are different, and its
mode of spreading from root to root in the soil, by means of its long,
purple-black, cord-like mycelial strands, called Rliizomorplia, also differs.
But the net results are much the same in both cases. Very tangible
signs of the presence of Ayarims nietteu*, in the absence of the tawny
yellow " toad-stools," are afforded by the copious outflow of resin from
the diseased roots and base of the stem of the affected trees, and by the
above rhizomorphs in the rotting wood and soil around.

Most of the Polypori mentioned are decidedly wound-fungi — that is to
say, they only attack successfully those parts of the timber which are

'* For a more detailed account of these matters see "Timber and some of its Diseases,"
by H. Marshall Ward, M.A., F.R.S. (Macmillan and Co.)

t " Untersuchungen aus deni Gesammtgebiete der Mykologie,' H. VIII. 1889, p. 154.
8ee also R. Hartig, " /ersetzungserscheinungen des Holzss" (Berlin, 1878).

FUNGI INJUKIOUS TO PINES. 61

already dead and exposed to the air ; their influence for evil should not
be underrated on that account, however, for although they are sapro-
phytes living on the wood, their entrance into the trunk and branches
means more or less rapid hollowing of the heart-wood (thereby rendering
the tree liable to be thrown by winds, etc.) and the gradual production
of injurious substances which soak into the sound parts and pave the way
for the advance of the destroying mycelium into living organs. Hence,
though such fungi are saprophytes, strictly speaking, in their local action,
they nevertheless act towards the whole tree — taken as a living
individual — as parasites which may induce dangerous diseases.

Remedial measures are of course to be directed to the careful
tending and covering of wounds, a mode of procedure which has
long been carried out on various trees at Kew, and with decided success,
I believe.

I have . already spoken of Hysterium Pinastri as the cause of leaf-
casting. Herpotricliia niyra* causes a tiresome disease on Pinus montana,
and also on the Spruce and Junipers at high altitudes. Hysteriuiit
brachysporum kills the leaves of the Weymouth Pine, and Faiiow and
Seymourf give a long list of American forms that will necessitate much
careful investigation before we can determine which are truly parasitic
and which merely saprophytic.

There is in Germany a disease of the Scots Pine known by a name
which I may translate "Pine-twist." Its prominent symptoms are con-
tortions and curved malformations of the tips of the leading shoots,
caused by the invasion of a fungus known as Oceania pinitorquwn.
The hyphse of this parasite so torture the epidermal region of the young
shoots that their growth in length is no longer equal on all sides ;
considerable deformity may result from the curvatures of the healthy
parts about the dead infested regions, and even the death of the tips
occurs in bad seasons — i.e., seasons too wet for the Pine, but very
agreeable to the fungus. In dry summers, however, the fungus-layers
may die off, and the injured spots be occluded.

But of all the fungus diseases which affect Pines,' none is more
interesting, and few more disastrous, than the one induced by a form
long known as Peridennium, and of which P. Pini is the best known.
This makes its appearance on various Pines as bladder-like bags of spores
protruding from the leaves or cortex, and springing from a mycelium
which destroys the cell-tissues, and which may kill the upper parts of the
tree by ringing its stem or branches.

As long ago as 1874, Wolff \ showed that the form referred to is
merely the secidium stage of a uredinous fungus found on the leaves of
certain species of Senecio, •and known as Coleosporium. Further
investigations partly confirmed and partly contradicted this conclusion,
and led to the separation of species of Peridermium which invade
the cortex and branches of the Pines (e.y., Pinus sylvestris, P. SJrobus,
P. Laricio, P. montana, etc.) from others which infest the leaves of
various species of Pinus.

The results are too lengthy to describe in detail here, but the gist
of the matter may be put as follows.

* R. Hartig, " Allgemeine Forstliche imd Jagd-Zeitung, " January, 1888.
t "A Provisional Host-Index of the Fungi of the United States," Part III. 1891»
pp. 160—166.

J " Hot. Zeitung," 1874.

62 FUNGI INJURIOUS TO FIRS.

The Peridermium (or ^Ecidium) Pini of authors comprises several
distinct species : —

(1) P. oblcmgisporium on the leaves of Pinus -sylvestris and P.
austriaca, the aecidial stage of Coleosporium Senecionis,

(2) P. Cornui on the cortex of the Scots Pine, and which is the
aecidial stage of Cronartium Asdepiadeum.

(3) P. Strobi on the cortex of Pinus Strobus, P. Lambertiana and
P. Cembra, and which is the secidial form of a Cronartium found
on species of Ribes.*

(4) P. Pini, on the cortex of Pinus sylvestris, has nothing
to do with Coleosporium Senecionis, and numerous attempts have
in vain been made to settle what its Uredo-spore stage is, or on what
host it grows ; so that here again is a puzzle awaiting solution by
those who have the opportunity.

Several other forms of Peridermium are known on various species of
Pinus. The following have hitherto been included with the above
under the common name P. Pini, but no one will now be so bold as
to retain them until further investigations have decided as to their
relationships. The forms in question occur on the cortex of Pinus
montana, P. maritima, P. halepensis, P. mitis, P. Tteda, P. ponderosa,
P. rigida, P. radiata, P. Sabiniana, P. contorta, and some other
American Pines ; as well as on the leaves of the Indian P. longifolia
and of the American P. palustris.

The great damage done by the cortical forms of Peridermium is two-
fold in character. In the first place the cortex and cambium are killed
at the spot invaded, and this injury may go so far as to ring the stem
or branch. Then in the second place, an abnormal formation and
excretion of turpentine is excited, and this soaks into the wood and
renders the passage of water upwards difficult or impossible. The natural
consequence is the perishing of the parts above the infested places, and
in dry summers such a result is apt to follow rapidly. Sections of Pine-
stems, cut to 3 — 5 cm. thickness, thus permeated with turpentine, are
semi-translucent ; and, as has long been known to continental foresters,
the abnormally resinous branches are excellent for torches, fuel, etc.
With isolated Pines, in parks and gardens, etc., it is not difficult
to eradicate the disease in its early stages by judicious pruning, and
burning the infested parts ; far greater difficulties, of course, are met
with in the treatment of forests. This disease is likely to do much
damage in nurseries, and I think you will admit that a strong case is
made out in favour of the need for care and further observations as
regards the weeds growing in the neighbourhood of all places where Pines
are cultivated from seed.

II. The Firs. I take this group in the broadest sense, including in
it the genera Picea (the Spruces), Abies (the Silver Firs), Tsuga (the
Hemlock Firs), and Pseudotsuga (the Douglas Fir). Much that has been
said of the Pines is also true of 'these predominantly mountain trees. I
shall therefore pass at once to the description of the diseases due to
fungi, merely remarking that those maladies traceable to unsuitable
climate, soil, atmosphere, etc., are much as before.

Here, again, some of the most disastrous forms of disease are those due

* Sorauer has confirmed this quite recently, finding that the spores of P. Strobi develop
into Cronartium Ribicola (Dietr.), on Ribes rubrum, A', nigrum, and fi. alpinum (" Zeitschrift
fiir Pflanzenkrankheiten," 1891, B. i. H. 3, p. 183).

FUNGI INJURIOUS TO FIRS. 63

to hymenomycetous fungi which rot the timber, such as Ayaricus hielleus,
Trametes radiciperda and T. Pini, Polyporus vaporarius, P. borealis,
P. fulvus, etc., and it is scarcely necessary to add anything to what was
said of these when treating of the Pines. Again, also, it happens that,
with the exception of Phytoplitliora omnivora, which destroys the
seedlings of Spruces and Silver Firs, the disease-inducing fungi all belong
to certain sections of the Hymenomycetes, Ascomycetes, and especially
the Uredineae.*

Undoubtedly one of the most extraordinary of all these forms is
Calyptospora Goeppertiana, a uredinous fungus which alternates between
the Silver Fir (Abies pectinata), on the leaves of which it develops an
aeeidial form long known as ^Ecidium columnare, and the Red Whortleberry
(Vaccinium Vitis-idcea), a common under-shrub in the German Fir-forests,
the stems and leaves of which it distorts and kills by means of the
mycelium of its Uredo-form (known as Calyptospora — or Melampsora-
Gwppertiana).

Another remarkable case is that of the "Witches' brooms," very
common in Europe, and by no means rare in this country. I have
myself found these on Abies Pinsapo, as well as on A. pectinata, in
Windsor Great Park. " Witches' brooms " are curiously tufted masses of
twiggy branches which take their origin from parts of the stem attacked
by the mycelium of dEcidium elatinum, the Uredo-form of which is as
yet unknown, and possibly does not exist. The life-history was worked
out very thoroughly by the late Professor de Bary. f The hyphae so irritate
the growing tissues of the young shoots that the latter gain enormously
in diameter, and put forth numerous shoots which alter their whole
character. Thus, instead of growing outwards in a nearly horizontal
plane, they turn vertically upwards, and branch copiously in a fastigiate
manner ; then their leaves are smaller, and arranged in regular spirals
around the erect twigs. These leaves are infested by the mycelium,
and eventually bear the ^Ecidia, and fall prematurely. This mycelium is
perennial in the cortex, cambium, and wood of the stems, and does
much damage by stopping the leaders, and paving the way for rot-fungi.
It happens not infrequently in this country that the mycelium simply
sojourns in the stems, and does not lead to the full development of the
" Witches' broom," but only causes tumour-like swellings of the axis.
The treatment of infected trees resolves itself into careful pruning
and removal of the monstrous organs. It would be well worth the
time of some capable investigator to undertake further researches into
the nature of this disease. This malady, by the way, has nothing to
do with the " Witches' brooms " developed on Birches, Cherries, Horn-
beams and other Dicotyledons which are due to the ravages of various
species of Exoascus, curious ascomycetous fungi allied to the one that
causes "Bladder-plums." Farlow has found JEc. elatinum on Abies
concolor\ and A. balsamea, and it will probably turn out to be more
widely spread than has been hitherto suspected.

The Silver Firs surfer from a number of other Uredineae, of which

* The general application of these remarks to Coniferse as a whole may have to be
modified when Ustilago Fussii (Niessl.) on species of Juniperus has been properly in-
vestigated.

t "Bot. Zeitung," 1867.

£ "A Provisional Host-Index of the Fungi of 'the United States." Part III. 1891. pp.
158—170.

64 FUNGI INJURIOUS TO FIRS.

C^onta Abietis jn>ctiuatti' is a form reminding us, by its habit and
behaviour, of Calyptospora Gccppertiana.

The Spruces (Picea) are also apt to suffer much from Uredinese, of
which the genus Chrysomyxa is one of the most important. Several
species of this fungus do considerable damage to the leaves, by causing
them to fall prematurely — e.y., C. Abietis* C. Rliododendd and C. Ledi
— the former being autoecious, and only occurring in the Teleuto-spoiv
stage, so far as is known ; the two latter being heteroscious, the /Ecidia
developing on the leaves of the Spruce, and the Uredo-forms on the
leaves of Rhododendron ferrugineuin and R. hirsuturn, and on those of
Leduni palusfrre. Farlow says that C. Alietis occurs on Tsur/a
canadensis which suggests the probability that this form again is
more widely spread than has been supposed hitherto. Miinter states
that Picea alba is not affected by this disease. I quote from
Sorauer,f and cannot speak from my own knowledge ; but Farlow does
not give this fungus on P. alba.

Spruces (and to a less extent Silver Firs and Pines) are often affected
with a disease caused by an Ascomycete (Nectria Cucurbitula ), the
hyphse of which find their way through small wounds in the cortex, into
the sieve-tubes, etc., of the phloem, and set up a struggle for existence,
which is very interesting to the biologist, though it may be viewed with
different feelings by the horticulturist. It appears that so long as the
Fir is doing well, the parasite is confined to the resting parts of the
phloem, and cannot make its way into the active cambial region, the
living cells of which go on dividing and growing quite normally ; if
the attacked branch is particularly vigorous, the formation of a layer
of cork may be accomplished, which cuts off all the diseased tissues,
which then dry up and are thrown off.

It is a particularly instructive fact, however, that if the season is one
unfavourable to the rapid and vigorous development of the cambium, or
the tree generally, or if conditions exist in the soil or atmosphere
which retard the vegetative activity of the cells, the mycelium of
the Nectria is enabled to conquer the tissues of the cortex, and even
to kill the cambium and penetrate into the young wood. If this
happens all the parts above the attacked place are apt to dry up
and die, evidently from the stoppage of the water currents up the
stem ; this very often occurs with thin watery twigs — so-called
" unripened wood " — such as may be found in shaded situations, or
in very damp summers.

From the dead cortex come the white conidial cushions, about as
large as pin-heads, followed by the scarlet stromata with immersed
ascogenous fructifications.

There are many other very interesting points about this disease ; and
as it is a type of an exceedingly important series of diseases very
little understood in England, attention should be directed to some
of the results.

While relying for the most part on the researches of Hartigj so far
as this particular species is concerned, it is only right to say that the
following conclusions are based on some experience of my own.

* Beautiful figures of this are to be found in AVillkonmi, " Die mikroskopisehen Feinde
des Waldes," 1867, Taf. IX. The text is now chiefly of historical interest,
f "Pflanzenkrankheiten," 2nd edit. 1886, Vol. II. p. 248.
£ " Untersuchungen aus dem Forstlichen-Botanischen Institiit zu Mimchen," I. p. 88.

FUNUI INJURIOUS TO FIRS. 65

These ywfi'iax, though very common indeed, are usually found as
deridedly sapi-ophytie fungi, living in the dead wood and cortex of
fallen branches, or the parts of trees killed by entirely different agencies

e.g., frost, breakage, insect injuries, etc.- — and experiments show that
the germinal tubes developed from the spores are unable to penetrate
the sound tissues of living branches. On the other hand, it is quite
easy to infect a tree if the sound cortex be punctured with the
point of a scalpel on which a few spores* have been rubbed. The
puncture kills a number of cells, and the hyphse feed on the solution
of food-materials thus formed; and it is only from a position of
advantage like this that the mycelium, waxing in vigour day by day,
is able to invade the tissues around, and gradually kill and destroy
those that are not active enough to resist it. As already said, the
mycelium may fail to do more than establish itself in the more worn-
out portions of the inner cortex, and may then be cut out and cast
off by layers of cork. There is considerable reason for believing that
it makes all the difference to the fungus what kind of start it gets;
if the mycelium is still young and feeble, the active tissues of the
cortex may cut it out very soon, and the ordinary observer can find
no trace of the invading fungus, or of disease ; but if it starts in a
bed of dead and dying cells capable of yielding it sufficient food-materials
(the hyphsB can grow in a matrix flooded with turpentine) its rate of
spread depends almost entirely on what resistance is offered by the
vegetative activity of the cells around. Hartig found that the germinal
hyphse of N. Cucurbitula find entrance into Spruce Firs through the
wounds caused by certain insects (especially Grapholitlia pad-olana), and
also through such as are caused by the heavy blows of hailstones,
which bruise and tear the tissues of young shoots. In the case of
other Nedrias, which cause wounds on non-coniferous trees, I have
convinced myself that ruptures caused by frost, mechanical injuries (e.g.,
such as are produced by climbing trees to pluck fruit, etc.), priming,
etc., afford the opportunities of entrance to the fungi.

There is a deeper problem beneath all this, however, and that refers
to the exact nature of the mutual actions and reactions between the
hyphse and the living cells of the host; all I can say here is that it
is pretty clear that the hyphse excrete some poison-like substance which
the living cells of the cortex and cambium either break up and destroy,
or merely resist the action of, so loiig as they are strong, well-fed, and
vigorous. Once let such cells fall below a certain standard of health
and activity, however, and the hyphse make their way in and demolish
all before them. Obviously the factors of the inorganic environments —
soil, temperature, light, atmosphere, and so on — may determine the balance
of events in this connection.

In conclusion, I may add that Nedria Cucurlihila is not uncommon
in this country, where it is usually found on dead branches, and
Farlow reports the occurrence of this species on Pinus Strobus in the
United States, and of several other species on other North American
Conifer®,

The Douglas Fir has, so far, shown but few fungus diseases in this
country and on the Continent, but since Ayarirus melleus and Trametes
radiciperda are among its enemies, it is not improbable that it may
be found to suffer from maladies not found on it in (or at least not
reported from) its native country. Farlow adds Trametes Pini to
F

66 FUNGI INJURIOUS TO THE LARCH.

the list of its hymenomycetous enemies. So recently as 1888* Von
Tubeuf discovered a disease on this Fir which may prove very
troublesome in wet districts. The tips of the branches droop, and
their leaves fall off, but remain hanging by means of a greyish
mycelium, which holds them together as if attached to the tips by
means of spiders' web. This mycelium gives rise to sporophores and
sclerotia, which prove it to be a Botrytis (B. Dow/lasii, n. sp.), and
if it turns out to be as destructive as some of its congeners (e.fj.,
the Botrytis of the Lily-disease f) foresters will certainly have to reckon
very seriously with it. The damage is done by the mycelium penetra-
ting between the cells of the leaves and young shoots, and killing the
tissues forthwith. One source of danger is that this fungus can live
as a saprophyte in the dead foliage, etc., on the ground, as well as
parasitically in the living shoots ; and that it develops very efficient
resting organs known as sclerotia, which enable it to tide over
unfavourable seasons.

It appears that this Botrytis has also been observed on the Larch,
and 011 Silver and Spruce Firs. It is as yet too soon to attempt to
decide as to the extent of the danger with which the fungus threatens
us ; we know very little, moreover, as yet, as to the capabilities
of the Douglas Fir itself in this country. Perhaps the greatest
damage so far done to it is by winds, but for my own part I feel
that this Conifer is still too new to the British Islands | to be finally
reported upon, and it is not surprising that we know as yet very
little about its diseases. It is with the Firs as with the Pines, as
regards the large number of diseases due to fungi : the American list
is very long, and our own is by no means either short or exhausted.

The Hemlock Fir, Silver Fir and Spruce suffer in Germany from a
leaf-fungus ( ' Triehospliceria parasitica) which reminds one in many
respects of some of our Erysiphece. The seedlings of these and other
Firs are destroyed by Pliytophthora omnivora and by a Pestalozzia
lately re-examined by Yon Tubeuf. Almost as I write § comes the
announcement of another disease of the Spruce, said to be found " all
over Germany," and due to the hitherto unsuspected parasitism of a
Septoria, and so the work goes on.

III. The Larches. The European Larch is apt to suffer very much from
combinations of circumstances in the environment, when planted in this
country; and when one compares the conditions under which it is
attempted to grow it with those prevailing in the natural home of this
tree, the wonder is, surely, not that our Larches suffer, but rather that
any of them escape. The European Larch is a native of the Alps and
of the higher mountains of northern Europe, growing naturally at altitudes
which ensure a pure atmosphere, brilliant sunlight, plenty of distributed
moisture, and rapid drainage ; in its mountain home it has a relatively
long and thorough winter rest, from which, like Alpine plants generally,
it rapidly awakens late in spring, and then makes vigorous growth
through the brilliant and comparatively hot summer.

In this country the diseases of the Larch are almost all initiated by late
frosts, damp soil, insufficient sunlight, and alternations of periods of drought

* ' ' Beitrage zur -Kemitniss der Baum-Krankheiten " (Berlin, 1888).

t Annals of Botany, Vol. II. 1888, "A Lily Disease."

J I am told that it was only introduced in 1826.

§ " Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankh. " B. i. H. 3, 1891, p. 179, see also B. i. H. 1, 1891, p. 4?

FUNGI INJURIOUS TO THE LARCH. 67

with periods of excessive moisture, in various degrees of combination.
Late frosts, or chills which approach such, are among the most deadly
agents. The tender tufts of bright green foliage, to which the Larches
owe their spring beauty, are usually forced out in this country from
a month or six weeks too soon— as compared with what occurs in the
Alps, etc. — and the succulent shoots arid leaves are thus apt to suffer
from the sudden oncoming of cold winds or frosts as they slowly drag
along their precarious development. Once they get well over this early
dilatory period of sprouting, all is safe ; their safety is ensured in their
mountain heights by (1) their not beginning to awake from the long
winter rest till danger of frosts is practically over, and (2) by the
extreme rapidity with which they run through the period of tenderness.
Our damp climate, moreover, is calculated to bring it about that the
roots of Larches, as of other Conifers, run risks not likely to be
incurred in the rapidly drained soils of their Alpine homes. But the
conditions referred to thus briefly are just those which favour certain
enemies of the Larch at the very time that they are acting prejudicially
to that tree itself.

I have great confidence, therefore, in the well-thought-out view, first
put forward, I believe, by one of the most distinguished and able of
modern investigators — Professor Robert Hartig, of Munich — that the
appalling liability of the Larch to disease at low altitudes, and in
climates which are too moist and variable during the spring and early
summer, is due to the co-operation between the factors of the inorganic
environment and the directly injurious action of its living enemies.

The Larch suffers severely from several fungus diseases — Agaricus
melleus, Trametes Pini, Polyporus sulphureus and others being among
them ; but all other forms have sunk into insignificance beneath
the overwhelming importance of the "Larch-disease," or "Larch-canker,"
due to the parasitism of a minute discomycetous fungus known variously
as Peziza Wittkommii, Lachnella calycina, Dasyscypha calycina, etc.*

The main factsf which are of importance to foresters are, that this
Peziza develops from its spores a mycelium which, when once it has
established a hold in the inner cortex of a branch of the Larch, can
go on growing and extending into the cambium ; this it kills,
destroying a larger area year by year, and producing the so-called
" canker " patch, which is simply a shrivelled mass of dead tissues
impregnated with exuded turpentine or resin. If the dead patch
extends all round the branch or stem, all the parts above may die
off, partly because, the cambium being destroyed, there is no more
wood developed at that region to carry up the water supplies to the
leaves, and [partly because the resin blocks up the wood wrhich it
permeates.

To understand how it is that the Larch-fungus spreads so rapidly
and with such dire effect in Great Britain, it is necessary to note
some peculiarities not always properly appreciated.

Peziza Willkommii, like other fungi, requires merely water, oxygen,
and a suitable (not very high) temperature for the germination of its
spores ; given these, the germinal hyphsB are developed anywhere. The
mere germination of a spore may, therefore, take place on any damp

* For the synonyms consult Phillips, "British Discomycetes, " p. 241.
t An illustrated detailed account of this and similar diseases is given in ' ' Timber and
some of its Diseases" (Macmillan and Co.).

U8 THE LARCH DISEASE.

surface exposed to the air — e.y., the soil, the bark of old trees, or tilt-
thin cortex and leaves of the twigs and young trees, etc. But millions
of spores may go through this process of germination, and then the
germinal hyphse die off for want of further food-supplies ; whereas if any
one of these hyphse finds its way into the succulent cortex of a
Larch, it is nourished at the expense of the tissues, spreads into
the cambium, and brings about the disease referred to as the " canker
of the Larch." As a matter of experiment — and only by experiment can
we arrive at such knowledge — it is found that if spores of this fungus
germinate on the sound bark, cortex, leaf, or other part of the Larch-tree,
the germinal hyphae fail to effect an entrance ; if, on the other hand,
the spores are sown on a wound, however slight, in the cortex of the
tree, it is able to enter and infect the latter.

Now the thin cortical covering of a young Larch stem or branch is
a dangerously tender envelope to the tissues below, and it is rapidly
protected later on by a rather thick coating of cork. As a matter of
fact the corky " periderm " begins to form, just below the epidermis,
before the end of the first year, and is increased every year after-
wards. When the tree is about twenty years old the real bark begins
to be formed, owing to the development of internal layers of cork.
Obviously the period most dangerous to the Larch is that during which
its cortex is still tender and its leaves succulent and delicate. In its
Alpine home this period is rapidly passed through ; in the lowlands of
Europe and in damp insular climates this period ip apt to be a dilatory
one, and severe checks from frosts, cold winds, periods of dull, misty,
"sunless" days, etc., are apt to cause the trees to suffer in all
kinds of ways. But such periods are not calculated to check the
spread of fungus-spores to any comparable extent; and so we may
regard these conditions as disfavouring the Larch, but not its enemy.
Moreover, such conditions indirectly favour the fungus, for the tender
shoots and young leaves of the Larch are apt to be cut by frosts,
bruised and torn by winds, broken by snow, and injured in various
ways by the inclemency of weather which would not injure them before
the buds opened, or after the twigs and leaves were hardened and in
full working order. In fact, if we could persuade our Larches to
remain dormant for a month later in the spring, they would escape
the evils of which they now run the gauntlet, as it were.

It is during this period of dalliance in the opening of the buds and
pushing of the young shoots that all kinds of small wounds are made
by frost-cracks, bruises from hail and wind, breakages from the snow
and storms, and, I believe, insect-injuries, and it is into these small
wounds that the hyphse of the Peziza penetrate. This view is fully
borne out by the observations in the open that the young " cankers "
commonly start around the base of a dead shoot; that trees growing
in damp situations are particularly apt to suffer; the prevalence of
the disease is greatest in neighbourhoods and seasons where and win MI
certain insect-enemies of the Larch abound (e.y., the moth Coleophom
laricella, and the aphis Chermes Laricis).

In the case of park trees, and such specimens as horticulturists are
dealing with, much may be done by careful pruning and paring,
combined with drainage and protection ; but unquestionably this Larch-
disease is ' a difficult matter to struggle with when once it has made
headway. The best " cure " is, of course, prevention — i.e., plant sound

FUNGI INJURIOUS TO JUNIPERS. 69

trees, learn to recognise the earliest stages of the disease, and if it
appear cut out the young patches and burn every trace of diseased
cortex.

A subterranean fungus known as Rhizina undulata has lately been
found to be very destructive to young Larches, Silver Firs, and other
Conifers (e.y., Tsuya Mertensiana, Pseudotsuya Douglasii, Picea sitdiensis,
and Pinus SfrobusJ. It seems to belong or be related to the Pezizas,
An obscure group of fungi known aS Rhizodonia also still need
careful investigation.*

It will probably be observed that I have followed no very strict
classification of the Conifers in this paper, but have simply chosen
groups convenient for the purpose in hand. I propose to take the
remainder of the Conifers in equally arbitrary groups, and first of all
certain of the Cupressinese.

IV. The Junipers. The most remarkable diseases of the Junipers are
those due to various species of a urediiious fungus known as Gymno-
x/><>rau(/iwii, the hyphae of which so irritate the cambial region of the
stems of these Conifers (in which the mycelium is perennial) that
peculiar woody swellings are produced, sometimes in such quantities as
to distort, and even kill, the stems. From these swollen parts of the
branches the. Teleuto-spores are produced in enormous quantities during
the spring, and some most remarkable facts have been elucidated by the
researches of recent years — -facts which show that there is still much
to be done before we have exhausted the biology of these disease-
inducing fungi.

It has long been known that these Gyinnosporamjia^ confined to the
various species of Juniperus, are merely the Teleuto-spore condition of
forms which when growing on certain species of Kosacese — -e.fj-, Pear,
Hawthorn, Mountain Ash, Service-tree, etc. — present a totally different
appearance ; these secidial forms on the Eosacese received the name of

A number of careful experiments have been made iu this country
by Mr. Plowright, one of the best authorities in England on the
Uredinese, and he came to the conclusion that about four species of
Gymnosporanijiurn may be upheld as far as this country is concerned.
These species occur on /. Sabina and the pear ; /. Sabina and the
Hawthorn and others ; /. communis and Hawthorn, etc. ; and J. communis
and the Mountain Ash.f

The results of such infection-experiments from various sides were to
arouse suspicions as to the autonomy of some of the species, though
some of the main points were confirmed by all. Credit is due to
Mr. Plowright for establishing the converse culture of the ^Ecidio-spores
on the Juniper, in the case of G. davarieforme.

Recent experiments have raised the whole question of the species
of Gymnosporanfjia again, and I mention this here because it seems
to me of importance that the question should be settled, as it afTects
tin1 cultivation of Pears, Apples, Hawthorns, and other Rosacese as
well as Junipers and other Conifers.

Tubeuf says that if G. davariefomne is sown on Crataegus, it produces
Roestelia cornuta. On the Mountain Ash and on Cydonia vulgaris it
only goes so far as to produce spermogonia. On other hosts it grows

* " Sitzungshericht des Botanischen Vereins in Miinchen," Jan. 12th, 1891.
t " British Uredineoe and Ustilaginese," p. 233.

70 FUNGI INJURIOUS TO VARIOUS CONIFERS.

and infects the leaves but does not get beyond the production of
yellow humps.

Whether further researches show that these results are confirmed or
not, it is now certain that we have in these forms of Gymnosporanyium
and Rwstelia parasitic fungi which are highly polymorphic,* and a
number of specialised races or varieties are heteroecious between
Cupressinese and Rosacese (as many other " Rust-fungi " are between
GraminesB and dicotyledonous plants), causing diseases of the cortex
and wood of the one, and of the leaves in the other. Obviously
it is advisable to take these facts into account where it is wished to
grow either of these classes of plants in the best way.

Y. Other Conifers. — Conclusion. Ayaricus melleus is recorded by Farlow
as occurring on Chamfficyparis sphceroidea (Cupressus thyoides) and the same
authority mentions Botrytis vulgaris on Sequoia ; whether these are
parasitic, I do not know, and in fact the whole of the very long list
of American Conifer-fungi wants careful overhauling before we can
decide as to their share in producing diseases. I have found the roots
of Wellingtonia badly infested with mycelium which seems to be that of
a Hymenomycete ; and Araucarias occasionally suffer from similar
forms.

The Yew seems to be very little affected with fungi ; at least I can
recall no satisfactory case of fungus disease in this Taxad.

Little or nothing seems to be known of the diseases of Cryptomeria,
Taxodium, Cephalotaxus, Gingko (Salisburia), or Podocarpus and other
allies ; and I know of no records of specific diseases of the Cedars.
Two species of Cladosporium are said to injure Pines, and Hoffmannt
attributes the " Witches' brooms " of the Scots Pine to these Pyre-
nomycetes. Several /Ecidia are known to grow on the scales of various
cones (e.</., ^E. Strobilinum, ^E. conorum), and there is a curious form
in Finland and Sweden ( jE. coruscans) which so alters the aspect of
young Spruce-shoots that they resemble cones. J

Several Conifers, especially the Pines, are known to have subterranean
fungi at their roots, but apart from any symptoms of disease. The
fungus causes the attacked root to swell and alter its form, and the
symbiotic compound body is called a Mycorrhiza. These curious
phenomena lie outside of my present theme, however, as also do the
no less remarkable abnormal-looking outgrowths — so-called " knees "-
from the roots of Taxodium distichwu, and the nodules caused by
fungi on the roots of Podocarpus.

More to the point at present are the cases of " sooty-leaves " of
Araucaria excelsa and the Yews, due to the black mycelium of species
of Capnodiwn, and those of the Silver Fir, due to Apiosporium.
It has been suggested that Septoria Pinii occurring on the leaves of
Picea excelsa may be the spermogonia of the Hysferiwn (Lopliodermium)
nervisequum found on that plant. An observation of Farlow's in 1884,§
that certain ^Ecidia on the Firs of the White Mountains only occur
on the dwarfed trees at great elevations, seems deserving of further
examination.

* I purposely omit discussion here of such points as Kienitz-Gerloff s discovery of alleged
Urt do-spores among the Teleuto-spores of these fungi.

t "Allgemeine Forstliche und Jagd-Zeitung, " 1871, p. 236.

J Not to be confounded with the cone-like deformations on the same plant due to insects
(Chermes viridis}.

§ " Appalachia, " Vol. III. part 3, Jan. 1884, quoted by Sorauer, p. 249.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CONIFERS. 71

A CucurMtaria (C. pitliyophila), reported as occurring on the
cortex of living and dead branches of Coniferae, also requires investiga-
tion. The same remark applies to Cooke's Asterina cupressina on leaves
of Cupressus, and to Saccardo's Meliola Abietis on Abies, Ellis's
Coryneum Juniperinwn on leaves of American Junipers, Cooke's DotJiidea
halepensis on Pines and D. spJiceroidea on Junipers, and the Pleospora
laricina of Rehm ; also a large number of as yet very obscure forms,
such as Sphcerella, Stigmatea, etc., etc.

With regard to a large number of these forms, and to even more
numerous foreign forms, we are as yet quite in the dark as to whether
they are parasites or not.

Experience warns us, however, that in many cases, epidemic fungus-
diseases suddenly force themselves on our attention owing to some form,
hitherto occurring sparsely and known only to the curious expert, having
become suddenly favoured in its struggle for existence. I have already
given you several examples, notably that of the Larch-disease, into the
life-struggles of which we have succeeded in peering rather deeply.
Surely such considerations should alone suffice to extend and cement that
sympathy between the practical horticulturist and the persistent, though
perhaps unobtrusive, investigator which, I am happy to see, is becoming
more and more pronounced as each understands better the ways and
high aims of the other.

It should be borne in mind, finally, that plant-diseases, like human
diseases, cannot be fully elucidated by a layman — though it is astonish-
ing how frequently the contrary assumption is acted upon in the case
of both. There seems to be a fatal temptation in the idea of disease
to the minds of most men, and the consequence is quackery or even
disaster.

INSECTS INJUEIOUS TO CONIEEPwE.* ,
BY MR. W. F. H. BLANDFORD, M.A., E.Z.S.

OF all families of trees, the Conifers suffer most severely from the
attacks of insects, owing to the large number of species which they
support, and to the difficulty which, on account of their physiological
characteristics, they have in withstanding injury. The wide area
over which forests of these trees extend increases the danger of
insect-attacks in accordance with a well-known law which holds with
injurious insects, and it is among Conifers alone among trees, and
among the forest species of Pine, Fir and Larch that have happened
those repeated instances of widespread destruction over large forest
areas which, occurring even before economic forestry began to change
the character of the primitive mixed woods, probably increased in
number and severity at that epoch, and have continued at intervals
to the present clay.

* Abridged from the Report of the Conifer Conference by permission of the Council of
the Royal Horticultural Society.

'^ INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CONIFERS.

The immense importance of the destruction caused by these attacks
has given an impetus to the study of forest insects on the Continent,
and a not inconsiderable mass of literature has sprung up. In this
the foremost place must be given to the works of Katzeburg.
Besides Katzeburg and his pupils and successors in Germany, Ferris
in France, Lindeinan in Kussia, and Packard in the United States
have especially contributed to our knowledge of Conifer-feeding insects.
In Great Britain less has been done to advance our knowledge
of them, perhaps because owing to geographical position and
climate its insect population is comparatively small, and serious
damage fortunately rare. There are many papers scattered through
British journals of entomology and sylviculture on those six or
seven species of insects which have done serious injury to Conifers,
but there is a deficiency of information with regard to the less
important kinds.

In the large number of insects feeding on these trees only a few
are of habitual importance, but exceptional abundance of a normally
unimportant species will bring about unexpected damage, This
sometimes occurs in Great Britain, and one may hear complaints
of damage which is not assignable to any of the regular destroyers,
but which cannot be identified in the absence of specimens. It is
about these casually destructive species that we require to know
more.

The special liability of some Conifers (Finns, Picea, Abies, Larix)
to injury by insects, and the important character of such injury, are
due to the following facts : —

1. There is a large number of insects which attack them.
Kaltenbach enumerates 299 on the forest Conifers in Europe. This
number falls, indeed, far short of the 537 assigned to the Oak, but
neither list can be taken as strictly accurate.

2. Every part of the tree is liable to energetic attacks from one
insect or another — the roots, the bark of the trunk and branches,
the wood, needles, shoots, and lastly the cones, the seed-production of
which may be greatly lessened by insects feeding in their interior.

3. A common form of injury, especially on the Continent, is
defoliation. Xow complete defoliation of a Conifer, other than the
Larch, usually means the death of the tree, because of the slowness
with which the injury is repaired. If an Oak is stripped, it grows
a new crop of leaves late in the year, provided that the defoliation
is sufficiently complete and sufficiently early ; but if a Spruce or Fine be
stripped and survive, not only are no further needles produced the
same year, but next year's growth may be delayed a month, and the
new needles are stunted and form the curious "bristle-needles" figured
by Ratzeburg. The tree will take four or five years to recover its
normal covering of needles, and with them its normal process of
growth ; so that during that period the total increment will only
equal, or may even be less than, that of a single ordinary season.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CONIFERS. 73

4. Defoliation renders a tree liable to the attacks of other insects,
especially of the much-dreaded bark -beetles, which have so often
completed the havoc begun in European forests by hordes of caterpillars.
Damage by storm, snowfall, frost, or by forest h'res or caterpillar-
defoliation, together with careless forestry and the slovenly accumulation of
loppings, felled timber and unbarked logs, serve to foster the development
of such insects till serious injury is risked. The thin-barked Spruce
suffers more than the Pine, and it was the forests of this tree that
were so terribly ravaged by barkd)eetles in the Harz Mountains during
the last century. Except the Pine-beetle (Myelophilus piniperda), no
bark-beetles cause extensive damage in Great Britain ; still many
injurious kinds do occur which might cause trouble if the circumstances
which favour them be disregarded through over-confidence in their
supposed innocuousness. Every forest tree cannot possibly be in a
perpetual state of robust health, and there is one period when every
tree is liable to -insect-attacks — after transplantation.

5. Not a few insects feed during some part of their lives on or
in the young shoots of Conifers, in the leader or the extremities of
the lateral branches. When the leader perishes the upward growth is
checked until one or more branches of the top whorl twist round to
supply its place. So lateral branches are destroyed or have their
growth stopped, and the tree becomes altered in shape and appearance.
Such mutilated Pines abound in almost all woods in the South of
England.

6. The practice of growing large pure woods of Conifers of uniform
age tends especially to widespread ravages. Most Conifer-feeding
insects will not touch deciduous trees, and many are confined to a
single species of Conifer. Others, again, limit their attacks almost
completely to a single period in the life of a tree. Hylolrius alnetis
is very destructive to trees under seven years old, comparatively
harmless to those of ten or more years. In a pure wood, the
conditions favourable to increase of an insect pest exist over the whole
area at once, and there is no limit to the supply of food, the
facilities for egg-laying or for migration to fresh districts from the
part infected.

Wire iron it*. Seedling Conifers, if the nursery be placed in a well-
chosen situation, secure from the inroads of Hyloliu* abietis, are
usually exempt from the attacks of special Conifer-feeding insects.
Their chief enemies are the polyphagous wTireworms, the larvse of the
" click-beetles," and the grubs of the cockchafer. Wire worms occasionally
do much harm in ground newly broken for nursery purposes. The
damage lessens when the ground has been cultivated for some time,
for the destruction during the first year or two is due to wire-
\vonns which, having sprung from eggs laid before the bed was
formed, exist already in the soil. When trees are actually growing
there the parent beetles lay eggs less readily or not at all, and thus
the bed is gradually cleansed. When very young Conifers are
attacked they are gnawed completely through just above the roots,
and such cut plants sometimes strew the bed. Seeds are also destroyed
before germination.

It is desirable to examine the ground selected for the nursery, and
to reject the plot if it appears badly infested, or to cleanse it
thoroughly before planting. As the acreage required is small, there

74 PINE WEEVILS.

should be no difficulty in doing this by methods known and practised
in agriculture, such as paring off and burning two inches of the top-
soil early in the autumn, or dressing with gas-lime, chloride of lime,
or ammouiacal waste, and leaving it fallow till the effect of the
poison has worn off. Fallow land kept clean and free from weeds
during the period of egg-laying in June will have comparatively few
wireworms, but in the absence of better food these probably feed on
humus, especially when young.

If seedlings are actually attacked, hand-picking is a good remedy
when facilitated by the use of potatoes, carrots or sliced mangold,
laid on the ground as a bait and regularly visited. A dressing of
rape-cake or mustard-cake, popular in hop-growing, may be tried, but
the value of it under these circumstances remains to be proved.
Serious injury from wire worm is unlikely to extend beyond the first
year of growth.

Pine-weevil. The worst enemy to young Conifers, either in a badly
situated nursery or after planting-out, is the large clumsy Pine-weevil,
Hylobius abietis, a blackish brown beetle of convex shape, with coarsely
sculptured elytra sparsely decked with patches of yellow hair. The
weevils lay their eggs in spring and early summer, in dead but not
dry Pine or Spruce-wood, choosing especially the cut stumps of recently-
felled trees ; also unbacked logs and the lower part of the stems of
dead standing trees. Under the bark the grubs gnaw irregular
galleries in the sapwood, changing at the ending of these to pupae.
Like the grubs of all weevils, they require shelter, and will not feed
exposed to daylight on loose brushwood, etc. They will, however,
flourish in the closely packed sawdust of a saw-pit, which will serve
excellently as a focus of infection. The duration of larval" life is
very variable, and depends on the climate and the season. As
a rule, if the eggs are laid in the spring of one year the imagos
make their appearance in the summer and autumn of the ^ear
following, live through the winter and lay their eggs in the spring;
or they may appear in the spring and live through the following
winter after egg-laying. In any case the life of the perfect beetle
lasts a year or thereabouts, and does not, as is the case with most
insects, finish at the period of egg-laying. Xo injury whatever to
growing plants of any value is done by the feeding of the grubs ; it
is entirely the work of the perfect beetles, which proceed on foot
to young trees, preferring Pine, but also attacking Spruce, Larch,
Cypress, etc., and occasionally Oak and deciduous trees when pressed
by hunger.

The insects can fly, but hardly ever do so, except at pairing-time.
They, therefore, frequent the neighbourhood of their breeding-places,
and judicious selection of the site for a nursery away from such
localities where the insect breeds will keep the trees free until they
are planted out. The beetles ascend the young trees and feed on the
bark of the shoots and smaller branches, gnawing out circular holes
with shelving sides, which may reach the sapwood. In bad attacks
these holes are placed so closely as to coalesce, and thus patches of
bark are completely destroyed, the branches or the entire tree being
killed. Flow of sap and of resin follows the injury, the latter being
often very conspicuous. The trees chosen are usually from three to
six years old, but younger ones arc not rejected, and those up to

PINE-SAWFLY. 75

fifteen years are sometimes attacked. Specimens can commonly be
taken upon still older trees, and they will probably attack any tree
the lower branches of which are not more than seven feet from
the ground, above which height they do not ascend. They cannot
injure old bark, and the damage done to trees above ten years old is
usually insignificant.

The preventive treatment of this insect consists in keeping the
ground as free as possible from unbarked logs and trunks, heaps of
rubbish and of sawdust, and in preventing egg-laying in the stumps of
recently-felled areas. This is done by barking the exposed parts of
stumps, earthing them over and beating down the earth, or by washing
them with an arsenical wash either of sodium arsenate, Paris-green, or
London-purple. Young plants can be protected by surrounding the base
of the stem with dry earth beaten flat with the spade, or with gas-lime or
similar compounds, or by " grease-banding " the base of the stem, and in
the case of Spruce, by planting with them a few Pines, which will be
attacked in preference. If the area planted is clean, beetles can be
prevented from entering it from outside by surrounding it with dry
trenches with vertical sides about a foot deep. Into these they drop,
and can be collected in large numbers, especially if brushwood be
placed at the bottom.

Fissodes. Two insects which somewhat resemble Hylobius abietis
deserve passing mention ; these are the beetles of the genus Pissodes,
P. pini and P. notatus. Both occur chiefly in the North of England
and Scotland ; but P. notatus is likely to occur in any artificially-
formed Pine plantation if the young trees have been imported from a
locality which it frequents. Neither species is very common, but
P. notatus at least has been reported as injurious in Scotland. The
weevils are smaller than Hylobius abietis, more variegated in colour, and
the thighs are not toothed. They lay their eggs on Pine trunks, • and the
larvae feed under the bark where they hollow out pupal chambers.
P. notatus attacks young trees from three to six years old, P. pini
older trees. The injury caused by both is to be met by careful
removal of attacked trees and others which, being sickly, are liable to
cause attack, and by selecting sites for nurseries so that the trees
shall enjoy good general health. They do most mischief to Pines
planted in unfavourable situations.

Pine-sawfty. As the trees grow up they suffer less from Hylobius
abietis, but new enemies arise, especially defoliating larvae. In Great
Britain, the most important of these are the Pine-sawflies, Lopliyrus
pini and other species of similar habits. The females in late spring
cut a longitudinal slit in a Pine-needle and lay in it from ten to
twenty eggs, repeating the process on the adjoining needles till about
120 eggs have been deposited. The larvae hatch in a fortnight or
rather more, and live together in small companies on Pine-shoots,
feeding 011 the needles, from the midribs of which they strip away
the sides. They fortunately confine their attacks to the older needles,
and not to the young ones of the first year. Towards the end of
their two months' life they devour the needles completely, disregarding
the mid-rib. They are caterpillar-like, with twenty-two legs, and are
somewhat variable in colour, being usually lighter or darker green,
darker along the back, with a blackish head and a lateral series of
black spots. After five or six moults each larva makes a very small

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE LARCH.

oval cocoon of leathery texture in rubbish at the foot of the tree,
or in m moss, etc., under the surface of the layer of needles on the
ground. In warm countries, and with us in warm seasons, a second
brood of flies appear from these cocoons in August and September,
and in the autumn their larvae feed up very largely on - the
needles of that year, which are then suitable for food, and remain
in shelter throughout the winter in their cocoons, not actually changing
to pupae till about three weeks before the flight-time. The winter
period is always passed in the cocoon by the summer larvae if there
is no autumn brood.

The larvae- can be destroyed by shaking them down on to cloths
and there killing them, or they may be crushed in situ, by grasping
them with a gloved hand or a wad of tow, or with a metal
implement like a pair of scissors, with two large flat blades meeting
face to face. They can also be killed by spraying with a solution of
hellebore, or sprinkling it on as a powder; but better results would be
got by the use of paris-green, as for fruit trees. The objections to the
use of arsenic on fruit trees do not apply here, except when there is risk
of injury to game.

The pupae of Lophyrus can be destroyed by raking up the brush-
wood and upper layer of needles under the infected trees in the winter
with the contained cocoons, and conveying the heap to a spot where it-
may be safely burned. A very serious objection to this plan is that
it deprives the soil of its natural surface-covering of needles, and if
persisted in for a long time it will injure the health of the trees.
It should not be resorted to without good cause, and when other
remedies cannot be adopted. The removal of brushwood, et<-., as
opposed to this covering of needles, is always valuable for the
prevention of insects.

Larcli-nriner. A special form of injury is that inflicted on Larch-
needles by the larvae of a tiny moth, Coleoplwra larire/Ia, which lays
its eggs at the end of June on the needles of the lower branches of
Larches about ten to fourteen years old. The caterpillar mines into
and feeds upon the interior of the needle, which becomes dry, yellow
and twisted ; it then bites off the tip and detaches the needle about
its middle so as to form a tube in which it lives and passes the
winter, concealed in a crack or under a bark-scale. In the spring it
feeds on the new needles, and enlarges its tube by spinning a fresh
needle along its side, biting it off and hollowing out the adjacent
surfaces ; in this tube it changes to a pupa, and ultimately to a moth.
This insect is common in many English Larch plantations, whose foliage
when the attack is bad has a dull withered look which is very
conspicuous; it does not kill the tree, but keeps it year after year
in an unhealthy condition.

Practical treatment is difficult ; picking off the injured shoots is very
troublesome, and the only successful plan is to remove badly-attacked
trees, and burn the foliage before the moth flies in June. It is best
prevented by growing Larch in a suitable mixture, and not in pure
woods. Special importance attaches to this and other Larch-feeding
insects because the wounds which they make probably serve as a twlus
for the spores of Larch-canker.

Pine-shoot Moths. The insects which cause destruction to the shoots
of Pines are chiefly the caterpillars of the genus Uetinia and the beetle

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PINES. 77

(ffylesinus, Hylurgus) piniperda The Retinias are small
moths belonging to the group Tortricina (Leaf-rollers), of oblong form,
reddish brown or grey in colour with somewhat elaborate markings of
paler stivnks and bands, assimilating in tint to the colour of Pine-bark
of different shades, a feature specially characterising Conifer-feeding moths.
By far the most important species in Great Britain is Retinia buollana,
though the scarcer R. turionella has got more credit as an injurious
species; it is equally destructive in habits. R. buoliana appears at the
beginning of July, R. turionella some three weeks earlier.

Both moths lay their eggs singly on young Pines at the base of
the buds of the terminal shoot or lateral branches; into these the
caterpillars bore, hollowing out the centre bud, and then attacking the
lateral buds in the same way so as to destroy the whole or part of the
terminal whorl. The larvae live in the shoots through the winter, and
pupate there in the spring. Their presence is easily recognised by the
altered and stunted shoots which have failed to grow, and break off at a
touch, as well as by the flow of resin caused by the feeding. The effect
on the tree of the loss of the terminal shoot has been already mentioned;
the lateral branches injured by R. buoliana subsequently grow twisted,
and take on a characteristic curved " post-horn " shape which lasts for
many years after the injury.

These insects suffer, fortunately, from the attacks of many parasitic
enemies, for practical treatment has met with little success. The
infested shoots have been persistently cut off and burned for many
years in succession without real benefit resulting ; this treatment is
only applicable to small isolated areas, and should be tried during the
month before the appearance of the moths. Egg-laying takes place in
the evening, and it is sometimes worth remembering that the moths
can be kept off small patches of trees which it is important to
preserve by lighting weed-fires to windward, so that the smoke will
drift over. This is not capable of extended application, but may be
employed to protect ornamental trees which sometimes suffer severely
in the neighbourhood of large Pine woods. These insects are most
troublesome when trees are crowded together, neglected, and grown on
unsuitable soil, and, as is usually the case, when the wood is not
mixed.

Pine-beetle. Myelopliilus (Hyluryus) piniperda is, next to Hylobius
(iliii'ti*, the most injurious insect to Pines in Great Britain, over the
greater part of which it is very abundant. There are, however, many
districts where it does not occur, or has not been observed, but almost any
Pine-wood will yield evidence of its presence to a careful searcher. It
is a small oblong brown beetle of the family Scolytidce, or Bark-
beetles.

The female, about the beginning of April, chooses a tree for
oviposition. Those selected are newly dead or dying Pines, especially
freshly felled timber, unbarked logs and stumps, or trees injured by
storms, snow, or fire. ( )ceasionally the beetle makes use of Spruce and
Larch. She commences boring under a projecting scale, where the bark
is thick, often on the under side of a fallen trunk, if it is free from
the ground, and excavates a gallery in the bast running, with the
exception of the entrance which is oblique, along the axis of the trunk.
It is from three to four and a-half inches long, and takes from three
to five weeks to construct.

78 SPRUCE AND LARCH GALLS.

The eggs, which may reach 120 in number, are placed in small
hollows excavated alternately along its two sides. They hatch in a
few days, and the larvae begin to construct lateral galleries at right
angles to that of the mother. The larval galleries are at first small,
but increase in size with the growth of their inmates and soon take
an irregular course. The larvae, when full grown, change to pupae in a
small cavity hollowed out in the bark at the end of the burrow
and appear as perfect beetles in June or July, emerging from the
tree by eating out a circular exit-hole from the pupal chamber. Those
which hatch from the first-laid eggs are considerably in advance of the
grubs coming from eggs laid at the end of the five weeks' task of the
mother, whose dead body can be found at the end of the burrow.
The borings of the parents are not at first conspicuous, but can be
detected later by the dust thrown out from between the scales of
bark, whereas the holes made by the exit of the beetles, which are in
no way concealed, at once indicate that they have bred in the trunk.
The special form of injury done to Pines consists in the boring of
the mature beetle into the young shoots for feeding purposes. This
is effected by making a lateral hole in the shoot at a distance
varying from one to five inches below its tip. This hole becomes
marked with a circular ring or collar of exuding resin, and from
it there is bored a burrow for about an inch up the pith of the
shoot, which is killed, or, if the burrow is only partially completed,
crippled. These shoots break off readily above or through the entrance
hole, and strew the ground after a high- wind. Their loss, repeated
year after year, produces a striking change in the appearance of
the tree, which loses its compact crown and becomes " stag-
headed," the foliage being thin and scanty, and dead branches sticking
out. It is also liable to the attacks of other insects, and to fungoid

It is to be noted that Myelophilus piniperda never breeds in the
shoots where it feeds, and certain cases recorded where it is supposed
to have done so are due to a confusion between its larvae and those of
Retinia, or of certain other beetles (Ernolius, etc.).

Spruce-gall Aphis. A peculiar form of injury is that caused by the
sucking of the two kinds of Chermes — the Spruce-gall aphis, C. abietis,
and the Larch aphis, C. laricis.

On the Spruce the Chermes appear in the spring as short, oval,
wingless insects of an ochreous colour, furnished with a bristle-like
rostrum. They have passed the \vinter in crevices and under bark
scales, and early in April attach themselves each to the base of a young
leaf, which reacts by a small swelling. These forms are parthenogenetic
females, the foundresses of the colony, and lay a mass of eggs at the
spot (generally at the junction of two branches) to which they attach
themselves. The larvae hatching, penetrate the surrounding parts of
the shoot with their beaks ; the shoot swells as do the bases of the
needles, and a growth commonly known as a " Pine-apple gall " or
" Spruce-gall " results. This gall somewhat resembles a small Fir-cone
about an inch long, with the surface divided into small convex areas,
each bearing a short needle-like projection in the middle ; these are
deformed needles which, becoming swollen, touch each other on the
outside of the gall, but which are separate inside, so that the gall
contains a series of cavities or chambers. In these cavities the larvae

LARCH-BUG AND WOOD-WASPS. 79

live in numbers, either entering the chambers during the growth of
the gall, or being enclosed by the swelling of the surrounding
needles.

The galls sometimes completely surround the base of the shoot,
sometimes they are only developed on one side. The larvae are
closely packed in the chambers, from twenty to fifty being found in
each one. When they are fully grown in August they acquire wings
and leave the chambers by apertures left by the shrinking apart of
the leaves. These insects are winged females, and their special
function is that of spreading the species on to other trees. The
effect of the galls on the tree is to cause crippling of the attacked
shoot, and when they are abundant the general growth of the tree is
much impaired.

Larch-bug. The females of Chermes laricis, which also pass
the winter under bark, etc., appear in the spring like those of
C. abietis ; they also are wingless, oval, of small shape, and of a
purplish black colour, and have a long bristle-like sucker with which
they penetrate the needles to feed on their sap. Towards the end of
April they lay forty to fifty eggs on the twigs. The young produced
scatter themselves over the needles, and do not live enclosed in a
gall ; at first very minute and blackish, they grow rapidly and become
covered with a whitish woolly down exuding from pores on their
body, giving the trees the appearance of being covered with minute
scattered, snow-crystals. About June they acquire wings and spread
the species, while further broods are produced till the autumn. This
insect occurs on Larches of all ages, being found, perhaps, most
frequently on trees of ten to twenty years old ; it not infrequently affects
young Larches in nurseries, and may there be very troublesome.

Wood-wasps. There are many insects which take possession of
the dead or dying tree to lay their eggs therein wjiose larvae
burrow into and penetrate the wood, making it useless for commer-
cial purposes. Of these the most important are the wood- wasps,
Sir ex gigas and juvencus, large Hymenoptera of elongate shape. S.
<jigas is yellowT-and- black, and of a decided wasp-like appearance, while
S. juvencus is deep blue, with the middle segments of the abdomen
reddish in the male.

These insects appear to be somewhat widely distributed in Great
Britain and Ireland, and are occasionally not rare. Owing to their striking-
appearance and loud buzz in flight, they attract general attention, and
are probably as rarely overlooked as any indigenous insects. Not a few
recorded specimens are obviously imported in foreign timber. The
females of both species lay their eggs exclusively on Conifer-wood,
choosing, as is so often the case, sickly or dying trees, or those that are
actually felled or dead. Sirex gigas appears to attack principally the
Spruce and Silver Fir, sometimes the Larch and non-European
Conifers like the Deodar.

Sirex juvemus, on the other hand, attacks the Scots Pine freely, as
well as the Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch. The eggs are deposited
in cracks running through the bark into the sapwood, or in holes
made by the strong ovipositor, and not rarely on patches of bare wood
where the bark has been torn off by accident. This sometimes gives
an opportunity for injury to otherwise healthy trees. The larva, whose
life extends over two years, is a stout, elongate white grub, readily

80 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PINES, ETC.

distinguished by an upwardly directed point on the last segment ; it
bores obliquely towards the heart of the tree in the long axis of the
trunk, making a gallery which gradually increases in size, and eventually
turns and approaches the surface. At the end of this gallery it changes
to a pupa, separated from the outside only by a thin layer of wood
or bark, which is gnawed through by the imago upon emergence. The
time of development of the larvae is increased by drying of the wood ;
and if timber containing larvae is cut up into planks, the insects may
eventually emerge in the interior of buildings, etc., and in that case
they are stunted and small.

It is by this injury to otherwise sound timber that the insects are
important, but they occasionally complete the destruction of Conifers
that would perhaps have lived several years longer. The only remedy
against their attacks in a wood which they inhabit consists in careful
removal of all infected trees, which are sometimes indicated by the
attacks of woodpeckers, and other dead or dying wood in which they
can and do breed. Standing trees which -have lost patches of bark
by accident should have the wounds tarred over or dressed with a
plaster of lime, cow-dung and clay, or other suitable mixture. Timber,
when felled, should be removed before the imagos appear in summer.
These remedies are also suitable to ward off the attacks of wood-
feeding longicorn beetles, as Acanthocinus (vdilis, Callidium riolaceum,
etc., which may do a certain amount of damage in a very similar
nianner.

It will be seen that the enemies of the Pine in Great Britain are
far more numerous and important than those of any other Conifer. ( )f
the sixteen or more species referred to in detail, twelve at least attack
the Scots Pine, and of these eight are confined to that tree, and to
foreign species of Pinus. The Spruce shares its particular pest, the gall-
aphis, with the Larch, which has a special enemy in Coleoplwra laricella.
Silver Fir is liable to injury from wood-wasps, but does not exclusively
support any important species. This liability of the Pine is 110 doubt
due to its being the only forest Conifer indigenous to Britain, where
the Spruce is as yet free from the serious enemies which attack it
over the greater part of Europe.

The preventive measures to be adopted against insect-attacks can be
gathered from what has been said, but it is necessary again to point
out that 110 Conifer-wood can be kept free from the risk of insect-
injury unless it is freed from newly dead and dying wood, cut branches,
and fresh stumps. There is no need for the systematic removal of the
covering of needles, the natural protection to the ground, nor, as a rule,
of small twigs and branches much under an inch in diameter.

It is not rarely objected by those anxious to free a wood from
insects that this thorough cleaning is too costly to be put into practice.
Without it the insects cannot be kept down, and it is for them to
look at the cost of labour and the opportunity for disposal of such
timber, and decide whether it is cheaper to let the insects flourish or
not.

The first cleaning-up of a neglected forest is no doubt costly, but
after that has taken place there is plenty of evidence to show that
systematic and orderly removal of dead wood is profitable in the long
run, unless exceptional destruction of timber over scattered areas by
storms or snowfall should unduly strain the forest resources.

81

ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.

THE economic products of Coniferous Trees come chiefly under two
heads, TIMBER and RESINOUS SECKETIONS ; the uses to which the
bark, foliage, fruits and seeds are applied, are to these relatively
unimportant.

CONIFEROUS TIMBER

THE timber yielded by the stems of coniferous trees is of universal
importance. It possesses qualities that render it exceedingly service-
able for building and other constructive purposes, as durability,
strength, lightness, elasticity, fineness of grain, etc. It also abounds
in quantity immensely in excess of that of any other Order of Trees,
so that it * is also the cheapest and most easily obtained. In the
northern hemisphere, the timber used in building may be said to
be almost exclusively coniferous, obtained from the Fir and Pine
tribe, and in populous countries as Great Britain, Holland, Belgium,
etc., where it does not exist, or cannot be grown in quantity sufficient
for the supply, and where natural forests have long since almost
disappeared, it forms an important article of commerce.

The physical properties of coniferous wood are the result -of its
anatomical structure and specific gravity, the former being the chief
factor in determining its strength, elasticity, fineness or coarseness of
grain, and the latter its weight, hardness, durability and heating
power.

The anatomical structure of coniferous wood is, in all its most im-
portant details, essentially the same as that of the broad-leaved
(dicotyledonous) trees and shrubs, a conception of which
may be easily obtained from an examination of the
stem or "branch of any of our native trees, and one
that has completed at least three years' growth will be
the best for the purpose. If a cross section of such
a stem be made, and the surface of the section be
made sufficiently smooth, the following arrangement of
the parts will be readily recognised by the naked eye :—
1, A central pith which is larger or smaller according
to the kind of tree or shrub to which the branch
belongs, large in the Elder, small in the Sycamore, a

imere point in the Oak. 2, Around the pith is a
series of rings or concentric circles, the number of
mki!i,!llllM'Hil such rings corresponding precisely with the ago in
ii>34 years of the stem examined. 3, The rings are
4i. Transverse and crossed by lines of a paler colour, all radiating from
the central pith; these lines are Medullary Rays.

82

MINUTE STRUCTURE OF CONIFEROUS WOOD.

4, The whole is surrounded by and enclosed in an epidermis or
covering familiarly known as the bark.

To comprehend the histology or minute structure of the parts thus
exposed to view, a preparation of the material by certain simple
chemical reagents and the aid of the microscope are necessary. For
those who desire to study the subject practically, text books devoted
to the subject should be consulted ; * a brief sketch of the most
important anatomical structures revealed by microscopic examination can
only be here given.

If a three years' old stem of a Scots Pine be substituted for that
represented in Fig. 41 it will be found that the rings are more sharply
separated from each other; the inner part of the annual
zone, or part nearest the centre, is lighter in colour
and looser in texture, whilst the outer portion is darker
in colour and more compact in texture ; each ring, in
fact, shows two zones, the inner representing the spring,
the outer the summer growth of each year; the cause
of this difference will be presently adverted to. These
zones of spring and summer growth are observable in
all coniferous wood ; in some species, as in the
common Yew, they pass more or less gradually from
one into the other; in others, as in Tsuga canadensis,
Abies pectinata, Pinus excelsa, they are more sharply
defined. The relative dimensions of the spring and
summer wood, the width of the annual rings, their
uniformity or want of uniformity, have considerable
influence on the properties and value of the timber.

The pith in the centre of the stem is composed of
cells with cellulose walls f which when first formed are
filled with protoplasm which disappears as the formation
of the cambium layers and woody tissues derived from
them proceeds. Under a high magnifying power the
cambium or formative tissue is seen to consist of cells
in radial rows arranged with considerable regularity. The
cells are filled with protoplasm in which a nucleus can
often be detected; the growth of the stem and branches
proceeds by the division of these cells by longitudinal

with bordered pits as b. walls.

Etrach^id^withrmed1"!8- The ligneous element of the stem consists of fibre

lary ray. x 250. technically called proseiichymatous tissue. This tissue is

composed of elongated fusiform cells enclosing a narrow

cavity and whose ends are dove-tailed between one another. The

individual cells are termed tracheides; they are formed from the

cambium by cell division and have ligneous walls which show on

their inner side lines of striation and certain irregularities of growth

that have obtained the name of "bordered pits." As the formation

of new tracheides proceeds, the walls of the older ones become

gradually thickened till the original cavity is quite filled up ; they then

* Such as "Practical Botany" by Bower and Vines; Scott's " Introduction to Structural

Botany," etc.

f Cellulose is secreted from the protoplasm ; it is the primitive membrane of the cell
free from all matter subsequently taken up by the roots and deposited within it. The
cell is the common starting point of all elementary organs, and protoplasm is the formative
and living part of the cell.

MINUTE STRUCTURE OF CONIFEROUS WOOD.

83

Fig. 43. Transverse section
of two wood-cells (tracheides)
of Scots Pine, each with a
pore </; hi, intercellular spaces.
x 400. Copied from Thome.

constitute heart-wood fibre. The tracheides formed in spring have
thinner walls and larger cavities than those formed in summer which
have thicker walls and are more compressed. This is the cause of the
difference observable in the inner and outer
zone of the annual rings mentioned above.

" Bordered pits," although not peculiar to, nor
found in all coniferous wood, are a conspicuous
anatomical feature in the most important
coniferous woods used for economic purposes.
Their form and position are best seen in a
rapidly growing herbaceous shoot of the Scots
Pine or any of the common Pines. "When
the cell-wall begins to thicken, comparatively
large spaces remain thin, but as- the thickening
augments, it reaches even the thin spaces.
The outline of the thin spaces of the wall in
the wood of Pinus sylvestris (also of P. Laricio

and P. excelsa, see Figs. 45 — 47) appear circular on a front view ; the
edge of the thickening mass which arches over it grows also in a
circular manner and contracts the opening ; thus the front view of such
a pit shows two concentric circles, the larger of which corresponds to

the original thin space, and
the smaller to the inner edge
of the thickening. ^s"ow since
this process takes place on both
sides of a partition wall of two
cells, a lenticular space is
enclosed by the two over-archiiigs
divided in the middle by the
original thin cell-wall, each
half of this pit cavity communi-
cating with the cell cavity by
a circular opening. When the
wood-cells lose their protoplasm
and become filled with air and
water, the thin cell-wall dis-
appears and the two pits form
a single cavity which is bounded
by the over-arching thickening
mass, and is united with the
adjoining cell cavities by a
circular opening."*

The annual rings are, traversed
radially from the pith to the
bark by medullary rays, the
earliest formed only reaching

Fig. 44. 1, Transverse section of part of one year's into the first-formed rinox thp

growth of stem of Piniis excelsa. M, medullary . . gS' m6

rays ; K, resin-ducts, x 150. others originating in later ones.

These rays in respect of their

number and size have some influence on the technical properties of the
\vood.f The medullary rays are differentiated from the other tissues

" Sach's Text Book of Botany," Vines' Translation, page 23.
t Schlich Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. p. 8.

84

RESIN- DUCTS.

Fig. 45. 2, Radial section of a one year
old stem of JHnns Lancio showing "pits" of
wood-cells and part of a medullary ray. 4, A
pit of a wood-cell in transverse oblique
section, x 150.

in the cambium; the cells are less elongated than the tracheides and
are composed of somewhat different elements, being mostly with

cellulose walls and arranged some-
thing like bricks in a wall trans-
versely to the wood-cells.

Interspersed among the tracheides,
and most conspicuous in the summer
wood of the outer annual ring are
intercellular spaces running parallel
with the stem, called resin-ducts
which are a distinguishing feature
of coniferous wood ; they are formed
of a cylinder of large irregular cells
with very thin Avails. In these
ducts turpentine is secreted, which
is not only of itself an important
economic product, but also has
important effects on the technical
properties of the wood. Resin-ducts
also occur in the medullary rays so

that " the whole of the wood may become impregnated with
turpentine which on exposure to the air may become oxydised into
resin. The quantity of resin in coniferous wood
varies with its specific gravity, and depends on
the greater or less development of the summer wood
in or near which most of the ducts are formed."*
Fig. 44 shows the position and form of two resin-
ducts in a transverse section of an herbaceous
shoot of Pinus excelsa at the end of the year's-
growth, and Fig. 48 shows a resin-duct "in a
transverse section of part of an herbaceous shoot
of Pinus Laricio.

The bark of coniferous trees which has for the
most part but a temporary duration, is composed
of cork tissue which, when first formed on the
herbaceous shoot, is made up of cells similar in
structure to those of the pith. To keep pace with
the growth in thickness of the enclosed wood
cylinder, the cells, of which the young cork
tissue is made up, undergo relatively rapid
changes during the growing season ; they are
formed by bi-partitioii from the adjacent cambium,
and their walls soon become suberous. The
innermost layer of cork tissue thus formed is
termed phellogea, and from this new layers arc

Fig. 46. TangeTtiai section of constantly formed in a centrifugal direction.! The
wood of Pi-mis excelsa showing layers of cells next the epiderm soon lose their

the medullary rays and pits m the %, , A, \ , , , „

walls of the wood-cells, x 150. cell-contents and as the bark already lorined is

* Sclilich, Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. p. 14.

t According to Sanio, it also happens that when cork is beginning to be produced,,
the formation of permanent cells proceeds centripetally, or an alternation of centripetal
and centrifugal cell-formation takes place in the young cork tissue. — "Sach's Lehrbiich,/"
Vine's Translation, p. 107.

SAP-WOOD AND BARK.

85

pressed outwards by the continuous growth of the enclosed wood, the
outer portion loses all vitality ; the epiderm with adjacent dead tissue
splits under the action of the weather and in time is cast off,
but before this happens, a new envelope formed by the cork tissue
is always present.

The latest-formed outer rings of wood are familiarly known as sap-
wood, technically alburnum. It is the medium by which processes vital
to the tree are carried on, such as the conveyance of the water and
food-stuffs taken up by the roots to the extremities of the branches,
the foliage, etc. The sap-wood is of little value as timber, being

urn

Fig. 47. — 3, Transverse — 4, longitudinal section of parts of a medullary ray M, with pits p
from first year's growth of Pinu-s excelsn. X 150.

soft in texture and decaying rapidly on exposure, but when saturated
with resin its heating power is very great. When the older formed
wrood-cells cease to perform vital functions, they become changed and
the original cavity is filled up with mineral substances deposited by the
upward current from the roots ; it then forms the heart-wood, and
so far as the tree itself is concerned, it is practically dead, the
living part being represented by a shell enclosing it. Evidence of
this may be seen in old Yew and Pine trees still in active growth,
but whose trunks are hollow through the decay and removal of the
heart-wood.

As previously stated, the anatomical structure of coniferous wood is
the chief factor in determining its STRENGTH and ELASTICITY. By
Strength is understood the amount of resistance the wood offers to
the separation of the fibre of which it is composed, by any external
force applied to it. The ultimate strength is usually measured by
the force in pounds per square inch of section which must be
exerted in order to break it ; transverse strength is the most
important, it measures the resistance which wood offers to breakage
by a force acting at a right angle to the grain.* Among the
strongest European coniferous trees are the Larch, Spruce Fir, Scots
* Sclilich, Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. p. 46.

86

STRENGTH OF CONIFEROUS WOOD.

Pine, Silver Fir and Cembra Pine ; and among the strongest American
species are the Douglas Fir, the southern Pitch Pine (Pinus palustris),
the Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa), the Noble Fir (Abies nobilis) and
Lawson's Cypress.

The transverse strength of coniferous wood is ascertained by
experiment. The results given in the 'following table were obtained by
the Timber Inspector to the British Admiralty. Lengths of the wood
to be tested were cut seven feet long and two inches square, and
placed on supports six feet apart ; water was then poured into a
vessel suspended from the middle until the piece broke. English Oak
was taken as the standard and valued at I'OOO.

-M

Fig. 48. Transverse section of a stem of I'imix l.<ir'«-i<>, sho\vii

A, the end of a year's growth ; B, the beginning of new

growth ; M, medullary rays ; R, resin-duct, x 150.

Pitch Pine (Pinus palustris)
Dantzic Fir (Pinus sylvestris) .
Kauri Pine (Ac/athis australis) .
Canada Spruce (Picea niyra)
Canada Red-pine (Pinus resinosa)
Russian Larch (Larix sibirica) .

P>y Elasticity is understood the change which the minute Sparta
may undergo in shape without fracture of the wood when an
external force is exerted upon it. The elasticity of coniferous wood
appears to depend in a great measure on what is called " even
grain," or uniformity in the size and arrangement of the wood fibre
which is greatly dependent on the rate of growth, and this, of

Relative
strength.

Breaking
weight in Ibs.
per sq. in.

1.109

262

1-087

219

0-892

204

0-831

168

0-810

163

0-776

157

ELASTICITY OF CONIFEROUS WOOD. 87

course, is influenced to some extent by climate and environment.
The best even-grained coniferous wood has equal annual rings with
narrow summer zones and fine medullary rays. The most elastic
European coniferous woods are the Yew, Larch, Spruce Fir, Scots
Pine and Silver Fir ;* and among the most elastic American species
are the Western Larch, southern Pitch Pine, Spruce Pine, Noble Fir,
Prince Albert's Fir, Douglas Fir and Lawson's Cypress.f

The elasticity of the wood of the Yew was observed centuries ago
which led to its being employed in making bows for archery. The
elasticity of the coniferous 'woods mentioned above materially enhances
their utility in the various purposes of carpentry to which they are
applied. The property is, however, most decisive1 y demonstrated by the
readiness with which molecules of the wood receive and transmit the
vibrations of sound ; this is especially the case in the Fir and Pine
tribe. The late Dr. Tyndall, in giving the results obtained by the
experiments of Wertheim and Chevandier to determine the velocity of
sound through different kinds of wood, showed that the velocity along
the fibre of Fir wood is fourteen times the velocity in air ; in other
words, that whereas sound travels under ordinary circumstances through air
whose temperature is 60e Fahr. at the rate of 1,120 feet per second, it
travels through Fir wood at the rate of 15,218 feet in the same period
of time. Also along the fibre of Pine wood it is ten times the
velocity in air. He also further proved the elasticity of Fir wood
by a beautiful experiment, by which musical sounds generated in one
apartment of a building were transmitted through a long deal rod
and perfectly reproduced in another. J The high degree of elasticity in
the molecular structure of Fir and Pine wood renders it a suitable
material for the construction of certain parts of several musical instru-
ments, as the violin, piano, etc., for which it is much employed.
The DURABILITY of coniferous wood is dependent in some measure
on its specific gravity, or the ratio which the weight of a certain
volume of wood bears to that of an equal volume of water, but no
definite law can be formulated from the relationship. The specific
gravity of the wood may be expressed with numerical precision, but
sufficient data are not forthcoming to co-ordinate with it the duration
of time which wood will last in a sound and useful condition under
stated circumstances, or when out of the reach of destructive agencies.
The most durable European coniferous woods available for utilisation
are the Yew, Larch, Spruce Fir and Scots Pine, all of a relatively
high specific gravity ; but more durable than either of them is the
wood of the common Cypress (Oupressus tempervirens) which no
longer exists in sufficient quantity for any general economic use.
Some of the most durable and in some respects the most valuable
of the American coniferous woods belong to the Cypress tribe,
the specific gravity of most of which is relatively high. The

* Schlicli, Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. p. 44.

t Jesup Collection of Woods of the United States, by C. S. Sargent.
J Lectures on Sound, pp. 41, 80.

88 DURABILITY OF CONIFEROUS WOOD.

southern Pitch Pine, Western Larch, Douglas Fir and Deciduous
Cypress yield very durable timber, the specific gravity of which is
high, especially of the two first named. On the other hand the
almost worthless wood of the Wellingtonia, and the coarse-grained,
rapidly decaying wood of Abies concolor, A. Frascri, A. balsamea and
others have a low specific gravity.*

Some remarkable instances of the durability of the wood of some
coniferous trees have been recorded : —

The Deodar pillars of the great Shah Hamaden Mosque, in the
capital of Kashmir, are probably more than 400 years old, and to
all appearances they are perfectly sound. Some of the bridges in
Srunagar that are built of Deodar timber are said to be of still
greater antiquity; the wood of which the piers are constructed are
alternately wet and dry and apparently suffer no decay, t A building
erected by order of the Emperor Akbar (1542 — 1605) was taken down
some time between 1820 and 1825, and its timber (Deodar Cedar) was
found to be so little impaired as to be fit to be employed in a house
built by Kajah Shah.}

The gates of Constantinople which were destroyed by the Turks in
1453, after having lasted eleven hundred years, were made of the wood
of the European Cypress. And the doors of St. Peter's at Eome,
which had lasted from the time of Constantino to that of Pope Eugene
IV. (1431 — 47) were of Cypress wood, and were found when removed,,
to be perfectly sound. §

Robert Brown of Campster relates that in one of the dark damp
forests near the Pacific coast of north-west America, Dr. Cooper saw
trunks of Thuia gigantea lying prostrate with several Spruces (Picea
sitchensis) three to four feet in diameter growing on them, having evidently
taken root in the decaying bark, and extended their roots into the
ground adjoining ; while the interior of the Thuia logs was found still
sound, although partially bored by insects. Judging of the age of the
Spruces by the ordinary rules, these logs must have lain hundreds of
years, exposed to the action of one of the most humid of climates. ||

In the Toronto Globe of April 9, 1863, Mr. W. D. Ferris, writing
from New Westminster, British Columbia, states that the trunk of a
Douglas Fir, showing no signs of decay, had been discovered partially
embedded in the earth long enough to allow a Hemlock Spruce (Tsuya
Albertiana) to grow upon it which was fully one hundred and fifty
years old.

The prostrate trunk of a Prumnopitys spicata was observed in a
valley near Duneclin, New Zealand, to be enfolded by the roots of
three large trees of Griselinia littoralis with trunks three and a-half feet
in diameter, which must have grown from seed since its fall. On
felling these trees it was found that they were approximating three

* The woods of Thuia gigantea and Cupressus thy aides have a low specific gravity,
but they are reckoned amongst the most durable of American woods.

t Brandis, Forest Flora of N. W. India, p. 519.

$ London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. p. 2430.

§ Idem. p. 2467. The wood of Cupressus sempervirens used in very old buildings in
Italy that are known to have stood from 600 to 1,000 years, is still sound.

II Mpnogr. Tlmia in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. IX. p. 369. Further remarkable instances of the
durability of Thuia gigantea timber are recorded in " Garden and Forest," II. (1889), p. 492.

USES OF CONIFEROUS WOOD. 89

hundred years, during which the timber of the Prumnopitys remained
sound, and was afterwards split into posts for fencing purposes.*

A piece of the wood of Juniperus oxycedrus was unearthed in 1884
by Mr. C. H. Sharman in the island of Madeira, where this species
attains timber-like size. It had lain in the ground without life but
undecayed, and had retained its peculiar perfume during four hundred
years, f

The FRAGRANCE of the wood of many coniferous trees is powerful,
and generally of a resinous odour, in many instances it is also
agreeable and even useful. Thus the wood of the Keel Cedar, used
in the manufacture of pencils, is a familiar example of agreeable
fragrance without being too powerful; the wood of the Cembra Pine
is much used for wainscotting and the inlaying of wardrobes, on
account of its odour being not only agreeable, but also obnoxious to
insects. The woods of the Deodar Cedar, Yellow Cypress, the
American Arbor Vitse, the Chilian Libocedrus and the Spanish
Juniper are all agreeably fragrant and more or less obnoxious to
insects.

The timber of coniferous trees is used throughout the temperate
regions of the world for well-nigh every purpose for which wood
is in request ; for house-building almost to the exclusion of every
other kind ; for out-of-door carpentry of every description ; for railway
ties and street paving ; for joinery and indoor fittings ; for the
coarser kinds of furniture, boxes for packing, frames and backs of
musical instruments, children's toys and turnery. And within the
last few years a new industry has arisen which has for its object
the conversion of coniferous wood into pulp for the manufacture of
pasteboard and paper.

The coarser kinds of printing paper, packing paper and pasteboard
are made from wood pulp obtained chiefly from Pine and Spruce wood.
Paper manufactured from the wood of the Red Cedar (Juniperus
riri/iniana) is found to be useful for underlaying carpets and for
wrapping wool, fur, and other articles liable to be injured by moths
which are driven away by the peculiar odour of the wood. The
wood from which this paper is made is chiefly the waste of the
pencil factories. J In the north-eastern States of North America, the
upper part of the trunk, as well as the branches and chips of the
Pine and Spruce trees, are gathered up and ground into pulp.
Formerly these were left by the lumbermen, and by the middle of
the following summer they became thoroughly dry and afforded the
best material for starting a great fire when a careless hunter or tramp
should happen to drop a lighted match ; for these fires Avhich have
done such immense injury can generally be traced to this source. f
Two methods are chiefly followed in the preparation of wood-pulp^

* Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, p. 6.
t Gardeners' Chronicle, XXIII. (1885), p. 369.

J English Mechanic ex Gardeners' Chronicle, V. s. 3. (1889), p. 23.
§ Garden and Forest, I. (1888), p. 290.

90 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CONIFEROUS TREES.

the mechanical and the chemical. The two methods give different
results, the product of the mechanical being more granular, whilst
that of the chemical method is more fibrous and makes a better felt ;'
the former product is termed paper-pulp, the latter cellulose. Both
methods are well described in Dr. Schlich's "Manual of Forestry,"*
which the reader desirous of further information should consult. An
enormous amount of coniferous cellulose is now prepared both in
Germany and in the United States, which is also used for other
purposes, as tubes, vases, laboratory utensils, carpets, wax-cloth, packing
materials, etc.

Among the minor products of the coniferous forest applied to
economic purposes, the following are the most important :—

Foliage. In North Carolina Fine-fibre matting is manufactured from
the leaves of Pinus palustris. The green Pine leaves collected in the
forest are first cleaned and then placed in a large iron cylinder set on end
and surrounded with steam pipes ; they are then thoroughly steamed,
the vapour being carried through pipes into an ordinary distillery worm
in an adjoining building. Pine-leaf oil, a valuable antiseptic, is
obtained in this way at the rate of about one half gallon for 100 Ibs.
of leaves. The leaves are then boiled to remove the silica which is
found in their outer covering, and which can be used in tanning-
leather. The leaves are next boiled again and bleached, and are then
ready to be dried which is done by machinery ; the fibre is then
ready for manufacture. Pine-leaf fibre has been found valuable by
surgeons in the. treatment of fractures and in dressing wounds ; it is
an excellent disinfectant, and probably many other uses will be found
for this Iong-negli3cted product of the Pine forests, f

Wood Refuse. In the Landes, Basses-Pyrenees and adjacent districts
in the south-west of France, an immense quantity of the wood of
Pinus Pinaster, chiefly of trees that have been exhausted of
their resinous products, is converted into charcoal. Two methods are
followed : — One, the more primitive and more simple but at the
same time attended with a great waste of material, consists in setting-
fire to a heap of the wood arranged in a particular manner
and covered with loose soil, the heap being allowed to burn until
the wood is carbonised sufficiently for use, which usually takes from
four to five days; by this method the volatile products of the wood,
as tar, pitch, etc., are, for the most part, lost. The second method is
more expeditious and more efficient in its action but far more costly,
as it involves the construction of an expensive apparatus in a fixed
station, and the inconvenience and labour of bringing the material to
it often from a long distance. The essential part of the apparatus
consists of a large iron retort for holding the wood to be converted
into charcoal, and which is heated over a furnace till the conversion
— usually in a few hours — is effected. Connected with the retort are
- various contrivances for collecting and condensing the volatile products
of the wood, so that whilst the operation itself occupies a much
shorter time, . it is also attended with a minimum waste of material.

The wood of the stumps of Pinus lonyifolia in the Himalayan region
and of Pinus pahisfris in the southern States of North America

* Vol. V. pp. 162, 163.
t Garden and Forest, I. (1888), p. 469.

RESINOUS SECRETIONS. 91

that liave been notched and mutilated for their resinous secretions, is
often so full of resin that it can be used as torches in the place of
candles in huts and even in mines. Lamp-black used in the manu-
facture of printer's ink is obtained in the south-west of France by
burning the roots and stumps of Pinus Pinaster in closed masonry
chambers. And in all parts of the world where coniferous trees
abound, especially throughout the sub-arctic regions of Europe, Asia and
Xorth America, the wood when not used for constructive purposes is
the chief and often the sole source of fuel for the inhabitants.

Bark. The1 bark of Tsuf/a canadensis is rich in tannin and it is
the principal material used in the eastern provinces of the Dominion
and the northern United States for tanning leather. The bark of
Pinus longifolia is similarly used in northern India, and that of
Dacrydium cupressinum in Xew Zealand. And along the inner and
higher Himalaya the bark of Abies WeNriana is often used for
roofing shepherds' huts.

RESINOUS SECRETIONS.

IN the description of the anatomical structure of coniferous wood
given in the preceding pages, mention is made of " resin-ducts" or
intercellular passages in which turpentine is secreted. These " resin-
ducts " are widely distributed throughout the CONIFERS, but in the
TAXACE.E they are either altogether absent as in Tax us, or they are
confined to certain organs only as in Torreya and Dacrydium. In
the CONIFERS, more especially in the Fir and Pine tribe (Abietineae),
they are found in all the organs, root, stem, pith, medullary rays,
bark, leaves, etc., always following the direction in length of the
organ in which they occur, but often branching ; they are thence
visible in transverse sections, in the leaves as shown in pages 33 — 35,
and in the young stein as shown in Fig. 44, page 83. From recent
investigations into the origin and properties of resin by Dr. Heinrich
Mayr of Munich, we learn the following interesting facts :—

( hily in an invisible molecular form in the protoplasm can existing
resin pass into an intercellular space, so that the cell-wall is only
permeable for resin so long as it is in process of formation. A
secretion of resin in the canals or " ducts " can only occur during the
first year or two of the formation of the annual rings.

Finished cell-walls, whether lignified, thickened or not, cannot be
permeated by resin so long as the respective walls are saturated with
water, and as in the living tree both sap- and heart-wood are always
saturated, it follows that all cell-walls of normal wood in the living-
tree are always free from resin.

All resin-holding spaces are surrounded by an impervious, continuous
cell-tissue, and are therefore completely isolated. The resin cavities are
entirely closed on all sides, and never open at the exterior in an un-
injured tree.

There is no spontaneous exudation of resin towards the surface ;
every outflow of resin is pathological ; where prirno aspedu a spontaneous
outflow appears to occur, as on the buds and cones of different Conifers,

92 RESINOUS SECRETIONS.

a close investigation shows that it is connected with exudation into
an intercellular space, or caused by the drying up of the outer layers.

With the conversion of the sap- into heart-wood, the resin-canals are
filled up by tyloses,* so that a subsequent flow of resin from the sap-
to the heart-wood or vice versa is impossible.!

The quantity of turpentine secreted depends much on the greater
or less development of the summer wood in or near which most of
the resin-ducts are found ; it is also greatly influenced by the heat
or moisture of the climate, the former acting as a stimulant, the
latter as a check to the secretion. The quality varies with the age
and vigour of the tree, the humidity of the atmosphere and the
season in which it is collected.

The Pines in the Mediterranean region, and especially the plantations

of Pinus Pinaster in the south of France, supply turpentine in greater

quantity and of better quality than that obtained further north, while

the Pine forests of Sweden and Xorway supply only the coarser

products as tar and pitch. The turpentine of American commerce is

procured chiefly from the extensive " Pine Barrens " of the South

Eastern States, where, during the great heats of summer, it flows from

the trees so copiously as to require but a comparatively small amount

of labour to obtain it. In the great pine woods of Canada it would

not at present repay the cost of collecting for exportation, in consequence

of the cheaper rate at which it is procured further south. The Coniferse

of the Himalaya yield but a small amount of resinous products owing

to the humidity of the climate, with the exception of Pinus lonyifolia

which is spread chiefly through the outer or tropical range between

1,500 and 6,000 feet elevation, where the greater heat more than

counteracts the excessive humidity. And in Britain — 'although the more

equable temperature of -summer and winter, especially in the districts

of the greatest rainfall, is favourable to the rapid growth of the trees —

the resinous products are not sufficiently abundant to be worth collecting'.

The crude turpentine consists of two principal ingredients, a volatile

oil commercially known as Oil of Turpentine, and Colophony the

crystallised resin, which can be separated by distillation. Oil of

turpentine, a hydron-carbon having for its chemical formula Ci0 Hi6

in its pure state is a colourless liquid of powerful odour, almost

insoluble in water but dissolving in alcohol or ether and absorbing

oxygen rapidly from the air, especially when mixed with ceruse or

white-lead ; it dissolves sulphur and is a good solvent for grease.

It is also a powerful solvent for resins which form the bases of

most varnishes,, and from its great volubility, it quickly flies off or

dries away, leaving a thin coat of the varnishing substance on the

surface to which it has been applied. It is the only known volatile

oil that mixes readily with paint without affecting its properties,

diluting it so that it may flow freely from the painter's brush, causing

* For explanation of these processes see Sack's Text Book of Botany," Vines' Trans-
lation, p. 24.

t Ex Gardeners' Chronicle, XIV. s. 3 (1893), p. 327.

RESINOUS PRODUCTS. 93

the paint to dry rapidly. Colophony is the solid matter that remains
after the separation of the oil of turpentine ; its chemical formula is
CM H10 02 ; it differs in appearance and properties according to the
amount of impurities contained in it ; the best colophony is brownish
yellow, crystallises in small rhombic prisms, is insoluble in water, but
is dissolved in alcohol ; it is a non-conductor of electricity, and
in its fossil state it is known as amber.

The principal seats of the resin industry are: — (1) Districts around
Bordeaux in France which are covered with plantations of Finns Pinaster \
(2) in the north of Italy on a much smaller scale where Venetian turpen-
tine is prepared from the resinous secretions of the common Larch ; (3)
in southern Norway and Sweden where the coarser products as tar and
pitch are procured from Pinus sylvestris; (4) in the Pine Barrens
of the southern States of North America, the source of the greater
part of the turpentine of British commerce, which is obtained from
Pinus palustris and P. Tceda ; and (5) on the outer or sub-tropical
Himalayan zone where the Indian supply is obtained from Pinus
longifolia. The modus operandi of collecting the crude resin in each
region is different, and is attended with widely different results.
In the south of France the processes employed are conducted with
the greatest economy of material with a minimum of injury to the
trees, so far as the nature of the operation admits. In Georgia and
South Carolina the aim of the resin-collectors is to obtain the greatest
amount of crude resin with the smallest expenditure of labour and
time, without any regard to the fate of the trees they attack. A
comparison of the two methods is highly instructive.

French method. Towards the end of February the rough outer bark of
the maritime Pine, Pinus Pinaster, is trimmed off at the place intended
to be tapped, so that only a thin layer of bark is left covering the sap-
wood, the part of the tree in which the resin is most abundant. Early
in March an incision is made in the shape of a longitudinal groove of
small dimensions by a special instrument called an abchotte, much
resembling a carpenter's adze but smaller. The resin trickles through the
orifice thus made in drops which thicken in contact with the air; one
portion of it solidifies and adheres to the surface of the groove, the
remainder flows into a vessel placed below to receive it. The resin ceases.
to exude about the middle of October when the collecting ceases, but it
is renewed in the following March and continued for several years>
usually about five, from the same trees ; the trees are then left for two-
or more years untouched when the collecting is renewed from a fresh
incision ; by this metliod the trees retain their vigour for many years and
their timber is not impaired. Once a week the groove is freshly cut by
slicing off a thin shaving from the upper side, so that whilst the groove
becomes gradually longer, its width remains unaltered.

The crude resin is collected in earthen pots varnished on the inside,
placed at the lower end of the groove and held by means of a zinc collar
fixed across it. As the pot becomes filled, the collector empties it into a

94 RESINOUS PRODUCTS.

kind of pannier, holding about four and a-half gallons, called an escouarte
which, when full, is conveyed to reservoirs formed of wood or brick let
into the ground and dispersed through the forest. The solidified resin
adhering to the sides of the groove, locally called barms, is either mixed
with the crude resin or packed separately in palm-leaf baskets. The
resin is ladled from the reservoirs into casks and conveyed to the factories
to l^e converted into oil of turpentine and colophony.*

American method. During the winter a receptacle called a " box " is cut
into the trunk of the trees intended to be tapped, at about a foot from the
ground ; the incision is made transversely across the stem and obliquely
inwards, the length being twelve to fourteen inches, the breadth six to seven
inches, and the depth about as much. A circular space about two and
a-half feet broad is then cleared around the trees and in it is placed a
series of heaps or layers of all the inflammable material scattered around
which on the first dry day in early spring is set on fire, the object
being to clear the ground of all inflammable matter from which the
outbreak of a forest fire might originate during the dry season when the
collecting of the resin is most active. Nevertheless this very precaution
is often the cause of forest fires that spread for miles, involving the
irreparable destruction of hundreds both of young trees and of trees in
their best period of development.

In the early spring, when the sap begins to move, the process of
collecting the crude resin is commenced by an incision being made by an
axe in the bark about eight inches long and two inches broad above the
"box" and perpendicular 'to the upper edge on each side at the angles,
a process called "cornering," and the bark in the interspace is stripped
off from the sap-wood by an instrument made especially for the. purpose.
Every week an addional portion or "chipping" is removed, so that the
surface of the sap-wood laid bare is constantly enlarged. This "chipping"
is continued from the middle of April to the middle of October and even
into November when the weather is favourable. The " boxes " as they
become filled with the exuding resin are emptied with an iron ladle and
the resin is conveyed to depots. With the commencement of the cold
season, the flow of turpentine ceases and the "boxes" as well as the
spaces above them that have been stripped of bark are freed of the resin
adhering to them called " scrapes " that had become hardened in contact
with the air. This resin, is, however, of little value on account of the
impurities with which it is mixed.

The injury done to the trees consists not so much in the withdrawal
of the resin itself, as in the unskilful manner in which it is obtained.
The large wound is soon covered with fungi and all sorts of putrifying
agents which spread rapidly through the trees; they are thus destroyed,
or as good as destroyed, even when they escape the greatest of all the
scourges of American forests — the forest fires, f

* " Le Pin maritime," par Raymond Brunei, Bibliotheque du Cultivateur.

t Dr. Heinrich Mayr, " Waldimgen von Nordamerika, " pp. 53, 54. "Of Ihe ex-
travagant methods which prevail in the United States, none certainly exceed in
extravagance that under which the turpentine industry is conducted and there is no
business connected with the products of the soil which yield so little return in pro-
portion to the destruction of the material involved. The forests of Georgia once represented
fabulous wealth ; they were not surpassed by those of any other region, and could they
have been wisely husbanded, would have made Georgia one of the richest States in the
Union. The turpentine farmers take everything they see, and once the resinous surface
of the tree is exposed, the lire is almost certain to finish the damage the axe has
.commenced."— Garden and Forest, Vol. IV. (1891) p. 49.

.MINOR PRODUCTS OF CONIFEROUS TREES. 95

Among the minor products of coniferous trees derived either
directly from the resinous secretions or in combination with them,
the following are the most important :—

! Tar used in shipbuilding is received chiefly from the north of
Europe, of which the Stockholm tar of commerce is considered the best,
and from the United States. The distillation of tar both in America
and Europe (except in the south of France) was formerly, and probably
is still performed in a very rude manner, involving an enormous waste
of material. "A funnel-shaped hole is dug in a bank about six or eight
feet in diameter at the- upper part, and not more than about ten
inches at the lower. At the bottom of the hole is placed an iron
pan having a long pipe or spout which is made to pass through the
bank; the hole is then filled up with billets cut from the roots
and branches of Pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) which, after being-
kindled at the top, are covered over incompletely with turf. The
wood is then charred from above downwards, and the tar mixed with
various other products flows off at the bottom through the spout into
a receiver.

Pitch is prepared by melting crude resin in iron pots over a
steadily increasing but at first slow fire. The melted resin is at first
yellow, then brown, and lastly becomes converted into black pitch. In
order to expedite the process and increase the output of pitch, a press
is used which fits in the pot and is moved downwards by a kind of
screw. The resin, after the pitch has been pressed out, is used for
making lamp-black.*

Turpentine Paste and Pine Oil are prepared from the crude resin of
Pinus Pinaster. The former is much used in certain kinds of
varnishes, and the latter for lighting purposes ; also as an antiseptic
for preserving wood in the open air.

Canada Balsam is a transparent straw-coloured resin faintly tinged
with green procured from the Canadian Balsam Eir, Abies balsamea;
it has the consistency of honey, with a pleasant aromatic odour and
a slightly bitter flavour. It is chiefly used for mounting objects to
be examined under the microscope, for which it is highly suitable, as
it remains constantly transparent and uncrystallised.

Comferine is obtained from the descending sap of the Larch and
other trees belonging to the Fir and Pine tribe which by a chemical
process can be transformed into Vaiiilliiie, the aromatic principle present
in the fruit of Vanilla. The preparation of .Coniferine is a profitable
branch of industry in North Germany.

Abietine is a volatile oil obtained from the resin secreted by some
of the Pines of western North America, chiefly Pinus ponderosa and
P. Sabiniana, and recommended for its curative virtues, which, however,
have been called into question by the authorities of the Philadelphia!!
College of Pharmacy.!

Amber occurs chiefly in a bed four to five feet thick of glauconite,
geologically known as the Amber Beds of Konigsberg. It is
generally in small pieces, sometimes coloiirless but usually light yellow;
it is susceptible of a good polish, and when rubbed becomes electrical.
It melts when heated to 230° C., then it flames and burns with a

* Schlich, Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. p. 169.
f Garden and Forest, Vol. X. (1897), p. 202.

96 DISTRIBUTION AND CENSUS.

bright flame, and omits a smell by no means disagreeable. It is used
for ornamental purposes and for making amber varnish. Amber is the
product of coniferous trees which flourished in early Tertiary times,
probably of more than one species but which cannot be clearlv
determined. Pieces of amber have been found in which are preserved
entire the bodies of insects that inhabited the primeval forest formed
by these trees.

Kauri Gum is a semi-fossilised deposit buried at a depth of
five or six feet below the surface of the ground in tracts of open
land in the northern island of New Zealand where once grew Kauri
forests ( Acjathis australis) which have long since disappeared. It is
sometimes found in large lumps but more frequently in fragments
varying in size from that of a hen's egg to that of a man's head ;
it varies also in colour, being sometimes of a rich brown, sometimes
bright amber-yellow and occasionally almost colourless and translucent,
revealing flies and small beetles that have been enclosed in it for ages.
The clearest and most crystalline pieces are most valued ; they are
carved into ornaments scarcely to be distinguished from amber, but much
more brittle ; the inferior kinds are manufactured into varnish.*

A few other products only locally utilised are noticed under the
species from which they are derived.

DISTRIBUTION AND CENSUS.

THE present distribution of the TAXACE.E and CONIFERS over the globe
has resulted from the gradual geological changes that have been
effected since the first appearance of a coniferous vegetation in the
earlier formations of the Earth's crust ; and the existing genera
and species are believed to have been developed in the course of
ages from others that have long since become extinct. The evidence
adduced in support of this belief consists in the fossil remains of
plants (and animals) found in the different strata of which the crust
of the Earth is composed, and which are proved to have been laid
down slowly by the action of water. Et is further proved that the
distribution of land and water on the surface of the globe has not
always been precisely the same as it is now, areas which are now
dry land having been at one time covered by the sea, and vice versa,
and also that the changes in climate have been not less remarkable.
Similar formations and consequent changes are still in progress on
a vast scale in every region of the Earth, chiefly by the agency
of water as is seen by the deposits of layers of mud and silt
which are continually accumulating at the mouths of the great rivers,
as the Nile, Niger, Ganges, Yang-tse-Kiang, Mississippi, etc., and

* Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, p. 154.

<;KOLOGICAL KECOIJD. 97

which are brought down by their waters in a state of suspension,
forming what are called " Deltas."

From the observed uniformity of Nature's laws and workings, it
is reasonable to infer, therefore, that a cause constantly operating in
this way at the present time in the case of the above-named and
other rivers, has also been operating in the same way from remote
antiquity. In the course of these formations, multitudes of plants,
including even large trees, have been embedded in the soft deposits
of silt and mud, and their remains preserved in the rock which
results from the hardening of the mud. The soft and delicate parts
could not be perpetuated in this manner, and it is found, in fact,
that only the harder parts, such as the wood, bark and fruits are
preserved. The softer portions have been more or less quickly
decomposed, although under especially favourable conditions there has
been some preservation even of these ; they have in some instances
left impressions in the hardening mud, and from which the form and
even the species can sometimes be recognised.

Geologists have classified the different beds or strata composing the
Earth's crust into five main divisions, and these divisions are further
divided into systems, the systems into series, sections or formations, and
these again into groups and stages ; each group or stage includes
two or more zones or horizons which may consist of one or several
beds or strata. To all these divisions and sub -divisions they have
given technical names. They have also assigned to them a -chrono-
logical order of formation, not indeed by referring them to a
particular year or number of years reckoned from a fixed epoch,
but from an examination of the fossil remains and from other data
they have ascertained which strata are of earlier formation and which
are more recent. The entire series of beds or strata so classified
and chronologically arranged forms the Geological Record.

u The Geological Record is at the best but an imperfect chronicle
of the geological history of the Earth. It abounds in gaps, some of
which have been caused by the destruction of strata owing to
metamorphism, denudation or otherwise. Nevertheless, it is from this
record that the progress of the Earth is chiefly traced. It contains
the registers of the births and deaths of tribes of plants and animals
which have from time to time lived on the Earth. Probably only a
small proportion of the total number of species which have appeared
in past time have been thus chronicled, yet by collecting the broken
fragments of the record, an outline at least of the history of life
upon the Earth can be deciphered."*

* Text Book of Geology, by Sir Archibald Geikie, p. 634. " Upon the leaves of that
stone book are stamped the characters plainer and surer than those formed by the ink of
history, and which carry the mind back into the abysses of past time, compared with
which the. periods which satisfy the unscientific mind cease to have a visual angle. "-
Di\ John Tfi,,(l<iJl. ;„ tlif Belfast Address.

98 EARLIEST VESTIGES OF CONIFEILE.

The oldest vestiges of the Vegetable Kingdom that have been
preserved occur in the lower strata of the Primary or Palseozoic
(Ancient Life) division of the Geological Record, called the Cambrian
system.* They consist only of a few markings on slate or sandstone
of marine Algae (Sea-weeds). In the next higher system, the Silurian,
the remains of sea-weeds occur more frequently, and also the earliest
traces of a higher vegetation represented by Lycopodiacese (club-mosses).
In the Devonian period which succeeded the Silurian, a cryptogamic
vegetation seems to have covered the land in luxuriant abundance, and
with it Conifers and Cycads make their first appearance. Fragments
of wood having the structure of living Conifers are found in every
state of preservation throughout the entire series of geological formations
from the middle Devonian upwards, and they begin to be common
everywhere as early as the higher members of the Coal Measures.!
These earliest remains of wood appear to belong to primitive Taxads of
which silicified specimens of entire stems have been found in the Old
Eed Sandstone of Canada and New Brunswick ; these are the oldest
known coniferous remains.

In the Carboniferous system (Coal Measures) vegetation attained a
luxuriance equalling, if not surpassing that at present existing. Over five
hundred species of plants have been described, which may perhaps be
only a fragment of the entire flora of that period but which never-
theless " is marked by a singular monotony of character all over the
world from the Equator to the Arctic Circle, the same genera and
sometimes even the same species appearing to have ranged over the
whole surface of the globe. It consisted almost wholly of vascular
cryptogams and pre-eminently of Equisetacese, Lycopodiacea? and
Ferns." J The coniferous trees of the Coal Measures are doubtfully
referred to four genera, the wood of some of them approaching in
structure that of the Araucarias ; among the fruits, one is much like
that of the living Gingko. The supra-carboniferous flora is simpler
and less rich than that below ; it included a Conifer to which the
name of Walcliia piniformis has been given, and some others. In the
succeeding system, the Permian, there is a marked diminution of plant
remains ; it seems as if the Earth were already exhausted, as one
flora after another of the carboniferous vegetation disappears. Fossil
fruits of Gingko and of Voltzia, an extinct genus allied to Cunning-
hamia, are among the very few Conifers that have been detected
in this system.

A different vegetation characterises the Secondary or Mesozok- (Inter-
mediate Life) Division. In the Triassic system, the oldest of the series
of strata comprising it, Conifers, Equisetums and Ferns, some of them
arborescent, were among the ingredients of the forest. Of the Conifers,
Yoltzia, of which traces have been discovered in the Permian system,
became abundant, and another characteristic Conifer was Albertia, whose
affinity to living genera has not been clearly made out ; but the most
distinctive feature of the earlier Mesozoic Ages was the great development
of a Cycadaceous vegetation; so typical are these plants that the Mesozoic

*„ For the explanation of this and other terms of the like kind the reader is referred to
text-books of Geology.

t Solms-Laubach, "Fossil Botany," Garnsey's Translation, p. 80.
J Sir A. Geikie, Text Book of Geology, p. 725.

CONIFERS OF THE MESOZOIC PERIOD. 99

formations have been classed as belonging to the Age of Cycads.* In
the succeeding system, the Jurassic, consisting of beds of argillaceous
limestones, marls and clays termed Lias and Oolite, the vegetation so far
as it is known to us was essentially Gymnospermous. The prevalent
trees of the forest were Cycads, but associated with them were primeval
forms of Araucaria, Thuia and Pin us. Phyllostrobus found in the
Kimeridge Clay of Orbagnoux and Palseocyparis are, according to Solms-
Laubach, the oldest known progenitors of the Cypress tribe. Ancestral
forms of Taxacese also appear distinctly in the Jurassic period of which
the best known is B'aiera, a genus allied to Gingko, scarcely exceeding
the existing species in size. In the Cretaceous system the earliest known
progenitors of the abundant dicotyledonous trees of the present day
appear ; they were allied to the Oaks, Beeches, Walnuts and Tulip-trees
of our flora, and with them were associated numerous Conifers which
spread far into the Arctic regions. In the Cenomanian beds appear the
earliest forms of Pinus that can be satisfactorily identified as such ; an
earlier form has been found in the Rhsetic beds of the upper Triassic
formation, but it is not absolutely free from doubt. All the Pine cones
found in the Mesozoic Age belong to the Cembra and Strobus sections
of the existing Pines ; the scales of the cones are without an apophysis
or thickening at their apical end. The most common Conifers of the
upper Cretaceous period were the ancestors of the gigantic Sequoias of
California ; cones of these are abundant and are sometimes attached to
their branches with foliage which agrees closely with that of the existing
species.

Different phases of plant life appear as we enter upon the Tertiary
or Cainozoic (Recent Life) Division. The transition from the later
Mesozoic to the earlier Cainozoic formations was marked by great
geographical changes in Western Europe which must have occupied a
vast period of time. The fossil remains^of plants found in the Eocene
or lowermost of the Tertiary system of rocks indicate that the age of
Lycopods, Ferns and Yew-like Conifers had passed away, and that the
threshold of modern types of life had been reached. Ancestral forms of
dicotyledonous trees both evergreen and deciduous were taking their
place. One of the most striking phenomena of the Tertiary period is
the remarkable change in climate which the northern hemisphere of the
globe underwent. "At the beginning it was of a tropical or sub-tropical
character, even in the centre of Europe and North America. It then
gradually became more temperate, but flowering plants and shrubs
continued to live even far within the Arctic Circle where then, as
now, there must have been six sunless months every year. Growing
still milder the climate passed eventually into a phase .of extreme cold
when snow and ice extended from the Arctic regions into the centre of
Europe and Xorth America. Since that time the cold has again
diminished until the present thermal distribution has been reached."!
Abundant evidences of these climatic changes present themselves in the
fossil remains distributed over the great area affected by them. Trees
allied to the gigantic Sequoias of California, the Gingko, Thuias and
other Cupressinese flourished in Xorth Greenland ; Spruce Firs, Pines and
Cypresses in Spitzbergen. In Great Britain during Eocene times,
Cypress-like trees allied to the Australian genus Callitris were frequent ;
remains of a Libocedrus, much like the L. dei-urrem of California, have
* Sir A. Geikie, Text Book of Geology, p. 837. t Idem, p. 761.

100 COXIFElLi: OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.

been found in the Thames Valley, and of a true Cypress, ('iijn'cxxnx
ta-j'ifonnix, at Bournemouth. Two forms of a Taxodium also occur in
the Bournemouth beds, and also others that have been referred to
Sequoia ; in the London Clay have been preserved fruits of a Taxsid
• closely resembling those of the Gingko ; and at Alum I Jay in the
Isle of Wight as well as in the London Clay have been detected
remains of the sub-tropical genus Podocarpus. Remains of the
foliage of an Araucaria occur in the Freshwater beds of the Isle of
Wight, and in the marine beds at Bournemouth ; pine cones in the
Thanet beds of Kent, at Bagshot, in the Isle of Wight and County
Antrim ; and from the basaltic formation in the same county and in
the Isle of Mull have been discovered cones of a Tsuga and branchlets
of a Cryptomeria.*

In the Oligocene and Miocene systems of the Middle Tertiary period
are found large masses of carbon deposited in the earth in the form
of beds of "brown coal" or lignite, which are chiefly composed of
coniferous remains mixed with those of ancestral forms of (v)uercus,
Magnolia, etc. The coniferous forests of that period did not, therefore,
exhibit a dull uniformity as is the case with those of the present
time ; there was, on the contrary, an abundant and cheerful variety of
forms as is seen even now in the forests of Canada and in parts of the
southern United States, though not to so great a degree. There must
have been enormous quantities of resin exuded by some of these trees,
which belonged to genera resembling Thuia, Cupressus, Sequoia and
Taxodium; this resin hardened by external conditions is now known as
amber.

Towards the close of the Tertiary period, the gradual refrigeration of
climate already mentioned, reached its maximum. Under its influence
the coniferous trees that had flourished over the north Temperate zone
and far beyond the Arctic Circle in the earlier ages, disappeared, " the
Alps and Pyrenees were loaded with vast snow-fields from which enormous
glaciers descended into the plain, overriding ranges of minor hills on
their way. The greater portion of Britain was similarly ice-covered ; in
Xorth America also, Canada and the eastern States of the Union down
to about the 39th parallel of north latitude lay under the northern ice-
sheet."! As a natural consequence of this climatic change, the former
sub-tropical vegetation of central and northern Europe and of North
America was replaced as the ice-sheet receded northwards by an arctic
and sub-arctic flora which included but few coniferous species, but they
were spread over large areas. As we enter upon the recent and
pre-historic formations, the types of vegetation become essentially the
same as those now existing, and were spread over the same regions.
The paucity of species of coniferous trees in the regions affected by the
ice and snow of the Glacial period has remained unchanged except by
the agency of Man. The British flora includes only three, the Yew,
Juniper and Scots Pine; that of central and northern Europe includes
the same three with the addition of the Spruce and Silver .Firs, the
Larch and the Cembra and Mountain Pines; and if we add to this area
all Asia north of the Himalayan and Hindu-Koosh ranges, but excluding
China and Japan, only six more species are present of which the

* .!. Starkit- Gardner, British Eocene Flora, Vol. II. pp. 20—101.
* Sir A. Geikie, Text Book of Geology, ]>. 884.

CENSUS OF EXISTING SPECIES. 101

specific rank of two is doubtful. In Xortli America, north of the
39th parallel, a similar paucity of species exists-, the whole number
probably not exceeding a dozen. Whilst the coniferous vegetation of
the northern portions of the two continents was thus affected by the Glacial
period, the floras of the contiguous regions, as the Mediterranean Basin,
China and Japan, Xortli America west of the Rocky Mountains and
south of the 39th parallel on the east side were, as they still are,
exceptionally rich in coniferous genera and spesies. Much less is known
of the geological changes that have taken place in the south Temperate
/one, but whatever may have been their nature, their influence on the
vegetation, on account of the restricted land area, would he comparatively
small to what lias taken place in the north. As regards the existing
Conifer* of southern lands, none of the species cover large areas, and
the genera and species are much more varied than in the north. In
Tasmania the species are so local and present so few individuals, that
the island may be crossed from north to south without a single species
of the Order being met with.* In Xew Zealand, on the Contrary, the
< 'onifersB attain their maximum of numbers in the southern hemisphere,
snid, till recently, the fifteen or sixteen species which inhabit the islands
.covered nearly two-thirds of their area. In southern Chile a considerable
part of the slopes of the Andes is covered with a coniferous vegetation
represented by nine species distributed among six genera. In the
tropical regions of both hemispheres, coniferous trees form but a minute
fraction of the entire arborescent vegetation ; the few that occur are
chiefly Podocarps which nowhere form a continuous forest. Pinus is
represented by about half-a-dozen outlying species in the Indo-Malayan
region and in Central America; Agathis by nine and the African genus
Widdringtonia by five. Some of the Australian Araucarias and
Callitrids also occur within the Tropics.

The number of existing genera and species has been variously
estimated. The genera admitted in this Manual are Taxacete eleven
and Conifeme twenty-five which with three exceptions in the Conifers
coincide with those admitted by Dr. Maxwell T. Masters in his recent
revision of the two Orders: These exceptions are — the Glyptostrobus
of Endliclier which, following Bentham, is included in Taxoclium, and the
Pseudotsuga and Keteleeria of Carriers which are provisionally joined
into one genus Abietia. The monotypic Taxacl, Pherosphaira and the
coniferous genera Tetraclinis, Callitris, Actinostrobus and Widdringtonia
as well as all tropical and many sub-tropical species included in other
genera are omitted in the body of the work on account of their being
unsuited for cultivation in Great Britain. The following enumeration
of the species may be accepted as approximately correct so far as our
present knowledge extends and subject to such modification as the
views of different botanists respecting the limitation of species are
accepted. The regions are, to some extent, artificially defined, but the
limits assigned to them are such that, with the exception of one or

* Sir J. I). Hooker. Flora of Tasmania, ]>. 349.

102

( EXSTS OF EXISTING SPECIES.

perhaps two Pines and two or three Junipers, the areas inhabited by
the species do not overlap.

I. — Euro- Asiatic Eegion—

North of the Alps, Caucasus, Hindu-Rush and
Himalayan ranges and excluding China
and Japan

II. — Mediterranean Eegion—

Including Asia Minor and the Trans-Caucasian
provinces of Russia

III. — East Asiatic Eegion—

Including China, Japan and the Himalayan
zone north of the southern foot hills -

IV. — North American Eegion—

East of the Kocky Mountains -
V. — North American Eegion —

West of the Kocky Mountains, and including
Mexico -

VI. — Tropical Eegions of both Hemispheres

adjacent islands

VII. — Australian Eegion—

Including

within

Australia and the

the » Tropics

VIII. — South Temperate Eegion.—

Including Tasmania, New
southern Chile

Zealand, and

Genera.

20

11

13

Species.

u

56

30

66
44

34

39

BOTANICAL EETEOSPECT.

THE Conifers have been studied by many eminent botanists ; the
enumeration of the most important of their labours in this field is
given in the bibliography of the Order at the end of the volume. The
following is a brief sketch of the various essays that have preceded
and led to the present classification.

The starting point of the nomenclature adopted in this Manual is
the Genera and Species Plantarum of Linnaeus published in 1753; in.
this work twenty-five species of Coniferae are described, which are
distributed among five genera all adopted from the older botanists ; all
the members of the Fir and Pine tribe, of which there are ten,,
including the Larch, Spruce Fir, and two Silver Firs ( Abies pectinata and
A. Italsamea), are ranged under --Pinus. The most important work
exclusively devoted to the Coniferae immediately following the latest
edition of the Genera and Species Plantarum of Linnaeus, is The GCHH*
Pinus of Lambert, of which the first volume appeared in 1803,* a
remarkable publication for that period, the coloured illustrations still
* The second volume was published in 1824, and an octavo edition of the Avliole in 1832..

BOTANICAL RETROSPECT. 103

ranking among the best of their kind. Lambert following Linnaeus
included all the Abietineae under Pinus, as did Aiton in the Hortus
Ki'iwnsis, the second edition of which was published in 1813. In
1826 was published Louis Claude Richard's Memoire sur les Conifires,
edited by his son. This classical work is the earliest that dealt
scientifically with the Coniferae, and in it the foundation of the
present systematic arrangement of the Order is laid. Richard
arranges the whole Order under three tribes (Sectiones) : I. Taxiiieae,
including Podocarpus, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus, Taxus and Salisburia,
and also the Gnetaceous genus Ephedra ; II. Cupressineae, including
•hmiperus, Thuia (Thuya), Callitris, Cupressus and Taxodium, the last-
named founded by himself for the reception of the deciduous Cypress,
C'//>ressus distichd of Linnaeus. III. Abietineae, including Pinus, Larix,
Cunninghamia, Agathis and Araucaria ; but in the sequel the Cedar,
the Larch, the Spruce, Silver and Hemlock Firs are all described
under Abies. In the following year Professor Link proposed in the
Journal of the Academy of Science of Berlin, the separation from
Pinus of the Spruce and Silver Firs as distinct genera, the first as
Picea and the second as Abies ; „ also Cedrus as distinct from Larix.
In 1841 Link again reviewed the Abietineae in Linncea, Vol. XV.,
p. 484, and the genera Pinus, Picea, Abies, Cedrus and Larix may be
said to have been definitely established, although they were not taken
up by many of his successors as he left them.

The TAXACE^as an Order distinct from the CONIFERS was proposed by
Dr. Lindley, following L. C. Richard's Section I. in the second edition
of his Natural System published in 1836 ; it Avas taken up by London
two years later in the Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, but
failed to secure general acceptance notwithstanding the very marked
structural differences in the fruits, foliage and wood of the two' Orders.
By nearly all subsequent authors the Taxads were included in the
Coniferae under the tribes Taxeae or Taxineae and Podocarpeae. In
the Abietineae of London, Link's Abies and Picea are reversed, the
former name being applied to the Spruce, and the latter to the Silver
Firs in accordance with an unfortunate oversight of Linnaeus, who
named them Pinus Abies and P. Picea in contradiction to the classical
designation of these trees, and which had been adopted by the older
botanists. With London originated that confusion of Abies and Picea
which has proved so irksome to horticulturists and foresters, and which
was intensified by Gordon through the widely-distributed editions of his
Pinehun. David Don, who had assisted Lambert in the preparation of
the later editions of The Genus Pinus, established the tribe Araucarineae
in the Transactions of the Linnean Society published in 1841 ; it
included Araucaria and Agathis (Dammara) previously placed in the
Abietineae.

In 1842, Spach, a French botanist of German origin, removed the
American White Cedar (Cupressus thyoides) from Cupressus, and
founded upon it the genus Chamaecyparis* on the ground chiefly
that the ovules of each fruit scale are restricted to two, and the fruit
is matured the first year instead of in the second as in the true
( 'ypresses. It was afterwards enlarged by the addition of two north-
west American species and the Retinisporas of Siebold and Zuccarini.
Spacli's Chamaecyparis was taken up by most subsequent authors, and
* Histoire des Vegetaux Phanerogames, Tome XI. ]». 328.

104 BOTANICAL RETHOSPECT.

is still retained by continental botanists. l>y Mr. Bentham the group
of Cypresses which it includes was made sectional under Thuia (Thuya),*
which, however, has met with no acceptance.

The most eminent contributor to the systematic botany of the
Coniferae immediately after London's death was Stephen Endlicher (Vienna,
1804 — 1849). In his Synopsis Coniferarum published in 1847 the
Cupressineae, Abietineae, Podocarpeae and Taxineae were raised to the
rank of Natural Orders and sub-divided into tribes. The Taxodinea^
as a tribe was here established; it included Taxodium, Glyptostrobus
and Cryptomeria, but curiously enough, Sequoia founded by himself,
Athrotaxis and Sciadopitys are placed in the Abietineae and grouped
with Cunninghamia and Agathis, the Araucarias forming a separate
tribe. The genus Finns is retained entire in the Linnaean sense, but
sub-divided into sections, one of which (Tsugae) comprised the Hemlock
and Douglas Firs, here separated for the first time from the Spruces.
Several generic changes made by Endlicher have been universally
adopted, the most noteworthy of which was the separation of the
Calif ornian Redwood from Taxodium upon which he founded the genus
Sequoia; he also established the, genus Libocedrus on Chilian and New
Zealand species previously referred to Thuia, and Widdringtonia on
a group of South African species allied* to Callitris. Endlicher was
followed by Carriere, Chef des Pepinieres du Museum d'Histoire Xaturelle
de Paris, who published a Traith General des Conifkres in 1855, of
which a second and enlarged edition appeared in 1867 ; in this work
Endlicher's classification is followed in all its essential features, but
Pinus is restricted to the true Pines, and Link's Abies, Picea, Cednis and
Larix are kept up, as is also Gordon's Pseudolarix ; Endlicher's section
Tsnga is raised to generic rank, for the Hemlock Eirs and two new
genera are broached under the names of Pseudotsuga and Keteleeria
respectively, the first for the reception of the Douglas Fir, and the
second for the Abies Fortunei of Lindley. The second edition of
Carriere's Traite was immediately followed by the elaboration of the
Conifer® in De Candolle's Prodromus by Professor Parlatore of Florence.
Parlatore's systematic arrangement is based chiefly on that of Endlicher
with the divisional names of a lower rank ; in the Abietinese Pinus is
retained in its entirety but divided into two sub-genera, Pinus proper
for the Pines, and Sapinus for the remaining species except the
Araucarias and Agathis which are also included in the Abietinese as
a sub-tribe. Under the Taxodineae (Taxodieae) are included all the
genera at present contained in that tribe together with Cunninghamia
and Widdringtonia, and the Taxaceae as a whole are more distinctly
separated from the Coniferae than by previous authors, with the
exception of Lindley and London already mentioned.

In 1881 was published the Coniferae worked out by Mr. Bentham for
the Genera Planfarum, the most prominent feature of which, as
distinguished from all previous elaborations, is the much simpler
systematic arrangement of the ( )rder, and which consists only of a primary
division into six tribes, with a sectional division of the more extensive
genera. The other changes made by Mr. Bentham are chiefly in the
circumscription of the genera, thus : — In the Cupressineae, Widdringtonia
(Endl.), Tetraclinis (Yahl.) and Erenela (Mirbel) are merged into Callitris;
the first two, however, are restored by Dr. Masters; and Thujopsis
* Genera Plantaruin, Vol. III. ]>. 427.

BOTANICAL KETKOSPECT. 105

(Siebold), Biota (Kndl.) and ChanMecyparis (Spach.) are merged into
Tliuia (Thuya), but the last-named is now reunited to Cupressus. A
few other changes made by Bentham, such as the merging of Pseudo-
larix (Gord.) into Larix, and the grouping of Cephalotaxus with the
Sequoias of California and the other Taxodineae are not in harmony
with ascertained facts or with more recently acquired information.
Mr. IJentham was succeeded by Professor Eichler of Berlin, whose
elaboration of the Coniferae was published two years after his death in
Engler and Prantl's Naturliclien Pflanzenfamilien, 1887. In this classifi-
cation the genera are arranged in two primary divisions, Pinoideae and
Taxoidese, the former including the Conifers proper and the latter the
Taxads, thus emphasising the distinction made by Parlatore, but still
retaining them in one Natural Oder. The Pinoidese are divided into
Abietineae and Cupressineee with several tertiary divisions, and the
Taxoideae into Podocarpeae and Taxeae ; the genera are much the same
as in Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantaruni, but Chamaecyparis,
Thujopsis and Pseudolarix are retained and Pseudotsuga is merged into
Tsuga.

In 1892 a "Conifer Conference" was held by the Royal Horti-
cultural Society in their garden at Chiswick, on which occasion was
brought together from all parts of Great Britain the most remarkable
collection of specimens cut from Taxaceous and Coniferous trees and
shrubs ever witnessed. The information gained therefrom, and especially
from the papers read and which form the fourteenth volume of the
Journal of the Society, prepared the way for a further systematic
revision of the Order, which was undertaken by Dr. Maxwell T.
Masters, and the result published in 1893 in the thirtieth volume
of the Journal of the Linnean Society. The systematic arrangement
there elaborated is, with few deviations, adopted in the following 'pages.

'" '• •/'•^iLh^^^^^^^l

"•tfJM^^ilPHlP"

l>iloba in the Royal (lardens at Kew
(From the Cktrdenew? Chronicle.)

107

TAXACB^B.

TREES or shrubs with homomorphic, rarely dimorphic
ramification. Leaves persistent, rarely deciduous. Staminate
ti ewers composed of numerous stamens arranged in a globose
head or cylindric spike. Ovuliferous flowers composed of few
or several imbricated scales that are membraneous or become
fleshy, never ligneous. Ovules erect or pendulous surrounded
at the base by a fieshy, rarely desiccate arillus which wrholly
or in part encloses the ripe seed ; rarely exarillate. Maturation
of fruit annual, rarely biennial.

TRIBE-SALISBURINE^.

Flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious. Stamens numerous. Ovules-
erect.

Branchlets dimorphic. Leaves deciduous. Stami-
nate flowers umbellate - 1. — Ginkgo.
Branchlets homomorphic. Leaves persistent.

Staminate flowers crowded ; stamens capitate 2. — Cephalotaxus.

Staminate flowers solitary ; stamens spicate - 3. — Torreya.

GINKGO.

Linnaeus, Mantissa. II. 313(1771). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 506 (1868). Bentham
and Hooker. Gen. Plant. III. 432(1880). Eichler in Engler and Prantl. Nat. Pfl. Fam. 108
(1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 3 (1893).

(Jinkgo is monotypic. The existing species is the sole survivor of an
unknown number of others widely dispersed during geological ages over
what is now the temperate and colder parts of the northern
hemisphere. Fossil remains of Ginkgo have been discovered in systems
that were in course of formation at a remote epoch of the Earth's
history and which show conclusively that the genus is of astonishing
antiquity and that the first appearance of its ancestral form antedates
that of every other existing tree by neons of time. The Ginkgo thus
presents to us a glimpse of at least one form of vegetation that
flourished on the Earth when it was inhabited by unwieldy Icthyosauri,
gigainir toads and monster Deinotheriums ages before Man entered
upon his inheritance. If the association of the Ginkgo with the remote
Past is of a kind to excite wonder, its recent history is scarcely less, a
subject for surprise, for the origin of the existing species is shrouded

108

GINKGO BILOBA.

in mystery as obscure as that of its remote ancestors. Its habitat is
practically unknown ; no naturalist can say that he has seen it in a
wild state, and hypothesis alone suggests that it may possibly be found
wild in some unexplored district in eastern Mongolia.* For centuries
it lias been preserved alive by the Chinese and Japanese who by

[Fig. 49. Ginkgo Inloba. 1, Leaf of sterile branch ; 2, of fertile branch ; :>, Staminate Mowers ;
4, Ovuliferous flowers ; 5, fruit.

associating it with their religious worship and planting it near their
shrines and temples, have invested it with a kind of sanctity that has
contributed immensely to its preservation amidst a dense population
among whom the struggle for existence has long been of an acute

*,A recent communication from the Far East points to the probability of the Ginkgo
being endemic in Corea.

GIXKGO BILOBA. 109

kind, and whose resources of fuel and timber have always been
extremely restricted. Thus preserved "it stands alone, a perfect
stranger, in the midst of recent vegetable forms."

The name, Giukgo was adopted by Linnaeus from Ksempfer, the first
European naturalist who saw and described the tree; but Sir J. E. Smith
altered the name to Salisburia in compliment to R. A. Salisbury, a
prominent British botanist of the early part of the nineteenth century,
on the ground that it was equally uncouth and barbarous. The alteration
was, however, soon afterwards objected to by the elder I)e Candolle as
opening a door to the needless multiplication of names. The original
name is now almost universally accepted.

Ginkgo biloba.

A tall tree, 50 — 100 feet high, with a cylindric or slightly tapering
trunk and alternate or scattered horizontal branches ; the secondary
branches and especially the branchlets usually irregularly disposed.
Bark of trunk and primary branches rough, more or less fissured in
old trees, dull greyish brown ; of branchlets, pale ash-brown and
smooth. Leaves deciduous, in fascicles of three — five or more on
short alternate " spurs," variable in size ; the footstalks 1 — 3 inches
long, terete on the dorsal and furrowed on the ventral side ; the lamina
a fan-shaped expansion 2 — -3 inches broad, of leathery texture and dull
^Teen colour, with numerous veins of nearly etjual size diverging from
the top of the petiole and not connected by lateral reticulations ; the
blade is rendered two-lobed by a cleft in the apical margin which varies-
much in depth according as the leaves are on sterile or fertile branches,
being very shallow or almost obliterated on the latter. Inflorescence-
dioecious. Staminate flowers sub-pendulous in umbels of three — six on
the ends of short arrested branchlets or " spurs," and intermixed with
leaves ; anther lobes two, pendulous and divergent. Ovuliferous flowers,
in pairs on the apex of slender footstalks, each flower consisting of a
single erect ovule arising from a cap-shaped dilatation of the axis.
Fruit drupe-like, the fleshy outer covering of a greenish orange colour
enclosing a hard woody mesocarp or shell that contains the seed.*

Ginkgo biloba, Linnteus, Mantissa loc. cit. supra (1771). Tlumberg, Fl. Jap. 358-
(1784). Carriere, Traite Comf. ed. II. 711. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 506.
Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 72, t. 136. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc.
XVIII. 500; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 210. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 189,.
with figs.

Salisburia adiantifolia, Smith in Trans. Linn. Soc. III. 330 (1797). Aiton, Hort.
Kew. ed. 2, Vol. V. 304 (1813). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2094 (1838), with
figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 237 (1847). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 373 (1875).

Eng. Maidenhair-tree. Fr. Arbre aux quarante ecus.f Germ. Ginkgobamo.
Ital. Albero capilvenere. Jap. Ich<>.

The following varieties are occasionally seen in cultivation :—

macrophylla. — Leaves much larger than in the common form,
and often divided into three — five lobes which are occasionally sub-
divided into smaller lobules.

* The ripe seeds of Ginkgo, Cephalotaxus and Torreya have a close structural resemblance
to cadi other and to Cycas. These genera therefore form one of the links connecting the
Cyeads with the Taxacese.

t The origin of this curious name is related by London in the Arboretum et Fruticetunt
Britaiinicum, IV. 2096.

110

GIXKGO BILOBA.

Branches more or less pendulous, but sometimes only
slightly deflexed. Of slower growth than the common form.

variegata. — Leaves blotched and streaked witli pale yellow.

In Japan the Ginkgo attains a very large size and lives to an
unknown age ; trees fully 100 feet high with massive trunks six to
seven feet in diameter are to be seen in the neighbourhood of
temples at Tokio. In Europe some of the oldest trees have attained
a still greater height, but the trunks are smaller. Both in Europe
and North America the Ginkgo has proved quite hardy, often
thriving under the most trying conditions of climate, a circumstance
which seems to confirm the hypothesis of its northern origin. As
a picturesque tree it is unrivalled, whether standing alone or
associated for contrast with others of different genera. Its usually
straight, erect trunk is furnished with short branches, of which the
lower ones spread horizontally ; but when from any cause the growth
of the principal axis is arrested the primary branches lengthen
considerably, and the tree presents a much broader outline. In
summer, its curious Maidenhair-like leaves impart to it a light and
airy aspect ; but it is in autumn, when the foliage takes on a rich
golden hue that the beauty of the Ginkgo is most conspicuous, and
for that reason alone it should have a place in every garden where
space permits ; the defoliation is, however, often very rapid especially
when the weather is stormy. It is one of the best of trees for
planting in crowded towns, its thick leathery leaves covered with a
tough resisting skin enabling it to withstand the injurious effects of
smoke and other atmospheric impurities.

The secular history of the Ginkgo dates only from the beginning of
the eighteenth century. It first became known to Europeans through
Engebert Kaempfer, who visited Japan in 1690 in the rapacity of
physician to the Dutch Embassy, and who published a figure and
description of the tree in his "Amcenitates Exoticae," which appeared in
1712. Much uncertainty exists as to the precise date of its introduc-
tion into Europe ; according to London it is believed to have been
introduced into Holland some time between 1727 — 1737, this hypothesis
being founded upon the supposed age of a tree in the Botanic Garden
at Utrecht. Its introduction into Great Britain is stated by the same
authority to have been in 1754 or a year or two earlier, because in
that year Mr. John Ellis, F.R.&., a London merchant and correspondent
of Limiseus, informed the latter that there were plants of the Ginkgo
in the nursery of Mr. James Gordon at Mile End.* Up to the end of the
eighteenth century it continued to be very scarce in Europe ; seeds were
procurable with extreme difficulty, and propagation was effected el deny by
cuttings and layers. The first tree that was observed to flower in this
country was one in the Royal Gardens at Kew in 1795, which had
been trained against a wall; the flowers were all staminate, and during

* Arhoretuin et Fruticetum Britaimicum, IV. 2095.

CEPHALOTAXUS 1 1 1

the next twenty years every tree observed to flower in Europe was of the
same sex. At length, in 1814, the elder De Candolle detected ovuliferous
flowers on a tree near Geneva, and subsequently cuttings from this
tree were distributed among the Botanic Gardens of Europe, and in
places male trees were grafted with them and they afterwards bore fruit.
In the Botanic Garden at Vienna the bud of a female tree was
grafted on a small male tree, and a lateral branch was developed from
it ; at the present time it is a large tree with a number of branches
bearing staminate flowers and a large branch bearing ovuliferous flowers.
The most notable thing about the tree is, that the grafted branch
follows a course of development which is obviously different from
that of the stock. Every year in the spring it puts forth foliage
about fourteen days later than the male branches, and in the autumn
the leaves are still green long after the rest have turned yellow and
for the most part fallen off.* In Great Britain the practice of grafting
trees of one sex with scions of the other appears to have been
generally neglected, and in consequence a Ginkgo tree in fruit in this
country is rarely if ever seen.

Xot much can be said of the economic value of the Ginkgo.
Kaempfer records in his " Amoenitates " that the nuts were highly esteemed
by the Japanese and eaten as a dessert, a practice which has continued
down to the present time. The fleshy covering has a rancid and
disagreeable odour, and the flavour of the kernel is by no means
inviting to the European taste. The timber is not known to be
applied to any economic purpose ; the wood is yellowish, soft and
l^'ittle, and destitute of resin.

(

CEPHALOTAXUS.

Sieltold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. Fam. Nat. II. 108 (1842). Endlicher, Synops. Conif.
•1-M (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 502 (1868). Bentliam and Hooker, Gen.
Plant. III. 430 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl. Nat. Pfl. Fam. 109 (1887).
Masters in Journ.- Linn. Soc. XXX. 4 (1893).

Isolated as the Gingko is amidst all existing vegetable forms, traces
of its relationship with some of 'them are not entirely wanting ; such
traces are found in Cephalotaxus ; they are seen in the structure of
the fruit which closely resembles that of Gingko in the following
characteristics : —

The fruits of both genera are destitute of an aril, its place being
taken by the testa of the seed which becomes succulent. The seed
or nut which is enclosed in a hard ligneous shell, is covered with a
brown membrane the lower half of which is adherent to the
shell. There is also a well-marked pollen chamber in the nucellus of
the seed.f

Five or six species of Cephalotaxus have been described, but they
are not differentiated by very definite characters. Their habitat is
confined within a somewhat limited area in eastern Asia including
Japan, a part of China and the eastern Himalayan zone where they

* Kerner's "Natural History of Plants," Oliver's Translation, Vol. II. p. 572.
t Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. loc. cit.

112

CEPHALOTAXUS DRUPACEA.

form low evergreen trees or shrubs of Yew-like aspect. The generic
characters may be thus formulated : —

Flowers dioecious, in axillary heads. Staminate flowers, suhsessile <>i
shortly pedunculate, the peduncle sheathed by imbricating scales, tin-
capituhmi consisting of four — six stamens, each enclosed by a broad
scale-bract. Anthers three-lobed, pendulous from the apex of the
stamhial leaf.

< h'uliferous flowers pedunculate, composed of scale-like imbricated bracts
that become more or less fleshy at the base and form a cup-shaped
cavity which bears two — three ovules.

Fruit drupe-like, ovoid or sub-globose ; testa succulent with a leathery
skin enclosing an almond-shaped seed with a hard ligneous shell.
The hardy Cephalotaxi are referable to three fairly distinct species
connected by intermediate forms that have resulted from hybridity.
They should be planted in shade, their foliage then retains its deep
lustrous green as well as its persistency ; when fully exposed to
the sun the leaves often become discoloured and unhealthy and
soon fall off. Besides being shaded they should be sheltered from
cold winds, and the soil in which they are planted should be moist
but sufficiently drained. Under these conditions alone do they
appear to thrive in Great Britain.

The generic name Cephalotaxus is derived from KttyaXi] (head) and ra£oc
(the Yew), in allusion to the form of the flowers and the Yew-like
aspect of the species.

Cephalotaxus drupacea.

A low shrub or bushy tree varying in height from 2 — 20 or more
feet, according to the situation in which it is growing. In British
gardens a low spreading bush rarely exceeding 5 feet high. Hark of
branches reddish brown marked by narrow, longitudinal out-growths
decurrent from the bases of the leaves, the herbaceous shoots yellowish
green with the out-growths more prominent. Branchlets distichous
and mostly opposite ; buds very small, with thick, ovate keeled peruke.
Leaves pseudo-distichous, shortly petiolate, linear, mucronate, scarcely
tapering towards the apex, slightly recurved, 0'5 — 1*25 inch long, grass-
green with a median keel above, much paler beneath with darker lines
at the margins and midrib. Stamiimte flowers, shortly stalked, about
0'2 inch in diameter, usually in pairs along the underside of shoots
of the preceding year and close to tlie axils of the leaves. Fruit
ellipsoid, contracted at the basal end, 1*5 inch Jong and O75 inch in
diameter at the broadest part ; chestnut-brown where mature.

• Cephalotaxus drupacea, Sie bold and Zuccaiini, Fl. Jap. II. 66, t. 130, 131. (1S42 .
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 239. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 720. Parlatoiv.
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 504. Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 67. Beissner, Nadelholzk, 183.
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 499; Gard. Chron. XXI. (1884), p. 113;
and in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 201.

dntpmrn is widely distributed over the mountains of
Japan from southern Hondo to central Yeso, with a vertical range
of from 1,000 to .°>,000 or more feet, in places forming a part of

CEPHALOTAXUS FORTUNE!. 113

the undergrowth in woods composed of Maples, Cryptomeria
and Cypress. At and near its northern limit it is a low
shapeless bush such as it is usually seen in Great Britain ; on the
Hakone mountain's it forms a bushy tree 20 to 25 feet high. It
was introduced to the Botanic Garden at Leide (Leyden) about
the year 1829 by Dr. Siebold.

Cephalotaxus Fortunei .

In Great Britain, a shrub or low tree not exceeding 20 — 25 feet high,
the trunk usually forked or divided into three or four ascending stems
at a short distance from the ground, the outer bark peeling off in flakes
exposing a reddish brown inner cortex. Primary branches in pseudo-
whorls of three — four, spreading or ascending ; branchlets distichous and
opposite. Buds ovoid-conic, acute, 0'2 inch long ; perulse ovate-lanceolate,
keeled and with a mucronate tip. Leaves pseudo-distichous, linear,
acuminate, 1'5 — 3 inches long, falcately curved and recurved at the tip,
dark green with a median line above, paler with a narrow keel beneath.
Staminate flowers 0'25 inch in diameter, in pairs in the axils of opposite,
or nearly opposite leaves. Fruit ovoid-elliptic, 1*125 inCh long and
0'75 inch in diameter at the broadest with a dull chestnut-brown skin
when mature.

Cephalotaxus Fortunei, Hooker, W. in Bot. Mag. t. 4499 (1850). Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 718. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. Xvl. 503. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 68.
Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. (1884), p. 114 ; and in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV.
201. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 183, with fig.

This was introduced in 1849 by Robert Fortune who discovered it in
the province of Shan-si in north China while on a mission to that
region for the Horticultural Society of London and who stated that the
tree grew to a height of from 40 to 60 feet. As seen in the gardens
and shrubberies of Great Britain, it is the most distinct of the three
species described in these pages, but although it has been in our midst
half a century, the height of the oldest specimens scarcely exceed
20 feet, and they have for the most part an unshapely form on
account of irregular branching. Younger specimens growing in
shade in favourable situations are more ornamental ; they take the
form of a plumose bush well furnished with bright foliage, and afford
a pleasing contrast with their surroundings. Cephalotaxus Fortunei,
in common with several plants included in other Orders, commemo-
rates one of the most successful botanical and horticultural collectors
of his time.

ROBERT FORTUNE (1812 — 1880) was a native of Berwickshire, and was educated at the
parish school of Edrom. Showing an early preference for gardening, he served an
apprenticeship in private gardens and afterwards in the Botanic Garden at Edinburgh
where he remained between three and four years. In 1841 he came to London on
being appointed a foreman in the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick,
and two years later he was commissioned by the Society to proceed to China to collect
plants. He arrived in China in July 1843 and at once entered upon that career of
collecting which afterwards proved so fruitful. He visited Hongkong, Macao and
Canton, and thence proceeded noithwards to Chusan and Shanghai, and in 1844 he

I

114

CEPHALOTAXUS PEDUNCULATA.

visited the tea-growing district of Ningpo where he remained some time investigating
the Tea culture and the process of manufacture. He returned to England with his
collections in 1846, and was shortly afterwards appointed to the Curatorship of the
Chelsea Botanic Garden which he gave up in 1848 that he might accept an offer of
the East India Company to proceed again to China to collect Tea plants and seeds for
transmission to India. The mission wras eminently successful ; in 1851 he brought to
Calcutta 2,000 young Tea plants and 17,000 germinating seeds with which he
proceeded to the north-west provinces where he may be said to have laid the
foundation of the important Tea industry of India. Continuing in the service of the
East India Company he revisited China in 1852 and remained in the country three
years investigating the Tea and Silk industries and especially the Chinese methods of
horticulture, of which he has given some curious and interesting accounts in the
"Gardeners' Chronicle." In 1858 he again set out for China, this time in the service of
the American Government, and in 1860 he visited Japan whence he returned to
England in 1862. During his long and difficult journeyings in the Far East "his
adventures were full of romance ; whether feasting with Mandarins, enjoying the
hospitality of Buddhist priests, battling with the swarming natives, lighting single-
handed with pirates, or gaming admission to Loo-Chow in the guise of a Chinaman,
he seemed to have exercised equal energy and sagacity." He published an account of
his travels in three works entitled "Three Years' Wanderings in the North of China,
1847," "A Residence Among the Chinese, 1857," and " Yeddo and Peking, 1865";
these books are remarkable for the picturesque and natural way in which he describes
what he saw. Many of his introductions have found their way into every garden
worthy of the name throughout the civilized world and where they are recognized as
among the most pleasing ornaments. The principal coniferous trees introduced by him
were Cryptomeria japonica, Laricopsis Kcempferi, Cephalotaxus Fortunei, Pinus
Bimgeana, Thuia japonica and Cupressus funsbris. Amongst flowering shrubs Pceonia
Moutan, Viburnum plicatum, Jasminum nudiftorum, Diervilla ( Weigela) rosea,
Forsythia viridissima and Trachelospermum jasminoides deserve especial mention ; and
of herbaceous perennials Anemone japonica, Dicentra spectabilis and Campanula nobilis
will always retain the high place they now occupy. — Gardeners' Chronicle, XIII.
(1880), p. 487.

Cephalotaxus pedunculata .

A low tree with a dense head and sub-pendulous branchlets. In
Great Britain a spreading, bushy shrub of larger dimensions than
C. drupacea. Bark of branches 'reddish brown, smooth, except where
marked by the scars of the fallen leaves ; bark of branchlets green,
ridged and furrowed by cortical out-growths decurrent from the bases
of the leaves. Buds conic-cylindric ; perulse ovate, acute, keeled, free
at the apex, reddish brown. Leaves subsessile, pseudo-distichous, linear,
slightly tapering towards the apex, 1 — 2 inches long, dark green
with a thin median keel above, much paler and marked with darker
lines at the midrib and margins below.. Staminate flowers distinctly
pedunculate, about 0*5 inch long, both peduncle and capitulum sheathed
by scale-like, ovate bracts that are gradually larger upwards. Fruit
ellipsoid, about an inch long, suspended from a short, deflexed foot-
stalk sheathed by a few scarious bracts.

Cephalotaxus pedunculata, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 67, t. 133 (1842).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 238. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 716. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 503. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 69. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI.
(1884), p. 113; inJourn. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 499 ; XXII, 201, with fig. ; and in
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 201. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 180.

Taxus Harringtoniana, Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 217, t. 66.

var. — fastigiata.

A broadly columnar shrub resembling the Irish Yew. Branches
erect, more or less appressed to the stem ; branchlets also erect

CEPHALOTAXUS PEDUNCULATA.

115

and parallel with their primaries. Leaves spreading on all sides of
the axis, very leathery and of a darker green than in the spreading
form.

C. pedunculate fastigiata, Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 717. Masters in Gard.
Chron. XXI. (1884), p. 113, with fig.
Taxus japonica, Hort.
Podocarpus koraiensis, Hort.

Fig 50. Foliage and fruits of Cephcdotcwcus pedunculata
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

var.— sphseralis.

Branches light chestnut-brown ; branchlets glabrous, green. Leaves
linear, falcate, sub-acuminate, 1'5 — -2 inches long. Fruit in clusters
near the base of the branchlets, shortly stalked, globose, nearly as
broad as long, not ellipsoid.

C. pedunculata sphaeralis, Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. (1884), p. 113 with
fi#. ; and in Jonrn. Linn. Soc. XXII. 203.

The shrub here described under the name of Cephalotaxus pedun-
'•I'latft, as seen in British gardens is distinguished from C. drupacea,
by its pedunculate, staminate flowers, its larger and darker leaves

116 TORREYA.

and its larger size. Nevertheless there are forms in cultivation
which may with equal right be referred to either ; and these forms
together with the absence of any definite information respecting
the habitat of C. pedunculata favour the view of those botanists,
who recognise but one species of Cephalotaxus endemic in Japan.
C. pedunculata was introduced to the Botanic Garden at Leide by
Dr. Siebold with C. drupacea. According to Forbes it was first
cultivated in this country in 1837 under the name of T«.<'t>*
Harringtoniana .

The variety fastiijiata is the best of all the Cephalotaxi for British
gardens ; it is an analogue of the Irish Yew, curious, ornamental and
distinct, and although slow growing, many places may be found for it
that no other Taxad or Conifer can so well fill. Only one plant of the
variety sph<uralis appears to be known ; this is (or was) growing in the
garden of a clergyman at Steyning in Sussex.

TOEREYA.

Arnott, Ann. Nat. Hist. I. 126-130 (1838). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 504 (1868),
Benthani and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 431 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat.
Pfl. Fam. Ill (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 5 (1893). Tumion, Ratinesque,
Amenities of Nature, 63 (1840), ex Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 55 (1896).

A genus of evergreen trees of Yew-like aspect but more formally
ramified, and with longer and larger leaves that are rigid and spine-
tipped. Three well differentiated species are known * inhabiting
regions widely remote from each other ; one, the type species, is
restricted to a small area in Florida ; the second American species
has a wider range through the Sierras of western California ; and
the third occurs on the mountains of central Japan and probably
in north China. The existing species are the survivors of an
unknown number of others which in Tertiary times were spread over
Europe and North America from the Arctic Circle southwards, but
which disappeared under the influence of the extreme cold of the
Glacial epoch. The Torreyas, therefore, are of much interest in
their scientific aspect ; they formed part of the arborescent vegetation
of the northern regions of the Earth at the time when Taxodium and
the Sequoias were a prominent ingredient of the forest, with which
they are still associated in North America, and doubtless attained
their greatest development during the same geological period. The
race appears to be passing away, although the species may be
preserved indefinitely by the hand of Man.

The essential characters of Torreya are — Flowers clioacious, rarely
moii03cious, axillary and sessile on shoots of the preceding year

* Our knowledge of Torreya gmndis introduced by Fortune from North China in 1847
is still very imperfect, and the little that is known of it tends to the conclusion that it
is not specifically distinct from the Japanese T. nucifi'm.

TORREYA CALIFORNICA. 117

Staminate flowers in globose-cylindric heads, covered with ovate, closely
imbricated, spirally arranged scales, and subtended at the base by a
few scale-like bracts, larger than the antheriferous scales. Stamens in
six — eight whorls, attached to the axis by a short, flattened filament
bearing four deflexed anthers.

Ovuliferous flowers, composed of one or more fleshy scales surrounded
at the base by a few scale-like imbricated bracts in decussate pairs ;
ovule solitary, erect, seated in the centre of a fleshy aril which
partially closes over it, and becomes confluent with the testa of the
seed.

Fruit ovoid or ellipsoid, consisting of a single seed enclosed in a
ligneous shell covered with a fibrous fleshy envelope (aril) and thin
leathery integument of a greenish brown colour when ripe.
The young foliage of the Torreyas when bruised emit a disagreeable
rue -like odour, whence in America they are called fetid Yews. The
genus commemorates Dr. John Torrey, " the Nestor of American
Botany," the originator and author of a portion of the " Flora of
North America," and the contributor of many valuable papers on
subjects connected with American Botany.*

The Torreyas do not thrive in Great Britain. T. taxifolia is a sub-
tropical tree which, if introduced, would probably succumb to the first
severe winter it would have to endure ; T. californica has proved
disappointing except in the case of a very few specimens growing in
the south-west of England and in parts of Ireland ; and the same
must be said of the Japanese T. nucifera. In a few places the two
last-named species are growing into moderate-sized bushes, but more
frequently their growth is very slow, and the habit they assume offers
little that is attractive and is quite different from the handsome trees
they often become in their native countries.

Torreya californica.

A tree 50 — 70 or more feet high, with a trunk 1 — 2 feet
in diameter covered with grey-brown bark with a reddish tinge and
fissured longitudinally into narrow ridges. Branches spreading and
ramified distichously, the branchlets mostly opposite ; bark of branches
smooth, red-brown, much paler and striated with grey on the younger
shoots, and green on branchlets of the current year's growth. Buds
usually three at the apex of the axial growths, solitary or in pairs
on the lateral shoots, ovoid-conic, acute, four-angled with about eight
ovate, acute, light brown, closely imbricated perulse in decussate pairs.
Leaves persistent five — six years, sub-spirally arranged and spreading
distichously, linear-lanceolate, spine- tipped, 1-5 — 2 -5 inches long, falcately
curved or straight, thickened along the middle, dark lustrous green above,
paler with two depressed whitish stomatiferous lines beneath. Staininate
flowers in dense globose heads about 0*35 inch in diameter, in the axils

The name Torreya, after fifty years of continuous use for this remarkable group
of trees, is now discarded by the American botanists in favour of Ratinesque's Tumion,
on the ground that the name had been previously taken up by Sprengel for' a Verben-
aceous plant which lias been merged in Clerodendron by Beiitham and Hooker, "Genera
Plantarum," II. 1156.

118 TORREYA CALIFORNICA.

of the leaves of the terminal shoots. Fruit solitary, ellipsoid or

obovoid, 1 — 1'5 inch long, the fleshy envelope green more or less

striated with purple, thin and resinous, the inner woody seed-coat
strongly furrowed.

Torreya californica, Torrey in New York Journ. Pharai. III. 49 (1854).
arlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 506 (1868). Hoopes, Evergreens, 385. Gordon
Pinet. ed. II. 410. Hooker fil, in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885), p. 553

with fig. Masters in Gard. Chron. V. s. 3 (1889), p. 800, with figs. ; and in
Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 254. Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II.
110. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 188. Sargent, Forest Trees of N. Amer. 10th Census
U.S. IX. 186.

T. rnyristica, Hooker, W. Bot. Mag. t. 4780 (1854). Van Hontte, Fl. des
Serres, IX. t. 925 (copied from Bot. Mag.). Carriere, Traite Coiiif. ed. II. 727.
Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 311.

Tumion californicum, Greene, Pittonia, II. 195 (1891). Lemmon, West Araer.
Cone-bearers, 83. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 57, t. 513.

Eng. and Amer. California!! Nutmeg. Germ. Muskatnuss-Torreye. Fr. Torreya
de Californie.

" The Calif ornian Nutmeg inhabits the borders of mountain streams,
and is nowhere common ; it is widely distributed in California from
Mendocino county to the Santa Cruz mountains in Santa Clara
county in the coast region, where, especially near its northern limit,
it grows to its largest size and is most abundant ; it also occurs
along the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada from Eldorado to
Tulare County at elevations of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea-
level."*

On its native mountains Torreya californica during its best period
is a handsome pyramidal tree, in old age a round-headed compact tree
with drooping branches and lax foliage. In its adult state it is not,
however, always an attractive object as we learn from the sketch of a
scraggy tree by Sir J. D. Hooker published in the " Gardeners' Chronicle "
of October 31st, 1885 ; this tree was growing in the Yosemite valley
and was the best specimen observed. It is not certainly known who
was the original discoverer of the California!! Nutmeg ; the materials
from which Dr. Torrey first described the tree as Torreya californica
in the New York "Journal of Pharmacy" in 1854 were communicated
by a Mr. Shelton. Shortly afterwards it was figured and described in
the " Botanical Magazine " by Sir William Hooker under the name of
Torreya myristica from specimens supplied by Mr. James Veitcli, Senr.
which had been gathered by William Lobb. As Torrey's name has
priority the latter must sink as a synonym of it. The wood is said
to be light and close-grained but not strong, durable in contact with
the soil and susceptible of a high polish ; it is not much used.
Although introduced into British gardens in 1851, handsome
specimens of Torreya californica are but rarely seen.f It has
occasionally produced its plum-like fruits in this country, and young
plants have been raised from the seeds. J

* Sargent, Silva of North America, loc. cit. supra.

t The best specimen known to the author is at Tortworth Court in Gloucestershire, the
seat of the Earl of Ducie.

£ At Orton Hall, near 'Peterborough, the seat of the Marquis of Huntly, by Mr. Harding,
the Gardener. The tree which produced the seeds is monoecious.

TORREYA NUCIFERA. 119

Torreya nucifera.

An under-shrub or small tree 20 — 30 feet high but in favourable
situations attaining the dimensions of a large tree upwards of 80 feet
high with a trunk 4 — 5 feet in diameter covered with red bark.
Primary branches spreading, in old trees sometimes sub-pendulous ;
branchiets distichous and opposite ; bark of young shoots green
changing to reddish brown the second year. Terminal buds in. threes
of which the axial one is the largest, spindle-shaped, sheathed by three
— four decussate pairs of light brown membraneous perular scales. Leaves
persistent three — four years, linear-lanceolate, acute, 0'75 — 1'25 inch
long, terminating in a sharp spine, spirally arranged around the axis
but rendered pseudo-distichous by a half twist of the short petiole, very
coriaceous and rigid, dark lustrous green above, paler beneath with a shallow
channel 011 each side of the midrib. Staminate flowers oblong-ellipsoid,
about 0'5 inch long. Fruit ovoid-elliptic, less than an inch long.

Torreya nucifera, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 64, t. 129 (1842). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 240 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 724 (1867). Parlatore,
I). C. Prodr. XVI. 505. Hoopes, Evergreens, 386. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 411.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 186. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 500 ; and in
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 254.

Taxus nucifera, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant, ed. I. 1040 (1753), and ed. II. 1472 (1764).
Tlmnberg, Fl. Jap. 275 (1784). L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 21 (1826).

Eng. Japanese Torreya. Fr. Porte-noix Torreya. Germ. Nusstragende Torreye.
Ital. Torreya giapponese. Jap. Kaya.

Torreya nucifera occurs in the southern islands of Japan and in
the forests of southern and central Hondo, attaining its greatest
development on the banks of the river Kisagawa, " rising to a height
of 80 feet, and forming a tree unequalled in the massiveness. of its
appearance and in the beauty of its bright red bark and lustrous
dark green, almost black foliage."* On the south-west coast of Hondo
where it is associated with Camellias, Diospyros Kaki and other garden
favourites it is somewhat different from the inland tree ; the head is
more dense and with a rounded top not unlike that of some of the
older Yews in this country ; the leaves too are shorter, narrower and
more pointed. The wood is strong and straight-grained ; it is much
valued for building and cabinet-making.

The Japanese Torreya first became known to science through Ksempfer,
who figured and described it in his " Amoenitates," published in 1712.
According to Aiton, it was cultivated in England in 1764 by Captain
Thomas Cornwall under the Linnsean name of Taxus nucifera^ but
was subsequently lost ; it was re-introduced into European gardens by
Dr. Siebold about the year 1840 or a little earlier.

Torreya taxifolia.

A tree occasionally 40 feet in height with a short trunk 1 — 2 feet
in diameter, producing when cut, many vigorous shoots from the
stump and roots and whorls of spreading or slightly pendulous branches,

* Sargent, Silva of North Aiuerica, X. 56.
t Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 416.

120 TORREYA TAXIFOLTA.

which form a rather open pyramidal head tapering from a hroad
base. Bark of trunk brown faintly tinted with orange-red, irregularly
fissured into Avide ridges and disclosing a yellow inner bark.
Branchlets slender, green for two or three years, then gradually
changing to dark .orange-red. Buds 0'5 — 0'75 inch long, covered with
loosely imbricated scales. Leaves slightly falcate, 1*5 inch long, tipped
with an elongate callous point, lustrous dark green above, paler beneath
with broad shallow grooves. Staminate flowers 0'25 inch long with
pale yellow anthers. Ovuliferous flowers broadly ovate, abruptly
narrowed at the apex, enclosed at the base by broad thin rounded scales.
Fruit slightly obovate, dark purple, 1 — 1*25 inch long and O75 inch
broad. — Sargent, Silva of North America, X. 57, t. 515.

Torreya taxifolia, Amott, Ann. Nat. Hist. I. 130 (1838). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 241 (1847). Nuttall, Sylva, ed. II. Vol. II. 153, t. 109 (1865). Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 726. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 505. Hoopes, Evergreens,
387, with fig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 412. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 186, with tig.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 254.

Tumion taxifolium, Greene, Pittonia, II. 194 (1891). Sargent, Silva, foe. nt.
supra.

The species on which the genus was founded by Arnott ; it was
discovered in 1833 by Mr. Hardy B. Groom, a planter and amateur
botanist of North Carolina, on the bluffs of the Appalachicola river
opposite the town of Aspalaga in north-west Florida, where it is
confined to a narrow strip extending about forty miles on the eastern
bank of the river. Although it is said to be hardy as far north as
eastern Massachusetts, it is still virtually unknown in British gardens,
and from its geographical position it cannot be expected to withstand
the severe winters that occur at intervals in this country.

TRIBE-TAXINE^.

Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Seed enclosed in a dry testa with
or without a fleshy arillus.

SUB-TEIBE I.— TAXE.E.

Ovules erect or ultimately becoming so.
Ovuliferous flowers perulate.

Branchlets leaf-like, entire or lobed. Leaves

on adult plant squamiform, deciduous - 4. — Phyllocladus.

Branchlets terete. Leaves homomorphic, per-
sistent - 5. — Taxus.
Ovuliferous flowers without perulre.

Branchlets terete, often much sub-divided.

Leaves heteromorphic - - 6. — Dacrydium.

PHYLLOCLADUS. 121

SUB-TEIBE II.— PODOCAKPE/E.

Ovules inverted or ultimately becoming so.
Peduncle and bracts concrescent and fleshy.

Leaves heteromorphic 7. — Podocarpns.
Peduncle ligneous.

Fruits solitary or loosely spicate. Leaves linear 8. — Prunmopitys.
Fruits aggregated.

Flowers monoecious. Leaves linear and spirally

arranged - - 9. — Saxegothaea.
Flowers dioecious. Leaves squamiform, four-
ranked - 10. — Microcachrys.

PHYLLOCLADUS.

L. C. Richard, Synops. Couif. 129, t. 3 (1826). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 234 (1847).

Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 498 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III.

432 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 108 (1887). Masters in Journ.
Linn. Soc. XXX. 7 (1893).

A singular genus of Taxads in which the functions of foliation
are performed by metamorphosed branchlets termed " phylloclades "
(phyllodes of some authors, cladodes of others) which are leaf-like
expansions usually arranged in a distichous manner along the axial
growths from which they are produced. The phylloclades assume
different forms in different species and even in the same -species
as rhombic, fan-shaped, etc., and are either entire, lobed or pinnate ;
they are leathery in texture and usually with a well-defined
median nerve and numerous smaller nerves branching obliquely
from it. True leaves of linear form or some modification of it
are produced in the young state of the plant, but they usually
disappear at the end of the third or fourth year ; in the
adult state, the true leaves appear only in the form of minute
scales at the tip of the branches and at the base of the
phylloclades.

Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Staminate flowers crowded
or solitary on the tips of axial growths, and surrounded with
scale-like bracts at the base. Stamens in a dense cylindric spike
and closely imbricated ; anthers two-celled with an acute or oblong
connective.

Ovuliferous flowers few and either taking the place of, or produced
on the margin of greatly reduced phylloclades. They are composed of
boat-shaped scales spirally arranged around an axis. Ovules solitary, at
first inverted but ultimately becoming erect and surrounded by a
coriaceous aril.

The genus includes five species, of which three are endemic in
New Zealand, one in Tasmania and one in Borneo. The New

122 I'HYLLOCLADUS ALPINUS.

Zealand species are occasionally seen in cultivation in a young
state in European Botanic Gardens ; the Tasmanian species has
been in cultivation in the open ground for many years in the
Pinetum of the Hon. Mark Rolle, at Bicton, in South Devon ;
the Bornean species is known in this country only as an herbarium
specimen.

The Phyllocladi are the survivors of a race of trees whose ancestry
can be traced back to Mesozoic times, species of which were once
widely dispersed over the northern hemisphere. The generic name is
derived from 0vXXov (a leaf), and xXaSog (a branch), in allusion to the
leaf-like branchlets.

Phyllocladus alpinus.

A monoecious shrub or small tree 5 — 25 feet high with numerous
short stout branches. Phylloclades crowded, cuneate, narrowly
rhombic or linear-oblong, 0*5 — 1/5 inch long, with erose margin and
apiculate teeth, glaucous and very coriaceous. Staminate flowers,
short, in terminal fascicles of two to six, sessile or shortly pedunculate.
Ovuliferous flowers on the margins of reduced phylloclades or at the
base of others forming small cones each consisting of two or three
naked ovules in a fleshy cup. Fruits crimson with two — three seeds,
each with a membraneous envelope at its base. — Kirk, Forest Flora of
New Zealand, p. 199, t. 100.

Phyllocladus alpiuus, Hooker til, Fl. Nov. Zeal. I. 235, t. 53 (1854) ; and
Handb. 260 (1867). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 214. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed.
II. 708. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 193.

P. tricliomanoides var. alpina, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 498.

Eng. Celery Pine, Mountain Toatoa. N. Zeal, vernacular, Tanekaha, Toatoa.

LJiyllodadus alpinus inhabits the mountain districts of the North
Island of New Zealand, rarely descending below 2,000 feet elevation ;
its northern limit is on the summit of Cape Colville. In the South
Island it is abundant from Nelson to Southland ; on the eastern side
it is restricted to high elevations, but on the western it forms a
considerable ingredient of the forest at low elevations where it attains
its greatest development.

Sir J. I). Hooker remarks that Phyllocladus alpinus is perhaps only a
form of P. tricliomanoides but a very distinct one. Mr. Kirk considered
it more nearly allied to the Tasmanian P. rJwmboidalis. Be that as it
may, it is highly probable that it would prove hardy in Great Britain in
those places where other New Zealand plants thrive, and that the
introduction of this remarkable plant would add a novel feature to
the British Arboretum.

Phyllocladus glaucus.

A dioecious tree 20—40 feet high with a trunk 12—18 inches in
diameter, furnished with short branches that are sometimes whorled.
Leaves on young plant linear, obtuse or acute ; scale-like leaves of adult
plant similar but smaller and recurved. Phylloclades distichous and

PHYLLOCLADUS RHOMBOIDALLS. 123

alternate on modified rachides or branchlets 5 — 12 inches long, rhom-
boidal or obliquely ovate-cuneate narrowed below into a short footstalk,
lobed or toothed, 0*75 — 2 inches long, very coriaceous, glaucous green,
Staminate flowers in clusters of ten — twenty on rather stout peduncles
with one or two minute bracts at the base of each. Ovuliferous flowers
three — six on each side of the rachis and taking the place of the
lower phylloclades, shortly pedunculate, ovoid, or globose-ovoid, 0*5 inch
long : ovules seated on a coriaceous cup-shaped disk, of which there are
ten — twenty in each flower. Fruit about the size of a small hazel nut,
the seeds projecting beyond the aril to about one-half of their length. —
Kirk, Forest Flora of 'New Zealand, p. 195, tt. 98, 99.

Phyllocladus glaucus, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 502 (1855) ; and ed. II. 707.
P. trichomanoides var. glauca, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 498. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 195.

N. Zeal, vernacular, Toatoa, Tanekaha.

Phyllocladus glaucus is considered by those who have seen it in
its native home, to be the handsomest of all the New Zealand
Taxads; it has a restricted habitat in the northern part of the North
Island, in places ascending the mountains to nearly 3,000 feet.
"The wood is white, remarkably straight in grain and of great
strength, but as the tree occurs only in situations difficult of access,
it has not been utilised except for temporary purposes."

Phyllocladus rhomboidalis,

A tree 35 — 60 feet high with a trunk 1 — 2 feet in diameter.
Branches scattered or sub-verticillate, spreading or ascending, the basal
part bare of branchlets ; bark dark brown with shallow keels
decurrent from the base of each branchlet; branchlets numerous-,
each bearing three — nine phylloclades. Phylloclades shortly stalked,
rhomboidal, the longer axis 1 — 2 inches long, the shorter
0'5 — 0'75 inch long, the larger lower ones deeply cut into oblong
lobes, the smaller terminal ones with the basal margin entire, and
the apical one toothed. Flowers monoecious, terminal on the
phylloclades and surrounded at the base by imbricated bracts. Fruits
containing two or three seeds enclosed to half their length by a
fleshy aril.

Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, L. C. Richard, Synops. Conif 130, t. 3 ; and Mem.
sur les Conif. 23 (1826) Eudlicher, Synops. Conif. 235. Hooker til, Fl. Tasm. I.
359. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 706. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 499.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 194.

P. asplenifolius, Hooker til, in Loud. Journ Bot. IV. 151 (1845).

Tasm. vernacular, Celery-topped Pine, Adventure Bay Pine.

The type species on which the genus was founded by the excellent
French botanist, L. C. Richard ; it is common in the damp forests
of Tasmania, especially on the mountains and in the southern parts
of the island where it is known by the somewhat inappropriate
name of " Celery-topped Pine." The trunk is usually too slender to
afford useful timber, but it has been often used for the small masts
of sailing vessels. The bark is used for tanning leather.

124 TAX US.

Phyllocladus trichomanoides.

A tall tree with a trunk 60—70 feet high and 2—3 feet
in diameter cohered with smooth dark grey or blackish bark.
Branches sub-verticillate ; branchlets slender. Phylloclades fan-shaped < >r
obliquely rhomboidal, lobed or toothed. Leaves on the young plants
narrowly linear, crowded, about 0*4 inch long. Staminate flowers in
terminal clusters of five — ten, shortly pedunculate. Ovuliferous flowers
solitary on the margins of the phylloclades, consisting of two fleshy
scales united in the form of a cup in which is seated the ovule. —
Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, p. 9, t. 7.

Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Don in Lambert's Genns Finns, ed. II. Vol. II.
App. (1828). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 235. Hooker til, Handb. X. Zeal. Fl.
260. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 705. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 498.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 195.

X. Zeal, vernacular, Tanekalia, Celery-topped Pine.

J'ki/llodadus trichomanoides was originally discovered in Xew Zealand
by Banks and Solancler during Captain Cook's first voyage round
the globe ; it is restricted to the Auckland and Hawke's Bay
district in the North Island, and to Nelson and Marlborough in the
South Island : it is most abundant, and attains its greatest
development in the forests north of Waikuto. The wood is of
great strength, dense and heavy, and is used for piles, railway ties,
mine - props, and occasionally for building purposes. The bark is
highly prized for dyeing and tanning ; it is one of the best vegetable
dyes for yellow and pink, and on that account large quantities are
sent from New Zealand to Europe every year.

TAXUS.

Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1040 (1753). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 242 (1847). Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 499 (1868). Bentliam and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 431 (1881).
Eichler in Engler and Prantl. Xat. Pfl. Fam. 112 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn.
Soc. XXX. 7 (1893).

Taxus, the classical name of the Yew,* is applied to a genus of
trees and shrubs of very variable habit, but of slow growth and
long-lived, characterised by their close-grained, durable wood, their
dark green persistent foliage, their highly coloured berry-like fruits,
and especially by their flowers, the structure of which essentially
distinguishes the genus from every other in the Order. The floral
characters of the Yew may be technically formulated thus—-

Flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious, solitary and axillary, sometimes
terminal, f

Staminate flowers with a short stalk or stipes bearing a globose head
(capitulum) of from four to eight stamens, each bearing three — eight
anther cells attached to a peltate connective.

*« . . . picese tantum toajoque nocentes

Interdum, aut hedene pandunt vestigia? nigiw." — Virgil, Georg. II. 2">7.

t The flowers of the Yew have been already described in page 30.

TAXUS.

125

flowers sessile, composed of numerous imbricated scales
of which the upper one only bears an erect ovule.

Fruit a brownish oval nut enveloped in a glutinous aril open at
the apex and maturing the first season.

More than one eminent botanist has expressed his opinion that
Taxus is a monotypic genus and that the local forms occurring in
Florida and Japan, and the more widely distributed ones in Canada
and north- west America are but geographical varieties of the
common Yew which have in the course of ages, under the influence
of climate and environment, become differentiated in habit and foliage
from the European type. It is, however, more convenient to-
describe these geographical offshoots separately as sub-species. A fifth
geographical form has been described by Schlechtendal* under the
name of Taxus globosa from specimens gathered by Ehrenberg in

south Mexico ; but as nothing more
is known of it, it is here purposely
omitted.

With the exception of the Mexican
form the Yew is not met with in a
wild state beyond the limits of the-
temperate zone of the northern hemis-
phere. Preferring elevated situations it
nowhere forms a continuous forest, and
even where plentiful it is mixed with
other trees. On the continent of Europe
it is more or less common in. all the-
mountainous and hilly districts from the-
Mediterranean to Sweden and Norway,
as far as 61° north latitude, ascending-
to 3,500 — 4,000 feet on the Alps and
Apennines, 4,000 — 5,000 feet on the-
Pyrenees, and 5,000—6,000 feet on the
mountains in the south of Spain. It is-
also found in Algeria on the Atlas-
range, on the Cilician Taurus in Asia
Minor, in Armenia, Persia and as far
eastwards as the Amur region. On the
Himalaya its vertical limits are 6,000 —
11,000 feet and it spreads eastwards
from Katiristan and Kashmir to Assam and the Khasia Hills.

The Yew is of geological antiquity ; it first appeared in early
Tertiary times, and in the Miocene period it formed an ingredient of
the forests of Great Britain, and has continued to inhabit these islands
ever since. It is found among the buried trees on the Norfolk
coast near Cromer ; it also crops up in another forest now in part
buried beneath the Bristol Channel in which, if there be any truth
in bones, the elephant, rhinoceros and beaver once roamed, f

Fig. 51. Fructification of the common
Yew. 1, Staminate. 2, Ovuliferous
flower. 3, Ripe fruit. 4, Longitudinal
section of the seed showing the position
of the embryo.

* Limirea, XII. 496.
f Ramsay, Physical Geology of Great Britain,

126 TAXUS BACCATA.

Taxus baccata.

A medium-sized or low tree very variable in habit and dimensions,
attaining a height of 30 — 50 or more feet according to situation
and environment.* Trunk straight, erect, and when the tree is isolated,
sending out numerous spreading branches at a short distance from the
ground, but when crowded with other trees often free of branches for
20 — 25 or more feet of its height ; the trunk is then more or less
lobed or has broad, rounded, longitudinal ridges. Usually, whether
solitary or associated with other trees, the trunk divides at a few feet
from the ground into two — five or even more secondary trunks which
frequently divide in like manner at a greater or less distance from their
base. Bark roughish, peeling off in longitudinal shreds or small flakes
exposing a smooth reddish brown inner cortex ; in old trees very rugged
and irregularly fissured. Primary branches irregularly disposed and
often of very unequal development, spreading for the most part
horizontally and ramified laterally. Branchlets distichous, opposite or
alternate, covered with reddish brown smooth bark. Buds small, globose,
dark chestnut-brown, the terminal ones closely sheathed by young foliage
leaves. Leaves persistent three — four years, sub-spirally anting* -d
around their axis, spreading from all sides on erect shoots, bifarious on
horizontal branchlets, linear or linear falcate, acute, 0*75 — 1*25 inch
long, dark lustrous green above, paler with a thickened midrib beneath.
Flowers and fruit as described above.

Taxus baccata, Linnsens, Sp. Plant, ed. I. Vol. II. 1040 (1753). L. C. Richard, Mem.
sui- les Couif. 19 (1826). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2066, with tigs. (1838).
Eudlicher, Synops. Conif. 242. Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. I. 517 ; and ed. II. 730.
Hoopas, Evergreens, 376. Parlatore, O. C. Prodr. XVI. 500. Sowerby, Eng. Bot.
VIII. 277, t. 884. Brandis, Forest Fl. Ind. 539. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 338.
Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 270. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 711. Hooker til, Fl.
Brit. Islands, ed. III. 380 ; and Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 648. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 166,
with tigs. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 249. And many others.

Eng. Yew. Old Eng. En, Ew, Eugh, Yeugh, Yewe and others. Fr. If. Germ. Elbe,
Eibenbanm. Ital. Tasso. Span. Tejo, Texo. Gr. ra£oc,¥, jU/Xot;. Mod. Gr.

var.— adpressa.

A low tree or shrub rarely exceeding 12 feet high with long spreading
branches much and irregularly ramified; branchlets short, spreading or
ascending. Leaves shorter than in the common form, narrowly ovate-
oblong, obtuse, about 0'5 inch long, bifarious in two ranks, slightly
inclined upwards and forwards. Aril of fruit usually shorter than the
seed, adpressa Stricta has the branches erect or more or less ascending;
adpressa variegata has the tips of many of the branchlets cream-white.

T. baccata adpressa, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 520 ; ed. II. 731. T. adpressa,
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 387. T. tardiva, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 502 (in part).

var.— aurea.

A dense shrub or low tree with bright golden yellow leaves, the colour
most developed at the tips and margins, aurea elegantissima has the
leaves striped with straw-yellow and sometimes whitish.

T. baccata anrea, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 734. T. baccata Elvastonensis,
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 176.

* In the Himalaya 100 feet high and 15 feet in girth.— Brandis.

VARIETIES OF TAXUS BACCATA. 127

var.— brevifolia

A shrub or low tree of irregular outline. Branchlets numerous and
unevenly disposed. Leaves scattered or sub-spirally arranged on the erect
shoots, pseudo-distichous on the lateral spreading ones, 0'3— 0-75 inch
long, dark green above, much paler below.

T. baccata brevifolia, supra. T. brevifolia, Hort. not Nuttall.

var. — 0 heshunt ensis.

A seedling from the Irish Yew and intermediate between it and the
common form both in habit and foliage. Branches erect or ascending.
Leaves close-set, spreading on all sides from their axis, mucronate, dark
green above, glaucescent below.

T. baccata Cheshuntensis, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 389.

var.— Dovastonii.

A low tree with long spreading branches and lax pendulous branchlets
clothed with leaves somewhat longer than those of the common form,
deeper in colour and frequently falcately curved.

T. baccata Dovastonii, London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2082, with fig. West-
feltoii Yew.

var.— ericoides.

A dwarf shrub with close-set slender branches and short erect branchlets.
Leaves much smaller than in the common form and more pointed at the
tip, heath-like and crowded.

T. baccata ericoides, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 736. T. ericoides, Hort.
T. epacrioides, Hort.

var.— fastigiata.

The most distinct of all the abnormal forms of the common Yew.
Habit strictly fastigiate. Branches stout, erect and closely appressed;
branchlets mostly short and erect like their primaries. Leaves sub-spirally
arranged around their axis and spreading from all sides of it, dark lustrous
green. fastigiata argentea has the tips of many of the branchlets
cream-white ; fastigiata aurea has the young growths golden yellow.

T. baccata fastigiata, London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2086, with tigs. T.
fastigiata, Hort. T. hibernica, Hort. Irish Yew, Florence Court Yew.

var. — f ructu-luteo.

Differs from the common Yew in the aril of the fruits being yellow
instead of red. Habit spreading. Leaves somewhat shorter and paler
in colour than in the common form, and occasionally recurved.

T. baccata frnctu-lnteo, London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2068. Yellow-berried
Yew.*

var. — glauca.

A vigorous-growing much-branched shrub resembling in habit var.
Chethuntemis but of larger dimensions. Leaves longer and narrower
than in the common Yew, which on the lateral branchlets are often

* The yellow-berried Yew is of Irish origin. It appears to have been discovered about
the year 1817 growing on the lands of the Bishop of Kildare, near Glasnevin ; but it
seems to have been neglected till 1833 when it was noticed in the grounds of Clontarf
-Castle, whence cuttings were distributed.— London, loc. cit.

VARIETIES OF TAXUS BACCATA. 129

fsilcately curved upwards, dark green above with a glaucous bluish tint

Ill-low.

T. baccata glauea, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 735. T. baccate uigra, Hort.

Blue John.

var.— pendula.

Primary brandies sub-pendulous. Leaves somewhat paler in colour
and more or less incurved. Of slow growth and attaining but limited
dimensions. gracilis pGndula has the sub-pendulous branches and
their appendages more slender and more elongated. A larger shrub
than the var. pendula.

T. bdtecate pendula, Hort. T. baccata Jacksonii, Hort. Weeping Yew.

var. procumbens.

A prostrate shrub. Branches much elongated and much ramified,
scarcely rising from the ground. Quite distinct from T. canadensis in
its ramification and foliage.

T. baccata procumbens, London, Arb. et Fmt. Brit. IV. 2067. T. baccata
cxpansa, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 738.

var. — Washington!!.

A rather vigorous-growing variety with longer leaves, having their
tips and part of the upper surface of a bright golden yellow.
T. baccata Washingtonii, Hort. T. canadensis Washington!!, Hort.

Other delations from the common type have been named columnaris,
ro///y>/v»YZ, erecta, horizontal i#, inicrotarpa, nana, pyramidalis, recurvata,
xf>arti folia, etc., names sufficiently indicative of their most obvious
characteristics; but it is doubtful whether these characteristics "Have
proved sufficiently constant in most of these varieties to justify the
retention of the names, or whether they are still to be found in
cultivation.*

The Yew in V>ne or other of its numerous protean forms is seen
everywhere throughout Great Britain, but almost everywhere planted
by the hand of Man, so numerous and so useful are the purposes
for which it is required. The Yew also grows wild in this country,
as everyone knows, and trees that have sprung up spontaneously
are to be seen in most of the hilly districts, and also in the copses
and hedgerows in the plains especially 011 the chalk formation, but
they are relatively few in number not only to what they were in
Saxon and Norman times, but also to those that have been raised and
planted by human agency; indeed, it is not exceeding the truth to
affirm that for every hundred seedling Yews that spring up
spontaneously, many thousands are raised by the forester and
nurseryman. Many causes have contributed to the extermination of
the Yew in the wild state, amongst . which the clearing of the

* Beissner (Nadelholzkunde, pp. 169—176) describes forty-one varieties of the commo
Yr\v. including Taxus cuspidata (Sieb. et Zncc.). Many of them are coloured forms <

common
of

recognised varieties, and others are believed to be identical, or nearly so, with varietie
of older introduction.

130 IJEMAKKABLE YEWS.

laud for cultivation and the long and continuous demand for the
wood for Yew bows and the better kinds of household furniture havt
been the most potential. On the chalk downs of Surrey an<
Sussex where the Yew occurs wild in considerable numbers, it is
sometimes seen solitary forming a conspicuous object from afar ;
occasionally it occurs in scattered groups, in places forming small
groves unmixed with other trees.

One of the most remarkable of Yew groves of Nature's own
formation occurs on Mickleham Downs near Leatherhead, on tl it-
estate of Abraham Dixon, Esq., of Cherkley Court. Ht*re an extensive
area is covered with Yews, almost unmixed with other trees and
shrubs, except a few Junipers scattered here and there through tin-
grove. The aspect of some of these Yews is peculiar and even
beautiful. Groups of from rive to a dozen may be seen with
their trunks in close proximity to each other, forming a dense
copse or clump, and each tree being thickly furnished with branches
from the ground on the side freely exposed to the air, the group
lias the appearance of being one tree of gigantic dimensions. In
one part of the grove a considerable space is completely covered
with Yews, all of which, except the outside trees, have lost their
lower branches, those remaining on the trees being confined to tin-
tops only, and with their foliage forming a dense canopy impervious,
to the sun's rays, the interior being lighted only at distant intervals
by small openings in the thick foliage. ( hi entering the thicket the
aspect is weird and sombre, and when in winter the tops of tin-
trees are covered with a thick coating of snow, and the diminished
light takes a hazy yellowish line, the appearance of the interior
causes an indescribable feeling of depression and gloom.

In Norbnry Park, not far from Cherkley Court, is another remark-
able group of Yews called the Druid's Grove. All the trees are of
very great age, the largest measuring from 18 to 22 feet in girth at.
a short distance from the ground. There is a famous clump of Yews,
at Kingsley Yale, on the South Downs, near Chichester, and another
on the North Downs, in a slight hollow of the hill, near Guildford.
Numerous great Yews here stand in a natural park or wood opening,,
among Hawthorns and several indigenous shrubs, Holly, Furze, Black-
thorn and Crab, with .Butcher's Broom beneath. This retired covert,
forming part of the primeval forest, is blameless at present of a
foreign tree.

Scarcely surpassed in interest and antiiuiity by any other group in
the kingdom are the famous Borrowdale Yews Avhich stand on the
left of the mountain track over the Sty Pass to Wastdale. They are
the remains of a grove of Yews that were reduced to four, known
almost throughout the nineteenth century as the poet Wordsworth's
"Fraternal Four," a brotherhood of venerable trees which remained
uninjured till one of them was uprooted by the great gale of
December, 1883 ; the others were also more or less injured by the
breakage of branches. The illustration represents their present aspect
and condition.

Many individual trees have become celebrated either on account
of their great age or by reason of their association with historical

o

af

132 REMARKABLE YEWS.

events, or with places of worship ; only a few of the most
remarkable of these can be noticed here.*

The Fortingal Yew in Perthshire is supposed to he the oldest in
Great Britain ; it is now a mere shell, the only parts remaining
being the outermost portion of the old trunk which is 56 feet in
girth near the ground.

In the shrubbery at Kyrle Park, Worcestershire, stands a very old
tree split into two parts ; the upright part is 24 feet in girth at five feet
from the ground, and the area overspread by its branches is over
70 feet in diameter ; the slanting portion is hollow ; the total
diameter of umbrage is 65 feet.f

At Trentham, Staffordshire, are some venerable Yews of almost hoary
antiquity. There are twenty-three trees, all of them with two
exceptions, still in health and vigour ; the circumference of the trunks
at six feet from the ground ranges from 16 to 19 feet. There is a
local tradition that there was formerly an ancient Saxon church in
close proximity to the trees.

At Ormiston Hall, in East Lothian, is one of the most beautiful
Yews in Scotland. The trunk is nearly 20 feet in circumference
at three feet from the ground, and the area overspread by its branches
is over 70 feet in diameter. J

The largest Yew in Ireland is near the College at Maynooth on
the estate of the Duke of Leinster ; its massive trunk is 20 feet in
circumference at three feet from the ground ; the height of the tree
is about 50 feet, and the length of the longest branches up wards of
40 feet. This grand old Yew is still in robust health. §

Other very aged trees are, or were quite recently standing in Albury
Park near Gkiildford ; -The Vineyard, Hatfield House ; at Cliveden near
Maidenhead ; in Penrhyn Park, Bangor ; around Tiiitern in Monmouth-
shire ; at Craigends, Renfrewshire ; Yewdale, Coniston ; Brockenhurst,
Hants ; Dryburgh Abbey, Berwickshire ; Whittinghame, East Lothian, etc.

The association of the Yew with religion and places of worship is of
very ancient date. Yew boughs were formerly carried in procession on
Palm Sunday, and in parts of Ireland Yew trees are sometimes called
Palms ; it is still the custom for the peasants to wear in their hats or
button-holes, sprays of Yew from Palm Sunday until Easter Day.
Many hypotheses have been brought forward explanatory of the cause of
the selection of this tree for planting in proximity to churches and
abbeys, or, perhaps, it would be more correct to say, the building of
churches and abbeys in proximity to large and full-grown Yews ; for it
is indisputable that the finest and most venerable trees at present existing
in Britain are to be found in churchyards and in the vicinity of old
priories and abbeys, but it is by no means certain whether in all cases,
or even in the majority of them, the Yews were planted subsequent to
the building of the edifice, or the edifice erected near the spot where the

* For further particulars, the elaborate Avork on the subject by Dr. John Lowe, entitled
"The Yew Trees of Great Britain and Ireland," may be consulted.

t The Yew Trees of Great Britain, p. 225.

t Id. 240. " Here Wishart the martyr preached to an audience composed of the Laird
of Ormiston, his dependents and neighbours, and in desponding strains in harmony with
the solemn and funereal aspect of the old yew-tree, addressed his last and parting words
to those friends from whom he was so soon to be severed forever." — (A.D., 1545.)

§ For an opportunity of inspecting this and other supsrb trees in the grounds at
Carton I am indebted to the kindness of Lord Frederick Fitzgerald.

REMARKABLE YEWS. 133

Yews were already standing.* The true cause of the association, in this
country at least, is not, we think, difficult to be found- — this is in the
character and habit of the tree itself. There is no other native evergreen
tree at all to be compared with the Yew as regards its foliage, its
massive sombre aspect, and its longevity, and hence the Yew would be
naturally selected to represent the feelings, the sentiments and the hopes
associated with burial-grounds and in connection with places of worship
where sentiments and feelings are most likely to seek expression by
visible representatives or enduring monuments. The feeling of Hope
lives in its evergreen foliage ; Sorrow is remembered in its dark and
sombre shade, and Veneration is awakened in its aged aspect. It may
be safely assumed from the known antiquity of many Yews still standing
in churchyards and the like places, that the association of the Yew with
religion must be of very ancient origin ; and the probability is very great
that it took its rise at an epoch anterior to the introduction of
Christianity into Britain.

Among the ancient Yews still existing that are, or have been associated
with sacred edifices, the following are celebrated : —

In the churchyard of Buckland near Dover is a Yew of great antiquity,
the trunk of which was split by lightning about the middle of the
eighteenth century during a storm which destroyed the steeple of the
church. It has a special interest apart from its antiquity from the fact
that in 1880 it was removed to another part of the churchyard sixty
yards distant, and the horizontal position assumed by the trunk after the
injury was restored to a comparatively erect one.

In the churchyard of Church Preen in Shropshire stands one of the
finest Yews in Great Britain; it is 50 feet high and has a girth -of 21|
feet at four feet from the ground ; the trunk is hollow and will hold
twenty-one men standing upright. The tree is, to all appearances, still
healthy.!

The Crowlmrst (Surrey) Yew ranks among the largest in the country.
The trunk has a girth of 32 feet near the ground and is hollow
inside; the cavity has been fitted up with a table and benches around, on
which sixteen persons may sit. The top was blown off in 1845.

In the churchyard of Darley in Derbyshire is a venerable tree
31 feet in girth. The trunk which is hollow is only regular and
straight to about ten feet from the ground where it divides into several
large limbs, two of which are erect and the others spreading. It is a
fruit-bearing tree and believed to be over one thousand years old.

The Fountains Abbey Yews near Boroughbridge in Yorkshire are,
after the Fortingal Yew, supposed to be the oldest in Great Britain.
There were originally seven, and in Evelyn's time six were still standing,
but in 1891 Dr. Lowe found but five, and of these two were dead and
uprooted.

In Gresford churchyard near Wrexham in Denbighshire is one of the
oldest and still one of the largest Yews. The circumference of the trunk
at five feet from the ground is over 30 feet and its height exceeds
50 feet.

* "There was a very ancient Yew in the churchyard of Kirkheating, near Hnddersfield.
The inhabitants of the village have a tradition that the church (which dates before 1245)
was built to the tree, and not the tree planted to the church. It was living in 1864, but
is now dead."— G. Roberts, in "Science Gossip," 1875, p. 70.

t The Yew Trees of Great Britain, p. 197.

3

I!

£ --,

I i

o

- §

KEMARKABLE YEWS. 135

In the churchyard of Tisbury in AYiltshire is an enormous Yew over
30 feet in circumference with large limits 20 to 25 feet long. The
trunk is now hollow and is entered by means of a rustic gate. The tree
is believed to be over one thousand years old.

( )ther venerable Yews associated with places of worship are standing in
the churchyards of Boughton in Kent, Crowhurst near Battle, Hanibledon
near (irodalming, Hurstmonceux in Sussex, Iffley near Oxford, Loose near
Miiidstone, Manhilad near Pont-y-pool, Tandridge in Surrey, and other places.

The association of the Yew with early English history is varied and
important. Venerable trees still mark the spots where great events have
taken place, and others are associated with the names of historic
personages. The Ankerwvke Yew, near Staines, witnessed the conference
between King John and the English Barons in 1215, and in sight of
which Magna Charta was signed. It is 30J • feet in circu inference at
three feet from the ground, and most probably its age exceeds one
thousand years. . Under the London Yew, in Ayrshire, it is said that
Bruce bestowed the ancient castle and estate 011 the London family, and
on the same spot, some centuries afterwards, John, Earl of London,
signed the Act of Union between England and Scotland. This tree is
over 40 feet high, with a trunk 4^ feet in diameter at twelve feet from
the ground.

In a much wider bearing the Yew played a prominent part in our
early history as supplying the wood of which the bows of the archers
were made* and on that account it was the subject of many statutes
of our early kings, and afterwards of Parliament up to the time of
• Elizabeth which made provision for the preservation and planting of
Yews for the supply of Yew-wood, regulating the export and import
of it, etc., so great had been the destruction of the trees in England
during Norman and Plantagenet times. Every student of English
history can point to great events in which the Yew bow played a
foremost part. It was essentially the Saxon weapon both for warfare
and the chase ; and during the earlier part of the Norman supremacy
was often used with deadly effect by the oppressed natives to rid
themselves of their tyrannical masters. Deeds of daring were per-
formed, attesting the extraordinary prowess and skill of the Saxon
archers ; deeds that were long kept in remembrance by tradition,
celebrated in song and verse, or preserved in legends which afterwards
.supplied subjects for modern romance. The Yew bow was fatal to
several English Kings, to Harold at Hastings, to William Kufus in the
Xew Forest, and to Richard Coeur de Lion at Chaloux, in France.
It was the skill of the English archers that enabled Henry II. to
gain a footing in Ireland, and the name of Strongbow, borne by the
leader of the expedition, attests the high repute in which the weapon
was held. Cressy, Poictiers and Agincourt were won chiefly by the
Yew bow ; it was the most popular weapon through the long civil
strife between the rival houses of York and Lancaster ; and both in
warfare as well as in the chase, it was held in estimation long after
the invention of gunpowder had prepared the way to a complete change
in the system and science of war.

* The bow continued lor ages to be the favourite national weapon of the Saxons. They
practised archery incessantly in their amusements and regained by its importance on the
field of battle their due weight in the government of the country. — Alison's History of
Europe, ed. IX. Vol. I. p. 34.

THE YEW AND HORTICULTURE. 137

The association of the Yew with gardening in England began early
in the sixteenth century. It was brought into prominent notice
towards the end of the century by Evelyn, who claims the "merit"
of being the first to introduce the fashion of clipping it into artificial
shapes which became general during the next century. It was first
used in the formation of hedges for purposes of utility, but the dense
growth it assumes when pruned, its apparently unlimited duration, and
the readiness witli which it may be cut into many shapes without
impairing its vitality, soon" led to its being extensively used in topiary
work, which had been previously confined chiefly to the Box and
Juniper. The dark dense foliage of the Yew, and its more robust and
taller growth than the Box or Juniper, offered facilities for the
introduction into gardens, by artificial means, of many varieties of form,
and the fashion of clipping Yews into geometric figures, and also into
the figures of birds, beasts, and even the human shape, became for a
time a very prevalent practice, which reached its height towards the
close of the seventeenth and during the early part of the eighteenth
century. The popularity of the Yew as an ornamental garden plant
during this period may be partly accounted for by the paucity of ever-
green trees and shrubs at that time available,* and the desire for variety
created by the taste for gardening which began to be general among all
classes. The practice gradually fell into disuse as the introduction of
exotic hardy trees and shrubs became more frequent, and supplied a more
natural and pleasing variety than the uncouth figures which one kind
of tree was made to take, but into which Xature never intended it to
grow. Many evidences of the old topiary work are still to be met
with, and not a few old Yews are made to retain the figures into
which they were originally cut and trimmed. Some of the most
remarkable of these are to be seen at Levens Hall, Westmoreland,
where the topiary foible of our horticultural predecessors is still main-
tained in all its quaint antagonism to Nature. f

Not less striking but more modern, and, if we may use the ex-
pression, more rational, is the topiary work at Elvaston Castle, near
Derby, the seat of the Earl of Harrington. A large portion of this
consists of ornamental hedges of the common Yew, either dividing
parts of the grounds from each other, or enclosing spaces devoted to
special subjects ; and of single specimens, both of the common Yew
and its golden variety, cut into conical pyramids of uniform size and
height, and of such there are upwards of one thousand. There are
comparatively few representations of birds and animals ; the bolder
work represents the walls and bastions of a Xorman castle, archways,

* The number of native evergreen trees and shrubs may be counted on the lingers, thus —
\ ew, Scots Pine, Juniper, Holly, Privet, Ivy, Butcher's Broom, Spurge Laurel and Mistletoe
(the Box is a doubtful native), and up to the close of the seventeenth century the number of
exotic evergreen trees introduced was not much greater, and some of them were very rare.
The best known were the Spruce Fir, Silver Fir, Stone Pine, Pinaster, Red Cedar, Savin,
Arbor Vitse, Evergreen Oak, Sweet Bay, Laurustine, Portugal Laurel, Phillyrea and Arbutus.
See the " Gardeners' Chronicle" for 1874, p. 264, where an account of the topiary work
at Levens Hall is given, illustrated with woodcuts of some of the most remarkable groups
which include figures of the British Lion ; Queen Elizabeth and ladies ; the Judge's Wig,
a number of Yews planted in a half circle, so as to form an arbour by bringing the branches
over the top in a hood or wig-like fashion ; and many others. These figures were first
formed early in the eighteenth century, so that for upwards of one hundred and eighty
years these Yews must have had their young growth cut off to keep the figures within the
prescribed shape and size, a proof of the astonishing tenacity of life possessed by the Yew.

138 TOPIARY WORK AND AVENUES.

alcoves, arbours, etc. The great extent of the topiary Avork at Elvastmi
is calculated to excite surprise rather than admiration, at the same
time its extreme formality is greatly relieved by the noble Conifers of
the Fir and Pine tribe which have been planted beside and around
it with no sparing hand, and by the beautiful view afforded by the
river Derweiit, in its winding course through the grounds.

Avenues of Yew trees were formed as early as the Stuart period and
more frequently in the early Hanoverian times ; but the comparatively
slow growth of the trees and especially' the dark and gloomy aspect
produced by them when full grown and standing in close proximity to
rach other, caused the planting of Yew avenues to fall into disuse.
Among the most noteworthy still remaining are those at Cleisli Castle in
Kinross, Candover near Alresford, Overtoii-on-Dee near Ellesmere, and
Aberglasney in Carnarvonshire.* In Ireland where the humidity of the
climate induces a more rapid growth and a more verdant aspect of the
foliage, Yew avenues are scarcely so sombre as in Great Britain; mention
may be made of those at (Hencormas near Bray, < )ldcastle in Co. Meatli,
Clonfert in King's County and in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin.
At Ihmganstown in Co. AVicklow is a row or colonnade of Yew trees
remarkable for uniformity of growth so unusual in the Yew and the
consequent impressive effect produced by it. The trees, fifteen in number,
have straight undivided trunks to the greater part of their height which
exceeds forty feet and have an average girth of eight feet at three feet
from the ground; the distance between them varies from eight to sixteen
feet ; the branching begins at about eight feet from the ground and
continues regularly upwards forming a close mass of dark foliage to the
summit, f

For the formation of hedges, the Yew has long been recognised as one,
of the best plants that can be selected, especially where space can be
allowed for it to attain the width necessary to render it an efficient
protective screen. A Yew hedge is also an ornamental adjunct to the
flower garden and pleasure grounds for which it not only forms an
efficient screen but it often produces a picturesque effect. Very old and
massive Yew hedges are to lie seen at Pewsey in Wiltshire, Melbourne
in Derbyshire, Holme Lacey near Hereford, Hadham in Hertfordshire,
Albury Park near Ouildford, and other places.

The Yew sports into many varieties and sub- varieties, of which those
described in the preceding pages are distinct and ornamental, and
include some valuable additions to the resources of the gardener and
landscape planter, notably the varieties adprcssa, Dovastoni and
faxtiyiata (The Irish Yew).J

The following account of the origin of the variety wl^rt^^a was
communicated to "The Garden" by the late Mr. Francis Dickson of
Chester: — "This Yew was discovered by. my father Mr. Francis Dickson
about the year 1838 growing in a bed of seedlings of the common Yew.
Being of slow growth it was necessarily slow of propagation, and it took

* Others are mentioned by Dr. Lowe in "The Yew Trees of Great Britain," pp. 14—16.

t For au opportunity of inspecting this singular arboreal phenomenon I am indebted to
the kindness of Mr. Thomas Acton, the genial proprietor of Kilmacurragh.

t It is worthy of note that the most striking deviations from the common type are fruit-
bearing (female) plants, for such are culpressa, Dovastoni, f<txtigint«. and fructu lutco. The
vars. dui-i'ii. (jlnucii (Blue John) and oVn>/V/^ are said to 'be males.

140 THE WESTFELTON AND IRISH YEWS.

many years to get up a stock upon the grounds of the then firm of
F. and J. Dickson, of which my father was the head. I well remember
the value he set upon this plant and the vexation when, on his return
home after a few days' absence, he learned that a representative of the
firm of Knight and Perry of Chelsea had purchased and taken away with
him some half-dozen good-sized plants as the result of negotiation with
an inexperienced salesman who was presumably ignorant of their value.
This enabled the Chelsea firm to propagate it and eventually to distribute
it, which they did under the name of adpressa, but my father always
adhered to the name he had originally given it — brevifolia" * The name
adpressa is here retained, as brevifolia has been applied to two other
Yews quite distinct from the Chester seedling.

The origin of the Dovaston or "Westfelton Yew is thus stated by
London : — " The Westfelton Yew stands in the grounds of Mr. J. F. M.
Dovaston, of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury, and the following account of it
has been sent to us by that gentleman: 'About sixty years ago
(now over a hundred) my father, John Dovaston, a man without
education but of unwearied industry and ingenuity, had, with his own
hands, sunk a well and constructed and placed a pump in it, and the
soil being light and sandy, it constantly fell in. He secured it with
wooden boards, but perceiving their speedy decay, he planted near the
well a Yew tree, which he "bought of a cobbler for sixpence, rightly
judging that the fibrous and matting tendency of the Yew roots would
hold up the soil. They did so, and independently of its utility, the Yew
grew into a tree of extraordinary and striking beauty, spreading
horizontally all round, with a single aspiring leader to a great height,
each branch in every direction dangling in tressy verdure downwards,
the lowest ones to the very ground, pendulous and playful as the most
graceful birch or willow, and visibly obedient to the feeblest breath of
air.' "t This beautiful tree is still flourishing ; at the present time
.(1900) the girth of the trunk at 4J feet from the ground is nearly
9 feet and the height is 37 feet,;

The Irish Yew originated from a plant accidentally found 011 the
mountains of Fermanagh, near Florence Court, more than a century
ago. The original tree is a female, so that the thousands of plants
propagated from it are berry-bearing, a circumstance that greatly enhances
the ornamental qualities of this shrub during the autumn months.

The following account of the origin of the Irish Yew is taken from
the "Gardeners' Chronicle " for 1873, p. 1336, where it is reprinted from
the " People's Journal," as it appeared in one of a series of chapters
entitled " A Visit to the Eastern Necropolis " (at Dundee), by a writer
under the nom de plume of " Xorval," dating from Rossie Priory. It
will be seen that the account contains an apt illustration of one of the
purposes for which the Irish Yew is much planted : —

"Near by our place is a grave marked by a small and solitary Irish
Yew, and nothing more. I know not who had been laid under it.

* The Garden, XXIX (1886) p. 221. In the same volume, p. 268, is a further com-
munication on this subject from Messrs. James Dickson and Sons of Chester, who state that
the original Taxus adpressa was found in a bed of Thorn seedlings ten years earlier than
the date given above. In Knight and Perry's " Synopsis of Coniferous Plants " it is entered
as Taxus fardiva (Endlicher) with the synonyms T. adpressa (Hort.) and T. brevifolia
(Hort.).

t Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2082.

J Mr. J. F. E. Dovaston, the present owner in Jit.

THE IRISH YEWg.

141

That dark green ' mournful Yew,' however, serves a purpose in some
hearts. Here and there in the Necropolis are to be seen similar
monuments breaking the monotony of the grassy ranges. Each of them
seems to have a sad story in its custody. The dark Yew has long been
adopted as ' a favourite tree for shading the ground of our dead. The

Fig. 52. The original Irish Yew at Florence Court.

Irish" Yew, or Florence Court variety of the Yew, has in a special
manner become the most prominent and distinguished of the family.
The history of the Irish Yew may be of interest to many. Here it is,
and I quote from the MS. in possession of Lord Kinnaird — 'Above
one hundred years ago, Mr. Willis, farmer, of Aghenteroark, in
the parish of Killesher, county of Fermanagh, found upon his farm

142 TAXUS BREVIFOLIA.

on the mountains above Florence Court, two plants of this tree.
These he dug up, and planted one in his own garden. He took the other
down to his landlord at Mount Florence, where it was planted. The
tree that was planted in his own garden remained there till the year
1865, when it died. The other is still alive at Florence Court, and
is the one from which the millions of plants now distributed in all
parts have sprung. The first cuttings were given by my father,
the Earl of Enniskillen, to Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, then the
largest nurserymen about London.' Signed, Enniskillen, Rossie Priory,
September 8th, 1867."

The illustration, from a photograph sent to Messrs. Veitch by the late
Earl of Enniskillen, represents the original Irish Yew at Florence Court
as seen about twenty -live years ago ; at the present time it has a more
open, straggling habit and also a somewhat unhealthy appearance
believed to have been caused by some laurels being allowed to grow
too freely around it but which have since been cut away.

The wood of the Yew is exceedingly hard and close-grained, of a
beautiful reddish brown colour, susceptible of a high polish, and very
durable, tough and 'elastic. It was also formerly much used in the
manufacture of articles of domestic furniture, many antique and curious
specimens of which are still preserved in museums, etc. The spray
and foliage of the Yew are poisonous to cattle. The berries are
glutinous, and have a sweet taste ; they are often eaten by children
without being followed by harmful consequences. The kernel, too, is
edible, and has a bitter flavour not unlike that of the seeds of the
Stone Pine (Pinus j tinea).

Taxus brevifolia.

" A tree usually 40 — 50 but occasionally 70 — 80 feet in height
with a straight trunk 1 — 2 feet thick, rarely more, frequently
unsymmetrical and irregularly lobed, and with long, slender, horizontal
or slightly pendulous branches. Bark of trunk about 0*25 inch thick,
covered with small, thick, dark red-purple scales which 011 falling
expose a bright red-purple inner bark. Branchlets slender ; buds small
with loosely imbricated yellow-green scales. Leaves 0*5 — 0'625 inch
long, dark yellow-green above, paler below with stout midribs and
slender petioles, persistent four — five years." Fructification as in the
common Yew. — Sargent, Silra of North America, X. 65, t. 514.

Taxus brevifolia, Nuttall, Sylva, III. 86, t. 108 (1849). Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 742. Hoopes, Evergreens, 383. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 501.
Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 110. Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 463.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 392. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 177. Masters in Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 249

T. Boursieri, Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1854, p. 228, with fig. ; and Traite Conif.
ed. II. 739.

T. Lindleyana, Murray in Edinb. New Phil. Journ. I. 294 (1855)

Eng. California!! Yew. Anier. Western Yew. Fr. If de Californie. Germ.
Kurxbliitteriger Eibenbaum.

Taxus brevifolia is widely distributed over the Pacific region of
north-west America from Queen Charlotte's Island to south California,
but nowhere very abundant ; it ascends the Selkirk mountains in
British Columbia to 4,000 feet, and the western slopes of the Sierra

TAX US CUSPIDATA. 143

Nevada to 8,000 feet, preferring the banks of streams and deep
ravines, and usually growing under larger coniferous trees ; its
eastern limit occurs on the Kocky mountains of Montana. It is a
smaller and more slender tree than the European Yew, with shorter
thinner leaves that abruptly terminate in a bristle-like mucro.

The Calif ornian Yew was discovered by David Douglas during his
first mission to north-west America in 1825. It was introduced by
William Murray in 1854, but it is still exceedingly rare in British
gardens.*

Taxus canadensis.

A prostrate shrub seldom rising more than 2—3 feet above
the ground. Brandies spreading, elongated, stoutisli, much ramified and
covered with reddish brown bark. Branchlets slender, spreading or more
or less pendent; buds small, globose, with reddish brown pernlae.
Leaves shortly petiolate, crowded, pseudo-distichous in two ranks, shorter
and narrower than in the common Yew, and \vith revolnte margins.

Taxus canadensis, Wildeuow, Sp. Plant. IV. 856 (1805). London, AH), et Frnt.
Brit. IV. 2093. Endliclier, Synops. Couif. 243. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II.
739. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 501. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 393. Beissner,
Xadelholzk. 176. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc, XIV. 249.

T. baccata var. canadensis, Gray, Manual, ed. II. 425. Macoun, Cat. Canad.
Plants, 463.

T. baccata, Hooker, W. Flor. Bor. Amer. II. 167 (in part).

Kng. Canadian Ve\v. Fr. If dn Canada. Germ. Kanadischer Eibenbaum.
Ital. Tasso del Canada.

The Canadian Yew is common in damp woods in many parts of the
forest country extending from Anticosti, Newfoundland, and Nova
Scotia through Canada to the northern shore of Lake Superior and to
Lake Winnipeg, f South of the Dominion boundary it spreads through
the northern States from New Jersey to Minnesota. It was introduced
early in the nineteenth century ; it is now but seldom seen in British
gardens, being far surpassed as a decorative plant by varieties of the
common Yew.

Taxus cuspidata.

A tree 40 — 50 feet high with a trunk 2 feet in diameter covered
with bright red bark;| under cultivation a much smaller tree. In Great
Britain, the oldest specimens are mostly shrubs with two — -three or more
ascending much-branched stems. Branches spreading or ascending,
ramification distichous; bark reddish brown marked with outgrowths
decnrrent from the bases of the leaves. Branchlets numerous, short and
close-set. Leaves on the lateral shoots pseudo-distichous, often turned
upwards and inwards; on the erect shoots spirally arranged around them
. and spreading, 0'5 — 1 inch long, shortly petiolate and mucronate, dark

* The Yew usually met with in cultivation under the name of Turn* br''rif<>//« is
the short-leaved variety of T. baccata described in page 127
t Macoun, Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Joe. cit.
% Sargent. Forest Flora of Japan, 76.

144 TAXUS FLOEJDANA.

lustrous green above, fulvous green below, the midrib marked by a
shallow keel on both sides. Fructification as in the common Yew.

Taxus cuspidate, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 61, t. 128 (1842).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 243. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 502. Franchet et
Savetier, Emim. Plant. Jap. I. 472. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 394. Masters in Journ.
Linn. Soc. XVIII. 499 ; and in Jonrn. R. Hort, Soc. XIV. 299.

T. baccate, Thmiberg, Fl. Jap. 275 (1784).

T. baccate var. cuspidate, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 733. Beissner,
Xadelholzk. 173.

Eng. Japanese Yew. Fr. If du Japon. Germ. Japanisclier Eibenbaum. Ital.
Tasso giapponese. Jap. Ichii, Momi-noki.

Taxus cuspidata has been cultivated throughout Japan from time
immemorial but is known to be endemic only in the northern island,
Yeso, where it attains its greatest development. The wood, like that of
the common Yew, is tough, close-grained, and beautifully coloured and
is used by the wealthier inhabitants for cabinet-work and indoor
decoration, and by the Amos, the aboriginal inhabitants of Yeso, for
making bows. As distinguished from the European type, the leaves
are broader, more abruptly pointed, more leathery in texture and
lighter in colour.

Taxus floridana.

A bushy tree rarely 25 feet high with a short trunk about a foot in
diameter, and numerous short, spreading branches ; more often shrubby
in habit, 12 — 15 feet high. Bark thin, purple-brown, smooth,
occasionally separating into large, irregular, plate-like scales. Branches
slender ; buds small with loosely imbricated pale yellow perulse. Leaves
usually conspicuously falcate, O75 to 1 inch in length, dark green above
and paler below with rather obscure midribs and slender petioles.
Sargent, Silva of North America, X. 67, t. 515.

Taxus floridana, Chapman, Fl. 436 (1860). Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 741.
Hoopes, Evergreens, 384. Sargent, Forest Trees of N. America, 10th Census, IX.
U.S.A., 186.

Taxus floridana is restricted to a narrow area in western Florida
extending about thirty miles along the eastern bank of the river
Appalachicola. It was discovered in 1833 by Mr. Hardy B. Groom; it
received, however, but little notice from botanists till it was described
by Chapman in his " Flora of the Southern States," published in 1860.
Except in habit, it is not easily distinguishable from the Canadian
Yew ; it has probably not yet been introduced into British gardens.

DACEYDIUM.

Solander in Forster's Plant, esculent. 80 (1786). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 224 (1847).

Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 493 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III.

433 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fain. 106 (1887). Masters in
Jonrn. Linn. Soc. XXX. 8 (1893).

A genus of trees and shrubs with heteromorphic foliage including
about twelve species, of which seven are natives of New Zealand,
one is endemic in Tasmania and one in Chile (the Lepidothtmuuix

DACRYDIUM CUPRESSINUM. 145

Fonki of some authors) ; the others are distributed through New
Caledonia, the Fiji Islands, the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. The
essential characters of the genus are chiefly these : —

Flowers dioecious. Staminate flowers small, solitary and terminal,

surrounded at the base by a few involucral bracts. Anthers sessile,

crowded, spirally arranged around a central axis, two-celled, with an

elongated peltate connective.

Ovuliferous flowers terminal, solitary or in lax spikes, composed of

one — three or more thickened scales of which one, rarely two, bear an

ovule, at first horizontal, but after fertilisation becoming erect and

surrounded at the base by a fleshy aril.

Fruit, a nut, usually of ovoid shape, seated on a fleshy or dry

receptacle which is green or otherwise coloured, requiring (New Zealand

species) more than a year to attain maturity.

Two of the species are of great importance in their native
countries on account of their valuable timber, viz., the Kimu or Ked
Pine of New Zealand, Dacrydium cupres&inum, and the Huon Pine of
Tasmania, D. Frariklinii, both of which are cultivated in Great
Britain. Compared with these, the other species are of little value
or interest ; mention may, however, be made of D. laxifolium, one
of the smallest of Taxads, a weak straggling shrub common in the
mountain districts of New Zealand, and which is rarely found more
than a foot high ; and of D. Kirkii, the tallest of the New
Zealand species and the most local ; its habitat is restricted to the
extreme northern portion of the North Island.

The generic name is derived from SaicpvSiov (diminutive of SaKpv,

a tear), in allusion to the weeping habit of the species.

Dacrydium cupressinum.

A tall or medium-sized tree with a trunk varying in height from
40 to 80 feet, and in diameter from 2 to 4 feet, covered with
dark brown or grey-brown bark which falls away in thick scale-like
plates like those of the Scots Pine. Branches more or less pendulous
with distichous ramification, but becoming more spreading in old age.
Branchlets slender, elongated, alternate or opposite, and drooping like
their primaries, in old age shorter and recurved at the tip. Leaves
persistent four — five or more years ; on young plants close-set and
spirally arranged around their axes, awl-shaped with a rather broad
decurrent base 0*25 — 0'5 inch long, spreading, dark green ; on
old trees much smaller, scale-like, trigonous and imbricated. Staminate
flowers green and inconspicuous on the tips of the erect or upturned
branchlets. Ovuliferous flowers solitary, terminal. Seeds about one-
eighth of an inch long.

Dacrydium cupressinum, Solander in Forster's Plant, esculent. 80 (1786). L. 0.

Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 16, t. 2, fig. 3 (1826). Endliclier, Synops. Conif.

225 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 691. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.

494. Hooker til, Handb. N. Zeal. Fl. 258. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 104. Kirk,

Forest Fl. N. Zeal. 29, tt. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc.

XIV. 209.

N. Zeal, vernacular, Rimu, Red Pine.

146 DACRYDIUM FRANKLINII.

This remarkable tree was discovered during Captain Cook's first
voyage to the South Pacific Ocean 1768 — 1771, and Dr. Solander
who accompanied the expedition as botanist founded upon it the
genus Dacrydium. The following particulars respecting it are taken
from Kirk's " Forest Flora of New Zealand " : —

Dacrydium cupressinum occupies a larger area of the New Zealand
forests than any other native tree ; when growing in an open situation
it is extremely beautiful with its pendulous branches and conical
outline, but when surrounded with other trees it forms a comparatively
small round head with drooping branches ; its drooping habit is unique
amongst New Zealand Conifers. Its wood is adapted to a larger number
of important uses than that of any other tree .in the colony, bat its
intrinsic value is less than that of the Kauri Pine, Ayathis australis,
or the Totara, Podocarpus Totara. It supplies the chief timber
employed for general building purposes over two-thirds of the colony;
it is also extensively used for fencing and railway ties but not with
very satisfactory results as it is not durable in contact with the ground.
The wood is of a dark red colour with light red or yellow streaks,
and takes a high polish, it is thence much in request by cabinet-
makers in the manufacture of household furniture ; it is also used for
panelling both in public and private buildings. The bark is often
used by the tanner, but the amount of tannin contained in it is small,,
being only about 4 '3 per cent.

In Great Britain Dacrydium cupressinum is occasionally used as a
decorative plant in its young state for the conservatory on account of
its gracefully pendulous habit.

Dacrydium Franklinii.

A tall pyramidal tree 80 — 100 feet high with a trunk 3—5 feet
in diameter at the base. Primary branches spreading or slightly
depressed; branchlets slender, pendulous with tetrastichous ramification,,
the herbaceous shoots short, close-set and often much divided. Leaves
bright green in decussate pairs; on the axial growths lanceolate-
rhomboidal, acute, sharply keeled, imbricated, free at the apex ; on th&
lateral shoots much smaller, ovoid-rhomboidal and concrescent. Staminate
flowers small, terminal or short recurved lateral branchlets, cylindric,
composed of fifteen — twenty anthers with a deltoid connective. Ovuliferous
flowers in a curved terminal spike composed of "four — eight adherent
scales on each of which is seated a sessile ovule whose outer integu-
ment is abbreviated and the apex of the inner is exserted and points
to the peduncle of the spike."

Dacrydium Franklinii, Hooker fil in Lond. Journ. Bot. IV. 152, t. 6 (1845) ;
and Fl. Tasman I. 357, t. 100 A (1860). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 227. Carriere
Traite Conif. ed. II. 695. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 495. Gordon, Pinet. ed.
II. 106. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 209.

Huon Pine of Tasmania.

The Huon Pine, the most valuable timber tree of Tasmania, is.
restricted to the south-west part of the island. It was formerly
abundant arotind Macquarie Harbour and along the Huon river, but
in consequence of the continuous demand for its timber, especially

PODOCARPUS. 147

•for ship and boat building, it has greatly diminished in numbers
since its first discovery by Allan Cunningham in 1817. The wood
is close-grained, easily worked, burns briskly, giving out a pleasant
aromatic fragrance, and is used for every purpose for which coniferous
timber is in request.

Dacrydium Franklinii is described by those who have seen it in
its native country as a noble tree of broadly pyramidal outline, with
drooping branchlets clothed with foliage of the brightest green. It
was introduced into British gardens many years ago and has proved to
be fairly hardy in the south and south-west of England and Ireland,
but always forming a shrub of irregular habit of which the primary
branches are covered with light red-brown bark, and the brauchlets
slender, sometimes much elongated, drooping or quite pendulous. The
tree was named in compliment to Sir John Franklin, Governor of
Tasmania at the time of Captain Ross' Antarctic expedition " for his
zealous co-operation in all the objects of the expedition, and for his
mi wearied zeal in forwarding the cause of science in that colony."

PODOCAKPUS.

L'Heritier, MS. (1788) nov. gen. ex typo. Taxi elongatae, ex L. C. Richard Mem. sur
les Coriif. 13, t. 1 (1826). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 206 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 507 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 434 (1881). Eicliler in Engler and
Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 104 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 9 (1893).

A genus of evergreen trees and shrubs dispersed over the tropical
and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres including Japan and
New Zealand, the last named group of islands numbering seven
species in its flora, but 'absent from the Mediterranean region and
sub-tropical North America. The essential characters may be thus
formulated : —

Flowers monoecious or dioecious, axillary or sub-terminal. Stamiiiate
flowers solitary or fascicled on a common peduncle, surrounded at the
base by a few imbricated bracts. Stamens spirally crowded. Anthers
two lobed.

Ovuliferous flowers pedunculate, solitary or in pairs, surrounded at
the base by a few bracts which together with the raphe of the ovule,
the peduncle and the outer coat of the seed become fleshy. Ovule
solitary and anatropous.

Fruit small, globose or ovoid with a fleshy pericarp seated on a
fleshy receptacle.

Leaves variable in shape and attachment, opposite, alternate or
scattered ; linear or oblong with a single median nerve- or with
parallel- veins as in Podocarpus Nageia] sometimes dimorphic on
the same branch.

Upwards of seventy species of Podocarpus have been described by
different authors, but more than one -third of them are but very
imperfectly known, owing doubtless to the remoteness of their
habitats and the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory specimens,
especially of the flowers and fruits, for critical examination and

148 PODOCAKPUS CHILINUS.

comparison ; it is thence probable that many of these imperfectly •
known forms may hereafter be reduced to varieties or even to
synonyms of the authentic types.

The Podocarps occupy but a subordinate place in the British
Pinetum. Of the introduced species, not more than four or five
can be cultivated in the open ground in any part of Great Britain,
but the number might be increased by the addition of two shrubby
alpine species (P. nivalis and P. acutifolius) that inhabit the
mountains of the South Island of New Zealand. The hardy species
are described in the following pages with the addition of three
others that are highly valued for their timber in their native
country.

The generic name Podocarpus is derived from TTOUC, TTO&OC (a foot)
and Kap-TTog (fruit), in reference to the swollen peduncle of the fruit.

Podocarpus alpinus.

A prostrate straggling bush, but sometimes arborescent, attaining a
height of 12 — 15 feet. Branches spreading, often much elongated;
branchlets slender, opposite or in pseudo-whorls, with pale green bark
furrowed longitudinally. Leaves inserted all round the stem or
obscurely two-ranked, often recurved, linear or linear-oblong, obtuse,
O25 — 0*5 inch long, tapering to a very short petiole, dark green
above, glaucous beneath with thickened margins and midrib. " Staminate
flowers cylindric, scarcely so long as the leaves, sessile, solitary or
fascicled. Fruit small, elliptic, seated on or towards the apex of one
fork of a bifid, fleshy, scarlet, sub-cylindric peduncle which is larger
than the fruit, and consists of several fleshy bracts adnate to the
swollen peduncle."*

Podocarpus alpinus, R. Brown ex Mirbel in Mem. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. XIII. 75
(1825). Hooker nl in Lond. Joiirn. Bot. IV. 151 ; and Fl. Tasm. I. 356. Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 214. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 520. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
351. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 194. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 242.

P. Totara alpina, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 652.

Podocarpus alpinus inhabits the mountains of Victoria and Tasmania
at 3,000 to 4,000 feet elevation ; in the first-named colony it occurs
on Mounts Buller and Hotham, in the latter on Mounts Wellington
and Marlborough. It has long been in cultivation in British
gardens, and has proved to be one of the hardiest of the genus.
The date of introduction does not appear to have been recorded.

Podocarpus chilinus.

A much-branched tree 40 — 50 feet high. Branches scattered, close-
set, spreading and much ramified. In Great Britain, usually a low
dense shrub rarely a medium-size tree. Branchlets with smooth brown
bark, opposite or in pseudo-whorls of three — five, but sometimes

* Flora of Tasmania, loc. cit.

PODOCAKPUS DACRYDIOIDES. 149

solitary. Leaves scattered or with an obscurely spiral arrangement,
1-5 — 3-75 inches long, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, sessile, or
narrowed at the base into a very short petiole, straight or falcately
curved, dark lustrous green with a thickened midrib above, much
paler and obscurely keeled beneath. Fruits pedunculate, solitary
or in pairs, the peduncles axillary, one-third as long as the leaves
and bearing at their summit a fleshy receptacle on which is seated an
ellipsoid fruit.

Podocarpus chilinus, L. C. Richard in Ann. Mus. Paris, XVI. 297 (1810); and
Mem. sur les Conif. 11 (1826). London, Arb. et Frat. Brit. IV. 2101 (1838).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 212 (1847). Gay, Fl. Chil. V. 402. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 649. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 511. Gordon, Pinct. ed.
II. 329. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 242.

P. salignus, Hort.

Podocarpus chilinus has an extensive range in the sub-alpine Andean
region of Chile from the province of Maule southwards to Valclivia.
It was discovered by Dombey, a French botanist who accompanied
Kuiz and Pavon during their mission to Peru and Chile (1777 — 1787),
and from Dombey's herbarium specimens it was figured and described
by the elder Eichard in the publications quoted above. It was
introduced into P>ritish gardens about the year 1849 ; it is hardy in
the south of England and Ireland.*

Podocarpus dacrydioides.

A lofty tree 80 — 150 feet high with a trunk 4 — 5 feet in
diameter covered with thin greyish brown bark, and usually free of
branches to the greater part of the height. Branches and branchlets
slender, the latter much and repeatedly ramified. Leaves dimorphic ;
on young trees linear, flat, about 0'25 inch long, bifarious with up-
turned tips and of a deep bronzy green • on adult trees smaller, scale-like,
in decussate pairs, subulate, imbricated or concrescent, dark green.
Inflorescence dioecious ; staminate flowers small, solitary and terminal,
the anthers Avith a deltoid connective ; ovuliferous flowers terminal and
sessile, " consisting of three — four rarely two— five carpellary leaves bent
like a sickle and usually carrying a single ovule on the face. Fruit
a shining black nut seated on a crimson pulpy receptacle developed
from the carpellary leaf."

Podocarpus dacrydioides, A. Richard, Fl. Nov. Zeal. 358, t. 39 (1832). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 223. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 678. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 520. Hooker fil, Handb. N. Zeal. Fl. 258. Gordon, Pinet. ed.
II. 357. Kirk, Forest Fl. N. Zeal. 41, t. 31, 32.

N. Zeal, vernacular, Kahikatea, White Pine.

Podocarpus dacrydioides is distributed throughout New Zealand either
scattered amongst other trees or forming extensive forests in low
grounds by river sides or in swampy situations ; it was originally
discovered by Captain Cook in the great forest between the Thames
and Piako rivers. It is one of the most valuable timber trees of the

* The finest specimen known to the author is at Panjerrick, near Falmouth, which
is upwards of 40 feet high. There is a beautiful tree of smaller dimensions at
Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow, and another at Fota Island, near Cork.

150 PODOCARPUS MACROPHYLLUS.

colony ; the wood is white, firm, strong, straight in grain and of fairly
even texture but not durable when in contact with the ground ; it is
extensively used in house-building, framing and weather-boarding, and
it is especially suitable for conversion into pulp for the manufacture
of paper.

The late Mr. Kirk described a virgin forest of Kahikatea trees as one
of the most striking sights in New Zealand scenery. — " Straight un-
branched trunks rise one after the other in endless series and in such
close proximity that at a short distance no trace of foliage is visible
except overhead or in the immediate vicinity of the observer; the naked
symmetrical shafts tapering almost imperceptibly, appear to form dense
walls which completely shut out every glimpse of the outer world. "-
Forest Flora of New Zealand,.

Podocarpus ferruginous.

A tall round-topped tree 50 — 80 feet high with a trunk 1 — 3 feet
in diameter covered with dark greyish bark deeply furrowed or cast
off in large flat flakes. Leaves distichous, narrowly linear, acute, 0*5 —
0'75 inch long, with thickened midrib and often falcately curved.
Inflorescence dioecious; staminate flowers solitary, axillary, sessile, as long
as the leaves; ovuliferous flowers axillary, consisting of a single ovule
borne on a short stalk clothed with minute scale-like leaves. Fruit
about 0'75 inch long with a bright red pericarp covered with a glaucous
bloom and enclosing a hard nut containing a single seed.* — Kirk, Forext
Flora of New Zealand, 163, t. 84.

Podocarpus ferruginous, Don in Lambert's Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II. App.
(1832). Hooker, W. Icon. PI. 542 (1843). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 220. Hooker
til, Handb. N. Zeal. Fl. 253. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 674. Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 519. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 352.

N. Zeal, vernacular, The Miro.

" Podocarpus ferrugineus is generally distributed throughout New
Zealand but is less plentiful in the North than in the South Island.
It occurs in great abundance in the southern part of the South Island
and forms a large proportion of the forest on Stewart Island." Miro
timber exceeds that of all other New Zealand Taxads in strength ; it
is straight and even in grain, hard and elastic, but not durable in
contact with the ground.

Podocarpus macrophyllus.

A low or medium-sized tree 25 — 40 feet high with a straight
erect trunk covered with ash-brown bark and with a diffuse or spreading
crown. Branches crowded and much ramified ; branchlets (of plants in
British gardens) stoutish, short, close-set and angulate. Leaves scattered
or sub-spirally arranged around their axis, shortly petiolate, narrowly
lanceolate, sub-acuminate, 2 -5 — 5 inches long, straight or slightly
falcately curved, dark green with a narrow keel along the midrib above,

It is probable that this species may be hereafter referred to Prtinniopitys if that genus
should be retained.

PODOCARPUS NAGEIA. 151

much paler and keeled beneath. Inflorescence not seen ; as represented
by Siebold and Zuccarini's figures : — staminate flowers in axillary clusters,
cylindric, about an inch long; ovuliferous flowers solitary, rarely in pairs,
pedunculate and bibracteate. Fruit roundish, about the size of a large
pea, seated in a sub-cylindric, fleshy receptacle as large again as itself.

Podocarpus macropliyllus, Don in Lambert's Genus Finns, ed. I. Vol. II. 22
(1824), not Wallich. Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 70, tt. 133, 134.
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 216. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 644. Paiiatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 517. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 340. Franchet et Savetier,
Enum. Plant. Jap. I. 475. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 194. Masters in Jonrn. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 243. Sargent, Forest Fl. Jap. 77.

Taxns macrophylla, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 276 (1784). Alton, Hort. Kew. ed. II.
Vol. V. 416 (1813).

Jap. vernacular, Maki.

vars.— argenteo-variegatus and aureo-variegatus.

Branchlets shorter and the leaves more crowded than in the common
form, the leaves of the first named with a broad cream-white, and of
the second with a broad yellow margin; in both varieties many of the
young leaves when first developed are wholly white in the one and
wholly yellow in the other.

P. macrophyllus argenteo- and aureo-variegatus, supra. P. cliinensis argentea and
aurea, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 331.

Podocarpus macropliyllus first became known to science in the early
part of the eighteenth century through Krempfer.* It was also
seen by Thunberg during his brief stay in Japan in 1777, and who
described it in his " Flora Japonica :; under the name of Taxus
macrophylla. Fifty years later it was gathered by Siebold whose
figures of it are among the best yet published ; it is common in
cultivation throughout Japan but not known to be endemic. Several
varieties are known to Japanese horticulturists, and among them the
two variegated forms described above which were first sent to this
country by Mr. Fortune in 1861 and re-introduced by Mr. James H.
Veitch in 1892. Around Tokio the common form is much used as
a hedge plant, and is often cut into fantastic shapes, whilst the
variegated forms are preferred for pot culture and dwarfing.

Podocarpus Nageia.

A medium-sized tree with an erect trunk covered, when old, with
smooth purplish bark. Branches spreading or sub-pendulous with
distichous ramification ; branchlets opposite or alternate, sub-angulate,
.green. Leaves in decussate pairs, rarely alternate, somewhat distant,
•elliptic-lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, acute, 2 — 3 inches long and
0*75 — 1 inch broad, narrowed at the base into a short petiole, many-
nerved, leathery in texture, dull green. Flowers monoecious (?), axillary,
bracteate. Staminate flowers in fascicles of three — five, cylindric, about
an inch long. Ovuliferous flowers solitary or in pairs, shortly pedun-
culate, the receptacle scarcely thicker than the peduncle. Fruit about

* Amoenitates Exoticse, p. 780, published in 1712.

152 PODOCARPUS NERIIFOLIUS.

the size of a small cherry with a dark purplish pericarp enclosing a small
seed with a bony testa.

Podocarpus Nageia, R. Brown, ex. Mirbel in Mem. du Musee Paris, XIII. 75
(1825). Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 71, t. 135 (1842). Endlicher, Synods.
Gonif. 207 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 508. Franchet et Savetier,
Enum. PI. Jap. I. 474. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 243. Sargent,
Forest Fl. Jap. 77.

Nageia japonica, Gaertner, Carpol. I. 191, t. 39 (1788). Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 635 (1867). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 180.

Jap. vernacular, Nagi.

Podocarpus Nageia, like the preceding species, is of Japanese
origin and first became known to science through Kjempfer who
accurately described and figured it in his "Amoenitates" under the name
of Laurus julifera. In 1*788 the German botanist, Gaertner, gave it
generic rank as Nageia japonica, in which he is followed by Carriere
and others, the character chiefly relied on being its broad leaves
arranged in pairs, certainly a very distinct one but which it possesses
in common with three or four other species of Malayan origin. By
Endlicher all these were made sectional under Podocarpus to which
the organs of fructification sufficiently conform.

Podoca)*pus Nageia has been assiduously cultivated by the Japanese
from time immemorial with whom it is a great favourite, especially a
variety in which the leaves are marked with broad white stripes, and
this they use for dwarfing and pot culture. Professor Sargent remarks
that "the real beauty of the tree is only seen when it has become
large and old and the trunk covered with its peculiar smooth purple
bark. A grove of these trees on the hill behind the Shinto temple
at Nara is one of the most interesting spots in Japan."* According to-
Carriere, it was introduced into European gardens in 1840 ; it is now but
seldom seen, and in Great Britain it is always more or less injured
if not killed by severe winter frosts, a fact indicative of a sub-tropical
origin.

Podocarpus neriifolius.

A much-branched shrub or small tree with the branchlets ridged and
furrowed by cortical outgrowths decurrent from the bases of the leaves.
"Leaves scattered, approximate, narrowly lanceolate, acute, coriaceous,
dark green above, pale and slightly glaucous beneath, tapering below
into a very short petiole. Staminate flowers axillary, sessile, solitary,
cylindric, an inch long, arising from a cup-shaped scaly involucre ;
anthers numerous, imbricated, two-celled. Ovuliferous flowers solitary,
axillary, pedunculate. Receptacle of the fruit oblong, fleshy, with an
oblong depression at the top becoming deep purple, and slightly glaucous
when mature. Seed obovate, glaucous green before maturity." — Botanical
Magazine, t. 4655.

Podocarpus neriifolius, Don in Lambert's Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II.
p. 22 (1828). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 215. Hooker, W. in Bot. Ma«- ioc cu
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 661. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 514. Brandis
Forest Fl. Ind. 541. Hooker til, Fl. Brit, Ind. V. 649.

Eng. Oleander-leaved Podocarp.

* Forest Flora of Japan, Ioc. clt. supra.

PODOCARPUS TOTARA. 153

A beautiful evergreen tree inhabiting the temperate Himalayas of
Nepal and Sikkim ; it also occurs on the Khasia Hills and in the
forests of Burmah, whence it spreads southwards into the Malay
peninsula and the Andaman Islands. It was introduced to the Royal
Gardens at Kew in the earl}7 part of the nineteenth century, and
is still cultivated in the great Temperate House,

Podocarpus nubigenus.

A tree of Yew-like aspect of variable dimensions according to the
situation in which it is growing. Leaves linear, or elongated oval-
elliptic, 1 — '2 inches long, sessile or attenuated at the base into a very
short footstalk, sub-acuminate with a thickened mid-nerve, dark lustrous
green above with two glaucous stomatiferous bands beneath. In-
florescence not seen. Fruit as described by the author of the specific
name " pedunculis solitariis, receptaculo oblique bilobo, obovator
brevioribus ; fructibus oblongis, oblique obtuse apiculatis."

Podocarpus nubigenus, Lindley in Journ. Hort, Soc. Lond. VI. 264 (1851);
and Paxton's Flower Garden, II. 162, with fig. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II.
650. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 513. Gay, Fl. Chil. V. 404. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 344. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 243.

Discovered by William Lobb in southern Chile in 1846, and
introduced by him in the following year to the Veitchian nursery
at Exeter. It was found associated with and growing under
the same conditions as Saxegothcea conspicua and which are stated
under that species. Although fairly hardy in the south-west of
England and in Ireland, the climate of this country, so different in
many respects from that of Southern Chile, is apparently unsuitable
for it, and like the Saxegothrea, it has proved disappointing.

Podocarpus Totara.

A tree varying in height from 40 — 80 and in places even to 100
or more feet, with a trunk 2 — 6 feet in diameter. Bark on old trees
often 3 inches thick, deeply furrowed ; on younger trees fibrous, reddish
brown and thrown off in ribbon-like shreds. Branches spreading, with
- distichous ramification ; brauclilets opposite, rigid, with dull green
channelled bark. Leaves spirally inserted but rendered pseudo-distichous
by a twist of the short petiole, linear or linear-lanceolate, nmeronate,
0*5 — 1*25 inch long, dull, dark green and channelled above, paler and
obscurely keeled beneath. Inflorescence dioecious. Staminate flowers
axillary on shoots of the preceding year, solitary or in twos and
threes, cylindric, sessile or shortly stalked, 0'5 — 0*75 inch long,
with four minute involucral bracts at the base ; anthers numerous with
a small, obtuse, toothed connective. Ovuliferous flowers axillary, shortly
stalked, consisting of two connate scales, one, rarely both, of which
bears an ovule near the apex. Fruit about the size of a cherry, with
a pulpy pericarp enclosing a nut rounded or slightly narrowed at the
apex.

154 PRUMNOPITYS.

Podocarpus Totara, Don in Lambert's Genus Finns, ed. II. Vol. II. App, 189
excl. syns. (1832). Hooker W. in Lond. Journ. Bot. I. 572, t. 19. Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 212. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 652. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI, 514.
Hooker til, Handb. N. Zeal. Fl. 258. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 350. Kirk, Forest
Fl. X. Zeal. 227, t. 115. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 243.

N. Zeal, vernacular, Totara.

The following account of the Totara is taken from Kirk's "Forest
Flora of New Zealand " :—

"With the exception of the Kauri, Ayathis australis, the Totara affords
the most valuable timber in New Zealand, but unlike the Kauri it
is found almost throughout the colony. It sometimes forms large
groves and even forests, but it is usually mixed with other trees.
The wood is of a deep red colour, varying considerably in depth of
tint ; it is straight in the grain, compact and of great durability ; it
does not warp or twist, and is easily worked ; it is an excellent
timber for general building purposes; it is of great value for bridges,
wharves and constructive works where large spans are not required,
also for railway ties, telegraph posts, palings and shingles, and for
marine piles it is invaluable on account of its great power in resisting
the attacks of the teredo."

The Totara was introduced into British gardens many years ago ;
a tree in the Temperate House in the Eoyal Gardens at Kevv is
over 35 feet high with a trunk somewhat slender in proportion to
li eight. In the open ground it grows slowly, and unless planted
in a warm sheltered spot, it is liable to be killed by winter frosts.

PRUMNOPITYS.

Philippi in Linna?a, XXX. 731 (1859—60). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 682 (1867).
Stachycarpus, Masters in Jonrn. Linn. Soc. XXX. 9 (1893). Podocarpus, sect. Stachycarpus,

-l-l IT • 1 n /~\ *(»^-<(->/-»rti^-\ 11 Al -ITT -i ^ VM . " *-

Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 218 (1847).

Fig. 53. Prumnopitys <-Jr<i<i>i8. Branchleta with
staminate flowers. Communicated by the Earl
of Ducie, from Tortworth Court.

Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 435.

In all the true Podocarps the
peduncle and ovule-bearing scale
of the seminiferous flowers become
fleshy when the fruit is mature,
forming the receptaculum of many
botanists, a characteristic on which
much stress has been placed as
it chiefly distinguishes Podocarpus
from the allied genera. In two
of the species included by most
authors in Podocarpus, and pro-
bably in others not yet sufficiently
known, the peduncle and fruit-
scale do not become fleshy ; in
Podocarpus andinus ( Poppig ),
inhabiting southern Chile, 041 which
Professor Philippi of Santiago

PRUMNOPITYS ELEGANS.

155

founded the genus Prumnopitys, and in 7J. spieata, a native of New
Zealand, the fruits are pseudo-terminal or sessile on a common rachis.
These two species with three others were made sectional by Endlicher
under the name of Stachycarpus ; this section is adopted by
Bentham and Hooker in the " Genera Plantarum " who include in it-
only the two species above named, and the same course is followed
by Eichler in Engler and Prantl's " Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien " ;
Dr. Maxwell Masters has, however, given the section generic rank
as Stachycarpus in the " Journal of the Linnean Society," but in
the Kew Hand-List, Prumnopitys is retained for the Chilian species
and for others in which the " receptaculum " is wanting.

As Prumnopitys differs from Podocarpus only in the absence of the
so-called " receptaculnm " further diagnosis is unnecessary; the name
is derived from Trpov/nvo^ (the wild plum) and irirvg (the pine tree).

Prumnopitys elegans.

A dioecious tree 40 — 50 feet high, but frequently much less especially

at its highest vertical limit,
the trunk covered with dark
brown bark and much
branched from the base
upwards. In Great Britain
usually a dense, much-
brancked shrub of pyramidal
or broadly columnar outline.
Brandies slender, spreading
or ascending and much rami-
fied. Branchlets close-set,
often pseudo-distichous,
opposite, with smooth green
bark that changes to brown
after the fall of the leaves.
Leaves persistent three — five
years, spirally crowded around
the branchlets, sub-distichous
on horizontal growths, spread-
ing on all sides in the
ascending or erect shoots,
linear, mucronate, 0*5 — 1 inch
lon<;-, straight or falcately

curved, dark green above, with the midrib indicated by a sjiallow
channel on the older leaves; paler with thickened midrib and margins
and with two glaucous stomatif erous bands beneath. Staminate flowers
in terminal and axillary racemes, cylindric, obtuse, subtended by a pale
green subulate bract ; stamens numerous, spirally and close-set around the
axis, sulphur-yellow. ' Fruit about the size of that of the wild Damson
(Prunus insititia) which it much resembles in shape and colour, solitary
and sessile or pseudo-terminal on short slender branchlets (rachides) on
which the leaves are reduced to small acute scales. Seed enclosed in a

Fig. 54. Prumnopitys elegans. Fruiting branchlet and fruits,
nat. size. Communicated by Mr. Coleman, from Eastnor.

Prumnopitys eleyan*. Fruit-bearing tree at Eastnor Castle, Ledbury.

PRUMNOPITYS SPICATA. 157

hard bony shell surrounded with a viscous pericarp covered by a tough
pergameneous skin.

Prumnopitys elegans, Philippi in Linnrea, XXX. 731 (1859—60). Lindley in
Gard. Chron. 1863, p. 6. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 682. Kent in Veitch's
Manual, ed. I. 316. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 244. Ke\v Hand-List, 25.

Podocarpus andinus, Poppig, Nov. Gen. et Sp. III. 18 ex Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 219 (1847). Gay, Fl. Chil. V. 403 (1849). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 519.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 351. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 195.

Stachycarpus andinus,* Van Tieglieni in Bull. Soc. Fr. 1891 (fide Masters).

Prumnopitys elegans inhabits the Andes of southern Chile where it
has a vertical range of from 4,500 to 6,000 feet elevation ; the limits
of its distribution are not known. It was introduced from Valdivia by
the Veitchian firm in 1860 through Richard Pearce and has proved
hardy over the greater part of Great Britain, but it grows most freely
in the south-western counties of England and in Ireland wherever it
has been planted.f

Prumnopitys spicata.

A tall tree attaining a maximum height of 80 feet, frequently much
less, with a trunk rarely exceeding 3 feet in diameter covered with
bluish black bark. Primary branches of young trees slender, pendulous
and much ramified; of adult trees erect or ascending with numerous short,
close-set branchlets. Leaves pseudo-distichous, narrowly linear, mucroiiate,
straight or falcately curved, about 0*5 inch long, green above, glaucous
beneath. Flowers dioecious in short spikes ; the staminate flowers ovoid,
cylindric, composed of numerous anthers with a cordate connective; the
ovuliferous flowers three — six on a spike, sessile and distant. Fruits
globose, 0'5 inch in diameter with a fleshy pericarp. Cotyledons two. —
Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, 5, tt. 4, 5.

Prumnopitys spicata, Masters in Kew Hand-List of Conifers, 25 (1896).

Podocarpns spicatus, R. Brown in Horsfield's Plant. Jav. rar. 40. Hooker, W.
Icon. PL 543 (1843). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 221. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II.
676. Hooker fil, Handb. N. Zeal. Fl. 258. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 519.
Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 354.

N. Zeal, vernacular, Black Pine, Matai.

The species described above was originally discovered by Banks and
Solander in Xew Zealand during the memorable voyage of the
Endeavour under the command of Captain Cook, 1768 — 71. It is
distributed in greater or less abundance throughout the colony,
including Stewart Island in the extreme south. Of its habit and
aspect in its native country Mr. Kirk remarks : —

There is a singular difference between the early and mature stages of
growth of this tree. Young trees from 10 to 20 feet high exhibit
crowded, slender, pendulous branches ramifying into innumerable
branchlets, the small narrow leaves, which are of a bronzed tint, being

* By the rule of priority this should be the accepted name. Stachycarpus is the
sectional name proposed by Endlicher in 1847 for the group of species here included in
Prumnopitys, and the specific name andinus (Poppig) is of still earlier date.

t Fine specimens of Prumnopitys elegans are growing at Eastnor Castle (both sexes) ; at
Tortworth Court (both sexes) ; Menabilly, Cornwall ; Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow ; at Fota
Island and Lakelands, Co. Cork.

158 SAXEGOTH/EA. .

confined to the extremities ; in tliis stage it is a weeping tree of most
remarkable appearance and differs so widely from the mature state that
it has been taken both by natives and settlers for a different tree. In
the mature state it forms a round-headed tree with erect branches
ultimately developing a vast number of short, strict, close-set branchlets.
The Matai affords timber of great value on account of its smooth even
texture, strength and durability; it is heavy and close-grained but easily
worked.

Prumnopitys spicata has been in cultivation under glass in Botanic
gardens for many years past, but no date of introduction appears to
have been recorded. As it grows wild in Stewart Island it is not
improbable that seedlings might be raised sufficiently hardy for the
climate of the south-western counties of England and Ireland.

SAXEGOTH^A.

Lindley in Journ. Hort. Soc. Loud. VI. 258 (1851). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.
497 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 434 (1881). Eichler in Engler and
Prantl. Nat. PH. Fam. 103 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 10 (1893).

As shown under Phyllocladus and Dacrydium, the Taxads and
Conifers of the southern hemisphere present some remarkable
deviations from all northern types in the structure of their reproductive
organs as well as in their general morphology, and in none of them
is this peculiarity more marked than in Saxegothiiea. With some
hyperbole, Lindley characterised it as " having the male flowers of a
Podocarp, the female cone of a Dammara (Agathis), the fruit of a
Juniper, the seed of a Dacrydium and the habit of a Yew." In a
scientific sense, Saxegothrea therefore possesses considerable interest
as being a connecting link between the Taxacere and Coniferoe, but
with a preponderance of characters pertaining to the former ; it is
a monotypic genus named in compliment to Prince Albert of
Saxe-Gotha, the much lamented Consort of Her Majesty the Queen.
Its essential characters will be gathered from the subjoined figures
and description of the species.

Saxegothaea conspicua,

On its native mountains where it attains its greatest development,
a tree of Yew-like aspect 20 — 30 feet high, at its highest vertical limit
a low dense shrub; in Great Britain mostly a much-branched dense
shrul) or low tree of irregular outline.* Bark of branches yellowish
brown, of the youngest shoots dull pale green. Buds, when formed,
intermediate between the true winter buds of Taxus and the leafy
terminal envelopes of the Cupressinese, minute, enclosed by leaf -like
scales that afterwards develop into foliage leaves. Leaves persistent

* At Strete Ralegh, near Exeter, the residence of Mr. H. M, Imbert Terry, is an arborescent
form over 20 feet high with a trunk a foot .in diameter near the base and covered
with reddish brown bark. The tree has a spreading habit with a dark Yew-like aspect ;.
it was raised from the seed originally collected by William Lobb in southern Chile.

SAXEGOTH^A COXSPICUA.

159

four — five years, linear, nmcronate, 0'5 — 0*75 inch long, spirally
arranged with a bifarious tendency on the horizontal shoots, spreading
on all sides on the erect ones, dark green above with the midrib
slightly raised, with two pale stomatiferous lines beneath. Staminato
flowers cylindric, whitish brown on a short axillary stalk with a few
involucral bracts at the base ; anthers , two-celled, dehiscing longitudinally.
Ovnliferous flowers terminal, small, roundish, with a short footstalk
and distant leafy scales that graduate into lanceolate, * imbricated,

Fig. 55. A fruiting branchlet of Saxegothcea- conspicua, natural size. 1, Htaminate, 2, Ovuliferous

flower enlarged.
Communicated by Mr. H. M. Imbert Terry from Strete Ralegh, near Exeter.

mucronate ovuliferous scales each bearing a solitary inverted ovule.
Fruit a fleshy globose body less than an inch in diameter formed by
the coalescence of the fertilised scales, the individuality of which is
indicated by the projecting apex.

Saxegothsea conspicua, Lindley in Journ. Hort. Soc. Loud. loc. cit. ; and Paxtoirs
Flower Garden, I. Ill, with figs. Gay, Fl. Chile, V. 411. Carriere, Traite Conif
ed. II. 683. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 497. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 372.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 195. Masters in Gard. Chron. II. ser. 3 (1887) p. 684 *
V. ser. 3 (1889), p. 782 ; with figs. ; and in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 70.

160 MICROCACHRYS.

This remarkable Taxad was discovered by William Lobb in 1846
while collecting for the Veitchian firm in southern Chile, and
introduced by him in the following year. Lobb sent to Mr. James
Veitch, Senr., the following account of the locality in which he
found it : —

The whole of southern Chile, from the Andes to the ocean, is
formed of a succession of ridges of mountains gradually rising from
the sea to the central ridge; the whole is thickly wooded from the
base to the snow line. Ascending the Andes of Comau, I observed
from the water to a considerable elevation, the forest to be composed
of a variety of trees, and of a sort of cane so thickly matted
together that it formed almost an impenetrable jungle. Further up,
amongst the melting snows, vegetation became so much stunted in
growth that trees seen below 100 feet high and 8 feet in diameter,
only attain the height of a few inches.

On reaching the summit no vegetation exists, nothing but barren

rocks which appear to rise among the snow that is many feet in

depth and frozen so hard that in walking over it the foot makes

but little impression. A little below the scenery is singular and grand.

Rocky precipices stand like perpendicular walls 200 — 300 feet in height,

over which roll the waters from the melting snows which appear like

lines of silver. Sometimes these waters rush down with such force

that boulders many tons in weight are hurled from their lofty stations

to a depth of many hundred feet. In this wild region the Saxegothaea

has its home associated with Podocarpus nubigenus, Fitzroya pcntagonicc^

Libocedrus tetragona, evergreen Beeches and other trees.

It is not surprising that the introduction of this remarkable

plant should have attracted much interest at the time, and that

hopes should have been entertained of its proving a distinct

addition to the British Arboretum. Such hopes, however, have not

been realised ; the Saxegothsea is now but rarely seen, and when

seen is scarcely noticed by the general observer. Although it has

been in our midst more than half a century very few of the plants

originally raised from Lobb's collection are now in existence. The

cause of this is climatic, not so much in regard to temperature as

to aerial and. hygrometric conditions; for whilst the average yearly

temperature of southern Chile is nearly the same as that of Great

Britain, the annual rainfall is three times as much as that of this

country.

MICROCACHRYS.

Hooker til in Lond. Journ. Hot. IV. 149 (1845). Endlicher, Synops Conif. 227 (1847).
Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 433 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat.
Pfl. Fam. 103 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 10 (1893).

A monotypic genus founded on a Tasmanian shrub in 1845 by
Sir Joseph Hooker who, adverting to the distribution of Taxads and
Conifers in that island, observes " that it contains a greater number
of species in proportion to its area, and these of more peculiar

MICROCACHRYS TETRAGONA. 101

form than any other country ; that whilst in the south temperate
zone generally none of the species cover large areas, in Tasmania
the individual species are so local that the island may be crossed
from north to south without a single indigenous species being met
with."* The species here described is one of the rarest and one
of the most peculiar of them, particularly in the scales of the
young cones assuming a pulpy texture and bright colour, a character
probably unique in the Order. Like the Saxegoth^ea, it forms a
direct transition from the Taxads to the Conifer* with imbricated
leaves. The generic name is formed from ^ut/cpoc (small) and Kay^piq
(a cone).

Microcachrys tetragona.

A low straggling shrub with much elongated slender branches covered
with dark reddish brown bark. Ramification tetrastichous (four-ranked) ;
branchlets short, four-angled, similarly ramified and falling off the third
or fourth year. Leaves in decussate pairs, ovate-rhomboid, sub-acute ;
on the young shoots, concrescent or closely imbricated; on the axial
shoots longer, keeled and free at the acute tips, dark green, becoming
effete the third year. Flowers dioecious and terminal. Staminate
flowers small, ovoid or sub-cylindric, pale yellow, composed of numerous
stipitate two-lobed anthers, each with a triangular connective. Ovuli-
ferous flowers ovoid or globose, 0'25 inch long, bright red ; scales
spirally imbricated, each bearing an inverted ovule and ultimately
becoming succulent.

Microcachrys tetragona, Hooker til in Lond. Journ. Bot. loc. cit. supra. Fl
Tasman. I. 358, with tig. ; and Bot. Mag. t. 5576. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II.
688. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 184. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 219.

Dacrydium tetragonurn, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 496.

Microcachrys tetragona occurs only on the highest summits of
the Western Range and Mount Lapey rouse in Tasmania. It was
introduced to the Royal Gardens at Kew about the year 1857 by
Mr. William Archer on whose property it grew. Although of great
interest in a botanical sense, its only value as a garden plant is for
conservatory decoration for which the elegant habit it can be made
to assume under pot culture, its neat foliage and bright red fruits
render it highly suitable.

* Flora of Tasmania, 349.

12 4 567

Group of Cupressinese at Westonbirt, Gloucestershire.

and 2, Thuia gigantca. 3, Cupressus Lawsoniana. 4, C. obtiisa. 5 and 6, Libocedrus decurrcns 7, Cupressiis pisifera squarrosa.

CONIFBRJE.

TREES or shrubs with resinous secretions and homomorphic
rarely dimorphic ramification. Leaves persistent, occasionally
deciduous. Staminate flowers composed of numerous stamens
arranged in close-set spirals around a common axis. Semi-
niferous flowers composed of a central axis on which the
ovuliferous scales are inserted spirally or in decussate pairs,
rarely in whorls of three ; scales made up of two parts, the
bract which is free, adnate at the base, or concrescent, and
the seminiferous ligneous, rarely fleshy, lamina bearing two
or more erect or pendulous ovules. Seeds 2 — 9, winged or
without wings and destitute of an arillus.

TRIBE-CUPRESSINE^.

Flowers monoecious, rarely dioecious. Stamens in decussate pairs or
in whorls of three. Scales of the mature strobiles (fruits) opposite
or whorled, rarely sub-spirally arranged, consisting of two parts although
apparently simple, the bract being concrescent with the scale except at
the apex. Ovules erect, 1 — 9 in one — two series.

SUB-TRIBE I.— JUNIPERINJE.

Scales of strobiles (galbuli) concrescent and becoming fleshy.
Leaves homo- or dimorphic in whorls of three
or in decussate pairs. Staminate flowers axillary
or terminal 1. — Juniperus.

SUB-TRIBE II.— THUIN^E.

Scales of strobiles ligneous in decussate pairs. Branchlets flattened
or angulate. Foliage dimorphic ; primordial leaves free and spreading ;
adult leaves squamiform, appressed or more or less concrescent. Scales
of strobiles in decussate pairs or sub-spirally arranged.
Flowers dioecious, uppermost scales only of the

strobiles fertile - 2. — Fitzroya.

Flowers monoecious, scales of strobiles thickened.
Scales of strobiles horizontal at the base with a
peltate expansion and bearing two or more
seeds - 3. — Cupressus.

164 JUNIPERUS.

Scales of strobiles ascending, oblong or broadly

clavate.
Scales 8 — 12, more or less imbricated; seeds

winged or wingless - 4. — Thuia.

Scales 4 — 6, valvate, the middle or largest pair
only fertile ; seeds with an oblique wing at
the apex - 5. — Libocedrus.

JUNIPERUS.

Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1038 (1753). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 7 (1847). Parlatore>
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 475 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 427 (1881).
Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 101 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc.
XXX. 12 (1892).

The Junipers are evergreen, medium-sized, or low trees of pyramidal
or fastigiate habit, but in old age often with rounded or flattened
tops and irregular in outline ; or bushy shrubs of spreading habit,
occasionally quite prostrate. Their habit is greatly modified by
climate and locality, and in mountainous regions by altitude and
aspect, so that the same species which are arborescent in the warmer
and more favoured districts are reduced to prostrate shrubs at their
northern limit or highest vertical range ; instances of these extreme
forms in habit occur in Juniperus communis, J. excelsa, J. recurva,.
J. virginiana and others. The foliage is dimorphic, consisting either
of pungent acicular or awl-shaped leaves in whorls of three, or of
small scale-like leaves closely imbricated or concrescent in decussate
pairs. In some species as J. communis the acicular foliage is
constant ; in others, as J. excelsa, J. virginiana, it prevails up to ten-
twelve or more years when it gradually gives place to the smaller
scale-like leaves ; in others again, as J. chinensis, both forms of leaves,
are present from a very early age ; in the typical J. Sabina, at least.
in Great Britain and in a few other species, the scale-like leaves,
only are present.

The essential characters of the genus may be technically expressed
thus : —

Flowers monoecious or dioecious, the latter predominating, axillary or
terminal on short lateral branchlets of the preceding year.

Staminate flowers solitary, rarely clustered, on short footstalks
sheathed by a few minute involucral bracts, light yellow. Stamens
numerous in decussate pairs or whorls of three, the scale-like connective
bearing on the inner surface two — six anther cells.

Ovuliferous flowers composed of two — three series of scales in opposite
pairs or whorls of three, and bearing at the base of the inner side,
one — two erect ovules.

Fruits (galbuli) maturing the second year, or later, composed of
mucronate, concrescent fleshy scales that are smooth or tuberculose,,
bluish black or brown in colour, and bearing two — live seeds.

JUNIPERUS. 165

The most obvious distinguishing character of the Junipers consists
in the fruit being succulent, consolidated and slightly reduced in the
number of its parts. A subordinate distinguishing character is seen
in the ternate arrangement of the acicular leaves.

The number of species has been variously estimated according to
the views of the authors who have described or enumerated them,
thus — Carriere describes forty including several but doubtfully
admitted, Parlatore twenty-seven, Gordon thirty-six, and in the
" Genera Plantarum " Mr. Bentham estimated the number to be about
twenty-five.* But whatever may be the number of species, they are all
reducible to a series of types comparatively few in number, around
which the species may be grouped, but the species themselves or the
forms recognised as such are in several cases separated from each
other by little else than geographical position. The genus admits
of a division into two well-marked sections thus distinguished : —

OXYCEDRI. Leaves homomorphic, acicular or awl-shaped, more or less
spreading and arranged in whorls of three. Flowers mostly dioecious,
solitary and axillary. Fruits relatively large and containing three seeds
or fewer by abortion.

SAJBIN.E. Leaves dimorphic, acicular or scale-like, the latter always
arranged in decussate pairs on fertile branches and on adult plants.
Flowers terminal on short lateral branches of the preceding year.
Fruits relatively small and containing for the most part a single seed.
Endlicher constituted the Syrian Juniper, /. drupacea, a distinct
section under the name of Caryocedrus on account chiefly of the seeds
being coalescent in the centre of the fruit, f Practically this species
may be included in the Oxycedri.

The Junipers inhabit both the eastern and western continents from
the Arctic regions to the verge of the Torrid zone ; in Asia including
China and Japan in the east and Persia and Asia Minor in the
west; in Africa, part of the Mediterranean littoral, the Canary Islands,
and an outlying species in Abyssinia (J. procera) ; in America
spreading southwards far into Mexico and into the West India
Islands. In places they cover large areas unmixed with other
vegetation, as in the arid region between the Rocky Mountains and
the Sierra Nevada and on the north-west Himalaya at the highest
vertical limit of arborescent vegetation up to 15,000 feet above sea-
level.

The economic value of the Junipers is not very great. Where they
attain a timber-like size, the wood is light, fragrant, close-grained and
of a reddish brown colour as that of /. virginiana and /. bermudiana

* Traite General des Coniferes, ed II. (1867). De Candolle's Prodromus, Vol. XVI. (1868).
The Pinetum, ed. II. (1875). Genera Plantarum, Vol. Ill (1881). No genus in the
Conifers stands in more urgent need of revision than Juniperus ; the task, however, is an
exceedingly difficult one in the absence of living fruiting specimens of many of the species
which, owing chiefly to climatic causes, cannot be cultivated in the open ground in this
-country.

t Synopsis Coniferamm, p. 8. As no fruits of Juniperus drupacea are produced in this
country, the author has not had an opportunity of verifying this.

166 JUNIPERUS BERMUDIANA.

which is much used in the manufacture of "cedar pencils" and domestic
furniture, and that of /. recurva and /. excelsa, the latter of which
is used for all kinds of constructive purposes in the mountainous region
of north-west India.* The fruits of the Savin were formerly used as a
diuretic in medicine, and those of the common Juniper are still
employed in large quantities for flavouring gin. In horticulture, some
of the arborescent species of the temperate zone, as /. cMnensis>
J. viryiniana and the fastigiate form of J. communis are much used
in ornamental planting; the shrubby species for the most part occupy
but a subordinate place although several handsome forms of prostrate
habit are, to be found among them. An essential condition for the
successful cultivation of the Junipers is free exposure to sun and air.

Juniperus is the Latin name of the Juniper, and appears to have
been applied indiscriminately to most of the species common in southern
Europe in the same way as the Greeks applied the names K-e'fyog and

Juniperus bermudiana.

A monoecious tree attaining a height of 50 — 60 feet with a broadly
conical crown, the trunk often 2 — 3 feet in diameter near the base,
and covered with dark brown bark which in the younger trees peels.
off in shreds, but in the older ones becomes hard, rugged and irregularly
fissured. Branches spreading or ascending; branchlets much ramified,
ramification tetrastichous (four - ranked), the youngest branchlet system
ramified in the same way. Leaves dimorphic ; on young trees and
on the older shoots of those more advanced in age, in whorls of three,.
acicular, concave with two stomatiferous lines above, convex beneath,.
becoming effete on the axial growths the second or third year ; on
the younger lateral shoots and on adult trees scale-like, ovate, acute,.
imbricated and bright green. Staminate flowers with eight — ten anthers.
Fruits (galbuli) solitary or in twos and threes in and near the axils of
the youngest branchlet systems, 0*3 — 0'5 inch in diameter, smooth, not,
glaucous, reddish brown with a purplish tinge when mature.!

Juniperus bermudiana, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant II. 1039 (1753). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 29. Hooker W. in Lond. Journ Bot. II. 141, t. 1. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 49 Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 490. Henisley in Gard. Chron. XIX.
(1883), p. 656, with tigs. Sargent in Garden and Forest, IV. (1891), 289, with
tigs And many others.

The Bermuda Juniper still forms the most prominent feature of
the flora of the little ocean-girt group of islets from which it
derives its specific name, although the woodcutter's axe has long
since removed most of the serviceable trees for the use of the
shipbuilder and for the manufacture of " cedar " pencils for which the
wood was at one time much in request, but now superseded by that
of the cheaper and more accessible Juniperus virginiana. Nevertheless
a few old trees standing in cemeteries and other particular spots.
afford ample evidence of what a picturesque and even beautiful object

K' Aitchison in Journal of the Linnean Society, XVIII. 97.

t Fruiting sprays were communicated by the late M. Charles Naudin from the Villa,
Ihuret Botanic garden, Antibes.

JUNIPERUS CALIFORNICA. 167

this Juniper is where other trees are scarce.* It grows well-nigh
everywhere on the islands, in the most diverse situations from the
low brackish swamps along the sea-shore to the dry limestone hills
inland. A letter written by Sir Hans Sloane to Mr. Ray, the
eminent naturalist, contains evidence that the Bermuda Juniper was
cultivated in this country in 1684,-f and according to Loudon, also
in the following century by Philip Miller at Chelsea, but it is too
tender for the open ground ; it has long been a denizen of the
Temperate House in the Royal Gardens at Kew.

Juniperus lermudiana affords an instructive instance of the manner
in which an insular flora originates. Its nearest affinity is the Red
Cedar, /. virginiana, from which it is chiefly distinguished by its
stouter braiichlets, its longer and more obtuse glandular leaves, its
larger staminate flowers with more scales and its larger differently
coloured fruits. The Red Cedar is abundant all over the eastern
portion of the North American continent from Canada to Florida ; its
fruits are devoured by birds which void the hard seeds without
injury, and by them J. virginiana has been widely dispersed over the
American continent and the adjacent islands, and hypothetically by the
same agency transplanted to the Bermudas at a remote epoch, for
pieces of " cedar " wood were found at a depth of 50 feet below
low-water mark during the dredging operations undertaken by the
British naval authorities for the construction of a dock. Thus during
the course of ages under the influence of the insular climate the
Bermuda Juniper has gradually diverged from the parent stock to such
a degree as to be recognised as specifically distinct. Analogous,
instances occur in the Azores and the Canary Islands which are
inhabited by Junipers that are undoubted offshoots of /. Oxycedrus
widely distributed over the Mediterranean region.

Juniperus californica.

A tree occasionally 40 feet in height with a straight large-lobedy
uusymmetrical trunk 1 — 2 feet in diameter; more often shrubby with
numerous stout, often contorted branches which form a broad open
head. Branchlets stout, at first light yellow-green changing to bright
red-brown in their third or fourth season, and at the end of
four or five years after the leaves have fallen, covered with thin
grey-brown scaly bark. Leaves usually in threes, closely appressed,
slightly keeled and glandular pitted at the base, distinctly fringed on
the margin, light yellow-green, about 0'125 inch long and becoming
effete in the third year ; on vigorous shoots and young plants, linear-
lanceolate, rigid, pungent, 0*25 — 0*4 inch long, whitish on the upper
surface. Staminate flowers about 0*2 inch in length with eighteen —
twenty-four stamens. Fruits globose, somewhat more than 0'25 inch in
diameter, reddish brown with a thick glaucous bloom. — Sargent, Silva of
North America, X. 79, t. 517.

* Excellent illustrations of this are given in Garden and Forest, Vol. IV. (1891), pp.
294, 295.

f Hemsley in Gardeners' Chronicle, XIX. (1383), p. 656.

168 JUNIPERUS CALIFORNIA.

Juniperus californica, Carriers, Revue Hort. (1854), p. 352, with fig. ; and Traite
Conif. ed. II. 41. Engelmann in Trans. Acad. St. Louis, III. 558. Brewer
and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 113. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 113. Masters in Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 211.

J. occidentalis, Hoopes, Evergreens, 299 (in part). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.
489 (in part). And others.

J. pyriformis, Lindley in Gard. Chron. (1855), p. 420.

The species described above was for a long time confounded with
Juniperus occidentalis, from which it is not easily distinguishable in
herbarium specimens, howevei distinct in habit and aspect the two
may appear in their native country. It has a restricted range on
the lower slopes and lowlands of California from the valley of the
Sacramento southwards into Lower California ; it also occurs on the
western slopes of the Sierra Nevada as far north as Kernville.

Juniperus californica was introduced to the Veitchian nursery at
Exeter about the same time as the Wellingtonia (1853) by William
Lobb, who had gathered seeds on the San Bernardino mountains in
south California. Plants were subsequently distributed under Dr. Lindley's
name of J. pyriformis, but their unsuitableness for the British climate
soon became apparent ; the very few plants of </. californica still living
in this country are referred to J. occidentalis.

Two closely allied forms or climatic variations of Juniperus californica
may be here noticed.

JuDiperus mexicana.

Schlechtendal in Linntea, V. 97 (1830) ; and XII. 494 (1838). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 28. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 491. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 47.
And others.

A tree ranging from 20 to 30 feet high, in some places attaining
greater dimensions, but at its highest vertical range reduced to a low
straggling shrub. It is spread over the mountains and high plateau
of Mexico from the Sierra Madre southwards at elevations ranging
from 6,000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level. Carriere states that it was
introduced into European gardens in 1841.

Juniperus utahensis.

Lemmon, Report California State Board of Forestry, III. 183, t. 28 (1890), ex
Sargent, Silva of N. Amer. X. 81, t. 518. J. californica var. utahensis, Engel-
mann, Trans. Acad. St. Louis,- III. 588.

This takes the place of Juniperus californica in the arid region
lying between the Sierra Nevada of California and the Rocky Mountains
where it is very abundant, in places forming stunted forests above
5,000 up to 8,000 feet elevation. It differs from /. californica in
its more slender branches and usually glandless leaves, and in its
smaller and generally one-seeded fruits. It is geographically separated
from that species by the Mohave desert. It affords the cheapest and
most accessible fuel in the desert region which it inhabits, but is
rapidly disappearing to supply the wants of miners and others.*
J. utahensis is probably not in cultivation in Great Britain.

* Silva of North America, he. cit. supra.

JUNIPEKUS CHINENSIS. 169

J uniperus chinensis.

A dioecious tree of elongated conical or columnar outline attaining
in China and Japan a height of 60 — 70 feet, but much less at
high altitudes where it is reduced to a low tree or dense shrub. In
Great Britain usually a slender medium-sized tree of columnar but
occasionally pyramidal outline. Primary branches of male trees short,
vstoutish, close-set, spreading or ascending and much ramified ; of female
trees longer, more slender, spreading and less densely ramified.
Branchlets with dark chestnut-brown bark that is paler on the younger
growths ; ramification mostly tetrastichous, that of the herbaceous shoots
pinnate and very slender. Leaves dimorphic ; on young plants and on
the sterile braiichlets of older ones, in whorls of three, subulate, pungent,
s] »reading, 0'25 — 0'5 inch long; concave, greyish white with green
median and marginal lines on the ventral side ; convex, wholly green
and sometimes with a narrow gland on the dorsal side ; in the fertile
branches and youngest shoots in decussate pairs, scale-like, ovate, obtuse,
concrescent or closely imbricated, bright green. Staminate flowers
very numerous, fusiform-cylindric, composed of eight — twelve stamens,
light yellow. Fruits somewhat variable in form arid size, spherical
or top-shaped, 0'25 — -0*4 inch in diameter, blackish blue with a
glaucous bloom when mature.

Juniperns chinensis, Linnteus, Mantissa, 127 (1771). Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl.
Jap. H. 58, tt. 126, 127. London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2505, with figs.
Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 208, t. 65. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 20. Carriere, Traite
Conif.. ed. II. 29. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. 487 (excl. Indian habitat). Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 158. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 118, with tigs. Masters in Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 221.

J. flagellifonnis, Hort. J. neaborensis, Hort.

Eng. Chinese Juniper. Fr. Genevrier de Chine. Germ. Chinesischer Sadebaum.
Ital. Ginepro Chinese.

var. — albo variegata.

Of dwarfer, denser habit than the common form and mostly with
acicular foliage that is more glaucous and with many of the branchlets
and terminal shoots cream-white.

J. chinensis albo-variegata, Hort. J. chinensis variegata, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 159.
J. chinensis procumbens albo-variegata, Hort. J. japonica albo-variegata, Hort.

var.— aurea.

This has the whole of the current year's growth suffused with golden

yellow which is heightened by full exposure to the sun and which

.gradually changes to the normal green colour in the following season.
J. chinensis aurea, Hort.

var.- procumbens.

A dwarf shrub with robust spreading often procumbent elongated
branches and short branchlets. Leaves on young plants acicular, marked
with two silvery lines above and bright green beneath; in old plants and
in the variegated forms scale-like in decussate pairs. procumbens
aurea has the growth of the current season tinged with golden yellow
which changes to light green in the following year. procumbens
aureo- Variegata has many of the branchlets and terminal growths
deep golden yellow.

170 JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS.

J. cliinensis procumbens, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 21. Beissner, Nadelholzk.
121. J. procumbens, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 59, t. 127, tig 3.
J. japonica, Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 31. Gordon, Pinet ed. II. 160.

Other varieties are known as Jacoliana, pendula, pendula aurea and
pyramidcdis.

Although long recognised as one of the most ornamental of Junipers,
for the lawn and flower-garden very little is known respecting the
habitat and distribution of Juniperus chinensis. Specimens of undoubted
Chinese origin are preserved in the national Herbaria but these are.
mostly from cultivated plants, and no record is found of its having
been seen growing wild in any locality in China accessible to-
Europeans ; a circumstance easily accounted for by the presence
everywhere of a dense population.* It appears to grow spontaneously
on the mountains of central Japan, and there is ample evidence of its
having been for centuries past cultivated by the Japanese.f

Juniperus chinensis was introduced into British gardens in 1804 along,
with other Chinese plants by William Kerr, a young gardener employed
in the Royal Gardens at Kew who was sent on a botanical mission to-
the Far East in 1803.J Its remarkable adaptability to a wide range of
temperature is shown by its endurance of our severest winters without
injury, and by its vigorous and healthy growth in the sub-tropical Botanic
Gardens of Sydney and Adelaide in Australia. Of the varieties cultivated
in Great Britain aurea is by far the most ornamental that has originated
in European gardens ; the others described above were introduced from
Japan by the late Mr. John Gould Yeitch and Mr. Robert Fortune with
the exception of a vigorous form of procumbens which was distributed
from an English nursery.

Juniperus communis.

In Great Britain usually a shrub with spreading sometimes;
prostrate branches which turn upwards at the end, and which with
their appendages form a more or less dense bush several feet through
but not more than 3 to 5 feet high ; less frequently a low
tree 15 — 20 or more feet high with relatively short spreading or
ascending branches covered with smooth reddish brown bark, and
much ramified at the distal end. Branchlets slender, from which
numerous herbaceous shoots are produced at short intervals in a four-
ranked arrangement, but which is often much obscured. Leaves in
whorls of three, subulate, rigid, pungent or spine-tipped, spreading,
nearly at a right angle to the shoot, 0*25 — 0*5 inch long, silvery
white with green margins above, grass-green and obscurely keeled

* An herbarium specimen gathered by Sir Joseph Hooker in Tibetian territory north

SW-it-n -ici iifC4-Vt *-vii4- ,-Jrt,,K4- .I., J*_«. _ 3 _ UP 3 „. ' J ^.A* 4-1, „ ~f 4- K « r^l»-I»v

of

Sikkim is, without doubt, indigenous and affords evidence of the presence of the Chinese.
Juniper in a locality very remote from that from which it was originally introduced.

t Two venerable Junipers 70 to 80 feet high Avith hollow trunks more than six feet in
diameter standing in front of a Buddhist temple in Nangano, Japan, and which must be
several centuries old, are referred to Juniperus chinensis by Professor Sargent, Forest
Flora of Japan, p. 78.

+ His name is commemorated by the genus Kerria. Among other beauti ul plant*
introduced by him was the grand old Tiger Lily, Lilium tigrlmun.

JUNIPEUUS COMMUNIS. 171

beneath. Staminate flowers very small, axillary composed of fifteen —
eighteen stamens in five — six whorls. Ovuliferous flowers consisting of
three divergent ovuliferons scales, and three minute fleshy scales
alternating with them below and adnate to them at the base. Fruits
numerous, solitary in the axils of the leaves, on short footstalks
clothed with minute triangular -imbricated scales, ripening in the second
year, at first green, changing to blackish violet with glaucous bloom,
about one-fifth of an inch in diameter and containing three seeds.

Juniperus connmmis, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1040 (1753). Pallas, Fl. ross.
I. 12, t. 4 (1784). L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 33 (1826). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2489, with tigs. Endlicher, Syiiops, Conif. 15. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 17. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 471. Brandis, Forest Fl. Ind.
535. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 131. Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II, 113.
Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 261, with fig. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 707.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 133, with figs. Sowerby, Eng. Bot. VIII. 273, t. 882.
Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 646. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 212.
Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 75, t. 516. And many others.

J. canadensis, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 129.

Eng. Juniper. Amer. Ground Cedar. Fr. Genevrier comrnun. Germ.
Wachholder, Machholder, Kranawett, and others. Ital. Giuepro ordinario.
Span. Enebro. Port. Zimbro.

var.— aureo-variegata.

All or nearly all the terminal growths of the current year golden
yellow which changes in the following season to the normal colour of
the species. The golden variegation occurs in two distinct forms, the
one arborescent or spreading, the other dwarf or procumbent.

J. commimis • aureo-variegata, Hort. ex Beissner, Nadelholzk. 138. J. communis.

aurea, Hort. J. canadensis aurea, Hort.

var.— cracovica.

An arborescent form with spreading -branches and long, slender, some-
what distant, sub-pendulous branchlets which are at first yellowish and
furnished with longer leaves than in the common Juniper.

J. cornmunis cracovica,* Loddiges, ex London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2490
(cracovia). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 132. Beissner, Nadelholzk, 136.

var.— fastigiata.

An erect low tree 12 — 15 or more feet high, of slender
columnar habit ; the branches and their ramifications erect, rigid and
closely appressed to the principal stems and to each other ; the
youngest branchlets short and furnished with close-set leaves that are
smaller and usually more brightly coloured than in the common form.
The variety cultivated in gardens under the name of COmpreSSa is a
diminutive form of fastiyiata.

J. commimis fastigiata, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI 497. J. communis suecica,
London, Arb et. Frut. Brit. IV. 2487. Carriere, Traite Conif ed. II. 18.
J. communis hibernica, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 132. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 136.
J. communis arborescens, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 16. J. hibernica compressa,
Hort. Swedish Juniper.

var.— hemispJaserica.

A small ceespitose bush usually of hemispheric form with short,
much ramified branches and branchlets, the latter clothed with leaves

* This variety is said to have originated in the neighbourhood of Cracow ; it may be so
since the common Juniper is abundant on the Carpathian Mountains.

172 JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS.

like those of the common form but smaller, more crowded, almost
imbricated (in British gardens), white above, distinctly keeled beneath.

J. comnmnis hemisphrerica, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 479. Beissner,

Xadelholzk. 137. J. nana hemisphferica, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed II. 16.

J. hemisphferica, Presl. Delic. Prag. 142. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 12. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 134. J. echinoformis, Hort.

var.— nana.

A dwarf decumbent or prostrate shrub with short thickish branches
much ramified. Branchlets short. Leaves smaller than in the
common form, close-set, incurved, almost imbricated. Fruits smaller
but in other respects conforming to the type.

J. communis nana, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2489, with tig. J.
nana, Wildenow, Sp. Plant IV. 854. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 13. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 14. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 136. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 132.
J. communis alpina, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 480.

var.— oblonga.

A large bush or low tree with somewhat slender, spreading or
sub-pendulous branches and with angular, slender, elongated branchlets.
Leaves longer and more spreading than in the common form, white
above and bright green beneath. Fruits elliptic-oblong, not spherical.

J. communis oblonga, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2489. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 479. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 137. ' J. oblonga, Bieberstein, Fl.
taurico - cauc. II. 426. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 19. Gordon, Pinet. ed.
II. 137 (oblongata). J. communis caucasica, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 16.

The most striking fact respecting the common Juniper is the
enormous area over which it is spread. On the eastern continent
it is distributed over the whole of Europe and Asia north of and
including the series of great mountain chains extending eastwards
from Spain to China, and restricted northwards only by the limits
imposed by climate on arborescent vegetation, and excluding the
steppe and desert regions of south-east Europe and Central Asia.
On the western continent its range northwards is only checked by
the same cause as in the eastern, whilst southwards it spreads on
the Atlantic side to the highlands of Pennsylvania ; in the central
region to northern Nebraska and along the Eocky Mountains to
Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas ; and on the Pacific side
from Alaska to northern California.*

Juniperus communis varies exceedingly in habit according to the latitude
and vertical elevation at which it is found ; in valleys and lowlands it
attains the dimensions of a tree 20 — 25 or more feet high ; on
mountain slopes and on exposed hill-sides it is mostly a dense shrub
3 — 5 feet high ; and at the highest elevations and in the highest
latitudes in which it can live it is a prostrate bush, rising but a
few inches above the ground. The varieties described above are all
geographical deviations from the ordinary type with the exception of
aureo-variegata, which is of garden origin. From a horticultural stand-
point they are superior to the common form as decorative plants, and
among the most useful of their kind, especially fastis/iota, the well-known

* Sargent, Silva of North America, X. 77.

JUNIPERUS DKUPA.CEA.

173

Swedish Jumper so called from its Scandinavian origin. The variety
hemisphcerica, found wild in beech-woods covering the higher slopes of
the mountains of Greece and southern Italy, and also on Mount Etna,,
is a modification or climatic form of the widely dispersed variety nana
of northern latitudes; this variety also occurs on the mountains of
Europe, ascending to 6,000 — 7,500 feet on the Alps ; it is also
abundant on the north-western Himalaya up to 14,000 feet. The
variety oblonya of the Caucasian region is probably not in cultivation
in this country ; the oblonya pendula of gardens is not a variety of
J. communis but a synonym of /. taxi/olid, a species inhabiting northern
China.

Not much can be said of the economic value of the common
Juniper, as it rarely attains a sufficient size to yield workable timber.
In India the twigs are burned as incense, and in the higher
Himalayan passes the wood is used for fuel. The fruit is extensively
used on account of the diuretic properties which it imparts to gin,.
and when crushed and distilled, yields an essential oil.

Juniperus drupacea.

A dioacious tree 25 — - 30 feet
high, trees of the two sexes
differing somewhat in habit ; the
male dense, of columnar or sharply
conical outline with short branches,
the female more diffuse with longer
spreading branches. In Great,
Britain the older trees densely
columnar with a single or divided
trunk, in the latter case the
secondary trunks erect or but slightly
divergent. Primary branches short,
ascending and covered with reddish
bark ; secondary branches short
and irregularly disposed. Leaves
persistent four — five years, homo-
morphic, in whorls of three, linear-
acicular, rigid, pungent, and
spreading, 0'5 — 0'75 inch long,
slightly concave with two greyish
white stomatiferous lines above,
sharply keeled and light green
beneath. Staminate flowers in
clusters of three — six each com-
posed of nine — twelve stamens,
and surrounded at the base by
six, in two series of tliree, ovate,
leaf-like, strongly keeled bracts
about one-fourth as long as the leaves. Fruits ovoid, obtuse
or sub-spherical, about an inch in diameter, consisting of six — nine
closely united, fleshy scales in verticils of three, enclosing a hard bony
kernel generally containing three coalescent seeds, but sometimes by

Fig. 56. Juniperus drupacea.
(From the Gardeners' CJironide.)

174 JUNIPERUS EXCELSA.

non-development only one ; the fleshy external covering deep purple
with a glaucous bloom.

Juniperus drupacea, Labillardiere, * Plant, syr. decad. II. 14, t. 8(1791). Loudon,

Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2494, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 8. Lindley

in Gard. Chron. 1855, p. 455, with fig. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 8.

Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 476. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 133. Boissier, Fl.

orient. V. 706. Tristram, Fl. Pal. 451. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 140. Masters in

Journ R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 212.

Eng. Syrian Juniper, The Arceuthos. Fr. Gen^vrier de la Syrie. Genn. Stein-

friichtiger or Pflaumenfruchtiger Wachholder Ital. Ginepro della Siria.

The earliest notice of Juniperus drupacea occurs in a work by Pierre
Belon published in Paris in 1588 and entitled "Les observations de
plusieurs singularites et choses memorable.? trouvees en Grece, Asie,
etc.," his description of the fruit being sufficiently clear for the
identification of the species. The author first met with it while
making the ascent of Mount Lebanonj- where it is still common ;
it is also common on Anti-Lebanon whence it spreads northwards
along the Syrian coast range to the Cilician Taurus where it attains
its greatest development. On Bulghar-Dagh and Khara-Dagh it is
very abundant between 1,750 and 5,550 feet elevation, in some places
forming an undergrowth in the light Oak and ' Pine forests, in others
covering large stretches unmixed. It was introduced into European
.gardens by Theodor Kotschy in 1854.

Juniperus drupacea has secured a place in many British gardens on
account of its hardiness, the unique shade of green of its foliage, and
the small space it requires. But although so long a denizen of this
country it is a curious fact that no fruit-bearing trees have been
observed, or if observed not recorded. It is highly probable that
dioecity in this species is absolute, and that the male form only is in
cultivation ; and as propagation is easily effected by means of cuttings
that form alone has been perpetuated.^ Siehe states that the fruits
are eaten by the inhabitants of the villages situated high up on the
Cilician Taurus. §

Juniperus excelsa.

A monoecious tree|| of very variable dimensions in different localities
of the extensive region over which it is spread. At its greatest
development it attains a height of 50 — 70 or more feet with a slender
trunk often not more than 12 — 15 inches in diameter; more frequently
a smaller tree 30- — 45 feet high with a thicker trunk ; at its highest

* Labillardiere travelled in the Levant in 1787 — 1789 ; the descriptions and figures of
the plants he discovered were published in Paris two years afterwards in five decades.

f This was about the year 1550 according to Loudon who quotes Belon's account of the
Cedars. This intrepid traveller was one of the first Europeans who saw them after the
Turkish conquest of Syria.

% From a communication received from Signor Gaeta of Florence, it would seem that the
fruiting of Juniperus drupacea is an extremely rare occurrence in Italy.

§ Gartenflora, 1897, p. 207.

II Walter Siehe in Gartenflora, 1897, p. 210, states the trees observed by him on the
Cilician Taurus were for the most part dioecious, and that the two sexes are easily
distinguishable The scale-like leaves of the male trees are thicker and of a brighter green
than those of the fruit-bearing trees.

JUNIPERUS EXCELSA. 175

vertical limit reduced to a small confused bush scarcely knee high.
Bark of trunk fibrous, peeling off in longitudinal shreds, that of the
branches pale brown and smooth. Primary branches spreading or
ascending; secondary branches short, much ramified, and terminating in
numerous slender leafy branchlets pinnately divided. Leaves dimorphic ;
on the axial shoots in whorls of three, ovate-triangular, acute, adiiate
at the base, free at the apex, with a small oblong gland on the
dorsal, and- a white stomatiferous band on the ventral side, becoming
effete the third or fourth year ; on the younger branchlets in decussate
pairs, scale-like, imbricated, concrescent or closely appressed, dull, dark
green, often with a grey margin. Staminate flowers very numerous,
terminal on short branchlets of the preceding year, oval, pale yellow,
consisting of nine anther lobes. Fruits spherical, somewhat larger than
a large pea, mostly in clusters of five — nine or more, dark glaucous
purple composed' of six concrescent scales each with a small transverse
umbo.

Juniperus excelsa, Bieberstein, Fl tatirico-caucas. II. 425 (1808). London, Arb.
et Frnt. Brit IV 2503 (in part). Endlicher, Synops. Conif 25. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 36. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 484 Brandis, Forest Fl N.W.
India, 538.* Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 143. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 708. Aitchison
in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 97. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 112. Masters in Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 212.

J. phoenicea, Pallas, Fl. ross. I. 16, t. 7 (not Limifeus).

J. religiosa, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 39 ; and Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 148
(not Royle).

Eng. Greek Juniper, TallJuniper. Fr. Genevrier d'orient. Genii. Hohe Sadebaum.
Ital. Ginepro greco.

var.— stricta.

Differs from the common form in having a more tapering outline and
a more glaucous foliage, imparting to the plant a greyish white aspect
when viewed from a distance. It is of garden origin.
J. excelsa stricta, Hort. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 112.

The geographical range of Juniperus excelsa is very extensive,
comparable in this respect with J. virginiana of which it is the
representative in the eastern hemisphere. But whilst J. virginiana
attains its greatest development in the low-lying, swampy lands of the
south-eastern States of North America, J. excelsa is for the most part
an alpine tree that attains its greatest size on mountain slopes
3,000 — 5,000 feet above sea-level. Its western limit is in the islands
of the Greek Archipelago, whence it spreads eastwards through Asia
Minor, Syria, Persia and the Himalaya as far as Nepal, inhabiting
well-nigh all the high mountain chains between lat. 30° and 45° N.
and long. 25° and 80° E. On the Cilician Taurus it forms forests
many miles in extent along the lower fringe of the Cedar belt in
which trees 70 — 90 feet high are not infrequentf Towards its
eastern limit its vertical range is greater and much higher; on the
mountains skirting the Kuram valley in Afghanistan it forms fully

* Referred to Boissier's Juniperus macropoda by Sir. J. D. Hooker in Flora of British
India, V. 647.

f Walter Siehe in Gartenflora, 1897, p. 208, with fig.

176 JUNIPERUS EXCELSA.

half the forest at 9,000 feet elevation; on the summits of the limestone
formation at 10,000 — 12,000 feet and in the neighbourhood of Quetta
it is the only valuable timber tree.* On the inner drier ranges of the
Himalaya it ascends to 15,000 feet where it becomes a stunted bush.

The economic value of Juniperus exeelsa is -very considerable in all the.
districts in which it is abundant. The heart-wood is of a deep red
colour, delightfully fragrant, durable and easy to work ; it is used for all
kinds of constructive purposes and indoor carpentry. The people of the
Hariab district in Afghanistan make pads of the strips of its fibrous bark
on which they carry their water-jugs.

The date of the introduction of Juniperus exeelsa into British gardens
is not accurately known. As London has mixed up this species witli
another Juniper from Siberia described by Pallas and a third found on
the Rocky Mountains by Lewis and Clark, his statement that it was
introduced in 1806 by Sir Joseph Banks is open to doubt, the more so
as it is not mentioned by Aitoii in the second edition of the "Hortus.
Kewensis " published in 1813. The oldest trees in British gardens are
of columnar or elongated conical habit, from 20 to 25 feet high and of
rather dark aspect ; but in its young state Juniperus exeelsa is very
ornamental and easily distinguished amidst its surroundings by its dark
green colour apparently covered with tine dust which is an optical effect
produced by the grey stomatiferous lines of the acicular leaves.

With Juniperus exeelsa may be grouped three Junipers which have
received specific rank at the hands of the several botanists who have
dealt with them, but who seem to have relied upon characters of
insufficient value for specific distinction even if they are constant, and of
this further evidence is desirable.

Juniperus fcetidissima.

Wildenow, Sp. Plant. IY. 843. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 25. Paiiatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 485. Boissier, Fl. orient, V. 710. And others.

This occurs, according to Parlatore, 011 the mountains of Greece and
spreads eastwards 'through Asia Minor to Armenia and the Caucasian
provinces and also to the Cilician Taurus and Syria often associated with
Juniperus exeelsa. It is said to differ from /. exeelsa in its thicker
branchlets ; in its larger, more sharply pointed leaves that are for the
most part glandless and free at the apex ; and in its larger fruits of a
different colour with fewer seeds,! characters I have failed to discern in
specimens to which I have had access.

Juniperus macropoda.

Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 709. Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 647.

This form inhabits the inner drier ranges of the Himalaya from

Nepal westwards to Afghanistan and western Thibet, from 5,000 to

15,000 feet, as described above under. Juniperus exeelsa, to which it

is referred by Sir Dietrich Brandis but separated from it by the

* Aitchison in Journal of the Lhmean Society, loc cit supra.

t Arbor vel frutex a J. exeelsa ranmlis crassis, foliis niajoribus, apice patulis, niucronato-
pungentibus, plerumque eglandulosis et galbulis fusco-purpureis, ssepissinia 1—2 nuculas
niajusculas gerentibus. — Parlatore, De Candolle's Prodromus, loc. cit. supra.

JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA. 177

Swiss botanist, Edmund Boissier, who distinguished it from J. excelsa
by "the scaly peduncles of the staminate flowers and the crest-like
tips of the scales of the fruit and the fewer seeds." This distinction
is doubtfully accepted by Sir J. I). Hooker in the " Flora of British
India."

Juniperus procera.

Hochstetter, Plant. Abyss. II. No. 537. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 26.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 485. J. excelsa procera, Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 37.

This first became known to science from herbarium specimens brought
from Abyssinia in 1841 by the German traveller, Schimper. It has
quite recently been detected in Somalilaiid and other parts of East
Africa attaining a height of 80 — 100 feet. It is thence a tropical tree
separated geographically from Juniperus excelsa, but from which it can
scarcely be distinguished in herbarium specimens.

Juniperus flaccida.

A tree 20 — 30 feet high, the trunk and primary branches covered
with thin reddish bark. Branches lax, deflexed or spreading, the
branchlets and their ramifications slender, flaccid and pendulous, the
axial growths sometimes greatly elongated and with sub-distichous
ramification, the youngest lateral growths slender and nearly parallel.
Leaves dimorphic ; on the axial growths in verticils of three, narrowly
oblong, acute, glandular, concrescent but free and slightly spreading at
the acute tip ; on the younger growths in decussate pairs, much
smaller, scale-like, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, the lateral pairs sharply
keeled, bright grass-green. Staminate flowers four-angled, composed of
16 — 20 anthers. Fruits numerous, terminal on short lateral branchlets,
globose, 0*5 inch in diameter, composed of eight concrescent scales each
with a small transverse apiculate umbo, dark purple, highly glaucous
when mature and enclosing six seeds. *

Juniperus flaccida, Schlechtendal in Limuea, XII. 495 (1838). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 29. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 48. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 492. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 145 Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 83, t. 519.

Juniperus flaccida, one of the most beautiful of Junipers, as seen
in the Botanic gardens in the south of Europe, was discovered by
Schiede on the mountains of central Mexico in 1838 and was
subsequently found by other botanical explorers of that region at
altitudes ranging from 5,000 to 7,000 feet ; it is also common in
various parts of north-east Mexico, ascending to 6,000 — 8,000 feet
on the mountains east of the great central plateau whence it spreads
into south-west Texas. It was introduced into Europe soon after
its first discovery,! but thrives in the open air only in places
where the temperature in the winter season does not fall below
the freezing point as in the south of France. In Great Britain

* Fruiting branchlets were communicated by the late M. Charles Naudin from the
Villa Thuret Botanic garden, Antibes.

t Ex Carriere, Traite General des Coniferes, p. 48.

|78 JUNIPERUS OCCIDENTALIS.

its gracefully pendulous and symmetrically branched sprays of the
brightest green should render it an attractive plant for the
Conservatory and Winter Garden.

Juniperus occidentalis.

A tree with a straight trunk 15 — 25 feet in height and 2 — 3 feet
in diameter with long, stout, spreading branches; occasionally much
smaller with a more slender trunk and shorter branches, and "on
rocky slopes towards the northern limits of its range, shrubby witli
many short, erect or semi-prostrate stems."* Branchlets stout and
covered with thin red-brown bark, sub-distichous and alternate, the
herbaceous shoots pinnately ramified and emitting a faint fetid odour
when bruised. Leaves scale-like, in decussate pairs, ovate, sub-acute,
with denticulate margins, concrescent or closely appresse'd and imbricated,
glandular, dull pale green. " Staminate flowers about an eighth of an inch
long with twelve — eighteen broadly ovate, rounded acute anther scales."
Fruits sub-globose, 0'25 — O35 inch in diameter, with a thick blue-black
epidermis coated with a glaucous bloom and enclosing two— three seeds.

Juniperus occidentalis, Hooker, W. Fl. Bor. Anier. II. 166 (1840). Endlicher,
Synops Conif. 26 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 40. Paiiatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 489. Hoopes, Evergreens, 299 (exclu. syns.). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
162 (in part). Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor II. 113. Macoun, Cat. Canad.
Plants, 461. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 128. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV.
213 (exclu. syn. J. pyriformis}. Sargent, Silva N. Anier. X. 87, t. 521.

J. dealbata, London, Encycl. of Trees, 1090 (1842). Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II 41.

J. andina, Nuttall, Sylva, III. 95, t. 110 ; and ed. II. Vol. II 157.

Juniperus occidentalis is a tree or shrub of high altitudes, growing
abundantly on the mountain slopes of Idaho, eastern Washington and
southwards along the Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountains far into
California, and also the dry mountain ranges between the Sierra and
the Pacific coast range of northern Mexico, rarely descending below
6,000 feet. In these alpine regions it is often seen "standing like
a sentinel with its massive stem and few spreading branches
impervious to the fiercest gales ; it has such a hold on the ground,
and offers such resistance to the elements that it dies standing and
wastes insensibly out of existence." f In exposed situations it grows
very slowly but attains a great age ; in the rich sub-alpine moraines
it is a tall symmetrical tree, and towards its southern limits it
forms in places pure forests of considerable extent.

The date of the first introduction of Juniperus occidentalis to the
British Pinetum cannot be determined, as it was for a long time
confused with J. californica. It is even now doubtful to which of
the two species the few plants under the name of /. occidentalis
that still linger alive in this country should be referred.

Mention may here be made of two closely allied species or
geographical forms of Juniperus occidentalis.

* Sargent, Silva of North America, Vol. X. p. 87.
t Muir, Mountains of California, ex Silva, loc. cit.

JUNIPERUS OXYCEDRUS. 179

Juniperus monosperma.

Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 89, t. 522. J. occidentalis, var. monosperma,
Engelniann in Trans. St. Louis Acad. III. 590. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 129.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 213. J. occidentalis gynmocarpa, Lemmon,
W. Amer. Cone-bearers, 80. J. occidentalis, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 489
(in part).

This is chiefly distinguished from Juniperus occidentalis by its smaller
globose fruits often monosperinous, its more slender branchlets, and the
absence of glands in the leaves. It is widely distributed over the
region east of the Rocky Mountains to the river Arkansas and western
Texas, spreading over the plateau of Colorado and southwards into
Arizona and New Mexico. It is probably not in cultivation in
Great Britain.

Juniperus tetragona.

Schlechtendal in Limuea. XII. 495 (1838). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 29.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 419. J. occidentalis, var. conjungens, Engelniann
in Trans. St. Louis Acad. III. 590. J. Sabinioides, Sargent, Silva JT. Amer. X.
91, t. 523 (not Grisebach and Endlicher). Cupressus Sabinioides, Humboldt,
Bonpland and Kunth, Nov. Gen. et Sp. II. 3 (1815).

This is distinguishable from J. occidentalis chiefly by its different
habit and its distinctly four-angled branchlets which suggested the name.
It is a more southern tree than J. occidentalis or J. monosperma; it
covers large areas in central Texas and spreads over the Mexican plateau
to near the city of Mexico where it was first discovered by Humboldt
at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Juniperus Oxycedrus.

A dioecious spreading shrub, occasionally a low tree 9 — 12 feet high
with the trunk and primary branches covered with smooth reddish brown
bark. Branches numerous, erect or spreading; branchlets short and much
ramified, the youngest shoots angulate. Leaves homomorphic, persistent
two — three years, in whorls of three, linear or linear-lanceolate, mucronate,
rigid and pungent, 0*25 — 0'5 inch long, obscurely bi-canaliculate, silvery
white with green median and marginal lines above, keeled and green
beneath. Staminate flowers axillary, globose, sub-sessile and bearing six
anthers. Fruits solitary, or two — three together, sub-sessile or very
shortly stalked, spherical, variable in size, the largest somewhat more than
0*5 inch in diameter, reddish brown when ripe, composed of three
concrescent, apiculate scales that are distinguishable only at the apex of
the fruit where the outer margins are separated by a tripartite cleft.*

Juniperus Oxycedrus, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1038 (1753). Bieberstein, Fl. Taurico-
caucas, II. 426 (1808). L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 39, t. 6, fig. 1 (1826).
London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2494, with fig. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 10.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 12. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 475. Gordon
Pinet. ed. II. 137. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 259. Beissner, Nadelholzk
138. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. -XIV. 212. And many others.

J. rufescens, Link in Flora, 1846, p. 519. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 11.
Gordon, Pinet ed. II. 138.

Eng Oxycedrus, Prickly Cedar. Fr. Genevrier cade. Germ. Cederwachholder.
Ital. Cedro spinoso.

* Branches from both ^ and ? trees were communicated by the late M. Charles Naudin
from the Villa Thuret Botanic garden, Antibes,

180 JUSIPEKUS OXYCEDRUS.

Juniperus Oxycedrus is common throughout the Mediterranean region
from Portugal to Syria and formerly in Madeira, inhabiting the most
exposed and sterile mountain slopes in the neighbourhood of the coast,
in places ascending to 5,000 feet, but most abundant on the arid rocks
near the shore. It is too common for cultivation in the region it
inhabits and scarcely of any value ; in places its fragrant wood is used
for fuel and its prickly sprays are used in hedges to prevent the
ingress of small animals much in the same way as gorse branches are
sometimes used in Great Britain. Aiton states that it was cultivated
by Miller in the old Physic Garden at Chelsea in 1739,* and it is
known to have been frequently re-introduced since ; it is now but
rarely if ever seen in other than botanic gardens in this country ; as
an ornamental shrub it is far surpassed by J. drnpacca which is also
much hardier.

Three species, or geographical forms of Juniperus Oxycedrus that are
unsuitable for the climate of Great Britain may lie here noticed.

Juniperus brevifolia.

Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 478. Trelase, Bot. Observ. Azores, 169.
J. Oxycedrus, var. brevifolia, Hockstetter, Fl. Azor. 26. .J. Cedrus brevifolia,,
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 130.

This Juniper occurs only in the Azores where it once formed a
conspicuous ingredient of the indigenous vegetation till the clearing of
the land for cultivation greatly reduced it in numbers ; it usually takes
the form of a dense shrub or low tree, but where protected from the
sea-wind it sometimes attains a considerable size. Compared with
J. Oxycedrus, the leaves are more crowded, shorter with shorter spines at.
the tip and the fruits are smaller. It must have inhabited the islands
from a remote period, as trunks and branches of it are found so frequently
beneath the soil in certain localities that the inhabitants Avhen in want
of wood simply pierce the surface with an iron stake to discover and
disinter these remains of an ancient forest.

X,

Juniperus Oedrus.

Webb, Phytogr. Canar. III. 277, t. 2. Can-tore, Traite Conif. ed. II. 11.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 478. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 129.

A tall tree formerly abundant in the sub-alpine districts and higher
valleys of the Canary islands, but now become quite rare in consequence
of the destruction of the trees for the sake of their timber. A young-
plant, cultivated in the Temperate House at Kew, is of arborescent
habit with horizontal primary branches ramified in the same way and
with the youngest shoots angulate as in /. Oxycedrus ; the leaves are
identical in size and shape with those of /. Oxycedrus but less rigid,
of a deeper green, less glaucous and not so spreading, the result
perhaps of being produced under the artificial conditions in which the
plant is placed.

* Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 415.

JUNIPERUS PACHYPHLCEA. 181

Juniperus macrocarpa.

Sibthorp, Fl. Gra?c Prodr. II. 263 (1813). Endlicher, Synops. Couif. 10.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 10. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 476. Willkomm,
Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 260 Beissner, Nadelholzk. 139 And others.

The habitat of Juniperus macrocarpa as delineated by the authors
quoted above is nearly conterminous with that of J. Oxycedrus, and
many localities in which it has been seen or gathered are also quoted
for J. Oxycedrus. Endlicher distinguishes J. macrocarpa from
/. Oxycedrus by its slightly broader leaves; by its fruits being attenuated
•at the base and not spherical and which are pendulous and for the
most part furnished with three tubercles at the apex and as many
more at the sides, and also that they are always blue, not brown,
we have, however, been unable to detect these differences in the
specimens labelled /. macrocarpa preserved in the national herbaria.
Sibthorpe, the author of the species, if species it is, states that the
fruits of J. macrocarpa are nearly as large again as those of
J. Oxycedrus', but the great variability in the shape and size of the
fruits of the latter would seem sufficient to include even this difference.

Juniperus pachyphlcea.

A tree often 50 — 60 feet high with a stout trunk 3 — 5 feet in
diameter and long, stout, spreading branches. Bark of trunk 1 — 4 inches
thick, dark brown tinged with red, and deeply fissured and divided
into nearly square plates. Branchlets slender, covered with light
red-brown bark after the disappearance of the leaves. Leaves scale-
like, in decussate pairs, appressed, ovate, apiculate, obscurely keeled,
and conspicuously glandular 011 the back, bluish green ; those on
vigorous shoots and young branchlets, linear-lanceolate, rigid and pungent
with slender cartilaginous points. Staminate flowers about an eighth
of an inch long, composed of ten stamens with broadly ovate,
obscurely keeled connectives. Fruit globose, irregularly tuberculated
0'5 inch in diameter, dark red-brown more or less covered with a
glaucous bloom, and containing four seeds. — Sargent, Silva of North
America, X. 85, pi. 520.

Juniperus pachyphlcea, Torrey, Pacific Ry. Report, IV. pt. V. 142 (1858).

Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 56. Parlatore, D. 0. Prodr. XVI. 490. Gordon,

Pinet. ed. II. 164. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 130. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
XIV. 214.

This remarkable Juniper was discovered in 1851 in eastern New
Mexico by Dr. Woodhouse, surgeon and naturalist to Sitgreave's
Expedition down the Zuni and Colorado Kivers ; it inhabits dry,
arid mountain slopes from 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation in south-
west Texas and westwards along the desert ranges of New Mexico
and Arizona south of the Colorado plateau; also on the lower slopes of
the mountains of north Arizona, and in Mexico it spreads along
the Sierra to the state of Juliasco. It is singular among Junipers
for its thick hard bark which suggested the specific name, T
(thick), and ^Xo/og (bark).

182 JUN1PERUS PHCENICEA.

Juniperus pacliypldwa is described by those who have seen it in
the elevated canons of its native mountains as the most beautiful of
the western American species, a tree with an open shapely head,,
massive trunk with checkered bark and foliage of a cheerful colour.
It was introduced into Great Britain many years ago, but it has proved
disappointing, and is now hut rarely seen.

Juniperus phoenicea,

A monoecious, sometimes dioecious shrub or small tree of variable
dimensions in the different localities it inhabits, but' rarely exceeding
15 — 18 feet in height. Primary branches numerous, erect or ascending,
covered with smooth reddish brown bark that peels off in paper-like
flakes ; branchlets numerous, slender and much ramified. Leaves
dimorphic, on the axial growths of young plants in whorls of
three, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute, concrescent at the base,
free at the tip ; on lateral shoots and on old plants in decussate
pairs, much smaller, scale-like, ovate, acute, imbricated, dull dark green.
Staminate flowers on lateral branchlets of the preceding year, four-
angled, pale yellow and consisting of eight — ten anthers. Fruits numerous,
globose, shortly stalked, about the size of a garden pea, greenish brown
changing to reddish brown when mature ; scales six, concrescent, each
with a small, acute, transverse umbo.

Juniperus phoenicea, Limweus, Sp. Plant II. 1040 (1753). London, Arb.
Frut. Brit. IV. 2501, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 30. Caniere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 50. Parlatore, D C. Prodr XVI. 486. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 164. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 710. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 253.
Beissner, Nadelholzk, 116. Masters in Journ.. R Hort. Soc XIV. 214

J. Lycia, Linnieus, Sp. Plant. II. 1039. London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV.
2502.

Eng. Phoenician Juniper. Germ. Rothfriichtiger Sadebaum. Ital. Ginepro
fenicio.

var.— filicaulis.

A shrub with greatly elongated tortuous branches and slender branchlets
with dimorphic foliage, one form of leaves being scale-like as in the
type, the other, more sparingly produced, acicular, spreading, in whorls
of three, and with a glaucous line on the upper side.
J. phoenicea filicaulis, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 52.

var. — Langoldiana.

Of more open habit than the common form ; branches and branchlets
more distant, the herbaceous shoots and foliage of a brighter green
with a slight glaucous tint.

J. phoenicea Langoldiana, Hort.

var.— turbinata.

Distinguished by its ovoid or somewhat top-shaped fruits, not spherical
as in the common form.

J. phoenicea turbinata, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 487.

The Phoenician Juniper is widely distributed throughout the-
Mediterranean region from Portugal to Palestine : it is also endemic
in Madeira and the Canary Islands. It grows mostly on the aridr
rocky hills near the coast, and on the higher ranges, as the:

JUNIPERUS PROSTRATA. 183

Maritime Alps and the Sierra Nevada on which it ascends to a
considerable elevation. According to Aiton* Juniperus phcenicea was
first cultivated in this country by James Sutherland, Curator of the
Eoyal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in 1683 ; its long acclimatisation
in Great Britain has caused it to be represented in many gardens and
shrubberies where it forms a low tree or shrub-like bush of conical
or columnar outline and dense habit till it becomes old, when it
has a more open aspect with the trunk exposed, which is usually
forked near the base. It is not unusual in the monoecious plants
for some of the branches to be loaded with fruits.

The variety filicaulis originated many years ago in the seed-bed
of a nursery at Bourg-Argental in France ; it has its analogue in
Thuia orientalis pendula, Cupressus pisifera filifera, etc., and is probably
not in cultivation in this country. Langoldiana is a more vigorous grower
and of a brighter green than the common form ; turbinata, according
to Parlatore, occurs with the common form on dry maritime hills in
Spain, Sicily, Dalmatia, 'and probably wherever the species is common.

Juniperus prostrata.

A prostrate shrub with elongated branches lying flat on the ground
and much ramified. Branchlets numerous, mostly ascending at a greater
or less angle to their primaries and much branched, the youngest
shoots short and close-set. Leaves dimorphic ; on the axial growths
and vigorous shoots of young plants in whorls of three, acicular,
slightly dilated at the base, pungent, bent towards the stem, concave
and greyish white above, rounded and green beneath; on the younger
branchlets and on old plants, smaller, in decussate pairs, ovate-lanceolate,
appressed or concrescent at the base, free at the apex, or scale-like,
concrescent, light green becoming glaucous when fully developed
Fruits small, sub-globose, blackish blue, tuberculated when ripe.

Juniperus prostrata, Persoon, Synops. Plant II. 632 (1807). Endlicher, Synops
Conif. 18 (1847) Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 22. Gordon, Pinet. ed II. 146
Hoopes, Evergreens, 282.

J. Sabma, Hooker W. Fl. Bor. Amer. II. 166 (1840).

J. Sabina prostrata, London, Ejicycl. Trees, 1086 (1842). Beissner, Nadel-
holzk. Ill

J. Sabina procnmbens, Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 463.

J. procumbens, Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 280 (not Siebold).

J. repens, Nuttall, Gen. Amer. II 245.

Juniperus prostrata is the American representative of the Savin
Juniper of central and southern Europe ; it is widely distributed over
the northern half of the continent from Anticosti and Nova Scotia
westwards through Canada and across the prairie region to the summit
of the Eocky Mountains ; also through the northern United States
in the neighbourhood of the great lakes, chiefly on exposed slopes and
river banks.

Juniperus prostrata lias been referred by several authors to the
common Savin as a variety from which it is not separable specifically

* Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 415.

184 JUNIPERCJS PSEUDO-SAB1NA.

by any very well-defined characters, although the two are readily dis-
tinguishable at sight, the difference being most marked in the foliage
and fruit. In J. prostrata the leaves are mostly acicular and of a
greyish blue" tint, whilst in the typical /. Sabina the acicular leaves
are absent from an early age, and the foliage is dark green ; the
fruits of J. prostrata are also of a different colour from those of
J. Sabina, especially before maturity. J. Sabina is a shrub of high
altitudes, J. prostrata of low-lying plains and river banks; the habitat
of the one is separated from that of the other by the broad Atlantic
Ocean.

Juniperus prostrata is a useful plant for the rock garden and for
covering exposed banks, forming dense masses of foliage which cover
a considerable area when the plants are allowed to grow unchecked.

Juniperus Pseudo-Sabina.

A robust shrub or tree, in Sikkim a tree 60 feet high with a stout
trunk and thick ramification and foliage.* In Great Britain, under
cultivation, a prostrate or semi-prostrate shrub with numerous primary
branches much ramified and covered with smooth cinnamon-brown bark ;
secondary branches with pale orange-brown bark and tetrastichous
ramification ; the herbaceous shoots similarly divided. Leaves dimorphic,
on vigorous-growing plants in whorls of three, crowded, linear-subulate,
more or less spreading, 0'25 — 0*5 inch long, with a pale stomatiferous
band on the upper side, bright green and keeled beneath; in adult
plants scale-like in decussate pairs, rhombic-ovate, closely imbricated,,
free at the tip and obscurely keeled at the back.f Staminate flowers
axillary on short lateral shoots of the preceding year, globose, pale
yellow, consisting of six anthers in decussate pairs. Fruits elliptic-
ovoid, about 0-5 inch long, blackish blue without glaucescence, composed
of six concrescent scales marked by an apiculus and enclosing a thick
bony endocarp containing a single seed.

Juniperus Pseudo-Sabina, Fischer and Meyer, Index Sem. Hort. Petrop. VIIL
65 (1841) ; and PI. Schrenk, II. 13. Endlicher, Synops. Conif 21 (1847). Carriere,
Traite Conif ed. I. 33 ; and ed. II. 25. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI 482.
Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 646. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 106. Masters in Journ.
R. Hort. Soc XIV. 214.

J. Wallichiana, Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. Ind. 537 (1874). Gamble, Manual
Ind. Tirnb. 412.

J. recurva densa, Hort.

The Juniper above described inhabits the temperate Himalaya, its
vertical range being from 9,000 to 15,000 feet ; it is very abundant
in the north-west as a large gregarious shrub near its highest limit,
but it becomes more scarce eastwards. It has long been in cultivation
in British gardens, but I find no record of the date of introduction ;
it is quite hardy, at least in the south and west of England and
in Ireland ; where space and full exposure to sun and air have
been provided for it, it has proved to be an attractive and useful
shrub for the rock-garden, for covering tree stumps and similar
purposes.

* Sir J. D. Hooker, Flora of British India, V. 646.
t The squamiform foliage is comparatively rare on plants growing in Great Britain.

JUNIPERUS RECURVA. 185

The specific name Pseudo-Sabina was first given by Fischer and
Meyer to a Juniper gathered by Schrenk in 1840 or 1841 on the Altai
Mountains in the Baikal region of southern Siberia. To this Juniper
Parlatore referred, and probably rightly, the Himalayan species above
described, in which he is followed by Sir J. D. Hooker in the
" Flora of British India." The Siberian type was evidently known
to the Russian botanists, for Dr. Albert Regel during his exploration
of southern Turkestan in 1879 — 1883 detected it in several localities
at high elevations,* thus indicating that the species has an extensive
range on the Asiatic continent. Closely allied to and perhaps even
identical with /. Pseudo-Sabina is a Juniper figured in the "Flora
Rossica" of Pallas published in 1784 under the name of J. davurica,
which had been discovered in the same region as Fischer and Meyer's
J. Pseudo-Sabina, and which, according to the late Professor Bnnge and
other explorers of eastern Siberia, spreads eastwards from Lake Baikal
through the Amur region. Loudon states that J. davuriea was
introduced into this country in 1791,f but it is extremely doubtful
whether it is now to be found either in British or continental gardens.
Should the supposed identity of /. davurica and /. Pseudo-Sabina be
hereafter confirmed it is evident that the older name of Pallas should
l)e accepted for the species.

Juniperus recurva.

A small tree with a straight erect trunk, conical head and spreading
branches, or an erect bush or prostrate shrub, according to situation and
altitude. In Great Britain usually a broadly conical or round-topped large
shrub with several erect or ascending stems much branched upwards, and
•clothed with reddish brown bark that is thrown off in recurved flakes.
Branchlets and herbaceous shoots decurved or pendulous. Leaves in
whorls of three, becoming effete on the axial growths the third or
fourth year, but persisting much longer, subulate acute, imbricated and
.appressed, O2 — 0*5 inch long, convex on the back and pale green ;
concave and whitish on the inner side. Flowers mono3cious, rarely
dkecious; staminate flowers small, oval-oblong, obtuse, composed of six — eight
pale yellow stamens. Fruits solitary on the ends of short lateral
branchlets of the preceding year, ovoid-oblong, about 0'5 inch long,
blackish blue when mature.

• Juniperus recurva, Hamilton ex Don Prodr. Fl. Nep. 55 (1825). Loudon, Arb. et
Frut Brit. IV. 2504,. with fig Endlicher, Synops Conif. 18. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 27. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr XVI. 481. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 147.
Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. Ind. 537. Boissier, Fl. orient V. 708. Hooker fil, Fl.
Brit. Ind. V. 647. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 104. Masters in Gard. Chron. XIX. (188),
p. 468, with fig ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 214.

var.— squamata.

A prostrate, spreading, much-branched shrub; secondary branches mostly
short and erect with smooth, reddish brown bark ; branchlets numerous,
short and somewhat rigid. Leaves subulate, much crowded on the young
shoots, more distant on the axial growths, greyish white above, pale
green beneath.

* Gartenflora, XXVI. 339 ; XXVII. 36 ; XXIX. 48.
t Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2500.

186 JUNIPERUS RECURVA.

J. recurva var. squamata, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 482. Hooker fil, Fl.
Brit. Ind. V. 647. J. squamata, Hamilton in Lambert's Pinus, ed. I. Vol. II.
17. Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 28. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 152. J. religiosa,
Royle, Illus. Him. Plants, I. 351 (name only). J. densa, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 141.

Juniperus recurva first became known to science through Dr.
Hamilton who discovered it during his journey through Nepal in
1802—1803. Specimens were communicated by him to Mr. Aylmer

Fig. 57. Juniperus recurva.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

Lambert in whose herbarium they remained many years undescribed.
The species is distributed over the temperate and alpine Himalaya
from 7,500 to 15,000 feet elevation from Bhotan to Afghanistan.
Throughout this region it varies much in habit and dimensions; as seen
by Sir J. D. Hooker in the Lachin valley in Sikkim, it is a tree
30 feet high with spreading branches and pendulous branchlets ; * at
and near its highest limit, it takes the form described above as,

* Himalayan Journals, II. 45.

JUNIPERUS RECUKVA.

187

var. squamata which with its decumbent stems and erect branches in
places covers large areas that cannot be traversed without great
difficulty. The wood of the arborescent form is fragrant and reddish
brown like that of the American Eed Cedar ; the resinous twigs of the
shrubby form are used for incense.*

The date of the introduction of Juniperus recurva into Great Britain
does not appear to have been recorded. London states that there was a
plant four years old in 1837 in the Horticultural Society's garden at

Fig. 58. Juniperus recurvci in Sikkim.
(From the Himalayan Journals of Sir J. D. Hooker.)

Chiswick and one still older in Loddiges' nursery at Hackney which had
borne the fruit from which his figure was taken. In British gardens it
is a distinct shrub or low tree with pendulous feathery branchlets clothed
with greyish green foliage ; in situations favourable for its development
it is a graceful and picturesque plant quite unlike any other, affording a
pleasing contrast to its surroundings ; in dry soils the persistent older
leaves often become rusty brown and chaff-like, imparting to the plant
an unhealthy aspect. The monoecious form is most common but an
exception occurs in the grounds of the Right Hon. A. H. Smith-Barry at

* Braudis, Forest Flora, loc. cit. supra.

188 JUN1PERUS KIGIDA.

Fota Island, near Cork, where there is a male plant of very attractive
aspect which differs from it chiefly in the hranchlets being more distant
and more elongated, and in the leaves being longer, narrower, more closely
appressed to the stems and more distinctly glaucous.

Juniperus rigida.

A small tree 20 — 25 feet high with spreading branches and pendulous
or sub-pendulous branchlets ; more frequently a low spreading bushy shrub.
Leaves homomorphic, persistent about three years, in whorls of three,
subulate, acuminate, trigonous, pungent, O75 — 1 inch long, channelled
and marked with a white stomatiferous line on the ventral (upper) side,
keeled and pale green on the dorsal (lower) side. Staminate flowers
mostly in the axils of two-years-old leaves, cylindric, about 0*25 inch
long, consisting of twelve — eighteen stamens with a sub-deltoid connective.
Fruits globose, somewhat larger than those of the common Juniper,
blackish blue and glaucous when mature and containing three — four seeds.

Juniperus rigida, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 56, t. 125 (1842).
Endlicher, Synops Conif. 17. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 20 Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI 480 Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 138. Franchet and Savetier, Enum.
Plant. Jap. I. 471. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 131. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc.
XVIII. 496 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 214.

J. conmmnis, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 264 (1784), not Linnreus.

Jumperus rigida, the Japanese representative of the common Juniper,
is generally distributed over the central island, growing mostly in dry
gravelly soils ; it is also more generally cultivated in Japan than any
other Juniper. It first became known to science through the Swedish
botanist Thunberg who mistook it for J. communis from which it
differs in its longer, almost trigonous leaves that are channelled on the
upper side and in its larger fruits.

Juniperus rigida was introduced into British gardens by the late
Mr. John Gould Veitch in 1861 ; it grows freely in most soils and
situations when not crowded by other shrubs, and as a plant for garden
decoration it is superior to the common Juniper.

Closely allied to Juniperus rigida and perhaps but a local or climatic
form of ,it is a Juniper occurring in northern Japan, of which specimens
are preserved in the national herbaria but which is not known to be in
cultivation, viz : —

Juniperus conferta.

Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 481. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 133. J. littoralis,*
Maximowicz in Bull, Acad. Petersb. 230, ex Parlatore, loc. cit. Beissner, Nadel-
holzk. 130.

A sea-side plant originally discovered by the American botanical
explorer, Charles Wright, on the sandy dunes of the Bay of Hakodati and
afterwards by Maximowicz in the same locality. As represented in
British herbaria it differs from Juniperus rigida in its shorter leaves
much crowded in tufts and in its larger spherical fruits ; its habit is
described as prostrate with long straggling branches and close-set
branchlets clothed with grey-green foliage.

* The Juniperus littoralis of some gardens is a different plant from this, and should be
referred to the J. Pseudo-Sabina of Fischer and Meyer.

JUNIPERUS SABINA. 189

Juniperus Sabina,

A shrub of very variable habit and dimensions ; occasionally arbores-
cent in southern Europe with a straight erect trunk 10 — 15 feet high.
Branches spreading or ascending, clothed with red-brown bark that
peels off in thin papery flakes ; ramification pseudo - distichous.
Branchlets relatively short, close-set, pale reddish brown, the latest
formed tetrastichous, pinnately divided and falling off the third or
fourth year. Leaves in decussate pairs, glandular ; on the axial
growths subulate-oblong, mucronate, concrescent ; on the lateral herbaceous,
shoots smaller, scale-like, rhomboidal, sub-acute, closely imbricated or
concrescent, dull dark green. Staminate flowers very numerous,
terminal 011 short lateral branchlets of the preceding year, oval, pale
yellow, consisting of about ten anthers. Fruits small, solitary, sub-
globose, blackish brown with a bluish glaucescence when mature and
containing one — four seeds.

Juniperus Sabina, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1039 (1753). London, Arb et Frut.
Brit. IV. 2499, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 22. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 23. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 483 (exclu. American habitat).
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 150 Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 708. Willkomm, Forstl.
Fl. ed. II. 254. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 107, with figs, (exclu. Siberia). Masters in
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 214. And many others.

Eng. Savin Juniper. Fr. Genevrier Sabine. Germ. Gemeiner Sadebaum,.
Gemeiner Sevenbaum. Ital. Sabina.

var. — humilis.

A dwarf, occasionally prostrate, shrub with numerous spreading
branches and close-set ascending or erect branchlets much ramified,
the latest formed shoots short, slender, pinnately branched and clothed
with scale-like leaves of a brighter green than the common form, and
among which some acicular, pungent, spreading leaves are sparingly inter-
mixed.

J. Sabina humilis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 23 (in part). Beissner, Nadel-
holzk. 110. J. Sabina nana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 23. Gordon, Pinet.
ed II. 150. And others.

var. — tamariscifolia.

A procumbent or spreading shrub, more vigorous in its growth and
of larger dimensions than the variety humilis. Leaves dimorphic ; on
the older part of the branchlets in whorls of three, awl-shaped, pungent,
adnate at the base, free at the tip, bluish or grey-green ; on the younger
growths in decussate pairs, concrescent, scale-like and bright green.
Fruits smaller than in the common form.

J. Sabina tamariscifolia, Aiton in Hort. Kew. ed. II. V. 414 (1813).* London,
Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2499, with figs. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 23.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 110. And others.

var.— variegata.

Differs from the common form in its dwarfer and denser habit and
in having the tips of the youngest growths cream- white ; the plant-
has thence a speckled and checkered appearance which renders it a.
useful subject for the rock-garden.
J. Sabina variegata, Hort.

* Referred by Endlicher to Juniperus thurifera (Linn.).

190 JUNIPERUS SPH.ERICA.

The Savin Juniper is abundant on all the mountains of central
Europe from the Alps to the Carpathians and of southern Europe
from the Sierra Nevada to the Caucasus ; its vertical range varies with
the latitude and exposition of the localities from 4,000 to 10,000 feet
above sea-level, frequently ascending to near the snow-line on
southern aspects. It prefers dry, rocky, sunny slopes especially on
the limestone formations of the Alps and Carpathians, where in
places it covers large areas unmixed with any other plant ; it
is also an ingredient of the undergrowth of the light coniferous
forests that form the higher zone of arborescent vegetation on these
mountains. The Siberian habitat assigned to Juniperus Sdbina by
Parlatore and other authors must be accepted with reserve, as it is
highly probable that the J. davurica of Pallas and the J. Pseudo-Sabinct
of Fischer and Meyer, if they are distinct, are the true Siberian
Savins. The North American Juniper referred to the common
Savin by Sir William Hooker and others is recognised in this work
as a species under the name of J. prostrata.

The Savin Juniper was introduced into British gardens at a very
early date, as it is mentioned in Turner's " Names of Herbes," published
in 1548. It was formerly much more cultivated than at present,
especially during the revival of horticulture in the late Stuart f period
when the species of evergreen trees and shrubs available for garden
decoration were comparatively few. As an ornamental plant it is
surpassed by the varieties described above, and which have nearly
superseded it as a garden plant. The variety humilis occurs in the
Tyrol, Carniola and other districts on the Alps at and near the
higher vertical range of the species ; it is the Green Carpet Juniper
of gardens. The variety tamariseifolia is somewhat vaguely stated to
occur wild on the Sierra Nevada, in Sicily, Greece and other places ;
it appears to have been recognised at a very early period ; as seen in
British gardens it is usually prostrate and easily distinguished by its
dimorphic foliage. To this variety Carriere and Beissner have referred
the Juniperus Sabinoides of Grisebach,* but this plant is still an
enigma to botanists.

Juniperus sphaerica.

A tree of the habit and aspect of Juniperus cJiinensis, attaining a
height of 30 — 40 feet with a rather slender trunk covered with dark
brown bark that peels off in longitudinal shreds exposing a reddish
brown inner cortex. Branches short, spreading or ascending, much
ramified towards the extremities. Branchlets with tetrastichous ramifi-
cation, the youngest shoots slender, four-angled and pinnately divided.
Leaves homomorphic (?), scale-like, in decussate pairs, ovate, obtuse,
concrescent, dark green with, a small circular pit on the back. Staminate
flowers not seen. Fruits spherical, nearly 0*4 inch in diameter,
blackish violet-blue, composed of six concrescent scales each with short
apicnlns and enclosing three (?) seeds.

* Specilegium Florae Rumelicse et Bythinicae, Vol. II. p. 352.

JUNIPERUS THURIFERA. 191

Juniperus sphaerica, Lindley in Paxton's Flower Garden, I. 58, with fig. (1850).
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 32 Parlatore, D. C. Prodi-. XVI. 488. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. ]21. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc XIV. 215.

This Juniper, rarely seen except in Botanic gardens, was intro-
duced by Fortune in 1846 from China, but nothing more appears to
be known of its habitat. The species, if species it is, is said to be
monoecious and thence differs in that respect from Juniperus
chinensis and also in its fruits which are almost twice as large. A
Juniper mentioned by London under the name of J. chinensis
Smithii, and another described in the former edition of this Manual as
J. Sheppcirdi have been referred to J. sphoerica by some authors.

Juniperus taxifolia.

In Great Britain, a sub-fastigiate tree 15 — 20 feet high with a
trunk 9 — 12 inches in diameter covered with thin reddish brown bark
peeling off in oblong flakes. Primary and secondary branches ascending
and nearly parallel with the trunk, the latter much ramified. Branchlets
slender, 12 — 18 inches long, quite pendulous, with orange-brown bark,
the youngest shoots angulate, pale green. Leaves persistent two — three
years, in whorls of three, acicular, acuminate with a cartilaginous tip,
0*25 — O75 inch long, with two white stomatiferous bands 011 the
ventral side, grass-green and keeled on the dorsal side. Staminate
flowers and fruits not seen.

Juniperus taxifolia, Hooker and Arnott, Beechey's Voy. 271 (1841). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 17. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed II. 21 Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 418. Beissner, Nadelliolzk. 131. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV.
215.

J. oblonga pendula, Hort.

The Juniper described above is cultivated in many gardens under
the name of Juniperus oblonga pendula, an unauthentic name implying
a connection with the Caucasian J. oblonga of Bieberstein, long since
recognised as a geographical variety of J. communis, but from this
it is specifically distinct. It is believed to have been introduced
from China by Fortune about the year 1856, and was afterwards
distributed from Osborne's nursery at Fulham under its garden
name.

Juniperus thurifera.

A low or medium-sized tree of columnar or sub-pyramidal outline,
in places attaining a height of 35 — 40 feet with a trunk covered with
greyish white bark ; sometimes a shrub with spreading or ascending
branches. Secondary and ternary branches much ramified ; branchlets
slender, short and pinnately divided. Leaves dimorphic ; on young-
plants and vigorous shoots of older ones, in whorls of three, acicular,
pungent and spreading ; * on adult plants always squamiform, in
decussate pairs, concrescent with or adnate to the stem ; on the axial

* This form is rarely seen on plants growing in Great Britain.

192

JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA.

growths larger and often free at the apex, glaucous bluish green.
Staminate flowers not seen. Fruits small, globose-ovoid, dark brownish
violet with a glaucous bloom.

Juniperus thurifera, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1039 (1753). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2503, with fig. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 34 (exclu.
localities, except Spain). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 487. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 153. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 117. Masters in Journ. R Hort Soc
XIV. 215.

J. hispanica, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 13 (1768).

J. sabinoides, Grisebach, ex Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 23 (excln. loc).

J. cinerea, Carriere. Traite Conif. ed. II. 35. And others.

Eng. Spanish Juniper, Incense Juniper. Fr. Genevrier porte-encens. Germ.
Weihrauch-Sadebaum. Ital. Ginepro incenso.

Juniperus tlmrifera has a limited geographical range in the western

Mediterranean region, from Cape
St. Vincent in Portugal eastwards
to the Sierra Nevada in Spain
where it ascends to 3,500 feet ;
also along the coast range of
Morocco and Algiers. It was
cultivated by Miller in the
Chelsea garden in 1752, and
was probably introduced by him.
Although so long cultivated
in this country, Gordon's asser-
tion that the Spanish Juniper
is " quite hardy " must be
accepted with reserve, as it is
only in warm and sheltered
situations that it occasionally
attains a height of 20 to 25
feet ; in its young state it
Fig. 59. jumpers thurifera. has a slender columnar out-

line but often tapering to a

sharp point ; as such with its very distinct, grey-green foliage, it is
a very ornamental plant for a spot protected from severe frosts.

Juniperus virginiana.

A tree of variable size and habit ; at its greatest development
100 feet high with a straight trunk 3 — 4 feet in diameter near the
ground ; usually much smaller and averaging 40 — 50 feet high ; in
places reduced to a low bushy shrub. Bark of trunk thin, light
brown tinged with red and separated into long narrow scales fringed
on the margins.* Branches slender, usually horizontal, but often
ascending, especially in the young state of the tree ; secondary branches
slender with smooth chestnut-brown bark ; ramification of the branchlets

Ex Silva of Xorth America, Vol. X. p. 93.

VARIETIES OF JUNIPERUS VIRGIN1ANA. 193

mostly pseudo-distichous and alternate, of the herbaceous shoots often
tetrastichous (four-ranked), very short and four-angled. Leaves dimorphic ;
011 the axial shoots and on young trees in whorls of three, acicular
or linear-lanceolate, acuminate, adiiate at the base, free at the apex,
changing to reddish brown or grey and becoming effete in the third
year ; on adult trees small, scale-like, in decussate pairs, ovate, acute,
imbricated or concrescent, light green changing to russet-brown on
pollen-bearing trees, green or glaucescent on fruit-bearing trees ; on
young plants larger and changing to dull violet-brown in winter.
Flowers dioecious, less commonly monoecious, the staminate flowers about an
eighth of an inch long composed of eight — ten stamens. Fruits produced
on the ends of short lateral shoots of the preceding year, sub-globose,
0*25 inch in diameter, dark blue-purple covered with a whitish glaucous
bloom, and ripening the first season.

Juniperus virginiana, Linnpeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1039 (1753). Michaux, Hist. Arbr.
Amer. III. 42, t. 5 (1813). L C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 37 (1826).
Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2495, with figs (1838). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 27 (1847). Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 43. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 488. Hoopes, Evergreens, 291. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 154. Beissner,
Xadelholzk. 122, with figs Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 215. Sargent
in Garden and Forest, VIII 61 ; and Silva N. Amer. X. 93, t. 52. And many
others.

Eng. and Amer, Red Cedar. Fr Cedre de Virginie. Germ. Virginischer Sade-
banm. Ital. Cedro della Virginia.

Varieties distinguished chiefly l>y habit.
var.— Bedfordiana.

In Great Britain a dense much-branched low tree of columnar habit,
with slender elongated pendulous or reflexed branchlets clothed with
bright green acicular leaves with a grey stomatiferous line on the ventral
side.*

J. virginiana Bedfordiana, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 489. J. virginiana
barbadensis, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 155. J. gracilis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif.
31. J. Bedfordiana, Hort And others.

var. — dumosa.

A shrub with short, close-set, ascending branches, and with a rounded
top. Leaves dimorphic, for the most part acicular, spreading, bluish
green above ; on the herbaceous shoots scale-like and bright green.

J. virginiana dumosa, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 46. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
156. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 126.

var. — pendula.

Several pendulous forms are described by different authors'. According
to Gordon three such are to be found in British gardens differing
more or less in the manner and degree of pendulosity and in the
colour of the foliage. They are thus distinguished : — One has spreading
branches and pendulous branchlets clothed with scale-like leaves only,

* This is one of the most beautiful of Junipers, but unfortunately too tender for the
climate of Great Britain generally. Although long cultivated in this country its origin
is obscure ; there is strong evidence in support of an hypothesis that it is the Juniper of the
Gulf States and some of the West India Islands, and thence the J. barbadensis of Linnaeus
and specifically distinct from J. virginiana.

194 VARIETIES OF JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA.

and producing only staminate flowers. A second form has long and
slender primary branches that with their appendages are more or less
pendulous ; this was known in some gardens as Chamberlayne's Weeping
Red Cedar. A third has elongated pendulous branchlets clothed with
bright green scale-like leaves ; it is the handsomest of the three, and
the only one generally cultivated at the present time.

J. virginiana pendula, Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 46. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
156. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 125. J. virginiana pendula viridis, Hort. J. virgin-
iana Chamuerlaynei, Hort. J. virginiana Smithii, Hort. And others.

var.— Schottii.

A narrowly pyramidal or columnar tree of smaller dimensions and denser
habit than the common form ; the younger branchlets are shorter, more
crowded and clothed with scale-like foliage of a remarkably bright
green colour.

J. virginiana Schottii, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 157. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 126.
J. virginiana viridis, Hort.

var. — tripartita.

A low, spreading shrub with the habit of the common Savin ; branches
and branchlets much ramified and clothed with acicular leaves only
that have a bluish green tint caused by the apparent blending of the
glaucous stomatiferous lines with the green surface.
J. virginiana tripartita, Gordon.

Varieties distinguished by the colour of the foliage.
var. — albo-variegata (syn. alba spica).

This has many of the youngest growths and leaves cream- or yellowish
white interspersed among the green branchlets and which change to
pale green in the following season.

var.— aureo - variegata.

In this variety many of the young growths are yellow ; the variega-
tion is sometimes unequally distributed over the plant.

var.— elegans.

Branchlets slender and elongated, clothed with acicular foliage and
having many of the youngest lateral growths light yellow.

Var. — glauca (syn. argentea).

In this variety the whole of the youngest growths and their- foliage
are of almost silvery whiteness, which changes to pale glaucous green in
winter.

var.— Triomphe d'Angers.

The greater portion of all the terminal growths cream-white, affording
a strong contrast to the dark bluish green of the older foliage.

Besides the varieties described above, a large number of others which
have originated in the seed-beds of British and continental nurseries
have received distinguishing names ; it is, however, doubtful whether
many of them can now be identified, as seminal varieties frequently
lose their distinctive character with age.

JUNIPERUS VIRGINI ANA. 195

The geographical range of Juniperus virginiana is one of the most
extensive of the genus ; it may be stated in general terms to
extend in a meridional direction from the great lakes of North
America and westwards of them from about the 50th parallel to
the Gulf States and Florida, and longitudinally from the Atlantic
coast to the Eocky Mountains ; and even crossing these at its
northern limit, it spreads through southern Columbia to Vancouver's
Island. Within this area occur the most diverse phases of climate,
from the sub-arctic winters of Nova Scotia and the Lake region to
the tropical summers of the Gulf States ; from the arid plains of
Utah and Nevada where the annual rainfall rarely reaches ten inches
to the low-lying tracts of the south-eastern States where it often
exceeds sixty inches. It is not surprising, therefore, that growing
spontaneously over half the North American continent, in widely different
soils, situations and aspects and also under extreme conditions of
climate, that Juniperus virginiana should be one of the most variable
of Conifers as regards habit and dimensions. In the Atlantic States
it is usually scattered over dry slopes and rocky ridges ; on the
coast often stunted and with short tough branches that resist
the fiercest gales ; further inland, as in Kentucky, Tennessee and
adjacent States, it is a medium-sized tree covering large areas with
nearly pure forests ; in the humid and hot climate of the eastern
Gulf States it attains its greatest dimensions, becoming a tall wide-
topped tree of very elegant aspect ; towards its western limits and
on the Rocky Mountains it is often reduced to a low bushy
shrub.*

According to Aitonf Juniperus virginiana was cultivated by Evelyn
prior to 1664, the. date of publication of the first edition of the "Sylva";
it was thence one of the first American trees introduced into British
gardens. Since that period it has been in constant use for ornamental
planting, and prior to the discovery and introduction of the north-west
American and east Asiatic Cupressinese, much more extensively than at
present. Its average growth in Great Britain is not more than from
10 to 15 feet in the first ten years from the seed, and the average height
.attained by it is rarely more than 30 to 40 feet, so that the tree does not
often attain a timber-like size except in deep rich soils that could be
more profitably cropped with other vegetation. Under cultivation the
Red Cedar is very polymorphous, of which every seed bed furnishes
abundant instances, but the peculiar form which characterises individuals
frequently disappears with age. M. Carriere was of opinion that this
variation is an effect of the sexuality of the plants, and certainly there

* Silva of North America, X. 94. Professor Sargent has since separated the Junipers
of the Rocky Mountains and of the Gulf States from Ju/nipyrus virginiana, constituting
the former a new species under the name of J. Scopulorum and referring the latter to
the Linnean J. barbadensis.

t Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 414.

196 FITZROYA.

are facts that can be adduced in support of that hypothesis,"* for
example — the male trees (at least up to 25 or 30 years) may be always
recognised by their primary branches spreading horizontally and by the
elongated branchlets clothed with scale-like leaves which in winter have
a russet-brown tint quite peculiar to this form. The female trees have
also spreading branches but with more lax ramification than the males ;
the foliage is at first dimorphic but the acicular leaves disappear in time
and the scale-like foliage is of a decided green tint, rarely glaucous,
throughout the year. Monoecious trees are fairly intermediate, generally
of columnar or sub-fastigiate habit up to 25 — 30 years, with dimorphic
foliage while the trees are relatively young ; in some instances the fruit
is borne on a single branch or on a very few branches, and in otlu-rs
the staminate flowers are restricted to one or to a very few branches,
whilst between these extremes every possible gradation occurs, and every
such variation is usually accompanied by a greater or less variation in
habit.

The wood of the Red Cedar is one of the most valuable of the forest
products of North America. Its use in the manufacture of " cedar
pencils " is well known ; its resistance to decay by water is so great that
no better wood can be found for fencing-posts and railway ties, door-
sills and other purposes in which wood-work is in contact with the soil.
Moths flee from its pungent odour, and a chest or closet lined with this,
wood affords an efficient protection against their inroads. From the
waste of pencil factories, a kind of paper is manufactured that has been
found useful for underlaying carpets and for wrapping wools, furs and
other articles liable to be injured by moths.

FITZROYA.

Hooker fil in Bot. Mag. sub. t. 4616 (1851). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 463 (1868)
Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 425 (1881). Eicbler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. PfL
Fam. 95 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 17 (1893) ; and including Diselma,
Hooker til, Fl. Tasnian. I. 353, t. 98.

A genus of evergreen trees or shrubs, including two species which
have their homes in two regions remote from each other — one, the type^
in the extreme south of South America and the other in the island of
Tasmania. From a scientific standpoint, the genus is a highly
interesting one, both in respect of the geographical position of the
species and the structure of the fruit by which it is chiefly
distinguished from the other Cupressinefe.

The essential characters are : —

Flowers dioecious. Staminate flowers small, solitary and terminal
Anthers four — eight, shortly stipitate with a peltate, broadly ovate or
sub-orbicular connective bearing two — four anther cells.

* II y a des individus exclusivement males, d'autres exclusivement fenielles, et d'autres
entiii qui, a des degres ditferents, portent les deux sexes. Ce qui est encore a remarquer,
c'est que ces caracteres agissent sur le fades et qu'elles donnent souvent aux plantes un
aspect particulier. Cette particularite, qui probablement s'applique a d'autres especes de
Juniperus, pourrait, peut-etre, expliquer la multiplicity qu'on a faite d'especes qui, pour
beaucoup, ne sont probablement que des formes d'un seul type. — Traite General des Coniferes,.
ed. II. p. 47.

FITZROYA ARCHERI. 197

Ovuliferons flowers also small, solitary and terminal, composed of

two four pairs of scales of which the two uppermost and largest bear

two — three orthotropous (erect) ovules.

Strobiles small, globose; scales sub-ligneous, persistent, the two upper-
most pairs alone fertile and bearing two — three winged seeds.

The vegetative organs are sufficiently described under each species.
The genus is named in compliment to Captain Fitzroy, commander
of H.M. surveying ship " Beagle," during the voyage of which
^1881 — 1836) the type species was discovered.*

Pitzroya Archeri.

A low tree with a trunk sometimes 15 — 18 inches in diameter; more
frequently a much-branched erect shrub 5 — 12 feet high. Branches
numerous with dark chestnut-brown bark and tetrastichous (four-ranked)
ramification ; branchlets slender, four-angled and similarly ramified.
Leaves small, scale-like, in decussate pairs, ovate-triangular, obtuse,
strongly keeled at the back, concrescent or closely imbricated, dark
green with a white stomatiferous line on each side of the keel ;
.somewhat larger on the axial growths, more acute, free at the apex
and becoming effete in the third or fourth year. Staminate flowers
composed of six — eight anthers in decussate pairs. Ovuliferous flowers
consisting of four scales in opposite pairs, of which the smaller outer
pair are sterile and the larger inner pair each bears two orthotropous.
ovules.

Fitzroya Archeri, Bentham in Gen. Plant III. 425 (1881). Eichler in Engler
and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 95.

Diselma Archeri. Hooker til, Fl. Tasman. I. 353, t. 98 (1860). Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 84. ' Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 462. And others.

This, the Tasmanian species, has a very restricted habitat around
Lake St. Clair and on the western mountains which it ascends to the
summit, about 4,500 feet above the level of the neighbouring ocean.
It was first described as a monotypic genus under the name of
Diselma, but afterwards joined with the South American species by
Mr. Bentham on the ground that the essential characters of the two
are the same.

Fitzroya Archeri has long been cultivated in the Temperate House
in the Royal Gardens at Kew, but no experience of it in the open
ground in this country is recorded. As it is associated in its native
island with Athrotaxis cupressoides it might be expected to prove
us hardy as that species. It is named in compliment to the late
Mr. William Archer of Cheshunt, who resided upwards of ten
years in Tasmania, during which he sedulously investigated the
botany of the district surrounding his property. He returned to

* The voyage of the "Beagle" will be ever memorable in the annals of science. The
vessel was dispatched by the British Government ' ' to complete the survey of Patagonia
and Tierra del Fuego, to survey the shores of Chile, Peru and of some islands in the
Pacific and to carry a chain chronometrical measurement round the world." Mr. Charles
Darwin was invited to accompany the expedition, an invitation which he accepted ; and
during the long voyage Avas commenced the series of profound researches which ultimately
made a permanent impress on biological science.

198 FITZROYA PATAGONICA.

England in 1857 with an excellent herbarium, copious notes, analyses
and drawings ; with these, and by means of the accurate information
he possessed of the vegetation of the island, he rendered valuable
assistance to Sir Joseph Hooker in the compilation of the "Flora
of Tasmania," besides defraying a large portion of the expense of the
illustrations.*

Fitzroya patagonica.

A dioecious tree of variable dimensions ; at its greatest development
on the western slopes of the Andes of southern Chile, with a trunk
80 — 100 or more feet high, covered with deeply furrowed, fibrous bark
3 inches thick : at its highest vertical limit, a small much branched
shrub. In Great Britain, a low tree or shrub of irregular outline ; the
arborescent form with a trunk 9 - — • 1 2 inches in diameter covered
with pale reddish brown bark fissured longitudinally into narrow plates,,
and exposing a dark inner cortex. Primary branches unequal in length
and thickness, and very irregularly ramified. Branchlets flexible,
obscurely tetrastichous, the youngest shoots decurved, and often pinnately
divided. Leaves in decussate pairs, persistent several years, but becoming
effete in the third or fourth season, narrowly ovate-oblong or spathulate
oblong, mucronate, more or less imbricated, dark green and concave-
above, keeled on the back and with two white stomatiferous lines.
Staminate flowers not seen. Strobiles 011 short lateral shoots of the
preceding year, globose, composed of three decussate pairs of"
scales, each with a prominent compressed unibo on the outer side, the
largest uppermost pair fertile, each bearing three seeds or fewer by
abortion.

Fitzroya patagonica, Hooker til, ex. Hooker W. in Bot. Mag. sub t. 4616 (1851).
Lindley in Paxton's Fl. Gard. II. 147. Gay, Fl. Chil V. 411. Van Houtte, Flore
des Serres, VII. 130, with fig Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 463. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 115. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 219.

The geographical range of Fitzroya patagonica on the South American
continent has not yet been clearly ascertained ; so far as at present
known, its northern limit may be placed at about the 40th parallel of
south latitude whence it spreads southwards along the Andes to the
Straits of Magellan. It is very abundant 011 the brows of the hills
around Valdivia where it ascends to 1,500 feet elevation, and where
its tall columnar stems are visible from a great distance, f It was-
introduced from this locality by the Veitchian firm in 1849 through
William Lobb.

Although Fitzroya patagonica has been in cultivation half-a-centuiy
and has proved quite hardy, it cannot be regarded as a satisfactory
subject for British gardens. In the most favourable localities as in.
Devon and Cornwall, its growth is slow, and when left to itself it
often forms a multiplicity of leader shoots, none of which grow more

* Flora of Tasmania, Introduction, p. 127.

t Richard Pearce in lit. , who affirmed that it is the Fitzroya which supplies the valuable
Alerze timber of the Chilians, not Libocedrus tetragona as stated by most authors.

CUPIIESSUS. 199

than a few inches in a single season ; the branches are for the most
part irregularly developed and impart an unsymmetrical habit to the
tree unless occasionally pruned.* It is worthy of remark that none
of the Fitzroyas (Chilian species) growing in Great Britain so far as
they have been observed, produce staminate flowers, but ovuliferous
strobiles are produced in great profusion from an early age of the
tree.

CUPEESSUS.

Linnaeus. Sp. Plant. II. 1002 (1753). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 55 (1847). Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 467 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 427 (1881).
Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 99 (1887). Masters in Joimi. Linn. Soc.
XXXI. 325 (1896). Including Chamsecyparis, Spach, Hist. Nat Veg. Phan. XI. 329 (1842);
and Retinispora, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 42 (genus falsum}.

The genus Cupressus includes some of the most beautiful and
interesting trees in Nature, and as the majority of the species are
more or less hardy in Great Britain their value as subjects for
garden decoration is very great, a value greatly enhanced by the
numerous abnormities into which many of them have diverged under
cultivation, and which has resulted in the " fixing " of forms of very
distinct habit and aspect originating from the same species. The
most remarkable instances of polymorphism occur in Cupressus
Lawsoniana, C. oUusa and C. pisifera, of which it may be remarked
that the abnormities of the one for the most part simulate those
of the others, thus affording evidence of order and method in the
production of an apparently inexplicable diversity of forms, f

The genus in its extent and circumscription as here understood, is
the same as in the monograph elaborated by Dr. Maxwell Masters
in the " Journal of the Linnean Society," loc. cit. supra. The essential
characters are : —

Flowers monoecious. Stamiiiate flowers terminal 011 short branchlets
of the preceding year. Stamens numerous, in decussate pairs with
short filaments and orbicular or sub-peltate connectives bearing two — six
anther cells.

Seminiferous cones (strobiles) composed of eight — ten scales thickened
at the apex or exposed side into a peltate expansion and bearing
beneath it two — seven or more seeds in one — two series.

* Among the largest specimens known to the author is one at Killerton in South Devon
over 25 feet high ; one at Upcott, near Bamstaple, of nearly the same dimensions ; one at
Fota Island, near Cork, in which the terminal growths are much elongated and elegantly
pendulous ; and one at Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow, which has taken the form of a dense
rounded shrub 12 feet in diameter. There is also one at Belsay in Northumberland over
20 feet high growing on sandstone quarry refuse, which has been watched and supernumerary
leaders pruned off whenever they have appeared. The failure of the Fitzroya to grow satis-
factorily in this country is doubtless due to climatic causes similar to those which affect
Saxeqothoea conspicua and Libocedrus tetragona.

t It should, however, be noted that whilst many of these abnormities may become
" fixed " by propagation from cuttings and by grafting, many others lose their peculiar
form and colour as they increase in age, the reversion to a normal type taking place more
rapidly in some varieties than in others.

200 CUPRESSUS.

But while the above characters are common throughout the genus,
there occurs a difference in the period of maturation of the fruits,
in their size, in the texture of their scales and in the number of
seeds borne by each, and these differences are generally but not
always accompanied by a difference in the branching and consequently
in the form of the branchlet system of the youngest or herbaceous
growths, whence the species fall into two groups or sections thus
distinguished : —

EUCUPRESSUS. — Strobiles large, attaining maturity in the second year;

scales ligneous, each bearing numerous seeds in one — two series.

Herbaceous branch systems tetrastichous (four -ranked) but often obscured

from external causes, sometimes distichous (two-ranked). Leaves mostly

liomomorphic :

Arizonic.a, Benthamii, funehrfo, Goveniana, lusitaniea, Macnabicma,

mwrocarpa, sempervirens, thurifera, torulosa.

CHAMJJCYPARIS. — Strobiles small, attaining maturity the first year ;
scales coriaceous, bearing two, rarely three — five seeds in one series.
Herbaceous branch systems distichous, tetrastichous in some of the
abnormal forms only. Leaves dimorphic, the lateral pairs more or less
conduplicate, the dorsiventral pairs flat :

Lawsoniana, nootkatensis, obtusa, pisifera, thyoides.

Variable as is the habit of the Cypresses and the dimensions
which individual trees attain, the spreading form in which the
branches gradually diminish in length from below upwards during
the vigorous life of the tree, appears to be that most natural to
them. Instances of pendulosity occur in Cupressus funebris and
C. torulosa, and fastigiate forms of C. scmpervircns and C. macrocarpa
are common. It is worthy of note that nearly all the species natives
of the warmer parts of the temperate zone assume more or less
the fastigiate habit in Great Britain.

The type species Cupressus sempervirens has been known from remote
antiquity and has been noted by many authors down to the dawn of
modern Botany. By the end of the eighteenth century four other
species were known to science, C. lusitanica, C. thyoides, C. nootkatensis
and C. funelris ; all the remaining species are discoveries of the nine-
teenth century.* The genus now includes fifteen recognised species
and two or three more forms whose specific rank is undecided ; all
these are distributed over the northern hemisphere from Japan
westwards to the Pacific littoral of North America. Most of the
species included in Eucupressus are natives of the warmer parts of
the temperate zone, while all those in Chamaecyparis have a more
northern habitat. For the British climate their value is wholly
horticultural, but in their native countries where abundant and of
sufficient dimensions, their timber ranks among the best for certain
purposes that can be procured.

* A most useful chronological list of authorities for specific names and also complete lists
of synonyms are appended to Dr. Masters monograph in the Journal of the Linnean
Society.

(JUPUE88US ARIZOX1CA. 201

Cupressus arizonica.

A tree usually 30 — 40 feet but occasionally 70 feet high with a
trunk 2 — 4 feet in diameter and horizontal branches forming a
narrow pyramidal or occasionally a broad flat head. Bark on old
trunks thin, dark red-brown and separating freely into long shreds
which often remain hanging on it for years ; on young trunks and on
the branches, breaking into large irregular scales which, in falling,
expose the bright red inner bark. Leaves ovate, acute, carinate and
eglandular, or occasionally glandular pitted on the back, pale glaucous
green, dying usually the second year. Staminatc flowers 0'25 inch
long, composed of six — eight stamens with broadly ovate, acute, yellow
connectives. Strobiles sub-globose, about an inch in diameter on short
peduncles and with six— eight scales furnished with stout, cylindrical,
pointed umbos. Seeds variable in shape, from oblong to nearly
triangular and furnished with thin narrow wings. — Sargent, Silva of
North America, X. 105.

Cupressus arizonica, Green in Bull. Torrey. Bot. Club, IX. 64 (1882). Watson
in Proceed. Amer. Acad. Sci. XVIII. 157 (1883). Masters in Gard. Chron. X.
ser. 3 (1891), p. 364 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 204. Lemmon, N.W.
Amer. Cone Bearers, 75.

C. Benthami, var. arizonica. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 340.

Cupressus arizonica is the latest addition to the genus ; it was
discovered by Professor Greene in 1880 in the neighbourhood of
Clifton in Arizona, and also on the mountain ranges north of Mount
Graham ; it is now known to be common on the mountains of
central Arizona at 5,000 to 8,000 feet elevation, in places forming
pure forests of considerable extent.

Cupressus arizonica was introduced into British gardens in 1882 from
the Arnold Arboretum, near Boston, U.S.A. The young trees growing
in this country are of fastigiate or columnar habit with a lightish
green foliage ; they have up to the present time proved quite hardy
and are among the best of decorative Conifers for the lawn and
small gardens.

Cupressus Benth amii.

A tree of variable habit and dimensions according to situation and
environment. Branches spreading or deflexed, much ramified at the
extremity ; secondary branches covered with smooth, dark chestnut-
brown bark. Branchlets distichous, opposite or alternate and pimiately
ramified, the youngest growths equidistant and parallel. Leaves
dimorphic, on the axial growths ovate, acuminate, glandular, adnate at
the base, free at the apex, becoming effete in the third year ; on the
lateral branchiets smaller, scale-like, deltoid - ovate, appressed and
imbricated, bright green. Staminate flowers with six anthers in decussate
pairs. Strobiles solitary or in clusters of two — three or more, shortly
pedunculate, globose, about 0'75 inch in diameter, composed of eight
rhomboidal scales each with a small umbo projecting from the centre.

202 CUPRESSUS BENTHAMII.

Cupressus Benthamii, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 59 (1847). Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 472. Hemsley, Biol. Centr. Amer. III. 183. Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 80.
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 338.

C. Lindleyi, Klotsch, ex Endlicher, loc. cif.

C. lusitanica Benthamii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 155

var.— Knightiana.

This differs from the typical 0. Benthamii in its more symmetrical
habit especially in the regularity of its branching, in its glaucescent
foliage and also in the more prominent umbo of the cone scales.

C. Benthamii Knightiana, Masters in Gard. Chron. XVI. ser. 3 (1894), p. 668 ;
and in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 340. C. Knightiana, Hort. C. elegans, Hort.

The information we possess respecting Cupressus Benthamii as seen
in its native country and its geographical distribution is vague and
disjointed. Not much more can be said of it than that it is spread
over the tierra fria or alpine region of Mexico at 6,000 feet elevation
and upwards, from Orizaba northwards to the Sierra Madre, and that
herbarium specimens have been gathered in different places and at
different times by botanical explorers of the region, among the earlier
of whom was Karl Theodor Hartweg while collecting seeds and plants
for the Horticultural Society of London, 1839 — 1843, through whom it
was introduced.* The variety Knightiana was distributed by Messrs.
Knight and Perry, the predecessors of Messrs. James Veitch and Sons
at the Royal Exotic Nursery, who state in their Synopsis that its
origin was unknown to them ; it is the most elegant of the half-
hardy Cypresses, and is still to be found in warm sheltered spots
in Hampshire, Devon and Cornwall, and also at Powerscourt in
Ireland where there is a remarkably beautiful specimen in perfect
health. The species was named after the late Mr. George Bent ham,
one of the most eminent of British systematic botanists.

GEORGE BENTHAM (1800 — 1884), the son of Sir Samuel Bentham, was born at
Plymouth, his father being at that time Inspector of the Royal Dockyards. While
still a boy he spent some time at St. Petersburg where he acquired a knowledge
of the Russian language. From 1814 to 1826 he lived with his family in the neighbour-
hood of Montpellier, and there he began .his botanical career by a practical examination
of the wild plants of Angouleme and Montauban, quickly followed by further
researches into the flora of the Pyrenees. His first work, "A Catalogue of Plants
indigenous to the Pyrenees and Bas Languedoc " was published in 1826. Returning
to England in that year he first turned his attention to the law, but speedily
devoted himself exclusively to botany. He attached himself to the Horticultural
Society of London in the days when that Society did excellent service by dispatching
collectors to various countries, and together with Lindley he undertook the
determination of the many species introduced by Douglas Hartweg and others ; he was
Secretary to the Society from 1829 to 1840. From the time his connection with the
Society ceased, up to within a year or two of his death, Bentham was constantly at work,
elaborating monographs of genera and orders or preparing floras of various countries.
Among the most important of these elaborations mention must be made of his mono-
graphs of the Labiatfe and Scrophularine« in De Candolle's "Prodromus" and the floras
of Hong-Kong and Australia in the series of Colonial floras projected by Sir William
Hooker and worked out at Kew. But by far the most enduring monument of

* The only tree raised from the originally-introduced seeds known to the author is at Fota
Island, near Cork, where it is recognised under the name of Cupressus Lindleyi ; it is a superb
specimen upwards of 80 feet high, with a trunk three feet in diameter near the ground.

CUPRESSUS FUNEBRIS. 203

Beutham's labours is the "Genera Plantarum," a work of immense value to botanical
science, and which, till its appearance, was one of the most urgent desiderata of
the age. The publication began in 1862 and terminated in 1883, a year prior to
his death. To enable him to prosecute his researches, Bentham gradually accumulated
a vast herbarium and library, which in 1854 he made over to the nation with the
sole condition that they should be accessible to the public. These, incorporated
with the collections of his friend, Sir William Hooker, formed the basis of the
unrivalled collections at Kew. Bentham was a Fellow of the Royal Society, from
whom he received the greatest honour in their power to bestow — the award of a
Royal Medal ; he was also a Member of the Institute of France and a Fellow of
the Linnean Society of London, of which he became President in 1861 and continued
for thirteen years to preside over the destinies of the Society. — Gardeners' Chronicle,
XXII. (1884), p. 368.

Cupressus funebris.

A tree of singular aspect with a broadly pyramidal crown, wide
spreading branches and pendulous branchlets, attaining a height of
50 — 60 feet and usually with an erect, straight trunk denuded of
branches along the lower part. In Great Britain a fastigiate or columnar
tree, the trunk sometimes divided at a greater or less distance from the
ground into two or more secondary much-branched trunks, the branches
and their ramifications short, stout, ascending and covered with smooth
chestnut-brown bark. Branchlets distichous and alternate, slender and
more or less drooping, the youngest branchlet system persistent about
three years. Leaves scale-like, deltoid, acute, concresceiit or closely
imbricated, bright green. Staminate flowers sub-globose, consisting of
eight anthers in four decussate pairs. Strobiles on short footstalks,
solitary or in pairs, globose, composed of four pairs of umbinate scales of
which the two middle pairs are fertile, each bearing three — four
seeds.*

Cupressus funebris, Staunton Embassy, ed. II. 446, t. 41 (1798). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 58 (1847). Planchon in Flore des Serres, VI. 90, with fig. (1850).
Lindley in Paxton's Fl. Gard. I. 46, with tig. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 161.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 471. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 82. Brandis, Forest
Fl. N.W. India, 533. Hooker til, Fl. Brit, Ind. V. 646. Masters in Journ.
Linn. Soc. XXXI. 337, with figs.

C. pendula, Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. 124, t. 66 (1828). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2479, with figs.

This remarkable Cypress first became known to Europeans during
Lord Macartney's Embassy to Pekin in 1702 when it was seen
growing in a place called " The Vale of Tombs " situated in a
mountainous district in the north of China, and which is said to have
a more rigorous climate than England. Nothing more was heard of it
till it was re-discovered by Mr. Fortune in 1849 about 150 miles up
the Hang-chow river in the neighbourhood of the once famous tea
country of Whey-chow where he procured seeds which he sent to the
late Mr. Standish of Ascot, the first received in this country.
Mr. Fortune afterwards saw this Cypress in China further west where
it is more common, occurring " frequently in clumps on the sides of
the hills where it had a most striking and beautiful effect on the

* Communicated by Mr. Crombie, Powerscourt Gardens, Co. Wicklow, and Mr. Garland,
Killerton Gardens, Exeter.

204 CUPRESSUS GOVENIANA.

landscape."* The geographical distribution of Cupressus funebris is but
imperfectly known ; the recorded habitats are few, but there are
indications of its having an extensive range in the south-west provinces
whence it lias been introduced and planted around temples in Nepal,
Sikkim and Bhotan. In the Himalayan valleys up to 6,000 feet it
attains a large size ; one tree measured by Sir Joseph Hooker had a
girth of 16 £ feet at five feet from the ground and was apparently
90 feet high.f

The expectation that Cupressus funebri* would prove as hardy as the
Cryptomeria and the Indian Deodar has not been realised. The
occasional recurrence of exceptionally severe winters has proved fatal to
it over the greater part of Great Britain. In Devon and Cornwall and
in parts of Wales and Ireland where this extreme severity is rarely or
ever felt there are specimens from 25 to 30 feet high but they are all
of the fastigiate or columnar form, and only in a few instances as at
Killerton in Devonshire and at Powerscourt in AVicklow do the oldest
trees show signs of assuming the pendulous habit which characterises the
species in China and India.

Cupressus Goveniana.

"A tree occasionally 50 feet high with a short trunk 2 feet in
diameter and slender, erect or spreading branches ; usually much
smaller, often shrubby in habit." Outer bark dark brown, fissured
and peeling oft' in shreds exposing a chocolate-red inner cortex.
Branches spreading or ascending, covered with smooth red-brown
bark and much ramified towards the extremities. Branchlets
slender, numerous and close-set, tetrastichous on the axial growths
and densely ramified in the same manner. Leaves on the axial
shoots ovate, acute, closely appressed or concrescent at the base,
free at the apex ; on the slender lateral shoots much smaller, scale-
like, concrescent or imbricated, all of a bright shade of green peculiar
to this species. Staminate flowers usually with six stamens, four-angled,
light yellow. Strobiles often in dense clusters, shortly pedunculate,
globose, 075 — 1 inch in diameter, composed of four decussate pairs
of dark brown scales each with a short pyramidal umbo and bearing
from twelve to eighteen seeds.

Cupressus Goveniana, Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc. Loud. IV. 295, with fig.
(1849); and Pinet. ed. II. 83. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 170. Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 472. Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 114. Masters
in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 205 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 346, with fig.
Sargent, Silva N. Anier. X. 107, t. 527.

Cuprcsms Govemana was discovered by Theoclor Hartweg in the
neighbourhood of Monterey in 1846 associated with Piims muricata,
while collecting plants and seeds for the Horticultural Society of
London ; it was subsequently distributed from the Society's gardens
at Chiswick. Its geographical range is confined chiefly to the
California!! coast region from the plains of Mendocino to the mountains

* Gardeners' Chronicle, 1850, p. 228. t Himalayan Journals, Vol. I. p. 336.

CUP11ESSUS LAWSOXIANA. 205

of San Diego, frequently ascending the canons of the mountain chains of
central California to nearly 3,000 feet elevation and attaining its largest
size near mountain streams. It covers in Monterey and Mendocino
counties extensive tracts of sandy barrens or rocky slopes extending
inland a few miles from the coast, growing as a low bush frequently
only a few inches high.*

In Great Britain Gupre*«u« G-ovemanx is hardy but comparatively
short lived ; it thrives bast in the western and south-western counties
of England and in Wales and Ireland. Like all the cultivated
Cypresses it assumes two distinct habits, the spreading and the fasti-
giate ; the oldest trees of spreading habit rarely exceed 20 — 25 feet
in height, offcener much less, and have a trunk usually divided near
the ground and a broad umbrella-like crown ; the fastigiate form has
a more slender trunk with ascending branches and attains a height
of 30 — 35 feet. In the early spring this Cypress is covered with
innumerable yellow staminate flowers, and so plentifully is the pollen
produced that when shed, the ground beneath the trees appears covered
with yellow dust. It is also extremely prolific ; cones are produced from
an early age, arid after a few years the trees become so loaded with
them that their vitality is eventually exhausted.

The species was named in compliment to Mr. James Robert Gowen,
a prominent horticulturist of his time and Secretary to the Horticultural
Society of London at the date of its introduction.

Gupressus Lawsoniana.

The tallest of all Cypresses, at its greatest development attaining1
200 feet high with a trunk 12 feet in diameter near the abruptly
enlarged base and free of branches for over 100 feet ; the general height
ranges from 120 to 150 feet. Bark remarkable for its thickness, being
more than a foot thick on old trees, reddish "brown with two distinct
layers, the inner being darker and more compact than the outer which
is divided into great broad-based rounded ridges separated on the surface
into small, thick, closely appressed scales ; on young stems and on the
branches, the bark is thin and slightly scaly, f In Great Britain a medium-
sized or tall tree with a stoutish trunk tapering from a swollen base
and covered with cinnamon-brown bark which peels off in thickish
flakes. £ Branches short, mostly horizontal, sometimes more or less,
curved, terminating in leafy, froiidose expansions. Branchlets with
lateral ramification, slender, often flexible and sub-pendulous. Leaves in
decussate pairs, bright dark green, occasionally glaucescent, on the axial
growths ovate-oblong, acuminate, adnate at the base, free at the apex,
and persisting three — four years ; on the lateral and younger shoots
scale-like, triangular-ovate, concrescent and glandular. Staminate flowers
small, cylindric, crimson, with 12 — 16 anthers. Strobiles globose,.
0'25 — 0*4 inch in diameter, composed of eight sub-quadrate scales, the
lower four fused together at their base, each scale except the uppermost
pair bearing two — five seeds.

* Silva of Xorth America, Vol. X. p. 107. t Idem. p. 119.

£ Occasionally with two — live secondary trunks that have arisen from the lowermost
branches from which roots were emitted while the trees were still young.

206 VAKIETIES OF CUPRESSUS LAWSONIANA.

Cupressus Lawsoniana, Murray in Edinb. new Phil. Journ. n. s. I. 292, with
fig. (1855). Hooker fil in Bot, Mag. t. 5581 (1866). Hoopes, Evergreens, 342
with fig. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. III. 191, with figs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 86.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. IV. 205 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 353. Sargent,
Silva N. Amer. X. 119, t. 531.

C. attenuata, Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 79 (1875).

Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 464 (1868). Brewer
and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 114. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 70, with fig.

C. Boursieri, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 125.

Eng. Lawson 's Cypress. Amer. Port Orford Cypress. Fr. Cyprus de Lawson.
Germ. Lawson's Lebensbaumcypresse. Ital. Cipresso di Lawson.

The abnormal forms of Cupressus Lawsoniana that have originated in
seed beds or from "branch sports" (Sportzweige), and which have been
named and distributed by horticulturists, are exceedingly numerous.
Those described in the following pages are more or less distinct
and highly appreciated as decorative plants for the lawn and small
gardens ; they admit of being grouped into two series, of which one is
characterised by difference in habit and the other by colour, but as
difference in habit is sometimes accompanied by difference in colour,
there are forms which may be placed with equal right in either series.

Varieties distinguished chiefly ~by habit,

var— Allumi (syn. Fraseri).

A slender but dense columnar form with short branches and rigid erect
branchlet systems clothed with glaucous green foliage with a steel-blue
tint peculiar to this variety. It is a modification of an older variety
named strida.

var. — Bowleri.

The branchlets and their ramifications more slender, more pendulous
and of a darker green than the common form ; habit dense and compact.

var.— compacta.

A dwarf, dense, conical low tree or shrub with decurved glaucous
terminal growths ; one of the most distinct of the dwarf varieties.

var. — erecta.

A dense fastigiate form with a tapering or flame-shaped outline ; all
the branches erect and much crowded, the lateral branchlets much
shorter in proportion to their axial growths than in the common form.
erecta viridis has the branchlet systems and foliage of a lighter
and brighter green.

var.— ericoides.

The branchlets and young growths very slender and of a bright grass-
green ; the small scale-like leaves free and erect, simulating the foliage
of some of the Cape Heaths.

var.— filifera.

The terminal growths of the youngest branchlet systems greatly
elongated and attenuated at the extremity ; the lateral branchlets more
sparingly ramified.

var.— flliformis.

A singular variety in which the branches are excessively elongated at
the expense of the lateral growths which are distant and much
shortened. Of sub-pendulous habit, simulating the Whipcord Thuia.

VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS LAWSONIANA. 207

var.— gracilis pendula.

More slender in all its parts, the branches long in proportion to height
of trunk and pendulous, gracilis pendula aurea — all the growths
of the current season golden yellow changing in autumn to bright grass-
green, and in the succeeding season to the normal dark green of the species.

var.— inter texta.

More robust in all its parts, with more distant arching branches and
more divergent ramification ; foliage usually paler than in the common
form.

var. — j uniperina.

The youngest growths very slender with minute leaves resembling
those of a Savin Juniper ; the axial growths of the branchlet systems
conspicuous by their yellowish tint.

var, — nana.

A diminutive form of slow growth, dense globose habit and deep green
colour. nana alba has the whole of the current season's growth
yellowish white, and that of nana glauca bluish green.

var. pendula vera.

The primary branches and their appendages bent downwards towards
the ground. In another form the primary branches are short, rigid and
horizontal, and the secondary branches with their branchlet systems are
strictly pendulous.

var.— Shawii.

A globose shrub with slender branchlets and light glaucous green
foliage. Of larger size and more open habit than the variety compacta,
and with foliage of a deeper shade of green.

var. — Wisselii.

A so-called " plumose " variety of dense dwarf habit, with erect
branches on which the branchlets are much crowded and the branchlet
systems appears tufted like those of C. thy aides leptodada. Leaves" free
at the apex and bright grass-green.

var.— Youngi.

Branchlets stout and spreading, the branchlet systems fern-like and
of a rich dark green like those of C. obtusa filicoides which this
variety simulates both in habit and colour.

Varieties distinguished "by the colour of the foliage.
var.— alba spica.

The terminal growths and tips of the branchlets cream-white. Of
more rapid growth and less dense in habit than the common form.
alba spica nana is a dwarf compact sub-variety of this.

var. — albo-variegata (syns. albo-maculata and albo-picta).

Branchlet systems and foliage deep green profusely spotted and
checkered with white. Of broadly conical or spreading habit.

208 VARIETIES OF CUPKESSUS LAW.SONIANA.

var. — argentea (syn. (

Branches shorter and more slender, sometimes sub-pendulous. Branch-
lets and foliage very glaucous, almost of silvery whiteness, sometimes
with a steel-hlue reflection.

var. — aureo-variegata (syn. aurea spica),

Many of the youngest branchlets bright yellow. Of conical or
pyramidal habit.

var. — darleyensis .

The current year's growths bright golden yellow : the coloured shoots
more numerous than in the variety aureo-variegata, and of a darker
shade than in the variety lutea. Of broadly conical or pyramidal
habit.

var.— lutea.

The whole of the young growths light yellow which subsides to
golden yellow in winter and to the normal green of the species in the
succeeding season. Of medium growth and sub-fastigiate habit. Silver
Queen is a cream-white variation of this.

var.— -versicolor.

A parti-coloured form in which many of the leaves near the base
of the lateral growths are cream-white, and those at the apical end
sulphur-yellow on the under side and light green on the upper side.

var. — West ermanii.

Foliage light yellow changing to fulvous green in winter. < )f broadly
pyramidal habit with drooping branchlets.

Cupressus Laivsoniana is supposed to have been discovered by
Jeffrey on the southern flanks of Mount Shasta while collecting for the
Scottish Oregon Association in 1851 — 1852, but nothing certain was
known of it till seeds were sent by William Murray in 1854 to the
nursery of Messrs. Lawson at Edinburgh. It lias a comparatively
limited range in South Oregon and North California ; it is abundant
on the Oregon coast in the vicinity of Port Orford associated with
Tlmia gigantea, Picea sitckensis, Abies grandis and Abietia Douglasii where
" it forms one of the most prolific and beautiful coniferous forests
of the continent, unsurpassed in the variety and luxuriance of its
undergrowth of Rhododendrons, Vaccininms, Raspberries, Buckthorns
and Ferns. It attains its largest size on the western slopes of the
coast-range foot-hills between Port Gregory and the Coqtiille river,
where it is the principal tree in a nearly continuous forest-belt
about twenty miles in length and twelve in width."*

The aspect of Cupre##U8 Laicsoniana in its old age in its native forests
is very different from the tall piles of verdant foliage with which it is
clothed in this country ; its tall trunk is without branches for two-thirds

* Silva of North America, Vol. X. p. 120.

Cupressus Lawsoniana at Castlewellan, Co. Down, Ireland.

210 CUPRESSUS LUSITANICA.

of its height when it diminishes rapidly in girth and often becomes
tortuous; the brandies are few, irregularly disposed, sparingly ramified
and furnished Avith a scanty foliage only at the extremities.*

For British gardens, Cupressus Lau'soniana possesses almost every
quality that renders a coniferous tree valuable. As an ornamental tree
it is one of the handsomest. It is perfectly hardy ; the severest winters
that have occurred since its introduction have scarcely affected it. It
thrives in almost every description of soil, wet and cold peat alone being
unfavourable for it. It is remarkably prolific, bearing seed in abundance
even in its young state, Avhich quickly germinates and thus it may be
propagated with great rapidity. It is polymorphous, giving rise to
varieties so distinct from the normal form, and so varied in habit and
outline, that several of them are justly ranked among the best of
subjects for the geometrical or formal flower garden, both in summer and
winter. It may be used for almost every purpose for which Conifers are
planted — as a single specimen for the lawn or park, in groups of its own
kind, or intermixed with other trees or shrubs, for evergreen hedges, or
as a funereal or cemetery tree. It grows freely, forming a stout trunk
in a comparatively short period, a circumstance together with the known
excellence of its timber, highly suggestive of its use for forestry purposes
in many places.

The wood of Cupressus Lawsoniana is light, hard, strong and very
close-grained, abounding in fragrant resin, very durable in contact with
the soil, easily worked and susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish.
It is much used in indoor joinery, flooring, fence- posts, ship and boat
building, etc.f From an economic standpoint the Port Orford (Lawson's)
Cypress is one of the most important timber trees of North America.
The species was named in compliment to the late Mr. Charles Lawson
of Edinburgh.

CHARLES LAWSOX (1794—1873) was the son of Peter Lawson, the founder of the seed
and nursery firm of Peter Lawson and Son that became well known not only in
Scotland but throughout the world. In 1821 lie succeeded his father in the sole
management of the business, and the energy and intelligence which lie brought to bear
on its affairs soon placed the firm in a prominent position. In 1833 he introduced
the Italian Rye-grass, two years later the Austrian Pine, and in 1854 the Cypress
that bears his name. Agriculturists are indebted to him for the " Agrostographia or
Book of Grasses" Avhich passed through many editions, and for the "Agriculturist's
Manual," also a work of great usefulness. He originated the "Pinetum Britannicum,"
an elaborate and costly folio devoted to the description and illustration of the hardy
coniferous trees cultivated in Great Britain which after many interruptions and under
different editors was brought to an end in 1884. He withdrew from active par-
ticipation in the business of his firm in 1850 and afterwards took a leading share in
the public affairs of his native city, Edinburgh, of which he became Lord Provost in
1862. His latter years were clouded with misfortune owing to the ill success that
attended the management of his firm after his withdrawal and which in 1873 was
handed over to a limited liability company. — The Garden, XI. (1877).

Cupressus lusitanica.

A medium-sized tree 40 — 50 feet high, in places considerably
more, of variable habit, sometimes sub-pyramidal in outline, sometimes
Avith a dense broadly conical or umbrella-like croAvn, and many inter-
mediate forms. Primary branches irregularly disposed, close-set or
distant, spreading, sub-pendulous or ascending, covered with reddish
broAvn bark and much ramified at the distal end. Branchlets with

* Mayr, Waldungen von Nordamerika, 317. f Silva of North America, loc. cit.

i

CUPRESSUS LUSITANICA.

211

tetrastichous ramification, the herbaceous (youngest) .shoots, more or less
crowded, pinnately divided, recurved or arching, four-angled, bright or
glaucous green, in particular trees the glaucescence greatly heightened.
Leaves dimorphic; on the axial growths broadly ovate or ovate-oblong,
acuminate, appressed, free at the acute tip ; on the lateral shoots
scale-like, deltoid-ovate, sub-acute, convex and glandular at the back,
imbricated or concrescent. Staminate flowers very numerous, club-
shaped, four-angled, light sulphur - yellow and composed of six — eight

Fig. 00. Cupressus lusitamca.

anther-scales in decussate pairs. Strobiles shortly pedunculate, solitary or
in twos and threes at or near the base of two-years-old lateral branchlets,
globose or ovoid-globose, 0*5 — 0*75 inch in diameter ; scales six — eight,
sub-quadrate, prominently umbonate, very glaucous before maturity.*

Cupressus lusitanica, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. (1768). Lambert, Genus Finns,
ed. II. Vol. I. t. 65. London, Arb. et Frnt, Brit. IV. 2477, with figs. Forbes, Pinet.
Woburn, 187, t. 62. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 153. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 89.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 206 ; and Joura. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 331.

C. glauca, Lamarck, Encycl. II. 243 (1786 — 1790). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 58. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 470. Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. Ind.
534. Hooker fil. Brit. Ind. V. 645. Masters in Gard. Chron. X. ser. 3 (1891),
p. 761, with fig.

Eng. Cedar of Goa. Fr. C<?dre de Goa.

* Communicated by the late M. Charles Naudin from the Villa Thuret Botanic garden,
Antibes, and by Mr. F. W. Moore, Keeper of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin.

212 CUPRESSUS LUSITANICA.

There is • probably no existing coniferous tree whose origin is
involved in so much uncertainty and whose claim to specific rank
rests on such debatable ground as that described above.*

The earliest mention of Cupressus lusitanica occurs in a Portuguese
poem entitled " Solidades de Busaco " by Ferreiro de Lacada, and
published in 1634, at which date the tree must have been well
established in Portugal, and since that epoch it has been cultivated
not only in Portugal but also in the south of Europe generally, and
where cultivated frequently spreading spontaneously, but nowhere is it
believed to be indigenous. In the earliest systematic account of the
flora of Portugal by Brotero published in 1804, it is stated that
this Conifer using Lamarck's name (Cupressus glauca) was in cultivation
at Busaco near Coimbraf and other places, and that it had been
formerly introduced from Goa in India whence it obtained the vernacular
name of " Cedar of Goa," a name still in use but which is altogether
misleading, for the tree is not a Cedar at all, nor has it any direct
connection with Goa, it having been ascertained by the Indian botanists
that no Cypress grows wild anywhere near that place. The belief in
its Indian origin, therefore, rests on no secure foundation, although it
has been planted in many Indian gardens, both native and European,
just as it is planted in gardens in Australia and other sub-tropical
countries. Inferences drawn from a comparison of structural and
morphological characters of C. lusitanica with those of its nearest
affinities, G. torulosa, C. sempervirens and C. Bentliami, are equally
inconclusive, and the origin of the species, if species it is, still remains
undetermined.

Ample evidence is afforded by herbarium specimens and by literary
records that Cupressus lusitanica was cultivated in Great Britain in the
seventeenth century, by Bishop Compton at Fulham, by the Duchess,
of Beaufort at Badminton, and by others, but it is not known from what
source they obtained their plants. In the following century it was
definitely named C. lusitanica, in reference to its supposed Portuguese
origin, by Miller in the eighth edition of his Dictionary published
in 1768, and although rare in England at the time, mention is made
by him of large trees that had been killed in severe winters, notably
those in the Bishop's garden at Fulham Palace, and one in the garden
of the Duke of Richmond at Goodwood in Sussex, which had been
growing there many years uninjured. From its first introduction this
Cypress has been proved time after time to be too tender for the British
climate generally, but there are still living some good specimens in the
south and west of England and in Ireland, which attest its great
beauty as an ornamental tree ; especial mention may be made of one
over 35 feet in height in perfect health and vigour, growing in the-
grounds of Mr. Thomas Acton at Kilmacurragh in the county of Wicklow,
where it is associated with some of the rarest and most beautiful
Conifers to be seen in Great Britain.

* The circumstances of its history here related are almost wholly derived from an
interesting paper on " The Cedar of Goa," by Dr. Maxwell Masters in the "Journal of the
Royal Horticultural Society," Vol. XVII.

t The finest specimens of Cupressus lusitanica are still to be seen at Busaco where there,
are upwards of 5,700 trees, among which more than 500 range from 50 to 250 years old,
including one of colossal growth which is nearly 100 feet high, and its trunk has a girth of
12 feet at three feet from the ground.

CUPRESSUS MACNABJANA.

213

Cupressus Macnabiana.

A medium-sized tree rarely exceeding 30 feet high, with a short trunk
12 — 15 inches in diameter; often a shrub with numerous stems 6 — 12
feet high forming a broad, open, irregular head. Bark cinnamon-brown
broken into broad ridges. Branchlets slender with orange-red bark
which soon changes to dark brown. Leaves dimorphic ; on the axial
shoots more or less elongated, concrescent but free at the acute tip ;
on the short lateral growths minute, scale-like, ovate-subulate, acute,
light bluish green. Staminate flowers with six — eight very minute

Fig. 61. Cupressus Maenabiana.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

stamens. Strobiles on short peduncles, sub-globose, O75 — 1 inch in
diameter, composed of six — eight rugose, pale brown scales mostly of
oblong shape, each with a prominent conical umbo and bearing numerous
seeds furnished with narrow wings.

Cupressus Macnabiana, Murray in Edinb. New Phil. Journ. I. 293, t. 11 (1855).
Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1855, p. 420. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 165.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 473. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 90. Brewer and
Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 114. Masters in Gard. Chron. IX. ser. 3 (1891), p. 403.
with fig. (Nabiana) ; Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 206 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc.
XXXI. 347, with fig. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 100. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X.
109, t. 528.

214 CUPKESSUS MACXABIAXA.

Cupressm Macnoibiana was discovered by William Murray in 1854
while collecting seeds for Messrs. Lawson of Edinburgh in California,
at the southern base of Mount Shasta, it is said, but this locality
is doubted as it has not since been found there ; it has recently
been reported from the Shasta region, if the identification is
correct, growing in groups near the highest limit of arborescent
vegetation, at 15,000 feet elevation.* Its known habitat is, however,
very restricted, being confined to a few dry slopes on the mountains
south and west of Lake Clear.

On the eastern slopes of Red Mountain is a stretch of Cupressus

Macnabiana about half ft mile square, scarcely mixed with any other

tree. The trees are only from 12 to 20 feet high, but all have the

appearance of great age. They are gnarled, twisted, covered with moss

and with limbs broken, looking like an old forest of Cedar of Lebanon

on a small scale ; a fire has swept through one side, and the old

stumps standing black and naked, aid the deception. On the western

slope the aspect is not less curious ; here the Cypress forms a dense

thicket 6 to 8 feet high on the exposed hills, and 15 feet high in

the gullies. Where the fires have occurred, seedlings are coming up,

but not in great profusion ; the little seedlings having the soil to

themselves are of a fresh green, are quite shapely, and many of them

grow into handsome trees. A few seeds carried down the stream to

the gravelly flats in the valley have formed a grove of specimens of

perfect pyramidal shape, as handsome as any in a park.t

In Great Britain this Cypress has been much neglected, doubtless

from the same cause that has affected the cultivation of Ciq^^ssus

G-oveniana ; it grows but slowly, and is not often so shapely as it

is said to be in its native home ; it is, however, quite hardy and

readily distinguishable from every other species. It commemorates.

the horticultural and botanical labours of the late Mr. James

McNab, for many years Curator of the Eoyal Botanic Gardens at

Edinburgh.

JAMES McKAU (1810 — 1878), one of the best practical gardeners of his time, was born
at Richmond in Surrey, but his parents removed to Edinburgh within a few weeks
after his birth. During the twelve years prior to 1834 he served as an apprentice
and foreman in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh, devoting much of his spare
time to the study of Botany and to drawing plants ; many of his drawings were
reproduced in Sweet's "British Flower Garden," and other publications. In the year
mentioned he travelled in Canada and the United States, and in 1835 he was appointed
Curator of the Caledonian Horticultural Society's experimental garden at Inverleith, a
situation which he held till 1849, in which year he succeeded his father as Curator of
the Royal Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh. During his long tenure of the Curatorship
many important additions were made to the gardens, including a space for Coniferse,
a Rock Garden, an Arboretum, etc., all of which were laid out by him. Besides his
extensive practice in gardening, he was a frequent contributor to horticultural literature.
He was one of the founders of the Edinburgh Botanical Society, of which he was
President in 1872 ; he also took an active part in the affairs of the Scottish Oregon
Association, through whose agency thousands of fine coniferous trees now flourishing in
various parts of Scotland were introduced.

* C. H. Shinn in Garden and Forest, II. (1889), p. 598.
t Carl Purdy in Garden and Forest, IX. (1896), p. 233.

ITPRESSUS MACROCARPA. 215

Cupressus macrocarpa.

A tree 50 — 70 feet high with a trunk 3 — 4 feet in diameter
covered with thickish bark fissured into broad ridges, the branches
stout and spreading, in old age becoming tabuliform like those
of a Cedar of Lebanon. - In Great Britain a rapidly growing tree,
varying in. habit from broadly pyramidal with long spreading branches
to strictly fastigiate with erect branches, forms intermediate between

the.se extremes being far more frequent than
either. Trunk mostly simple in the fastigiate
forms, often more or less divided in the
spreading and intermediate forms. Bark thin,
reddish brown, peeling off in longitudinal
shreds. Branches numerous, thickly set and
much ramified, the branchlets slender with
orange-brown bark and tetrastichous (four-
ranked) ramification, the herbaceous shoots
similarly ramified. Leaves bright grass-green,
dimorphic ; 011 the axial growths oblong,
acute, concrescent except at the acute tip ; on
the lateral growths smaller, deltoid - acicular
and imbricated. Staminate flowers about
Fig. 62. strobile of Ciipressus one-eighth of an inch long, four-angled,
consisting of eight stamens in decussate pairs
/ each with an ovate connective bearing four — five

anther cells. Strobiles sub-globose, 1 — 1'5 inch in diameter, in clusters
of five — nine or more on short stout peduncles and composed of eight —
ten decussate pairs of rhomboidal, striated scales thickened at the centre
into an obtuse unibo, of which the upper and lowermost pairs are
sterile, the fertile scales bearing from twelve to twenty seeds each.

Cupressus macrocarpa, Hartweg in Journ. Hort. Soc. Loud. II. 187 (1847).
Gordon, Idem, IV. 296, with fig. (1849) ; and Pinet. ed. II. 91. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 473. Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 113. Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. II. 195, tt. 32, 33. Hooker til in Card. Chron. XXIII. (1885), p. 176,
with fig. Sargent in Garden and Forest, VII. (1894), p. 241, with fig. ; and Silva
N.'Amer. X. 103, t. 525. Beissner, Nadelbolzk. 103. Goldring in The Garden,
L. (1896), p. 140, with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 206; and
Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 342.

C. Lambertiana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 124 (1855) ; anded. II. 166(1867).

C. Hartwegii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 168.

Eng. and Amer, Monterey Cypress, Lambert's Cypress. Fr. Cypres a grands
fruits. Germ. Grossfriichtige Lebensbaum Ital. Cipresso a grosso frutto.

var.— Orippsii.

A so-called " plumose " form, the leaves instead of being appressed
are more or less spreading ; the branchlets shorter, more rigid, with the
tips of all the youngest growths light yellow.

var.— lutea.

Also a " plumose " form with the whole of the current season's
growths light yellow which changes to the normal green of the species
in the second year.

The habitat of Cupressus macrocarpa is extremely restricted ; it is
known to grow spontaneously only on a small 'area south of

216

VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS MACROCARPA.

Monterey in California, The trees occur in small groups or solitary
in a narrow belt about two miles long and scarcely more than
two hundred yards wide, extending along the coast from Cypress
Point southwards to Carmel Bay, mingling gradually with Pinus
radiata inland.

This very restricted habitat is ascribed to the gradual drying of the
California!! climate and to the direct action of forest fires which are

Fig. 63. Old Cypresses fCupressns nutcrosarpaj near Monterey, South California.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

almost of annual occurrence towards the end of the hot dry summers
of South California. One bad forest fire would sweep away every
existing Cypress tree in the grove. Few seedlings are to be seen ;
animals are allowed to browse at will in the grove and destroy all
seedlings as they spring up, and by impoverishing the soil hasten the
decay of the older trees.* Here is portrayed a condition of things that
clearly forebode the extinction of the tree in its native habitat, but
such a catastrophe would be but an episode in its history, and would

* Garden and Forest, VII. (1894), p. 241.

CUPRESSUS NOOTKATENSIS. 217

by no means result in tlie fate which threatens its near neighbour,
Abies bradeata. Cupressus macrocarpa has been planted in thousands
throughout the Pacific States, in the warmer parts of Europe and even
in Australia, and produces seeds freely, so that its disappearance from
the rocky shore of Monterey would in no way affect its perpetuation
in other localities.

According to Gordon the introduction of this beautiful Cypress
into British gardens took place in this wise : —

"In 1831 Mr. Lambert gave the Horticultural Society of London a
few seeds of a Cypress without any name or indication of origin, and
from these seeds plants were raised which in due course were seen to be
distinct from any previously known species. The name Cupressus
Lambertiana was applied to them in compliment to Mr. Lambert but not
published. Nothing was ascertained concerning its native country till
two or three years afterwards when plants of the same kind were
observed in Mr. Low's nursery at Clapton which had been raised from
seeds received from Dr. Fischer, Director of the Imperial Botanic Garden
at St. Petersburg, as a new species of Cnpressus from California. The
tree was re-discovered by Hartweg in 1846 near Monterey and named by
him Cupressus macrocarpa in reference to its large fruits." *

Large trees of Cupressus macrocarpa ranging from 50 to over 80 feet
high are scattered over the country from Perthshire to Cornwall and also
throughout Ireland. And even in Orkney it is reported to be one of the
most valuable Conifers that have been tried in the island, standing the
strong winds without any signs of injury.! Although generally speaking
it is hardy in the climate of Great Britain, the fact that many fine
specimens have been killed or greatly injured in exceptionally severe
winters as that of 1860—1861, should not be overlooked, and therefore it
is inadvisable to plant it in situations too exposed. It is one of the best
of Conifers for parks and gardens near the sea except along 'the east
coast; under the influence of the sea air it grows rapidly into dense
pyramidal or columnar piles of the brightest green. Very different from
these is the aspect of Cupressus macrocarpa in its native home, where, on the
rocky granite shore of South California, it is constantly exposed to the
strong westerly winds which sweep with full force over the Pacific Ocean.
These winds prevent the development of branches except in a horizontal
direction, so that under their influence all old trees assume a form such
as that shown in the accompanying figure which represents a sketch of a
group of trees made by Sir Joseph Hooker in September 1877. Many
visitors to South California who have seen the Cypresses near Monterey
have been struck • by their close resemblance to old Cedars of Lebanon
in Europe.

Cuprfessus nootkatensis.

A large tree with an erect trunk often attaining a height of
80 — 120 feet with a diameter of 3 — 4 feet ; at its northern limit and
highest vertical elevation reduced to a small shrub or low contorted tree.
Bark greyish brown, irregularly fissured into loose thin plates which on
being peeled ofl expose a bright cinnamon-red inner cortex. Primary

* Journal of the Horticultural Society of London, loc. cit, supra.
t Dunn's Census in the Report of the Conifer Conference at Chiswick, p. 526.

218 CUPRESSUS NOOTKATENSIS.

branches spreading, often ascending at the tips and covered with smooth
brown bark. Branchlets stoutish, distichous and alternate, their rami-
fication similar and three or four times repeated. Leaves in decussate-
pairs ; on vigorous branchlets, ovate, acute, free at the apex, O25 — 0*5 inch
long ; on the younger lateral branchlets broadly subulate, imbricated or
concrescent, one-eighth of an inch long, light glaucous green ; where
shaded, dark lustrous green. Staminate flowers small, oblong, composed
of four — five pairs of pale sulphur-yellow stamens. Strobiles sub-globose,
about 0'5 inch in diameter, consisting of six — eight scales each with a
pointed umbo and bearing two — four seeds.

Cupressus nootkatensis, Don in Lambert's Genus Finns, II. 18 (1824). Hooker,
Fl. Amer. Bor. II. 165 (nutkaensis). Hoopes, Evergreens, 345. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 94. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II. 199, t. 34. Masters in Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 206 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 352. Sargent, Silva N.
Amer. X. 115, t. 530.

Champecyparis nutkaensis, Spacli, Hist. Veg. Phan. XI. 333 (1842). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 62 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II, 127. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 465. Syme in Gard. Chron. XI. (1879) p. 560. Beissner, Nadel-
holzk. 79, with figs.

Thujopsis borealis, Fischer, ex Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I, 113.

Eng. Nootka Sound Cypress. Amer. Yellow Cypress, Sitka Cypress. Fr.
Cypres de Nutka. Gemi. Nutka-Lel)ensbaum. Ital. Cipressa di Nootka.

Although as long and almost as assiduously cultivated in this country
as the closely allied species Cupressus Laicsoniana, G. nootkatensis has
shown but little tendency to sport into abnormal forms; it has for
the most part preserved under cultivation a constancy in form and
colour as remarkable, relatively speaking, as the ever varying divergencies
occurring in C. Laicsoniana. The following are the most noteworthy
varieties occasionally met with in British gardens.

Varieties distinguished Inj liabit.
var.— compacta.

Of dwarf dense growth, the short trunk much divided and much
branched, the branchlet systems smaller and less flaccid than in the
type.

var.— gracilis.

A small tree or shrub, usually the latter, much branched and of
globose outline ; the branehlets and terminal growths more slender than
in the type.

var.— pendula vera.

In this form the primary branches are more distant, and with their
appendages all more or less depressed, more slender and more . elongated,
and occasionally quite pendulous.

Varieties distinguished by colour.
var.— argenteo-variegata .

In this variety many of the youngest branchlet systems or parts of
them are cream-white, affording a strong contrast to the dark green of
the other parts.

VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS NOOTKATENSIS. 219

var. — aureo-variegata.

Similar to the preceding except that the youngest braiichlet systems
or parts of them are bright golden yellow instead of cream-white.

var.— lutea.

In this variety the whole of the current year's growth is at first
light yellow which changes gradually towards the end of the summer
to bright grass-green.

Cupressus nootkatcnsis was originally discovered by Archibald
Menzies in 1793, from whose herbarium specimens gathered 011 the
shore of Nootka Sound it was first described by David DOD in
Lambert's " Genus Pinus." It was introduced into European gardens
through the Imperial Botanic Garden at St. Petersburg about the
year 18.50, and became distributed under the unpublished name
of Thujopsis lorealis. It is essentially a northern tree, inhabiting a
maritime region of considerable extent in north-west America. From
Sitka it spreads southwards through the islands and along the coast
range of Alaska and British Columbia from sea-level up to
2.000 — 3,000 feet elevation. It is abundant in Cjueen Charlotte's
Island, on the Olympian mountains in Washington and on the slopes
of Mount Raines, but becomes quite rare as it approaches its southern
limit in Oregon. It is one of the most valuable timber trees in
the region over which it is spread, being unsurpassed by any other
North American tree for the manufacture of household furniture and
indoor carpentry. " The wood is light and hard, close-grained,
exceedingly durable in contact with the soil, easily worked and
susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish."*

As a tree for British lawns and pleasure grounds Cupressus nootkatemi*
is one of the most appreciated, being perfectly hardy and thriving in
any ordinary soil not too dry. None of the forms into which it has
sported under cultivation surpasses in effectiveness the originally introduced
type, which is so well marked by its broadly conical outline and deep
green foliage f that it may be distinguished without difficulty from
C. Lawsoniana, for which it is occasionally mistaken. The two species
are also further distinguished thus : — C. nootkatensis rarely, if ever,
grows into the dense columnar or tower-like shape so common to
C. Laivsoniana ; the frondose, leafy branchlets of the former are
shorter, stouter and frequently more pendulous ; the staminate flowers
are sulphur-yellow, not crimson as in C. Lawsoniana, and the strobiles
are larger, usually with one more pair of scales that have a sharper
umbo.

* Silva of North America, Vol. X. p. 116.

t Strikingly beautiful are the tine specimens of this form standing on each side of
the drive leading to Streatham Hall, Exeter, the residence of Mr. R. Bowerman West. The
trees, 25 to 30 feet in height, are twenty-four in immber, of which twelve have their
branchlets more pendulous than the others. Many more equally good are standing in
different parts of the grounds.

220

CUPRESSUS OBTUSA.

Cupressus obtusa.

A tall tree, attaining a height of 70 — 100 or more feet, with a straight
trunk 2 '5 — 3 feet in diameter near the ground, denuded of branches
for one-half or more of the height, often with a rounded top and
sub-pendulous branches, the trunk covered with reddish bark. In Great
Britain the oldest trees have a broadly pyramidal outline ; the bark
of the trunk thin, peeling off in longitudinal flakes exposing a cinnamon-
brown inner cortex. Primary branches close-set, spreading, often more
or less curved, the lowermost depressed at the outer extremity. Ramifi-
cation of branchlets distichous and repeated three times in a tri-pinnate
manner ; bark reddish brown, slightly verrucose, that of the younger

Fig. 64. C&pressus obtusa.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

shoots orange-brown. Leaves persistent on the axial growths four-
five years, ovate-oblong, sub-acute, eoncrescent, in decussate pairs, the smaller
dorsiventral pair flat, the larger lateral pairs keeled and often glandular;
both pairs greatly elongated on fast -growing shoots and free at the
acute tip, dark lustrous green. Staminate flowers oval or sub-cylindric,
pale yellow. Strobiles solitary on the ends of short lateral branchlets,
globose, about 0'5 inch in diameter and composed of eight, rarely ten
sub-ligneous brown scales each with a short umbo and bearing two —
six seeds.

VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS OBTUSA.

221

Cupressus ol)tusa, Koch, Dendrologie, II. 168 (1873). Masters in Jotirn. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 207 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 355.

Champecyparis obtnsa, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 63 (1847). Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 466. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 129. Bcissner, Nadelholzk. 92,
with fig.

Retinispora obtusa, Siebold et Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 38, t. 121 (1842).
Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 367 (Retinospora).* Synie in Gard. Chvon. V. (1876),
p. 235, with tigs. Kent in Veiteh's Manual, ed. I. 245, with tig.

Thuya obtusa, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 491, with tig.

Eng. Japanese Cypress. Fr. Cypres japonnais. Germ. Sonnencypresse. Ital.
Cipresso giaponese. Jap. Hi-no-ki.

Amoiigt the many varieties and sub-varieties of Cupressus obtusa which
have originated under cultivation either in Japan or in European
gardens! the following retain their distinctive character more or less
permanently. They are all better
known in British gardens as Eetinos-
poras and in continental gardens as
Chamsecyparis forms.

var.— aurea.

Of smaller dimensions and more
slender habit than the species ;
branchlets and foliage of a deep
golden yellow which is usually highly
developed during the growing season
and which changes to dark green in
the second year.

var.— compacta.

A robust, dwarf form in which
the stem is much divided at the
base, the branches short, numerous
and crowded, and the branchlet
systems somewhat smaller in all their
parts.

var. fUicoides.

Of dwarfer and denser habit than
the common form. The branches are
thickly furnished with short fern-
like opposite branchlet systems of
nearly equal size. The leaves

are closely imbricated in. four rows,

thick in texture and of a rich deep green colour. fllicoides aurea
(syn. tetrayona) — of slower growth and dwarfer habit than JUicoides,
and with all its branchlet systems rich golden yellow.

C. obtusa tilicoides, supra. Retinispora filicoides, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 364.
Synie in Gard. Chron. V. (1876), p. 235, with tig. Thuya obtusa tilicoides,
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 494.

To this form probably belongs Chamcecyparis breviramea. Maximowicz in Bull.
Acad. St. Petersb. X. 489 (1866).?

Fig. 65. Cupressus obtusa, var. filicoides.

* Retinospora errore auctorum fere omnium nisi Endlicher.

t Beissner enumerates and describes upwards of twenty, Nadelholzkunde, pp. 93 — 97.
£ Seen by him cultivated in gardens around Tokio and on the north coast of the island
of Kiusiu mixed with the normal Cupressus obtusa.

222 VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS OBTUSA.

var.— Keteleerii.

As seen in British gardens — of denser habit and more regular outline,
than the typical form ; the branchlets and foliage of a deeper green
with many of the terminal growths light yellow.

var.— lycopodioides.

A low tree of conical, but sometimes of irregular outline, with
thicker brandies and branchlets, the latter numerous and irregularly
arranged on all sides of the axial growth, more closely set at the
extremities where they are frequently more or less fasciated ; leaves
crowded, thickened, closely adpressed and of a deep green colour.

C. obtusa lycopodioides, supra. Retinispora lycopodioides, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
364. Chanifecyparis obtusa lycopodioides, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 132.

var.— Mariesii.

Differs from the typical form in having all the terminal growths of
the current year light yellow or cream- white.

var.— pendula.

A pendulous variety -with long stoutish spreading branches and
slender, elongated pensile branchlets which originated from Japanese
seed sown in the garden of Prince Lobkowitz at Eisenberg in Bohemia.*

C. obtusa pendula, supra, Chamsecyparis obtusa pendula, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 96.

var.— pygmsea (syn. nana).

A singular little bush rarely exceeding a foot high ; it spreads horizon-
tally on all sides forming a dense tuft of green sprays as ornamental
as it is curious.

Cupressus obtusa is one of the few instances occurring in the
Conif er<fe whose native country is unquestioned but whose existence
in the wild state is either altogetlrer unknown or involved in much
uncertainty. It is undoubtedly endemic in Japan, but the presence
of a dense population with its constantly recurring need of timber
for constructive purposes, for which that of C. obtusa is one of the
very best the country produces, has long since brought about the
destruction of every accessible wild tree. Two potent causes have,
however, contributed to preserve the species from extinction : — The
tree is held sacred by the followers of the Shinto faith whose
temples are built exclusively of its timber, but at the same time it
is always planted in numbers around them and these trees are
carefully guarded from injury : — its timber is the best in the country
for the interior of the more expensively furnished houses, being
strong, fragrant, fine in grain and susceptible of a high polish. \ It

* Probably not identical with the Cupressus obtusa pendula of Maximowicz seen by him in
Japanese gardens around Tokio, but not known to be in cultivation in Europe.

+ Sargent, Forest Flora of Japan, p. 73. The palaces of the Mikado at Kioto are
built of the wood of Cupressus obfusa.

CUPRESSUS OBTUSA.

223

is also the best to lacquer, a process carried to great perfection in.
Japan, and to secure a supply of its valuable wood, C. obtma has
been for ages past and is still being extensively planted on the lower
slopes of the mountains in the interior of Hondo up to 3,000 feet
elevation. It has also been cultivated by the Japanese for the
decoration of their gardens from time immemorial, and many distinct
varieties of it have been obtained by them ; amongst these are the forms
described above under the names of aurea, filicoides, lycopodioides and
pygmcea, all of which were introduced along with the species in 1861.
They clip, contort and dwarf plants of this species and C. pisifera
into many grotesque and monstrous shapes ; the illustration represents
a plant of great but unknown age so treated.

Fig. 0(5. A Japanese specimen of a dwarfed plant of Citpressus obtnsa
or C. pisifera.

Cupressus obtusa has its homologue in C. Lawsoniana of western
America, but unlike that species when transplanted to British gardens
it will not grow everywhere. It forms handsome specimens in good
retentive soils with a porous substratum such as are found in the
sandy loams of Gloucestershire and Devonshire, in the Kentish rag-
around Maidstone, on the Weaklen clay generally, and in the light
loams of Dumbarton, Midlothian, County Down and other parts of
Scotland and Ireland ; in chalk soils and soils with a limestone
substratum it usually fails entirely.

224 CUPEESSUS PISIFERA.

Cupressus pisifera.

A smaller and more slender tree than Cupressus dbtusa with which
it is everywhere associated in Japan, and generally with a more open
crown and the trunk covered with darker bark which (in England)
peels off in longitudinal flakes exposing a cinnamon-brown inner cortex.
Primary branches slender, spreading or more or less depressed and
sparingly ramified except at the distal end ; secondary branches and
branchlets ramified as in C. oltusa. Leaves persisting green (ex Siebold)
five years, in England becoming effete in the third, rarely in the

Fig. 67. Cupressus pisifera.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.}

fourth year, ovate-oblong, acute, elongated on the axial growths,
imbricated or concrescent, free at the apex, dark green, but during the
growing season with a decided yellow-brown tint where fully exposed
to the sun, marked with white marginal lines on the under side of
the branchlets. Staminate flowers cylindiic, obtuse with eight — ten
stamens in decussate pairs. Strobiles sub-globose, not larger than an
ordinary garden pea,* composed of ten — twelve scales obscurely five or
* Whence the specific name pisifera (pea-bearing).

VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS PISIFERA.

225

six-angled in outline, slightly depressed and with a minute umbo in
the centre of the exposed surface.

Cupressus pisifera, Koch, Dendrologie, II. 170 (1873). Masters in Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 207 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 355.

Chamsecyparis pisifera, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 64 (1847). Carriere. Traite Conif.
ed. II. 132. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 465. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 83, with figs.

Thuya pisifera, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 489 (1881).

Retinispora pisifera, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 39, t. 122 (1842).
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 369 (Retinospora). Syme in Gard. Chron. V. (1876),
p. 235, with fig.

Eng. Pea-fruited Retinispora or Japanese Cypress. Fr. Cypres a fruit de pois.
Germ. Erbsenfrtichtige Cypresse. Jap. Sa-wa-ra.

Fig. 68. Cupressus pisifera, var. fill/era.

A large number of deviations from the normal form have appeared
both in Japanese and European gardens, of which only those that are
constant in their most obvious varietal character are here described.

var.— aurea.

This has the whole of the growths of the current season rich
golden yellow which changes to the normal green of the species in the
following year. It is quite distinct from the variety plumosa aurea
described below. sulphurea is similar, but of a much paler yellow.

226

VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS PISIFERA.

var.— fllifera.

A low tree or sub-prostrate shrub in which both the primary branches
and the axial growths of the branchlet systems are greatly elongated
at the expense of the lateral shoots which are distant, short and
sparsely ramified. Leaves more distant, more acute and less appressed
than in the type, and fulvous green in colour. filifera aurea has
all the terminal growths light golden yellow; filifera gracilis is a
dwarfer form with more slender terminal shoots.

C. pisifera filifera, Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soe. XIV. 207. Chamsecyparis
pisifera filifera, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 90, with fig. Retinispora filifera, Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 364. Syme in Gard. Chron. V. (1876), p. 235. Chamsecyparis
pendula, Maximowicz in Bull. Aca'i. Sc. Petersb. X. 489.

Cupressus pisifera,, var. squarrosa.

var.— plumosa.

A smaller tree of denser habit and more strictly conical outline,
with numerous short ascending branches thickly furnished with lateral
shoots ; branchlet systems decurved at the distal end. Leaves awl-
shaped, more or less spreading, dark green. plumosa albo-picta
has the tips of the branchlets cream- white, imparting to the plant a
speckled and spotted appearance. plumosa argentea- has nearly
the whole of the young growths cream-white which becomes green in

VARIETIES OF CUP11ESSUS PISIFERA. 227

the following season, plumosa aurea lias its terminal shoots with
their foliage light golden yellow which gradually subsides to deep
green as the season advances, and is succeeded in the following year
by a renewal of the yellow growth.

C. pisifera plumosa, Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 207 ; and
Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 358. Chamrecyparis pisifera plumosa, Beissner, Nadel-
holzk. 87. Retinispora plumosa, Gordon. Pinet. ed. II. 370. Syme in Gard.
Chron. V. (1876), p. 235, with 'fig.

var.— squarrosa.

A low tree, some times taking the form, of a large bush of irregular
outline. Trunk usually divided and forked near the base, the branches
much ramified ; branchlets spreading and furnished with short flattened
acicular leaves in decussate pairs and of almost silvery whiteness.

C. pisifera squarrosa, Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV, 207 ; and Journ.
Linn.. Soc. XXXI. 358. Chanisecyparis pisifera squarrosa, Beissner, Nadelholzk.
85, with fig. Retinispora squarrosa, Siebold and Zuccaiini, Fl. Jap. II. 40, t. 123.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 137. Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 371.

Fig. 70. Clipped trees of Cuprcssus obtusa or C. pisifera near Tokio, Japan.

The notes relating to the habitat of Cuprcssus obtusa and the uses
to which it is applied in Japan are equally applicable to C. pisifera*
except that the latter is not held sacred by the Japanese in so high a
degree as the former and that its timber is not so valuable. Although
almost always found growing together and in old age scarcely
distinguishable from each other, they have long been recognised as distinct
species by the Japanese who designate each by different vernacular
names, calling C. obtusa Hi-no-ki and C. pisifera Sa-wa-ra. C. pisifera
and all its varieties of Japanese origin that are in cultivation in this
country were introduced by the late Mr. John Gould Veitch in 1861.

* The habitat of Cupressus pisifera is probably not confined to Japan ; it was gathered
by Dr. Anderson in the Chinese province ofYun-nan in 1870—1871, but whether wild or
• cultivated is not stated.

228 CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS.

Comparing Cupressus pisifera with C. oltusa.— In Japan the latter is the
larger tree, in Great Britain this proportion is thus far reversed,
C. pisifera being the taller and freer grower. Both in habit and aspect
the two species may be readily distinguished from each other : C. obtusa
has a more regular outline; it is denser in aspect and deeper in colour:
in C. pisifera the branches both primary and secondary are usually longer
and more slender, and what is of more value in a botanical sense,
the cones are much smaller with differently shaped scales, and the
scale-like leaves are more acute, more distinctly free at their apical
end and are marked with white lines on the under side of the
branchlets.

The varieties of Cupressus pisifera are among the most ornamental of
trees and shrubs, and are especially suitable for small gardens ; they
thrive in a greater variety of soils and situations than the varieties of
C. obtusa and will often grow where the latter fail. Plumosa and its
coloured sub-varieties are transitional or intermediate forms between the
primordial and adult states ; they take the highest rank as horticultural
plants among the so-called "plumose" forms; they are not only in
general use in several departments of out-of-door gardening but they are
also much cultivated in pots for windows in London and other large
towns. The variety squarrosa, a remarkably distinct one, was first seen
in cultivation around Tokio by Siebold and afterwards by Maximowicz,
both of whom described it as a distinct species, its real origin being
unknown to them. As pointed out by Beissner, it is a "Jugend-
form" that has been perpetuated from cuttings of C. pisifera with
primordial leaves only. Since its introduction into Great Britain sterile
cones have been occasionally produced which are identical in
structure with those of the parent. More rarely branch-sports
(Sportzweige) have appeared with the adult foliage of C. pisifera, thus,
confirming its origin.

Cupressus sempervirens.

A tree of variable height and habit but usually recognisable in two
distinct forms: the one with spreading branches and of broadly pyramidal
or conical outline, but in old age with an open head and of irregular
outline ; the other with upright branches more or less appressed to the
trunk and to each other, forming a flame-shaped or columnar tree of
dense aspect. Branches terete with smooth reddish brown bark much
ramified at the distal end ; ramification tetrastichous (four-ranked), the-
herbaceous shoots short, pinnately branched and falling off in the third or
fourth year. Leaves on the axial growths broadly ovate or ovate-oblong,,
obtuse or abruptly mucronate, concrescent, rarely free at the apex,,
becoming effete the second or third year; on the lateral and herbaceous
shoots much smaller, scale-like, broadly ovate or rhomboid-oblong, closely
imbricated and marked with a gland on the back. Staminate flowers;
oblong, about one-eighth of an inch long, pale orange-yellow, containing
ten — twelve anthers in decussate pairs. Strobiles mostly in clusters of
two — five, rarely solitary, subsessile or shortly pedunculate, very variable
in size and shape, composed of eight — twelve subquadrate or obscurely
pentagonal scales, smooth or slightly rugose, and with a rather blunt
pyramidal umbo.

CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS. 229

Cupressus sempervirens. Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1002 (1753.) Pallas, Fl.
Ross. I. 11, t. 53 (1784). ' L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 50 (1826). London,
Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2464, with tigs. (1838). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 468.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 95. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 705. Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Ind.
V. 645. Beissner, ifadelholzk. 102, with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV.
208 ; and Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 325. And many others.

C. horizontal, Miller, Diet ed. VIII. (1768). Endlicher, Syiiops. Conif. 56.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 144.

C. sempervirens horizontalis, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. loc. cit. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 96.

C. fastigiata, De Candolle, Flore Frai^aise, V. 336. Endlicher, Synops. Conif.
37. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 146.

C. sempervirens stricta, Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2465.
C. sempervirens fastigiata, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 102.
C. Whittleyana, Gardon. Pinet. ed. II. 102.

Eng. Roman Cypress. Fr. Cypres commun. Germ. Echte Cypresse, Saulenformige
Cypresse. Ital. Cipresso columnare. Kinrapiffffoc of Homer.

Cupressus sempervirens is common throughout the Mediterranean
region from Portugal to Syria, the fastigiate form being often seen
in striking contrast to its surroundings and not infrequently a
conspicuous feature of the landscape. It also occurs wild in Asia
Minor and northern Persia, and planted in north-west India where
it sometimes attains a height of 100 feet with a trunk nine feet in
girth near the ground. An hypothesis, strongly supported by
circumstantial evidence, has been advanced that the common Cypress,
although growing spontaneously in many parts of southern Europe,
is really of eastern origin, and that it has spread westwards chiefly
through human agency. The two forms have been known from
time immemorial, and whilst some authors have adopted the fastigiate
one as the type and the horizontal-branched as a variety, others
have adopted a reversed view, and others again have described them
as distinct species. From analogy with fastigiate forms of other
species as C. macrocarpa, C, Lawsoniana and even the common
oak whose origin is known, it would be safest to infer that the
fastigiate is a divergence from the horizontal-branched form. That
the two are not specifically distinct we have the authority of
Parlatore for stating that upright and spreading branches have been
observed on the same tree, and that the two are connected by
intermediate forms in which the gradation from one to the other is
plainly perceptible.* Both on the continent of Europe where
sufficiently hardy, and also in Great Britain, horticulturists have always
preferred the fastigiate form and many remarkable arboricultural
effects have been produced by it, especially in Italy.. C. sempervirens
was cultivated in Great Britain prior to 1548 in which year it
was included by Turner in his "Names of Herbes."

The Cypress is mentioned by many ancient authors from the poet
Homer downwards to the end of the classic period, sometimes in
connection with funeral rites and sometimes in reference to rural

* De Candolle's Prodromus, Vol. XVI. p. 469.

230 CUPRESSUS THURIFERA.

economy ; its name also occurs in Holy Writ. In the Middle
Ages the Cypress became associated in the south of Europe with
cemeteries and places of worship, much in the same way as the
Yew in more northern countries ; and later when horticulture became
more generally practised, it was, and is still much used in terrace and
other gardens laid out and planted to enhance architectural effect.
In the Mediterranean region it lives to a great age, and frequently
attains a large size. There are in France and Italy ancient Cypresses
of historic interest, and others associated with illustrious names in
literature and art. The Cypress of Somma in Lombardy, figured by
London, is one of the most famous ; " besides its great age it is-
remarkable for having been wounded by Francis I., King of France,
who is said to have struck his sword into it in his despair at losing
the battle of Pavia ; and for having been respected by Napoleon, who,
when laying down the plan for the great road over the Simplon,
diverged from the -straight line to avoid injuring this tree."* Three
Cypresses of the fastigiate form in the garden of the Convent of the-
Chartreuse at Koine, planted by Michael Angelo (1474 — 1563), are
still standing, one in a state of decay, the other two in robust health.
One of the oldest and largest Cypresses in France is standing near
St. Remy in Provence, and is supposed to be upwards of four hundred
and fifty years old ; and Carriere gives the dimensions of a venerable
tree standing near Montpellier supposed to be eight hundred years old
and known to the inhabitants of the neighbourhood as " L'arbvc
de Montpellier. "f

The economic value of Cupressm sempervirens is restricted to the-
amount of timber available for use which does not appear to be very
considerable. The wood is virtually indestructible by ordinary agents;
except fire ; this remarkable durability was known to the Greeks and
Romans who employed Cypress-wood in the construction of various-
articles of furniture, also for vine-props, posts and palisades, and
especially for coffins which were found to resist decay for ages after
being buried in the earth.

Cupressus thurifera.

A tree 50 — 60 feet high with spreading branches, the lower ones
reflexed at the apex.J Branchlets slender, the axial growths at first
pale green but changing to orange-brown in the second year; ramification
tetrastichous, the herbaceous growths very slender and bipinnately
branched, light green. Leaves in decussate pairs, oblong-lanceolate,
acuminate, imbricated and free at the acute tip ; on the axial growths-
longer, glandular on the back, concrescent to beyond the middle and
becoming effete in the second or third year. Stamiuate flowers
numerous, oblong, obtuse, with eight — ten anthers. Strobiles globose or
sub-globose, somewhat less than an inch in diameter, composed of six
ligneous scales in decussate pairs each bearing two — three wingless-
seeds.

* Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2471.

t Traite General des Coniferes, ed. II. p. 149.

£ Ex Kunth, loc. cit, Hartweg reported that he saw duin-essus tlnn-ifcru near Real del
Monte, 120 feet high. Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, ser. II. Vol.
III. p. 124.

CUPRESSUS THYOIDES. 231

Cupressus thurifera, Huniboldt, Bonpland and Kunth, Nov. Gen. et Sp. II. 3
(1815). Schlechtendal in Linnsea, XII. 493 (1838). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.
473. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 100. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 349.

C. lusitanica Benthamii, Carriere, Traito Conif. ed. II. 155.
' Chamsecyparis thurifera, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 62.

Cupressus thurifera was originally discovered by Humboldt at the
beginning of the nineteenth century near Tasco and Tehuantepec in
Mexico. It has since been reported from other localities mostly alpine
or sub-alpine at a considerable elevation but its geographical limits are
not yet accurately known. It is cultivated in botanic gardens in the
south of Europe, notably in that of the Marchese Hanbury at
La Mortola whence were received the materials on which the above
description is chiefly founded. Although not hardy in Great Britain,
notice is taken of it here for the purpose of completing the monograph
of the genus.

Oupressus thyoides.

A tall slender tree with a trunk frequently 70 — 80 feet high and
2 — 3 feet in diameter, with thickish light red-brown bark and short,
slender, spreading branches forming a spire-like crown. Branchlets with
smooth, reddish brown bark and ramified distichously, each ramification
terminating in flat fan-like leafy expansions ; in poorly growing trees
in Great Britain, in pseudo-corymbose tufts. Leaves in decussate pairs,
small, scale-like, ovate, acute, closely imbricated and glandular on the
back ; 011 the axial growths longer, the lateral pairs keeled, more acute
and free at the apex, dull bluish green turning to rusty brown in
winter. Staminate flowers four-angled with five — six pairs of stamens
each with an oval connective bearing two anther-cells. Strobiles very
numerous, globose, about 0'25 inch in diameter, composed of six
glaucous green imbricated scales each bearing one — two seeds.

Cupressus thyoides, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1003 (1753). Michaux, Hist. Arb.
Amer. III. 20, t. 2 (1813). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2475, with figs.
Hooker, W. Fl. Bor. Amer. II. 165. Heopes, Evergreens, 314, t. 55. Kent in Veitch's
Manual, ed. I. 238. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. ; and Journ. Linn. Soc.
XXXI. 352. Sargent, Silva K". Amer. X. Ill, t. 529.

Chamsecyparis sphreroidea, Spach, Hist. Veg. Phaner. XI. 331 (1842). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 61. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 121. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 464. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 71. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 65, with tig.

Thuya sphseroidalis, L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 45 (1826).

T. sphteroidea, Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 46.

Eng. and Amer. White Cedar. Fr. Cedre blanc. Germ. Weisse-Ceder, Ceder-
Cypresse. Ital. Cedro bianco.

var.— ericoides.

A juvenile form (Jugendform) of somewhat rigid columnar habit, the
foliage consisting entirely of primordial linear, close-set leaves, glaucous
green above, and with two stomatiferous lines beneath. In winter the
branchlets with their foliage change to a reddish brown or reddish violet
colour.

C. thyoides ericoides, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. loc. cit. Chamsecyparis
sphteroidea ericoides, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 67, with fig. Juniperus ericoides,
Hort. Retinispora ericoides, Hort.

232 VARIETIES OF CUPRESSUS THYOIDES.

var.— leptoclada.

A low tree of fastigiate or columnar habit with dimorphic, primordial
and adult foliage of a bluish grey colour, the former soon disappearing.
Branches numerous, close-set, erect, much ramified and terminating in
flattened, fan-shaped leafy expansions that are often clustered in a
corymbose manner.

C. thyoides leptoclada, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 352. Chamsecyparis
sphseroidea andelyensis, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 123. Retinispora lepto-
clada, Hort.

var. — variegata.

Of dwarfer and denser habit than the common form, from which it
further differs in having more than one-half of its youngest branchlets
light yellow.

Other deviations from the common type have been named respectively
atrovirens glauca (syn. Kewensis) fastigiata, nana, pendula, pygmcea,
names sufficiently indicative of their distinctive character.

Cupressus thyoides inhabits the cold swamps of the Atlantic and
Gulf coast plains, usually immersed during several months of the
year, frequently covering them at the north with pure dense forests,
or at the south, mingling with the deciduous Cypress, Taxodium
distichum. Barely extending far inland, it ranges from Maine
southwards to northern Florida, and westwards to the valley of
the Pearl river in Mississippi.*

The White Cedar, according to Aiton, was introduced into Great
Britain about the year 1736 by Peter Collinsun, but there is evidence
that it was cultivated by Bishop Compton many years earlier. Prior to
the discovery and introduction of the north-west American and Japanese
Cypresses it was in cultivation generally throughout the country,
but during the last half century it has gradually receded from view,
a circumstance due more to local causes than to any other, for
although a distinct and beautiful tree when in health and vigour, the
White Cedar does not flourish, as might be expected from the localities
it affects in North America, except in constantly damp or wet soils.

Of the varieties described above, ericoides is a "juvenile" form
rarely exceeding 2 to 3 feet high, well distinguished by its glaucous
foliage which in winter changes to violet-brown ; in dry soils, for which
it is unsuited, it loses its dense habit and the branchlets become much
tufted. leptoclada is by far the most useful and the most generally
cultivated of all the Cupressus thyoides forms ; it originated many years
ago in a French nursery and was subsequently exhibited under the name
of Chamcecyparis sphceroidea andelyensis, the name by which it is still
known in many continental gardens. The original plant was acquired
by Messrs. Henderson of Maida Vale, by whom the variety was
propagated and distributed under the name of Retinispora leptoclada^

The wood of Cupressus thyoides is light, soft, not strong, close-grained,
easily worked, slightly fragrant arid very durable in contact with the

* Silva of North America, X. 112.

t The varietal name andelyensis has priority of leptoclada but as the latter has been in
continuous use in this country for upwards of forty years, it is inexpedient to alter it.

CUPRESSUS TORULOSA.

233

soil ; it seasons rapidly and perfectly without warping, and is largely
used for boat-building, cooperage, telegraph and fence-posts, railway ties,
and wherever durable wood is desired. The importance of the White
Cedar in the Atlantic States is increased by the fact that, attaining
its greatest proportions in situations where no other useful timber tree
can nourish, it gives value to lands which without it would be
worthless.

Cupressus torulosa.

A large tree attaining a height of 70 — 80 or more feet with a
girth of trunk of 6 — 8 feet, and occasionally larger. Bark thin,
peeling off in numerous long, narrow, dark grey strips, the inner cortex

reddish brown. Branches
spreading horizontally, form-
ing a broad pyramidal crown
which in old age is flattened
or round-topped. Under cul-
tivation in Great Britain, a
sub-fastigiate or flame-shaped
tree with all the primary
branches more or less ascend-
ing and much ramified at
the apical end. Branchlets
tetrastichous or distichous,
very slender, drooping and
much divided, the ultimate
growths short, straight and
parallel. Leaves in decus-
sate pairs, on the axial growths
oblong-deltoid, acute ; gland-
ular, appressed, often free
at the tip ; on the slender
lateral growths, minute,
scale-like, t r i a n g u 1 a r-o vate,
and concrescent. Staminate
flowers club-shaped and tetragonal, about 0'35 inch long, composed
of two — three pairs of pale yellow anthers. Strobiles clustered or
solitary, globose, 0*5 — 0*75 inch in diameter, on short footstalks
produced on branchlets two to three years old, and consisting of
four, rarely five, decussate pairs of ligneous, rugose-umbonate, oblong
or oblong-rhomboidal scales of which the upper and lowermost pairs
are usually sterile. Seeds five — seven to each scale, small, compressed
with a narrow orbicular wing.

Cupressus torulosa, Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 55 (1825). Lambert, Genus Pinus,
ed. 2, Vol. II. 113 (1828). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2478, with tigs. (1838).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 57 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 150. Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 469. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 97. Lawson's Pinet. Brit. II. 201,
t. 35. Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. India, 533. Hooker til, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 645.
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 335 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 208.

var . — 0 orney ana.

Branches and branchlets pendulous, the latter more distant and
covered with minute, concrescent, scale-like leaves that are not free at

Fig. 71. Cupressus torulosa.

234 CUPRESSUS TORULOSA.

the- apex ; strobiles larger, often of oval shape with the umbo of the
scales less or not at all developed.*

C. torulosa Corneyana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 151. Kent in Veitch's
Manual, ed. I. 239. Masters in Joum. Linn. Soc. XXXI. 336. C. Corneyana,
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 470.

var .— kashmiriana.

Branchlets very slender, elongated and pendulous; branchlet systems more
slender in. all their parts and the ramifications more distinctly
tetragonous. Leaves as in the type but all free at the acute tip.

C. torulosa kashmiriana, supra. C. cashmeriana, Royle ex Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 161.

Cupressus torulosa was first discovered by Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton
during his journey through Nepal in 1802 — 1803, and from his
specimens it was described by David Don in the " Prodromus Elorse
Nepalensis," published in 1825. Seeds were first sent to England
in 1824 by Dr. Wallich, and consignments of them have reached this
country from time to time ever since. According to Sir Dietrich
Brandis, C. torulosa is found only on the outer Himalayan range
from Nepal to Chamba at about 75° east longitude, mostly, but not
always on dry slopes, more local and much less common than other
Himalayan Conifers ; its vertical range is from 3,500 to 8,000 feet.
The wood is white tinged with red or yellow, deeper in the centre >
even grained, easy to work but not strong ; it is occasionally used
for joinery and indoor fittings.^

On Cheena, in Kumaon, at an altitude of upwards of 8,000 feet
and where the rainfall exceeds 150 inches annually, Cupressus torulosa
is a strikingly handsome tree attaining a height of 150 feet with a
trunk 15 feet in circumference near the ground, and muc^ resembling in
habit the Japanese species C. obtusa and C. pisifera. In the cemetery
near the foot of the mountain are preserved many superb specimens
which once formed a part of the forest that covered the district. J

The Himalayan Cypress cannot be called a satisfactory tree for
arboricultural purposes in this country, for although it is sufficiently
hardy to withstand average winters, it succumbs to exceptionally severe
ones so that very few trees more than twenty years old are now to
be seen in Great Britain. Those that survive are all of the fastigiate
or sub-fastigiate form of which there are beautiful specimens at Bicton
and Killerton in Devonshire, Tortworth Court in Gloucestershire, and
other places in the south-west of England.

The variety Corneyana was in cultivation prior to 1850 by
Messrs. Knight and Perry of the Royal Exotic Nursery, Chelsea, who
supposed it to be a native of Japan or North China which has not
been verified. The variety kashmiricina, a very beautiful one, is in
cultivation in the Temperate House at Kew and a few other places.

* Communicated from the Royal Gardens at Kew, and the Marchese Hanbury's garden
at La Mortola.

t Forest Flora of North -west India, p. 534.

£ Maries in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Vol. XXII. p. 462.

THUJA. 235

THUIA.*

Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1002 (1753, Thuja). Eudlicher, Synops. Conif. 50 (1847).
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 456 (1868, Thuya). R. Brown of Campster in Trans. Bot.
Soc. Edinb. IX. 358 (1871). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 426 (1881, Thuya in
part). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 19 (1893). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat.
Pfl. Fain. 97 (1887, Thuja). Including Biota, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 46; and Thujopsis,
Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 32.

The Thuias with one exception, T. (jiyantea, are medium-sized or low
evergreen trees of narrowly conical outline ; or dense globose, fastigiate
or dwarf shrubs that have deviated under cultivation from the ordinary
habit of the species. As here understood, the genus includes five
species inhabiting a belt in the north temperate zone extending with
interruptions through North America and Asia between the 30th and
oOth parallels of north latitude.
The essential characters are :—

Flowers monoecious. Staminate flowers terminal on lateral branchlets
of the previous year. Stamens usually six, in decussate pairs, the
anthers with a sub-orbicular connective bearing two — four cells.

Strobiles maturing in one season, solitary at the end of short
branchlets, pendulous (except in Thuia orientalis), composed of eight —
twelve imbricated scales in decussate pairs of Avhich the one or two
larger pairs only are fertile, eacli bearing two — five seeds at the
base.

In their vegetation, the following characters are common to all the
Thuias :—

Branches short and much ramified; 'branchlets flattened, usually in
one plane ; foliage dimorphic.

Leaves persistent ; on adult plants, adnate to or concrescent with their
axial growths, scale-like, ovate — or obovate — oblong, or some modification
of that form, in four ranks in decussate pairs.

Two of the Asiatic species do not quite conform to the American
type, Thuia occidentalis, in the structure of their fruits and in some
other minor particulars, and they have, in consequence, received
separate generic rank under the names of Biota (Endlicher) and
Thujopsis (Siebold and Zuccarini). The characters relied on to separate
them from Thuia proper are scarcely of sufficient value to justify their
retention as separate genera ; their divergence from the type is,
however, too significant to be neglected, and the characters which were
used to distinguish them as genera afford data for sectional divisions ;

* The name Thuja was adopted by Linnneus from Tournefort's Thuya which by general
consent is formed from Qvx or Qv'ia (Theophrastus) the name of a tree or shrub that
cannot be identified but is supposed to be the North African Cypress, Call-tins quadrivalvis
\.) = Tetraclinis articulate (Mast.). As the earliest authoritative nomenclature reconised

in this work is the Species Plantarum of Linnaeus published in 1753, the medieval

orthography of Tournetort, resuscitated by L. C. Richard and afterwards by Parlatore,

and accepted by many recent authors is here inadmissible, but following Endlicher the
Linnwan Thuja in its classical form Thuia is adopted.

236 THUIA DOLABKATA.

we have thence three sections distinguished by the structure of the
fruit :- —

EUTHUIA, strobiles pendulous, scales not thickening upwards and

bearing two — three winged seeds. T. occidentalis, T. yigantea and

T. japonica.

BIOTA, strobiles erect with thickened scales prolonged at the apex

into a curved or horn-like process, and bearing two wingless seeds.

T. orientalis.

THUIOPSIS, strobiles sub-pendulous, with scales much thickened at the

apex and bearing four— five winged seeds. T. dolabrata.
All the Thuias are hardy in Great Britain ; they are among the
most useful of Conifers on account of the numerous purposes for
which they may be planted and the variety of soils and situations in
which they will grow, but in these respects the following circumstances
should be noted : — The American species mostly inhabit low-lying
moist situations as the banks of rivers and streams and around
lakes ; the Japanese species are sub-alpine, but always where the
annual rainfall is almost double that of the greater part of England.
T. orientalis is cultivated in China and Japan under many varied
conditions of climate and environment, but thrives best where the
climate is most humid. These facts go far to explain how it is
that in retentive loams with a naturally drained subsoil, or where
the supply of moisture at the roots is not intermittent during the
growing season, the Thuias attain their best development, form
handsome specimens for the decoration of the garden and retain
their foliage and leafy branchlet systems longest.

Thuia dolabrata.

A tree or undershrub according to situation or altitude ; in its
arborescent form occasionally rising to a height of 40 — 50 feet with
a relatively slender trunk covered with light red bark. In Great
Britain it usually has the aspect of a dense pile of foliage of broadly
conical outline, the trunk covered with chocolate-brown bark peeling off
in longitudinal shreds. Primary branches close-set in pseudo-whorls or
scattered, slender, spreading horizontally or depressed by the weight of
their appendages ; secondary branches distichous, ramified at the
extremities into the frondose branchlet systems common throughout the
genus. Leaves persistent five — seven years, four-ranked in decussate
pairs; on the principal axis ovate, obtuse, free at the apex ; the
dorsiventral pair on the lateral growths, obovate-oblong, keeled and
concrescent, except at the apex, the lateral pair dolabriform (hatchet-
shaped) acute ; yellowish green on the upper side of the branchlets
where fully exposed to direct sunlight ; darker with a white stomatiferous
band on the under side. Staminate flowers about 0'25 inch long,
bearing 12 — 20 anthers with orbicular imbricated connectives in decussate
pairs. Strobiles broadly ovoid, 0*75 inch long, composed of eight — ten
ligneous, imbricated, rhomboidal scales thickened at the apical end, each
• bearing five winged seeds or less bv abortion.

VARIETIES OF THUIA DOLABRATA. 237

Thnia dolabrata, Linnaeus, Suppl. Syst. 420 (1781, Thuja). Thunberg, Fl.
Jap. 266 (1784). Don in Lambert's Genus Pinus, ed. I. vol. II. App. 2,
fig. 1 (1828). Masters in Gard. Chron XVIII. (1882), p. 556, with fig. Journ.
Linn. Soc. XVIII. 486 ; and Journ. R Hort. Soc. XIV. 251 (Thuya).

Thujopsis dolabrata, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 34. tt. 119, 120 (1842).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 53 (Thuiopsis). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 118
(Tlmiopsis). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 460 (Thuyopsis) Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 398 (Thuiopsis). Beissner. Nadelholzk. 51, with figs. (Thuyopsis).

Eng. Japanese Thuia. Fr. Thuia du Japoii. Germ. Beilblatriger Lebensbaum.
Ital. Thuia giapponese. Jap. Asu-Naro.

var. — laetevirens.

A dwarf spreading shrub with more slender and more divided
branchlets, the leaves smaller and of a brighter green.

T. dolabrata laetevirens, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 486. Thuiopsis
Ifetevirens, Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1862. p. 428. T. dolobrata nana, Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 399.

var. — variegata.

A picturesque variety resembling the specieo in habit, but differing
from it in having the tips of many of the branchlets pale yellow or
cream colour.

Thuia dolabrata first became known to Europeans through the
Swedish botanist, Thunberg, who gathered specimens during his brief
sojourn in Japan in 1776, which he communicated to Linnaeus, by
whom this conifer was first authoritatively named. These specimens
subsequently became the property of the Linnean Society of London,
and were described by David Don in Lambert's " Genus Pinus " loc. cit.
supra, published in 1828. The first living plant received in England
was sent to the Veitchiaii nursery at Exeter by Thomas Lobb in 1853
from the Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg, in Java ; the plant arrived
in an exhausted condition, and all attempts to save it proved fruitless.
Shortly afterwards a plant was brought from Japan by Captain
Fortescue, which was planted in the garden at Castle Hill, in
Devonshire, the seat of his relative, Earl Fortescue, and is still living.
From this plant a few others were propagated and presented to
prominent amateurs of Conif erae, but it was not till after 1861, in
which year the late Mr. John Gould Veitch and Mr. Robert Fortune
sent from Japan a supply of seeds to the Chelsea and Ascot nurseries
respectively, that this beautiful Thuia became generally distributed
over Great Britain. In its native country the habit and dimensions
of T. dolabrata vary considerably ; on the mountain slopes in central
Japan at 5,000 to 7,000 feet elevation it is a straggling shrub seven to
ten feet high forming an undergrowth in the " shade of dense forests
of Tsuga diversifolia and other coniferous trees, and not infrequently
mixed with Rhododendrons and dwarf Maples ; lower down and in
the plains it takes an arborescent form with stouter branchlets and
larger leaves. The wood is said to be very durable and is used in
boat and bridge-building.

Tlmia <lolohrata.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.}

THUIA GIGANTEA. 239

As an ornamental tree in this country Thuia dolabrata takes a high
rank ; its growth in its young state whether raised from seed or from
cuttings is slow, but when established in a moist loamy soil and
protected from piercing winds its progress is satisfactory, and under
such conditions it is one of the most beautiful of lawn trees. Many
fine specimens scattered over the south and west of England and
Ireland generally attest this. Tlie largest trees known to the author
are at Panjerrick, near Falmouth, which is upwards of 40 feet high,
and at Killerton, near Exeter, which is nearly of the same dimensions ;
the last named is an offspring of the plant brought from Japan by
Captain Eortescue.

Thuia gigantea.

A lofty tree attaining at its greatest development a height of
150 — 200 feet, with a trunk tapering from a broadly buttressed base
5 — 6 feet, in diameter at 12 — 15 feet from the ground, and covered
with thin cinnamon-red bark irregularly fissured into long, narrow,
plate-like scales. In Great Britain a stately tree of narrowly conical
or spire-like outline clothed with branches from the base. Bark of
trunk irregularly fissured longitudinally and peeling off in flakes,
exposing a red-brown inner cortex. Primary branches close-set, spreading,
and much ramified at the distal end. Branchlets slender, often zig-zag
or curved, at first green, changing to reddish brown in the third
year and ramified in the manner described under the type species,
Thuia occidehtalis. Leaves in decussate pairs, persisting on the axial
growths several years after becoming effete ; on vigorous shoots ovate
or deltoid, acuminate, glandular on the back, adnate to beyond the
middle, free at the apex ; on lateral and younger branchlets much
smaller, ovate, apiculate, concrescent and scarcely glandular ; yellowish
green on the upper exposed side, much darker on the under side
of the branchlets. Staminate flowers small, composed of six — eight
stamens arranged like the leaves. Strobiles very numerous, clustered
near the ends of the branchlets, ovoid-cylindric, 0'5 inch long,
consisting of eight— ten elliptic-oblong scales of which the larger middle
ones are fertile, each bearing two — three small seeds with notched
wings.

Thuia gigantea, Nuttall in Journ. Phil. Acad. VII. 52(1834). Hooker, W. Fl. Bor.
Amer. II. 165 (1840). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 52 (1847). Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 457. Hoopes, Evergreens, 315. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 402.
Nicholson in Woods and Forests, 190 (1884), with tigs. Brewer and Watson, Bot.
Califor. II. 115. Maconn, Cat. Canad. Plants, 460. Sargent in Garden and Forest,
IV. (1891), p. 109, with tig. ; and Silva. N. Amer. X. 129, t. 533. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 46, with tig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 25.

T. plicata, Don in Lambert's Genus Pimis, ed. I. Vol. II. 19 (1824) ; and
ed. II. Vol. II. 114 (1837). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 51 (1847). Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 166. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. ser. 3 (1897), p. 214.*

* Dr. Masters has here conclusively shown that Don's Thuia plicata and Nuttall's
T. gigantea are synonymous ; the former therefore is the older name. Unfortunately
Don's name, plicata, became applied to a variety of the type species, T. occidentalis, and
has been in use for it during many years.^- As Nuttall's gigantea too has been in continuous
use for more than fifty years, setting aside T. Menziesii (Doug.) and T. Lobbi (Hort.) which
are only nomina nada, it is here retained on the ground of expediency, and moreover the
inconvenience of changing a name so long established is too great to admit of much
probability of the substituted name being adopted in forestry and horticulture.

240 VARIETIES OF THUIA GIGANTEA.

T. Menziesii, Douglas ex Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 107 (1867). Gordon,
Pinet. ed. I. 323.

T. Lobbi, Hort.

Eng. Lobb's Arbor Vitae. Amer. Western Arbor Vitse, Red or Canoe Cedar of
Oregon. Fr. Thuia Geant de Californie. Germ. Riesens-Lebensbaum. Ital. Albero
de la Vita di Lobb.

var.— aurea.

A large proportion of the foliage and young growths light yellow,
the colour being most conspicuous in the short lateral growths of the
terminal shoots and in the basal half of the branchlet systems next
below them. The aureo-variegata and aurescens of continental gardens
are apparently modifications of this variety.

Fig. 72. Fruiting branchlet of Thuia giguntea reduced.
Strobile slightly enlarged.

var.— gracilis.

A smaller tree with more slender branches and branchlets, especially
the latter, which are clothed with smaller scale-like leaves of a paler
green.

Thuia gigantca is widely distributed over a large area extending in
a meridinal direction from southern Alaska at about latitude 55°
north, along the coast range and islands of British Columbia to north
California, and laterally from the Eocky Mountains to the Pacific
Ocean. It attains its greatest development in the valley of the
Columbia river and around Puget Sound where trees have been seen
towering to a height of 150 to 200 feet, " sending up a mighty
shaft free of branches for upwards of 100 feet, from an enormously
enlarged base tapering gradually until at twice the height of a man
from the ground, its diameter may not be more than a dozen feet.

THUIA GIGANTEA. 241

Beside these giants the other Arbor Vifces of the world are but
pygmies." * It constantly diminishes in size in proceeding eastwards
to the slopes of the Eocky Mountains, dwindling to a low shrub at
its highest vertical limit.

The botanical history of Thuia gigantea is somewhat complicated.
The earliest mention of it occurs in James Bonn's "Hortus
Cambridgiensis," ed. IV. published in 1807, under the name of Thuja
plicata without description, but with the information that the species
was discovered by Nees at Nootka Sound. Nees was a Frenchman,
naturalised in Spain, who accompanied Malaspina in his voyage round the
world (1789 — 1794), and his original herbarium specimen of this Thuia
is still preserved in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington.
Nees was closely followed by Archibald Menzies who accompanied
Vancouver's expedition as botanist (1790 — 1796), and he also brought
home specimens gathered at Nootka Sound in 1795. The species was
first described from Menzies' materials by David Don in the second
volume of Lambert's "Genus Pinus " published in 1828 under James
Donn's name of T. plicata.^ About this time, or a little earlier,
Thomas Nuttall, who was preparing a continuation of Michaux' great
work on North American trees, received specimens from the Flat
Head river and gave the tree the name of T. gigantea, but his
description was not published till 1834. It was next met with by
David Douglas while collecting for the Horticultural Society of London
in the region of the river Columbia (1825 — 1827), who at first took it
for the eastern species, T. occidentals, but afterwards named it T. Menziesii
in compliment to his distinguished countryman ; Douglas' name, how-
ever, remained a MS. name only. It was shortly afterwards gathered
by Mertens near its northern limit on the island of Sitka, from whose
herbarium specimens it was described as a new species by Bongard
in his " Observations sur la Vegetation de Sitka " under the name of
T. excelsa, but this name was not taken up by any subsequent author.
Nearly a quarter of a century had still to elapse before this valuable
tree was introduced to British gardens ;| the first consignment of seed
was received at the Veitchian nursery at Exeter in 1853, whence it
was subsequently distributed under the name of Thuia Lobbii, Nuttall's
name of T. gigantea being at that time misapplied to Libocedrus
decurrens, and Don's T. plicata being in use for a variety of
T. occidentalis.

In British gardens and pineta Thuia gigantea is one of the
handsomest of Conifers ; it forms an elongated cone of foliage, in some
places at the present time 70 to 80 feet high, 50 to 60 feet high
being by no means uncommon. § Its tall straight trunk is feathered

* Professor Sargent in Garden and Forest, IV. 109, the author adding "There
are not many of them now." The same author also states that Thuia 'gigantea is
rapidly disappearing with the spread of the forest fires which, burning through the
thin bark, soon kills these trees.— Silva of North America, loc. cit.

t Gardeners' Chronicle, XXI. ser. 3 (1897), pp. 101 and 214.
£ It is highly probable that the cultivated plant al

alluded to by David Don and in-
cluded in James Donn's list of plants in the Cambridge Botanic Garden, was a variety
of Thuia occidentalis, a point that may never be cleared up.

§ The largest specimens known to the author in England are at Panjerrick, Falmouth ;
Eastnor Castle, Linton Park, Dropmore, and Monk Coniston. In Scotland at Poltalloch,
Argyllshire ; Murthly Castle and Dupplin Castle, Perthshire. In Ireland at Woodstock,
Kilkenny ; Hamwood, Co. Meath ; Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow ; Fota Island, Cork.

Thuia tjiijantea at Linton Park, Maidstone,

THUIA GIGANTEA. 243

with branches from the base upwards, the lowermost showing no signs
<»f becoming effete except where they have been brought into contact
with other trees. The length of the lowermost branches of the
largest specimens ranges from 12 to 15 feet, so that a space with a
radius greater than these dimensions should be allowed for trees
intended for the decoration of the lawn and park. It thrives in most
kinds of soils and in diverse situations ; the rate of growth is
influenced to some extent by the average temperature and rainfall of
the locality ; under the most favourable conditions it adds from 25 to
30 inches to its height yearly during the first fifteen to twenty years
of its life, a fact that should strongly recommend it to the attention
of the forester; in drier situations the annual rate of growth is
considerably less. No stronger proof of its acclimatisation can be
adduced than the circumstance of its producing seeds freely, from which,
in many places, seedlings have sprung up spontaneously around the
parent tree.

The great economic value of Thuia yigantea in its native region
was first discovered by the Red Indians ; they make their canoes of
its timber which is easily worked, and also various household
utensils; they manufacture the thin fibrous inner bark which strips"
off in ribbon-like bands, into mats, bags, baskets, cordage and even
articles of clothing. Nor has the white settler been slow to avail
himself of the advantages offered by the timber of this exceptionally
valuable tree ; the timber of the larger trees is absolutely free
from knots and can be split into shingles with unerring exactness ;
these shingles neither, warp nor split from the action of the weather,
and are much preferred for doors, window-sills and other construc-
tions exposed to sun, wind and rain ; Thuia wood is also much
used for indoor carpentry and fittings, for cooperage and the coarser
kinds of furniture.

For a long time after its introduction Thuia t/iyantea was better known
in British gardens as T. Lolbii ; this name had been given to it from a
desire to pay a well-merited tribute to the exertions of William Lobb
through whom it had been introduced. That Lobb's name is worthy of
being held in remembrance will be seen from the following sketch of his
life and labours as a plant collector.

WILLIAM LOBB (1809—1863) was born in the eastern division of Cornwall. The
place is imknown, nor is anything known of his early life. When a young man, he
.applied himself to gardening, and obtained a situation as gardener to Mr. Stephen
Davey, of Redruth, whose horticultural establishment appears to have been on a
modest scale, but which, under Lobb's management, became thoroughly efficient.
After remaining in the service of Mr. Davey a few years, Lobb entered the nursery of
Mr. Veitch, at Exeter, for the purpose of improving his knowledge of plants. For
a long time previous he had cherished an ardent desire for travel and adventure ;
he was quick of observation, ready in resources, and practical in their application ;
he had also devoted much of his leisure time to the study of botany, in which lie
acquired considerable proficiency. Mr. Veitch, finding him thus qualified, proposed
that he should go on a mission to South America for the purpose o( collecting plants
in that rich quarter of the globe, an offer which Lobb gladly accepted. He sailed
from Plymouth in 1840 for Rio Janeiro. On his arrival in Brazil he first proceeded
to the Orgaos Mountains, where he met with several beautiful Orchids at that time
extremely rare in English gardens ; he then proceeded to Chile by crossing the great
Pampas of the Argentine Republic and the Chilian Andes. Continuing his journey
southwards he penetrated the great Araucaria forests, where he collected a large
•quantity of seeds of Araucaria imbricata ; he was thus instrumental in bringing this
remarkable Conifer into general use for ornamental planting. He returned to England

244 THUIA JAPONICA.

in 1844, renewed his engagement with Mr. Veiteh, and sailed again for Brazil in
April of the following year. After sending home from Rio Janeiro a consignment
of plants which he had collected in southern Brazil, he proceeded to Valparaiso, for
the purpose of exploring southern Chile, at that time but little known to Europeans,
except along the coast. Here a rich harvest awaited him. Among his earliest
successful introductions from this region were Lapageria rosea,* Escallonia macrantha,^
Embothrium coccineum,^ Philesia biixifolia,% and Desfontainea spinosa.\\ Following
up these brilliant achievements, he continued his explorations in Valdivia, Chiloe,
and northern Patagonia, where he collected seeds and plants of Libocedrus tetragona,
Fitzroyct patagonica, Saxe-Gfothcea conspicua, and Podocarpus mibigenus, " four most
interesting Conifers for this country, after Araucaria imbricata, that South America
produces. "IT Nor must mention be omitted of Herberts Darwinii,** which was first
introduced to British gardens by him during the same expedition. Lobb returned to
England in 1848. The wonderful Conifers discovered by Douglas in California and
Oregon were then still very scarce in England, and young plants of most of the
species could scarcely be bought with money ; ft it was therefore decided that he
should proceed to California with a view of obtaining seeds of all the most important
kinds known, and to discover others, if possible. He landed at San Francisco in the
summer of 1849, and at once made arrangements for exploring southern California.
One of the first fruits of the expedition was the successful introduction of Abies
bracteata. During the years 1850 — 1851 he sent home consignments of cones and
seeds of Pinus radiata, P. muricata, P. Sabiniana, P. Coulteri and P. tuberculatM ; also of
many shrubs and flowering plants, some of which were quite new to British gardens.
In the autumn of 1851 he extended his operations further north, and collected cones
and seeds of the Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Pinus Lambertiana, P. monticola, etc.
In 1852 he made an excursion to the Columbia river and Oregon where he succeeded
in obtaining seeds of Abietia Douglasii and Abies nobilis, still rare at that time in
England, and the beautiful Thuia provisionally named after him. Returning through North
California, he collected seeds of Abies grandis, A. magnified which he sent home
under the name of A. amabilis, believing it to be the A. amabilis of Douglas,
A. concolor (var. Lowiana) the first received in England of that fine Fir, Juniperus
calif ornica, Pinus ponderosa, etc. In 1853 he explored the Sierra Nevada, whither he
was led by the reports of the discovery of trees of extraordinary magnitude
which he had the good fortune to find, and to secure the first cones and seeds of the
"Wellingtonia received in England. He brought these home at the end of the year,
and with them two living plants which were afterwards planted out in the Exeter
Nursery, where they survived but three or four years. Lobb returned to California
in the autumn of 1854, and from that time up to the end of 1856 he continued
to send home consignments of plants and seeds. In 1857 his engagement with
Mr. Veiteh terminated. He remained, however, in California, and sent collections
of seeds to England from time to time. In 1863 he was seized with paralysis, and
lost the use of his limbs ; he died at San Francisco in the autumn, of the same.
year, and was buried in Lone Mountain Cemetery.

Thuia japonica.

A conical tree 20 — 30 feet high with a slender tapering trunk
clothed with reddish brown bark that peels off in longitudinal
shreds. Primary branches short, spreading horizontally and ramified
irregularly at the distal end into branchlet systems as in Thuia,
occidentalis. Leaves persistent three — four years, changing to red-
browii on the axial growths before disappearing, arranged in decussate
pairs, the lateral pair conduplicate with a sharp keel, longer and more
acute than the flat, ovate, concrescent, dorsiventral pair, but on the
younger and lateral growths nearly equal to them, light fulvous green
and with a small gland at the apex on the exposed or upper side of

Bot. Mag. 4447. t Idem, 4473. J Idem, 4856. § Idem, 4738.

|| Idem, 4781. IT Idem, 4616. ** Idem, 4590.

tt London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, pp. 2249, 2251, 2266, 2344.

THUIA OCCIDENTALIS. 245

the branchlets, paler with white triangular spots and markings on the
under side. Staminate flowers as in T. yigantea. Strobiles composed
of four decussate pairs of imbricated scale%s of which the two middle
pairs are fertile.

Thuia japonica, Maximowicz in Bull, Acad. Sc. Petersb. X. 490 (1866) Masters
in Journ. Linn. Soc XVIII. 486 ; Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 252 ; and Gard. Chron.
XXI. ser. 3 (1897), p. 258, with figs.

T. Standishii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 108 (1867). Gordon, Pinet.
eel. II. 408. Beissner, Naclelholzk. 49.

T. gigantea, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 457 (not Nuttall).

T. gigantea var. japonica, Franchet et Savetier, Enum. Plant. Jap. I. 469.

Thuiopsis Standishii, Hort.

Eng. Japanese Arbor Vitte, Standish's Arbor Vitpe. Fr. Thuia de Japon.
Germ. Japanischer Lebensbaum.

A species of much interest, first discovered by Fortune in cultivation
around Tokio during his mission tio Japan in 1860 — 1861 and
introduced by him to the nursery of the late Mr. Standish
at Ascot, who subsequently distributed it under the name of Thuiopsis
Standishii. In 1864 or 1S65 it was seen by the Eussian botanist
Maximowicz also in cultivation around Tokio, and was afterwards
described by him in the publication quoted above under the
name of Thuia japonica, which is the oldest authoritative
published name. No evidence of its being endemic was forthcoming
until it was discovered growing wild on the mountains of Nikko in
central Japan by Maries while collecting for the Veitchian firm in
1877 — 1879. Quite recently it was found by Professor Sargent and
Mr. James H. Veitch on the shores of Lake Yumoto in the Nikko
mountains at 4,000 — 5,000 feet elevation, where it appears to be
quite rare.

As an ornamental tree for British gardens, Thuia japonica may be
recommended for retentive loamy soils ; it then forms a shapely low
tree with a narrowly conical or columnar outline. In dry soils it
becomes thin and indifferently furnished, especially near the ground.
It is easily distinguished from the American Thuias by its thicker,
less sharply pointed leaves, which on the under side of the
branchlets are marked with whitish spots and lines, and which
when bruised emit an unpleasant odour very different from the
strong fragrance given forth by the bruised leaves of T. oecidentalis
and T. (jit/antea.

Thuia oecidentalis,

A tree of variable height according to locality ; at its greatest
development 50 — 60 feet high with a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter ;
of tener 30 — 40 feet high, the trunk sometimes dividing into two or
three upright secondary stems furnished with short branches which turn
upwards and form a rather compact head.* In Great Britain a tree
of narrowly conical or columnar outline, in dry soils rather sparsely
ramified, rarely exceeding 30 feet high, with a slender trunk covered

* Silva of North America, X. 126.

246 THUIA OCCIDENTALS.

with smooth brown bark and frequently dividing at a greater or less
distance from the ground into two or more secondary stems. Branches
short, spreading, sometimes curved or tortuous, covered with smooth
reddish brown bark, and terminating in flat branchlet systems in
which the ramification of the axial shoots is distichous and alternate,
this branching being repeated three times, and the latest growths
almost always on the anterior side of the next older. Leaves per-
sistent on the axial growths three — four years, becoming effete in
the second and third years, ovate, acute, closely imbricated and
often glandular ; on the lateral growths smaller, the lateral pairs com-
pressed and sharply keeled, the dorsiventral pairs flat, concrescent
and mostly glandular ; the young branchlets and their appendages light
dull green, changing to yellowish brown in winter and emitting
a strong aromatic odour when bruised. Staminate flowers with four
anthers. Strobiles about O5 inch long, composed of eight — ten
ovate, obtuse scales, of which the larger middle pairs are fertile,
each scale bearing two seeds, the seeds bordered by a thin wing on
each side.

Thuia occidentalis, Linnfeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1002, exclu. hab. Siberia (1753).
Michaux, Hist. Arbr. Amer. III. 29, t. 3 (1813). L. C. Richard, Mem sur
les Conif. 43 (1826). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2454, with figs. Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 51. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 108. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 438 (Thuya). Hoopes, Evergreens, 317, with fig. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 403. Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 459. Beissner, K"adelholzk. 32,
with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 76 ; and Gard. Chron. XXL
ser. 3 (1897), p. 213, with figs. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 126, t. 532. And
many others.

Eng. Arbor Vita. Amer. White Cedar. Fr. Arbre de Vie. Germ. Lebensbanm.
Ital. Albero della Vita.

Very many deviations from the common form have appeared under
cultivation either in seed beds or as branch-sports and have received
distinctive names at the hands of horticulturists, but it is extremely
doubtful whether the greater part of them can be now identified.
The following varieties are the most distinct still met with in British
gardens ; they are highly useful decorative plants for the lawn and
small gardens, being for the most part of better habit and colour than
the common form.

Var. — dumosa (syn. pygmcea).

One of the dwarfest of Thuias ; a dense little confused bush seldom
growing more than 2 to 3 feet high, with branchlet systems
and foliage of a decided brown tint much like those of the variety
plicata.

var.— Ellwangeriana.

A dwarf or medium-sized shrub with numerous erect or sub-erect
branches and slender branchlets at first clothed with dimorphic (juvenile and
adult) foliage ; the primordial leaves linear, acute, spreading ; the adult
leaves scale-like and concrescent as in the type. It is a transitional
form connecting the variety ericoides with the type.

var.— ericoides.

A dwarf globose or sub-pyramidal bush with slender branchlets clothed
with linear primordial spreading leaves only, somewhat distantly arranged

VARIETIES OF THUIA OCCIDENTALS. 247

ill decussate pairs 011 their stems, and which in winter assume a
brownish tint like the adult leaves.

T. occidentalis ericoides, Beissner. Retinispora dubia, Carriere.*

var. — lutea (syn. elegantissimd).

A low tree of pyramidal or columnar habit in which the branchlet
systems of the current year with their foliage are bright yellow above
and orange-yellow below ; it differs in habit and colour from the
variety Vervaeneana. lutea nana is a diminutive sub-variety of the
same colour.

T. occidentalis lutea, Hort. George Peabody's Arbor Vitre, Hort. Amer.

var. — pendula.

In this variety the primary branches are more slender than in the
common form and bent downwards at a short distance from their
insertion, and the branchlets much tufted.

var.— plicata.

A smaller and denser tree with shorter branches; branchlet systems
rigid, and taking an erect and parallel position like those of TJiuia
oriental-is ; the foliage distinctly glandular, and of a brownish green tint
almost peculiar to this variety. plicata argenteo- and aureo-
variegata are variegated forms, the first with white, the second with
yellow branchlets.

T. occidentalis var. plicata, Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. ser. 3 (1897) p. 258,
Avith tigs. T. plicata, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 457 (not Don). Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 44 (not Don).

var. — Spaethii.

A monstrous form in which the youngest branchlets are much
crowded and clothed with primordial leaves thicker in texture than
the ordinary ones ; these branchlets are succeeded by acutely tetragonous
branchlets sparsely ramified and clothed with scale-like, sharply-pointed
leaves.

T. occidentalis var. Spaethii, Hort. Riippel fide Spath. in Cat.

var. — Vervaeneana.

A smaller and denser tree than the common form and one of the
most distinct and ornamental of all the varieties of the American Arbor
Vitse. During the groAving season, all the branchlets, which are more
slender than in the species, are tinged Avith a deep golden-yelloAv, which
changes in winter to a brownish-orange, and finally to the normal
green of the species, when they are succeeded by a neAv growth of
yelloAV sprays.

var.— Wareana.

A IOAV tree of denser habit than the type with short branches that
are at first horizontal, then ascending; branchlets numerous with close-
set ramifications, frequently erect and parallel as in Thuia orientalis;
foliage of a deeper, brighter green than that of the common form.
Wareana aurea (syn. plicata aurea) has many of the youngest

* Thuia occidentalis ericoides, which should not be confounded with Cupressus thyoides
ericoides, has probably disappeared from British gardens. It originated in a nursery at
Frankfort, and is still cultivated in Germany. — Ex

248 THUIA ORIEXTALLS.

branchlets bright golden yellow which changes to light green in
winter.*

T. occidentalis var. Wareana, Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. ser. 3^(1897),

p. 258. T. Wareana, Hort. T. occidentalis var. robusta, Carriere, Traite Conif

ed. II. 109.

The geographical range of Thuia occidentalis may be roughly stated
as extending over the eastern portion of the North American continent
from Nova Scotia westwards to Lake Winnipeg and meridionally from
James Bay to southern Virginia. It is very common in the great areas
of swamp land in Canada and the north-eastern United States,
becoming less abundant southwards, and dwindling to a small scrubby
bush at its northern limit.

Thuia occidentalis was probably the first American coniferous tree
cultivated in Great Britain; it was introduced prior to 1597 in which
year it was mentioned by Gerrard in his "Historic of Plants." Originally
planted as an ornamental tree when the species of evergreen trees for
garden decoration were few in number, it receded in time before the
more attractive Conifers subsequently introduced, and it is now for the
most part relegated to such uses as the formation of high hedges where
the soil is sufficiently moist, or associated with other common Conifers for
belts and screens. On dry and sandy soils Thuia occidentalis grows
slowly and becomes too thin and unfurnished to be of any ornamental
value ; in the humid climate of Perthshire, the west of Scotland and
Ireland handsome well-furnished specimens may frequently be seen.

The wood is soft, light and brittle, rather coarse-grained and very
fragrant; it is remarkable for durability, of which many striking instances
are recorded, and on this account it is much used for outdoor carpentry,
as fencing, bridges, railway ties, etc.

Thuia orientalis.

A low tree of columnar or pyramidal habit, often a dense shrub of
broadly conical or globose outline, the arborescent form rarely exceeding
20 — 25 feet in height with a much-branched trunk covered with thin
reddish brown bark that peels off in longitudinal shreds. Primary
branches first spreading, then ascending ; in the shrubby forms, crowded,
erect or ascending; secondary branches numerous, erect or ascending,
terminating in vertical branchlet systems distichously ramified. Leaves
in decussate pairs ; on the older axial growths acicular, free at the apex ;
on the lateral ramifications scale-like, ovate, acute, concrescent or
imbricated, bright green in summer, brownish in winter. Staminate
flowers globose with eight — twelve anthers in decussate pairs. Strobiles
ovoid-oblong, about an inch long, composed, of six, rarely eight ovate,
thickish, imbricated scales terminating above in a horn-like process, the
uppermost pair much smaller than the others and sterile, each fertile scale
bearing one — two wingless seeds.

* The distinction made in the text between the varieties plicata and Wareana is not
always very obvious ; the two forms are nearly identical in habit, but plicata has a
decided brownish tint even in summer which distinguishes it from the bright green of
Wareana. There are, however, in cultivation, intermediate forms that may with equal
light be referred to either.

VARIETIES OF THUIA ORIENTALIS. 249

• Thuia orientalis, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1002 (1753). Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 266
(1784). L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 40 (1826). Siebold and Zuccarini,
Fl. Jap. II. 31, t. 118 (1842). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2459, with figs.
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 488 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 252
(Thuya).

Biota orientalis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 47 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 93. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 461. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 704.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 54, with figs.

Eng. Chinese Arbor Vitse. Fr. Thuia de la Chine. Germ. Morgenlandisher
Lebensbaum. Ital. Albera della Vita Chinese. Jap. Kinote-gashuoa.

The note under Thuia occidentalis respecting the numerous deviations
from the common form which have appeared under cultivation is equally
applicable to T. orientalis. This species has also proved to be very
polymorphous, a circumstance that has been fruitful, not only in the
multiplication of varietal names,* but also in the creation of many so-
called species. The following are the most distinct and ornamental met
with in British gardens.

var.— argenteo-variegata.

This differs from the common form in having many of its branchlets
cream-white. The variegation is somewhat inconstant, and not
infrequently disappears altogether in vigorous subjects.

var.— aurea.

A dwarf dense globose shrub in which the youngest growths are
golden yellow in spring, gradually changing with age to the bright green
of the species.

T. orientalis aurea, supra. T. aurea, Hort. Biota orientalis aurea, Carriere.
And others.

var. — aureovariegata.

This has about one-half of the youngest branchlet systems light
yellow ; it resembles the common form in habit, and is quite distinct
from the variety aurea.

var. —decussata.

A dwarf shrub usually with several erect stems that are densely
ramified, the primary and the secondary branches also erect. The foliage
is protomorphic only, the acicular leaves greyish green in summer,

changing to dull brown in winter.

T. orientalis decussata, supra. Biota orientalis decussata, Beissner, Nadelholzk.
58, with fig. Retinispora juniperoides, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 140.
R. squarrosa dubia, Hort.

var. — elegantissima.

A dwarf variety of fastigiate habit ; the branchlet systems usually
more rigid than in the type, and of a fine golden yellow which is
retained throughout the summer months.

var.— funiculata (syn. intermedia').

This differs from the common form in its youngest branchlet
systems which are ramified from all sides of the axial growths (not
distichous) ; the branchlets slender, elongated ; the leaves ovate-lanceolate,
acute, and adnate at the base only.

* Carriere has described twenty-one varieties of Thuia orientalis and Beissner twenty-five
excluding six of Carriere's.

250 VARIETIES OF THUIA ORIENTAL!*.

var.— japonica (syn. fa(cata).

Ill this form the lowermost branches are spreading and the tree has
a broadly pyramidal outline, the spread of the lower branches nearly
equalling the height of the principal stem.

var.— meldensis.

A low columnar tree with ascending branches often so flexible as
to bend in any direction. The leaves are protomorphic, acicular,
acute, bluish glaucous green, changing to reddish brown in winter ; in
vigorous plants sometimes passing into the normal scale-like form of
the type.

T. orientalis meldensis, supra. Biota orientalis meldensis, Beissner, Nadelholzk.
58, with tig. B. meldensis, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 102. Retiuispora
meldensis, Hort. Tlmia bybrida, Hort.

var.— pendula.

This is the greatest divergence from the type yet seen. The branches
are elongated into flexible, pensile, cord-like appendages very sparsely
ramified ; the branchlets are produced in tufts of five — twenty at
irregular intervals along the axial growths and clothed with
subulate acuminate leaves more distantly inserted than in the normal
form.

T. orientalis pendula, Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 252. T. pendula,
Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II. p. 115. Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap.
II. 30, t. 117. T. filiformis, Lindley in Bot. Reg. (1842), t. 20. Biota pendula,
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 49. B. orientalis pendula, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed.
II. 100. B.' orientalis filiformis, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 63. And many others.

var.— pygmsea.

The most diminutive of all the varieties of Thuia orientalis ; it
forms a small hemispherical bush a few inches high which has a
yellowish brown tint. It is also known in gardens under the name of
Bwta duinosa.

The habitat of the Chinese Arbor Vitte cannot be stated with
certainty, but from its hardiness it may safely be assumed to have a
northern origin that may hypothetically be referred to the botanically
unexplored regions in southern Mongolia, northern China and parts of
Thibet. The statement of Thunberg and others that it occurs wild in
the central mountains of Japan has not been confirmed by later
investigation, and it is now generally believed to be an introduced
plant in that country. The geographical range of Tlmia orientalis
must, however, be very extensive, since Boissier's statement that it has
been found wild at Asterabad in north-east Persia and also in the
Persian province of Khorassan is doubtless well authenticated.

The date of introduction of Thuia orientalis into Great Britain is
unknown. According to Aiton* it was cultivated by Philip Miller in
the " Physic " garden at Chelsea in 1752, and was believed to have been
first sent to Europe by French missionaries. On account of its hardiness
and distinctness as an ornamental tree requiring but little space for its
development, it has always been one of the most appreciated of Conifers,

* Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 322.

LIBOCEDRUS. 251

and prior to the introduction of the western American and Japanese
Cupressinese many varieties were in cultivation which have since
disappeared. Of the varieties described above decussata is a "juvenile"
form of distinct and even picturesque aspect when seen at its best ; its
origin is not accurately known ; funiculata and meldensis are transitional
forms in which the adult foliage predominates in the former and the
primordial leaves in the latter ; funiculata is also intermediate in habit
between the variety pendula and the common form ; meldensis originated
at Meaux in France and was at first supposed to be a hybrid between
Thuia orientalis and Juniperus virginiana ; but seeds having been
produced by a tree growing under favourable conditions and the seedlings
from these having for the most part reverted to the normal Thuia
orientalis its hybrid origin is thence dispelled.* Pendula, the most
remarkable of all the varieties and long believed to be a distinct species,
is now known to have originated from the common form ; it was first
met with in Japan by Thunberg' (1776 — 1777) and subsequently by other
travellers in that country and also in China ; forms perfectly identical
have since been raised in Italy, France and England. It was first
cultivated in this country by Mr. Aylmer Lambert in his conservatory at
Boytoii in 1832; his plant, the only one then known, had been previously
acquired from Messrs. Loddiges of Hackney.

Although Thuia orientals and its varieties grow in diverse soils and
situations, they attain their best development in a retentive loam with a
porous but not too free sub-soil and in places not too much exposed to
north and north-east winds ; under such conditions the branches are
stouter, the branchlet systems more rigid and their colour brighter ; they
are rarely killed by our severest winters.

LIBOCEDRUS.

Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 42 (1847). Paiiatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 453 (1868).
Benthain and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 426 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat.
Pfl. Fam. 95 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 19 (1893).

A genus of evergreen trees of Thuia-like aspect, mostly with
spreading branches and flattened branchlet systems, distinguished by
the following characters : —

Leaves dimorphic, scale-like in four ranks decussately arranged, the
larger lateral pairs compressed, imbricated, with a decurrent base and
sharply keeled ; and almost covering the smaller, concrescent, dorsiventral
pairs.

Flowers monoecious. Staminate flowers terminal, sub-globose or four-
sided, composed of eight — twelve or more stamens, arranged like the leaves,
each with a broadly ovate or sub-orbicular connective bearing four anther
cells.

Strobiles terminal on short lateral branchlets, composed of four — six
valvate scales of which the uppermost pair and also the lowermost when
there are six, are sterile and much smaller than the fertile pair, each of
which bear one — two winged seeds.

Libocedrus is thence separated from Thuia by little else than the
greater number of stamens in the male flower and the fewer number of
scales in the fruit ; but besides being fewer in number the scales of the

* Beissner, Nadelholzkunde, p. 58.

252 L1BOCEDEUS CHILENSIS.

fruit are also of unequal size and in the closed fruit meet at their edges
(that is to say — they are placed in a valvate position). In Thuia the
scales of the fruit are of equal size or nearly so and overlap (imbricated).
This difference in the structure of the fruit is by far the most important
distinction, and is admitted by all authors since the genus was founded
by Endlicher, to be sufficient for its retention.

Eight species of Libocedrus are known to science ; their habitats
are widely remote from each other, except
in the case of two inhabiting Chile and
two in New Zealand ; one is a native of
California, one of southern China ; one has
been discovered in New Guinea, and one in
New Caledonia. All the species that have
been applied to any economic nse yield
highly valuable timber ; the wood is durable,
Fig. 7:3. open and closed strobile straight - grained and fragrant, and is suitable

of Libocedrus decurrens.

for many constructive purposes whether exposed
to the weather or within doors.

Libocedrus is derived from Xi/3aj/oj, the name of a tree from which
the ancients obtained frankincense but which has not been satisfactorily
identified by modern botanists, and xeSpoQ, cedar, juniper.

Libocedrus chilensis.

A medium-sized tree of pyramidal outline, the trunk usually free of
branches near the ground and covered with roughish, fissured, dark
brown bark. In Great Britain the oldest trees have a broadly
columnar habit, the outer bark of the trunk peeling off in small
flakes and exposing a light brown inner cortex. Branches with
smooth reddish brown bark, ascending and much ramified at their
distal end ; branchlets slender, distichously ramified into frondose
systems similar to those in Thuia. Leaves of the axial growths linear
and adnate except at the acute, inflexed tip ; of the lateral growths
the dorsi ventral pairs scale-like ; the lateral pairs oblong, acute with a
white stomatiferous band on both sides. Staminate flowers with
eight — ten anthers. Strobiles usually solitary, terminal, composed of
four ovate-oblong scales of which the fertile two are twice as broad
as the sterile two, and bear one — two seeds each.

Libocedrus chilensis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 44 (1847). Gay, Fl. Chil. V-
406 (1849). Lindley in Gard. Chron. (1850) p. 439, with tig. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 89. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 455. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 180.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 42.

Thuia chilensis Don in Lambert's Genus Finns, ed. I., Vol. II. 19 (1824).
Hooker, W. in Lond. Journ. Bot. II 199, t. 4.

Eng. Chilian Arbor Vifee. Fr. Thuia de Chile. Ital. Albero della Vita di
Chile Chil. Cipres de Araucano.

Libocedrus chilensis is common in some of the valleys and along
the lower slopes of the Chilian Andes from Valparaiso southwards to
Valdivia. The wood is soft and easy to work, and is highly valued
by the inhabitants for indoor carpentry on account of its fragrance.

LIBOCEDRUS DECURRENS. 253

The earliest published notice of this tree occurs in Lambert's " Genus
Pinus," loc. cit. supra, where a brief description is given by David Don
from materials found in the herbarium of the Spanish botanists, Ruiz
and Pavon, which had been acquired by Mr. Lambert. Many years
afterwards the species became better known from herbarium specimens
communicated to Sir William Hooker by Dr. Gillies, of Mendoza,* by
Bridges, and by Mr. James Veitch, Senr., of Exeter, through his
collector, William Lobb. It was introduced by Messrs. Low, of Clapton,
in 1847 ; Libocedrus chilensis must, however, be pronounced an
unsatisfactory tree for the British climate ; it loses its lower branches
at an early age, and even in sheltered situations rarely escapes injury
in severe winters.

Libocedrus decurrens.

A lofty tree 100 — 150 feet high with the trunk sometimes 7 — 8 feet
in diameter, covered with loose, fibrous, cinnamon-red bark and sparingly
furnished along the upper portion with stout branches that are at first
horizontal, but soon turn upwards and form secondary stems that are
similarly branched. In Great Britain a tall tree of columnar habit, the
trunk large in proportion to its appendages and covered with reddish
brown bark that peels off in longitudinal shreds. Primary branches
short, spreading or ascending ; ramification of secondary branches mostly
lateral, the bark marked by a pale ring at every branching; in the
branchlet systems the distichous branching is constant and in one plane.
Leaves persistent three — four years, glandular, narrowly oblong, acute,
decurrent and adnate except at the acute tip, the larger and longer
lateral pairs sharply keeled and nearly covering the smaller dorsiventral
pair, dark glossy green, of a shade almost peculiar to this species.
Staminate flowers small, club-shaped, composed of twelve — sixteen stamens
each with a suborbicular connective. Strobiles pendulous, ovoid-cylindric,,
about an inch long, consisting of six scales, the lowermost pair much the
smallest, the fertile middle pair as large again as the upper two which
are connate. Seeds in pairs at the base of the two larger scales each
with a hatchet-shaped membraneous wing.

Libocedrus decurrens, Torrey. Plant. Fremont, Smiths. Contrib. VI. 7, t. 3 (1850).
Lindley in Gard. Chron. (1853) p. 695. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 456.
Murray in The Garden, II. (1872), p. 540, with figs. Nicholson in Woods and
Forests (1884), p. 190. Brewei and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 116. Hoopes,
Evergreens, 309, with fig. Gorden, Pinet. ed. II. 181. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 28, with
fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 219. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. t. 534.

Thuia gigantea, Carriere in Van Houtte's Fl. des Serres, IX. 199, with fig. ;.
and Traite Conif. ed. I. 105 ; ed. II. 112 (in part, not Nuttall).

T. Craigiana, Murray in Rep. Oreg. Exped. 2, t. 5.

Heyderia decurrens, Koch. Dendrol. II. 179.

Eng. California!! Incense Cedar. Amer. White Cedar, Bastard Cedar, Post Cedar.
Fr. Cedre blanc de Californie. Germ. Californische Flussceder. Ital. Cedro bianco-
della California.

Libocedrus decurrens is widely distributed along the western slopes
of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains between 3,000 and
7,500 feet elevation from Oregon to near the Mexican boundary ; also
along the California!! coast range and southwards into the peninsula of
Lower California. It nowhere forms pure forests, but occurs scattered

* His name is commemorated by the Liliaceous -genus Gilliesia.

254 LIBOCEDRUS DONIANA.

singly or in small groves amongst the other coniferous trees of the
region. Its timber is highly valued ; the wood is light, durable and
close-grained, but not very strong ; it is used for a great variety of
purposes, including house furniture and indoor carpentry.*

The California!! Incense Cedar was originally discovered by

Col. Fremontf near the upper waters of the Sacramento river in 1846.

, His botanical collections were placed in the hands of Dr. Torrey for

determination, and this tree was described by him in the "Smithsonian

Contributions to Knowledge" in 1850 as Libocedrus decurrens. Two years

later, John Jeffrey who had been sent to north-west America by the

Scottish Oregon Association, sent home specimens and seeds from South

Oregon, and from these the tree was named Thuia Oraujiana in

compliment to Sir W. Gibson Craig, a prominent member of the

Association, and the seedlings were subsequently distributed under this

name. The confusion hi name thus created was further complicated by

Carriere who described the species from herbarium specimens sent by

Boursier to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle at Paris in several

publications^: under the name of Thuia giyantea, on the assumption that

it was the same tree that Nuttall had published under that name.

Unfortunately, Carriere's name was taken up by horticulturists generally

both in England and on the Continent, so that for a time scarcely any

other pair of coniferous trees has been surrounded by more confusion

than Torrey's Libocedrus decurrens and Nuttall's Thuia gigantea.

The introduction of Libocedrus decurrens enriched British gardens

with one of the most beautiful and distinct of the Conifers of

western North America. Stately columnar trees from 30 to 50 or

more feet high now adorn the lawns and pleasure grounds of numerous

country seats throughout Great Britain and Ireland. It is perfectly

hardy ; it grows satisfactorily in almost any description of soil not

marshy or water-logged, increasing in height annually from 9 to 15

inches, the rate of growth corresponding nearly with the range of

annual rainfall.

Libocedrus Doniana.

A lofty tree with a straight naked trunk sometimes 100 feet high
and 2 — 5 feet in diameter, the old bark falling away in long
thin ribbons. Branches few ; branchlets distichous, alternate and
flattened, but becoming four-angled in old trees. Leaves variable in
form and arrangement at different stages of growth ; the primordial
leaves of young plants narrowly linear and spreading ; on the adult
tree dimorphic, arranged in decussate pairs ; the lateral pairs compressed,
acute, sharply keeled and attached by broad bases; the dorsiventral
pairs concrescent, small, rhomboidal. Stamina te flowers with eight — ten
anthers?. Strobiles composed of four ligneous scales each with a curved

* Silva of North America, X. 136.

f His name is commemorated by the beautiful monotypic Malvaceous shrub Fremont ia
califomica.

$ Revue Horticole (1854), p. 224. Van Houtte's Flore des Serres, IX. 199. Traite
General des Coniferes, ed. I. 105, etc.

LIBOCEDRUS MACROLEPIS. 255

spine at the back ; the fertile scales bearing two seeds each with an
oblique membraneous wing. — Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand,
p. 157, t. 82.

Libocedrus Doniana, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 43 (1847). Carriere, Traite
Couif. ed. II. 85. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 454. Hooker fil, Handb.
N. Zeal. Fl. 256. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 182.

Tlmia Doniana, Hooker, W. in Loud. Journ. Bot. I. 571, t, 18 (1842).

Although not hardy in this country, this beautiful tree claims
notice on account of its being in cultivation as a conservatory plant
in botanic and occasionally in private gardens. Its habitat is
restricted to a small area in the northern portion of the North
Island of New Zealand, but it has now become extremely rare in
many districts. The wood is of great beauty, straight in grain, and
of great strength ; it is highly valued for the manufacture of house
furniture and ornamental woodwork. The species is dedicated to the
Scottish botanist, David Don.

Closely resembling Libocedrus Doniana, and from which it is not
separated by any marked distinctive characters, is a form or variety
which has received the name of L. Bidndllii. It is described as
being " smaller in all its parts " than L. Doniana, and is spread
generally over New Zealand from Harauk's Gulf southwards to Catlin's
River, showing a preference for mountain and hilly districts, ascending
in places to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea.*

DAVID Dox (1800 — 1840) was a native of Forfar. His father, the proprietor ot a
nursery at that place, was well known as a good, practical botanist, and thence able
to impart to his son an elementary scientific knowledge of the plants of his native
.country. One of David's earliest publications was the description of a number of
plants which were either entirely new or had been only found in a few localities
where they had been collected by his father ; this was a valuable contribution to
the botany of our native country, and which soon brought the author under the
notice of the leading naturalists of that period. He then published in the Trans-
actions of the Linnean Society a monograph of the genus Saxifraga, and was shortly
afterwards appointed Librarian to the Society. In 1836 he succeeded Professor
Burnett in the chair of botany at King's College, London, a position which he held
till his death. His numerous works are sufficient proof of his industry ; among
them are his papers in the "Transactions of the Linnean Society, "in one of which
he described for the first time Abies bracteata and three Pines from South California
from materials collected by Dr. Coulter ; and in another lie founded the genera
Cryptomeria and Athrotaxis. He rendered much assistance to Mr. Lambert in the-
preparation of the later editions of his "Genus Pinus,"in which he published for the
first time descriptions of several coniferous trees previously unknown, including
Citpressus nootkatensis, Thuia plicata (gigantea), Libocedrus ( Thuia] chilensis, Juniperus
recurva and three or four species of Podocarpus. Towards the end of 1840 a
malignant tumour appeared on his lip which caused his death at the early age of forty.

Libocedrus macrolepis.

A tree of which the dimensions attained by it have not been
published. Branchlets elongated, ramified distichously and alternately
into frondose branchlet systems tri-pinnately divided. Leaves in decussate
pairs, dimorphic ; on the axial growths the lateral pairs linear, acute,
strongly keeled, free at the tip ; the dorsiventral pair much smaller,
scale-like, triangular and almost concealed by the lateral pair; on the
lateral and youngest growths much smaller and sub-equal, the Literal
* Kirk, Forest Flora of New Zealand, pp. 160, 161.

256 LIBOCEDRUS TETRAGON A.

pair boat-shaped, conduplicate and sharply keeled ; the dorsiventral pair
obovate, concrescent and glandular. Staminate flowers four-angled,
composed of eight — ten stamens in decussate pairs. Strobiles conic-
cylindric, about an inch long, consisting of six ligneous scales, the
lowermost pair minute and reflexed, the middle fertile pair broadly
oblong, the uppermost pair narrowly linear. Seeds one to each fertile
scale, with an obovate-oblong, oblique wing.

Libocedrns macrolepis, Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 426 (1881).
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 485.

Calocedrus macrolepis, Knrz in Journ. Bot. XI. 196, fig. 3 (1873).

This species was discovered in the Chinese province of Yun-nan by
Dr. Anderson, who was attached as medical officer and naturalist to
an expedition under Major Sladen, 1870 — 1871. The discovery was
a remarkable one, as it extended the distribution of the genus into
a region far remote from the species inhabiting California, Chile and
New Zealand. It has since been gathered in the same province by
Dr. Henry, and by the Veitchian collector, E. H. Wilson, but the
attempts to introduce it into British gardens have thus far been
unsuccessful.

Libocedrus tetragona.

A tree of variable height and habit, according to situation and
environment ; at its greatest development attaining a height of 60 — 80
feet but frequently much less ; at its highest vertical range reduced to
a dense bushy shrub. In the arborescent form the primary branches
are stoutish, spreading or ascending, forming a conical or sub-pyramidal
crown. In Great Britain of shrubby habit, 9 — 12 feet high, with
erect or sub-erect branches densely ramified. Branchlets tetrastichous
(four - ranked), the youngest shoots very short. Leaves on the axial
growths broadly ovate, acute, adnate except at the tip, persistent four —
five years ; on the lateral shoots ovate-lanceolate, subtrigonal, acute,
spreading, grass-green with a greyish triangular . stomatiferous area on
the flat dorsal side. Staminate flowers not seen. Strobiles subtended
at the base by four subulate acute bracts, and composed of two
decussate pairs of scales, each with an incurved mucro at the back,
and of which the broader fertile pair bear one — two winged seeds.

Libocedrus tetragona, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 44 (1847). Lindley in Paxton's
Flower Garden, I. 46, with fig. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 86. Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 454. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 183. Masters in Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 219.

Thuia tetragona, Hooker, W. in Lond. Journ. Bot. III. 141, t. 4.

Libocedrus tetragona inhabits the western slopes of the Andes of
southern Chile, but very little is known of its actual distribution
over that region, and the little that is known is confused by
being mixed up with Fitzroya patagonia. Its northern limit may be
placed at about the 35th parallel of south latitude, whence it spreads
southwards to beyond the 45th parallel, and as some authors state,
to the Straits of Magellan ; but from Valdivia southwards it is either,
associated with, or its place is wholly taken by the Fitzroya which is

LIBOCEDRUS TETRAGONA.

257

known to be abundant on the Patagonian littoral and the adjacent hills.*

Its vertical range according to Philippi is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet.

Libocedrus tetragona has long been supposed to yield the valuable Alerze

timber of the Chilians. This timber is almost indestructible by the weather ;

boards and shingles that have been exposed for upwards of a hundred

years have been observed to be worn quite
thin but remaining perfectly sound ; it is
reddish in colour, easy to work, and is used
for every description of carpentry. From the
fibrous inner bark is obtained a kind of tow
which is much used by the seafaring people
of Chiloe and the adjacent coast for making
the joints of their skiffs and small craft
water-proof. From specimens received from
several sources, Sir William Hooker identified
the Alerze of the Chilians with Libocedrus
tetragona, but this identification was called
into question by Richard Pearce, who went
to Chile in 1859 as a collector for the
Veitchian firm. In a letter to the late
Mr. James Veitch, dated from Valparaiso, he
writes : — "It is Fitzroya patagonica which
furnishes the timber known throughout Chile
as Alerze, not Libocedrus tetragona which is
everywhere known as Cipres. It is the bark of
the Fitzroya that the natives use to caulk their
boats ; the Libocedrus is a more elegant tree than
the Fitzroya, although never attaining its dim-
ensions ; its bark is only about half-an-inch
thick, whilst that of the Fitzroya is three inches
thick, very tough, fibrous and deeply furrowed.
The Libocedrus usually grows in swampy places
in the hollows of the mountain valleys,
Fitzroya on the rocky declivities."

Libocedrus tetragona w&s introduced in 1849
by Messrs. Veitch through their collector
William Lobb, but it has now become
extremely rare in this country. The climate
of the region it inhabits is one of the most
equable and also one of the most humid
in the world; for upwards of six months
of the year rain falls daily, and on rainless

Fig. 74. Libocedrus tetragon*. days the sky ig sollietimes 'overcast for' weeks
together ; the average summer temperature is about the same as that of
Great Britain, but the mean winter temperature is higher. These climatic
phenomena and the localities L. tetragona affects go far to account for its
failure in Great Britain.!

* The foliage of old trees of Libocedrus tetragona -so closely resembles that of Fitzroya
patagonia that the two can scarcely be distinguished except by their fruits ; it is thence
not improbable that at the southern limit of the Libocedrus the one might be mistaken
for the other.

t The best specimen known to the author is at Kilmacurragh in Co. Wicklow, Ireland,
from which materials for description were communicated by Mr. Thomas Acton.

258

TRIBE — TAXODINE.E.

TRIBE-TAXODINE.E.

Flowers monoecious, on different branches. Staminate flowers
solitary, spicate, paniculate or umbellate ; terminal or axillary ;
stamens spirally crowded. Scales of strobiles spirally arranged and
composed of two structures at first distinct, the ovuliferous scale and
a bract-like appendage which coalesces with it and becomes obliterated
in the mature ligneous, seed-bearing scale. Ovules 2 — 9, erect or
inverted.

Leaves homo- or heteromorphic, persistent.
Staminate flowers solitary.

Anther cells, 2. Strobiles globose with the
scales ascending, sub-acuminate at the
apex.

Seeds 3 — 6 pendulous - 6 — Athrotaxis

Staminate flowers spicate.
Anther cells 3 — 5. Strobiles globose with
the scales ascending, sub-peltate and acutely
lobed at the apex.
Seeds 4 — 5 erect -

Anther cells 2 — 5. Strobiles cylindric with
the scales horizontal and thickened into a
rhomboidal apex with a transverse depression
at the centre.

Seeds 5 — 7 pendulous 8. — Sequoia.

Leaves homo- or dimorphic, deciduous.
Staminate flowers paniculate or solitary.

Anther, cells 4 —8. Strobiles globose or obovoid
with the scales imbricated, rugose and
obscurely mucronate.

Seeds 2 erect 9.— Taxodium.

Leaves dimorphic, squamiform and cladodiform
(i.e., deciduous scale-like leaves and per-
sistent leaf-like structures that perform the
functions of foliation).
Staminate flowers umbellate.

Anther cells 2. Strobiles ovoid-cylindric, the
scales imbricated with a transverse ridge
beyond the middle and not thickened at
the apex.

7. — Cryptomeria.

Seeds 7 — 9 erect -

- 1 0 — Sciadopitys.

ATHROTAXIS.

259

ATHEOTAXIS.

' Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 172, t. 14 (1839). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 193
(1847, Arthro taxis). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 433 (1868). Benthani and Hooker,
Gen. Plant. III. 430 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 89 (1887).
Masters in Jonrn. Linn. Soe. XXX. 21 (1893).

Fig. 75. Athrotaxis cupressoides.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

Athrotaxis* is a genus of much-branched evergreen trees of low
or medium stature and of pyramidal or columnar habit, clothed with
short, thick, homo- or dimorphic leaves which are either concrescent
with their axes, adnate at the base and free at the apex, or
slightly spreading and more or less incurved. It is further distin-
guished by the following characters : —

Flowers monoecious on different branches ; the staminate flowers
small, solitary and terminal on branchlets of the preceding year, with
crowded, imbricated stamens subspirally arranged, each formed of a
slender stipes expanded into a transverse peltate connective from which
the two anther cells liang.

Ovuliferous flowers also terminal, nearly globose, composed of ten to

* Errore Arthrotaxis auctormn fere omnium.

260 ATHROTAXIS.

twenty imbricated scales, having a thickened broad disk from which
are suspended three — six ovules.

Strobiles ligneous, globose, from 0*5 to 1 inch in diameter ; scales
ovoid-rhombic, cuiieate at the base, sub-acuminate or peltately dilated at
the apex, ascending, each with three — six winged seeds.
The genus is the most restricted of the tribe in which it is
included, as regards its geographical distribution, being confined to a
few localities in Tasmania chiefly on the Western Mountains
ascending in places to the summit which is about 4,000 feet above
the level of the surrounding ocean.

As seen at their best development in Great Britain, the Athrotaxes
are Cypress-like trees of distinct aspect and great beauty. They were
introduced about the year 1857 by the late Mr. William Archer,
of Cheshunt, and although fairly hardy in many parts of the country,
they are only of value as decorative plants for the lawn and garden in
the milder and more humid climate of Devon and Cornwall, parts of
Wales, Ireland and similar places.

Fine specimens of Athrotaxis are growing at Menabilly, Cornwall
(A, laxifolia); Upcott near Barnstaple (A. cupressoides); Castle wellan, Co.
Down (A. selayinoides and A. laxifolia); Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow
(A. cupressoides); and notably at Kilmacurragh in the same county where
there is a tree of each species in robust health, from 25 to 30 feet
high, all of columnar habit.

The generic name is from adpvos (crowded), and rafa (arrangement) in
allusion to the crowded order of the scales of the fruit.

The nearest affinity is'Cryptomeria, so near indeed that horticulturists some-
times avail themselves of it as a means of propagating the species of Athrotaxis.*
An especial interest is attached to the existing members of the
Taxodinese on account of the great antiquity of their ancestral
forms, and of tbeir intimate association with the vegetation of past
ages. The striking resemblance of the species of Athrotaxis to
the fossil remains of a Conifer found in the Upper Oolite (Mesozoic)
of Solenhofen, and to other remains that have been found in
Yorkshire, Argyllshire and the Thames Valley afford evidence that
ancestral forms of Athrotaxis were widely distributed over the
eastern hemisphere in remote epochs, and which have in the course
of time succumbed to the ceaseless successive changes which have
affected the Earth's surface and climate during geological ages, until
they have receded to their last abiding place in the small island
of Tasmania where they now exist in numbers so small that the
individual trees could be counted. The fate of species so reduced
in the number of the individuals comprising them is inevitable,
although they may be preserved indefinitely by the hand of Man.

* The variety of C ryptomeria japonica with primordial leaves, known in gardens as
C. elegans, is readily propagated from cuttings. These rooted cuttings are used as stocks for
grafting scions taken from the species of Athrotaxis.

ATHROTAXIS CUPRESSOIDES.

261

Athrotaxis cupressoides.

A conical tree 25 — 45 feet high with a trunk sometimes 1'5 — 2 feet
in diameter near the ground. Bark reddish brown, peeling off in
ribbon-like shreds exposing a cinnamon-brown inner
cortex. Primary branches scattered, spreading or
ascending, much ramified at the distal end. Branchlets
in pseudo-whorls of five — seven, densely clothed with
foliage. Leaves dimorphic, in decussate pairs, per-
sistent several years and peeling off with the bark ;
on vigorous shoots oblong-acute, keeled, 0'5 inch
long, appressed and imbricated ; on the youngest
shoots much smaller, scale-like, ovate-triangular, sub-
acute, closely imbricated or concrescent with the
stem, dark grass-green tinged with brown during the
winter. Staminate flowers as described in page 259.
Strobiles composed of five — six decussate pairs of
Fig. 76. scales, each with an acute pyramidal umbo and bearing

AtUrotaxis cupressoides. tnree_nve see(js.

Athrotaxis cupressoides, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 173, t. 13, tig. 2
(1839). Hooker til in Lond. Journ. Bot. IV. 148 (1845) ; and Fl. Tasmari. I. 345
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 196. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 205. Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 433. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 47. Masters in Gard. Chron.
XXIV. (1885), p. 273, with figs. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 199.

Recorded localities. — Lake St. Clair, Pine River near Marlborough, and
the Western Mountains.

Athrotaxis laxifolia.

A small tree 25 — 30 feet high with a slender
trunk covered with reddish brown bark that peels
off in longitudinal shreds. Primary branches scattered,
close-set and spreading, ramification tetrastichous with
occasional adventitious growths between the ranks.
Leaves persistent several years, sub-spirally arranged
or in decussate pairs, ovate-lanceolate, mucronate,
more or less appressed to the stem, slightly incurved
and attenuated from the base upwards, flat with two
faint glaucous stomatiferous lines on the ventral
side, convex-carinate and bright green on the dorsal
side. Strobiles terminal, globose, about 0*75 inch in
diameter, closely resembling those of A. selaginoides
in structure but smaller in all their parts.

Athrotaxis laxifolia, Hooker, W. Icon. PI. 573 (1843). Hooker til in Lond.
Journ. Bot. IV. 149 (1845) ; and Fl. Tasraan. I. 354. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 196.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 206. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 434. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 48. Masters in Gard. Chron. IX. ser. 3 (1891), p. 144, with fig. ;
Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII. 201, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 199.

A. Doniana, Hort.

Recorded localities. — At the falls of the River Meander, and near the
summit of the Western Mountains at about 4,000 feet elevation. This
form is so nearly intermediate between A. cupressoides and A. selaginoides
as to suggest the possibility of its being a hybrid between them.

Fig. 77.
Athrotaxis laxifolia.

262

ATHROTAXIS SELAGINOIDES.

Fig. 78. Fruiting branchlet of Athrotaxis selaginoides.
(From the Gardeners Chronicle.)

Athrotaxis selaginoides.

A medium-sized tree attaining a height of 40 —
45 feet, the trunk covered with reddish brown bark
(in Great Britain) peeling off in longitudinal shreds.
Primary branches close-set, spreading, with tetrastichous
ramification often much interrupted. Branchlets
stoutish, similarly ramified. Leaves persistent four
— five years, sub-spirally arranged, lax, incurved,
subulate or subulate-lanceolate, mucronate with two
glaucous stomatiferous bands on the ventral side,
convex-carinate and bright green on the dorsal side,
0'25 — 0*5 inch long. Stroliiles globose, about an inch
in diameter, composed of numerous spirally crowded,
Fig. 79. broadly ovate scales, each with an acuminate point,

Athrotaxis selaginoides. and bearing three — six seeds.

Athrotaxis selaginoides, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 172, t. 14. Hooker
fil in Lond. Journ. Bot. IV. 148 ; and Fl. Tasman. I. 354. Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 194. Carriere, Tvaite Conif. ed. II. 203. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.
434. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 48. Masters in Gard. Chron. IV. ser. 3 (1888),
p. 545, witn tig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 199.

A. Gunniana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 47.

A. imbricata, Hort.

Recorded localities. — Falls of the Meander Rivulets, the Western
Mountains, Cummings Head.

CRYPTOMEEIA JAPONICA. 263

CEYPTOMERIA.

Don in Trans. L 1111. Soc. XVIII. 166, t. 13, tig. 1 (1839). Endliclier, Synops.
Conif. 71 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 437 (1868). Bentham and Hooker,
Gen. Plant. III. 428 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 89 (1887).
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 23 (1893).

A monotypic genus inhabiting Japan, but now rarely seen wild in

that country except in inaccessible spots on the lower mountain slopes

in the central island, and which are believed to have been formerly

covered with extensive forests of Cryptomeria till the presence of a

dense population caused their destruction. There is also evidence of

the Cryptomeria being indigenous in south-west China.* The generic

characters are readily deducible from the description of the species.

Cryptomeria is a most interesting genus from a scientific point of

view, it being one of a very few living representatives of a vegetation

which has long since disappeared. At present confined to the Far East,

except so far as it has been introduced into every other land in which

horticulture is practised, there is abundant evidence in fossil remains

to show that ancestral forms of the Cryptomeria had a wide distribution

so early as Triassic and Permian times over a great part of Europe and

northern Asia, the geological import of which is, that these ancestral

forms were ingredients of the forests covering the northern part of the

eastern continent countless ages prior to the appearance of Man. It is

not improbable, too, that the nearest existing affinity of the Cryptomeria, the

not less remarkable and interesting genus Athrotaxis, may have descended

from these same ancestral forms, and which, during the lapse of aeons

and under the operation of the physical changes constantly but slowly

affecting the Earth's surface, has gradually receded to the restricted

insular area the species now inhabit.

Cryptomeria is from ^V-KTOQ (hidden) and yue'jooe (a share or part), in
reference to its obscure relationship to the Cedar.

Cryptomeria japonica.

A stately tree, attaining under favourable circumstances a height of
100—125 feet, usually divested of branches along the lower part of the
trunk and crowned with a conical head ; the trunk tapering somewhat
abruptly from a broad base and covered with cinnamon-brown bark the
exposed part of which (in Great Britain) peels off in long ribbon-like
shreds. Primary branches irregularly disposed, close-set in young trees,
the longest lowermost ones nearly always decumbent, those above
horizontal or ascending ; branchlets mostly lateral or sub-distichous.
Leaves persistent four — five years, spirally arranged, linear-subulate,
acuminate, four-angled, 0'25 — 0'5 inch long, straight or falcately curved
towards the stem, bluntly keeled on the dorsal and sharply keeled on the
ventral side, decurrent, dark lustrous green tinged with brown in winter.
Staminate flowers numerous, collected in dense spikes about an inch long
around the apical end and in "the axils of the leaves of branchlets of the
preceding year, cylindric, obtuse, 0*25 inch long, composed of numerous

* Dr. Henry in the Kew Bulletin, 1897, p. 409. Whether the Cryptomeria discovered
•by Dr. Henry in Yun-nan conforms to the Japanese type, or is specifically distinct, has nol
been determined.

264 VARIETIES OF CRYPTOMERIA JAPONICA.

spirally crowded stamens expanded at their apex into a broadly cordate
connective from which depend three — five anther "cells. Strobiles globose,
solitary at the end of the branchlets or in pairs ; scales obovate-cimeate,
thickened at the extremity and more or less divided into sharply pointed
lobes. Seeds three — five on each scale.

Cryptomeria japonica, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. loc. cit. supra. Siebold and
Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 41, tt. 124, 125. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 191.
Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. I. 57, with tig; and Pinet. ed. II. 73. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 141, with fig. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 497; and Jouni.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 203. And others.

Eng. Japanese Cedar. Fr. Cryptomeria du Japon. Germ. Japanische Cryptomerie.
Ital. Cedro giapponese. Jap. Sugi.

var.— araucarioides.

A shrub or low tree not exceeding 5 — 7 feet high with deflexed
branches and pendulous branchlets that are more distantly placed than in
the common form. Leaves shorter, thicker and more closely imbricated.
C. japonica araucarioides, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 52.

var.— elegans.

A smaller tree than the common form, with a robust trunk, short
horizontal branches and branchlets decurved at the tip. Leaves
primordial, linear, acuminate, decurrent, spreading or falcately curved and
marked 011 both sides with a shallow median groove, bright green when
first expanded changing to bronzy crimson towards the end of autumn.

C. japonica elegans, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 498. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 144, with fig. C. elegans, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 196. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 73.

var.— Lobbii.

A tall tree with an elongated spire-like outline and with a more

• compact habit than the type; branches shorter and more densely ramified;

leaves longer, more closely appressed to the stems and of a darker green.

C. japonica Lobbii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 192. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 76.
C. Lobbii, Hort.

var.— nana.

A dwarf, dense, spreading shrub rarely exceeding a yard in height with
much shortened, rigid branchlets clothed with close-set acicular spreading
leaves about one-third the length of those of the type.

C. japonica nana, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 52. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 193.

var. — sinensis.

Differs from the Japanese type in its more diffuse habit, deflexed
branchlets, longer and more slender terminal growths, and its longer and
more slender leaves.

C. japonica sinensis, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 52. C. japonica For-
tunei, Hort.

var.— spiralis.

A dwarf, spreading bush with more slender branches and branchlets
to which the incurved leaves are so closely appressed as to simulate
a spiral thread wound round them.

C. japonica spiralis-, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 72. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 423.

CRYPTOMERIA JAPONICA.

265

The Cryptomeria is one of the finest trees in Japan ; it is seen
almost everywhere throughout Hondo from north to south except on
the highest part of the mountains ; it is more used for reafforesting
the denuded lands than any other tree, and extensive areas on the
foot-hills and mountain slopes up to 3,000 feet elevation above sea-level
have been planted with it for the sake of its timber alone, which is
more used than that of any other coniferous tree ; it is planted to
form hedges and screens by the wayside ; it has received assiduous
attention from horticulturists for centuries past, and many curious and
interesting varieties of it have been obtained by them ; it is also planted
to form avenues along the public roads, especially along the approaches
to spots associated with eminent historic personages or events.

In none of its aspects is the Crypto-
meria more striking than in those
avenues planted in localities most fav-
ourable for the development of the trees.
An avenue of Cryptomerias seven miles
in extent near Lake Hakone was passed
through by Mr. James H. Veitch during
his travels in Japan, which, when once
seen, leaves an enduring impression ; in
this avenue the trees are more than
100 feet high, With perfectly straight
trunks crowned with conical heads of
foliage, the interval between them in
the line rarely exceeding six feet. More
remarkable and more impressive still is
the great avenue leading from Utsunomiya
to the celebrated shrines at Nikko,
extending to a distance of over thirty
miles ; it is the wonder and admiration
of all who have seen it ; the trunks
of the trees are as straight as an arrow
and average more than 100 feet in height
with a circumference of 12 to 15 feet

near the base. " The planted avenue extends practically all the way
from Tokio to Nikko, but it is only when the road reaches the foot-hills
that it passes between two rows of Cryptomerias, the lower part being
planted, as is the case with the other great highways in Japan, with Pine
trees. Nor is the avenue continuous, for wherever a village occurs, or one
of the roadside tea-houses which are scattered, all along the road, there is a
break in the rows of trees, and it is only in some particular spots that
a long view of continuous trees is obtained. The trees are planted on high
banks made by throwing up the surface soil from the roadway ; they are
usually planted in double rows, and often so close together that in places
two or three trees have become united by a process of natural grafting."*
The same author adds : — " Japan owes much of the beauty of its groves
and gardens to the Cryptomeria. Nowhere is there a more solemn and
impressive group of trees than that which surrounds the temples and

* Sargent, Forest Flora of Japan, p. 74.

Fig. 80. Cryptomeria japonica, var. elegans.

Cryptomeria japonica, var. Loblii, at Dropniore.

CRYPTOMERIA JAPONIC A. 267

tombs at Xikko where they rise to a height of 100 to 125 feet; it is
a stately tree which has no rival except in the Sequoias of Calif ornia."
The chief factor in the preservation of the Cryptomeria and its
luxuriant growth in Japan is unquestionably the climate which in the
districts where the tree attains its greatest development is decidedly
temperate. The annual isothermal line for 10° C. (50° F.) curves
below the 40th parallel where it passes through Japan in the latitude of
northern Hondo; and the annual isotherm for 15° C. (60 F.) curves below
the 35th parallel, or below the latitude of Tokio, the capital, so that the
average temperature of the Cryptomeria region ranges from 10° to 15° C.
(50° to 60° F.). In Tokio the registered annual rainfall is about 70 inches
with a gradual decrease northwards towards Yeso ; southwards of Tokio
it seldom sinks below 50 inches. These data show that the Cryptomeria
thrives in a climate not very dissimilar from that in which the Cali-
fornian Redwood attains its gigantic dimensions, and which corresponds
nearly to that of the south-west of Ireland, but is somewhat warmer than
that of Great Britain with nearly double its annual rainfall.
The Cryptomeria first became obscurely known to Europeans through
Engelbert Kaempfer, who mentions it in his " Amcenitates Exotica "
published in 1712.* It was next described by Thunberg in more
distinct terms in his " Flora japonica " under the name of Cupressus
japonica ; Thunberg's dried specimens were communicated to the
younger Linnaeus and incorporated with his herbarium which was
subsequently acquired by Sir J. E. Smith, the first President of the
Liunean Society, and afterwards became the property of the Society.
On these materials David Don, the Secretary of the Society, founded in
1839 the genus Cryptomeria which has since remained unchanged.
The Cryptomeria was introduced into Great Britain by the Horti-
cultural Society of London through their collector, Robert Fortune, who
sent seeds from Shanghai in China in 1844 ; the Japanese type was
introduced by the Veitchian firm through Charles Maries in 1879.

The Cryptomeria has now been a denizen of the parks and gardens of
Great Britain for more than half a century, and although it has proved
to be hardy, good specimens are by no means common. Where \vell-
developed trees do occur, they have an elongated conical outline like
that of the Wellingtonia, but generally a more open aspect on account of
being more sparsely furnished. The Cryptomeria requires a deep, well-
drained soil with abundance of moisture, of which the supply is not
intermittent, and it must be protected from piercing winds ; in such
situations it develops the ornamental qualities which cause it to be so
highly admired in its native country. A space having a radius of not
less than 25 feet should be allowed for it.

All the varieties described above are of Japanese origin with the
exception of Lollrii and ahie?ms. Eleyans which was introduced by the
late Mr. John Gould Veitch, is one of the most distinct additions to the
British Pinetum ever made; this is chiefly due to the remarkable change
in colour which the foliage and young shoots undergo in winter ; it is a
"juvenile" form with primordial leaves only. The illustration shows its

* San, vulgo Sungi, Cnpresso-pinolns resinifera, fructu sphperali squamoso, pruni
maguitudinis ; seniinibus panels oblongis conipressis, striatis, spadiceis (p. 883.).

268 CRYPTOMEPJA JAPONICA.

habit as usually seen, but in the warm and humid climate of Devon and
Cornwall, so large a head is sometimes formed that the stem bends
towards the ground under the weight of its appendages and is sometimes
snapped off by the wind. Lobbii was introduced by the Veitchian h'rm
shortly after Fortune's discovery through Thomas Lobb, from the

Fig. 81. Cryptomeria japonica, var. elcgans.

Buitenzorg Botanic Garden whither it had been sent from Japan by
Siebold twenty years earlier. Nana and spiralis are monstrous forms of
dwarf and singular habit chiefly used for the rock garden ; sinensis is
the form originally introduced by Fortune; all the older arborescent
Cryptomerias growing in Great Britain with the exception of the variety
Lobbii are referable to this form.

SEQUOIA. 269

SEQUOIA.

Endlicher, Synops. Couif. 197 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 435 (1868)
Benthani and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 429 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat.
Pfl. Fam. 85 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 22 (1893).

Different as the Redwood and Wellingtonia as seen in Great Britain
appear to the ordinary observer, botanists are agreed that they must
come under the same genus. The difference in habit and foliage, so
manifest in this country, is, however, by no means so apparent in the
full-grown trees in the California!! forests, and more than this, the
structure of their staminate and ovuliferous flowers and their cones is-
identical. The genus therefore includes two species having in common
the following essential characters : —

Flowers monoecious, solitary and terminal. Staminate flowers stipitate,.
ovoicl-cylindric, surrounded at the base by numerous imbricated, involucral
bracts. Stamens numerous, spirally crowded, with a short spreading
filament dilated into a sub-peltate connective bearing two — five (usually
three) anther cells.

Ovuliferous flowers ovoid-cylindrie, composed of numerous spirally
imbricated ovate bracts keeled at the back, the keel produced into a short
elongated point ; the bracts aduate to the shorter and thicker ovuliferous
scales which bear five — seven ovules that are at first erect but which
ultimately become inverted.

Strobiles sub-cylindric, pendulous, maturing the first year, composed of

spirally arranged scales that are contracted at the base and clavately

thickened upwards into a flattened rugose disk with a transverse median

depression, each bearing five — seven pendulous seeds.

The Redwood was originally joined with Taxodiimi from which it

was separated by Endlicher, who founded upon it the genus Sequoia,

and Lindley proposed Wellingtonia for the " Big Trees " of the

Sierra Nevada, but which was soon rejected when the reproductive

organs became known. From Taxodium the Sequoias are clearly

distinguished by their simple, not panicled staminate flowers, by the

peltate form of their fruit scales which bear a larger number of

seeds, and by their persistent foliage.

Besides their gigantic proportions, the Sequoias possess a separate and
special interest in respect of their antiquity, and the far more important
place they occupied in. the arborescent vegetation of the Earth in past
geological ages than at the present time. The earliest remains of the
ancient Sequoias occur in the Lower Chalk formations ; they became
more plentiful in succeeding strata up to ' the Tertiary systems in
which they are widely diffused. It is highly interesting to learn that
in the earlier Tertiary formation termed the Eocene, the Sequoias
were represented in Great Britain by more than one well-marked
species. In the succeeding period termed the Miocene, their fossils are
widely distributed over the eastern continent from high latitudes
southwards to the great chains of mountains which stretch across the
continent from Spain to northern India, and in an east and west

270

SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS.

direction from the Hebrides to the Steppe of Kirghiz. During the
Glacial epoch it is surmised that the genus was well-nigh exterminated,
and was preserved only in the two isolated regions in which it still
survives. The fossil remains consist chiefly of cones which are sometimes
attached to their branches, and of foliation which connects the fossil
forms quite naturally with the existing species.

The genus commemorates Sequoyah, a Cherokee Indian of mixed
blood, better known by his English name of George Guess, who is

supposed to have been
born about the year
1770. He first became
known as a small
farmer in the Cherokee
country of Georgia, and
as a skilful silversmith,
and afterwards by his
invention of an alphabet
and a written language
for his tribe, which
was published in 1826.
This alphabet consists
of eighty-five characters,
each representing a
single sound, and was
used in printing the
"Cherokee Phoenix," a
journal devoted to the interests of the Cherokee nation, and also of a
part of the New Testament. Compelled to move with his tribe into the
Indian territory beyond the Mississippi, he died at San Fernando, in
northern Mexico, in 1843. His remarkable alphabet is destined to
pass away with his nation, but his name will be for ages kept in
memory by the most stupendous productions of the Vegetable Kingdom.

Fig. 82. Sequoui Wcttingtonia. 1, Staminate flower somewhat
advanced. 2, Stamen attached to axis. 3. The same, dorsal— 4,
ventral view ; A, connective ; B, three anther cells ; c, filament.
5, Pollen grains. (5, A pollen grain as seen when placed in water ;
. a, the empty extine of the bursted pollen grain ; b, the swollen
contents of the same. 1, Nat. size ; 2, 3 and 4 magnified five diame-
ters ; 5 and (5, 240 diameters.

Sequoia sempervirens.

A gigantic tree with a trunk towering to a height that varies from
180 to 250 or more feet in the individual trees, and with a diameter
near the base of from 12 to 18 or more feet, often free of brandies
for 75 to 100 or more feet of its height.* Bark fibrous, spongy in
texture and of a reddish brown colour, 6 — 12 inches thick, divided
into rounded ridges 2—3 feet wide.f Primary branches close set, the
lowermost (as seen in the oldest trees in Great Britain) decumbent,
those above horizontal, the uppermost slightly ascending ; branchlets
distichous, alternate or opposite. Buds small, globose-cylindric, covered
with green leaf-like scales that are for the most part persistent at the
base of the developed shoot, and change to orange-brown with; age.
Leaves Yew-like, persistent three — four years, sub-distichous and
alternate, usually longer in the middle of the shoot than at the

* Individual trees have been measured whose heights exceeded 300 feet, and whose
diameter at live feet from the ground was found to be from 18 to 20 feet. One on Eel
River measured in 1896 was 340 feet high.— Garden and Forest, X. 292.
M t The bark of the Redwood contains no resin, whence the fires that frequently bum up
the undergrowth of the Sequoia forests have no effect on the standing trunks.

SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS. 271

extremities ; linear-lanceolate, mucronate, soiiietiines falcately curved,
0'25 — 0'75 inch long, inclined forwards at an angle of about 45°
to the axis, dark green with an almost obsolete
median line above, with two pale stomatiferous bands
beneath. Staminate flowers on short footstalks clothed
with acicular, imbricated, leafy bracts spirally arranged
around them, globose or globose-cylindric, consisting of
eight — ten stamens "with ovate connectives, each
bearing three anther cells. Strobiles on short foot-
stalks, clothed with minute imbricated scales, terminal
on short branchlets of the preceding year, O75 —
1 inch long, composed of fifteen — -twenty rhomboidal,
peltate scales each bearing five — seven seeds.

Sequoia sempervirens, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 198. (1847).
Murray in Gard. Chron. (1866), p. 971. Carriers, Traite
Conif.' ed. II. 210. Parlatore, D. C Prodr. XVI. 436.
Hoopes, Evergreens, 244. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 379.
Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 116. Sargent, Forest

Trees N. Amer. 10th Census. U.S.A. IX. 184; and Suva N. Amer, X. 141,
t. 535. Beissner, Nadelholzk'. 157, with figs. Masters in Gard. Chron. VIII.
ser. 3 (1890), p. 303 with fig; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 247.
S. gigantea, Endliclier,' Synops. Conif. 198 (in part, not Decaisne).
Tax odium sempervirens, Lambert, Genus Finns, II. t. 7 (1824). London, Arb.
et Frut. Brit. IV. 2487, with figs. Hooker, W. Flor. Bor. Amer. II. 164.

Eng. and Amer. California!! Redwood. Germ. Immergriin, Sequoie, Eiben
Cypresse. Ital. II Legno rosso di California.

var. — adpressa (syn. all>a

A smaller tree with shorter and more rigid branches. Leaves
shorter, broader, and inclined to their axis at a much more acute angle
than in the type ; the younger leaves and tips of the branchlets
cream-white, the older leaves giaucescent.

S. sempervirens adpressa, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 211. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 159. S. sempervirens alba spica of British gardens.

The Eedwood inhabits a narrow strip of territory along the
Pacific littoral extending for about five hundred miles from the
southern boundary of Oregon to a little beyond Monterey in South
California, and rarely ranging more than from twenty to thirty miles
inland. Within this restricted habitat it presented, when first discovered,
one of the most remarkable phenomena of vegetation to be seen
throughout the world, whether as regards the gigantic size of
individual trees or the enormous amount of vegetable tissue that had
been built up within so limited a space. Large stretches of
Redwood forest unmixed with other trees covered the country in
Mendocino county, along the Russian river north of San Francisco,
and in Santa Cruz county south of that city, the trees in places standing
so close together as scarcely to leave room for a lumber truck to pass
between them. And generally, the lower mountains near the coast
were almost exclusively covered with Redwood, which in places
spread inland into the canons, presenting to the view masses of
timber greater than could be found on an equal area in the densest

27*2 SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRBNS.

tropical forest. Along the eastern fringe of the belt, the trees that
remain are smaller and are mixed with the Douglas Fir (Abietia
Douglasii), the Bark Oak (Qucrcus densiflora) and other trees ; they
are also smaller at the southern limit of the belt where the annual
rainfall is lighter. In seeking for an explanation of this exuberant
arborescent growth, there can be no doubt that the climate of the
region has been the most important factor, not only in the formation
of the Eedwood forests, but in building up the other gigantic coniferous
trees of California.

The climate of the coast region of California is marked by a
comparatively equable temperature throughout the year, the summer
average at San Francisco being about 15" C. (60° F.), and the winter
10° C. (50° F.). Two causes co-ordinate to bring about this narrow
fluctuation. One is the cold arctic current from Behring vStrait
which strikes the California!! coast in about latitude 42° IXT. and
continues its course southwards ; by this stream of arctic water the
temperature of the ocean from May to October is reduced much below
the average in the same latitude elsewhere ; concurrently with the
arctic stream, a cool wind blows uninterruptedly in the same direction
during the same period and in which no rain falls. The other is a
warm wind which blows" during the remainder of the year from the
south-west over the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean charged with
the evaporation that is raised in prodigious quantities under a vertical
sun ; most of this vapour is precipitated on the country from the
coast to the summit of the Sierra Nevada, the precipitation gradually
diminishing in quantity in a southern direction to the lower Calif ornian
peninsula where it ceases altogether and the country is a desert.
This alternation of seasons is regular from year to year ; all through
the summer season fogs rise from the Pacific Ocean and flow inland
like a great level sea of vapour : the lower mountains near the coast
are enveloped, and further inland it fills the canons, leaving the higher
mountains to rise like islands out of it. It is these ocean fogs
that exercise so powerful an influence on the distribution and growth
of the Eedwood ; outside their range it does not spread spontaneously.
The tree is not only a lover of moisture, but to an extent hardly to
be believed imless seen, a condenser and consumer of moisture ; the
tops of the trees reach high into the sea of vapour and constant
precipitation from them like rain, takes place during the prevalence
of the fogs.*

Sequoia sempervircns ranks second in size amongst the gigantic
coniferous trees of western North America. In its scientific aspect
and associations, it is one of the most interesting of trees, whether
we regard it as a surviving representative of the vegetation of a
former epoch that has well nigh disappeared, or look upon it simply
in its relationship to existing Conifene. In the geological age termed
the Miocene, S. sempcrvircns or a species closely allied to it was
widely distributed over the eastern continent in high latitudes,

* Garden and Forest, III. 235.

SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS. 273

extending to Spitzbergen and also to Greenland ; and even earlier in
central Europe. But from the time of its greatest development in
Miocene times the Redwood gradually disappeared from the vast area
over which it was once spread till it finally receded to the strip of
territory along the Pacific coast of North America, a most significant
fact in its history which of itself portends its ultimate extinction.

But a process of destruction far more rapid than that provided by
Nature has been in operation ever since the occupation of the country
by the white settlers. The Redwood is the most valuable of all the
California!! timber trees ; it is the most common building material of
the State, and it is used for every description of out-of-door carpentry.
The wood is close-grained and splits with peculiar facility by means of
wedges, so that planks can be made from it without the use of the
saw ; it is durable in contact with the soil and it is therefore exten-
sively used for fencing and railway ties ; it is of a beautiful red colour
and susceptible of a high polish, qualities which render it peculiarly
adapted for all kinds of domestic furniture, and so highly valued is
Redwood timber beyond the range of its native forests, that it is
exported to Australia, the Pacific Islands, to China, and even occasion-
ally to Europe.* To supply the enormous and ever-increasing demand
and owing, too, to the accessibility of the Redwood forests, due to their
proximity to the coast and to their being traversed by numerous streams,
the consumption of Redwood timber is proceeding at a rate that would
almost exceed belief were it not attested by reliable statistics, and by
the testimony of those who have witnessed its destruction. " The
felling of the monster trees and the manufacture of their trunks into
lumber by the use of modern machinery and appliances, afford examples
of the most stupendous lumber operations ever witnessed, but, alas, the
end is near. At the present rate of destruction, not an unprotected
Sequoia of timber - producing size will be left standing twenty years
hence." f The best forests will soon be but dim memories only, and the
- generation next succeeding that which witnessed their discovery will
see their places occupied by human habitations surrounded with other
vegetation. The Redwood is, however, exceedingly tenacious of life :
when cut down a whole copse of vigorous shoots spring np from the
base of the monster trunk and soon hide it ; it is only by repeated
cuttings that the tendency of the tree to reproduce itself in this
manner can be repressed ; when these shoots are left to themselves,
they will grow in time into a circle of tall trees.

The most salient points in the botanical history of the Redwood
are but few. It was discovered by Archibald Menzies in 1795, from
whose herbarium specimens it was figured and described by Lambert
in "The Genus Pinus" under the name of Taxodium sempervirens.
It was re-discovered by David Douglas in 1831 and shortly after-
wards by Dr. Coulter near its southern limit in the neighbourhood
of Monterey. In 1847 it was separated from Taxodium by Endlicher
who founded the genus Sequoia for its reception. About the same

* Silva of North America, X. 142.
t Lemmon, Handbook of North-west American Cone-bearers, 189f>.

274 SEQUOIA WELLINGTONS.

time it was introduced into British gardens by the Horticultural
Society of London through their collector Hartweg.

Although a native of a somewhat warmer climate than that of (I re; it,
Britain, the Redwood in this country is a fast-growing tree of pyramidal
outline and dark Yew-like aspect. It has a tendency to commence
the season's growth early in spring, and to continue growing till late
in the autumn which renders it liable to injury by winter and spring-
frosts, by which the youngest part of the leader and terminal shoots
of the branches are sometimes destroyed ; the foliage is also frequently
discoloured or " browned " by the same agency, so that the Redwood
has not been regarded with so much favour as might be expected
from so remarkable a tree. It should, however, be included in every
collection of ornamental Conifers and planted in every park where it
can- be sheltered from cold piercing winds, and where a space with
a minimum radius of 30 to 40 feet can be allowed for it to develop
its fine proportions. A moist and well-drained soil is the best for it,
and as might be expected, it thrives well in the neighbourhood of the
sea coast in the south and south-west of England, in Wales and in Ireland.*

Sequoia Wellingtonia.

The largest of all coniferous trees f with a massive tapering trunk
rising to a height of 300 or more feet and with a diameter of 20 to
30 feet near the ground. The average height of the oldest trees now
standing is about 275 feet and the diameter near the ground about
20 feet, | the trunk enlarged at the base into broad rounded buttresses
and usually free of branches for one-half or more of the height, the
remainder somewhat scantily furnished with branches that are small in
proportion to the gigantic trunk from which they spring, and clothed
with foliage on their terminal branchlets only. Bark 20 — 30 inches
thick,§ of spongy texture and cinnamon-brown colour, the exposed part
separating into loose fibrous scales. In ' Great Britain the Wellingtonia

* Among the many fine specimens of the Redwood scattered over Great Britain are those at
Dropmore, Linton Park, Tortworth Court, Eastnor Castle ; Bayfordbury and Essendon, Herts ;
Bowood, Wilts ; Orton Hall ; Penrhyn Castle ; Castle Menzies, Ochtertyre, Scone Palace,
Abercairney and Cultoquhey in Perthshire ; Fota Island, Cork ; Hamwood, Co. Meath ;
Charleville, Co. Wicklow ; Woodstock, Co. Kilkenny, etc.

t The Wellingtonia is not only the largest coniferous tree, but it is also not surpassed
in size by trees belonging to any other Natural Order. Some of the Australian Eucalypti
have attained a greater height than any Wellingtonia at present standing, but the
diameter of their trunks is considerably less. Trunks of the Adansonia or African
Baobab tree have been observed with a greater diameter, but their height is not nearly
proportionate compared with the Wellingtonia.

J Silva of North America, X. 145. The tallest living tree that has been measured
was found to be 325 feet high ; it is one of the " Three Sisters " standing in the
Calaveras Grove ; the other two also exceed 300 feet in height. The height of the
tallest measured Wellingtonia is therefore surpassed by that of the Redwood on Eel
River, see page 270. Nevertheless the average height of the Wellingtonia is recognised
by the best authorities to exceed the average height of the Redwood. Exceptional heights
attained by Wellingtonias that have been felled, or overthrown by storms in their extreme
old age have been estimated at 425, 363, 350, 325, 300 feet, etc.

§ Very little difference can be detected between the barks of the oldest Wellingtonias and
Redwoods growing in Great Britain ; that of the Redwood is perhaps somewhat more
fibrous than the other.

SEQUOIA WELLINGTONIA.

275

is characterised by extreme formality of habit which is that of a spire
or elongated cone, its outline scarcely broken by a projecting branch.
Trunk strictly erect, covered with fibrous cinnamon-brown bark which
breaks off in irregular thickish plates. Primary branches slender, close-
set and gradually contracted in length upwards, the lowermost decumbent,

those above spreading horizontally or slightly
ascending. Branchlets stoutish and much
ramified, the ramifications crowded and often
forming dense tufts. Leaves persistent three
— four years, on the stouter growths ovate,
acuminate, passing upwards into lanceolate,
acuminate, 0'25 — 0*5 inch long, about three
completing the circuit of their axis, appressed
and decurrent at the "base, free beyond the
middle ; on the lateral shoots shorter and
smaller, at first bluish green, changing with
age to dull grass-green. Staminate flowers
about 0'25 inch long ; stamens spirally arranged,
with a short filament and ovate, acute connec-
tive bearing three anther cells. Ovuliferous
flowers somewhat larger, consisting of pale
yellow scales narrowed into a long slender
point, each bearing five — nine ovules in
two series. Strobiles ovoid-cylindric, obtuse,
2 — 2 '5 inches long and 1*6 — 2 inches in
diameter, composed of 25 — 30 ligneous scales
arranged around a spindle-shaped axis, the
exposed dilated end approaching rhomboidal
shape with a central depression and transverse
ridge on each side of it, each scale bearing
five — nine seeds, but usually fewer from non-fertilisation of ovules.

Sequoia Wellingtonia, Seeman, Bonplandia, III. 27 (Feb. 1855). Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. III. 299, tt. 37, 51, 53. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 145, t. 536.

S. gigaiitea, Decaisne in Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, I 72 (1854), not Endlicher.
Torrey, Report U. S. Pacific Rail. IV. 140 (1857). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 437. Hoopes, Evergreens, 239, with tig. The Garden, I. 54, 75, with figs.
Brewer and Watson, Bot. Califor. II. 117. Garden and Forest, V. 541, 546,
with figs. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 160, with figs. Masters in Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 71.

Wellingtonia gigantea, Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1853, p. 823. Hooker. W.
Bot. Mag. tt. 4777, 4778. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 217. Gordon, Pinet.
«.-d. II. 414.

Eng. Wellingtonia, Mammoth Tree. Amer. Big Tree. Fr. Sequoia gigantesque.
Germ. Riesen Sequoia. Ital. Gigante della California.

var.— pendula.

Primary branches quite pendulous, sometimes hanging down so close to
the trunk that the space occupied by the tree with its appendages
scarcely exceeds two yards in diameter. This is the most marked
deviation from the common form yet observed.

( Hher varieties are distinguished by horticulturists by names sufficiently
indicative of their character as ar<j<jntea, yl.auea pyramidalis, pij</'m«'(i,
variegata, etc.

The Wellingtonia inhabits the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada of
California on which it has a vertical range of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet

Fig. 84. Cone of Sequoia Wellingtonia
from the Calaveras Grove.

276 SEQUOIA WELLINGTONS.

above sea level. Its northern limit is near the 39th parallel of
north latitude whence it spreads meridionally in a narrow belt
for a distance of 260 miles to Deer Creek, just beyond the 36th
parallel. In the northern part of this belt it occurs in isolated
groves varying in extent from a few acres to three or four square
miles, and standing from forty to sixty miles apart;* south of King's
Eiver for a distance of about fifty miles the Welling-
tonia forms an almost continuous forest in places
nearly five miles wide, intercepted only by the steep-
walled, deep canons that intersect the mountains.f
On the Sierra Nevada at this elevation is precipi-
tated for nearly six months of the
year ( November — April ) a large
proportion of the enormous evapora-
tion raised in the equatorial region
of the Pacific Ocean, and wafted

Fig 85. Fertile branchlet of Sequoia Wellingtonia.

thither by the south-west wind which constantly

blows from that quarter during the same

period. With the Wellingtonia are associated

the Sugar Pine (Pinus Lambertiana), the yellow

Pine (Pinus ponderosa), and the Douglas Fir

(Abietia Douglasii), which under the like climatic conditions attain

stupendous dimensions.

* These groves are distinguished by names some of which are familiar to British readers,
as the Calaveras Grove, the smallest and northernmost of them, which contains at the
present time about ninety large trees. South of this arc the Mariposa Grove, the Merced
Grove, etc.

t Silva of North America, he. cit. supra. An excellent detailed account of the
distribution of the Wellingtonia on the Sierra Nevada, by Frank J. Walker, accompanied
by a sketch map, is given in the Garden and Forest, III, 571, which, although of great
local interest, is too elaborate to be reproduced here.

SEQUOIA WELLINGTONIA. 277

The first white man who saw the " Big Trees " was probably
John Bidwill, who crossed the Sierra Nevada, in 1841, from the east
into California, when he passed in haste through the Calaveras Grove,
at that time Indian country and exceedingly dangerous to traverse, but
he made no mention of his discovery till after the trees had been
seen by the hunter, Dowd, eleven years later. In 1852, Dowd, while
following a wounded bear, passed through the forests of Pinus Lambertiana
and P. ponderosa, and entered the Calaveras Grove where he saw the
gigantic trees for the first time and communicated his discovery to his
comrades. Shortly afterwards Dr. Kellogg forwarded specimens to
Doctors John Torrey and Asa Gray, and he also informed
William Lobb of the discovery.* Lobb, who had been sent on a
collecting mission to California by the late Mr. James Veitch, was at
that time staying at Monterey, but he lost no time in making his
way to the Calaveras Grove where he collected a large quantity of
cones and seeds which, with two living plants and herbarium specimens,
he brought to England late in the autumn of 1853, and from him
was obtained the first authentic account of the " Big Trees." The
specimens brought home by Lobb were placed in the hands of
Dr. Lindley for determination, and he, believing the tree to be generically
distinct from the Redwood, created for its reception a new genus
which he named Wellingtoniaf in these terms : " The most appropriate
name for the most gigantic tree that has been revealed to us by
modern discovery is that of the greatest of modem heroes ; let it
then bear henceforward the name of Wellingtonia gigantea. Lindley's
generic name was, however, soon after challenged by both European
and American botanists, and when staminate flowers which Lindley
had not seen were procurable and were found to be identical in
structure with those of the Redwood Sequoia sempervirens, the conclusion
was inevitable, a conclusion strengthened by the identity in structure
also of the ovuliferous flowers and cones, and by the similarity of the
two trees in stature, bark, ramification and even in certain states of
the foliage.

The controversy that arose respecting the generic name of the " Big
Trees" is now a thing of the past, but the change in the specific name
here adopted may seem to non-botanical readers to require explanation.
One of the first botanists who called into question Lindley's genus
Wellingtonia was Dr. Seemann, editor of a scientific periodical named
"Bonplandia." In the issue of this publication for February, 1855,
Dr. Seemann distinctly recognised the Wellingtonia of Lindley to be a
second species of Sequoia and accordingly named it Sequoia Wellingtoniaf
Lindley's specific name gigantea having been previously taken up by
Endlicher for an undescribed form of the Redwood. § The late

* C. H. Shinn in Garden and Forest, II. 614.

f The public funeral of the Duke of Wellington in St. Paul's Cathedral had taken place
but little more than a year previously.

J Ich erkenne Wellingtonia gigantea als eine wahre Sequoia imd erlaube mir sie Sequoia
Wellingtonia zu nennen. Der alte species — Name konnte deshalb nicht beibehalten werden,
weil derselben bereits von Endlicher einem Nondescript verliehen worden ist. — Seemann in
Bonplandia loc. tit.

§ SEQUOIA GIGANTEA, Endl. — Sequoia foliis linearibus, 1| — 2" acutis subtus glauco pulveru-
lentis. Habitat in California (Dougl.). Arbor trecentorum peduni altitudinem attingens,
trunci ambitu triginta psdali. — Synopsis Coniferarum, p. 198. This was published in 1847
or five years prior to Dowel's discovery of the "Big Trees" of the Calaveras Grove.

278 SEQUOIA WELLINGTONS.

Andrew Murray, recognising the import of Seemann's announcement
adopted his name for the " Big Tree " in Lawson's " Pinetum
Britannicum " ; it is also adopted by Professor Sargent in his monu-
mental work "The Silva of North America.'''

The observation in page 272 on the restricted habitat of Sequoia
sempervirens and its significance in respect of the stability of the
species is applicable to & WelUnytonia with still greater force so far
as natural agencies are concerned. The Wellingtonia covers a much
smaller area than the Redwood, and in numbers is still infinitely behind
it ; but although seedlings are well nigh absent from the northern groves,
they are numerous in the southern forest, and thus far the perpetuation
of the species is assured. And whilst the Redwoods are being decimated
by lumber operations at an almost incredible pace, the destruction of
the Wellingtonias by this agency is proceeding at a much slower rate,
and will probably cease altogether in consequence of the greater part
of the land on which the trees stand having been taken over by the
United States Government which has stretched forth a protecting
hand over the trees, and these therefore will be preserved so long as
the law affecting them remains in force. The timber of the Wellingtonia
is inferior to that of the Redwood; it is light, soft and coarse-grained,
not strong, but very durable in contact with the soil; it is used
locally for fencing and other out-of-door carpentry.*

The immense size of the Wellingtonias naturally led to conjectures
as to the ages of some of the " full-grown giants," but which in the
first instances were enormously in excess of the reality. The earliest
approximation to the truth was obtained by Professor "Whitney, the
State Geologist of California, by counting the rings of a felled tree
in the Calaveras Grove. This tree was 24 feet in diameter exclusive
of the bark, and contained 1,255 annual rings at a section of the
trunk made 30 feet from the base. "There was a small cavity in the
centre of the tree which prevented an accurate fixing of the age ;
but making due allowance for that and for the time it required to
grow to the height at which the count was made, it will be safe to
say that this particular tree which was as large as any standing in
the grove was, in round numbers, thirteen hundred years old." The
annual rings of other trees counted by different persons gave much higher
results, but these were probably exceptional instances. Quite recently
a full-sized tree was felled in Tresno County, California, and a section
of its trunk set up in the Jesup collection of American woods in the
Museum of Natural History at New York, and another section from
the same tree, next above the Jesup section, was secured for the
British Museum of Natural History at South Kensington, and is set
up in the Central Hall; the annual rings of this section have been
carefully counted and found to number 1,335. This particular tree
was 62 feet in girth at eight feet from the ground, 300 feet high and
without branches for 200 feet of its height. From these and other
authentic data, it is not unsafe to infer that none of the existing
AVellingtonias ante-date the Christian era, or that with very few
exceptions, the oldest of them reach within five hundred years of that
epoch, and whose ages therefore do not much exceed that of the
oldest Yews in Great Britain.

* Silva of North America, X 147.

SEQUOIA WELLINGTONS. 279

The Wellingtonia has proved hardy in Great Britain and Ireland; it
grows in all ordinary soils in which water does not stagnate, but prefers
a retentive loam with a porous subsoil, in open airy places but not
exposed to piercing winds ; in dry and shallow soils its progress is much
slower and it soon loses its ornamental qualities. The average annual
rate of increase in height of the " leader shoot " varies with the locality
and its environment from 15 to 25 inches and even more in young
vigorous trees planted in good soil. But the older trees growing under
the most favourable circumstances are beginning to show a slow but
steady diminution of the annual increase in height of the trunk, so that
there is no probability of the Wellingtonia ever attaining in Great Britain
more than one-half the size and age of its gigantic Californian progenitors.
The trunk increases in thickness in proportion to its height faster than
in most other large coniferous trees, the circumference near the base being
often as much as one-fifth or one-sixth of the height; in Abietia Douglasii
the circumference of the trunk at the base is generally not more than
one-eighth or one-tenth of the height, and this proportion is not much
exceeded in other tall Conifers as Abies grandis, A. nobilis, Cedrus
Deodara, Pinus Lambertiana, etc.

The formality of the Wellingtonia as a landscape tree is well known;
as such it offers a strong contrast to the irregular contour of many
deciduous trees, and is of itself a striking object when standing alone and
feathered with branches from the base to the summit. One of the most
remarkable arboriculture! effects produced by it is the Wellingtonia
Avenue at Orton Hall, near Peterborough; this avenue extends 700 yards
in an east — west direction and is composed of two rows of trees standing
30 feet apart with an interval of 36 feet between the rows; the trees are
fairly uniform and range from 60 to 70 feet in height.* Viewed from the
west end, the avenue appears like two enormous walls of green foliage ;
the impression caused by the vista is not easily forgotten. There
is also a fine avenue of Wellingtoiiias at Linton Park, near Maidstone,
planted in 1866 ; the trees have now attained an average height
of over 60 feet with three exceptions which are about 20 feet
less ; the length of the avenue is about 400 yards and the breadth
20 yards; the trees stand 30 feet apart in the rows, the lowermost
branches of each tree on each side of it in the direction of the avenue
in most cases meeting those of the trees standing next to it.f One of
the three shorter trees differs in habit and foliage from all the others ;
the trunk is thicker in proportion to the height, the branchlets more
elongated and quite pendulous and the leaves longer and of a deeper
green. J

* Communicated by Mr. Harding, the Gardener.

t Communicated by Mr. Mackenzie, the Gardener.

£ Space admits of the enumeration of only a few of the finest Wellingtoiiias in Great Britain.
In England : The Royal Domain, Windsor ; Poltimore, and Powderham Castle near Exeter ;
Penrhyn Castle, Bangor ; Pampesford, Cambridge ; Eastnor Castle, Ledbury ; Tortworth
Court and Highnam Court, Gloucestershire ; Kenfield Hall, Canterbury ; Bicton, Devon-
shire ; Fonthill Abbey and Bowood Park. Wilts ; Revesby Abbey, Lincolnshire ; Studley
Royal, Yorkshire ; Chetwynd Park, Shropshire ; Ruxley Lodge, Esher ; Thoresby Park,
Notts. In Scotland: Murthly Castle, Castle Menzies and Scone Palace, in Perthshire;
Whittinghame, East Lothian ; Castle Leod, Ross-shire, remarkable for so high a latitude.
In Ireland : Castlewellaii, Co. Down ; Woodstock, Kilkenny ; Fota Island, Cork ; Powerscourt
and Coollattin, Wicklow ; Carton, Kildare. Upwards of ninety Wellingtonias are included in
Dunn's Census in the Conifer Conference Report, scattered over the country from Sutherlandshire
southwards, most of them described as "tine specimens/'

280 TAXODIUM.

TAXODIUM.

L. C. Richard in Aimales du Musee de Paris, XVI. 298 (1810). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 66 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 439 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen.
Plant. III. 429 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 90 (1887). Masters
in Joum. Linn. Soc. XXX. 24 (1893).

Two species are here included in Taxodium, of which T. distickum
(the type) was referred by Linnaeus and the older botanists to Cupressus
whence probably arose its popular name, the deciduous Cypress. It
was separated from Cupressus by the elder Richard* who founded upon
it the genus Taxodium now firmly established notwithstanding the
attempts of Mirbel and Spach to replace it by Schubertia of the first
named author. With the American type Brongniart joined the Chinese
Water Pine, in which he is followed by Bentham and Hooker in the
" Genera Plantarum." Endlicher, however, proposed for the Chinese
species a new genus which he called Glyptostrobus ; but the structure
of the fruit on which he chiefly relied for separating it from Taxodium
does not seem to afford characters sufficiently distinct to justify the
separation,! and the staminate flowers which were unknown to him
differ only in arrangement and position from those of f. distich-urn.
Nevertheless further investigation of fresh specimens of the Chinese
species is required to determine satisfactorily the relationship between
them ; as an opportunity of doing this is not likely to be afforded
in this country for an indefinite period, it seems better to unite
provisionally the American and Chinese species under one genus.

By some authors the Mexican Taxodium is described as a species
distinct from the northern type, but the characters adduced in support
of this course seem to be so small in value that it may be more
properly regarded as a geographical form that has slightly diverged
from the type under the influence of climate, altitude and environment.
Like other prominent members of the Taxodinese, the deciduous
Cypress lias a record reaching far back into geological ages, and at
one period it had a distribution as extensive as any of them. In
Tertiary times, and perhaps earlier, it was not only spread over Europe
from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, but also over North America
and Greenland ; that it was also once a denizen of Great Britain is
proved by the fossil remains of it found near Bournemouth and other
places ; it seems to have disappeared in the Pleiocene Age. It is
still spread over a considerable area of North America which may
be roughly stated as lying between the 39th parallel of north latitude
and the Gulf of Mexico, and extending from the Atlantic Ocean
westwards to about the 98th meridian ; it also spreads southwards into
Mexico as far as Oaxaca, attaining in that country enormous dimensions.
The name Taxodium is derived from ra£og " (the Yew), and tilog
(external appearance), from the resemblance of the foliage, as regards its
arrangement, to that of the Yew.

Louis Claude Richard and Achille Richard, father and son, were eminent French
botanists of the early part of the nineteenth century.

t See Gardeners' Chronicle, XXVI. ser. 3 (1899), p. 489, where the seeds are said to be
pendulous, not erect as in Taxodium distkhum.

TAXODIUM DISTICHUM. 281

Taxodium distichum.

•A lofty deciduous tree attaining its greatest development in Mexico,
where it towers to a height of 175 or more feet with a massive
trunk 10 — 15 feet in diameter, and individual trees are known greatly
exceeding these dimensions.* Even near its northern limit in Indiana
and Delaware it attains in places a height of 150 feet with the
diameter of the trunk 6 — 8 feet above the swollen buttresses at the
base. In general, "the trunk with furrowed dark red bark, ascends
perfectly straight from its enlarged base, forming a tapering column
80 — 90 feet high when it divides into a number of long, stout
horizontal branches which form a wide, flat, Cedar-like top." In Great
Britain, Taxodium distichum is variable in size and aspect, according to
situation ; when standing near water it is often 80 — 100 feet high ;
the trunk cylindric or very gradually tapering, rarely lobed as in
America, but projecting at the base into rounded buttresses. Bark
peeling off into longitudinal shreds exposing a reddish brown fibrous
inner cortex. Branches usually short in proportion to height of trunk,
spreading horizontally, and much ramified at the distal end; branchlets
slender with light reddish brown bark striated longitudinally. Buds
minute, ovate, acute, mostly axillary. Leaves from fifty to one hundred
on each branchlet, inserted on epidermal outgrowths and spirally
arranged, but owing to a slight twist at the base, pseudo-distichous,
linear-lanceolate, apiculate or sub-acute, 0'25 — 0*75 inch long, soft light
green with a shallow sunk line along the midrib above, keeled and
stomatiferous beneath, changing to orange-brown in autumn, and falling
off with the slender shoots on which they are inserted. Flowers
monoacious. Staminate flowers in panicles 3 — 5 inches long on short
pedicels surrounded at the base with closely imbricated, triangular,
scale-like bracts ; stamens six — eight in decussate pairs. Ovuliferons
flowers solitary, terminal or pseudo-terminal on branchlets of the previous
year, sub-globose, composed of numerous imbricated scales, bearing at
the base on the ventral face two erect ovules. Strobiles ripening in
one season, somewhat smaller than a walnut, ovoid-globose, consisting
of about nine spirally arranged, imbricated, fertile scales, and several
smaller sterile ones. Seeds three-angled, the testa produced into three
unequal lateral wings.

Taxodium. distichum, L. C. Richard in Annales du Musee de Paris, loc. cit.
supra (1810) ; and Mem. sur les Conif. 52 (1826). Brongniart, Ann. So. Nat. XXX.
182. Lambert, Genus Pinus, II. t 26. London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2481, with
figs. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 177, t. 60. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 68. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 180. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 440. Hoopes, Evergreens,
364, with fig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 180. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II. 205, with figs,
(and t. 36, T. Montezumae). Beissner, Nadelholzk. 148, with figs. Masters in
Gard. Chron. VII. ser. 3 (1890), p. 324, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc.

* There is a gigantic specimen at Santa Maria del Tule whose trunk, following the
sinuosities, has a circumference of 146 feet, or about 104 feet girth. Another tree of
historic interest stands in the garden of Chapultepec, near the city of Mexico ; it is called
the Cypress of Montezuma by Humboldt, and it is the tree under which Cortes, the Spanish
conqueror of Mexico, passed the night (La noche triste) after the defeat and expulsion of
the Spaniards from the city. It is 170 feet high, and the trunk is from 40 to 50 feet
in circumference. Both trees are figured in the Garden and Forest, the first in Vol. X
p. 125, and the second in Vol. III. p. 155.

282 TAXODIUM PISTICHUM.

XIV. 248. Sargent, Forest Trees N. Amer. 10th Census, U.S.A. IX. 183 ; and
Silva N. Amer. X. 151, t. 537. And many others.

Cupressus disticha, Linnwus, Sp. Plant. II. 1003 (1753). Miller, Diet ed. VIII.
No. 4 (1768).

Schubertia disticlia, Mirbel in Mem. Musee d'Hist. Nat. XIII. 75 (1825).
Spach, Hist. Veg. Phaner. XL 349.

Eng. Deciduous Cypress. Amer. Bald Cypress, Swamp Cypress. Fr. Cypres
chauve. Germ. Sumpfcypresse. Ital. Cipresso di Virginia.

var.— pendulum.

In Great Britain, a smaller and more slender tree than the common
form and smaller in all its parts. Leaves spirally inserted on the
deciduous branchlets which are mostly pendulous but sometimes erect
or taking an intermediate position according to soil and locality, linear-
acicular acuminate, 0'5 to O75 inch long, more or less appressed at
the base and free at the apex, and of a soft light green.*

T. distichum pendulum, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 182 (1867). Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 152. Masters in Card. Chron. XXVI. ser. 3 (1899), p. 489, with
fig. T. microphyllum, Brongniart, Annales de Sc. Nat. XXX. 182. T. sinense,
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 385. Glyptostrobus pendulus, Endliclier, Synops. 71. Hooker
fil, Bot. Mag. t. 5603. Cupressus disticha imbricaria,f Nuttall, Gen. III. 224 (1818).

Taxodium distichum is a semi-aquatic tree always found growing
in or near water or on low flat lands adjacent to rivers and lakes
that are subject to periodical inundation. In these situations,
especially in the warm climate of the southern States, the trunks
often attain an enormous diameter in comparison with their height,
the proportion between the two dimensions being often greater than
in the gigantic Sequoias of California.

"That part of the trunk which is covered with water or liable to
be by inundations, is greatly enlarged by huge, often hollow buttresses
which project in all directions. Each of these buttresses terminates
in a long branching root which extends out to a great distance, sending
our stout anchor roots deep into the ground, and many lateral roots
from which spring the ' knees ' peculiar to this tree. The ' knees '
first appear often close together as small tubercles on the upper side of
the roots ; they grow rapidly until they attain a height of from two
to ten feet, or have pushed well above the water, when they cease
growing upwards but increase in diameter. They are composed of
exceedingly light soft spongy wood and are frequently hollow in old age."!
Much discussion has taken place among American naturalists respecting
the physiological significance of these " knees," it being contended on
the one hand that " their function is to stiffen and strengthen
the roots in order that a great tree may anchor itself safely in a
yielding material," and on the other that "the service which these
peculiar growths perform is to bring air to the roots otherwise cut off
by the water which covers them during a considerable portion of the
year." Probably there is much in both assertions that is true, the
advocates of both relying on the circumstance that trees growing on

This form of leaves also occurs on erect brandies and branchlets of the common form,
and both this foim and the usual distichous leaves have been observed on branches of the
same tree.

t This is the oldest of the varietal names, but as it has not been taken up by any European
botanist and is quite unknown in British gardens, it is inexpedient to revive it.

J Garden and Forest, Vol. III. p. 2.

*

If

<D

I

284 TAXODIUM DISTICHUM.

dry ground fail to develop "knees"; in addition to which those who
contend that the supply of air to the roots is the main function, note
that " the development of the ' knees ' is always above the permanent
water-level and to a height varying with that level, and conversely,
whenever the level of permanent water rises above the top of the
' knees,' the destruction of the trees ensues."*

Taxodium disticlmm was first described by Parkinson in his Herbal
or Theatre of Plants published in 1640, but mention of it had been
made much earlier by William Strachy who visited the English
colony on James Eiver in 1610. According to Parkinson, seeds
were brought from Virginia by the younger Tradescant, which lie
himself saw " springing up very bravely " ; the deciduous Cypress was
thence one of the first American trees introduced into Great Britain.
Since Parkinson's time, mention of the tree is frequent in works
devoted to horticulture, and many beautiful specimens may be seen
throughout the country ;f but it cannot be said to thrive satisfactorily
except in proximity to water or where the soil is permanently moist,
and even then its progress may be called slow, its average yearly
growth rarely exceeding twelve inches. Nevertheless in such situations
it is one of the most beautiful of trees ; its elegant and light
feathery foliage of the softest green imparts to it an individuality
that seldom fails to elicit the admiration of the beholder.

If such is the impression made by the deciduous Cypress when
seen in its best aspects in Great Britain, very different are the
feelings of those who have penetrated the Cypress swamps in the
southern States of Xorth America especially where this tree forms
the sole ingredient of the forest. A typical feature of a Cypress
swamp is thus described by Mr. Montefiore in " Murray's Magazine,"
which is here transcribed from the " Gardeners' Chronicle," Vol. VII.
ser. (1890), p. 324.

" It forms one of the most desolate scenes I have ever beheld. I
have gazed on the black rock of St. Paul's standing almost alone in
the Indian Ocean ; upon the repellent rufous hills of St. Helena ; the
salt marshes of the delta of the Godavery ; the cruel solitude of Cape
Agulhas, but I do not think I have ever seen anything so dismal and
so desolate as the Cypress swamps of Florida. You enter them almost
without warning ; you hold your breath, as it were, while going through
them ; and the feeling of relief on leaving them is not less strong
than the strangely morbid attraction they have for you, and which
makes you visit them again and again. The Cypresses stand overhead
reaching to a great height and spread their limbs widely around, and
yet there is not a single green leaf to be seen. From bough and
branch and twig there hang long tails and festoons of Spanish moss
(TUlandma usneoides), grey in colour and looking for all the world like
the dishevelled tresses of an aged woman. Every way you look these

""Other coniferous trees growing near water have been observed to develop "knees,"
as the Pond Pine (Pi/ius rigida var. seroti/ia), and the Redwood (Sequoia sempermrens).
t Notably at Syon House, Middlesex.

TAXODIUM DISTICHUM. 285

sad grey hairs are either hanging listlessly or swinging mournfully in
the breeze. The water, which is often four to five feet deep,* even
in the paths, if paths they may be called, which are selected by your
guide, is coloured a dark reddish brown by the quantity of tannin
exhaled by the spongy mass of vegetation which everywhere underlies-
it. This dark muddy water, silent and motionless save where your
party is churning it into something .like frothy beer, is made even
more dismal by its perfect reflection of the ghostly desolation overhead.
It reproduces with startling vividness the long white trunks of the
Cypress trees and the tangled grey hairs of the Spanish moss. Now
and again the harsh piping cry of some lonely water-bird accentuates
the stillness ; here and there the deadly mocassin coils about the
spreading roots, black and grimy with the stagnant water, and adds by
its very movement to the uncanny, desperate desolation of it all."
The wood of Taxodium disticlmm is light, soft, straight-grained,,
easily worked and very durable in contact with the soil. It is
largely manufactured into lumber and used for construction, railway-
ties, posts, fencing, etc.f The manufacture of Cypress shingle has
been greatly on the increa.se for some years past, especially since
the supply of timber afforded by the useful Pines has been on the
decrease owing to the gradual exhaustion of the forests. The excess
of moisture in which it flourishes and its comparatively difficult
accessibility have hitherto preserved the deciduous Cypress both from
fire and the axe, but the saw-mill is now being established in many
districts and the work of destruction is proceeding apace.

Under cultivation Taxodium distiehum has a tendency to sport in the
seed beds, and many varieties have thence at different times been selected
and named by horticulturists chiefly in reference to the habit of the
plants. J But it is now well known that although the deciduous Cypress
in its maturity presents considerable diversity as regards habit, the
striking differences observed in young plants gradually diminish with age,
and that the trees as they grow older approach more and more nearly to-
a general type in which individual differences are too insignificant to call
for a separate designation. By far the most distinct of the varieties of
Taxodium distiehum is that described above as pendulum. It is a
"juvenile" (Jugendform) of American origin which must have been
introduced into this country at an early date, as a small tree long since.
dead was in the Royal Gardens at Kew in the time of the elder Aiton,
but of whose origin nothing was known. It appears to have been first
noticed as a native American plant by Xuttall in the early part of the
nineteenth century ; it is not uncommon in South Carolina and Florida
where it is a smaller tree than the common form. Although a damp
soil is the most suitable for it, it thrives in drier ground better than
the common form.

* The depth of water in the southern swamps prevents natural reproduction of the
deciduous Cypress ; the seed cannot germinate and there are no young trees, and compara-
tively few small ones to replace the old ones. — Silva of North America, X. 153.

t Sargent, Woods of the United States, p. 112.

£ London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2481, gives the names and description
of five of these forms ; Carriere, Traite General des Coniferes, ed. II. 181 — 185, describes
fifteen varieties ; and Beissner, Nadelholzkunde, 152—154, has transcribed most of them.

286 SCIADOPITYS.

Taxodium heterophyllum.

A low tree or shrub inhabiting marshy places in various parts of China.
In Great Britain a low, much-branched shrub of irregular outline. Bark
of branchlets chestnut-brown, peeling off in thin scales exposing a light
orange-brown inner cortex ; leaf-bearing branchlets deciduous, pseudo-
distichous, opposite or alternate, 2 — 4 inches long.* Leaves dimorphic,
of the sterile branches pseudo-distichous, close-set, twenty — forty or more
on each branchlet, linear-lanceolate, sub-acute, " 0*25 — 0*5 inch long, the
longer leaves at the middle, gradually shorter towards the base and apex,
soft light green with an obscure median line above, paler, scarcely
glaucescent beneath ; of the fertile branches t small, subulate, adnate at
the base, free at the apex. Staininate flowers solitary and terminal on
lateral branchlets, sub-globose and consisting (apparently) of four — six
anthers in decussate pairs. Strobiles terminal on short lateral branchlets,
ellipsoid-globose, inclining to obovoid or clavate, about 0'75 inch long,
composed of several imbricated, spirally arranged scales of obovate-cuneate
shape and unequal size, thickened upwards and minutely tuberculated at
the apical margin with a blunt mucro below. Seeds obscurely winged.

Taxodiiun heterophyllum, Brongniart in Ann. des Sc. Nat. ser. I. Vol. XXX.
184 (1833). Bentham in Gen. Plant. III. 429. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 154.

Glyptostrobus heterophyllus, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 69 (1847). Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 189. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 438. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 126. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 210.

Eng. Chinese Water Pine. Fr. Taxodier nucif ere. Germ. Chinesische Sumpf-Cypresse.

Not much is known respecting the geographical distribution of
Taxodium heterophyllum beyond the simple fact that it is a native of
China j the localities given with herbarium specimens are few and
confined to two or three of the eastern provinces. It first became
known to science through Lord Macartney's mission to China (1792 —
1795), and is supposed to have been introduced to the Eoyal Gardens
at Kew in 1804 by William Kerr. The few plants at present existing
in Great Britain were probably introduced by Eobert Fortune who
met with it either wild or in cultivation in Foo-chow.

SCIADOPITYS.

Siebold and Zuccarmi, Fl. Jap. II. 1, tt. 101, 102 (1842). Endlicher, Synops. Conif.
198 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 435 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant.
III. 437 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 84 (1887). Masters in
Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 21 (1893).

A singular moiiotypic genus of much interest in its scientific import,
of which the existing species is endemic only in Japan, where it is
confined, so far as at present known, to one district. The remoteness
of its affinity, comparatively speaking, to any other genus, its peculiar
foliation imparting to it an aspect unlike that of any other tree, and
its restricted habitat, are all significant facts in the present . condition
of Sciadopitys that seem to point to an ancestry far more remote than

* Branch and branchlets with foliage communicated from Castlewellan, Co. Down, by the
Earl of Annesley.

t As seen in herbarium specimens.

SCIADOPITYS VERTICILLATA.

287

that of most other Conifers, but of which no trace whatever has been
discovered. Like the Gingko it stands alone amidst the existing vege-
tation, so that if the hypothesis of its great antiquity has any real
foundation, a whole series of forms which once connected it with other
types, must have been swept away, leaving the Sciadopitys as the
sole survivor of a phase of vegetation long since extinct.

The generic characters will be understood from the description of
the species that follows. The Sciadopitys lias obtained in Japan a
popular name signifying the Umbrella Pine,* from the circumstance of
the phylloid shoots which function as leaves, spreading out like the
ribs of an umbrella. The scientific name is a literal translation of it,
and is formed from oW^, wmdo? (a parasol), and TTLTUQ (the pine tree).

Sciadopitys verticillata.

A tree of variable height, at its greatest development upwards of 1(
feet high, with a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter near the ground, and wil

Fig. 86. 1, Staminate flowers of Sauulopitys ecrtieUlata

nat. size. '2, Anther, front view. 3, Side view.

4, Pollen grains, enlarged.

100

ground, and with
a narrow, compact, pyra-
midal crown. Bark greyish
brown, fissured and peeling
off in irregular flakes,
exposing a reddish brown
inner cortex. Branches
numerous, sub-verticillate
or scattered, spreading
horizontally. Branchlets
short, sub-verticillate or
alternate ; the bark pale
brown, fissured into

narrow longitudinal plates that terminate in a small conical out-
growth. Buds sometimes in pairs on the fertile branchlets, from
one of which is developed either the £ or $ flower, dome-
shaped, pale yellowish brown, the perulse ovate or ovate-elliptic, closely
imbricated. Leaves scale-like, of deltoid shape and soon falling off ;
from the axils of these arise the phylloid shoots or cladodes which
perform the functions of true leaves ; they are produced in whorls of
twenty — thirty each, and vary much in length and size according to
the age and condition of the tree, usually from 2 to 4 inches long,
• •marginate, with a median furrow on both sides, that on the under side
broader and deeper than that above, very coriaceous in texture, dark
glossy green above, paler beneath. Staminate flowers in dense heads
at the apex of short branchlets, and surrounded at the base by a few
.short involucral bracts, each flower globose, about 0*25 inch in diameter, the
anthers on short filaments inserted on a fleshy axis, two-lobed with vertical
dehiscence. Ovuliferous flowers terminal and solitary, sub-cylindric,
about an inch long, composed of rhomboidal-cuneate, imbricated scales,
>carcely thickened beyond the middle, reflexed at the apex and spirally
arranged around the axis, each scale bearing a partially concrescent
bract and seven — nine anatropous ovules placed in a transverse series

* Koya-nuiki, the name quoted iitfi'(t} means the Pine from Mount Koya.

288

SCIADOPITYS VERTICILLATA.

Fig. 87 Brauchlets with foliage (pliyllodes) of Sciadopitys vertidllata.
1, reduced. 2, nat. size.

SCIADOPITYS YERTICILLATA. 289

along the inner face. Strobiles cylindric, obtuse, 2 — 4 inches long
and 1*25 — 2'5 inches in diameter, the scales large in proportion to the
size of the cone. Seeds compressed with a small membraneous wing.

Sciadopitys verticillata, Siebold and Zuccarini, loc. cit. supra. Liudley in Gard.
Chron. 1862, pp. 22, 360, with fig. Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 109, with
figs. Van Houtte, Flore des Serres, XIV. t. 1483. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 232.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 435 Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 376. Masters in Journ.
Bot. XXII. (1884), p. 97; Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 502; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
XIV. 70. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 203, with fig.

Taxus verticillata, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 276 (1784).

Eng. Umbrella Pine. Fr. Sapin a Parasol. Germ. Japanische Schirmtanne.
Ital. II pino parasole. Jap. Koya-maki.

This remarkable tree first became known to Europeans through the
Swedish botanist, Thunberg, who saw it in cultivation during his
mission to Japan, 1775 — 1776. Although possessed of considerable
botanical knowledge for that period, Thunberg, curiously enough,
believed it to be a species of Yew, and he accordingly referred it to
the genus Taxus in his " Flora japonica " published a few years after his
return to Europe, a circumstance that caused it to be generally
overlooked by botanists till Siebold, half a century later, with better
opportunities of observing it, determined its true characters and founded
upon it the genus Sciadopitys. The publication of Siebold's description
with excellent figures in 1842, attracted much attention, and a general
desire was felt among botanists that so remarkable a tree should be
introduced into European gardens, a wish that was not destined to
be satisfied so long as Japan remained closed against foreigners.
Nevertheless, through the footing the Dutch had gained in the country,
many Japanese plants found their way into the Botanic garden
established by them at Buitenzorg in Java, and among these was
the Sciadopitys, whence Thomas Lobb while collecting for the Veitchian
firm obtained the first plant that reached England alive ; it arrived
at the Exeter nursery in 1853 in very feeble health, and all
attempts to restore it proved fruitless. A few years later the great
political changes in Japan began, and in 1861 Mr. John Gould Veitch
brought home cones and seeds of the Sciadopitys gathered in its
native country, and from these most of the oldest specimens growing
in Europe were raised. About the same time or shortly afterwards,
Mr. Eobert Fortune sent seeds to Mr. Standish at Ascot.

The Sciadopitys has now been in our midst more than forty years,
but large specimens are still comparatively rare. Complaints have arisen
in many places that it will not grow, whence it is evident that its
requirements have not been met, and yet these may be thus briefly
formulated — "Where the Rhododendron thrives, the Sciadopitys will
grow." This means that the soil in which the Sciadopitys is planted must be
sufficiently retentive to afford a constant supply of moisture to the roots
during the growing season ; where this supply is intermittent, that is to say
— when the Sciadopitys is planted in a soil that is sometimes dry and
sometimes wet according to the changes of weather, it does not thrive,
u

290

SCIADOPITYS VERTICILLATA.

The following sketch of its present condition in its native country
is from the pen of one of the most eminent living authorities on
Forestry and Arboriculture : —

" The Sciadopitys was for a long time known only from a few
individuals cultivated in temple gardens and from the grove on the
hill in Kiushiu where the ancient monastery town of Koya stands, to
which the Sciadopitys owes one of its Japanese names, Koya-maki.
There is said to be a remarkable grove of these trees here which
was once supposed to be the original home of the species, but the best
authorities now agree that they were originally planted by the monks.
In the province of Mino on the Nakasendo below Nakatsu-gawa, we saw
young plants of Sciadopitys in all the roadside gardens, a pretty sure
indication in this remote region that the tree was growing in the woods
not very far off, and here for the next two or three
days we saw it sending up its narrow pyramidal heads
above the Pines and other trees of the forest, growing,
as we thought, quite naturally, and leading us to
believe that we had found the true home of this
tree, although in a country like Japan which has
been densely populated for centuries and in which
transplanting has been a recognised industry for more
than a thousand years, it is not easy to determine
whether a forest has been
planted by man or not. But
whether these trees had been
planted or whether they were
the offspring of trees brought
from some other region or
the indigenous inhabitants of
the forest, the Sciadopitys
grows on the mountains of
Mino in countless thousands,
often rising with a tall straight
trunk to the height of nearly
100 feet, and remarkable in
its narrow compact pyramidal
head of dark and lustrous
foliage. The wood, which is
nearly white, strong and
straight-grained, is a regular
article of commerce in this

part of Japan, and from Xakatsu-gawa is floated in rafts down the
Kisiogaiva to Osaka where it is said to be chiefly consumed. Except
in the neighbourhood of Nakatsu-gawa the Sciadopitys is not very much
cultivated as a garden plant in Japan; and it is not often found in
old gardens except in the immediate neighbourhood of temples where
picturesque old specimens may occasionally be seen occupying a place
of honour within the fence which encloses the principal building,
and carefully protected by low stone railings. There is a remarkable
specimen with pendulous branches standing before one of the mortuary
temples in the Shiba Park in Tokio."*

::~ 0. S. Sargent, Forest Flora of Japan, p. 77.

Fig. 88. Sciadopitys verticillata in the Shiba Park, Tokio.

CUNNINGHAMIA. 291

TRIBE-ARAUCARINE^.

Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Staminate flowers umbellate or
solitary, terminal or axillary. Stamens mostly pendulous and free, with
3 — 12 or more longitudinally dehiscent anther cells. Cones with the
scales spirally arranged, in the two-fold structure of which the bract
greatly predominates ; the ovuliferous scale confluent and reduced to an
inconspicuous cellular projection. Seeds pendulous, free or concrescent
with the scale.

Flowers monoecious.

Staminate flowers umbellate and terminal.

Seeds 3, pendulous and free 11. — Cunninghamia.

Staminate flowers solitary and axillary.

Seeds solitary, free - - 12. — Agathis.
Flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious.
Staminate flowers solitary or clustered.

Seeds solitary, concrescent with the scale - 13. — Araucaria.

CUNNINGHAMIA.

Robert Brown ex L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 80, t. 18 (1826). Endlicher,
Syiiops. Conif. 193 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 432 (1868). Bentham and
Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 435. Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 85 (1887).
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 25 (1893).

A monotypic genus founded by Dr. Kobert Brown in 1826 upon an
herbarium specimen brought from China by Sir George Staunton in
1795, which Lambert had figured and described under the name of
Pinus lanceolata, a genus so evidently unsuited for its reception that
E. A. Salisbury, so early as 1807; proposed a new genus for it which
he named Belis. This, however, was not taken up on account of its
close resemblance to Bellis used for the Daisies, and Brown's name,
given in compliment to James Cunningham, the original discoverer of
this remarkable tree, has been universally adopted.

The botanical affinity of the Cunninghamia remained a long time
doubtful. Endlicher placed it in the Abietineae with Athrotaxis and
Sequoia ; Parlatore removed it to the Taxodinese in which he is followed
by Eichler ; Bentham and Hooker, however, joined it with Araucaria and
Agathis in which it agrees in the bracts of the ovuliferous flowers being
in continuous series with the leaves, and its cones in like manner being
chiefly composed of bracts. Moreover, in the subordinate characters of
foliage, branching and general habit, the Cunninghamia approaches more
closely the Araucarias (section Colymbea) than any other genus.

The Cunninghamia is of geological antiquity. Remains of cones and
foliage closely resembling those of the living species have been found in
the lower Tertiary strata.

292 CUNNINGHAMI A SINENSIS.

Cunninghamia sinensis.

A medium-sized tree, said to attain a height of 40 — 50 feet in its--
native country, but in the south of Europe seldom exceeding 30 — 35 feet.
Branches at first pseudo-verticillate, subsequently becoming very irregular
in old trees ; ramification distichous and opposite, bark of branchlets
green like the leaves. Leaves persistent five — seven years, spirally
arranged, but twisted obliquely at the base so as to spread laterally in
two opposite directions, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, 1 — 2 inches-
long with thickened midrib and margins, pale lustrous green above,
glaucous beneath. Flowers monoecious on different branches, terminal or
pseudo-terminal. Staminate flowers densely umbellate, surrounded at the
base by numerous triangular, serrulated and closely imbricated involucral
bracts ; stamens spirally crowded, with a short filament and suborbicular
connective from which depend three longitudinally dehiscent anther cells.
Cones erect, solitary or clustered at or near the end of branchlets of the
preceding year, ovoid-globose, 1—1 '5 inch in diameter, persistent after
the fall of the seeds, composed chiefly of spirally arranged bracts-
"wholly confluent with the seed scale which is reduced to a mere cellular
projection with a vascular connective between the central bundle of the
bract ; from this placenta! process hang three compressed seeds, each with
a membranous wing."*

Cunninghamia sinensis, Robert Brown ex L. C. Richard, loc. cit. supra.
London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2445, with figs. Siebold and Zuccarini,
Fl. Jap. II. 7, tt. 103, 104. Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 116, with figs.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 228. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 76. Beissneiv
Nadelholzk. 196, with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 203.

C. lanceolata, Hooker, W. Bot. Mag. t. 2743 (1827).

Pinus lanceolata, Lambert, Genns Finns, I. t. 34 (1803).

Belis jacnlifolia, Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. VIII. 315 (1807).

Cunninghamia sinensis is a native of southern China where it has.
been seen in several localities by botanical travellers, and quite
recently by Dr. Henry in the province of Yim-nan,f but the extent
of its distribution is very imperfectly known. It was originally
discovered by James Cunningham in the early part of the eighteenth
century, but scarcely anything was known of it till herbarium
specimens were brought from China by Sir George Staunton in 1795.
It was introduced in 1804 by William Kerr.j

The Cunninghamia was for some years after its introduction treated
as a greenhouse plant, and in one of the houses in the Botanic Garden
at Glasgow its staminate flowers were produced for the first time in 1826..
In 1816 a plant was turned out into a sheltered part of the grounds-
at Claremoiit, where it continued to live without protection during the
winter ; this course was followed in other places, so- that some old
trees are still to be found scattered over the southern counties. At
its best the Cunninghamia is a very distinct tree of Araucaria-like aspect,
but the foliage of more than one year's standing is invariably more or
less discoloured, probably from a combination of causes, which has-
proved a drawback to its - use as an ornamental tree in this country.

* Masters in Journal of the Linuean Society, loc. cit. supra*
t Kew Bulletin (1897), p. 409. % See page 170..

AGATHIS AUSTKALIS. 293

AGATHIS.

Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. VIII. 311, t. 15 (1807). Bentham and Hooker, Gen.
Plant. III. 436 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 66 (1887).
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 25 (1893). Dammara, Lambert, Genus Pinus, II. t. 6.
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 188.

A genus of evergreen trees closely allied to Araucaria, and
including about ten species that are distributed through the Malay
Archipelago, the islands of the south Pacific Ocean, eastern tropical
Australia arid New Zealand. Inhabiting only tropical and sub-tropical
regions, the species can have no place in the British Pinetum, nor
would notice of the genus be taken in this place but for the great
importance, in an economic sense, of Agathis australis, the species
indigenous to New Zealand, which is one of the best timber and
resin-producing trees known. The following description of it and
the subjoined particulars are derived wholly from Kirk's " Forest
Flora of New Zealand."

Agathis australis.

A lofty tree with a straight trunk 80 — 100 or more feet high, and
4 — 8 feet in diameter, free of branches for the greater part of the
height, and when standing alone with a broad spreading head. Bark
of trunk thick and very resinous, cinereous-brown, fissured into large
flat plates. Branches spreading, somewhat distant, much ramified at
the distal end. Leaves persistent several years ; on young trees
narrowly lanceolate, acute, 1 — -3 inches long, spreading, distant, very
thick and coriaceous ; on adult trees oblong or obovate-oblong, close-
set, bright lustrous green. Staminate flowers axillary, cylindric, obtuse,
1 — 1*5 inch long ; stamens spirally crowded, with a peltate connective
bearing ten — twelve pendulous anther cells. Ovuliferous flowers
terminal on short lateral branchlets, composed of numerous broadly
•obovate, imbricated scales each bearing a solitary inverted ovule at the
base on the ventral side. Cones globose, about 2 inches in diameter;
scales ligneous ; seeds with a small membranous wing.

Agathis australis, Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. loc. cit. supra. Kirk, Forest
Fl. N. Zeal. 143, tt. 79—81.

Dammara australis, Lambert, Genus Pinus, II. t. 6 (1828). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2488, with fig. Hooker fil, Handb. N. Zeal. Fl. 252. Carriers,
in Van Houtte's More des Serres, XI. 75, with tig. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr, XVI.
376. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II, 108.

Podocarpus zamisefolia, A. Richard, Fl. N. Zeal. 231.

N. Zeal, vernacular, Kauri Pine.

Agathis australis at the present time has but a limited range in
New Zealand ; with the exception of a few isolated trees on the
west coast, it is confined to the area in the North Island lying
between the North Cape and the 38th parallel of south latitude.
It usually forms large groves mixed with other trees ; pure forests
are rare and of small extent. The superb Kauri forests are, however,

294 ARAUCARIA.

fast disappearing ;. those that formerly existed on the banks of the
Manukon river have already been exhausted of all the available
timber, and a similar fate awaits those that remain. The process
of destruction is often hastened by frequent forest tires by which
thousands of the trees perish annually.

The Kauri Pine is the monarch of the New Zealand forest ; no
other timber tree in the colony is applied to so many and varied
uses, and its resinous products are scarcely surpassed in value by those
of any other coniferous tree. Kauri timber varies in colour from
yellowish white to brown ; it is' firm, straight in grain and of great
strength, durability and elasticity ; it is used for every purpose for
which timber is in request; for building, heavy framework, weather-
boarding, bridges, railway-ties, telegraph-posts, every description of
joinery and decorative fittings both for public buildings and for private
dwellings. The sapwood is excessively charged with resin and possesses
great heating power. Kauri Gum, its most valued resinous product,
has been already adverted to in page 96.

AEAUCAEIA.

Jussieu, Gen. Plant. 413 (1789). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 184 (1847). Parlatore. D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 369 (1868). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 437 (1881). Eichler in
Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fani. 67 (1887). Masters in Jouru. Linn. Soc. XXX. 26 (1893).

The Araucarias are massive evergreen trees with lofty trunks from
which the branches are produced in whorls of four to eight, five
being the predominant number. During the earlier period of growth
the branch.es of most of the species with subulate (awl-shaped) leaves
are strictly horizontal and very regularly ramified, the lateral
branchlets being evenly placed, gradually shorter from the base to
the apex and more or less decurved, rarely rigid and on one plane.
This formal but elegant habit renders them useful subjects for the
decoration of large conservatories, public halls, etc. In their old age
the Araucarias become denuded of the lower branches and have
usually flattened or rounded tops of which the branches are irregu-
larly developed and sparsely furnished with branchlets and foliage ;
in this state the aspect of the trees is described as singular and
even grotesque, an effect which is greatly intensified in A. imbricata
by its large hedgehog-like cones with which the fertile old trees are
often loaded.

The most obvious generic characters are —

Flowers dioecious, rarely monoecious, lateral or terminal. Staminate
flowers in a cone-like or cyliudric mass and consisting of numerous
spirally crowded and imbricated stamens, each with six — twenty
anther-cells in two series, the dehisceuce of which is longitudinal.

Ovuliferous flowers clavate or sub-globose, composed of many spirally
arranged scales in continuous series with the foliage leaves, each bearing
a single pendulous ovule that ultimately becomes confluent with the scale.

ARAUCARIA. 295

Cones large, globose, the scales closely imbricated, the margins of which
are usually attenuated into wings at the base, thickened and woody at
the apex and enclosing a single flattened wingless seed adnate to the
scale at the base.

The Araucarias are not absolutely dioecious, probably far from it.
There is a tree of A. imbricata at Bicton in Devonshire that has
frequently borne both staminate and ovuliferous flowers ; another tree at
South Lytchctt in Dorsetshire showed the same peculiarity until it was
unfortunately uprooted by the great gale of March 3rd, 1897, and other
instances have also been recorded. The difference in the sex of the trees
was generally believed to be the cause of the difference in aspect and
habit which occurs so frequently in A. imbricata and to some extent in
other species as A. Rulei and A. excelsa ; but the Araucarias are now
known to be polymorphous irrespective of sex.

The genus is restricted to a comparatively limited area in the
southern hemisphere, viz., temperate South America, eastern Australia,
and a few of the islands in the south Pacific Ocean. The South
American species form in places pure forests of considerable extent ;
the Australian species, from climatic causes, are confined to districts
in the neighbourhood of the coast ; and the insular species are
restricted for the most part to a single island or small group of
islands, and exist in numbers so few that they appear to be the last
relics of a race that is passing away. Of the ten or twelve species
known to science, the two endemic in South America and one in
Australia are distinguished from the others by a difference in their
foliage, cones and in some other characteristics ; the Araucarias
therefore admit of a division into two sections thus : —

COLYMBEA. Leaves relatively large, flattened, broad at the base and
more or less embracing the stem, acuminate and pungent. Cones among
the largest in the Order, the scales of which are scarcely winged and
the seeds almost destitute of a basilar appendage.

EUTASSA. Leaves linear-subulate, obscurely four-angled, compressed,
spirally arranged and spreading or falcately curved from all sides of their
axis. Cones relatively small, the scales broadly winged and the seeds
with a distinct basilar appendage.*

The economic value of the Araucarias has not yet been much
developed. The timber of A. imbricata where accessible, is used in
southern Chile for building and other purposes ; the wood is yellowish,
beautifully veined and admits of a fine polish; the wood of A. Bidivilh
is close-grained and durable, and much used in Queensland for building.

* A further distinction between the two sections has been referred to the mode of
germination of the seeds which is said to be hypogeal or epigeal, according as the
cotyledons are developed beneath or above the soil, the former being common to the
broad-leaved (Colymbea) section, and the latter to the narrow-leaved (Eutassa) section. It
is, however, doubtful whether the distinction so set up has the full significance that has
been attached to it ; instances have been observed in which the process of germination of
the seeds of species included in one section differ inter se almost as much as that by
which the two sections are distinguished. But further observation extended to all the
species is still wanting.

Araucaria imbricata at Dropmore.

ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA. 297

The secretions are copious and are applied to various uses in the
region in which the trees are native ; the fragrant resin that exudes
from the trunk of A. brasttiensis is mixed with wax for making
candles ; the whitish resin of A. imbricata is used by the Chilians
much in the manner of mediaeval pharmacy, as a remedy for bruises,
wounds, etc y and when dry as a mitigant of pain, * The seeds or
" nuts " of all the large -coned species are edible and are consumed in
great quantities by the poorer inhabitants of the districts in which
these trees abound. Only one species is sufficiently hardy for the
climate of Great Britain, but most of the others are cultivated in a
young state in glass structures.

The remains of ancestral forms of Araucaria have been discovered
in Jurassic strata ; an enormous antiquity must thence be assigned to
the race. The remains consist of entire cones, cone-scales and portions
of leafy cone-bearing branches. Remains have also been found in the
Oolite of Yorkshire and in the Eocene formations both of England and
France ; f the Araucarias therefore must have been widely distributed
over the globe before they receded to their present narrow limits.

The name Araucaria is derived from Arauco, a province of southern
Chile, the habitat of the type or earliest discovered species.

Araucaria imbricata.

A lofty tree, 70 — 100 or more feet high, with a trunk 5 — 7 feet in
diameter near the ground, and usually with a dome-shaped head of
spreading branches ; the bark of the trunk fissured in a peculiar
manner which has been described as "a child's puzzle of knobby slabs
of different sizes with five or six decided sides to each, and fitted
together with the neatness of a honey-comb." 1 In Great Britain a
massive tree of singularly distinct aspect, with a sub-cylindric or
scarcely tapering trunk covered with roughish reddish brown bark with
transverse narrow ridges marking the position of the fallen leaves.
Primary branches in pseudo-whorls of four — six and ramified distichous! y,
the lowermost more or less procumbent, and the uppermost gently
curved upwards. Leaves persistent twelve — fifteen or more years,
spirally crowded and imbricated, ovate-lanceolate, 1 — 1'5 inch long,
rigid and pungent, slightly concave on the ventral side, smooth, bright
lustrous green and stomatiferous on both sides. Staminate flowers
solitary or in clusters of two — five, sub-cylindric, 3 — 5 inches long, the
stamens with a narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, recurved connective
bearing six — nine or more anther-cells. Cones solitary, sub-spherical,
broader at the base than at the apex, 4 — 6 or more inches in diameter,
the concrescent bract and scale wedge-shaped, prolonged at the apex

* Los campesinos administran la resina en parches contra las contusiones y ulceras
putridas ; cicatriza las heridas recientes ; mitiga los dolores de cabeza producidos de
fluxiones y jaqueca, etc. — Claudio Gay, Historia de Chile, V. 416.

t It is an interesting fact that an Araucaria closely resembling the beautiful A. excelsa
of Norfolk Island, once inhabited this country ; fossil remains of it have been found in
Dorsetshire and Somersetshire.

J The late Miss Marianne North ex W. B. Hcmslev in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885),
p. 276.

298 ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA.

into a lanceolate, acuminate, tail-like appendage nearly an inch long,

and bearing one seed that is adnate to the scale. Seeds large,

wingless, obscurely four-angled, about an inch long with a thick
chestnut-brown testa.

Araucaria imbricata, PaA-on in Mem. Acad. Madr. I. 197 (1795). Lambert,
Genus Pimis, II. 9, t. 4 (1824). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2432, with figs.
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 186. Gay, Fl. Chil. V. 415. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn,
103, tt. 55, 56. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 39. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 99, tt. 55,
56. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 199, with figs. Masters in Gard. Chron. VII. ser. 3
(1890), p. 587, with figs. ; and Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 198.

Dombeya chilensis, Lamarck, Diet. II. 301 (1786).*

Colymbea imbricata, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 598.

Eng. Chile Pine, Monkey Puzzle. Germ. Chileiiische Araukarie, Schmucktahne.

Fig. 89. Staminate flower of Aravcaria imbrimta.
Nat. size.

The native home of Araucaria imbricata is in southern Chile ;
the precise limits of its distribution are not accurately known, but
may be stated approximately to be between the 38th and 45th
parallels of south latitude. In the northern portion of its range,
it is confined to the higher western slopes of the Andes, always in
proximity to the snow-line, forming a belt of forest immediately
below it. Further south it descends lower down, and the area over
which it is spread gradually widens till its southern limit is reached
where it approaches the Pacific coast.

* Lamarck's generic name, Dombeya, bad been previously taken up for a group of
Sterculiaceous shrubs chiefly African.

ARAUCARIA 1MBR1CATA.

299

Araucaria imbricata was discovered in 1780 by Don Francisco
Dendariarena, a Spaniard who was at that time officially employed to
ascertain if any timber suitable for ship-building was procurable in
southern Chile. It was also found very shortly afterwards by
Drs. Ruiz and Pavon, two Spanish botanists who went out to Peru in
1777 to investigate the forests of that country, with the special
object of collecting information respecting the Cinchona or Peruvian
Bark, and who subsequently extended their explorations further south.
They were accompanied by a French gentleman named Dombey, but
he returned to Europe after a short stay, and before Ruiz and Pavon
sailed for Chile. It was to him that Ruiz and Pavon sent the
first dried specimens of the Araucaria received in Europe, and by him

these were submitted to the
eminent botanist, Lamarck, who
named the tree Dombey a chil-
ensis, and thus Dombey's name
became associated with the
synonymy of the tree. In
1795, Captain Vancouver reached
the coast of Chile, when Mr.
Archibald Menzies, who accom-
panied him in the capacity of
botanist, procured some cones
and seeds, and also some young
plants, which he succeeded in
bringing home alive. He pre-
sented these to Sir Joseph
Banks, who planted one in his
own garden, and sent the others
to the Royal Gardens at Kew,
where they were at first kept
in a greenhouse. About the
year 1808 one of them was
planted out on what is now
called Lawn L, where for
many years it grew slowly, but
was once a superb tree ;
eventually it lingered on as
ma imbricata. a mere botanical curiosity till
the autumn of 1892, when it
died.*

For many years after Menzies' introduction Araucaria imbricata
continued to be very scarce in England; seeds could not be obtained,
and the small quantity that reached this country from time to time,
failed to germinate. It was not till 1844 that William Lobb, while
collecting in South America for the Yeitchian firm, succeeded in
penetrating the Araucaria forests, and brought home the first large
supply of seed received in England, and from which very many of the
fine - specimens now growing in various parts of the country originated.
It is worthy of note that Araucaria imbricata is the only true
coniferous tree inhabiting the southern hemisphere that has attained a

Fig. 90. Ovuliferous flower of A
Nat. size.

* Kew Bulletin, 1893, p. 24.

300 ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA.

timber-like size in the open ground in Great Britain. Its power of
endurance was severely tested in the memorable winter of 1860 — 1861,
when many fine trees were killed, but the casualties occurred under
such a variety of circumstances, that it is difficult, if not impossible,
to deduce any special law affecting the hardiness of the tree. The
following conditions are essential to securing fine free-growing specimens: —
The soil must have a thorough drainage, either natural or artificial, to
prevent the stagnation of water at the roots ; the trees should be
planted in full exposure to sun and air, and if in an elevated situation
so much the better, a free open space being more conducive to their
progress and wrell being than a confined and sheltered one. In very
dry soils the Araucaria lives, but it loses its lower branches at an
early age ; the branches are slender and frequently become flaccid, and
the plant has a thin starved appearance ; it also loses its lower branches
early when in a confined space or in contact with other trees or
shrubs, or when its roots penetrate an ungenial sub-soil; it languishes
if within the influence of the smoke of towns ; and the foliage takes
a yellowish sickly tint if the roots enter and remain in stagnant water
or water-logged soil for a lengthened period. On the western slopes
of the Chilian Andes, the native home of the Araucaria, the rainfall
is far more copious than in England, and the trees are also within
the influence of the southern region of prevalent westerly winds blowing
across the Pacific Ocean. Hence it is that in Great Britain they
thrive best where the rainfall is greatest, and the soil porous enough
to carry off the water freely.

The aspect of Araucaria imbricata is dark and massive, and large
healthy specimens furnished with tiers of branches from the ground to
the summit are strangely impressive. Whether solitary or planted in
avenues it is the most effective of all Conifers for contrast. The
Araucaria avenue at Bicton belonging to the Hon. Mark Eolle
presents one of the most striking and remarkable arboricultural effects
that can be seen in this country. Isolated specimens, imposing as they
are, convey but a faint conception of the vista proclucecl by a double
row of these strangely wonderful trees with their dark plexus of
branches and rigid bristling foliage extending for a distance of 500 yards
in straight unbroken lines. The trees are fifty in number, twenty-five
on each side, those on the one side standing precisely opposite those
on the other, the interval between every two trees being 63 feet in
this direction, and 54 feet in the rows. The height of the trees
varies a little, the tallest being (at the present time, 1900) about
55 feet, and the shortest not less than 30 feet. A few have cast off
their lowest tiers of branches, and there are two or three whose trunks
are free of branches to nearly one-third of their height ; the uniformity
is thus slightly but not materially impaired. The circumference of
the trunks at three feet from the ground ranges from 5 to 7 feet; the
length of the lower branches of the most spreading tree is about
20 feet.

A short avenue at Poltimore, near Exeter, is well marked by the
evenness of growth and the healthy appearance of the trees composing it;
and one of greater extent at Murthly in Perthshire forms a remarkable
feature amidst its surroundings. The enumeration of even a fractional
part of the number of fine Araucarias dispersed over Great Britain from
Sutherland to Cornwall and over Ireland would occupy more space than

302 ARAUCARIA BIDWILLI.

can be spared; nevertheless, mention should be made of some of the larger
trees of known repute, and of these the first place must be given to
the superb specimen at Dropmore, the subject of the illustration and
still the finest in the country. Closely approaching it in dimensions " are
trees at Tortworth Court, Gloucestershire ; Trevarrick, Cornwall ; Revesby
Abbey, Lincolnshire ; Howick Hall, Northumberland ; Chaddlewood, south
Devon ; Piltdown, Sussex ; Thornhill Park, Hants ; Wansfell Holme,
Cumberland; Drumlanrig, Dumfries-shire; Dunkeld, Perthshire ; Cultoquhey,
Dupplin Castle and Keir House in the same county ; Gordon Castle,
Morayshire ; Castlewellan, Co. Down ; Fota Island, Cork ; Hamwood, Co.
Meath ; Curraghmore, Waterford ; Woodstock, Kilkenny ; and many more.

Araucaria Bidwilli.

A lofty tree attaining 100 — 150 feet in height with a stout trunk
usually denuded of branches for half the height. Branches in whorls
of ten — fifteen with distichous ramification. Leaves in crowded spires,
lanceolate, acute, 0'75 — 1'5 inch long, sub-sessile, shortly decurrent and
slightly twisted at the base which brings them into a pseudo-distichous
position, coriaceous and rigid, dark lustrous green above, keeled beneath.
Staminate flowers cylindric, 2 — 3 inches long, the imbricated connectives
of the stamens triangular. Cones the largest in the genus, erect on
, the topmost branches, ovoid-globose, about 9 inches long and 7 inches
in diameter, composed of spirally arranged, loosely imbricated scales of
obovate-cuneate shape, about 3 '5 inches long with a lenticular thickening
at the apex and terminating in an acute edge.

Araucaria Bidwilli, Hooker, W. in Lond. Journ. Bot. II. 503, tt. 18, 19 (1843).

Bentham, Fl. Austral. VI. 243 (Bunya-Bunya).

South Queensland, between the rivers Brisbane and Burnett; introduced
about the year 1840. It commemorates Mr. J. T. Bidwill, one of
the earlier botanical e'xplorers of Australia and Xew Zealand.

Araucaria brasiliensis.

A tree 70 — 80 feet high, in old age with a large irregular head of
spreading or sub-pendent branches with the branchlets and foliage more
or less tufted at the distal end. Branches in whorls of five — seven
and ramified distichously. Leaves persistent several years ; on young
trees narrowly lanceolate, often falcately curved, 1*5 — 2 '5 inches long,
prolonged into a pungent acuminate tip ; shorter and broader on the
fertile branches and on old trees, dark lustrous green with an obscure
median keel above, paler and stomatiferous beneath. Staminate flowers
solitary or two — three together, cylindric, obtuse, 4 — 5 inches long and
0-75 inch in diameter. Cones sub-globose or ovoid-globose, 5 — 6 inches
in diameter ; scales cuneate-oblong, of corky texture, with a rhomboidal
thickening at the apex and terminating in a recurved spine.

Araucaria brasiliensis, A. Richard in Diet. d'Hist. Nat. I. 512 (brasiliana).

London, Arb. et Frat. Brit. IV. 2439, with figs. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.

XVI. 370. And others.

Mountains of southern Brazil in the provinces of Sao Paolo and
Minas Geraes up to 3,000 feet elevation, in places forming forests
of considerable extent. Introduced into Europe in 1819. Much
cultivated along the Mediterranean littoral of France and Italy.

ARAUCARIA COOKII. 303

Araucaria Cookii.

A lofty tree of singular habit and aspect, attaining a height of
150 — 200 feet, and which after shedding its primary branches for
five-sixths or more of its height, replaces them by a smaller and
more bushy growth, so that the tree has the appearance of a tall
column crowned with a mass of branchlets and foliage of the first
growth. On young trees cultivated in Great Britain the primary
branches are spreading, and are produced in whorls of five — seven ;
the branchlets close-set, distichous and decurved at the distal end.
Leaves spirally crowded, awl-shaped, laterally compressed, broad and
slightly decurrent at the base, and terminating in a short point or mucro,
bright green. Staminate flowers sub-cylindric, 1*5 inch long ; stamens
spirally crowded, with a cordate-ovate connective bearing "ten — twelve
anther cells. Cones shortly stalked, ovoid-globose, the longer diameter
4 — 5 inches, the shorter 3 — 5 inches ; scales closely imbricated, ovate-
cuneate, terminating in a long subulate mucro.

Araucaria Cookii, R. Brown ex Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 164 (1839).
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 373. Gard. Chron. III. ser. 3 (1888), p. 774, with figs.
A. colunmaris, Hooker, W. Bot. Mag. t. 4635 (1852).

New Caledonia, Aneitum and one or two small islets in the New
Hebrides group, but quite Tare. Discovered in 1774 by Captain Cook,
whose companions thought at first that they beheld in the distance a
tall column of basalt or some other volcanic product standing aloft in
solitary grandeur.* Several varieties of. Araucaria Cookii are
distinguished by name by Australian horticulturists.

Araucaria Cunningham!

A tall pyramidal tree, but usually with a flattened head in old age,
in some localities attaining a height of 150 — 200 feet, but in others
remaining much smaller. Branches in whorls of four — seven, spreading
horizontally or more or less depressed ; ramification distichous with many
adventitious weaker shoots on the upper side of the branches of young-
trees growing under glass in Great Britain. Leaves in crowded spires,
acicular, laterally compressed with the dorsal midrib decurrent,
0'25 — 0'5 inch long ; those on the fertile branches shorter, triquetral
and with a broad adnate base. Staminate flowers cylindric, 2 — 3 inches
long ; stamens densely crowded, with an ovate-rhomboid connective
bearing eight — ten anther cells. Cones ovoid-globose, about 3 inches long
and 2 inches broad, the scales with their marginal wings broadly cuneate
and terminating in a lanceolate recurved mucro.

Araucaria Cimningliami, Lambert, Genus Pinus, II. t. 96 (1824). London, Arb.
et Frut. Brit. IV. 2443, with figs. Bentham, Fl. Austral. VI. 243. C. Moore,
Fl. N. S. Wales, 376 (Moreton Bay Pine).

The most widely distributed of all the Australian Araucarias. From
the north-east coast district of New South Wales it spreads northwards

* An amusing account of the discovery of this curious Araucaria is given by Captain Cook
in the narrative of his second voyage to the south Pacific Ocean, much of which is reproduced
by Sir. William Hooker in the Botanical Magazine, loc. cit.

304 ARAUCARIA EXCELSA.

through the littoral region of Queensland to Cape York peninsula ; it

has also been found on Mounts Arfak and Obree, in New Guinea, up to

6,000 feet above the level of the sea ; around Moreton Bay, where it

is most abundant, it spreads eighty miles inwards. The species

commemorates Allan Cunningham, one of the earliest and most energetic
of Australian explorers.

Araucaria excelsa.

A stately tree 150 — 200 feet high with a trunk 5 — 7 feet in diameter,
usually free of branches for more than one-half the height and crowned
with a spreading top. In young trees cultivated in Great Britain, the
branches are in whorls of four — seven, five being the predominant
number, spreading horizontally and ramified distichously. Branchlets
close-set and parallel, sometimes rigid and in one plane, but more
frequently decurved at the distal end. Leaves persistent several years,
spirally crowded, awl-shaped, straight or falcately curved, 0*25 — 0'75 inch
long and of a uniform bright grass-green, broader at the base, keeled
on the dorsal side and closely imbricated on fertile branches preserved
as herbarium specimens. Cones spherical, 4 — 6 inches in diameter,
broadest at the base ; scales broadly cuneate, prolonged at the apex into
a lanceolate, acuminate, incurved spine.

Araucaria excelsa, R. Brown in Alton's Hort. Kew. ed. II. Vol. V. 412 (1813).
London, Arb. et Fmt Brit. IV. 2440, with figs. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.
373. And others.

Norfolk Island in the south Pacific Ocean, discovered during Captain
Cook's second voyage; and introduced to the Royal Gardens at Kew
by Sir Joseph Banks about the year 1793. The trees in Norfolk Island,
now greatly reduced in number by felling for the sake of their excellent
timber, generally stand singly or in small groups ; they are dotted over
the island like the trees in an English park. Araucaria excelsa is more
cultivated in this country than any of the Australian Araucarias, a
preference which is owing to its formal but elegant habit, its bright
verdant foliage and the facility with which it is propagated from cuttings;
it is also much cultivated along the Mediterranean littoral of France and
Italy, the sea air and other climatic conditions of the region being
highly favourable to its growth. Among the varieties occasionally seen in
cultivation are — glauca with foliage of a paler green and more or less
glaucous ; alia spica with the tips of the branchlets cream- white ; robusta
larger in all its parts with foliage of a deeper green, also known as
Goldieana, Sanderiana, Napoleon Baumann, etc.

Araucaria Rulei.

A medium-sized tree 50 — 60 feet high with horizontal branches
in whorls of five — seven, and distichous, sub-pendulous branchlets,
but which in plants cultivated under glass in Great Britain
are sometimes horizontal like their primaries or slightly ascending.
Leaves persistent several years, spirally crowded, closely imbricated and
incurved, narrowly oblong-lanceolate, obtuse or sub-acute, about 0'5 inch

ABIETINE/E. 305

long ; convex, obscurely keeled and dark green on the dorsal side,
slightly convex and paler on the ventral side. Staminate flowers and
cones not seen.*

Araucaria Rulei, Mueller ex Lindley in Gard. Chron. (1861) p. 861, with figs.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 605 (Eutacta). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 371.
Gordon, Pinet, ed. II. 42.

Originally discovered about the year 1860 by William Duncan, a plant
collector in the employ of Mr. John Rule, a horticulturist of Melbourne,
Victoria, on an islet off the coast of Xew Caledonia, covering the summit
of a lofty extinct volcano fully exposed to the severe storms which
periodically sweep over that region ; it is also said to be endemic in New
Caledonia where it attains greater dimensions. It was introduced to British
gardens by the Yeitchian firm in 1863. In its young state Araucaria
Rulei is polymorphous, and several varieties are distinguished by name in
Australia where it is much cultivated as a decorative tree.

TRIBE-ABIETINE.E.

Flowers monoecious. Staminate flowers terminal or axillary, solitary
or spicate, often densely clustered, rarely umbellate. Stamens spirally
crowded ; anther cells 2, dehiscence longitudinal, rarely transverse.
Scales of fruit-cones spirally arranged and consisting of two struc-
tures, the bract and seed-scale or sporophyll, the former more
or less free or concrescent. Seeds 2, inverted.

SUB-TRIBE I.— PINE^E.

Fruit-cones maturing in two, rarely in three years. Leaves
dimorphic, the primordial scattered ; the secondary fascicled, per-
sistent ____ 14. — Pinus.

SUB-TRIBE II.— LARICE.E.

Branchlets dimorphic, the one elongated with the leaves scattered
and inserted on cortical outgrowths (pulvini) ; the other arrested or
" spur- like " with the leaves fascicled.

Fruit-cones maturing in one year. Leaves deciduous.

Staminate flowers solitary, seed scales persistent. 15. — Larix.
Staminate flowers umbellate, seed scales deciduous. 16. — Laricopsis.
Fruit-cones maturing in two years. Leaves persistent.

Staminate flowers solitary, seed scales persistent. 17. — Cedrus.

* Imperfect figures of both are given in the Gardeners' Chronicle, loc. cit.
X

306 PINUS.

SUB-TEIBE III.— SAPINE^E.

Leaves persistent, for the most part homomorphic and inserted on

cortical outgrowths or pulvini decurrent from their base. Fruit cones
maturing in one year.

Leaves sessile or very shortly petiolate, angulate or
flat with one — two lateral resin canals. Cones

often large and pendulous ; scales persistent - 18. — Picea.

Leaves petiolate, flat, with a central resin canal.

Gones small and pendulous ; scales persistent 19. — Tsuga.

Leaves flat with two lateral resin canals. Staminate
flowers solitary or umbellate. Cones pendulous

(or erect), scales persistent - 20.— Abietia.

Leaves flat, rarely angulate, with two lateral resin

canals. Cones large and erect; scales deciduous- 21. — Abies.

PINUS.

Linnteus, Sp. Plant. II. 1000, in part (1753). Lambert, Genus Finns, I. in part (1803).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 81, in part (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 377, in part (1868).
Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 438 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl.
Fam. 70 (1887). Masters in Joiirn. Linn. Soc. XXX. 37 (1893).

The foliage of the Pines is so distinct from that of every other
genus of trees that the circumscription of Pinus is one of the
simplest ; as Dr. Engelmann remarked long ago, " nobody fails to
recognise the species belonging to it." This distinctness is owing
to the peculiar mode of production of the foliage leaves ; they are
not primary leaves in the ordinary acceptation of the term, but
secondary leaves borne on an undeveloped branchlet surrounded at
the base by bud-scales which form the "basal sheath."* Besides
this distinct form of foliation, there is an homogeneity of structure in
the reproductive organs of all the species, so that both floral and
vegetative characters unite to establish the genus firmly.

The Pines are trees, often of large size ; shrubs only under the
severe climatic conditions of high altitudes and high latitudes. In
warm and even in temperate climates the larger Pines grow rapidly
for the first thirty to fifty years, and during that period the
proportion of sapwood to heartwood is greater than in any other
coniferous trees, and it is often strongly impregnated with resin. At
and near the extreme vertical limit the growth of the alpine species
is extremely slow throughout life ; and even when transplanted in
lower altitudes, with a higher annual temperature, their growth is
not only not accelerated but they soon perish under its stimulus.

* See page 24 ; also Engelmann, Revision of the Genns Pinus in Transactions of the
Academy of Science of St. Louis, U.S.A. IV. 4 ; and Masters in Journal of the Linnean
Society, XXVII. 267,

PINUS. 307

In respect of branching, the Pines conform to the general law
observed throughout the Abie tin ere.

The primary brandies are produced in pseudo-whorls, the lowermost of
which, even when the trees are standing alone, are gradually cast off with
advancing age ; when the trunk ceases to ascend there is usually an
irregular development of the topmost branches. The branchlets are
whorled and always continue upturned during their development, after
which they gradually assume a horizontal position. The foliage leaves
are mostly produced in definite numbers ; fascicles of two, three and five
are most common, but in Pinus monopliylla the leaves are mostly solitary
and terete ; in P. r/ntis, P. cembroides and one or two others, fascicles
of two and three occur regularly, and in P. Parryana fascicles of four
are most frequent. The shape of the leaves is determined by the number
in each fascicle ; where there are two they are semi-terete or plano-
convex ; where there are three, the ventral (inner) side is usually sharply
keeled and the dorsal (outer) side convex or nearly flat; and where there
are five they are regularly triangular in section. The stomata are mostly
disposed in longitudinal rows indicated by white lines and usually on the
inner or flat sides, but in P. Pinaster and its allies they occur on both
surfaces. The persistence of the leaves varies in the different species
from two to twenty years.

The following diagnosis of the flowers and fruits is abridged from
Engelmamrs Ee vision of the " Genus Pinus."

Flowers monoecious on different branches. Staniinate flowers either
crowded together into a kind of capitulum (head) or elongated into a
spike, cylindric or oval-cylindric, surrounded at the base by few or many
(three— fifteen) involucral bracts. Anthers with an orbicular or sub-
orbicular connective bearing two anther cells.

Ovuliferous flowers sub-terminal, sub-sessile or pedunculate, solitary or
in clusters of two — five or more, composed of numerous scales of a two-
fold structure, the sporophyll (seed-scale) and bract, the former bearing
two pendulous ovules 011 the lower part .of the inner face and the latter
concealed and disappearing in the ripe cone.

Cones maturing at the end of the second, rarely in the third season,
pendulous in some species, horizontal or erect in others ; in shape conical,
sub-globose or cylindric, often more or less oblique so that the scales
become unequal. Scales at first closely imbricated, the exposed part
more or less thickened (apophysis) and terminating in a blunt point or
rhomboidal swelling armed with a weak or strong prickle. Seeds obovate
•or more or less triangular and compressed, winged, the wing sometimes
reduced to. a narrow rim.

In most species the cones open their scales soon after maturity, drop
their seeds and then fall off; in others the open cones remain on the
trees for years after shedding their seeds, as in Pinus Sabiniana ; whilst in
others belonging to the Pinaster and Tsedse sections, the cones remain
closed on the trees for an indefinite period until opened by the heat
of a forest fire or an exceptionally hot season.

The grouping of the species of Pinus into sections is not free from
difficulty. The older botanists used the number of leaves in a bundle
.as marks of sectional divisions, and neglecting all other characters
divided the Pines into three sections, the two-leaved, three-leaved and

308 PINUS.

five-leaved, thus leaving the position of the subsequently discovered
species P. monopliylla (one-leaved), P. Parry ana (four-leaved), P. cem'broides>
P. Elliottii and others (two — three leaved) ambiguous. Cognisance has.
since been taken of other characters in connection with those of the
leaves, and among the most iiseful of these for classificatory purposes
are the form of the cone scales, the seeds and the anatomical structure
of the leaves, especially the position and number of the resin canals.
Combining these and some subordinate characters, the late
Dr. Engelmann of St. Louis, U.S.A., elaborated the most scientific
sectional arrangement of the Pines that has yet been published,* and
which in a more or less modified form is adopted by recent authors.
In a* practical sense Dr. Engelmann's sections have the disadvantage of
occasionally grouping together trees of very different habit and aspect
on account of the greater value set upon the anatomical characters of
the leaves, and which can be ascertained only with the aid of the
microscope.

The following sectional arrangement of species cultivated in Great
Britain is framed in respect of the leaves and cones only which are
for the most part easily accessible, and it may thence serve for
practical use.f

STROBI. Leaves in bundles of five. Cones pendulous, much longer
than broad ; scales relatively thin and terminating in a blunt point.
Seeds prominently winged :

Ayacahuite, excelsa, Lambert iana, monticola, pentapliylla, Peuke, Strobus-
CEMBR.E. Leaves in bundles of five. Cones erect or horizontal, not
much longer than broad ; scales with or without a thickened apophysis.
Seeds large and obscurely winged :

Albicaulis, JBalfouriana, Cembra, flexilis, koraiensis, parviflora.
EDULES. Leaves in bundles of one — five. Cones sub-terminal,
globose, the central scales only fertile, thickened, with a prominent
and armed apophysis. Seeds large with" rudimentary wings :
Cembroides, edulis, monopliylla, Parryana.

T^ED^:. Leaves in bundles of three. Cones sub-terminal or lateral,
ovoid, occasionally elongated; scales much thickened, the apophysis
often with a stout armed umbo. Seeds prominently winged :

Bungeana, Coulteri, Gerardiana, palustris, patula, ponderosa, radiatay
rigida, Sabiniana, Tceda, tuberculata.

PINASTER. Leaves in bundles of two. Cones lateral and mostly
persistent, often large and clustered ; scales much thickened, the
apophysis blunt or armed with a sharp spine. Seed wings variable :
Contorta, mitis, muricata, Pinaster, pungens, pinea, pyrenaica.
SYLVESTRES. Leaves in bundles of two. Cones sub-terminal and
mostly falling off, ovoid-conic and relatively small; scales slightly

* Revision of the Genus Finns in the Transactions of the Academy of Science of
St. Louis, Vol. IV. (1880).

t Several of the Mexican Pines with leaves in bundles of five, of which the best known
in this country is Pinus Montezumce, cannot be included in either of the sections STROBI
or CEMBRA in consequence of the scales of their cones having a distinct apophysis with a,
central umbo ; they thence come under the section Paeudo-Sjtrobus of Endiicher.

PIN us. 309

thickened with apophysis unarmed or with deciduous prickles. Seeds
Kinall with elongated wings :

Banksiana, densiflora, Jialepensis, mops, Laricio, montana, resinosa,
sylvestris, Thunbergii.

Upwards of seventy species of Phms are distinguished by botanists;
they are spread over the northern hemisphere from the limits of
arborescent vegetation in the arctic and sub-arctic regions to beyond
the northern Tropic. Of these seventy species, twenty-four are endemic
in the eastern, and the remainder in the western continent. On
the eastern continent, with the exception of Pinus sylvestris which
is spread over the great plains of Europe and northern Asia, the
Pines mostly follow the great mountain ranges, in places forming
forests of considerable extent, covering rocky slopes unsuitable for
tillage and occasionally ascending to the timber line. Two outlying
species occur within the eastern tropics : P. Merkimi in Sumatra
and the Malay peninsula, and P. insidaris in the Philippine Islands ;
and a third (P. canaricnsis) is confined to the Canary Islands. In
North America the Pines also follow the great mountain chains, in
places forming forests of immense extent ; but they likewise spread into
the plains except in the prairie region of the central Mississippi
and the elevated plains east of the Eocky Mountains. The high
plateau and mountains of central Mexico are covered with Pine
forests where twelve or fourteen species have their home and one
more inhabits the West India Islands.

The existing Pines are the descendants of former races, traces of
whose ancestral forms first appear in the Jurassic system ; the oldest
discovered Pines belong to the Strobus section in which the scales
have no apical thickening. In Tertiary times Pines became very
abundant, and in the Miocene Age species with two, three and five
leaves in a bundle were common in Europe, including Great Britain.*
The economic value of the Pines is very great. Many species,
especially Pinus sylvestris, P. Strobus, P. ponderosa, P. monticola, afford
timber of the highest importance in constructive work, and Pine timber
is the staple article of commerce with many ports of northern Europe
and British North America. The resinous secretions of several species,
notably P. palustris, P. Pinaster and P. lonyifolia, are very abundant,
from which turpentine, resin and tar are obtained in immense quantities.
In arboriculture, as landscape planting, some of the most ornamental
and picturesque of trees are to be found among the Pines, whilst
other species are greatly valued for afforesting waste lands, for forming
screens for shelter, etc.

The name Pinus is adopted from classical authors, by whom it was
applied indiscriminately to the species inhabiting the Mediterranean
region. In modern times, as shown in our Botanical Retrospect, it
has been understood by different authors in widely different senses,
before the present very natural circumscription of the genus became
generally adopted.

* Fossil Botany, by Solms-Laubach, Garnsey's Translation, p. 57.

310 PINUS ALBICAULIS.

Pinus albicaulis.

A tree of variable height, usually 20 — 30, rarely 60 feet high,
with a trunk 2-— 4 feet in diameter ; at high altitudes reduced to a
low shrub with spreading stems. Bark thin, broken by narrow fissures
into light brown or creamy white scales. Branchlets stoutish, reddish
brown. Buds broadly ovate, acute, with chestnut-brown perulse loosely
imbricated. Leaves quinate (in fives), persistent five — eight years, stout,
rigid, slightly incurved, 1*5 — 3 inches long, dark green. Stamina te
flowers in short spikes, oval, with scarlet anthers and surrounded at
the base by eight — nine involucral bracts. Cones sessile, ovoid or
sub-globose, 1/5 — 3 inches, with much thickened, gradually pointed scales,
the exposed portion contracted on both sides to a sharp edge, and
bearing a stout, nearly triangular, incurved tip. Seeds nearly
0'5 inch long, with very narrow, thin wings. — Sargent, Silra of
North America, XL 39, t. 548.

Pinus albicaulis, Engelmann in Trans. Acad. Sc. St. Louis. II. 209 (1863).
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 1, with tigs. Hooker iil in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885),
p. 9, with fig. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 274. Macoun, Cat. Ca-nad. Plants, 465.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 225.

P. flexilis var. albicaulis, Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 124.

An alpine tree spread over the high mountains of north-west
America at altitudes ranging from 5,000 to 12,000 feet, growing on
the most exposed ridges where it forms the timber line on many
of them. It is abundant on the mountains of southern British
Columbia, whence it spreads southwards into the United States along
the Eocky Mountains to Wyoming, and along the Cascade mountains
of Washington and Oregon into California, reaching its southern
limit on the San Bernardino mountains.

Pinus albicaulis affords a remarkable instance of endurance and
tenacity of life under exceptionally severe conditions, and in places
where probably no other vegetation could exist. On bleak and lofty
ridges, and in wind-swept passes battling with perpetual snows, its
trunk is stunted, and its branches gnarled ; it is also exposed in
places to fierce winds thickly charged with sand, which denude the
trunk of its bark and erode and furrow its hard wood. Under these
adverse influences the trees sometimes become flat-topped, and so close-
roofed with condensed branchlets and foliage that one may walk safely
on them. The short, thick stems of some of these trees are probably
over five hundred years old.*

The species was discovered in 1851 on the mountains of ^Xorth
Oregon by Jeffrey the collector of the Scottish Oregon Association and
introduced by him ; but the unsuitableness of the British climate for
it has long since been proved, and very few plants of it are to be
seen in this country. Its place is better filled by its nearest affinity
Pinus flexilis from which it differs chiefly in its paler bark and smaller
globose cones, the scales of which are much more thickened and
terminate in a short incurved tip.

* Lemmon, North-west American Cone Bearers, 25.

PINUS AYACAHUITE. 311

Pinus Ayacahuite.

A lofty tree, attaining a height of 100 feet on the mountains of
Oaxaca with a trunk 3 — 4 feet in diameter, and much resembling
Pinus Strobus in. habit and aspect. In Great Britain the young trees
are not unlike P. excelsa, the primary branches spreading and more or
less upturned at the extremity. Branchlet's with pale orange-brown
bark, the herbaceous shoots devoid of leaves at the base and covered
with a ferrugiiieous pubescence which soon disappears. Buds conic,
acute, chestnut-brown with narrowly lanceolate, acuminate perulse which
are afterwards reflexecl and fall off. Leaves quinate, persistent about
three years, filiform with scaberulous margins, 3 '5 — 6 inches long,
bright green on the convex side, with three — five silver-grey
stomatiferous lines on the flat sides ; basal sheath about an inch long,
deciduous. Staminate flowers not seen. Cones solitary or in clusters
of twos and threes, sub-cylindric, gradually tapering to an obtuse point,
9 — 12 inches long. Scales elliptic-oblong, 2 inches long and 1
inch broad with a reflexed thickened tip, the exposed apical part
strongly striated longitudinally. Seeds ovoid, compressed, about 0*5
inch long, furnished with a pale testaceous obliquely truncate wing
about an inch long.*

Pinus Ayacahuite. Ehrenberg ex Schlechtendal in Liimtea, XII. 492 (1838).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 149 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 402.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 406. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 292. Masters in Gard.
Chron. XVIII. (1882), p. 492, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 225.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. L. 9, t. 2.

P. Loudoniana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 311.

P. Don Pedri, and others, Roezl.

Mexican vernacular, Ayacahuite.

Pinus Ayacahuite is the common White Pine of Mexico ; it is
spread over the country from Oaxaca northwards to, and probably
beyond the United States frontier line, and southwards into
Guatemala, always at a considerable elevation. On the high
mountain slopes of northern Mexico it forms in places extensive
forests, and supplies the most useful timber of the region. It was
first detected by Ehrenberg, in 1836, in southern Mexico, and three
years later by Hartweg on the mountains of Santa Maria near the
town of Quezaltemango in Guatemala, where he obtained a supply
of ripe cones which he forwarded to the Horticultural Society of
London. Plants raised from the seeds of these cones were subsequently
distributed among the Fellows of the Society, f

Pinus Ayacahuite has been a denizen of this country for more than half
a century, and although the plants originally distributed by the
Horticultural Society of London have been decimated by the recurrence
of exceptionally severe winters, cone-bearing trees presumably of
Hartwegian origin are still standing in the Pinetum at Bictoii ; at
St. Austell in Cornwall ; at Westonbirt in Gloucestershire ; in the
nursery of Messrs. Paul and Son at Cheshunt, and probably in other

* Materials for description communicated by Captain Holford from Westonbirt,
Gloucestershire.

f Transactions of Horticultural Society of London, vol. III. ser. II. p. 136.

Pinus Ayacahuite at Westonbirt, Gloucestershire.

PINUS BALFOURIANA.

313

places. Younger trees in vigorous health are also growing in the
grounds of Col. Bowdler at Camberley in Surrey ; at Batsford, near
Stratford-oii-Avon ; at Castlewellan, Co. Down, Ireland; and in the
Royal Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin. All these afford evidence of its
adaptability for the British climate under certain conditions, and as it is
one of the most graceful of Pines for the decoration of the lawn, it may
be planted for that . purpose where the situation is well sheltered.

Closely allied to Pinus Ayacakuite and apparently only a geographical
modification of it is the White Pine of southern Arizona, figured and
described in Professor- Sargent's " Silva of North America," XI. 33,
tt. 544, 545, from which the following particulars are taken.

Pinus strobiformis.

Engelmann in Bot. Append. 102 toWislizenus, "Tour in Northern Mexico." Carriere
in Van Houtte's Flore des Serres, IX. 201. P. reflexa, Engelmann in Bot. Gaz. VII. 4.

Pinus strobiformis is sparingly scattered over the rocky ridges of
the Santa Rita, Chiricahua and other mountains of southern Arizona
at elevations of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet. It was discovered by
Dr. Wislizenus, in Chihuahua in northern Mexico, in 1846. It differs
from P. Ayacaliuite chiefly in its smaller dimensions, due to the drier
climate of the region it inhabits ; also in its short, slender, often
pendulous branchlets and in its smaller cones.

Pinus Balfouriana.

" A tree usually 30 — 40 feet in height with a short trunk 1 — 2 feet
in diameter, but occasionally much higher with a tall, straight, tapering
stem 5 feet in diameter; at high elevations
reduced to a low shrub with gnarled semi-
prostrate stems." Bark of young trees thin, white,
smooth ; of old trees thicker, red-brown and
much fissured. Branches short, stout, and
spreading horizontally or upturned at the apical
end ; in old age irregular in length and
direction, and often contorted. Branchlets in
whorls of three — five, stoutish, covered with
reddish brown, obliquely furrowed bark that is
almost concealed by the close-set foliage. Buds
ovoid-conic, acute, 0*5 — 0'75 inch long, with
narrowly lanceolate, acuminate pale chestnut-brown
perulse often coated with pale limpid resin.
Leaves quinate, persistent several years, crowded,
incurved, and pressed against the branchlets,
triquetral, with entire margins, 1 — 1*5 inch long,
dark green 011 the outer convex side, marked
with silver-grey stomatiferous lines on the two
inner faces ; basal sheath about one-eighth of
an inch long, and soon falling off. Staminate
flowers ellipsoid, about 0'5 inch long, in short
crowded spikes, with orange-brown anthers and

Fig.* 9i. Branchiet reduced and surrounded at the base by five ovate, acute,
'™ BaifmirianLPinUS involucral bracts. Cones sub-erect or horizontal,

314 PINUS BALFOUIUANA.

sub-cylindric, slightly tapering, 3*5 — 5 inches long, composed of narrow
elongated scales with a rhomboidal apophysis transversely keeled and
terminating in an awn-like prickle.

Pinus Balfouriana, Murray, Oregon Exped. I. t. 3, lig. 1' (1853) ; and in Gard.
Chron. V. (1876), p. 332, with tig. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 425. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 293. Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 125.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 11, with tigs. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 272. Masters in
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 225. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XI. 59, t. 553.

P. aristata, Engelmann in Trans. St. Louis Acad. II. 205 t. 506 (1863).
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 424. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 400. Lawson,
Pinet. Brit. I. 5, with figs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 291. Sargent, Silva N. Amer.
XL 63, t. 554.

P. Balfouriana var. aristata, Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II.
125. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 273. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 225.

Eng. Professor Balfour's Pine, Awned Pine. Amer. Foxtail Pine. Germ.
Fuchsschsvanzkiefer.

The- habitat of this singular Pine may be stated in general terms
to be included within the region lying between the Sierra Nevada
of California and the outer or eastern range of the Rocky Mountains
of Colorado, and between the 35th and 40th parallels of north
latitude. It is essentially an alpine species, and always occurs on
rocky slopes and ridges at elevations varying from 5,000 to 12,000 feet,
but nowhere very abundant except on Mount Whitney in south
California, where it forms extensive groves associated below with
Pinus contorta, and above with P. monticola.

Pinus Balfouriana was originally discovered in 1852 on Scott Mountain,
in California, by Jeffrey, who forwarded a few seeds to the Scottish
Oregon Association. This, the typical form, was named in compliment
to the late John Hutton Balfour, Professor of Botany in the University
of Edinburgh. In 1861 it was discovered on Pike's Peak in Colorado
by Dr. Parry, and to his discovery Engelmann gave the name Pinus
aristata, in reference to the bristle-like awns on the scales of the
cone. Seeds were subsequently introduced from this locality into
Great Britain. In this country both the California!! and Colorado
forms are quite rare, and very few have attained a considerable size.
Although the growth of P. Balfouriana is very slow, the leader shoot
rarely increasing more than six inches in one season, it is so distinct from
every other Pine in its snake-like branches clothed with appressed persistent
foliage, the terminal shoots of which have a fancied resemblance to a
fox's brush, as scarcely to merit the neglect it has hitherto received.
Professor Sargent has described and figured in the "Silva of North
America " the California!! and Colorado forms as distinct species. That
they are geographically separated by the arid treeless tracts of western
Nevada is indisputable, but no structural differences of sufficient value
to be accepted as specific are discernible in the flowers and fruits.
Engelmann, the author of the species aristata, abandoned it in his
" Revision of the Genus Pinus " on the ground that the leaf structure
and staminate flowers are identical with those of P. Balfouriana ;
but in Brewer and Watson's " Botany of California " gave it varietal
rank, distinguishing it from the type by "its ovate cones with thinner
scales and longer awn-like prickles." The specimens of P. Balfouriana
and P. aristata growing in Great Britain are practically identical if true
to their respective names.

PINUS BANKSIANA. 315

Pinus Banksiana.

A tree of variable size and habit according to the locality in which
it • is growing, from a straggling shrub 3 — 5 feet to a tall tree 60 — 70
feet high with a trunk 2 feet in diameter covered with dark grey
bark. In Great Britain a slender tree 26 — 30 feet high, the trunk
covered with light greyish brown bark fissured into irregular thin
plates. Branches horizontal, ascending, or curved downwards ; branchlets
short, slender, and often curved ; buds cylindric, obtuse, 0'25 inch
long, light brown usually covered with a film of whitish resin.
Leaves geminate (in twos), regularly distributed over the shoot,
persistent four — five years, semi-terete with a mucronate tip, obscurely
concave on the inner side, more or less twisted, about an inch long,
with a short lacerated basal sheath, dull dark green. Staminate
flowers in dense clusters, sub-cylindric, about 0'5 inch long, yellowish
brown. Cones ovoid-conic, sessile, erect, incurved, 1'5 — 2 inches long;
scales oblong-cuneate, the apical thickening rhomboidal with a transverse
ridge* and small, obtuse, central umbo.

Pinus Banksiana, Lambert, Genus Finns, I. t. 3 (1803). London, Arb. et.
Frat. Brit. IV. 2190, with figs. Forbes, Pinet Woburn, 13, t. 3. Hooker, W.
Fl. Bot. Amer. II. 161. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 485. Hoopes, Evergreens, 78.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 230. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 218. Maconn, Cat. Canad.
Plants, 468. Masters in Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 221. And many others.

P. rnpestris, Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 49, t. 2 (1810).

P. hndsonica, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 380 (1868).

P. divaricata, Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XL 147, t. 588 (1897).

Eng. Sir Joseph Banks' Pine. Amer. Scrub Pine, Grey Pine, Jack Pine.
Germ. Strauchkiefer.

Pinus Banksiana is distributed over an immense area in North
America. From its southern limit on the coast of Maine, at about
44° N. lat., it spreads northwards into Labrador and the Barren Lands
of Canada, and across the continent in a north-westerly direction as
far as the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains and northwards
through the Mackenzie valley to the Arctic Circle. It is abundant
in the barren plains of Michigan, growing in places where no other
tree can live ; it often replaces along the northern States and adjacent
parts of the Dominion the more valuable Pines that have been
cleared by lumber-men or by forest fires. The kind of estimation
in which it is held in America finds expression in the vernacular
names given to it, as "Scrub Pine," "Jack Pine," etc. The wood
is used for little else than fuel.

Pinus Banlisiana is worthless for the British Arboretum as it soon
becomes unshapely under the stimulus of the milder climate of this
country, and it is but rarely seen in other than botanic gardens. The
date of its introduction has not been recorded ; but Aiton states that
it was in cultivation prior to 1783.* The species was dedicated
by Mr. Lambert to Sir Joseph Banks, than whom no one more worthy
to be held in remembrance can be found in the annals of British
.science.

* Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 315.

316 PINU3 BCJNGEANA.

JOSEPH BANKS (1743 — 1820) was born in London and was educated first at
Harrow and afterwards at Eton, whence he proceeded to Christ Church College,
Oxford. His love of Botany commenced before he entered the University, where
it became so great that finding no lectures were given on that subject, he applied
to Dr. Sibthorp, the botanical professor, for permission to procure a proper person
to instruct him. He left Oxford in 1763. His father having died in 1761 he
came into possession of his paternal fortune in 1764, and from that time till his
death, his whole time and means were well-nigh devoted to the advancement of
science In 1766 he made a voyage to Newfoundland for the purpose of collecting
plants, returning in the following summer ; and in 1768 he accompanied, in the
capacity of assistant naturalist, Dr. Solander being the principal, the first expedition
under the command of Captain Cook, the chief objects of which were to observe
a transit of Venus and to discover new countries. After leaving Tahiti, where the
transit had been successfully observed, the vessel, a bark of 370 tons called the
Endeavour, traversed the seas surrounding New Zealand and Australia, returning to
England in 1771 ; Banks and Solander were thence the first botanists who became
acquainted with the remarkable Australian flora. In 1772, accompanied by
Dr. Solander, he made a scientific expedition to Iceland, ; passing among the
Hebrides on their return they were induced to examine them, and during their
investigation they came upon the basaltic pillar and natural caverns of Staffa till
then unknown to naturalists. In 1777 he was elected President of the Royal
Society, to which by much exertion he procured a great accession of men of rank
and talent. In 1781 he was created a baronet, which was soon after followed by other
honours. All the voyages of discovery made under the auspices of the Government
during the last thirty years of his life were either suggested by him or received
his approbation. He was a zealous promoter of the Horticultural Society of London
founded in 1804, and took a leading part in the management of the Royal Gardens
at Kew. During his forty-two years' tenure of the Presidency of the Royal Society,
he was indefatigable as an officer and trustee of the British Museum, to which
institution, in addition to innumerable other gifts, he bequeathed his scientific
library and foreign correspondence.

Pinus Bungeana.

A tall tree 80 — 100 feet high, the trunk frequently divided at a
short distance from the ground into several ascending stems that are
covered with whitish bark. In Great Britain a low or medium-sized
tree of pyramidal outline and with diffuse ascending branches, the
trunk with smooth brown bark that falls away in thin flakes of
irregular shape and size as in the common Birch and oriental Plane,
exposing a whitish inner cortex. Branchlets usually in pseudo-whorls
of three with smooth greenish brown bark. Buds conic, acute, 0*5 inch
long, with ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, chestnut-brown perulse. Leaves
ternate (in threes), persistent three — four years, spirally and distantly
inserted along the upper two-thirds of the shoot, which is Avithout pulvini ;
rigid, spreading, triquetral, 3 — 4 inches long, dark lustrous green ; basal
sheath about 0*5 inch long, deciduous. Staniinate flowers in a lax
spike 3 — -5 inches long, sub-cylindric, obtuse, about 0'25 inch long,
surrounded at the base by linear, acuminate bracts longer than the
staminal axis. Cones ovoid-conic, 2 '5 inches long, 1*5 inch in diameter;
scales broadly obovate, the thickened apex with a transverse keel on
the exposed side and with a short reflexed umbo in the centre. Seeds
with a short broad Aving.

Pinus Bungeana, Zuccarini ex Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 166 (1847). Murray,
Pines and Firs of Japan, 18, with figs. (1863). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 434.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 398 Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 263. Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. I. 13, with figs. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 252. Masters in Gard. Chron. XVIII.
(1882), p. 8, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 226.

PINUS CEMBKA. 317

Nothing is definitely known of the geographical distribution of this
Pine beyond the simple fact that it is a native of North China
between Peking and the Western Hills, " one of the coldest and
most desolate-looking districts in winter which an inhabited and
cultivated country can well be," where it was detected by Fortune,
by whom it was introduced into Great Britain about the year 1846
or a little later, and into France in quantity in 1860 by M. Simon..
It is still comparatively rare in British gardens owing to the
difficulty of procuring seeds. It has proved quite hardy, and its
neat habit and bright green .foliage impart to it a very ornamental
and distinct appearance.

Mr. Fortune gives the following description of Pinus Bunyeana in
his " Yedo and Peking " : — " Near the royal tombstones (at Peking) I
observed a species of Pine tree having a peculiar habit and most
striking appearance. It had a thick trunk which rose from the ground
to the height of three or four feet only; at this point some eight or ten
branches sprung out, not branching or bending in the usual way, but
rising perpendicularly as straight as a Larch to a height of 80 or
100 feet. The bark of the main stems and secondary stems was of
a milky white colour, peeling off like that of the Arbutus, and the-
leaves, which were chiefly on the top of the tree, were of a lighter
green than those of the common Pine. Altogether this tree had a
very curious appearance, very symmetrical in form, and the different
specimens which evidently occupied the most honourable places in the-
cemetery, were as like one another as they possibly could be. In all
my wanderings in India, China and Japan, I had never seen a Pine
tree like this one. What could it be? Was it new? And had I
at last found something to reward me for my journey to the far-
north ? I went up to the spot where two of these trees were standing
like sentinels, one on each side of a grave. They were both covered
with cones, and therefore were in a fit state for a critical examination
of the species. But although almost unknown in Europe, the species
is not new. It proved to be one already known under the name of
Pinus Bunyeana. ' '

Pinus Bungeana is named after Alexander von Bunge, a Russian
botanist who accompanied Ledebour in his travels through Siberia,
and who was afterwards (1830) sent by the Russian Government as
naturalist with a mission to Peking, where he first met with this Pine
and many other plants not previously known to Europeans. He
subsequently (1836) succeeded Ledebour as Professor of Botany and
Director of the Botanic Garden at Dorpat.

Pinus Cembra.

A large tree of variable height and habit according to altitude and'
exposure, at its greatest development on the Swiss Alps attaining an
average height of 60 — 70 feet, individual trees occasionally 20 feet
higher. Primary branches spreading but turned upwards at the tip ;
in some localities, as on the Riffelberg, the lowermost branches sometimes
attaining great dimensions, at first horizontal with a downward curvature

318 PINUS CEMBRA.

and then rising parallel in direction with and not much smaller than
the main trunk. In Great Britain rarely exceeding 50 feet high, with
a broadly columnar or elongated conical outline till the top becomes
enlarged and rounded by age. Bark of trunk greyish brown, usually
fissured into numerous thin plates. Branches short, horizontal or
tortuous, the lowermost sometimes ascending. Branchlets short with
pale reddish brown bark, the herbaceous shoots pubescent. Buds conic,
acute, 0*25 — 0'4 inch long, pale reddish brown ; perulae linear-lanceolate,
acuminate, fringed with whitish hairs. Leaves quinate (in fives),
persistent four — five years, triquetral with a rather prominent keel on
the inner, convex on the outer side, minutely serrulate at the edge,
3*5 — 4'5 inches long, dark green with white stomatiferous lines; basal
sheath short and deciduous. Staminate flowers in dense heads, cylindric,
obtuse, about 0'75 inch long, brownish red, surrounded at the base by
six — eight involucral bracts; connective of anther reniform and
sharply crenulate. Cones erect, ovoid, obtuse, 2*5 — 3 inches long and
2 inches in diameter, purplish violet during growth, brown when
mature ; scales sub-orbicular, the exposed part slightly convex and
terminating in an obtuse umbo. Seeds obovoid, compressed, about
0'5 inch long with a hard testa and rudimentary Aving.

Finns Cembra, Liniueus, Sp. Plant. II. 1000 (1753). Miller, Diet. ed. VIII.
No. 6 (1768). Pallas, Fl. Ross. I. 3, t. 2 (1784). Lambert, Genus Finns, I.
tt. 23, 24 (1803). London, Arb. et Fmt. Brit. IV. 2274, witlr figs. Forbes,
Pinet. Woburn, 69, t. 27. Link in Linnsea, XV. 513. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 141.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 386. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 402. Lawscn,
Pinet. Brit. I. 17, t. 3, with figs. Willkomm, Forstl Fl. ed. II. 169. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 276, with figs. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 22(5. And
many others.

Eng. Cembra Pine, Swiss Stone Pine. Fr. Cembrot, Tinier. Swiss, Alvier,
Arolle, Arolla. Germ. Ziirbelkiefer, Arve. Zirme. Ital. Pino Zimbro.

var.— pumila.

A dwarf stunted bush 2 — 6 feet high with greatly elongated brandies,
and thence assuming a creeping habit. Leaves crowded, 1 — 2 inches
long, silvery grey, pale green on the convex side. Cones much smaller
than in the type, about 1-5 inch long.

P. Cembra pumila, Pallas, Fl. Ross. I. 5, t. 2. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI.
403. And others. P. Cembra pygmsea, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2276.
P. pumila, Mayr, Abiet. des Japanischen Reicbes. 80. P. Mandschurica, Lawson,
Pinet. Brit. I. 61.

var. — sibirica.

Distinguished in German gardens from the Swiss type by its more
vigorous growth, its more slender habit, shorter leaves, longer cylindric
cones, and larger seeds.

P. Cembra sibirica, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2275. Beissner, Nadelholzk.
279. P. Cembra Mandschurica, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 390 (not Regel).

The geographical distribution of Pinus Cembra is very extensive ;
in northern Asia it is said to spread from the Ural mountains to
Kamtschatka, having its northern limit near the Arctic Circle and
its southern -the Altai mountains ; throughout this vast region it is
a tree both of the plains and mountains, in places ascending to
2,500 — 3,000 feet. In Europe it grows spontaneously only on the
Carpathian mountains and the Alps ; on the former, where its

Pinus C&nibra in the valley of Turtmann.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.}

320 PINUS CEMBRA.

distribution is much restricted, its vertical range is from 3,500 to
5,000 feet, and on the latter from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-
level ; its western limit is on the Vosges of Dauphine in France,
where it is quite rare.

In the valleys of the higher Alps Pinus Cembra was formerly very
abundant, but it is yearly decreasing and becoming more and more
rare ; it is now seldom seen in forests ; it is even rare to see
well-shaped individual trees. Being the only tree capable of living
at so high an elevation, the herdsmen have 110 other firewood, and in
order to extend the pasturage for their milk industry they have
destroyed whole forests, and young trees when they spring up are
eaten by sheep and goats. In several of the cantons, the Cembra
forests have already disappeared, whilst in others the government has
been obliged to take steps to prevent their total destruction. In the
Val Arola, on the Riffelberg, and in other parts of the canton of
Valais, fine old trees are still numerous, but felling is going on
recklessly, and in many areas the number of stumps of felled trees
exceeds the number of plants coming up to replace them. Moreover,
whilst a few seedlings struggle through the protecting undergrowth,
yet they seem to be destroyed by some cause before attaining any
great height. The storm-tossed Cembras riven by lightning, decapitated
by falling boulders, maimed and mutilated by winter storms and snows,
riddled by pine beetles, and subject to numberless other evils, valiantly
struggle to repair the injuries they receive. On the whole, a
melancholy feeling attaches to ' these interesting trees, whose decadence
and ultimate extinction seem by no means remote.*

In Siberia the Cembra Pine differs but little from the Swiss type ;
in the damp swampy grounds of eastern Russia it attains a height of
100 feet, with a smooth trunk free of branches for two-thirds of the
height, above which it forms a spreading crown. Beyond the Ural
mountains it conforms to the general law of diminishing dimensions
as it approaches its northern limit, where it finally dwindles to the
low straggling bush described as the variety pumila. This form also
inhabits the highest summits of the Japanese mountains, in places
covering hundreds of acres, and spreads northwards through Yeso,
Saghalien, the Kurile Islands and Kamtschatka. The better class of
inhabitants in western and southern Siberia plant the Cembra Pine as
an ornamental tree in front of their houses and in their gardens ; it
is not known to succumb to the severe cold of that region which in
ordinary winters often sinks to — 40° C.

The economic value of Pinus Cembra -is very considerable throughout
the regions in which it abounds ; the wood is white, soft, and fine
in grain; it has also an agreeable fragrance, which is at the same
time obnoxious to insects ; it is used chiefly for indoor carpentry, for
wainscotting and upholstery, especially for lining clothes' chests, etc.
The large seeds are much eaten in Russia and Siberia where other
fruit is scarce, and an oil is expressed from them which is used for
lamps. In the Tyrol, the seeds are collected by the peasantry and
offered for sale in the fruit markets as Cembra nuts (Zirbelniisse).

Pinus Cembra was cultivated by Archibald, Duke of Argyll, in 1746,
and is thence supposed to have been introduced by him, and many
* Gardeners' Chronicle, XXIV. ser. 3 (1898), p. 236.

PINUS CEMBROIDES. 321

old and picturesque trees are to be seen in the parks of family seats
throughout the country. The chief if not the sole use of the Cembra
Pine in Great Britain is for ornamental planting, for which it is a
distinct and beautiful tree whether standing singly or in groups. Its
growth is slow, rarely exceeding a foot in one season under the most
favourable circumstances ; it requires but little room, and is always
well furnished with foliage which emits a pleasant fragrance during the
growing season.

Pinus cembroides.

A bushy tree with a short stem rarely more than a foot in
diameter and a broad round-topped head, usually 15 — 20 feet high, but in
the sheltered canons on the mountains of Arizona occasionally 50 — 60
feet high. Branchlets slender, orange-brown, and covered with deciduous
hairs, gradually growing darker till the end of four or five years,
when they are almost black and roughened with the scars of the fallen
leaves. Leaves geminate or ternate, persistent three — four years,
incurved with callous tips, 1 — 2 inches long, dark green ; basal sheath
scarious, about 0'25 inch long. Staminate flowers about 0*25 inch
long in short compact clusters, with yellow crested anthers and surrounded
by an involucre of four bracts. Cones sub-globose, sessile or very
shortly stalked, 2 — 2 -5 inches in diameter ; fertile scales rounded at
the apex, much thickened and quadrangular on the back with a
prominent horizontal keel. Seeds 0*5 — 0*75 inch long with a narrow
light brown wing. — Sargent, Silva of North America, XL 47, t. 550.

Pinus cembroides, Zuccarini, Abhand. Acad. Munich, I. 392 (1832). Endlicher'
Synops. Conif. 182. Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc. Loud. I. 236, with fig. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 460. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 397. Masters in Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 227.

P. Llaveana, Schlechtendal in Linnaea, XII. 488 (1838).

P. osteosperma, Engelmann, Bot. App. 89, to Wislizenus' Memoir.

Pinus cembroides is widely distributed over the drier mountain
systems of south-western North America between the 18th and 35th
parallels of north latitude, covering the higher slopes often unmixed
up to 6,500 feet elevation, and towards its southern limit in Mexico
up to 10,000 feet. From Arizona and Lower California it spreads
southwards over the mountains of northern Mexico as far as
Orizaba.

It is the longest known in this country of a group of Pines including
four species characterised by their low stature, short leaves, and small
globose cones of which the central scales only are fertile and bear
large edible seeds which are largely consumed throughout the dry region
which these Pines inhabit, and where they are known under the,
common name of Pinons or Nut Pines. The four species are Pinus
cembroides, P. edulis, P. monophylla and P. Parryana ; the three
first-named were introduced many years ago, but owing doubtless to
climatic causes they refuse to grow for any length of time and have
now nearly or quite disappeared from British gardens. P. Parryana is
a later introduction, and although native of a warmer climate than that
of Great Britain, grows in Devon and Cornwall much better than the
other three, and on account of its distinctness is deserving of further

322 PINUS EDULIS.

trial. The descriptions of P. edulis, P. monophylla and P. Parryana
which may properly follow here are all abridged from Professor Sargent's
monumental work "The Silva of North America," as no specimens are
known to exist in this country of sufficient age to afford satisfactory
materials for the purpose.

Pinus edulis.

A low tree, not more than 12 — 15 feet high with a short divided
trunk and round-topped broad head, rarely 30 — 40 feet high.
Branchlets stoutish, orange-brown ; buds ovate, acute, less than half-an-
inch long with light chestnut-brown scales. Leaves geminate, rarely
terriate, persistent three — four years, semi-terete or triquetral, rigid,
incurved, entire with a callous tip 0'75 — 1*5 inch long. Staminate
flowers about 0'25 inch long, in short, dense spikes, with dark red
anthers and surrounded by four involucral bracts. Cones 1 — 1-5 inch
in diameter, the larger fertile scales broadly cuneate, rounded arid much
thickened at the apex, with a transverse keel on the back, and a
small, four-angled, central knob, terminating in a concave umbo with
a minute incurved tip. Seeds about 0*5 inch long with a pale
reddish brown narrow wing.

Pinus edulis, Engelmann (1848), ex Sargent, Silva N. Anier. XL 55, t. 552.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 398. Hooker fil in Gard. Chron. XXVI (1886),
p. 300, with fig. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 252. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
XIV. 228.

Pinus edulis is distributed over the Rocky Mountain States from
southern Wyoming to New Mexico and western Texas, spreading west-
wards to the eastern borders of Utah and over the mountains of
northern and central Arizona at 6,000 — 7,000 feet elevation. The
wood is of little value except for fuel.

Pinus monophylla.

A low tree, usually 15 — 20 but occasionally 40 — 50 feet high with
a short trunk rarely more than a foot in diameter and often divided
near the ground into several stout, spreading stems. Branchlets stout,
at first light orange-brown, changing to dark brown at the end of
three or four years. Buds ovate, obtuse, about 0*25 inch long with
chestnut-brown scales. Leaves persistent four — five years, solitary and
terete, occasionally geminate and semi-terete, rigid, incurved with long-
callous tips, 1*25 — 2 -25 inches long, pale glaucous green, with a loose
basal sheath nearly 0'5 inch long. Staminate flowers oval, about
0-25 inch long, dark red surrounded by six involucral bracts. Cones
1*5 — 2 '5 inches in diameter, the fertile scales broadly oblong, rounded
at the apex, much thickened and four-angled, terminating in a truncate
or slightly concave umbo with a minute, incurved tip. Seeds full
and rounded at the base, acute at the apex, more than 0'5 inch long,
and furnished with a narrow wing.

Pinus monophylla, Torrey (1845), ex Sargent, Silva N. Anier. XL 51, t. 551.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 65, t. 9 and figs. Engelmann in' Brewer and Watson's Bot.
Califor. II. 124. Masters in Gard. Chron. XX. (1883), p. 48, with fig. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 254

P. Fremontiana, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 183 (1847).

PINUS CONTORTA. 323

Widely distributed over the south-western States. From Utah it
spreads westwards over the mountains of Nevada to the eastern slopes
of the southern Sierra Nevada. In California it is abundant on the
desert mountains of the south and south-east, crossing the boundary
into Lower California ; it is also common on the western slopes of
the Virgin Mountains of Arizona. The wood is largely used for fuel
and for the manufacture of charcoal.

Pinus Parry ana.

A tree 30 — 40 feet high with a trunk occasionally 18 inches in
diameter. The stout, spreading branches form a "compact pyramid, and
in old age a loose, round-topped, irregular head. Branchlets stout, at
first covered with a short, soft pubescence, the bark becoming dark
brown with a reddish tinge at the end of the third year. Leaves
persistent three — four years, in fascicles of three — five, but usually
four, incurved, sharp pointed with callous tips, 1'25 — 1'75 inch long,
pale glaucous green with short, deciduous, basal sheaths. Staminate
flowers in elongated spikes, about 0'25 inch long, surrounded at the
Taase by four involucral bracts. Cones 1 — 1*5 inch in diameter, the
exposed portion of the broadly oblong scales much thickened, keeled
transversely and narrowed into a central knob terminating in a truncate
nmbo with a minute recurved tip. Seeds more than 0'3 inch long
with a thin, narrow wing.

Pinus Parryana, Engelmann in Amer. Journ. Sc. ser. 2, XXXIV. 332 (1862), not
Gordon ; and Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 124. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 402. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 255. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 236.

P. quadrifolia, Sudworth (1897), ex Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XL 43. t. 549.

Pinus Parryana is abundant on the low mountain slopes of Lower
California where, in places, it is almost the only tree ; it spreads
northwards into south California where, however, it is quite rare. It
is named after Dr. C. C. Parry, one of the botanists of the Commission
appointed to establish the boundary between the United States and
Mexico.

Pinus contorta.

A small tree 5 — 15, rarely more than 30 feet high, the trunk
-covered with thin, irregularly fissured bark and much branched, the
branches often arrested in their growth and distorted by sea-winds.
In Great Britain a low, erect tree of conical outline. Primary branches
mostly horizontal, the secondaries short and more or less curved.
Branchlets with reddish brown bark, marked with the cicatrices left
by the fallen leaves, and with short cortical ridges decurrent from
them. Buds ovoid-conic, 0*5 — 0'75 inch long, with closely imbricated
ovate, obtuse perulse, often covered with a film of resin. Leaves
geminate, persistent four — five years, close-set around the distal half
of each season's growth, 1'5 — 2 inches long, semi-terete with a short
callous tip, dark lustrous green ; basal sheath loose and scarious,
0'25 inch long. Staminate flowers in short crowded spikes, sub-
cylindric, 0'5 inch long, surrounded by six involucral bracts ; anthers
yellowish brown. Cones usually in pairs, sometimes solitary or in

324 PINUS CONTOKTA.

pseudo-whorls of three, elongate-ovoid, more or less decurved,

2 2'5 inches long; scales with a thick rhomboidal apophysis marked

with a transverse ridge, from the centre of which protrudes an
awl-shaped prickle about 0*25 inch long.

Finns contorta, Douglas ex London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2292 (1838).
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 474. Parlatore, D. C. Prodi-. XVI. 381. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 232. Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 126,
Macouu, Cat. Canad. Plants, 466. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 219. Masters in Gard.
Chron. XIX. (1883), p. 45, with tig. ; and in Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 227.
Sargent, Silv.a N. Amer. XL 89, t. 567.

P. Boursieri, Carriere, Revue Hort. (1854), p. 223. Van Houtte's Flore des-
Serres, IX. 200, with fig.

P. Bolanderi, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 379 (1868).

Amer. Oregon _ Scrub Pine. The var. Murrayana : Lodge-pole or Tamarack
Pine.

var. — Murrayana.

A much taller tree with a straighter trunk, usually 70 — 80 but not

infrequently 100. — 150 feet high and 4 — 6 feet in diameter, with thin,

scaly, greyish bark, a conical head, longer leaves, and larger and more
deciduous cones.

P. contorta Murrayana, Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 126.
P. Murrayana, Balfour, Rep. Oregon Exped. 2, t. 3 (1863).

Pinus contorta inhabits the sandy dunes and exposed promontories
of the Pacific coast from Mendocino northwards to Alaska. Spreading
inland it gradually assumes the form of var. Murrayana on the
Calif ornian Sierras and on the mountains of British Columbia, Wyoming,
and around the Yellowstone National Park, in places forming pure
forests of considerable extent ; its southern limit is on the San Jacinto
mountains in south California.

As seen on the sandy dunes and sphagnum-covered bogs of the Pacific-
coast, Pinus contorta is a small scrubby tree with gnarled branches,,
narrow leaves, and oblique cones that are singularly variable on the
same tree, and which sometimes cover the tree so completely that
scarcely any foliage is visible, persisting and remaining closed for
many years. In places the trees are almost prostrate by the action
of the wind, and always when exposed to its force, have close-set
contorted branches and a dense foliage, affording effectual protection
from the wind on the land side to the more tender herbaceous-
plants. Inland it is greatly changed by its surroundings in different
localities, and becomes the tall pyramidal tree described above as var.
Murrayana.

The economic value of the typical Pinus contorta is scarcely
appreciable, as the tree does not grow large enough to afford timber.
The wood of the inland larger tree is light, straight-grained and easily
worked, but not strong and durable ; it is largely used all over the
region where it is abundant for fuel, and in places for railway ties,
and out-of-door carpentry. It is comparatively a worthless Pine as-
regards its timber, but it is covering the lands in Colorado and on
the Rocky Mountains which have been cleared of better timber trees
by forest fires, and it is thence preserving the integrity of the mountain.
slopes and protecting the flow of mountain streams.

PINUS COULTERI. 325

The species was irrst seen by Lewis and Clark during their journey
across the Rocky Mountains in 1805, .but it was not known to
science till it was discovered by David Douglas near Cape
Disappointment during his first mission to the Far West, 1825 — 1827.
There is no evidence of its having been introduced by him, and the
actual date of introduction, which must have been many years later,
does not appear to have been recorded.*

In Great Britain Pinus contorta is planted solely as a decorative
tree ; it is of slow growth, shapely, dense in habit, not taking up
much room, and clothed with a rather persistent dark foliage; the
distorted state so frequent on the Pacific coast is here altogether absent.
The variety Murrayana forms a larger tree with a more diffuse habit.

Pinus Coulteri.

A large tree 50 — 80 feet high with a trunk 3 — 5 feet in diameter,
covered with thick blackish bark deeply fissured into numerous plates
of irregular shape. Branches of almost timber-like size, long and
horizontal, often curved, sometimes towards one side and sometimes
towards the other. Brauchlets stout with rough blackish bark spirally
furrowed, the herbaceous shoots with a bluish violet tint that changes
with age to pale orange-brown. Buds ovoid-conic, terminating in a
rather slender point, 1/25 inch long; the perulsB narrowly lanceolate,
acuminate, yellowish brown. Leaves ternate, persistent two — three years,
triquetral, rigid, serrulate along the distal half and terminating in a
small mucro ; in Great Britain 9 — 11 inches long and dull greyish
green ; basal sheath more than an inch long, pale brown and smooth
but becoming much corrugated and blackish in the second year.
Staminate flowers in crowded clusters, sub-cylindric, 1'25 inch long,
straight or slightly incurved, surrounded by eight — ten involucral bracts.
Cones ovoid-conic, 9 — 12 inches long and often 6 inches in diameter
near the base and weighing five — seven pounds, in Great Britain rarely
attaining these dimensions. Scales wedge-shaped, prolonged at the
apex into a strongly incurved spine, pale yellowish brown, of very
hard ligneous texture and closely adherent. Seeds oval, compressed, with
broad wings an inch long.

Pinus Coulteri, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVII. 440 (1836). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2250, with tigs. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 67, tt. 25, 26. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 437. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 392. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 266. Lavvson, Pinet. Brit. I. 23, with figs. Engelmann in Brewer and
Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 127. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIII. (1885), p. 415,
Avith tig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 227. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 257.
Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XL 99, tt. 571, 572.

P. macrocarpa, Lindley in Bot. Reg. XXVI. misc. 61 (1840). Hoopes,
Evergreens, 115. Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 166. And others.

Pinus Coulteri inhabits the coast range of California at elevations
varying from 3,000 to 6,000 feet from Mount Diabolo and the
Santa Lucia southwards to the San Bernardino and San Jacinto

* In the former edition of this Manual it is stated at page 145 that Pinus contorta was
introduced by David Douglas in 1831 : but this is incorrect, as it had not been introduced
at the date of publication of London's "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum " in 1838.

326 PINUS DENSIFLORA.

mountains. Along the northern portion of its range it occurs only

in small groves in the midst of other coniferous vegetation ; on the

southern mountains it is more abundant and attains its largest size.

This remarkable Pine was discovered by Dr. Thomas Coulter in

1832 on the west side of the Santa Lucia at 3,000 — 4,000 feet

elevation ; but there is evidence of its having been previously seen in

the same locality by David Douglas who sent seeds and herbarium

specimens of it to the Horticultural Society of London under the name

of Pinus Sabiniana, and from these seeds were raised the oldest specimens

growing in Great Britain. Seeds were subsequently collected in the

same locality by Hartweg, 1846—1847, and by William Lobb, 1851 —

1852.

In Great Britain the largest specimens of Pinus Coulteri present a
broad outline with a rounded top ; the branches grow faster in
proportion to the trunk than in most other Pines, and the foliage
being clustered at the extremities of the branchlets the tree, has
always a bare and unfurnished appearance,. The large cones, although
a striking feature of the species, are produced too sparingly in this country
to modify the general effect. The wood is said to be useless for
constructive purposes.

THOMAS COULTER (1793 — 1843) was born near Dundalk in Ireland, and at an
early age evinced a liking for Natural History. He completed his education at
Trinity College, Dublin, where he showed a marked proficiency in Botany and
Entomology. After leaving the University he went to Geneva where he continued
his botanical studies under the elder De Candolle. In 1823 he undertook the
elaboration of the Dipsaceae which formed the basis of the monograph of the Order
subsequently published in the "Prodromus." In the following year he returned to
Ireland, and soon after accepted the position of medical officer to the Real del Monte
Mining Company for three years. He arrived in Mexico towards the end of 1824,
but scarcely anything is recorded of his proceedings until he arrived at Monterey
in 1831 where he met David Douglas, and the two worked together till the Spring
of the following year, when Douglas left for the Sandwich Islands and Coulter
proceeded on a botanical excursion to Arizona, returning again to south California and
continuing his collections till 1834, when he returned to England bringing with him over
fifty thousand specimens representing between fifteen hundred and two thousand species,
besides a collection of woods, botanical manuscripts, journals, etc. He soon after
accepted the Curatorship of the Herbarium of Trinity College whither his collections
were transferred, but all his manuscripts were, in some unaccountable way, lost in
transmission between London and Dublin. Suffering from the loss and broken in health
from the hardships he had undergone during his travels, he devoted himself for the
remainder of his life to the arrangement of his collections which, after his death,
became the property of Trinity College. Coulter was one of the most laborious
botanical collectors of his time, but no living plants were introduced by him into
Great Britain.*

Pinus densiflora.

A medium-sized tree of which the average height may be estimated
at 50 — 70 feet, but in the warm valleys of central Japan attaining a
height of 100 feet, the upper part of the trunk and the primary
branches covered with light reddish bark separating into thin scales.
In Great Britain the bark of the oldest trees is rugged and fissured
into small plates. Primary branches spreading, often curved laterally,
ramified at the distal end only. Branchlets in whorls of three — four,
but often two and opposite, relatively slender, with brownish bark

* Chiefly from the Botanical Gazette, XX. 519 (1895).

PINUS DENSIFLORA. 327

marked with the scars of the fallen leaves. Buds sub-cylindric, acute,
O5 inch long, reddish brown ; perulae lanceolate, sub-acuminate, fringed
with silky hairs, at first imbricated, afterwards loose and reflexed.
Leaves geminate, persistent three — four years, slightly twisted, with
obtuse tip, 3 — 4 inches long, dull grass-green; basal sheath 0*25 inch
long, not falling off. Staminate flowers in dense spikes 2 — 3 inches
long, sessile, ovoid-cylindric, obtuse, 0'25 inch long; involucral bracts
few, lanceolate acute, nearly as long as the staminal axis. Cones solitary
or clustered (in Great Britain usually opposite a branchlet), ovoid-conic,
1*5 — 2 inches long; scales oblong-cuneate, 0*75 inch long; apophysis
rhomboidal with a transverse ridge and sharp central umbo.

Fig. 92. A Japanese dwarfed Pine.

Pinus densiflora, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 22, t. 112 (1842).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 172 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 376 (1855) ;
ed. II. 486. Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 32, with figs. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 388. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 233. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc.
XVIII. 503 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 228. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap. Reiches, 72.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 247.

Eng. Japanese Red Pine. Germ. Japanische Rothkiefer. Jap. Aka-matsu.

Pinus densiflora is met with throughout Japan south of Yeso, but it
is found wild only on the central mountains, in places forming small
stretches on granite and volcanic debris or mixed with other
trees. On the higher slopes of Fuji-yama are large groves of singular
beauty, the trunks often rising to a height of 70 to 80 feet and free
of branches to beyond the middle, the effect being greatly heightened

328 PINUS EXCELSA.

by the brick-red tinge of the bark. Everywhere else it has
been planted by the Japanese, almost universally associated with
P. Thunbergi with which it plays an important part in the decoration
of their gardens. These Pines are dwarfed, distorted, and trained into
the most fantastic shapes, a practice which will be again adverted
to under P. Thuribergi. The wood of P. densiflora is coarse-grained
but moderately strong ; it is used for every description of carpentry
by the Japanese.

Pinus densiflora was introduced to European gardens in 1854 through
the horticultural establishment founded by Dr. Siebold at Leyden, but
it was not generally distributed in Great Britain till after 1861,
in which year seeds were brought from Japan by the late John
Gould Veitch. It occupies quite a subordinate place in British
Arboriculture ; it grows slowly in the drier climate of this country,
and possesses no especial features distinct from the common European
Pines as an ornamental tree.

As distinguished '-from Pinus Thunbergi, P. densiflora is a more
slender tree with bark of a different colour; the buds are smaller,
reddish brown (not white) with looser scales ; the leaves are thinner
and softer to the touch, the cones somewhat smaller, the scales of
which have a pungent umbo ; it also differs from P. Thunbergi in the
position of the resin canals of the leaf which are placed immediately
on the epidermis and not within the parenchyma.

Pinus excelsa.

A tree, of which the trunk varies in height according to altitude
and environment, 50 — 15Q feet, and in diameter 2 — 3 feet; bark
greyish brown fissured into small, rather regular plates about 0*25 inch
thick.* Branches spreading horizontally, the higher ones ascending;
ramification verticillate but sometimes lateral only. Branches slender
with smooth greyish brown bark, the younger growths greenish brown;
buds conic-cylindric, O25 — 0'4 inch long with lanceolate, acuminate pale
brown scales. Leaves quinate, persistent three — four years, filiform,
triquetral, with minutely serrulate margins, 5 — 7 inches long, bright
green on the convex side, greyish white on the flat sides; basal
sheath pale brown, 0*75 inch long, deciduous. Staminate flowers in
dense clusters of twenty or more, cylinclric, obtuse, O4 inch long, rose-
pink ; involucral bracts numerous, ovate, imbricated. Cones solitary
or two — three together, shortly pedunculate, pendulous, sub-cylindric,
6 — 8 inches long, at first pale purple changing to light brown when
mature ; scales elongated, wedge-shaped with a rounded apical margin,
the exposed part striated longitudinally and terminating in a small
umbo. Seeds with an oblong wing 0'75 inch long.

Pinus excelsa, Wallicli, Plant. Asiat. Rar. III. t. 201 (1832). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2285, with figs. (1838). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 75, t. 29. Link
in Linnsea, XV. 515. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 145. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 397. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 404. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 299.
Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. India, 510. Hooker fil. Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 651. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 283, with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 22.

Eng. Himalayan Pine. Fr. Pin pleureur. Germ. Thranen-Kiefer.

* Gamble, Manual of Indian Timbers, 398.

PIXUS EXCELSA.

329

Pinus excclsa inhabits the temperate Himalaya from Bhotan to
Kuram in Afghanistan with a vertical range of from 7,000 to 12,000
feet elevation. It does not occur uninterruptedly throughout this long
stretch of mountain country, but there is a break in the continuity
in Sikkim, and it is altogether absent from central and west Kumaon.
Towards its eastern limit it usually occurs on southern slopes above
Pinus longifolia and below Picea Smithiana- in western Nepal it
forms unmixed forests of great extent ; in Kashmir it is associated

Fig. 93. Pinus excclsa at The Frythe, near Welwyn, Herts.

with Cedrus Deodar a and Abies Pindrow, in Afghanistan it forms a
forest belt between 8,000 and 12,000 feet elevation where it is
reduced to a low straggling shrub ; and towards its western limit it
comes into contact with Pinus G-erardiana and Juniperus excelsa.
Pinus excelsa is the only Conifer that is spread through the entire
length of the Himalayan range, and it is one of the most valuable
timber trees of the region.

330 P1NUS FLEXILIS.

Pinus excelsa first became known to science in 1802 through
Dr. Buchanan Hamilton, who mentions it in his "Account of Nepal"
under the name of P. Strobus ; some years later it was discovered by
Captain Webb in Bhotan and afterwards by Dr. Wallich in Nepal, by whom
its specific characters were determined and by whom it was introduced
about the year 1827. It has since occupied a foremost place, in
Great Britain among the ornamental Pines for the park and landscape,
and even for the lawn where sufficient space can be allowed for it,
which should never be less than a radius of from 25 to 35 feet from
the bole. P. excelsa may now be seen throughout the length and
breadth of the land, in the warmer and more humid districts rising to
a height of 60 to 75 feet, not infrequently feathered with branches
from the ground; in the drier midland and eastern counties not so
high but with a much greater spread of branches. The illustration
represents a fine specimen of which the lowermost branches cover more
than one-eighth of an acre of ground.

Pinus flexilis.

A medium-sized tree 40 — 50 feet high with a trunk 2 — 4 feet in
diameter. In Great Britain the largest specimens at present scarcely
exceed 25 feet in height and have straight tapering trunks covered
with pale brown bark. Branches horizontal or slightly curved upwards;
the branchlets whorled or lateral only, and often in flexed towards their
primaries. Buds ovate, acute, 0*5 inch long ; perulae broadly lanceolate
with ciliolate margins, reddish brown. Leaves persistent four — five years,
quinate, somewhat distant and evenly distributed over the shoot, triquetral,
acute, 2 — 3'5 inches long, the younger leaves glaucous on the ventral
flat sides, the older ones of a uniform dark bluish green ; basal sheath
short and deciduous. Staminate flowers in short spikes, ellipsoid, 0'5
inch long, surrounded at the base by seven — nine involucral bracts.
Cones ovoid-cylindric, obtuse, 3 — 5 inches long and 1'5 inch in
diameter; scales obovate oblong, the exposed part striated and terminating
in a rather sharp edge with a small umbo at the apex. Seeds nearly
0'5 inch long, of compressed ovoid shape with a narrow persistent
wins*.

Pinus flexilis, James in Long's Exped. II. 34 (1823). Nuttall, Sylva, III. 107,
t. 112. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 39^. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI, 403.
Hoopes, Evergreens, 131, with fig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 302. Murray in Gard.
Chron. IV. (1875), p. 356, with figs. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 33, with figs.
Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 124. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 273.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 229. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XL 35, t. 546.

An alpine tree distributed over the higher slopes of the mountain
system of western North America known under the general name of
Eocky Mountains ; it has a meridional range extending from western
Texas to Alberta and British Columbia with a lateral spread into eastern
California. Its vertical range is also very great, ascending to 10,000
feet on Pike's Peak and to 12,000 feet on the Sierra Nevada, but
rarely seen below 4,000 feet above sea-level. Throughout so extensive
a range some variability in size and habit is observable at different
altitudes and in different latitudes.

PINUS GERARDIANA. 331

It is usually a small stunted tree frequently, growing singly or in
small groves among other Conifers. On the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains of Montana and on many of the ranges of central
Xevada between 7,000 and 10,000 feet altitude it is the principal and
most valuable timber tree, forming in places extensive forests. It attains
its largest size on the mountains of northern Arizona and New Mexico
where it sometimes produces cones 8 — 10 inches long. At its highest
limit on the mountains of central Xevada it is frequently reduced to
a spreading shrub two to three feet high.* The wood is light,
close-grained and compact, of a light clear yellow turning to red on
exposure.

Finns flexUis was first discovered by Dr. James who accompanied
Long's Expedition to the Eocky Mountains in 1820 — 1821 ; it was
subsequently met with in other parts of the mountain chains over
which it is spread by botanists and others who were attached to the
various Pacific Railroad explorations, and through whom it became better
known. Seeds were introduced into Great Britain by Jeffrey in 1851,
and afterwards by others, but nothing is recorded of the earlier seedlings.
The excellent specimens growing in the Royal Gardens at Kew and in
a few other places should induce a more extended trial of it for
ornamental planting in this country.

Pinus Gerardiana.

A medium-sized tree with a short round crown and grey bark peeling
off in large flakes, occasionally attaining a height of 50 — 60 feet with
a stout trunk 12 feet in girth; usually 40 — 50 feet high with
a short straight trunk free of branches to 8. — 10 feet, and with a
girth of 6 — 7 feet. Branches strong, horizontal- or decurved, and
upturned at the ends.f Ramification pseudo-whorled or sub-distichous
and alternate. Branchlets stoutish, with pale grey-brown bark. Leaves
ternate, persisting three — four years, stiffish, triquetrous, 3 — 4 inches
long, dark green ; basal sheath 0*5 inch long, entire, deciduous.
Staminate flowers not seen. Cones on short scaly peduncles, erect,
ovoid-cylindric, 6 — 9 inches long and 4 — 5 inches in diameter; scales
obtusely triangular with a spine-tipped umbo 1 — 1*5 inch long and
1 inch broad at the recurved tip. Seeds with a short caducous
wing.

Finns Gerardiana, Wallich in Lambert's Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II. t. 79 (1837).
London, Arb. et Frut, Brit. IV. 2254. Royle, Illus. Him. Plant. 353, t. 85.
Forbes, Pinet. Wobnrn, 53, t. 19. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 159. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 433. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 391. Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W.
Ind. 508, t. 67. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 268. Hooker ill, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 652.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 250. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 229.

This Pine inhabits the north-west Himalaya from Kunawar westwards,
occurring locally in the eastern portion of its range in the inner valleys
that are beyond the influence of the periodical rains. Its vertical
range is from 6,000 to 12,000 feet, the higher elevation being reached
in Kafristan and Afghanistan, where it is common and frequently
associated with the Deodar Cedar.

* Garden and Forest, V. 1 ; and X. 162.
t Brandis, Forest Flora of North-west India, 508.

332 PINUS HALEPENS1S.

As seen in the Knram district, Pinus Gerardiana is a very handsome
tree that does not branch as Pines usually do, the trunk and branches
being more like those of a well-formed Oak. It is easily recognised
at a distance by its nearly white ash-grey bark which, on close
examination, is seen not to be of one colour but consists of patches
of all tints from light green to autumnal reds and browns ; this is
due to the peculiar way in which the bark falls off.* According
to Sir Dietrich Brandis, the timber is seldom used, and no part
of the tree is applied to any economic use to any extent, except
the edible seeds, large quantities of which are stored for winter use ;
these form a staple food of the inhabitants of Kunawar, being ground
and mixed with flour. An oil is extracted from them and used in
native medicines.! '

The date of the introduction of Pinus Gerardiana into Great Britain
is not accurately known. Cones were sent to England by Dr. Wallich and
others at different times, but apparently mixed with those of P. longifolia.
The first seedlings that proved to be true were raised by Messrs.
Lawson of Edinburgh and by Messrs. Low of Clapton, a short time
previous to the publication of London's " Arboretum," but which have
long since disappeared, as have most of the specimens in the south-west
of England mentioned in the former edition of this Manual. Seedlings
have been repeatedly raised in the Royal Gardens at Kew, but they
refuse to grow for any length of time. The finest existing tree in
the British Islands known to the author is in the grounds of Lord
Ardilaun at St. Anne's, Clontarf, near Dublin. The species com-
memorates its discoverer, Captain Gerard of the Bengal Native
Infantry, one of the earliest explorers of the north-west Himalaya.

Pinus halepensis.

A tree of variable height and habit, according to situation and
aspect; in the lower grounds in good soil attaining a height of
50 — 60 or more feet with a slender trunk, open head, and irregularly
disposed branches; the bark of the trunk usually smooth, greyish or
ash-coloured ; in Great Britain irregularly fissured, the fissures exposing
a reddish brown inner cortex. On the arid, rocky shores of the
Mediterranean Sea often in the form of a large spreading bush with
the branches sometimes curiously distorted by the wind. Branchlets
slender with the foliage clustered at the extremities; buds small,
conic-cylindric ; perulse deltoid, acuminate, with lacerated margins.
Leaves geminate, sometimes ternate, persistent about two years, filiform
with short callous tips, 2 '5 — 3 '5 inches long, dark green ; basal sheaths
whitish, about 0*5 inch long, but soon becoming corrugated and brown.
Staminate flowers in dense clusters of thirty— forty or more, from
one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch long, reddish brown. Cones shortly
pedunculate, usually solitary but sometimes two — three together,
cylindric-conic, 2 — 3 inches long, yellowish brown, often with a greyish
tinge ; scales broadly oval-oblong, abruptly cuneate at the base, the
apophysis rhomboidal with a transverse keel. Seeds small with a
lenticular wing.

* Aitchison in Journal of the Liimean Society, XVIII. 97.
t Forest Flora of North-west India, 509.

PINUS INOPS. 333

Finns halepensis, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 8 (1768). Lambert, Genus Pinus, L
t. II. (1803). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2231, with tigs. Forbes, Pinet,
Woburn, 25, t. 8. Link in Lmniea, XV. 496. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 180.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 383. Gordon, Pinet,
ed. II. 236. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 695. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 223. Masters in
Gard. Chron. XXII. (1884), p. 552, with fig. ; and Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 238..
And many others.

Pinus halepensis is spread almost continuously throughout the
Mediterranean region from Portugal to Palestine and Egypt, and
eastwards into the Trans-Caucasian provinces of Russia as far as
Georgia ; it is also common in west and south Anatolia, covering
the sand dunes of the Cilician coast westwards from Mersina. Its
association with the maritime scenery of the region, especially with
classic structures of ancient, and sacred buildings of medieval times-
has frequently attracted notice. In photographs of Greek temples
this Pine occurs singly or in small groups with picturesque effect
as regards its surroundings, but individually of no especial beauty; as
thus represented it usually has a slim trunk bare of branches for
more than one-half of its height with a gaunt crown of short
irregularly disposed branches clothed with a sparse foliage tufted at
the extremities of the branchlets.

Pinus halepensis has been in cultivation in Great Britain since the
beginning of the eighteenth century, but owing to climatic causes it
is now but rarely seen in this country; the few specimens still
standing in the Royal Gardens at Kew and other places have to
sustain a continuous struggle with British winters to which, doubtless,
they will ultimately succumb. In the Australian colonies where it
was introduced many years ago, P. .halepensis grows faster and attains
a larger size than in its native habitat, but it has the same
unfurnished aspect. There are specimens in the Botanic Gardens of
South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales from 70 to 80 or
more feet high.

The economic value of Pinus lialepensis in southern Europe and
the Levant is locally considerable ; the wood is white, with a fine
grain, and is used for joinery in Provence and Piedmont ; the resinous
products are in places much utilised and yield, it is said, a finer
turpentine than P. Pinaster, The late M. Carriere strongly
recommended the planting of P. halepensis near the sea in the south
and south-west of France, especially in places where no other tree will
thrive ; on rocks almost denuded of soil, and in places where no-
native plant will take root this Pine will grow ; it supplies excellent
fire-wood to the peasantry throughout the region.

Pinus inops.

A tree of variable height and habit ; at its greatest development
with a trunk 75 — 100 feet high and 2 — 3 feet in diameter near the
ground ; on the Atlantic littoral of the United States much less. In
Great Britain a short-lived, medium-sized or low tree rarely exceeding
40 feet in height, oftener much less, the trunks sometimes forked at
a short distance from the ground, slender, with dingy brown bark

334 PINUS KORAIENSIS.

fissured into numerous oblong plates. Primary brunches short, mostly
horizontal, often curved or tortuous ; branchlets opposite or in whorls
of three — four, the bark of the herbaceous shoots tinged with glaucous
violet. Buds small, fusiform, reddish brown, often covered with a film
of whitish resin. Leaves geminate, persistent three — four years, more
or less twisted, mucronate, with scaberulous margins, 2 — 2 '75 inches
long, dark green ; basal sheath O4 inch long, falling off the second
year. Staminate flowers in crowded clusters, 0*5 inch long, surrounded
at the base by seven — nine involucral bracts ; the anther connective
reniform and fimbriated. Cones solitary or in whorls of two— four,
ovoid-cylindric, 2 '5 — 3 inches long and 1 — 1*25 inch broad near
the base; scales oblong-cuneate, the thickened apex with an 'acute
transverse ridge and armed with a short straight prickle at the middle.
Seeds small, with a narrowly oblong wing.

Finns inops, Solander ex Alton, Hort. Kew. ed. I, Vol. III. 367 (1789). Lambert,
Genus Finns, I. t. 13 (1803). Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 58, t. 4 (1810).
London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2192, with figs. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 15, t. 1
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 167. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 471. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI 380. Hoopes, Evergreens, 84. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II 238. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 215. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc XIV. 230. And many others.

P. virginiana, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 9 (1768).* Sargent, Silva N. Amer.
XI. 123, t. 587.

Eng. New Jersey Pine. Amer. Scrub Pine. Fr. Pin chetif. Germ. Jersey- Kiefer.

The geographical range of Pinus inops extends from the Hudson
river southwards through the Atlantic States to the valley of the
Savannah in central Georgia, spreading westwards through Kentucky
to southern Indiana where it attains its greatest development.

In the Atlantic States Pinus inops is a small tree for the most
part of a stunted and unshapely habit, covering the barren lands
and spreading rapidly over fields exhausted by agriculture ; in this
region it is used only for fuel. West of -the Alleghanies it attains
a timber-like size, and its wood is used for various kinds of carpentry,
especially in connection with water-works. The date of introduction
into Great Britain does not appear to have been recorded ; it was
cultivated by Philip Miller in the "Physic" garden at Chelsea in 1739.

Pinus koraiensis.

A medium-sized tree, usually 40 — 50 feet high, occasionally much
higher, with a more or less elongated pyramidal head, the trunk
covered with reddish grey bark peeling off in scaly plates 4 — 5 inches
long and about half as broad. In Great Britain the bark of
the oldest trees is either smooth or more rarely marked with
resinous blisters in transverse lines. Branches stoutish, spreading or
ascending; branchlets in whorls of three — four; buds small with pale
brown perula?. Leaves quinate, crowded along the distal half of the
shoot, persistent three — four years, slender, almost filiform, triquetrous,
3*5 — 4*5 inches long, green on the convex side, with five — eight
whitish stomatiferous lines on the flat sides. Staminate flowers
clustered, sub-cylindric, 0'5 — 0*75 inch long, pale rose-pink. Cones erect,

* Miller's name is thence the most ancient, Itut as it was not taken up by any subsequent
authors for more than a century attenvards, the inexpediency of reviving it is sufficiently
evident.

PINUS KORAIENSIS.

335

sub-sessile, ovoid-cylindric, obtuse, 4 — 5 inches long, and 2 '5 — 3 inches
in diameter near the base ; scales broadly rhoniboid-cuneate, reflexed at
the apex, rugose or striated. Seeds relatively large with a narrow
rudimentary wing.

Finns koraiensis, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 28, t 116, excl. figs 1 — 4
(1842). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 140 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 385.
Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 1, with tigs. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 404.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 306. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 504 ; and Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 234. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 280, with fig. Mayr, Abiet.
des Jap. Belches, 73, t. V. fig. 18

Eng. Corean Pine. Germ. Korea- Ziirbel. Jap. Chosen-matzu.

An eastern Asiatic species
spread over the Corea, parts
of China and Japan. It has
been asserted by several
authors that it is not endemic
in the last named country,
but an introduced plant from
the neighbouring peninsula
of Corea ; Dr. Mayr, how-
ever, found this Pine scattered
through the mountain forests
of Japan, notably at Kisso,
and on Mount Kotzuke, in
situations where the trees
could not have been planted
by the hand of Man, nor is
their presence in these places
to be accounted for by any
circumstances arising out of
the length of time that
this Pine has been cultivated
by the Japanese.* Its pre-
sence in a wild state in
Corea was verified by Mr.
James Herbert Veitch during
his adventurous journey
through the country in 1892 ;
he saw it in several locali-
ties, notably on the Diamond
mountains where it is very abundant. In 1899 it was gathered
by Messrs. Veitch's botanical collector, E. H. Wilson, in Yuen-Chiang,
in south China, a locality so remote from Corea as to indicate an
extensive* distribution of this species.

Fig. 94. Cone of Pinus koraiensis.

Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches, loc. cit.

336 PINUS LAMBERTIANA.

Finns koraiensis sometimes attains imposing dimensions in Japan ;
one standing near a monastery in Kikko is nearly 100 feet high,
with a trunk three feet in diameter, but in Japanese gardens it is
generally much less. It was introduced into Great Britain, in 1861,
by the late John Gould Veitch ; its growth in this country is
relatively slow, but the tree is quite hardy almost everywhere, and
should be selected for ornamental planting where the larger Pines are
unsuitable, except in dry, sandy or heavy wet soils. Good specimens
are growing in places so t widely apart as the Royal Gardens at Kew,
Ochtertyre in Perthshire, Fota Island near Cork, and Hamwood in
Co. Meath. Nothing is known of the quality of the Avood, which in
Japan is too scarce to be available for use.

Pinus Lambertiana.

'A gigantic tree, with an almost cylindrical trunk 150 — 300 feet
high, and 10 — 15 feet in diameter, usually free of branches for two-
thirds of its height. Bark smooth, ash-brown, fissured into small, oblong
plates. Branches spreading, or more or less deflexed ; the branchlets
short and flexible, the whole ramification forming an elongated,
pyramidal crown. Buds sub-fusiform, with an acute point at the
apex ; perulse closely imbricated, lanceolate, red-brown, downy at the
edges. Leaves quinate, persistent four — five years, triquetrous,
mucronate, scaberulous along the margins, 3 — 5 inches long, bright
green on the convex side, with three — six stomatiferous lines on each
of the flat sides ; basal sheath short, deciduous, usually split into
three teeth at the margin. Staminate flowers in rather dense spikes,
surrounded at the base by ten — fifteen involucral bracts, cylindric,
0'5 inch long, light yellow brown. Cones pendulous, cylindric,
tapering at the apex, 15 — 20 or more inches long, and 3— 3 '5 inches
in diameter ; scales somewhat fan shaped, 2 -5 inches long, and
1*75 inch broad. Seeds about 0:5 inch long, with a dark brown
roundish oblong wing as long again as the seed.

Pinus Lambertiana, Douglas, Trans. Linn. Soc. XV. 500 (1828). Lambert,
Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. I. 57, t, 34. Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2288,
Avith figs. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 77, t. 30. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 150.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 403. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 486. Hoopes,
Evergreens, 134. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 30. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 47, t. 7 and
figs. Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 123. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 294. Masters in Gard. Chron. I. s 3 (1887), p. 772, with fig. ; and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 231. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XI. 27, tt. 542, 543.

Eng. and Amer. Sugar Pine. Fr. Pin gigantesque. Germ. Riesen-Kiefer,
Zucker-Kiefer. Ital. Pino zucchero.

Pinus Lambertiana occurs throughout the States of Oregon and
California from the Columbia river to the San Jacinto mountains,
whence it passes into Lower California, reaching its southern limit on
Mount San Pedro. It is an alpine tree that follows the Cascade and
Sierra Nevada mountains with a vertical range of 2,500 — 8,000 feet
elevation and also the trend of the coast range as far as the Santa
Lucia mountains near Monterey ; its best development being attained
at 5,000 — 6,500 feet. It does not form pure forests but is usually

PINUS LAMBERTIANA. 337

mingled in small isolated groves with the Redwood, Pinus ponder osa
and Abies concolor, and towards its northern limit it is mixed with
Abies grandis, Thuia yigantca, and other coniferous trees.

Pinus Lambertiana is the loftiest of all Pines ; its column-like,
perpendicular trunk towers in some places to a height of 300 feet,
thus rivalling the stature of the gigantic Sequoias with which it is in
places associated; the usual height, however, ranges from 120 to
250 feet. As seen at a distance on the western slopes of the Sierra
Xevada its aspect is that of a tall column " with a lanky contour
and sparse ramification, wanting the picturesqueness of P. ponderosa
and the bulk in proportion to height of a Sequoia,"* but when
approached nearer this unfavourable impression is modified by the
strikingly beautiful living cones which hang from the tips of the
branches, bending them by their weight, and which, in the sunshine,
sparkle like pendents of diamonds owing to the high refractive- power
of the resin that copiously exudes from them and hangs in drops from
the scales.

The timber yielded by Pinus Lambertiana is of excellent quality ; the
wood is . solid, straight-grained, very fragrant and easily worked ; it does
not crack or warp, and is on that account much used for cabinet work
and indoor carpentry. The sap that exudes from the trunk when cut or
wounded thickens into a whitish substance with a' sugar-like flavour,
whence this tree has obtained the name of the Sugar Pine. The Indians
sometimes utilise the exuded substance for food, but it is not much
relished by the whites ; the seeds too are eaten by the Indians. On
account of its valuable timber the destruction of the Sugar Pine has
been rapid and often wanton, but by the recent enactment of sufficiently
stringent laws, it is now more or less secure against criminal waste.
Nevertheless seedlings and young trees are scarce 011 account of the seeds
being devoured in prodigious quantities by squirrels, parrots, crows, and
other animals.

The Sugar Pine was discovered by David Douglas in south-west
Oregon in October 1826, and was introduced by him in the following
year. He had previously seen one of its large cones which had been
brought to him by an Indian, and this induced him to make an
excursion southwards for the express purpose of gathering cones and
seeds ; during the journey he suffered great hardships, arid Avhen
securing his first cones he was in danger of losing his life from the
hostility of the Indians. Pinus Lambertiana has now been a denizen of
the British Isles for more than seventy years; in the drier and colder
climate of this country it shows no indication of rivalling the gigantic
dimensions of its parents in western America ; its growth is slow and the
best specimens have for the most part an irregular outline caused by the
furcation of the trunk at an early age and by the unequal development
of the branches.! To ensure a good specimen of this noble tree it
should be planted in a situation sheltered from winds blowing from the

* Sir J. D. Hooker in Gard. Chron. XXIII. (1885), p. 11.

t The largest specimens of Pinus Lambertiana known to the author are : — In England
fit Bayfordbury, Hertford ; Dropmore, Eastnor Castle, Elvaston Castle, Kenfield Hall,
Canterbury ; Tortworth Court, Revesby Abbey. In Scotland at Keir and Methven Castle,
Perthshire ; and at Poltalloch in Argyllshire. In Ireland at Woodstock Kilkenny ; and
Powersconrt, Wicklow.

338 PIN US LARICIO.

north, north-east, and east, and a clear space having a radius of not less
than from 25 to 30 feet should be allowed for it.

The specific name was given by Douglas, in compliment to Mr. A. B.
Lambert, a munificent patron of science, and the author of a beautifully
illustrated folio work entitled "The Genus Pinus." This work, together
with the encouragement he gave to the discovery and introduction of
new kinds, has associated Mr. Lambert's name with coniferous plants.

AYLMER BOURKE LAMBERT (1761 — 1842), the only son of Edward Lambert of
Boyton House, Heytesbury in Wiltshire, was born at Bath. He was educated at
St. Mary's Hall, Oxford, and early devoted his attention to Botany. He was one of
the founders of the Linnean Society, of which he was one of the Vice-Presidents ; he
was also a Fellow of the Royal Society. When he came to his paternal estate, he
formed a large herbarium, which was for many years under the charge of David Don.
This collection, as well as Mr. Lambert's extensive library, was made available to all
men of science. There was an open reception of scientific men every Saturday at
Mr. Lambert's house. He was anxious to encourage science, and his ample means
enabled him to gratify his taste in this respect. For many years his health was.
feeble, and he retired to Kew, where his proximity to the Royal Gardens afforded the
means of gratifying his botanical tastes. Besides the work above mentioned, he
published a description of the genus Cinchoiia, and contributed many papers to the
' ' Transactions of the Linnean Society. " After his death his herbarium was sold by
public auction, when a small portion of it was purchased for the British Museum.

Pinus Laricio.

A lofty tree 80 — -120 or more feet high with a relatively slender
trunk and open pyramidal crown ; in old age often with a rounded
or umbrella-like top. Bark of trunk dark grey, rugged and fissured
into irregular, thinnish plates, which on being cast off, expose a smooth,
pale reddish brown inner cortex. Branches spreading or deflexed,
often upturned at the ends. Branchlets stoutish, at first pale green
changing to reddish brown at the end of the second year. Buds conic,
acute, 0'5 — 0'75 inch long, with lanceolate, acuminate, reddish brown
peralee fringed with silky hairs. Leaves geminate, persistent three — four
years, semi-terete, with serrulate margins and rather obtuse apex, 4 — 6
inches long, rigid or waved, dark green ; basal sheath 0*5 inch long,
whitish ; shorter, darker and corrugated the second year. Staminate
flowers densely clustered, cylindric, 1 — 1'5 inch long, pale yellow.*
Cones solitary or two — three together, conic-cylindric, 2 — 3 inches long,
and usually a little more than an inch in diameter above the base ;
scales oblong, the apical thickening rhomboidal with a transverse keel
and a small central depression in which is a minute pyramidal uinbo.

Pinus Laricio, Poiret, Diet. Encycl. V. 339 (1804). Lambert, Genus Pinus,
ed. II. Vol. I, 9 (1828). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2200, with figs. Link in
Linnfea, XV. 494. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 178. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 491.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 386. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 239 Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. I. 55, t. 8. Willkomm. Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 226. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 697.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 238, with fig. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. (1884), p 18,
with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 232. And many others.

Eng. Corsican Pine, Larch Pine. Fr. Pin de Corse, Laricio de Corse. Germ.
Schwarzkiefer. Ital. Pino di Corsica.

var . — austriaca.

In Great Britain usually a smaller tree of denser habit, with stouter
and longer horizontal branches, and shorter but stouter and more rigid
leaves of a darker green. In the forests of Austria attaining dimensions

* The staminate and ovuliferous flowers of Pinus Laricio are fully described in pp. 37 38

PINUS LAKICIO. 339

equalling those of the typical form on the mountains of Corsica, denuded of
branches for more than half the height and with a dome-shaped crown.

P. Laricio var. austriaca, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 179. P. austriaca, Hoss,
Monogr. der Schwarzfbhre, Wien (1831). London, Arb. et Fmt. Brit. IV. 2205.
P. Laricio nigricans, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 387. P. leucodermis Antoine.
Austrian Pine. Pin noir d'Autriche. Oesterreichische Schwarzkiefer, etc

var. — monspeliensis.

A more slender tree with more slender leaves of a brighter green ;
the bark of the branchlets with a more decided orange-red tinge than
in any of the Laricio forms; the habit of the tree during the first
twenty — thirty years an elongated pyramid, which, with the bright
green foliage, gives it a distinctive character among Pines.

P. Laricio var. monspeliensis,* Beissner, Nadelholzk. 242. P. pyrenaica, Gordon
Pinet. ed. II. 255 (not Lapeyrouse). P. Laricio tenuifolia, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 387. P. Laricio leiophylla, Christ. Europ. Abiet. 15.

var. — Pallasiana.

A broader tree with stout branches springing from near the ground
which sometimes ascend parallel with the trunk, but more frequently
(in dry localities) spread out so as to impart to the tree a broadly
pyramidal habit. The terminal buds more elongated than in the
typical Pinus Laricio, the leaves frequently longer and more slender,
and the cones larger and of more ovoid shape.

P. Laricio Pallasiana, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 179. P. Pallasiana, Lambert,
Genus Pinus, II. t. 1. London, Arb. et Frut Brit. IV. 2206, with tigs. P. Laricio
caramanica, Spach, Hist. Veg. Phan. XI. 385. P. Fenzlii, Antoine. And many others.
Crimean or Tartarian Pine. Laricio de Caramanie. Taurische Schwarzkiefer.

The three varieties here described are geographical or climatic forms,
of which a fourth is admitted by some authors under the name of
ralabrica, but which is unknown in the British Pinetum. Besides these
climatic forms, a considerable number of deviations from them and also
from the type have appeared in the seed beds of horticulturists, as
Laricio pendula, Laricio pygmcea, austriaca aurea, etc., but none of
them are probably perpetuated in British nurseries at the present time.

The geographical area inhabited by Pinus Laricio in a wild state
comprehends central and southern Europe, and western Asia within
the same latitude ; it extends in a longitudinal direction from the
Cilician Taurus to the Sierra de Cazorla in Spain, and in a
meridional direction from the Wiener Wald to Sicily. Its distribution
over this region is very unequal, and much interrupted ; on the
mountains it forms in places pure forests of considerable extent :
in other districts it occurs in groups or groves only. The form
here regarded as the type, P. Laricio proper, grows chiefly on the
mountains of Corsica and the maritime Alps of France and Italy.
The variety austriaca is a more inland tree, spread over the Austrian
provinces of Lower Austria, Carniola, Croatia, the Banat, and also
the northern half of the Balkan peninsula. The variety monspeliensis

* This varietal name is preferred to pyrenaica, the name by which this Pine is best known
in Great Britain, to avoid confusion with the true Pinus pyrenaica.

340 PINUS LAKICIO.

represents the species in the western portion of the area of its
distribution, on the Spanish Sierras, the Pyrenees and the Cevemies ;
and Pallasiana, in the eastern portion, from the Cilician Taurus to
the mountains of Bithynia. The vertical range of P. Laricio and
its varieties varies in the different regions over which they are
spread; in Spain it is estimated to be approximately 1,000 — 3,500 feet
elevation, in Corsica 3,000—5,000 feet, on Mount Etna 4,000—6,500 feet,
in Albania 2,500 — 3,000 feet, on Olympus and the Cilician Taurus
4000—6,000 feet.

The type, Pinus Laricio proper, was introduced into Great Britain
in 1759 under the name of P. sylvestris maritima, and many fine old
trees scattered over the country attest its adaptability to the British
climate, of which one standing near the principal entrance to the
Royal Gardens at Kew is worthy of mention. The variety austriaca
was introduced in 1835 by Lawson of Edinburgh, monspeliensis about
the same time, and Pallasiana first became known in British Arboreta
towards the end of the eighteenth century.

The Corsican Pine is recommended by the best forestry authorities
for profitable planting in this country. For quality, quantity, general
utility and early maturity it may have equals, but no superiors among
the true Pines. It is constitutionally hardy, of very rapid growth,
surpassing its congeners, and a rival to the frequently diseased Larch ; of
large dimensions, attaining heights of from 80 to 100 feet, arriving at
maturity in sixty to eighty years, but will produce timber fit for any
purpose in about thirty or forty years. It is not fastidious as to soil
or situation, and excepting in spongy marsh or soft peat, there is no
description of soil not surcharged with stagnant water in which it
would not grow and produce wood of as good quality and equal
quantity, and yield as quick and profitable a return as any timber tree
extant. Its wood, when young or newly cut, is creamy white ; when
matured and seasoned, brownish yellow ; very resinous, elastic, and
tough; very durable, long grained, and though a little coarse in texture,
is easily worked and capable of receiving a tolerably good polish. It
is less subject to the ravages of insects, fungi, game or vermin than
any other Pine, which may be accounted for by the bitter aromatic
flavour with which its juices are impregnated. It is a sparse tap-
rooted Pine when in a young state, but it is not on that account
bad to transplant. If the seedling plants are transplanted .in the
autumn or whiter, after their first summer's growth, and again every
succeeding autumn or winter till removed to their permanent quarters,
the failures are nil.

The Austrian Pine is a fast-growing dense-habited tree of great
accommodative power on the poorer classes of soils and for bearing
shade ; it is one of the best of Pines for forming shelter screens
and for planting on chalk hills. The wood of the Austrian Pine is
coarser in grain than that of P. Laricio proper, and is apt to be
knotty when the trees have been grown in poor soils ; it is better
adapted for out-of-door work as rough fencing than for the better
kinds of carpentry. The varieties monspeliensis and Pallasiana are
effective park and landscape trees, for which purpose alone they should
be used in Great Britain and Ireland

PINUS LONGIFOLIA. 341

The specific name Laricio is the common name of the tree in
southern Europe. It is often called the Corsican Pine in England,
for no assigned reason except that considerable quantities of seed have
been received from the island of Corsica.

Pinus longifolia.

A large tree 100 or more feet high, with symmetrical branches high
up on the trunk forming a rounded head of light foliage, but often
stunted and gnarled. Bark rough, fissured into polygonal plates by
deep, dark-coloured furrows. Leaves ternate, persistent two — three years,
slender, 9 — 1 2 inches long, the inner face keeled so as to be nearly triquetrous,
and with a rounded convex back ; basal sheath persistent, greyish brown,
fimbriate at the edge with long fibres. Staminate flowers in crowded clusters,
cylindric, about an inch long. Cones on short stiff stalks, spreading or
recurved, solitary or in whorls of three — five, ovoid-conic, 4 — 7 inches long,
and 3 inches in diameter above the base; scales 1*5 — 2 inches long,
and 0-7 5 inch broad, the apophysis forming a spreading or recurved, obtuse,
pyramidal beak with four — six distinct rounded faces. Seeds with a thin
membraneous wing 0'75 — 1 inch long, oblanceolate obtuse, and unequal
sided. — Brandis, Forest Flora of Nortli-ivest India, p. 506.

Pinus longifolia, Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. III. 651 (1832). Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit.
IV. 2252, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif 158. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 390. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 275. Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 652.

Pinus longifolia inhabits the outer Himalaya and foot-hills from
Bhotan to the Indus at elevations ranging from 1,500 to 6,000 feet,
attaining its greatest development in Kumaon where it ascends to
7,500 feet, and is one of the most beautiful trees of the district.
It forms pure forests in many places, often with a scanty undergrowth
of Andromeda, Berberis, Khus Cotinus, and a few others.

In an economic sense, Pinus longifolia is the most valuable of the
Himalayan Coniferae to the inhabitants of the region ; the wood is
easy to work, and is extensively used on the hills for building and
out-of-door carpentry, but soon decays on exposure to the weather. It
yields large quantities of turpentine and resin, the collection of which
is an important industry of the districts in which the tree is abundant;
the stumps of the trees that have been tapped for their resinous
products are often so full of turpentine that the wood is used as
torches instead of candles in houses and mines; the bark is used for
tanning leather ; charcoal is made of the wood, and the charcoal of
the leaves mixed with rice-water is used instead of ink ; the seeds are
much eaten by the poorer inhabitants, but they have a strong flavour of
turpentine.* As may be inferred from its geographical position, this
Pine is too tender for the climate of Great Britain. According to
London it was introduced in 1801, and was long cultivated as a
greenhouse plant; its long, slender, bright green, pendulous leaves render
it a distinct and beautiful object for the conservatory, for the decoration
of which it is still occasionally used while in a young state. It has its
analogue in the beautiful P. patula of Mexico, which is hardier and
attains a large size in Devon, Cornwall and the south of Ireland.

* Brandis, Forest Flora of North-west India, loc. cit. supra.

342 PINUS MITIS.

Pinus mitis.

A tree with a slightly tapering trunk 80 — 120 feet high, but
frequently much less, with a short, pyramidal, truncate head of
comparatively slender branches that depend more or less. Bark roughish,
fissured into irregular plates. Branchlets stout, at first pale green or
pale violet and glaucescent, changing with age to reddish brown.
Buds ovoid, obtuse, about 0'25 inch long, with small orange-brown,
imbricated perulae. Leaves gemmate, frequently ternate on young trees,
persistent two — three years, flexible, slender with a cartilaginous tip
and serrulate margins, 2*5 — 4 inches long, grass-green ; basal sheath at
first white, 0'5 inch long, much shorter and lacerated the second year.
Staminate flowers in short crowded clusters, oblong-cylindric, about 0'75
inch long, with pale pink anthers and surrounded at the base by
ovate, acute, involucral bracts in about three series. Cones in pairs
or in clusters of three — four, ovoid or cylindric-ovoid, shortly stalked,
1*5 — 2 '5 inches long and a little more than an inch in diameter near
the base; scales obovate-cuneate with but a slightly thickened apophysis
terminating in a transverse ridge with a short pale, pyramidal umbo.
Seeds prism-shaped, with a pale brown fragile wing about 0*5 inch
long.

Pinus mitis, Michaux, Hist. Arb. Anier. I. 52, t. 3 (1810). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. -IV. 2195, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 167. Carriers, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 472. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 243. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 216.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc XIV. 233. And others.

P. echinata, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 12 (1768).* Sargent, Silva of N. Amer.
XI. 143, t. 587.

P. variabilis, Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. 22, t 15 (1803). Pursh, Fl Amer. 643.

Eng. Soft-leaved Pine. Amer. Yellow Pine, Short-leaved Pine, Spruce Pine.
Fr. Pin jaune, Pin-Sapin. Germ. Glatte-Kiefer, Fichten-Kiefer, Gelb-Kiefer.

finus mitis is the most widely distributed of the Pines of eastern
North America. From New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania it
spreads southwards to northern Florida and westwards to the
Mississippi river. " West of the Mississippi river it is most
abundant and attains its noblest size, often forming pure forests
over great areas in its range from north-eastern Texas and western
Louisiana to south-western Illinois." t

The Short-leaved or Spruce Pine is one of the most valuable timber
trees of the eastern and Mississippi States; the wood is heavy, hard,
strong and coarse-grained, but varies considerably in quality and
in the thickness of its sapwood ; it is used for building purposes
generally, also for cabinet work, the interior finish of houses, car-
building, railway ties, etc. Professor Sargent states that Pinus mitis
spreads rapidly over abandoned fields in the southern and Gulf States,

* Pinus echinata is by far the oldest published name, but it was not taken up by any
author of note till the publication of Vol. XI. of Professor Sargent's Silva of North
America in 1897. There is some uncertainty respecting the identification of Lambert's
P. variabilis, some authors referring it to P. inops, others to P. mitis. As Michaux's name
has now been in continuous use for nearly a century, the great inconvenience of relinquishing
it is sufficiently obvious.

t Silva of North America, loc. cit. supra.

PINUS MONTANA. 343

which it soon covers with healthy forests, and seems destined to play
an important part in restoring fertility to the lands of those States,
and in supplying new crops of valuable timber.

Whatever may be its value and destiny in America, very little can
be said in its favour on this side of the Atlantic. It is not known
when it was introduced into Great Britain, but it was in cultivation
in 1739 and perhaps earlier ; it has rarely, if ever, been seen to
thrive for long in this country, and old trees have become exceedingly
rare. The nearest affinities of Pinus i nitis are P. inops and P. rigida,
between which it may be said to form a connecting link. Young
plants of P. mitis and P. inops are scarcely distinguishable ; the
herbaceous shoots of P. initis are sometimes violet tinted like those
of P. inops, sometimes green like those of P. rigida ; the leaves
.are frequently in fascicles of three as in P. rigida, and like that
Pine short branchlets are sometimes produced from the stem and older
parts of the branches.

Pinus montana.

Usually a prostrate or semi-prostrate shrub with crooked or gnarled
stems and branches, the former 6 — 9 or more inches in diameter, and
covered with dark brown bark ; sometimes a low tree of pyramidal
outline and spreading branches, a habit which it retains in old age.
Braiichlets short with pale brown bark, corrugated with short cortical
outgrowths below the bases of the leaf fascicles. Buds sub-cylindric,
about 0*5 inch long, with reddish brown perulss usually coated with
a film of whitish resin. Leaves geminate, persistent four — five years,
rigid, often more or less twisted, mucronate, 2 — 2*5 inches long, dull
green ; basal sheath about O5 inch long, much wrinkled, and blackish
the second year. Staminate flowers crowded in a short spike ; anthers
pale yellowish brown with an orbicular toothed connective. Cones
sessile or shortly stalked, solitary or two and three together, variable
in size and shape, those produced in Great Britain ovoid, obtuse,
1-25 — 1*5 inch long ; scales obovate-oblong, the thickened exposed apex
rhomboidal with a transverse ridge and prominent central umbo.

Pinus montana, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 5 (1768). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 386. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 209. Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 151.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 233. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 234.

P. Pumilio, Haenke, Reise ims Riesengebirge, 68 (1791). Lambert, Genus
Pinus, I. t. 2 (1803). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2186, with figs. Forbes,
Pinet. Woburn, I. t. 1. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 169. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 478.

P. Mughiis, Wildenow, Baumz. 205 (1805). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 4, 1. 2.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 244 (Mugho). P. pumilio Mughus, London, Arb. et Frut.
' Brit. IV. 2187, with figs.

P. uncinata, Ramond in D. C. Flor. Franc. III. 726 (1805). Cook-Widdrington,
Travels in Spain, II. 236. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 170.

P. humilis, Link in Abliandl. Berl. Akad. 171 (1827). Kerner in Nat. Hist.
Pi. I. 549 (Oliver's Translation). And many others.*

Eng. Mountain Pine. Fr. Pin nain. Germ. Bergkiefer, Krummholzkiefer, Zwerg-
kiefer. Ital. Pino dei Monti.

* The number of literary references to this Pine is unusually great. Very many of them
occur in local Floras, either as a description of the species, or a nomen nudutn only. In
both cases the Mountain Pine is designated under a bewildering multiplicity of names.

344 PINUS MONTANA.

The area of distribution of the Mountain Pine comprises the
greater part of the mountain ranges of central and southern Europe
from Thuringen in central Germany to Calabria in southern Italy,
and from the Sierra de Cuei^a in central Spain to the Carpathians,
the Bokovine Alps and the mountains of Servia. Its vertical
range varies from 500 to 8,000 feet elevation, the lowest limit
occurring in Silesia, and the highest in the Tyrol. On the Swiss
Alps its vertical range is from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and on the
Pyrenees from 4,500 to 6,500 feet.

The Mountain Pine in its various aspects has been studied by
Willkomm who has conclusively shown that the shrubby and arborescent
forms result from climate, altitude, soil and aspect, and that they
cannot be distinguished as varieties as the one passes imperceptibly
into the other — that the cones from different localities although
exhibiting an infinite diversity of form and size, preserve an identity
of structure and therefore all the forms must be united under one
specific name.* The different specific names under which the Mountain
Pine is still known had their origin in different localities, thus : —
Pumilio was first applied to the form that occurs on the Tnselsberg
in Thuringen and on the Carpathians, Mufjhus to the Mountain Pine
of the Tyrolese and Venetian Alps, and uncinata to that of the
Pyrenees and Spanish mountains. In British Pineta, uncinata is used
occasionally to designate the arborescent form.

The Mountain Pine exhibits some remarkable phenomena incident
on the high altitude at which it grows. The following account of it
as seen on the Tyrolese Alps is taken from Kernel's "Natural
History of Plants," Oliver's Translation, Vol, I. p. 549:—

" On the slopes of the mountains, the growing end of tl^e stem is
always directed towards the valley. The boughs and twigs which curve
upwards from the main stems are exceedingly elastic and when pressed
down stretch themselves along the ground. Since all the boughs of
the crown turn upwards, we get here a considerable accumulation, so
that in many old clumps of Mountain Pine, the numerous boughs are
so thickly crowded and so closely interwoven that progress through
them is impossible. The extensive tracts of Mountain Pine are
therefore avoided and left alone, and many of them have never been
penetrated by the foot of man during their whole existence. Frequently
these Pines grow so high that one is over-topped, even when standing
upright, by the highest prickly branches. If we mount on one of the
curved ascending boughs in order to see above the highest branches,
the bough bends down to the earth under our weight along with the
stem from which it arises, and we again sink despairingly into the sea
of dark green crowns. Just such a down-bending occurs under the
burden of the winter snow ; if then, by chance, the ordinary mantle
is added to by that from avalanches, the pressure increases so much
that the branches are pressed down to the soil. This process may go
on to such an extent, that even many branches, which in summer
stand more than a yard above the ground, lie in the winter directly

* Forstliche Flora von Deutschland und Oesterreich, ed II. (1887)

PINUS MONTEZUM.E. 345

on the soil on account of the snow pressure. When the snow melts
in the following spring and the branches are gradually lightened, they
rise up again in consequence of their extraordinary elasticity and resume
that position which they occupied in the preceding summer. In the
summer, the old leaves on the ends of the Pine branches which wave
above the ground more than a yard high, may be frequently seen
plastered over with earth and small stones, and any one knowing-
nothing of the process above described would not easily understand
how these small stones came to be found in these situations. As a
matter of fact, the soil on which the branches lie through the winter,
moistened by the snow-water, forms the adhesive agent which is so
efficient, that stones more than . half-an-inch in diameter are attached
by it to the old tufts of leaves."

The Mountain Pine was in cultivation in Great Britain prior to
1779 at which date plants were growing in the garden of Mr. John
Blackburn, at Orforcl Hall, near Warrington.* More generally cultivated
formerly than at present, it has receded before the more attractive
species introduced during the last half-century from western North
America and Japan. Clumps of Mountain Pine, both of the shrubby
and arborescent forms, may be seen in the Eoyal Gardens at Kew.

Pinus Montezumae.

A lofty tree 60 — 80 or more feet high with a rounded top when
old. Bark of trunk (as seen in England) greyish brown, rugged and
much fissured into irregular plates. Branches spreading or ascending ;
branchlets stout, much roughened with the blackish remains of the
sheaths of the fallen leaves. Buds conic, acute, an inch long, covered
with lanceolate, imbricated, brown perular scales. Leaves quinate,
persistent three — four years, triquetral, rigid, mucronate with serrulate
margins, 7 — 10 inches long, bluish green ; basal sheath .whitish,
1'25 — 1'95 inch long, with lacerated margin the first year; much shorter,
blackish and corrugated the second year. Staminate flowers in dense
clusters, cylindric, 1*25 inch long, fawn-yellow. Cones in clusters of
two — five, very variable in size even in the same locality, conic or
ovoid-conic, 2*5 — 5 inches long and 1*5 — 2 inches in diameter near the
base ; scales obovate-oblong, closely imbricated, the exposed thickened
apex rhomboidal with a transverse ridge and broadly pyramidal central
umbo armed with a short deciduous prickle.

Pinus Montezum*, Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. I. 39, t. 22 (1828).
London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2272, with tigs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 154.
Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. I. 234, with fig. ; and Pinet. ed. II. 313.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 414. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 399. Masters
in Gard. Chron. VIII. ser. 3 (1890), p. 466, with fig ; and Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 234.

P. Devoniana, P. Russelliana, P. macrophylla, Lindley in Bot. Reg. 1839, misc.
pp. 62, 63. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 152 — 154. And others.

P. Lindleyana,, Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc Lond. V. 215 ; and Pinet. ed. II. 309.

P. protuberans, P. Wincesteriana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. pp. 319 and 325.

Pinus Montezumce is the common Pine of the mountains and
highlands of Mexico between the 17th and 25th parallels of north

* Aiton, Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 314.

346 PINUS MONTEZUJVL*;.

latitude, where it has a vertical range of 4,000 — 12,000 feet elevation.
To the different conditions of climate and environment under which
it occurs throughout this region may unquestionably be assigned that
variability in aspect, in the length and colour of the leaves and in
the size and shape of the cones to which it is subject, and which
has been so fruitful in the multiplication of the specific names
given to it. Of these names the synonyms quoted above are still
in use, but they unfortunately form but a small portion of the
number that were at one time thrust upon botanists and cultivators
of coniferous trees, most of which are now properly well-nigh
forgotten. As seen on the slopes and mountain tops of the Sierra
Madre near its northern limit where it is very abundant,
P. Montczumce is a valuable timber tree with a trunk 40 to 50 feet
high and 12 to 18 inches in diameter ; further south and at lower
altitudes it exceeds these dimensions, but the wood is said to be
inferior in quality.

Pinus Montezumce was originally discovered near the city of Mexico in the
beginning of the nineteenth century by Humbolilt and Bonpland, who, how-
ever, mistook it for the P. occidentalis of Swartz, a species inhabiting the
mountains of San Domingo and Cuba. It was afterwards seen by Schiede
and other botanical explorers in Mexico, but it was not introduced till
1839, when the Horticultural Society of London received seeds from
their collector, Hartweg, and plants were subsequently distributed
among the Fellows of the Society. The belief at first entertained
that so beautiful and distinct a Pine would prove hardy in many
parts of Great Britain has not been realised. The oldest specimens
that still remain in the west and south-west of England show,
with very few exceptions, a constant struggle with climate for
existence. The two trees shown in the illustration were, at the date
of publication of this Manual, in faultless health and vigour; the
older one is in the grounds of the Eight Hon. A. H. Smith Barry
nt Fota Island near Cork, and the younger at Castlewellan, Co. Down,
the seat of the Earl of Annesley.* The species commemorates the
last unfortunate monarch of the Aztecs of Mexico who lost his life in
<i revolt of his subjects against the Spanish domination, A D. 1520.

Although the leaves of Pinus Montezumce are in bundles of five,
the species is not included in either of the sections Strobi or CembrcB
in consequence of the scales of the cone having a distinct apophysis
with a central umbo, and the leaves not being slender and flaccid
but rigid and spreading. It thence comes under Eiidliclier's section,
Pseudo-Strolus, which includes other Mexican Pines that have been
introduced into Great Britain but have proved quite unsuitable for the
•climate. Among these the three following may stiU be lingering on
in sheltered spots in Devon and Cornwall.

* Several trees of Pinus Montezumce in a more or less thriving condition are standing in
the Pinetmn of the Hon. Mark Rolle at Bicton in south Devon (under different names).
There are others at Menabilly, Cornwall ; Strete Ralegh, near Exeter ; Kitley, near
Plymouth ; Eastnor Castle, Ledbury ; Highnam Court, Gloucester ; Essendon, Hatneld,
and probably other places.

o

348 PINUS HARTWEGII.

Pinus Hartwegii.

Lindley in Bot. Reg (1339) misc. 63. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 152.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 410. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 304. Masters in
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 230.

This is described as a medium-sized tree 40 — 50 feet high with stout
spreading branches and branchlets, the latter clothed with dark green
leaves, 7 — 9 inches long, that are frequently in bundles of four ; the
cones are of ovoid shape, 4 — 5 inches long, the apophysis of the scales
with a transverse keel and depressed umbo. It is a native of the
mountains of Orizaba in central Mexico at a considerable elevation,
whence it was introduced by the Horticultural Society of London in
1839. The species, if separable from Pinus oocarpa, commemorates its
discoverer Theodor Hartweg, one of the most successful of the Society's
collectors and the introducer of several Mexican and California!! Conifers,
including Pinus patula, P. muricata, Cupressus Benthamii and
C. Goveniana.

Pinus oocarpa.

Schiede in Linneea, XII. 491 (1838). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 152. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 411. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr, XVI. 401. Masters in Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 235.

A medium-sized tree, 40 — 50 feet in height, with a spreading head
and branchlets clothed with leaves in bundles of five, 8 — 10 inches
long, and egg-shaped, fawn-yellow cones (whence the specific name)
about 2 -5 inches long and 2 inches in diameter at the broadest ; the
scales very closely imbricated with a rhomboidal apophysis keeled
transversely and the central umbo depressed. It is said to be abundant
on the mountains of central Mexico especially on the volcano Jorallo
which is covered with it up to the limit of arborescent vegetation. Pinus
oocarpa was introduced by the Horticultural Society of London at the
same time as P. Hartwegii, but it had been previously discovered by
the German explorer Schiede.

Pinus Torreyana.

Parry in Bot. Mex. Bound. Surv. 210, tt 58, 59 (1859). Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 423. Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 125.
Sargent, Silva N. Amer. X. 71, tt. 557, 558. P. lophosperma, Lindley in Gard.
Chron. (1860), p. 46. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 310.

A medium-sized tree 30 — 40 feet high with a trunk about a foot
in diameter and stout spreading branches; occasionally much larger. The
leaves, which are in bundles of five, are among the stoutest in the
genus, often a foot long and quite rigid; and the broadly ovoid cones
much resemble those of the European Stone Pine, Pinus pinea, in size,
shape and colour, but the scales of the exposed side have a much
more prominent apophysis tipped by a minute spine. Its habitat is
the most restricted of all the Xorth American Pines, being confined to
a small area in south California near the mouth of the Soledad river.
It was named by its discoverer Dr. C. C. Parry, in compliment to
Dr. John Torre y, " one of the wisest, most clear-sighted and industrious,
systematic botanists America has produced."

PINUS MONTICOLA.

349

Pinus monticola.

A tall tree 80—100 feet high, with a
trunk 4 — 5 rarely 6 — 7 feet in diameter,
furnished with slender, sub - pendulous
branches that impart to the tree a narrowly
pyramidal outline, but in old age this is
greatly modified by the greater development
of some of the uppermost branches. In
Great Britain a somewhat slender tree
of denser habit than Pinus Strolms,
which it otherwise much resembles. Bark
of trunk greyish brown, much fissured
into small plates infinitely varied in size
and shape, the deeper longitudinal fissures
exposing a chocolate-brown inner cortex.
Branches spreading or more or less
depressed ; branchlets with reddish brown
bark, bearing the scars of fallen leaves.
Buds ovoid-cylindric, sub-acute, 0'35 —
0'5 inch long, with reddish brown perulse.
Leaves quinate, persistent three — four
years, clustered round the apical half of each
season's growth, slender, 4 — 5 inches long,
trigonal, the margins .obscurely serrulate,
the dorsal convex side bright green, the
ventral flat sides marked with three —
five white stomatiferous lines ; basal sheath
deciduous, pale brown, 0'75 inch long.
Staminate flowers in dense clusters of
, twenty — thirty or more, immediately below
the apex of ' shoots of the preceding year,
cyliridric, obtuse, 0*5 inch long, pale yellow,
surrounded at the base by eight — ten
minute involucral bracts in two series.
Cones pendent, 6. — 8 inches long, sub-
cylindric, often curved, tapering to a
sub-acute point ; scales obovate-oblong,
slightly thickened and striated towards
the apex, which is tipped with a sub-
quadrangular acute umbo. Seed wings
three-fourths of the length of the scale,
narrowly oblong, rounded on one side.

Pinus monticola, Don in Lambert's Genus Pinus, III. t. 87 (1837). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit IV. 2291, with tigs. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 81, t. 31. Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 148. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 401. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 405.
Hoopes, Evergreens 135. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 314. Engelmami in Brewer and
Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 123. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 69, with figs. Sargent in
Garden and Forest, V. (1891), p. 1, with fig. ; and Silva N. Amer. X. 26, tt. 540,
541. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 293. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 235

P. Strobus var. monticola, Nuttall, Sylva III. 118 (1849).

P. porphyrocarpa, * Murray in Lawson's Pinet. Brit. I. 83, with figs.

* Distinguished from the typical Pinus monticola by its young cones being purple instead
of pale green. Known only from a tree cultivated in Scotland.

Fig. 95. Cone of
Pinus monticola.

350 PINUS MURICATA.

Pinus monticola is spread over all the mountain ranges of
western North America lying between the 36th and 50th parallels
of north latitude from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific
Ocean. It attains its greatest size and is most abundant at 2,000
— 2,500 feet elevation around Lake Pend d'Oreille in north-west
Montana ; in British Columbia it is less abundant and generally
mixed with other coniferous trees ; on the Cascade range it
ascends to 5,000 feet, and on the Californiaii Sierras to nearly
10,000 feet. The wood is very light, soft, close- and straight-grained,
and is used for the same purposes as the White Pine of the eastern
States (P. Strains)*

Pinus monticola was originally discovered by David Douglas in 1831,
and introduced by him shortly afterwards to the garden of the
Horticultural Society at Chiswick, but in extremely restricted numbers.
It was not generally distributed over Great Britain till a quarter of a
century later, when a large number of plants were raised from seeds
collected by Jeffrey, Lobb, Bridges and others, between 1851 and 1855.
It is perfectly hardy and well suited for this country, growing most
freely in the more humid climate of parts of Scotland and Ireland.
Exceptionally fine specimens are to be seen in Perthshire, notably
at Scone Palace (over 75 feet high), The Cairnies, Keir House,
Abercairney, near Crieff; and especially in the grounds of Murthly Castle
where it has been planted in considerable numbers, the tallest now over
80 feet high, but some of the trees have unfortunately become
infested with a destructive fungus which has necessitated the felling
of some of the finest specimens. t In Ireland there is a superb
specimen at Ham wood, Co. Meath, and one of smaller dimensions
at Woodstock, Kilkenny. In the drier climate of England P. monticola
grows more slowly, but many excellent specimens bear witness to
its usefulness as a lawn and park tree, notably those at- Orton Hall,
Peterborough ; Revesby Abbey, Boston ; Keufield Hall, Canterbury ;
Adhurst St. Mary, Petersfield ; and other places.

Pinus muricata.

A medium-sized tree of varying height, 25 — 50 or more feet with a
slender trunk 1 — 2 feet in diameter covered with reddish brown,
roughish bark which becomes very thick in trees protected from the
sea- wind. Branches spreading, in Great Britain usually of very unequal
development, irregularly ramified and often bent; branchlets mostly short
with pale brown bark roughened by the scars of the fallen leaf-fascicles.
Buds ovoid-conic or cylindric-conic, acute, 0'5 — 1 inch long, dark reddish
brown, often covered with a film of resin; the perulae lanceolate, acute
and closely imbricated. Leaves geminate, persistent two — three years,
semi-terete, rigid, 3*5 — 5 inches long, the basal half of the young leaves
light yellow-green, the apical half grass-green, the whole of a uniform
dark green the second year ; basal sheath smooth, pale brown, 0'5 inch

* Silva of North America, XI. 24.
t James Laurie in Gard. Chron. XXIII. ser. 3 (1898), p. 244.

PIN US M URIC AT A. 351

long ; shorter, darker and lacerated the second year. Staminate flowers
in an elongated spike, 3 — 4 inches long, oval, about O5 inch long,
pale yellow; iiivolucral bracts six — eight, linear-lanceolate, chestnut-brown.
Cones in whorls of five — six or more at the base of the current
year's shoots and persisting many years, obliquely and broadly ovoid,
obtuse, 3 — 3 '5 inches long and about 1/5 inch broad above the base,,
composed of very hard, enduring, closely adherent scales of which the
exposed swollen apex is of rhomboidal shape with a transverse keel
enlarged at the centre into a strong sharp prickle.

Pinus muricata, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 441 (1836). Lambert, Genus-
Finns, ed. III. t. 84. London, Arb. et Frtit. Brit. IV7. 2269, with tig. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 443. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 379. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
246. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXI. (1884), p. 49, with figs. ; and Jonrn. R,
Hurt. Soc. XIV. 235. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 213. Sargent, Garden and Forest,
X. 232,' with fig. ; and Silva N. Amer. XI. 139, tt. 585,' 586.

P. Edgariana, Hartweg in Jouin Hort. Soc. Lond. III. 217, 226 (1848).

Eng. Bishop's Pine.* Amer. Prickle-coned Pine, Obispo Pine. Germ, Bischofs
Kiefer.

Pinus muricata is a maritime Pine found wild only in the vicinity
of the Californian coast exposed to the fogs and winds from the
Pacific Ocean. From Mendocino its northern limit and where it
attains its largest size, it spreads southwards with numerous
interruptions to San Luis Obispo and thence into Lower California
where it finds its southern limit. South of Monterey it occurs only
in clumps or copses on the parched and sandy coast of the region^
It was first described by Don in the " Transactions of the Linnean
Society" from specimens gathered by Coulter in the neighbourhood of
Monterey in 1832 ; it was introduced by the Horticultural Society
of London in 1846 through Hartweg who named it P. Edgariana in
compliment to Mr. Thomas Edgar, the Treasurer of the Society
on the assumption that the species was new to science and
horticulture.

Not much can be said of Pinus muricata as a tree for the parks
and landscapes of Great Britain. The oldest specimens are medium-
sized or low trees with flattened tops and straggling curved or crooked
branches but sparsely ramified and with the foliage clustered at the
extremities of the branchlets. A peculiarity of P muricata but which
it possesses in common with P. punyens, P. Pinaster and a few
others is the persistency of its hard prickly cones which remain on
the tree for an indefinite time or so long as the branch remains
uninjured, without shedding their seeds; twenty-four clusters of
cones have been counted along a single branch of one of the
oldest trees in England, and as many as thirty such clusters have been
observed on trees in California. The wood is resinous, light and coarse-
grained, and of little use except for fuel, except near its northern
limit when it is occasionally used for out-of-door carpentry. The
specific name, from murex, a sharp point or prickle, refers to the
sharp spines with which the cones are armed.

* An inappropriate name, a corruption of Obispo Pine and not connected with any
ecclesiastical dignitary.

352 PINUS PALUSTKIS.

Pinus palustris.

A tall tree with a trunk 50 — 100 or more feet high and 1-5 — 3 feet
in diameter near the ground, covered with reddish brown bark fissured
into oblong plates, and "with a massive tap-root penetrating deep into
the ground and thick lateral roots spreading widely near the surface."
Branches thick, spreading horizontally, sometimes attaining a length of
20 feet, but generally less even when the trees are not crowded, often
gnarled or curved, and imparting to the tree an unsymmetrical habit.
Branchlets stoutish, prominently marked with short-keeled, cortical
outgrowths spirally arranged around them. Buds sub-conic, acute,
1 -5 — 2 inches long ; the perulae lanceolate, acuminate, with ciliate
margins, and reflexed at the apex. Leaves ternate, sometimes pseudo-
geminate by the cohesion of two, persistent two — three years, 7 — 10
inches long, triquetrous, mucronate, with minutely serrulate margins,
bright grass-green; basal sheath 1 — 1'25 inch long, much shortened
and lacerated the second year. Staminate flowers densely clustered,
cylindric, incurved, 1'5 — 2 inches long, rose-purple. Cones ovoid-cylindric
or cylindric-conic, 6 — 9 inches long and 2 — 3 inches in diameter near
the base ; scales oblong, 2 inches long, reddish brown, the apophysis
rhomboidal with a transverse keel and low pyramidal umbo in the
centre terminating in a sharp prickle. Seeds oval, with a narrow
elongated wing nearly as long as the scale.

Pinus palustris, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 14 (1768). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I.
t. 20 (1803). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 59, t. 22. Link in Linnsea, XV. 507. Mohr
in Garden and Forest, I. 261. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc XIV. 236. Sargent,
Silva N. Amer. XL 151. tt. 589, 590.

P. australis, Michaux, Hist. Arb. Airier. I. 64, t. 6 (1810). London, Arb. et Frut.
Brit. IV. 2255, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 165. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed II. 450 Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 392. Gordon. Pinet, ed. II. 260.

Eng. and Amer. Long-leaved Pine, Southern Pitch Pine.

Pinus palustris is almost the sole ingredient of the immense forests
stretching uninterruptedly along the Atlantic seaboard from south-east
Virginia to the Everglades in Florida, and also along the northern
littoral of the Gulf of Mexico as far as Trinity Valley in south
Texas. This belt, known in the United States as the southern
" Pine Barrens," varies from 80 to 125 miles in breadth in the
Atlantic States, but is much narrower " along the Gulf coast ; it is
estimated to have once covered upwards of 130,000 square miles, an
area greater than that of Great Britain and Ireland, and to have
represented an amount of wealth which if properly husbanded would
have made the States of South Carolina and Georgia among the
richest in the Union. But "invaded from every direction by the
axe, a prey to fires which weaken the mature trees and destroy
the tender saplings, wasted by the pasturage of domestic animals,
and destroyed for the doubtful profits of the turpentine industry,
the forests of Long-leaved Pines appear hopelessly doomed to lose
their commercial importance at no distant day." :

* Silva of North America, XL 156.

PIN US PAKVIFLOHA. 353

1C very evening during the collecting season (in Carolina and Georgia)
the sky is illumined by a dull red glare, and in the daytime the
horizon is obscured by a thick veil of smoky haze. This is caused
by the turpentine workers. They leave immense areas of land, robbed
not only of its natural resources, but in a worse condition for cleaning
and culture than before their invasion. The loss from fire is
enormous ; the turpentine workers are so careless and indifferent as to
allow fires to run through the tracts they have worked. The
resin on the scarified surface of the trees burns like kerospne ; a
spark, a blaze, and all at once a disastrous conflagration sweeps
through the Pine forests with great fury, destroying millions of
feet of marketable timber, and leaving hundreds of acres a scene of
awful ruin.*

Pinus palustris is by far the most valuable Pine of the Atlantic
States, and it is still the most abundant. It supplies nearly the
whole of the turpentine, pitch, tar and resin of American commerce
as well as for home consumption, and its timber is used for all
sorts of constructive purposes, including ship-building, house carpentry,
fencing, railway ties, etc. The wood is heavy, very hard, strong
and durable, but somewhat coarse -grained.-)- The valuable Pitch Pine
used in Great Britain for roofing and other constructions is obtained
wholly from this tree. The tops of young saplings with their tufts
of bright green foliage are used in New York and other large cities
ill the northern States for the decoration of churches and other
buildings in winter.

It has long been -noted by the inhabitants dwelling near the Pine
Barrens that the cones of Pinus palustris are much more abundant
in some seasons than in others, fruitful seasons usually occurring at
intervals of three or four years ; even a complete failure of the crop
for several years in succession has been recorded. The seeds are
eagerly devoured by birds, squirrels, and other denizens of the forest.
Pinus palustris cannot be said to have a place in the British
Pinetum only under such exceptional climatic conditions as exist in
Devon and Cornwall and the southern counties of Ireland. Although
it has been in cultivation since 1730,:j: it is now but rarely seen in
this country.

Pinus parviflora.

A low or medium-sized tree, but sometimes attaining a height of
40 — 50 feet towards its southern limit, the trunk covered with smooth
greyish bark falling off in small thin scales, and with a pyramidal head
of spreading branches. In Great Britain the oldest trees have a bluntly
pyramidal head and leaden grey bark more or less corrugated by
resinous blisters. Branches in close-set pseudo-whorls, long and stout
in proportion to height and thickness of trunk, horizontal or slightly

* L. J. Vance in Garden and 'Forest, VIII. 278.
f Sargent, Woods of the United States, p. 126.
Aiton, Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 317.

AA

354 PINUS PARVIFLORA.

ascending. Branchlets tufted, short, and covered with light brown
bark, the herbaceous shoots pubescent. Buds small, ovoid, obtuse, with
lanceolate, acuminate, obscurely ciliolate perulee that are reddish brown
and free at the apex. Leaves quinate, persistent three — four years,
clustered on the distal half of the branchlets, slender, triquetral,
1 — 2 inches long, the convex side bright green, the flat sides with
four — five silvery white stomatiferous lines ; basal sheath reddish brown,
about 0*5 inch long, deciduous. Staminate flowers not more than
0*5 inch long, in a dense cylindric spike 1 — 2 inches long, sub-sessile,
yellowish, and surrounded at the base by four — five lanceolate, acute,
involucral scales. Cones solitary or in clusters of two — three, erect,
ovoid, 2 — 2'5 inches long, and 1 — 1'5 inch in diameter near the base.
Scales broadly wedge-shaped with a rounded entire outer edge, at the
middle of which is a slight thickening, pale reddish brown with
longitudinal striations on the dorsal side, and bearing two seeds with
rudimentary wings on the inner (ventral) side.

Pinus parviflora, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 27, t. 115 (1842).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 138 (1847). Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 11,
with figs. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 384. Parlatore, D C. Prodr. XVI. 404.
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 504 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 236
Syme in Gard. Chron. X. (1878), p. 624, with fig. Mayr, Abiet. Jap. Reiches,
76, t 5, fig. 19. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 280.

P. Cembra, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 274 (not Linnaeus) (1784).

Eng. Small-flowered Pine, Japanese Short-leaved Pine. Germ. Madchen Zirbel,
Kleinbliitige Kiefer. Jap. Himeko-matsu.

Pinus parviflora is a native of Japan ; it occurs wild in the
southern islands of Kiushiu and Shiskoka in considerable numbers
and in the central island northwards to about the 38th parallel of
north latitude, ascending to 5,000 feet, forming an ingredient of the
mountain forests, either scattered singly or in small groves, in places
mixed with Hemlock Firs and Cypresses. It is cultivated everywhere
throughout Japan ; when planted for decoration and left to itself, it
rarely exceeds 25 feet in height, but it is more frequently used for
pot culture, dwarfed to the smallest possible dimensions, and trained
into all kinds of fanciful shapes. The wood is soft, straight-grained
and easily worked, but not much used on account of the inaccessibility
of the larger trees.

In Great Britain and the north-eastern States of America Pinus
parviflora is one of the most ornamental of Pines ; it is quite hardy
and thrives generally in many situations. On account of its small size,
well furnished trunk and light foliage, it is the best Pine that can be
selected for a small lawn and places where the larger and more rapid-
growing species are inadmissible ; it flowers and cones freely in a young-
state, and the young shoots are sometimes so loaded with yellow
staminate flowers or young purple cones as to add considerably, for the
time, to its decorative effect.

Pinus parviflora was first detected by Thunberg who referred it in
his " Flora Japonica " to P. Cembra ; it became more definitely known
to science in 1842 through Dr. Siebold, by whom it was specifically
distinguished. P. parviflora was introduced to British gardens by the late
John Gould Yeitch in 1861.

PINUS PATULA. 355

Pinus patula.

.V large live 60 — 80 feet high with stout spreading branches ; in old
age with an irregularly branched, rounded top. In the south-west of
England and the south of Ireland, a medium-sized tree 35 — 50 feet high,
the trunk usually dividing at a short distance from the ground into two
or more trunk-like stems which send out stout spreading branches 15 — 20
or more feet long. Bark of trunk greyish brown, rugged and irregularly
rissured. Branchlets slender, at first green, changing to light reddish
brown at the end of the second year ; buds cylindric-conic, acute,
0'75 — 1 inch long, the perulse linear-lanceolate, acuminate, fringed with
silky hairs, pale chestnut-brown. Leaves persistent three — four years,
usually in fascicles of three, but sometimes four — five, filiform, triquetral,
9 — 12 inches long, flaccid and pendulous, bright grass-green; basal
sheath 1 — 1'25 inch long, pale brown the first year, much shorter,
darker and crumpled the second year, i Staminate flowers densely
clustered, cylindric, obtuse, about an inch long. Cones shortly stalked,
in pairs or in clusters of three — five, conic-cylindric, tapering to
an obtuse apex, about 4 inches long, and 1-5 inch in diameter
above the base. Scales oblong, slightly thickened at the apex, the
exposed part rhomboidal with a tranverse keel and circular central
depression in which is a small pyramidal umbo. Seeds small with a
narrow wing an inch long.

Pinus patula, Schiede ex Schlechtendal in Linnrea, XII. 438 (1838). London,
Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2266, with figs. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 157. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 426. ' Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 397. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 278. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIII. (1885), p. 108, with figs. ; and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 286.

Pinus patula inhabits the high plateau and mountains of central
Mexico at elevations ranging from 6,000 to 12,000 feet above the
level of the sea ; the limits of its distribution have not been
.ascertained. It was discovered by Schiede and Deppe about the year
1828 and probably introduced by them, as Mr. Lambert had a plant
of it at his residence at Boyton in Wiltshire that was six feet high
in 1837.* In the following year seeds were collected by Hartweg
in the Eeal del Monte district for the Horticultural Society of London
from which plants were raised and subsequently distributed among
the Fellows, f

This fine Mexican species is one of the most ornamental of Pines ;
it bears a strong resemblance to Pinus loncjifolia of the Himalayan
region, but unlike that species it is sufficiently hardy for the climate
of Devon, Cornwall and the south of Ireland. Excellent specimens
• are growing at Carclew, Tregehan, Pencarrow, Lamorran, Bicton and
Fota Island.

Mention may here be made of a closely allied species inhabiting the
same region, of wThich there is a tree in the Pinetum at Bicton,
probably the only one in this country.

* London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicuni, loc. cit. supra.
f Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol. III. ser. 2, p. 125.

356 PINUS PENTAPHYLLA.

Pinus Teocote.

Schlechtendal in Liimaea, V. 76 (1831). Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. III.
145, t. 62. Loudon, Arb. et Frat. Brit. IV. 2266, with tigs. Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 156. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 287.

A tall tree, said to attain a height of 80 — 100 feet ; as seen by
Pi-ingle on the mountains of Oaxaca at 9,000 feet elevation where it
forms pure forests of considerable extent, it is a slender tree of
medium size.* It was discovered about the same time as Pinus patula-
by Schiede and Deppe, from whose herbarium specimens it was
described and figured by Mr. Lambert who also had a living plant at
Boy ton at the date of the publication of London's "Arboretum"; it
is chiefly distinguished from P. patula by its much shorter leaves and
smaller cones.

Pinus pentaphylla.

A tall tree, 70 — 80 or more feet high. Bark of trunk fissured into
thin plates averaging 4 — 5 inches long and 2 — 3 inches broad, reddish
brown with a whitish surface. Branches with their ramifications and
also the leaves as in Pinus parviflora but longer and stouter.
Staminate flowers shortly stipitate, sub-cylindric, about 0*4 inch long,
reddish at the apex. Cones pendent, sub-sessile, sub-cylindric, slightly
tapering from beyond the middle to the apex, 3 — 3 '5 inches long and
1 inch in diameter at the broadest ; scales broadly obovate or
suborbicular, nearly flat with a creimlate margin and striated
longitudinally, about an inch long and somewhat less broad. Seed'
wing rhombic, 0'75 inch long.

Pinus pentaphylla, Mayr, Abiet. Jap. Reiclies, 78, t. 6, fig. 20 (1890). Sargent,
For. Fl. Jap. 80. Pinus parviflora in part, of some authors.

Eng. Japanese Strobus Pine. Germ. Japanische Weymouthskiefer. Jap. Goyo-
niatsu.

Pinus pentaphylla, like P. parviflora, is endemic in Japan, taking the
place of the latter north of the 38th parallel of north
latitude and in Yeso, but it is nowhere abundant. It is cultivated
in Japanese gardens under many names and in various forms, and
often confused with P. parviflora to which it has much resemblance,
so much, indeed, that all the earlier European botanists who visited
Japan mistook it for that species. It has recently been specifically
distinguished and figured by Dr. Heinrich Mayr of the Forest
Department, Munieh,f who has conclusively shown that it is a
Strobus, not a Cembra Pine, a fact confirmed by a cone brought
home by the late John Gould Veitch and still preserved in the
Yeitchian collection. A few seeds were introduced by Mr. Maries
in 1879, and plants were subsequently distributed from the
Coombe Wood nursery as P. parviflora, but their destination is now
unknown.

* Garden and Forest, IX. 102. f Abietineen des J&panischen Reiclies, loc. ciL

PINUS PEUKE. 357

Pinus Peuke.

A low or medium-sized tree, 30 — 45 feet high, with a, trunk rarely
exceeding a foot in diameter at its greatest development ; reduced to
a small hush or shruh at its highest vertical limit. Branches relatively
short and spreading horizontally, except the uppermost which are more
or less ascending. Branches numerous, slender, the herbaceous shoots
glaucous green, and destitute of leaves near the,, base. Buds elongate,
ovoid-conic, with lanceolate, acuminate perulae, reflexed at the tip.
Leaves quinate, persistent three — four years, filiform, triquetrous with
minutely serrulate margins, 3 — 4 inches long, dark green on the convex
dorsal side, greyish on the flat, ventral sides ; basal sheath O75 inch
long, whitish brown, deciduous. Staminate flowers in dense clusters
around the apical half of shoots of the preceding year, cylindric,
0*5 inch long, yellowish brown ; involucral bracts relatively large,
broadly ovate. Cones sub-cylindric, obtuse, 4 — 5 inches long ; scales
broadly cuneate with a small protuberance at the apex. Seeds with
an oblong wing.

Finns Peuke, Grisebach, Spicileg. Flor. Rumel. II. 349 (1844). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 144. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 394. Gordon, Pinet ed. II. 318.
Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 698 (1884). Masters in Gard. Chron. XIX. (1883), p. 244,
with figs. ; Jonrn. Linn. Soc. XXII. 205, with tig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 237.

P. excelsa, Hooker til in Jonrn. Linn. Soc. VIII. 145. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 405 (in part).

P. excelsa var. Peuke, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 286.

Pinus Peuke inhabits the alpine and gub-alpine regions of Macedonia
and western Kournelia, at elevations ranging from 2,500 to 6,000 feet.
It is a curious fact in the botanical history of this Pine that its
presence in the Balkan peninsula was not known or even suspected
prior to its discovery by the eminent German botanist, Grisebach,*
on Mount Peristeri, near Bitolia, during his journey through the
Turkish province of Eoumelia in 1839. On account of its resemblance
in habit to the Arolla of the Alps, Pinus Cembra, Grisebach at first
referred it to that species, but subsequently gave it the name it now
bears, which is literally the Greek Tj-ti/o/, the Pine tree. Nothing
more was heard of it for many years afterwards till the well-known
Erfurt seed firm of Haage and Schmidt received seeds in 1864 from
a former Curator of the Botanic Garden at Athens, who had collected
them in the same locality in which the tree had been originally
discovered by Grisebach. Since then P. Peuke has been found on
Mount Perindagh and on the Kom mountains, forming the eastern
frontier of Montenegro.

In Great Britain Pinus Peuke is a useful ornamental tree ; its
growth is comparatively slow, but it is quite hardy over the greater part
of the country ; it forms a strictly pyramidal tree, clothed with bright
green foliage, and' taking but little room, it is especially suitable for

* Grisebach is best known to English readers as the author of ' ' Die Vegetation der Erde
nach ihrer klimatischen Anordnnng," an elaborate work on' geographical botany, and by
far the most important of its kind at the date of publication (1872), and for some years
afterwards.

358 PINUS PINASTER.

lawns and places where the large-growing Pines should be excluded.
In its botanical aspect P. Peuke is unquestionably an offshoot or
geographical form of P. excelsa, but long since separated from the
ancestral stock, if P. exceha may be so regarded, by the whole region
which lies between Afghanistan and Macedonia, in which no allied Pine
has yet been found. Nevertheless it is so distinct in habit from
P. excelsa that practically it may receive specific rank. Structurally
all the parts and organs of P. Peuke nearly coincide with the same
parts of P. excelsa, but are smaller in size ; in this respect the leaves
and cones are well-nigh intermediate between those of P. excelsa and
-P. /Strolus, which P. Peuke in a measure connects.

Pinus Pinaster.

A large tree, attaining a height of 50 — 80 feet, the dimensions
greatly influenced by situation, aspect and environment ; the trunk
covered from early age with a coarse bark deeply fissured into narrow
longitudinal ridges, broken up into numerous small plates. Branches
slender in proportion to trunk, spreading or ascending, the lowermost
more or less depressed but usually upturned at the distal end. Branchlets
much roughened with the scars of the fallen leaves, the herbaceous
shoots pubescent. Buds cylindric with a conical apex, 0'75 inch long,
with whitish brown reflexed perulae fringed with woolly hairs. Leaves
geminate, persistent three — four years, mostly clustered on the distal
half of each year's growth, 'semi-terete, rigid with slightly serrulate
margins and sub-acute tip, 7 — 9 or more inches long, on old trees
frequently not more than 6 inches long, bright grass-green ; basal
sheath 0'5 — 0'75 inch long, at first whitish, much crumpled, and
blackish the second year. Staminate flowers in a rather lax spike,
4 — 6 inches long, cylindric, obtuse, about an inch long, and surrounded
at the base by three — four involucral bracts ; anthers fawn-yellow with
a rounded denticulate connective. Cones in whorls of four — eight,
conic-cylindric, 4 — 6 inches long, and 1'5 — 2 '5 inches in diameter at the
broadest, more or less oblique owing to greater development on the
exposed side, at first purplish, green during the period of growth, fawn-
yellow when mature ; scales broadly oblong, a little more than an inch
long, the apophysis rhomboidal with a transverse keel and central
pyramidal umbo.

Finns Pinaster, Solander in Alton's Hort. Kew. ed. I. Vol I. 367 (1789). Lambert,
Genus Pinus, I. tt. 4, 5 (1803). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2213, with figs.
Link in Linnsea, XV. 498. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 168. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 465. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 382. Lawson, Pinet Brit. I.
71, t. 10/ and figs. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 221. Masters in Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 237.

P. maritima, Lamarck, Encycl. V. 337 (1804).

P. escarena, Risso, Hist. Nat Eur. II. 429 (1826).

P. Lemoniana, Carriere. Traite Conif. ed. II. 470 (1868).

Bug. Cluster Pine, Pinaster. Fr. Pin de Bordeaux, Pin maritime, Pin des Landes.
Germ Sternkiefer, Strandkiefer, Igelfdhre. Ital. Pino raggrupato.

Several varieties of Pinus Pinasfer are described by London and
other authors, of which one, Lemoniana, is a monstrous form that
originated at Carclew in Cornwall, formerly the residence of Sir
Charles Lemon. In this variety a cone is produced in the place of

PINUS PINASTER. 359

the leading shoot of the fertile branches, which thence take a zig-zag
form, the prolongation consisting of lateral shoots only, and the cones
are solitary instead of clustered.

Hamilton!, introduced by the Earl of Aberdeen from the
neighbourhood of Nice in 1825, has broader and shorter leaves and
larger cones than the common form ; and minor, found in the
Laudes of Bordeaux and other places, has- shorter and more slender-
leaves and smaller cones. They are local deviations from the common
type such as occur among most Pines.

Pinus Pinaster inhabits the Mediterranean region from Portugal to
Palestine, but the actual limits of its distribution cannot now be
defined in consequence of the extensive areas that have been planted
with it for purposes of utility, and from which it has occasionally
spread spontaneously. It is, however, known to grow wild in the
Portuguese province of Estremadura, in Andalusia, in Algeria, on the
eastern Pyrenees ascending to 2,500 feet elevation ; on the Maritime
Alps up to 3,000 feet, in Corsica "still higher ; and in other southern
departments of France ; it is also common on the western slopes of
the Apennines, in Greece, and in parts of Asia Minor, but its
eastern limit has not been ascertained.

In an economic sense Pinus Pinaster is by far the most valuable
Pine of the Mediterranean region ; its timber is, however, but a
subordinate factor, the wood being soft, coarse in grain and soon
decaying on exposure to the weather; it is used only for the coarser
kinds of out-of-door carpentry, and for fuel in the districts where this
Pine is abundant. But the collection of its resinous products, already
adverted to in page 93, forms one of the most important industries
in the south of France ; so profitable is this source of wealth that
P. Pinaster is extensively cultivated on the sandy tracts adjoining the
Bay of Biscay, where it grows with great rapidity and soon yields an
ample return for the labour bestowed upon it.

Pinus Pinaster will not only grow under exposure to the sea-breeze,
hut also in shifting sands which it is enabled to do by the form
taken by the roots. These roots much resemble those of the
American P. palmtris, which grows under conditions similar to those
in which P. Pinaster attains its best development in Europe. There
is a decided tap-root, and when the soil is dry and sandy it descends
perpendicularly into it ; in proportion as the perpendicular roots are
stronger than those of other Pines, the horizontal roots are weaker, a
disadvantage as regards transplanting, which is more than counterbalanced
by its firm hold in the soil, whence it is seldom torn up by the
roots by storms. In the departments of the Gironde, Landes and
Dordogne, the Pine woods afford a most efficacious protection against
the encroachments of the sea. Some eighty years ago great apprehension
existed of the destruction of the Medoc country by inundation, as the
bunks of sand, which are the only barriers against the sea, were
observed to be yielding ; the idea then occurred of planting P. Pinaster
in order to bind the sand, and the result has been most satisfactory.
Introduced towards the end of the sixteenth century into Great
Britain, Pinus Pinaster is only useful as an ornamental tree in this

360 PIN US PINEA.

country, and for shelter especially in proximity to the sea. When
standing alone, with the consequent free circulation of air around it,
it attains a height of 60 to 70 feet, retaining its lowermost branches to
a great age; the Pinaster is then a tree of stately aspect, wide-
spreading and massive, very effective in park and landscape scenery.

There is probably no single species of Pine that has become more
widely distributed over the globe than Pinus Pinaster, and which has
adapted itself more readily to the various conditions of soil and climate
in the different countries into which it has been introduced. At the
Cape of Good Hope, it has made itself at home as much as any
indigenous tree, spreading spontaneously over the sandy plains in the
neighbourhood of Cape Town and in other parts of the colony. It
has become quite a common tree in many parts of Australia, Xew
Zealand, etc. It has also found its way into China, Japan, northern
India, and many other places, where it has been frequently re-introduced
into England as new species under the following names, which
sufficiently indicate their origin : — P. nepalensis (Royle), P. fliinensis
(Knight), P. japonica (Hort.), P. Notxv Hollandi't: (Loddiges), P.
Zealandice (Hort.), P. Sand a Helenica (London).

Pinus pinea.

A tree 40 — 80 or more feet high with a spreading head that has
been frequently likened to an umbrella; the trunk knotty, covered with
thick reddish grey bark deeply fissured longitudinally, the lower portion
usually denuded of branches, often forked or divided into three or
more ascending secondary trunks at a greater or less distance from
the ground. In Great Britain rarely exceeding 25 — 30 feet high, with
a thick trunk covered with dark rugged, deeply fissured bark, the
fissures exposing a light reddish brown inner cortex and generally
forked or divided into three — five or more spreading or ascending
branches which ramify much in the same way. Branchlets rather
slender, pale brown marked with the scars of the fallen leaves. Buds
conic-cylindric, reddish brown, not resinous. Leaves geminate, persistent
two — three years, semiterete with scaberulous margins, straight or
slightly twisted, 5 — 6 inches long, bright green ; basal sheath whitish,
shorter, darker and much lacerated the second year. Sta initiate flowers
in a crowded spike with numerous scale-like involucral bracts at the
base of each, cylindric, about 0'5 inch long. Ovuliferous flowers oval,
0'75 inch long, composed of greenish white scales before fertilisation.
Cones maturing the third year, ovoid, 4 inches long and 3 inches
in diameter, reddish brown ; scales oblong-cuneate, the apophysis
rhomboidal with a central depression in which is a small umbo.
Seeds large, oblong-ovoid with a hatchet-shaped wing.

Pinus pinea, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1000 (1753). Miller, Diet. ed. VIII.
No. 2 (1768). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. tt. 6, 7, 8 (1803). L C Richard, Mem.
sur les Conif. 58 (1826). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2224, with figs.
Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 31, t. 10. Link in Linnpea, XV. 499. Carriere, Traite
Coiiif. ed. II. 456. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI 381. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II.
252. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 694. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 220. Masters in Gard.
Chron. IV. ser. 3 (1888), p. 602, with figs. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soe. XIV. 237.

Eng. Stone Pine. Fr. Pin de parasol. Germ. Italienische Steinkicfer. Ital.
Pino a pinocchi. Span. Pino real, Pino de comer.

362

PINUS PINEA.

Pinus pima, or the Stone Pine as it is usually called in this country
on account of the hard bony shell which encloses the seed, is endemic
in the Mediterranean region from Portugal to Asia Minor and Syria ;
also in several localities in north Africa. On the coast range of
Andalusia it ascends to 4,000 feet above sea-level, but usually prefers
the lower hills near the coast, in places formerly forming forests of
considerable extent but which are now greatly diminished in order to
supply wood for constructive purposes and for fuel to the inhabitants
of the region.

Fig. 96. The Stone Pine at Glenthorne.

As Pinus pinea is nowhere found wild north of the 45th parallel
of north latitude its power to withstand severe cold is limited. It
was introduced into Great Britain prior to 1548, as it is mentioned in
Turner's "Names of Herbes" published in that year, but few aged trees
are to be seen in this country; those that have survived the severe
winters that occur at intervals in our climate show but imperfectly
the striking characters that make this Pine so picturesque an object
in southern Europe. One of the accompanying illustrations represents

PINUS PONDEROSA. 363

the largest specimen in the Royal Gardens at Kew, the other a
characteristic tree 35 feet high at Glenthorne in north Devon ; a still
finer and taller specimen and certainly the most imposing yet seen by
the author, is standing in the Trinity College Botanic Garden, Dublin ;
and there is one at Powerscourt, and another at Charleville in Co.
Wicklow worthy of mention.

The extremely picturesque appearance of the Stone Pine in its
maturity, has caused it to be much planted in public and private
gardens in the south of Europe, and especially in Italy, from a very
early period. In the neighbourhood of Rome are many fine and
venerable specimens from 70 to 75 feet high, which always attract the
attention of visitors. Artists have frequently availed themselves of its
peculiar and striking form to give it a prominent place in the
foreground of their pictures ; and thus we often find it associated with
porticos, Ionic pillars, fragments of old temples, and other classic
objects in the Italian landscape.

Many varieties of Pinus pinea have been noted and described, but
none of them are available for the British Arboretum from the same
cause that renders the common form so unsatisfactory a tree. One
named frac/ilis should be noticed as it differs in the testa or shell of
the seeds being so thin as to be easily broken by the fingers. The
edible seeds are much used for food by the peasantry throughout the
region in which this tree abounds. The wood is whitish, moderately
resinous, and very light ; it is used in Italy and the south of France
for joinery and other constructive work.

A peculiarity in Pinus pinea, not observed in any other species of
Pinus, may be here noted : — For several years after the seedling state
is passed and branchlets with adult foliage are produced, there are also
produced among them slender elongated branchlets with protomorphic
leaves only ; these leaves are solitary, not geminate like the ordinary leaves,
nor more than one-half of their length ; they are without basal sheath,
compressed, sharply angular laterally, and of a bluish glaucous green (see
page 22). As the young tree advances in age, shoots are produced
with protomorphic and adult leaves intermixed ; but eventually the
former disappear entirely.

Pinus ponderosa.

One of the largest of Pines ; in California and Oregon the trunk
often 100 — 150 feet high and 5 — 6 feet in diameter, exceptionally
large trees 225 feet high and 8 feet in. diameter ; throughout the
Rocky Mountains region much less. In Great Britain the trunks of
the oldest trees are thick in proportion to height, with rugged bark
deeply fissured into irregular plates. Branches spreading, frequently
curved or tortuous ; branchlets stoutish, the bark furrowed spirally,
following the arrangement of the leaf fascicles. Buds sub-cylindric,
abruptly tapering to an acute point, 0'75 — 1 inch long ; perulse linear-
lanceolate, with iimbriated margins. Leaves ternate, persistent
three — four years, produced on the distal half of the season's growth,
and at first parallel with it, afterwards spreading and slightly twisted,
6 — 12 inches long, rigid, triquetral, mucronate with mirmtely serrulate
margins, dull dark green ; basal sheath about an inch long, pale brown ;

364 I'INUS POX DEROSA.

darker, shorter, and much crumpled the second year. Staminate
flowers in dense clusters 011 the apical end of shoots of the previous
year, cylindric, 1'25 — 1*75 inch long, reddish crimson, surrounded at the
base by ten — twelve involucral bracts in two — three series. Cones
(British grown) ovoid-conic, 3 '5 — 5 inches long, and 2 — 2 '5 inches in
diameter above the base ; scales oblong-cuneate, about an inch long
and half an inch broad, smaller and much crowded near the base, the
apophysis rhomboidal with a transverse keel and short pyramidal
innbo terminating in a recurved prickle. Seed wing narrowly oblong,
nearly as long as the scale.

Pinus ponderosa. Douglas ex London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2243, with figs.
(1838). Forbes, Pi'net. Woburn, 44, t. 13. Link in Linnsea, XV. 506. Endlicher,
Synops Conif. 163. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 445. Parlatore, D. C. Prodi-.
XVI. 395. Hoopes, Evergreens, 117. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 281. Engelmann in
Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 125. Beissner. Nadelholzk. 261, with tig,
Sargent in Garden and Forest, VII. 392 ; and Silva K Amer. XI. tt. 560—564.
Masters in Gard. Chron. VIII. ser. 3 (1890), p. 557, with figs : and Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 237.

P. Benthamiana, Hartweg in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. II. 189 ; and IV. 212,
with fig.

P. brachyptera, Engelmann in Mem. Wislizenus' Tour in N. Mex. 89 (1848).

P. Beardsleyi, Murray in Edinb. New Phil. Journ. 1855, p. 286.

P. Engelmanni, Torrey in Pacific Ry. Rep. IV. 141 (1856) (not Carriere).

P. Parryana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 277 (1875) (not Engelmann).

Eng. Heavy-wooded Pine. Amer. Yellow Pine, Bull Pine, Western Pitch Pine.
Germ. Schwerholzige Eiefer, Gelb Kiefer.

var.— Jeffrey!.

Distinguished in Oregon from the typical Pinus ponderosa by its
more pungently aromatic resinous secretions, its stiffer and more elastic
leaves, persistent for a longer time; its yellow-green staminate flowers
and its larger cones armed with stronger reflexed prickles; in Great
Britain chiefly by its shorter branches and more strict habit, as well as
by the foregoing characters.

P. ponderosa var. Jeffreyi, Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 126.
P. Jetfreyi, Balfour Rep. Oregon Assoc. 2, with fig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 272.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 45, t. 6. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 231.
And others.

var.— scopulorum.

A smaller tree (60 — 80 feet high) with shorter and more rigid
leaves, often in pairs, and persisting a longer time ; and smaller cones
with thinner scales armed with a slender prickle.

P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor.
II. 126. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 263. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 238.

The following account of the geographical distribution of Pinus
ponderosa and the different aspects under which it is seen throughout
the immense area over which it is spread, is taken from the
American " Garden and Forest," Vol. VIIL p. 392 :—

The western Yellow Pine or Pinus ponderosa is the most widely-
distributed Pine tree of the mountain forests of western North
America, where it spreads from the interior of British Columbia from
about latitude 57° N. southwards to Mexico and eastwards to northern
.Nebraska, the foot-hills of the Eocky .Mountains of Colorado and
western Texas. Usually an inhabitant of dry elevated slopes, where
it often forms open forests of great extent, it flourishes also on the

PINUS PONDEROSA. 365

western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the comparatively humid
climate of northern California where it attains its largest size ; and in
California it grows occasionally in wet and swampy ground. It is
the only Pine tree of Nebraska, and is very abundant on the Black
Hills of Dakota ; in northern Montana it forms a great forest in the
valley of the Flat Head Lake, and ranges westwards to the shores
of Puget Sound ; it dots the slopes of the eastern foot-hills of the
Rocky Mountains of Colorado, and clothes the divide between the
Platt and Arkansas rivers with a forest pushed far out over the
plain. Abundant in similar situations in Utah, and common on the
eastern slopes of the Sierras where it attains a great size and beauty,
P. ponderosa has found the climate of the Great Basin too severe for
it, and does not occur on the mountain ranges of central and southern
Nevada. The Colorada plateau which has an area of many thousand
square miles in southern Colorado and Utah and in northern Mexico and
Arizona, is covered with a forest of this tree. This is now the
greatest uninterrupted Pine forest of the continent, and one of the
largest in the world. South of the Colorado plateau the desert is
broken up into short ranges of mountains, and on them on both sides
of the Mexican boundary P. ponderosa is a common tree, as it is on
the mountains of western Texas.

A tree of such enormous range over a region of so many different
climates has naturally developed many forms, and no other American
Pine tree varies more in size and habit, in the character of the bark,
length of leaves and size of cones. Sometimes it is 250 feet high,
with a trunk 12 feet in diameter covered with bright cinnamon-red
bark broken into great plates ; sometimes it attains with a difficulty
a height of 50 feet, and its bark is nearly black and deeply furrowed.
Such variations in the character of the bark are not always due to
climate, and individuals with the red bark of the Calif ornian tree and
the black bark of the inhabitant of the arid slopes of the Colorado
mountains stand side by side in northern Arizona, to the discouragement
of the botanist anxious to understand this tree and the causes of its.
variations. One hundred photographs would not be too many to illustrate
the appearance of Pinus ponderosa in the different parts of the country
which it inhabits ; and an attempt to describe the different forms,
with any words at our command would be hopeless. Certain characters
which botanists consider valuable specifically can be found in all the
forms, so that it is most convenient to consider them all geographical
varieties of one species, although in size and general appearance and
in the character and value of the timber produced, they are as distinct
as many of the recognised species of our Pines.

Pinus ponderosa first became known to science and arboriculture
through David Douglas during his first mission to north-west
America, and by whom seeds were sent to the Horticultural Society
of London in 1827, from which a number of plants were raised and
distributed among the Fellows.* Douglas had discovered the tree

* One of these may still be seen at Dropmore towering to a height of 90 feet ; this
is probably the largest specimen in this country. There is a fine tree over 60 feetjiigh
at Orton Hall, Peterborough ; another about the same height but denuded of its
lowermost branches at Lin ton Park, Maidstone ; and a still larger one at Barren Hill,
Anglesey. Trees of smaller dimensions are growing at Revesby Abbey, Whittinghame-.
in East Lothian, Scone Palace, Oastle Kennedy, etc.

366 PINUS PONDEROSA.

the year previous near the Spokane river in north Oregon (now
Washington). Throughout Great Britain, from Perthshire southwards,
this Pine has proved quite hardy, and it thrives under various
conditions in the many localities in which it has been planted,
increasing in height from 12 to 18 inches annually, the slower
growth occurring in the midland and south-eastern counties of
England. Generally the primary branches grow faster in proportion
to the elongation of the trunk in this country than in California, so
that P. pomlerosa in Great Britain rarely has the lank, constricted
habit shown in photographs of California!! trees.

The variety Jeffrey^ hitherto regarded as specifically distinct from
Pinus ponderosa by foresters and arboriculturists, and which takes its
name from John Jeffrey, who collected seeds of it for the Scottish
Oregon Association in 1851, has a considerable range on the high
mountains extending from western Montana through Oregon and Idaho
into California. On the mountain above the Yosemite valley is ;i
wonderful forest of Pine trees composed of P. ponderosa var. Jeffreyi ;
the trees stand sometimes close together, sometimes at a considerable
distance apart ; they are often 250 to 300 feet high, their massive
trunks 10 to 12 feet in diameter, and free of branches except near
the top of the tree. There are not many things more impressive or
more beautiful than these trunks ; the bark is excessively thick and
broken by deep fissures into great armour-like plates across which
the sunlight as it nickers down through the scanty canopy above, casts
long shadows. The branches are few and small in proportion to the
trunks, and bear at their ends great brush-like clusters of pale blue-
green foliage, and immense quantities of large chestnut-brown cones which
in early autumn sometimes cover the ground under the trees. *

The variety scopulorum denotes the smaller tree inhabiting the Rocky
Mountains from British Alberta southwards through eastern Montana,
Wyoming, Nebraska and Colorado to western Texas. In this
comparatively dry region Pinus ponderosa often becomes a stunted,
scraggy-looking tree with gaunt denuded limbs and scanty foliage ; such
a tree is portrayed in the "Gardeners' Chronicle" of June 2 2nd, 1878.
Another geographical form which occurs on the mountains of southern
Arizona, has longer and broader leaves that are sometimes 14 or
15 inches in length. This is the P. latifolia of Sargent,! and the
P. Mayriana of Sudworth ; it is described in the "Silva of North
America " as P. ponderosa var. Mayriana,

The wood of Pinus ponderosa varies greatly in quality, strength and
durability in different parts of the region over which it is distributed ;
the wood of the western tree is heavy, hard, strong and fine-grained,
but not durable in contact with the soil ; that of the variety Jeffreyi
is coarser in grain and very resinous ; and that of the var. scopulorum
is coarser grained, harder and more brittle.! P. ponderosa timber is largely
used throughout the region for constructive purposes generally, railway
ties, fencing, fuel, etc., especially in the States of Washington, Oregon,
Idaho and south Dakota.

* Garden and Forest, IV. 457 (1891) ; Idem, II. 496, with rig. (1889).
t Silva of North America, XI. 82.

rixus PUXGEXS. 3*67

Firms pungens,

A medium-sized or low tree 25 — 40 or more feet high, with stout,
horizontal branches and a broad, open, flat-topped head. In Great
Britain much resembling the Scots Pine in its young state, but when
old more open and spreading. Bark of trunk deeply fissured into
irregular plates. Branches of very unequal length, the longest sometimes
exceeding 20 feet. Branchlets slender, ridged and furrow.ed by
cortical outgrowths, obliquely decurrent from the pulvini of the leaf
fascicles. Buds cylindric, obtuse, about 0*75 inch long, light chestnut-
brown, usually covered with a film of whitish resin. Leaves geminate,
persistent three — four years, rigid, straight or slightly curved towards the
axis, 1*75 — 2 '5 inches long, dark dull green on the convex side, with
about six greyish lines on the flat side ; basal sheath short with
numerous rings and lacerated margin.'55' Staminate flowers in a lax
spike, cylindric, obtuse, about 0'3 inch long, orange-brown, surrounded at
the base by seven — nine involucral bracts. Cones ovoid or turbinate,
, usually in whorls of three — five, horizontal, most developed on the
exposed upper side, 3*5 inches long, and 2*25 inches in diameter at the
broadest part, persistent on the tree many years ; scales oblong-cuneate,
with a broadly pyramidal apophysis terminating in a sharp incurved prickle.

Pinus pungens, Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 61, t 5 (1810). Lambert, (4enus
Pinus, ed. II. Vol. I. t. 17 (1828). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2197, with tigs.
Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 17, t 5. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 166. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 470. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 379. Hoopes, Evergreens, 98.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 254. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 214, with lig Masters in
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV 23. Sargent, Silva X. Amer. XL 135, t. 584,

Eng. and Amer. Table Mountain Pine, Hickory Pine. Germ. Stechende Kiefer.

Pinus pungens inhabits chiefly the Appalachian mountains of the
Eastern States. From its southern limit in North Carolina it
spreads northwards along the dry slopes and ridges of the mountains
through Virginia into Pennsylvania as far as the Schuylkil river
and westwards into Tennessee, forming in places extensive forests.
Small isolated patches are also reported from distant parts of
Virginia, eastern Pennsylvania, and liosemount in New Jersey.

On the precipices, impending rocks and chasms of the Linville, a
branch of the Catawba river in North Carolina, Pinus pungens darkens
the whole horizon and presents an imposing mass of monotonous
verdure. It generally occupies the summits of the highest rocky ridges
and sweeps over the most dangerous and inaccessible declivities, some
of which are at least 1,000 feet in perpendicular height. In this
picturesque region it was originally discovered by Michaux more than
a century ago.

The economic value of Pinus pungens is unimportant; the wood is
light, soft, coarse-grained and not strong, and is used in America
chiefly for the manufacture of charcoal. It was introduced into Great
Britain about the year 1804 ; it is now but rarely seen ; the few
old trees that still remain are unattractive objects of irregular outline
and mostly one-sided from contact with other trees.

* The above description from materials communicated by Mr. Marcus Dimsdale from
Essendon House, near Hatfield ; in the grounds stands one of the largest Pinus pungens in
the country. Other aged specimens are in the Pineta at Bicton, Dropmore and Baytbrdbury.

368 PIN US PYRENAICA.

Pinus pyrenaica.

A tree of variable dimensions, the trunk 60—80 or more feet high
with an open diffuse head ; smaller trees with a more dense habit.
Branches spreading, often curved or tortuous, covered with ash-brown
bark ; braiichlets slender, at first green, afterwards reddish brown, and
marked with the scars of the fallen leaves. Buds ovoid-conic, acute,
about 0'5 inch long with whitish peralse. Leaves geminate, persistent
about three years, slender, semi-terete with slightly scaberulous margins,
4*5 — 6'5 inches long; basal sheath whitish, 0'75 inch long, shorter, and
darker the second year. Staminate flowers numerous in an oblong
spike, cylindric, obtuse, 0'5 inch long, the anthers with an orange-
yellow, orbicular and crenulate connective. Cones solitary or in clusters
of two — six, sub-sessile, horizontal, ovoid-conic, acute, about 3 inches
long and nearly 2 inches in diameter at the broadest part, glossy
chestnut-brown; apophysis of scales nattish, rhomboidal with a shallow
transverse keel and short pyramidal umbo.*

Finns pyrenaica,, Lapeyrouse, Plant, pyren. 146 ; and Suppl. 63 (1813). London,
Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2209 (in part). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 180. Carriers,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 503. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 384. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 225. Masters in Gard. Chron. IV. ser. 3 (1888), p. 267. with fig. ;
and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 238.

P. Brutia, Tenore. Fl. neap. V. 266, t. 200 (1835). Lambert, Genus Pinus, III.
125, t. 82. Loudon, Ark et Frut Brit. IV. 2234, with figs. Link in Linnaea,
XV. 497. Gordon, Pinet. ed II. 432. Boissier, Fl. orient, V. 696.

P. carica, Don, Ann. Nat. Hist. VIII. 458.

P. Loiseleuriana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 500.

P paroliniana, Webb. P. hispanica, Qook-Widdrington.

The geographical range of Pinus pyrenaiea may be stated in
general terms to extend through the Mediterranean region from
the Pyrenees to the Levant and Asia Minor whence it spreads
eastwards through northern Persia into Afghanistan as far as Herat.!
It occurs on many of the mountain ranges throughout this region
at altitudes of 2,000 to 6,000 feet ; -in the more densely inhabited
parts of the Mediterranean littoral it is seen only in groups or
groves separated by a considerable interval from each other ; on the
lower slopes of the Cilician Taurus it forms extensive forests for
the most part unmixed with other trees.

This Pine was first specifically distinguished under its present
name by the French botanist Lapeyrouse who detected it 011 the
Spanish slopes of the Pyrenees in the first decade of the nineteenth
century. Some years later it was discovered on the mountains of
Calabria in southern Italy by Professor Tenore of Naples who described
it in his " Flora neapolitana " under the name of P. brutia, he being
probably unaware of its identity with the Pyrenean Pine of Lapeyrouse.
It was introduced into British gardens in 1834 by Mr. Aylmer Lambert
under Tenore's name ; and about the same period a variety of
P. Laricio, described in pfige 339 as P. Laricio monspeliensis, was
introduced from Spain by Captain Widdrington and distributed as

* The above 'description of foliage and cones from materials communicated by the late
M. Charles Naudiu from the Villa Thuret Botanic garden, Antibes.
t Boissier, Flora orientalis, Jo<\ clt. supra t

PINUS PYRENAICA.

369

P. pyrenaica ; this P. Laricio variety, being much the hardier of the
two, has since its introduction been generally cultivated as P. pyrenaica
in the British Arboretum. Parlatore reduced the P. brutia of Tenore
to a synonym of the P. pyrenaica of Lapeyrouse, and his decision

Fig, 07. Foliage and Cone of Pinus pyrenaica.

is accepted by all recent botanists. The true P. pyrenaica owing to
climatic causes is now but rarely if ever seen in this country.

The economic value of Pinus pyrenaica is considerable in those
districts where it is still abundant as in Cilicia and adjacent parts of
Asia Minor. To the inhabitants of this region it supplies the best
timber for building and many other constructive purposes, but as the

BB

370 PIXUS liADIATA.

forests are under no kind of supervision or control by the government of
the country, the trees are felled in a most reckless manner and with a
deplorable waste of material. Still greater destruction is caused by the
turpentine collectors who mutilate and render useless every tree they
attack.*

Pinus radiata.

A stately tree 80 — 100 feet high with a trunk .4 — 5 feet in diameter,
covered with thickish bark deeply . fissured into broad ridges which are
" broken on the surface into thick plate-like scales, and with thick
spreading branches which form an open round-topped head." In Great
Britain a fast-growing tree of broadly pyramidal outline up to forty or
fifty years of age, according to locality and situation, when the leader
ceases to ascend and the tree becomes flat-topped by the greater
development of the uppermost branches. Branches thick and spreading;
branchlets in whorls of three — five, reddish brown marked with the
scars of the fallen leaf fascicles. Buds narrowly cylindric, abruptly
pointed, 0'25 — 0*5 inch long, with ovate, acute, chestnut-brown perulse.
Leaves ternate, persistent three — four years, triquetral with slightly
scabrous margins, 4 — 6 inches long, stornatiferous on all sides ; basal
sheath about one-third of an inch long, loose and scarious. Staminate
flowers cylindric, obtuse, 0'5 inch long, spirally arranged in a dense
spike, fawn-yellow with a reddish tinge at the apex, and surrounded
at the base by fifteen — twenty involucral bracts in two series. Cones in
clusters of two — three together or solitary, shortly stalked, deflexed,
unsymmetrically ovoid, sub-acute, 3 — 5 inches long and 2 — 3 inches
broad at the widest part, the scales largely developed and projecting
prominently outwards on the upper exposed side, smaller and only
slightly convex or nearly flat and mamrnillate on the under-side. Seed
wing three-fourths as long as the scale, oblong, obliquely narrowed at
the apex.

Pinus radiata, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVII. 442 (1836). Lambert, Genus
Pinus, III. 86. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 161. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 337.
Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XI. 103, tt. 573, 574.

P. insignis, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2266, with figs. (1838). Forbes, Pinet.
Woburn,51,t. 18. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 440. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 395.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 37, tt. 1, 5. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 270. Engelmann in
Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 127. Coleman in The Garden. XXXVI. (1889),
p. 47, with fig. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 271, Masters in Gard. Chron. IX. ser. 3
(1891), p. 337, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 230.

Eng. and Amer. Monterey Pine. Germ. Monterey Kiefer.

Pinus radiata inhabits a strip of coast-land in south California
extending for about 150 miles from Pescadero to San Simeon Bay?
spreading inland only a few miles. " It also grows in a peculiar
form on Santa Eosa and Santa Cruz of the Santa Barbara group of
islets off the coast of south California, and in Guadalupe off the coast
of Lower California. The wood is light, soft and brittle, and is
used only for fuel." f

* Walter Siehe in Gartenflora (1897), p. 181, who adds: "Sahe eiii deutscher Forstmann
diese planlosen, nur auf momentaiien Gewinn zielenden Verwiistungen, das Herz wiirde
ihm bluten."

1- Silva of North America, XL 104.

PIN US KADI AT A.

371

This beautiful Pine is supposed to have been discovered in 1787
during the ill-fated voyage of Lapeyrouse; a cone gathered by Colligon,
a gardener who accompanied the expedition, was sent to the Museum
d'Histoire Xaturelle at Paris, and twelve plants were raised from the
These plants were described by Loiseleurf in 1812 under the

name of Pinus caUfomica, which is therefore the oldest name, but as
they subsequently disappeared, much doubt is involved in the
identification and Loiseleur's name is thence passed over. Douglas
re-discovered the Pine during his sojourn at Monterey in 1831 — 1832,
and cones were received from him by the Horticultural Society of

* His name is commemorated by the monotypic genus Loiseleuria, founded for the reception
of a little alpine and sub-arctic ericaceous shrub, L. proctimbens, that is also .wild in Scotland,
but now become extremely rare.

372 PINUS KESINOSA.

London under the name of P. insiynis, which remained an herbarium
name only till it was taken up by London in his " Arboretum et
Fruticetum Britannicum," published in 1838. In the meantime
Dr. Thomas Coulter had brought home specimens which were described
by David Don as P. radiata in a paper read before the Linnean
Society in June, 1835, and published in the Transactions of the Society
in the following year. Don's name therefore has priority of publication,
and it has, moreover, been in use occasionally ever since.

The value of Pinus radiata as a subject for British arboriculture is
restricted to the area which may be roughly denned to be that part
of England south of the Thames and west of the Severn, Ireland
generally, and the south-western counties of Scotland. Within this
area it is one of the stateliest and most ornamental of all Pines ;
beyond it, it is liable to be injured by severe frosts, and is often
killed by them. Trees from 60 to 70 feet high are not uncommon
in Devon and Cornwall and in Ireland, but the " leader " of the older
trees has, in most instances, ceased to ascend, and in consequence
they are becoming round- or flat-topped, and the lowermost branches are
becoming effete or have been cast off altogether.* P. radiata is liable
to the attacks of the Pine-beetle, Myelophilus piniperda, the effects of
which are generally counteracted by the luxuriant growth of the tree.

Pinus radiata is much cultivated in Australia and New Zealand,
where its growth is still more rapid than in Great Britain. In south
California it is planted for fixing the sand dunes.

Pinus resinosa.

A tall tree 60—100 or more feet high, with a trunk 2— 2 -5 feet
in diameter near the base, covered with red bark often split into
irregular patches 1- — 3 inches in diameter. Branches stout, more or
less pendulous ; in old age confined to the top of the tree, forming
a round-topped head. Branchlets stout and glabrous, with ~pale
orange-brown bark. Buds conic, acute, 0'5 — 0'75 inch long, pale
chestnut-brown. Leaves geminate, persistent three years, somewhat
close-set, 4'5 — 5*5 inches long, slender, semi-terete, with slightly scabrous
margins, mostly inclined towards the shoot, at first glaucous green>
becoming darker with age ; basal sheath greyish brown, about an inch
long, much shorter, darker and lacerated after the first year. Staminate
flowers in short, dense clusters, sub-cylindric, 0'5 — 0'75 inch long, pale
brown tinged with dull rose-purple, and surrounded at the base by
about six involucral bracts. Cones ovoid-conic, obtuse, about 2*5 inches
long, and 1'25 inch in diameter above the base ; scales broadly obloi^
075 inch long, with a rather thin rhomboidal apophysis marked with
a transverse keel and unarmed central umbo. Seeds small with
an oblong wing obliquely rounded at the apex.

* Among the many fine specimens of Pinus radiata to be seen within the area mentioned
above, mention may be made of those at the Royal residence, Osborne. Isle of Wight ;
Boconnoc, Carclew and Menabilly in Cornwall ; at Bodorgan in Anglesea ; at Eastnor Castle,
Herefordshire ; Monk Coniston, Lancashire ; and Bowood Park, Wiltshire. In Ireland at
Powerscourt and Charleville, Co. Wicklow; St. Anne's, Clontarf; Haniwood, Co. Meath ;
Fota Island near Cork ; Adare Manor, Limerick, etc.

PINUS RIGID A. 373

Finns resinosa, Solander in Alton's Hort. Kew, ed. I. Vol. III. 367 (1789).
Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. t. 14 (1803). London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2210,'
with figs. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 19, t. 6. Link in Linnaea, XV. 501.
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 178. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 388. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 256. Hoopes, Evergreens, 102. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 246. Macoun,
Cat. Canad. Plants, 465. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 238.

P. rnbra, Michaux, Hist. Arb. N. Amer. I. 45, t. 1 (1810). Carriere Traite
Conif. ed. II. 496.

Eng. and Amer. Red Pine, Canadian Pine. Fr. Pin rouge d'Amerique. Germ.
Rothkiefer, Harzige Kiefer. Ital. Pino rosso di Canada.

A useful timber tree throughout the region over which it is
distributed, which may be defined as a broad zone stretching across
the North American continent between the 41st and 48th parallels
of north latitude from Newfoundland to the prairie lands of
Minnesota, forming scattered groves rarely exceeding a few acres in
extent and attaining its greatest development in northern Wisconsin.
Many such groves of, Pinus resinosa have now been cleared or much
reduced by lumbermen, or by forest fires along the southern side of
the lakes, and its place is being taken by the comparatively worthless
P. Banfr&iana. The timber is very durable, the abundant secretions
acting like paint in preserving it from* decay : the old roots and
knobs of this Pine, which are of great weight and completely
saturated with resin, burn fiercely, give a brilliant light, and are
much used for torches.

Pinus resinosa was introduced into Great Britain about the year 1756
by Hugh, Duke of Northumberland, but it has nowhere adapted itself
to the climate of this country, and few, if any, adult trees are now to
be seen. In the neighbourhood of the great North American lakes
it thrives best in a dry sandy soil, a circumstance suggestive of the
places in which a trial of it might be made in England. Botanically
the nearest European affinity of the species is P. Laricio.

Pinus rigida.

A tree of medium size, with a trunk 40 — 70 feet high and
2 — 3 feet in diameter, covered with thick blackish bark deeply fissured
into square or oblong plates. Branches of young trees regularly whoiied
and horizontal, of old trees variable in size and direction, horizontal,
deflexed or tortuous. Branclilets at first green, changing with age to
dull orange-brown. Buds ovate-conic, acute, 0*5 — 0*75 inch long,
emitting a pleasant lemon fragrance when bruised, the perulae linear-
lanceolate with fringed margins, chestnut-brown, often covered with a
film of whitish resin. Leaves ternate, on vigorous shoots sometimes
quaternate, persistent three— four years, triquetrous, mucronate with
serrulate margins, 2 '5 — 4 inches long, rigid, spreading, grass-green,
occasionally glaucous ; basal sheath light brown, 0'5 inch long, shorter,
darker and corrugated the second year. Staminate flowers in crowded
spikes, cylindric, obtuse, 0*75 — -1 inch long, the anther connective
reniform, reddish purple. Cones ovoid-conic, solitary or in clusters of
three — fqnr, 2'5 — 3 inches long, and 1*25 — 1'75 "inch in diameter

374 PINUS EIGIDA.

above the base, light orange-brown;* scales oblong-cnneate, the apophysis
rhomboidal with a transverse keel and short pyramidal umbo
terminating in a short, sharp prickle.

Pinus rigida, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. JSTo. 10 (1768). Lambert, Genus Finns, I.
tt. 18, 19 (1803). Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. 89, t. 8 i!810). London, Arb' et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2239, with figs. Forbes, Pinet. Wobnrn, 41, t. 13. Link in
Linnpea, XV. 504. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 447. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 394. Hoopes, Evergreens, 119. Sargent, Garden and Forest, IV. 397 ; and
Silva N. Amer. XI. 115, t. 579. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 266, with fig. Masters
in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 239. And others.

Ene-. and Amer. Pitch Pine. Fr. Pin resineux. Germ. Pechkiefer, Steifekiefer.

var.— serotina.

Leaves longer, on strong shoots occasionally in fascicles of four — five ;
staminate flowers larger, cones more elongated, often remaining closed for
several years.

P. rigida serotina, Engelmann, Trans. St. Louis Acad. IV. 183. Hoopes,
Evergreens, 120. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 269. P. serotina, Michanx, Hist. Arb.
Amer. 86 t. 7. Sargent., Silva N". Amer. XI. 119, t. 580.

Pinus rigida is common along the valley of the river St. John,
New Brunswick, to the northern shores of Lake Ontario whence it
spreads southwards through the Atlantic States to Georgia and
Florida with a westerly extension into West Virginia and Kentucky,
growing generally in dry sandy soil, or less frequently in damp cold
swamps ; it is abundant on the Atlantic coast south of Boston,
forming extensive forests in New Jersey and on the Delaware
peninsula. As a timber tree P. rigida is almost worthless ; the wood
is coarse-grained, knotty and mostly of small scantling, and is used
chiefly for fuel and for the manufacture of charcoal, although
formerly much used in New England for building purposes before a
cheaper means of transport rendered the more valuable timber of the
southern Pines available. Its fuel value is, however, unsurpassed by
any tree in the northern forest, and thousands of acres of poor
sterile lands in the north-eastern States on which no other tree can
exist, have been covered with it at a comparatively trifling cost.t

At least three distinct species of Pinus are called Pitch Pines in*
North America, the western, P. ponderosa, the southern, P. palustris,
and the northern, P. rigida, the subject of the present notice which is
also known as the Pitch Pine in Great Britain. In the last named case
the vernacular name is misleading ; the resinous products of P. rigida
formerly furnished quantities of turpentine and tar of some commercial
importance before the richer and superior supply of the southern Pine
Barrens were worked ; ' and the valuable timber used in this country as
Pitch Pine is obtained not from P. rigida but from P. palustris.

* The variability in the size and shape of the cones of Pinus rigida is very great.
Mr. Thomas Meehan, of Philadelphia, once gathered a series of these cones in the neighbour-
hood of Hammongton, New Jersey ; some were four inches long and almost round, others
four inches long and not two inches wide ; some were flat at the base and would stand almost
upright, others were rounded and would roll over like marbles ; some were not more than an
inch long and yet bore perfect seeds ; some had very narrow scales, others very broad ones. —
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1883.

t Garden and Forest, IV. 397.

PIN US SABINIANA. 375

The date of the introduction of Pinus ri<jida into Great Britain is not
definitely known. According to Aiton* it was introduced prior to 1759
when it was known to lie in cultivation at Woburn Abbey. It is now
not often met with in the adult state south of the Trent as it is greatly
surpassed as an ornamental tree by Pines of subsequent introduction ; in
the northern counties and in Scotland it is more frequent and better
adapted to the climate.

Old trees of Finn* ritjida attract attention by the numerous small
branchlets growing from the trunk and lower part of the primary
branches. On the trunk these branchlets are usually produced on the
side exposed to the sun; the longest are but a few inches in -length and
branched, whilst the shortest appear like tufts of leaves issuing from the
crevices of the bark ; the leaves themselves are shorter and thinner than
the normal size. The production of adventitious growths in this manner
on P. rigida is a common occurrence in North America especially after
a forest fire has destroyed all the normal foliage. Carriere records a
similar appearance of fascicles of staminate flowers on the trunk of an
old Pitch Pine issuing directly from the bark without a trace of foliage.

The variety serotina takes the place of the species in the extreme
south of its habitat, spreading from Carolina southwards into northern
Florida ; in this region it is called the Pond Pine from its being always
found growing in swampy places or on. the banks of streams periodically
inundated.

Pinus Sabiniana.

A medium-sized tree 40 — 50 feet high with the trunk almost always
divided at a greater or less distance from the ground into two, three or
more secondary trunks, which (in Great Britain) again divide in a similar
manner, these secondary divisions usually very irregularly branched
towards the summit and forming a rounded head ; rarely with a single
erect trunk 70 — 80 feet high and 3 — 4 feet in diameter. Bark of
trunk and primary branches greyish brown fissured into irregular plates,
the inner cortex exposed by the fissures, cinnamon-brown. Branchlets
stoutish, strongly furrowed and roughened by thes scars of the fallen
leaves and the cortical ridges decurrent from them. Buds
cylindric, abruptly acute, 0'75 — 1 inch long, the perulae lanceolate,
acuminate, imbricated, pale reddish brown. Leaves ternate, persistent
two — three years, produced in loose clusters along the apical half of
each year's growth, filiform, pendent, 9 — 12 inches long, triquetral,
compressed, greyish green; basal sheath 1 — 1*5 inch long, at first pale
brown, shortened, corrugated and blackish the second year. Staminate
flowers in clusters of fifteen — twenty, cylindric, obtuse, about an inch
long, and surrounded at the base by ten— twelve involucral bracts in
three series. Cones on stout reflexed peduncles, ovoid-obtuse, 7 — 9 inches
long and 5 — 6 inches in diameter at the broadest, pale orange-brown
when mature, very resinous, and remaining on the tree several years;
scales hard, ligneous, 2 inches long and 1'5 inch broad, with a
projecting pyramidal apophysis compressed laterally, the umbo elongated
into a strong point frequently curved like a hook. Seeds 0'75 inch
long and 0'4 inch broad, with an obliquely rounded wing at the apex.

* Hortus Kevvensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 387.

376 PIN US SAB1NIANA.

Finns Sabiriiana, Douglas, MS. ex Comp. Bot. Mag. II. 150 (1836). Lambert,
Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II. 146, t. 80. London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2246,
with figs. Link in Liimnea, XV. 509. Endliclier, Synops. Conif. 159. Forbes,
Pinet. Woburn. 63, tt. 23, 24. Van Houtte, Flore des Serres, IX. p. 275, t. 964.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit , I. 85, t. 11. Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor.
II. 127. Hoopes, Evergreens, 121. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 435. Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 391. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 284. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 256.
Masters in Gard. Cliron. IV. ser. 3 (1888), p. 44, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 239. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XI. 95, tt. 569, 570.

Eng. Nnt Pine. Amer: Digger Pine, Bull Pine. Germ. Nnsskiefer, Weisskiefer.
Ital. Pino noce.

Pinus Scibinictna inhabits the foot-hills of California both of the
coast range and of the Sierra Nevada almost throughout the entire
length of the State from north to south, ascending in places on the
latter to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, but usually much
lower. It is so unlike any other Pine in habit and aspect that even
amidst the luxuriant coniferous vegetation of California it forms a
distinct feature of the landscape, appearing in the distance more
like an Olive tree or a Willow than a Pine ; its loose and widely-
branched habit and its thin grey pendulous foliage tufted at the
ends of its crooked straggling branches render the tree so pervious
to light that it affords no shade, but at the same time clothes it
with pale colouring so distinct, that in the distance this Pine can
be easily recognised amidst the darker surroundings. As it occurs
along the torrid foot-hills throughout the coast range, it is one of
the first of the true Pines met with by the traveller ascending the
mountains from the west ; it springs up here and there singly or
in groups, never forming forests of itself, usually mixed with an
undergrowth of shrubby Oaks (Quercus Douglasii) and Ceanothus, but
sometimes in sterile, rough rocky places where nothing else grows.*
The economic value of Pinus Sabiniana is unimportant ; the wood
is light, very soft and cross-grained ; it soon decays on exposure
to the weather, but it is one of the best of firewoods ; the tree
yields excellent turpentine, but its most useful product is the large
seeds of a nutty flavour which are much eaten by the Indians.
The seeds, however, are not much relished by the whites, and their
economic value as an article of food will doubtless cease with the
extinction of the race of red men that now consumes them.

Pinus Sabiniana was discovered by David Douglas during his first
exploration in California in 1826, but his specimens were unfortunately
lost in crossing a stream on. his return northwards. Cones and seeds
were received from him in 1832 by the Horticultural Society of
London, and plants were subsequently distributed among the Fellows
under the name it now bears, which Douglas had given it in
compliment to Mr. Joseph Sabine, at that time secretary of the
Society and the author of many of the papers published in the earlier
Transactions of the Society. In Great Britain this Pine has proved
fairly hardy ; in the west and south-west of England, where it has in
places attained a considerable size, it possesses many of the peculiar

*Muir in Harper's Magazine ex Gardeners' Chronicle, Joe. cit.

PIN US STROBUS. 377

characteristics described above, which render it a decidedly picturesque
tree for the park and landscape, and for contrast with other trees it
is unrivalled among Pines.*

The present condition of Pinus Salnniana is highly suggestive of its
past history and future destiny. Living in a climate singularly
favourable for arborescent vegetation, and amidst an environment of
lofty coniferous trees from 200 to 300 feet high, it fails, with rare
exceptions, to develop a single ascending stem like its congeners ; at
an early stage in its life its principal axis is forked or divided into
three or four ascending stems which seldom attain one-fourth of the
height of the species associated with it ; its foliage is unusually
sparse and lithe, and its large cones are almost of fossil-like consistency.
All these characteristics seem to point, on the one hand, to an ancestry
that must have originated in times antedating the first appearance of
that of most existing Pines, and on the other hand, to a state of
decadence foreshadowing its extinction.

Pinus Strobus.

A tall or medium-sized tree according to situation and environment ;
heights of 80 — 100 feet attained under favourable circumstances are frequent,
125 — 150 feet exceptional. In Great Britain trees 75- — 90 feet high
are occasionally seen, but the average height in this country rarely
ranges above 60 — 70 feet. Trunk tapering, 3 — 4 feet in diameter near
the base, covered with greyish bark, smooth on young trees, rugged and
fissured on old ones. Branches in pseudo-whorls, the lowermost
disappearing as the tree advances in age, so that old trees are usually
free of branches for two-thirds or more of their height, and often have
a broad, rounded top. Branchlets slender, in whorls of three — five,
ash-grey ; buds sub-conic, acute, 0'25 — 0'5 inch long, the perulre ovate-
lanceolate, narrowed into long, slender tips, chestnut-brown. Leaves
quinate, persistent two — three years, slender, almost filiform, triquetral
with serrulate margins, 3 — 4 inches long, bluish green at a distance,
green on the convex side, marked with silvery stomatiferous lines
on the flat sides ; basal sheath short and deciduous. Staminate flowers
in rather lax spikes more than an inch long, ellipsoid, about 0'4 inch
long, yellow stained with pinkish purple, and surrounded at the base
by eleven — thirteen involucral bracts in three series. Cones pendulous,
shortly pedunculate, cylindric, tapering to an obtuse apex, slightly curved,
5 — 6 inches long and 1 — 1'25 inch in diameter; scales obovate oblong,
with a small pointed umbo at the apex, pale brown on the exposed side.

Pinus Strobus, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1001 (1753). Miller, Diet. ed. VIII.
No. 13 (1768). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. 31, t. 22 (1803). L. C. Richard,
Mem. sur les Conif. 60. Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 103, t 10. London,
Arb. et Frut. Brit IV. 2280, with figs. Hooker, W. F1- Bor- Amer. II. 161
(exclu. syn. P. monticola). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 146. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 398. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 405. Hoopes, Evergreens, 136,
with fig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 322. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 288, with fig.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 240. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XL 17,
tt. 538, 539. And many others.

Eng. Weymouth Pine. Amer. White Pine. Germ. Strobe, Weymouths-Kiefer.

* The largest specimens seen by the author are at Ledbury Park and Eastnor Castle,
Herefordshire ; Highnam Court and Tortworth Court, Gloucestershire ; Pampesford Hall,
Cambridge ; Orton Hall. Peterborough ; and in the Royal Gardens at Kew.

378 PINUS STROBUS.

var.— nana.

A small, compact, bushy shrub with short slender branches and
numerous branchlets. The leaves are shorter than those of the species,
and densely clustered at the extremities of the branchlets.

Other varieties named respectively— aurea, compada, fastigiata, nivea,
pumila, variegata and viridis, have been in cultivation, but are now rarely,
if ever, met with in British gardens.

The greater part of the area of distribution of P-inus Strobus on
the North American continent lies between the 40th and 50th
parallels of north latitude. From Newfoundland, where it is common,
it spreads westwards along the northern shore of the St. Lawrence
and the great lakes to Lake Nepigon and the River Winnipeg, and
through the northern States to Illinois and Iowa. South of
the 40th parallel it follows chiefly the trend of the Alleghany
mountains through eastern Kentucky and Tennessee into Georgia.
It attains its largest size in the valley of the St. Lawrence and
adjacent New England States ; both at its northern and southern
limits it is a smaller tree, less valuable and less abundant.

Pinus Strobus is one of the most important of the North American
timber trees, and great numbers are felled every year and sent to Europe
under the name of White Pine. It is still abundant in parts of the
New England States and Canada, although rapidly diminishing in
quantity in consequence of the great demand for its timber ; with the
view of counteracting the diminishing supply, successful attempts to
cultivate it on a large scale have been already made in the northern
States, which may lead to further operations of the same kind. So
highly is the White Pine held in estimation in New England, that it
was made the central figure 011 the seal and arms of the State of Maine;
it is also one of the most valuable trees of Canada and forms an
important article of its commerce, and as such finds its way into every
carpentering establishment in Great Britain. The wood is light, soft,
straight-grained, but not strong, easily worked and susceptible of receiving
a beautiful polish.*

The White Pine was first cultivated in Great Britain by the Duchess
of Beaufort at Badminton in 1705, and shortly afterwards great numbers
were planted by Lord Weymouth on his estate at Longleat in Wiltshire
whence this species received the name of Weymouth Pine. The
Longleat plantations succeeded so satisfactorily that seeds were
subsequently distributed among nurserymen and others throughout the
country. The principal use of Pinus Strobus in this country is for the
decoration of the park and landscape, for mixing with other trees in the
formation of belts and screens, and occasionally for forestial purposes ; its
rate of growth in ordinary soils is from 12 to 15 feet' in ten years.
The timber of British-grown Weymouth Pine is reported satisfactory but
less valuable than that received from America, a circumstance doubtless
due to climatic causes.

In the north-eastern States of America Pinus Strobus is the best of all
Pines for ornamental planting, "impervious to the cold of the Canadian

* Silva of North America, XL 19.

PINUS SYLVESTKIS. 379

winter and the burning sun and dry winds of Kansas, the White Pine
flourishes also as no other exotic Conifer flourishes in central Europe ;
and in the gardens of northern Italy it is as beautiful as in the forests
of Michigan and Minnesota."*

The specific name Strobus, appears to have been taken by Linnaeus
from Pliny, w.ho mentions a tree called Strobus, indigenous to Carmania,
a province of ancient Persia, where it was sought after for fumigating
or incense. It is not known what tree this was.

Pinus sylvestris.

A tree of variable dimensions, according to locality and environment ; in
favourable situations attaining a height of 80 — 100 feet with a trunk 2- — 4
feet in diameter, usually free of branches for two-thirds or more of the
height and with a narrowly pyramidal head, but in old age with a rather
broad rounded top. Bark of trunk smooth or but slightly roughened, and
with a reddish tinge especially along the upper portion, but rugged and
irregularly fissured in old age. Branches in pseudo-whorls of three — six,
usually horizontal, the lowermost sometimes depressed or even sub-pendulous,
whilst those near the top are ascending. Branchlets at first green, changing
to reddish brown at the end of the second year. Buds conic-cylindric,
acute, 0*25 — 0'5 inch long, pale chestnut-brown, usually covered with a film
of whitish resin ; the perulse lanceolate, acuminate, and minutely ciliolate.
Leaves geminate, persistent three — four years, inserted on spirally arranged
cortical pulvini, rigid and straight, but often curved or twisted,
1'5 to 3 'inches long, semi-terete with a callous tip, at first bluish or
glaucous green, changing with age to dull dark green; basal sheath
about one-third of an inch long, wrinkled and blackish. Staminate
flowers in dense clusters near the end of branchlets of the preceding
year, ovoid-cylindric, about 0*25 inch long, sulphur-yellow. Cones ovoid,
2 — 3 inches long and 1 — 1*25 inch in diameter above the base; scales
narrowly oblong, terminating in a rhomboidal thickening on the dorsal
side, with a transverse keel and short pyramidal umbo.f

Finns sylvestris, Linn?eus, Sp. Plant. II. 1000 (1753). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. 1,
t. 1. (1803). L C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 55 (1826). London, Arb. et
Frut. Brit. IV. 2153, with tigs. (1838). Link in Linnrea, XV. 484 (1841). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 171 (1847). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 480. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. 385. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 193. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 257.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 225, with figs. Sowerby, Eng. Bot. VI. (1866), p. 264.
Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Isles, ed. III. p. 380. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 240.
And many others.

Eng. Scots Pine, I Scotch Fir, Wild Pine. Fr. Pin de Geneve, Pin de Riga.
Pin silvestre. Germ. Gemeine Kiefer, Fohre, Kienbaum, and others. Span. Pino
albar. Probably the n-irvQ aypia of Theophrastus.

The varieties of Pinus sylvestris are exceedingly numerous ; they
admit of being arranged into two groups — local or geographical, and
those that have originated under cultivation. As scarcely any of these
varieties possess any special interest for British forestry and arboriculture,
the briefest mention of them in this place must suffice ; fuller
descriptions of them are given in Willkomm's " Forstliche Flora " and
Beissner's "Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde."

* Garden and Forest, X. 460.

t The apophysis of the seed scale of Pinus sylvestris is very variable in form in the different
regions over which it is spread.

£ The name used by Sir Walter Scott and since taken up in Scotland generally.

380

PINUS SYLVESTRIS.

Geographical Varieties.

aryentea, a taller tree than the common form, found on the Caucasian
mountains and bearing cones with a silver-white tint : enyadensis, a
much-branched small tree, common in Lapland: erythranthem, a variety
with red staminate flowers occurring in Prussia and Saxony : nevadensix,
a southern form with broader, shorter and stilfer leaves, inhabiting the
Sierra Nevada in Spain : reflexa, a smaller tree with an irregular
head, growing in marshy valleys among the Swiss Alps and the
lowlands of southern Germany : viryata, an irregularly-branched tree
with twiggy branchlets found on the Oberforst Wandsburg in Prussia,
and a few other places.

Garden Varieties.

The most distinct of these have been named aurea, columnaris,
compacta fastiyiata, eompressa, nana, pendula, pyramidalis, varieyata,
names sufficiently indicative of their most obvious characteristic. The
most useful of these varieties for British gardens is aurea, a low
tree of dense habit, with the young leaves of a golden yellow
colour which changes to the normal green in the second year.
The Scots Pine has a greater geographical distribution than any
other Pine, or even of any other species included in the Abietineae.
With the exception of the southern portion of the Balkan peninsula
it is spread over the whole of Europe, including the British Islands,
and in Asia it occurs throughout nearly the whole of that part of
the continent comprised within the Russian dominions. Its western
limit is the Sierra Nevada in Spain, whence it ranges eastwards
across the continent to the Stanovoi mountains in eastern Siberia,
and to the Amur region. It reaches its highest latitude in Europe
at about the 70th parallel 011 the north-west coast of Norway ;
eastwards of this its northern limit lies near the Arctic Circle, but
sinking below the 64th parallel in eastern Siberia; its southern
limit in Europe follows very nearly the trend of the mountain
systems stretching eastwards from the Sierra Nevada to the Caucasian
mountains, and in Asia the mountains of Turkestan and the Altai
range to the Amur littoral. Throughout this great region the Scots
Pine is very irregularly distributed ; as it is a tree of the plain as
well as of the mountain, its spread in the lowlands has been greatly
influenced by climate and soil, and within historic times by the
pressure of population ; it forms forests of considerable extent in the
flat sandy plains of north-east Germany, also in Finland, Russia and
Poland ; in Siberia it is more scattered and often mixed with Picea
obovata and Abies sibirica. On the mountains the vertical range of Pinus
sylvestris varies with the latitude of the localities; in northern Norway
it. ascends only to about 700 feet above sea-level ; on the mountains
of central Germany its highest vertical limit is 2,000 — 2,500 feet
on the French Vosges about 4,000 feet, on the Swiss Alps 5,500 —
6,000 feet, and on the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain 6,500 feet.

PIXUS SYLVESTKLS. 381

The wild Pine of Scotland has been exhaustively studied in its
forestial aspect by the Scottish forestry authorities, from whose publications
the following interesting particulars have been gleaned : —

Although native, and with evidence that the greater part of Scotland,
north of the Grampians, was covered with the wild Pine at no very
remote period, forests of indigenous Firs are at the present time few
and far between. The chief remaining ones are to be found about
the heads of the valleys of the Dee in Aberdeenshire and of the
Spey in Inverness-shire ; whilst another, equally beautiful but perhaps
not so well known, lies on the shores of Loch Rannoch, one of the
tributary lochs of the Tay in Perthshire. The latter, from its sombre
appearance, is called by the natives the Black Wood. It lies 011 the
south side of Loch Rannoch, and extends along the shores of the loch
for about 2J miles, with an average breadth of about 1 mile ; this
is about the extent of the dense part of the wood, but including
the outlying parts, the length is nearly 7 miles and the greatest
breadth 5 miles. In altitude above the sea level the wood lies
between 700 and 1,500 feet. There is another remarkable natural
forest of Scots Pine at Ballochbuie, on the Braes of Mar, which has
nowr become the property of Her Majesty the Queen, and thus u
guarantee is afforded that it will be permanently preserved as a worthy
remnant of those magnificent Pine forests with which the Highland
glens and mountains were once so widely clothed.

In these forests, specimens of the Scots Pine are to be found which
have attained large dimensions. Some of them measure 12 and 13 feet
in circumference near the ground, with a height of over 80 feet; many
of them are between three and four hundred years old. The trunks
are comparatively smooth, and generally straight and free of branches
for a considerable part of the height. If in healthy growth, the bark
is of a reddish colour on the upper portion of the trunk, and this
reddening is usually a sign that the locality is favourable to their
development. The quality of the timber of the Scots Pine is very
much influenced by the nature of the soil and situation upon which
it is grown, as well as by the ~age at which the tree is cut. The
close-grained, highly resinous timber produced upon cold, high-lying
districts in the north of Scotland, is found, when of mature age, to be
superior to that imported from any part of Europe ; whilst that which
has been planted in the lowlands of Scotland, as well as in the
rather rich soils in many parts of England, is not nearly so good
although of the same age.

The technical uses to which the timber of the Scots Pine is
applied are almost endless, no sort of wood being so generally used
for almost all kinds of purposes to which timber is applied. The
wood of young trees felled for thinning is used for cases for dry
goods, cooperage, and rough fencing ; that of full-grown trees for
house building, out-of-door carpentry, railway ties, piles, hydraulic works,
street paving, etc.* Among the minor products that were formerly, and
are probably still utilised in places are the resinous juices from which
tar and pitch are prepared and also turpentine used in house painting,
In Lapland and northern Russia the bark is used for covering huts and
many other purposes.

The Scots Pine, from its hardy constitution and rapid growth, is
* The Forester, by James Brown, ed. VI, Vol. I, p. 255,

382 PIN US

a useful tree for forming screens, and as a nurse for . more tender
trees. As a tree for planting in poor, dry soils and in exposed
situations it is equalled only by the Larch ; when planted as a screen
for shelter it is best mixed with the common Spruce and the hardier,
rapid-growing deciduous trees. Its rate of growth in the climate of
London, according to London, is from 20 to 25 feet in ten years,
and from 40 to 50 feet in twenty years.

Pinus Taeda.

A tree 80 — 100 feet high with a cylindric or scarcely tapering
trunk about 2 feet in diameter, "in wet ground occasionally 175 feet
high with a trunk 5 feet in diameter and free of limbs to nearly
half the height." Bark reddish brown irregularly fissured into broad,
flat ridges. Branches spreading or ascending, in old trees irregularly
developed and forming a wide-spreading or broadly round-topped crown.
Branchlets slender, covered with reddish brown bark which, on the
younger shoots, is paler and obliquely ridged and furrowed by cortical
outgrowths. Buds cylindric-conic, 0'5 — 0*75 inch long, chestnut-brown,
the perulse lanceolate, acuminate, and fringed with whitish hairs.
Leaves ternate, persistent two — three years, trigonal, mucronate with
serrulate margins, 3 '5 — 5 inches long, grass-green on the convex side,
marked with eight — ten or more whitish stomatiferous lines on the
two ventral faces ; basal sheath about an inch long, much shorter and
lacerated the second year. Staminate flowers crowded in short spikes,,
cylindric, incurved, about an inch long, surrounded at the base by
twelve — fifteen involucral bracts, the anthers with an orbicular connective.
Cones usually in pairs or clusters of three, ovoid cylindric, 3 — 5 inches
long and 1 — 2 inches in diameter ; scales narrowly oblong, the
apophysis rhomboidal with a transverse keel and small sub-pyramidal
umbo armed with a hard, short prickle.

Pinus Tteda, Linnreus, Sp. Plant. II. 1000 (1753) excln. hab. Canada. Miller,
Diet. ed. VIII. No. 11 (1768). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. 23, tt. 16, 17. Michaux,
Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 97, t. 9. London, Arb. et Fmt. Brit. IV. 2237, with figs.
Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 43, t. 14. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 164. Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 448. Paiiatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 393. Hoopes, Evergreens, 122.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 286. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 265. Masters in Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 241. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XI, 111, tt. 577, 578. And many others.

Eng. Torch Pine, Frankincense Pine Amer. Old Field Pine, Loblolly Pine.
Fr. Pin a 1'encens. Germ. Weihrauch-Kiefer. Ital. Pino a flaccole.

Pinus Tceda is one of the most widely distributed of the Pines
inhabiting the Atlantic States of North America. It spreads from
Delaware southwards to Florida and through the Gulf States to
Texas. Except in the northern portion of its range where it prefers
the low lands adjacent to the Atlantic coast, it takes the place
of the southern Pitch Pine, P, palustris, inland spreading westwards
through South Carolina and Georgia to the Mississippi river.
West of the great river, the area covered by it is less extensive,
but in western Louisiana and eastern Texas it forms considerable
forests, and in Arkansas and the Indian territory it is the most
important timber tree of the country.

PINUS THUNBERGI. 383

In the. warm climate of tlie south-eastern States, Pinus Tceda is a
rapid-growing tree ; it springs up in abundance on lands exhausted by
cultivation whence it has obtained the name of the Old Field Pine,
and in a short time affords a supply of timber and wood for fuel.
The wood varies -11111011 in quality in the different regions in which it
is grown ; the proportion of sap- to heart-wood is greater than in
most Pines, and the latter is for the most part coarse-grained and not
durable. The resinous products are inferior to those of P. palustris,
and are not much worked commercially.

This Pine was introduced by Bishop Conipton in 1713. Although
it does not refuse to grow in this country, it is of little value for
the British Pinetum. Several large trees are mentioned by London
that were growing in his time in the Royal Gardens at Kew, at Syon
House, Dropmore, and other places ; those in the two first-named places
have long since perished, more from the deleterious influence of the
London smoke than from any other cause. The largest trees in
England known to the author are at Bicton and Tortworth Court.

Pinus Thunbergi.

A large tree often attaining a height of 80 — 90 feet, and in
exceptional situations even 120 feet with a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter
covered with greyish brown deeply fissured bark and usually with a
broad head of stout contorted sub-pendulous branches. Branchlets
stoutish, in whorls of three- — five with pale reddish brown bark, the
younger leafy shoots whitish brown. Buds ovoid-cylindric, suddenly
contracted to a sharp point, greyish white, 0 '35—0 '7 5 inch long ;
perulse linear-lanceolate acuminate, fringed with relatively long silky
hairs. Leaves geminate, persistent about three years, rigid, straight,
mucronate, 2 '75 — 4 inches long, serrulate at the edges, dull greyish
green ; basal sheath whitish, 0'5 inch long, contracted and much
lacerated the second year. Staminate flowers densely spicate, cylindric,
about an inch long, yellowish and often curved ; stamens closely
imbricated, with short filaments dilated at the apex into an orbicular,
irregularly crenulated connective. Cones ovoid-conic, 2 inches long and
1 inch in diameter, pale reddish brown ; scales oblong, the apophysis
rliomboidal with a transverse keel depressed at the centre.

Pinus Thunbergi, Paiiatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 381 (1868). Franchet et Savetier,
Emmi. Plant. Jap. I. 464 (1875). Eugelmann, Revision Genus Pinus, 22 (1880).
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soe. XVIII. 504 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 241.
Mayr, Abiet. des Jap. Reiches, 69, t. 5, fig. 16. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 248.

P. Massoniana, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 174 (1847), not Lambert. Siebold and
Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 24, tt 113, 114. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 487.
Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 23, with tigs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 241.

P. sylvestris, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 274 (not Linnaeus).

Eng Japanese Black Pine. Germ. Japanisclie Schwa rzkiefer. Jap. Kuro-matzu.

Although very common throughout Japan except in the northern
island of Yeso, no recent botanical traveller in that country has,
with certainty, seen Pinus Thunbergi growing wild. That it is
indigenous to Japan admits of but little doubt, and it may also be
assumed to be a native of Corea where it was seen by Mr. James
H. Veitch in two or three localities apparently wild ; its geographical
range may thence be more extensive than was originally supposed.

PINUS THUNBERGI. 385

Pinus Thunberyi is planted everywhere throughout Japan and, for
•every conceivable purpose, for it will grow in the poorest as well as
in the best soils ; it is used as a shelter- tree on the sea-coast for
the protection of the cultivated lands against the high winds blowing
from the ocean ; for the fixation of sand dunes in the same way as
P. Pinaster is used in the French Landes ; it is planted in avenues
.along the public highways for hundreds of miles, often in conjunction
with P. densiflora; it -is also planted on exhausted lands unfit for
other crops for the sake of its wood which supplies the fuel of many
of the poorer inhabitants. But it is in its relation to horticulture and
to the social and religious life of the Japanese that P. Thunbergi
associated with P. densiflora is seen in its most interesting aspects,
for it is found in every garden, in every temple enclosure and in
•every cemetery. As Siebold remarked long ago — "the art of the
Japanese gardener has exhausted itself in the cultivation of these
Pines ; they are clipped and cut in all manner of ways ; the branches
'are spread out like a fan upon horizontal espaliers to give them the
form of a flat table. In this artificial cultivation, extremes meet,
surprise is equally sought to be gained by specimens of immense
extent as by others reduced to the smallest possible dimensions."*
During Dr. Siebold's stay at Osaka he went to see the celebrated Pine
in front of the Naniwaja Tea-house, of which the branches artificially
extended have a circuit of 135 paces. Another remarkable specimen
was seen by Mr. Maries in 1878 and fifteen years later by Mr. James
H. Veitch in the village of Karasaki about three miles from Lake
Biwa-Ko ; it is one of the most curious Pines in Japan ; the height
is about 50 feet, the circumference of the trunk at the base is
20 feet, but at a few feet from the ground owing to trifurcation it
is 37 feet ; the spread of branches from east to west is 240 feet,
and from north to south 288 feet ; the principal branches are held
up by numerous supports both of wood and stone ; old wouncls caused
by time and decay have been stopped by plaster, and over one
particularly bad spot a small roof has been erected.

But more extraordinary still is the Pine trained in the form of a

junk, standing in the garden attached to the monastery at Kinkakuja ;

its present shape is, according to the resident priests, the result of

over three centuries of patient labour. The trunk forms the mast, and

two opposite branches springing from it at a few inches from the

ground have been made the basis on which the structure of the hull

has been worked out ; this is 35 feet in length and somewhat exceeds

the height of the tree. The remaining branches of the trunk are bare

from 12 to 18 inches from their base, and the branchlets beyond have

been trained in continuous spirals so that the youngest shoots with

their foliage now rest upon thick layers of twisted, interlaced, stiffened

wood, the accumulated training of a long series of years.f

Pinus Thunbergi was introduced into Europe by Siebold in 1855,

and into Great Britain with P. densiflora by the late John Gould

Veitch in 1861. Unfortunately it was distributed both by Siebold

* Flora Japonica, Vol. II. p. 26.

t Whether this marvellous instance of oriental patience is Pinus Thunbergi or
P. densiflora is somewhat uncertain ; the more slender and flexible branchlets of the latter
would seem to lend themselves to this kind of training with greater facility than the
stouter, stiffer shoots of P. Thunbergi.

CO

386 PINUS TUBERCULATA.

and from the Veitchian nursery under the name of P. Massoniana,
in the belief that it was the Pine of that name described and
figured by Lambert in the " Genus Finns/' which is a different
species common on and near the coast of southern China and not
sufficiently hardy for the British climate.* In the drier climate of
Great Britain P. Thuribergi grows somewhat slowly, but it is hardy
and sufficiently distinct from the European and American species to
be a useful tree for the park and landscape, and for planting near
the sea-coast. It commemorates one of the earliest pioneers of
botanical explorations in distant lands.

CARL PETER THUNBERG (1743 — 1828) was the son of a clergyman at Jonkb'ping in
Sweden, and in early life a pupil of Linnaeus at the university of Upsal where
he graduated in 1770, and won the Kohrean pension for three years which enabled him
to visit Paris and the Dutch universities. In 1771 he obtained an appointment as
surgeon to one of the Dutch East India Company's vessels, in which he sailed -from
Amsterdam to the Dutch colonial possessions. He landed at the Cape of Good Hope
where he stayed two winters, making several excursions into the interior for the purpose
of collecting plants and other objects of natural history, whence his name became
associated with the Cape Flora. He then sailed for Java where, including a voyage to
Japan, he remained five years collecting a large number of plants previously unknown
to European botanists. In Japan he stayed at Jeddo (Tokio) for about two months, and
while there and at Nagasaki collected such materials as were within his reach, from
which he afterwards compiled a "Flora Japonica " published in 1784. He returned to
his native country in 1779, making first a short stay in England, where he became
acquainted with Sir Joseph Banks, Dr. Solander and other eminent botanists of that
period. During his absence he had been appointed Demonstrator of Botany in the
University of Upsal, and in 1784 he succeeded Linnreus as Professor. Besides the
"Flora Japonica," he compiled several other botanical works now become obsolete,
but among them some "Observations on the Flora of Japan " published in the second
volume of the "Transactions of the Linneaii Society of London" will always be
regarded with a kindly interest by British botanists.

Pinus tuberculata.

"A tree usually about 20 feet high with a trunk a foot in diameter,,
but occasionally 80 — 100 feet with a trunk 2 '5 feet in thickness,,
and frequently divided above the middle into two ascending main
stems. Branches comparatively slender, and while the tree is young
in regular remote whorls forming a compact or open pyramidal head
which, in old age, becomes a round-topped straggling head of sparse,
thin foliage."! Branchlets slender, orange-brown ; buds ovoid-cylindric,,
about half-an-inch long, with ovate-lanceolate chestnut-brown perube.
Leaves ternate, persistent three — four years, slender, 4 — 6 inches long,
triquetral, convex on the dorsal, distinctly keeled on the ventral side,
greyish green : basal sheath short and much corrugated. Staminate
flowers in elongated spikes, cylindric, 0'5 inch long, with orange-brown
anthers, and surrounded at the base by six involucral bracts. Cones
in clusters of three — five, elongate-conic, oblique at the base, rounded
at the apex, 4 — 6 inches long and 175 — 2 -5 inches in diameter at
the broadest ; scales more developed on the exposed upper side than
beneath, the apophysis with a transverse keel and central umbo

* It has been extensively used for afforesting the bare hills and uplands of Hongkong.,
t Silva of North America, XI. 107.

PINUS TUBERCULATA. 387

terminating in a strong, sharp prickle ; on the under side of the cone
much smaller, flat, and with a small prickle in the centre.

Pinus tuberculata, Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. IV. 218, with fig. ;*
and Pinet. ed. II. 288.- Lawson, Pinet. Brit. I. 93, t, 13 Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 441 (in part). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 394 (in part).
Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 128 Masters in Garcl.
Chron. XXIV. (1885), p. 786, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 241.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 270.

P. attemiata", Leminon and Sargent, Silva 1ST. Amer. XI. 107, tt. 575, 576.

Amer. Knob-cone Pine. Germ. Hocker-Kiefer.

Pinus tuberculata inhabits the dry southern and western slopes,
fully exposed to the sun, of the mountain ranges which, under various
names, extend from south-west Oregon, its northern limit, to the
San Bernardino mountains in south California. In some places it
forms pure forests of considerable extent ; in others it is more
scattered and mixed with other trees ; its vertical range is from
1,000 to 5,000 feet above sea-level. The wood is soft, brittle, and
cross-grained, and but little used. It was introduced by the
Horticultural Society of London, in 1847, through their collector
Hartweg, who was probably the discoverer of it ; seeds have since been
occasionally received from different parts of its habitat, but its
unsuitableness ' for the British climate has long been apparent, and
it is only in dry, sheltered localities, comparatively few in number, that
it can be said to have grown satisfactorily.

Pinus tuberculata is singular among Pines in bearing cones when
only a few feet high, and which remain on the tree for thirty to forty
years, often becoming imbedded in the bark, and not opening till the
tree dies from local causes or is destroyed by a forest fire. P. tuberculata
also has the peculiarity of producing its cones on the main trunk as well
as on the branches, giving it a singular appearance, as they are arranged
around the stem in almost a circle, usually five though often seven cones
composing the circle. Sometimes two or three circles of these cones are
closely crowded together, overlapping each other as they hang down ;
they are very compact, and covered with a resinous coating which
insures them against cracking, a good provision for the preservation of
the seed which is never shed till the tree has been felled. In forests
where this Pine is abundant it has been noticed that the trees are
all of the same age, which can only be accounted for by the
simultaneous shedding of the seed.

LAKIX.

Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. VIII. 313 (1805). Regel in Gartenfl. XX. 91 (1871).
Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 442 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat.
Pfl. Fain. 75. (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 31 (1893).

If we regard the Larches in respect of their foliage only, they
form a very natural genus. The deciduous leaves of herbaceous
texture and of a soft pleasing green when first developed, clearly

* Parlatore quotes Don (Trans. Linn. Soc. XVII. 442) as the author of the species.
Don gives a description of a cone only, which is not that of P. tuberculata but P. radiata
apparently somewhat abnormal.

388 LARIX.

distinguish them from all other coniferous trees, and on this
ground chiefly the genus Larix has been adopted by most recent
authors. Every other character, except the anatomical structure of
the wood, is possessed in a greater or less degree in common with
one or other of the genera included in the Abietineae. In the
crowded fascicles of leaves produced on short arrested branchlets, the
Larches agree with the Cedars ; the cones of Larix combine the
persistent scales of those of a Picea with the erect or assiirgent
position of those of an Abies ; and the staminate flowers conform
very nearly to those of a Tsuga.

The essential characters of Larix in respect of the reproductive
organs may be thus formulated : —

Flowers monoecious. Staminate flowers sessile along branchlets of
the preceding year, and surrounded at the base by numerous reflexed
involucral bracts, globose or ovoid, composed of numerous stamens with
short footstalks spirally arranged around a central axis. Anthers
two-celled, with a sharply pointed connective ; dehiscence longitudinal.

Ovuliferous flowers sub-globose on the ends of very short lateral
branchlets (sub-sessile), and consisting of numerous suborbicular scales
bearing nearly at the base of the ventral face two inverted ovules,
and attached to the highly-coloured dorsal face, a linear bract, often
much longer than the scale and at first separable from it.

Cones ovoid, rarely cylindric, obtuse ; scales loosely imbricated,
persistent, and bearing on the inner face two winged seeds. Seeds
triangular, rounded on the sides.

The technical distinction of the species is attended with considerable
difficulty, in some cases arising chiefly from their extensive distribution,
so that local or geographical divergences from what is regarded as
the common type are not infrequent. These divergences are for the
most part intermediate between two types to which they are
geographically adjacent, and thence form a connecting link between
them. Instances of such forms have been observed by Hegel,
Willkomm and others, connecting Larix europcea with L. sibirica,
L. sibirica with L. daliurica, and even L. dakurica with L. leptolepis.
These Larches thence constitute a series which must have had a
common origin.

The Larches are northern and even sub-arctic trees, spreading to
the limits of arborescent vegetation in both hemispheres, and both
in North America and in northern Asia covering immense areas,
either forming pure forests or mixed with species of Picea. They also
inhabit most of the mountain ranges north of the 45th parallel of
north latitude, on which they ascend to the highest vertical limit of
arborescent growth. Larix Griffitliii is an outlying species that occurs
only on the central and eastern Himalaya. Nearly all the Larches
afford valuable timber.

LARIX AMERICANA. 389

Larix americana.

A slender tree 50 — 70 or more feet high with a trunk 2 — 3 feet
in diameter near the base, oftener much less, and at its northern
limit a low tree or bush not higher than a man. Bark ash-brown,
at first smooth or slightly rugose, much and irregularly fissured in old
age. Branches relatively stout; in old age often large, irregularly
developed, and sometimes much contorted. Branchlets with light yellowish
brown bark, mostly pendulous. Leaves in tufts of twenty — forty,
narrowly linear, 0'5 — 1 inch long, obscurely mucronate, with a sunk
median line above and keeled beneath, light grass-green, sometimes
with a bluish tint. Stamiuate flowers globose, cream-white, scarcely
0-25 inch in diameter. Ovuliferous flowers 0'5 inch long; scales
crimson with a narrow green bract. Cones the smallest in the genus,
globose-cylindric, 0'75 inch long ; scales suborbicular with a short
thickened claw; bract one-third as long as the scale.

Larix americana, Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. III. 37, t. 4 (1813). Loudon, Arb.
et Frut. Brit. IV. 2399. Hoopes, Evergreens, 247. Regel in Gartenfl. XX. 105.
Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 475. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 329. Sargent, Silva N.
Amer. XII. 7, t. 593.

L. microcarpa, Forbes, Piriet. Woburn, 139, t. 47 (1839). Link in Linnsea, XV. 536.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 355. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 175. Kent in Veitch's
Manual, ed. I. 130.

L. pendula, Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. VIII. 313 (1805). Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 177. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 218.

L. tenuifolia, Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. VIII. 314 (1805).

L. laricina, Koch, Dendr. II. 263 (1873).

Pinus laricina, Duroi, Observ. bot. 49 (1771).

P. pendula, Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. t. 36. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 132.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 409.

P. microcarpa, Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. t. 37 (1803). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 132.

Abies microcarpa, Lamarck, Diet. VI. 514 (1804). Liiidley, Penny Cycl. I.
33, (1833). And many others.*

Eng. American Larch, Red Larch. Amer. Tamarack, Hackmatack, Black Larch.
Fr. Meleze d'Amerique, Epinette rouge. Germ. Kleinzapfige Larche. Ital. Larice
nero, Larice americano.

The American Larch is essentially a northern tree, widely dispersed
over an immense region which may be roughly described as extending
from Yukon and the valley of the Mackenzie river eastwards to the
shores of Labrador and including Newfoundland ; and from the
Arctic Circle southwards to about the 40th parallel of north latitude.
In the Canadian provinces and the northern States it mostly occurs
in cold swampy ground associated with Abies balsamea, Picea nigra
and T/mia occidentals, in places forming pure forests. The wood is
heavy, hard, very strong, rather coarse-grained, and durable in contact

* This Larch has been excessively overburdened with names. One of the oldest is the Pinus
Larix americana of Miinchhausen, published in 1770 ; this was not, however, taken up by
Lambert who figured it in the " Genus Pinus " as two species under the names of P. pendula
and P. microcarpa. Salisbury also described it as two species, but substituted tenuifolia,
for Lambert's microcarpa. Michaux recognised but one species in Canada and the eastern
United States, since abundantly confirmed, and named it Larix americana in contradistinction
to L. europcea. By adopting Michaux' name, the ambiguity attending the older names of
Lambert and Salisbury is got rid of.

390 LARIX D AH URIC A.

with the soil ; it is used in ship-building, fence-posts, telegraph poles,
railway ties, etc.*

According to Aiton, the American Larch was introduced into Great
Britain hy Peter Collinson some time prior to 1739. In this country it
is an inattractive tree assuming no particular shape ; its branches are
often irregularly developed and grow in different directions, some ascending
at an acute angle to the trunk, others horizontal, and others again quite
pendulous. f It is worthless for forestry purposes on the drier land, but
it would seem to be a suitable subject for trial on unproductive bogs and
marsh ground. It is far better adapted to the German than the British
climate, and it is accordingly more used for park and landscape planting
in Germany than in England.

Larix dahurica.

A medium-sized tree, at its northern limit and highest vertical range a
stunted, straggling shrub ; in its arborescent form with a straight slender
trunk and tapering loosely-branched crown, often with several leaders
and sparsely and irregularly branched, but in the Botanic gardens of
northern Europe sometimes 60 feet high with a regular pyramidal crown.
Branches and branchlets slender and more or less pendulous. Leaves
in fascicles somewhat distantly placed, narrowly linear, about an inch
long, pale green. Staminate flowers small, hemispheric, compressed, about
one-sixth of an inch in diameter ; -anthers sub-sessile, papilla- or teat-like,
pale green. Ovuliferous flowers cylindric, obtuse, a little less than
0'5 inch long, surrounded at the base by numerous crumpled, involucral
bracts, and composed of broadly ovate-oblong scales that are at first
rose-pink but change with age to dark purple, and after fertilisation to
dull brown. Cones ovoid or sub-globose, 0*75 — 1 inch. long, composed
of four — six series of rounded or slightly truncate scales faintly striated
on the back. |

Larix dahurica, Turczaninow in Bull, Soc. Nat. Mosc. 1838, p. 101. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 351. Regel in Gartenfl. XX. 104. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 168.
Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 155. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 328, with fig. Masters
in Journ. E. Hort. Soc. XIV. 216.

L. kurilensis, Mayr, Abiet. Jap. Reiches, 66, t. 5, fig. 15 (1890).

L. europsea dahurica, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2352.

Pinus dahurica, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 121. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 410.

Larix dahurica is a sub-arctic species which has its home in the
coldest region of the northern hemisphere in which arborescent
vegetation is known to exist. It is spread over north-east Siberia
as far as the Tundras, and it is even scattered over parts of these
in the form of a stunted bush but a few inches high ; it attains
its polar limit on the Boganida river at about latitude 72° N. ; it
forms forests of considerable extent around lakoutsk, in Kamtschatka
and in Saghalien where it is often mixed with Picca ajanensis, and

* Silva of North America, XII. 9.

t The best specimen known to the author is standing in the grounds of Dalkeith Palace,
from which materials for description were communicated by the late Malcolm Dunn.
+ Abridged from Willkomm.

LARIX EUROPE A. 391

finds its eastern limit in the Kurile Islands. On the. mountains of
Dahuria it ascends higher than the Siberian Larch, forming, as a
stunted shrub, the highest zone of arborescent vegetation.*

A tree that exists and perpetuates itself in a region in which
there is an annual range of temperature of over 100° Fahr. including
40° below zero, is unable to live long under the stimulus of the more
equable climate of Great Britain. According to London Larix dahurica
was first introduced into this country in 1827 ; it is still represented
by young trees in the Royal Gardens at Kew, and is occasionally
procurable in nursery gardens.

Larix europaea.

A lofty tree attaining in favourable situations a height of 120 feet,
but more commonly the height of adult trees ranges from 80 to
100 feet, and at the highest vertical limit of the species much less.
Trunk straight, gradually tapering upwards, 2 — 4 feet in diameter near
the base, and covered with greyish brown bark fissured into irregular
thin plates. Branches in pseudo-whorls, spreading, more or less
upturned at the end, on adult trees nearly of equal length,! the
lowermost usually cast off before the tree attains its full height.
Branchlets with smooth, pale, yellowish bark, pendulous on adult trees,
often spreading on vigorous young trees. Leaves in fascicles of
thirty — forty or more on arrested branchlets or "spurs," scattered on
the leader and terminal shoots ; narrowly linear, obtuse, obscurely keeled
on the under side, soft light green. Staminate flowers at first ovoid-
globose, afterwards sub-cylindric, 0'25 — 0*75 inch long, pale yellow.
Ovuliferous flowers shortly pedunculate, sub-cylindric ; reddish purple
before fertilisation. Cones ovoid-cylindric, variable in size ; in Great
Britain 1 — 1'5 inch long, composed of six — nine series of imbricated,
suborbicular, pale brawn scales with entire margins, and striated on the
exposed side ; bracts oval at the base, prolonged at the apex into a
short point. Seed wings obliquely-ovate, nearly as long as the scale.

Larix europaea, De Candolle, Flore Frai^aise, III. 277 (1805). London, Arb.
et Frut. Brit. IV. 2350, with figs. (1838). Link in Linnsea, XV. 534 (1841).
Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II. 357. Hoopes, Evergreens, 249, with fig. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 169. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 140. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 321,
with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 217.

L. decidua,J Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. (1768). Koch, Dendrol. II. 258. Regel in
Gartenfl. XX. 101 (1871).

Pinus Larix, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1001 (1753). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I.
53, t. 35. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 133. Christ. Uebersicht. der Europ. Abietin. 8.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 411.

Abies Larix, L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 65 (1826). Lindley and Gordon
in Journ. Hort. Soc. Loud. V. 213.

And many others.

Eng. European Larch, Common Larch. Fr. Meleze de 1' Europe. Germ. Gemeine
Larche. Ital. Larice ordinario. Span. Pino Alerce.

* Dr. Regel distinguished three forms of Larix dahurica : 1 . lypica ; 2, prostrata ;
3, japonica ; the last named probably the L. Tcurilcnsis of Mayr. Gartenflora, loc. cit. supra.

t The length and persistency of the lower branches of the Larch varies greatly. When
standing alone in open spaces the branches sometimes attain a length of 25 to 30 feet.

J This specific name is thence older than De Candolle's europcea, but it was not taken
up by any subsequent authors except the late Professor Koch of Berlin, and Dr. Regel of
St. Petersburg.]

392

LARIX EUROPJ3A.

var.— pendula.

This is recognised in two forms : — In one the trunk is short and
divided near the top into several secondary stems that are bent
downwards, as are the branches and their appendages.* In the other,
the branches are spreading and even ascending at the distal end,
whilst the branchlets, usually very slender and much elongated, are
quite pendulous.

Fig. 99. Larix europcea pendida.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

L. europtea pendula, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2351.
Regel in Gartenn. XX. 101 (1871).

L. decidua;pendular

* One of the most remarkable specimens of this form of the pendulous Larch is at
Henham Hall, Suffolk, the seat of the Earl of Stradbroke ; in this tree the branches are
excessively developed at the expense of the trunk, and cover a space 100 feet long and
63 feet wide.

LARIX EUROPE A. 393

The natural geographical limits of the European Larch are now
difficult to determine, as so much has been done for its artificial
distribution. It is, however, essentially an alpine tree, and is found
wild on the Alps from Dauphine to the Tyrol, on the Carpathians,
and on the mountains of Bohemia and Moravia. In some places
it forms pure forests, of which the most extensive are on the Alps
of Dauphine ; in others it is often mixed with the Spruce Fir, the
Silver ^Fir, or the Cembra Pine, and at its highest vertical limit,,
with the dwarf Mountain Pine, Finns montana. Its vertical range
varies with the latitude of the locality ; on the central Alps of
Switzerland it ascends to 6,000 — 7,000 feet above the level of the
sea ; on the Carpathian and Bohemian mountains it reaches the
highest limit of arborescent vegetation, the altitude of which is
considerably less than that reached by the Larch on the Alps.

The common Larch was introduced into Great Britain at an early date.
According to London the earliest mention is made of it in Parkinson's
"Paradisus" published in 1629, but at that period it was quite rare; a
century later Miller states in the first edition of his " Dictionary of
Gardening" (1737) that it was common in most English gardens.
During the latter half of the eighteenth century its value as a timber
tree became known, and public attention was called to it by the Society
of Arts by offering, in 1788, three gold medals for the planting of Larch
and the making known the most useful properties of its timber. From
that epoch the Larch became the subject more for forestry and economic
planting than for arboriculture in its decorative aspect. Into the forestial
management and uses of the Larch it is not our province to enter, but
mention must be made of those remarkable plantations around Dunkeld
and on other portions of the Atholl estate on account of the historical
interest attached to them, and the beneficial influence they have exercised
on the extension and practice of forestry in Great Britain.*

The Larch plantations at Dunkeld originated with James, second Duke
of Atholl, who planted three hundred and fifty Larches between 1740 and
1750, which were probably intended as a trial. Nine years later a still
larger number was planted on the face of a rocky hill imsuited for
• agricultural operations, and this plantation throve in so satisfactory, a
manner that his son, the third Duke, was induced to continue the trials,
and at the time of his death four hundred and ten acres, previously
given up to unproductive broom furze and juniper, were covered with
thriving Larch trees. In 1774, John the fourth Duke surnamed "The
Planter" succeeded to the title and estates, and under his direction the
Atholl Larch plantations became the most famous in the country.
During his tenure of the estate, Duke John caused over fifteen thousand
acres of practically waste land to be planted principally with Larch
trees, of which over twenty-seven millions of plants were used.f.

Thousands of these trees have since been felled for profitable use, but
thousands still remain to attest the forethought and wisdom of the

* The author had the privilege of inspecting a portion of these magnificent plantations
in the summer of 1896 through the kindness and under the guidance of Mr. David Keir,
Forester to the Duke of Atholl.

f Hunter, Woods, Forests and Estates of Perthshire, p. 45.

394 LARIX EUROPE A.

Dukes of Atlioll under whose direction they were planted, and noteworthy
among them are two great trees standing near one of the entrance gates
to Dunkeld House. These trees are the survivors of five planted by
Duke James in 1738; two wrere felled in 1809 and one had been cut
down, twenty years before; their height in 1888 was somewhat over
102 feet, their girth at three feet from the ground about 17 feet, and it was
estimated that they contained over 530 cubic feet of timber without the
bark. For the illustration we are indebted to the courtesy of the author

Fig. 100. The Parent Larches at Dunkeld.

of " Woods, Forests and
" Perthshire Constitutional.'

Estates of Perthshire " and editor of the

The great value of Larch timber consists chiefly in its durability,
strength, the facility with which it may be worked, and the rapidity
with which it is produced ; the trees with red heart-wood are most in
request. Larch timber is used for all purposes of rural industry, in
mining operations, for railway ties, telegraph posts, scaffold poles and
wherever durability under exposure to the weather is required. On the

LARIX GRIFFITHII. 395

continent of Europe, besides the ordinary uses of its timber, Venetian
turpentine is procured from trees growing on the southern slopes of
the Alps : and in places where the Oak is scarce, Larch bark is used
in tanning leather. As a tree for the park and landscape, the common
Larch has always held a prominent place as a graceful tree, distinct in
all its most obvious characters from every other deciduous tree,
particularly in Spring when the young leaves have just burst into life,
and which at that season have a peculiar soft yellowish green tint
possessed -by no other tree of our forests. It is also highly appreciated
in the eastern States of North America, both as a timber and
ornamental tree.

Larix Griffith!!.

A slender tree 40 — 60 feet high in the valleys of the inner Himalaya,
much smaller on the higher slopes. Bark of trunk pale reddish brown,
rugged and much fissured into irregular plates. Branches spreading or
ascending, often long in proportion to height of trunk. Branchlets quite
pendulous, covered with pale brown bark, fluted and grooved by cortical
outgrowths obliquely decurrent from the "spurs." Buds broadly conic
with light chestnut-brown perulse. Leaves in fascicles of thirty- — fifty,
linear-acicular, about an inch long, light soft green. Staminate flowers
globose, 0'25 inch in diameter ; anthers numerous with a sub-quadrate,
pale brown connective. Ovuliferous flowers cylindric, composed of
numerous small suborbicular scales subtended by lanceolate, acuminate
bracts three times as long as themselves, bright crimson with a green
median line. Cones shortly stalked, cylindric, 2—3 inches long; scales
subquadrate-cimeate with retuse apical margin; bracts exserted, lanceolate,
cuspidate, reflexed at the tip. Seeds with an oblong wing.

Larix Griffithii, Hooker til, Illust, Him. Plants, t. 21 (exclu. figs. A. 1—4), 1855 ;
Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 655 ; and Gard. Chron. XXV. (1886), p. 718, with fig. Carriere,
Traite Couif. ed. II. 359 (Griffithiana). Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. India, 531.
Gordon. Pinet. ed. II. 171. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXVI. (1886), p. 464,
with fig. ; and Journ. R Hort. Soc. XIV. 217. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 316.

Pinus Griffithii, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 411 (1868).

Eng. Himalayan Larch. Fr. Meleze de 1' Himalaya. Germ. Griffiths-Larche.
Ital. Larice del Sikkim.

Larix Griffithii has a restricted range in eastern Nepal, Sikkim and
western Bhotan at 8,000 — 12,000 feet elevation. The wood is of
no great economic value ; it is white, soft but durable and splits
well ; the planks are, however, of small scantling.

The Himalayan Larch is chiefly distinguished from the other species
by its larger cones with exserted reflexed bracts ; in aspect it closely
resembles the pendulous variety of the European species. As seen on the
slopes of the inner Himalaya, it is a graceful tree of slender habit
and sparse foliage ; its long pensile branchlets are set in motion by
the slightest breeze, and in a heavy gale are so completely blown on
one side that the tree appears lop-sided. It was discovered in
western Bhotan in 1837 by William Griffith whose enormous collection
of herbarium specimens lay buried for many years in the cellars of

396 LARIX GRIFFITH! I.

the old East India House in Leadenhall Street, so that this Larch
remained unknown to science till it was rediscovered by Sir Joseph
Hooker in Sikkim in 1848, and who sent seeds to the Royal Gardens
at Kew, which germinated freely and the seedlings were widely
distributed but nearly all ultimately succumbed either to climate or
disease. Repeated importations of seeds since, have met with no
better fate. One survivor of the first batch of seedlings supposed to
have been presented to the late Mr. Wentworth Buller, is growing in
the grounds of Mr. H. M. Imbert Terry, at Strete Ralegh near

Fig. 101. Larix GriffitMi. A, branchlet with staminate — B, with ovuliferous flowers.
Ovuliferous scale 1, dorsal — 2, ventral side.

Exeter, which is now upwards of 40 feet high and attracts attention
by its marked unlikeness to any of the surrounding trees. Another
tree 50 feet high of which a branch with cones is figured in the
"Gardeners' Chronicle" of October 9th, 1896, is (or was) standing in
the grounds of Major-General Jago-Trelawny at Coldrenick in Cornwall.
The species perpetuates the name of one of the most indefatigable
of the earlier botanical explorers of India, who unfortunately succumbed
to the climate at a comparatively early age.

LARIX LEPTOLEPIS. 397

WILLIAM GRIFFITH (1810 — 1845) completed his education at University College,
London, where he distinguished himself in the medical classes, especially that of
Botany, of which Dr. Lindley was the Professor. He went to India in 1832 as assistant
surgeon on the Madras establishment, and was shortly afterwards appointed by the
Government to investigate the forests of Tenasserim. In 1835 he accompanied Doctors
Wallich and McClellaiid into Assam for the purpose of reporting on the growth of the
Tea-plant, exploring also the Khasia and Naga Hills ; from the latter he passed
through the Hookung valley down the Irrawadi to Rangoon. Having been appointed
surgeon to the Embassy to Bhotan, he explored part of that country and also part
of Sikkim ; he was afterwards attached to the army of the Indus for the purpose
of examining the vegetation of the Indus, and after the subjugation of Cabul he
penetrated to Khorassan. No botanist ever made such extensive explorations nor
collected so many specimens as Griffith did during the brief thirteen years of his Indian
career. Wherever he travelled he made sketches of the most striking features in the
scenery, and his itinerary diaries are full of information not only on the botany, but also
on the zoology, geology, physical geography, etc., of the countries through which he
passed. Among the plants discovered by him were F'anda ccerulea, V. ccerulescens,
Cymbidium eburneum, Cyperorchis Master^ii and other Orchids that will long retain
a place in British gardens. In 1841 he was appointed to the superintendence of
the Botanic Garden at Calcutta during the absence of Dr. Wallich who had been
invalided home ; but on the return of the latter, he resumed his medical duties at
Malacca where he contracted a disease of the liver, which terminated his life at the age
of thirty -five,

Larix leptolepis.

A slender tree resembling the European Larch with a trunk 60 — 80
or more feet high and 1'5 — 2 '5 feet in diameter covered with
reddish bark ; reduced to a small shrub or stunted bush at the limits
of arborescent vegetation on Fivji-yama. Branches spreading, with lateral
ramification at the distal end. Braiichlets more rigid than in the
European species, with light brown bark fluted with oblique longitu-
dinal cortical outgrowths. Leaves in tufts of thirty — fifty, narrowly
linear, flat, 0'5 — 1*25 inch long, pale green above with two stomatiferous
lines beneath. Staminate flowers globose-conic, 0'35 inch in diameter, light
yellow-brown. Ovuliferous flowers sessile, rose-pink ; bracts large in
proportion to the scale, broadly lanceolate, cuspidate, reflexed at the
apex. Cones globose-conic, 1*25 inch long and 1 inch broad ; scales
subquadrate, rounded and reflexed at the apical margin ; bracts enclosed,
half as long as the scale.

Larix leptolepis, Gordon, Pinet. ed. I. 128 (1858) ; and ed. II. 173 (1875). Murray,
Pines and Firs of Japan, 89 (1863), with figs. Regel in Gartenfl. XX. 102 (1871).
Hoopes, Evergreens, 25 i. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 522 ; Gard. Chron.
XIX. (1883), p. 88, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 41. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 318, with fig. Mayr, Abiet. Jap. Reiches, 63, t. 5, fig. 14.

L. japonica, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 272 (1855) ; and ed. II. 3'53. Murray,
Pines and Firs of Japan, 9, with figs.

•Abies leptolepis, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 12, t. 105 (1842).

Pinus leptolepis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 130 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 410.

P. Larix, Thunberg, Fl. Jap. 275 (not Linnaeus and exclu. syns. ).

Eng. Japanese Larch. Fr. Meleze du Japon. Germ. Japanische Larche. Ital.
Larice giapponese. Jap. Toga, Kara-matzu, Fuji-matzu.

The Japanese Larch first became known to science through
Kaempfer, who mentions it in his "Amoenitates Exoticse," published
in 1712.* The only other European botanists who saw it prior to

* There can be no doubt that Larix leptolepis was the Larch seen by Kaempfer, and
not the Chinese tree that bears his name. Kaempfer was never in China, nor is the Chinese
Larch wild or cultivated in Japan.

398

LARIX LEPTOLEPIS.

the opening of the ports to foreigners in 1859 was Thunberg, who
included it in his " Flora Japonica " under the Linna-an name of
Pinus Larix in the belief that it was the European species ; and
Siebold, who figured and described it as Abies leptolepis. All of
these had seen trees in cultivation only ; it was first detected wild
by the late John Gould Veitch during his ascent of Fuji-yama
in 1860, and by whom it was introduced in the following year.*
Larix leptolepis has, at the present time, a somewhat restricted range
on the central mountains of Japan, where it is not uncommon at
5,000 — 6,000 feet elevation between 35'30° and 38° north latitude.
The wood is hard, heavy and strong, but not much used on account
of the inaccessibility of the trees.

Fig. 102. Larix leptolepis. 1, Staminate,— 2, Oviiliferous flowers. 5, Mature Cone.
4 and 5, front and back view of ovuliferons scale. Nat. size.

Iii Great Britain the best specimens of Larix leptolepis are medium-
sized trees from 30 to 35 or more feet high with a broadly conical
head when standing alone, and for the most part of pleasing aspect.
When in a thriving condition it is fully equal to the common Larch as
an ornamental tree ; the foliage is lighter in colour, of a softer shade
of green, contrasting more strongly with that of the surrounding trees,
and in autumn it dies off with a richer golden hue. The tree is of
slower growth than the common Larch, and should not be planted in
dry sandy soils.

* The late Andrew Murray described a second Japanese Larch under the name of
Larix japonica (Pines and Firs of Japan, p. 94) from herbarium specimens gathered by
John Gould Veitch on Fuji-yama, near the upper limit of arborescent vegetation. It
differs from L. leptolepis in little else than in being reduced by wind and cold to a small
scrubby bush, and presents much the same aspect as L. dahurica under similar circumstances.

LARIX LYALLT.

Larix Lyalli.

399

A tree usually 40 — 50 and occasionally 70 feet high with a trunk
18 — 20 inches but sometimes 3 — 4 feet in diameter, and remote, elongated,
piniiately-divided branches that are sometimes decidedly pendulous, sometimes
abruptly ascending at the extremities. Bark of old trees dark brown,
0*75 — 1 inch thick, divided by shallow fissures into irregularly-shaped plates.
Buds conspicuous from the long white matted hairs which fringe the
margin of their scales. Branchlets short, coated with thick hoary

Fig. 103. Fertile branchlet of Larix Lyalli.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

tomentum which does not disappear till after the second winter. Leaves;
tetragonal, rigid, pale blue-green, 1 — 1*5 inch long. Staminate flowers
cylindric, about an eighth of an inch long, with pale yellow anthers.
Cones ovoid, 1 '5 — 2 inches long, sub-sessile ; bracts dark purple,
exserted, with slender tips, much larger than the oblong-obovate thick
scales which are erose at the margin and fringed with white hairs
that are also scattered over their lower surface. Seeds with a light
red wing broadest near the base. — Sargent, Silva of North America,.
XII. 15, t. 595.

400 LARIX .OCCIDEXTAL1S.

Larix Lyalli, Parlatore in Gard. Chron. 1863, p. 916. Hoopes, Evergreens, 256.
Regel in Garten fl. XX 103, t 685. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 361. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 175. Sargent in Gard. Chron. XXV. (1886), p. 652, with fig. ; and
Silva N: Amer. loe. cit. supra. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 316, with tig. Macoun, Cat.
Caiiad. Plants. 476. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIA7. 218.

Pinus Lyalli, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 412 (1868).

Larix Lyalli is an alpine tree which grows only near the timber
line on mountain slopes from 4,500 to 8,000 feet elevation in southern
Alberta, British Columbia arid northern Washington, in places
associated with Pinus albicaulis, Abies lasiocarpa and Tsuya Mertensiana.
It was discovered on the Cascade mountains in 1860 by Dr. David
Lyall, surgeon and naturalist of the British Commission which
marked the boundary of the United States west of the Eocky
Mountains. It has not yet been introduced in Great Britain.

Larix Lyalli comes so very close to the more widely-distributed
Larch of the plains and lowlands of the same region that it is not
improbable forms may come to light which will unite them. It is
distinguished from L. occidentalis " by its shorter quadrangular leaves,
its stouter spurs, by the dense white tomentum which covers the
young shoots and leaf buds, and by its larger sessile cones." The
wood is reddish brown, heavy, hard and close-grained.

DAVID LYALL (1817 — 1895) was born at Auchinblae in Kincardineshire. He received
a medical education at Aberdeen University where he took his M.D. degree. Shortly
afterwards he undertook a voyage to Greenland as surgeon to a whaling ship, and on
his return he entered the Royal Navy and was soon afterwards appointed Assistant-
Surgeon to H.M. ship "Terror," one of the vessels fitted out for a scientific
expedition to the Antarctic regions under Sir James Ross. During his stay in the
antarctic regions he made a collection of Algfe which formed an important addition
to antarctic botany. After his return in 1842 he was appointed to the Mediterranean
service, and in 1847 he was selected as surgeon and naturalist to accompany H.M.
ship "Acheron" on the survey of the coast of New Zealand. Here, besides devoting

himself to the collection of the lower orders of plants, he made many discoveries in

the giganti
Ranunculus Lyalli. In 1852 he was appointed to H.M. ship "Assistance," one of

the phanerogamic flora of the islands, including the gigantic white-flowered buttercup,

the squadron sent to the Arctic regions under the command of Sir Edward Belcher in
search of Sir John Franklin ; during this expedition he collected the largest herbarium
ever formed in the American Polar islands. In 1858 he accompanied the Land
Boundary Commission on the survey of the boundary line between the United States
and British Columbia. From this expedition he brought home a magnificent
herbarium which was followed by a valuable contribution to the Journal of the
Linnean Society containing a botanical account of the region traversed from the sea
inland to 8,000 feet altitude of the Rocky Mountains, and in which the various zones
of vegetation in British Columbia were for the first time portrayed. He continued in
the service of the Government till 1873 when he retired and afterwards removed to
Cheltenham where he resided till his death. His name is botanically commemorated
by the genus Lyallia founded by Sir J. D. Hooker on a curious cariophyllaceous plant
discovered during the Antarctic expedition in Kerguelen's Land as well as by the
specific names of several plants of which he was the discoverer, including the Larch
described above. — Journal of Botany, Vol. XXXIII. p. 209.

Larix occidentalis.

A lofty tree, attaining at its greatest development a height of 250 feet
with a trunk 6 — 8 feet in diameter, but more usually about 100 feet
high and 2 — 3 feet in diameter, the trunk covered with dark brown
bark which in old trees is very thick and fissured into irregular plates.
Lowermost branches horizontal, elongated and remote, dying off at an

LARIX OCCIDENTALS. 401

early age of the tree and leaving a short pyramidal head of short
branches clothed with a scanty foliage. Branchlets stoutish, at first
pubescent, with reddish brown bark changing to grey-brown with leaves
trigonous, keeled on the lower side, rigid, acute, 1 — 1-5 inch long, pale
green. Staminate flowers shortly stipitate, globose-cylindric with pale
yellow anthers. Cones ovoid-cylindric, obtuse, 1 — 1-5 inch long and
nearly an inch in diameter; scales suborbicular, entire or slightly erose;
bracts produced into elongated, exserted bristle-like tips as long again as
the scale.

Larix occidentalis, Nuttall, Sylva, III. 143, t. 120 (1849). Hoopes, Evergreens,
253. Regel in Gartenfl. XX. 103, with fig. Gordon,' Pinet. ed. II. 176. Sargent
in Gard. Chron. ,XXV. (1886), p. 652, with fig. ; and Silva. N. Amer. XII. 11,
t. 594. Maconn, Cat. Canad. Plants, 475. Beissner, Nadelhokk. 314, with fig.
Masters in Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 218.

L. americana brevifolia, Carriere, Traite Conif. cd. II. 357.

Finns Nuttalli, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 412.

Eng. Western Larch. Amer. Tamarack. Germ. Westamerikanische Larche.

Fig. 104. Fertile branchlet of Larix occidentalis.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

The habitat of the Western Larch is for the most part restricted
to the basin of the upper Columbia river and its tributaries in
the States of Oregon, Washington, northern Montana and Idaho,
crossing into southern British Columbia to the mountains east of
Lake Shuswap, and finding its northern limit at about lat.
5 1° 1ST. It nowhere forms pure forests of any extent, but is
scattered over the region mixed with Hemlock, Spruce and Douglas
Firs and other trees in the valleys and lowlands, and growing mostly
in the deep alluvial soil of river sides it only occasionally ascends the
drier mountain sides at elevations of 2,500 to 5,000 feet. It attains
its largest size along the streams which now into Flatheacl Lake.

DD

402 LARIX SIBIRICA.

Larix occidentalis, the largest of all Larches and one of the most
useful timber trees of North America, was seen for the first time by
Lewis and Clark during their adventurous journey across the American
continent in 1805 — 1806 ; it was next detected by David Douglas in
1827, who mistook it for the European species, and seven years later by
Thomas Nuttall who first -specifically distinguished it, but a long series
of years elapsed before it was brought into cultivation. Growing in
the midst of some of the most gigantic coniferous trees in the
world, it is not surprising that Larix occidentalis should simulate
their lofty stature ; nevertheless the tree grows slowly, which the
author of the " Silva of North America " ascribes to " the smallness
of the leaf surface in comparison with the height and thickness
of stem, and there is certainly no other instance among the
trees of the northern hemisphere where such massive trunks support
such 'small, short branches and sparse foliage.* The wood surpasses
that of all other American Conifers in hardness and strength ; it
is durable, beautifully coloured, free of knots, and is adapted to all
sorts of construction, and for household furniture ; it is, however,
but little used in the sparsely settled and remote region in which
it abounds. The thickness of the bark of this Larch enables it
to resist the heat of the forest fires, which are fast destroying
the noble coniferous trees in the Columbia basin ; " and in the
struggle for supremacy between the different inhabitants of the
Columbian forests under the changed conditions which have
followed the white man's occupation of the country Larix
occidentalis seems destined to hold its own, and probably even to
extend its sway." f

The Western Larch was introduced through the . Arnold
Arboretum in 1881, but it is still extremely rare in Great
Britain, and 110 definite conclusion can yet be arrived at respecting
its suitableness for the British climate and its use for British
arboriculture.

Larix sibirica.

A slender tree with an elongated spiry crown of which the lower
branches are more or less pendulous. Leaves 1 — 1*5 inch long, in
much crowded fascicles. Staminate flowers hemispheric, compressed;
anthers shorter than in Larix europcca, with a short oblique, obtuse
connective. Ovuliferous flowers 0'5 inch long, and nearly as broad,,
composed of pale green downy scales and surrounded at the base by
numerous obovate involucral bracts, strongly keeled on the back and
terminating in a short mucro, and which arch over and almost enclose
the flower. Cones ovoid-cylindric, about 1*5 inch long ; scales in
five — six series, ovate-orbicular, striated on the dorsal face ; seed-wings-
scarcely broader than the seed.

Larix sibirica, Ledebour, Fl. Alt. IV. 204 (1833). Willkomm, Forstl. Fl ed. IL
153. Link in Linns?a, XV. 535.

L. Ledebouri, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 173.

L. europaea var. sibirica, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2352. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 324, with fig.

Pinus Ledebouri, Eudlicher, Synops. Conif. 131 (1847). Parlatore, D, C. Prodr.
XVI. 410.

* Vol. XII. p. 11. t Idem. p. 13.

LARICOPSIS. 403

The Siberian Larch covers large areas in northern Eussia as far
as the 67th parallel of north latitude and spreads eastwards through
Siberia to the Yenesei river and probably beyond it ; it also
follows the trend of the Altai mountains as far as Lake Baikal,
ascending in places to 5,000 feet above sea level. It is one of the
most widely distributed trees in Siberia, and one of the most
useful to the inhabitants of the region.

According to Willkomm, the Siberian differs from the European Larch
in its longer and more crowded leaves ; in its pale green ovuliferous
flowers surrounded at the base by numerous involucral bracts which
almost enclose them ; in its reflexed ovuliferous scales which are at
first clothed with down, and in its usually larger cones. It was
introduced from Archangel by the Duke of Atholl in 1806, and a
trial was made of it in the plantations at Dunkeld which proved a
failure.* Transported from a climate in which the seasons are arctic
and sub-tropical by turns, the trees dwindle and ultimately perish under
the stimulus of the more equable climate of this country.

LAEICOPSIS.

Pseudolarix,f Gordon, Pinet. ed. I. 298 (1858). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl.
Fam. 77 (1887) Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. 32 (1893). Larix, Bentham and
Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 442 (in part).

In 1853 the late Eobert Fortune discovered a Larch, or properly
a Larch-like tree, in eastern China, of which he sent herbarium
specimens to Dr. Lindley. The cones differ in several respects from
those of the common Larch especially in the scales which instead
of being persistent " are so deciduous that it is scarcely possible to
hold them together." Dr. Lindley accordingly referred the tree to
Abies although the foliage was known to be tufted and deciduous
like that of the Larch ; but Gordon in the first edition of his
" Pinetum " gave it separate generic rank as Pseudolarix, an ill-
phrased name unsuited for scientific nomenclature. The staminate
flowers remained unknown to science until 1884 when a tree in the
nursery of Messrs. Eovelli, at Pallanza in Italy, produced them,
which, as the illustration shows, differ morphologically from those
of every other Larch in their umbellate disposition, j These
differences in the cones and staminate flowers are now recognised
as sufficient for establishing a distinct genus for the reception of
the Chinese Larch.

* London, Arboretum et Fruticetnm Britannicum, loc. cit.

f This is a negative name that connotes nothing definitely. Granted that the prefix
"pseudo" may be conveniently combined with technical terms in the sense of "apparently
but not really," it is manifestly objectionable in the generic names, and scarcely less so in
the specific names of plants. ""Nature produces nothing false," certainly not in the Greek

sense of i//«t)?oe.

% It is a singular fact that nearly all the monotypic Coniferse of China and Japan have
the umbellate disposition of their staminate flowers ; Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Cunninghamia
and Laricopsis. It is also a characteristic of Abietia (Keteleeria) Fortunei.

404

LARICOPSIS IkEMPFERI.

Laricopsis K eempf er i.

"A tree 120 — 130 feet high, symmetrically branched and having the
aspect of something between the Cedar and the Larch, but more
covered with foliage in consequence of the large size and breadth of
the leaves." In Great Britain, a slow-growing tree of broadly pyramidal
outline, the -branches often increasing in length almost at the same rate
as the trunk. Bark of trunk dark ash-brown, much fissured into
irregular plates, the broader fissures exposing a light reddish brown
inner cortex. Branches sparsely ramified, the branchlets for the

Fig. 105. Staminate flowers 01 Lari,copsis Kaimpfcrl.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle. )

most part produced laterally only. Leaves deciduous; on the older
branchlets in tufts on short " spurs " ; on the youngest terminal
shoots scattered or spirally arranged, linear - lanceolate, acute,
1*5 — 3 inches long, soft light green changing to rich golden yellow
before they fall. Staminate flowers in umbels at the apex of short
" spurs " and surrounded by membraneous involucral bracts, each
member of the umbel stalked, sub-pendulous or arching, cylindric, about
0'75 inch long ; anthers sub-globose, the lower ones almost sessile, the
upper ones prolonged into a long appendage, three-lobed at the apex.
Cones ovoid, about 3 inches long and 2 '5 inches in diameter at the

LAR1COPSIS K^MPFERI.

405

broadest, with deciduous scales diverging at the apex much like those
the common artichoke. Scales ovate-oblong, sub-acute, about 1-25 inch
long, with a small bract of nearly the same shape on the under side,
not more than one-fourth as long as the scale and bearing two seeds'
near the base on the ventral side. Seed wings tapering to a rounded
point, nearly as long as the scale.
Laricopsis Kaempferi, supra.

Pseudolarix Kaempferi, Gordon, Pinet. ed. I. loc. cit. ; and ed. II. 360. Carriere,
Traite Comf. ed. II. 353. Masters in Gard. Chron XXI. (1884), p. 584 with
hgs ; Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII. 208, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc.' XIV.
244. Beissner. Nadelholzk. 310, with fig.

Larix Kaempferi, Carriere in Flore des Serres, XI. 97 (1856). Kent in Veitch's
Manual, ed. I. 129.

Abies Kaempferi. Lindley in Gard. Chron. (1854), p. 255, with fig Murray
Pines and Firs of Japan, 100, with figs.

Finns Ksempferi, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 412.

Eng Golden Larch, Chinese Larch. Fr. Meleze de Chine. Germ. Chinesische-
Goldlarche.

Nothing is known respect-
ing the geographical distribu-
tion of Laricopsis Kcempferi.
Fortune, its discoverer, first
became acquainted with it as
a pot plant in a dwarfed state,
but he did not meet with
adult trees till the autumn of
1853, when he came upon
some fine specimens growing
near a monastery at Tsant-sing
in the province of Che-kiang
' at 1,000 to 1,500 feet above
sea-level, and subsequently he
saw others on a sloping hill at
Quanting, twenty miles distant,
localities not found on modern
maps. As the trees in both
places appeared to him to have
been planted, the origin of the
species remains in uncertainty.
The Chinese Larch was for a long time very rare in British gardens.
Only about a dozen plants were raised from the seeds collected by
Fortune, and propagation by layering from such of these as were
available for the purpose was the only means of increasing the number
till the recent coning of the tree at Pallanza, whence seeds and seedlings
have since been distributed. It has proved hardy wherever it has
been planted, and is a beautiful and interesting tree, especially in
autumn when the leaves before falling take on a golden yellow of
exceptional richness. It has also proved hardy in the New England
States of North America where the winters are much colder and the
summers hotter and drier than ours, a circumstance which seems to

Fig. 106. Cone of Laricopsis Kcempferi.

406 CEDRUS.

indicate that the tree is of northern origin. Among the finest specimens
in this country are those at Panjerrick, near Falmouth ; Scorrier, near
Truro ; Carclew, Tortworth Court and Penrhyn Castle.

The species was named by Lindley after Kaempfer, the first European
naturalist who visited Japan, under the erroneous impression that it
was the Larch mentioned by him in the narrative of his travels, but
as already stated under Larix leptolepis, the tree is not known in
Japan, and Lindley's name is thence wrongly applied ; that of its discoverer
would be more appropriate, as proposed by Mayr.*

ENGELBERT KAEMPFER (1651 — 1716) was a native of the principality of Lippe-Detmold
in Germany. After passing through several schools, he studied at the University of
Cracow and afterwards at Konigsburg. From Prussia he went to Sweden where he obtained
the secretaryship to an embassy which was then being sent to Persia. The embassy
arrived at Ispahan in 1684, and returned to Europe in the following year ; the information
which Kaempfer collected during this mission and his subsequent travels was afterwards
embodied in a work which he entitled " Amoenitates Exoticse," and published in 1712.
After his return from Persia he entered the service of the Dutch East India Company
as a surgeon, and served many years at Batavia in Java, where he occupied himself chiefly
with the natural history of the island. From Batavia he went to Japan with the
embassy which the Dutch East India Company sent annually to that country. He
resided at Nagasaki from September. 1690, to November, 1692, and during the interval
he visited Yeddo (Tokio) the capital, and compiled a history of Japan which was never
published ; but a translation made from a copy in the possession of Sir Hans Sloane
was published in England after his death. Kaempfer returned to Europe in 1694, and
shortly afterwards took the degree of Doctor of Medicine in the University of Leyden,
and subsequently obtained the appointment of physician to the Prince of Detmold which
he retained till his death.

CEDKUS.

London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2402 (1838). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III.
439 (1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 74 (1887). Masters in Journ.
Linn. Soc. XXX. 30 (1893).

The Cedars have long been recognised as being among the most
stately of trees for the parks and gardens of Great Britain ; f but apart
from their striking aspect as decorative trees, they are of the highest
interest on account of their botanical relationship, their remarkable
geographical distribution, and the historic and sacred associations of
the type, or longest known of them. There are three easily distinguish-
able forms, conventionally recognised as species but scarcely so in a
strictly scientific sense, respectively known as the Cedar of Lebanon,
the Deodar or Indian Cedar, and the African or Mount Atlas Cedar.
The typical form which inhabits the slopes of Mount Lebanon and
the Cilician Taurus, has been known as The Cedar from remote antiquity ;
the existence of a second Cedar forming extensive forests in the
north-west Himalaya was not known to science till the commencement
of the nineteenth century ; whilst the presence of a third on the Atlas
mountains of Algeria was not suspected till its discovery after the
occupation of the country by the French in 1831. The Lebanon
type was thence the only Cedar known to Linnaeus which he, in common

* Abietrneen des Japanischen Reiches, p. 99. Kaempfer's name is commemorated by the
Scitamineous genus Ksempferia (Linnaeus).

f In the New England States of North America, the Cedars do not grow satisfactorily.
Cedrus cdlantica and C. Libani are somewhat more successful further south, but C. Deodara
thrives only (for a time, perhaps) in some of the southern States and California. — Garden
and Forest, X. 500.

CEDRUS. 407

with nine other species of the Abietineae, included in Pinus in the
"Species Plantarum," published in 1753,* and for nearly a century
afterwards generic rank was denied to these noble trees. Loudon was,
in a technical sense, the first to recognise their claim to this rank,
which has since been generally admitted. When the reproductive
organs alone are considered, it is not easy to find in the Cedars,
characters that shall clearly separate them from Abies. The structure
of the cones almost conforms to that of the cones of the Silver Firs ;
the scales, seeds and their wings corresponding in shape, texture and
arrangement ; but whilst the cones of the Silver Firs usually fall off
the first year, with the exception of the central axis which remains
some time longer, the cones of the Cedars persist from two to three
years. Moreover the staminate flowers in Abies are axillary and often
clustered ; in the Cedars they are solitary and terminal on short
arrested branchlets or "spurs," a character which also distinguishes Cedars
from Tsuga, Picea and Pinus. In the arrangement of the leaves in
pseudo-fascicles or tufts on the " spurs " the Cedars agree with the
Larches, but the leaves themselves come much nearer in form, texture
and consistency to those of the Spruce Firs.

The generic characters of Cedrus may thence be formulated thus : —

Staminate flowers terminal on short arrested branchlets, surrounded

at the base by numerous small involucral bracts. Anthers very

numerous, sub-sessile, spirally crowded around an erect staminal column ;

anther cells 2, dehiscing longitudinally.

Ovuliferous flowers sub-globose, composed of spirally arranged, closely
imbricated scales with a small appressed bract on the under (dorsal) side,
and bearing two inverted ovules on the upper (ventral) side near the base.
Cones maturing the second year, ovoid, cylindric, obtuse, variable in
size. Scales closely imbricated and enclosing the bract which disappears
before the cone ripens, the outer exposed margin slightly rounded
or almost truncate, contracted on the basal side to a short cuneate
claw, and persistent for some time after the fall of the seeds.

Seeds angular, with a hard ligneous testa and large membraneous wings.
Whilst the relationship of the Cedars to the other members of
the Abietineae can be distinctly formulated, their relationship, inter se,
is so close that characters sufficiently definite to separate them
specifically are almost wanting. This relationship was critically
investigated by Sir J. D. Hooker many years ago, after making an
excursion to Mount • Lebanon with the object of ascertaining the
condition of the celebrated Cedar grove in the Kedisha valley ; the
result of the mission and the investigation that followed were
communicated in a memorable paper published in the " Natural
History Review " for January, 1862.

After describing the condition of the Cedars in the Kedisha valley
and their geographical position in respect to those on Mount Atlas

* Lambert followed Linnaeus in including the Cedar of Lebanon in Pinus, and also at
a later period Endlicher and Parlatore, joining with it the Indian and African forms, but
distinguishing them sectionally. By L. C. Richard the Cedar of Lebanon was included in
Abies, in which he was followed by Lindley. By the pre-Linnean botanist, Tournefort, it
was included in Larix, also by Miller in the early editions of his Dictionary, and later
by Salisbury.

408 CEDEUS.

and the north-west Himalaya, the various parts of the three Cedars are
compared, the bark, wood, leaves, staminate flowers, cones, etc., and the
conclusion arrived at is : — " that as species the three Cedars cannot be
distinguished, and that they must all have been derived from one
common stock ; * nevertheless they may be regarded as three well-marked
forms, which are usually very distinct but which often graduate into one
another."

That they are necessarily regarded as distinct by the
arboriculturist and landscape gardener will be evident enough
from a comparison of the habit, aspect and colour of the foliage
of the three Cedars as seen growing in the parks and gardens
of Great Britain. As thus viewed the following points of difference
are quite obvious : —

In Cedrus Libani the primary branches are frequently long in
proportion to height of trunk, often of timber-like size, usually horizontal,
but sometimes bent downwards by the weight of their appendages,
regularly tabuliforrn, and the terminal growths more or less pendulous.
The leaves are shorter than in C. Deodara and longer than in C.
at/antica, and grass-green in colour.

In Cedrus Deodara (up to forty— fifty years) the primary branches
are usually shorter in proportion to height of trunk than in C. Libani
or 0. atlantica, of nearly equal length in each pseudo-\vhorl, gradually
shorter upwards and giving the tree a more stricirly pyramidal outline
than is observable in the other two ; the terminal growths are more
slender, more elongated with paler bark, and quite pendulous. The
leaves are longer and of a paler green.

In Cedrus atlantica the primary branches are horizontal, often of
unequal length in the same pseudo-whorl, giving the tree a less formal
outline than in C. Deodara; less formally tabuliform than in C. Libani
and with the terminal growths mostly rigid. The leaves are shorter,
glaucous, sometimes of a silvery whiteness, and the cones are smaller
than in the other two.

The geographical distribution of the Cedars is remarkable; they are
confined to three separate regions in the great mountain systems that
cross the eastern continent between the 28th and 38th parallels of
north latitude with but little interruption from the Atlantic Ocean to
the China Sea. The three species, here recognised as such for practical
convenience, occupy positions nearly equidistant, Cedrus Libani (Syria
and Cilicia) being in the middle with C. Deodara (Afghanistan and
north-west India) and C. atlantica (Algeria) east and west of it
respectively and separated from it by an interval of 1,200 to 1,400
miles, t Their habitat is thus restricted to a mountainous region with
a vertical range of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation for the middle

* This view of the relationship of the three Cedars was strengthened by the discovery,
some years after the publication of Sir J. D. Hooker's paper, of a Cedar growing spon-
taneously in the island of Cyprus, with characters well-nigh intermediate between those of
the Lebanon and Mount Atlas forms.

t The presence of an intermediate form between C. Libani and C. atlantica on the
island of Cyprus scarcely affects the general statement in the text ; the proximity of the
island to the Syrian coast almost brings it within the given range.

CEDRUS ATLANTICA. 40£

and western forms whilst the Deodar ascends to 12,000 feet on the

Hindu Koosh.

The Cedars are of geological antiquity and it is interesting to find that
remote ancestors of the present race formerly inhabited Great Britain,
fossil evidences of them having been met with in the lower Greensand
of Maidstone, Shanklin and Folkestone.*

Cedrus from ice'fyoj,-, but more often applied by the Greeks to the
pungent-leaved species of Juniper common throughout the Mediterranean
region, as Juniperus Oxycedrus, than to the noble Syrian tree, just as.
Cedar is often applied at the present time to trees included in the
CupressinesB, as the Red Cedar, Juniperus mryiniana ; White Cedar,
Cupressus fhyoides and Thuia occidentalis ; Canoe Cedar, T. yigantea,
and others.

Cedrus atlantica.

A stately tree attaining a height of 80 — 100 feet with a trunk 5 feet
in diameter at the base. Trunk tapering, rarely forked or divided as in
Cedrus Libani. Branches horizontal and much ramified, scarcely so
formally tabuliform as in the Lebanon type. Branchlets distichous,
opposite, but oftener alternate and of unequal lengths, the -terminal
growths usually rigid and horizontal like the older parts. Buds globose-
conic, about 0*25 inch long, with numerous small imbricated perulae.
Leaves persistent four — five or more years, four-angled, mucronate, about
0*5 inch long, dark green and more or less glaucous; distant and
scattered on the terminal shoots ; in dense tufts of forty — seventy, the
number varying with the age of the arrested branchlet or " spurs " on
which they are produced. Staminate flowers and cones identical in
structure with those of C. Libani, the latter being almost invariably
smaller.

Cedrus atlantica, Manetti, Cat. Hort. Madoet. Suppl. 9 (1844). Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. II. 374. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 60. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. III. 217,
t. 38, and tigs. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 160. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 302,
with fig. Masters in Gard. Chron. X. -ser. 3 (1891), p. 423, with tig. ; and Journ.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 200.

C. Libani var. atlantica, Hooker til in Nat. Hist. Rev. 1862.

C. africana, Gordon and Hort.

Pinus atlantica, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 137.

P. Cedrus var. atlantica, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 408.

vars.— argentea and aurea.

In the first named the foliage is highly glaucescent, sometimes of a
silvery whiteness, the glaucescence frequently becoming heightened with
the age of the tree. In the last named the young foliage is of rich
golden which changes to the normal green of the species in the second year.

C. atlantica argentea, Hort. C. atlantica aurea, Hort.

The botanical history of the Mount Atlas Cedar dates from an
epoch within the memory of many botanists and horticulturists still
living, the first published mention of it being made by the Italian
botanist Manetti, in a Catalogue of Plants cultivated in the Imperial
Garden at Modicea or Monza, near Milan, and issued in 1844.

* J. Starkie Gardner, British Eocene Flora, p, 11.

410

CEDRUS ATLANTICA.

Carriers gives this year as the date of its introduction into Europe,
but there are trees in Great Britain whose age must apparently be
greater than the date of Manetti's catalogue would account for, and
which must have been raised from seeds previously gathered in
Algeria and sent to this country under the name of Cedrus Libani.
Since the establishment of a Forestry Department in Algeria by the
French Government, definite information respecting the habitat and
distribution of 0. atlantica has been obtained, and it is now known to
inhabit the Atlas mountains from the meridian of Greenwich to
long. 8 ° E. ; its western limit has not yet been determined ; its
vertical range is from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level. It
does not spread continuously throughout this range but occurs at
intervals in forests that in places cover a considerable area ; this is
especially the case on Aures, near Batna ; at Ben Thaleb, in Babor
and Ta Babort where it is associated with Abies numidica, all in
the province of Constantine ; whilst in Algiers proper it is found
on the Djurdjurah range, on the hills above Blida and at Teniet-
el-Ahd, in places mixed with Yew and Juniper.

As a tree for the park and landscape in Great Britain, Cedrus
atlantica is unquestionably the best of the three Cedars taken in all
its bearings, among which especial stress should be laid upon its
hardiness, its adaptability to many soils and situations, its rapid
growth, its pyramidal but not too formal outline, and lastly its
glaucous foliage which when heightened to a silvery whiteness, affords
a picture unsurpassed by any other coniferous tree in cultivation
whether standing alone or in contrast with the greenery of other trees.
Remarkable instances of this picturesque effect may be seen at Eastnor
Castle and Madresfield Court. The trees at the first-named place
were raised from seeds gathered by the late Earl Somers at Teniet-
el-Ahd, and it is a curious fact that all, or nearly all, the trees
raised from these seeds are of the aryentea variety, and being in
considerable numbers and distributed generally over the grounds they form
a marked feature of the place ; the whiteness of the trees seems to be
intensified with age, so that many of them are, at the present time,
of striking beauty. At Madresfield Court, the seat of Earl Beanchamp,
an avenue has been formed of Cedrus atlantica at a right angle to
another avenue of Abies nobilis, of which an illustration is given under
that species. All the trees in the Cedar avenue have highly glaucous
foliage and have grown with considerable uniformity as to height of
trunk and length of branches. The vista formed by them compares
favourably with the sombre gloom of an avenue of old Cedars of Lebanon.*
The timber of the Mount Atlas Cedar almost equals in quality and
value that of its Himalayan congener, and is consequently much in

* Among the finest specimens of Cedrus atlantica in Great Britain are those at High
Elms, Beckenliam ; The Royal Gardens, Kew ; Hardwicke House, Bury St. Edmunds ;
Mulgrave Castle, Yorkshire ; Or ton Hall, Peterborough ; Penrhyn Castle, Bangor ; Bretby
Park, Derbyshire ; Adhurst St. Mary, Peterstield. In Scotland at Whittinghame, East
Lothian ; Cultoquhey, Murthly Castle, and Scone Palace in Perthshire. In Ireland at
Fota Island, Cork ; Carton, Co. Kildare ; Charleville and Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow ;
Haimvood, Co. Meath ; Curraghmore, Co. Waterford ; Baron's Court, Co. Tyrone.

CEDRUS DEODARA. 4 LI

request in Algeria and adjacent countries. The heart-wood is used for
railway ties which last from eight to ten years ; it has also been
used with good results for street paving ; the outer portion is
prepared for carpentry and especially for cabinet making and decorative
purposes on account of its beautiful veining.*

Cedrus Deodara.

A lofty robust tree 200 — 250 feet high, the girth of the trunk
near the base 15—20 feet, very gradually diminishing upwards, at
80 feet being about one-third less than at the base. Bark of old
trees 1 — 1*5 inch thick, dark grey, often tinged with brown or purple
and fissured by longitudinal dark furrows and short transverse cracks
into long irregular plates, f Branches mostly horizontal, the lower ones
often depressed by the weight of their appendages. Branchlets
distichous, opposite or alternate, decurved or sub-pendulous at the distal
end, the axial terminal shoots quite pendulous in young and vigorous-
growing trees, and covered with whitish brown bark. Leaves persistent
three — four years, fascicled on short " spurs," each tuft consisting of
thirty — sixty leaves; on the terminal shoots solitary and scattered,
0'75— 1 inch long, sub-triquetral or obscurely four-angled, light green,
becoming much darker with age. Staminate flowers as in Cedrus
Libani. ' Cones sessile or sub-sessile, erect, ovoid or ovoid-cylindric,
3 — 5 inches long and 2 — 3 inches in diameter ; scales flabellately
triangular, 2 — 2 '5 inches broad, with the outer edge rounded. Seed
wings triangular with rounded sides.

Cedrus Deodara, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2428, with figs. (1838). Forbes,
Pinet. Woburn, 149, tt. 48, 49. Link in Linnsea, XV. 538. Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 367. Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. India, 516. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 61.
Lawson, Pinet. Brit. Ill 225, tt. 39 — 43, with tigs. Aitchison in Journ. Linn. Soc
XVIII. 98. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 305, with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
XIV. 200.

C. Libani var. Deodara, Hooker fil, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 653.

Pinus Deodara, Lambert, Genus Pinus, II. t. 3. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 135.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 408.

Eng Deodar, Indian Cedar. Fr. Cedre de 1'Himalaya. Germ. Himalaya Ceder.
Ital. Cedro indiano.

Since its introduction, varieties of the Deodar have originated in

British and Continental nurseries, which have been named respectively : —

argentea, in which the glaucescence of the foliage is heightened to

almost silvery whiteness; aurea, the young foliage of a decided yellow

tint which changes with age to the normal green of the species ;

Crassifolia, the leaves thicker and shorter; robusta, the branches and

their appendages larger and stouter ; verticillata glauca, the leaves of

the young shoots whorled instead of scattered and quite glaucous ;

viridiS, the foliage of a deeper green than in the ordinary type.

The Deodar Cedar is distributed over a limited area in north-west

India. It forms forests on the mountains of Afghanistan, north

Baluchistan, and the north-west Himalaya, where its eastern limit is

below the Mti Pass on the Dauli river. Its vertical range is from

6,000 to 10,000 feet, descending in some places to 3,500 feet and ascending

* Journal of the Society of Arts, September, 1895.
f Brandis, Forest Flora of North-west India, p. 185.

Oedrus Deodara thirty-five to forty years old in Great Britain.

CEDRUS DEODARA. 413

in others to 12,000 feet. It also forms forests in the basin of the
main tributaries of the Indus ; in these forests it covers large areas
either unmixed or associated with Pinus cxcelsa and Picea Smithiana ;
less commonly with Abies Webbiana and with Oaks.

In their native forests young Deodars bear a good deal of shade ;
the terminal shoots like the extremities of the branches are soft and
drooping, but will pierce with great vigour through thickets of other
trees, and it is not a rare occurrence to see the proportion of Deodars
in an Oak forest increase by self-sown seedlings which come up under
the shelter of the Oaks and make their way through its foliage.
When isolated, young trees are branched to the ground, and have the
pyramidal outline as seen in Great Britain ; old isolated trees have
flat tabular tops in a very marked manner, and attain large girths.
The data available show clearly that the rate of growth of the Deodar
is much influenced by the greater or less moisture of the climate : —
thus, in the forest at the head waters of the Bhagi'rati river in a dry
climate, the tree requires upwards of two hundred years to attain a
girth of six feet, whereas in the Jaunsar forest on the outer hills with
a heavy rainfall, seventy years suffice to attain this size. As compared
with other Abietineae the Deodar has a great power of reproduction,
and its branches often show a tendency to form straight leading
shoots. In many places the trees near villages are lopped of their
branches to a considerable height ; the naked stems reclothe themselves
with side branches in a short time. Trees are often found with the
main trunk, instead of growing up straight, divided' into numerous
branches, each forming a separate leader ; this division sometimes takes
place near the ground, sometimes at a height of ten feet or more ;
these leaders form well-shaped tops, so that at a distance the forest
has a deceptive appearance ; the trees appear tall and well-formed, but
on approach they are found to be worthless for timber. The heart-
wood is light brown, fragrant, compact, even-grained, does not readily
warp or split, and is exceedingly durable, so much so that in the
climate of Cashmir and the Punjab it is almost imperishable by the
ordinary agents of Nature except fire.*

The Deodar Cedar was introduced into Great Britain in 1831
by the Hon. W. Leslie Melville; one of the first seedlings raised was
planted in the garden of the Horticultural Society of London at
Chiswick. For some time afterwards it was quite scarce, young plants
in the London nurseries being sold at two guineas each. In 1841, the
authorities at the head of the Board of Works fearing an insufficient
supply of oak-timber in future years for the purposes of the Navy, and
believing that the Deodar was as hardy, strong and durable as the Oak
with the advantage of growing much more rapidly, obtained from the
Directors of the East India Company a large supply of seeds which
were distributed among the Royal Forests and the principal nurseries of
Great Britain. This supply was supplemented a few years afterwards by
a still larger one from the Company's experimental garden at Saharnnpore,

* Brandis, Forest Flora of North-west India, pp. 519 — 521. Some remarkable instances of
the durability of Deodar timber are given in page 88.

414 CEDRUS DEODARA.

from whence seeds were sent gratuitously to every one who would
pay the cost of the carriage.

This abundant and cheap supply of seed resulted in Deodar seedlings
becoming for a time as plentiful as Larch and Scots Fir, and high
expectations were formed respecting their ultimate value as timber trees.
In less than twenty years afterwards the faith in the qualities of the
Deodar as a tree for economic planting in Great Britain began to be
challenged by experienced foresters, but their warning was disregarded
for a time. Another twenty years' experience of it, however, fully
justified the warning, and proved without need of further trial the
unsuitableness of the tree for British forestry. However nourishing the
young plants appear for a time, an enormous proportion of them perish
before they reach even a fractional part of the age and size attained
by their gigantic progenitors in their native forests. Xor is this
surprising : the Deodars in Great Britain are placed under climatic
conditions very different from those under which their progenitors live
for centuries, high up on the slopes of the Himalaya, where for nearly
half of the year they are enveloped in snow, and where from the
middle of March to the middle of June there is considerable dryness
in most of the localities covered by Deodar forests ; and from the
middle of June to the end of September there is a cloudy atmosphere
and almost continual rain. These variations in the season recur wich
tolerable constancy year after year ; whereas in Great Britain in no
two consecutive years are the seasons precisely alike ; often they are
very different.

Nevertheless the Deodar should not be disparaged as an ornamental
tree for the park and lawn, especially in those localities where good
specimens are to be seen retaining a healthy aspect, or at least
showing no signs of decay, of which many such are growing in
various parts of England, in Wales, and in Ireland generally. Even
in the colder climate of Scotland, Dunn's Census in the Conifer
Conference Eeport of the Koyal Horticultural Society shows that,
although of slower growth, the Deodar thrives more or less satisfactorily
in many places, especially in the more humid climate of Perthshire
and the south-western counties. To secure good park and lawn
specimens, spots sheltered from the east and north-east winds should
be selected, and ample space should be allowed for the expansion
of the lowermost branches ; these in some of the oldest trees in
England have attained a length of 25 to 30 feet, but are usually
less in fast-growing trees. The rate of growth of the leader shoot in
Great Britain ranges in different localities from 12 to 21 inches.

There is a beautiful avenue of Deodars in the grounds of
Lord Poltimore, near Exeter, which was planted in 1851 or 1852 ;
this avenue is 180 yards in length, and consists of twenty trees on each
side, their average height being at the present time (1900) nearly
70 feet. There is another fine avenue of somewhat greater extent at
Killerton, the seat of Sir C. T. Dyke-Acland, of which the variability
in habit of some of the trees composing it is a remarkable feature.

CEDRUS LIBANI. 415

At Charleville in Co. Wicklow, the residence of Viscount Monck, is a
fine avenue of Deodars called the "Cedar Walk," planted in 1851 to
commemorate the great International Exhibition held in London in
that year ; the avenue is 328 yards in length ; the trees average
about 60 feet in height and are in faultless condition.* The specific
name, Deodara or Devadara, is a native word indicative of the connection
of the tree with sacred objects and worship ; it is said to be derived
from two Sanscrit words, deva (a deity) and darva or daru (wood).

Cedrus Libani.

A majestic tree 50 — 80 or more feet high, of variable habit according
to situation and environment but always with spreading tabuliform
branches from which it receives the peculiar aspect that distinguishes it
from every other tree. When standing alone the principal branches,
frequently attain a great length, and the tree has a broadly pyramidal
outline with a rounded or flattened top, the diameter of the spread of
branches sometimes exceeding the height of the tree ; when surrounded
by or in contact with other trees, the trunk usually ascends higher and
the length of the branches is much contracted. In very many of the
largest trees in Great Britain, the trunk is not only forked at a short
distance from the ground but often divides into several ascending stems.
Bark of trunk thick, rough, and deeply and irregularly fissured into larger
or smaller plates. Branches in pseudo-whorls or tiers often unequally
developed, the largest of timber-like size, spreading horizontally, the
lowermost decumbent and frequently sweeping the ground; the ramification
mostly confined to the distal end, lateral and in the same plane.
Branchlets opposite or alternate, covered with light brown smooth bark
that peels off in thin scales. Buds sub-cylindric, obtuse, about 0'25 inch
long with ten — twelve broadly ovate pale brown perulae. Leaves-
persistent three — five years, acicular, obscurely four-angled, spine-tipped,
0'75 — 1'25 inch long, dark lustrous green, produced on short arrested
branchlets usually erect on the axial growths, close-set and spirally
arranged around them in tufts of thirty — fifty, but often many more on
strong healthy trees ; on the terminal growths scattered and inserted on
small cortical outgrowths (pulvini). Staminate flowers terminal on
arrested branchlets five — seven .years old, cylindric, 1 — 1'75 inch long,,
surrounded at the base by ovate-lanceolate bracts in two series ; stamens,
numerous, spirally crowded around the central axis, yellowish brown.
Ovuliferous flowers terminal, broadly ovoid, purplish before pollination.
Cones erect, mature at the end of the second season, ovoid-cylindric or
sub-cylindric, variable in size, 3 — 4'5 inches long and 1'75 — 2'5 inches in
diameter at the broadest part; scales sub-quadrate, closely imbricated and
attached to the axis by a short cuneate claw. Seeds angular with a
cuneate oblong membraneous wing.

* Good specimens of the Deodar over 50 feet high are (or were till quite recently) growing,
at Howick Hall, Northumberland ; Armathwate Hall, Cumberland ; Revesby Abbey,
Lincolnshire ; Thoresby Park, Notts ; Hewell Grange, Worcestershire ; Penrhyn Castle,
Bangor ; Linton Park, Maidstone ; Carclew, Cornwall ; Bicton, Devonshire ; Tortworth Court
and Highnam Court, Gloucestershire ; Eastnor Castle, Ledbury. In Scotland at Abercairny,
Dunkeld, Dupplin Castle, Murthly Castle and Rossie Priory in Perthshire. In Ireland at Fota
Island, Cork ; Courtown, Wexford, Woodstock, Kilkenny, Hamwood, Co. Meath ; and
Castlewellan, Co. Down.

416 CEDRUS LIBANI.

Cedrus Libani, London, Arb. et Frat. Brit. IV. 2402, with figs. (1838).
Hooker fil in Nat. Hist. Rev. (1862), p. 1. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 370.
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 65. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 159. Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. III. tt. 42, 44, 45, and figs. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 699. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 297, with figs. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV, 201.

Pinus Ceclrns, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1001 (1753). Lambert, Genus Pinns, I.
t. 38. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 136. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 407.

Larix Cedrus, Salisbury in Trans. Linn. Soc. VIII. 314 (1807).

Abies Cedrus, L. C. Richard, Mem. sur les Conif. 62 (1826).

Eng. Cedar of Lebanon. Fr. Cedre clu Liban. Germ. Libanon Ceder. Ital. II
Cedro del Libano.

var. — brevif olia.

A geographical form with shorter leaves and smaller cones, discovered
in 1879 growing on Mount Troodas near Khrysokus in the island of
Cyprus, where it is found only in one secluded spot, and the trees are
relatively few in number.

C. Libani brevifolia, Hooker fil in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVII. 517. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 300, with fig.

var. — glauca (syn. aryentea).

Differs from the common form only in its glaucous foliage which is
sometimes heightened to a silvery whiteness. • The glaucescence is rarely
if ever observed in young trees, but it occurs in old trees both wild
(Mount Taurus) and cultivated.

C. (Pinus) Libani glauca, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 408. C. Libani
argentea, Kent in Veitcli's Manual, ed. I. 137.

Varieties that have originated under cultivation have been named
decidua* denudata, nana, pendula, *fri<-fa, riridis, but it is uncertain
whether any of them are to be met with in British gardens.
The specific name Libani refers to the ancient mountain with which
the tree has been associated from remote antiquity and especially in
the Sacred Writings ; the Cedars on Mount Lebanon have thence
acquired a separate and special interest throughout the Christian
World. They were, for several centuries, believed to be confined to a
small grove in the Kedisha valley at 6,000 feet elevation, about
fifteen miles from the Syrian port of Beyroot (Beirut) and not far
from the high road to Baalbek (Heliopolis). That this valley should
have been for so long a time the only locality on the ancient
Lebanon the Cedars were known to inhabit, will not be surprising
whec the circumstances of time and place are considered ; it was
the nearest accessible spot, and there was nothing to tempt, but much
to deter travellers from diverging from the common route. Since
the era of the Keformation the Cedars of the Kedisha valley have
been visited from time to time by travellers from western Europe,
many of whom have left some account of the trees they found

* Known only from a single tree in France observed many years ago by tlis late
M. Carriere. A similar instance of Cedrus atlantica growing near Chichester was recently
brought under the notice of the author by Captain Norman, R. N. , of Berwick-on-Tweed.
These deciduous forms, although abnormal states, show unmistakably the close affinity of
the Cedars and Larches.

One of the largest of the Cedars on Mount Lebanon.

EE

418 CEDKUS LIBANI.

standing at the time of their visit. These accounts agree as to
their majestic proportion and venerable aspect ; they also show that
the number of trees in the grove has been gradually diminishing
since they were observed by the first visitors in the fifteenth century,
till those remaining can be easily counted and their position mapped
down ; and moreover, that no young trees or seedlings of a second
year's growth are to be found, hence leading to the conclusion that
the Cedars in the grove will continue to dimmish till the grove
itself becomes extinct. However interesting the reports of travellers
to Mount Lebanon may have been in their day, it was long felt
that a scientific investigation alone could satisfy the very natural
desire to know the actual state of the trees forming the grove.
This investigation was undertaken by Sir J. D. Hooker in the autumn
of 1860, and the results were published in the Natural History Eeview
for 1862 ; the report may still be read with almost undiminished
interest.

At the date of Sir Joseph Hooker's visit to the Kedisha valley,
at least one other locality on Mount Lebanon was known to be
inhabited by the Cedar, and since that time others have been
discovered ; and although our information may still be imperfect,
the Cedars are now known to occur in great numbers on Mount
Lebanon, chiefly on the western slopes between latitudes 33° 30' and
34° 30' K, not forming a continuous forest, but in stretches or
groves, some of them comprising several thousands of trees. Besides
these, there are vast forests of Cedars covering the higher slopes
of Mounts Taurus and Anti-Taurus in Cilicia, with a vertical range
of from 3,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, intermixed at the lower limit
with Abies cilicia.

On the Cilician Taurus the Cedar occupies the higher slopes where
the snow lies several feet deep for nearly five months of the year.
Here it forms forests of impressive grandeur whose stillness is only
occasionally interrupted by the cry of the yellow-beaked alpine crow, or
by the crash of a boulder set in motion from the rocks above by the
bound of the wild goat. In the valleys may occasionally be seen the
variety glauca, its foliage in places heightened to a silvery whiteness.
The wood of the Cedar is highly valued in this region ; it is strong,
and does not warp when exposed to the weather ; it is also very fragrant
and free from the attacks of insects ; it is used for the interior
woodwork of the Greek churches and places of worship, and for the
best kinds of household furniture.*

Perhaps no tree in the British Pinetum is looked upon with greater
interest than the Cedar of Lebanon. Its majestic aspect, the
enormous dimensions it attains under favourable circumstances, the
great age it is supposed to reach, and especially its sacred and

* Walter Siehe in Gartenflora, 1897, p. 205.

CEDRUS LIBANI. 419

historic associations, have all combined to attract towards it a kind
of regard that is not felt for any other coniferous tree. As a tree
for the landscape and park, the Cedar of Lebanon may be said to
be almost indispensable, for it imparts a feature so peculiarly its own
that not even its near congeners, the Himalayan and the Mount
Atlas Cedars, should be substituted for it. It is perfectly hardy ;
it has passed through the severest winters -on record unscathed,
except a very few trees that were unfavourably located ; it thrives
in many kinds of soils, even in dry sandy ground usually considered
poor ; it is almost indifferent to situation and environment ;
proximity to water does not seem to affect it where the drainage
is free, as the roots do not penetrate deep into the soil but range
over a large area near the surface.

If exposed to high winds the great bulk often attained by the
Cedar of Lebanon offers a resistance to their force greater than the root-
hold of the tree can withstand, and many large and noble specimens
have been overthrown and consequently destroyed by more than usually
violent gales. * When the period of decadence has set in, accidents
by wind become frequent, occurring even in places not more than
ordinarily exposed ; many Cedars, famous in their time, have disappeared
from this cause, f Large trees with long spreading branches occasionally
suffer breakage by heavy falls of snow. In the drier climate of
England, except the counties of Devon and Cornwall, the branches
generally increase in length at almost the same rate as the trunk
gains in height ; but in the more humid climate of Ireland, j Wales,
parts of Scotland, Devon and Cornwall ; and also in places where the
trees have been planted in groups, or in close proximity to each
other, or to other trees, the leader usually ascends faster than the
branches increase in length ; the trees have then the elongated
pyramidal outline of the Deodar and Mount Atlas Cedars. § Under most
circumstances the rate of growth of the Cedar of Lebanon in Great
Britain compared with that of the Abietineae generally may be
considered slow. The increase in height during the first fifty years
scarcely exceeds a foot annually taking one year with another, and
this rate of growth diminishes with the increase of age till the leader
or leaders — for plurality, or at least more than one, is the rule rather

* Several grand specimens at Orton Hall, near Peterborough, were overthrown by a
disastrous gale which occurred on March 24th, 1895. On March 3rd, 1897, eleven line
Cedars, some of them almost equal in size to that figured, were uprooted in Goodwood
Park by a fierce gale which for several hours swept along the south coast as far as Cornwall,
and which overturned many others standing in proximity to the sea in Hants, Dorset and
Devon.

t The great Cedar at Hendon, one of the first that was planted in this country, was
bloAvn down in 1779 ; its height was 70 feet, and the diameter of umbrage 100 feet.

J At Carton in Co. Kildare, the seat of the Duke of Leinster, are some of the finest
Cedars in Ireland ; most of them have straight undivided trunks, and the tallest exceed
70 feet in height. These Cedars are a conspicuous feature of the domain.

§ There is an imposing group of Cedars at Strathfieldsaye, in North Hants, "twelve
in number, the largest of which towers to a height of 120 feet; their tall cylindrical
stems are denuded of branches to a height of about 70 feet, and present more the
appearance of well-grown Larch stems than that of ordinary Cedars. - Gardeners' Chronicle,
XIX. ser. 3 (1896), p. 8.

420 CEDEUS LIBANI.

than the exception — cease to ascend and the tree then becomes flat or
rounded at the top.

Many are the renowned Cedars in Great Britain placed on record
in works on Arboriculture and in the horticultural press, and many
are the incidents in relation to their history that have been noted.*
So interesting a record is, without doubt, worthy of reproduction,
but even the briefest recapitulation would occupy more space than
can be well spared ; special notice in this place must therefore be
restricted to two trees which stand forth prominently among the
existing noble specimens of the Cedar of Lebanon ; viz., the Enfield
Cedar and the subject of the illustration.

The Enfield Cedar is one of the oldest, if not the oldest in England;
it was planted by Dr. Uvedale, Master of the Enfield Grammar School,
some time between 1662 and 1670. This venerable tree stands on
the south side of the old Elizabethan palace, and is somewhat over
50 feet high ; the trunk is undivided, 24 feet in girth near the base,
and free of branches to about fifteen feet of the height ; the
principal branches are most developed on the south side, and have a
spread of 30 to 35 feet ; on the opposite side the tree has suffered
breakage from north-east winds and snow. The yearly increasing volume
of smoke consequent on the rapid spread of London northwards, and
which is so deleterious to coniferous trees, is doing its work slowly
but surely, so that the fate of this old Cedar will not remain long
in suspense.! It is the parent of the fine Cedars at Bayfordbury>
near Hertford.

The Great Cedar at Goodwood is one of a large number dispersed
through the park and grounds that were planted for the Duke of
Richmond under the direction of Peter Collinson ; } it stands in a
level glade of the park on the south-east side of the mansion. As
seen from a distance the outline presented by the tree is more than
usually regular for a Cedar of Lebanon, but its immense size is not
fully apparent till the tree is closely approached, when it is seen that
the massive bole, which is over 25 feet in girth, is entire only to
about six feet from the ground, when it divides into ten stems which
have grown straight upwards to a height of nearly 90 feet, and
from which have sprung the horizontal branches that gradually diminish
in length from below upwards; the twelve lowermost of these have
originated from their base at the top of the undivided trunk, the
three largest spread in different directions at an angle of about 120°
between each two, and measure respectively 69, 66 and 62 feet
in length; the diameter of umbrage is therefore over 130 feet. §
The date of the introduction of the Cedar of Lebanon into Great
Britain cannot be fixed with certainty ; it is not mentioned in
Evelyn's " Silva," published in 1664, but there is evidence to show

* Loudon, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britamiicum, Vol. IV.; Lawson's Pinetum Britannicum,
Vol. III. ; Hunter's Woods, Forests and Estates of Perthshire ; The Transactions of the
Royal Scottish Arboricnltural Society ; The Gardeners' Chronicle passim, etc. etc.

t And such, we fear, must be said of the tine old Cedars in the Royal Gardens at Kew, at Syon
House, Chiswick, Gunnersbury Park and other places in the vicinity of the metropolis.

J Loudon, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2414.

§ Communicated by Mr. R. Parker, Gardener to the Duke of Richmond.

CEDRUS LIBANI.

421

that it was introduced shortly afterwards. The Enfield Cedar,
already adverted to, was planted some time between 1662 and 1670 ;
and an old Gedar at Bretby Park, Derbyshire, is known to have
been planted in 1676.* There are also some very old Cedars at

The Great Cedar of Lebanon in Goodwood Park.

Woburn Abbey, Syon House, Warwick Castle ; Eden Hall, Cumberland ;
Wilton House, near Salisbury; and High Clere in Berkshire, that are
presumably of seventeenth century origin. Judging from the present

* This old Cedar is still healthy and vigorous ; it is over 80 feet high ; the trunk
is undivided to fifteen feet, it then divides into three main stems which rise perpendicularly
and nearly parallel to each other.

422 PICEA.

condition of most of these trees, it may be roughly estimated that
the life of the Cedar in this country is not likely to be prolonged
beyond four hundred years ; the probability is even very great that
the age generally will not much exceed three hundred years. This
estimate falls far short of the supposed age of the patriarchal trees on
Mount Lebanon; but in England the Cedar is an exotic, living
under conditions as regards climate, altitude and environment
very different from those under which it has braved the storms of
centuries on the mountains of Syria and Cilicia.*

The economic value of the Cedar of Lebanon in modern times,
otherwise than for ornamental planting, is inconsiderable ; the timber
of trees felled in Britain is inferior ; " the wood is light, soft, brittle,
apt to warp, and by no means durable." f There are, however,
grounds for believing that the Cedars growing under very different
circumstances of climate in proximity to the snows of Lebanon and
Taurus yield timber of the finest quality. In the expedition to Mount
Lebanon, undertaken by Sir J. D. Hooker, Captain Washington, R.N.,
and other gentlemen in the autumn of 1860, "a section of the
lower limb of one of the older trees (which lay dead on the ground)
was procured, which gave a totally different idea of the hardness of
Cedar-wood from what English specimens do."

The secretions of the Cedar of Lebanon are not abundant, but they
appear to possess very remarkable properties, some of which were
known in very ancient times ; the Egyptians are said to have used its
whitish resin in embalming their dead; they also rubbed it over the
leaves of papyrus and other objects to preserve them from the attacks of
insects. The most recent notice of these properties appears in
Mr. Smee's entertaining book, " My Garden," p. 429 : " The wood of
the Cedar contains a volatile essential oil, which has the curious
property of unsettling printer's ink and making it run. Some years
ago a Bank of England note was offered to the cashier with its
printing disturbed. Inquiry was set on foot, and it was traced to
several individuals who satisfactorily explained its custody and possession.
It was then brought to me, when I suggested that the detectives
should inquire whether it had been kept in a Cedar box; it was
then discovered that the last possessor had kept it in a new Cedar
box which she had recently bought, and thus the mystery was solved."

PICEA.

Link, Abhandl. Akad. Berlin, 179 (1827). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 439 (1881).
Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 77 (1887). Masters in Jouvn. Linn. Soc.
XXX. 28 (1893).

The Spruce Firs by an overwhelming weight of authority are now
brought under Picea. The genus as at present circumscribed is a

* Among the many fine Cedars scattered over the country mention may also be made
of those on the Royal domain at Windsor, at Langley Park near Slough, one of the
finest in the country ; others at Dropmore, Lin ton Park, Bayfordbury, Elvaston Castle,
Blenheim Palace, Cobham Park. In Scotland at Dalkeith Palace, Murthly Castle,
Methven Castle. In Ireland at Powerscourt. Woodstock, Adare Manor, AVhitefield Lodge,
Phoenix Park ; the Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, etc.

t London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2417.

PICEA.

423

fairly natural one and includes about seventeen species, but some of
them are not distinguished by very definite characters, and may
hereafter be reduced to varieties of more common types.*

The essential characters of the genus may be thus formulated : —

Flowers monoecious in the axils of leaves of shoots of the preceding-
year ; the ovuliferous flowers occasionally terminal.

Staminate flowers stipitate, ovoid or cylindric, the stipes (stalk)
surrounded by numerous involucral bracts in two — three series. Anthers
spirally arranged around an axis, with a crimson or yellow connective
dilated into a rounded crest and opening longitudinally.

Ovuliferous flowers shortly stipitate, cylindric, composed of numerous scales

usually broader than long, spirally imbricated in many ranks, and bearing

on the ventral (inner) face, near the base, two anatropous (inverted) ovules.

Cones cylindric, or some slight modification of that form, rarely ovoid,

at first erect but ultimately pendulous, attaining maturity the first

Fig. 107. 1, Staminate flowers of Picea Smithiana, nat. size. 2 and 3, side and front view of
anther before dehiscence. 4 and 5, after dehiscence, enlarged five diameters. 6, Pollen grains,
enlarged 120 diameters.

season and falling off after the dispersion of the seeds in the following-
winter, or persistent longer. Scales entire, denticulate or erose, gradually
decreasing in size towards the two ends of the cone, always longer
than the bract and bearing on the inner face two winged seeds, f
The Spruce Firs are evergreen trees, in their best aspect of conical
or pyramidal outline. The trunk is tall and tapering, clothed with
relatively thin bark, sometimes strongly buttressed at the base and
regularly feathered with branches so long as it continues to increase in
height ; in old age usually denuded of branches for the greater part of

* E.g., Picea exceha and P. obovata ; P. Glehnii and P. Alcockiana ; P. alba and P.
Engelmanni ; P. nigra and P. rubra.

f The most important botanical characters by which Picea is distinguished from Abies
are : - The leaves are stomatiferous on the upper surface ; the dehiscence of the anthers is
longitudinal (not transverse) ; the scales of the cone are always longer than the bract, and
persist after the dispersion of the seeds. Very obvious differences are also observable in
the pendulous (not erect) cones with differently shaped scales ; in the four-angled spine-
tipped leaves of the greater number, and in the general habit of most of the species.

424 PICEA.

the height and furnished with a spire-like, sometimes rounded top.

The primary branches are whorled (more correctly pseudo-whorled),

often slender, elongated, twice —
thrice ramified ; the branchlets dis-
tichous and mostly opposite. The
leaves are spirally arranged around
the branchlets and more or less
appressed to, or turned towards
them, but occasionally apparently
two-ranked and spreading on the

Fig. 108. Transverse sectiof leaf of Picea excelsa. loW6r slde b7 a twlst °f tllG

short petiole ; they spring from

a distinct outgrowth (pulvinus), and are either four- sided or flattened —
characters which mark out the species into two sections, thus : —

EUPICEA. — -Leaves tetragonal, stomatiferous on all sides ; resin canals
one — two.

OMORICA. — Leaves flattened, stomatiferous only on the upper side ;
resin canals two.

This section includes only ajanemis, Breweriana, Omorica and sitchensis.
The Piceas form immense forests in the plains of Siberia, northern
Russia and the British Dominion of North America, either pure or
mixed with Larix ; also on the slopes of the Alps, Ural, Altai,
Rocky and other mountain ranges ; in other regions they are less
aggregated and frequently intermixed with other trees. Inhabiting
generally the northern portion of the temperate zone, they are among
the hardiest and in many respects among the most useful of trees ;
less striking in appearance than many of the Silver Firs, and
therefore, with two or three exceptions, held in lower estimation as
ornamental trees, they are of far greater economic value both on
account of the quality of their timber and for the many purposes of
utility for which some of the species are planted.

The Spruce Firs are of geological t\ntiquity, although the strata
which contain fossil evidence of their first appearance are relatively
modern compared with those that bear witness to the first appearance of
the Gingko, the Yew, the Araucarias and Sequoias1 The earliest vestiges
of them occur in the Miocene (Middle Tertiary) Age ; they seem to
have increased in number until Pliocene times, when the common
Spruce formed an ingredient of the British Flora, but subsequently
disappeared under the extreme cold of the Glacial period. Picea is
generally %'but not universally accepted as the classical name of the
European Spruce Fir, some maintaining that Abies is the correct name;
the weight of evidence, however, leans greatly in favour of Picea.*
* Perhaps the following lines from Virgil may help to solve the difficulty : —
"Instar montis equum, divina Palladis arte
JEdificant, sectaque intexunt abiete costas." — ^Eneid, II. 15.

The locality to which these lines refer is Troy, which stood near the foot of Mount Ida,
now called Kas Dagh. On this mountain no Spruce Fir is known to grow, but the Silver
Fir (Abies) is still abundant ; differing somewhat from the European type it has been
felicitously named var. Equi Trojan i by Boissier.

PICEA AJANENSIS. 425

Picea ajanensis.

A lofty tree attaining a height of 120 feet, occasionally upwards of
150 feet, the trunk covered with greyish brown bark fissured into
small scale-like plates, and except when standing alone, free of branches
for more than half the height. In Great Britain, a much-branched
tree of broadly pyramidal outline, with the primary branches more or
less ascending but sometimes horizontal. Branchlets distichous and
opposite, with many short adventitious shoots on the upper side of
the axial growth, the bark whitish or pale orange, with projecting
rounded ridges running obliquely from the pulvini of the leaves.
Buds small, broadly and obtusely conic, with ovate reddish brown
perulse. Leaves persistent seven — nine years, spirally crowded,
flattened, mucronate or obtuse, 0'5 — 0*75 inch long, the shorter ones
on the upper side appressed and imbricated ; the longer ones on the
under side, pseudo-distichous or spreading ; with a silvery white
stomatiferous band on each side of the thickened midrib on the
ventral side, bright green with a raised' median line on the dorsal
side. Staminate flowers solitary or in clusters of two — five near the
distal end of lateral branchlets of the preceding year, cylindric-conic,
0'5 — 0*75 inch long, pale yellow. Ovuliferous flowers cylindric, erect,
about an inch long, carmine-crimson before fertilisation. Cones
cylindric, 1 — 2 inches long and 0'75 — 1 inch in diameter ; scales
oval-oblong, undulated, erose on the free edge. Seed-wings obovate-
. oblong, more than half as long as the scales.

Picea ajanensis, Fisher, Fl. Ochot in Middendorf. Reise, 87, tt. 22—24 (1856).
Maximowicz, Prim. Fl. Amur. 1859. Masters in Gard. Chron. XIII. (1880), p. 115
XIV. p. 427, with tigs.; Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 508, Avith tigs.; and Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 220. Hooker til. Bot. Mag. t. 6743.

P. microsperma, Carriere, Traite' Conif. ed. II. 339 (1867).

P jezoensis, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 345 (in part).

P. Hondoensis, Mayr, Abiet. Jap. Reiches, 51, Tafel IV. fig. 9 (1890).

Abies ajanensis, Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 66 (1881).

A. microsperma, Lindley in Gard. Chron. (1861), p. 22. Murray, Pines and
Firs of Japan, p. 69.

A. jezoensis, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 19, t. 110 (1842), in part.
Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 72, with figs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 11 (Jessoensis).

Pinus Menziesii, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 418 (in part).

Eng. Yesso Fir. Germ. Ajau Fichte. Jap. Eso-matsu, Kuro-matsu.

Picea ajanensis is a northern tree attaining its greatest develop-
ment in the Japanese Island of Yeso, where it is abundant,
forming pure forests in the cold, swampy plains near the west
coast, and much mixed with Abies saclmlinense and Picea G-lelmii on
the central mountains. Northwards it spreads through Saghalien to
the Kurile Islands, and on the Continent through the coast district
of Amurland ; southwards it occurs wild only on the centra,
mountains of Hondo as far as the 35th parallel of north latitude.*

* Dr. Mayr considers the Hondo form of Picea ajanensis to be specifically distinct from
the Yeso type, and has described and figured it as such under the name of P. Hondoensis,
Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches, loc. cit. supra.; but neither the description nor the
figures appear to justify the separation. The specific name, microsperma, was given by
Lindley to a Spruce Fir brought from Hakodate by the late John Gould Veitch, whic
proved to be a weakly plant unsuitable for the climate of this country.

Picea ajanensis at Ochtertyre, Perthshire.

PICEA ALBA. 427

The wood is very light and soft, and much used in Yeso for

all kinds of carpentry.

Picea ajanensis was introduced in 1861 by the late John
Gould Veitch, and was subsequently distributed under the name of
Alms Alcoquiana from the unfortunate circumstance that the seeds of
both species brought home by him had been collected by natives and
were mixed together, which may be accounted for by the custom then
prevalent in Japan of applying the same name to different species
having a superficial resemblance to each other.* It was not till several
years afterwards, when the seedling plants growing side by side had
attained a size sufficient to render the difference obvious, that the error
could be rectified. As an ornamental tree in this country Picea
ajanensis takes a high rank ; its growth is slow during the first four
or five years from the seed, during which period it frequently shows a
tendency to produce rival leaders which should be reduced to one
when observed ; but when once established, especially in retentive
soils, its growth is more rapid, the leader shoot increasing in height
from 6 to 9 inches annually. It flowers at an early age, and in
May, when loaded with its young crimson cones, it is one of the most
beautiful objects in the Pine turn, f

Picea alba.

A tree varying greatly in height and dimensions in different parts
of the great area in North America over which it is distributed; the
maximum height east of the Rocky Mountains ranges from 60 to
70 feet with an average trunk diameter of 2 feet ; at its northern
limit it is reduced to a low shrub. Bark of trunk thin, greyish
brown, fissured into irregular small plates. Branches relatively thick
and long ; in Great Britain rather close-set, rigid, and - spreading
horizontally. Branchlets opposite or alternate, the bark whitish brown
with prominent rounded cortical outgrowths obliquely decurrent from
the pulvini of the leaves. Buds broadly conic, about 0*25 inch long,
with ovate, acute, keeled perulae that are chestnut-brown. Leaves
persistent four — five years, spirally crowded, four-angled, mucronate,
mostly upturned from the twisting of the petiole of those on the under
side of the shoot, 0'5 — 1 inch long, at first pale green, becoming darker
with age, often with a bluish glaucous tint, and emitting a strong fetid
odour when bruised. Stamiuate flowers cylindric, 0'5 — 0'75 inch long, pale
red or yellow, suspended on slender peduncles. Cones sessile, sub-cylindric,
obtuse, 1*5 — 2 inches long and 0*5 — 0'75 inch in diameter; scales
loosely imbricated when mature, ^suborbicular, shortly clawed, minutely
crenulate at the margin, pale brown with faint longitudinal striations
on the exposed side, j

* The same thing happened with Tsuga diversifolia and T. Sieboldii, and with Pinus
parviflora and P. pentapkylla. As in the case of the Piceas, the cones of each pair of
species were mixed together.

t Very beautiful specimens of Picea ajanensis are growing at Ochtertyre, Perthshire, the
subject of our illustration ; at Scone Palace and Murthly Castle in the same county ; at
Menabilly and Pencarrow in Cornwall ; at Warnham Court, Horsham ; and in Ireland
Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow ; Hamwood, Co. Meath ; and Fota Island, near Cork.

£ I am indebted to the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Mass.
U.S.A., for American -grown branchlets and cones of Picea alba.

428 PICEA ALBA.

Picea alba, Link in Linnsea, XV. 519 (1841). Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II.
319 (1867). Van Houtte, Flore des Serres, XXI. 157, t. 2251. Engelmann in
Gard. Chron. XI. (1879) p. 334. Sargent, Forest Trees N. Amer. 10th Census,
U.S.A. IX 204. Macoun. Cat Canad. Plants, 469. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 340,
with fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 220.

P. canadensis. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 37, t. 598 (1898).

Abies alba. Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 133, t. 12 (1810). Loudon, Arb. et Frut.
Brit. IV. 2310, with figs. Forbes, Pinet Woburn, 95, t. 33. Nuttall, Sylva, III. 129.
Hoopes, Evergreens, 157, with fig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 3.

A. canadensis, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. (1768).*

Pinus alba, Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. t. 26 (1803). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 112.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 414.

Eng. and Amer. White Spruce. Fr. Sapinette blanche. Germ Weissfichte.
Ital. Abete bianco.

The geographical distribution of Picea alba extends over the whole
of British North America as far as the northern limit of arborescent
vegetation; it also spreads through Alaska to Behrings Strait. South
of the Dominion boundary it extends along the Atlantic coast of
Maine, where it is constantly bathed in the spray of the ocean ;
also into the northern parts of the New England States; and
westward it fringes the international boundary from northern
Michigan to northern Montana. Throughout this enormous area it
inhabits chiefly the alluvial soil on the banks of streams where it
attains its greatest size and affords the best timber- of the region.
It is the most valuable tree in Newfoundland, in the inhospitable
countries around Hudson's Bay, in the Yukon valley, and in the
Klondyke around Dawsoii City. The wood is light, soft and
straight-grained, with a satiny surface but not strong. The long
tough flexible roots are used by the Indians of the north to fasten
together the sheets of birch-bark of which they make their canoes,
and to weave water-tight baskets, etc.f

According to Aiton, the White Spruce was introduced into Great
Britain a little earlier than the year 1700, at which date it was in
cultivation in Bishop Comptoii's garden at Fulham. It was formerly
much more extensively planted than at present, when it had fewer
competitors for favour among the Coniferse ; in the milder climate of
this country it is comparatively short-lived, and soon loses the ornamental
properties which render it so attractive an object in the rigorous
climate of Canada and the north-west 'provinces of the Dominion. It
is, however, still propagated in nursery gardens, and- may occasionally
be seen in road-side and other plantation belts associated with the
commoner Conifers. The common form being of such little value as
an ornamental tree, not much can be expected from any of the
varieties, of which Beissner describes ten ; | of these the best is doubtless
that named ccerulea, the Blue Spruce of our predecessors, of which a
good specimen 45 feet high is growing in a light loam at Dolphintoii
in Lanarkshire. §

* This is the oldest published name of the White Spruce ; left in abeyance or unnoticed
by most subsequent authors, it has recently been revived by American botanists.

t Silva of North America, XII. 40.

£ Nadelholzkunde, 350. The "White Spruce is better adapted to the climate of Germany
than of Great Britain. § The late Malcolm Dunn in lit.

PICEA ALCOCKIANA. 429

Picea Alcockiana.

A medium-sized tree with the habit and aspect of the common
Spruce, and of which the average height is estimated at 60 — 75 feet ;
in old age free of branches for about two-thirds of the height and
with an irregular crown, the trunk covered with greyish brown bark
fissured into scale-like plates. Branches stoutish with distichous
ramification, depressed or horizontal. Branchlets mostly opposite, the
bark pale yellow-brown marked with rounded ridges running obliquely
downwards from the pulvini of the leaves, the youngest shoots
pubescent. Buds ovoid, with broadly ovate, obtuse, closely imbricated
perulae. Leaves persistent five — seven years, spirally crowded around
the branchlets, linear, mucronate, four-angled (rhomboidal) in transverse-
section, 0*5 — 0*75 inch long, with a white stomatiferous band on the
two dorsal faces, bright green on the ventral sides ; those on the-
upper side of the shoot more or less appressed to it, those on the
under side turned away from it at an angle of 45°. Cones ovoid-
cylindric, 2 — 3 inches long and 1 — 1*5 inch in diameter near the base;
scales broadly obovate-cuneate, with slightly erose apical margin, and
faintly striated on the exposed side ; seed wings obovate -oblong,,
two -thirds as long as the scale.

Picea Alcockiana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 343 (1867). Masters in GarcL
Chron. XIII. (1880), p. 212, with fig. ; Jo-urn. Linn. Soc. XVIII, 508, with figs. ;.
and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 221. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 377, with fig.

Abies Alcockiana, Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1861, p. 22 (Alcoquiana). Murray,
Pines and Firs of Japan, 66, with figs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 4.

Pin us Alcoquiana, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 417.

Picea bicolor, Mayr, Abiet. Jap. Reiches, 49, Tafel III. fig. 8 (1890).

Abies bicolor, Maximowicz in Bull. Acad. St. Petersb. X. 487 (1866). A.,
acicularis, Hort.

Eng. Sir Rutherford Alcock's Fir. Germ. Buntfichte. Jap. Ira-momi, Shira-
momi. And others.

Picea Alcockiana is a rare and local species found only at high
elevations scattered through the Oak and Beech forests, presenting
in its home a wretched and forlorn appearance ; * it is confined to
the mountains of central Japan between the thirty-fifth and
thirty-eighth parallels of north latitude. On Fuji-yama it occupies
the central zone of forest vegetation at an altitude of 6,000 to 7,500
feet, mixed with Abies Veitchii, Picea ajanensis and Larix leptolepis
at its lowest vertical limit. Here the younger trees have a more
regular outline and bear much resemblance to the common Spruce,
On account of its scarcity, the wood is not much used. P. Alcockiana
was discovered by the late John Gould Veitch during an ascent
of Fuji-yama in September, 1860, in company with Sir Kntherford
Alcock, at that time British Minister at Tokio and whose name it
commemorates.

As already stated under Picea ajanensis, seeds of that species and
P. Alcockiana were brought home mixed together, and the seedlings
were subsequently distributed under the latter name ; but the seedlings

* Garden and Forest, VI. 494.

430 PICE A BREWERIAXA.

of P. ajanensis far outnumbered those of P. Alcoc/dana, whence lar^c
specimens of the latter are extremely rare in British Pineta. One of
the best known to the author is at Blackford Park, near Edinburgh ;
it is a tree of remarkably handsome shape and healthy appearance,
growing in a situation exposed to the full force of the westerly gales
that sweep along the Pentland Hills, and where few other Conifers
€an thrive.*

Picea Breweriana.

A tree 80 — 100 feet high with a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter and
furnished to the ground with crowded branches ; at the top of the
tree these are short with comparatively short pendulous lateral branches ;
below they are horizontal and clothed with slender, flexible, whip-like
branchlets, often 7 — 8 feet in length, and not more than a quarter
of an inch in thickness, and are furnished with numerous laterals of
the same character and habit. Leaves abruptly narrowed and obtuse
at the apex, straight or slightly incurved, rounded or obscurely ridged,
and dark green on the lower surface ; flattened and marked with
rows of small stomata on each side of the midrib on the opposite
surface, 0*75 — 1-125 inch in length. Staminate flowers oblong,
0*625 inch long, dark reddish purple with conspicuously toothed
anther crests. Cones oblong, gradually narrowed from the middle to
both ends, acute at the apex, 2 -5 — 5 inches long, and 0'75 — 1 inch
in thickness ; when fully grown, dark purple or green, more or less
tinged with purple, at maturity light orange-brown ; scales broadly
obovate, slightly thickened on the entire margin. — Sargent, Silra of
North America, XII. 51, t. 601.

Picea Breweriana, Watson, Proc. Amer. Acad. XX. 378 (1885). Sargent in
Gard. Chron. XXV. (1886), p. 498, with fig. Garden and Forest, III. (1890), p. 63,
with figs.; and Silva N. Amer. loc. cit. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 350.

The following account of Picea Breweriana is derived almost solely"
from the great work from which the description was taken : —

"It is the most local and least known of all the American Piceas ;
it is scattered in small groves through an area of a few hundred
acres of dry mountain ridges near the timber line on the northern
slope of the Siskiyou mountains at an elevation of about 7,000 feet,
just south of the northern boundary of California. There is a grove
a few miles south of this, and it also covers a mile square on a
high peak west of Marble Mountain, and it occurs again in three or
four localities on the mountains of southern Oregon. It was discovered
in 1884 in the first-named locality by Mr. Thomas Howell, a botanist
of Oregon, and is named in compliment to Professor W. H. Brewer,
who, more than any one in his generation, has brought to light by
explorations in the forest the character and distribution of the Pacific
coast Conifers."

Curiously enough, Picea Breiceriana most resembles in leaf structure
and in the form of its cone-scales the flat-leaved P. Omorica of the
Balkan peninsula, the least known of European Conifers ; in its weeping-
habit it approaches the P. Smithiana of the Himalaya mountains, and
•on that account alone it would be a most desirable tree for British

* Communicated by the late Malcolm Dunn.

PICEA ENGELMANNI. 431

parks and gardens, but little hope can be entertained of acquiring it.
" Fires which are increasing every year in frequency and destructiveness
are prevalent in all the dry mountain regions which form the boundary
between north-western California and south-eastern Oregon, probably the
only home of P. Breweriana, and it seems hopeless to expect that the
relatively few isolated trees of this species can long escape their ravages."
Moreover, attempts to raise seedlings on a large scale have signally
failed, both at Waukegan in Illinois and in the Arnold Arboretum
in Massachusetts ; it is, nevertheless, most desirable that a trial should
be made in the more equable climate of Great Britain, but the
difficulties of obtaining seeds are apparently insurmountable.

Picea Engelmanni.

A lofty tree, at its greatest development 100 — 150 feet high with
a trunk 4 — 5 feet in diameter covered with brown bark that is
much furrowed in old trees. Branches in regular tiers at short
intervals, the lower ones usually cast off as the tree advances in age,
leaving the trunk bare for the greater part of its height. Branchlets
slender, with light brown smooth bark which on the youngest shoots is
whitish and pubescent. Buds conic, obtuse, about an eighth of an inch
long, with loosely imbricated pale reddish brown perulse. Leaves with
a peculiar fetid odour when bruised, resembling that emitted by the
bruised leaves of Picea alba, persistent four — five years, four-angled,
pungent, 0*5 — 1 inch long, in close-set spirals and pointing forwards,
those on the upper side of the axis nearly parallel with it, at first
glaucescent, but at the end of the first season dark green. " Staminate
flowers oblong-cylindric, about five-eighths of an inch long, with purple
anthers, and raised on slender footstalks when fully grown." Cones ovoid-
cylindric, variable in size, 1*75 — 2 '5 inches long and 0'75 — 1 inch in diameter;
scales thin, obovate- rhombic with a more or less erose-dentate margin.

Picea Engelmanni, Engelmann in Trans. St. Louis Acad. II. 212 (1863) ; and
Gard. Chron. 1863, p. 1035. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 348 (1867). Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 343, Avith fig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 221. Sargent,
Silva N. Amer. XII. 43, t. 599.

P. columbiana, Lemmon in Garden and Forest, X. (1897), p. 183.

Abies Engelmanni, Parry in Trans. St. Louis Acad. II. 122 (1863). Hoopes,
Evergreens, 177, with fig.

Abies commutata, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 5.

Pinus commutata, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 417 (1868).

Eng. and Amer. Engelmann's Spruce, Rocky Mountains Spruce.

Picea Engelmanni inhabits the Rocky Mountains from Alberta
southwards to Arizona and New Mexico, forming in, places extensive
pure forests, especially in that part of its range which lies within
the Canadian Dominion and in the States of Montana and Wyoming.
Its vertical range varies to some extent with the latitude of the
locality, reaching from 3,000 feet towards its northern to 11,500 feet
towards its southern limit, often, in places, fringing the limits of
arborescent vegetation where it is reduced to a stunted bush.
P. Engelmanni also occurs west of the Rocky Mountains on the
mountain ranges of Washington and Oregon, on the high mountains

432 ' PICEA EXCELSA.

of eastern Nevada, and on Mounts Francisco and Graham in Arizona.
The wood is light, soft, close and straight-grained, but not strong ; where
accessible it is used for all kinds of constructive work especially in
Colorado and Utah. The bark is locally used for tanning.*

Picea En<jelmanni was first specifically distinguished by Dr. C. C.
Parry, who discovered it on Pike's Peak in Colorado in 1862 ; it was
introduced into Great Britain shortly afterwards, probably in 1865.
Apparently, seedlings have been raised in numbers so restricted that
this Fir is still but seldom seen in this country. The variety
described in the former edition as P. Engelmanni glauca does not
belong to this species but to P. pungens : seedlings of P. Engelmanni
with a highly glaucous foliage occasionally appear in the seed beds,
but they may be distinguished from P. pungens by their softer, less
rigid and far less pungent leaves, which emit an unpleasant odour
when bruised.

The nearest affinity of Picea Engelmanni is P. alba ; the former is
essentially a tree of the mountains, the latter inhabits the woods and
sand-hills of the plains. Distinct as they appear when growing side
by side in a British nursery, it is not easy to formulate the characters
by which they are specifically separated ; the most obvious differences
are seen in the cones and their scales. So closely do they sometimes
resemble each other that, according to Professor Macoun, in northern
Columbia the one merges into the other, the two being indistinguishable.!
P. Engelmanni commemorates one of the ablest and most respected
American botanists of his time.

GEORGE ENGELMANN (1809 — 1884) was born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, where his
father was a clergyman and master of a school. He entered the University of
Heidelburg in 1827, but in the following year removed to Berlin University where
he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1831. He soon afterwards went to
America and established himself at St. Louis, where he resided during the remainder
of his life, being chiefly engaged in the practice of medicine, but devoting much of
his spare time to botany. He helped forward in divers ways the botany of his
adopted land ; in the Conifene, the Oaks, Agaves and other genera, he became looked
up to as the leading authority. At a time of life when most people would have
preferred to remain at home, he visited the great forests of the West in company
with three other eminent scientists, wThere fifty years previously Douglas had collected
so many Conifers for the Horticultural Society of London. Much remained to be
cleared up respecting these trees ; their nomenclature and synonomy were under
constant discussion with constantly varying results. Engelmann was enabled to
gather many of the Conifers in the very localities indicated by Douglas, and to
study their distribution and modifications as they diverged in one direction or
another, or occupied different stations from the coast to the slopes of the mountains.
He occasionally visited this country where his aid wras sought in settling questions
of nomenclature, as may be seen from the notes and memoranda with which he
enriched the national herbarium at Kew. — Gardeners' Chronicle, XXI. (1884), p 321.

Picea excelsa.

A lofty tree, in places attaining a height of 125 — 150 feet, with a
trunk 3 — 5 feet in diameter ; the average height of full-grown trees
in Great Britain ranges from 60 to 100 feet, according to locality and
environment. In early age the bark is thin, smooth and of a
reddish brown colour ; later it becomes fissured into thin scales that
are eventually cast off. Branches slender, in regular pseudo-whorls from
* Silva of North America, XII. 45. t Catalogue of Canadian Plants, 470.

PICEA EXCELSA. 433

the base to the summit when the trees are standing alone and in the
prime of life, the lowermost gently decurved and upturned at the tip,
those higher up spreading horizontally, the uppermost slightly ascending;
when the trees are crowded and in old age, the trunk is denuded of
branches for a greater or less portion of the height and they have a
thin spire-like crown. Branchlets distichous and mostly opposite,
covered with corrugated orange-brown bark. Buds sub-conic, acute,
about 0*25 inch long, with oval-oblong, reddish brown perular scales.
Leaves persistent five — -seven years, spirally crowded around the
branchlets, those on the upper side pointing forwards at a small angle
to the axis, those on the under side pseudo-distichous in two — three
ranks, four-angled, compressed, mucronate, 0*25 — 0*75 inch long, lustrous
grass-green. Staminate flowers solitary or two and three together near
the distal end' of branchlets of the preceding year, sub-cylindric, slightly
tapering at each end, about 0*75 inch long, pinkish yellow, and
surrounded at the base by numerous involucral scales. Cones
pendulous, sub-cylindric or cylindric-conic, 4 — 6 inches long and
1 — 2 inches in diameter, scales sub-rhomboidal, truncate and toothed at the
apex, light brown, striated ; seed-wings oval, semi-transparent, pale brown.

Picea excelsa, Link in Linnsea, XV. 517 (1841). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II.
327. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 67. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 351, with figs.
Brown, James, The Forester, ed. VI. Vol. I. 328, with fig. Masters in Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 221.

Abies excelsa, De Candolle, Flore Franc. III. 275 (1805). Richard, L. C. Mem.
sur les Conif. 69 (1826). London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2293, with figs.
Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 87. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 6. Lawson, Pinet. Brit.
II. 135, tt. 19—20.

Pinus Picea, Duroi. Observ. Bot. 37 (1774). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 116.
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 415.

P. Abies, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. 1002 (1753). Lambert, Genus Pinus I. t. 25 (1803).

Eng. Spruce Fir, Norway Spruce, Common Spruce. Fr. Pesse, Epicea. Germ.
Fichte, Rothtanne, Pechtanne. Ital. Abete rosso, Pezzo.

var . — Olanbrasiliana.

A low, dense, globose or rounded bush seldom seen higher than
5—6 feet ; the branches, branchlets and leaves all much shortened and

close-set. A supposed sterile variety. Olanbrasiliana elegans

of larger dimensions and less dense in habit than Clanbrasiliana.

P. excelsa Clanbrasiliana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 334. Abies excelsa
Clanbrasiliana, London, Arb. et. Frut. Brit. IV. 2294.

var.— dumosa.

A dwarf variety which fails to form an ascending trunk, and in which the

branches are quite prostrate and furnished with numerous slender branchlets

clothed with rather distant short mucronate leaves. Two other forms of

similar habit and aspect have been named procumbens and tabuliformis.

P. excelsa dumosa, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 332. Beissner, ISTadelholzk. 365.

var.-eremita.

A robust variety in which the branches are turned obliquely upwards
at a small angle to the trunk, the branchlets stouter, shorter, and with
larger ' winter buds than in the common form. Leaves distant, short,
thick, spine-tipped and sometimes sub-distichous. Remontii is a
dwarf modification of this.

P. excelsa eremita, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 330. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 362.
Spit/fichte of German foresters.

FF

434 PICEA EXCELSA. -

var.— Finedonensis.

This shows an unusual change of colour in the young shoots and
foliage which, when first developed, are pale yellow, afterwards gradually
changing to yellowish brown and finally assuming the normal green of
the species.

P. excelsa Finedonensis, Beissner. Nadelholzk, 367. Abies excelsa Finedonensis,
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 9. A. Finedonensis, Hort.

var.— Gregoryana.

A diminutive variety seldom growing more than 1 — 2 feet high, with
numerous small spreading branches and branchlets thickly clothed with
short stiff leaves spreading obliquely from all sides.

P. excelsa Gregoryana, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 364. Abies excelsa Gregoryana,
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 9.

var,— inverta.

A pendulous variety in which the lateral branchlets droop like those
of Picea Smithiana, and which are clothed with larger, longer leaves
of a lighter green than those of the common Spruce.'*

P. excelsa inverta, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 361. Abies excelsa inverta, Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 9.

var. — monst rosa.

A remarkable variety in which the energy of the plant appears to
be expended in the formation of the principal branches at the expense
of the lateral branchlets. The branches are long and straggling,
almost without laterals, and clothed with bristly leaves usually longer
and stouter than those of the common form.

P (Abies) excelsa monstrosa, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2295. P. excelsa
denudata, Caniere, Rev. Hort. (1854), p. 102. with fig. P. excelsa viminalis,
Caspary ex Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXVII. 282. Gartenflora (1887), p. 521.
Abbild, 128. Schlangenfichte of German gardens.

var.— mutabilis.

This is a modification of var. Finedonensis. The young shoots are at
first light yellow which soon changes to golden yellow, and this
again to the normal green of the species by the end of the first
season. Other coloured forms have been named aurea, argentea,

variegata.

P. excelsa mutabilis, P. excelsa aurea, etc , Hovt. ; and Beissner, Nadelholzk. 367-

var.— pendula.

As distinguished from inverta, the primary branches are produced at
irregular intervals, and with their appendages hang downwards at a
greater or less distance from the trunk.

P. (Abies) excelsa pendula, Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2294 Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 360. Weeping Spruce Fir.

var. — pumila.

A dwarf variety of conical habit, with much shortened branches and
branchlets clothed with dark green glaucescent foliage ; the leaves
spread from all sides of the branchlets.

P. excelsa pumila, Hort. Abies pumila glauca, Hort. A. pumila nigra, Hort.

* This curious deviation from the type was first detected by Mr. R. Smith Carrington in
a plantation near Kinlet Hall, Shropshire.— The Garden,- XXV. (1884), p. 229.

PICEA EXCELSA.- 435

var.— pygmsea.

A diminutive dense bush in which the branches are excessively
shortened and all their parts similarly diminished. Leaves small,
pungent, and very close set. var. echinoformis is a slight
modification of this.

P. (Abies) excelsa pygmsea, Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2295. P. excelsa
echinoformis, Beissner, Nadelholzk. 364. P. excelsa minima, Hort.

The common Spruce Fir is one of the most widely distributed of
the European Conifeme. The region over which it is spread may
be broadly expressed as extending west to east from the Pyrenees
to the Ural mountains, and north to south from Lapland to the
Alps of northern Italy ; it does not, however, occur wild in Great
Britain, Denmark and Holland. Its geographical limits have been
carefully investigated by Professor Willkomin who gives the following
interesting facts, among many others, respecting its distribution.

Its north-western limit occurs on the Norwegian coast about lat. 67° N.
and in east Finmark its extreme northern point i« reached in 69° 30' X.
From this point eastwards, its northern range sinks gradually till it
reaches the Ural mountains in lat. 63° N. where it meets the Siberian
Spruce, Picea obovata, with which it is often intermixed along its eastern
limit ; its farthest point in this direction is placed near the confluence
of the Wjalka (Viatka) and Kama rivers in lat. 55° where its southern
limit commences ; this trends in a south-western direction across Russia
to the Carpathian mountains which it follows southwards and along the
connecting ranges to Mount Kopaonik in Servia about lat. 43° X.
Westwards from this locality it follows the slopes of the mountains
through Croatia, Styria and the Alps along their whole extent to Nice ;
it then crosses the Cevennes and reaches the central Pyrenees on which
it occurs but sparingly. The western limits of the common Spruce Fir
have a very irregular outline extending from the Pyrenees through central
France to the Vosges and thence along the mountains of south-west and
•central Germany through Saxony to Silesia and Pomerania. The altitude
to which it ascends on the mountains varies inversely with the latitude
•of the locality; in Norway its highest vertical limit is from 2,500 to
2,900 feet above the level of the ocean ; on the Harz mountains
3,000 feet ; on the Bavarian Alps 4,500 feet ; on the Tyrolese and Swiss
Alps 6,500 feet; but although the vertical limit is gradually higher in
proceeding from north to south, there are instances in which this limit
is lowered, chiefly in the south-west, the cause of which is ascribed to
the lower hygronietric condition of the atmosphere. In the northern and
central parts of its range, the Spruce Fir descends into the plains and
in places covers considerable areas ; in the southern parts it is essentially
a mountain tree, more scattered and forming but small stretches of pure
forest.

The German Forestry authorities distinguish two principal forms
(Hauptformen) of the Spruce Fir, the red-coned crythrocai'pa and the
green-coned chlorocarpa ; this difference in the colour of the cones
is always accompanied by a difference in the habit of the tree and
in the quality and texture of the wood. Besides these Hauptformen,
several geographical or climatic varieties are also recognised, which

436 PICEA EXCELS A.

although closely resembling each other in many respects, are designated
by names for the most part indicative of the region in which they
are found ; the most noteworthy of these are : — alpestris, common in
parts of the Swiss Alps ; carpatica which has been introduced into-
Great Britain from the Carpathian mountains ; hyrcinica found on
the Harz mountains ; and medioximi* common in north Scandinavia,
Finland and Kussia. These geographical forms are distinguished from
the common type chiefly by their smaller dimensions, denser habit,,
shorter leaves and smaller cones. They are botanically interesting
as intermediate states between Picea cxcelsa and P. obovata and
between P. excelsa and P. orientalis, but for British arboriculture
they are relatively worthless.

It is, however, under cultivation and in the seed beds that the
surprising variability of the common Spruce Fir is most manifest ; but
although deviations from the ordinary type are extremely numerous, they
take place in comparatively few directions and thence admit of a loose
kind of grouping under four heads which may be designated: 1, dwarf,.
2, snake-branched, 3, pendulous, and 4, coloured. The most distinct and
the most useful of the forms in each group for garden decoration in this
country are those described in the preceding pages, but many others,
closely resembling or intermediate forms have also received distinguishing-
names, f

The Spruce Fir in Great Britain, in its normal form, is of more
concern to the forester than the horticulturist ; nevertheless, under
conditions favourable for its development, it is one of the most
picturesque of coniferous trees for the park and landscape when standing
singly and feathered with branches from the base to the summit.
The rate of growth of the leader shoot after the first three or four-
years from the seed, ranges from one to three feet annually, according,
to situation, up to twenty -five — thirty years, when it very gradually
diminishes till the tree attains its maturity, which takes from seventy
to one hundred and twenty years, according to locality. It is also
highly appreciated as an ornamental tree in the northern arid middle
States of North America, but it is comparatively short-lived ; it-
grows with vigour and rapidity for thirty to forty years, but healthy
trees of more than fifty years old are uncommon, so that it is not
suited for economic planting in North America. J On account of its
hardiness and its power of resisting the force of high winds the
Spruce Fir is one of the best of trees for the formation of protective
screens for the more tender Coniferse in their young state ; but the

* This is described and figured as a species by Andrew Murray in Lawson's Pinetum
Britannicum, Vol. II. p. 159, t. 23.

f Beissner, Nadelholzkunde, pp. 355—367, has described upwards of sixty varieties of the
common Spruce Fir including the Hauptformen and geographical varieties. Some ot the
closely resembling forms have originated in different countries, as monstrosa, England ;,
viminalis, Sweden ; virgata, Norway ; dcmidata, France.

J Garden and Forest, Vol. X. p. 481.

PICE A GLEHNII. 437

limits of temperature under which it can thrive is not less than
10° C. (50° F.) for the average July temperature, nor can it exist
Avith an average January temperature below — 12° C. (about 10° F.) ;.
-although it can endure an average July temperature of 1875 C.
(67° F.) it languishes when the average is above this. *

The wood is light, even in grain, easy to work and durable, but the
quality of Spruce timber is influenced by the soil and situation upon
which it is produced. It is used for all kinds of building and
constructive purposes ; it is sawn into boards for flooring, and planks
for roofing and fencing ; poles, ladders, telegraph posts and railway ties
are made of it ; toys for children and sounding boards for musical
instruments ; for the last-named purpose, a variety of the Spruce Fir
found on the mountains of Styria, Bavaria and Bohemia is particularly
suitable on account of the relatively broad annual rings of its wood,
of which the dark, dense summer growth is very narrow. f Large
quantities of the wood are made into charcoal, and still larger
quantities are used for fuel ; and in Germany an enormous bulk of
Spruce wood is annually converted into paper pulp. The bark is
used for tanning leather in localities in which the Spruce Fir is
abundant, but it is said to be inferior to the bark of the Larch for
this purpose. At Christmas-time thousands of young trees or tree-tops
are decorated for the amusement of children.

The Spruce Fir is mentioned in Turner's "Names of Herbes,"
published in 1548, which shows that it has been cultivated in
Great Britain more than three hundred and fifty years. Many fine
specimens are scattered over the country, but the largest occur in
the north ; there is one at Studley Koyal, near Ripon, 132 feet
high and 12£ feet in girth near the base ; J one at Lynedoch, near
Perth, 108 feet high and 10 J feet in girth at five feet from the
ground; and another at Dronach Haugh, not far distant, 119 feet
high and nearly 10 feet in girth. § Although not a native of
Great Britain undoubted proofs of the Spruce Fir having been a
denizen of this country in late Tertiary times are found in the
remains met with in the Pliocene Clays of Norfolk.

Pieea Glehnii.

A tall tree, in favourable situations over 100 feet high with a trunk
usually free of branches for 60 or more feet, but of much smaller
dimensions at its northern limit. Bark of trunk reddish brown fissured
into broad thin plates. || " Branches spreading with short internodes,
reddish, covered with shaggy down ; smaller branches given off at an

* Willkomm, Forstliche Flora von Deutschland und Oesterreich, ed. II. p. 82.

f Beissner, Nadelholzkunde, p. 355.

£ Conifer Conference Report, p. 498. This tree is mentioned by London in the Arboretum
<it Fruticetum Britannicimi, Vol. IV. p. 2297, as the largest Spruce Fir known to him.

§ The dimensions of the two Perthshire trees were communicated by Mr. Pitcaithley,
forester to the Earl of Mansfield, on whose estate they stand.

il Mayr, Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches, p. 58. ,

438 PICE A NIGRA

angle of about 50° ; pulvini oblong-linear ; buds sub-globose with brown
ovate penilse. Leaves crowded in many rows, ascending at an angle
of about 45°, curved, linear, four-sided, sharply pointed, the concave
sides slightly glaucous, the convex sides green. Cones eylindric or ovate-
oblong, 1 — 2 inches long and O75 inch in diameter ; scales leathery,
slightly striated, wedge-shaped, the upper free edge rounded, denticulate ;
bracts much shorter than the scale, broadly lanceolate. Seed wings
obliquely obovate." — Masters in Gardeners' Chronicle XIII. (1880),
p. 300.

Picea Glehnii, Masters iti Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 512, with fig. (1881) ;
Gard. Chron. foe. cit. supra. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 222 Mayr, Abiet
des Jap. Reiches, 5«, Tafel IV. tig. 11. Beissner, Kadelholzk. 377.

Abies Glehnii, Schmidt, Reisen ini Amurland mid atif der Insel Sachalin, 1866,
p 176, with fig.

Like Picea ajanensis with which it is in places associated, P. Glehnii
is a northern tree, restricted, so far as at present known, to the
southern part of the island of Saghalien, the island of Yeso, and
districts in the adjacent coast region of Eussian Manchuria, but
nowhere very abundant except around Lake Kucliarro in Yeso where
it attains its greatest development. The wood is light and soft, and
where the tree is common and easily accessible, it is much used by
the natives for all kinds of carpentry.

Picea Glehnii was discovered during an exploration of the Amur
region and the island of Saghalien in the early " sixties ' by the German
botanist Friedrich Schmidt who was accompanied by Glehn after whom
it is named. Botanically it is described as standing midway between
P. obovata and P. Alcockiana, thus forming one of the connecting links,
in the series of Piceas which spread across the Euro-asiatic continent
from Norway to Japan. According to Beissner P. Glehnii has been
introduced into Germany and probably into Great Britain,* but no
estimate can be yet formed of its merits as a garden or forest tree
in this country.

Picea nigra.

A low or medium-sized tree 25 — 50 feet high, but under exceptional
conditions attaining a height of nearly 100 feet with a straight trunk
diminishing regularly from the base to the summit. Usually the trunk
is slender, often not more than a foot in diameter, covered with
reddish brown bark which in the oldest trees growing in Great Britain
is fissured into small irregular plates. On the borders of forest lakes
Picea nigra is ofteai a stunted tree a few feet high,- and at its northern
limit a semi-prostrate shrub. As seen in Great Britain — branches
spreading and much ramified, the lowermost decumbent, those above
the middle more or less ascending. Branchlets short, mostly distichous,
but sometimes in pseudo-whorls of three — four. Buds small, ovoid,
chestnut-brown. Leaves persistent five — seven years, spirally crowded,
four-angled with short callous tips, straight or slightly curved towards
their axis, 0'25 — 0'75 inch long, with glaucous stomatiferous bands on

* Of the very few sprays sent to me as Picea Ghhnii some weie indistinguishable from
P. Alcockiana, and the others were certainly P. ajanensis.

PICE A NIGRA. 439

the two sides turned towards the axis, bluish green on the two opposite
sides. Staminate flowers sub-globose, dark red, about an eighth of an
inch long. Cones ovoid-oylindric, obtuse, 1*25 — 1-5 inch long, almost
globose after the dispersion of the seeds, at first dark brown-purple,
at maturity greyish brown and persisting on the tree several years;
scales broadly oval, denticulate. Seed-wings obovate, oblique, 0*5 inch long.

Picea nigra, Link in Linnsea, XV. 520 (1841). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II.
323. Engelmann in Gard. Chron. XI. (1879), p. 334, excl. var. rubra. Sargent,
Forest Trees N". Amer. 10th Census U.S.A. IX. 202. Macoun, Cat. Canad.
Plants, 468. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 332, with figs. Masters in Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 222.

P. Mariana, Sargent, Silva K Amer. XII. 28, t. 596.

Abies nigra, Michaux, Hist. Arb. N. Amer. I. 123, t. 11 (1810). London, Arb.
et Frut. Brit. IV. 2312, with figs Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 97, t. 34. Hoopes,
Evergreens, 169. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 13.
. A. Mariana, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 5 (1768).*

Pinus nigra, Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. t. 27 (1803). Hooker, W. Fl. Bor. Amer.
II. 163. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 115. Parlatore, D. 0. Prodr. XVI. 413.

Eng. and Amer. Black Spruce. Fr. Sapinette noir. Germ. Schwarzfichte. Ital.
Abete nero.

Picea nigra is distributed over nearly the whole of the British
Dominion of North America from Newfoundland to Yukon whence
it spreads into Alaska. Its northern limit is the limit of arborescent
vegetation which on the North American continent occurs about
lat. 67° N. in the Mackenzie valley, but on the eastern side of the
continent this limit is near the southern shore of Ungava Bay or
nearly ten degrees further south. South of the Dominion boundary
the Black Spruce is most abundant around the great lakes where it
attains its largest size. It spreads through the New England States
into New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, occupying for the most
part the swampy districts, but it is nowhere very common.
Distributed over such an enormous area and growing under manifold
conditions of climate and environment, the Black Spruce is found
to vary greatly in habit and dimensions ; in the cold sphagnum
swamps it rarely attains a great size, but on the alluvial lands of
Athabasca, even as far north as the 58th parallel, trees 80 feet high
and three feet in diameter have been noted. But perhaps the most
remarkable conditions under which the Black Spruce is enabled to
find a foothold, occur in northern Wisconsin where it is called the
Muskeag Spruce ; its aspect and state in this region are thus described
by H. E. Ay res in the American "Garden and Forest," Vol. VII.
p. 504:—

"On the borders of small forest lakes which are being covered with
sedges and sphagnum, Picea nigra is able to exist without mineral
soil, and one may put them under water by standing on the bog at
their roots. They grow very slowly, the annual rings of their small
trunk being sometimes so minute as to be indistinguishable by the
naked eye. These little old trees are found bearing cones when only

* This is the oldest specific name but it was left in abeyance for more than a century
by most subsequent authors.

440 PICEA NIGKA.

two or three feet high, and as their energies appear to be entirely

expended in producing seeds, the fertile branches become the only

vigorous ones. The cones are densely crowded near the top of the tree,

while the trunk below is often destitute of living branches, although

unshaded and growing far from other trees. These ibnse tufts of dark

branches, like plumes upon poles, present a strange spectacle to the

traveller who for the first time crosses the larger muskeags, especially

at twilight, for he seems to be looking over a weird procession

stretching mile after mile until lost in the distance. On the smaller

muskeags there is often a regular gradation of size from the smallest

seedlings by the water in the centre of the bog to the tall slender

trees, sometimes 60 feet high, upon the shores of the basin with their

drooping branches which are freely developed in the better soil of the

high margins, and trunks which rarely exceed eight inches in diameter."

In striking contrast to the Muskeag form is a remarkable variety

found on the highest summits of the Adirondacks. It is the variation

of the tree into a mere procumbent shrub, so small that it offers but

little impediment to him who would walk over it. These bushes are

more or less flattened in outline, the branches issuing nearly from the

opposite sides of the trunk as in the Ground Hemlock (Canadian Yew).

They grow in dense patches, completely covering the ground, and in

numerous instances with their apices all pointing the same way.

The wood of the Black Spruce is light and soft, but not strong.

Within the United States and in the border counties of the Canadian

Dominion it is used chiefly for the manufacture of paper pulp ; in

Manitoba and Saskatchewan where the trees afford planks of greater

scantling, the timber is used for the same purposes as that of the

common Spruce in Europe. Of the minor products the most

extensively used are Spruce gum and Spruce beer.

Spruce gum is the resinous exudation of the Black and other
eastern American Spruces. It is collected in considerable quantities in
winter in New England and Canada by men on snow-shoes carrying
long poles armed with chisels, with which the viscous masses are-
knocked or cut off and caught in small cups attached to the poles just
below the chisels. It is dissolved in alcohol and occasionally used in
medicine.

Spruce beer was formerly made by boiling the branches of the

Black and Red Spruces with honey ; it is now made from the essence

of Spruce, which is a liquid of the colour and consistency of molasses

with a bitter, astringent, acid flavour; it is obtained by boiling the

young branches of the Black and Red Spruces in water, and evaporating

the decoction. To prepare the beverage, the essence of Spruce is

boiled in water flavoured with various ingredients and then mixed

with molasses, or occasionally with sugar, allowed to ferment, and

bottled.* Spruce beer is considered a pleasant beverage in hot weather.

The Black Spruce was introduced into Great Britain by Bishop

Compton about the year 1700, or a little earlier j; and has since been

more generally cultivated in this country than either of the three eastern

American Spruce Firs, although its ornamental qualities are not of

* Silva of North America, XII. 31. t Alton, Hortus Kewensis, ed. II. Vol-. V. p. 319.

PICEA OBOVATA. 441

a very high order, especially on dry soils for which it is totally
uri suited. In moist retentive loams where it retains its leaves for
several years and acquires a dense habit, the distinct hue of its
foliage renders it an acceptable tree for contrast. Besides the many
varieties found wild in North America, others have originated under
cultivation in Europe, but none of them have any especial value as
decorative plants in this country. In Germany, where * the Black
Spruce is much cultivated as a decorative tree, more attention is
given to deviations from the common form, and some of the
varieties as Doumetti and Mariana are, according to Beissner,
highly prized.

Picea obovata.

A tree 60 — 80 feet high, resembling the common Spruce in habit
and aspect. Branches slender, more or less pendent or depressed.
Branchlets pubescent the first year, with light reddish brown bark
marked by shallow longitudinal oblique ridges decurrertt from the pulvini
of the leaves. Buds conic, scarcely 0*25 inch long, with chestnut-
brown perulsB. Leaves four-angled, spine-tipped, 0*5 — 0*75 inch long,
bright green ; OH the upper side of the branchlets more or less
pointing forwards at an acute angle to the axis, and mostly incurved;
on the under side erect or pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks.
Cones ovoid-cylindric, approaching spindle-shaped, 2*5 — 3 inches long,
reddish brown ; scales orbicular, cuneate with a narrow claw, roundish
or truncate on the apical side ; seed wings oval, about half as long
as the scale.

Picea obovata, Ledebour, Fl. Altaica, III. t. 499; IV. 201 (1833). Link in
Linnrea, XV. 518 (1841) Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 237. Willkomm, Forstl.
Fl. ed. II. 93. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 368. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII.
506 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 223.

Abies obovata, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2329. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 14.

Finns obovata, Endlicher, Synops. ConiK. 119. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 415.

Eng. Siberian Spruce. Fr. Sapinette de Siberie. Germ. Altai Fichte, Sibirische
Fichte.

Picea obovata covers extensive areas in east and north-east Eussia,
whence it spreads eastwards through the greater part of Siberia to
the Sea of Okhotsk, and also into Kamtschatka and the Kurile
Islands. Its northern limit in Europe is just within the Arctic
Circle where it crosses the Ural mountains, the highest latitude of
its range, which nearly coincides with the northern limit of arborescent
vegetation, receding southwards through Asia with the increasing cold
of the climate. The southern limit is but imperfectly known, but
is believed to follow the trend of the Altai mountains as far as the
Amur region, ascending to 4,000 feet above sea-level, and in places
forming extensive forests.

Willkomm considers Picea obovata to be a climatic variety of
P. exeelsa, whose place it takes in the great region over which it is
spread. Transitional forms in the size and shape of the cones and

442 PICEA OMORICA.

also of the cone-scales are frequent in Russia where the two Spruces
meet, some of which may, however, be due to hybridity. Seedlings of P.
obovata raised under cultivation usually preserve the distinctive characters.*
The Siberian Spruce is scarcely known in Great Britain, and no full
description of it appears to have been published. It is cultivated in
north Germany and Russia as an ornamental tree, where, on account
of its slender, sub-pendulous habit, it affords a pleasing addition to the
few couiferous trees available, for so vigorous a climate. A variety
discovered by Maximowicz in the extreme part of its range, and
introduced by him under the name of P. obovata japonica, is also in
cultivation in German gardens;! and another, or the same variety, lias
been introduced into British nurseries as P. Maximowiczii, but like the
typical form it soon perishes under the stimulus of the higher
temperature of this country. In such a climate as that of northern
Russia and Siberia, the economic importance of P. obovafa is very great.

Picea Omorica.

A tall, slender tree with a spire4ike top, in places attaining a height
of 125 or more feet, with a trunk not more than 18 — 24 inches in
diameter covered with reddish brown bark. Branches short in
proportion to height of trunk, the lowermost decurved and upturned at
the tip, those above horizontal or ascending. Branchlets distichous and
mostly opposite, often with a third weaker growth on the under side of
the axial shoot ; bark pale brown, prominently fluted longitudinally, the
youngest growths pubescent, Buds globose-conic, about an eighth of an.
inch long, invested with red-brown, ovate-lanceolate perulse. Leaves
persistent four — live years, sessile, narrowly linear, flattened with
thickened midrib and short callous tip, 0*25 — 0'75 inch long, with
two greyish white stomatiferous bands on the (morphologically)
upper or ventral side, lustrous green on the dorsal side ; those
on the ascending shoots standing out from all sides ; on the lateral
shoots pointing forwards on the upper side, pseudo-distichous in
three— four ranks on the under side. Staminate flowers shortly stalked,
ovoid-cylindric, bright red, O5 — 0'75 inch long, surrounded at the base
by numerous involucral bracts. Cones ovoid-conic, obtuse, 1'5 — 2 inches
long and 0*75 — 1 inch in diameter, bluish black while growing, dark
brown when mature, standing out horizontally or sub-pendulous ; scales
suborbicular, convex, with undulate denticulate margin.

Picea Omorica, Pancic ex Bolle in Monatschrift des Vereins zur Befordenmg des
Gartenbaues, 1877. Masters in Gard. Cliron. VII. (1877), pp. 470, 620 ; XXL
(1884), p. 308, with fig. ; Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII. 203, with tig. ; and Joum.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 223. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 99. Beissner, Nadelholzk.
382, with tig.

Eng. Servian Spruce. Germ. Omorika-Fichte.

Picea Omorica has a very restricted habitat on the mountains of
south-west Servia and their prolongation into the neighbouring States
of Bosnia and Montenegro, occurring singly or in small groves at
elevations ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 feet, forming forests only in

* Beissner, Nadelholzkunde, 369.

t I am indebted to Mr. Spath of Baumschuleweg, near Berlin, for branchlets of Picea
obovata and its variety japonica.

PICEA OKIENTALIS. 443

the most inaccessible places. It was discovered near Zaovina in
Servia, in 1872, by Dr. Pancic of Belgrade, and subsequently
introduced by him into European gardens.

The Servian Spruce Fir is of considerable scientific interest OIL
account of its comparatively recent discovery and its restricted habitat ;
and moreover, that its nearest affinities are not the two species
geographically contiguous to it— P. exeelsa and P. orientalis — but two
that are most remote, P. sitehensis (north-west America) and P. ajanensis
(Japan), forming with them a distinct section of the genus. Willkomm
is of opinion that P. Omorica had formerly a more extensive
distribution but became exterminated for the sake of its timber, and
that it has been preserved within its present narrow limits by its
greater inaccessibility. The name Omorica, or Morica, is the vernacular
name by which it is known in the region it inhabits. Its introduction
into British gardens is too recent to admit of any expression of opinion
respecting its merits as an ornamental tree, the only purpose for which
it should be planted in this country. It grows slowly during early
life, but it has proved hardy thus far, and it is quite distinct in
habit and aspect from every other Spruce Fir.

Picea orientalis.

A medium-sized or tall tree according to situation ; the trunk
50 — 80 feet high and 1*5 — 2 '5 feet in diameter, covered with ash-brown
rugose bark which in old trees is fissured into irregular thin plates.
In Great Britain, densely branched from the base upwards and presenting
a pyramidal outline broken by projecting branches. Branches horizontal,,
the uppermost slightly ascending, ramification distichous ; branchlets
opposite or alternate with pale reddish brown bark fluted with shallow
cortical out-growths as in Picea excelsa. Buds broadly conic, acute>
O2 5 inch long, chestnut-brown. Leaves persistent seven — nine years>
spirally crowded and closely appressed to the branchlets except on
the under side where they spread laterally at a small angle to the
shoot, obscurely four-angled, obtuse, 0'3— 0-5 inch long, dark lustrous
green. Staminate flowers solitary or in pairs mostly near the end of
shoots of the preceding year, cylindric-conic obtuse, carmine-red,
surrounded at the base by small involucral bracts in two series ;
connective of anther suborbicular and minutely denticulate. Cones
conic-cylindric, 2 — 5 inches long and 0'75 inch in diameter; at first
dull violet-purple changing to brown when mature; scales obovate-oblong,
0-65 inch long, closely imbricated, the exposed apical margin entire.
Seed wings obovate-oblong, half as long as the scale.

Picea orientalis, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 244 (1855) ; and ed. II. 325
(1867) Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 700. Willkomm, Fovstl. Fl. ed. II. 97. Masters
in Gard. Chron. XXV. (1886), p. 333, with tig. ; III ser. 3 (1888), p. 754; and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 223. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 374, with tig.

Abies orientalis, Poiret, Diet. VI. 518 (1804), London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV.
2318. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 15. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II 163, t. 23 and tigs.

Pinus orientalis, Liimieus, Sp. Plant, ed. II. 1421 (1763). Bieberstein, Fl.
Tanrico-Cancas. II. 409. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 116. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.

En'g. Eastern or Oriental Spruce. Fr. Sapinette d'Orient. Germ. Morgen-
landische Fichte, Sapindustichte. Ital. Abete orientale.

444

PICEA. OKIENTALIS.

The botanical history and geographical distribution of the Oriental
Spruce is only to be gleaned from a few scattered records by
explorers of the region over which it is spread, commencing from
the early part of the eighteenth century. It was first detected by
Tournefort on the mountains south-east of Trebizond, where it is
still abundant, and a brief description of it is given in his " Voyages,5'

published in 1717. After
a long interval followed
the Russian botanists sent
to explore the Caucasian
region, the earliest of whom
was Pallas, who described
the tree in his " Flora
Rossica " as Pinus Picea,
thus mistaking it for the
European Spruce, but
Bieberstein some years later
recognised it as a distinct
species under Tournefort 's
name of Pinus oricntalis.
It was described by London
in the "Arboretum et Fruti-
cetum Britannicum" as an
unintroduced species at the
date of publication of that
work (1838), but it is
supposed to have been in-
troduced into Great Britain
two or three years after-
wards. Subsequent explora-
tions of the Caucasian region
show that the geographical
range of Picea onentalis is
almost conterminous with
that of Abies Nordmanniana
with which it is in many

places associated, but it ascends to a higher altitude. Its western limit
is on the mountains south-east of Trebizond whence it spreads over
the whole mountainous region bounded on the north by the high
chain of Caucasus proper, as far east as Tiflis, its further spread in
that direction being prevented by the arid climate of the steppes
of eastern Georgia. On all the mountains it has a vertical range
varying from 2,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level, always ascending to

Fig. 109. Picea orientalis. Brauchlet with
staminate flowers.

(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

Picea oriental^ at Highiiam Court, Gloucester,

446 PICE A POLITA.

the highest limits that can be reached, a circumstance that accounts

for its hardiness in a higher latitude.

Nothing authoritative is found respecting the economic uses of
Picea orientalis. Whatever may be the quality of its timber it is
probably not much used in the Caucasian provinces, that of Aides
Nordrnanniana being more easily accessible. In this country Pir?ct
orientalis is planted solely as an ornamental tree, and as such it is one
of the most effective of the Spruce Firs ; * although the habit is of
the same pyramidal character the formality is much diminished by the
projection of many of its slender branchlets, which makes the outline
peaked and pointed. The colour of the foliage is not only distinct
but also attractive ; when the buds first cast off their scaly protection,
and burst iuto growth in spring, the tender shoots are bright yellow,
and as they lengthen, the leaves become a soft delicate green, forming a
beautiful contrast to the rich colouring of the mature foliage. A. orienfali*
should have a place in every collection of Conifers ; it is quite hardy,
but of rather slow growth in dry soils ; a space with a radius of not
less than 15 to 20 feet should be allowed for it.

Picea polita.

A tall or medium-sized tree according to situation and environment,
in exceptional cases attaining a height of 100 feet in the warmer parts
of Japan. In Great Britain the oldest trees scarcely exceed 30 feet
high, with a broadly conical outline interrupted by projecting branches.
Bark of trunk rugose, reddish brown. Branches spreading or
ascending, much ramified at the distal end, and covered with brown
bark roughened by the convex pulvini of the fallen leaves. Branchlets
distichous and opposite, with many adventitious shoots of weaker
growth both on the upper and lower side of the branch ; bark
light yellow-brown with oblique i-onnded ridges. Buds globose-conic,
0*25 — 0-4 inch "long, with ovate shining reddish brown perulse.
Leaves persistent seven — nine years, spirally arranged around their
axes, spreading on all sides from it, or slightly curved upwards,
acicular, 0*5 — 0'75 inch long, obscurely four-angled, flattened at the tip
into a pungent mucro, light green. Cones ovoid-cylindric, obtuse, 3 — 4
inches long and 1 '5 — 2 inches in diameter ; scales suborbicular,
abruptly cuneate at the base, the outer margin rounded - and minutely
erose. Seed-wings obovate-oblong, two-thirds the, length of the scale.

Picea polita, Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. I. 256 (1855) ; and ed. II. 342 (1867).
Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 507 ; Gard. Chron. XIII. (1880). p. 233,
with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. 'Soc. XIV. 223. Mayr, Atjiet. des Jap. Reiches, 46,
Tafel III. fig. 7. Beisf-ner, Nadelholzk. 380, with fig.

Abies polita, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 20, t. Ill (1842). Murray,
Pines and Firs of Japan, 77, with figs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 16.

Pinus polita, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 121 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 417.

Eng. Prickly Fir, Tiger's-tail Spruce. Fr. Epicea a queue de Tigre. Germ.
Stachelfichte, Rosenfichte. Glattzweigigeh'chte. Jap. Hari-momi, Tora-momi.

* Among the many fine specimens of Picea orientalis scattered over Great Britain and
Ireland, those at Highnam Court, Bayfordbury, Orton Hall, Dunkeld, Murthly Castle,
Abercairny, Penrhyn Castle, Fota Island, Powerscourt, are especially noteworthy.

PICEA POLITA.

447

Picea polita is the most distinct of the Japanese Spruce Firs, one
that has not been confused with any other, nor encumbered with a
perplexing synonymy. It has now become very rare in the wild state
in Japan ; isolated trees, often of miserable aspect, only are to be seen
scattered over the mountainous districts from the extreme south to
about the 38th parallel of north latitude, beyond which it is
nowhere found wild. It is much cultivated by the Japanese for
the decoration of their gardens and temple enclosures, and for these

Fig. 110. Foliage and cone of Picea. polita.

purposes it has obtained a much more extended distribution, but
under cultivation it is invariably of smaller dimensions. In Great
Britain, in its young state when fairly vigorous, it is one of the
most attractive of Firs ; the light yellowish bark of the branchlets,
the shining red-brown buds and the lively green of the foliage
present a variety of colours that is seldom seen so effectively in
any other species. It does not, however, thrive so well in the drier
climate of England as in Japan and in New Zealand, where it has

448 PICEA PUNGEXS.

been introduced, and beautiful as it is in its young state, it cannot
be said to improve much with age although quite hardy.*

Regarded in all its aspects, Picea polita gives the impression of its
being an archaic form of Picea that has nearly reached the span of
its existence, and is now gradually passing away. Its nearest affinities
are P. Smithiana of the Himalaya, and P. Schrenkiana of Turkestan,
the three species forming a sub-section of the genus, distinguished chiefly
by the position and colour of the leaves which are less crowded than
in the other Spruce Firs ; by the perular scales and shape of the
winter buds; and by the scales of the cones being smooth, with the
exposed margin nearly entire.

Picea polita was introduced by the late John Gould Veitch in 1861.
The specific name polita (polished or adorned) was probably selected
in reference to the lustrous smoothness of the leaves and leaf-buds.

Picea pungens.

A slender tree 80 — 100 feet high, but occasionally considerably more,
with a trunk rarely exceeding 3 feet in diameter, and covered with
brownish grey bark fissured into small oblong plates. In early life
up to about forty years Picea pungens is furnished Avith whorls of
branches at regular but rather distant intervals, gradually shorter
upwards, forming a symmetrical tree with a broadly conical outline ;
in old age it is described as being generally destitute of lower
branches, and with a thin, pyramidal crown. Branchlets stoutish, rigid,
with pale yellow-brown bark ; buds broadly conic, obtuse, with light
chestnut-brown perulse reflexed at the apex. Leaves persistent five-
seven years, standing out from all sides of the branchlets and
pointing forwards at an angle of about 45° to the axis, four-sided,
straight, rigid and spine-tipped, 0'75 — 1'25 inch long, bright green,
mostly with a distinct glaucescence which varies much in different
individuals from bluish grey to silvery white. Staminate flowers
ovoid-cyliiidric, more than 0'5 inch long, with anthers tinged with red.
Cones sub-cylindric, slightly tapering towards the apex, sub-sessile or
shortly stalked, 2 '5 — 4 inches long; scales rhomboidal, sub-acute or rounded
at the apex, conspicuously striated on the exposed side and undulated
at the margin, light orange-brown. Seed-wings oblong-truncate, half as
long as the scale.

Picea pungens, Engelmann in Gard. Chron. XL (1879), p. 334. Masters in Gard.
Cbron. X. ser. 3 (1891), p. 547, witn fig. ; and Joum. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 233.
Sargent, Forest Trees N. Anier. 10th Census U.S.A. IX. 205. Mayr, Wald.
Xordamer. 352. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 346.

P. Parryana, Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 47, t. 600 (1898).

P. cominutata of Dutch and Belgian Nurseries (not Parlatore).

Eng. and Amer. Blue Spruce, Colorado Spruce.

With the exception of Picea Breweriana, P. pungens is the most
restricted in habitat and numbers of all the American Spruce Firs.
It occurs on the Rocky Mountains towards the southern part of the
range at elevations between 6,000 and 9,000 feet. " Nowhere very

* The best specimens of Picea polita are seen in che southern and south-western counties,
especially in Devon and Cornwall.

PICEA PUNGEXS.

449

abundant, it is generally scattered along the mountain streams of
Colorado and eastern Utah and northwards to those of the Wind Kiver
mountains of Wyoming." *

Fig. 111. Picea pungens glauc<<.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

This handsome Spruce Fir was discovered on Pike's Peak in Colorado
by Dr. Parry in 1862, at the same time as P. Enc/elmanni, and was
probably introduced with that species with which it is still confused in
many gardens. It is unquestionably the most beautiful of all Spruce
Firs for garden decoration, a distinction it owes to the remarkable
glaueescence of its foliage which, however, varies much in intensity in
different seedlings, but when most heightened is of a silvery greyish

Silva of North America, XII. 48.

GG

450 PICE A RUBRA.

blue. Between this and the green form which is quite rare, is to be
found every possible gradation in colour, so that varietal names founded
on it have but little value or significance. P. pungens is quite hardy
and grows somewhat slowly at first in all ordinary soils and situations.
Among the most noticeable deviations from the common type in habit
is one with pendulous branches which originated in the nursery of
Messrs. Koster at Boskoop, in Holland ; and one figured in the
" Gartenflora " for 1891, at page 70, under the name of Koniy Albert
von Sachsen ; a vigorous-growing, long-leaved variety that originated in
the nursery of Herr Weisse at Kamenz, in Germany.

Picea rubra.

A larger tree than Picea niyra with which it was for a long time
confused, usually 70 — 80 feet high, but sometimes exceeding 100 feet
high with a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter covered with bark much
resembling that of P. nit/ra. Branchlets stoutish with pale brown
bark marked with longitudinal ridges. Buds small, broadly conic with
reddish brown perulse. Leaves spirally crowded around the branchlets,
standing out on all sides, pointing forwards and more or less falcately
curved, obscurely four-angled with a short callous tip, 0*5 — 0*75 inch
long, at first bluish green changing to dark green. Staminate flowers
sub-cylindric, about O5 inch long, with red anthers. Cones ovoid-cylindric,
obtuse, about 2 inches long and 0'75 inch in diameter, shortly stalked,
chestnut-brown when mature ; scales broadly obovate-cuneate with entire
margin, obscurely striated on the exposed side.*

Picea rubra, Link in Linnrea, XV. 521 (1841). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 322.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 338, with fig.

P. nigra var. rubra, Engelmann in Gard. Chron. XI. (1879), p. 334. Macoun, Cat.
Canad. Plants, 362.

P. rubens, Sargent. Silva N. Araer. XII. 33, t. 597 (1898).

Abies rubra, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2316, with fig. Forbes, Pinet.
Woburn, 101, t. 35. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 17.

Pinus rubra, Lambert, Genus Pinus, I. t. 28 (1803) Hooker, W. Fl. Bor. Amer.
II. 164. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 113. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 413. f

Eng. and Amer. Red Spruce. Fr. Sapinette rouge. Germ. Rochfichte.

The area over which the Eed Spruce is distributed may be stated
in general terms to comprise the border counties of the Canadian
Dominion south of the valley of the St. Lawrence and north-eastern
States of the American Union, whence it spreads southwards along the
Alleghany mountains to the high peaks of North Carolina. It is
the most valuable timber tree of the region over which it is spread ;
its wood is used for all descriptions of carpentry, and also for
conversion into paper pulp.

I have followed the highest authority on American trees in retaining
Picea rubra distinct from P. nigra; it presents, however, one of those
doubtful cases in which the views of botanists must unavoidably differ

* Fertile branchlets communicated from the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

t The extremely perplexing synonomy of Picea rubra and the numerous and often contra-
dictory literary references to it are skilfully dealt with by the author of the Silva of North
America, Vol. XII. loc. cit. supra.

PICEA SCHRENKIANA. 451

owing to the want of more definite characters to establish satisfactorily
its specific rank. The characters chiefly relied on to distinguish
specifically P. rulra from P. nitjm are :— the larger size and different
shape of the staminate flowers of the first named ; the leaves of the
Red Spruce are the longer of the two, and dark lustrous green, whilst
those of the Black Spruce have a bluish tinge and are frequently
very glaucous : the Red Spruce is the larger tree, growing only on
well-drained hill-sides, whilst the Black Spruce inhabits wet sphagnum-
covered bogs. Very little is known of the Red Spruce in Great
Britain ; the few specimens that are pointed out as such, are
half-denuded, unsightly-looking objects that afford no certain data for
identification.*

Picea Schrenkiana.

A tall tree with pendulous branches and branchlets much resembling
Picea Smithiana in habit and aspect. In Great Britain the branchlets
of the young trees are somewhat rigid, more like those of P. polita
with the bark, buds and foliage of P. SmitTiiana. Leaves acicular-
linear, obscurely four-angled, with a short callous tip, somewhat rigid,
straight or falcately curved, O75 — 1 inch long, pointing forwards
on all sides at an angle of about 45° to the axis, and darker in
colour than those of P. Smithiana and P. polita. Cones cylindric,
obtuse, 3'5 — 4 inches long and 1 — -1-25 inch in diameter, dark
lustrous brown ; scales obovate-cnneate with entire margin, convex on
the dorsal side.f

Picea Schrenkiana, Fischer and Meyer in Bull, de 1'Acad. St. Petersb. X. 253 (1842).
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 371.

P. obovata var. Schrenkiana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 338. Masters in
Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII.

Abies Schrenkiana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 18.

Pinus Schrenkiana, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 120.

P. obovata var. Schrenkiana, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 415.

The Spruce Fir originally named Picea Schrenkiana by Fischer and
Meyer was discovered by Schrenk in the Siberian Kirghiz about
the year 1841. The Fir described above, which is also that
described by Beissner as P. Schrenkiana, was detected by Dr. Albert
Icegel nearly forty years afterwards on the Thian-Schan and Ala-tan
mountains in southern Turkestan. Cones and seeds of the Turkestan
tree were sent to the Imperial Botanic Garden at St. Petersburg,
whence seeds and plants were subsequently distributed among several
European gardens, and the young trees both in Great Britain and
Germany possess the characteristics described above.

Schrenk's original discovery is stated by Fischer and Meyer to be
closely allied to the Siberian Picea obovata and was referred to it as a

* There are two large trees at Dropniore labelled Picea rubra so like P. excelsa that, in
the absence of cones, their identification is involved in some doubt.

t Fresh specimens of branchlets with buds and foliage were communicated from the
Veitchian nursery at Coombe Wood, and by Mr. Spiith from his nursery at Baumschuleweg,
near Berlin. Cones gathered by Dr. Albert Regel in Turkestan were presented to Messrs.
Veitch by the late Dr. Ed. Regel.

452 PICE A SITCHEXSIS.

variety by Carriere and Parlatore. But the nearest affinity- of the-
Turkestan tree as indicated by the young specimens in cultivation is
so obviously the Himalayan J'. SrnitJiiana that it is extremely doubtful
whether it is the same species as the original P. Schrenldana of Fischer-
and Meyer.* Should proof be hereafter forthcoming that this surmise
is correct, it is clear that the Turkestan tree must have another name,,
and no more appropriate one could be found than P. Rec/eliana which
would commemorate both the discoverer and his father, the excellent
botanist who so long and successfully directed the Imperial Botanic
Garden at St. Petersburg. It will be noted that the geographical
position of the two forms favours what is here stated respecting their
affinities ; the Siberian Kirghiz is included in or is at least contiguous
to the habitat of P. obovata, and is separated by a desert region from
the mountains of Turkestan which are connected by the Hindu-Koosh
and its offsets with the Himalaya of Afghanistan on which P. Smitliiana
is very abundant. Like all coniferous trees inhabiting a rigorous climate-
P. Sclirenldana does not grow satisfactorily under the stimulus of the
higher winter temperature of Great Britain, but further trial is needed
before its suitableness or otherwise for the gardens and Pineta of this,
country can be determined.

Picea sitchensis.

A tree of very variable height and dimensions, usually about 100 feet
high, but trees 200 — 250 feet high with a conspicuously tapering
trunk 12 — 15 feet in diameter near the base are not uncommon along
the coast of Washington and Oregon ; at the extreme northern limit
of its distribution it is reduced to a low shrub. In Great Britain
when standing alone and growing in favourable situations, it has a
broadly pyramidal outline, the bark of the oldest trees usually much
and irregularly fissured. Branches spreading horizontally or slightly
depressed, the lowermost often long in proportion to height of trunk.
Bark of branchlets pale yellowish brown ; buds ovoid-conic, sub-acute,
0'25 inch long with reddish brown, ovate, obtuse perulae. Leaver
persistent three — seven years according to the soil in which the tree is
growing ; linear, flattened, rigid and spine-tipped, 0'5 — 0*75 inch long,
but occasionally larger on vigorous shoots, spirally crowded around the
branchlets, the longer ones on the under side sub-distichous in two — three
ranks ; the shorter ones on the upper side pointing -forwards at a small
angle to the axis, with a silvery white stomatiferous band on each side
of the thickened midrib on the ventral side, light lustrous green on the
dorsal side. Staminate flowers numerous, on lateral branchlets of the
preceding year, cylindric, reddish crimson, shortly stalked, surrounded at

* With the object of obtaining, if possible, more definite information on this point, I
addressed a communication pointing out the difficulty to Dr. Fischer de Waldheim, the
Director of the Imperial Botanic Garden at St. Petersburg, who courteously replied that there
were several specimens of Picea Schrenkiana gathered in Turkestan preserved in the herbarium
of the Garden of which two or three scarcely differ from P. Smith-iana, whilst other types are
easily distinguished from it by their shorter and thicker acicular leaves ; the greater number
are, however, intermediate forms. The Director adds: " Peut-etrc toutes les variations ne
ferment qu'une seule espece. II est bien difficile de le dire pour sur a cause de trop pen
d'exemplaires disponibles, d'autant plus que ces changenients dependent du lieu de
croissance selon 1'altitude, etc."

PICEA SITCHENSIS. 453

the base by numerous involucral bracts. Cones cylindric, obtns.-,
2-5— 3-5 inches long and 1-25 inch in diameter, often curved before
falling ; scales ovate-elliptic, 0-75 inch long, irregularly denticulate
beyond the middle ; bract awl-shaped, about one-half as long as the
•scale.

Picea sitchensis, Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. I. 260 (1855). Engelmaim in Brewer
and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 122. Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 470. Mayr,
Wald. Nordamer. 338. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 390, with figs. Masters in Joum.
R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 224. Sargent, Silva N. Anier. XII. 55, t. 602.

P. Menziesii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 318 (1867). Masters in Gard.
Chron. XXV. (1886), p. 728, with figs.

Abies Menziesii. Lindley in Penny Cycl. I. 32 (1833). London, Arb. et Frut.
Brit. IV. 2321, with fig. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 93, t. 32. Gordon Pinet
ed. II. 12.

Pinus sitchensis, Bongard, Veg. de Sitcha, 46 (1832). Endlicher, Synops. Conif.
123 (1847).

P. Menziesii, Douglas ex Lambert, Genus Finns, ed. II. Vol. III. 161 (1837)
Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 418.

Eng. Menzies' Spruce. Amer. Tideland Spruce. Germ. Sitka-Fichte.

Picea sitchensis is confined to a narrow belt extending many
hundreds of miles along the Pacific coast of north-west America
from Alaska near the 60th parallel of north latitude southwards to
Cape Mendocino in California, rarely spreading inland more than
fifty miles, in places forming a continuous forest of considerable
extent, elsewhere associated with Abietia Douglasii, Tsuga Albertiana
•and Thuia gigantea. It attains its greatest development in the littoral
districts of Washington and Oregon where it becomes the largest of
all Spruce Firs and the most important timber tree of the region.*
Further north under the altered conditions of climate, its dimensions
-are considerably diminished until it is reduced to a low shrub at
its extreme northern limit. The wood is light, soft, straight-grained,
compact but not strong, and of a light brown colour tinged with red.
In the coast region of Oregon and Washington it is used for well-nigh
every purpose for which timber is in request, not only for house
building and out-of-door carpentry generally, but also for boat
building, cooperage and household utensils ; and further north, where
the trees are much smaller, it is not less serviceable to the inhabitants,
both settlers and Indians.

In Great Britain the growth and aspect of Picea sitchensis are much
influenced by the soil and situation in which it is planted. It does not
thrive in. light dry soils whether near or away from the sea coast ; in
such places in very dry seasons it loses all its foliage older than that of
the current year and has a denuded appearance ; in a retentive loam and
even in constantly wet ground it grows rapidly into a handsome well-

* No tree in the American forest grows with greater vigour or shows stronger evidences
•of vitality, and there are few more impressive and beautiful objects in the forests of
temperate North America than one of these mighty Spruce trees with its spire-like head
raised high above its broad base of widely sweeping and gracefully upturned branches

r branc" "

resting on the surface of the ground ; . its slender branchlets loaded witli cones nodding to
the slightest breeze, and its leaves now silvery white, now dark and lustrous, shimmering
in the sunlight. — Silva of North America, Vol. XII. p. 57.

454 I'K'KA SM1THIAXA.

furnished tree with the colour of its foliage much heightened ; * the
leader shoot increases in height from 18 — 27 inches annually, and the
trees for the most part cone freely after the first twenty-five years, results
suggestive of the suitableness of this tree for afforesting waste lands in
Scotland and Ireland that could not be more profitably used for other
crops.

Picea sitchensis first became known to science through Archibald
Menzies who discovered it on the shores of Puget Sound in 1793. It
was introduced into Great Britain in 1831 by the Horticultural Society
of London through David Douglas who named it in compliment to the
discoverer, and it was published by Lindley under the name of Ahw*
Menziesii in 1833 ; it had, however, been found by Mertens on the
island of Sitka a few years previously and described by Bongard as
Pinus sitchensis in his "Vegetation de Sitcha," published in 1832 ; Bongard's
name therefore has priority and is now generally accepted ; the tree is
best known in British plantations as Abies Menziesii.

ARCHIBALD MEN'ZIES (1754—1842) was born at Weims, in Perthshire. He was early
placed in the Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, and, through the assistance of Dr. John
Hope, Professor of Botany, he was enabled to prosecute his studies so as to take the
diploma of surgeon. In 1778, he made a tour through the Northern Islands for the
purpose of collecting plants for the Botanic Garden. He then went to Carnarvon to
assist a medical man, and he finally became assistant-surgeon in the Navy. He
visited Halifax Staten Island, the Sandwich Islands, China and north-western
America. In 1790, he accompanied Vancouver on his celebrated voyage; he visited
King George's Island, the south coast of New Holland, and part of New Zealand,
Otaheite, Chile and the north-west of America. He returned to England in 1795.
Among the results of this voyage was the introduction of Araucaria imbricnta front
southern Chile and the first certain intelligence of the existence of the gigantic
coniferous vegetation of north-west America, including the discovery of Sequoia
semper virens, Abi'tia Douglasii, Picei sitchensis and Tliuia gigantea. He made large
collections of plants, as well as of other objects of Natural History during these
voyages. Many of them were new, and have been described by Sir J. E. Smith,
Robert Brown, Sir W. Hooker and others. He afterwards served in the West Indies.
About the beginning of the century he quitted the Navy and passed the remainder
of his days in the vicinity of London. His collection of plants was left to the
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh ; it consists chiefly of cryptogamous plants, Grasses and
Cyperaceje.

Picea Smithiana.

A tree 120 — 150 feet high with a conical outline and with a trunk
5 — 7 feet in diameter near the base, covered with brownish grey bark
tesselated with shallow cracks. In Great Britain an elegant tree
of elongated conical outline usually furnished with branches from the
base. Branches spreading and ramified laterally, the lowermost more
or less deflexed and often sweeping the ground. Branchlets opposite en-
alternate, quite pendulous, often much elongated, with yellowish white
bark spirally grooved. Buds ovoid-cylindric, the larger terminal ones.
0'25 inch long, with ovate reddish brown perulae. Leaves persistent
folir — five years, linear - acicular, obscurely four-angled, compressed
laterally, pungent, 0'75 — 2'5 inches long, pointing forwards and falcately

* Fine specimens of Picea sitchensis from 70 — 100 feet high are frequent : — In England
at Monk Coniston, Lancashire ; Patterdale Hall, Cumberland ; Bowood Park and Fonthill
Abbey, Wiltshire ; Bicton, Devonshire ; Carclew, Cornwall. In Scotland at Castle Menzies,
Murthly Castle, Ochtertyre, Keillour, and Scone Palace in Perthshire. In Ireland at
Curraghmore, Co. Waterford ; Fota Island, Cork ; Coollattin, Co. Wicklow ; Castlewellan,
Co. Down ; Shane's Castle, Antrim ; and other places.

PICEA SMITHIAXA. 455

curved. Staminate flowers the largest in the genus, broadly cylindric,
obtuse, 1 — 1*25 inch long and 0'5 inch in diameter, light sulphur-
yellow ; connective of anther roundish, obscurely crenulate ; the involucral
bracts lanceolate-oblong in two — three series.* Cones terminal, cylindric-
conic, obtuse, 4 — 6 inches long and 1*5 — 2 inches in diameter ; scales
broadly obovate from a cuneate base, the outer margin rounded and
entire.

Picea Smithiana,f Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 699 (1884).

P. Morinda, Link in Linnfea, XV. 522 (1841). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 340.
Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885), p. 393, with fig. ; and. Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 46. Hooker til, Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 653. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 373.

Abies Smithiana, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2317, with figs. (1838).
Forbes, Pinet. Wobuwi, 103, t. 36. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 19. Brandis, Forest
Fl. N.W. India, 525. Aitchison in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 98.

A. Khutrow, London, Encycl. of Trees, 1032, with figs. (1842).

A. Morinda, Nelson, Pinacea, 49 ; and Hort.

Pinus Smithiana, Wallich, Plant, asiat, rar. III. 24, t. 246 (1832). Lambert,
Genus Pinus, III. t. 88. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 416.

P. Khutrow, Royle, Illns. Him. Plants. 353, t. 84 Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 122.

Eng. Himalayan Spruce, Indian Spruce. Germ. Indische-Fichte. Ital. Abete.
dell' Himalaya. Ind. vernacular, Khutrow, Morinda, and others.

Picea Smithiana occurs throughout the temperate Himalaya from
Bhotan to Afghanistan, with a vertical range of from 6,000 to
11,000 feet elevation and occasionally higher. It inhabits chiefly
the western and northern slopes, in some places forming pure forests
of greater or less extent, in others intermixed with Ccdrus Deodara,
Abies Webbiana, Pinus cxcelsa and other trees. As seen throughout
this region, except where it grows in compact masses, the tree is
furnished with branches to the ground, the primaries horizontal and
spreading out further than those of Abies Webbiana ; their extremities
are very bushy with numerous leafy, tassel-like branchlets hanging
vertically, which give the tree a peculiarly graceful appearance ; the
crown is tall and conical and the foliage dense. J The wood is
white, soft and straight-grained, but not durable, the outer wood
turning red and decaying rapidly on exposure. It is used chiefly
for indoor carpentry and for fuel ; in the higher mountain valleys
the herdsmen use the bark for roofing the sheds built for protecting
their cattle in severe weather.

This beautiful tree was introduced into Great Britain in 1818 by
Dr. Gowaii of Cupar, who had received cones from his son under the

* See page 423.

f The intention of Dr. Wallich, who first described and figured this tree, to dedicate it
to the first President of the Linnean Society is stated so precisely that his name is un-
hesitatingly adopted here. Unfortunately Wallich's figure is but very indifferently executed,
and it is also inverted, so that when Professor Link selected the vernacular name Morinda for
the tree in the Berlin Botanic Garden, he did so in the belief that it was not the same species
as that represented by Wallich's figure. "In Pineto Woburnerise arbor hrece ad Pinum
Smithianum (Wall) relata est ; at folia in icone Wallichiana multo latiora, majus incurva,
minus pungentia. Convenit vero P. Morinda nostra optinie cum Roylei icone et ea qu» in
Pineto Woburnense exhibetnr, qnemobrem separavi." — Linnrea, XV. 522. As no second
species of Picea occurs in the Himalayan region, Wallich's name has priority of publication.

J Brandis, Forest Flora of North-west India, p. 526.

456

PICEA SMITHIAXA.

Fig. 112. Cone of Picea Smithiana.

name Khutrow (weeping Fir), and
which lie presented to the Earl of
Hopetoun. * From the seeds six
plants were raised, one of which now
nearly 80 feet high and reported
healthy and vigorous, is still standing
in the grounds of Hopetoun House
in West Lothian, f When planted
in a moist soil and sheltered situa-
tion the Himalayan Spruce grows
rapidly ; in dry soils its growth is
slower and the foliage becomes thin.
Owing probably to peculiarities in
the climate of the Himalayan region
and the high elevation at which
this Fir grows — conditions that
cannot be secured for it in Great
Britain — failures are frequent ; the
plants cannot receive here so long
an annual period of rest as they
do on their native mountains, where
the winter snows cover them for
four or five months of the year ;
they start into growth in the first
mild days of early spring, and the
tender shoots are often cut off by
frosts later in the season, the effect
of which is to weaken permanently,
if it does not kill, the plants. A
north-west aspect, or one shaded or
protected by high trees is recom-
mended for it, provided the soil is
loamy and not too dry. The lower
branches of some of the largest
specimens of Picea Smithiana in
this country have attained lengths
of from 12 to 16 feet, so that, in
order to secure a good specimen
of this noble Fir, a space having
a radius greater than these dimen-
sions must be allowed for it.

The species was named by Dr.
Wallich in compliment to Sir James
Kdwarrl Smith, First President of
the Linnean Society.

* It is highly probable that the original discoverer of the species was Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton
who travelled in Nepal in 1802—1803.

t Of the many other specimens of this highly picturesque tree that adorn the parks and
gardens of this country, mention may be made of the exceptionally fine one at Poltimore, near
Exeter and of others at Bicton, Bowood Park, Tortworth Court, Penrhyn Castle ; Golden

Grove, Carmarthen ; Hallstead, Cumberland ; Orton Hall, Hewell Grange, and Linton Park.
In Scotland at Gordon Castle, Methven Castle, Ochtertyre, Castle Kennedy, Keir House,
Dunblane. In Ireland at Powerscourt, Charleville and Coollatin, Co. Wicklow ; Corn-town,
Co. Wexford; Fota Island, Cork ; Woodstock, Kilkenny; Shane's Castle, Antrim.

TSUGA. 457

JAMES EDWARD SMITH (1759—1828) was born at Norwich. He was induced by
his love of science to study medicine, for which purpose he proceeded to Edinburgh
University where he obtained in 1782 Dr. Hope's Gold Medal for the best botanical
collection. He shortly afterwards came to London, and in 1784 he purchased the
whole of the books, manuscripts and natural history collections of Linn<ieus which
cost £1,088, and which after his death became the property of the Linnean Society.
Two years later he made a tour through Holland. France, Italy and Switzerland,
of which he published an account. In 1788, with the assistance of Sir Joseph
Banks, Dr. Goodenough, Bishop of Norwich, and a few others, the Linnean Society
was founded and Smith was elected first President. In 1796 he removed to his
native city of Norwich, but paid a yearly visit of two months to London when he
gave a course of lectures on Botany at the Royal Institution in Albemarle Street.
In 1814 he was knighted by the Prince Regent when he presented a copy of the
Transactions of the Linnean Society. His published works are numerous, but that
by which he will be best remembered is his "English Botany," in thirty-six volumes
containing 2,592 coloured plates by Sowerby.

TSUGA.

Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 185 (1855). Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 440 (1881).
Eichler in Engler and Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. 80 (1887). Masters in Joum. Linn. Soc.
XXX. 28 (1893).

The group of trees known as Hemlock Firs* are readily distinguish-
able from all the other Abietinese by their habit and foliage, especially
by their slender, often drooping, terminal shoots clothed with leaves
having an anatomical structure different from that of all the other
Firs, and on which much stress is placed as a mark of the generic
distinctness of the group ; this .characteristic, combined with others
observable in the flowers and fruit to be presently noticed, has
secured the admission of Carriere's genus Tsuga by most recent

authors.

In their vegetation, the Hemlock Firs are normally tall evergreen
trees with straight erect trunks from which the primary brandies are
produced in pseudo-whorls, which are mostly much ramified. The
slender branchlets are marked with prominent pulvini at the base of
the leaves, and with cortical outgrowths descending from them. (See
Fig. 14 B., page 29.) Under climatic influence, those species inhabiting
high latitudes or ascending to high mountain altitudes are reduced to
low dense bushes or shrubs at their northern and highest vertical limits.
The leaves are flattened or slightly angular, one-nerved and distinctly
petiolate, spirally arranged around the shoot, but made pseudo-distichous

by a twist of the
short footstalk. The
most obvious anatomical
character which dis-
tinguishes the leaves of
the Tsugas from those of
;1U Other Firs is the position

Fig. 113. Transverse section of leaf of Tsuga Brunoniana, X 30. of the resill canal ; this is
r, resin duct ; /, fibrovascular bundle. gh()wn in the accompany-
ing figure of a transverse section of the leaf of Tswja Brunoniana, the
minute structure of which does not differ essentially from that of

* I have failed to ascertain the origin of this common name ; it has been applied to the
type species, Tsuga canadensis, from time immemorial, and thence extended to the others.
The Germans have a similar appellative in Schierlingstanne.

458

TSUGA.

tlio other species of Tsuga ; the resin canal is indicated by the
letter /•, aiid the fibre-vascular bundle of the midrib by /.
The essential characters of the flowers and fruits may be thus
formulated : —

Flowers monoecious. Staminate flowers in the axils of the uppermost
leaves of shoots of the preceding year, small, globose or globose-cylindric,
stipitate, and surrounded at the base by numerous small involucral
bracts. Anthers with a short spur at the base and dehiscing
transversely ; pollen cells globose

Ovuliferous flowers very small, mostly terminal on lateral branchlets
of the preceding year ; bracts shorter than the scales. Cones solitary,
pendulous, with persistent scales and inconspicuous enclosed bracts, and
ripening the first year.

Fig 114. Tsuyu Brwnoniana. 1, Staminate. 2, Ovuliferous flower, nat. size. 3, side — 4, front view of

anthers before clehiscence ; 5 and G, after dehiscence x 10 ; 7, pollen grains x 120 ;

8 back — 9, front view of scale and bract.

The Tsugas thence appear to be made up of characters derived from
Abies, Larix and Picea. The leaves are those of an Abies on superficial
view, but differ in the presence of only one central resin canal instead of
two lateral ones always found in the leaves of Abies ; the cones are
those of a Larch with the bract always shorter than the scale ; the wood
conforms structurally to that of a Picea.

Whilst the above characters are common throughout the genus,
there is one species — Tsuga Mertensiana — which differs from the rest
in some morphological details observable in the leaves and cones which
are of Sufficient value to separate that species sectionally from the
others ; the Tsugas therefore admit of a division into two sections
thus distinguished : —

EUTSUGA. Leaves flat, obtuse, remotely serrulate at the margins and
with stomata on the under side only. Cones small, globose (as broad as
long).

TSUGA ALBEKTIAXA. 459

HESPEROPEUKE.* Leaves convex, acute, often keeled on the upper side
and with stomata on both sides. Cones ovoid-cylindric (much longer
than broad).

All the species are described in the following pages ; of these
three are Asiatic, each of which has but a limited geographical
range ; two are east North American, one the type species widely
distributed, and the other a comparatively recent discovery restricted
to a locality of small extent on the southern Alleghany mountains ;
the remaining two are west North American, one a tree of the coast
and plains, and the other chiefly of the mountains at high altitudes
The Hemlock Firs are cultivated in Great Britain almost solely for
ornamental purposes ; they are trees of graceful habit and aspect, and
whether standing alone or in contrast with other trees are effective
subjects for the lawn, park and landscape. As timber trees
they are not much in repute even in their native countries ; the
wood is for the most part loose in grain, soft in texture and
soon decays on exposure to the weather. Much of the vigour
of the trees is expended in the formation of branches rather than
in the development of the trunk which is frequently knotty and
of small scantling.

Tsuga is the Japanese vernacular name of the two native
species.

Tsuga Albertiana.

A stately tree 100 — 200 feet high with a trunk 2 — 6 feet in diameter,
but much smaller at its northern limit. Bark of trunk thick, reddish
brown, coarse in texture and irregularly fissured. Primary branches
spreading or slightly ascending and ramified laterally ; secondary branches
slender and much ramified, the ramification chiefly lateral with many
short slender growths on the upper side ; the youngest shoots both
terminal and lateral pubescent, slender, flexible and pendulous ; bark
pale yellow-brown marked with leaf pulvini and short cortical outgrowths
decurrent from them. Buds small, clavate, pubescent, reddish brown.
Leaves persistent four — five years, linear, flattish, obtuse or sub-acute,
0'5 — 0'75 inch long, shortly and abruptly petiolate, pseudo-distichous,
dark green with a small median groove above and with two
stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers mostly clustered near
the apex of short lateral shoots of the preceding year, cylindric,
0'25 inch long, reddish crimson changing to dull violet, the basal
iiivolucral bracts in two series. Ovuliferous flowers terminal, solitary,
composed of fewer scales than the staminate flowers, and of the same
rich colour before fertilisation and with the basal iiivolucral bracts
more numerous. Cones ovoid-cylindric, about an inch long, composed of
twenty-five — thirty scales arranged spirally in five series, pale brown
striated on the outer dorsal side.

* Separated from Tsuga as a distinct genus under this name by Lenimou and other
Calitbrman botanists.

460 TSUGA ALBEKTIAXA.

Tsuga Albertiana, supra.

T. Mertensiana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 250 (excl. Pinus Mertensiana,
Bongard). Engelmann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 126. Macoun,
Cat. Canad Plants, 417. Beissner, Xadelholzk. 403, with fig. Masters in Gard.
Chron. XXIII. (1885), p. 175, with tig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 255.

T. heterophylla, Sargent, Silva N. Anier. XII. 73, t. 605 (1898).

Abies Albertiana, Murray in Proceed. R. Hort. Soc. III. 149, with fig. (1863).
Lawson, Pinet. Brit II. Ill, t. 16, and figs Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. L 113.
Hntchinson in Trans. High. Agr. Soc. 1879.

A. Mertensiana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 29 (excl. Pinus Mertensiana, Bongard).

A. Bridgesii, Kellogg in Proceed. Califor. Acad. Sc. II. 8 (1863)

Pinns canadensis, Bongard, Yeg. de Sitka in Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Petersb. II.
163 (1832), not Linnreus. Hooker, W. Fl. Bor. Amer. II. 164 (in part).

P. Mertensiana, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 428 (not Bongard).

Eng. Prince Albert's Fir. Amer. Western Hemlock Fir. Fr Tsuga de Californie.
Germ.. Westamerikanische Schierlingstanne. Ital. Abete del Principe Alberto.

Tsuga Albertiana is the largest of the Hemlock Firs, simulating in its
stately proportions the other gigantic Abietinese of north-west America,
with some of which it is in places associated. Its northern limit, so
far as at present known, is the island of Sitka and the adjacent
littoral of Alaska, whence it spreads southwards through the islands
and coast region of British Columbia to north California. It also
has a considerable range inland ; from the Selkirk and Gold
mountains in British Columbia it extends southwards into Idaho
along the Bitter Root, and also along the Cascade mountains to
southern Oregon. It was discovered in 1826 by David Douglas
during his first mission to north-west America, who mistook it for
T. canadensis \ Bongard fell into the same error in his " Observations sur
la Vegetation de 1'ile de Sitka," when dealing with Mertens' herbarium
specimens gathered in Sitka shortly afterwards. There is, however,
evidence that the tree had been previously seen by Menzies in 1792,
during Vancouver's cruise along the north-west coast of America,
and he too might have mistaken it for the Canadian Hemlock,
from which there is little to distinguish it besides its larger size, its
larger cones with more elongated scales, its larger seed wings, and its
finer and straighter-grained wood.

Tsuga Albertiana was introduced into Great Britain in 1851 by the
Scottish Oregon Association through their collector, John Jeffrey, and
named in compliment to the late Prince Consort who was a patron of
the Association. As seen in this country it is a very graceful tree and
one of the most effective Conifers for the park and landscape on account
of its broad sweeping habit, and presenting generally the appearance of
" a pile of thick foliage out of which spring a multitude of long whip-like
shoots which hang down like the slender sprays of a Weeping Willow."
The older trees are now assuming a distinctly pyramidal outline broken
by the long, lithe, terminal shoots, their lowermost brandies making a
sweep of over 30 feet, so that a space with a radius greater than
this must be allowed to secure a good specimen.'5'" ^Xo coniferous tree

* Fine specimens of Tsuga Albertiana 70 to 80 feet high are growing at Westonbirt,
Gloucestershire ; Eastnor Castle, Herefordshire ; Fonthill Abbey, Wilts ; Linton. Park,
Maidstone ; Monk Coniston, Lancashire ; Castle Menzies and Methven Castle, Perthshire :
Riccarton, Midlothian. Trees 60 to 70 feet high are frequent from Perthshire southwards.

Tswja Albertiana.

(From the Gardeners Chronicle.)

462 TSUGA BRUXONIANA.

from north-west America has more readily adapted itself to the altered
conditions of soil and climate in Great Britain than T. Albert iana ;
it thrives in most situations and in many kinds of soils, but most
freely in a cool moist soil, 'or in loams with a porous subsoil ; it will
grow even on peat-bog but not on chalk. The annual rate of growth
of the leader shoot varies according to soil and situation from 15 to
25 inches.

The wood is light, hard, and cross-grained but not strong ; it is
much used for building and rough carpentry ; the bark furnishes the
most valuable tanning material in the region.*

Tsuga Brunoniana.

A lofty tree 70 — 120 feet high, the trunks of the largest 6—9 feet
in diameter near the basef and covered with thick, rough bark.
Branches spreading; branchlets slender, brittle and pendulous; bark-
pale brown with shallow longitudinal furrows. Leaves narrowly linear,
very shortly petiolate, sub-acute, 0'5 — 1'25 inch long, pseudo-distichous,
dark green with a shallow median groove above and with two silvery
white stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers solitary or in pairs
on short lateral growths of the preceding year, cylindric, 0*25 inch
long, light yellow, surrounded at the base by minute involucral bracts
in three series (see Fig. 114, supra). Ovuliferous flowers terminal, sub-
globose, 0-4 inch in diameter; scales reflexed at the apex, at first
light bluish violet changing to dark slaty blue with age ; bracts
oblong, membraneous and crumpled. Cones ovoid-cylindric, about an
inch long, composed of twenty — twenty-five orbicular-oblong, imbricated
scales ; striated on the dorsal, exposed side. Seeds very small with
an oblong whitish wing.

Tsuga Brunoniana, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 188 (1855); and ed. II. 247
(1867). Hooker til in Gard. Cliron. XXVI. (1886), p. 72, with tig.; and Fl. Brit.
Ind. V. 654. Masters in Gard. Cliron. XXVI. (1886), p. 500, with tig. ; and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 254. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 397.

Abies Brunoniana, Lindley in Penny Cyclop. I. 31 (1833). Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 21.

A. dimiosa, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2325, with tigs. (1838). Brandis,
Forest Fl. N.W. India, 527.

Pinus Brunoniana, Wallich, Plant, asiat. rar. III. 24, t. 247 (1832). Endlicher,
Synops. Conif. 84.

' P. dumosa, Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol II. t. 46 (1837). Parlatore,
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 429.

Eng. Indian Hemlock Fir, Himalayan Hemlock Spruce. Fr. Tsuga <le
1'Himalaya. Germ.' Brown's Hemlocktanne.

This beautiful tree was originally discovered early in the second
decade of the nineteenth century by Captain Webb in north-
east Kumaon ; for our knowledge of it as it is seen in its
native home we are chiefly indebted to Sir Joseph Hooker who
communicated the following particulars respecting it to the

* Silva of North America, XII. 75.

t In the list of trees of the Darjeelin» region Mr. Gamble gives 60 to 80 feet as the
average stature of Tsuga Brunoniana, and 10 to 15 feet as the average girth at four feet
from the ground.

TSUGA CANADENSIS. 463

" Gardeners' Chronicle " loc. cit. supra, together with the figure of
a tree sketched in Nepal : —

"I first met with this graceful tree on the hanks of the Tambur river
in eastern Xepal and have described it in my Journal as a beautiful
species forming a stately blunt pyramid with branches spreading like
the Cedar but not so stiff, and drooping gracefully on all sides ;
its surrounding scenery is as grand o,s any depicted by Salvator Rosa;
a river running in sheets of foam, sombre woods, crags of gneiss rock,
and tier upon 4ier of lofty mountains flanked and crested with groves
of black Fir, Abies Webbiana, terminating in snow-covered rocky peaks.
Here one individual was measured and found to be 20 feet in girth
at about five feet from the ground; on another occasion in the Lachen
valley of Sikkim, I measured a Hemlock Spruce that was 120 feet in
height and 28 feet in girth, nor were these very exceptional dimensions
though they greatly exceed what prevails in the Darjeeling district.
The Himalayan Hemlock Spruce does not extend westwards beyond
Kumaon where, according to Maddon, it attains a height of 70 to 80 feet
and yields inferior timber ; eastwards it extends into Bhotan where
Griffith met with it at 6,500 to 9,500 feet, which is a considerably
lower elevation than it affects in Sikkim where its inferior limit is
about 8,000 feet, and its superior 10,000 feet. The wood in Sikkim
is but little used, not being durable, but the bark is employed for
roofing huts."

Seeds of Tsuga Brunoniana have been frequently received in this
country ; the experience of the past forty years has, however, but
too surely shown the futility of attempting to acclimatise this fine
tree in Great Britain unless, indeed, a hardier race can be obtained
from seeds gathered near the superior limit of its vertical range or
from the few trees that have become established in this country.*
In exceptionally favoured localities such as are to be found in
Devon, Cornwall and the south of Ireland, Tsuga. Brunoniana lives
on for a number of years but rarely shows anything like the
stately form it assumes in the Himalayan valleys.

The species was dedicated by Dr. Wallich, for many years Director
of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, to his contemporary Dr. Robert
Browri, the most eminent British botanist of his time.

Tsuga canadensis.

A tall graceful tree with a pyramidal crown, at its greatest
development 75 — 90 feet high but usually much less ; in the dense
forests of Canada free of branches for three-fourths of its height, in
more open places furnished with branches nearly to the ground. Bark
of old trees ash-brown with broad longitudinal fissures exposing a pale
inner cortex, and narrow transverse fissures by which the outer cortex
is broken up into irregular plates. Branches slender, spreading, the
lowermost sometimes more or less deflexed by the weight of their
appendages : ramification lateral. Branchlets flexible and drooping at

* The largest known to the author are at Dropmore and Strete Ralegh.

464 TSUGA CANAPENSIS.

the extremity, yellow-brown, pubescent and marked with narrow, fluted,
cortical out-growths. Buds small, ovoid-globose, reddish brown. Leaves
persistent three — four years, shortly petiolate, linear, flat, obtuse or
sub-acute, O25 — 0'75 inch long, those on the under side of the
branchlets pseudo-distichous, those on the upper side erect or sub-erect,
dark green with a shallow median channel above, and two glaucous
stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers small, globose, shortly
stipitate. Cones terminal, mostly on short lateral shoots, ovoid, obtuse,
about 075 inch long ; scales shortly clawed, broadly oval, obtuse or
sub-obovate, with minutely denticulate margin, striated on the exposed
side and persistent after the fall of the seeds.

Fig. 115. Fertile branchlet of Tsuga canadensis.

T&uga canadensis, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 189 (1855) ; and ed. II. 241 (1867).
Macoim, Cat. Canad. Plants, 471. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 398, with tigs. Masters
in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 255. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 63, t. 603.

Abies canadensis, Michaux, Hist. Arb. Amer. I. 137, t. 13 (1810). L. C.
Richard, Mem sur les Conif. 77, t. 17 (1826) London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV.
2322, with figs. Hoopes, Evergreens, 184, with tig. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 22.

Picea canadensis, Link in Liimsea, XV. 523.

Pinus canadensis, Linnaeus. Sp. Plant, ed. II. 1421 (1763). Lambert, Genus Pinus,
I. t. 32 (1803) Endlicher, Synops, Conif. 86. Paiiatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 428.
And many others.

Eng. and Amer. Hemlock Spruce. Fr. Sapin du Canada Germ. Schierlingstaime.
Ital. Abete del Canada.

var. — alba spica (syn. argentea).

A variety of European origin in which the tip of all or nearly all
the young shoots is cream-white. Another coloured form is known as
aurea, but the variegation is said to be inconstant.

TSUC4A C.ANADENSIS. 465

.— gracilis f'syn. pendula).
Branches and branchlets slender and sparsely ramified, all more or
less drooping and clothed with leaves smaller than in the common
form. Apparently intermediate between the latter and the variety parvifolia.

var —parvifolia.

Smaller in all its parts than the common form ; the branchlets and
their ramifications more numerous and more closely set, and the leaves
are but a quarter of an inch long. microphylla is apparently the
same, or a slight variation of this.

var.— Sargentiana.

A bush about three feet high, with short pendent branches and

branchlets forming a dense flat-topped mass of foliage. The variety

nana of European gardens is the same, .or a slight modification of this.

Tsuya canadensis is one of the most important ingredients of the

forests around the great lakes lying between the British Dominion

and the United States. From Nova Scotia it spreads westwards to

Lake Superior, and southwards through the Atlantic States to

Delaware ; it also occurs on the Appalachian mountains which it

follows south wards as far as Alabama. In Canada it still forms

forests stretching for hundreds of miles ; in places unmixed with

any other tree, but oftener associated with the Black . Spruce (Picea

nigra) or the White Pine (Pinus Strobus), or both. It attains its

greatest development on northern slopes and on the banks of mountain

streams ; in such situations it is one of the most beautiful trees of

North America.

Large groves of Hemlock Firs growing on the hill slopes present a
noble appearance ; their tall columns free of branches for three-fourths
of their height never bend before the gale. There is a general absence
of undergrowth, thus affording long vistas through the shady groves; and
the softened light invests the interior of these forests with an air of
solemn mystery, whilst the even spread of the mossy carpet beneath
affords appreciable relief to the foot-sore hunter. The human voice
sounds as if confined within spacious and lofty halls.*

The wood of the Hemlock Spruce is light, soft, coarse-grained and
difficult to work. The timber is being much more used than
formerly as the supply of White Pine diminishes, chiefly for outdoor
carpentry, railway ties, telegraph poles, etc. The dry and easily
detached bark of the tree affords excellent fuel, emitting an intense
heat ; the fresh bark is rich in tannin, and is more used in tanning
leather in the northern States than any other on account of the
scarcity of oak -bark.

Tsuga canadensis was introduced into Great Britain by Peter
Collinson about the year 1736, and trees of all sizes and ages may
be met with from Caithness to Cornwall.

* Woods and Forests, p. 754.
HH

466 TSUGA CAROLIN1AXA.

In the earlier stages of growth and up to about forty years of age
it is a beautiful tree of pyramidal habit owing to the .uniform disposition
of its branches which are usually well furnished with drooping
branchlets. At an older stage the trunk often becomes forkecl or
much divided, and the growth of the branches irregular ; the top takes
a flat or rounded form much like that of an old Cedar of Lebanon.
It thrives in elevated airy situations where the soil is retentive, also
by the side of streams, or in proximity to lakes and ponds where the
roots have access to the water.

Several varieties of the Hemlock Spruce are described by continental
authors, most of which are probably unknown in British gardens. Of
the four here admitted Saryentiana is the most remarkable deviation
from the type ; it was originally found on the Fishkill mountains in
the State of New York, and was first cultivated by Mr. H. W. Sargent
whence it obtained in America the name of Sargent's Hemlock Fir.*

Tsuga caroliniana.

A low or medium-sized tree 50 — 60 feet high with a trunk rarely
exceeding 2 feet in diameter. Bark of branchlets pale reddish brown,
slightly rugose and striated; ramification distichous or pseudo-distichous

Fig. 116. Fertile branchlet of Tsuga carolinic.m'..

with numerous short erect branchlets on the upper, and here and there
a longer one 011 the under side of the axial growths ; the youngest
shoots light reddish brown marked with cortical outgrowths that
terminate at the base of the leaves in an enlarged reddish pulvinus.
Leaves persistent two — three years, shortly petiolate, linear, sub-acute or
obtuse, 0*25 — 0'75 inch long, dark lustrous green with a narrow median
groove above, . with a pale keel and stomatiferous band on each side
of it beneath. Cones lateral or terminal on short lateral branchlets,
ovoid or elliptic-ovoid, composed of twenty — twenty-five elliptic-oblong
scales arranged in five — six series, striated on the exposed side. Seed-
wing oblong, half as long as the scale.

* Garden and Forest, Vol. X. p. 491.

TSniA DIVERSIFOLIA. 467

Tsuga .•nn.lmianu, Engelmaim in Hot. Gazette, VI, 223 (1881). Sargent in
f'Jjird. Chron. XXVI. 1886 , p. 780, with tig.; Garden and Forest, 11/267, with tig.;
and Silva N. Amer XII. U9, t 604. Mayr, Wald. Xordamer. 196. H^issm-r,
Nadelholzk. 406, with tig. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. -J55.

Allies Carolinians, Chapman, Fl. ed. II. Suppl. 650 (1887).

The existence of a second species of Tsuga in the Atlantic States
of North America was not even suspected till Professor L. E. Gibbes
detected the subject of this notice on the southern Alleghanies in
1850 ; a discovery that came as a surprise both to botanists and to
horticulturists, as the region had presumably been thoroughly explored
previously. Tsuga caroliniana has since been found in considerable
numbers on the rocky banks of streams on the Blue llidge mountains
from south-west Virginia to north-east Georgia, at elevations varying
from 2,500 to 3,500 feet and in places even 1,000 feet higher,
.scattered among other trees, but rarely in groups of more than half
a dozen together. It was introduced into Britisli gardens in 1886
through the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, and has thus
far proved hardy in the neighbourhood of London.

Tsuija caroliniana is chiefly distinguished from the type species,
T. caMi'lewi*, with which it is sometimes found associated in its native
habitat, by its larger and darker leaves of a somewhat different
anatomical structure and by its larger cones with scales much longer
than broad and which stand out at nearly a right angle to the axis
when mature.

Tsuga diversifolia.

A large tree frequently .80 feet high with a trunk 3 — 4 feet in
•diameter covered with dark reddish brown' bark. Branches relatively
slender, spreading or slightly ascending and much ramified at the distal
end. Branchlets very slender, the youngest shoots pubescent. Buds
globose, dark chestnut brown. Leaves persistent two — three years,
shortly petiolate, the petiole parallel with the axis of the shoot that
produces it, the blade spreading at a right angle to it, linear, emarginate
•or obtuse, O25 — 0'5 inch long, lustrous green witli a shallow median
_roove above, paler with two greyish stomatiferous lines beneath. Cones
pendent, ovoid-cylindric, 0*75 inch long, shortly stalked, the stalk
•clothed with persistent bracts, composed of four — five series of
spirally arranged suborbicular scales, rugose on the exposed side.
.Seed-wing oblong, neaily as long as the scale.

Tsuga diversifolia, Maximowicz in Melange. Biol. Acad. Sc. Petersb. VI. 373
(1866). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 514 ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
XIV. 255. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap. Reiches, 61, Tafel IV. tig. 13. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 396. Sargent, Forest Fl. Jap. 81, t. 25 ; Garden and Forest VI.
495, with tig.; and X. 491, tig. 63.

Abies Tsuga, Hort. (not Siebold).

Eng. Japanese northern Hemlock. Germ. Maximowicz' Tsuga. Jap. Kometsuga.

Tsufja diversifolia was first recognised as a species distinct from
the Abies Tsuga of Siebold and Zuccarini by the Russian botanist
Maximowicz who described it under this name in the " Melanges

468 TSTJGA MERTENSIANA.

Biologiques " of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg in 1866.
Cones had, however, been brought from Japan by the late John
Gould Veitch in 1861 unfortunately mixed with cones of T. Sicloldii,
and both species were cultivated in the Veitchian nursery at Coombe
Wood for many years under the names of Abies Tsuga and A. Tsuga
nana ; J. G. Veitch, therefore, was not only the introducer of the
species but also, unknown to himself, the discoverer of it. Of the
two Hemlock Firs, natives of Japan, T. divcrsifolia is the northern
species and is abundant on the central mountains from Lake Umoto
northwards to Mount Hakkoda.

" The great forest which covers the Nikko mountains at an altitude
of more than 5,000 feet above the ocean is composed almost entirely
of the northern Hemlock, Tsuga dicersifolia. This Hemlock forest,
which is the only forest in Hondo that seems to have been left
practically undisturbed by man, is the most beautiful which we saw
in Japan. The trees grow to a great size, and though they grow close-
together, they are less crowded than the trees in an American Hemlock
forest under which 110 other plant can grow, and light enough reaches
the forest floor to permit the growth of ferns, mosses and many
flowering nndershmbs which clothe the rocky slopes up which thi&
forest stretches. A most beautiful spot is the walk cut through this
forest along the shores of Lake Umoto." *

Tsuga diversifolia is distinguished from T. Siebohlii by its darker-
red bark and more slender branchlets covered with reddish pubescence ;
by its shorter and narrower leaves of a darker green ; and especially
by its smaller cones, the scales of which are nearly as long as broad.

Tsuga Mertensiana.

An alpine tree of variable dimensions according to altitude and
environment, rarely exceeding 100 feet high with a trunk 5 — 7 feet
in diameter, with thick, cracked bark coming off in scales; at its
superior limit reduced to a low dense bush. In Great Britain an
elegant tree of slow growth ; trunk slender and tapering, bark reddish
brown fissured into square or oblong plates. Branches horizontal and
much ramified, the secondary branches lateral and rigid, from which
spring numerous branchlets, some lateral, but the greater number short
and erect ; bark of branchlets light brown obscurely fluted longitudinally
from the pulvini of the leaves downwards.! Buds numerous, terminal
and axillary, very small, ovoid-conic, light brown. Leaves persistent
several years, spirally crowded around the branchlets, spreading on all
sides on the erect shoots, pseudo-distichous on the horizontal ones ;
linear-obtuse with a distinct midrib, sometimes concave or subcymbiform
above ; keeled, with two glaucous stomatiferous bands beneath ; in
colour varying from dark lustrous green to greyish bine caused by
glancescence. Staimnate flowers cylindric-oblong, 0'4 inch long, on

* Sargent, Forest Flora of Japan, p. 81.

t At Murthly Castle, Perthshire, is a tree of Tsuga Mertensiana of more vigorous growth
than usual, in which the branches are elongated and depressed at an angle of about 45° to
the trunk.

TSUGA MERTENSIANA.

469

a slender stipes of about the same Isngth, surrounded at the base by
broadly ovate involucral bracts in three series; anthers club-shaped with
a purplish violet connective. Cones shortly stalked, cylindric-fusiform,
2 — 2-5 inches long, at first violet-purple changing to brown when mature;
scales obovate-cuneate, minutely rugose or striated longitudinally on the
exposed side; bract minute, closely appressed to the scale. Seeds
small with a relatively large oblong wing.

Tsuga Mertensiana, Sargent, Silva X. Amer. XII. 77, t. 606 (not Carriere).

T. Pattoniana, Engelniann in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 121 (1880).
Macoim, Cat. Cauad. Plants, 473. Masters in Gard. Chron. XII. ser. 3 (1892), p. 10,
witli tig ; and Jourii. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 255. Beissner, Nadelholzk, 407, with figs.

T. Hookeriana, Camere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 252 (1867).

Fig. 117. Branchlet and cone of Tsuga Mertensiana.

Abies Pattoniana, Balfour, Rep. Oregon Assoc. 1 (1853). Lawsou, Pinet. Brit. I
157, t. 22. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 30.

A. Hookeriana, Murray in Edinb. New Phil. Journ. 289 (1855). Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. II. 153, tt. 21, 22.

A. Williamsonii, Newberry, Pacif. Ry. Rep. VI. 53, t. 7 (1857).

Pinus Mertensiana, Bongard, Veg. de Sitcha, 54 (1832). Mem de 1'Acad. St.
Petersb. II. 163. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 111.

P. Pattoniana, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 429.

Tsuga Mertensiana has a meridional range in north- west America
from south-eastern Alaska through British Columbia, Washington and
Oregon into California as far as the sources of the King river ; it
also has a considerable spread laterally on both sides of the

470 TSUGA MERTKNSIAXA.

international boundary, from Mount Benson in Vancouver Island to
the Bitter -Root mountains of Idaho. Except in Alaska it always
grows at a great elevation, its vertical range being from 2,750 to
10,000 feet, the higher altitude being reached on the Sierras of
California. In many parts of the mountain systems over which this
tree is spread,, the forest towards the higher limit of arborescent
vegetation is composed entirely of it ; in other places it is mixed
with Pinus foxilis ; at these high altitudes it dwindles to a shapeless
shrub scarcely half the height of a man. When standing alone in
favourable situations the lower branches are retained and lengthen
considerably, the upper branches often decurved and the branchlets
with their cones pendent. It attains its greatest development on the
Cascade mountains in southern Oregon where individual trees 100 feet
high with stout massive stems five and six feet in diameter are
abundant,* The wood is light, soft and close-grained but not strong,
susceptible of a good polish and of a light brown or reddish colour :
it is only occasionally used on account of the inaccessibility of the forests.
This beautiful tree was originally discovered by Merteiis in 1827
while in the service of the Russian Government near its northern
limit on Baraimil' Island near Sitka where it takes the form of a
much-branched, straggling shrub. The herbarium specimens gathered by
Mertens were dealt with by Bongard of St. Petersburg, who described
this tree as a new species tinder the name of Pirni* Mertensiana in
compliment to the discoverer. Unfortunately, this name was taken up
by Carriere for another Hemlock Fir which grows on the island,
Tsuf/a Albertiana, which Bongard in common with other early explorer-
in north-west America mistook for the Canadian type hut which is
not known to occur wild within two thousand miles of Sitka. t Most
recent authors have followed Carriere in this misapplication of Bollard's
name and which lias for the time resulted in much regrettable confusion.
The tree was re-discovered by Jeffrey on Mount Baker while collecting
for the Scottish Oregon Association and introduced through him,
receiving the name of Abie* Pattoniana in compliment to the late
Mr. George Patton of the Cairnies in Perthshire, a prominent member
of the Association. Three years later it was detected on Mount Scott
by AVilliam Murray, and his discovery was described by his brother
Andrew Murray in Lawson's "Pinetum Britannicum " as a different
species under the name of Abies Hook&riana, but which has been
reduced to a synonym of the older names by the American botanists.
In British gardens the name H'ookeriana is still retained to distinguish
the glaucous from the green-leaved variety.

* Garden and Forest, Vol. X. p. 1.

t The following is Bongard's description of Tsuya Merlin xiana which should set at rest
any doubts as to the identity of the tree: — Pinvs Mcrtcnsiana n. sp. Foliis solitarii*
linearibus obtusiusculis, basi in petiolum attenuatis. integerriinis; strobili squamis reniformibus
integris. Kamosissima ; raiui ramnliqne delapsis foliis valde tuberculosi. Folia solitaria,
approximate, lineaiia, basi in petiolum ininutum attennata, obtusiuscula, supra plana. suhtu^
iiervo medio proniinulo, integerrima, 5" longa, lineaque paitllo angnstiora. Strobili, solitarii,
sessiles, oblongi, obtusi, 1'5 pollicem, plus minnsve. Squamae renifovuu-s. integra\ ~>" et
<juod excedit latae. — Observations sur la Vegetation de Sitcha. ]>. •"!.

Mertensiana at Eastnor Castle.

472 TSUGA SIEBOLDIL

Tsuya Mertensiana is one of the handsomest of coniferous trees of
small or medium dimensions for the decoration of the lawn where the
larger trees are unsuitable. It grows fairly well in most soils that are
well drained, the growth of the leader shoot rarely exceeding six to nine
inches annually; to secure good specimens a space with a radius of
not less than fifteen feet should be allowed for them. The species
keeps in memory the name of one of the most energetic of botanical
explorers of the early part of the nineteenth century.

KARL HEINRICH MERTEXS (1796 — 1830) was the son of Dr. Franz Karl Mertens
who was the head of an Institution in Bremen, and the author of several botanical
papers, and who is commemorated by the genus Mertensia (Boraginere). Karl
Heinrich was born in Bremen where he received his early education and acquired
a fondness for natural history, especially Botany which he studied later in Paris
with Jussieu, Desfontaines, Lamarck and Mirbel, and where he made the acquaintance
of Dawson Turner by whom he was invited to London and introduced to Dr. Robert
Brown, Sir Joseph Banks and the elder Hooker Returning to Germany in 1817,
he commenced the study of medicine in Gottingen and then in Halle where he
took the Doctor's degree in 1820 and began to practise his profession in Berlin,
which, however, he soon left to make his home in his native city. An intense
love of natural history and a desire for travel, made the prospect of a quiet
professional life in Bremen unbearable, and Mertens went to St. Petersburg in the
hope of being appointed naturalist to the expedition which was fitted out there
under the command of Kotzebue. Failing to obtain this position, he remained two
years in Russia practising his profession, and finally in the spring of 1826 was
appointed naturalist and -physician to the expedition which sailed that year under
Captain Lutki to make a scientific voyage of exploration round the world. During
the next four years Mertens visited England, Teneriffe, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Horn,
Valparaiso, the coast of Alaska. Kamtschatka, the Caroline Islands, Manila, the
Cape of Good Hope and St Helena. Returning to St. Petersburg, he presented to
the Academy of Sciences of that city a number of papers chiefly devoted to the
Invertebrate collected during the voyage He was still engaged in studying his
collection when he joined, in 1830, his old commander Lutki on a cruise along
the coast of France and Ireland, during which he contracted a nervous fever from
which he died shortly after his return to Russia.*

Tsuga Sieboldii.

A stately tree, attaining at its greatest development a height of
80 — 90 feet, at its highest vertical range considerably less, everywhere
much resembling the type species, Tsuga canadensis, in habit and aspect.
Branchlets slender with cinereous-brown striated bark, much ramified
distichously ; the youngest shoots glabrous, pale yellowish brown, marked
longitudinally by cortical ridges, terminating at the base of the leaves
in a relatively prominent red pulvinus or cushion. Buds small, globose,
enclosed in numerous minute, chestnut-brown perulae. Leaves persistent
three — four years, petiolate, the petiole nearly parallel with the axis of
the shoot, linear, obtuse or emarginate, 0'25 — 1 inch long, the shorter
leaves produced from the upper, the longer ones from the lower side of
the shoot, dark lustrous green and distinctly channelled above, with
two greyish, stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers globose-
cylindric, stipitate with a stiff, slender stalk surrounded at the base by
numerous small, ovate, involucral bracts. Cones sub-globose, about an
inch in diameter, composed of four — five series of spirally arranged,
imbricated, orbicular scales, striated on the exposed side. Seed-wing
roundish oblong, about three-fourths as long as the scale.

* From the Silva of North America, Vol. XII. p. 80.

TSUGA SIEBOLDII.

473

Tsuga Sieboldii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 186 (1855) ; and ed II 245 (1867)

oc. XVIII. 512; a
Reiches' 59> Tafel

(m part) Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 512; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
' '

vn i Qo- > - fig. 12. Beissner,

Nadelholzk. 394, with hgs.

T. Araragi, Sargent in Garden and Forest, X. 491, fig. 62.

Abies Tsuga, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 14, t. 106 (1842). Murray Pines
and Firs of Japan, 84, Avith figs (in part). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 32 (in part)

Pmus Tsuga, Endliclier, Synops. Conif. 83 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI 428
(in part).

Eng. Japanese Hemlock Fir. Fr. Tsuga du Japon. Germ. Japanische Hemlocks-
tanne. Jap. Tsuga Araragi.

As already stated under Tsuga diversifolia there are two species of
Tsuga endemic in Japan, or two easily distinguishable forms recognised
as such, of which T. Sieboldii became known to science many years

Fig. 118. Branchlet and cone of Tsuga Sieboldii.

before the second species was admitted. It was discovered by the
eminent traveller whose name it bears during his residence in Japan,
1823 — 1830, and was introduced by him into European gardens
shortly after the establishment of his Jardin d'Acclimatation at Leyden
in Holland in 1850. T. Sieboldii takes the place of T. diversifolia
south of Nikko, ascending in places to a considerable elevation,
nowhere forming a continuous forest, but scattered in groves among
deciduous trees or mixed with Pinus densiflora. Like most of the
native trees it has been planted for ornament or utility in numberless
places so that its original geographical limits have long since been

474 ABIETIA.

obliterated. Dr. Mayr states that the wood is very durable when
exposed to the weather, but not much used on account of the
difficulty of transport.

PHILIP FitAxz VON SIEBOLD (1796—1866) was born at Wiirzburg in Bavaria, and
belonged to a family which has given several distinguished members to the medical
profession. He received a first-class education in his native town and obtained the
degree of Doctor in 1820. Two years afterwards he went to Java as medical officer in
the Dutch service, and that Government having decided upon dispatching a scientific
expedition to Japan, Von Siebold was attached to it as medical officer and naturalist.
Having arrived there in 1823, he was compelled, like all foreigners, to confine his
explorations to the immediate vicinity of Nagasaki, the only port then accessible, but
he soon acquired greater freedom in consequence of the repute attached to his name a>
a man of science. In 1824 he accompanied the Dutch ambassador to Jeddo (Tokio), but
two years later, when on the point of returning to Java, his life was endangered by the
excessive zeal of one of his friends who had furnished him with a hitherto unpublished
map of the empire, and Von Siebold, who risked his own life to save that of his friend,
was thrown into prison. He returned to Europe in 1830, quitted the Dutch service,
and employed himself in the arrangement of his rich store of scientific materials which
he had collected in Japan. One of the most important works issued by him after his
return to Europe was his "Flora Japonica," the first volume of which was published in
1835, and the second in 1842. About the year 1850 he established a nursery and
" Jardin d'Acclimatation " at Leyden, for the cultivation and distribution of new plants
from the Far East, and during the succeeding fifteen years he introduced from China and
Japan a large number of plants previously unknown <in European gardens, many of
which have proved valuable additions to the Arboretum and Flower Garden. He died
at Munich in October, 1866.

ABIETIA.

Pseudotsuga, * Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 256 (1867). Bentham and Hooker, Gen.
Plant. III. 441 (1881). Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXX. (1893). • Tsuga sect. Pseudo-
tsuga, Eichler in Engier and Prantl, Jvat. Pfl. Fam. 80 (1887).

The Douglas Fir does not strictly conform to either of the thm-
genera among which the Firs, in a popular sense, are distributed.
It differs from all of them in the anatomy of the wood, the

tracheides of which are
spirally marked ; and
in the structure of
the leaves which have
an interrupted, not
continuous layer, of
hjpodenn cells (see
page 33 — 35) ; the

Fio- no. Transverse section of leaf of . -U, Mi,, Douglcwi, X 50; leaves agree, llOWeVer,

with Abies in the

presence of two lateral resin canals. The staminate flowers of
the Douglas Fir have the resemblance of those of Picea but with
the anthers spurred as in Abies and Tsuga and differing from the

* An uncouth, barbarous name, half Greek, half Japanese, "utterly bad in construction"
and misleading in such meaning as it has, and which I have refused to adopt as a
protest against the admission of such names into scientific nomenclature. Also in com-
pliance with Art, 60, sect. 4 of the Laws of Botanical Nomenclature adopted at the
International Botanical Congress held at Paris in 1867 which enacts that— "Every one
is bound to reject a name which is formed by a combination of two languages."

ADIETIA.

475

latter in being spirally crowded around a stamtnal column and not
in globose clusters; the anther cells split obliquely and not transversely
as in Abies and Tsuga. hi the cones are combined characters
occurring in all the other genera; they are pendulous as in Picea
and Tsuga but differ from both in the bracts being longer than the
scales and prominently exserted as in some of the species of Abies.
The preponderance of agreement is with Abies but with such a
marked difference in the cones that the Douglas .Fir has been
generically separated from it by most recent authors.

Fig. 1-20. 1, Staminate floAverof Atrietia Douglasii; nat. size. 2 and :;, side and front view of anthers before
dehiscence; 4 and 5, after dehiscence, X 10 ; 6, three fresh pollen grains ; 7, two pollen grains after exposure
to diy air fifteen minutes, X 120.

Another Fir aberrant in some of its characteristics from every other,
was discovered by Robert Fortune in south-east China and introduced
by him about the year 1846. It was cultivated under the name of
Abies Fortunei but all the originally raised seedlings planted out in
this country seem to have perished in the course of a few years and
a similar fate has probably befallen plants raised from seeds obtained
since, doubtless from climatic causes. As Fortune's Fir is apparently
not destined to have a place in the British Pinetum, the interest
attached to it in this country is solely scientific and the notice of it
in these pages is accordingly brief ; its history and peculiarities arc1
elaborately discussed by the authors quoted after the description, and
to their writings the reader is referred. The most marked characteristic
which distinguishes Fortune's Fjr from every other is the umbellate
arrangement of the staminate flowers, and <»n this ground chief! v
Dr. Maxwell Masters in his recent revision of the Coniferse has adopted
the genus Keteleeria, created many years ago for its reception by
Carriere, the author of the " Traite General des ( 1<>niferes," by reason

476 ABIETIA DOUGLASII.

of the somewhat vaguely defined difference observable in its growth
and aspect.* Looked at from every point of view Fortune's Fir comes
nearest to the Douglas Fir, and is here provisionally joined with it.
These Firs are intermediate forms ; the Douglas Fir bridges over the
difference between the Hemlock and Silver Firs, and Fortune's Fir the
difference between the Spruce and Silver Firs ; moreover the Spruce
Firs are connected with the Hemlocks by the flat-leaved species of
the section Omorica. Whilst for practical purposes it may be the most
convenient course to retain the different groups of Firs under separate
generic names, doubts may reasonably arise whether that course is
most compatible with a strictly scientific classification of them, seeing
that all the Firs have, like all the Pines, easily recognisable common
characters, and like the Pines are connected together by discernible links.

Abietia Douglasii.

A tree of very variable dimensions, under favourable conditions in
Washington and Oregon near the Pacific coast, 175 — 200 or more
feet with a trunk 4 — 6*5 feet in diameter, and where the trees are
crowded, usually denuded of branches for one-half or more of the

Fig. 121. Branchlet of Abietia

!! with foliage and staminate flowers.

height and with a thin narrow crown, which in very old trees
Incomes flat-topped ; t on the drier slopes of the Rocky Mountains not
more than 80 — 100 feet high with a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter ;
even reduced to a low shrub at its highest vertical limit. Bark
of adult trees 3 — 5 inches thick, reddish brown, deeply and irregularly
fissured ; in the forests of Oregon and Vancouver Island often much thicker
and separated into broad rounded ridges broken on the surface into dark
red-brown scales. In Great Britain the oldest trees have a pyramidal
outline much broken by projecting branches. Bark of trunk dark brown
and much fissured, the general direction of the fissures longitudinal and

* Sa vegetation, ainsi que son facies general, out egalement quelque chose de particulier
qni lie se rencontre dans aucun genre ni meme dans aucune section etablis, p. 262.
. t Individual trees have been felled in the neighbourhood of Puget Sound over 250 feet
high with trunks 5 to 7 feet in diameter. A section of an exceptionally large tree preserved
in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington is about 7£ feet in diameter.

ABIETIA DOUGLASII.

477

exposing a reddish brown inner cortex. Branches slender, and
where the tree is standing alone the lowermost attaining lengths of
25 — 35 feet or even more, more or less depressed by the weight of
their appendages and often sweeping the ground ; those above horizontal,
sometimes upturned at the distal end ; the uppermost more or less
ascending. Branchlets slender, distichous and mostly opposite, depressed
or sub-pendent. Buds conic, acute, 0*25 — 0*5 inch long, with oval-

Fig. 122. Fertile branchlet of Abietia Douglasii.

oblong, lustrous sienna brown peruke fringed with whitish hairs.
Leaves persistent six — seven years, pseudo-distichous in three — four
ranks, narrowly linear, flat, 0'75— 1*25 inch long, obtuse or mucronate
at the apex, frequently falcately curved upwards, bright lustrous green
with an obscure median line above, paler with a more or less
glaucous stomatiferous band between the midrib and the thickened
margins beneath. Staininate flowers mostly on the under side of
branchlets of the preceding year, axillary obtusely conic, about O75
inch long, surrounded at the base by broadly oval, obtuse involucral

478 ABIETIA DOUGLASII.

bracts in three — four series; anther connective spurred; pollen grains
spherical. Cones terminal on short lateral branchlets, pendent,
ovoid-conic, 2*5 — 4 inches long, and 1 — 1*25 inch in diameter;
scales suborbicular with a short cuneate claw and obscurely sinuate
margin; bracts longer than the scales, narrowly oblong at the base
with a prominent midrib ; with two spreading lobes at the apex and
the midrib prolonged into a rigid linear awn. Seeds marked with an
irregular white spot and having a lenticular wing about one-sixth the
size of the scale.

Abietia Douglasii, SUJ.H-O.

Al)ies UcmglashV Lindley in Penny Cyclop. I. 32 (1833). London, Arb. et Frut.
Brit. IV. 2319, with tigs. Forbes. Pinet. Woburn. 127, t. 45. Hoopes, Ever-
greens, 189. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II. 115. tt. 17, 18, and tigs. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 24.

Tsuga Douglasii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 192 (1855).

Psendotsuga Donglasii, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 256 (1867). McNab in
Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 3, p. 703, tig. 32. Engelmann in Brewer and
Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 120. Beissner, Xadelholzk. 411, with figs. Masters in
Journ. R. Hort, Soc. XIV. 245. Macoun, Cat. Canad. Plants, 473.

P. nmcronata, Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 87, t. 607 (1898)

Picea Douglasii, Link in Liimsea, XV. 524 (1841).

Pinus Douglasii, Don in Lambert's Genus Finns, III. 163 (1837). Hooker, \V.
Fl. Bor. Amer. II. 162, t. 183. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 87. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 430.

P. taxifolia,* Lambert, Genus Pinus, 51, t. 33 (1803).

Eng. Douglas Fir. Amer. Douglas Spruce, Red Fir. Fr. Sapin de Douglas.
(Term. Douglas-Tanne, Donglas-Fichte. Ital. Abete di Douglas.

var.— glauca.

A smaller tree with shorter, stouter branches, but distinguished
from the type chiefly by its foliage and smaller cones. The leaves
during the first season are bluish green above and more glaucous
beneath than in any of the older forms.

A. Douglasii glauca. Pseudotsuga Douglasii glauea, Beissner, Xadelholzk. 419.
Abies coloradensis, Hort.

var.— macrocarpa.

A smaller tree with longer and more distant branches that are usually
pendulous below, and with shorter, stouter winter buds and shorter
leaves. Its most distinctive character is its larger cones, often produced
in great numbers on the upper branches and which are 4 — 6*5 inches
long and 2 inches in diameter.

A. Douglasii macrocarpa. Pseudotsuga Douglasii macrocarpa, Engelmann in
Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 120. P. macrocarpa, Mayr. Wald Nord-
amer. 278. Sargent in Garden and Forest, X. 24, with tig. ; and Silva X. Amer.
XII. 93, t. 608.

var.— pendula.

Branches quite pendulous with lax and drooping branchlets, and with
the leaves usually more glaucous on the under side than in the
common form.

A. Douglasii pendula. Pseudotsuga Douglasii pendnla, Engelmann ex Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 417. Pinus Douglasii pendula, Parlatoiv. D. C. Prodr. XVI. 430.

* This is the oldest specific name ; it \vas applied to the herbarium specimen gathered
by Men/ies in 1792, but was not taken up subsequently by any British author till it was
brought into use by horticulturists to designate a geographical variety.

^BIETJA DOUGLASH. 479

var.— Stand Jshii.

A remarkable variety, raised from English-grown seed gathered from ;L
Douglas Fir standing in close proximity to sonic large Silver Firs. It lias
the habit and general aspect of the species, but the leaves are larger,
deeper green above and quite silvery beneath, like those of a Silver Fir.*

A. Douglasii Stamlishii. Abies Douglasii Standishii, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 26
Pseudotsuga Douglasii Standishii, Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 245.

var.— taxifolia

A smaller tree with shorter branches more regularly developed and
giving the tree a more contracted conical outline than the common
form. The leaves are longer and usually darker in colour.

A. Douglasii taxifolia. Pseudotsuga Douglasii taxifolia. Carriere Traite Conif
ed. II. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 418.

The varieties described above are the most distinct deviations from

the Oregon type of Aldetia Dowjlasii yet observed. With the exception

of itta'-rorarpa, they are all occasionally met with in British gardens.

Other varieties selected from the seed beds have been named argente-a,

brerifolia, ronqht'-ta, vtei/ans, fastif/iata, /it'mstrosa, nana, strida, names

sufficiently indicative of their most obvious characteristic so long as

they retain it. Stairii is a variety with light golden yellow foliage

that originated many years ago at Castle Kennedy in Wigtownshire, the

seat of the Earl of Stair, and is still propagated in Scottish nurseries.

Abietia Dot'fjlasii is the most widely distributed tiee of western

North America ; its distribution is comparable in some respects with

that of Piiias poiiderosa, but the area over which it is spread is

considerably greater, especially in a meridional direction. With the

exception of the lowland plains and valleys of southern British

Columbia, Washington and Oregon where it forms dense forests, it

is mostly a tree of the mountains. Its northern limit is placed at

about lat. 55° near Lake Tacla in British Columbia; from this point

it follows the Rocky Mountains system southwards through the whole

breadth of the United States to western Texas and thence into

Mexico for several hundred miles, its southern limit, so far as at

present known, being near the city of San Luis Potosi, just within

the northern tropic. In the coast region including Vancouver Island,

it spreads from the Skeena river southwards through the Pacific

States to the Santa Lucia in south California. In the territory

lying between the Rocky Mountains and the coast ranges it follows

the general trend of the Cascade mountains and the Sierra Nevada

as far as the latitude of Los Angeles, reappearing in isolated groups

on the San Bernardino, the San Jacinto and other ranges in the

extreme south of California. In the dry region east of the

California!! mountains it grows chiefly on rocky slopes usually mixed

with other trees. Its vertical range varies with the climate and

* Known only from a single tree in the Pinetnm of the late Mr. J. D. Bassett at Leigh ton
Bu/zard.

480 ABIETIA DOUGLASIL

latitude of the region ; on the Califomiaii Sierras it seldom ascends
higher than 5,500 feet above the level of the ocean ; in northern
Arizona it forms forests between 8,000 and 9,000 feet elevation and
in Colorado up to 11,000 feet.

The foregoing outline of the distribution of the Douglas Fir brings
out prominently the following remarkable facts : — it is the most widely
distributed not only of all American Firs but of all American trees-
it is spread over thirty-two degrees of latitude, a meridional range
greater than that of any other coniferous tree excepting perhaps the
common Juniper ; it must thence possess a constitution that " enables
it to endure the fierce gales and long winters of the north and the
nearly perpetual sunshine of the Mexican Cordilleras ; to thrive in the
rain and fog which sweep almost continuously along the Pacific coast
range, and on the arid mountain slopes of the interior, where for
months every year, rain never falls."*" The Douglas Fir is not only
one of the most interesting, but it is also one of the most valuable
of trees ; its size, its capacity of adapting itself to new surroundings
and the excellence of its timber, all contribute to make it one of the
most important inhabitants of the forests of western America. It attains
its greatest development in the humid lowlands of western Washington
and Oregon, especially around Puget Sound and on the western slopes
of the Sierra Nevada where the precipitation from the Pacific Ocean
is greatest ; in these regions it often attains a height of 300 feet
with a trunk 9 to 12 feet in diameter, f When standing alone on the
low damp plains as it often does on the steep slopes of the mountain
canons, its lofty trunk is frequently feathered with branches from the
ground upwards ; in the bottom lauds of the Columbia basin, the trees
often stand so close together that the traveller can with difficulty
push his way between the lofty trunks free of branches for upwards
of 200 feet and supporting a canopy of foliage so dense that the
sun's rays never pierce it.J While thus attaining gigantic proportions
in the plains, it also flourishes high up on the mountains of California
at an altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and in Colorado still higher, but
at these elevations it is always a much smaller tree.

Over so extensive a region and under so many diverse circumstances
of climate and environment, sometimes of the most opposite description,
the wood of the Douglas Fir is found to vary much in quality and
colour ; some trees produce yellow, others light red wood ; the yellow
is the finer and the red the coarser-grained wood, but the difference
seems to be largely due to the age of the tree. In southern British
Columbia, Washington and Oregon, Douglas Fir timber is used for all
kinds of construction, house-building, spars and masts for ships, and
a}so for fuel. The wood of the variety macrocarpa is heavy, hard,
strong and durable; it is largely used for fuel. §

* Silva of North America, XII. p. 91.

f The British public have had for many years past an opportunit}- of forming an idea
of the stupendous dimensions attained by this tree. In the Royal Gardens at Kew is
erected a flagstaff brought from Vancouver Island ; it consists of a single piece 159 feet in
length, 22 inches in diameter at the base tapering to 8 inches at the summit ; it weighs
three tons and contains 157 cubic feet of timber. The tree from which this flagstaff was
made was two hundred and fifty years old, as indicated by its concentric rings.

+ Garden and Forest, IV. p. 205.

§ Silva of North America, XII. pp. 90, 94.

ABIETIA DOUGLAS1I.

481

AUetia Douglasii was originally discovered by Archibald Menzies *
on the shores of Nootka Sound in 1792 during Vancouver's voyage
round the world. From his herbarium specimens it was figured and
described by Lambert in the " Genus Pinus " published in 1803,
under the name of Pinus taxifolia, which is therefore the oldest

Douglas Firs at Murthly Castle.
(From The Garden.}

published name, but which was not taken up by any subsequent
British author. It was next seen by Lewis and Clark during their
perilous journey across the North American Continent in 1805 — 1806,

* At Castle Menzies in the highlands of Perthshire, not far from the birthplace of
Archibald Menzies, are some of the finest specimens of the Douglas Fir in Great Britain.

II

482 ABIETIA DOUGLASII.

and was described by them in the narrative of the expedition. It
was re-discovered by David Douglas in 1827, and introduced by him
in the following year. Shortly afterwards Dr. Lindley, setting aside
Lambert's name, selected this tree as the most suitable subject for
commemorating the intrepid explorer and the eminent services
rendered by him to British arboriculture and horticulture.

The Douglas Fir is unquestionably one of the most valuable tree&
ever introduced into Great Britain. It has been planted throughout
the length and breadth of the land, but not with unvarying results.
Where exposed to the force of gales and high winds, breakage of the
leader shoot often occurs ; and when exposed to piercing winds from
the north-east and east, or planted in land with insufficient drainage-
or where the soil is too shallow, the Douglas Fir, notwithstanding its-
marvellous constitution, does not thrive satisfactorily. Hypothetically
the cause of failure in such situations has been assigned to the-
fact that all, or nearly all, the older trees in Great Britain were
raised from seed produced by trees growing in the alluvial lands in
the neighbourhood of the Pacific coast in the comparatively mild
climate of Washington and Oregon where cold, piercing winds are-
unknown. In most parts of this country where not so exposed,,
especially in the south and south-western counties of England ; in
Wales and Ireland ; in Perthshire and the south-western counties of
Scotland, the growth of the Douglas Fir is very rapid during early
life, and it has gained the confidence of many foresters as a valuable-
tree for afforesting waste lands suitably situated. Some of the most
thriving plantations of Douglas Fir are to be seen in Perthshire, the
native county of Douglas, where the tree has been planted with no-
unstinted hand, especially on the estates of the Earl of Mansfield at
Scone and Lyiiedoch. Two fine trees at the last-named place, planted
in 1834, are among the oldest in the country; the tallest is 100 feet
high (97 feet in August, 1896) ; the other is over 80 feet high, and
has produced cones freely from which hundreds of seedlings have been
raised. At Murthly Castle in the same county, the Douglas Firs are
a prominent feature of the grounds ; trees from 80 to 100 feet high form
two long vistas of imposing aspect, and a belt on the south side of
the Tay river is remarkable for the uniform and stately growth of
the trees composing it.*

The annual rate of growth of the Douglas Fir during the first
thirty — thirty-five years varies with the locality. In Devon and
Cormvall it is quite 30 inches ; in Hampshire and other southern
counties it is somewhat less ; in the eastern and northern counties
(Cambridge, Lincoln and Northumberland) it is about 18 inches ; in
the western counties (Shropshire and Wales) it is from 24 to 27 inches ;
in Perthshire the annual growth ranges from 18 to 27 inches
according to locality ; in Argyll and the western counties from
15 to 20 inches ; and in Ross and Sutherland from 12 to 15 inches.
In Ireland the rate of growth equals that in Devonshire, and an
instance is recorded of a tree in the county of Meath having made

* Other noteworthy specimens of the Douglas Fir upwards of or exceeding 100 feet in
height are growing at Dropmore, Bowood Park, Bicton, Powderham Castle, Carclew ; in
Scotland at Castle Menzies, Dunkeld, Rossie Priory, Dorris ; in Ireland at Castlewellan.
Coollattin, Powerscourt.

AUetia Doucjlasii at The Frythe, near AVelwyn.

484 ABIETIA DOUGLASII.

an annual growth of 33 inches. When planted for ornamental
purposes, the Douglas Fir should have a clear space with a radius of
more than 30 feet assigned to it. In an open place admitting of a
free circulation of air, it is found to retain its lower branches in
health and vigour for an almost indefinite period — a circumstance which
greatly enhances its value as an ornamental tree.

Of the varieties described in page 478, glauca, macrocarpa and
taxifolia are geographical forms. Glauca is known in many gardens
as the Colorado variety in reference to its origin, although it is not
found exclusively in that State but along the Eocky Mountains almost
from north to south. Macrocarpa is a local form inhabiting the
San Bernardino mountains in south California and their continuation
into northern Mexico ; it is figured and described in the " Silva of
North America " as a distinct species on the ground that the
characters which separate it from the type are permanent and that
no intermediate forms have been found, although the type, abounds
in the region north and south of that inhabited by macrocarpa.
Taxifolia is also a local form which has been somewhat vaguely
stated to occur in Oregon and Mexico, but more definite informa-
tion respecting its origin is wanting.

As a tree for ornamental planting the variety taxifolia is superior
in some respects to the Oregon and Vancouver type ; it is more
symmetrical in growth and habit, taking up much less space, and
frequently growing satisfactorily in places where the originally introduced
form does not thrive. Our illustration represents a fine specimen at
The Fry the, near Welwyn, Herts, and there are several trees of
this variety of great beauty at Eastnor Castle.

Our article on the Douglas Fir would be incomplete without some
further notice of him whose name it bears. It has been said that
" there is scarcely a spot deserving the name of a garden, either in
Europe or in the United States, in which some of the discoveries of
David Douglas do not form the chief attraction." The frequent
mention of his name in these pages as the discoverer and introducer
of some of the finest coniferous trees that adorn the lawns and parks of
Britain, affords abundant evidence that the above quotation contains
very much, if not the whole truth, and that to no single individual
is modern horticulture more indebted than to David Douglas. His
untimely end, the unfortunate circumstances that prevented the publi-
cation of his journals, together with the length of time that has
elapsed since the introduction to gardens of his finest discoveries,
have all tended to dim the memory of his great achievements. The
noble Fir that properly bears his name will, it is true, perpetuate it
to, distant ages.

DAVID DOUGLAS (1799—1834) was borne at Scone, near Perth, where his father was
a working mason. He received a plain education at the parish school, and at an
early age showed a strong inclination for gardening, which led to his being apprenticed
in the gardens of the Earl of Mansfield, at Scone Palace, for a term of seven years.
David was fond of books and the study of plants, and during this period he made
himself well acquainted with the native and exotic plants within his reach, and
acquired an elementary knowledge of Botany. He greatly improved and extended
this knowledge during the two years he served with Sir Robert Preston, of Valleyfield,

ABIETIA FORTUNEI. 485

where he went to live after the completion of his apprenticeship. In 1820 he removed
to Glasgow, where he was employed in the Botanic Garden of the University. Here
he greatly enlarged his knowledge of Botany, and attracted by his intelligence the
notice of Dr. (afterwards Sir W. J.) Hooker, at that time Professor of Botany in
Glasgow University, and who made him his companion in his botanical' excursions to
the Highlands and other parts of Scotland for the purpose of collecting materials for
his "Flora Scotica." By Sir William Hooker he was recommended to the Horticultural
Society of London, and thus he became known to Mr. Sabine, at that time the able
Secretary of the Society, through whose influence he was appointed Collector to the
Society. His first destination was China, but owing to 1he unsettled state of the
country, that rich field, afterwards partially but successfully explored by Mr. Robert
Fortune under more auspicious circumstances, was abandoned for a time, and Douglas
was sent to the United States in 1823, whence he made many valuable additions to
our hardy fruits, besides procuring several fine plants till then unknown to British
Horticulture. In 1824 it was resolved to send him to the Columbia river, on the
western side of the Continent, to explore the vegetable productions of the country
adjoining, and southwards to California, of which scarcely anything was at that time
known, although a glimpse of the forests of gigantic Conifers covering the coast range
had been obtained by Archibald Menzies a quarter of a century previous, when
accompanying Vancouver on his interesting voyage. An opportunity occurred through
the agency of the Hudson's Bay Company, and he landed at Fort Vancouver, on the
banks of the Columbia river, for the first time in April, 1825. From that time till
his return to England in 1827 he sent home many beautiful plants, with seeds and
dried specimens. Among his earliest introductions were Abietia Douglasii, Pinus pon-
derosa and P. Lambertiana. In the spring of 1827 he went from Fort Vancouver
across the Rocky Mountains to Hudson's Bay, where he met Captain (afterwards Sir
John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, returning
from their second overland Arctic Expedition. With these travellers he returned to
England, bringing with him the results of his researches. He remained in London
two years, and sailed again for the Columbia river in 1829. In addition to his
mission as a collector for the Horticultural Society, he was employed by the Colonial
Office to take observations on magnetic and atmospheric phenomena, the depart-
ment supplying him with instruments and contributing towards his expenses. He
reached the Columbia river in June, 1830, and spent the remainder of the year in
exploring the neighbouring country, and made some valuable additions to the Pinetum;
the most important being Abies nobilis and Picea sitchensis. The next year he travelled
southwards into California, then a comparatively unknown land, where he found a rich
harvest of new plants. In 1832 he visited the Sandwich Islands, and returning to
the Columbia river in the same year, undertook an expedition to the Fraser river,
where he had a very narrow escape of his life, and lost many valuable papers. He
finally quitted north-western America in 1833, having previously resigned his appoint-
ment as collector to the Horticultural Society in consequence of a revolution in the
affairs of the Society which led to the resignation of Mr. Sabine, the Secretary, with
whom Douglas identified his interests. He sailed for the Sandwich Islands, where he
had remained some months, when an accident put an end to his existence. The natives
of the Sandwich Islands were in the habit of making pits in which they caught wild
cattle. In one of his excursions Douglas fell accidentally into one of these pits,
in which an infuriated animal was already trapped ; the animal fell upon him, and
he was found, dreadfully mangled and quite dead, July 12th, 1834. An elegant
monument with a suitable inscription has been erected to his memory by subscription
in the parish churchyard of New Scone, Perthshire.

Abietia Portunei.

A large tree with much of the habit and aspect of a Cedar of
Lebanon, the trunk covered with thick rugged bark ; the branches
spreading horizontally and much ramified at the distal end. Branchlets
glabrous, orange-red, mostly distichous and opposite with occasional
adventitious shorter and weaker shoots on the upper side of the axial
growth. Buds small, ovoid, with orange-brown perulae, the lowermost
of which are prolonged into an acuminate tip. Leaves persistent,
spirally arranged but rendered pseudo-distichous by a half twist of the
short petiole, linear, rigid, mucronate or spine-tipped, 1 — 1*25 inch

486 ABIES.

long, dark lustrous green with a narrow median keel above, paler
with two glaucous stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers
cylindric, obtuse, about 0'5 inch long, produced in umbels of eight —
ten on branchlets of the preceding year, the umbel shortly pedunculate

and surrounded at the base by small
involucral bracts. Cones erect,
variable in size, ovoid or ovoid-
cyliridric, much resembling those of
Pinus Cembra ; scales convex, sub-
orbicular, somewhat longer than
Fig- 123- broad, with a short cuneate claw

linear, about halt as long as the
scales, expanded into a small sub-quadrate plate near the apex and
terminating in a mucronate tip. Seeds angular and wedge-shaped
with a relatively broad roundish oblong wing.

Abietia Fortune!, supra.

Abies Fortune!, Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 49, with figs. (1863). Hance in
Journ. Bot. XX. 39. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 519 ; XXII 197, with figs ;
Gard. Chron. XXI. (1884), p. 348, with fig. ; and XXV. (1886), p 428, with figs.

A. jezoensis, Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1850, p. 311, with fig. (not Siebold and Zuccarini).

Keteleeria Fortunei, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 260 (1867). Pirotta in Bull.
Soc. Toscana di Orticultura, 1887, p. 263. Masters in Gard Chron. II. ser. 3
(1887), p. 440; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 216. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap.
Reiches, 99. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 421, with figs

Pinus Fortunei, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 430 (1868).

This remarkable Fir was originally discovered by Fortune in 1844
or 1845 near a temple at Foo-chow-foo (Fu-chau-fu of modern maps), who
saw but a single tree which had apparently been planted there.
Nothing more was seen of it till 1873 when it was re-discovered by
Dr. Hance in the same locality, and five years later by Mr. Charles
Maries who found it in great numbers on the coast range of Fo-kien
(Fu-chau) associated with Pinus Massoniana (P. sinensis). Another
species was discovered in China in 1869 by the French missionary,
the Abbe David, which has been described by M. Franchet under the
name of Abies (Tsuga) Davidiana ; and seeds of an Abietia under
this name have been recently sent to the Veitchian establishment
from south China by E. H. Wilson.

ABIES.

Link, Abhandl. Acad. Berl. (1827), p. 181. Bentham and Hooker, Gen. Plant. III. 441
(1881). Eichler in Engler and Prantl. Nat. Pfl. Fam. 81 (1887). Masters in Journ. Linn
Soc. XXX. 34 (1893).

As here circumscribed, Abies is a genus of evergreen trees often
of lofty stature, well marked by the symmetry of their habit
especially during the period of early life which has caused them to
be ranked among the most ornamental subjects available for the lawn,
pleasure ground and park in our climate. In a popular sense the
species are distinguished by their tall straight trunks regularly
furnished with tiers of branches ramified laterally ; by their flattened
leaves mostly spreading in two opposite directions, and characterised
.anatomically by the presence of two lateral resin canals lying near

ABIES. 487

the epidermis of the under side ; and by their erect cones, the
scales of which soon fall off after the seed is mature leaving the
axis on the tree from which, however, it soon disappears. Botanically
the genus is thus distinguished : —

Inflorescence monoecious. Stamiuate flowers numerous, axillary on
branchlets of the preceding year, shortly stalked, cylindric or ovoid-
cylindric, and surrounded at the base by numerous involucral bracts.
Stamens spirally crowded around a central axis ; anthers shortly stipitate,
with a small knob- or spur-like projection, dehiscing transversely and
variously coloured.

Ovuliferous flowers few, usually on the upper side of the higherniost
branches, globose or cylindric, erect, composed of numerous imbricated
scales spirally inserted on a central axis, each bearing near the base
on the ventral (inner) side, two inverted ovules.

Cones cylindric, rarely ovoid, composed of thin, ligneous imbricated
scales, mostly of fan-like shape, in many series, each bearing on the
ventral face two seeds of which the testa or outer coat is prolonged
into a membraneous wing, and on the dorsal face a narrow mucronate
bract shorter or longer than the scale and adnate to it at the base.

Fig. 124. Transverse section of leaf of Abies pectinate x 32 ; r, resin
canals ; /, tibro-vascular bundle.

Twenty-four species of Abies or forms recognised as such are
described in the following pages, but some of them are connected by
intermediate forms that render the technical expression of specific
characters in such cases extremely difficult. Throughout the genus a
general uniformity in habit and structure prevails so that sectional
divisions of it are scarcely necessary. The greatest deviations from the
common type occur in three of the western North American species,
<ind taking these into account the late Dr. Engelmann proposed the
following sections.*

EUABIES. Leaves flat, grooved above, stornatiferous sometimes on the
upper and sometimes on the lower surface.

BRACTIEAT^:. Leaves flat without stomata on the upper surface (Abies
bracteata).

XOBILES. Leaves flat or tetragonal, stomatiferous on both surfaces
(A. nobilis and A. magnifica). f

* Transactions of the St. Louis Academy, Vol. Ill, p. 596. Gordon (Pinetum, ed. II.
p. 197) distributed the Silver Firs in two sections, placing in one those species in which
the bracts of the cone are longer than the scale and exserted, and in the other those in
which the bracts are shorter and enclosed ; a distinction that is quite futile as Beissner
lias pointed out, since the length of the bract is variable in the same species, being some-
times exserted, sometimes enclosed, as in -Abies balsamea, A. magnifica, A. Veitchii.

f Besides the sectional character on whicli Engelmann has placed the greatest stress,
Abies bracteata differs from all the other species in its larger leaves, longer winter buds with
white perulffi, and especially in its ovoid cones with long bristle-like exserted bracts.
A. nobilis and A. magnifica differ from all other Abies in their large cones and bluish-green
•crowded leaves.

488 ABIES.

Besides the twenty-four species here enumerated, Maximovicz has
described two others in the "Bulletin de 1' Academic imperials de St.
Petersburg," which he discovered in Manchuria. One of these, Abies
nephrolepis, is without much doubt a continental form of A. Veitchii ;
the other, A. holophylla, cannot from the description and the imperfect
herbarium specimens preserved in this country, be referred to any
known species, although it may be either A. firma or A. liomolepis.
Three hybrids are reported ; one raised artificially in France by the
late Henri de Yilmorin, between A. Pinsapo and A. ceplialonica ; a
second is described by Carriere in the " Revue horticole " for 1890,
page 230, under the name of A. insiynis, and is supposed to have

Fig. 125. Abies bracteata. 1, Stamiimte flower nat. size ;
2 and 3, side and front view of anthers before — 4 and 5, after
dehiscence x 5. 6, Pollen grain x 120.

originated from the accidental fertilisation of an ovuliferous cone of
A. Pinsapo by pollen of A. Nordmanniana growing near a nursery at
BulgneviUe ( Yosges ) ; and lastly a supposed natural hybrid between
A. lasiocarpa and A. amabilis was detected by Professor Sargent 011
the Olympic mountains in north-west Washington.

The Silver Firs are distributed through the northern hemisphere
from the Pacific coast of North America eastwards over both
continents to Japan, but generally -speaking, they occupy a more
southern zone than the Spruce Firs with which they are in places
associated. The only species which spread into sub-arctic lands are
Abies lasiocarpa and A. balsamca in America, and A. sibirica and

ABIES AMABILLS. 439

A. sachalinensis in Asia ; on the other hand, one species, A. religiosa,
has its home within the tropics in south Mexico and Guatemala.'
With the exception of A. balsamea, A. grandis and A. sibirica,
all the species are mountain trees ascending to elevations above
sea-level, which vary greatly in different regions, but which are
evidently influenced by the trend and altitude of the mountain
chains and by the latitude of the place. In their economic aspect
the Silver Firs are inferior to the Spruce Firs and Larches and even
to many of the true Pines ; their timber is, for the most part, coarse-
grained, soft and perishable, but much used where trees are abundant.
In Great Britain all the Abies are used solely for ornamental
planting, A. pectinate being an occasional exception and employed
by the forester for purposes of utility.

Abies amabilis.

A lofty tree often 150 — 200 feet high, but at high altitudes not
more than 60 — 80 feet high with a trunk 3 — 4 feet in diameter
near the base. Bark 'of old trees thick and fissured into reddish grey
plates, • of young trees thin and quite smooth ; in Great Britain usually
roughened by numerous warty protuberances. Branches relatively short,
the lowermost depressed, those above horizontal or slightly ascending.
Branchlets distichous and opposite, spreading at nearly a right angle
to their primaries, the youngest shoots hairy (hirtellous). Buds small,
ovoid-conic, with dark reddish brown perulse. Leaves persistent eight —
ten years, spirally crowded, those on the lower side of the branchlets
by a twist of the short petiole pseudo-distichous in three-four ranks ;
those on the upper side more or less appressed to the shoot and
pointing forwards, linear, flat and emarginate ; on fertile and vigorous
branchlets acute, 0'75 — 1*5 inch long, dark green above with a slight
azure tint peculiar to this species and by which it may often be
distinguished; with a glaucous stomatiferous band on each side -of the
narrow midrib beneath. Staminate flowers* often densely clustered,
cylindric, obtuse, about 0'5 inch long, with dark red-crimson anthers.
Cones cylindric, slightly tapering to a retuse apex, 4 — 5*5 inches long
and 2 — 2*5 inches in diameter, dark violet-blue changing with age to
dark brown ; scales not much broader than long, sub-rhomboidal,
inflexed at the apical margin ; bracts half as long as the scales, obovate-
oblong, abruptly contracted to an acuminate tip. Seed wings obliquely
cuneate, almost as broad as long.

Abies amabilis. Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 125, t. 44 (1839). Carriere, Traits
Conif. ed. II. 296. Hoopes, Evergreens, 209. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad
II. ser. 2. 677, tig. 3. Engelmann in Gard. Chron. XIV. (1880), p. 720, with
figs. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII. 171, with tigs; Gard. Chron. III.
ser. 3 (1888), p. 754, with fig. ; and Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 189. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 468, with tig. Sargent, Silva N. Anier. XII. 125. t. 614.

Picea amabilis, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2342, with figs, (in part, 1838).
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 213, excl. sjn. lasiocarpa.

Communicated by Mr. Harding from Orton Hall, and by Mr. Herrin from Dropmore

490 ABIES AMABILIS.

Pinus amabilis,* Douglas in Comp. Bot. Mag. II. 93 (1837). Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 426 (in part). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 104.

Eng. Lovely Fir. Amer. White Fir. Germ. Liebliche Weisstanne.

Abies amabilis is an alpine tree whose area of distribution, so far
as at present known, is confined to the mountain ranges within the
States of Oregon and Washington, and southern British Columbia
from Vancouver Island to the Fraser river. On the Cascade
mountains its vertical range is from 3,000 to 6,000 feet above
sea-level ; on the Olympic mountains of north-west Washington
where it is common, and where it probably attains its greatest
development, its vertical range is from 1,200 to 4,500 feet, and in
Columbia the range is somewhat higher. At high altitudes it grows
singly or in small isolated groves ; in other places it is associated
with Tsuga Albertiana, Abies nobilis and A. grandis, or with Pinus
montieola, Tsuga Mertensiana and Abies lasiocarpa. f

For a long series of years Abies amabilis was one of the rarest of
trees in the British Pinetum, and as regards its origin one of the
most obscure of the north-west American Firs, so much so that on
the other side of the Atlantic its very existence as a species was
called into question, and this discovery of Douglas began to be regarded
as a tradition and a myth. Here, however, in Great Britain, belief
in its existence never faltered, for we had in our midst living evidences,
very few, it is true, but representing a genuine and unquestionably
distinct species. The little that is known of the discovery of Abies
amabilis was communicated by Douglas to Sir W. J. Hooker in letters
that were published by the latter in the " Companion to the Botanical
Magazine " about three years after the untimely death of the explorer.
From this correspondence we learn that he first saw Abies amabilis
in September 1825 on the top of a high mountain south of the
Grand Rapids of the Columbia river after a laborious climb of fifteen
hours. By frequent mishaps, owing to the difficulty of making his
way through forests never before traversed by a naturalist, nor perhaps
even 'by a white man except occasionally by a trapper or hunter in
the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, Douglas lost a great part
of his specimens both during this and his second mission to north-west
America ; it was not till he had accomplished his remarkable journey
up the Columbia in 1830 that he secured a few cones and seeds
which he dispatched to England late in that year.J During the fifty
years that followed, many naturalists and seed collectors visited the
region of the Columbia river, but all of them failed to re-discover

* It is to be regretted that the discoverer of this and other north-west American Abies
should have given them mere laudatory names. Amabilis, grandis, nobilis, vcnusta
(Douglas) and magnified (Murray) denote no recognisable specific character, and any one of
them is as applicable to the other species as to that for which it is used.

t Silva of North America, XII. p. 126.

£ As Douglas was at that time in the service of the Horticultural Society of London,
the seeds were sent to the Society and were sown in their garden at Chiswick in the
following year. Plants laised from these seeds were subsequently distributed among the
Fellows (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond., ser. 2, Vol. II. p. 376). I have only been able to trace
three trees whose origin may be unhesitatingly attributed to this source, viz. : — one at
Dropmore planted in 1835 ; one at Orton Hall near Peterborough ; and a third at Bicton,
since dead.

ABIES AMABILIS.

491

the true Abies amalilis of Douglas. Seeds of other species as A
magnified, A. lasiocarpa and A. concolor var. Lowiana were sent to
Europe by them under the name of A. amabilis whence arose a
confused nomenclature and tangled synonymy scarcely paralleled even
amongst the Conifer*. At length the mystery which had so long

Fig. 120. Branchlet and foliage of Abies amabilis, nat. size.

shrouded this fine species was unveiled by the energy of the American
botanists, Doctors Engelniann and Parry and Professor Sargent who,
while investigating the forests of the Pacific coast during the summer
and autumn of 1880 re-discovered it on the Silver Mountain near
Fort Hope on the Eraser river at an altitude of 4,000 to 5,500 feet,
and again shortly afterwards by Professor Sargent on the same classic

492 ABIES BALSAMEA.

ground on which Douglas, fifty-five years before, had discovered both
this Fir and Aides tioMlis. Steps were immediately taken to secure a
supply of seed, of which a good quantity subsequently reached England,
and many young trees raised from it have been planted in various
parts of Great Britain of which those in the north and west are
reported to be generally thriving satisfactorily.

Abies balsamea.

A slender tree 30 — 60 or more feet high, the trunk rarely exceeding
2 feet in diameter near the base, frequently much less, and when full
grown usually denuded of branches for more than one-half of the height ;
at its highest vertical elevation and extreme northern limit, reduced
to a low prostrate shrub. Bark greyish brown with numerous resin
warts irregularly scattered over it. Branches comparatively short,
slender and spreading. Branchlets distichous and mostly opposite, the
youngest shoots pubescent. Buds small, globose or sub-conic, usually
covered with a film of whitish resin. Leaves persistent three — four
years, narrowly linear, obtuse or occasionally emarginate, 0*5 — 1 inch
long, pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks, bright green above, with
two whitish stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers axillary,
cylindric, 0'25 inch long, pale yellow tinged with red. Cones sessile,
cylindric, 3—4 inches long and about an inch in diameter, at first
violet-blue but sometimes olive-green, changing to dull brown when
mature ; scales clawed, obovate-cuneate, about 0'75 inch long and as
much broad with entire outer margin ; bracts oblong, abruptly mucronate,
usually shorter than the scales. Seeds small and angular.

Abies balsamea, Miller, Diet. ed. VIII. No. 3 (1768). Richard, Mem sur les
Conif. 74, t. 16 (1826). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 109, t. 37 (1839). Link in
Linnrea, XV. 530. Carriere, Traite Oouif. ed. II. 292 McNab in Proceed. R.
Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 684, fig. 11. Hoopes, Evergreens, 197, with fig. Macoun,
Cat. Canad. Plants, 473. Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 189 ; and
Gard. Chron. XVII. ser. 3 (1895), p. 423, with figs. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 464.
Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 107, t. 610.

A. balsamifera, Michaux, Hist. Arb. N". Amer. I. 145, t. 14 (in part, 1810).

Picea balsamea, London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2339, with figs. (1838).
Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 200.

Pinns balsamea, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1002 (1753). Lambert, Genus Pinus, I.
t. 31 (1803). Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 103. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 423.

Eng. and Amer. Balsam Fir, Balm of Gilead Fir. Fr. Baumier de Gilead.
Germ. Balsam Tanne. Ital. Abete balsamico.

var. — hudsonica.

A dwarf dense shrub of spreading habit, rarely exceeding a yard in
height. Branches close set ; branchlets usually very short ; leaves
broader, shorter and of a darker green than in the type.

A. balsamea hudsonica, Engelmann in Trans. St. Louis Acad. III. 597.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 468. A. Fraseri hudsonica, Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 217. Picea Fraseri hudsonica, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 206.

var.— macrocarpa.

The lower branches more persistent, the leaves longer and more
crowded, and the cones larger than in the common form.
A. balsamea macrocarpa, Garden and Forest, V. 274 ; and X. 510.

ABIES BRACTEATA. 493

Abies balsamea is one of the most widely distributed of the North
American Silver Firs. Its northern limit, according to Professor
Macoun, may be roughly indicated by a line drawn obliquely frcm
James' Bay to Lake Athabasca ; it is very abundant throughout the
eastern provinces of the Dominion from Newfoundland to Lake
Superior ; southwards it spreads through the northern States to
Pennsylvania and through Minnesota to north-eastern Iowa ; also
along the Alleghany mountains to the high peaks of Virginia
Over this extensive area the tree is found to be fairly constant
except in dimensions which, as with other species of Abies, are often
much modified by climate, environment and altitude. Abies balsamea
is for the most part a swamp tree, " it seems to need a constant
supply of water at the roots, as many die in exceptionally dry seasons."

Abies balsamea was introduced into Great Britain by Bishop Compton
in 1698,t but it has long since been proved to be unsuitable for the
comparatively dry climate of England, and even in the more humid
districts of Scotland and Ireland where the best specimens of it are
to be seen, it is short-lived and possesses no qualities that would
recommend it for arboriculture! purposes. The variety hudsonica is a
sterile form whose origin is unknown ; it is recommended by horticul-
turists both British and American as a distinct plant for the rock
garden. The variety maerocarpa was discovered in Wisconsin by the
late Robert Douglas of Waukegan, and is said to be superior to the
common form as an ornamental tree for the north-eastern States. Xine
other varieties are described by Beissner, none of which are probably
in cultivation in this country.

The most useful economic product of the Balsam Fir is the resinous
secretion with which its vernacular name is associated and known as
Canada Balsam, an aromatic liquid formerly much used in medicine
but now chiefly for mounting objects for microscopic examination. The
gathering of Canada Balsam at the present time is carried on in the
province of Quebec, only by the poorest people who camp in the
woods from the middle of June until the middle of August. Small
iron cans are used furnished at the top with an iron tube sharpened
at the end; the tube is pressed against the resin blister, punctures
it, and the gum flows down the tube into the can. The yield of a
large tree is about one pound, but the average yield is not more than
half a pound.:}: The timber of Abies balsamea is practically worthless,
and is used for temporary purposes only where the tree is abundant ;
the wood is light, of little strength, coarse-grained, and decays rapidly
on exposure to the weather.

Abies bracteata.

A lofty tree attaining a height of 100 — 150 or more feet, the
trunk slender in proportion to height with a diameter of not more
than 2 — 4 feet near the base, and when isolated feathered with
branches from near the ground upwards, forming in outline an elongated

* Catalo<nie of Canadian Plants, p. 473. t Hortns Kewensis, ed. II. Vol. V. p. 320.
+ Silva of North America, Vol. XII, p. 109.

494 ABIES BKACTEATA.

spire ; in Great Britain the oldest trees have a more conical outline.
Bark of trunk greyish brown, rugose but rarely fissured. Branches
spreading or slightly ascending with distichous ramification. Branchlets
opposite and rigid, with light reddish brown bark obscurely and
obliquely fluted by cortical outgrowths. Buds subfusiform, acute, about
075 inch long, the perular scales ovate-lanceolate, closely imbricated

Fig. 127. Foliage of Abies bracteata. Natural size.

and whitish brown. Leaves persistent seven — nine years, linear, acute>r
spine-tipped, 1'75— 2 '5 inches long, spirally inserted on the axis; those-
on the lower sterile branches owing to a twist of the short petiole
pseudo-distichous in two ranks ; on the upper fertile branches spreading;
on all sides and often falcately curved ; dark lustrous green above,,
with two glaucous stomatiferous bands beneath. Staminate flowers*
axillary on the under side of the branchlets, cylindric, 0*75 — 1*25 inch
long, surrounded at the base by oval, pergameneous, whitish brown
involucral scales in two imbricated series ; anthers pale lemon-yellow
* Communicated by Mr. Harding from Orton Hall, Peterboi'ougliJ

ABIES BKACTEATA.

495

with a small spur projecting from the dorsal side. Cones solitary
erect, ovoid-globose, 2'25— 3«5 inches long and 1-75—2-25 inches broad •
scales transversely roundish oblong or sub-reniform, less than an inch IOM
J-6 inch broad, with a cuneate claw and incurved at the apical
margin; bract oblong-cuneate, adnate to the scale to beyond the middle,
then contracted to a projecting linear, rigid spine about 2 inches lone.-'
sometimes curved. Seed wings sub-quadrate, nearly as broad as lone.-

Fig. 128 Cone of Abies bracteato..

Abies bracteata, Nuttall, Sylva N. Amer. III. 137, t. 118 (1849). Hooker, W.
Boc. Mag. t. 4740 (1853). Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1853, p. 435. Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 265. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 674, fig. 1.
Engelmann in Gard. Chron. IX. (1878), p. 334 ; XII. (1879), p. 684 ; and Brewer
and Watson's Bot. Calitbr. II. 118. Masters in Gard. Chron. V. ser. 3 (1889),
p. 242, with fig. ; VII. ser. 3 (1890), p. 672, with fig. ; and Journ. R Hort. Soc.
XIV. 199. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 488, with fig.

A. venusta, Koch. Dendrol. II. 210 (1873). Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 129,
tt. 615, 616.

Picea bracteata, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2348, Avith tig. (1838). Gordon.,
Pinet. ed. II. 202. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II. 171, tt. 25, 26, Avith figs. Coleman
in The Garden, XXXV. (1889), p. 12, Avith fig.

Pinus bracteata, Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. XVII. 442 (1837). Lambert, Genus Pinus,
III. 169, t. 91. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 89. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 419.

P. venusta, Douglas in Comp. Bot. Mag. II. 152, nomen nudum (1836).

Eng. Santa Lucia Fir. Amer. Bristle-coned Fir. Fr. Sapin h bractees,
Germ. Santa Lucia Tanne. Ital. Abete di Santa Lucia.

Alias bradeata at Eastnor Castle, Ledbury.

ABIES BIIACTEATA. 497

Abies bracteata is the most remarkable of all the Silver Firs ;
its strict but stately habit, its massive deep green foliage, its singular
cones, and especially its extremely restricted habitat, have invested
it with an especial interest both for botanists and for horticulturists.
Its only known habitat is on the outer western ridge of the
Santa Lucia mountains in south California, where at the present time
" it grows only in a few isolated groves scattered along the moist bottoms
of canons, usually at elevations of about 3,000 feet above sea-level."

This Fir was first described by David Don in the "Transactions of
the Linnean Society," loc. cit supra, from herbarium specimens gathered
by Dr. Thomas Coulter, to whom he wrongly assigned the merit of
being the discoverer of the tree, a statement unfortunately accepted by
most subsequent authors. The original discoverer was the intrepid
Scotch explorer, David Douglas, during his mission to south California
in 1830 — 1832,* while in the service of the Horticultural Society
of London. Neither Douglas nor Coulter collected seeds of Abies
bracteata, and when Theodor Hartweg, also in the service of the
Horticultural Society of London, arrived at Monterey in 1846 for the
express purpose of collecting seeds of this and other Californian Conifers,
and had made his way to the Santa Lucia, he found the cones but
half grown and frost-bitten, and his attempt to introduce it into
European gardens was accordingly frustrated. Six years later, William
Lobb, during his mission to the same region for the Veitchian firm,
by great exertions obtained a supply of seeds which he transmitted to
Exeter in 1853 ; f from these seeds originated all the oldest trees of
Abies bracteata now growing in Europe. For upwards of thirty years
afterwards all attempts to procure a further supply of seeds proved
futile, and it is only quite recently that the Californian seed collectors
have succeeded in obtaining from time to time very limited supplies
which, in consequence of the gradual extermination of the trees by
the fires which are frequent in the forests of the dry coast ranges of
south California, may eventually cease altogether. J

In all the places in Great Britain where Abies bracteata has
attained its greatest dimensions unscathed by the severe winters that
occur at intervals in this climate, it is as strikingly beautiful as it has
been represented to be on the Santa Lucia, and so distinct that no
Silver Fir can be more easily detected amidst its surroundings even at
a distance. It is hardy in the southern and western counties of

* See Sir William Hooker's Memoir of Douglas in the "Companion to the Botanical
Magazine/' Vol. II. By a comparison of dates it will be seen that Douglas arrived at
Monterey in December 1830, but Dr. Coulter did not arrive till the following November ;
it was in the interim that Douglas discovered Abies bracteata.

t Since Lobb's excursion to the Santa Lucia, the greater part of, if not all, the trees seen
by him along the summit of the central ridge, arid of which he sent an account to the
late Mr. James Veitch (afterwards published in the Botanical Magazine), have been
destroyed by the forest fires.

I In view of the threatened extinction of this noble tree in its native home, I append
a list of all the finest specimens in Great Britain known to me, in the hope that the
owners will not allow the seeds that may hereafter be produced by them to be wasted or
lost. Boconnoc, Cornwall ; Castlewellan, Co. Down ; Castle Kennedy, Wigtownshire ;
Eastnor Castle, Ledbury (2) ; Fonthill Abbey, Wilts ; Fota Island, Cork ; Highnam Court,
Gloucester ; Kenfield Hall, Canterbury ; Kinnettles, Forfar ; Newcourt, Exeter ; Orton Hall,
Peterborough ; Possingworth, Sussex : Streatham Hall, Exeter (2) ; Tortworth Court,
Gloucestershire (2) ; Upcott, Barnstaple ; Warnham Court, Horsham.

KK

498 ABIES CEPHALONICA.

England, in parts of Scotland and -in Ireland ; in some localities it
has been reported to have been injured by late spring frosts which
have destroyed the young growths that usually appear early in the season.

Abies cephalonica.

A stately medium-sized tree 50 — 60 or more feet high, with widely
spreading branches that frequently attain a greater length in proportion
to height of trunk than in any other Abies. Trunk 2 '5 — 3 feet in
diameter, slightly tapering upwards and covered with greyish brown bark
fissured into small oblong plates. Branches horizontal, the lowermost
usually deflexed and sweeping the ground. Branchlets distichous and
opposite but not infrequently in pseudo-whorls of three — four ; bark
reddish brown and striated ; that of the youngest shoots fluted by
shallow cortical outgrowths. Buds globose, conic, sub-acute, 0'5 inch
long, with red-brown perular scales often covered with a film of
translucent resin. Leaves persistent seven — nine years, spirally arranged
around the branchlets, shortly petiolate ; on the lower sterile branchlets
and on young trees, linear, flattened, somewhat dagger-shaped, spine-
tipped, 0'75 — 1*25 inch long, and pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks;
on the higher fertile branchlets and on vigorous shoots, thicker,
pungent, often falcately curved and spreading from all sides of their
axis ; dark lustrous green with a shallow median groove above,
• paler with a stomatiferous band on each side of the relatively broad
midrib below. Staminate flowers crowded along the under side of
the branchlets, broadly cylindric, obtuse, 0*5 — 0*75 inch long, dark
claret-red, surrounded at the base by numerous broadly ovate involucral
bracts. Cones subsessile, solitary or two — three together, cylindric,
obtuse, 5 — 7 inches long and 1 *5 — 2 inches in diameter ; scales broadly
wedge-shaped, suddenly contracted into a slender claw, the apical
margin rounded and entire ; bracts longer than the scales, linear with
a sub-quadrate expansion near the apex and terminating in a reflexed
macro. Seed- wings oblong, truncate, nearly as long as the scale.

Abies ceplialonica, London, Arb. et Frnt. Brit. IV. 2325, with figs. (1838).
Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 119, t. 42 (1839). Link in Linnsea, XV. 529 (1841).
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 283 McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser 2,
695, figs. 24, 25. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXII. (1884), p. 590, with fig.;
and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 190. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 702. Willkomm,
Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 132. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 438.

Picea cephalonica, London, Encycl. of Trees, 1039, with figs. (1842). Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 203. Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II. 175, t. 27, and figs.

Piuus cephalonica, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 98.

P. Abies var. cephalonica, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 422.

Eng. Greek Fir. Germ. Cephalonische-We;sstanne. Gr. EXarog,

var.— Apollinis.

Trunk more slender ; branches shorter with the branchlets more
constantly distichous. Leaves longer, narrower, less rigid and more
distinctly pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks.*

A. cephalonica Apollinis Beissner, Nadelholzk. 440. A. Apollinis, Link in
Linnsea, XV. 528. Picea Apollinis, Lawson, Pinet. Brit. II. 167, t. 24. Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 197. Pinus Abies Apollinis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 96. Abies
cephalonica parnassica, Willkomm. Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 13 A. Reginse Amalise
Heldreich in Regel's Gartenfl. i860, p. 113 ; and 1861, p. 286, with fig.
Seemann in Gard. Chron. 1861, p. 755. A. panachaica, Heldreich. And others.
* As seen in Great Britain, but some of the differences here noted are not always very
clearly in evidence.

ABIES CEPHALONICA. 499

The Abies described above grows spontaneously on all the higher
mountains of Greece from Thessaly southwards to Lagonia in the
Peloponnesus, at elevations ranging from 2,500 to 5,000 feet, either
forming pure forests or mixed with Pinus Laricio, P. Pinaster and
F(t(jn.s sylvatica ; it also occurs on Mount Enos in Cephalonica, and
to this insular locality it owes its present name. Its botanical
history may be thus briefly sketched : —

The presence of this Fir in Greece has been known from remote
antiquity as it is unquestionably the 'EXar?/ // apprjv of Theophrastus.
By the older botanists of modern times it was believed to be the
common Silver Fir Abies pectinata. In 1824, at the request of Mr.
Henry H. Long of Hampton Lodge, near Farnham, who was desirous of
knowing the species of Pine described by ancient writers under the
names of TTEVKY] and eXarr), General Charles James Xapier, at that time
Governor of Cephalonica, sent a packet of seeds of the Fir growing on
Mount Enos to the care of his sister Lady Eunbury. The packet was
•duly forwarded to Hampton Lodge, but some seeds having dropped
from it, Lady Bunbury gave these to Mr. Charles Hoare of Luscombe.*
The seedlings raised both at Hampton Lodge and Luscombe were
found some years later to differ considerably from the common Silver
Fir, and they were named Abies cephalonica by London who first
published the species. In 1838 Professor Link, of Berlin, made the
ascent of Mount Parnassus which lie found covered towards the summit
•on all sides with a forest of Firs of which he gathered herbarium
specimens, cones and seeds. The seeds germinated in the Berlin
Botanic Garden, and finding that the plants differed from Abies pedinata
he described the Mount Parnassus Fir in " Linnaea " as a new species
under the name of A. Apollinis. Endlicher took up this name for
the same tree, but reduced it to a variety of A. pedinata as Parlatore
•did twenty years later with the A. cephalonica of London. About the
year 1856 Herr Schmidt, Director of the Royal Gardens at Athens,
•during a botanical excursion in the Peloponnesus, detected an Abies in
Arcadia which Professor Heldreich described in Hegel's " Gartenflora "
for 1860 as a new species under the name of A. Regime Amalite, in
•compliment to the former Queen of Greece who was a liberal patroness
of horticulture; and in 1861, in an article on the Firs of Greece
in the same publication, Professor Heldreich adopts as species A. cepha-
lonica, A. Apollinis and A. Reyince Amaliw, and adds to these a fourth
which lie calls A. panachaica ; plants under all these names were
subsequently distributed from German nurseries. Whatever morphological
differences may be detected in trees growing in different localities
in Greece, the perfect identity in the shape and structure of
the staminate flowers and cones of all of them indicate but too surely
that they cannot be specifically separated. In British gardens only
two forms are found differing from each other sufficiently to require
separate notice — the insular form here recognised as the type, and the
continental form reduced to a variety of it as Apollinis. f

* London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, Vol. IV. p. 2328.

t Both Willkomni and Beissner accept Regince Amalice as a variety distinct from
Apollinis on the ground that the stem is more slender, the leaves shorter and not so stiff,
and the cones smaller.

500 ABIES CILICICA.

Abies cephalonica is hardy over the greater part of Great Britain,,
but owing to its starting into growth early in the season it is
liable under certain circumstances of locality and environment to
injury by late spring frosts. The rate of growth varies with the
locality, being greater in Devon, Cornwall and the south' of Ireland than
in Yorkshire and north of the Tweed. Many fine specimens scattered
over the country * attest its value as an ornamental tree for the
park and landscape, and even for the lawn if sufficient space can
be allowed for it, which should not be less than a radius of
twenty-five to thirty feet from the bole. Scarcely anything is recorded
of the quality of the timber, which may be assumed to be much the
same as that of A. pectinata.

Abies cilicica.

A tall slender tree with a trunk over 100 feet high and not more
than 2 — 2 '5 feet in diameter near the ground, and when standing
alone branched from the base upwards ; f the average height probably
ranges from 60 — 90 feet but much less at its highest vertical limit;,
the trunk of old trees covered with deeply fissured, ash-brown bark.
Branches in rather close-set pseudo-whorls, the lowermost horizontal,
those above ascending. Branchlets distichous, J mostly opposite, covered
with pale brown, striated bark. Buds cylindric-conic with yellow-brown
perular scales. Leaves persistent five — six years, narrowly linear, obtuse
or sub-acute, 0*5 — 1*75 inch long, spirally inserted, those on the upper
side of the branches inclined forwards almost parallel to the axis ;,
those on the under side irregularly distichous in two — three ranks,
dark lustrous green with a median groove above and with a narrow
whitish stomatiferous band on each side of the thickened midrib beneath.
Cones among the largest in the genus, shortly stalked, cylindric,
slightly tapering towards the apex, 7 — 9 inches long and 1*5 — 2 inches
in diameter; scales broadly fan-shaped, contracted at the base into a.
short claw, the apical margin entire ; bracts half as long as the scales,
narrowly spathulate with the mid-nerve prolonged into an acuminate point.
Seeds angular with an orbicular cuneate wing.

Abies cilicica, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. I. 229 (1855) ; and ed. II. 307 (1867).
McNab, Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 694, fig 23. Boissier, Fl, orient V.
703. Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 109. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 448, with fig.
Masters in Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 190.

Picea cilicica, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 214.

Pinus cilicica. Kotschy in Oesterr. Bot. Wochenbl. 1853, p. 409. Parlatore,.
D. C. Prodr. XVI. 422.

Eng. Cilician Fir. Germ. Cilicische Weisstanne. Ital. Abete della Cilicia.
Vernacular, Illedeii.

The Cilician Fir inhabits the mountain system of Asia Minor
known under the general name of Taurus on which it has a vertical.

* Notably at Boconnoc and Carclew in Cornwall, Bicton and Powderham Castle in
Devonshire, Dropmore in Bucks, Lin ton Park in Kent, Studley Royal in Yorkshire,.
Rossdhu in Dumbartonshire, Whittinghame in East Lothian, Hamwood in Co. Meath.

t Walter Siehe in Gartenflora, 1897, p. 182.

J Communicated by Mr. Cruden from Castle Kennedy, Wigtownshire.

ABIES CONCOLOE. 501

.range at altitudes varying from 4,000 to 6,500 feet, but the precise

limits of its distribution have not yet been ascertained ; these limits

may, however, be assumed to be nearly conterminous with those of

the Cedar of Lebanon with which it is associated wherever met

with. On the southern slopes of Bulghar Dagh and on the north

side of Gulleck in Cilicia it forms pure forests of considerable

extent, becoming mixed at its highest vertical limit with Cedrus Libani

and in places with Pinus Laricio and Juniper us excelsa, and at its

lower limit with an undergrowth consisting chiefly of Daphne oleoides,

and where honeysuckles twine around the stem and mistletoe is

parasitical on the branches.* It is also known to occur on Berytdah

and Lebanon in northern Palestine f and it may not improbably be

found on the coast range connecting these with the Cilician Taurus.

Abies cilieica was discovered in 1853 by the Austrian botanical

explorer Theodor Kotschy, by whom it was introduced into European

gardens. In the following year, seeds of a new species of Abies,

subsequently proved to be A. cilicica, were received at the Museum

d'Histoire Naturelle at Paris from the French; Consul at Saida (the

ancient Sidon), and later, a further supply was brought from the same

region by a French traveller named Balansa.| All who have seen the

Cilician Fir in its native home describe it as one of the most

picturesque of the genus, an encomium confirmed to a great extent by

the best specimens growing on the Continent and in Great Britain,

but it is still comparatively rare in this country ; it does not grow

satisfactorily in the neighbourhood of London nor in the drier climate

of the midland and eastern counties even where the Cedar of Lebanon

thrives ; it starts too early into growth after a mild winter and the

young shoots are often killed by late spring frosts. The best specimens

known to the author are at Castle Kennedy in Wigtownshire (over

30 feet high), at Rossdhu in Dumbartonshire and in the Royal

Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin, Dublin. §

Abies concolor.

A tall tree but varying greatly in dimensions throughout the
extensive area over which it is spread ; in the more humid climate
of the California!! Sierras trees are found 200 — 250 feet high ; in the
drier region of Colorado and Utah they rarely exceed 100 feet. Bark
of oldest trees in Great Britain fissured into small, irregular, greyish
plates with broad interspaces exposing a rough, reddish brown inner
•cortex. Branches horizontal or slightly depressed ; ramification distichous
-find opposite with an occasional adventitious weaker growth beneath
the normal pair of branchlets. Bark of branchlets smooth, light-brown,
paler and pubescent on the herbaceous shoots. Buds ovoid-conic with

* Walter Siehe in Gartenflora, 1897, p. 182.
t Boissier, Flora Orientalis, V. p. 703.
J Carriere in Flore des Serres, Vol. XI. p. 67.

§ Very tine specimens of Abies cilicica are reported to be growing at Wellesly,
Massachusetts ; on the island of Scharfenberg near Berlin, and Pallanza in Italy.

502

ABIES CONCOLOR.

closely imbricated, chestnut-brown perulse. Leaves persistent five — seven
years, spirally inserted but on the lower sterile branches twisted at the

base so as to point later-
ally on both sides in
two ranks, linear, obtuse
or emarginate, 1*5 — 2 inches
long, light glaucous green
with a depressed median
line above, with a pale
stomatiferous band on each
side of the thickened midrib
below ; on the fertile
branches shorter, thicker
and curved upwards and
inwards. Staminate flowers
axillary along the under
side of the shoots, stipitate,
cylindric, 0'5 — 0'75 inch
long, light violet-pink ; in-
volucral bracts few, broadly
ovate. Cones cylindric,
obtuse, 3 — 5 inches long
and about 1 *5 —2 inches
in diameter, sometimes green,.
sometimes violet bef ore-
maturity ; scales transversely
roundish oblong, gradually
narrowed to a short, wedge-
shaped claw ; bracts a
little longer than the claw,
dilated from a cuneate base
into a rectangular den-
ticulate blade with a
mucro on the apical margin.
Seed wings large, sub-quad-
rate, reaching almost to
the ede of the scale.

Fig. 129. Cone of Abies concolor.
Rocky Mountains type.

(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

Abies concolor, Lindley and Gordon in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. V. 210, name
only (1850). Engelmaim in Card. Chron. IX. (1878), p. 334 ; XII. (1879),
p. 684, with figs. ; and in Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 118. McNab-
in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 681, fig. 6. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc.
XXII. 177, with figs. ; in Gard. Chron. VIII. ser. 3 (1890), p 748, with fig. ; and
in Journ. R. Hort Soc. XIV. 191. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 470, with figs.

Picea concolor, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 216 (1875)

Pinus concolor, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 426 (1868).

Eng. Colorado Silver Fir. Anier. White Fir. Germ. Californische Weisstanne,.
Gleichfarbige Weisstanne.

var. Lowiana.

Leaves of the sterile branchlets usually longer than in the Colorado
type ; of a darker green and not glaucescent on the upper side ; with
two pale stomatiferous lines beneath and spreading in two ranks on each
side of the axis almost in a flat horizontal plane as in Abies <jrandis>
2 — 3 inches long on vigorous young trees growing in Great Britain. Cones
somewhat larger and scarcely distinguishable from those of A. grandis.

ABIES CONCOLOR. 503

A. concolor van Lowiana, Lemmon, West Anier. Cone Bearers, 64 (1895).
A. Lowiana, Murray in Proceed. R. Hort. Soc. III. 317, with fig. (1863). A. grandisj
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 297 (in part). A. grandis var. Lowiana, Masters
in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII 175. Picea Lowiana, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 218.
P. lasiocarpa, Hort not Hooker. P. Parsonsiana, Hort.

Abies concolor next to A. lasiocarpa has a more extensive

geographical range than any of the American Abies whose habitat is

west of the Rocky Mountains. It occurs on the mountains of New

Mexico near Santa Fe, where it was first discovered by Fendler in

1847, and also in the Pike's Peak region in Colorado its eastern

limit ; it thence spreads westwards along the mountains of Arizona,

Utah and Nevada to California ; it is common on most of the

mountain ranges of the last-named State at 3,500 to 8,000 feet

elevation from the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains

northwards to southern Oregon its northern limit. Throughout this

great region Abies concolor can almost always be readily recognised by

the grey bark of its trunk and the pale colour of its foliage whatever

may be the altitude and the climatic conditions under which it is

growing. These conditions vary considerably between the eastern

and western limits ; on the mountain sides of Colorado the winters

are as severe as at New York ; on the western slopes of the Sierra

Nevada at the altitude at which this Fir grows, the climate is not

very different from that of the midlands of England ; whilst on

the San Bernardino in south California it approaches that of the

south of France. Spread over so extensive an area, and growing

under such diverse conditions it is not surprising that Abies concolor

should be found to vary in the dimensions of trunk, in the length

and disposition of the leaves and in the size of the cones, and

therefore that the tree should have received different names according

as it was introduced from different localities. The identity of the

species throughout the region has been satisfactorily established by

the American botanists who have explored it, and the tangled synonymy

with which the tree became encumbered and the superfluous names

still in use in many places should be allowed to sink into oblivion-

Abies concolor was introduced from the Sierra Nevada of California

by the Yeitchian Firm at Exeter through William Lobh in 1851, and

about the same time seeds were sent from southern Oregon to the

Scottish Oregon Association by their collector John Jeffrey ; * both

collectors sent their consignments under the name of Abies </ran>!/.<

The plants raised in the Exeter nursery were distributed tinder the

name of A. lasiocarpa in the belief that they were the species so

named by Sir William Hooker ; those raised in the Edinburgh Botanic

Garden for the Scottish Association were distributed among the memlwrs

as A. f/randis. In 1857 seeds were received from California by

Messrs. Low of Clapton, and the plants raised from them were named

Picea Lowiana by Gordon and were distributed under that name.

* James McNab in The Garden, Vol. I. p. 464.

Abies concolor at Highnam Court, Gloucester.

ABIES CONCOLOIl. 505

Some time afterwards Mr. Ban-on of Borrowash distributed another
batch of seedlings under the name of A. Parsomiana ; and lastly the
Colorado form found its way into European gardens under the iiaiiH-s
of A. concolor and A. concolor violacea. With respect to the so-called
variety violacea the following extract from the American "Garden and
Forest " * should finally dispose of it :— " In the forests of Colorado
green cones and purple cones are produced on trees standing side by
side and indistinguishable except in this one particular. It is not
known even if the same tree produces permanently the same coloured
cones, or whether they are not in some years green and in others
purple."

For British parks and pleasure grounds A hies concolor is one of
the handsomest and most valuable of Silver Firs; in outline it is
almost strictly conical, the sky-line scarcely broken by projecting
branches; the branches with their appendages spread horizontally in
frond-like, almost tabuliform tiers one above the other, gradually
diminishing in length from the base to the summit. It is perfectly
hardy, the severest winters have not been known to affect it; but
to secure good specimens a space with a radius not less than twenty to
twenty-five feet should be allowed for it.t As an ornamental tree it is
scarcely less valuable in the more trying climate of the New
England and Middle States of North America where it is almost
the only West American Fir that can be satisfactorily cultivated. The
wood is very light, soft, and coarse-grained, neither strong nor durable.
It is only occasionally used in the western States where other
timber is scarce.

The nearest affinity of Abies concolor is A. grandis, so near indeed
that intermediate forms have been observed that may with equal right
be referred to either; among such is one which grows on the mountains
of southern Oregon which is probably that introduced by Jeffrey. In
Great Britain the two are for the most part easily distinguishable ; the
growth of Abies grandis is generally more rapid, its branches longer
and more slender, and its leaves shorter, more decidedly pectinate in
arrangement on the sterile branches and darker in colour. From a
scientific standpoint these characteristics may be considered insufficient to
establish a specific distinction between the two, especially as scarcely any
other differences between them can be detected; the one, A. concolor, is
an inhabitant of the mountains, and the other, A. grandis, of the plains. J

* Vol. IV. (1891), p. 28.

t In his great work "The Silva of North America," Professor Sargent states that of the
Fir trees of North America Abies concolor best endures heat and dryness. and is able to
grow on arid mountain slopes where few other trees can maintain a foothold. This is
•eminently suggestive of a more extended use of it in the drier parts of Great Britain
especially of the Rocky Mountains form which thrives so well in the north-east Atlantic
States.

J Other pairs of Abies of which the affinity is so close that the specific rank of the
second member stands on debatable ground are A. nobilis and A. magnifies > A. balsauiea
and A. Fraseri, A. pectinata and A. wphalonica, A. Webbiana and A. Pindrow, A.
Veitchii and A. sachalanensis. If the specific rank of the second member of the pairs here
enumerated is made to depend on the characters afforded by a single organ there is ample
room for doubt, but if the trees are looked at from every possible point of view, the rank
must be conceded.

506

ABIES FIRMA.

Abies flrma.

A tall tree often attaining a height of 120 feet under cultivation,
with an open head of irregular outline, the trunk 4 — 6 feet in
diameter covered with greyish bark fissured into small plates. In
Great Britain the bark of the oldest trees is pale brown with numerous
transverse wrinkles. Branchlets distichous and opposite with an
occasional adventitious weaker growth beneath the normal pair. Buds small,

A B

Fig. 130. Foliage of Abies finna. A, sterile— B, fertile branchlet.

ovoid-globose with ovate, chestnut-brown perular scales. Leaves persistent
seven — nine years, narrowly linear-lanceolate, 0*5 — 175 inch long,
spirally inserted ; on the lower sterile branches bifid at . the apex,
pungent and pseudo-distichous in three — four ranks ; on the upper
fertile branches incurved with an obtuse or emarginate apex ; dark lustrous
green with a shallow median groove above, paler and faintly glaucescent
along the stomatiferous bands below. Staminate flowers * numerous
along the under side of short lateral and terminal branchlets, ovoid-
conic, 0*5 inch long, surrounded at the base by broadly ovate, scale-
like involucral bracts in two — three series. Cones cylindric or conic-
cylindric, variable in size, 4 — 6 inches long and 1 '5 — 2 inches in
diameter ; scales transversely reniform, suddenly contracted on the

* Communicated from Tortworth Court, Gloucestershire.

ABIES FIRMA.

507

basiil side to a short cuneate claw; bracts linear spathulate, longer
than the scale and terminating in an acuminate mucro. Seed wings
broadly obovate-cuneate.

Abies tirma, Siebold and Zuccaiim, Fl. Jap. II. 15, t. 107 (1842). Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. II. 286. Murray, Pines and Firs of Japan, 53, with figs,
McXab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 686, tig. 14. Masters in Journ.
Linn. Soc. XVIII. 514 ; Gard. Chron. XII. (1879), p. 198 ; and Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 191. Beissner, Nadelbokk. 450. with tig. Mayr, Abiet des Jap.
Reiches, 34, Tafel I. tig. 2.

A. bifida, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 18 t. 109 (1842). Carriere Traite"
Conif. ed. II. 289.

A unibellata, Mayr, Abiet. des Jap. Reiches, 31, Tafel I. fig. 1 (1890).

Picea firma, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 284.

Pinus tirrna, Endlicher, Synops, Conif. 99. Paiiatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 424.

Eug. Japanese Silver Fir. Germ. Japanische Weisstanne. Jap. Monii, To-momi.

Abies firma is the largest and handsomest of the Japanese Abies,
much resembling the European A. pectinata in habit and aspect.

Kequiring generally a higher average
temperature than the European
Silver Fir, A, firma scarcely exceeds
it in average height, although
individual trees of gigantic
dimensions are frequent owing
to the preference given to it for
planting in temple enclosures in
which trees upwards of 150 feet
high have been observed, wrhen it
usually takes the form represented
in the accompanying illustration.
It is only in enclosed places, or
where crowded with other trees,
that A. Jirmz, forms a straight
tapering shaft ; in more open places
the trunk is often bent and irregu-
larly branched. According to Mayr
its habitat is within the warmer
temperate region of Japan lying
between the thirty - fourth and
thirty - sixth parallels of north
latitude where it is still to be
found wild in the less accessible districts in small groves or standing
singly in the • midst of deciduous trees. Its vertical range varies
considerably ; at its northern limit it ascends no higher than
700 feet, whilst at its southern limit it is found at nearly
7,000 feet above sea-level. Everywhere else it has been planted as an
ornamental tree in parks, gardens and temple enclosures as far north
as the fortieth parallel beyond which it is not seen. As it
was detected by Mr. James H. Veitch in southern Corea it is

Fig. 13]. Abies fir mo, in Japan.

508

ABIES FIRMA.

highly probable that its geographical range is not restricted to Japan,

but that it is also distributed over

a considerable area of the coast

region of the Asiatic continent

far into Amurland if the A.

holopliylla of Maximowicz should

prove to be the same species.

First seen by Thunberg

during his brief stay in

Japan in 1777, but referred

by him to the European

Abies pectinata, A. finna

became definitely known to

science through Siebold and

Zuccarini's description and

figures published in 1842 from

specimens gathered by the first

named author who only saw

trees in cultivation in gardens

at Nagasaki and along the main

road leading from that place to

Tokio. In addition to these

they also published a figure '

and description of a sterile

branchlet under the name, of

A. bifida, in the belief that

it belonged to another species

whence both names came into

use in European gardens for

a time. A. firma was intro-
duced in 1861 by the late

John Gould Veitch, and again

in 1878 by Maries Avho observed

great variability in the foliage

and habit of the cultivated trees.

It has, however, proved dis-
appointing both in Great Britain

and the north-eastern States of

America which may be explained

by Mayr's statement respecting

its habitat.* As a timber tree

Abies Jirma is not much in

repute ; the wood is soft,

straight -grained and easy to

work but not durable ; it is

scarcely distinguishable from

that of A nectinata Fig. 132. Cone of Abies firma from the lowlands

of Hondo.

ft * The best specimens known to me are — at Castle Kennedy, a beautiful tree 35 feet high,
in robust health ; at Hamwood, Co. Meath, a smaller tree but in perfect condition ; at
Tortworth Court, a tree over 30 feet high, but not so well characterised as the two
preceding ones ; and at Carclew, in Cornwall, a tree over 50 feet high that has lost its
lowermost branches from overcrowding.

ABIES FRASEKI. 599

Abies Fraseri,

^ A slender short-lived tree with a trunk rarely attaining a height of
/O feet and a diameter of 2 -5 feet; more commonly 30—40 feet
high and 18—24 inches in diameter near the ground and covered with
greyish brown bark marked with broad shallow fissures. Branches
spreading, slender, rather close-set and ramified distichously. Branchlets
opposite or alternate with pale furrowed bark. Buds ovoid-cylindric, with
small chestnut-brown perulse usually coated with a film of resin.
Leaves persistent four — five years, linear, flat, obtuse or emarginatej
0-25 — 0-75 inch long, spirally inserted on the axis and spreading at
nearly a right angle to it, dark green above, with a pale stomatiferous
band on each side of a distinct midrib below. Staminate flowers
axillary near the tips of the branchlets, numerous, often crowded,
cylindric, O25 inch long, surrounded at the base by a few involucral
bracts. Cones solitary or in clusters of two and three together, ovoid-
cylindric, about two inches long and somewhat more than an inch
broad ; scales orbicular-cuneate with entire apical margin and contracted
on the basal side to a narrow claw ; bract longer than the scale,
oblong-cuneate, mucronate, with lacerated margins and reflexed tip.

Abies Fraseri, Lindley in Penny Cyclop. I. 30 (1833). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn,
111, t. 38. Link in Lmnrea, XV. 531. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 270.
Hoopes, Evergreens, 202. McNab, Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 684, fig. 10.
Sargent in Garden and Forest, II. (1889), p. 472, with fig. ; and Silva N. Amer.
XII. 105, t. 609. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 462. Masters in Card. Chron VIII
ser. 3 (1890), p. 684, with fig. ; and Journ R. Hort. Soc XIV. 191.

Picea Fraseri, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2340, with figs. Gordon Pinet
ed. II. 205.

Pinus Fraseri, Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II. t. 42 (1837). Endlicher
Synops. Conif. 91. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 419.

Eng. Eraser's Fir. Amer. Double Balsam Fir. Germ. Eraser's Balsamtanne.
Ital. Abete di Eraser.

Discovered by the Scotch botanist and collector whose name it
bears so long ago as the first decade of the nineteenth century, it
is remarkable that very little was definitely known of the habitat
of Abies Fraseri till the publication of the article by Professor
Sargent in the " Garden and Forest" quoted above, from which the
following particulars are taken : —

" Abies Fraseri is found only on a few of the highest slopes of
the southern Appalachian mountains of Carolina and Tennessee between
4,000 and 6,000 feet elevation, so that next to A. bracteata it is by
far the most restricted in its distribution of the North American
Abies. The principal forest covers the high slopes of the Black
Mountain range, a lateral spur from the Blue Ridge near Ashville in
North Carolina."

Abies Fraseri was first distributed from the Hammersmith nursery
of Messrs. Lee, shortly after Eraser's death in 1811, but it has now
become extremely rare in British Pineta. The tree is short-lived, and
the original introductions have probably long since disappeared ; moreover
seeds of a variety of A. balsamea with slightly exserted bracts collected
in Pennsylvania have been substituted for it, and plants raised from
these are occasionally met with in nursery and other gardens. Within

510 ABIES GRANDIS.

the last twenty years the true A. Fraseri of Carolina has been
distributed from the Arnold Arboretum, Massachusetts, U.S.A., among
the amateurs of North America and Europe ; it has, however, proved
practically worthless for British arboriculture. The wood is coarse-
grained, not easily worked, and soon decays on exposure to the weather.

JOHN ERASER (1750 — 1811) was a native of Inverness-shire. He came to London in
1770, and having obtained the assistance of Sir J. E. Smith, first President of the Liimean
Society, Mr. Aiton of the Royal Gardens at Kew, and other prominent botanists of that time,
he proceeded to North America to collect plants. He landed in Newfoundland in 1780 where
he remained for some time. In 1785 he went to the southern States with the view of
exploring the Alleghany mountains and neighbouring territory of which little was known
botanically. Here he became cognisant of the wealth of plants suitable for British horticiil-
ture with which the region abounds, and to the introduction of which he may be said to
have devoted the greater part of the remainder of his life. Between 1780 and 1795 he
crossed and re-crossed the Atlantic four times, disposing of his collections on each occasion
to London nurserymen and to amateurs who chose to purchase them. In 1795 he visited
Russia and secured the patronage of the Empress Catherine which was continued by her
successor the Emperor Paul, but it resulted in disastrous consequences to himself. In 1799
accompanied by his son John he again embarked for the southern States, and in the
following year proceeded to Cuba. The vessel was wrecked on a coral reef about eighty
miles from Havana, and after six days of suffering, he, with six of the crew, was picked
up by a Spanish boat and conveyed to Havana where he met the distinguished German
travellers Humboldt and Bonpland, who procured for him permission to explore the island.
Returning to America in 1802, Fraser embarked for England, but misfortune again attended
him, for after being at sea some time the ship sprang a leak, and passengers and crew
were compelled to labour at the pumps night and day till they reached the nearest land.
On arriving in England a still heavier trial awaited him in the intelligence which he received
of the death of his patron the Emperor Paul. He repaired, however, to St. Petersburg to
claim the recompense to which he deemed himself justly entitled, but after months of
disheartening delay his claim was finally rejected by the Emperor Alexander. In 1807
again accompanied by his son John, he undertook another long and perilous journey through
the wild forest region of the southern States, and returned to England in 1810. A short
time previous to his embarkation, while returning from the mountains of Charlestown, his
horse fell and he unfortunately broke several of his ribs, the distance from surgical aid
aggravating the consequences. For several months after reaching London he was confined
to his bed till death released him from his sufferings in April, 1811. Among the plants
introduced by him were Rhododendron catawbieme, .R. (Azalea) calendulaceum, Andromeda
ftoribunda, A. speciosa, A. Catesbcei, Phlox am&na, P. subulate, Sarracenia rubra, and
many others of far greater horticultural value than the Abies that commemorates his
name.

Abies grandis.

A lofty tree, the tallest in the genus, attaining a height of
250 — 300 feet in the valleys of western Oregon and Washington,
but much less on the mountain slopes at its highest vertical limit.
Trunk tapering and slender in proportion to height, 3 — 5 or more feet
in diameter near the ground,* covered with smooth brownish bark.
In Great Britain the bark of the oldest trees is fissured into thin
irregular plates exposing a reddish brown inner cortex. Branches
horizontal or depressed, with smooth striated brown bark. Branchlets
distichous and mostly opposite. Buds small, ovoid-conic, sub-acute,
about 0-25 inch in diameter, with light reddish brown perular scales
often covered with a film of translucent resin. Leaves persistent
five — seven years, linear, obtuse or emarginate, dark lustrous green with
a median groove above, paler with two glaucous stomatiferous bands

* A section of a trunk 317 years old in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington
is 5£ feet in diameter inside the bark.

ABIES GRANDIS. 511

below ; on the lower sterile branches pseudo-distichous, spreading in
double rows at nearly a right angle to the axis almost in a flat
horizontal plane; those in the lower row 1 "75— 2 '25 inches long, those
in the upper one 0*5 — 1 inch long; on the upper fertile branches pointing
in various directions but mostly upwards at a small angle to the
axis and nearly all of equal length. Staminate flowers shortly stipitate,
cylindric, 0'5 inch long, light violet-pink and surrounded at the base by
small, involucral bracts in two — three series. Cones sessile or sub-
sessile, slightly narrowed at the obtuse apex, -4—5 inches long and
1-5 — 2 inches in diameter; scales closely imbricated, crescent-shaped
passing into broadly fan-shaped, incurved along the exposed margin and
shortly clawed ; bracts small, variable in size and shape but always
shorter than the scale, sub-spathulate with an apiculus at the apex.
Seed-wings broadly wedge-shaped.

Abies grandis, Lindley in Penny Cyclop. I. 30 (1833). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn,
123, t. 43 (1839). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 296. McNab in Proceed. R.
Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 678, fig. 4. Engelmami in Gard. Chron. IX. (1878), p. 300 •
XII. (1879), p. 684; and Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 118. Hoopes.
Evergreens, 211. Masters in Gard. Chron. XV. (1881), p. 179 ; Journ. Linn. Soc.
XXII. 174, with figs.; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 192. Beissner, Nadelholzk.
476, with fig.

A. Gordoniana. Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 298 (1857).

Picea grandis, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2347, with figs. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 216.

Pinns grandis, Douglas in Conip. Bot. Mag. II. 147 (1836). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 105. Hooker, W. Fl. Bor. Amer. II 1(53. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 427.

Eng. Tall Silver Fir. Amer. White Fir of Oregon. Germ. Grosse-Weisstanue,
Grosse Kiistentanne.

Abies grandis is a tree of the plains and valleys rather than of
the mountains ; it attains its greatest development in the rich
moist soil of the lowlands of western Washington and Oregon. On
the mountains it nowhere ascends above 4,000 feet, and where this
elevation is reached its dimensions are much reduced. It occurs
in Vancouver Island and British Columbia whence it spreads
southwards in the vicinity of the coast to Mendocino in north
California ; inland it spreads through Oregon and Washington as
far as the Bitter Root mountains of Idaho and the Rocky
Mountains of northern Montana its eastern limit. Its economic
value to the inhabitants of these States is considerable ; the wood
is light, soft and easily worked but not strong ; it is chiefly used
for indoor carpentry, packing cases, cooperage, etc.

Abies grandis was discovered by David Douglas during his excursion
up the Columbia river in 1830, of which mention has been already
made under A. amabilis. He sent seeds to the Horticultural Society
of London, of which very few appear to have germinated, as London
mentions that there was but one plant, a foot high, in the Society's
garden at Chiswick in 1837, but others had been distributed among
the Fellows.* No more seeds of Abies grandis were received in this
country for nearly a quarter of a century. In 1851 William Lobb

* Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol. II. ser. 3, p. 376, but I
have been unable to discover any of them, unless the tree at Dropmore is one.

512

ABIES GEANDLS.

made an excursion to the Columbia valley and collected seeds of this
and other coniferous trees which were received at the Veitchian
nursery at Exeter in the following year ; and about the same time
seeds were received by the Scottish Oregon Association from their

collector, John Jeffrey, from
which originated the many fine
specimens growing in Perthshire
and adjacent counties. It is a
singular fact that another quarter
of a century elapsed before any
further consignments of seeds
of A. grandis reached Great
Britain, a circumstance that
can be partly accounted for
by the difficulty of procuring
cones that are produced only
near the tops of lofty trees
over 200 feet high.

In Great Britain Abies
grandis is a fast-growing tree,
its leader shoot increasing in
height annually from 18 to 27
inches according to locality, but
much more in exceptionally
favoured spots such as occur
in parts of Scotland, in Wales
and in Ireland.'* The branches
spread mostly in a horizontal
direction, the tree presenting
in outline the form of an
elongated cone less formal than
A. concolor. As a park and
landscape tree it is one of
the best of the Abies, but
it is less suitable for the
lawn unless a space with a
radius greater than twenty-five
feet can be allowed for it.
The excellent quality of the
timber of A. grandis, its
rapid growth and hardiness,
and its adaptability to many
soils and situations, all point
to it as a suitable tree for
afforesting waste lands in this
country, especially in localities
in which the climatic conditions come nearest to those of Oregon and
British Columbia. The oldest trees in this country are cone-bearing,
and seeds are therefore easily procurable.

* At Riccarton in Midlothian an Abies grandis grew 53 feet in twelve years, or an
average of 4 feet 5 inches annually (Conifer Conference Report, p. 82). Other remarkably
vigorous trees are growing at Penrhyn Castle, Revesby Abbey, Orton Hall, Eastnor Castle,
Madresfield Court, Monk Coniston, Dolphinton, Poltalloch, Castle Menzies, Abercairney,
Mnrthly Castle, The Cairnies, Carton, Curraglmiore, Powerscourt, and many other places.

Fig. 133. Cone of AUes grandis.

ABIES HOMOLEPIS.

Abies homolepis.

A massive mountain tree 70—90 feet high, but occasionally higher at
its lower vertical limit ; in old age with a broad round head, the upper-
most branches longer than those below them. Bark of trunk greyish
brown with broad, shallow fissures exposing a reddish brown inner
cortex. Branchlets rigid, distichous and opposite with an occasional
weaker shoot on the under side of the normal pair ; bark light tawny-
brown distinctly fluted with cortical outgrowths obliquely decurrent from
the pulvini of the leaves. Buds broadly conic with ovate-lanceolate,
chestnut-brown perular scales. Leaves persistent five — seven years,
linear, mucronate or obtuse, 0'75 — 1'25 inch long, spirally inserted but
by a twist of the short petiole pseudo-distichous in three-four ranks,
grass-green with a narrow median groove above, with two white
stomatiferous bands beneath. Cones sessile, variable in size, cylindric,
obtuse, 3—4-5 inches long and 1—175 inch in diameter, at first violet-
purple changing to dark brown when mature ; scales closely imbricated,
reniform with a short, cuneiform claw, the entire outer margin incurved ;
bracts shorter than the scales, spathulate, mucronate with notched margins!
Seed wings broadly obovate.

Abies homolepis, Siebold and Zuccarini, Fl. Jap. II. 17, t. 108 (1842). Carriere,
Traite Conif. ed. I. 215 (1855) ; and ed. II. 290 (1867). Masters in Journ Linn
Soc. XVIII. 518; Gard. Chron. XII. (1879), p. 823. with fig.; and Joiirn. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 192. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap. Reiches, 35, Taf'el II. fig. 3.

A. brachyphylla, Maximowicz, Melanges Biolog. Bull. Acad. St. Petersb. X.
488 (1866). Masters in Gard. Chron. XII. (1879), p. 556, with figs.; Journ.
Linn. Soc. XVIII. 515, with figs.; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 189. Kent in
Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 88, with fig. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 453.

A. Harryana, McNab. in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 689, fig. 16 (1877).

Picea brachyphylla, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 201.

Pinus homolepis, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 101.

P. brachyphylla, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 424.

Eng. Nikko Silver Fir. Germ. Nikko-Tanne. Jap. Take-momi (Mountain-Fir),
Ura-shiro Momi (White beneath).

Abies homolepis is a native of the cooler temperate region of Japan

lying between the thirty-sixth and thirty-eighth parallels of north

latitude. It is abundant on the central mountains in Nikko,

ascending to 5,000 feet, in places forming small stretches of pure

forest, but mostly "scattered singly or in small groups through

the birch and oak woods just below the belt of Hemlock Firs."

The wood, which much resembles that of A. firma, is not much

used on account of the inaccessibility of the places where it grows.

Siebold and Zuccarini's figures of this species, including only two

branchlets with foliage and two immature cones, long remained an

enigma. By some authors they were referred to Abies firma ; by

others they were held to represent a distinct species ; whilst others

considered them to belong to the A. Irachypliylla of Maximowicz.

The question was decided in favour of the last named view by

Dr. Heinrich Mayr, the author of the excellent " Monographic der

Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches," during his residence in Japan,

and whose opportunities of observing the trees in situ were far better

than those of any previous European botanist who visited that country.

LL

Abies homolepis at Castlewellan, Co. Down.

ABIES LASIOCARPA.

515

The bracliypliylla of Maximowicz being the more recent name must
therefore sink as a synonym of the older homolepis.

Abies homolepis was introduced into European gardens about the
year 1870. Both in Great Britain and in the north-eastern States of
America it has proved to be one of the hardiest and most rapid
growing of Abies, adding annually from 15 to 24 inches to the height
of the leader shoot according to locality, and forming in a few years
an elegant tree of broadly conical or pyramidal outline. It thrives in
many situations not too much exposed to cold winds, and has
adapted itself to the British climate better than any other Japanese
Abies.

Abies lasiocarpa.

A tall tree with an elongated spire-like top 80 — 100 feet high with
a trunk 2 — 3 feet in diameter ; at its greatest development nearly
double these dimensions and at its northern and highest vertical limits
reduced to a low bush or prostrate shrub. Bark of trunk of young

trees, smooth silvery grey ; of
old trees, divided by shallow
fissures and roughened by
thick closely appressed scales
which are light reddish brown
or nearly white on the surface.
Branches short, crowded, the
lower ones slightly pendulous,
but on old trees the trunk
is bare for nearly half the
height. Branch lets distichous
and mostly opposite with pale
brown rugose bark. Buds
small, globose-conic, with red-
dish brown perular scales.
Leaves linear, crowded, nearly
erect by a twist at their
base, 0-5 — 1'75 inch long,
rounded or emarginate at
the apex, on the fertile
branchlets with a short callous
tip; with a median groove
011 the upper and two
whitish stomatiferous bands
011 the under side. Stami-
na te flowers cylindric, 0'5
— 0-75 inch long with dark
indigo-blue anthers. Cones
oblong - cylindric, rounded,

truncate or depressed at
the narrowed apex, 2 '5 — 4
inches long and 1 — 1'5 inch
in diameter. Scales gradually
narrowed from a broad rounded apex to a short -cuneate base,
iially longer than broad; bracts oblong-obovate, about one-third the

Fig. 134.

A cluster of young cones of Abies lasiocarpa.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

US

516 ABIES MAGNIFICA.

length of the scale, abruptly contracted at the apex into a long
slender tip. Seed wings nearly half as large as the scale. — Sargent,
Silva of North America, XII. 113, t. 611.

Abies lasiocarpa, Nuttall, Sylva III. 138 (1849). McNab in Proceed. R. Irish
Acad. II. ser. 2, 682, fig. 7. Masters in Gard. Chron. V. ser. 3 (1889), p. 172
with figs. ; Joum. Bot. XXVII. 129, with the same figs. ; and Journ. R. Hart!
Soc. XIV. 192.

A. bifolia, Murray in Proceed. R Hort, Soc. III. 320, with fig (1863).

A. subalpina, Engelmann, American Naturalist, X. 555 (1876). Masters in
Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII. 183, with figs. Sargent, Forest Trees N. Anier. 10th
Census, U.S.A. IX. 211. Beissner, Nadelhokk. 463. Macoun, Cat. Canad
Plants, 474.

Pinus lasiocarpa,. Hooker, W., Fl. Bor. Amer. II. 163 (1840). Endlicher,.
Synops. Conif. 105.

Abies balsamea, Torrey, Pacific Ry. Rep. IV. part V. 141 (in part).

A. grandis, Carri&re, Traite Conif. ed. II. 296 (in part).

Pinus amabilis, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 426 (in part).
And many others.*

Although the most widely distributed of the Silver Firs of western
America, Abies lasiocarpa is practically the least known of any of
them in Great Britain. The following sketch of its geographical
distribution is derived from the same authoritative source as the
description given above.

" Abies lasiocarpa is an inhabitant of high mountain slopes and
summits and is distributed from at least lat. 61° IS", in Alaska
southwards along the coast ranges to the Olympic mountains of
Washington and over all the high ranges of British Columbia and
Alberta ; it extends along the Cascade mountains of Washington and
Oregon ; over the mountain ranges of Idaho, Montana, Wyoming,
Colorado and Utah ; and finds its southerly home on the San Francisco
peaks of Northern Arizona.! Its A^ertical range in different parts of
the great region over which it is spread varies from 2,000 feet elevation
near its northern to 11,000 feet at its southern limit. The wood is
light and soft but not strong nor durable ; it is probably little used
except for fuel."

Abies lasiocarpa has been sparingly in cultivation in British gardens
under Engelmann's name of A. subalpina for some years past, but by
whom or when it was introduced no record is to be found. Healthy
young trees in different parts of Great Britain should suggest a more
extended trial of it, especially in exposed places. It is perfectly hardy
but grows somewhat slowly, and such too is the experience of it in
the north-eastern States of North America.

Abies magnifica.

A gigantic tree 150 — 250 or more feet high, the trunk 8 — 10 feet
in diameter near the ground and covered with thick deeply fissured
red-brown bark and usually free of branches for 100 or more feet

* Probably no species of Abies has been involved in more confusion as regards its
identification and nomenclature than the subject of the present notice. It would now be
superfluous to enter into any examination of the causes of the confusion, for the clearing
up of which science and horticulture are mainly indebted to Dr. Maxwell Masters in whose
elaborate articles in the "Gardeners' Chronicle" and "Journal of Botany" quoted above.,
the question is fully discussed and finally set at rest.

t That is to say — a meridional range of nearly 30°.

ABIES MAGNIFICA. 517

from the base. In Great Britain a formal tree of rather slow growth,
the trunk covered with smooth ash-brown bark. Branches short in
comparison with height of trunk, rigidly horizontal and ramified laterally
only; branchlets opposite, rarely alternate, and inclined forwards at an
angle varying from 45° to 60° to their primaries, short, rigid and

covered with reddish
brown bark. Buds
small, ovate, acute, red-
dish brown. Leaves
persistent eight — ten
years, obscurely four-
angled, obtuse or sub-
acute, O5 — 1-5 inch
long, greyish or glaucous

Fig. 135. Foliage of fertile branchlet of Abies magnified. <Teeil with two Dale

stomatiferous lines on

the lower side, spirally crowded around the branchlets, the longer
ones on the under side of sterile branchlets pseudo-distichous in
three — four ranks ; the shorter ones on the upper side either erect
or pointing in the direction of the axis at a greater or less angle
to it ; on the fertile branchlets all upturned and more or less
falcately curved. Staminate flowers cylindric, O5 — O75 inch long,
with reddish crimson anthers. Cones among the largest in the
genus, cylindric, obtuse, 6 — 9 inches long and 3 — 5 inches in
diameter, at first violet-purple changing to dark sepia-brown at maturity;
scales triangular-cuneate with the longer exposed margin rounded and
incurved; bracts lanceolate with a small mucro at the apex about
three-fourths as long as the scale. Seeds angulate with a broad
sub-obovate wing.

Abies magnifies, Murray in Proceed. R. Hort. Soc. III. 318, with figs. (1863).
Engelmami in Gard. Chron. XII (1879), p. 685 ; and Brewer and Watson's Bot.
Califor. II. 119. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885), p. 652. with figs. ; and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 193. Beissner, Nadelhohk. 482, with fig. Sargent,
Silva N. Amer. XII. 137, tt. 618, 619.

A. nobilis var. robusta, Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 269 (1867).

A. nobilis var. magnifica, Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc. XXII. 189, with figs. (1886).

Picea magnifica, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 219 (1875).

Pinus amabilis, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 426 (in part).

Psendotsuga magnifica, McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2. 700, fig. 30.

Amer. Red Fir. Germ. Prachtige Weisstanne.

var. — shastensis.

A smaller tree with more slender foliage and usually ellipsoid (not
cylindric) shorter cones the bracts of which, O5 — 1 inch long, protrude
from between the scales, reflexed and suddenly contracted to an
acuminate point ; " the large purple cones thus decked out with
tasselled fringes are most beautiful objects."

A. magnifica var. shastensis, Lemnion, N. W. Amer. Cone-bearers, 62 (1895).
Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 138, t. 620. A. shastensis, Lemmon in Garden
and Forest, X. 184. A. nobilis robusta, Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885),
p. 652, fig. 147 (not Carriere).

Abies magnifica inhabits chiefly the mountains of Oregon and^
California. On the Cascade mountains it is common between 5,000
and 7,000 feet elevation and also on the western slopes of the

Abies maynifica at Murthly Castle, ; Perthshire.

ABIES MAGNIFICA. 519

Sierra Nevada between 6,000 and 9,000 feet, in some places forming
pure forests of great extent, in others mixed with Tsuga Mertensiana
at its higher, and Pinus ponderosa and Abies concolor at its lower
limit. It also forms a large and exclusive forest on the high plateau
of lava formerly erupted from Mount Shasta in north California
whence it spreads southwards along the western slopes of the
Sierra Nevada to Kerr County.

On the southern slopes of Shasta the trees become a dark, gloomy
assemblage of massive black trunks, covered on the north side from
the base to the lowest branches with a bright yellow lichen ; the lower
branches are draped here and there with long, sweeping festoons of black
filmy lichen, giving -a funereal aspect to the whole scene, scarcely
relieved by the twitter of the red squirrel, the long wailing note of
the woodpecker or the occasional cry of the bald eagle.*
The forest here described is composed of the variety shastensis,
distinguished from the typical Abies magnified chiefly by its shorter-
cones with exserted bracts. This variety, so far as at present known,
is but sparingly represented in British gardens.

Abies magnified was introduced into Great Britain in 1851 by the
Scottish Oregon Association through their collector John Jeffrey, who,
believing it to be the A. amabilis of Douglas, sent home cones and
seeds under that name, and the seedlings were subsequently distributed
among the members of the Association as A. amabilis. In the
following year William Lobb collected cones of this tree for the
Veitchian firm at Exeter; he also, supposing it to be the A. amabilis
"of Douglas, affixed that name to his collection ; the seedling plants
riot conforming to the true amabilis of which there was at that
time a good specimen at Bicton with which comparison could be
made, and more closely resembling A. nobilis, they were distributed
as A. nobilis robusta, the name adopted by Carriere in the second
edition of his "Traite GJeneral des Coniferes," published in 1867.

Many fine specimens of Abies magnified are dispersed over the country
especially in Scotland in the grounds of former members of the Oregon
Association. Our illustration- represents a beautiful and characteristic
tree at Murthly Castle in Perthshire from a photograph kindly lent
for the purpose by Lady Stewart of Grantully.t Abies magnified is
hardy in nearly all parts of Great Britain, being rarely injured by
spring frosts ; its rate of growth, except under very favourable conditions
of soil and climate, is rather slow, the leader shoot rarely adding more
than 9—12 inches to its height annually; it is one of the best of
the Abies for the lawn, not requiring much room, a space with a
radius of not more than 10—12 feet being sufficient for it.

* Lemmon, Cone-bearers of North-west America, p. 63.

t Among other tine specimens worthy of note are those at the following places. In
England— Orton Hall, Revesby Abbey, Cheswardine, Hewell Grange, Bayfordbury, Digswell
Rectory Waraham Court; in Scotland -Glamis Castle, Durris, Ochtertyre, Rossie Priory,
The Cairnies, Haddo House, Castle Kennedy, and many others ; in Ireland— Shane s Castle,
Powerscourt. Abbey Leix, Castlevvellan, etc.

520 ABIES MARIESII.

As a species, the nearest affinity of Abies maynijica is A. noliUs
with which it has been often confused. The economic properties of
A. magnified, are not very favourably reported on ; the wood is light
and rather coarse-grained, durable in contact with the soil but liable
to warp ; it is largely used for fuel and for coarse timber constructions.

Abies Mariesii.

A medium-sized tree 40 — 50 feet high but at its southern limit
60 — 75 feet high with close-set, relatively short spreading branches
forming a compact pyramid. Branches stoutish, covered with brown
bark marked with circular scars of fallen leaves. Branchlets distichous
and opposite, given off from their primaries at an angle of about 45°,
the young shoots with a dense brown pubescence. Buds small, globose
with dark brown closely appressed perulae. Leaves 0'25 — 0*75 inch
long, narrowly linear, obtuse or emarginate, tapering at the base into
a very short petiole ; the midrib depressed on the upper and prominent
on the lower side, dark green above, paler with two whitish stomatiferous
bands below, the longer leaves on the lower side of the branchlets
pseudo-distichous in three — four ranks, the shorter ones on the upper
side pointing forwards and upwards and loosely imbricated. Staminate
flowers not seen. Cones broadly fusiform or sub-cylindric, narrowed at
the base and apex, deep violet-blue changing to dark brown when
mature • scales suborbicular, somewhat broader than long, with a cuneate
base and an entire slightly incurved apical margin ; bracts half as
long as the scales, obovate-oblong, retuse, with a small central mucro.
Seed wings broadly wedge shaped, entire.

Abies Mariesii, Masters in Gard. Chron. XII. (1879), p. 788, with fig. ; Journ.
Linn. Soc. XVIII. 519, ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc XIV. 193. Kent in Veitch's-
Manual, ed. I. 100. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap. Reiches, 40, Tafel II. tig 5.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 455.

This very distinct Silver Fir was discovered by Mr. Charles Maries
on Mount Hakkocla near Aomori in the extreme north of Hondo
in 1878 ; he also met with it in Nikko 011 the central mountains,
and recently it has been found in two or three localities on the
mountains of southern Yeso by Japanese botanists. On Hakkocla it
is common at 4,000 to 5,000 feet elevation mixed with deciduous
trees ; in Nikko it ascends considerably higher but occurs more
sparingly. Abies Mariesii is thence an alpine tree with a comparatively
restricted habitat, occupying a geographical position between that
of A. Vdtclui and A. sachalinensis ; its nearest affinity is, however,
A. homolepis. Nothing is known of its economic properties.

Seeds were sent to Messrs. Veitch by Maries in 1879 but very few
plants were raised from them, and from these as well as from the
younger seedlings raised from a consignment received ten years later,
no definite statement respecting the suitableness of the species for
British arboriculture can be made further than that it has proved to
be quite hardy but of very slow growth. The young plants in this
country have a Tsuga-like aspect with the leaves much crowded and
shorter than those of any other Abies.

ABIES NOBILIS.

521

Abies nobilis.

A stately tree attaining a height that varies in individuals according
to locality and environment from 100 to 200 or more feet, with a
trunk 4 — 5 feet in diameter near the
base, covered with reddish brown
bark in its native forests; smooth in
the younger trees, deeply fissured into
broad ridges in the older ones ; in
Great Britain the trunk gradually
tapering and frequently marked with
large resinous blisters. Branches
pseudo-whorled, for the most part
spreading horizontally, the lowermost
usually made decumbent by the
weight of their appendages. Branchlets
opposite, often crowded, rigid with
reddish brown bark and densely
clothed with foliage, the herbaceous
shoots pubescent. Buds small, globose,
almost concealed by the apical leaves,
the perular scales thickish and reddish
brown. Leaves persistent seven — ten
years, close-set, spirally arranged around
the stems, 0'5 — 1'5 inch long, linear,
sub-falcate, obtuse or shortly mucronate;
with a shallow groove along the mid-
rib, ' and dull bluish green, often
glaucous above, with a glaucous

Fig. 136. Fertile branchlet with cone of Abies nobilis about one-half nat. size.

522 ABIES NOBILIS.

stomatiferous band on each side of the midrib below ; those on the
under side of the shoot pseudo-distichous by a twist at the base to
bring them into a horizontal position, those on the upper side curved
upwards and inwards. Staminate flowers shortly pedicelled and closely
packed mostly on the under side of the branchlets, cylindric, about
an inch long and often curved, reddish crimson, surrounded at the base
by triangular-ovate involucral bracts in three — four series. Cones among
the largest in the genus, cylindric, obtuse, 6 — 8 inches long and
2 — 3 inches in diameter.* Scales triangular with an acute awl-shaped
claw, about 1 inch long and 1*25 inch broad, the exposed apical
margin entire and incurved ; bracts longer than the scales, cuneate-
spathuJate, exserted and bent downwards, with an acuminate flattened
mucro 0*5 inch long at the apex. Seed wings broadly wedge-shaped,
irregularly truncate at the apex.

Abies nobilis, Lindley in Penny Cyclop. I. 30 (1833). Forbes, Pinet. Woburo,
115, t. 40. Link in Linnrea, XV. 532. Carriere, Traite Couif. ed. II. 268.
Engelmann in Gard. Chron. IX. (1878), p. 334 ; XII. (1879), p. 684, in part :
and Brewer and Watson's Bot. Califor. II. 119. Masters in Journ. Linn. Soc.
XXII. 188, t. 4 (excl. hab. Mt. Shasta and var. magnitica) ; Gard. Chron. XXIV.
(1885), p. 652, with fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 193. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 484, with figs. Sargent, Silva N. Amer. XII. 133, t. 617.

Picea nobilis, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2342, with figs. Lawson, Pinet.
Brit. II. 181, tt. 28, 29. and figs. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 207.

Pseudotsuga nobilis, McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 699, fig. 29.

Pinns nobilis, Douglas in Comp. Bot. Mag. II. 147. Endlicher, Synops. Conif.
90. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 419.

Eng. Noble Fir. Amer. Red Fir, Larch Fir of Oregon. Germ. Edle-Weisstanne.
Ital. A bete nobile.

Abies nobilis forms large forests along the slopes of the Cascade
mountains of Oregon from the Upper Eogue river to the Columbia
with a vertical range of between 2,500 and 5,000 feet elevation ;
it also occurs along the coast range of Oregon in much fewer
numbers but where it attains its greatest individual development ; it
has also recently been found on Mount Eanier in Washington up
to 5,000 feet elevation but nowhere wild in California. It was
originally discovered by David Douglas during his first mission to
north-west America near the Grand Eapids of the Columbia river
in 1825, but it was not till his second mission and during his
excursion up the Columbia in 1830 that he was able to collect seeds
and send them to England.

At that time the great forests which covered the Cascade mountains
had probably not been penetrated by the white man ; half a century
later, a railway traversed the country; saw-mills have been established
011 the principal streams, and the once great forest of Abies nobilis
which made so vivid an impression on David Douglas and others who
subsequently visited it, is fast disappearing under the axe of the
lumberer. It is by no means rash to surmise what its fate will be
within the next half century unless the State intervenes to arrest its
total destruction.

As an ornamental tree for the lawn, park and landscape, Abies
nobilis ranks among the best of the Silver Firs ; its outline is regular

* Usually smaller in the forests of Oregon.

Abies nobilis 60 feet high.

524 ABIES NOBILIS.

without being too formal ; it is dense with branchlets and foliage
without being sombre ; its dark green foliage with a soft glaucous
hue, often heightened to silvery whiteness under certain conditions
of soil and environment, is most distinct whether looked at alone
or in contrast to that of other trees ; its large handsome cones which
are produced freely even on comparatively young trees are a striking
ornament of this species. Numerous fine specimens scattered over
well nigh the whole of Great Britain and Ireland, attest its
adaptability to the British climate ; the average yearly increase in
height of the leader shoot varies from climatic and other causes from
15 to 25 inches and even more in localities particularly favourable for
its development. As the lowermost branches of the largest trees
growing in this country rarely exceed 25 feet in length, a space
with a radius a little more than this should be allowed for it
when planted for ornamental purposes.*

One of the most remarkable arboreal effects produced by Abies noli/i*
to be seen in this country is an avenue formed of it at Madresfield
Court, the seat of Earl Beaucliamp, in Worcestershire. This avenue
was planted in 1868 and the height of the trees composing it now range
from 50 — 60 feet; the soil in which they are growing is a strong
loam approaching clay in consistency. The trees are arranged in two
rows, each row including twenty-five trees placed 45 feet apart ; the interval
between the rows is also 45 feet, a distance sufficient to allow a distinct
view of the whole from either end. The rate of growth of the
leaders and the spread of branches is remarkably uniform throughout;
the foliage of the youngest growths is highly glaucous, contrasting
strongly and effectively with the dark green of the older leaves. Both
staminate and ovuliferous flowers are produced in great quantities which
lend an additional feature- to the trees during the early summer. This
great fertility of the trees is doubtless owing, at least in part, to the
fact that they are all grafted on A. pectinate^ for as regards age,
they may still be considered to be in their infancy for Abies nobilis.j
The wood of Abies nobilis is light, hard, strong and rather close grained,
and coloured light brown streaked with red.} It is durable when well
seasoned and suited for architraves, panelling and framing, also for
doors, windows, and the interior finish of dwelling houses generally.

* Among the finest individual trees worthy of especial mention, all of them over 70 feet high,
are the following:- In England at Monk Coniston, Lancashire; Penrhyn Castle, Linton Park,
Tortworth Court and Highnam Court, Gloucestershire. In Scotland at Haddo House, Coul
House, Ross-shire ; Dupplin Castle, Keir House, Murthly Castle, Ochtertyre and Scone
Palace in Perthshire. In Ireland at Fota Island, Birr Castle, Curraghmore.

t It will be useful to place on record the following additional facts respecting this
remarkable avenue. The present condition of the trees, as the illustration shows, is most
satisfactory. Mr. Crump, the gardener to Earl Beaucliamp, informed the author that
towards the end of the "eighties" a very troublesome fungus came up thickly and
persistently in a circle around each tree ; to destroy this, a good coating of lime was first
applied, followed by a dressing of ground bones with two cart-loads of strong loam to each
tree with the result that the fungus was destroyed and the trees were invigorated.
Further care is taken in their preservation by the removal of many of the cones as they
appear.

I Silva of North America, XII. 135.

The Abies nolilis Avenue at Madresfield Court.

526 ABIES NORDMANNIANA.

Abies Nordmanniana.

A stately tree attaining a height of 75 — 150 or more feet with a
tapering trunk 3 — 4 feet in diameter near the ground ; the bark of
the oldest trees growing in Great Britain greyish brown, smooth or
marked with shallow fissures. Branches spreading, the lowermost
depressed, those above horizontal or ascending. Brunchlets distichous
and opposite with light brown striated bark. Buds globose-conic, about
0*25 inch long, with reddish brown, broadly ovate, perular scales.
Leaves persistent seven — ten years, narrowly linear, obtuse or emarginate,
0*75 — 1 inch long, bright grass-green with a ' narrow median groove
above, paler with two whitish stomatiferous bands below ; those on the
under side of the shoot pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks ; those
on the upper side pointing forwards and loosely imbricated. Staminate
flowers crowded on the under side of the braiichlets, ovoid-cylindric,
about 0'4 inch long; the involucral bracts at the base of each, scale-
like in three series and closely imbricated. Cones ovoid-cylindric,
sub-acute, 6 inches long and 1 -5 inch in diameter, dark brown ; scales
sub-reniform with a short cuneate claw, and with the outer edge entire or
minutely denticulate; bracts oblong spathulate, cuspidate, longer than the
scale and exserted, reflexed at the apex, the exposed margin notched.

Abies Nordmanniana, Spach, Hist. Veg. Phan. XI. 418 (1842). Carriere, Traite
Conif. ed. I. 203 (1855) ; and ed. II. 276 (1867). Regel, Gartenfl. XXII. 259,
with fig. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 694, fig. 22. Boissier,
Fl. orient. V. 703. Hooker fil. Bot. Mag. t. 6992. Masters in Gard. Chron.
XXV. (1886), p. 142, with fig.; and Jouru. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 194.
Beissner, Nadelholzk. 434, with fig.

A. Eichleri, Lauch in Gartenzeit. 1882, p. 63. Hemsley in Gard. Chron.
XVII. (1882), p. 145.

Picea Nordmanniana, London, Encycl. of Trees, 1042, with fig. (1842).
Gordon, Pinet. ed II. 208.

Pinus Nordmanniana, Steven, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. (1838), p. 45, fig. 2.
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 93.

P. Abies. Pallas, Fl. Ross. 6, t. 1. fig. G. (not Duroi), 1784. Parlatore, D. C.
Prodr. XVI. 412, in part.

Eng. Nordmann's Fir. Germ. Nordmann's Tanne. Ital. Abete di Nordmann.

Abies Nordmanniana was first recognised as a distinct species by
the Finnish botanist Alexander Nordmann who met with it in 1837
near one of the sources of the Kur river on the Adschur or Atskur
range of mountains in the Caucasian province of Imeritia where it
is very abundant. There is, however, sufficient evidence to show that
Nordmann was not the original discoverer of it, since the region
over which it is spread had been previously partially explored by
Pallas in the latter part of the eighteenth century and more fully
by Bieberstein in the early part of the nineteenth century, both of
whom record a Silver Fir* but refer it to the common European
species which is nowhere found in the Trans- Caucasian provinces.
Since Nordmann's journey, the region has been frequently visited
both by Eussian and German botanists, and the geographical range
of Abies Nordmanniana can be defined with approximate accuracy: —

* Pallas, Flora Rossica, p, 6, t. 1, fig. G. (1784). Bieberstein, Flora Taurico-Caucasica,
Vol. II. p. 409 (1808).

Abies Nordmanniana at Castle wellan, Co. Down.

528 ABIES NORDMANNIANA.

It has not been met with east of the meridian of Tiflis, its further
spread in that direction being prevented by the arid climate of the
steppes of eastern Georgia and the plain of Shirvan; it does not
occur north of the lofty chain of Caucasus proper, nor is it known
to occur south of the boundary line separating the Russian from the-
Persian provinces. In the central Caucasus it covers the greater part
of the mountain valleys from 3,500 — 6,000 feet elevation, almost
constantly associated with Picea orient alis. It also occurs under similar
conditions in Pontish Armenia and Lazistan and more sparingly on the
mountains around Trebizond, its western limit. The statement by
Gordon and others and inadvertently repeated in the former edition of
this Manual that Abies Nordmanniana is common on the Crimean
mountains is without foundation.

In the wild state Abies Nordmanniana does not possess the elegant
and compact outline for which it is so much valued as an ornamental
tree in European gardens. In the damp coast region of Pontus it is
more or less rigidly pyramidal or even Cypress-like, but never shows
that luxuriant dark green as is seen in young plants under cultivation.
In the central Caucasus it gives the same general impression as the
common Silver Fir, the difference consisting only in the more slender
outline and in the presence of an abundance of gigantic specimens.*
The timber is said to be superior to that of the common Silver Fir;
it is used for building purposes generally throughout the Russian
Trans-Caucasian provinces.

Abies Nordmanniana was introduced into European gardens about
the year 1848 or a little earlier, and is now well known as one of
the handsomest of Conifers for ornamental planting. Its merits as a
landscape tree and the conditions under which it thrives in this
country are tersely summarised' by a correspondent of the " Gardeners'
Chronicle " in the following paragraph :—

As an ornamental tree for landscape gardening, few can compare
with it for beauty of outline, symmetry, and the rich contrast produced
in summer by the dark glossy green of the old and the light lively
tints of the young foliage ; and whether planted on the lawn, or mixed
with other trees, it never fails to attract attention and to produce the
most pleasing effect. This tree is also capable of accommodating itself
to a great variety of soils and situations, though, like other species of
Abies, it prefers a strong deep loam rich in organic matter, not apt
to dry up in summer nor retain too much moisture in winter. It
thrives remarkably well in peat bogs and in hollow places where the
common Silver Fir suffers from late spring frosts ; in such situations
it stands unscathed. Cold stiff clays, poor in inorganic accumulations
are inimical to its growth.!

One great advantage from a cultural standpoint, possessed by Abies
Nordmanniana is, that it does not commence its annual growth till
summer has fairly set in, when it pushes rapidly for about eight weeks,
completing its growth in time for the young shoots to become
sufficiently mature before the approach of winter to enable them to
endure without injury the severest frosts known in this country. To

* Dr. G. Dieck in Gartenflora, 1891, p. 233.

f Emerge in the Gardeners' Chronicle, Vol. XVIII. (1882), p. 492.

ABIES NUMIDICA. 529

secure good specimens a space with a radius of not less than 25 feet
should be provided for them.

Under cultivation Abies Nordmanniana sports into many varieties
in the seed bed, the deviations from the common type being
observable chiefly in the habit or foliage of the plant. In continental
nurseries some of these seminal forms have been distinguished by
name as aurea, brevifolia, glauca, pendula, refracta, robusta, etc.

Abies numidica.

A slender tree of moderate dimensions, the trunk rarely exceeding
50 — 60 feet in height and 10 — 18 inches in diameter near the base
and with a dense pyramidal crown. Bark of trunk ash or greyish brown,
slightly rugose. Branches in pseudo-whorls, spreading or ascending.
Branchlets distichous and opposite, covered with light reddish brown
bark ; on the younger shoots marked with shallow oblique ridges. Buds
globose-conic, sub-acute, about 0'5 inch long, light chestnut-brown with
ovate, obtuse, closely imbricated and minutely fringed perular scales.
Leaves spirally crowded, persistent seven — nine years, linear, obtuse or
emarginate, slightly narrowed at the base, bright grass-green with a
narrow median groove above, with thickened midrib and margins and
two white stomatiferous bands beneath, 0'5 — 1 inch long, the longer
ones on the under side pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks, the
shorter ones on the upper side erect or sub-erect. Cones solitary or
in clusters of three — five, sub-cylindric, slightly tapering at the base and
apex, 5 — 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter. Scales reniform,
contracted to a short claw, closely imbricated, the outer exposed margin
entire and incurved ; bracts shorter than the scale, narrowly spathulate,
mucronate. Seed wings oblong, truncate, nearly as long as the scale.

Abies numidica, De Lannoy ex Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1866, pp. 106, 203 ;
Traite Conif. ed. II. 305 ; and Van Houtte's Flore des Serres, XVII. 9, t. 1717.
Masters in Gard. Chron. III. ser. 3 (1888), p. 140 (in part and excl. figs.); and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 194. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 447.

A. Pinsapo var. baborensis, Cosson in Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, VIII. 607
(nomen nudum 1861). Willkomm, Forstl. Fl. ed. II. 111.

A. baborensis, McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 697, tig. 27 (1877).

Picea numidica, Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 220.

Pinus Pinsapo, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 423 (not Boissier).

Eng. Algerian Fir. Fr. Sapin d'Algerie. Germ. Numidische Weisstanne. Ital.
A bete d' Algeria.

The Algerian Fir, so far as at present known, has a very
restricted habitat on a part of the Atlas mountains lying within
the province of Kabylia (the ancient Numidia), known as Babor and
Thababor, at an altitude of 4,000 to 6,000 feet; it occurs chiefly
on the northern and eastern slopes of these mountains associated with
Cedrus atlantica and Taxus baccata, growing on limestone rocks with
a scanty covering of soil, but nowhere abundant. At this altitude,
snow falls in enormous quantities from December to April, and which
in the more exposed ravines is scarcely ever absent. The following
account of its discovery and introduction into European gardens is
derived from Carriere's "Traite General des Coniferes," loc. cit. supra.

MM

530 ABIES PECTIN ATA.

Abies numidica was discovered by Captain Guibert in 1861. Shortly
afterwards MM. Letourneux and Perrandiere gathered branches of it
Avhich they brought to M. Cosson, a well-known botanist of that time,
who took the tree to be a variety of the Spanish Fir, A. Pinsapo.
It was M. de Lannoy, Superintendent of roads and bridges for the
province, who first recognised it as a species distinct from A. Pinsapo,
and who gave it the name of A. numidica. The first seeds were sent
to France about the year 1862 by M. Davout, Conservator-General
of the Algerine forests, and a little later, in 1864, by M. de Lannoy.

From France the species has found its way into Great Britain but
in numbers so restricted that up to the present time it has been too
sparsely distributed to admit of any general statement being made
respecting its usefulness as an ornamental tree, the only purpose for
which it should be planted. Its hardiness equals that of Cedrus atlantica,
and the specimens upwards of 20 feet high, growing at Pampesford
near Cambridge, at Bicton in Devonshire, at Streatham Hall, Exeter,
and in the Royal Botanic Garden at Glasnevin, Dublin, give a favourable
impression of its beauty and distinctness.

Abies pectinata.

A lofty tree varying in height from 100 to 180 feet with a straight,
erect, slightly tapering trunk 6 — 8 feet in diameter near the base,
regularly furnished with tiers of branches from the ground upwards
during the first thirty to forty years, in favourable localities much
longer, and covered with smooth greyish brown bark. In old age
the bark rugged and more or less fissured longitudinally, the trunk
free of branches for a great part of the height, and the persistent
branches forming the crown, of unequal length and spreading horizontally.
Ramification distichous and opposite : bark of branchlets pale brown
with longitudinal striations. Buds cylindric-coriic, chestnut-brown.
Leaves persistent five — seven or more years, linear, obtuse or emarginate,
0*5 — 1*25 inch long, pseudo-distichous in two — three ranks ; on fertile
branchlets all more or less upturned \ grooved along the midrib and
dark lustrous green above, with two silvery grey stomatiferous bands
below. Stammate flowers crowded among the leaves, cylindric,
0*75 inch long, greenish yellow, surrounded at the base by imbricated
involucral bracts in two — three series. Cones cylindric, obtuse,
6 — 8 inches long and 1'5 — 2 inches in diameter. Scales nearly as
long as broad, with a rounded exposed margin and cuneate base ;
bracts linear-spathulate, prolonged beyond the scale into a sharp
reflexed mucro. Seeds angular with a rhombic wing twice as long as
the seed.

Abies pectinata, De Candolle, Flore Franc. III. 276 (1805). Richard, Mem. sur
les Conif. 73 (1826). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 105. Link in Liimtea, XV. 526.
Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 276. Hoopes, Evergreens, 205. McNab in Proceed.
R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 693, figs. 20—21. Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 701. Beissner,
Nadelholzk. 428, with figs. Masters in Jonrn. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 194.

Picea pectinata, London. Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2329, with figs. Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 209.

Pinus Abies, Duroi, Observ. Bot. 39 (1771) (not Linnaeus). Endlicher, Synops.
Conif. 95. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 420.

P. Picea, Linnaeus, Sp. Plant. II. 1001(1753). Lambert, Genus Pinus, 1. 1. 30 (1803).

Eng. Common Silver Fir. Fr. Sapin des Vosges, Sapin de Lorraine. Germ.
Weisstanne, Silbertanne. Ital. Abete argentato. Abete bianco.

ABIES 1'ECTIXATA. 531

.—Equi Trojani.

Leaves acute and spine-tipped as in Abies /v^/m/owm. Cones shorter and
broader, with the bracts more prominently exserted' than in A. pectinata.

A. pectinata var. Equi Trojani, Boissier, Fl. orient. V. 701. Beissner Nadel-
holzk. 431.

The common Silver Fir has an extensive geographical range in
central and southern Europe, but at the present time its indigenous
growth is confined chiefly to the mountain districts. Its distribution
in Central Europe may be said in general terms to extend from
the Pyrenees to the Carpathian mountains, and from the Vosges
and Hartz mountains to the Alps. In the Mediterranean region
•east of the Pyrenees, it occurs on the mountains of Corsica ;
it follows the trend of the Apennines through Italy ; it appears
;again on the mountains of Thrace and Macedonia and beyond the
European limits, on Perindagh and Olympus in Bithynia. On the
Carpathian mountains it ascends to 3,000 feet above sea-level, on
the Vosges to 4,000 feet, on the Jura to nearly <r.,000 feet, on the
Alps of Lombardy to 6,000 feet, and on the Pyrenees to 6,500 feet.
The largest pure forests of A. pectinata still remaining are on the
French slopes of the Pyrenees, on the Vosges and on the Jura ;
in other parts of its range it is more scattered and associated with
other trees. It attains its greatest development in the humid
mountain tracts of central Europe ; individual trees nearly 200 feet
high have been observed in south Germany.*

The common Silver Fir was one of the first exotic coniferous trees
introduced into Great Britain, but the precise date of introduction is
unknown. London, quoting Evelyn, states that a Silver Fir two years
old was planted at Harefield Park in Middlesex in 1603, and this
was the first planted in England. In this country its growth during
the first few years from the seed is very slow, only attaining the
height of a few inches, but after it has become established its
progress is more rapid. About the twentieth year and during its full
vigour for some years afterwards, the leader shoot will increase from
two to three feet annually. Unless planted in a sheltered situation the
Silver Fir is liable to injury by spring frosts in its first stages of
growth, as the young shoots throw off their perular covering early
in the season ; but when older, the spring frosts are less injurious,
and under ordinary circumstances the Silver Fir has attained dimensions
•scarcely yet surpassed by any other introduced coniferous tree.
"Willkomin states that it completes its upward growth between one
hundred and eighty and two hundred years when the top becomes
flattened but the tree lives on for several hundred years more. Numbers
of fine specimens of great size dispersed over Great Britain and Ireland
bear witness to its suitableness as a park and landscape tree as well

* The geographical distribution of the common Silver Fir has been carefully investigated by
AVillkomm, and the limits of its indigenous growth traced out in his " Forstliche Flora von
Deutschland und Oesterreich," from which the particulars given above are chiefly derived.

532 ABIES PECTIN ATA.

as for the many purposes in rural economy for which it is planted.*"
Among the most noteworthy of these is one at Lynedoch near Perth
over 104 feet high, 14 feet in girth at five feet from the ground, and
estimated to contain 417 cubic feet of timber, t In the grounds at
Dunkeld House in the same county is one of the finest groups of
Silver Firs in Great Britain ; this group consists of fifteen trees
ranging from 95 to 110 feet in height, and from 10 to 14 feet in girth
at five feet from the ground. J At Carton in Kildare, the seat of the
Duke of Leinster, are several lofty specimens which form a conspicuous
feature of the place, the largest of which is 112 feet high and
15 feet in girth at five feet from the ground ; and at Curraghmore,
near Waterford, the seat of the Marquis of Waterford, are several
superb specimens over 100 feet high.

The timber of the common Silver Fir is inferior to that of the
Spruce Fir ; the wood is strong and elastic but the grain is
irregular ; it is soft and porous and soon decays on exposure ; it is,
however, recommended for roofing, partitions in the interior of houses,
posts for fencing ; also for troughs, cisterns, and for any purpose
connected with sluices and embankments, as it does not warp or
twist. In the mountain regions of Europe where the Silver Fir i&
abundant, its timber is used for carpentry of every description, and
it is also burnt into charcoal. In the forests of the Vosges, the
resinous secretions are collected in great quantity, from which is
prepared the Strasburg turpentine of commerce.

Many varieties of the Silver Fir have from time to time been
brought under the notice of horticulturists, showing a greater or less
deviation in habit from the common type. They are mostly of French
and German origin, and have received the following names among others :—
brevifoUa, columnaris, pendula, pyramidalis, stricta, tortuosa, tenuifolia,
varieyata — names sufficiently indicative of the most obvious
characteristic of the varieties to which they have been applied.
Probably not one of them is to be found in British gardens except
perhaps pendula which occurs ^ wild on the Vosges and in east
Friesland. Of far greater interest than any of them is that described
by Boissier under the name of Equi Trojani which was discovered by
the Greek botanist Sintenis on the summit of Kas Dagh (Mount Ida)
in north-west Anatolia, not far from the site of the ancient Troy. §
In its spine-tipped leaves it approaches Abies cephalonwa and in its
broader cones A. Nordmanniana ; it is thence an intermediate form
connecting these two Abies with each other and with the more widely
distributed A. pectinata, a significant fact showing how nugatory the
technical circumscriptions of species often prove.

* It should be borne in mind that when the Silver Fir is felled, the stump, if left in
the ground, retains its vitality and even increases in size for many years afterwards ; il
thence advisable to remove it if the ground on which the tree stood, is required for otln

t Dimensions communicated by Mr. Pitcaithley, Forester to the Earl of Mansfield.
J Communicated by Mr. David Keir, Forester to the Duke of Atholl.
§ " Instar montis equuni, divina Palladis arte

^Edificant, sectaque intexunt abiete costa,s."—^Eneid, II. 15.
(Assisted by the divine skill of Pallas, they build a horse to the size of a
mountain and interweave its rib's with planks of fir.)

ABJES PINDROW. 533

Abies Pindrow.

A lofty tree 80 — 100 feet high with a trunk 4—5-5 feet in
diameter near the ground. In Great Britain an elegant tree of
moderate growth, the trunk covered with ash-brown bark, smooth or
slightly rugose. Branches more or less deflexed, with distichous
ramification. Branchlets opposite with whitish brown bark, obscurely
tinted by cortical outgrowths decurrent from the pulvini of the leaves.
Buds conic-cylindric, 0'25— 0'4 inch long, with ovate, reddish brown,
closely imbricated perular scales. Leaves persistent five — seven or more
years, narrowly linear, acute or bidentate at the apex, 1-25 — 3 -5 inches
long, dark lustrous green with a shallow median groove above ; much
paler with a shallow keel at the midrib, and with but faint traces of
a stomatiferous band on each side of it ; the longer ones on the
under side pseudo-distichous in three — four ranks and inclined forwards
at an angle of about 45° to the shoot ; the shorter ones on the
upper side all pointing forwards and loosely imbricated. Staminate
flowers crowded on the under side of the branchlets, fusiform-cylindric,
0-75 inch long. Cones cylindric, obtuse, 4 — 5 inches long and 2 inches
in diameter, violet-purple changing to dark brown when mature. Scales
8ub-rhomboidal with a small wedge-shaped claw, the exposed margin
entire and slightly incurved; bracts about one-third as long as the scale.

Abies Pindrow, Spach. Hist. Veg. Phan. XI. 423 (1842). Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed.' II. 299. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser. 2, 690, fig. 17. Kent in
Yeitch's Manual, ed. I. 110.

A. Webbiana var. Pindrow, Brandis, Forest Flora N.W. India, 528. Hooker fil,
Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 625. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 481. Masters in Journ. R. Hort.
Soc. XIV. 196.

Picea Pindrow, London, Arb. et Fmt. Brit. IV. 2346, with tigs. Madden in
Journ. Hort. Soc. Lpnd. V. 246. Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 222.

Finns Pindrow, Royle, Illus. Him. Plants, 354, t. 86. Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed.
III. p. 77, t. 44. Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 106. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 425.

Abies Pindrow forms dark gloomy forests on the great spurs of
the Kumaon Himalaya from 7,000 to 9,000 feet elevation, spreading
westwards into Kashmir ; it was introduced into Great Britain in
1837 by Dr. Eoyle. On the Kumaon Himalaya the annual rainfall
exceeds 100 inches, and the mean temperature at the elevation of
the Pindrow forests about 10°— 12° C. (50°— 55° F.) ; where these
climatic conditions are most nearly approached in Great Britain
Abies Pindrow thrives when protected from piercing winds ; thus,
in the south-west of England, in parts of Wales and Scotland
and in Ireland are to be seen healthy trees of great beauty ; *

* In the grounds of Mr. Victor Marshall at Monk Coniston are two remarkable specimens
of Abies Pindroiv over 60 feet high. At Conan House, Ross-shire, is a beautiful specimen
over 50 feet high, on a bank raised about 36 feet above the swampy ground near it and
surrounded by other trees taller than itself by which it is protected from cold winds. At
Kilburne Castle in Ayrshire is a vigorous specimen over 50 feet high, of which the leader
shoot has increased in height about 15 inches annually. Other fine trees are to be seen
at Cultoquhey in Perthshire; at Castle Kennedy in Wigtownshire; in Ireland at Powerscourt,
Charleville (probably the largest in the British Islands) and Kilmacurragh in Co. Wicklow ;
at Cahermoyle, Co. Limerick ; and in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin, Dublin.
Also at Menabilly, Cornwall ; Tortworth Court, Gloucestershire ; and Penrhyn Castle in
Wales. Most of the trees in this enumeration have been seen by the author, and there
are doubtless others which it would be useful to place on record.

534 ABIES PINSAPO.

in the relatively dry climate of England with the exceptions
noted, and in the eastern counties of Scotland it does not
grow satisfactorily.

The claim of Abies Pindrow to specific rank has occasionally been
doubted ; Sir Dietrich Brandis, the author of the " Forest Flora of
North-west India," has declared against it, and following him Sir J. I).
Hooker reduced it to a variety of A, Welliana in the "Flora of
British India." As seen in Great Britain, scarcely any two species of
Abies are to be found more easily distinguishable the one from the
other than A. Pindrow and A. Webbiana even on superficial inspection.
In A. Pindrow the branches are much shorter in proportion to height
of trunk than in A. Webbiana, and are bent downwards, not spreading
or ascending ; the branehlets are slender, lax and sub-pendulous, not
stout and rigid ; the leaves are longer and narrower, not glaucous on
the under side, and of a different shade of green ; the cones are
much smaller, and when young paler in colour than those of
A. Webbiana.

Abies Pinsapo.

A much- branched tree 60 — 80 feet high with a gradually tapering
trunk 2—3 feet in diameter near the base, covered with greyish
brown bark that is . smooth in some of the largest trees growing in
Great Britain, rugged and much fissured in others. Branches in rather
close-set pseudo-whorls, short in proportion to height of trunk, the
lowermost depressed, those above spreading horizontally or ascending.
Branehlets distichous or in whorls of three — four; bark light reddish
brown. Buds broadly conic, obtuse, 0'35 — 0*45 inch long, light fulvous
brown, usually covered with a film of translucent resin, the apical
bud with a circlet of three — four smaller ones. Leaves persistent
seven — nine years, spirally crowded, erect, 0*25 — -0.75 inch long; on
the sterile branches sub-acicular, obscurely four-angled and compressed,
mncronate and sometimes falcately curved ; on the fertile branches!,
linear, flattened and obtuse, dull green with two pale stomatiferous
lines on the under side. Staminate flowers numerous, chiefly on the
under side and towards the distal end of the branehlets, fusiform-
cylindric, 0'5 inch long, violet-crimson and surrounded at the base by
broadly ovate, obtuse involucral bracts in two series. Cones sessile,.
solitary or in pairs, sub-cylindric, obtuse, i — 5 inches long and
1 -5—2 inches in diameter ; scales triangular-cuneate, clawed, with entire
rounded and slightly reflexed outer margin ; bracts from a narrowed
base, ovate, mucronate, much shorter than the scales. Seed wing
obcuneate-obloiig.

Abies Pinsapo, Boissier in Biblioth. Univ. Geneva, 1838 ; and Voyage Bot. era
Espagne, I. tt. 167—168 ; and II. 584 (1845). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 303.
McNab in Proceed R Irish Aead. II. ser. 2, tig. 26. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 444
with fig. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIV. (1885), p 468, with fig. ; and
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 195.

Picea Pinsapo, Loudon, Encycl. of Trees, 1041 (1842). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II..
224.

Pinus Pinsapo, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 109 (1847). Parlatore, D. C. Prodr.
XVI. 423 (excl. African habitat).

Eng. Spanish Fir. Fr. Sapin d'Espagne. Germ. Spanische "VVeisstanne. ItaL
Abete di Spagna. Span. Pinsapo.

ABIES PINSAPO.

535

Although abundant on tiie Sierras in the south of Spain Abies
Pinsnpo was unknown to science till discovered by the eminent Swiss
botanist, Edmond Boissier, during his excursion to Andalusia in 1837,
and afterwards fully described by him in his " Voyages Botaniques "
quoted above. Even at the present time the limits and area of its
distribution are but imperfectly known ; it forms extensive forests

Fig. 137. Abies Pinsapo. Branchlet with staminate flowers.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

on the Sierra Nevada at elevations ranging from 3,500 to 6,000 feet
from Eonda eastwards into the province of Murcia; it is also said
to occur on the Sierra Morena and other mountains in central
Spain, but no localities are quoted.*

Alies Pinsapo was introduced into Great Britain about the year
1839 by Captain Widclrington to whom Encllicher afterwards dedicated
the South African genus of Coniferae allied to Callitris and Frenela

* The African habitat given by Parlatore refers to Abies numidica.

536 ABIES RELIGIOSA.

under the name of Widdringtonia. It has now become one of the,
most generally cultivated of the European Abies, as it is also one of
the most ornamental ; the oldest trees up to the present time have
for the most part retained their lowermost branches in health and
vigour where sufficient space has been allowed for their development,
which should not be less than a radius of 20 feet. It is quite hardy,
and thrives in almost any soil not too wet and cold; it is especially
suitable for chalk land on which it grows into a fine landscape tree;
it is also one of the best of the Abies for the lawn and pleasure
ground ; it is rarely if ever subject to injury by late spring frosts
owing to its being late in starting into growth. Several varieties have
been noted, but none of them are of sufficient merit to require
description. The variety ylauca is attractive ; the glaucescence, however,
appears to be an accident caused by the soil in which the plant is
growing ; Hammondi described in the former edition is an abnormity
due to the loss or removal of the leader shoot in the young state
of the plant. Nothing is authentically recorded of the quality of the
timber of Abies Pinsapo.

Abies religiosa.

A lofty tree 100 — 150 feet high with a trunk 5 — 6 feet in
diameter, covered with ash or .greyish brown bark broken into oblong
plates by broad longitudinal and narrow transverse fissures which
expose a reddish brown inner cortex. Branches spreading, slender in
proportion to trunk and ramified distichously. Branchlets with light
reddish brown bark, the herbaceous shoots hairy (hirtellous) and striated
longitudinally. Buds sub-globose, about 0'35 inch in diameter, with
light brown perular scales. Leaves persistent five — six years, linear,
obtuse or sub-acute, often curved, 0'75 — 1-5 inch long, spirally
arranged, those on the under side of the shoot pseudo-distichous in
three — four ranks and more or less curved inwards, those on the
upper side inclined forwards at a small angle to the axis, grooved
along the midrib and dark green above, with two silvery grey
stomatiferous bands below. Cones sessile, cylindric-oblong, slightly
narrowed towards the apex, 4—6 inches long and 2 — 2 '5 inches in
diameter, dark violet-blue changing to dark brown when mature ;
scales broadly obovate, cuneate ; bracts with a triangular, acuminate,
recurved tip. Seed wings oblique obovate.*

Abies religiosa, Schlechtendal in Linnsea, V. 77 (1830). Carriere, Traite Couif.
ed. II. 273. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish. Acad. II. ser. 2, 676, fig. 2. Hooker til,
Bot. Mag. t. 6753. Masters in Gard. Chron. XXIII. (1885), p. 56, with tig. ;
IX. ser. 3 (1891), p. 304, with fig.; Jonrn. Linn. Soc. XXII. 195 ; and Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 195. Beissner, Nadelliolzk. 495.

A. hirtella, Lindley in Penny Cyclop. I. 30 (1833).

Picea religiosa, London, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. '2349, with fig. (1838). Gordon,
Pinet. ed. II. 212.

Pinns religiosa, Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth, Nov. Gen. et Sp. II. 5 (1815).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 92. Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 420.

Eng. Sacred Fir. Germ. Heilige Weisstanne. Mex. Oyamel.

Abies religiosa was discovered in 1799 by Humboldt, who saw it
in two localities on the mountains near the city of Mexico at

* Branchlet with cone, communicated by Mr. Osborne, Gardener to the Right Hon. A. H.
Smith Barry, Fota Island, Co. Cork.

ABIES SACHALINENSIS. 537

about 4,000 feet altitude. It was afterwards seen in other pl;i<vs
by botanica-l explorers of the country but always at a high elevation,
on some of the mountains at the extreme verge of arborescent
vegetation where it becomes dwarfed to a flat-headed bush.* It is
now known to be widely distributed over the Mexican Cordilleras
at altitudes ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 feet, occasionally descending
to 4,000 feet, from the Sierra Madre southwards into Guatemala,
where it was seen by Mr. G. Ure Skinner and after him by
Dr. Seemann. A. rdigiosa is therefore the most southern species
of the genus, and the only one found wild within the tropics.
The inhabitants of Mexico use branches of it for the decoration
of their churches and cemeteries, a custom which suggested the
specific name rdigiosa.

The Mexican Sacred Fir was introduced in 1838 by the Horticultural
Society of London through their collector, Tlieodor Hartweg, who met
with it at Anganguca (not found on any map to which I have access),
and afterwards in the Real del Monte district. The changeable
climate of Great Britain is, however, unsuitable for it ; the recurrence
at intervals of exceptionally severe winters has proved fatal to it.
In a few localities where the extremes of our climate are not
experienced, as in Cornwall, the south of Ireland and some other
places, Abies religiosa grows more or less vigorously, and at Fota
Island near Cork it has attained the dimensions of a large tree.f

A bies sachalinensis.

A tree 100 — 125 feet high with a cylindric or slightly tapering trunk
2*5 — 3*5 feet in diameter covered with greyish bark, and at its best
development of pyramidal outline with spreading or slightly ascending
branches ramified disticliously. Branchlets opposite, rarely alternate, with
<m occasional adventitious weaker shoot beneath the normal pair, the
youngest shoots pubescent. Buds small, cylindric-conic with reddish
brown perular scales. Leaves persistent five — seven years, narrowly
linear, obtuse or emarginate, 0*5 — 1*5 inch long, spirally inserted, the
longer ones on the under side of the branches and branchlets pseudo-
distichous in three — four ranks ; the shorter ones on the upper side
pointing forwards at a small angle to the axis ; on the fertile branchlets
all more or less falcately curved upwards ; bright lustrous green with a
depressed median line above, with a glaucous stomatiferous band on each
side of the thickened midrib beneath. Cones cylindric, slightly tapering
towards the obtuse apex, 3 inches long and 1*25 inch in diameter; scales
transversely oblong with an inflexed denticulate outer margin and
attached to the axis by a broad cimeatc claw ; bracts longer than the
scale, obovate acuminate, the acumen with the exserted part of the blade
reflexed. Seed wings obovate truncate.
* By Deppe and Schiede on the mountains of Orizaba.

t The only specimens of Abies religiosa known to the author, besides the Fota Island
tree, are at Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow ; Menabilly, Cornwall : Castle Kennedy in Wigtown-
shire; and Ballamoor, Isle of Man (if still living), but there may be more. One of the finest
specimens in the country, growing at Fota Island, was blown down by the fierce gale that
occurred in the night of September 25th, 1396 ; it had attained a height of 70 feet.

538

ABIES SACHALINENSIS.

Abies sachalinensis, Masters in Gard. Chron XII. (1879), p. 588 with tig. ;
Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 517, with same fig. ; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc.
XIV. 195. Kent in Veitch's Manual, ed. I. 106, witli fig. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap.
Reiches, 42, Tafel III. fig. 6.

A. Veitchii var sachalinensis, Schmidt in Mem Acad St. Petersb. XII. ser. 7
176, t. 4, figs 13—17 (1868). Beissner, Nadelholzk. 461, with fig.

Eng. Saghalien Fir. Germ Sachalin "VVeistanne. Jap. Todo-matsn.

Abies sachalinensis was discovered by the German botanical traveller,
Friedrich Schmidt, on the island of Saghalien in I860, and
subsequently described by him in the " Memoires " of the Imperial

Fig. 138. Fertile branchlet with cones of Aides sachdlinensis.
(From the Gardeners' Chronicle.)

Academy of Science of St. Petersburg as a variety of Abie*
Veitclmi. Nothing further was known of it till it was
re-discovered by Maries in 1878 in Yeso, the northern island of
Japan, and by whom it was introduced in the following year. In
northern Yeso it is believed to form pure forests of considerable
extent ; on the central mountains it occurs mixed with Pieea
ajanensis and P. Glehnii ; and in the south which is much better
known botanically, it is more or less scattered, but abundant and
often mixed with deciduous trees. /!. sachalinensis is thence a
northern tree, enduring annually winters with which the most severe

ABIES SIBIRICA.

experienced in Great Britain will scarcely bear comparison. The
wood is of fair quality, but only used locally for building and
out-of-door carpentry.

Transplanted into the milder climate of Great Britain Abies-
saclialinensis has proved disappointing. In the south of England it
begins to grow too early 'in the season, and the young shoots are
occasionally destroyed by late spring frosts, an injury which the tree is.
unable to repair during the ensuing season, and after being crippled in
this way a few times, it becomes a twiggy unshapely bush. Further north
as at Scone Palace, Murthly Castle, and Ochtertyre in Perthshire, it is.
better acclimatised and the young trees have the handsome appearance
they are reported to have in their native country; it also grows freely in
Massachusetts, U.S.A. The nearest affinity of A. saclialinensis is.
A. Veitchii; so nearly related indeed are they that the claim of the first
named to separate specific rank has been questioned ; as seen in this
country the distinctness of the one from the other is evident even on
superficial inspection. The most obvious characters in which they differ
may be thus noted : — A. saclialinensis is a larger tree with a denser
habit and broader outline ; the leaves are longer, narrower, less crowd nl
and of a different shade of green than those of A. Veitcliii; the cones-
are larger, less strictly cylindric, with the bracts more prominently
exserted, and while growing, of a different colour. These differences seem,
however, to be broken through in a variety discovered by Dr. Mayr in
eastern Yeso (Osthokkaido), which, has shorter and broader leaves and
smaller cones with the bracts less prominently exserted than in the
typical A. sa<-lialinensis* Professor Sargent mentions another variety
with red bark, red wood and red cone-bracts discovered by Professor
Miyabe near Sapporo, f

Abies sibirica.

A medium-sized tree, varying in height from 30 to 75 feet, usually
with a pyramidal or spire-like crown. Trunk slender and covered with
smooth greyish brown bark. Branches close-set and spreading
horizontally, the lowermost often depressed ; ramification lateral or
pseudo-distichous. J Branchlets numerous, with smooth pale brown bark
and densely clothed with foliage. Buds small, globose, with broadly
ovate perular scale and usually covered with a film of whitish resin.
Leaves persistent five — seven years, narrowly linear, obtuse or emarginate,
0-5 — 1 inch long, bright grass-green with a narrow median groove
above, with a relatively broad keel and a narrow stomatiferous band
on each side of it beneath ; those on the upper side of the shoot
erect or falcately curved forwards, those on the under side pseudo-
distichous in three— four ranks; the leaves on the fertile branchlets
stouter and more acute. Staminate flowers $ crowded near the apex of
the shoots, globose-cylindric, 0'125 inch long, bright yellow tinged with
red at the top and surrounded at the base by broadly oval involucral
bracts in two series. Cones solitary or in approximate pairs, 2—3 inches

* Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches, 42, Tafel III.

f Forest Flora of Japan, 83. t In the branchlets examined.

§ Communicated by Mr. Croucher from Ochtertyre, and Mr. McLagan from The Lairnies,
Perthshire.

540 ABIES SIBIRICA.

long and 1'25 inch in diameter, deep violet-blue changing to cinnamon-
brown when mature ; scales subtrapeziform, clawed, rounded and
obscurely denticulate at the exposed margin ; bracts half as long as
the scales.

Abies sibirica, Ledebour, Fl. alt. IV. 202 (1833). Carriers, Traite Conif. ed. II.
302. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. II. ser 2, 685, tig. 12. Beissner,
Nadelholzk, 455. Masters in Journ. R Hort. Soc XIV. 195

A. pichta, Forbes, Pinet. Woburn, 113, t. 39 (1839). AYillkomm, Forstl. Fl.
ed. II. 107.

Picea pichta, London, Arb. et Frat. Brit. IV. 2338 (1838). Gordon, Pinet.
ed. II. 221.

Pimis sibirica, Parlatore, D. C. Prodi-. XVI. 425 (1868).

P. pichta, Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 108 (1847).

Eng. Siberian Silver Fir. Fr. Sapin de la Siberie. Germ. Sibirische Weisstanne.
Ital. Abete della Siberia Rnss, Pichta.

Abies sibirica is the most northern species of the genus, in places
spreading as far as the sixty-sixth parallel of north latitude where
it is dwarfed to a stunted unshapely bush. It is also distributed
over a greater geographical area than any other Abies ; from its
western limit in north-east Eussia, in the Government of Archangel,
it spreads eastwards through Siberia to Kamtschatka and the Amur
region frequently associated with Picea obovata, Pinus sylvestris and
Larix dahurica, and forming with them the most extensive coniferous
forest on the eastern continent. On the Altai mountains it ascends
to 5,000 feet above sea-level, forming immense forests between
3,000 and 4,000 feet. The climate of this region is one of the
coldest known, the thermometer registering many degrees of frost
below zero (Fahr.) every winter ; the seasons too are sharply
denned, there being scarcely any spring or autumn to mark the
transition from winter to summer and vice versa. In such a
climate the Siberian Silver Fir is of the highest economic value
to the inhabitants, not only for fuel but for all kinds of
constructive purposes, although in quality its wood is inferior to
that of the European species, A. pectinata. Those who have seen
A. sibirica at its best development describe it as a more slender
-and more graceful tree than the Common Silver Fir, and its foliage
of a more pleasing shade of green.

Abies sibirica was introduced into Great Britain about the year
1820, but it has failed to adapt itself to our milder climate, and good
specimens south of the highlands of Scotland are unknown. In the
colder climate of north and east Germany and Scandinavia it is muc
cultivated as an ornamental tree, taking the place of those Silver
Firs that cannot withstand the severe winters of northern Europe,
but it grows slowly, and takes the form of a slender tree with a
narrowly pyramidal outline clothed with foliage of the brightest green.
Two varieties have been noted : alba (Fischer) from the higher slopes
of the Altai mountains, with longer leaves that are more glaucous on
the under side ; and eleyans (Beissner) with shorter and stouter
leaves and of compact Araucaria-like habit.

ABIES VEITCHII.

Abies Veitchii.

541

A slender tree with an average height of 60—70 feet, but
sometimes attaining a height of upwards of 90 feet. Bark of trunk
greyish white arid smooth even in old age. Branches spreading or
slightly ascending; ramification distichous and opposite with an occasional
adventitious weaker shoot above or beneath the normal pair. Buds
ovoid-cylindric, 0'2 — 0'35 inch long, with dark chestnut-brown perular
scales. Leaves spirally crowded, persistent four — five years, narrowly
linear, emarginate or obtuse, bright grass-green with a median groove
011 the upper face, with a relatively broad silvery white stomatiferous.
band on each side of the midrib beneath, 0*5 — 1*25 inch long; the
longer leaves on the under side pseudo-distichous in three — four ranks,
the shorter ones on the upper side loosely imbricated and pointing-
forwards at an angle of about 45° to the axis ; on the fertile branches
all more or less upturned. Staminate flowers " about 0'25 inch long

Fig. 130. Foliage of Abies Veitchii.

raised on a stipes of equal length emerging from a scaly bud ; anthers
stalked, connective developed into a saddle-shaped flap from the back
of which projects a spur-like process.* Cones sub-cylindric, obtuse,
2'25 — 2'5 inches long and 0*75 — 1 inch in diameter, dark violet-blue
changing to brown when mature ; scales closely imbricated, semilunate,
broader than long and attached to the axis by a short cuneate claw;
bracts as long as, or a little longer than the scales, wedge-shaped at
the base, dilated above into a subquadrate blade truncate at the apex,
and with a small mucro that sometimes projects beyond the scale and
is bent downwards.

* Masters in Gardeners' Chronicle, XIII. (1880), p. 275.

542

ABIES VEITCHII.

Abies Veiteliii, Lindley in Gard. Chron. 1861, p. 23. Murray, Pines and Firs
of Japan, 39, with figs. (1863). Carriere, Traite Conif. ed. II. 307. McNab in
Proceed. R. Irish Acad II. ser. 2., 686, tig. 13. Masters in Gard. Chron. XIII.
(1880), p. 275, with fig. ; Journ. Linn. Soc. XVIII. 515, t. 20 ; and Journ. R.
Hort. Soc. XIV. 196. Beissner, Nadelholzk. 457, with fig. Mayr, Abiet. des Jap.
Reiches, 38, Tafel II. fig 4.

A. nephrolepis, Maximowicz in Bull. Acad. Imp. St. Petersb. X. 485 (1866).

Picea Veitchu, Gordon. Pinet. ed. II. 226 (1875).

Finns selenolepis, Parlatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 427 (1868).

Eng. Veitch's Silver Fir. Germ. Veitch's Weisstanne. Jap Shira-biso Riu-sen.

Abies Veiteliii is an alpine tree rarely descending below 5,000 feet
elevation ; it occurs on all the higher mountains of central Japan
from Sikoku northwards to about 39° N. lat. north of which it
has not been seen ; it forms in some places pure forests of
considerable extent ; in others it is mixed with Picea ajanensis, P.
polita, or Tsuya divcrsifolia. If the A. nephrolepis of Maximowicz
rightly belongs to this species, it is also common on the mainland
of Manchuria in the neighbourhood of the coast.

Dr. Mayr distinguishes two forms of Abies Veitchii', the type, in
which the apical end of the cone-bract is exserted and bent downwards,
and the Nikko variety, a local form with smaller cones, the cone-
bracts of. which do not protrude beyond
the scale.* The typical form was
discovered in 1860 on Fuji-yama by
the late John Gould Yeitch after
whom it was named by Dr. Lindley.
Dr. Mayr observed that about every
third year this Fir produces abundance
of cones whilst in the intervening years
cones are scarce, which may account
for the failure of Mr. Yeitch to
procure seeds. In 1879 Maries was
more successful, and young plants were
subsequently widely distributed.

In Great Britain Abies Veiteliii
has proved hardy and is growing freely
in many soils and situations ; its
slender habit, its bright green and
white foliage, and its beautiful cones
which are in this country also produced
freely in some years even on young
trees,! render it an ornamental tree for
the lawn and for places where the
larger Abies are unsuitable. It is also
hardy in the north-eastern States of
America where it was in cultivation
under the unpublished name of Abies
japonica some years previous to its introduction into Europe, and where
it is looked upon as "an exceedingly beautiful tree in its young state.";

* Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches, p. 39.

t Sometimes, indeed, too freely, and if the superabundant cones are not picked oft, the
tree perishes from excessive fertility.
£ Garden and Forest, Vol. X. p. 511.

Fig. 140. Cone of Abies }reitchii.

ABIES WEP.BIANA. 543

JOHN GOULD VEITCH (1839—1870) was born at Exeter. He was at an early age
initiated in the working of the nursery business, and took an active part in the
management of the Veitchian establishment after its removal to Chelsea in 1853,
at that time rapidly acquiring celebrity chiefly through the introduction of new
plants, a celebrity he was determined to maintain, and if possible to enhance. He
had scarcely attained his majority when an opportunity offered itself by the opening,
of the ports of Japan to foreigners, and in April, 1860, he started on a voyage to
the Far East, arriving at Nagasaki in July following. He remained in Japan about
a year, collecting plants previously unknown in British gardens. Attached to the suite
of Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British Envoy to Japan, he was enabled to make
the ascent of Fuji yama ; he was therefore one of the tirst Europeans who reached
the summit of the " sacred " mountain of the Japanese. After dispatching his
collections to Europe he proceeded to the Philippine Islands on a similar mission,
but with the especial object of obtaining plants of the beautiful Phalsenopses, natives
of the islands, and which were at that period extmnely rare in European gardens ;
a mission which proved successful The result of the voyage to Japan was the
enrichment of European gardens with many choice coniferous trees, several beautiful
evergreen and deciduous shrubs, and herbaceous and other plants ; the first named
are sufficiently noticed in the preceding pages ; among the latter especial mention
should be made of several beautiful varieties of Acer palmatum, Ampelopsis tricuspidata
(syn. A. Veitchii), LiUum auratum, Primula japonica and P. cortusoides. The
spirit of enterprise and the desire of making further discoveries induced him again
to undertake a long voyage to the East, and in 1864 he set out for Australia and
the South Sea Islands, returning to England in February, 1866. Among the most
enduring results of the second voyage was the introduction of many richly coloured
Crotons and Drac?enas (varieties of Codiseum and Cordyline), the forerunners of
the handsome races now so constantly in request for decorative purposes ;
also the beautiful Panianus Vei'chii, the elegant Aralia Veitchii and other stove
plants of great merit In the early part of 1867 he was taken seriously ill with
an affection of the lungs from which, however, under careful treatment he rallied
for a time, but in August, 1870, hemorrhage of the lungs set in, from which he died
shortly afterwards at the early age of thirty-one.

Abies Webbiana.

A large tree 120 — 150 feet high, the trunk having a girth of
9 — 15 feet near the ground. Bark of old trees dark or brownish
grey fissured into long narrow scales by deep grooves often running
in spirals around the trunk and anastomosing at right angles.
Branches short, spreading nearly horizontally and forming a tall,
narrow, cylindric crown.* In Great Britain, at its best development, a
stately tree with a rather broadly conical outline, the trunk four or more
feet in diameter near the ground, gradually tapering upwards and covered
with rugged, irregularly fissured, greyish bark, often with a concavity
immediately below the insertion of the primary brandies which arc
stout, spreading or slightly ascending. Branchlets distichous and
opposite with reddish brown bark, the latest formed hairy (sub-hirsute)
and fluted obliquely by cortical outgrowth decurrent from the pulvini
of the leaves. Buds ovoid-conic with orange-brown perulse. Leaves
persistent seven — nine years, spirally arranged around their axes,
linear, emarginate ; bidendate at the apex on the fertile branches,
1 — 2 '5 inches long, decurved or straight ; dark lustrous green with a
narrow median groove above ; with thickened midrib and margins,
and with two silvery stomatiferous bands beneath ; the longer leaves
on the under side pseudo-distichous in three— four ranks, the shorter
ones on the upper side erect or inclined forwards. Staminate flowers
globose-cylindric, 075 inch long, surrounded at the base by broadly

* Brandis, Forest Flora of North-west India, p. 529.

544

ABIES WEBBIAXA.

oval-oblong involucral bracts in three series. Cones among the

largest and handsomest in the genus, shortly stalked cylindric, obtuse,

6 — 8 inches long and 2 — 3 inches in diameter, - deep violet-blue

changing to dark brown when mature ; scales obovoid-rhombic

suddenly contracted to a short claw, the outer

margin entire or obscurely crenulate ; bracts linear-

spathulate, mucronate, three-fourths as long as the

scale. Seed wings obliquely oblong, truncate, nearly

as long as the scale. Wood whitish, inodorous,

open-grained and soft, and not durable when

exposed to the weather.*

Fig. 141. Fertile branchlet with cone of Abies Webbiana (reduced).

Abies Webbiana, Lindley in Penny Cycl. I. 30 (1833). Forbes, Pinet. Woburn,
117, t. 41. (1839). Link in Linnaea, XV. 532 (1841). Carriere, Traite Conif.
ed. II. 300. Brandis, Forest Fl. N.W. India, 528. McNab in Proceed. R. Irish
Acad. II. ser. 2, fig. 18. Aitchison in Journ Linn. Soc. XVIII. 98. Hooker til,
Fl. Brit. Ind. V. 654. Beissner, Nadelholzk, 479, with fig. Masters in Gard.
Chron. XXII. (1884), p. 467, with fig.; and Journ. R. Hort. Soc. XIV. 196.

Picea Webbiana, Loudon, Arb. et Frut. Brit. IV. 2344, with figs. (1838).
Madden in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. V. 251 (1850). Gordon, Pinet. ed. II. 226.

Pinus Webbiana, Wallich in Lambert's Genus Pinus. ed. III. 77, t. 44 (1832).
Endlicher, Synops. Conif. 106. Paiiatore, D. C. Prodr. XVI. 425.

P. spectabilis, Lambert, Genus Pinus, ed. II. Vol. II. 3, t. 2 (1837).

Eng. Indian Silver Fir. Fr. Sapin d' Himalaya. Germ. Webb's Weisstanne.

* Brandis, "Forest Flora of North-west India," he. r/f.

ABIES WEBBIANA. 545

Abies Webbiana is one of the most widely distributed of the
Himalayan Abietinere; its western limit is in north Afghanistan,
whence it spreads eastwards to the upper Indus and through Nepal
to Bhotan. Its vertical range in Afghanistan and Kafristan is
between 7,000 and 9,000 feet ; further eastwards on the central
Himalaya it ascends to 12,000 feet, and occasionally descends to
5,000 feet ; in the north-west it forms extensive pure forests ;
east of the Indus it is commonly mixed with Acers and other
broad-leaved trees ; in places it is associated with Pinus excel sa
and Picea Smithiana, and in Sikkim with Tsuga Brunoniana and
Khododendrons. As seen at a distance, the foliage looks almost
black whence the name of Black Forest has been locally given to
large stretches of this Fir, just as the common Silver Fir has given
rise to the same name to a district in southern Germany formerly
covered with it. The economic value of Abies Webbiana is by no
means inconsiderable to the inhabitants of the higher Himalaya
although the wood is of inferior quality.

Abies Webbiana was introduced into Great Britain by Dr. Wallich,
for many years Director of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta ; he
repeatedly sent seeds to Mr. Lambert and others, but none appear to
have germinated till about the year 1822 when some plants were
raised in the nursery of Messrs. Whitley and Osborne at Fulham.*
Although Abies Webbiana occurs at a higher elevation with a colder
climate than A. Pindrow, its cultivation in this country has not been
attended with any better results. On the Himalaya at the altitude
at which A. Webbiana attains its greatest development the climate is
constant ; the winter snows fall upon the forests with a regularity
unknown in Great Britain and have the same duration year after
year. To this cause may probably be assigned the frequent failure of
Abies Webbiana; it begins to grow early in spring, and this early
growth is often cut off by frosts later in the season — an injury the tree
is unable to repair in the same season. Where sufficiently protected from
these late frosts, it is one of the most beautiful of the Abies, evidence
of which is afforded by specimens dispersed throughout the country,
notably at Bicton and Upcott in Devonshire; Tandridge Court in Surrey;
Hewell Grange, Worcestershire ; Howick Hall, Northumberland ; Castle
Kennedy, Wigtownshire ; Whittinghame in East Lothian ; Keir House
in Perthshire ; Torloisk in the Isle of Mull ; at Fota Island near
Cork ; Powerscourt, Wicklow ; and Courtown, Wexford.

The species was named in compliment to Captain W. S. Webb, an
officer in the service of the East India Company, " a distinguished
traveller and zealous investigator of Natural History," who first discovered
it in the early part of the nineteenth century.

* London, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, IV. 2345.

XN

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

THE mast important works on the Coniferse have been adverted to

under the Section "Botanical Retrospect" at page 102; in the
following enumeration are given the full title and date of publication
of the works most frequently quoted in the literary references to
the genera and species and in the text.

Aitchison, J. E. T. On the Flora of the Kuram Valley, Afghanistan,

Journal of the Lhmean Society, Vol. XVIII. 1S81
Aiton, W. T. Hortus Kewensis; a Catalogue of Plants cultivated in

the Royal Gardens at Kew, Vol. V. 1813

Beissner, L. Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde 1891

Bentham, G., and Hooker, J. D. Genera Plantarum, Vol. III. 1881

Bentham, G. Flora Australiensis, Vol. VI. - 1873

Bieberstein, L. B. F. Flora Taurico-Caucasica, Vol. II. 1808

Boissier, E. Flora Orientalis, Vol. V. . 1884

Bongard, H. G. Observations sur la Vegetation de Sitcha 1832

Brandis, D. Forest Flora of North-west and Central India - 1874

Brewer and Watson. Botany of California, Vol. II. - 1880

Brown, James. The Forester, 6th edition 1894
Carriere, E. A. Traite General des Coniferes, 1st edition, 1855; 2nd

edition - 1867

De Candolle, A. Flore Franchise, Vol. III. - 1805
Don Davaid. Prodromus Florae Nepalensis; an enumeration of the

plants collected by Dr. Francis Hamilton during his journey

through Nepal in 1802—1803 1825
Description of Five new species of the Genus .Pinus, Transactions

of the Limiean Society, Vol. XVII. - 1836
Description of Two new Genera of Coniferee, Transactions of

the Linnean Society, Vol. XVIII. 1838
Eichler, A. W. Engler and Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,

3 und 4 Lieferung 1887

Endlicher, S. Synopsis Coniferarum - 1847
Engelmann, G. Revision of the Genus Pinus, in Transactions of the

Academy of Science of St. Louis - 1880

Brewer and Watson's Botany of California, Vol. II. 1880
Fischer, F. E. L., and Meyer, C. A. Bulletin de 1'Academie des

Sciences de St. Petersburg, Vol. X. 1842

Forbes, James. Pinetum Woburnense - 1839
Franchet, A. et Savetier L. Enumeratio Plantarum in Japonia sponte

crescentium, Vol. I. 1875

Gay, Claudio. Historia Fisica de Chile, Vol. V. 1849

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 547

Gordon, George. The Pinetuin, 2nd edition 1S7-)

Hooker, J. D. (nl). Himalayan Journals or Xote.s of a Xaturalist 1854

Flora of Tasmania - 1860

Handbook of the Xew Zealand Flora 1867

Flora of British India, Vol. V. 1887

The Botanical Magazine from Vol. 91 - 1865

Hooker, W. J. Flora Boreali America - 1840

London Journal of Botany, Vols. I. — IV.- - 1842— 1845

The Botanical Magazine, Vols. 54 — 90 -1827—1864

Hoopes, Josiah. Book of Evergreens - - 1868

Hunter, T. Woods, Forests and Estates of Perthshire 1883

Kaempfer, E. Amoenitates Exoticse - 1712

Kent, A. H. Veitch's Manual of Conifer®, 1st edition 1881

Kirk, T. The Forest Flora of Xew Zealand 1889

Koch, Karl, H. E. Dendrologie ; Baunie, Straucher, und Halbstraucher

welche in Mittel-und Xord-Europa cultivert werden, Vol. II. 1873
Lambert, A. B. A description of the Genus Pinus, Vol. I. 1803 ;

Vol. II. - 1824

2nd edition, folio 1828 to 1837

3rd edition, octavo - - 1832

Lemmon, J. G. Report, Calif ornian State Board of Forestry, Vol. III. 1890

Handbook of [North-west American Cone-Bearers - - 1895

Lindley, J. Penny Cyclopaedia, Vol. I. - - 1833

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London, Vols. I. — VII., 1846 to 1852

Paxton's Flower Garden' - 1851 to 1853

The Gardeners' Chronicle - 1841 to 186 5

Link, H. F. Abietineae Horti Regii Botanici Berolinensis cultse

Linnsea, Vol. XV. - 1841

Linnaeus, C. Species Plantarum, 1st edition, 1753; 2nd edition 1763

Mantissa Plantarum, 2nd edition - 1771

London, J. C. Arboretum et Fruticetum Britaimicurn 1838

Encyclopedia of 'Trees and Shrubs - - 1842

McXab, W. R. A Revision of the species of Abies, Proceedings of

the Royal Irish Academy, series 2, Vol. II. 1877

Macoun, J. Catalogue of Canadian Plants - - 1886

Masters, Maxwell T. The Gardeners' Chronicle, Xew Series 1873 to 1886

Third Series - - from 1887

On the Conifers of Japan, Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol. XVIII. 1881

Contributions to the History of certain Species of Conifers, Journal

of the Linnean Society, Vol. XXII. 1886
Review of some Points in the Comparative Morphology, Anatomy
and Life History of the Conifer®, Journal of the Linnean

Society, Vol. XXVII. - 1889
Xotes on the Genera of Taxaceae and Coniferae, Journal of the

Linnean Society, Vol. XXX. 1893
List of Conifers and Taxads in cultivation in the open air in
Great Britain and Ireland, Journal of the Royal Horticultural

Society, Vol. XIV. (Conifer Conference) 1892
Maximowicz, C. J. Diagnoses breves plantarum novarum Japoniae et
Mandschuriae, Bulletin de 1' Academic imperiale des Sciences de St.

Petersburg, Vol. X. - - 1866

Mayr, Heinricli. Die Waldungen von Xordamerika - - 1890

Die Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches - 1890

548 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Michaux, F. A. Histoire des Arbres Forestiers de TAmerique septentrionale 1810

Miller, Philip. Dictionary of Gardening, 8th Edition - - 1768

Murray, A. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal •- 1855

The Pines and Firs of Japan . . 186&

Lawson's Pinetum Britannicum (in part) - . 1884

Nelson, J. E. (Senilis) Pinaceae ; a Handbook of the Firs and Pines - 1 866

Nuttall, T. Sylva of North America - . 1849"

Paiiatore, F. Coniferse in De Candolle's Prodromus Systematis

Naturalis Kegni Yegetabilis, Vol. XVI.- . 1868
Pallas, P. S. Flora Eossica - 1784
Persoon, C. H. Synopsis Plantarum 1805
Regel, E. Bemerkungen iiber die Arten der Gattung Larix, Garten-
flora, 20ten Jahrgang 1871
Richard, L. C. Memoires sur les Coniferes et les Cycadees 1826
Royle, J. F., Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains 1839
Sargent, C. S. Forest Trees of North America, Tenth Census of the

United States, Vol. IX. 1880
Garden and Forest ; a Journal of Horticulture, Landscape, Art

and Forestry- -1888 — 1897

The Silva of North America, Vols. X., XI. and XII. - 1896— 1898

Schlechtendal, D. L. F. Vorlaufige Nachricht iiber die mexicanischen

Coniferen, Linnaea, Vol. XII. . - . 1838-

Schhch, W. A Manual of Forestry, Vol. V. 1896-

Sibthorp, John. Floras Graecse Prodromus 1813-
Siebold, P. F., and Zuccarini, J. G. Flora japonica, sive Plantse

quas in imperio japonico collegit, Vol. II. - 1842"

Spach, E. Histoire naturelle des V^getaux phanerogames, Vol. XI. - 1842'

Thunberg, C. P. Flora Japonica 1784

Torrey, 'John. New York Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. II. - 1854

Report on Botany, Pacific Railway Survey 1858

Wallich, N. Plantse Asiatic-re rariores, Vol. III. 18321

Willdenow, C. L. Species Plantarum, Vol. IV. - 1805
Willkomm, Moritz. Forstliche Flora von Deutschland und Oesterreich,

2nd Edition - - 1881

INDEX I.

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS.

A.

PAGE

Abies bracteata at Eastnor

Castle, 496 ;. A. concolor at

Higlmam Court, 504 ; A.

firma in Japan, 507 ; A.

magnifica at Murthly Castle,

518 ; A. Nordmamiiana at

Castle wellan, 527 ; A. Pin-

drow at Monk Coniston, etc. 533

Abietine 95

Abnormal growths in Taxads

and Conifers- 51

Alerze Timber - 257

Amber • - 95

Araucaria at Dropmore - - 296
In the Royal Gardens at Kew 299
Avenues. Abies nobilis at Madres-
field Court, 525. Araucaria
at Bicton, Poltimore and
Murthly Castle, 300. Atlantic
Cedar at Madresfield Court,
410. Cryptomeria, near Lake
Hakone and Utsunomiya in
Japan, 265. Deodar Cedar at
Charleville, Poltimore, and
Killerton, 414. Douglas Fir
at Murthly Castle, 482.
Welling tonia at Linton Park
and Orton Hall, 279. Yew 138

B.

Banks, Sir Joseph
Bentham, George

316
202

PAGE

Biographical notices. Banks, Sir
Joseph, 316. Bentham, George,
202. Coulter, Thomas, 326.
Don, David, 255. Douglas,
David, 484. Engelmann, George,
432. Fortune, Robert, 113.
Eraser, John, 510; Griffith,
William, 3 97. Ksempfer, Engel-
bert, 406. Lambert, Aylmer
Bourke, 338. jLawson, Charles,
210. Lobb, William, 243. Lyall,
David, 400. Macnab, James, 214.
Mertens, Karl H. , 47 2 . Menzies,
Archibald, 454. Siebold, Philip,
474. Smith, James Edward,
457. Thunberg, Carl Peter,
386. Yeitch, John Gould

Bordered pits in coniferous wood

Botanical Retrospect -

Bract and seed-scale -

Branchlet systems of the Cypress
Tribe -

Buds (Gemmation), 19. Arrange-
ment of, 19. Order .of
development, 21. Bud-scales,
20. Removal of (deperulation)

Burr on Pine Trees -

543
83

102
40

18

20
55

C.

Canada Balsam - - 95 & 493

Calif ornian coast region, climate of 272

Cedar of Goa at Kilmacurragh - 212

550

INDEX.

PAGE

Cedars on Mount Lebanon, 418 ;
on the Cilician Taurus, 418 ;
at Carton, Kildare and Strath-
fieldsaye, Hants, 419; at
Enfield and Goodwood, 420.
Oldest in England, 421.
Properties of resinous secre-
tions - 422

Chile, southern, climate of - 257

Cone of Abies pectinata with
analytical figures, 48. Pinus
pinea, longitudinal section of,
47. P. rigida, showing mode
of attachment - 49

Coniferse, oldest vestiges of, 98.
Of the Coal Measures, 98.
Of the Mesozoic or Inter-
mediate Life Division, 98. O
the Tertiary or Recent Life
Division, 99. Existing Genera
and Species, 101. Enumeration
of- - 102

Conifer Conference - 105

Coniferine 95

Coniferous wood, 81. Anatomi-
cal structure of, 81. Durability,
87. Elasticity, 86. Fragrance,
89. Strength, 85. Specific
gravity, 87. Uses of, 89.
Wood-pulp 89

Coniferous Forests, Minor pro-
ducts of - 90

Cotyledons of seedling Taxads
and Conifers, 5. Number of,
in the different genera, 6.
Size and Form of - 6

Coulter, Thomas 326

Cryptomeria japoiiica, proliferous
cones of- 53

Cupressus macrocarpa, old trees
of, near Monterey, 216. C.
obtusa and C. pisifera, clipped
trees of, near Tokio, 227. C.
torulosa in Kumaon 234

Cypress, Lawson's, at Castle-
wellan, 209 ; in the vicinity
of Port Orford, 208. McNab's
on tlfe Red Mountain in
California, 214. Xootka Sound,
at Streatham Hall, Exeter, 219.
Roman, in the Convent of
the Chartreuse at Rome, 230 ;

PAGE

at Montpellier and at Somma

in Lombardy - - - 230

D.

Deciduous Cypress, Forest of,
in Florida, 284 ; Gigantic
specimens of, in Mexico, 281.
Knees of, 282 ; at Syon House 285
Diseases of Conifers, 55. Firs,
62. Larches, 66. Junipers, 69. -
Pines, 57. Other Conifers - 70
Distribution and Census - - 96
Don, David - . 255

Douglas, David 484

Douglas Firs at the Frythe,
Welwyn, 483 ; at Lynedoch
and Murthly Castle, 482 ; in
Oregon - - 480

E.

Economic Products 81

Engelmann, George - - 432

F.

Fertilisation of Taxads and

Conifers 43

Firs, Silver, at Carton, Curragh-
more, Dunk eld and Lynedoch 532

Flowers, position and arrange-
ment of, 40; colour, 41.
Staminate flower of Abies
bracteata, 488. Abietia

Douglasii, 475. Dacrydium,

36. Ginkgo, 36.

Picea

Smithiana, 423. Pinus Laricio,

38. Sequoia Wellingtonia, 39.
Tsuga Branoniana, 39. Saxe-
gothaea, 159. Prumnopity s, 154.
Yew, 36. Ovuliferous flower
of Pinus Laricio, 38. Saxe-
gothsea, 37. Tsuga Brunoniana,

39. Yew
Foliation -
Fraser, John
Fortune, Robert
Fructification -

INDEX.

551

PAGE

Fruits of the Abietineae, 46.
Cupressineae, 46. Juniper and
Thuia, 46. Ginkgo, Larch and
Cypress, 49. Taxaceae, 45.
Taxodinese, 47. Periods of
maturation, 48. Size and
weight -

G.

Geological Record

Gemmation; formation of winter

buds
Germination of the seeds of

Conifers

Ginkgo biloba at Kew
Glaucescence
Griffith, William

H.

Hemlock Firs on
mountains, 468 ;
465 ; in Sikkim

Hybridisation amonj

the Mkko
in Canada,

Conifers -

47

97
19

5

106

32

397

463
45
413

Himalaya, north-west, climate of

Himalayan Larch at Strete Ralegh 396

I.

Inflorescence of Taxads and
Conifers - 35

Insects injurious to Conifers, 71 ;
their number, 72. Larch-bug,
79. Larch-miner, 76. Pine-
beetle, 77. Pine-weevil, 74.
Pine-shoot moths, 76. Saw-
fly, 75. Spruce gall Aphis, 78.
Wire worms - 73

Japan, climate of - 267

Juniperus recurva in Sikkim
and Fota Island - - 187

K.

Kaempfer, Engelbert- - 406

Kauri Gum - - 96

L,

Lambert, Aylmer Bourke - - 338
Larches at Dunkeld - - 394

Lawson, Charles - 210

PAGE

Leaves, adult, 23 ; arrangement
of, 25 ; colour, 31 ; fibro-vas-
cular bundles, 33 ; insertion,
27 ; minute structure, 32 ;
movements, 29 ; primordial
or protomorphic, 22 ; resin
canals in, 33. Of Firs, 24 ;
Pines, 24 ; Cryptomeria and
Sequoia, 25 ; ' Taxads, 25 ;
Cypress tribe

Lobb, William -

Lyall, David

M.

Macnab, James -

Maidenhair Tree in the Royal

Gardens at Kew, 106 ; in the

Imperial Botanic Garden at

Vienna -
Morphology of the Taxaceae

and Coniferae
Mertens, Karl Heinrich
Menzies, Archibald -

0.

Ovules of Pinus Laricio -

25
243
400

214

111

4

472
454

44

P.

Phylloid shoots of Sciadopitys

and Phyllocladus - "30

Picea ajanensis at Ochtertyre - 426
Pine Barrens of the southern

United States - 352

Pine trees in the garden of the
monastery at Kinkakuja, 384 ;
at Karasaki, and at Naniwaja,
Japan . . 385

Pine, Wild, in Scotland - - 381
Pinus Ayacahuite at Westonbirt,
312. P. Bungeana at Peking,
317. P. Ceinbra in the Val
Arola, 320. P. contorta on
the Pacific coast, 324. P.
excelsa at The Frythe, 329.
P. Lambertiana on the Sierra
Nevada, 337. P. Montezumaa
at Castlewellan and Fota
Island, 347. P. monticola in
Perthshire, 350. P. montana

552

INDEX.

PAGE

on the Tyrolese Alps, 344.
P. pinea in the Royal Gardens
at Kew, 360 ; in Trinity
College Botanic Garden,Dublin,
363; at Glenthorne, 362. P.
Pinaster in south-west France,
359. P. ponderosa above the
Yosemite valley - 366

Pitch, preparation of 95

Pollen of Taxads and Conifers,

dispersion of - 41

Pollen-grains, structure of - - 43
Prumnopitys elegans at Eastnor

Castle - 156

Pnlvinii and their prolongations 27

R.

Ramification of Taxads and
Conifers, 16. Habit modified
by, 17. Variation in - 18

Red Snow 42

Redwood forests, destruction of 273
Resin ducts - - 84

Resinous secretions, 91. Resin
industry, seats of, 93. French
method of working it, 93.
American method, 94;
destruction caused by, 94 and 353
Roots of Taxads and Conifers, 7 ;
emitted from the lowermost
branches of Cryptomeria,
Lawson's Cypress, Pinus ex-
celsa and the Common Spruce,
10. Of Pinus Pinaster, 7; the
deciduous Cypress and the
Yew .... 9

S.

Sciadopitys in Japan, 290 ;

proliferous cone of - - 54

Seeds of Taxads and Conifers,

49; size and weight, 50;

dispersion of- 51

Seedling plants, polymorphism in 51

Of Cephalotaxus drupacea, 8.

Cupressus sempervirens, 6.

Ginkgo biloba, 7. Libocedrus

decurrens, 23. Picea Glehnii,

5 ; and Pinus muricata - 6

PAGE

Siebold, Philip Franz 474

Smith, James Edward 157

Spurs of the Cedar, Larch and

Ginkgo - 22

Stems of Taxads and Conifers,
11; annual rings of, 14; age
of, 15; heights attained by,
12; rate of growth of - 13

Spruce Beer and Gum, 440.

Muskeag in Wisconsin - 439

T.

Tar, preparation of 95

Thuia gigantea at Linton Park,

242. Tsuga Mertensiana at

Eastnor Castle 471

Thunberg, Carl Peter 386

Topiary work at Elvaston Castle

and Levens Hall - 137

Turpentine, composition of, 92 ;

paste, 95 ; supply of 92

V.

Variegation in the foliage of

Taxads and Conifers 31

Veitch, John Gould - 543

W.

Wellingtonia, age of, 278; height
attained by, 274; discovery of,
277 ; restricted habitat - 278

Y.

Yew, the, association with
English History, 135; places
of worship, 132; gardening and
arboriculture, 137; formation
of avenues and hedges - 138

Yews, celebrated, ancient and
historic, 132 and 135; in
churchyards, 133. AtCherkeley
Court, 128; Buckland Church-
yard, 134; Fountains Abbey,
133; Maynooth College, 132;
Wordsworth's "Fraternal Four"
at Borrowdale 131

Yews, Westfelton, Irish and flat-
topped, origin of - 138 — 141

INDEX II.

GENERA AND SPECIES

(Nomina sy sterna tica).

Names in italics are synonyms.

PAGE

Abies, Link 486

ajanensis, Kent - 425

alba, Michx. - - 428

Albertiana, Murr. - 460

Alcockiana, Lindl. 429

amabilis, Forbes - 489

Apollinis, Link - 498

baborensis, Me Nab 529

balsamea, Mill. - 492

balsamea, Torrey 516

balsamifera, Michx. 492

bicolor, Maxim. - 429

biftda, Sieb. et Zucc. - 507

bifolia, Murr. - 516

brachyphylla, Maxim. - 513

bracteata, Nutt. - 493

Bridgesii, Kellog. 460

Brunoniana, Lindl. 462

canadensis, Mill. 428

canadensis, Michx. - 464

caroliniana, Chapm. 467

Cedrus, L. C. Rich. 416

cephalonica, Loud. 498

cilicica, Carr. - 500

eommutata, Gord. 431

concolor, Lindl. • 501

Douglasii, Lindl. 478

dumosa, Loud. - - 462

Eichleri, Lauch. - 526

En<jelmanni, Parry - 431

excelsa, Link - 432

Finedonensis, Hort. - 434
nrma, Sieb. et Zucc. - - 506

PAGE

Abies, Fortune^ Murr. 486

Fraseri, Lindl. 509

Glehnii, Schmidt 438

Gordoniana, Carr. 511

grandis, Lindl. - 510

grandis, Carr. - - 503

Harryana, Me Nab - 513

hirtella, Lindl. 536

homolepis, Sieb. et Zucc. 513

Hookeriana, Murr. 469

jezoensis, Lindl. - 486

jezoensis, Sieb. et Zucc. 425

Kcempferi, Lindl. 405

Kliutrow, Loud. - 455

Larix, L. C. Rich. 391

lasiocarpa, Nutt. - 515

leptolepis, Sieb. et Zucc. 397

Lowiana, Murr. - 503

magnifica, Murr. - - 516

Mariana, Mill. - - 439

Mariesii, Mast. - 520

Menziesii, Lindl. 453

Mertensiana, Gord. 460

mierosperma, Lindl. - 425

microcarpa, Lamarck - 389

Morinda, Nelson 455

nephrolepis, Maxim. - 542

nigra, Michx. - 439

nobilis, Lindl. - 521

Nordmanniana, Spach 526

numidica, De Lannoy - 529

obovata, Loud. 441

orientalis, Poiret - - 443

554

INDEX.

Abies, panachaica, Heldr.
Pattoniana, Balfour
pectinate, De Cand.

pichta, Forbes -
Pindrow, Spach
Pinsapo, Boiss. •
politd, Sieb. et Zucc. -
Regince Amalice, Heldr.
religiosa, Sehlecht.
rubra, Loud.
sachalinensis, Mast.
Schrenkiana, Gord.
shastensis, Lemm.
sibirica, Ledeb. -
Smithiana, Loud.
tubcdpinq,, Engeliu.
Tsuga, Hort.
Tsuga, Sieb. et Zucc. -
umbeUata, Mayr-
Veitchii, Lindl. -
venusta, Koch
Webbiana, Lindl.
Williamsonii, Xewb. -

Abietia, Kent

Douglasii, Kent -
Fortunei, Kent -

Agathis, Salisb.

australis, Salisb. -

Araucaria, Juss. -
Biclwilli, Hook. -
brasiliensis, A. Rich. -
Cookii, R, Br. -
Cunniiighami, Lamb.
excelsa, R. Br. -
imbricate, Pavou
Rulei, Muell. -

Athrotaxis,

cupressoides, Don
Doniana, Hort. -
Gunniana, Gord.
imbru'ata, Hort. -
laxifolia, Hook. -
selaginoides, Don

Biota, Endl.

meldensis, Ca'rr. -
orientalis, Endl. -
pendula, Endl. -

Calocedrus macrolepis, Kurz.

PAGE

498

Cedrus, London

PAGE

406

469

atlantica, Manetti

409

530

africana, Gord. -

409

540

Deodara, London

411

533

Libani, London .

415

534
446

Cephalotaxus, Sieb. et Zucc.

111

498

drupacea, Sieb. et Zucc.

112

536

Fortunei, Hook. -

113

450

pedunculata, Sieb. et Zucc. -

114

537

Chamsecyparis, Spach

199

451

Boursieri, Carr. -

206

517

breviramea, Maxim.

221

539

Lawsoniana, Parl.

206

455

nutkaensis, Spach

218

516

obtusa, Endl.

221

467

pendula, Maxim.

226

473

pisifera, Endl.

225

507

sphceroidea, Spach

231

541

thurifera, Endl. -

231

495

543

Oryptomeria, Don

263

469

elegans, Carr.

264

japonica, Doii.

263

474

Lobbii, Hort.

264

476

485

Ounninghamia, R. Br. -

291

lanceolata, Hook.

292

293

siuensis, R. Br. -

292

293

Oupressus, Linn.

199

294

arizonica, Greene -

201

302

attenuata, Gord. -

206

302

Benthamii, Endl.

201

303

cashmeriana, Royle

234

303

Coimeyana, ParL

234

304

disticha, Linn. -

282

297

elegans, Hort.

202

304

fastigiata, De Cand. -

229

funebris, Staunt.

203

259

Ck /» 1

glauca, Lamarck -

211

261

Goveniana, Gord.

204

261

Hatrtwegii, Carr. -

215

262

horizontal is, Mill.

229

262

C\f* ~t

Knightiana, Hort.

202

261

LarnbertianO) Carr.

215

262

Lawsoniana, Murr.

205

235

Lindleyi, Klotsch

202

250

lusitanica, Mill. -

210

940 Macnabiana, Murr.

213

250 macrocarpa, Hartw.

215

nootkatensis, Don

217

256 obtusa, Koch

220

INDEX.

555

OupreSSUS, pemlula, Lamb.
pisifera, Koch
semper virens, Linn,
thurifera, H. B. K.
thyoides, Linn. -
torulosa, Don
Wliittleyana, (lord.

Dacrydium, Soland.

cupressinum, Soland. -
Franklinii, Hook. f. -
tetrayonum,. Parl.

Dammara australis, Lamb.

Diselma, Hook. f.

Archeri, Hook. f.

Dombeya, Lamarck
chilensis, Lamarck

Fitzroya, Hook. f. -
Archeri, Bentli. -
patagonica, Hook. f. -

Ginkgo, Linn.

biloba, Linn.

Glyptostrobus, Endl. -
heterophylliw, Endl.
pendulus, Endl. -

Juniperus, Linn.
andina, Xutt.
barbadensis, Linn. ' -
Bedfordiana, Hort.
bermudiana, Linn,
brevifolia, Parl. -
californica, Carr.
canaden-sisj Gord.
Cedrus, Webb -
chinensis, Linn. -
cinerea, Carr.
communis, Linn,
conferta, Parl.
davurica, Pall. -
dealbata, Loud. -
drupacea, Labill.
echinoformis, Hort.
ericoides, Hort. -
excelsa, Bieb.
flaccida, Schlecht.
ftagelliformis, Hort.
foetidissima, Wild.

Presl. -

PAGE

PAGE

203

Juniperus hispanim, Mill.

- 192

224

japonica, Carr.

- 170

228

Lycia, Linn.

182

230

macrocarpa, Sibth.

181

231

macropoda, Boiss.

176

233

mexicana, Schlecht.

- 168

229

monosperma, Sargent -

179

nana, Willd.

- 172

144

~t A K

oblonya, Bieb.

- 172

1*0

occidentalis, Hook.

- 178

146

1 A1

Oxycedrus, Linn.

- 179

lOi

pachyphloea, Torr.

- 181

293

phoenicea, Linn. -

182

procera, Hochst. -

177

196

procumbent, Kent

- 183

197

procumbens, Sieb. et Zucc.

- 170

<>Q«

prostrata, Pers. -

- 183

*j t/O

9Q8

Pseudo-Sabina, Fisch. -

184

— J7O

pyriformis, Lindl.

168

196

religiosa, Carr.

- 175

197

religiosa, Tloyle -

- 186

198

repens, Tsrutt.

- 183

rufescens, Link -

- 179

107

recur va, Don

- 185

109

rigida, Sieb. et Zucc, -

- 188

280

Sabina, Linn.

- 189

286

sabinoides, Griseb.

192

282

Scopulorum, Sargent -

- 195

sphserica, Lindl. -

- 190

164

squamata, Hamilt.

- 186

178

taxifolia, Hook, et Arnott

- 191

193

tetragona, Schlecht.

179

193

thurifera, Linn. -

191

166

utahensis, Lemmon

168

180

virgiuiana, Linn.

192

167

Wallichiana, Brandis -

184

171
180

Keteleeria Fortunei, Carr. -

- 486

169

1 A i"i

Laricopsis, Kent

- 403

192
170

Ksempferi, Kent

404

188

Larix, Salisb. -

- 387

185

americana, Michx.

- 389

178

Cedrus, Salisb. -

- 416

173

dahurica, Turcz. -

- 390

172

decidua, Mill.

- 391

231

europsea, De Cand.

- 391

174

Griffithii, Hook. f.

- 395

177

japonica, Carr. -

- 397

169

Kcempferi, Carr. -

- 404

176

Imrilensis, Mayr -

- 390

172

laricina, Koch -

- 389

556

INDEX.

PAGE

Larix Ledebouri, Gord. - 402

leptolepis, Gord. - - 397

Lyalli, Parl. 399

microcarpa, Forbes - - 389

occidentalis, ]STutt. - 400

pendula, Salisb. - 389

sibirica, Ledeb. - 402

tenuifolia, Salisb. 389

Libocedrus, Endl. - 251

chilensis, Endl. - 252

decurrens, Torr. - 253

Doniana, Endl. - - 254

macrolepis, Benth. 255

tetragona, Endl. - 256

Microcachrys, Hook. f. 160

tetragona, Hook. f. - - 161

Nageia, Gaert. - 152

japonica, Gaert. - 152

Phyllocladus, L. C. Rich. - 121

alpiims, Hook. f. - 122
asplenifolius, Hook, f . - - 123

glaucus, Can. - - 122
rhomboidalis, L. C. Rich. - 123

trichomanoides, Don - - 124

trichomanoides, Parl. - - 123

Picea, Link 422

ajanensis, Fisch. - - 425

alba, Link - 427

Alcockiana, Can. 429

amabilis, Loud. - 489

Apollinis, Law son - 498

balsamea, Loud. - - 492

tricolor, Mayr - 429

brachyphytta, Gord. 513

bradeata, Loud. - - 495

Breweriana, Watson - 430

eanadensis, Link 464

eanadensis, Sargent - - 428

cephalonica, Loud. - 498

cilicica, Gord. - - 500

columbiana, Lemni. - - 431

commutata, Hort. 448

concolor, Gord. 502

Douglasii, Link - - 478

Kngelmaiini, Engehn. - - 431

excelsa, Link 432

firma, Gord. - 507

Fraseri,, Loud. - - 509

grand is, Loud. - - 511

PAGE

Picea Glehnii, Mast, 437

hondoensis, Mayr - 425

jezoensis, Carr. 425

Lowiana, Gord. r 503

magnified, Gord. - 517

Mariana, Sargent 439

Menziesii, Carr. - 453

mierosperma, Carr. 425

Morinda, Link - 455

nigra, Link 438

nobilis, Loud. 522

Nordmanniana, Loud.- 526

numidica, Gord. - - 529

obovata, Ledeb. - 441

Omorica, Pancic- 442

orientalis, Carr. - 443

Parryana, Sargent - 448

Parsonsiana, Hort. 503

pectinata, Loud. - 530

pichta, Loud. - - 540

Pindrow, Loud. ^ 533

Pinsapo, Loud. - 534

polita, Carr. 446

pungens, Engelm. 448

religiosa - - 536

rubens, Sargent - 450

rubra, Link 450

Schrenkiana, Fischer - 451

sitchensis, Carr. - -452

Sniithiana, Boiss. - 454

Veitchii, Gord. - - 542

IVebbiana, Loud. - 544

Pinus, Linn. - - 306

Abies, Duroi - - 530

Abies, Linn. 433

Abies, Pallas * 526

alba, Lamb. 428

albicaulis, Engelm. - 310

Alcoquiana, Parl. 429

amabiUs, Dougl. - - 490

aristata, Engelm. - 314

atlantica, Endl. - 409

attenuata, Lemm. - 387

australis, Michx. - 352

austriaca, Hoss - 339
Ayacahuite, Ehrenb. - - 311

Balfouriana, Murr. - 313

Banksiana, Lamb. - 315

balsamea, Lamb. - 492

Beardsleyi, Murr. - 364
Bentliamiana, Hartw. - - 364

INDEX.

557

PAGE

Pinus Bo/anderi, Pnrl. 324

Boursieri, Carr. - 324

brachyphylla, Parl. 513

bracJiyptera, Engelm. - 364

brwteat-a, Don - - 495

Brunoniana, "\Vall. 462

Brutia, Tenore - 368

Bungeana, Zucc. - - 316

c.anadensis, Linn. - 464

carica, Don - 368

Cedrus, Linn. - - 416

Cembra, Linn. 317

cembroides, Zucc. - 321

cephalonica, Endl. 498

cilicica, Kotschy 500

commutata, Parl. 431

concolor, Parl. - 502

contorta, Dougl. - 323

Coulteri, Don - - 325
densiflora, Sieb. et Zucc. - 326

Deodar a, Lamb. - - 411

Devoniana, Lindl. - 345

divaricata^ Sargent - 315

Don Pedri, Roezl. - 311

Douglasii, Don - - 478

dumosa, Lamb. - - 462

echinata, Mill. - - 342

JBdgariana, Hartw. - 351

edulis, Engelm. - - 322
Engelmanni, Torrey - - 364

escarena, Risso. - - 358

excelsa, Wallicli. - 328

Fenzlii, Antoine - - 339

firma, Endl. - 507

flexilis, James - - 330

Fortunei, Parl. - - 486

Fraseri, Lamb. - - 509
Fremontiana, Endl. - - 322
Gerardiana, Wallicli. - - 331

grandis, Dougl. - - 511

Griffith™, Parl. - - 395

halepensis, Mill. - 332

Hartwegii, Lindl. - 348

hispanica, Widdr. - 368

homolepis, Endl. - - 513

Jiwlsonica, Parl. - 315

humilis, Link 343

mops, Soland. 333

insignis, Loud. - 370

Jeffrey i, Balfour - 364

Koempferi, Parl. - 405

Khutrow, Royle - 455

PAGE

Pinus koraiensis, Sieb. et Zucc. 334

Lambertiaiia, Dougl. - - 336

lanceolafa, Lamb. 292

laricina, Duroi • 389

Laricio, Poiret 338

LariXy Linn. 391

lasiocarpa, Hook. 516

Ledebouri, Endl.- 402

Lemoniana, Carr. 358

leptolepis, Endl. - 397

Ifwcoderniis, Aiit. 339

Lindleyana, Gord. 345

Llaveana, Schlecht. - - 321

Loisleuriana, Carr. - 368

longifolia, Roxb.- 341

lopho&perma, Lindl. 348

Loudomana, Gord. - 311

Lyalli, Parl. 400

macrocarpa, Lindl. 325

macropliylla, Lindl. - 345

mandscliurica, Murr. - 318

maritima, Lamarck. - 358

Massoniana, Endl. 383

Menziesii, Dougl. 453

Mertensiana, Parl. - 460

Mertensiana, Bong. - 469

microcarpa, Lamb. - 389

mitis, Michx. 342

monophylla, Torrey. 322

montana, Mill. - 343

Montezuma3, Lamb. - 345

monticola, Don - 349

Mufjhus, Willd. - - 343

muricata, Don - 350

Murrayana, Balfour - 324

nigra, Lamb. - 439

nobilis, Dougl. 522

Nordmanniana, Steven 526

Nuttalli, Parl. - 401

obovata, Parl. - 441

oocarpa, Schiede- 348

orientally Linn. - 443

osteosperma, Engelm. - 321

Pallasiana, Lamb. - 339

palustris, Mill. 352

paroliniana, Webb 368

Parryana, Engelm. 323

Parry ana, Gord.- 364

parviflora, Sieb. et Zucc. 353

Pattoniana, Parl. 469

patula, Schiede - 355

penditla, Lamb. - - 389

558

INDEX.

PAGE

PinuS pentaphylla, iMayr - 356

Peuke, Griseb. - - 357

Picea, Dnroi 433

Picea, Linn. 530

pichta, Endl. 540

Pinaster, Soland. 358

pinea, Linn. 360

Pindrow, Royle - 533

Pimapo, Endl. - 534

polita, Endl. 446

ponderosa, Dougi. 363

porpliyrocarpa, Murr. 349

protuberant Gord. - 345

pumila, Mayr - 318

Pumilio, Haenke 343

pungens, Miclix. 367

pyreiiaica, Lapeyr. - 368

pyrenaiea, Gord. 339

quadrifolia, Sudw. - 323

nuliata, Don - 370

religiosa, H. B. K. - 536

resinosa, Solarid. - 372

rigida, Mill. 373

rubra, Lamb. - 450

rubra, Miclix. - 373

rupestris, Miclix. - 315

Russelliana, Lindl. - - 345

Sabiniana, Dougi. - 375

Schrenkiana, Endl. - 451

tserotinct, Miclix. - 374

selenolepis, Paii. - - 542

sibirica, Parl. - 540

sitcJiensis, Bong. - 453

spedabilis, Lamb. - 544

Smithiana, Wall. - 455

strobiformis, Eiigelm. - 313

Strobus, Linn. - 377

sylvestris, Linn. - - 379

T«da, Linn. 382

taxifolia, Lamb. - - 478

Teocote, Schlecht. 356

Thnnbergii, Parl. 383

Torreyana, Parry 348

Tsuga, Endl. - 473

tuberculata, Gord. 386

uncinata, Ramoiid. - 343

mriabilis, Lamb. - 342

renusta, Doug. - 495

viryiniana, Mill. - 334

Wincesteriana, Gord. - - 345

Webbiana, Wall. 544

Podocarpus, L'Herit 147

PodocarpUS alpinus, R. Br.
cui'.limis, Poppig -
chilimis, L. C. Rich. -
dacrydioides, A. Rich. -
ferruginous, Don
koi'aiensis, Hort. -
macrophyllus, Don
Xageia, R. Br.
iieriifolius, Don -
nubigenus, Lindl.
spicatus, R. Br. -
Totara, Don
zamicefolius, A. Rich. -

Prumnopitys, Philippi -
elegans, Philippi
spicata, Mast.

Pseudo-larix, Gord.
Knirnpferi, Gord.

Pseudotsuga, Carr.

Douylasii, Carr. -
iitaavcarpa, Mayr
magnifica, McNab
mucronata, Sargent
nobilis, McNab -

Salisburia, Smith

wlianf (folia, Smith

Saxegothsea, Lindl.

conspicua, Lindl.

Sciadopitys, Sieb. et Zucc.

verticillata, Sieb. et Zucc.

Retinispora, Sieb. et Zucc. -
dubia, Carr.
ericoides, Hort. -
jH-icoides, Gord. -
filifera, Gord.
juniperoides, Carr.
leptodada, Hort.
lycopodioides, Gord.
meldensis, Hort. -
obttisa, Sieb. et Zucc. -
pi*ifera, Sieb. et Zucc.
plumosa, Gord. -
squarrosa, Sieb. et Zucc.

Schubertia, Mirbel.

Mirbel. -

Sequoia, Endl.

f/if/anfeaj Decaisne
gigantea, Endl. -

I'AGE

148
157
148
149
150
115
150
151
152
153
157
153
293

154
155
157

405
405

474
478
478
517
478
522

109
109

158

158

286

287

199
247
231
221

226
249
232
222
250
221
225
•2-11
227

280

282

269
275

INDEX.

559

Sequoia sempervirens, Endl.
\Vellingtonia, Seemann

Taxodiurn, L. C. Rich. -
distichum, L. C. Rich.
heterophyllum, Brong.
microphyllum, Brong. -
Montezumw, Decaisne -

Lamb.
Gord.

TaxilS, Linn. -

adpressd, Gord. -
baccata, Linn.
brevifolia, Nutt. -
Boursieri, Can. -
canadensis, Willd.
cuspidata, Sieb. et Zucc.
Dovastonii, Hort.
epacrioides, Hort.
ericoides, Hort. •
fastiyiata, Hort. -
floridaiia, Chapm.
Harringtoniana, Forbes
hibemicci) Hort. -
japonica, Hort. -
Lindleyana, Murr.
macrophylla, Thunb. -
nucifera, Linn. -
tardiva, Parl.
wrticillata, Thunb.

Thuia, Linn.
aurea, Hort.
chilensi&i Don
Craiyiana, Murr.
dolabrata, Linn. -
Doniana, Hook. -
filiformis, Lindl.
t/iyantea, Carr.
gigantea, Nutt. -
japonica, Maxim.
Lobbii, Hort.
Menziesii, Doug. -
obtusa, Mast.

PAGE

270
274

280
281
286
2S2
281
271
282

124
126
126

143
127
127
127
127
144
114
127
115
142
151
119
126
289

255
250
253
239
244
240
240
221

PAGE

Thuia occidentalis, Linn. 245

orientalis, Linn. - - 248

pisifera, Mast. - 225

pendula, Lamb. - 250

plicata, Don. - 239

plicata, Parl. 247
itphceroidalis, L. C. Rich. - 231

sphceroidea, Macoun 231

Standishii, Carr.- 245

tetragona, Hook.- - 256

Wareana, Hort. - 248

Thujopsis, Sieb. et Zucc. 235

borealis, Fisch. - 218
dolabrata, Sieb. et Zucc. - 237

Icetevirens, Lindl. 237

Standishii, Hort. 245

Torreya, Amott 116

calif ornica, Torrey 117

myristica, Hook. 118

nucifera, Sieb. et Zucc. - 119

taxifolia, Arnott - 119

Tsuga, Carr. - - 457

Albertiana, Kent 459

Araragi, Sargent 473

Brunoniana, Carr. 462

canadensis, Carr. 163

caroliniana, Engelm. 466

cliversifolia, Maxim. 467

Douglasii, Carr. - 478

heterophylla, Sargent - 460

Hookeriana, Carr. - 469

Mertensiana, Sargent - 468

Mertensiana, Can. 460

Pattoniana, Engelm. - 469

Sieboldii, Can. - 472

Tumion, Rafinsq. - , 116

californicum, Greene 1-18

taxifolium, Greene - 120

Wellingtonia, Lindl. - 275

gigantea, Lindl. - - 275

INDEX III.

VERNACULAR AND COMMON NAMES

(Nomina trivialia).

PAGE

PAGE

Arbor Vitse, Chilian -

252

Fir,

Algerian

- 529

„ Chinese -

249

55

Balm of Gilead -

492

„ Japanese -
„ Lobb's

245
240

55
55

Balsam
Black Spruce

- 492
439

„ Standish's

245

55

Blue Spruce

448

,, Western -

246

55

Bristle-coned

- 495

,, Whipcord (penduld)

250

55

Cilician

- 500

Arceuthos, The -

174

55

Clanbrazil's

51 & 433

Ayacahuite

311

55

Colorado Silver •

- 502

Bunya-Bunya

302

55
55

Colorado Spruce -
Common Silver -

- 448
- 530

California!! Nutmeg •

118

Common Spruce -

- 433

Cedar, African -

409

55

Double Balsam

- 509

Bastard -

253

Douglas

- 478

5)

,, Deodar

411

55

Engelmann's Spruce

- 431

,, Ground

171

w

Eraser's

- 509

,, of Goa

211

f|

Greek -

- 498

„ Incense -

253

5)

Hemlock Spruce -

- 464

,, Indian

411

55

Himalayan Hemlock

- 462

„ Japanese -

264

5>

Himalayan Spruce

- 455

„ of Lebanon

416

5J

Indian Hemlock -

- 462

„ Prickly

179

5J

Indian Silver

544

„ Red

193

Indian Spruce

- 455

„ White 231, 246 &

253

J)

Japanese Hemlock

- 467

Cypress, Bald

282

) J

Japanese Silver -

- 507

,, Deciduous

282

„

Larch

- 522

,, Japanese

221

5J

Lovely

- 490

,, Lambert's

215

5>

Menzies' Spruce •

- 453

,, Lawson's

206

5J

Norway Spruce -

- 433

,, Monterey

215

„

Nikko Silver

- 513

,, Nootka Sound

218

5)

Noble

- 522

„ Pea-fruited -

225

j j

Nordmann's

- 526

Port Orford -

206

Oriental Spruce -

- 443

,, Roman

229

55

Prickly

- 446

„ Sitka -

218

55

Prince Albert's -

- 460

Yellow

218

55

Red of California

517

„ Swamp

282

55

Red of Oregon -

- 522

INDEX.

561

PAGE

'ir, Red Spruce

- 450

Monkey Puzzle -

Rocky Mountains Spruce

- 431

N" (r'l

Sacred

- 536

&

Saghalien

- 538

Oyamel

Santa Lucia

- 495

Pine, Adventure Bay -

Scotch

- 379

„ Austrian -

Siberian Silver

540

„ Awned

Siberian Spruce -

441

„ Bishops' -

Spanish

- 534

„ Black of KZ. -

Servian Spruce

- 442

„ Bull

Tall Silver -

- 511

„ Canadian -

Tideland Spruce -
Tiger's Tail Spruce

- 453
- 446

,, Celery-topped
„ Cembra -

Veitch's Silver -

- 542

„ Chile

Western Hemlock

- 460

,, Chinese Water -

White of N". W. America,

490 & 502

,, Corean

White of Oregon -

511

„ Cluster

White Spruce

- 428

,, Corsican -

Yesso -

425

„ Crimean •

[ackmatack

389

„ Digger

uniper, Bermuda
„ Calif orriian -
,, Chinese
„ Common
,, Greek -
,, Incense
,, Mexican
„ Phoenician

166
- 167
- 169
- 171
- 175
- 192
- 168
- 182

„ Fox-tail
,, Frankincense
„ Grey
, Heavy-wooded -
, Hickory
, Japanese Black -
, Japanese Red
, Knob-cone

TTnrm

„ Prickly

- 179

, . 1 1 11* Ml

.1 *1P K~

„ Savin -

- 189

p U tll-.lv

TV P n 1*1

„ Spanish

- 192

•»* lYillll 1

„ Swedish
,, Syrian -
„ Tall

- 171
174
- 175

", Loblolly -
,, Long-leaved
„ Monterey -

Lahikatea -

149

,, Mountain -

^archj American

- 389

„ New Jersey

-\r j.

Black
„ Chinese -
„ Common

- 389
- 405
- 391

„ JNut-
„ Old Field -
,, Pinaster -

., European
„ Golden -
„ Himalayan
,, Japanese

- 391
- 405
- 395
- 397

„ Prickle coned
,, Red of Amer.
„ RedofKZ.

„ Red

- 389

" ^ "h

,, Western -

401

„ Short-leaved Am.

Maidenhair Tree

109

,, Short-leaved Jap.

rlaki

- 151

,, Soft-leaved

Matai

- 157

„ Small-flowered -

Mammoth Tree -

- 275

„ Southern Pitch -

Miro, The -

150

,, Spruce

PAGE

-

298

-

152

-

536

_

123

-

339

-

314

_

351

_

157

364 &

376

..

373

.

123

_

318

_

298

_

286

_

335

_

358

_

338

_

339

_

376

_

314

_

382

_

315

.

364

.

367

_

383

_

327

-

387

.

146

_

315

_

293

_

338

_

382

_

352

_

370

343

_

334

_

376

.

382

.

358

.

374

_

351

_

373

_

145

_

379

315 &

334

_

342

_

354

_

342

_

354

_

352

_

342

00

562

INDEX.

Pino, Strobus, Japanese

Stone

Sugar

Swiss Stone

Table Mountain

Tartarian -

Torch . -

Umbrella -

Western Pitch -

Weymouth

White, American

Wild

Yellow 342 &

Podocarp, Alpine
,, Chilian
„ Large-leaved
„ Oleander-leaved -

Retinispora, Fern-like
,, Golden

,, Pea-fruited

„ Slender-branched

Rimu

Redwood, Californian

PAGE

356

Tamarack -

360

Tanekaha -

336

Toatoa

318

,, Mountain

367

Torreya, Japanese

339

Totara

382

289

364

Wellingtonia

377

377

S7Q

Yew -

«J 1 U

SfU

,, Californian

«J \_JTt

148

Canadian -

148

Fetid

150

Florence Court

1 59

Golden

X\7^B

Irish

221

Japanese -

221

Prince Albert's

225

Weeping -

226

Western

145

Westfelton

271

Yellow-berried

122

PAGE

389
124
122
122
119
154

275

126
142
143
116
127
126
127
144
158
129
142
127
127

CORRIGENDA.

Page 46 In line 14 from bottom— For Figs. 30 and 31, read Figs. 32 and 33.

J 143 „ 17 from top ^ For Wildenow,

,,172 „ 13 from top read

,,343 „ 12 from bottom J Willdenow.

275 „ 23 from bottom — For Seeman read Seemann.

425 24 from top — For Fisher, read Fischer,

H M. POLLETT & Co., LTD., Horticultural Printers, Fann Street, Aldersgate Street, B.C.

.C
fi]

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