- PTR Meg Ae an 7" ; Hi bade Ce Hy rhe oe ‘ ’ VETERINARY STATE BOARD QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS BY V. G. KIMBALL, D.V.M. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SECOND EDITION PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY ww CopyYRIGHT, 1914 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY CoPYRIGHT, I917 BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U.S. A. MAY -5 i920 : PREFACE BEING intimately associated with veterinary students, the author is fully aware of the feelings of fear and mysticism with which they are possessed when confronted with the ordeal of taking a State Board exam- ination. Partly to dispel these fears, but more to provide a means of self- quizzing, this work was undertaken. A large number of State Board questions from ten of the more repre- sentative eastern and a few of the middle and western States have been sorted over. Those contained herein represent what was left after elim- inating hundreds of duplicates. The few duplications which remain serve to illustrate the close relationship of the various subjects to one another. The overlapping and the necessary process of elimination resulted in the abbreviation of some subjects, especially Sanitary Science, Pathology and Zoodtechnics, to a considerable degree. Many topics, considered elsewhere, might rightly have been inserted under these headings. The author lays no claim to literary genius or bombastic propensities. The aim has been to supply brief, accurate answers, and this has been done many times at the expense of grammatical precision. The extensive library of the Veterinary School of the University of Pennsylvania, being at my disposal, has been thoroughly perused and the highest authorities on the different phases of veterinary science have been earefully consulted and compared. It would be impossible to make acknowledgment to all in the space allotted. To my colleagues, with whom it is a privilege to associate, and who have endeared themselves by their valuable suggestions and advice, my heartfelt thanks are due. It is the author’s hope that this humble beginning will meet the student’s demand for a means of self-interrogation in preparing for State Board and Civil Service examinations. Incidentally, by reason of the complete index, it may, in a measure, satisfy the need of a convenient, com- plete, reliable reference book on veterinary science. To the end that this may be accomplished, criticisms and suggestions will be cheerfully received. May, 1914. V. G. KIMBAtu. iii = se = ge ae ee ae te nev We ohh: , Val ahaa: vA wth i 7 ey ee Br gee roe ts bes fight whe wat BRAT ae Nee pie NEES a ate J : i® wr hileeh i CONTENTS PAGE CHEMISTRY INoRGANIC CHEMISTRY...........0...00. Ly AON eae oe SE Falah tos aleter er aMmiaa 2) 2 eee FEYDROGHNG ates ces sah oke eh Geese SAE Lee Se taa see ‘teratebaneraser ea Pee wells AVURAMI RE hey rior intent ee yay C202 5 nxt br to baked ACERS CHAE PAPER bes case ae ee: Hyprocen DIoxIpE........ START Ae RY ie ts 28 ee Pt Ae Bee tN ee . 15 OXYGEN..... Rite ate Ree a Rass ae TORE Oh eh eter 2 Soe e Me yo LG INTRROGIN Cicer coma pita nga eng le rats A BEE, Mega BO Tiny Late aaa AD Seale? 1 ALTO COTOT UL ae ReMeTAy W R Nee BI atte SACO a MU MR Oe Nt RiSOE nM aE Riri RR SU MAY hal me LS FAT ROU BIE TAP eit tAg Ty nint | Nk Ate MEL ya) toh EOL SANA ACW wears CN 20 ARB ONT eile ee er Leen Tih toes ey DC EN ahh os oe ies 1 Sade seg tle . 20 SLUG ee ap raeeere eee eae he oe Se CIN Cie us CAE AH eat Lee DISINFECTANTS AND ANTISEPTICS SBMS Wades el at Maneatis ae),5,08 Ge a 24 IPHOSPHORUB Gros ah hicd Fete chahel hat cine Meee Heads Cth red... CER CMR RL raeea e heh aap ERAT GENS ae Ser een arch ok oh aren Meal chal a olbvc cach ge kieran kerk bbe LN HIER a 25 GOLD iret ee tn CS Ah AUN Wek ch Uladicdeed fer cneg cae tgua Cea ee NES Ie 2 ASEH ¢ PSP TAG OEEED Pile ANT Re eet ihcy NUR SHOR UN COR DoLit ae Mian RMA On OND ID Ye NN 27 ARI eo ee aa Se eet yey EIR dy Be BAG Rate Sk A ERD hae 28 AVI GUR ACOs) tsk UK Mie NE eal Na TEN ht AA SR Uae iaa SS NS 28 Rimrars Op: Ta ATALIEG. ; 504 0)'< vt ee oe Ce Oa Se ea bows 29 WAR CTIA GRODR AA os olka cin sal die oo tn AR INO ORR SURMIR AEE! 96 5.5 29 LAN CUR SASS SVE OS Db ecpt ney aislgsoidlich Seah One AEE TNCOR hee OREO See 31 Boron...... CSE Oe aetna Bet Nhs IALch sl chlo7 5, ARERR TOSSES EET Date SER RS 7 Ie ol ALUMINUM........ ALAIN ASL AN AE Tae sedi ena ge Hy, s REE Te EN aay ant OBES Seer BISMUTH........ UU DAS AMES SF SIN MBB Ss) vray shea Paha ASK in ora NOE eee Ree 31 HUTSON SE MM aN at at A Na cad aia rclis 2) oo Wed MPC ONE we Seat ho Ae on YS ene PARES TINT Pe uhy. cela Aimee are ele Mat ed (Mg WG oleh ll ea ee ea ASR! WAUNITEMON G0 tsi sc icyete inc me gather Re Peta a tit 34 SWRA IG MEIMUISTRG 50a che city 'e adi the 4S care uw rhe ae a OURO Ie ro as 34 FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION Be Ne eee tebe APs OL ee eR ehe DARHT RAS Lin 34 ATCOHOLS:. 0.5... Bi acaba fo: SARE ENC | RE eee > Man YT Weak ns Sn an ane le 35 STO 101. 001. Ce Bi ee HAR Rance ia kaini ids ede Bhai ts wed hoe ps AUS oi 36 VSS ED Se ROR RON adeeb its a Beh yh edel wih a Ae age ups ih hala od bao 36 ORD) Soares cece ge Lee LEE TER EL Wn, Vad RRC COIR |e SOMME nr: F 36 | 2501101 0S NE aA el Oe Og a Sl DS he en ana a ade re bara MA eit, a A NA SST Cpls op gh ae Re Yaa ER AP RATE telat ae ea alia Mae AR lalate by OS see IATESATIONDR i chose heh tec k ecea te esi TER Aen AER SD aOR mes myipiseryte: At tie nt ee DORICOLOGY oe hie ee ETA ever ri aie ee Serna Et MeN aes - oo PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY................. : A ei AE URE Oa berycte de ree . 40 CARBOHYDRATEB? 25.002 2200 2 Serer err ae, ee Leary eee ete ae Meta x 14 1.) SEs ae Pa SIE OES a pee each ttle lah DORs eee ta . 41 Mink ee pest ate ate Pest pata AL i eehe ae Phd ed en AW hehe D in cous. tae 35 a WRI ee icceter SePAR Ai? RIE, ¥ AWE De Bice & ORE ‘ A Re eee ae Pere ke to ANATOMY OATEGLOGK Ase bh ea rue ha SRA OS Soe Sack Aironet SIMRO gener este .. 44 ARTHROLOGYs4.0 beet hs 3 ie te beh Oak 37204) Ct BURR Aap BORD Pe oe er MyoroGy.)..s.'s. A Se ariel SRA PM es Ait ih a Rati yh tS bade iy ak a Oe CiRcuULATORY ORGANS. RANTS pS BAS a Bae, Bein Tt She ins Saad tn ROM Re yo ae 545 62 INGUROROG Ye eek ey CRO RAE Re aR SND ip 7 gene eR Ne RN Bo AS ee, (| DIGESTIVE ORGANS...... PIES ATS COAT Bin 8s SER MAD WN IAN De ee | Sa i A HESPIRATORY, ORGANSS | echt beet SLIa Steg Shik oeibae she bet cee es . 85 WEN AR YS ORGIANE Ce ome frie Red eee rig cella ses 1 Ns gle hl awee eee ame o5 . 89 SEXUAL ORGANS...... SARE ALIEN Ate Mier Sekt akban OAR. Shad MIRE O one DL ars =, 90 patie On DER TAL, GRNOM | a oss cise ee ew eee Lee. ceek 93 on DUIS OO 2 EEE aed Sh i Mi ES ti 95 NEHER ATURE Ye ci ong Sa Le Ca yk RO i Seren ree ge he f. . 96 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY FOS at PRD EERE OSA ERA 2 te ae 98 HUE TOLOGICAL: AWATOM@ 8S 82 ba tek OR ERA Sane erent rd ; Ee eo vi CONTENTS PHYSIOLOGY SUNDER ISS erat erete ie ate cis: se Nistor iad KA Declare et RMS EID ele eB tiie choy \ala ene, aiei els. 5 0rete te 106 ET ARR rea HOE sci Sava) SPUN ara Si gtayios ois, wove arene Ta tele oer ote oie ini sseiMiake: alse leee 109 CPU SEEEU IIIS 2) ibs ply ee ied SR re MBN baie VelS lavage (0) oinusiehny elena eietaee 110 IAMETETEIA TE (CXTUAIND Sc... Lge Ribeiro a GA APT ois dined cide) bdeldtoeletale elect terepars 112 RMP REE AUTON 1 oh chai ts AEs He he Me MAP NGI (olin va wial's al Me erau Mima eke tata 113 NOT ETRPUTITEN IT Seat he Ae tle Ponta: Sia ord er he cere ioe wich svelers, a) oy duchaleie ete einem 115 PAINS EDEIRCAITICT: SUL eel oie ele ek aaitie chal ace & IN ea Bie ea eet gts hal ahead Oran 122 SRE TINT Sy Sed es Ponce are deco ca sane tah ct atcha a tame pbency ar lcichie pt Btiah a SEE ARNO hea oh eta 123 LEA Te: Sl EA Dy acs ne a MARL tad Vinee BOR OR PAE SOMMER De «E08 Te yy Pie leo» 125 APMIS FRANCA 9 ons bh fe ech brea REL Leh EMS Ig daveb Raiden Cd secede neveve 1 okt & ae Sie Mee neta 126 PNTSTAMAT: MRD RVAING I 41 5. rove crahaetera taleh chara vatse latayte,le Brahe sia Se eta lale ZAR M SLED ak aitae tonne 128 NUEVO RYEGATE | fo MEPDIRINE so) Fes tc seio stats har AacaNanebs to Pate Mencia tole navelas robe Pun lelin ys CRON Rene Mate tte 130 DNL ER ERY GOETH WE DROBR chi cass crater eneieccie wh ato Ma Maha tole Cohs Foe tuipa 101d Te fara yeh ol oS RM on a 131 SATAY LEGEND anes Fed BSc Med cock sna clad wrod Laceatneseefons!ohovan gia habe vale (alk Saneto) 01 eter vane Ista 136 CAPERS MNCS Gh Sade eID a os ich fade oh coeur chahoratea lopadclions tanave Catt varane tedaheed Oy acto a nr eneneaE 138 GRHNERATION. AND IDDVELOPMENTS «fo oot ie:cie ob io. yerenera'orsseie sista dte Matera 139 PATHOLOGY IVER TROPHY “AND ATROPHY . occ 6.0 01625,2( 0s 00.0.6: 6.0) 000, 6 « Sudhal sieve eaten eae 143 SY RRERRAT FEATS CONES 501g acc) a oie, ciclis «sas ale jessie, dre euetd bbe aie sles eve elle spenatancy teal ain oer 143 MPUTOMIN (2 ci Diev a, cre Shaw Ocoleiece cate lendie ter teteduwee es Oth eilele SOaNCUUNn We cl ch Nine iy a ee 144 BAN ETAN CNSR ork Vs res dents sade co Alia ca ea ne Spaloratee ee ais atest eoeile, suel te ORS UE te) RR EN eee 145 TA MENIN OM yee tendaletee cscucel&. siecle te lal oibk cipro salee che Ora cone eae ae 146 ESERIES SANSD Fad CENUINS 65 fe oooh che Somes beae eo acdsee ca, Suc nellote 140s anes eee taka era 147 Pinan AND BUOOD-VHSSHES 61/0000 .c)che Gals enoeteid fhe: patente, sles cae ele SR 148 RMMEIRA TORS ORGAN)... 5 2. ooh ssciarocuicte ches cede a epee ale abelieeaencee area 150 MAREMLIACUNT ANAT: COILGEANIS <0 ooh us ous scicax legs dso ate, eaelnin Je aire tala to ls: 6; 6uoh ci ays) ck Sea a 152 CARMITG“URINABY ORGANS 65s ci0.60 oiiroloccicc dle cic cee ke teeter ee 183 DISMASES ‘OF THN URINARY ‘ORGANS oo. oo cone otk oe ee eee 184 DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANB..............-.202ccecceeces 186 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS...............-0ceceeeceeees 188 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS............... Pan wetapenae ef. 191 DamAseS Or Ton Nuavous Syverm. 6) ae 199 DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION..............0.eeceeeeees 201 Preuss OF Tt ORIN..1.. ill. iced. eR eee 202 SURGERY MMM BEN ON cs reccocl Bid givin! TA vk iahraricik Sark Sow lia iw tw ary ah Cie Th tee ae 206 RIMEPAMEMUAMNIM 5526 tein oie ak Cicee eine oe Cae ee eae Oe ee 209 Li Wingo AND GANGRENE. 2! ooo ote oe ee 210 MN ERSE teeter ate at abet wiutate er ela Be ible lalc dy olel omunie kt aw mee tuaie sue cial NE a 211 Si eMUNMMMNMENEMN SS... k's 5 clos bee horas clowns aw sete cals oh vam ten ete 212 MRMIA AMG UP RODARER 0! 0 oo i toe 212 PN Acne disp. Se Gate Ci ca cede heen de Ueno ke a OE eee 212 EN Re ag hs GERD ye cid Gala Ce cid ert ee ee 214 MEMDONH AND “LMNDGOW-REBATHS... 1... 00005 0 dao. eo ee eee 215 DORE ORMS ADE. IMMUSUME! oot, ce cone a eects kc eee, ee 216 PeSANEE OF TO0D-VEnebts... 5.04), .5s ss cabana Cle 217 MEM, Oe AM CRORE cis. Whe havowcueenamanaee Cerra 217 io) ER [sR atelier aerial iene aleseutita o0 8h 223 CONTENTS vii Praiees Gn Wan Annodemn oe i Bee oe 229 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.............cccccccccccccccvecce 232 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS...........c.ccccecccccccecee 234 DisEASES OF THE SPINAL COLUMN AND PELVIS............e.seeeeee- 238 IDISMASES OR THE HORE: TMB! bi lye en Ae Dae eH aie Oia ut 239 SOP PSm Ara GSN EL EV ENTED VOEMERS 56.0565 he: dh gible acca clei «oo! bdid a etl ekvavel OO ulals 245 PAPO CSM PENNS ORL s crt g et ee Re RE OS te i a Beg Oe 250 METHODS oF RESTRAINT, CASTING, ETC.............2.00ccceceseceees 257 OBSTETRICS OBSTETRICAL ANATOMY si ccle eas Sateen cto rate oh ola hab Sontie te ceca Ee 259 [Fran gshval eaten dtl ania dy ieee Ni ecne ne MAG tet aA em tt RADA PORE Weer RGLCGEiZRRT |) alge 264 12S SH Ol UT Gn Ogee On ES EDN ad SONI EHrs ESTER Narre h HO RORINE Na Mh RA MPL Aides Ua ALY RAT 269 eX ROY EEF COIS CUA Ste ABT I a ee UY RT ee NL AC NCB 276 LOYN 20) SERA Re Ee rao en EL RON eC eR RRM A NOKKLE TNS ¥. 278 Diseases IncIDENT TO PREGNANCY AND LABOR...................-.-- 284 IDISMASES) OFu THE YNEW-BORN) enforce iutae Uielare deca idle eae ione 294 MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS PRESCRIPTION VWRRITENGY 5), ic ioce eee eer yichctey Grasie aoa notes ver ey gutta eos CU epee 332 PRO RACOBRG GMs Weis erat ea he R Ne EEL als AER ST Rear He cr ee SLUG IAs Nt ae ME nC 338 PIGR UM ERAS 8 ane tanya ae Mh hy Rl tae ANN Ga LCRA OLR 341 WA GOEN TIN DETR AD Vy) Vie AG ah jie Bet eu ees Pane Nap rea eta Tei oe tee ren a 343 SANITARY SCIENCE—MEAT AND MILK HYGIENE aie ONAN WV OP TEL ATION 3 6/60 ls ies ca tid hela Vee ole UR Wee A OREN he eee 346 PARROT DMM RASMR CS Uh. Ye os Meee wal Re oS 347 PROP EY GIA CE RE ier ter Ae Ro ILI oR Shia RAr NN tallest WEA POA tea SE MC tO 349 Ree Ae NAS TyGreN i i. ou. Sos db Sapna ike Sela ani ab ekee ore oats 351 PG Og 5S ENO NTS O RLs OR een ae MRR ce Rp IE eB VT tA, OEMS TE Or AN, 360 VETERINARY STATE BOARD QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS CHEMISTRY Distinguish between chemistry and physics. Physics is the science of matter and energy. It deals with those changes in matter which do not involve a change in composition. It also deals with the doctrine of equilibrium and with that of motions. The latter are visible, as those of mass, in fall, projection, rotation, propagation in a plane, ete.; or invisible, and only per- ceptible by their results, as sound, heat, light and electricity. Chemistry reveals to us the composition of matter, and in the formation of new compounds, acquaints us with the rules and laws by which its various forms act upon one another. It deals with those changes in matter which do involve a change in composition. Define specific gravity. If the specific gravity of a substance is 1.5, how many c.c. of distilled water will ten grammes represent? The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the weight of any volume of the substance and the weight of a like volume of some other substance taken as a standard. For solids and liquids, the standard is distilled water at its temperature of maxi- mum density ; for gases and vapors, the standards are hydrogen and air at a temperature of 0° C. and a barometric pressure of 76 centi- metres of mercury. If the specific gravity of the substance in question is 1.5, 10 grammes would equal 15 grammes of water; 1 gramme of water equals 1 ¢.c., hence 15 grammes would equal 15 e.ce. How is the specific gravity of a liquid determined? There are several ways. The hydrometer is usually employed, or comparisons can be made of the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and water. What effect on the volume of a gas has (a) change of pressure, (b) change of temperature? (a) The volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure upon it (Boyle’s law). (b) All gases approximately expand equally for equal rises of 1 2 VE TERINARY STATE BOARD temperature. Theoretically, at 273 degrees below zero (absolute zero) the gas becomes nothing, and for each degree of rise in tem- perature it expands at of the volume which it occupied at 0° C.; hence 273 volumes of air at 0° C. becomes 274 volumes at 1° C., 275 at 2° C., ete. Describe the process of electro-plating. This process depends upon electrolysis, that is, the decomposition of a chemical compound, the electrolyte, into its constituent parts, called ions, by an electric current. In a battery or in an electro- lytic bath, the metallic, or electropositive ion is carried with the current through the electrolyte. Similarly, when a chemical salt is electrolysed, the metallic base is carried to the cathode (the nega- tive pole of the battery). Therefore, by attaching the object to be plated at the cathode in a bath composed of a silver, gold or copper solution, it will become coated, or plated, with silver, gold or copper. Define evaporation, electrolysis, amorphism, dialysis. Evaporation is the process of converting a substance, especially a liquid, into a vapor. Electrolysis—see answer to preceding question. Amorphism relates to the non-crystalline character of some substances, such as starch and glue. Dialysis is the passing of a dissolved substance through a dia- phragm of parchment into another liquid. Convert (a) 104° F. to its equivalent in Centigrade degrees, (b) 38° C. to Fahrenheit scale. (a) (104° F.— 32) x 3 = 40° C. (b)» (88° Cr X $) + 32 = 100.4° F. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Define chemistry. Chemistry is the science which treats of the properties and composition of substances, their changes in composition and the phenomena attending such changes. The subject of chemistry is divided for convenience into inorganic, organic and physiologic. State the difference between a chemical and a plyes change, with an example of each. A chemical change is one occurring in the molecules of matter in which the substance or substances lose their identity by the for- mation of new substances. Example: Paper, when burned, yields carbon dioxide, water and some charcoal. A physical change is one occurring in a mass of matter in which —- QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 3 the substance retains its original composition. Example: Water, changing into ice or steam. Define the following terms: analysis, synthesis, atom, molecule, com- bustion, chemical affinity, compound. Analysis is the process of determining the composition of a sub- stance. There are two kinds, qualitative and quantitative. Synthesis is the artificial building up of a chemic compound, by the union of its elements. An atom is, theoretically, the smallest particle of an element which can exist. A molecule is, theoretically, the smallest particle of a compound that can exist. Combustion is oxidation accompanied by the development of heat and light. Chemical affinity is the affinity or attraction which exists between the atoms of certain substances. A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements, united to each other in definite proportions: Define and illustrate acid, base, salt, alkali. An acid is a compound having electronegative, or anionic, prop- erties and containing hydrogen which is replaceable by metals to form salts. It produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water or other dissociating liquids. Acids change blue litmus to red. Example: hydrochloric acid, HCl. A base is a substance which unites with an acid to form a salt. Bases produce hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water or other dis- sociating liquids. Example: Zine unites with sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate. A salt is a compound formed by the union of a base with an acid. Example: Iron sulphate is formed by the action of sulphuric acid on iron. An alkali is a soluble substance having strong basic (electro- positive) properties, usually applied to the oxides and hydroxides of the alkali metals and metals of the alkali earths. Such substances are very soluble in water, change red litmus to blue, unite with and neutralize acids, forming salts, and emulsify fats. Example: potas- sium and sodium. Define efflorescent substance, deliquescent substance. Give an ex- ample of each. An efflorescent substance is one which is converted from a erystalline solid to an amorphous powder on exposure to the air, 4 VETERINARY STATE BOARD due to the loss of its water of crystallization. Example: erystal- line sodium sulphate, exposed to the air, becomes a white powder. A deliquescent substance is one which can be converted from a solid salt into a liquid form by the absorption of moisture from the air. Example: calcium chloride left in an open vessel for a few days will become wet and in time will even liquefy. Define acid salt, amalgam, molecular repulsion, neutralization. An acid salt is one in which only part of the hydrogen of an | acid is replaced by a metal or basic radical. Hxample: NaHSQ,. An amalgam is an alloy containing mercury, as tin and mercury. Molecular repulsion is the term applied to the tendency of molecules to separate. According to the theory of the constitution of matter, the molecules of every mass are in ceaseless motion, hitting and rebounding from one another. In gaseous masses, the molecules move without restraint; hence gases always tend to expand. Neutralization is the term applied to the interaction between acids and bases with the result that both acid and basie properties disappear, 7.¢., are neutralized. It consists in the union of the hydrogen ion of an acid with the hydroxyl ion of a base to form water. Define valence and write formulas of four compounds containing ele- ments having different valences, indicating the valence in each case. Valence is the definite capacity which every elementary atom has for uniting with other atoms. Hydrogen is taken as the standard and its valency is assumed to be unity. In HCl, Cl is univalent because it combines with one atom of H; in H,O, O is bivalent; in NH,, N is trivalent; in CH,, C is quadrivalent. Define monad, diad, triad, tetrad, pentad. Give an example of each. Monad is an element having a valency of one; diad, a valency of two; triad, three; tetrad, four; pentad, five. Examples: see preceding answer; pentad, phosphorus as in PCl,. Define monobasic acid, dibasic acid, tribasic acid. Give an example of each. A monobasic acid is one containing in its molecule one replace- able atom of hydrogen, as nitric acid, HNOQ,. A dibasic acid is one having two replaceable atoms of hydrogen in its molecule, as sulphuric acid, H,SQ,. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 5 A tribasic acid is one having three replaceable atoms of hydrogen in its molecule, as phosphoric acid, H,PQ,. Define crith, atomic weight, and molecular weight. A crith is the unit of weight for gases, it being the weight, in a vacuum, of a litre of hydrogen gas at 0° C. A crith= 0.0899 gramme. Atomic weight is the weight of an atom of a substance compared with the weight of an atom of hydrogen which is taken as unity. (In scientific work, oxygen is taken as the standard, but the U.S. P. takes hydrogen. ) Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of the element or elements contained in a molecule of a substance. Define allotropism and reduction. Allotropism is the property possessed by certain elements of presenting themselves in two or more different forms, as the allo- tropic forms of carbon, seen in the diamond, charcoal and graphite. Reduction is the process of abstracting oxygen from an oxide. (This is a generally accepted definition, although the subject of reduction has a deeper significance, as may be instanced in the reduction of calomel with stannous chloride, which also involves the subject of valence. SnCl, + 2HgCl = SnCl,-+ Heg,. See oxi- dation, p. 16.) What is a metal? A metal is an element which is predominantly basic in its chemi- cal behavior. Metals are solid at ordinary temperature, except mercury, usually opaque, have a more or less metallic lustre, are malleable, ductile, tenacious, good conductors of heat and elec- tricity, and are capable of forming basic substances and salts. What is meant by isomerism? Two or more compounds which contain the same elements in the same relative proportions by weight in the molecule, but differ more or less widely in their physical, chemical and physiological proper- ties, are called isomeric, e.g., C,H,O,, lactic acid, and C,H,.0,, grape sugar. Define chemical action. Name three kinds and give an example of each. Chemical action refers to the changes taking place in two or more elements when brought in contact or disintegrated. Light: Silver chloride decomposes in the presence of light. Heat: Heat decomposes red oxide of mercury into mercury and oxygen. 6 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Electricity: By electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen. How many elements are there? There are about eighty known elements. Give the symbol and atomic weight of each of the following elements: chlorine, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium and sodium. Chlorine, Cl, 35.2; hydrogen, H, 1; nitrogen, N, 14; oxygen, O, 16; potassium, K, 39; sodium, Na, 23. Name five elements. Give the symbol and one principal use of each element named. ‘Carbon, C, is the chief element of coal. Phosphorus, P, is used in matches. Arsenic, As, is used in medicine. Copper, Cu, is used in the arts. Chlorine, Cl, is used as a bleaching agent. Define incompatibility. Name three forms and give an example of each. Incompatibility is that relation between medicines which ren- ders their admixture unsuitable. There are three forms, viz., chemi- cal, physical or pharmaceutical, and physiological or therapeutic. A chemical incompatibility exists when a new compound is formed, as silver nitrate and sodium chloride form silver chloride; a physical, when an unsightly appearance is produced, as when resinous tinctures are added to aqueous solutions, the resins sepa- rate; a physiological, when there is an antagonistic action between the drugs, as atropine, which checks secretion, and pilocarpine, which stimulates glandular activity. Write the chemical formula for (a) sulphuric acid, (b) nitric acid, (c) potassium iodide, (d) copperas, (e) epsom salts. (a) H,SO,, (b) HNO,, (c) KI, (d) FeSO,, 7H,0, (e) MgSO,, 7H,0. What is meant by synthesis? Name two products that can be made this way. Synthesis is the artificial building up of a chemic compound by the union of its elements. Water can be made by uniting hydrogen and oxygen. Cuprie oxide can be made by heating metallic copper in the air. What is meant by diffusion of gases? Describe an experiment to illus- trate diffusion of gases. A diffusion, similar to that of liquids, takes place when two ee — oe eee ee eee ; 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 7 different gases are separated from each other by some porous sub- stance, such as burned clay, gypsum, etc. In the open end of an unglazed clay cylinder (such as is used in galvanic experiments) there is fixed a glass tube about one metre long, its open end terminating in a dish containing water; the cylin- der and tube are filled with air. Over the porous cylinder is placed a wider vessel filled with hydrogen. The latter presses faster into the cylinder than the air escapes from it; the air in the cylinder and tube is displaced and rises in the water in bubbles. When the escape of gas ceases, the tube and cylinder are almost filled with pure hydrogen. State which of the following gases are (a) lighter than air, (b) heavier than air: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia gas, sulphur dioxide, chlorine. (a) Hydrogen, ammonia gas, nitrogen. (b) Sulphur dioxide, chlorine, oxygen. Distinguish in meaning between the following suffixes when used in names of chemical compounds: (a) ous and ic, (b) ate and ite. Give examples. (a) ous indicates that a compound contains less, and zc that it contains more, of the other, or electronegative, element. An ex- planation of these terms involves the subject of valence. Fre- quently, two elements unite to form two or more compounds, for instance, mercury and chlorine unite to form mereurous chloride, Hg.Cl,, and also, mercuric chloride, HgCl,. The electropositive atom (mereury) terminates in ous, indicating the lower valence (or a valence of 2 for two atoms), while ic indicates the higher valence (or a valence of 2 for one atom). (b) The suffix ite indicates that a salt is derived from an acid, terminating in ous (as Na,SO,, sodium sulphite), and the suffix ate that it is derived from an acid terminating in ic (as Na,SO,, sodium sulphate). Give the formula and the chemical name of each of the following: (a) washing soda, (b) saltpetre, (c) blue vitriol, (d) corrosive sublimate, (e) Glauber’s salt, (f) Rochelle salt. (a) Sodium carbonate, Na,CO;,10H,O. (b) Potassium nitrate, KNO,. (¢) Copper sulphate, CuSO,. (d) Mercurie chloride, HgCl,. (e) Sodium sulphate, Na,SO,. (f£) Potassium sodium tartrate, KNaC,H,0,. Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon and therefore, upon burn- 8 VETERINARY STATE BOARD ing, char. When pure they are completely consumed under con- tinued heat; any residue remaining after the disappearance of the char indicates the presence of mineral matter. They are the essen- tial compounds of plant and animal structures and their molecular composition may be very complex, but includes only a few elements. An inorganic compound is any one of the large series of com- pounds (minerals, metals, ete.) which are not directly connected with vital processes, either in origin or nature, and which are broadly and relatively contrasted with organic compounds. Distinguish between solution and emulsion. The term solution is applied to any clear and homogeneous liquid obtained by causing the transformation of matter from a solid or gaseous state to the liquid state, by means of a liquid called the solvent or menstruum. Solutions may be made by uniting two liquids, as when we dissolve oil in ether. The term emulsion is used to designate a more or less homo- geneous liquid, rendered opaque or milky by the suspension in it of finely divided particles of fat, oil or resin. Distinguish in meaning between the following when used in names of chemical compounds: hypo and per. Give examples to illus- trate the differences. Hypo is prefixed to a compound containing less of the negative element, oxygen, than the ows compound in that series, as hypo- chlorous acid, HC1O, and chlorous acid, HC10O,. Per or hyper indicates that the compound contains a greater amount of oxygen than the ic compound in the series, as perchloric acid, HC10,, and chlorie acid, HC1O,. (We have the term peroxide, applied to compounds very rich in oxygen. Name a substance used as a bleaching powder and explain chemically its bleaching properties. Hypochlorite of lime, CaOCl,. The element chlorine has a strong affinity for hydrogen. In the presence of moisture, it unites with the hydrogen and thus liberates oxygen, which acts upon the coloring matter and bleaches it, Write the equation to show the reaction between (a) sulphuric acid and zinc, (b) hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate, (c) sodium carbonate and calcium hydroxide. (a) H,SO,-+ Zn = ZnSO, + H.. (b) 2HCl -+ CaCO, = CaCl, + H,O + Co.. (ce) Na,CO, + Ca(OH), = 2NaOH + CaCo,. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 9 Distinguish between a mixture and a compound, ‘A mixture consists of a combination of two or more substances each of which retains its individual characteristics and may be separated from each other by mechanical means, no matter how thoroughly mixed and finely commingled. Hzample: Iron filings and sulphur may be mixed and if no heat is added, the iron can be removed from the mixture with an electromagnet; if heat had been added to the mixture, a compound, ferrous sulphide (FeS) would have been formed, which would require chemical means to separate. Distinguish between a metal and a non-metal. See ‘‘metals,’’ p. 5. Non-metals do not possess a metallic appearance and are known as metalloids. To these belong sulphur, carbon, phosphorus, oxygen, etc. The line between metals and non- metals is not very marked. Thus, mercury, despite the fact that it is liquid at ordinary temperature, must be included among the metals because of its chemical properties. Mention (a) three light metals and (b) three heavy metals. Give the symbol and atomic weight of each. (a) Aluminum, Al, 26.9; sodium, Na, 23; potassium, K, 39. (b) Gold, Au, 195.7; lead, Pb, 205; iron, Fe, 56. Name ten non-metallic elements and write the symbol of each. Hydrogen, H; oxygen, O; nitrogen, N; sulphur, 8; carbon, C; phosphorus, P; chlorine, Cl; bromine, Br; iodine, I; fluorine, F. Complete the following equations: 1. HCl + AgNO, = 2. 2NH,OH + H,SO, = 3. H,O + Na = 1, HCl + AgNO, = AgCl + HNO,. 2. 2NH,OH + H,SO, = (NH,).S0O, + 2H,0. 3. H,O + Na = NaOH + H. Complete the following equations: 1, AgNO, + KCl = . ZnCl, + 2KOH = . CaF, + H,SO, = . 8HCl + HNO, = Ca(OH), + 2NH,Cl = . AgNO, + KCl = AgCl + KNO,. . Cl, + 2KOH = 2KCl1 + Zn(OH),. . CaF’, + H,SO, = 2HF + CaSO,. . 83HCl + HNO, = 2H,0 + NO + 3Cl. . Ca(OH), + 2NH,Cl = CaCl, + 2(NH,OH). TP OD eH OB oo 10 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Complete the following equations: 1. AgNO, + NaCl = . CuSO, + H,S = . 2NaCl + H,SO, = 2 3 1. AgNO, + NaCl = AgCl + NaNO,. 2. CuSo, + H,S = H,SO, + CuS. 3. 2NaCl + H,SO, = Na,SO, + 2HCl. Complete the following equations: 1. NaNO, + H,SO, = 2. CaCO, + 2HCl = #3. 2NaCl + 2H,SO, + MnO, = v4, Cu + 2H,SO, = 1. NaNO, + H,SO, = NaHSO, + HNO,. 2. CaCO, + 2HCl = CaCl, + H,O + CO,. 3. 2NaCl + 2H,SO, + MnO, = Cl, + Na,SO, + MnSO, + 2H,0. 4. Cu-+ 2H,SO, = CuSO, + 2H,0 + SO,. Complete the following equations: . Pb(NO,), + HLS = . Ca(OH), + 2HCl = . 2NaOH + H,SO, = . Pb(NO,), + H.S = 2HNO, + PbS. . Ca(OH), + 2HCl = CaCl, + 2H,0. 3, 2NaOH + H,SO, = Na,SO, + 2H,0. Complete the following chemical equation. Give the name of the new compound formed. Zn + 2HCl = Zn -+- 2HCl = ZnCl, + 2H. ZnCl, = Zine chloride. Write the equation to express the reaction that takes place between sulphuric acid and sodium carbonate. Name the compounds formed. Nore wohd ke H,SO, + Na,CO, = Na,SO, (sodium sulphate) + H,O(water)+ ~ CO, (carbon dioxide). Write the equation to express the reaction between (a) potassium chloride and sodium nitrate, (b) ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide, (c) ferrous sulphide and hydrochloric acid. (a) KCl + NaNO, = NaCl + KNO,. (b) 2NH,Cl + Ca(OH), = CaCl, + 2(NH,OH). (c) FeS + 2HCl = FeCl, + H,S. EE Eg a a lay De QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 11 Give the chemical symbol and the atomic weight of each of the follow- ing: (a) hydrogen, (b) chlorine, (c) iron, (d) mercury, (e) oxygen. (a) H,1; (b) Cl, 35; (ce) Fe, 56; (d) Hg, 198.5; (e) O, 16. Give the chemical name of each of the following: (a) FeCl,, (b) NaHCO,, (c) CO,, (d) As,O,, (e) H,PO,. (a) Ferrous chloride, (b) sodium bicarbonate, (c) carbon diox- ide, (d) arsenic trioxide, (e) phosphoric acid. Write the chemical names of the substances whose formulas are as follows: (a) Ca(OH),, (b) KC1O,, (c) PH,, (d) KNO.,, (e) HgCl, (£) SnCl,, (g) KMnO,, (h) NO, (i) CO, (j) AgNO,. (a) Calcium hydroxide, (b) potassium chlorate, (¢c) phosphine, (d) potassium nitrate, (e) mercurous chloride, (f) stannous chlo- ride, (g) potassium permanganate, (h) nitric oxide, (i) carbon monoxide, (j) silver nitrate. Write the graphic formula of (a) sulphuric acid, (b) ammonia, (c) potassium chlorate. (a) H- Leon ON ince \H (c) C10-0.0-K Give two laws relating to chemical combinations. 1. Law of constant or definite proportions. The same compound is always composed of the same elements in constant proportions by weight. 2. Law of multiple proportions. When two elements unite to form several compounds the higher proportions of each are even multiples of the lowest. Explain fully how the percentage composition of any compound is determined. Obtain the molecular weight of the compound by adding together the atomic weights of the elements it contains. Then, the percentage of any one element is obtained by dividing its atomic weight by the molecular weight. For instance, the molecular weight of KNO, is, 38.82 + 13.93 + 47.64 = 100.39. The percentage composition of K is 38.82 + 100.39, or 38.66 per cent. Define and illustrate the law of definite proportions. Definition given above. Sodium chloride, NaCl, is always composed of 23 parts by weight of Na and 35.5 parts of Cl. 12 VETERINARY STATE BOARD State Avogadro’s law. Equal volumes of gases, compared under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. Name the elements that enter into the composition of each of the fol- lowing alloys: (a) brass, (b) German silver, (c) soft solder, (d) bell metal. (a) Copper and zine, (b) copper, zine and nickel, (¢) tin and lead, (d) copper and tin. Is glass a compound or a mixture? To what does green glass owe its color? Glass is a mixture. Green glass owes its color to silicates of iron derived from the impure materials of which it is made. What element occurs in all acid compounds? Hydrogen. Name two classes of salts and distinguish between the classes named. Acid salts are acids in which only a portion of their replaceable hydrogen atoms have been replaced, e.g., KHSO,, potassium hydro- gen sulphate. Acid salts are generally acid in reaction to litmus. Basic salts are salts containing a higher proportion of a base than is necessary for the formation of a salt, e.g., Pb(OH) NO,, basie lead nitrate. What gas is evolved when copper acts on nitric acid? Account for the formation of this gas. Nitric oxide, NO. 3Cu + 8HNO, = 3Cu(NO,), + 2NO + 4H,0. Determine how much sulphuric acid and how much copper will be needed to produce 1,000 grammes of copper sulphate by the reaction Cu + 2H,SO,—.CuSO, + SO, + 2H,O. [Atomic weight of S = 32, of copper — 63, of O = 16.] See p. 11 regarding determination of percentage composition. Molecular weight of Cu = 63, of sulphuric acid = 196, of copper sulphate = 159; it takes 63+-196 or 259 parts of copper and sulphuric acid to make 159 parts of copper sulphate, So, 259: 159 = X:1000; X = 1629. 63/259 of 1629 — 396, and 196/259 of 1629 = 1233. Substituting grammes for parts, we have 396 grammes of copper and 1233 grammes of sulphuric acid necessary to make 1000 grammes of copper sulphate. Find the number of grammes of oxygen that can be prepared from 10 grammes of KCIO,. [Atomic weight of K = 39, of Cl = 35, of.O ='16.] QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 13 39 + 35 + 48 = 122, the molecular weight of KCIO,. 48 + 122 = .393, the percentage composition of oxygen. 10 grammes of KC10, would contain 3.93 grammes of oxygen. Calculate the weight of carbonic acid gas that can be obtained from one pound of marble. Write the equation. [Atomic wt. of Ca == 40, 08 O'=,16,,0f C = 12.] CaCO, + heat = CaO + COQ,. 40 + 12 + 48 = 100, the molecular weight of calcium carbonate (marble). 12 -+ 32 = 44, the molecular weight of carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas). Therefore .44 is the percentage composition of CO,. From one pound of marble, .44 of a pound of CO, could be obtained. Under standard conditions how many litres of hydrochloric acid will result from the action of sulphuric acid on 117 grammes of common salt? [Na=.23, Cl = 35.5.| 2NaCl + H,SO, = Na,SO,-+ 2HCl. The molecular weight of NaCl = 58.5. The molecular weight of HCl = 36.5. 58.5: 36.5 = 117:X. X=73g. One litre of hydrogen weighs 0.0899 gramme under standard conditions. 73 ~ 0.0899 = 812 litres. How much chlorine can be derived from 50 grammes of NaCl? [Atomic weight of Na = 23, of Cl = 35.5.] 23 + 35.5 = 58.5, the molecular weight of NaCl. 35.5:58.5 = X:50. X = 30.34 grammes. HYDROGEN What are the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen? Hydrogen, the lightest of all elements, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas; combustible, burning with a colorless flame, but is not a supporter of combustion. The resulting compound of its com- bustion in air is water. It is only slightly soluble in water, is electropositive and capable of combining with many elements. Give details of the preparation of hydrogen by the action of an acid ona metal. Write the equation. Place a quantity of granulated zine in a glass flask and cover it with dilute hydrochloric acid. Adjust a piece of glass tubing in the stopper of the fiask and after the air of the flask is expelled, hydrogen will pass from the tubing. Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl, + 2H. Give (a) the symbol, (b) valence, (c) atomic weight, and (d) a method of preparation of hydrogen. (a) H, (b) 1, (¢) 1, (d) see answer to preceding question (Iron 14 VETERINARY STATE BOARD filings may be substituted for the zine, and sulphuric acid for the hydrochloric acid). What element occurs in all acid compounds? Describe the element. Hydrogen. See description given above. Find how many grammes of H may be released from HCl by 260 grammes of Zn. How many grammes of HCl are neces- sary? [Atomic weight of Zn = 65, of Cl= 35.5.] 65:2 = 260:X. X =8 grammes of H. 73:2=2X:8 X= 292 grammes of HCl. WATER Give the composition of water (a) by volume, (b) by weight, and (c) give its molecular weight. (a) Two volumes hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. (b) Two parts of hydrogen and sixteen parts of oxygen. (ec) 18. If six volumes of hydrogen and two volumes of oxygen are placed together and the electric spark passed through them, will the volume be increased or diminished, and to what extent? The volume will be diminished from 8 to 2, because four volumes of hydrogen would unite with the two of oxygen and form 2 mole- cules of water, leaving two volumes of hydrogen free. The volume of the water formed is so small that it may be disregarded in the calculations. Describe one way in which water can be decomposed and two ways in which it can be formed. Decompose by acidulating slightly with sulphuric acid and pass an electric current through it. Water can be formed by passing an electric spark through a receptacle containing two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; also by burning hydrogen in the presence of oxygen, as in the air. State the means by which water may be purified. Describe one of these ways. Filtration, distillation and precipitation. Filtration is accomplished by allowing the water to peitiiaes through layers of charcoal and sand, or by forcing it through a very thick porcelain material with small pores. Describe a test to show the presence of each of the following in water: (a) chlorides, (b) nitrates, (c) lead. (a) Add silver nitrate: a white, curdy precipitate is produced QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 15 which is soluble in even very dilute ammonia water, but insoluble in nitric acid. (b) Add a few drops of 1 part of brucine in 300 parts of 5 per cent. dilute sulphuric acid, then add some concentrated sulphuric acid by-pouring carefully down the side of the test tube and a red color, changing to yellow, is produced at the line of contact. (ec) Add hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide to the solu- tion and a black precipitate of lead sulphide, which is insoluble in dilute acids or alkalies, results. Distinguish between hard water and soft water. Under what con- ditions and how may hard water be made soft? Hardness of water is due to the presence of mineral salts (cal- cium, magnesium). Hard water does not readily produce a lather with soap. Soft water contains very little or no inorganic matter and readily produces a lather with soap. By boiling hard water, carbon dioxide escapes, the carbonates of the metals are precipitated, and the water is rendered soft. By distillation, hard water may be made soft. Describe a test to determine the hardness of water. For calcium: Pass a small amount of CO, into the water, CaHCoO, will be thrown down, but is redissolved in an excess of CO,. Upon boiling the clear solution, the excess of CO, will be driven off and CaHCO, will be precipitated. For magnesium: The addition of an alkali carbonate solution causes a white precipitate of basic magnesium carbonate. Hard water does not readily produce a lather with soap, as does soft water. Describe the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. In this apparatus the oxygen and hydrogen are contained in two separate receptacles. They are mixed just at the tip of the burner, which consists of two tubes, one within the other. Through the inner tube, oxygen is passed, and the outer one is connected with the hydrogen reservoir. The hydrogen is first turned on and ignited, then the oxygen is admitted. The resultant flame is intensely hot. HYDROGEN DIOXIDE What is hydrogen dioxide? Write the formula. It is a colorless liquid with an odor resembling weak chlorine solution, a bitter astringent taste, and is unstable in concentrated solutions, being easily decomposed with the liberation of oxygen. 16 VETERINARY STATE BOARD It is composed of two parts by weight of hydrogen and thirty-two of oxygen. Formula H,0,. Write the equation for the preparation of hydrogen dioxide. BaO, + H,SO, + H,O = BaSO, + H,0, + H,0., Mention the important properties and the uses of peroxide of hydrogen. It is an active oxidizing agent and is used preéminently as a disinfectant, bleaching agent, antisuppurant, and deodorant. Give the chemical explanation of the uses of hydrogen peroxide. It acts as an oxidizing agent because it is readily decomposed into water, H,O, and nascent oxygen, O. OXYGEN Describe oxygen as to (a) occurrence, (b) physical properties, (c) chemical properties. (a) Most abundant of all the elements. Uncombined, but mixed with nitrogen, it constitutes one-fifth of the atmosphere; combined, it forms eight-ninths of the material composing water, and nearly half the weight of all the rocks. It is a very important constituent of animal and vegetable matter. (b) A colorless, tasteless, odorless gas, nearly sixteen times heavier than hydrogen, and somewhat heavier than air. It may be made liquid or even solidified by great cold and pressure. (c) It supports combustion, but is non-combustible and is one of the most powerful electronegative elements; capable of uniting with all elements except fluorine, bromine and the helium group. Describe a method of preparing oxygen. Give the symbol, atomic weight and specific gravity of oxygen. Mix potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide, equal parts, and apply heat, carefully ; oxygen will be given off copiously. Symbol, O. Atomic weight, 16. Specific gravity, compared with hydrogen, is 16, compared with air, 1.1056. How much oxygen can be obtained from 50 grammes of potassium chlorate? [Atomic weight of potassium = 39, of chlor- ine = 35.5, of oxygen = 16.] 39 + 35.5 + 48 = 122.5, the molecular weight of KC1O,. The molecular weight of 3 atoms of oxygen= 48. 122.5:48 = 50:X. X = 19.5 grammes. What is oxidation? Give an example. Oxidation is the union of oxygen with other elements, the prod- ucts formed are oxides. Example: iron and oxygen unite to form ferrous oxide. See reduction, p. 5. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS au What is combustion? Combustion is rapid oxidation and is accompanied by heat and light. Distinguish between an oxidizing and a reducing agent and give an ' example of each. An oxidizing agent is one which readily parts with its oxygen when brought in contact with substances having a greater affinity for it. Example: KC1Q,. A reducing agent is one which has the power to abstract oxygen from an oxide. Example: hydrogen. What is meant by (a) slow oxidation, (b) rapid oxidation? Give an example of each. (a) A process of oxidation evolving no light. Example: oxida- tion of the different organic substances in the living body. (b) When the heat generated by oxidation is sufficient to cause the emission of light and perhaps a loud report, the process is called rapid oxidation, or combustion. Example: gunpowder is a mix- ture of sulphur, carbon and potassium, KNO,. Upon heating or ignit- ing this mixture, the sulphur and carbon are oxidized, and various gases (CO, CO,, N, SO., ete.) are formed, the sudden generation and expansion of which cause the explosion. © Describe a method of preparing oxygen on a commercial scale. Write the equation to express the reaction. Heat to redness in an iron vessel manganese dioxide (MnO,), causing it to decompose into manganous manganic oxide and oxygen. 3MnO, = Mn,0, + 20. Compare the physical and chemical properties of oxygen with those of hydrogen. Both gases are colorless, odorless and tasteless. Oxygen is 16 times heavier than hydrogen. Oxygen supports combustion but is non-combustible, whereas hydrogen is combustible but not a sup- porter of combustion. What is ozone? Describe the preparation of ozone. Ozone is an allotropic modification of oxygen. It possesses a peculiar odor and is a stronger oxidizing agent than common oxy- gen. Its symbol is O,. Ozone is prepared by passing non-luminous electric discharges through atmospheric air or through oxygen. 18 VETERINARY STATE BOARD NITROGEN Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) molecular weight, and (d) describe the properties of nitrogen. (a) N. (b) 14. (ce) 28. (d) Nitrogen is an odorless, colorless, tasteless gas, neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. It is distinguished by having very little affinity for any other element. Nitrogen is not poisonous, but, being unable to support combustion, cannot sustain animal life. In compounds it is unstable. What is the function of nitrogen in the air? Describe a process of pre- paring nitrogen from the air. It serves to dilute the oxygen and has some important function in regard to plant life. By burning phosphorus in a confined portion of air, the oxygen of the air unites with the phosphorus and forms phosphorus pen- toxide, P,O,. If the experiment is conducted over water, P,O, unites with the water, forming phosphoric acid, leaving nitrogen in the container. Name a preparation of nitrogen. Mention the properties of nitrogen. Ammonia, NH,. Properties described above. Describe the usual method of preparing laughing gas. Write the equation to show the reaction. By heating ammonium nitrate, it breaks down directly into water and nitrous oxide. NH,NO, = N,O + 2H.0. ‘Name the oxides of nitrogen. Nitrogen monoxide, N,O; nitrogen dioxide, N,O, ; nitrogen triox- ide, N,O, ; nitrogen tetroxide, N,O,; nitrogen pentoxide, N,O,. Calculate the percentage composition of HNO,. [Atomic weight of N= 14.] 1+ 14+ 48 = 63, the molecular weight of HNO,. 1 = 63 = 0.0158, or 1.58 per cent. hydrogen. 14 ~ 63 = 0.222, or 22.2 per cent. nitrogen. 48 = 63 = 0.761, or 76.1 per cent. oxygen. Mention two nitrates and give two uses of each. Silver nitrate, used in medicine and electro-plating. Sodium nitrate, used in fertilizers and in the preparation of saltpetre. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 19 Describe a method of preparing nitrogen. Compare the properties of nitrcgen with those of oxygen. By passing a current of air over copper, heated to redness, copper oxide will be formed and nitrogen isolated. Nitrogen and oxygen are both colorless, odorless, tasteless gases. Oxygen has a great affinity for other elements and supports com- bustion; nitrogen unites with very few elements and does not support life nor combustion. Describe the commercial preparation of nitric acid and write the reac- tion. Mention important uses of nitric acid. Sodium nitrate is distilled with sulphuric acid. 2NaNO, ++ H,SO, = Na,.SO, + 2HNO,. Nitric acid is used in medicine as a caustic and is employed in etching copper plates for engraving; it is also important in the refin- ing of precious metals and in the making of nitroglycerine, gun cotton, aniline dyes, etc. What element constitutes four-fifths of the air? Nitrogen. AMMONIA What is ammonia? Give the source and uses of ammonia. Ammonia is a colorless gas, of a peculiar, characteristic and very pungent odor. It is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. By weight it is composed of 13.93 parts of nitrogen and 3 parts of hydrogen. It is very soluble in water; caustic and readily blisters the skin; strongly alkaline in reaction. Formula, NH,. Sources: Decomposition of organic matter (meat, urine, blood, ete.). Decomposition of ammonium salts by the hydroxides of sodium, potassium and ealcium, 2(NH,Cl)-+ Ca(OH), = CaCl, + 2H,O0 + 2NH,. Ammonia is obtained, commercially, from gas liquor, a by-product of gas plants. Uses: It is used in medicine as a cardiac stimulant and general stimulant, also to increase secretions. In the household it is used as a general cleaning agent in the aqueous form (hartshorn). Explain why the presence of free ammonia in drinking water is a sign of danger. Because it is indicative of contamination with decomposing organic matter. Give the composition and method of preparation of ammonium chloride. It is composed of nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine, NH,Cl. Pre- 20 VETERINARY STATE BOARD pared by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with ammonia water. The solution is evaporated and the crystalline mass remaining is am- monium chloride. HCl -- NH,OH = NH,Cl-+ H,0. Give the chemical name and formula of two compounds of ammonia. Ammonium chloride, NH,Cl, ammonium nitrate, NH,NO,. AIR Name the important constituents of air and give the approximate per- centages of each constituent. By weight By volume SoC lsc ea gh aka, SA Pag IR BR Se 76 77 Cree eile we ne die toe wea eres 23 21 Co,, ammonia, argon, etc. ........ di 2 State three facts tending to show that air is a mixture and not a compound. 1. By artificially mixing oxygen and nitrogen in the proportions found in the air, no energy change (heat) that indicates chemical union takes place. 2. Analysis shows air taken from different heights to be slightly variable. 3. By passing air through water it is changed, oxygen being more soluble than nitrogen. Mention the injurious substances added to the air in breathing. What per cent. of carbon dioxide is fatal to the animal breathing it? Carbon dioxide and disease germs are added to the air in breathing. It is not advisable to allow animals to breathe for any length of time air containing more than 1 per cent. CO,; 5 per cent. pro- duces insensibility, and 8 per cent. causes death in a few minutes. What element constitutes four-fifths of the air? Nitrogen. CARBON Give (a) the symbol, (b) specific gravity, (c) the physical and chemical properties of carbon. (a) ©. (b) In its purest form, 3.5; graphite, 2.15; amorphous forms, 1.5 to 2. (ec) One of the most common elements, tasteless, odorless, non-volatile, infusible and imsoluble in all its forms; black in eolor, except in the form of the diamond, and is combustible, yielding CO,. It unites readily with a great many elements, forming important compounds. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 21 Discuss the use of carbon as a reducing agent. Carbon is a very active reducing agent, because of its great affinity for oxygen. By heating carbon in the presence of any oxide, the latter is rapidly reduced, its oxygen forming CO or CO, with carbon. Mention and describe three allotropic forms of carbon. 1. Diamond is the purest form of carbon, and is the hardest sub- stance known. It occurs in erystals, octahedral in shape. It is a very brilliant gem, owing to its great refractive power. 2. Graphite, also known as plumbago, or black lead, is a black, greasy substance with a specific gravity of 2.15. It is a good con- ductor of heat and electricity. Used as a lubricant for machinery, and in the manufacture of lead pencils, stove polish, crucibles, ete. 3. Amorphous carbon is always a black solid, but the different kinds vary in hardness and specific gravity. It is seen as the prin- cipal part of the various kinds of coal; in the form of lamp-black it is used in printer’s ink; and occurs in bone-black, which serves as a decolorizing agent in the making of sugar, syrups and other liquids. Describe how each of the following may be prepared: (a) lamp-black, (b) bone-black. Mention the important uses of each. (a) Lamp-black is made by burning tar, rosin, turpentine or petroleum, with a deficient supply of air, and passing the smoke into large chambers where the carbon is deposited. It is used in making printer’s ink. (b) Bone-black is made by carbonization of bones of animals and is used as a decolorizing agent, Give the important physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas which by cold and pressure may be easily condensed to a liquid. Its specific gravity is 1.529, and its symbol, CO., being composed of one volume of carbon and two of oxygen. It is not combustible and is not a good sup- porter of combustion, in fact it has a decided tendency to extinguish flames. It unites with water to form carbonic acid, H,CO,. Describe the method of preparing carbon dioxide from marble and write the equation. By heating marble (CaCO,) or by adding hydrochloric acid, earbon dioxide is liberated. CaCO, + heat = CaO + CO,. CaCo, + 2HCl = CaCl, + H,0 + CO,,. 22 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe a simple test for carbon dioxide and write the reaction. Pass the gas through lime water and the solution becomes turbid. Ca(OH), + CO, = CaCO, + H,0. Compare as to weight, carbon dioxide with air. Carbon dioxide is one and one-half times heavier than air. Describe the manufacture of some carbide and mention its common use, Calcium carbide (CaC,) is manufactured on a commercial scale by heating, in an electric furnace, a mixture of lime and coal, or coal tar (Ca0-+3C = CaC,+ CO). It is used for generating acetylene gas, which is formed by the action of calcium carbide and water (CaC, + H,O = C,H, -+ CaO). What is marsh gas? Give its formula and chemical importance with a method of preparation. Marsh gas (CH,) is a colorless gas which burns readily with a bluish-yellow flame, emitting much heat but little light. In nature it is produced by the decay of dead leaves in the bottom of stagnant pools. It also accumulates in coal mines as the dreaded ‘‘fire damp”’ and mixing with the oxygen of the air forms deadly explosions. In impure form it is obtained from wells in some localities and is used for lighting and heating. It can be prepared by mixing aluminum earbide and water [Al,C, + 12H,O = 3CH, + 4A1(OH),]. Find the weight of each of the products formed by the complete com- bustion of 20 grammes of marsh gas (CH,). [Atomic weight of C = 12, of O = 16.] CH, + 20, = CO, + 2H,0. 16:44 = 20: X, X = 55 grammes of CO,. 16:36 = 20:X, X = 45 grammes of H,O. Describe the manufacture of illuminating gas. Bituminous or cannel coal is heated in clay or brick retorts and the products of distillation pass out into a series of pipes in which water, coal-tar,.ammonia, ete., are deposited. The gas still con- tains impurities, which are removed by passing it over some absorb- ent substance, such as slaked lime. Describe the construction and operation of the Bunsen burner@ In a gas flame, if the air is excluded, soot and smoke will form copiously. But if the combustion is rendered more perfect, no car- bon is deposited and the flame becomes hotter, but less brilliant. In the Bunsen burner, this is arranged for by allowing air to enter at the bottom of the burner and become thoroughly mixed with the gas before the latter is ignited. If the openings through which ‘= QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 23 the air enters are stopped up, the flame becomes more luminous and less hot. Give proof of the fact that a diamond is composed of carbon. A diamond, when heated intensely in the presence of oxygen, burns and forms carbon dioxide. SULPHUR Mention the properties and important uses of sulphur. Sulphur is ordinarily a yellow, brittle solid, without taste or odor. It dissolves in carbon disulphide, but not in water, and combines easily with most of the other elements. Allotropic forms: prismatic or monoclinic, rhombic octahedra, and plastic. Uses: Used in the manufacture of gunpowder, matches, sulphuric acid, bleaching agents, in medicine, ete. Discuss the behavior of sulphur at different temperatures. At 115° C. it melts to a clear, amber-colored liquid which be- comes viscid as the temperature rises to 230° C. Above 250° C. it becomes fluid again and if poured into cold water it becomes plastic or ductile, but after standing a few days it returns to its primary condition, original sulphur. Describe the use of sulphur in disinfecting. Explain its efficiency. Remove animals from premises. All openings to outside air should be closed. Three pounds of flowers of sulphur, mixed with two ounces of alcohol and ignited, should be employed for every 1000 eubic feet of air space to be disinfected. Keep premises closed for six hours. Steam introduced into the apartment together with the sulphur fumes is more efficient, the water unites with the sulphurous anhydride to make the more potent sulphurous acid (H,SO,). Sulphur fumigation is of little worth to destroy disease germs. Formaldehyde or chlorine gas is to be preferred. Write the formula of hydrogen sulphide. Describe its properties. H.S. A colorless gas with the peculiar odor of rotten eggs and a disgusting taste. It is soluble in water and highly combustible in the air, burning with a blue flame and forming sulphur dioxide and water. This gas is poisonous when inhaled. Describe a method of preparing hydrogen sulphide. Prepared by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron sulphide. (FeS + H,SO, = FeSO, + H.S.) Describe a process of preparing sulphuric acid on a commercial scale. Mention the important uses of sulphuric acid. ‘‘liead chamber process.’’ Sulphur dioxide, generated by the 24 VETERINARY STATE BOARD combustion of sulphur or by roasting iron pyrites in a suitable furnace, is passed into a large chamber, or series of chambers, lined with sheet lead. Nitrous fumes, produced by heating sodium nitrate with a little sulphuric acid, enter the chamber at the same time; jets of steam are blown in at several points and a draft of air is kept up throughout. The sulphur dioxide meeting the nitrous fumes is oxidized by them and with the water of the steam forms sulphuric acid. Uses: Very extensively used in the arts, in the manufacture of all the other strong acids, and fertilizers; refining sugar, fats and oils; in galvanic batteries, etc. Write the graphic formula and calculate the percentage composition of sulphuric acid. [Atomic weight of S = 32.] BAOX PO H-0/No 2+ 32 + 64 = 98, the molecular weight of sulphuric acid. 2/98 or 2.04 per cent. hydrogen. 32/98 or 32.65 per cent. sulphur. 64/98 or 65.30 per cent. oxygen. What is copper sulphate? How prepared? Copper sulphate, blue vitriol, or blue stone, is the most im- portant compound of copper. It is formed in large, transparent, deep-blue crystals which are easily soluble in water and have a nauseous, metallic taste. Formula, CuSQ,. It is prepared by dissolving cupric oxide in sulphurie acid, evaporating and crystallizing the solution. DISINFECTANTS AND ANTISEPTICS Differentiate between disinfectants and antiseptics. Disinfectants are agents that destroy the microérganisms which cause infectious and contagious diseases, fermentation and putre- faction. Antisepties are agents which prevent the growth and. develop- ment of the microdrganisms occasioning fermentation but more especially the pus-producing variety. What is a deodorant? Deodorants are agents which destroy or counteract a foul odor, e.g., phenol, zine chloride and charcoal. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 25 Describe an efficient method of disinfecting by the use of formaldehyde. For every 1000 cubic feet of air space, mix in a deep vessel 1624 ounces of potassium permanganate with 20 ounces of formalin (a 40 per cent. aqueous solution of formaldehyde). Close all open- ings and leave this mixture in the room for 3 hours before opening. PHOSPHORUS Give a description of phosphorus as to (a) occurrence, (b) physical properties, (c) source. (a) Never found free in nature, but as phosphates is an im- portant constituent of plants, animals and the earth’s crust. (b) Phosphorus exists in several allotropice varieties, the more important of which are the yellow and red. The yellow variety is a yellowish-white, waxy solid of specific gravity 1.837. It melts at 442° C. and boils at 263° C.; is highly inflammable and oxidizes readily in the air at ordinary temperature. It has a faint odor, resembling garlic, is very poisonous, is soluble in carbon disul- phide and insoluble in water. The red variety is not easily inflam- mable in air, has a density of 2.2, is insoluble in carbon disulphide and is not poisonous. (ce) Prepared from bone-ash or from sombrerite, an impure eal- cium phosphate found in the West Indian guano. Mention the principal uses of phosphorus. Used in matches, vermin poison, medicine and fertilizers. Give (a) the symbol, (b) the valence, (c) atomic weight, (d) molecular weight, of phosphorus. (a) P, (b) 3 and 5, (ce) 31, (d) 124. Name the allotropic forms of phosphorus. Yellow, red, white and black. HALOGENS Name the elements of the halogen group and write the symbol of each. Fluorine, F'; chlorine, Cl; bromine, Br; iodine, I. Give the physical and chemical properties of iodine. Describe a test for iodine. Iodine is a bluish-black crystalline substance, with a metallic luster and an odor faintly resembling that of chlorine. Its specific gravity is 4.95 and its atomic weight is 125.89. Its vapor has a violet color. Iodine is almost insoluble in water but forms several im- portant compounds with other elements. 26 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Test: Add a solution of starch paste, when an intensely blue color is produced. Give the source and the preparation of iodine. Iodine was previously obtained from the ashes of sea-weeds which are treated with water and the solution thus obtained is heated with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid. Iodine is set free by dis- tillation. At present, it is obtained from NalO,, a by-product in the manu- facture of Chili saltpetre. Mention the important uses of iodine. Used in medicine, photography and in the preparation of aniline dyes. Give the method of making potassium iodide. Write the equation involved. Add iodine erystals to an aqueous solution of caustic potash until saturated, then evaporate to dryness; the residue, which con- sists of potassium iodide and iodate, is then strongly heated to decompose the iodate, thus forming iodide with the liberation of oxygen. Dissolve the mass in water and evaporate, when crystals of potassium iodide will be left. 6KOH -+ 31, = 5KI + KIO, + 38H,0. 2KIO, + heat = 2KI + 30,. What are the phyical and chemical properties of chlorine. Mention the uses and important compounds of chlorine. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, two and one-half times heavier than air, and having a highly irritating odor; soluble in water and convertible into a liquid by cold and pressure. It has a strong affinity for other elements and forms a number of important com- pounds. Its atomic weight is 35.18. Uses: Strong disinfecting, deodorizing and bleaching agent and its compounds are valuable medicinal agents. Among its important compounds are: sodium chloride, hydro- chloric acid, chloral hydrate, calcium chloride, ete. Describe a method of preparing chlorine and write the reaction. Mix manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid in a large flask provided with a delivery tube and heat gently; chlorine gas will be evolved. MnO, + 4HCl = MnCl, + Cl, + 2H.0. Describe the preparation of hydrochloric acid. It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium chloride in the presence of heat. 2NaCl + H,SO, = Na,SO, + 2HC1. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 27 Mention a compound of each of the halogens. Sodium chloride, potassium iodide, sodium bromide and hydre- fluoric acid. Describe the properties of bromine and give a method for its prepara- tion. At ordinary temperature, bromine is a heavy, dark, reddish- brown liquid, giving off yellowish-red fumes of an exceedingly suffocating and irritating odor; it is very volatile and has a specific gravity of 2.99. It is soluble in water, is a strong disinfecting and bleaching agent and acts as a corrosive poison. Bromine is prepared by treating magnesium bromide with chlorine. MgBr, + 2Cl= MgCl, + 2Br. Give the properties and uses in medicine of bromine. Properties given above. Sodium and potassium bromide are used in medicine as antispasmodics, narcotics and nerve sedatives. GOLD Give a test for gold and gold compounds. Most reducing agents, as oxalic acid, ferrous sulphate, ete., precipitate gold from its solutions as a dark-brown powder. SILVER Describe silver, giving names of its most important compounds used in medicine. Silver is a pure, white brilliant metal, a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is malleable and ductile. It is univalent and forms but one series of salts. It is not affected by the oxygen of the air, but is readily affected by traces of hydrogen sulphide, which forms a black film of sulphide upon the surface. Its atomic weight is 107, its specific gravity is 10.5 and its symbol is Ag. Compounds used in medicine are: silver nitrate, protargol, argyrol, collargol. What is lunar caustic? How is lunar caustic prepared and what is its medicinal use? Lunar caustic is nitrate of silver, fused into round sticks, or pencils. It is prepared by adding 4 per cent. hydrochloric acid to silver nitrate, fusing and pouring into suitable moulds. It is used for cauterizing inflamed surfaces, warts, ete. Give a chemical test for silver. Add to a solution of silver a solution of hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide, and a dark-brown precipitate of silver sul- phide will be produced. 28 VETERINARY STATE BOARD LEAD Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) valence, and (d) the physi- cal properties of lead. (a) Pb. (b) 205. (ce) 2 and 4. (d) Lead is a soft, bluish- white metal; specific gravity, 11.838. When freshly cut, it has a bright metallic luster, but quickly tarnishes on the surface and becomes dull. It is malleable and ductile. What is sugar of lead? Give its pharmaceutical name. Sugar of lead is a salt formed by the action of acetie acid on lead oxide. It forms colorless, shining, transparent crystals, easily soluble in water, and has a sweetish, astringent, afterwards metallic taste. Formula, (C,H,O,).,Pb. Pharmaceutical name is plumbi acetate. MERCURY Describe mercury as to physical and chemical properties and occur- rence in nature. Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at ordinary tempera- ture ; it is almost silver-white and has a bright metallic lustre ; specific gravity, 13.56. Pure mercury does not tarnish in the air until heated above 300° C., when it unites with the oxygen to form the red oxide. It combines directly with chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur and dissolves in nitric acid and hot sulphuric acid. Its atomic weight is 198.5. Mercury occurs in nature in a free state, but generally as mer- euric sulphide (cinnabar), a dark-red mineral. Name the compounds of mercury used in medicine. Mercurie oxide, mercuric and mercurous chloride, mercuric iodide, massa hydrargyri, unguentum hydrargyri, hydrargyri cum creta. Write the formula of each of the following: (a) mercurous chloride, (b) mercuric chloride. Mention the common name and im- portant properties of each. (a) Hg,Cl,, calomel, is a cholagogue cathartic, intestinal anti- septic and diuretic. The formula is commonly written, HgCl. (b) HgCl,, corrosive sublimate, is a violent poison, antiseptic, and alterative. Write the chemical equation representing the preparation of calomel. HgSO, + Hg + 2NaCl = Na,SO, + 2He¢gCl. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 29 METALS OF THE ALKALIES Name three important elements of the alkali group of metals. Potassium, sodium, lithium. Name three important potassium salts. Give in regard to each salt named: (a) its formula, (b) its principal uses in medicine. Potassium chlorate, KClO,, antiseptic, refrigerant, sialogogue, and diuretic. Potassium nitrate, KNO,, diuretic and antipyretic. Potassium bicarbonate, KHCO,, antacid and sedative in gastric disorders. Name five sodium salts used in medicine and write the chemical formula of each. Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO,; sodium chloride, NaCl; sodium sulphate, Na,SO,,10H,O; sodium phosphate, Na,HPO,,12H,0; sodium carbonate, Na,CO,,10H,0O. Describe the chemical action of liquid caustics on the tissues of the body. The liquid caustics (sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide) have a great affinity for water and in abstracting same from the tissues, a great amount of heat is produced, which coagulates the albumin. Mention the metals of the sodium group and describe the process of manufacturing sodium carbonate. Potassium, sodium, lithium, rubidium and exsium. The Solvay process for manufacturing sodium carbonate depends upon the fact that when carbon dioxide is passed into a solution of common salt, in aqueous ammonia, sodium bicarbonate is formed, thus: NH, + CO, + NaCl + H,O = NaHCO, + NH,Cl. The bicarbonate of soda (NaHCO,), being slightly soluble, is deposited in large quantities and is converted into ordinary car- bonate by heating. CALCIUM GROUP Name the elements of the calcium group and give their general charac- teristics. Magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. They are alkaline in character and form oxides and salts whose properties somewhat resemble the metals of the alkalies. They are white in color and fusible only above a red heat; all oxidize readily in the air; all are malleable and ductile. 30 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the process of preparing lime water from lime stone. Write the reactions. By heating lime stone, CO, is driven off and calcium oxide obtained. One part of calcium oxide is slaked and agitated occasion- ally during half an hour with 30 parts of water. The mixture is then allowed to settle and the liquid, containing, besides calcium hydroxide, the salts of the alkali metals which may have been pres- ent in the lime, is decanted and thrown away. To the calcium hydroxide left, and thus purified, 300 parts of water are added and occasionally shaken in a well-stoppered bottle, from which the clear liquid may be poured off for use. CaCO, + heat = CaO + CO.,, ete. CaO + H,O = Ca(OH),. Ca(OH), + 300H,0 = lime water. Describe with explanation the manufacture of plaster of Paris. Plaster of Paris is made by heating native calcium sulphate (gypsum) and depriving it of part of its water. 2(CaSO,,2H,O)-+ heat = 2CaSO,.H,O (plaster of Paris) and 3H,0. What is gypsum? It is native calcium sulphate, CaSO,,2H,O, and occurs abund- antly in nature in white translucent masses. Describe magnesium. Name its principal compounds used in medicine and write the chemical formula of each compound named. Magnesium is a brilliant, almost silver-white alkaline metal with a specific gravity of 1.74. It is tenacious and ductile; dissolves readily in dilute acids, forming salts. It is easily combustible and burns with an intensely brilliant light, and is used in photography for flashlight purposes. Compounds used in medicine: oxide, MgO, known as magnesia ; carbonate, MgCO,; sulphate (Epsom salts), MgSO,,7H,0. Describe the method of preparing Epom salts. Write the formula of Epsom salts. Prepared by treating magnesium carbonate with sulphuric acid and evaporating the solution to the crystallizing point. MgCO, + H,SO, = MgSO, + H,O + CO,. Formula of Epsom salts, MgS0O,,- 7H.0. Name and give the formula of a compound of barium used in medicine. Barium chloride, BaCl.,. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 31 ZINC Name three preparations of zinc that are used in medicine and write the chemical formula of each. Zine sulphate, ZnSO,; zinc chloride, ZnCl,; zine oxide, ZnO. Describe a method of preparing zinc sulphate. Dissolve zine in dilute sulphuric acid. H,SO, + Zn = ZnSO, + 2H. How can Epsom salts be distinguished from zinc sulphate? By testing with potassium ferrocyanide. Zine ferrocyanide will be thrown dowr as a white precipitate. No precipitate is formed with magnesium, BORON Give the names of the principal compounds and the chemical impor- tance in medicine of boron. Boric acid, H,BO,. Sodium borate, Na,B,0,,10H,O (borax). Borie acid and borax are mild, harmless, non-irritating anti- septics and are very serviceable in surgery. ALUMINUM Give the properties of aluminum and mention its important salts. Aluminum is a bluish-white, brilliant metal; malleable and ductile ; specific gravity, 2.583. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. It oxidizes superficially in the air and has the valuable properties of strength and lightness combined. Aluminum sulphate is its most important salt. This combines with the sulphates of the alkaline metals to form a class of double salts, known as alums, Potassium alum is the commonest example. BISMUTH Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) occurrence in nature, and (d) the compounds used in medicine of bismuth. (a) Bi. (b) 206.5. (¢) Rare, occurs as an oxide and sulphide. (d) Bismuth subnitrate, subgallate, subearbonate, subsalicylate and citrate. IRON How does iron occur in nature? Iron is found in small quantities in nearly all forms of rocks, clay, sand and earth, and in plants and blood. Rarely found free 32 VETERINARY STATE BOARD in nature except in meteoric masses, but is very abundant in certain ores, viz., magnetite, hematite and siderite. Give the physical and chemical difference between cast iron and wrought iron. Cast iron is brittle and cannot be welded or forged. It contains two, three or more per cent. of carbon. Wrought iron fuses with difficulty and is tough, fibrous and can be welded. It contains 1.6 per cent. or less of carbon. Describe briefly the Bessemer process. The Bessemer process of making steel from cast iron, which is accomplished by removing the carbon from the latter, is as follows: melted pig iron (cast iron) is poured into an egg-shaped vessel, called a ‘‘converter,’’ through which a powerful blast of air can be blown. The converter is made of the strongest wrought iron and is lined with an infusible layer of fire clay. As the air bubbles through the molten iron, being forced in from below, the temperature rises and silicon and carbon are burned away. Spiegeleisen is added to supply the proper amount of carbon for good steel. The molten mass is then poured into moulds. Mention three important ores of iron. Magnetic oxide, Fe,0,; hematite, Fe,O,; and siderite, FeCQ,. Give the common name, the chemical name and the chemical formula of three compounds of iron. 1. Copperas, or green vitriol, ferrous sulphate, FeSQ,. 2. Chloride of iron, ferric chloride, Fe,Cl,. 3. Carbonate of iron, ferrous carbonate, FeCO,. Give the chemical equation showing the preparation of ferrous sulphate. Give the common names of ferrous sulphate and state its uses in medicine. Fe, + 2H,SO, = 2FeSO, + 2H,. Fe,SO,,7H,O, copperas, green vitriol or ferrous sulphate, is used in medicine as a hematinic, astrin- gent, vermicide and disinfectant. What is reduced iron and how is it made? It is a very fine, grayish-black, lusterless powder, without odor or taste ; permanent in dry air, insoluble in water or alcohol. Made by passing hydrogen gas over freshly made, and carefully washed, ferric oxide, in a hot and closed tube. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 33 ARSENIC Give the properties of arsenic and name some of the compounds of arsenic used in medicine. Arsenic is an odorless, tasteless, steel-black non-metal with a metallic appearance. It is very brittle and volatilizes unchanged and without melting when heated to 180° C. without access of air. In the air it burns with a bluish-white light and gives forth an odor which resembles that of garlic; insoluble in water; occurs as an opaque powder or in irregular masses. Compounds of arsenic used in medicine: Fowler’s solution, arsenious acid, arsenious iodide and sodium arsenate. Write the chemical formula of white arsenic. State the occurrence of arsenic in nature. White arsenic, or arsenious acid, As,O,. Arsenic sometimes occurs in nature in the native state, but generally as a sulphide or oxide. Describe the making of one preparation of arsenic that is used in medicine. Fowler’s solution, liquor potassii arsenitis. Dissolve one part arsenious oxide and two parts of potassium bicarbonate in ten parts of distilled water by boiling. Add enough distilled water to make ninety-seven parts and then add three parts of compound tincture of lavender. Filter through paper. Give Marsh’s test for arsenic. What other element gives a similar reaction? How may these two be distinguished? Make a hydrogen generator with a flask containing zine and hydrochloric acid. Ignite the hydrogen escaping through the tube. Pour into the generating flask a few drops of any compound of arsenic. Hold a piece of cold porcelain against the flame, and a black, mirror-like stain of metallic arsenic will be deposited upon it. Antimony compounds give a similar reaction. The arsenic stain is soluble in a solution of sodium hypochlorite, whereas, the anti- mony stain is not. Mention a common substance containing arsenic. Paris green. Arsenic is also found in lead shot, it being used to harden the same. How should the contents of the stomach be examined for the presence of arsenic? Examine under the microscope for solid arsenious oxide. Then apply Marsh’s test given above. 3 34 VETERINARY STATE BOARD ANTIMONY Name the preparation of antimony used in medicine. Antimonyl-potassium tartrate, commonly called tartar emetic. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY What is organic chemistry? Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the carbon compounds or the chemistry of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives. Differentiate between hydrocarbons and carbohydrates. Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon, as methane, CH,. Carbohydrates are compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the two latter elements being present in the same relative atomic proportion as in water, e.g., grape sugar, C,H,.O.. Name four elements that enter into the formation of most organic bodies. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Give the difference between essential oils and fixed oils. Essential oils are derived from plants and belong to the class of compounds known as terpenes. They generally bear the em- pirical formula C,,H, and are volatile liquids. They do not form glycerine when treated with an alkali. Fized oils are the true fats and are composed of the glyceryl radical combined with a fat acid radical. They form soap when treated with an alkali. How does gallic acid differ from tannic acid? ‘What are the tests for differentiating the same? Gallic acid does not coagulate albumin, nor seepaeletatbake alkaloids, gelatin or starch; whereas, tannic acid does. To a dilute piiuon (1-100) of tannic acid add a small quantity of lime water. A pale, bluish-white, flocculent precipitate is formed, which is not dissolved on shaking (difference from gallic acid), but becomes more copious and of a deeper blue than pinkish by the addi- tion of an excess of lime water. FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION Why are organic substances liable to decay? Because they are composed of combustible elements (carbon and hydrogen) which readily oxidize, forming carbon dioxide and water. Organic substances offer the proper environment for the incubation of bacteria. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 39 Name the principal salts of acetic acid and state which of the salts named are used in veterinary medicine. The acetates of potassium, lead, ammonium, sodium, zine and copper. The first five named are used in veterinary medicine. What is vinegar? How made? Vinegar is dilute acetic acid (about 6 per cent.). It is made by the oxidation of fermented juices (wine, cider). This oxidation is greatly facilitated by the enzyme ‘‘Mycoderme aceti.’’ Vinegar is also made artificially by adding coloring and odoriferous substances to dilute acetic acid. ALCOHOLS State briefly the method of preparation of alcohol. Give the properties and the principal uses of alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is prepared by the fermentation of grape sugar (glucose). Toasolution of grape sugar, a certain yeast (ferment) is added which causes the decomposition of the sugar, yielding carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Alcohol boils at a much lower tempera- ture than water and therefore it can be readily separated by dis- tillation. C,H,,.0, = 2CO, + 2C,H,OH (ethyl alcohol). Methyl alcohol (CH,OH) is obtained by the distillation of wood. Pure ethyl alcohol is a transparent, colorless, volatile liquid, of a characteristic, rather agreeable odor, and a burning taste. It is very soluble in water, for which it has a great affinity. It is used in medicine in the preparation of tinctures, extracts and fluidextracts, and widely used in the arts. What is the difference between an alcohol and an aldehyde? An aldehyde is derived from an alcohol by dehydrating the latter, hence it contains less hydrogen than an alcohol. Aldehydes are unstable (except formaldehyde), very volatile liquids having a peculiar odor, e.g., liquor formaldehydi. Give the formula for (a) ethyl alcohol, (b) methyl alcohol. Which is used for internal purposes? (a) C,H,OH, used internally. (b) CH,OH. What is absolute alcohol? Alcohol containing not more than one per cent. of water. Compare wine and brandy in respect to composition. Wine, according to the variety, contains from 6 to 22 per cent. alcohol. Brandy contains from 40 to 50 per cent. of alcohol. 36 VETERINARY STATE BOARD CHLOROFORM How is chloroform prepared? Write the formula of chloroform. Chloroform is prepared by the action of chlorinated lime on alcohol, or the purest from chloral. Formula, CHCI,. Give the properties of chloroform. Chloroform is a heavy, colorless liquid of a characteristic ethereal odor, a burning, sweet taste, and a neutral reaction; it is but spar- ingly soluble in water, but miscible with alcohol and ether in all proportions. It evaporates rapidly at all temperatures. Specific gravity, about 1.48. IODOFORM State the derivation of iodoform. Iodoform is a derivative of methane, CH,, in which three atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by three atoms of iodine. It is made by heating together an aqueous solution of an alkali car- bonate, iodine and alcohol, until the brown color of iodine has disap- peared ; on cooling, iodoform is deposited in yellow scales, which are washed and dried between filter paper. Give the chemical formula and uses of iodoform. CHI,. It is used in surgery as an antiseptic for wound dress- ings, also for its slight local anesthetic effect. CHLORAL Describe chloral. Chloral is a colorless, oily liquid, with a penetrating odor and an acrid taste; soluble in water; specific gravity, 1.5. Formula, C,HCI1,0. How is chloral hydrate made? Mention its principal uses in medicine. Chloral hydrate is made by adding chloral to water, forming crystals. It is used in medicine for its hypnotic effect. What is the difference between chloral hydrate and chloroform? Chloral hydrate, C,HC1,0. Chloroform, CHCl,. J Chloral hydrate is freely soluble in water; chloroform is only sparingly so. Chloral hydrate is a crystalline mass and volatilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures, whereas chloroform is a liquid and volatizes rapidly at all temperatures. ee ee peer QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 37 PHENOLS Give the composition and the properties of phenol. Pure phenol, C,H,OH, occurs in colorless crystals which are deliquescent and soluble in fixed oils, glycerine and water. It has a characteristic, aromatic odor; when diluted, it has a sweetish and afterward burning, caustic taste and produces a benumbing and caustic effect and even blisters on the skin. It is strongly poisonous and a powerful disinfectant. What is phenol? For what is it used and from what is it obtained? See answer to preceding question. Phenol is used in surgery for its germicidal, antiseptic and slight anesthetic effects. Used as a disinfectant and deodorant in cess- pools, stables, ete. It is obtained by fractional distillation of crude carbolic acid which is obtained during the distillation of coal-tar. What is salol? Give its properties and uses. Salol, a compound of salicylic acid and phenol, is a white, erystal- line, almost tasteless powder, with a faintly aromatic odor; nearly insoluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol and ether. It is made by the action of suitable dehydrating agents upon a mixture of phenol and salicylic acid. It is used as an antirheumatic, anti- pyretic and intestinal antiseptic. PETROLEUM What is petroleum? Name the important derivatives of petroleum used in medicine. Petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matter, mostly of the fats and oils of fish and other aquatic animals. It is a mixture of the various liquid and solid paraffins, often containing in solution the gaseous and solid members of this group and also small quantities of coloring and other matters. Derivatives used in medicine: petrolatum (cosmoline, vaseline) and liquid petrolatum. Mention the source and important properties of vaseline. Vaseline is obtained from petroleum by distilling off the lighter and more volatile portion and purifying the residue. It is a fat- like mass, varying in color from yellowish-white to light amber, slightly fluorescent, odorless and tasteless; when heated it gives 38 VETERINARY STATE BOARD off a faint odor of petroleum. Used principally as a base for ointments. ; What is glycerine? How is glycerine prepared? Give its chemical formula. Glycerine, a trihydroxyl alcohol, is a colorless, syrupy liquid, with a specific gravity of 1.28. It is prepared by the action of super- heated steam and an alkali upon fats, causing a splitting of the fats into fatty acids and glycerine. Formula, C,H;(OH),. Mention the sources from which each of the following is obtained: (a) acetic acid, (b) lactic acid, (c) tartaric acid. (a) From the destructive distillation of wood and the fermen- tation of alcohol. (b) From lactic fermentation of sugar; certain bacteria in milk produce the enzyme. (c) Obtained from the deposit occurring in the fermentation of wine, ALKALOIDS What is an alkaloid? State the properties of a vegetable alkaloid. Mention three alkaloids. An alkaloid is an alkaline or basic principle of vegetable or ani- mal origin. Alkaloids combine with acids to form salts. Vegetable alkaloids show the characteristic physiologic properties of the sub- stance from which they are derived. They are usually crystalline, white, with a bitter taste, and odorless, except those which are vola- tile. They are insoluble in alkalies, sparingly soluble in water, but readily soluble in aleohol, ether and chloroform. They are all more or less toxic. Strychnia, from nux vomica; morphia, from opium; atropia, from belladonna. Mention a chemical antidote for alkaloids and explain why it acts as an antidote. Tannin forms an insoluble tannate with nearly all alkaloids. TOXICOLOGY What is a poison? A poison is any substance applied to the body, ingested, or developed within the body, which causes or may cause disease. Give a classification of poisons and an example of each class named. 1. Irritant poisons, as caustic potash, phenol and caustic acids. 2. Neurotic poisons, as opium, belladonna and strychnine. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 39 Define ptomaines and state how they are produced. Ptomaines are the alkaloidal or basic products of the putrefac- tion of animal or vegetable matter. They are produced by the action of bacteria on nitrogenous matter. Distinguish between physiological, chemical and mechanical antidotes and give an example of each. A physiological antidote does not act directly upon the poison but produces physiological effects opposite to that of the poison. Example: strychnine as an antidote to opium poisoning. A chemical antidote is one which changes the chemical nature of the poison, rendering it inert. Example: sulphates in lead poison- ing form insoluble lead sulphate. A mechanical antidote is one that prevents the absorption of the poison. Example: stomach pump, mucilaginous drinks. Name three metallic poisons and mention an antidote for each. Lead: antidote, magnesium sulphate. Mercury: antidote, albumin. Copper: antidote, potassium ferrocyanide. Name the antidotes that should be prescribed in case of poisoning by (a) caustic alkalies, (b) mineral acids, (c) mercuric chloride. (a) Vinegar, olive oil, demulecent drinks, lemon juice. (b) Sodium bicarbonate, lime water, soap. (ec) Egg albumin, flour and water. Give the treatment for strychnine poisoning in the dog. Produce vomiting at once; give tannin; place patient under ether, chloral or potassium bromide for a few hours. Name the antidotes for phosphorous poisoning. Copper sulphate, turpentine, peroxide of hydrogen, potassium permanganate. Never use oils. Mention a chemical antidote for arsenic and explain its action. Freshly prepared hydrated oxide of iron forms the insoluble ferric arsenite or arsenate. Give treatment in case of poisoning by Paris green. Same as arsenic. See preceding answer. Empty stomach; give oils and mucilaginous drinks as well as stimulants. Give the chemical antidotes for (a) zinc salts, (b) lead salts. (a) Solution of tannin (or strong tea) forms the insoluble tannate of zine. 40 VETERINARY STATE BOARD (b) Magnesium sulphate forms the insoluble sulphate of lead. In chronic lead poisoning, give potassium iodide liberally. (Mention precautions to be observed in case of poisoning by mineral acids. Avoid stomach tube, as it might perforate the softened cesopha- gus. Neutralize the acids before producing vomiting. What is the treatment for carbolic acid poisoning? Give Epsom salts, or neutralize with alcohol, and produce vomit- ing with apomorphine or use the stomach pump. Opiates relieve pain. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY Define physiological chemistry. Physiological chemistry is that part of chemistry which fe more especially for its object the various chemical changes which take place in the living organism of either plants or animals. Define the terms metabolism, catabolism and anabolism. Metabolism refers to the various chemical changes occurring in the living body, due to the action of enzymes, bacteria, and the living cell activity. Catabolism is destructive metabolism, or the conversion of mat- ter, especially protoplasm, into a lower state of organization and ultimately into waste products. Anabolism is constructive metabolism, or the change of matter from a lower to a higher state of organization ; especially the conver- sion of matter into protoplasm. Define isotonic, hypo-isotonic and hyperisotonic solutions. Isotonie is a condition in which the tension in two substances, or solutions, is the same, that is, the osmotic pressure is equal, e.g., physiologic salt solution is isotonic with blood. Hypo-isotonic refers to a solution having a lesser osmotic power than another. Hyperisotonic refers to a solution having a greater osmotic power than another. A solution of salt in greater proportion than is present in a physiological salt solution would be hyperisotonic to blood. Such a solution if mixed with blood would cause hemolysis and other changes. What is a physiologic salt solution? It is a solution of sodium chloride of a certain strength (0.6 to 0.9 per cent.) which is isotonic with blood. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 41 Define (a) osmosis, (b) diffusion. (a) Osmosis is the phenomenon of the passage of certain fluids through a porous substance, usually an animal membrane. (b) Diffusion is the gradual interchange of the particles of mis- cible liquids when brought together. CARBOHYDRATES Define carbohydrates. How do they differ from hydrocarbons? Give an example of each. Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen; hydrogen and oxygen usually being present in the same proportion as in water. Example: glucose, C,H,,O,. A hydrocarbon is an organic compound composed of carbon and hydrogen. Example: methane, CH,. Mention carbohydrates that are common food for horses and cattle. Starches, sugars and gums which are present in large propor- tions in nearly all the common feeding-stutts, FATS Define fats. ‘Give the names of three fats. Fats are compounds of the glyceryl radical and a fat acid radical. They are formed by glycerine and a fat acid, and consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, are insoluble in water, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, easily soluble in ether. In a pure state, all fats are odorless, colorless, tasteless substances, and stain paper permanently. Palmitin, stearin and olein are the principal animal fats. What is soap? Describe a laboratory method of preparing soap. Soap is a compound of one or more fatty acids with an alkali. It is usually prepared by the direct action of caustic soda or potash upon fats. MILK What is the composition of normal cow’s milk? The average composition may be given as follows: 1 ARE LER ee Gd) PP 871.7 PRs aL SOM 8 i al i 128.3 RARER 5 5G AMMEN 9 2S deal iki ao.0 aria) a hose ae sie ts de 36.9 RTI A ANOS Likn, RAS eC es te 48.8 Perea wales sito be emt) Ug callie a A 42 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the process of determining the per cent. of butter fat in a specimen of milk. Take 20 ¢.c. of milk and add to it a small amount of a sodium hydrate solution. Extract the fat by adding 80 ¢.c. of ether which has been saturated with water. This is done by shaking in a tightly closed bottle. After the ethereal extract has entirely separated, 60 ¢.c. are placed in a weighed beaker, and the ether allowed to evaporate ; the residue is dried and weighed. The result is calculated out for 80 ¢.c. of the ethereal extract, corresponding to 20 c.c. of milk. Describe briefly the cause of the souring of milk and the changes thereby produced. The lactic acid bacteria act upon the lactose, forming lactic acid which renders the milk sour and coagulates the caseinogen, the curd. The milk becomes acid in reaction, the curd settles as a thick, jelly- like mass, leaving a watery fluid, the whey, above. Give the requirements of the State of New York in regard to milk composition. Milk must contain twelve per cent. solids, of which three per cent. must be butter fat. Give the Pennsylvania State requirements for milk composition. Milk must contain not less than 12.5 per cent. solids, of which 3 per cent. must be fat. URINE Describe a test for sugar in the urine. Place some Fehling’s solution in a test tube and boil it. If no discoloration takes place, it is suitable for the test. Add a few drops of the suspected urine and boil. If the mixture suddenly turns to an opaque yellow or red color, the presence of sugar is indicated. Give a test for albumin in the urine. To a small amount of nitric acid in a test tube, gently pour upon the surface some of the suspected urine. If albumin is present, a ring of white coagulum occurs at the junction of the two fluids. Describe a method of detecting the presence of bile in the urine. Agitate a few drops of chloroform with the suspected urine in a test tube. If bile be present, the chloroform becomes turbid QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 43 and acquires a yellowish hue, the depth of which depends upon the amount of bile present. What is Fehling’s solution and for what is it employed? Fehling’s solution is an aqueous solution of cupric sulphate mixed with potassio-sodic tartrate solution. It is used as a test for sugar. See answer to preceding question. State the specific gravity of normal urine. The specific gravity of horse urine ranges from 1020 to 1050, the average being about 1035. Whatis urea? Give its chemical formula. Urea is an end-product of metabolism. It is produced by the metabolism of the albuminous foods ingested and the albuminous substances in the body. It is a white, crystallizable substance and the chief nitrogenous constituent of urine. Formula, CON,H,. ANATOMY* OsTEOLOGY Give the properties and describe the development of the growth of bone. Bone is composed of one-third animal matter and two-thirds mineral matter, principally phosphates and carbonates of lime. Externally, bones are covered by a very vascular and nervous, fibrous membrane, except over the articular surfaces and insertion of tendons and ligaments. Bone proper consists of lamelle, trav- ersed by ‘‘Haversian canals.’’ These canals are very minute and are part of the vascular system. The medulla, or marrow, is a pulpy, fatty substance which fills the interior and the areole of the spongy tissue of bones. Blood-vessels and nerves enter by way of the nutrient canal. Flat bones (found in the head) do not have a medullary cavity. Bones are developed from cartilages and fibrous tissue. The bones of the face and cranium are the only ones formed from the latter. Cartilage, undergoing calcification and being ramified with blood-vessels which carry the osteoblasts (bone-producing cells), eventually becomes hard, dense bone. Fibrous tissue is transformed very much the same except that the blood-vessels and other directing lines do not arrange themselves in parallel as in the long bones and, as a result, the medullary canal is absent, it being replaced by irregular, communicating cavities, called medullary spaces. How many bones are there in the skeleton of the horse? The number is subject to slight variation in different skeletons. Considering the sacrum as a single bone, the os hyoides as one and 16 as the average number of coccygeal vertebr, there are 191 bones in the horse’s skeleton. Name the bones of the cranium. Occipital, parietal, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid, and two tem- poral—seven in all. Name the bones of the head. Besides those of the cranium, above mentioned, there are the following pairs: superior maxillary, premaxillary, palatine, ptery- goid, malar, lachrymal, nasal, superior and inferior turbinated, and three single bones—vomer, inferior maxillary and hyoid. * Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 44 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 45 Describe the frontal bone of the ox. A very large, flat bone, occupying nearly one-half the anterior surface of the head and forming the front part of the roof of the cranium and part of the face. Quadrilateral in shape, it presents an external and internal face and four borders. The external face, slightly convex, is extended laterally by the processes which form the orbital arches and rest on the malar bone. Its middle region is covered by the skin and constitutes the base of the forehead. In the upper third, the supra-orbital foramen opens into a _ vasculo- nervous groove which ascends toward the base of the horns, and descends to near the lower border of the bone. The internal face is concave and divided into two unequal parts by a transverse ridge. The superior, the more extensive, is covered with digital impres- sions and belongs to the cranial cavity. The inferior part, articu- lating in the median line with the ethmoid, shows, between the external and internal plates of the bone, the frontal sinuses, two spaces which form part of the roof of the nasal cavities. Projecting from each side of the superior border are the osseous conical cores which support the horns (absent in hornless breeds). These projec- tions are long and curved, very rugged, perforated by foramina and grooved by small vascular channels. The inferior border is deeply notched in its middle to receive the nasal bones. Laterally, the bone articulates with the sphenoid, parietal, lachrymal and malar. The orbital foramen, in the ox, belongs entirely to the frontal bone. Describe the superior maxillary bone. This bone, the most extensive in the upper jaw, is situated on the side of the face; it is bordered above by the frontal, palatine, zygomatic and lachrymal bones, below by the premaxillary, in front by the nasal, behind and within by that of the opposite side. It is elongated vertically and is irregularly triangular. The external face shows a convex surface ending below in the supermaxillary spine; the infra-orbital foramen. The internal face shows a flat surface which forms the outer wall of the nasal fossa; the maxillary sinus, the palatine canal; a ridge for the attachment of the inferior turbinated; the inferior opening of the lachrymal canal. The external border is very thick and hollowed into six large quadrilateral cavities, alveoli, which hold the molar teeth. Above the last alveolus is the alveolar tuberosity, and, below the first, the interdental space. 46 VETERINARY STATE BOARD The superior extremity is large and rounded and shows: a large cavity, the maxillary sinus; the infra-orbital canal; and the palatine canal. The inferior extremity presents a cavity which forms the alveolus of the tusk, and unites with a similar space in the premaxillary hone Describe the inferior maxilla. The inferior maxillary is a very large bone, situated behind the upper jaw, and is composed of two symmetrical branches, joined at their lower extremities to form the intermaxillary space. It consists of two extremities, an inferior and superior, two faces, external and internal, and two borders, a superior and inferior. The inferior extremity shows the body of the bone which is formed by the union of the two lateral halves. The inferior face is smooth and convex, and shows the inferior opening of the maxillo- dental canal—the mental foramen; on a level with this foramen, the bone markedly contracts to form the neck. The superior face is smooth and concave; it supports the free extremity of the tongue. The circumference is convex anteriorly and contains six sockets for the incisors, and behind these—in the male only—on either side is an additional socket for the tusks. The space between the lateral incisors and tusks is called the bars, or inferior interdental space. The superior extremity shows the condyloid process which articulates with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone; the neck, a constriction below the condyle; the coronoid process, in front of the condyle and separated from it by the sigmoid notch, is flattened on its sides and receives the terminal insertion of the temporalis muscle. The external face is smooth and rounded in its inferior two- thirds and roughened above for the insertion of the masseter muscle. The internal face presents in its upper one-third the superior orifice of the inferior maxillodental canal which runs down under the molar teeth, between the two plates of the bone, to the ~ mental foramen; in its inferior two-thirds the internal face is smooth. Near the alveolar border and running parallel therewith is the myloid ridge. At the junction of the two sides is a roughened excavation—the genial surface. The superior, or alveolar border, shows a straight or inferior portion which is hollowed by six alveoli to receive the inferior molar teeth, and a curved or superior portion for muscular insertion. The inferior border shows a sharp, straight portion and a more rounded portion above. The union of these two portions forms the angle of the jaw. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 47 Name the bones of the fore limbs of the horse and state how they differ from those of the ox. In the horse: Seapula, humerus, radius, ulna, scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, pisiform, trapezoid, magnum, unciform, principal meta- . earpms, two rudimentary metacarpi, suffraginis, corone, pedis, two sesamoids and one naviculare. In the ox: Scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, six carpal bones (the os magnum and trapezoid are fused together), two metacarpi (one principal and one rudimentary, situated outwardly), four digits— two with three phalanges and three sesamoids (as in the single digit of the horse), and two rudimentary ones, composed of two small bones. Describe the scapula and name the bone with which it articulates. The scapula is a flat, triangular-shaped bone which is applied against the anterior and outer plane of the thorax in an oblique direction downward and forward. It has two faces, external and internal; three angles, anterior or cervical, posterior or dorsal, and inferior or humeral, and three borders, anterior, posterior, and superior. The external surface is divided by a marked crest, the acromian spine, which runs parallel to the long axis of the bone, into two unequal depressed surfaces, the supra- and infraspinous fosse. The internal face is concave, forming the subscapular fossa, and is roughened for muscular insertion. The anterior or cervical angle is comparatively thin, the posterior or dorsal is thick. The inferior or humeral is separated from the rest of the bone by a slight constriction, the neck of the scapula. It presents a glenoid cavity, a round, shallow depression, which receives the head of the humerus, and in front, a coracoid process, with a base and a summit which curves inwardly. The superior border is sharp and thin, while the posterior is thick and slightly concave, and the superior is irregular and is prolonged by a thin cartilage, the cartilage of prolongation. The scapula articulates with the humerus. Describe the ulna. The ulna is an elongated, triangular-shaped bone which is applied against the posterior and upper three-fourths of the radius and strongly united with the same. It presents for study a middle por- tion and two extremities. The middle portion shows an external smooth, an internal con- eave, and an anterior rough surface which unites with the radius. In the middle third of the anterior surface is seen the ulnar groove 48 VETERINARY STATE BOARD which aids in forming the radio-ulnar arch. The posterior border is concave and thick. On the superior extremity is an enormous process, the olecranon, which provides place for the attachment of the extensors of the fore- arm. It shows anteriorly an articular surface, the sigmoid cavity, which terminates above ina beak. The inferior extremity terminates in a sharp point, and sometimes by a small knob, the capitellum, which sometimes extends to the inferior extremity of the radius. The ulna articulates with the humerus and radius. Name the bones of the carpus. Seaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, pisiform or supercarpal, trapezoid, magnum and unciform. Describe the pedal bone. The pedal bone, os pedis, third phalanx or coffin bone as it is variously known, supports the hoof and anterior limb. It is a short bone, somewhat pyramidal in shape, and is divided into three faces, three borders, and two lateral angles. The anterior face is perforated by vascular openings and shows laterally the preplantar fissure, a horizontal groove between the basilar and retrossal processes ; between this fissure and the inferior border of the bone is a roughened projecting surface, the patilobe eminence. The superior face shows two articular surfaces, glenoid cavities, which are divided by a median ridge. The inferior (or solar) face is somewhat concave and divided into two regions by the semilunar crest; just behind this crest and on either side the plantar fissures which open into a cavity in the interior, the semi- lunar sinus, may be seen. The superior border is convex forward and shows the pyramidal eminence. The inferior border is convex and perforated by from five to ten large foramina. The posterior border is slightly con- cave and shows a diarthrodial facet for the navicular bone. The lateral angles are two projections which are directed back- ward. They show a superior, the basilar, and an inferior, the retros- sal, process. What bones enter into the formation of the foot? Seven carpals, three metacarpals, three phalanges and three sesamoids, before mentioned. Describe the first two cervical vertebre. The first or atlas has no head but instead two deep concave | facets which articulate with the occipital; posteriorly, is an articular — surface for the odontoid process of the axis; the transverse processes QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 49 are large, flattened and incline forward and downward; there is no spinous process, but a roughened surface instead. At the base of each transverse process are two foramina which traverse it from below upward. The second or axis is the longest of all the cervical vertebre. It terminates anteriorly in a conical process, the odontoid, which is convex, smooth below and concave above to articulate with the atlas. The spinous process is very prominent and elongated antero- posteriorly. The transverse processes are only slightly developed. Describe the common characteristics of vertebre. Each vertebra has a body, and an arch enclosing the spinal canal. The superior face of the body forms the lower boundary of the spinal canal. The anterior extremity of the body is convex and the posterior is concave. The arch projects upward from the body and is composed of pedicles, laminz, transverse, spinous and articular processes. The articular processes, four in number, are distributed two anteriorly and two posteriorly. The anterior pair look upward, the posterior look downward. What are true vertebrze? Give the number in the horse, ox and dog. True vertebre are those constituting the cervical, dorsal and lum- bar regions of the spinal column. There are 30 in the horse, 26 in the ox, and 27 in the dog. Describe the sternum of the horse and compare it with the sternum of the ox and dog. The sternum is the osteocartilaginous body which forms the in- ferior boundary of the thoracic cavity. It shows on either side articulations for the first eight ribs; anteriorly, it shows a carti- laginous mass, flattened on each side and curved upward, the cervical prolongation or presternum; posteriorly it is flattened above and below to form the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage. It is flattened, laterally, in its anterior two-thirds, and from above downward in its posterior one-third. The sternum never undergoes complete ossification. It is de- veloped, in the horse, from six single nuclei which never coalesce to form a single piece. In the ox, the sternum is made up of seven parts; they are much more compact than those in the horse, and are united to each other, with the exception of the first. There is no cervical pro- longation and the xiphoid cartilage is feebly developed. In the sternum of the dog, eight component parts are noted. They are hollowed in their middle part and thick at their ends. They are never ossified to each other. 4, 50 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the sacrum. The sacrum is formed by the consolidation of five vertebrae which are closely fused. It articulates, anteriorly, with the last lumbar vertebra, posteriorly, with the first coccygeal bone, and, laterally, with the os innominata. The bone is triangular in shape with a base anteriorly, articulat- ing with the last lumbar vertebra through its body, articular and transverse processes; posteriorly, the apex articulates with the coceyx; and laterally, the first segment shows a sort of transverse process which has an auricular facet to furnish articulation with the os innominata. The inferior surface is smooth and shows four intervertebral foramina, and the superior surface shows in its mid- dle the spinous processes which together constitute the sacral spine. On each side of the sacral spine is a groove which is pierced between each segment by the supersacral foramina. Name the bones of the pelvis. The os innominatum, made up of the ilium, pubis and ischium, and the saerum. Describe the cotyloid cavity. The cotyloid cavity is a deep excavation which is formed in the middle of the os innominata at the junction of the ilium, pubis and ‘ ischium. It is cireumscribed by a narrow rim which is notched on the inner side to communicate with the subpubic notch. The deeper portion is roughened for ligamentous insertion. The cavity receives the articulating head of the femur. Describe the pelvis. State the difference between the pelvis of the horse and that of the ox. The pelvis is a bony cavity in the posterior part of the body, which prolongs the abdominal cavity between the sacrum and the coccygeal vertebre. It is formed above by the sacrum, laterally by the ilia, but mostly by the sacrosciatic ligament, and below by the ischia and pubes. The inlet is bounded by the sacrum, pubes and ilia and has four diameters, vertical, horizontal and two oblique; the outlet, through which pass the rectum and genital organs, is bounded by the sacrum, ischia and sacrosciatic ligament, and has two diameters, vertical and horizontal. In the ox, the os innominatum is nearly horizontal, the transverse _ diameter is relatively less extensive, and the ilium is more oblique. |, Name the bones of the hind limb. The os innominatum or coxa (composed of ilium, pubis and 4 ischium), femur, tibia, fibula, the tarsus (composed of six bones, QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 51 viz., astragalus, caleaneum, cuneiform magnum, cuneiform medium, cuneiform parvum, and cuboid), one principal and two rudimentary metatarsi, two sesamoids, suffraginis, coronx, pedis, and naviculare. Give the number of ribs, sternal and asternal, in the horse, the ox and the dog respectively. Sternal: horse, 8; ox, 8; dog, 9 Asternal: horse, 10; ox, 5; dog, 4. Define trochanter, condyle, trochlea, foramen, sinus, tuberosity, spinous process, glenoid cavity. Trochanter is a large, bony eminence on the superior extremity of the femur, below the neck. A condyle is an articular eminence on the extremity of a bone which represents an ovoid segment cut parallel to its larger axis (e.g., the condyles of the femur). A trochlea is a pulley-like articular surface on the extremities of bones, as seen on the os astragalus or tibial-tarsal bone. A foramen is an opening into or surrounded by bone, through which blood-vessels and nerves pass. A sinus is a recess, cavity or hollow space surrounded by bone, found chiefly within the cranium. A tuberosity is a large, round, and slightly detached non- articular eminence on a bone (the great tuberosity of the humerus). A spinous process is a bony projection on the dorsal face of a vertebra. A glenoid cavity is an oval, shallow, diarthrodial cavity in a bone (the glenoid cavity of the scapula). ARTHROLOGY Name the different classes of articulations and give an example of each class. Synarthroses, ¢.g., the occipitotemporal articulation. Amphiarthroses, e.g., the intervertebral articulations. _ Diarthroses, e.g., the coxofemoral articulation. Define (a) synarthrosis, (b) amphiarthrosis, (c) diarthrosis. Synarthrosis is an immovable articulation as seen in the bones of the skull. i Amphiarthrosis is a joint with limited movement, being inter- mediate between a synarthrosis and a diarthrosis; ¢.g., the sacro-iliae joint. Diarthrosis is a freely movable joint, as the atlo-axoid. 52 VETERINARY STATE BOARD What structures may enter into the construction of the following different kinds of joints: (a) synarthrodial, (b) amphi- arthrodial, and (c) diarthrodial? (a) Bone, fibrous tissue and periosteum. (b) Bone, fibrocartilage, ligaments. (c) Bone, cartilage, ligaments, synovial capsule and synovia. Describe the atlo-axoid articulation. This is an example of a diarthrodial joint. It is made up of the odontoid and articular processes of the axis and the corresponding depressions on the atlas. Ligaments: Odontoid, from the odontoid to the inferior arch of the atlas; the superior atlo-axoid, between the spines; the inferior atlo-axoid below the bodies; the capsular ligaments (two) ‘between the articular processes; synovial membrane. Action: Lateral rotation. Describe the articulating surfaces of the axis. Anteriorly, is a conical process, termed the odontoid, which is flattened above and below, convex and smooth on its inferior surface to fit the corresponding surface on the atlas. The anterior articu- lating processes (prezygopophyses) are carried to the base and to each side of the odontoid in the shape of two undulating facets and are confounded with the gliding surface of the latter. Posteriorly, is a wide and deep cavity to receive the head of the succeeding vertebra; above and on each side of this cavity are the posterior articulating processes (post-zygopophyses) inclined downward. Describe the joints that, back of the dentata, connect the vertebre. Ligaments: 1. The common superior vertebral ligament which lies above the bodies of the vertebre and is attached to them from the axis to the sacrum. 2. The common inferior vertebral ligament which lies below the bodies and is attached to them from the sixth or eighth dorsal to the sacrum. 3. An interarticular fibrocartilage which is found between the bodies of the vertebre. 4, A capsular ligament, between the articular processes. 5. An intertransverse, between the transverse processes. 6. An interlamellar, between the laminz. 7. An interspinous, between the spinous processes. 8. A supraspinous, between the summits of the spinous processes. The ligamentum nuche extends from the first dorsal to the occiput. In the sacral and coccygeal regions the articulations are more or less fused and rudimentary. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 53 The fibrocartilage in the lumbosacral articulation is very thick and the transverse processes of the last lumbar articulates with the external angles of the sacrum. The fifth and sixth lumbar also articulate between their transverse processes. The movements of the spinal column are those of flexion, exten- sion and lateral. These movements are quite free in the cervical region but restricted elsewhere. Describe the ligamentum nuche, particularly as to its origin, distribu- tion and function. The ligamentum nuchez is composed of two portions, viz., a funicular portion, from the first dorsal spinous process to the sum- mit of the head, and a lamellar portion which extends between the spinous processes of the second dorsal and the last six cervical vertebre. Function: It acts as a stay and support to the head and main- tains the head and neck in a natural position during repose. What forms and kinds of costochondral and costosternal joints in the horse and the ox hinder or favor free breathing in the recumbent position? The costochondral in the horse are synarthrodial and hinder, but in the ox they are true gingymoid diarthroses and hence favor free breathing. The costosternal in both the horse and the ox are diarthrodial, but have a gliding movement only, hence they hinder free breathing in the recumbent position. Describe the shoulder-joint. The scapulohumeral articulation is an enarthrodial, or ball-and- socket joint, which is formed by the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Ligaments: A rudimentary glenoid ligament which deepens the cavity; a capsular ligament, extending from the margins of the cavity to the neck of the humerus; two supporting fasciculi from the coracoid process to the head of the humerus. The muscles in relation to the joint are: 1. In front, coracoradial. 2. Behind, large extensor of the forearm and teres minor. 3. Outside, short abductor of the arm and postea spinatus. / 4, Inside, subscapularis. Action: Abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, rotation and cireumduction. Name and describe the ligaments of the elbow-joint. An anterior, from the humerus above the articuiar surface to the anterior part of the radius. 54. VETERINARY STATE BOARD An external lateral, from the cavity outside of the humerus to the external portion of the radius. An internal lateral, from the inner tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the humerus to the radial tuberosity and to interos- seous fibres. Describe the radiocarpal articulation. _ The radiocarpal articulation is an imperfect ginglymoid which is made up of the lower articular surface of the radius and the four upper carpal bones. Three ligaments: an internal from the radius to the fourth bone, a superficial external from the radius to the supercarpal bone, and a deep external from the radius to the second bone and interosseous ligament. Name the structures composing the carpus. 1. The articulations uniting the carpal bones of the first row to each other. 2. The analogous articulations of the second row. 3. The radiocarpal articulation. 4. The articulation of the two rows with each other. 5. The carpometacarpal articulation. Describe the ligaments of the knee-joint. Besides those mentioned above in describing the radiocarpal joint are three anterior and three interosseous in front ox and between the first row of carpal bones; two anterior and two interosseous in front of and between the second row; an external posterior, from the first bone of the upper to the second bone of the lower row; an internal posterior, from the internal bone of the upper row to the second and third of the lower row; an external, from the superearpal bone to the first bone of the second row and head of the external metacarpal. Between the lower row and the metacarpal bones are two an- terior, one between the second bone and the principal metacarpal, the other from the first to the external metacarpal ; two interosseous from the articulation between the metacarpi to the interosseous ligaments of the second row. Common carpal ligaments are: 1. Anterior, from the radius to the principal metacarpus. 2. Posterior, from the posterior part of the radial surface to the carpus and the principal metacarpus. 3. External lateral, from the outer side of the radius to the — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 55 first bones of the upper and lower rows and the outer metacarpal bone. 4. Internal lateral, from the inner side of the radius to the prin- cipal and inner metacarpi, as well as to the capsular ligament. Name the bones and ligaments of the fetlock joint. Bones: Metacarpus, first phalanx, and two sesamoids. Ligaments: Intersesamoid, between the two sesamoids; lateral sesamoid, between the sides of the sesamoid and the upper extremity of the first phalanx; inferior sesamoid, of three fasciculi from the posterior surface of the first phalanx to the sesamoid bones; external and internal lateral, from the metacarpus to the sides of the first: phalanx; an anterior, between the anterior surfaces of both bones; a posterior, or suspensory ligament of the fetlock, from the first and second bone of the inferior carpal row and posterior face of the principal metacarpus to the top of the sesamoids, where it divides into two fasciculi which pass forward and are inserted into the anterior extensor of the phalanges. What is the function of the suspensory ligament? It acts as a mainstay or brace to the foot, and assists in preventing jar from concussion when the fore limbs are brought to the ground in locomotion. Describe the first interphalangeal articulation. This is an imperfect ginglymus, between the os suffraginis and os corone. Ligaments: two lateral ligaments between the sides of the bones; one posterior ligament, or glenoidal fibrocartilage attached to the first and second phalanges by six bands, increases the articular surface below and forms a sheath for the passage of the perforans tendon. Movements: Flexion, extension and some lateral motion. Describe and discuss the functions of the lateral cartilages. The lateral cartilages, two in number, are composed of fibrous and cartilaginous tissue, and are the shape of an oblique parallelo- gram. They are prolonged behind the third phalanx and are attached in front to the anterior lateral ligament, behind, to the basilar and retrossal processes and plantar cushion. They are thin above with a notch posteriorly for vessels; thick below, concave internally, with vascular foramina, and convex externally, with foramina for vessels. In association with the plantar cushion they act as cushions in preventing jar and allowing for expansion when the foot is brought in contact with the ground. 56 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the hip-joint. The coxofemoral articulation is an enarthrodial, or ball-and- socket, joint between the cotyloid cavity of the os innominata and the head of the femur. Ligaments: Capsular, extending from the margins of the coty- loid cavity to the neck of the femur; a transverse, converting the notch into a foramen; a cotyloid which deepens the cavity; a coxo- femoral (ligamentum teres), from the bottom of the cotyloid cavity to the depression in the head of the femur; a pubiofemoral, from the inferior face of the pelvis to the cotyloid cavity; a synovial mem- brane which is very extensive. Muscles in relation to the joint are, anteriorly, the gracilis and rectus ; posteriorly, the gemelli, internal obturator and pyramidalis; inferiorly, the external obturator; and superiorly, the small gluteus. State the difference between the hip-joint of the horse and that of the ox. See answer to preceding question. The pubiofemoral ligament is absent in the ox, which permits of greater freedom to movements of abduction. Describe the femorotibial articulation. A diarthrodial type of joint, between the femur, tibia and patella. Ligaments: An anterior, made of three strong fasciculi from the patella to the anterior surface of the tibia; the antepatellar aponeurosis, which is an expansion of the fascia lata, binds the patella to the femur by two lateral fasciculi; an external lateral, from the external condyle to the head of the fibula; an internal lat- eral, from the inner condyle to the inner tibial tuberosity; a pos- terior, from the posterior face of the femur to the tibia ; two erucial, or interosseous, from the intercondyloid notch to the tibial spine, crossing in the centre, forming an X; two interarticular fibrocarti- lages (menisci), attached to the tibial spine and by fasciculi to the femur and tibia; a synovial membrane in two portions, one under ~ the patella and the other under the lateral ligaments. Action: Flexion, extension and rotation. Name the various articulations of the tarsal joint. Tibiotarsal, caleaneo-astragaloid, second row of tarsus with each other, two rows of tarsus with each other, and tarsometatarsal. Describe the calcaneocuboid ligament. A strong fibrous brace which unites the posterior border of the calcis to the cuboides and to the head of the external rudimentary QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 57 metatarsal bone. It blends, outwardly, with the external and super- ficial, tibiotarsal ligament, and inwardly, with the posterior tarso- metatarsal band. Strains of this ligament give rise to ‘‘curb,’’ MyYoLoey Describe aponeuroses. Aponeuroses are flattened bands of white fibrous tissue which envelop, in common, all the muscles of one or several adjoining re- gions, and by one extremity are attached to the bones. They main- tain the muscles in their position and sustain them during their contraction. Describe the masseter muscle. A short, wide and very thick muscle, irregularly quadrilateral, applied against the external face of the mandible. Origin: the zygomatic process of the temporal bone. Insertion: the outer sur- face of the ramus of the jaw. Action: elevator of the jaw. Nerve: inferior maxillary branch of the fifth. Name the muscles that close the jaw and give the attachments of each. Masseter, see above. Temporal, from the temporal fossa, the temporal fascia and the outer border of the orbit to the coronoid process and ramus of the inferior maxilla; pterygoid internus, from the palatine crest and subsphenoidal process to the hollow on the inner face of the inferior maxilla; pterygoid externus, from the inferior face of the sphenoid and the pterygoid process to the neck of the condyle of the lower maxilla. ‘Name the muscles of the globe of the eye. Retractor oculi; superior, inferior, external and internal recti; superior oblique and inferior oblique. Describe the mastoidohumeralis muscle. It extends from the summit of the head to the inferior part of the arm. It consists of two portions, viz., an anterior portion which originates on the mastoid process and crest, and is inserted in the furrow of torsion of the humerus, below the deltoid imprint; a posterior portion which originates on the transverse processes of the first four cervical vertebre and is inserted with the anterior portion. It carries the limb forward or inclines the head to the side. Name the muscle separating the carotid artery from the jugular vein. ‘What is the function of this muscle? The subscapulohyoideus. It is a depressor of the hyoid bone _ and its appendages. 58 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Name the muscles that aid in flexing the shoulder-joint. Teres externus (long abductor of the arm) and teres internus (adductor of the arm). Name the muscles of the brachial region. Anterior region: the flexor brachii and humeralis obliquus. Posterior brachial region: the triceps, viz., caput magnum, caput medium and caput parvum, and the anconeus. Name the muscles of the forearm. | Four anteriorly, viz., anterior extensor of the metacarpus, oblique extensor of the metacarpus, extensor pedis and extensor suf- fraginis. Five posteriorly, viz., external flexor of the metacarpus, oblique flexor of the metacarpus, fiexor pedis perforatus, flexor pedis per- forans and internal flexor of the metacarpus. Describe the flexor pedis perforans. Situated immediately behind the radius and is composed of three portions which unite at the carpus to continue to the inferior extremity of the digit by a long and powerful tendon. Origin: The summit of the epitrochlea, summit and posterior border of the olecranon, and posterior surface of the radius, by the three portions, respectively. Above the carpus, these three unite and pass through the carpal sheath and between the two terminal branches of the perforatus tendon to its insertion, the semilunar crest of the os pedis. Name all the muscles that would be severed in amputating the fore limb just above the knee. All those of the forearm mentioned above. Name the muscles that flex the carpus. Give their attachments. 1. External flexor of the metacarpus, from the external condyle of the humerus to the supercarpal and external metacarpal bones. 2. Oblique flexor of the metacarpus from the base of the epi- trochlea and olecranon to the superearpal. 3. Internal flexor of the metacarpus from the base of the epi- trochlea to the head of the internal metacarpal bone. 4. Flexor pedis perforatus arises on the summit of the epi- trochlea and extends to the second phalanx; in contracting shortly, it flexes the carpus. 5. Flexor pedis perforans, described above. Give the origin, insertion and action of the flexor brachii. Origin: Coracoid process of the scapula. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 59 Insertion: Superior and internal tuberosity of the radius, the capsular and internal lateral ligament. Action: Flexes the forearm. Give the origin, insertion and action of the flexor metacarpi medius. This is the same as the oblique flexor of the metacarpus given above. Name the muscles of the gluteal region, or croup. Three: superficial, middle and deep glutei. Name the muscles attached to the upper third of the femur. Great psoas, iliopsoas, superficial, middle and deep glutei, ten- sor fascia lata, vastus externus, vastus internus, pectineus, small adductor of the thigh, great adductor of the thigh, quadratus fem- oris, obturator externus, internal obturator, and gemelli. Give the origin and the insertion of the vastus externus muscle. Origin: Outer and anterior surfaces of the superior extremity of the femur. Insertion: Superior face and external side of the patella. Give the origin, insertion and action of the popliteus. Origin: Outside the external condyle of the femur. Insertion: Into the triangular surface on the posterior surface of the tibia in its superior parts. Action: Flexes the tibia and rotates it outward. Describe the origin, insertion and action of the gastrocnemius. Origin: The external head from above and behind the external condyle of the femur; the internal head from the internal condyle. Insertion: Into the posterior part of the summit of the os calcis after passing into a bursa. Action: Extends the foot on the tibia. Give the origin, insertion and action of the sartorius. Origin: The iliac aponeurosis near the tendon of the psoas parvus. Insertion: The internal patellar ligament. Action: Adducts the leg and flexes the femur. Name and give the attachments of the muscles that flex the tarsus. 1. Flexor metatarsi: the tendinous portion orginates from the front of the femur between the trochlea and the external condyle and is inserted in front of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsus and to the cuboid bone; the muscular portion originates from the tibia on the sides of the groove through which the tendon 60 VETERINARY STATE BOARD passes, and is inserted in front of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsus and the second cuneiform bone. 2. Anterior extensor of the phalanges: originates in the digital fossa above the external condyle of the femur ; and is inserted in the capsular ligament of the metatarsophalangeal articulation, the an- terior surfaces of the first two phalanges, and the pyramidal emi- nence of the os pedis. 3. Lateral extensor of the phalanges: originates along the ex- ternal femorotibial ligament and the whole extent of the fibula, and terminates in the tendon of the anterior extensor. Give the origin, course, relations and termination of the lateral ex- tensor of the phalanges (peroneus). Origin and termination given above. The muscular portion extends in the direction of the tibia on the external side from the superior to its inferior extremity. The tendinous portion, succeeding the muscular portion, passes to the external side of the tarsus through the tibial sheath and passes for- ward to join the tendon of the anterior extensor, near the middle of the metatarsal region. The muscular body is enveloped in a special containing apo- neurosis which separates it in front from the anterior extensor and behind from the perforans. The tendon covers the tibia and margins the external and superficial ligament of the tibiotarsal articulation. Name the muscles of the tail. Six sacrococcygeal muscles, viz., two superior, two inferior and two lateral; two ischiococcygeal muscles. Describe the panniculus carnosus muscle. An immense wide muscle on the inner surface of the skin, cover- ing the sides of the thorax and abdomen. It is irregularly triangular, thin at its borders and thicker in its middle. Origin: From the flank to the posterior border of the ulnar mass of muscles and pectoralis major. Insertion: One layer to the anterior limb and one to the small trochanter; aponeurotic fibres attach it to the internal surface of the skin and fascia of the superficial muscles. Action: In contracting, the whole cutaneous integument is shaken, thus preventing insects from alighting. Give the origin, insertion and action of the longissimus dorsi. Origin: The lumbar border, external angle and internal surface of the ilium, and the spinous processes of all the lumbar, dorsal and last four cervical vertebre. el te ae ee he ee QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 61 Insertion: The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebre and the outer surfaces of the fifteen or sixteen last ribs. Action: Extends the vertebral column and pulls the ribs forward in expiration. Give the origin, insertion and action of the longus colli muscle. Origin: Posterior portion arises from the inferior face of the bodies of the first six dorsal vertebre. The middle portion, from the transverse processes of the last six cervical vertebre. The an- terior portion, from the anterior three or four fasciculi of the middle portion. Insertion: The posterior portion is inserted on the tubercle of the sixth cervical vertebra. The middle portion, on the inferior ridge of the bodies of the first six cervical vertebre. The anterior portion, on the inferior tubercle of the atlas. Action: Flexes the neck. Give the origin, insertion and action of the serratus magnus. Origin: The external surface of the first eight ribs. Insertion: The anterior and posterior triangular surfaces of the scapula and the subscapularis. Action: Supports the body as a girdle, or depresses the scapula. Describe the diaphragm. What important structures pass through the diaphragm? The diaphragm is the muscular partition between the thoracie and abdominal cavities. Originates by right and left pillars from the lumbar vertebre and is confounded with the inferior common ligament of the spine; also from the xiphoid appendage of the sternum, and the anterior extremities of the last twelve ribs. Insertion: Phrenic centre, dividing into right and left leaflets. The diaphragm is related anteriorly with the pleura and lungs; posteriorly, with the peritoneum, stomach, liver, colon and spleen. The aorta, thoracic duct, vena cava and esophagus pass through the diaphragm. How does the diaphragm of the ox differ from that of the horse? Of what surgical importance is this difference? The attachments of the muscular portion are much farther dis- tant from the cartilaginous circle than in the horse. This arrangement permits puncture of the rumen through the last intercostal space, whereas a puncture at this point in the horse would enter the thoracic cavity. 62 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Name the muscles of respiration. Inspiratory: External and internal intercostals, levatores costa- rum, serratus anticus, serratus magnus, latissimus dorsi, diaphragm. Expiratory: External and internal intercostals, serratus posti- cus, triangularis sterni, great and small oblique muscles of the abdomen, longissimus dorsi, and the retractor of the last rib. Describe the inguinal canal, stating the structures which it contains. A canal, two to two and one-half inches in length, on each side and in front of the pubie bone, running downward, backward and inward, comprised between Poupart’s ligament of the great oblique muscle, posteriorly, and the small oblique muscle anteriorly. Its inferior orifice (external or cutaneous orifice, inguinal or external abdominal ring) is much larger than the superior (internal) ring. The spermatic cord and vessels in the male, and the external mammary vessels in the female pass through the inguinal canal. Describe the navicular sheath. The navicular sheath is a fibrous membrane which covers the os naviculare and the single ligament of the pedal articulation. It is reflected on the plantar aponeurosis of the flexor pedis tendon, in front of this ligament and ascends to the inferior sac of the sesamoid sheath, where it is reflected upon itself, thereby forming two culs-de- sac, one superior and one inferior. It is lined by a synovial mem- brane which aids the aponeurosis of the tendon in gliding over the navicular bone. CIRCULATORY ORGANS State the position of the heart and show its relation to the right and left walls of the chest and to the sternum in the horse and dog. In the horse, the heart occupies a position in the middle line of the chest, corresponding to the third, fourth, fifth and sixth ribs, being enclosed in a sac and suspended from the spine by its aortic vessels. Its base is uppermost, its apex nearly touches the sternum but does not rest on the ribs. The diaphragm lies just behind the apex. The heart is separated from the right wall of the chest by the right lobe of the lung. There is a triangular notch in the left lung which exposes the left ventricle and allows it to make its impulse felt against the chest wall. In the dog, the heart occupies a more nearly median position, resting almost entirely on the upper face of the sternum and about equidistant from the right and left chest wall. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 63 Describe the right and left heart, noting the size of the different cavi- ties, the thickness of the walls at different points, the nature, position and dependencies of the four sets of valves and the source and distribution of the vascular and nervous supply. The heart is divided by a vertical septum into two parts, which are further divided into four by a transverse septum. The cavities above the transverse septum are called right and left auricles, those below, the right and left ventricles, the two latter constituting the largest portion of the heart. The right auricle: The walls are about. one-fourth of an inch in thickness. It receives the anterior vena cava, posterior vena cava, vena azygos, and the large coronary veins. It opens, in its floor, into the right ventricle through the auriculoventricular opening. The right ventricle: Its walls are on an average six-tenths of an inch thick. It has two openings, the auriculoventricular, and the pulmonary opening into the pulmonary artery. The left auricle: Similar to the right. The walls are irregular in thickness, varying from one-third of an inch in some places to a very thin membranous wall in others. It receives the pulmonary veins and empties through the auriculoventricular opening in its fioor into the left ventricle. The left ventricle: Its walls are on an average one and one-fifth to one and five-eighths inches in thickness. Two openings, the auriculoventricular and aortic. The valves of the heart are made of fibrous segments. The right auriculoventricular is composed of three segments (tricuspid) attached by their free edges to the ventricular wall by tendinous cords, chorde tendine. The left auriculoventricular is composed of two segments (bicuspid) and is similarly attached. The pul- monary and aortic openings of the ventricles are closed by the semi- lunar valves made up of three segments which are also attached by tendinous cords. The blood supply of the heart is by the two coronary arteries, branches from the trunk of the aorta at the sigmoid valves. Hach divides into two principal branches, one passing along the horizontal, the other in the vertical furrow of the heart. The venous blood is returned to the right auricle by the coronary vein. The nerves of the heart, furnished by the cardiac plexus, come from the pneumogastric and sympathetic. Mention all the arteries given off from the posterior aorta. Intercostals, phrenic, lumbar, middle sacral, broncho-cesophageal, celiac axis, anterior mesenteric, posterior mesenteric, renal, sper- 64 VETERINARY STATE BOARD matic, small testicular (uterine in females), external and internal iliaes. Name the terminal branches of the anterior aorta. The two axillary arteries. Name in regular order the important blood-vessels through which the blood moves in passing from the left ventricle to the right front foot. Common aorta, anterior aorta, axillary, humeral, posterior radial, collateral artery of the cannon, digital. Describe the posterior radial artery and give its branches. It arises from the humeral artery near the inferior extremity of the humerus, passes along the internal ligament of the elbow-joint, along the inner side of the radius to the inferior extremity of the same, where it divides into the common interosseous, metacarpal and collateral artery of the cannon, giving off branches in its course to the elbow and muscles of the forearm. Describe the digital arteries and their branches. The digital arteries originate just above the fetlock, from the terminal extremity of the collateral artery of the cannon, and descend one to the right, the other to the left, along the margin of the flexor tendons to the basilar process of the pedal bone, where they bifurcate to form the plantar and preplantar ungual arteries. Several small branches are given off at the fetlock to the articu- lation, sesamoid sheath and tendons. Near the middle of the os suffraginis, the perpendicular artery, with anterior and posterior branches, encircles the limb, and by anastomosing both before and behind, supplies the neighboring tissues. Small branches are given off to the plantar cushion and coronary circle. The preplantar ungual enters foramina in the os pedis. The plantar ungual passes into the plantar fissure, plantar canal and semilunar sinus and unites with the opposite to form the semilunar anastomosis. Give the origin and the distribution of the brachial artery. The brachial, or axillary, arteries, two in number, are the ter- minal branches of the anterior aorta. They give off the following branches: dorsal, superior cervical, vertebral, internal thoracic, external thoracic, superior cervical, suprascapular and subscapular ; after giving off these branches, the brachial artery is continued as the humeral artery. In addition to those named, the right axillary gives off, near its origin, the common trunk of the two carotid arteries, Ss ot ew iy —— ~ age ics Canlll i ere a yaa) a: << QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 65 Name the branches of the external carotid artery. Glossofacial, maxillomuscular, posterior auricular, superficial temporal and internal maxillary. State the anatomic relations of the external carotid artery. From its origin to the hyoid bone, it is related inwardly to the guttural pouch and the glossopharyngeal and superior laryngeal nerves; outwardly, to the outer belly of the digastric muscle and the hypoglossal nerve; throughout the rest of its course, it is com- prised between the guttural pouch, the parotid gland, the great cornu of the hyoid bone, and the inner side of the posterior border of the inferior maxilla. Give the course and the termination of the vertebral artery. It arises from the axillary at the first intercostal space. It passes beneath the transverse process of the seventh and through the foramina of the upper six cervical vertebre, anastomosing with the retrograde branch of the occipital and giving off muscular and spinal branches at each intervertebral space. Give the blood supply of the larynx. The laryngeal artery, which arises from the common carotid at a short distance from its termination, just behind the larynx. Give the blood supply of the salivary glands. Small branches from the external carotid supply the parotid and submaxillary glands. The sublingual is supplied by the sublingual artery. Trace the course of the blood from the left ventricle to the left hind foot, naming in regular order all the important vessels through which the blood passes. The common aorta, posterior aorta, external iliac, femoral, popli- teal, anterior tibial, collateral artery of the cannon, digital, plantar and preplantar. A collateral stream from the popliteal passes through the posterior tibial region and gives off an interosseous branch which unites with the collateral artery of the cannon just above the fetlock. Describe the origin and distribution of the external iliac artery. Originates in common with the internal iliac from the posterior extremity of the posterior aorta and gives off the small testicular, or artery of the cord in the male, or the uterine in the female, and the circumflex iliac; then it is continued as the femoral upon leaving the anterior border of the pubis. § 66 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the coeliac axis and name its branches. The eceliae axis is a short trunk which arises from the posterior aorta immediately upon the entrance of that vessel into the abdom- inal cavity. After a course of three-fourths inch, it separates into three large branches, the gastric, splenic and hepatic arteries. Describe the origin and the distribution of the internal iliac artery. The internal iliac artery arises from the posterior extremity of the posterior artery and terminates near the insertion of the small psoas muscle by dividing into the obturator and iliofemoral arteries. It gives off the following branches: umbiiica!, internal pudie, ilio- lumbar, lateral sacral and gluteal. Give the course and the termination of the femoral artery. It arises at the anterior border of the pubis as a continuation of the external iliac and descends to the superior extremity of the gastrocnemius, where it is continued as the popliteal. The following branches are given off: prepubic, femoris profunda, superficial femoris, small muscular, and saphena. Give the blood supply of the stomach. Supplied by the gastric artery, a branch of the cceliac axis. Give the blood supply of the spleen. Supplied by the splenic artery, a branch of the cceliac axis. Give the blood supply of the uterus. The uterine artery which arises from the posterior aorta or from the external iliac near its origin; the utero-ovarian which arises from the posterior mesenteric. Give the functional and nutritive blood supply of the liver and lungs. Liver: Functional supply, the portal vein; nutritive, the hepatic artery, a branch of the ccelic axis. Lungs: Functional, pulmonary artery; nutritive, bronchial artery which is given off from the posterior aorta near the first pair of intercostals. Give the blood supply of bone. The arteries of bones belong to three orders, viz. : Those of the first order penetrate to the interior of the medullary canal of long bones, by a particular orifice, the nutrient foramen. They soon divide into a network that lines the walls of the eanal and enters the medulla. This network communicates with the arteries of the second order which go to the spongy tissue of the extremities of the long bones. The arteries of the third order are branches ' | QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 67 of the periostic network that enters the superficial Haversian canals. In the flat and short bones, there are no arteries of the first order. Describe the systemic circulation. The blood enters the left auricle from the lungs through the pulmonary vein, passes through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle, through the semilunar valve into the common aorta, an- terior and posterior aorta, from thence it is distributed to all parts of the body, passing through arteries, capillaries and into the veins back to the right auricle, through the anterior and posterior vena eava. At the right auricle, the pulmonary circulation begins. Describe the pulmonary circulation. The blood reaches the right auricle through the anterior and pos- terior vena cava and passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, thence through the semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery, through which it is carried to the lungs. In the lungs it goes through a fine network of capillaries and returns through the pul- monary vein to the left auricle, here to begin the systemic circu- lation. Describe the fetal circulation of the blood. The blood, after interchanging gases in the placenta, enters the umbilical vein and is carried to the liver. In the substance of the liver, it is mixed with the venous blood from the intestines and posterior parts, through the medium of the ductus venosus, and at last arrives at the right auricle. From here it passes into the left auricle through the foramen ovale, thence into the left ventricle and aorta. The greater portion is driven into the vessels that supply the head, neck and fore limbs, the remainder passes backward in the posterior aorta. After the fluid has circulated in the anterior part of the body, it is returned to the right auricle by the anterior vena cava. From the right auricle, it passes to the right ventricle, and from this cavity it is pumped into the pulmonary artery, thence through the ductus arteriosus into the posterior aorta, which carries it to the hinder parts of the body. The veins of the hind parts unite in forming the umbilical artery, which conveys the blood to the placenta. The umbilical artery is practically a continuation of the internal iliacs. (The ductus venosus only exists in ruminants. ) Describe the umbilical arteries of the foetus. The umbilical arteries arise from the internal iliacs and pass along the sides of the bladder. Escaping at the umbilicus, they arrive at the terminal extremity of the amniotic portion of the cord, and, giving off some branches to the amnion, they are continued 68 VETERINARY STATE BOARD to the extremity of the allantoid portion, where they end in an expansion of placental ramifications. Describe the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale in the foetus. Give their uses and state what remnants of these can be found in mature life. The ductus arteriosus is a short vessel which connects the pul- monary artery, near its origin, to the posterior aorta. In fetal life, the lungs do not functionate, hence the blood is not carried to them but takes this short course to the aorta. This duct remains, but in mature life is represented by a yellow elastic fibrous cord (the liga- mentum arteriosum). The foramen ovale is the opening between the right and left auricles, through which the blood passes in fetal life. It is pro- vided with a valve, the Eustachian valve (absent in horse and pig), that stretches from the mouth of the posterior vena cava to the annulus, or thickened border of the foramen. The function of this valve is to direct the blood-stream into the left auricle, from whence it goes into the systemic circulation. In mature life, the foramen ovale is represented by a depression of a thin membrane, surrounded by the ring of Vieussens, or annulus ovalis. Occasionally the open- ing persists throughout adult life. Describe the anterior vena cava. A large trunk extending from the entrance of the chest to the right auricle. It is formed by the union of the two axillary and the two jugular veins. It receives in its course: the internal thoracic, vertebral, superior cervical and dorsal veins, and the great vena azygos. Give the origin of the vena azygos and name its tributaries. Originates at the first lumbar vertebra and extends forward to the sixth dorsal, where it terminates in the anterior vena cava. Its tributaries are the satellite veins of the first lumbar and all of the aortic intercostal arteries, right and left. Describe the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary veins, four to eight in number, arise from the substance of the lung, emerging immediately above the origin of the bronchi. They terminate in the left auricle, which they enter by way of four to eight orifices. They have no valves. Their function is to carry the blood from the lungs, where it has been purified, to the left auricle to begin the systemic circulation. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 69 Give the course and relations of the jugular vein. Formed by the union of the superficial temporal and internal maxillary veins, behind the inferior maxilla. It passes downward and backward, lodged at first in the substance of the parotid gland, afterward in the jugular furrow (the muscular interspace between the mastoidohumeralis and the sternomaxillaris). At the inferior extremity of the neck, it unites with its mate to form the confluent of the jugulars. After leaving the parotid gland, the jugular is covered externally by the cervical panniculus. Inwardly and above, it is related to the subscapulohyoideus muscle, which separates it from the carotid, but in its inferior part it is in direct relation with that vessel, the trachea and the cesophagus. Branches: maxillomuscular, posterior auricular, occipital, glosso- facial, thyroid, cephalic, parotidean and many small muscular veins. Describe the course and the function of the portal vein. It begins in the sublumbar region, by the union of the anterior and posterior mesenterics and the splenic veins; it is then directed forward, traversing the pancreatic ring, below the vena cava, and is afterward lodged in the great fissure of the liver, where it ramifies by forming the interlobular veins. It receives on its course the right gastro-omental and anterior gastric veins. Its function is to carry the blood which comes from the intestinal walls, charged with assimilable substances, that are absorbed by the veins of the villi, to the liver. Give a general description of the lymphatics. The lymphatics are vessels with very thin and transparent walls, found all over the body, except in blood-vessels, nervous tissue, bone, muscles, eyeball, cartilage, tendons, the membranes of the ovum, placenta, umbilical cord, cuticle and hair. They possess nutrient vessels, no nerves, have valves, and carry lymph or chyle into the vascular system. Like the veins, the lymphatics terminate in two principal trunks, resembling the vena cava; and, like the veins, have three tunics. The lymphatics originate from capillaries which form networks or terminal culs-de-sac. They terminate, as before stated, by emptying into the vascular system; the union of the blood with the lymphatic system takes place at the origin of the anterior vena cava. Give the course and the termination of the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct receives all the lymphatics except those of the right side of the head, neck and thorax and the right anterior limb. It originates beneath the vertebral column, near the first lumbar vertebra, where it is marked by a very irregular dila- 70 VETERINARY STATE BOARD anicear Tg tation (receptaculum chyli), passes forward through the pillars of the diaphragm to the sixth dorsal vertebra, where it passes to the left and empties, after a dilatation, into the anterior vena cava at the junction of the jugulars. Describe the lymphatic glands. The lymphatic glands are ovoid, spherical or discoid bodies of medium consistency, which intercept the course of lymphatic vessels at several points. Their number is considerable, and they are rarely single, but most frequently are collected in groups along the blood- vessels. All the vessels of the lymphatic system are provided with one or more of these glands on their course. The branch of the vessel, entering the gland, is called the afferent, and that leaving, the efferent. The capsule of the gland sends fibrous strands into its substance, dividing it into very minute spaces (lymph sinuses) which are filled with lymph corpuscles. The afferent vessels take a tortuous course and, communicating with the sinuses, become charged with lymph-cells. j Lymph-glands are richly supplied with blood-vessels which ; penetrate the gland through the capsule, or enter at the hilum and : break up into a fine-meshed capillary network, branches of which pass through the lymph sinuses. : The lymph-glands act as filters for the lymphatic system and are important as a source of leucocytes. In what part of the intestinal tract is lymphoid tissue found? At certain places in the walls of the ileum there are collections of solitary follicles, known as Peyer’s patches. Give the situation of the lymphatic glands of the thorax. 1. Posterior mediastinal, a series of small granular masses on the course of the esophagus. _— 2. The bronchial, in the angle of the bifurcation of the trachea. 1 3. Two long strings of lobules which extend on the sides of the | inferior face of the trachea, from the base of the heart to near the | first rib. Mention the location of the following lymphatic glands: posterior cervical, prescapular, posterior mediastinal, inguinal, popli- teal, precrural, iliac, axillary and bronchial. Posterior cervical, situated on the side of the terminal extrem- ity of the jugular, within the inferior border of the scalenus muscle, extends into the chest by passing beneath the axillary vessels and ascends to the inner face of the first rib. Prescapular, situated on the ascending branch of the inferior QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 71 cervical artery, beneath the internal face of the mastoidohumeralis muscle and extends close to the attachment of the sternomaxillaris muscle. Posterior mediastinal (see preceding question). Inguinal, the deep inguinal situated beneath the crural aponeu- rosis and arch in the interstice between the adductor muscles of the leg, along with the iliac vessels. The superficial inguinal are located in front of the inguinal ring at the side of the sheath on the track of the subcutaneous abdominal artery. Popliteal, located behind the great sciatic nerve and gastroc- nemius muscle, between the biceps femoris and the semitendinosus muscles, and near the femoropopliteal artery. Precrural, located within the anterior border of the tensor fascia lata, on the course of the circumflex iliac artery. Iliac, situated in the triangular space between the two branches of the circumflex iliac artery. Axillary, beneath the anterior limb, inside the arm; one group is near the ulnar articulation, the other, behind the brachial vessels, near the common insertion of the teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles. Bronchial (see preceding question). State the approximate number of mesenteric lymph-glands. About thirty in number. NEUROLOGY The nervous system is divided into two great parts, the cerebro- spinal and the sympathetic. The cerebrospinal system consists of the brain, spinal cord, ganglia and nerves. The brain is the central portion of the nervous system and is situated in the cranial cavity; the spinal cord is, in reality, a great extension of the brain through- out the length of the spinal canal, from which emerge, at numerous points, branches, nerves, upon which are noted enlargements, called ganglia. The sympathetic system will be described in answer to a question below, ‘Name the membranes that cover the brain and describe the outer one. From within outward, pia mater, arachnoid and dura mater. The dura mater is a strong, fibrous membrane, adherent to the bony walls. It gives off prolongations into the brain, forms de- pressions for the venous sinuses and is prolonged on the nerves and spinal cord. 72 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Name the principal parts of the brain. Cerebrum, cerebellum, the isthmus, and medulla oblongata. Describe the island of Reil. The island of Reil is a very small lobule of brain in the fissure of Sylvius, found in man but not in the horse. Describe the optic thalami. The optic thalami are two masses of gray matter, placed above the crura cerebri; they are separated by a deep groove, and form the sides of the third ventricle. At their posterior border are found two projections, the external and internal geniculate bodies. Describe the cerebellum. The cerebellum is that part of the brain, situated behind and beneath the cerebrum, above the isthmus and separated from the cerebrum by a fold of the dura mater. It is globular in form and is divided by two fissures into three lobes, two lateral and a middle. The lateral lobes are convex and show many convolutions or depressions. The middle lobe is dis- posed in a vermicular manner, which gives rise to the names of the two divisions, anterior vermiform and superior vermiform processes. The structure is gray externally and white internally with a tree-like arrangement called the arbor vite. Describe the corpora quadrigemina. These are four round eminences, placed in pairs, which lie ' above the cerebral peduncles. The two posterior, the smallest, are also named the tubercula testes, and the anterior pair, the tubercula nates. The nates are gray and the testes are white. Describe the spinal cord, using a diagram. The spinal cord is the portion of the nervous system which is enclosed in the spinal eanal from the occipital foramen to the upper third of the sacral canal. Its average weight in the horse is 1014 ounces. It is slightly flattened above and below, and has two enlarge- ments in its course, one between the fifth cervical and second dorsal vertebre, the brachial bulb, the other, near the middle of the loins, the lumbar enlargement. The structure of the cord is, externally, white matter, internally, gray. The gray matter is arranged like two horns, the larger ends of which point down and out, but do not reach the surface, the smaller look upward and outward, reaching the surface. The two horns are connected by a transverse band (similar to the letter air Gees el QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 73 ‘‘H’’), called the commissure, which shows in its middle the central canal of the cord. The cord is traversed throughout its length by two fissures, the superior of which is narrower and shallower than the inferior, which is only separated from the gray commissure by a white band, the white commissure. The white matter is divided on each side into three columns. The superior column lies between the superior fissure and the superior or sensory nerve root. The inferior, between the inferior fissure and the inferior or motor root. The lateral lies between the two. The cord is covered by membranes similar to the brain, viz., dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater. The posterior end of the cord is marked by a narrow prolongation, the filum terminale. Describe the spinal nerves. The spinal nerves emanate from the spinal cord and leave the vertebral canal by the intervertebral foramina to proceed to the various organs. They proceed from the lateral aspects of the cord by two orders of roots: one motor, the other sensitive. These two roots unite into a very short trunk in passing through the inter- vertebral foramen and this mixed nerve divides almost immediately into two terminal branches. On the superior root, before its union with the inferior, a ganglion is found. Passing out with the in- ferior root of the spinal nerve, but indistinguishable from it, is a branch of nerve known as the white ramus communicans which leaves the main trunk after the mixed nerve has been formed, and runs to a distinct system known as the sympathetic. How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the horse? State the relative number in the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions, respectively. There are 42 or 43 pairs of spinal nerves as follows: cervical, 8 pairs; dorsal, 17 pairs; lumbar, 6 pairs; sacral, 5 pairs; and coccygeal, 6 to 7 pairs. Name the cranial nerves. Olfactory, optic, motor oculi, patheticum, trifacial, abducens, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, pneumogastric, spinal accessory and hypoglossal. Describe the first pair of cranial nerves. The olfactory nerves originate, superficially, in the olfactory lobe of the brain, deeply, from the corpus striatum and transverse fibres of the pons. Pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and are widely distributed over the nasal septum and ethmoidal 74 VETERINARY STATE BOARD cells in the upper third of the nasal fosse. Function: preside over the sense of smell. Give the origin and the distribution of the optic nerve. Origin: From the commissure and optic tracts which arise from the thalamus and corpora quadrigemina. Distribution: To the retina. Describe the third pair of cranial nerves, the oculomotor. Originates superficially from the crura near the interpedun- cular fissure, deeply, from the anterior border of the pons. Passes through the smallest suprasphenoidal foramen of the orbit. Dis- tributed to all the muscles of the eye except the external rectus, the great oblique and part of the posterior rectus, and by the ophthalmic ganglion to the iris. Give the origin and the distribution of the fourth pair of cranial nerves. The patheticum originates in the band of Reil, behind the cor- pora quadrigemina and, deeply, from the interior of the isthmus. It is distributed to the great oblique muscle of the eye. Describe the fifth pair of cranial nerves, the trifacial. This nerve originates by two roots, motor and sensory, in the pons varolii. On the sensory branch, in the region of the occipito- sphenotemporal hiatus, is a large ganglion, the Gasserian, which gives rise to the three branches of the nerve, viz., the superior maxillary, the inferior maxillary and the ophthalmic. The motor root passes along, but outside of, the ganglion and unites with the fibres of the inferior maxillary branch. So, although the fifth pair is called a mixed nerve, in reality only the inferior maxillary branch is composed of sensory and motor fibres. The branches emerge from the cranial cavity as follows: the first branch (ophthalmic) passes through the smallest of the large suprasphenoidal foramina to the orbit and is distributed to the skin of the forehead and eyelids, lachrymal gland and nasal fossa. The second, superior maxillary, passes through the foramen rotundum to the orbit and along the infra-orbital canal, where it ends in small branches to the face and upper lip. It sends branches to the eyeball, palate, nose and teeth of the upper jaw. The third, inferior maxil- lary, passes through the foramen ovale to the temporomaxillary articulation and then passes downward to enter the inferior dental — eanal; it supplies the muscles of mastication and the teeth of the lower jaw. On the course of the fifth pair of nerves, the following ganglia >. i QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 75 from the sympathetic system are seen: the ophthalmic or ciliary, the sphenopalatine or Meckel’s, and the otic or Arnold’s. Describe the sixth pair of cranial nerves. The abducens originates superficially from the medulla behind the pons and, deeply, from the inferior pyramid and lateral tract of the medulla. It leaves the cranial cavity with the ophthalmic branch of the fifth, and is distributed to the external rectus muscle of the eye. Describe the seventh pair of cranial nerves, the facial. Originates superficially from the medulla behind the pons and, deeply, in the floor of the fourth ventricle. It escapes from the cranial cavity through the internal auditory meatus with the eighth pair, enters the aqueduct of Fallopius, has the geniculate ganglion developed on it and passes out through the stylomastoid foramen to the muscles of the face, ears, lips, nostrils and eyelids. Branches: great petrossal, to Meckel’s ganglion; small petrossal, to otic ganglion ; tympanitic, to stapedius; chorda tympani, to tongue and mouth; muscular, to occipitostyloid, digastric, stylohyoid and cervical muscles; auricular, to the ear and face. Describe the auditory nerve (eighth pair). Originates in the medulla, below the seventh pair. Leaves the cranial cavity with the seventh pair and is distributed to the internal ear by two branches, the cochlear and the vestibular. Describe the ninth pair of cranial nerves, glossopharyngeal. Originates in the medulla and more deeply in the floor of the fourth ventricle. Leaves the cranial cavity by the posterior fora- men lacerum and is distributed to the back part of the tongue, and pharynx. Branches: Jacobson’s nerve to the tympanum; filaments com- municating with the superior cervical ganglion; carotid and pharyngeal. Give the origin and the distribution of the pneumogastric nerve. The pneumogastric, vagus or tenth pair, originates in the medulla and passes through the posterior lacerated foramen to be distributed to the wsophagus, pharynx, lungs, bronchi, trachea, heart, stomach and intestines. Its principal branches are: 1, superior laryngeal to the mucous membrane of the larynx and crico- thyroid muscle ; 2, inferior laryngeal to all the muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid; 3, bronchial to the bronchi and lungs; 4, esophageal to the esophagus, stomach, liver and solar plexus. 76 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the spinal accessory nerve. The eleventh pair of cranial nerves, spinal accessory, originate along the whole cervical region of the cord, and from the fourth ventricle. It enters the cranium through the foramen magnum and escapes through the foramen lacerum to be distributed to the muscles of the neck and thorax. It gives off the following branches: to the cervical sympathetic, sternomaxillaris, mastoidohumeralis, cervical and dorsal trapezius muscles and motor fibres to the vagus. Describe the hypoglossal or twelfth pair of cranial nerves. Originates in the medulla and leaves the cranium through the condyloid foramen to be distributed to the muscles of the tongue and depressor muscles of the larynx. Describe the formation of the brachial plexus. Formed from the inferior branches of the sixth, seventh and eighth cervical and first and second dorsal spinal nerves. Give the nerve supply of the extensors of the forearm. Radial. What is the nerve supply of the flexors of the forearm? Median. Describe the median nerve. The median nerve arises from the posterior part of the brachial] plexus and a branch from the musculocutaneous. It passes down in front of the humeral artery, along the inner side of the radius to the lower one-third of the same, where it bifurcates into the external and internal plantar. It gives rise to the following branches: To the flexors of the forearm and subcutaneous region of the forearm; the plantars which give off the anterior, middle and posterior digitals at the fetlock and supply the phalangeal region. Give the origin and the distribution of the posterior digital nerve. See answer to preceding question. Originates from the plantars at the fetlock and is distributed to the podophyllous and osseous structures of the foot. Of what is the lumbosacral plexus formed? Last two lumbar and first three sacral spinal nerves. What nerve supplies the following named muscles of the hind limb: gastrocnemius, flexor pedis perforans and flexor pedis per- foratus? Branches of the great sciatic. > erat - ee ee —__ re QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 17 Give the nerve supply of the salivary glands. Parotid: from the facial and inferior maxillary nerves. Submaxillary: from the carotid plexus. Sublingual: from the lingual and carotid plexus. Give the nerve supply of the larynx. Inferior and superior laryngeal from the pneumogastrie. Give the nerve supply of the spleen. Branches from the solar plexus. Give the nerve supply of the stomach. Pneumogastric and solar plexus. What is the nerve supply of the uterus? Branches from the small mesenteric and pelvic plexuses. Describe briefly the sympathetic nervous system. This extensive system, composed of nerves and ganglia, is de- rived from the spinal cord and brain. It consists of two long cords lying under the spinal column, from the head to the tail. From the great number of ganglia along its course, there arise very fine nerves which are distributed to the blood-vessels, viscera and glands. The system is divided into cephalic, cervical, dorsal, lumbar and sacral portions. Ganglia are distributed as follows: cephalic, three on the fifth nerve (see above) ; cervical region, two, superior and inferior caro- tid; dorsal, seventeen below the vertebrocostal articulations (most important is the solar plexus); lumbar, six on the psoas parvus muscle; sacral, four beneath the sacrum. The function of the sympathetic system may be summarized thus: 1, supplies the blood-vessels with constrictor and dilator fibres; 2, supplies the viscera with motor and inhibitory fibres; 3, accelerator fibres to the heart; 4, dilator fibres for the pupil; 5, secretory fibres for sweat, salivary and sebaceous glands; 6, motor fibres to the muscles of the hair; 7, trophic fibres which exercise an effect on the nutrition of a part. DIGESTIVE ORGANS Name the organs of prehension, deglutition and digestion. Prehension: lips, tongue and incisor teeth. Deglutition: hard palate, tongue, pharynx and esophagus. Digestion: salivary glands, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and teeth. 78 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Give the permanent dental formula of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the dog. (a) A acd Total 40. 3-3 1-1 3-3 3-3 ep OO) Be ee. tel ae 44 00 3-3 3-3 3-3 1-1 3-3 3-3 bola ina ae or tare Total 42. Describe an incisor tooth. Pyramidal, flattened from before, backward, with a single fang. Three surfaces, anterior, indented by a slight longitudinal furrow, which is prolonged to the root; a posterior face, rounded from side to side and concave from above downward, and two borders, of which the internal is always thicker than the external; last, a surface of friction, the table. In composition, there are three fundamental substances: the dentin envelops the pulp cavity, the enamel covers the dentin. The enamel is doubled in the external dental cavity, lining it throughout, and when the surface of friction is in wear, a ring of enamel sur- rounds that surface and an internal ring of the same surrounds the infundibulum. The first circle forms what is called the encircling enamel; the second, the central enamel. Over the enamel is a pro- tecting substance, the cementum or crusta petrosa, which disappears soon after the tooth becomes in wear. Give the general arrangement of dentin, enamel and cementum from without, inward, in the following teeth: (a) incisor, (b) canine, (c) molar. (a) Cementum, enamel and dentin. (b) Cement, enamel and dentin. (ec) External cement, external enamel, dentin, internal enamel and internal cement. State the difference between the incisors of the horse and those of the ox. (See description of horse’s incisor above.) In the ox, the incisors are eight in number, all in the lower jaw. They are not fixed in the alveoli, as in the horse, but have a certain degree of mobility. The root is more conical in shape, giving the tooth a shovel-like appearance, the root being the handle. On the middle of the internal face, is a conical eminence, the base of which widens and terminates near the free extremity of the tooth: As age and wear advance, the teeth seem to separate from one another, and in youth they only touch by their extremities. OO QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 79 Describe the appearance of the incisors of the horse at the age of (a) 5 years, (b) Io years. (a) In the lower jaw, the nippers are worn more or less com- pletely. The intermediates are on a level with the nippers and their posterior border is level with the anterior. The corners are lower than the intermediates. There is a notch on the posterior which is lower than the anterior border ; sometimes this notch is very deep and extends down on the posterior face of the tooth. The corners are fresh and well grown out. The dental arches form a regular semicircle from above, downward, and from one side to the other. (b) In the lower jaw, the nippers are rounded. The central enamel is round and small and very near the posterior border. The intermediates are nearly round, while the corners still remain oval. In profile, the arch of the upper and lower teeth from above, down- ward, becomes more angular. Give the dental formula of (a) a six-year-old mare, (b) a seven-year-old cow, (c) a one-year-old dog. At the ages stated, these animals would have all their permanent teeth. 3-3. 0-0 33 3-3 (a) (a ee ae Total 36. (b) 0-0 9-0 3-3 3-3 Total 32. 44 0-0 33 33 3-3 1-1 3-3 33 3-3 Total 42. OD os Si peepiegees v geal) What modifications are seen in the upper and lower molars of the horse and how do these modifications affect decay? The inferior molars are somewhat longer and much more flat- tened than the superior. Their enamel is but a single organ and is not divided into internal and external parts as in the superior molars. In the superior, the two central rings of enamel completely enclose the infundibula. This arrangement renders the upper molars slightly more susceptible to decay because there is greater possibility of the enamel being broken and an opening for micro- organisms being produced, resulting in caries. Describe the tongue. The tongue is a fleshy organ, elongated anteroposteriorly, flat-- tened on each side, and fixed to the os hyoides and inferior maxilla by the muscles forming the basis of its structure, or by the membrane covering it. It lies in the intermaxillary space, extending from the back part of the mouth to the incisor teeth, and rests on a kind of wide sling formed by the two mylohyoidean muscles. The anterior 80 VETERINARY STATE BOARD extremity of the tongue, the free portion, is quite free from the middle of the interdental space to the tip; by its inferior face, it is fixed to the body of the inferior maxilla by a fold of mucous mem- brane, the frenum lingue. The superior surface of the tongue 1s not smooth but is covered with innumerable papilla, which, according to their shape, are termed filiform, fungiform and ecalciform. The blood supply to the tongue is by the lingual and sublingual arteries and the nerve supply by the lingual, ninth and twelfth pairs. Function: concerned in prehension, mastication, deglutition and taste. Name the three principal salivary glands and the duct or ducts of each. Parotid, Steno’s duct; submaxillary, Wharton’s duct; sublin- gual, 15 or 20 ducts (of Rivinus). Describe the pharynx, giving particular attention to its connection with the mouth, nose and ears. The pharynx is a membranous vestibule common to the digestive and air passages, situated behind the soft palate; attached above to the base of the cranium and below to the laryngeal apparatus. It communicates with the mouth through the isthmus of the fauces, with the nose through the posterior nares, and with the middle ear through the guttural pouch and eustachian tube. Describe the cesophagus and give its relations. The cesophagus is an elongated, muscular canal extending from the pharynx to the stomach. It is made up of superficial longi- tudinal and deep circular muscular fibres and is lined internally by mucous membrane. At its upper extremity it is comprised be- tween the guttural pouch and the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles. In the cervical region, superiorly, it lies between the trachea and the longus colli muscles, bordered on the side by the carotid artery, the great sympathetic, pneumogastric and inferior laryngeal nerves; inferiorly, it is related to the trachea, internally, the inferior sca- lenus muscle and the jugular vein, externally. In its thoracic por- tion, it lies along the trachea, passes above the left bronchus, to the right of the thoracic aorta, against the internal face of the lungs. Passing through the diaphragm, it is lodged in a fissure of the liver and terminates in the cardiac opening of the stomach. Name the organs contained in the abdominal cavity. Stomach, large and small intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, kid- neys, ovaries and uterus. at Nite Gettng ng Gall ~ ee ee QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 81 Describe the stomach. The stomach is a muscular sac, situated in the diaphragmatic region between the cesophagus and the duodenum, in which the principal acts of digestion take place. It has a capacity of 3 to 314 gallons and weighs from 3 to 4 pounds. It is elongated, often con- stricted in its middle, and presents an anterior and a posterior face, a great curvature below, to which the great omentum is attached, a lesser curvature above, to which the esophagus and gastrohepatic ligament are attached. In the left extremity is an opening con- tinuous with the csophagus, and the right extremity communicates with the duodenum through the pyloric orifice. Externally, the stomach is covered with a serous coat, the peri- toneum; internally, it is lined with mucous membrane in which are innumerable peptic and mucous glands. The middle coat is mus- cular, the fibres of which run in various directions. Blood supply: gastric, splenic, pyloric, esophageal, right and left gastro-epiploic vessels. Nerves: pneumogastric and solar plexus. o Give the relative capacity of the gastric cavities and intestines in (a) horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog. (a) Stomach small, intestines large. (b) Stomach large, intestines small. (ec) Stomach large, intestines small. (d) Stomach small, intestines large. (e) Stomach small, intestines large. Describe the rumen of the ox. The rumen is a large reservoir which occupies nearly three- fourths of the abdominal cavity. It has a capacity of 45 to 50 gallons. Elongated from before, behind, it presents two surfaces, superior and inferior, an anterior and posterior extremity and a right and left border. By its superior surface, it is in contact with the intestines and its opposite face lies on the inferior abdominal wall. Its left border, supporting the spleen, extends to the highest part of the flank and sublumbar region. The right border lies against the abomasum. The anterior extremity lies close to the diaphragm and receives the insertion of the esophagus. The posterior extremity occupies the entrance to the pelvic cavity. Interiorly, the rumen is divided by two septa, muscular pillars, into a right and left sac. The rumen has three coats: outer serous, middle muscular and inner mucous. The mucous coat has innumerable papille similar 6 82 VETERINARY STATE BOARD to those on the tongue. Two openings, one into the csophagus, the other into the reticulum, are close together. Describe the internal surface of the recticulum of the ox. It is divided by ridges of the mucous membrane into polyhedral cells which look like honeycomb. In the centres of the cells and deeply situated are conical papille. Name some of the synonyms for the omasum and give the reason for these names. Manyplus, manyplies, many-leaves and psalterium. So named because of the peculiar arrangement of the mucous membrane, which is disposed into 25 to 30 unequally developed leaves, arranged longitudinally, adherent to the great curvature and free on the border turned toward the lesser curvature. This arrange- ment gives the opened organ an appearance not unlike that of an open book. Describe the arrangement of the mucous membrane in the first, second, third and fourth stomachs of the ox. See answers to three preceding questions. The mucous mem- brane of the fourth stomach is practically the same as in the horse, g.v. Give the length of the intestines of (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. (a) 100 feet; (b) 180 feet; (c) 14 feet. Describe the small intestine and name its divisions. The small intestine, a tube 75 feet in length, begins at the pyloric orifice of the stomach, turns transversely to the left, forms numerous folds, being suspended in the mesentery (a fold of the peritoneum), and terminates in the eecum in the right hypochondriac region. The diameter of the tube is variable in different portions and in all por- tions depends upon the contraction of the muscular tunic, but aver- ages 1 to 134 inches. Three coats: outer serous, middle muscular, and inner mucous. Blood supply by the great mesenteric and cceliac axis. Nerves from the solar plexus. Divisions: duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Describe the double (fixed) colon. The double colon begins at the excum, passes forward, then bends backward and to the left, forming the suprasternal curvature, lying above the sternum, then backward and turning again to form the pelvic flexure, then runs forward to the diaphragm, forming QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 83 the diaphragmatic flexure, then passes back with the first portion to terminate in the small (floating) colon. Throughout its length, it is traversed by from 1 to 4 longitudinal, muscular bands which hold the transverse folds in position. It is made up of three coats: outer serous, middle muscular and inner mucous. Length, 10-13 feet. Capacity, 18 gallons. Blood supply, two colic arteries. Nerves, sympathetic. What is the difference between the czecum of the horse and that of the ox? In the horse, there are four longitudinal muscular bands which are absent in the ox, hence in the latter the bulgings seen in the horse do not appear. Describe the ileoczcal valve and give its function. It is formed by the projection of the ileum into the cecum and is formed by a circular mucous fold, strengthened externally by muscular fibres. Situated on the inferior face of the cecum. Function: by acting as a sort of check-valve, probably aids the onward movements of the intestinal contents. What is the capacity of the cecum? Seven and a half gallons. Describe the liver. The liver is a glandular viscus, situated in the abdominal cavity to the right of the diaphragmatic region. Its average weight is eleven pounds. Flattened before and behind and indented at its borders, the organ is divided into three principal lobes and presents two surfaces and a border for study. The anterior face, applied against the diaphragm, is channelled by a deep fissure for the posterior cava. The posterior surface also has a fissure for the passage of the portal vein and vessels. In the superior border is a notch for the esophagus. Several smaller fis- sures are observed, one dividing the right and left lobes and small ones dividing the middle lobe into lobules. The four lobes are: left (the largest), right, spigelian or caudate, and middle. The liver is held in place by five ligaments, viz. : 1. Anterior or coronary, from the fissure for the cava to the phrenic centre. 2. One from the left lobe to the sides of the cesophageal orifice. 3. One from the right lobe to the sublumbar wall. 4, Broad or suspensory, from the middle lobe to the inferior abdominal wall and lower part of the diaphragm. 84 VETERINARY STATE BOARD 5. Round, a fetal remnant, from the middle lobe to the umbilicus. The external serous coat covers the true capsule (Glisson’s) which is of fibrous tissue. Hepatic ducts, originating within the liver parenchyma, unite to form the ductus choledochus, or great bile duct, which empties into the duodenum. Blood supply: functional, portal vein; nutritive, hepatic artery. Nerve supply: sympathetic, vagus and phrenic. Name the lobes of the liver. Three principal lobes are right, left and middle. The right lobe has a small secondary lobe attached to it, the lobus Spigelii, or caudate lobe. Describe and give the relations of the pancreas. This organ, sometimes called the abdominal salivary gland, be- cause of its resemblance to the salivary glands in structure, is situated in the sublumbar region, across the aorta and post cava, in front of the kidneys and behind the liver and stomach. Its weight is seventeen ounces. In form, it is elongated, triangular and curved on itself. It has two surfaces, superior and inferior, two borders, anterior and posterior, and two extremities, a right or head and a left or tail. The posterior border is notched for the portal vein to pass through. Two ducts, duct of Wirsung, the principal, runs along the an- terior border from the left to the right side and opens into the duodenum in common with the bile duct; an accessory duct opens alone after receiving several branches. Blood supply: hepatic and great mesenteric. Nerve supply: solar plexus. State the difference in the relation of the biliary and pancreatic ducts in (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the goat, and (e) the pig. (a) Open in common into the duodenum. (b) Two separate openings into the duodenum. (c) Open in common into the duodenum. (d) Open in common into the duodenum. (e) Two separate openings into the duodenum. Describe the peritoneum and give its relation. The peritoneum is a serous membrane composed of a parietal and a visceral layer which together form a closed sac, so arranged that the organs contained in the abdominal cavity are enveloped by, but are external to, it. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 85 In its various folds and duplicatures, it forms ligaments, mesen- teries and omenta as follows: falciform ligament from the umbilicus to the middle lobe of the liver; the common ligament of the liver which surrounds the posterior vena cava; the cardiac ligament that envelops the termination of the esophagus; the gastrohepatie liga- ment or omentum attaches the stomach to the posterior fissure of the liver and separates at the lesser curvature of the stomach to envelop the same, joining again at its greater curvature. This fold is called the great omentum and also the gastrocolic omentum, because by its posterior border it is extended around the termination of the large colon. A reflection from the stomach to the spleen is called the gastrosplenic omentum. Behind the stomach, there is a small opening in the great omentum, which communicates with the peri- toneal cavity, called the foramen of Winslow. Posteriorly, the great omentum is continued as the mesentery proper, being reflected over the small and large intestines, forming their mesenteries, the ligaments of the bladder, broad ligaments of the uterus, and then from the rectum and front of the bladder is reflected to the superior and inferior abdominal wall, forming the parietal layers. The in- ferior parietal layer continues forward, descends into the scrotum through the inguinal canal to envelop the testicles, and is continued forward to form the suspensory ligament of the liver. The superior parietal layer passes beneath the kidney, forms the mesenteries and is continued to the diaphragm. RESPIRATORY ORGANS Name the sinuses of the head. The sinuses of the head are arranged in pairs, five on each side as follows: the frontal, supermaxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal and inferior maxillary. Compare the frontal sinus of the ox with that of the horse as nist position, structure and size. In the ox, the frontal sinuses are prolonged into the horn cores and into the parietal and occipital bones. They envelop the anterior and superior part of the cranium and form a double wall to this cavity. They are, therefore, much larger and situated more supe- riorly than in the horse. In the horse, the sinus communicates with the superior maxillary sinus by a vast opening in the thin bony partition, but in the ox, no such communication exists. Describe the larynx. The larynx is a cartilaginous box, situated in the intermaxillary space between the two corona of the os hyoides and fixed to these 86 VETERINARY STATE BOARD appendages by one of its constituent pieces, the thyroid cartilage. Its anterior opening is at the bottom of the pharynx, its posterior is continuous with the trachea. In structure, it is comprised of five cartilages, viz., three single, ericoid, thyroid and epiglottis, and one pair, the arytenoids. The muscles which either move the whole organ or its cartilages upon one another are: three extrinsic, the sternothyroideus, hyothy- roideus and the hyo-epiglottideus; five intrinsic, cricothyroid, pos- terior crico-arytenoideus, lateral crico-arytenoid, thyro-arytenoid and arytenoideus. All of these muscles are pairs, except the hyo- epiglottideus and arytenoideus. Internally, the larynx is lined with mucous membrane and is marked on each side by the elastic structure known as the vocal cords. Blood supply: laryngeal arteries. Nerve supply: superior and inferior laryngeal. Function: an air passage and organ of phonation. Name the cartilages of the larynx. See answer to preceding question. Describe the guttural pouch and give its function. Two in number, one on each side, the guttural pouches are elon- gated cavities, communicating with the pharynx and lying on its sides. In reality, a dilatation of the eustachian tube, these two pouches lie against each other in the median plane; externally, they are related to the carotid artery and parotid gland. Before and behind, they extend from the anterior part of the pharynx to the inferior face of the atlas. Capacity, about three-quarters of a pint. Function: probably connected with hearing and phonation in some way. Describe the trachea and give its relations. The trachea is a long, flexible, elastic, cylindrical tube, composed of a series of about fifty incomplete cartilaginous rings that succeed the ericoid cartilage of the larynx and terminate above the base of the heart by bifureating into the two bronchi. The rings are united by fibrous tissue. Relations: In its cervical portion, surrounded by muscles of this region—sternohyoid and sternothyroid, in front; the sternomaxil- laris muscles are situated in front in the inferior part but on the sides near their termination; the subscapulohyoideii are placed above and in the middle of the lateral parts; the scaleni are below and at the sides; the longus colli, behind. The esophagus descends ee nos Coe P QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 87 at first in the middle of the posterior face, then to the left side of the trachea. The carotid arteries, the pneumogastric, great sym- pathetic and recurrent nerves pass along both sides of the tube. In the thoracic portion, the trachea is related superiorly to the longus colli muscle and the esophagus; below to the brachial vessels, the anterior aorta, anterior vena cava, the cardiae and recurrent nerves, and to the left auricle of the heart; laterally it is in contact with the inferior cervical ganglia of the great sympathetic, the vertebral vessels and the two layers of the anterior mediastinum, vena azygos, aorta and thoracic duct. Describe the thoracic cavity. Name the organs that are contained in this cavity. The thoracic cavity is a bony cage, representing a hollow cone placed horizontally, depressed on its sides, apex forward and base formed by the diaphragm, posteriorly. Boundaries: in front, the first ribs and longus colli muscle; be- hind, the diaphragm; superiorly, the vertebre, ribs and longus colli muscle; inferiorly, the sternum, costal cartilages and the triangu- laris sterni muscle; laterally, the ribs and deep intercostal muscles. Its internal face is covered with a serous membrane, the pleura. It contains the following organs: heart and great vessels, lungs, trachea, cesophagus, thoracic duct and lymphatic glands. Function: Receptacle for the contained organs; its movements are of primary importance in the act of respiration. Compare the thoracic cavity of the horse with that of the ox. In the ox, the thorax is not so long, particularly in its superior part, as in the horse, because the diaphragm is situated less obliquely and its attachment to the ribs is more anterior. Its total capacity is less than in the horse. Give the number of pulmonary lobes in (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog. (a) 5; (b) 6; (ce) 6; (d) 6; (e) 7. Describe the lungs of the horse. The lungs, the essential organs of respiration, are situated in the thoracic cavity, surrounding the heart, and enveloped by a serous membrane, the pleura. Divided into two lateral halves, the lungs are considered as two parts, right and left, which, in contour, correspond to the thoracic cavity which they practically fill. Each half is cone-shaped and has: an external face lying against the ribs; an internal face, forming the side of the mediastinum which presents an excavation 88 VETERINARY STATE BOARD in which the heart is lodged, and behind this is the root of the lung, formed by the bronchi, blood-vessels and nerves entering the struc- ture, also a fold of the pleura, ligamentum latum pulmonalis, which is attached to the mediastinum and posterior face of the diaphragm ; a base or diaphragmatic face, concave and in contact with the dia- phragm, showing a notch for the posterior vena caya; an apex or summit, situated behind the first rib, forms the anterior lobe; a superior border, thick and convex, rests in the vertebrocostal chan- nel or concavity ; an inferior, shorter and thinner, is notched deeply for the heart. The right lung has three lobes, an anterior, middle and posterior ; the left, two, an anterior and posterior. The lung substance is pink-colored, soft, spongy and elastic tis- sue; it is divided into lobules which are further subdivided into alveoli and air-cells that communicate with bronchioles, the sub- divisions of bronchil. Blood supply: nutrient, bronchial arteries; functional, pul- monary arteries. Nerve supply: pneumogastric and sympathetic. Describe the different reflections of the pleura and state the different structures to which they are respectively applied. 1. Costal pleura is applied to the internal face of the ribs and internal intercostal muscles. 2. Diaphragmatic pleura, a continuation of the costal, is adher- ent to the diaphragm. 3. Mediastinal pleura separates the two lateral halves of the lungs. It is applied against the internal face of each half and eom- prises between its two layers the heart. The portion in front of the heart is called the anterior mediastinum, and that behind, the pos- terior mediastinum. The anterior mediastinum contains the trachea, esophagus, an- terior aorta and its divisions, anterior vena cava, thoracic duct, and the cardiac, pneumogastric, recurrent and phrenic nerves. In the foetus and very young animals, it also contains the thymus glands. The posterior mediastinum is traversed by the posterior aorta, . vena azygos, thoracic duct, cesophagus and nerves. 4. Pulmonary or visceral pleura, a continuation of the medias- tinal, completely envelops the lung-tissue proper. Give the relative thickness of the mediastinum in horses and in cattle, and state how this affects conditions in unilateral pleurisy. In its inferior part, the posterior mediastinum of the horse is very thin and perforated by small openings; whereas, in cattle, it is - 92 eS epriai Pr eswes-<:. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 89 not open but is thick and solid there as elsewhere. A case of unilat- eral pleurisy in the horse tends to become bilateral because the effusion, and hence the infection, can readily pass from one side to the other. In cattle, localization of the disease in one side is possible. URINARY ORGANS Describe the kidney. The kidneys, two in number, are situated in the right and left sublumbar region, against the psoas muscles, usually imbedded in fat, and supported beneath by the peritoneum. The right kidney is heart-shaped and more anterior than the left, which is bean- shaped. Each kidney has a superior and inferior flattened surface, an external convex border and an internal concave one which is deeply notched, the hilum. In the hilum, the blood-vessels, nerves and beginning of the ureter are lodged. Inside, at the hilum, is a cavity, the pelvis, into which the uriniferous tubules empty and which is the beginning of the ureter. The kidney is encapsulated by a fibrous coat which sends pro- longations into its substance. The tissue proper of the kidney is divided into an external or cortical layer and an internal or medul- lary layer. The cortical layer contains the malpighian corpuscles and the medullary layer contains the uriniferous tubules. Blood supply: renal artery. Nerve supply: branches from the solar plexus. . Function: secretion of urine. Compare the kidney of the horse with that of the ox. In the ox, the kidneys are more elongated from before to behind, and are divided into 15 to 20 lobules, the structures of which are comported like so many separate kidneys. Describe the ureters. The ureters, two in number, are membranous canals, beginning at the pelvis of the kidney and running backward and downward to the upper face of the bladder, which they enter in an oblique direc- tion. Size, about 14 inch in diameter. Structure consists of an external fibrous coat, a middle muscular and an internal mucous. Function: to convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Describe the urinary bladder. The bladder is a muscular bag, situated in the inferior part of the pelvie cavity, and has three openings, viz., the openings of the two ureters and the beginning of the urethra. Its structure is 90 VETERINARY STATE BOARD principally muscular tissue and is lined with mucous membrane made up of stratified epithelium. Its anterior half is covered with peritoneum. Related above to the uterus and vagina in the female, and to the seminal vesicles and rectum in the male. Blood supply: internal pudic and umbilical arteries. Nerve supply: pelvic plexus. Function: receptacle for urine until conditions are satisfactory for its expulsion. Compare the urethra of the horse with that of the ox. In the ox, the urethra conforms with the bend of the penis in front of the pubis, by making an S-shaped curve. Its diameter diminishes from its commencement to its termination. The latter is not prolonged by an urethral tube, as in the horse. Near the ischial arch, the urethra of the ox shows a valve which covers a cul-de-sac about one inch deep. This is not present in the horse. The walls of the urethra in the ox are thicker than in the horse and are provided with a sphincter muscle and erectile tissue. What is the length of the urethra in the mare? It is very short, less than one inch. SEXUAL ORGANS Describe the ovaries of the mare and state how they differ from those of the cow. The ovaries, two in number, situated in the right and left sub- lumbar regions, are small, ovoid bodies with a deep notch or hilus on their upper surface, which gives attachment to the pavilion of the oviduct. Each ovary floats at the anterior border of the broad liga- ment and is attached to the uterus by vessels and the utero-ovarian ligament. Externally, they are covered by serous membrane, under- neath which is the tunica albuginea, a fibrous covering. In the cow, the ovaries are relatively much smaller than in the mare, but in form and structure are the same. Describe the uterus of the mare. Give distinctive features of the uterus of the cow and bitch. The uterus of the mare is a hollow, muscular sac, situated in the abdominal cavity in the sublumbar region. Its posterior extremity extends to or within the anterior opening of the pelvic cavity. It is comprised of a body, constituting the greater bulk, which is continued anteriorly by a slight bifurcation into the two cornua. = PO wt Se QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 91 Posteriorly, it is separated from the vagina by a constriction, the cervix or neck. Relations: Above, to the rectum; below, with the bladder; an- teriorly and laterally with the intestines; behind, with the vagina. Attachments: Two broad ligaments, descending from the sub- - lumbar region to the sides of the uterus and cornua; two rudimen- tary, round ligaments, from the sides of the uterus to the upper inguinal ring. Openings: One small opening in each cornua, from the oviducts ; os uteri, opening into the vagina. Structure: Outer serous coat, middle muscular, and inner mucous. Blood supply: Uterine and utero-ovarian vessels. Nerve supply: Mesenteric and pelvic plexuses. Function: The sac in which the embryo is developed. In the cow, the concave curvature of the cornua looks down- ward, instead of upward, as in the mare. The body is shorter and narrower and the cornua are thinner and more tapering than in the mare. The interior is studded with numerous tubercles, cotyledons. The cervix is longer and the muscular coat thicker. In the bitch, the body of the uterus is short and the cornua are very long and folded, floating amongst the intestines. Its cervix projects into the vagina and is even more voluminous than the body. Mention the ligaments of the uterus. Broad ligament, round ligament, and utero-ovarian ligament. Describe the vagina. The vagina is a long, membranous canal, situated in the pelvic cavity, succeeding the uterus and terminating in the vulva. It is made up of an inner mucous coat, a middle muscular, and its an- terior part is covered with peritoneum. It is related above with the rectum; laterally, with the ureters and connective tissue; below with the bladder. Blood supply: Internal pudiec artery. Nerve supply: Pelvic plexus. Function: Copulation and passage of the fetus. Describe the mammary gland of the cow. The mammary gland of the cow, situated in the inguinal region, is made up of two lateral halves, each of which is composed of two distinct glands. The whole mass is enclosed by a fibrous capsule. 92 VETERINARY STATE BOARD In the centre of each quarter is a prolongation, the teat or nipple, which is pierced at its extremity by a small orifice, the opening of the teat duct. The teat duct or canal traverses the teat and opens superiorly into the galactophorus sinus or reservoir at the base of the teat. Externally, the organ is covered with skin which, together with ligamentous, elastic bands attached to the abdominal tunic, fixes it in position. Internally, the organ is made up of glandular, adipose and connective tissue. Blood supply: External pudie. Nerve supply: First lumbar pair. Describe the mammary glands of the bitch. The mammary glands of the bitch are ten in number, five on each side, situated along the ventral surface of the body from the inguinal to the axillary region. Each teat has from eight to ten orifices. Describe the genital organs of the cow. The genital organs of the cow include the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and mammary gland. For description of same, see preceding questions. Name the coverings of the testicles. From without, inward: scrotum, dartos, cremaster, fibrous tunic and tunica vaginalis. Of what structures is the spermatic cord composed? Vas deferens, spermatic artery, spermatic vein, nerves of sym- pathetic origin, cremaster muscle and peritoneum. Define the following: epididymis, vas deferens, globus major, vesiculz seminales, prostate gland, clitoris and vulva. Epididymis is an elongated duct, placed against the upper bor- der and outside of the testicle, arising from the vas efferentia and also called the head of the epididymis. Vas deferens is an elongated canal, beginning at the epididymis and ending at the seminal vesicles, through which spermatozoa pass. Globus major is the enlarged anterior part of the epididymis; also called the head of the epididymis. Vesiculz seminales are two elongated pouches in which the semen is stored, situated above the neck of the bladder. The prostate gland is situated at the commencement of the urethra around the neck of the bladder. It secretes a viscid fiuid, which it pours forth into the urethra through several orifices. . ; ; QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 93 The clitoris is a small body, two to three inches long, situated in the inferior commissure of the vulva. It is composed of erectile tissue. The vulva is the slit-like orifice of the female genitalia and is situated in the perineal region below the anus. ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE Describe the eyeball. The eyeball, which lies in the fat of the orbit, is a spherical- shaped shell, consisting of three tunics surrounding the humors. It is slightly bulged in front (the cornea), making the antero- posterior, the longest diameter. The tunics of the eye are, outer sclerotic and cornea, middle choroid and iris, and inner retina. The sclerotic is a white, dense membrane, forming about four- fifths of the external shell, into which the muscles are inserted. It is continued in front as the cornea, a transparent membrane which constitutes the remaining one-fifth of the outer tunic. Posteriorly; the sclera has an opening for the passage of the optic and ciliary nerves and the central artery. The choroid, the middle layer, is a thin, brownish, vascular membrane. It is continued anteriorly as the iris, a circular curtain with a central opening, the pupil. This curtain is governed by the ciliary muscle which unites the iris to the sclera. The retina, or internal layer, is the thinnest and most delicate. It is the expansion of the optic nerve and adheres closely to the choroid, ending anteriorly in a number of folds, the zone of Zinn. Although very thin, the retina is composed of connective tissue and nerve elements, arranged in nine or ten superposed layers. The crystalline lens is a double convex lens of concentric layers, with an external capsule. It is situated in the anterior one-third of the eye, behind the pupil. Back of the lens, filling the space bounded by the retina, is a gelatinous fiuid, the vitreous humor, and anterior to the lens is the aqueous humor, which entirely fills the anterior and posterior chamber, the space between the cornea, pupil and iris. The eyeball is freely movable in various directions, the move- ments being controlled by seven muscles: five recti and two oblique, all of which attach to the sclera. Describe the cornea. The cornea is a transparent membrane which constitutes the anterior one-fifth of the outer covering of the eyeball. It is shaped like a watch glass with its convexity forward, and is composed of 94 VETERINARY STATE BOARD three layers. The anterior layer is epithelial in character and is a continuation of the conjunctiva. The middle is composed of con- nective tissue and the internal layer, elastic in structure, is called Descemet’s membrane. 7 5 Name the tunics of the eyeball. Describe one. See answer to preceding questions. Describe the membrana nictitans and give its use. The membrana nictitans, also called the third eyelid, is placed at the greater angle of the eye, whence it extends over the eyeball to remove foreign bodies from the cornea. It is made up of fibro- cartilage, triangular in shape, thick anteriorly and thick at its base, where it is continued by an adipose cushion which is insinuated be- tween the muscles of the eye. It moves, almost instantaneously and in a mechanical manner, over the eye, whenever the eyeball is retracted in the orbit. Describe the lachrymal apparatus of the horse and compare it with that of the ox. The lachrymal apparatus consists of the lachrymal gland, puncta lachrymalia, lachrymal sae and lachrymal canal. The lachrymal gland is conglomerate, situated between the orbi- tal process and the upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears which empty on the inner surface of the upper lid. After lubri- cating the cornea and conjunctiva, the excess of tears enter the puncta lachrymalia, two small canals in the upper and lower lids, which carry the tears into the lachrymal sac, a small reservoir, the beginning of the lachrymal canal. The latter runs down in the lachrymal bone as a membranous canal, ending on the floor of the nostril. In the ox, the lachrymal gland is much more voluminous than in the horse; it has two large and several small ducts, and the nasal opening is situated higher in the nostril than in the hoxse. Describe the humors of the eye. The vitreous humor occupies all the cavity of the eye, behind the lens, surrounded by the retina. It is a colorless, transparent, jelly- like tissue which concurs in refracting the rays of light and at the same time acts as a supporting substance by maintaining the rotundity of the eyeball. The aqueous humor is more fluid than the vitreous, containing only 2 per cent. solids. It occupies the anterior and posterior cham- ber of the eye in front of the lens and is secreted by Descemet’s QUESTIONS ‘AND ANSWERS 95 membrane. It serves to maintain the convexity of the cornea and assists in refracting the rays of light. Describe the Eustachian tube and state its function. The Eustachian tube is a fibrocartilaginous canal, about four inches long, extending from the middle ear to the pharynx. Its upper orifice is narrow, but the inferior is widened by a great slit, the borders of which are cartilaginous in structure. Its inferior border is cleft, allowing the mucous membrane to escape in the form of a large sac, known as the guttural pouch. It is bordered by the stylopharyngeus muscle. Function: maintains the equilibrium of air within the cavity of the tympanum. Describe the membrana tympani. The membrani tympani, or ear-drum, is a thin membrane which separates the middle ear from the auditory canal; oval in shape and is attached by its circumference to a bony frame, the tympanitic circle. Its inner face is slightly convex and is adherent to the handle of the malleus. Although very thin, it consists of three layers, a middle fibrous and muscular, an external of skin, and an internal of mucous membrane. The function of this drum-like membrane is to receive the vibra- tions of the sound waves and transmit them to the internal ear. SEIN, Hair anp Hoor Name the appendages of the skin. Hair, sweat-glands, sebaceous glands and horny parts (chest- nut, ergot and hoof and, in ruminants, horns). Describe the different structures that make up the elastic cushion of the heel. These consist of two fibrocartilages and the plantar cushion. The cartilages, two in number, are flattened plates, shaped like an oblique-angled parallelogram. They are attached in front to the anterior lateral ligament, behind to the basilar and retrossal processes and plantar cushion; they have a thin upper border and a thick lower. The upper border is notched for the passage of vessels and nerves. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass, situated between the lateral cartilages, the perforans tendon and the lower part of the hoof. Superiorly, it lies against the expansion of the perforans tendon and is attached by ligamentous bands to the ergot, meta- carpus and os pedis. Inferiorly, it is covered by the keratogenous 96 VETERINARY STATE BOARD membrane and presents at its middle the pyramidal body which corresponds to the frog. Its base terminates in two lateral masses, the bulbs of the plantar cushion. Its summit attaches to the plantar surface of the os pedis and on each side it is attached to the lateral cartilages. In structure, it is composed of fibrous, elastic and adi- pose tissue, and contains vessels and nerves. Describe the coronary cushion. The coronary cushion is the matrix of the wall of the hoof. It is lodged in a cavity at the upper border of this horny case. Its inferior border is separated from the upper extremity of the lamine by a white ring. Its superior border is limited by the perioplic ring. The extremities are narrow and end in the velvety tissue of the plantar cushion. In structure it is a modified skin made up of a fibrous framework. What is the keratogenous membrane? This is the secreting structure of the horny foot. It envelops the extremity of the digit and is covered by the hoof. It consists of the coronary cushion (see preceding question), velvety and lam- inal tissue. The velvety tissue covers the plantar surface of the os pedis and plantar cushion. The laminal tissue consists of 500 to 600 leaves, on the front and sides of the os pedis, which dovetail with the leaves on the inside of the hoof wall. Describe minutely the mode of connection of the hoof wall with the pedal bone and state how the weight of the animal is sup- ported by the hoof. The os pedis is covered on the front and side by the laminal tissue (see preceding question). This tissue consists of five to six hundred parallel leaves, running from above, downward. On the inner side of the hoof wall, there are analogous leaves, keraphyllous tissue, which dovetail with these. The weight of the body is supported by the hoof wall and bars through the intimate union of the horny and sensitive lamine. The sole of the foot is slightly convex upward, thus making an arch-like support. The frog, through the medium of the plantar cushion and lateral cartilages, receives a share of the weight and the wall the balance. DucTLEss GLANDS Mention the ductless glands and state where they are located. Spleen, adrenals, pituitary gland, thyroid and thymus. The adrenals, two in number, lie on the under and inner side of the kidneys, in front of the hilus. a YP wes we QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 97 The spleen is situated in the diaphragmatic and left hypochon- driac regions, and suspended from the sublumbar. The pituitary gland is situated near the third ventricle of the brain, being attached to the interpeduncular fissure by the pituitary stem. The thyroid gland lies in the neck beside the first two tracheal rings. The thymus lies under the lower face of the trachea, partly with- out and partly within the chest in the foetus and very young animals. Describe the spleen, The spleen is a falciform-shaped organ, situated in the dia- phragmatie and left hyponchondriac region. It has an external convex and an internal concave face; a convex posterior border and a concave and sharp anterior border. The superior extremity, the base, is broad, and the inferior extremity is pointed. It is held in position by a suspensory ligament from the sublumbar region and. kidney to its base, and the gastrosplenic omentum which envelops the whole organ. It is covered with peritoneum and has a thick, strong, fibrous coat which sends prolongations, or trabecule, into the interior. The tissue of the spleen is made up of pulp, a reddish material, com- posed of pigment, broken-down corpuscles and Malpighian cor- puscles, small rounded bodies of lymphoid structure which are covered by the outer tunic of the small arteries. Blood supply: Splenic artery. Nerve supply: Solar plexus. State the difference between the spleen of the horse and that of the ox. (See answer to preceding question.) In the ox, the spleen is not supported by the great omentum, but adheres to the left side of the rumen and diaphragm. It is not falciform, and the breadth is the same throughout its extent. Apart from the disease microbe, what anatomic arrangement favors the Sanguineous engorgement of the spleen in anthrax and Texas fever of animals and in malaria in man? The capsule, the sheaths of the vessels and the trabecule consist of a dense mesh of white and yellow elastic fibrous tissue which gives it a great amount of elasticity. Describe the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland lies on the sides of the first two tracheal rings. It is composed of two lateral lobes and a median portion, the isthmus. 7 98 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Its fibrous coat sends prolongations into its structure, as in the spleen. Its parenchyma is divided into lobules which contain vesi- cles, lined with polygonal cells, and contains albuminous matter. It is a very vascular organ, receiving its supply from the thyro- laryngeal branch of the carotid artery. Nerve supply from the first and second cervical and sympathetic. What is the thymus gland? Where is it found? It is a transitory organ which is found only in the fetus and very young animals, and disappears a few months after birth. In structure, it closely resembles the thyroid gland. It is situated beneath the trachea, partly without and partly within the thoracic cavity. What are the adrenals? Give location. The adrenals, or suprarenals, are two small bodies which resem- ble somewhat the kidney in structure. They are applied to the lower face of the kidney in front of the hilus and close to their inner border. They have no excretory duct but have an internal secretion. TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY What structures are severed in tracheotomy? The skin, connective tissue, the cervical panniculus and sterno- thyrohyoideus muscles and the trachea. State the difference between the foramen ovale and the foramen magnum. The foramen ovale is the opening between the auricles of the heart, seen in the fcetus. The foramen magnum is the large orifice that passes through the occipital bone and establishes a communication between the cranial cavity and the spinal canal. Name the structures that would be severed in amputating the hind limb just below the tarsus. Skin, subcutaneous fascia, flexor pedis perforans and flexor pedis perforatus tendons, the tendon of the oblique flexor of the meta- tarsus, the anterior extensor of the phalanges, the lateral extensor of the phalanges, the sheaths of these tendons, the plantar arteries, the perforating pedal artery, the internal and external plantar interosseous arteries, the accompanying veins of these arteries, two rudimentary and one principal metatarsal bones. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 99 Name the regions into which the abdominal cavity is divided for study. Sublumbar, right and left lumbar, suprasternal, umbilical, pre- pubic, right and left inguinal, hypochondriae, flank, diaphragmatic and pelvic regions. At what point in the head would you trephine to open (a) the frontal } sinus, (b) the lower maxillary sinus? (a) At the point of intersection of a line connecting the superior borders of the orbital cavities and one parallel to, but about one-half inch from, the median line. (b) Just above the inferior extremity of the zygomatic ridge. Through what tissues do you cut in the operation of median neurec- tomy ? Skin, sterno-aponeuroticus muscle and antibrachial fascia. HisTotocicAL ANATOMY Describe (a) arteries, (b) veins, (c) nerves. (a) The arteries are cylindrical tubes which carry the blood from the heart to the various organs of the body. All arteries carry pure blood-with one exception, the pulmonary artery. They originate at the heart by two great trunks which divide and subdivide until their size is almost imperceptible (capillaries). Arteries are more or less rigid and elastic and have three tunics, viz., an external fibrous (tunica adventitia), a middle (tunica media), and an internal (tunica intima). The outer coat is nourished by small blood-vessels, called vaso- vasorum, which are quite voluminous in the large arteries. Nerves, vasomotor, from the sympathetic system accompany these vessels. (b) The veins are likewise cylindrical tubes which accompany the arteries and carry the impure blood from the distant parts to the heart; with one exception, the pulmonary veins which carry pure blood from the lungs to the left auricle. They have two distinct coats, an internal serous and an external of elastic and muscular fibres. The walls of veins are thin, semitransparent and elastic and collapse when empty. Nourishment is provided by vaso- vasorum. The interior of veins is remarkable for the presence of valves which favor the flow of blood. No valves are found in the pul- monary and portal veins and vena cava. (ce) The nerves are the peripheral portions of the nervous sys- tem. They originate in the brain or cord and are distributed to every part of the body. Their structure is made up of a collection 100 VETERINARY STATE BOARD of nerve cells bound together by a delicate connective-tissue net- work; a number of these collections, united together and covered by neurilemma, constitute a nerve. Blood-vessels traverse the connective tissue. On the upper root of all the spinal and on the track of certain other nerves are masses of nerve e¢ells, ganglia. The function of nerves is to conduct impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord. Describe the structure of voluntary muscle. Voluntary muscle is made up of a great number of fibres which are marked by transverse furrows or striz, giving rise to the term striated or striped muscle. Each fibre is made up of fibrils and these in turn ean be subdivided into fibrille or sarecous elements, attached to each other end to end. The muscle fibres unite to form secondary fasciculi which are covered by a connective sheath, the internal perimysium. The secondary fasciculi unite to form more voluminous fasciculi which form the entire muscle. The muscle is covered by a connective sheath, called the external perimysium or sarcolemma. The nuclei are flat or oval and can be seen on the inner face of the sarcolemma. State the difference in structure between striped muscular tissue and unstriped muscular tissue. (See answer to preceding question.) Unstriped muscular tissue has no transverse strie and is found in the viscera. It is not under control of the will, hence is called involuntary. Its structure con- sists of fusiform cells, each with a distinct nucleus and bound together by connective tissue. j Illustrate the difference between mucous membrane and serous mem- brane as to (a) structure and (b) location. (a) Both membranes have two layers, the deeper of which are quite analogous. In mucous membrane, the superficial layer may consist of epithelial cells only one layer deep, but usually there are several layers (stratified). Cilia, hair-like appendages, are seen on the surface of mucous membranes in some parts of the body, as well as depressions in the deeper layer, giving rise to follicles and papille. In serous membranes, the superficial layer always consists of flat polygonal epithelial cells, one layer deep. The free surface is always smooth. (b) Mucous membrane is found throughout the inner walls of the alimentary canal, respiratory channels, bladder, urethra and vagina. Serous membrane is found within the thoracic cavity, QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 101 jining the same and covering the enclosed viscera, as well as in the abdominal cavity, where it is disposed in a similar manner. Mention the varieties of connective tissue. Fibrous, elastic, cartilaginous and bone. Describe the composition of blood. Blood contains: liquor sanguinis or plasma, containing in solu- tion proteids (serum-albumin, serum-globulin, fibrinogen), extrac- tives, mineral matter and gases; corpuscles, red and white. ‘Name the structures and coverings of the kidneys, from without inward to the pelvis and the opening of the ureter. 1, Capsule; 2, cortex, composed of Malpighian bodies, support- ing connective tissue, vessels and tubules, ete.; 3, medulla, composed of uriniferous tubules (loop of Henle, convoluted and straight tubules) ; 4, crest of the pelvis, pelvis; 5, infundibulum of the pelvis and ureter. Where is elastic fibrous tissue found? It is found closely packed in certain organs such as the ligamen- tum nuche and abdominal tunic, or forming a network in the midst of connective tissue, as in the walls of arteries. It is also found in the framework of bone. Name the different kinds of epithelium. State where ciliated epithelium is found and give its special function. Kinds: squamous, columnar, modified and sneaaieeds Columnar and squamous varieties are polyhedral, pavement, or tessellated and may be either simple or stratified. Modified epi-: thelium includes the ciliated, goblet and pigmented varieties. Specialized includes glandular and neuro-epithelium. Ciliated epithelium is found in the Eustachian tube and parts of the tympanic cavity ; lachrymal passages; respiratory part of the nasal fosse, with the communicating sinuses; ventricles of the larynx; trachea and bronchi; epididymis and first part of the vas deferens, PHYSIOLOGY * What does the study of physiology comprise? The sum of the knowledge concerning the function of living things. Explain the force of the following: “ Physiology is the study of the properties of cells.” All animal and vegetable life is composed of minute structural elements, called ‘‘cells.”’ Every living organism is derived from ~ a parent cell, the ovum, which, through endless division and sub- division, develops into a mature body. Since physiology treats of the structure and function of living things, it may be truly said that ‘‘physiology is the study of the properties of cells.’’ What properties does a cell possess? A cell wall, cell body of protoplasm which includes a nucleus and a nucleolus. The vital manifestations of a cell embrace metabolism, growth, reproduction and irritability. - Describe cell division. Direct cell division, the simplest form, consists of a direct cleay- age of the cell body and nucleus into two parts. Karyokinesis, mitosis or indirect cell division, is more complex and includes a series of changes involving the nucleus, the centro- somes and the cytoplasm. In this form, the chromatin of the nucleus arranges itself in a star-shaped skein, the bars of which compose themselves symmetrically. The two symmetrical parts separate, followed by a cleavage of the cell body, making two distinct cells in which the chromatin granules are more or less scattered. The latter then assume a normal appearance and soon each new eell prepares itself for division. Name the eliminative organs of the body and state what each elim- inates. Skin: Eliminates water, urea, uric acid, fatty acids, carbon dioxide, serum albumin, serum globulin, fat, and sodium and potas- sium salts. Kidneys: Eliminate water, urea, urie acid, hippuric acid, ben- zoic acid, phenol, sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. * Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse. 102 _ =e eee <- QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 103 Lungs: Eliminate carbon dioxide and water. Feces consist of the undigested portion of the food which is indi- gestible, together with that which though digestible has escaped absorption ; mixed with these are water, coloring substances, mucin, organic matters, inorganic salts, bile pigment, volatile fatty acids, remains of digestive fluids, microdrganisms, ete. Define excretion. Mention four ways in which waste matter of the body is eliminated. Excretion refers to the throwing off or ejection of waste matter, formed in the body, which is not intended to be retained in the body and if retained would be harmful. Waste matter is eliminated by the urine, feces, skin and expired air. Explain the meaning of four of the following: chord tendinz, hzma- tin, Goll’s column, bile salts, accommodation. Chord tendine are the small tendinous cords, attached to the free border of the heart valves, which unite the latter to the walls. Heematin is the iron-containing substance of the hemoglobin. Goll’s column is the superior median tract or column of the spinal cord. Bile salts, two in number, glycocholate and taurocholate, are formed in the liver by the union of cholalic acid with glycin and taurin. Accommodation refers to the power which the eye possesses of focusing itself for near and distant objects. Define and illustrate five of the following terms: absorption, chyle, excretion, ferment, tidal air, phagocytosis, alimentation. Absorption is the process of taking up fluids or other sub- stances by the skin, mucous surfaces or absorbent vessels, e.g., absorption of chyle by the lacteals. Chyle is the milky fluid taken up by the lacteals from the digested food in the intestines. Excretion is the act or process of eliminating waste matter from the body, e.g., urea is excreted by the kidneys. Ferment is a substance which decomposes or causes fermentation in other substances with which it comes in contact, e.g., pepsin changes proteids into peptones. Tidal air is the quantity of air taken in and expelled by an ordinary respiration. In the horse it amounts to about 250 cubic inches. 104 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Phagocytosis is the destruction of microédrganisms and injurious substances by the phagocytes, e.g., leucocytes envelop and digest bacteria. Alimentation is the act or process of affording nourishment, e.g., food in the alimentary canal. Define the following terms: excretion, secretion, exosmose, decussation, reflex action. Excretion: see preceding question. Secretion is the process of separating from the blood and cells a substance intended, eventually, to be utilized in the body. Exosmose is the act of liquids and gases in passing outward through a membrane. Decussation refers to the crossing of the fibres of the pyramids of the medulla from one pyramid to another. Reflex action is an involuntary movement produced by stimu- lation of a peripheral nerve. State the kind of epithelium (a) in the lungs, (b) in the stomach, (c) in the larynx. (a) Single layer of polygonal plates, mostly without nuclei and including groups of small and round cells. (b) Tall columnar, some of which are the goblet-cell variety. (ce) Stratified, ciliated, columnar and stratified squamous. Describe the function of the blood, gland cells and nerves in secretion. How does secretion differ from (a) transudation, (b) cedema, (c) exudation? Secretion is the result of the activity of the protoplasm of the secreting cell. The inorganic constituents of a secretion are derived from the blood by osmosis; the organic constituents are the results of active manufacturing processes occurring within the protoplasmic cell-contents. Through the impulse conveyed by the nerve, the glandular blood-vessels dilate and secretion is stimulated. Secretion differs from transudation, edema and exudation, in that the latter are merely acts of filtration or osmosis and no glandu- lar activity is concerned. Which organ, liver or kidney, receives the greater amount of blood, and what conditions, anatomic, hydrostatic and circulatory, contribute to the difference? The liver receives the greater amount because of its greater size, more dependent position and greater blood supply; besides the hepatic artery, the portal vein, draining the whole splanchnic area, empties into it. use 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 105 What are the physical properties of bone? How does the chemical composition of bone vary with age? Bones are composed of an outer layer of compact tissue and of a spongy, reticular tissue which forms the interior (marrow). The compact tissue is traversed by channels called ‘‘Haversian canals,’’ from which radiate numerous canaliculi; the latter are surrounded by concentric lamelle of bone, separated by spaces (lacune) con- taining the bone cells, corpuscles. These lacune communicate with the Haversian canals through the canaliculi. The inner spongy tis- sue contains large marrow cavities. The exterior of bone is covered by a thin, tough, protective membrane, the periosteum. As age advances, the bones contain less organic matter and more of the inorganic constituents. Give the composition of bone. State how bone is nourished and give the function of long bones. See answer to preceding question. Bones consist of connective tissue, the substratum of which is osseine (an animal matter which yields gelatin upon boiling), impregnated with lime salts, chiefly calcium phosphate. Bone is composed of one-third animal matter and two-thirds mineral mat- ter. Nourishment is supplied to bone by a nutrient artery which sends branches into the medullary and Haversian canals. Long bones serve an important part in locomotion by imparting rigidity to the limbs and furnishing muscular attachments, as well as by entering into the formation of joints. Mention the functions of the articular cartilages. 1. Favor, by their smoothness, the gliding and displacement of bones. 2. By their suppleness and elasticity, they lessen the violent shocks to which the articulations are exposed. 3. They resist the wear and deformations of the articular sur- faces. Mention with regard to the body (a) the principal secreting organs, (b) the excreting organs, (c) the vital organs. (a) Salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas, sebaceous glands, synovial, mucous and serous membranes, lachrymal glands. The spleen, thymus, thyroid and adrenals have an internal secretion. (b) Skin, kidneys, bowels and lungs. (c) Heart, lungs, brain, intestines, liver, kidneys. & 4 106 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Mention the elements composing proteids. Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and varying amounts of sulphur. Mention the inorganic constituents of the animal body. 1. Water. 2. Salts, viz., salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron in the form of chlorides, sulphates, phosphates and. ecar- bonates. 3. Gases, viz., oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphuretted hydrogen and marsh gas. BLoop What is blood? The blood is the fluid that circulates through the heart, arteries and veins, carrying nutriment and oxygen to the tissues of the body. It is a red, opaque, rather viscous fluid with an alkaline reaction, characteristic odor and saltish taste; specific gravity 1060. What is the chemical composition of the blood? Water 81 parts. Solids 19 parts. coh Hemoglobin (0.4 per cent.iron) 13 parts. Proteids 4 parts. Fibrinogen Serum globulin Serum albumin satin Fibrin ferment Gao. Fibrin globulin ) Salts 1 part. Sodium chloride Potassium chloride Sodium carbonate Calcium phosphate Magnesium phosphate Sodium phosphate Potassium phosphate Extractives 0.6 part. Fats Cholesterin Lecithin Creatin Urea QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 107 Hippuric acid Urie acid Grape sugar. Nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are also present. Describe the composition of the blood with reference to the nature and the purpose of each component part. It consists of a colorless liquid, the plasma, containing red blood-corpuscles (erythrocytes), yellowish, circular, biconcave dises, containing hemoglobin which earries the oxygen; white blood-cor- puseles (leucocytes), white spherical amceboid masses of proto- plasm, having phagocytic powers; blood platelets, small bodies, one- quarter the size of a red cell, function unknown. Mention the proteids of the blood. Fibrinogen, serum albumin, serum globulin, fibrin ferment and fibrin globulin. Mention three gases found in the blood. Indicate the relative amount of each of these gases in arterial blood and in venous blood, respectively. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. In the arteries, oxygen is present in a greater amount and carbon dioxide in a lesser amount than in the veins. The amount of nitrogen is practically the same in both cases. State the average amount of blood in the horse. 6.6 per cent. of the body weight. About 66 pounds or 55 pints in the average horse. _ Describe the function of (a) red blood-corpuscles, (b) leucocytes. (a) Carriers of oxygen. (b) Take up and digest bacteria and other injurious substances (phagocytosis). State how the red blood-corpuscles vary in size and shape in the dif- ferent animals. Horse: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 4 to 5 microns in diameter. Ox: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 3 to 5 microns in diameter. Sheep: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 2 to 4 microns in diameter. Dog: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 5 to 7 microns in diameter. Cat: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 5 to 6 microns in diameter. Camel: non-nucleated, oval bodies, 7 microns long, 4 microns broad. Fowls: nucleated, oval bodies, 12 microns long, 7.5 microns broad. 108 VETERINARY STATE BOARD What are the principal differences between arterial blood and venous blood? Arterial blood contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide, more water, fibrinogen, extractives, salts and sugar, fewer blood- corpuscles and less urea; its temperature is, on the average, 1° C. lower. Venous blood is darker in color, due to the diminution in the oxygen-content. What is the color of the blood in the renal veins? Why? Dark-blue, same as all venous blood. In its passage through the kidney, the blood loses oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide, there- fore, it is venous in character as it leaves this organ. What salts render the blood alkaline? The phosphate and bicarbonate of soda. Describe the process of coagulation of the biood. The blood first becomes a jelly and then a firm clot. The clot con- tracts and squeezes out a fluid, serum. As this serum accumulates, the clot sinks. The substance which brings about coagulation is fibrinogen, which, being acted upon by the ferment, thrombin, produces fibrin. Of what does a blood clot consist? How would you demonstrate the presence of fibrin in freshly drawn blood? A blood clot consists of fibrin and blood-corpuscles. Fibrin may be demonstrated by defibrinating freshly drawn blood. This is accomplished by whipping the blood with a rod or bunch of twigs; the fibrin separates rapidly and collects on the rod. What influences the combination of hemoglobin with oxygen? The atmospheric pressure of oxygen being higher than the pressure of the oxygen in the venous blood as it arrives at the heart may play a very small part in influencing the taking up of oxygen by the blood; but the strong affinity of hemoglobin and oxygen for each other is of greater influence. This subject has not been satis- factorily explained. How is oxygen carried in the blood and where is it exchanged for carbon dioxide? It is carried in the blood united with the hemoglobin, as oxy- hemoglobin. It is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the tissues. When serum is used subcutem for therapeutic purposes, what danger attends its transfer from one genus to another? Hemolysis, breaking down of red blood-corpuscles and liberation of hemoglobin, occurs. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 109 What morbid and dangerous states of the blood may be connected with the suspension of biliary secretion? Jaundice, intoxication with the waste products of the biliary secretion (cholesterin and lecithin) and the poisonous products in the alimentary canal, due to constipation following a lack of the stimulating action of bile on peristalsis. What is (a) oxyhemoglobin, (b) methemoglobin, (c) hzematoidin? (a) Hemoglobin charged with oxygen. (b) A modification of oxyhemoglobin in which the oxygen is more firmly united than in ordinary oxyhexmoglobin. It occurs pathologically whenever there is a sudden breaking down of the red blood-corpuscles, e.g., as in azoturia. (ec) A yellow-brown, crystalline, iron-free product, derived from hematin. It is found in old blood clots. HEART What is the influence of the vagus nerve on the heart? What would be the effect on the heart if the vagi nerves were cut? The vagus (pneumogastric) has a restraining or, as it is termed, an inhibitory effect on the heart movements. If cut, the inhibitory action is removed, the heart rate is greatly increased, and the blood-pressure rises. Describe the cardiac sounds. There are really four cardiac sounds, but, as they occur in pairs, we recognize only two. The first sound is dull, deep, prolonged and louder than the second, which is short, not so deep and not so loud. The two sounds are best reproduced by pronouncing the words ‘‘lubb dupp.”’ What are the cardiac sounds? What causes these sounds? See answer to preceding question. The first sound is caused by the closing of the auriculoven- tricular valves and the contraction of the muscular fibres. The second sound is due to the closure of the semilunar valves. Explain the action of digitalis on the heart. It reduces the frequency of the heart-beat and later excites the cardiac muscle to a stronger and prolonged systole. It is a cardiac tonie. Define (a) systole, (b) diastole, (c) cardiac cycle. (a) Systole is the term applied to the heart’s contraction. It occurs synchronously with the first heart sound; by it, the blood is driven into the aorta and pulmonary artery. 110 VETERINARY STATE BOARD (b) The dilatation or stage of dilatation of the heart. (c) A eardiae cycle is a complete cardiac movement or heart- beat. It includes the period from the beginning of one heart-beat to the end of another, 7.e., the systolic and diastolic movements with the interval between. BLOoopD-VESSELS How do arteries and veins differ in (a) structure, (b) function? What arteries carry venous blood and what veins carry arterial blood? (a) The walls of veins are thinner than those of arteries and they collapse when empty. They contain less elastic and muscular material and more fibrous tissue than arteries. Veins are provided with valves which are not present in arteries. (b) Veins carry impure blood from the tissues to the heart. Arteries carry pure blood from the heart to the various parts of the body. There are two exceptions, viz., the pulmonary artery carries venous blood from the heart to the lungs and the pulmonary vein carries pure blood from the lungs to the heart. How does the internal coat of an artery differ from that of a vein? Arteries have no valves as do the veins. Discuss the forces that cause the blood to circulate in (a) the arteries, (b) the capillaries, (c) the veins. (a) Foree of the heart’s contraction, and the elasticity of the arterial walls. (b) Pressure from arteries and elasticity of the walls. (c) Muscular contractions, valves, gravity, and negative pressure in veins leading directly into the right heart. Describe the course of the blood from the right auricle back to the same point. What part of this circulation is called the sys- temic circulation? From the right auricle, blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the pulmonary artery, to the lungs, returning to the left auricle through the pulmonary veins, completing the pulmonary circulation. From the left auricle, the blood begins the systemic circulation, passing through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle, thence through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, which divides and subdivides until every part of the body is supplied. Collecting in the veins, it is carried through the anterior and posterior vena eava to the right auricle, whence it started, thus completing the systemic circulation. , pti a ~ QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 111 Describe the circulation of the blood. See answer to preceding question. Discuss the relative velocity of the blood in the arteries, capillaries and veins. Greatest velocity is in the arteries, least in the capillaries, and rising again in the veins. Define blood-pressure. Mention (a) factors that increase blood- ° pressure, (b) factors that decrease blood-pressure. Blood-pressure is the tension on the walls of the blood-vessels derived from the blood current. (a) Increase in force of the heart-beat and contraction of the arterioles. (b) Decrease in the force of the heart-beat and dilatation of the arterioles. Where is blood-pressure (a) the highest, (b) the lowest? How is blood-pressure governed? (a) In the region of the aorta. (b) In the region of the periphery. Blood-pressure is governed by the contraction of the heart and the resistance offered by the peripheral vessels; all being regulated by the vasomotor centre in the brain. Describe the flow of blood in the arteries. The centre of the vessel is occupied by a column of rapidly moving red cells, while between them and the vessel wall is a clear layer in which the white corpuscles move slowly along, occasionally stopping along the sides, then moving forward once more. What is meant by the velocity of the blood? State where this velocity is (a) the greatest, (b) the least. Velocity refers to the rate at which the blood flows cana the blood-vessels. The velocity varies inversely as the sectional area of the tubes. Since the total sectional area of the capillaries is greater than that of the arteries or veins, the velocity is least in the capil- laries and greatest in the arteries. What causes the flow of blood in the veins? Muscular contractions, valves, gravity and the negative pressure in the veins leading directly into the right auricle. Why is blood-pressure highest at the beginning of an expiration and lowest at the beginning of an inspiration? At the beginning of expiration, which is really the height of inspiration, the intrathoracic pressure is greatest, more blood is 112 VETERINARY STATE BOARD forced into the aorta and, therefore, the blood-pressure is highest. At the beginning of an inspiration, which is really the end of an expiration, there is a negative intrathoracic pressure, the blood is aspirated into the right auricle and the blood-pressure is lowest. Describe the circulation of the blood in the brain. Supplied by the cerebrospinal branch of the external carotid, which divides into two branches, the median spinal and basilar, and the internal carotid, which divides into the posterior communicating and the common trunk of the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. The venous arrangement is very remarkable; the walls of the veins are composed of the dura mater and portions of the cranial bones. The veins, or sinuses of the brain, are large cavities which, because of their unyielding walls, allow the venous blood to return freely. The cerebral circulation is assisted by the fluid in the ven- tricles of the brain. This fluid passes from one ventricle to another and to the spinal cord; therefore, when the external pressure be- comes greater, the internal becomes less, thereby avoiding any compression of the brain substance. Describe the portal circulation. The portal circulation begins in the small mesenteric, the great mesenteric and splenic veins, all of which unite to form the portal vein. The latter, beginning near the great mesenteric artery, passes through the pancreatic ring and divides in the great posterior fissure of the liver to enter its structure, carrying the venous blood, which, after circulating through the liver, leaves it by the hepatic vein. Describe the circulation of the blood in the kidney. The blood enters at the hilus by the renal artery, which breaks up, after entering the organ, into a large number of branches; these branches run in a nearly parallel direction through the medullary portion until the cortex is reached, where they diverge in various directions to enter the Malpighian corpuscles. In these bodies there is a plexus of capillaries, the glomeruli, and leading from them are small vessels, arranged similar to the arterial branches, which unite to form the renal vein. Give the normal pulse of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the dog, (d) the sheep, (e) the cat. (a) 3640; (b) 45-50; (c) 90-120; (d) 70-80; (e) 90-120. VASCULAR GLANDS Mention the vascular glands. Spleen, thymus, thyroid, adrenals, pituitary and pineal bodies. ee QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 113 Name two vascular glands. Give the function of each. Spleen: Red blood-corpuscles are formed in the spleen during intra-uterine life, but after birth they are destroyed in it. This organ is thought by some to produce an enzyme which converts trypsinogen into trypsin and also to produce uric acid. It serves as a reservoir for the abdominal circulation. Thyroid: This gland has an internal secretion which is directed to the nutrition of the body. The nature of this secretion is not well understood. RESPIRATION Describe the process of respiration. Describe the changes that take place in inspired air during the process of respiration. The act of respiration is divided into two parts, inspiration and expiration. The former, by which the chest is filled with air, is a purely muscular act; the diaphragm contracts and therefore re- cedes, the ribs are rotated, being drawn forward and outward, their posterior edges everted, and the intercostal space widened. By these means the capacity of the chest is increased and the lungs expand to fill the space, thus causing air to rush in. Expiration is effected by the recoil of the lungs and the displaced abdominal organs, the contraction of the abdominal muscles and the internal intercostals. Through these movements the air is expelled from the lungs. During respiration, part of the oxygen of the air is taken up by the blood in exchange for carbon dioxide which is thrown off. How are the diameters of the chest enlarged during inspiration? By the recession of the diaphragm, the anteroposterior diameter of the chest is lengthened from four to five inches and by the out- ward rotation of the ribs, the transverse diameter, between the eleventh and twelfth ribs, is increased one and one-half inches. Compare inspired air with expired air as to relative quantity of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Inspired air contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than expired air ; the amount of nitrogen is the same in both. Oxygen. Nitrogen Carbon dioxide. Tnepared ale 2's. 5... <'< Aaistenla 20.96 79.01 0.03 HEREPOG BAT hs 2 che slg aie acta 16.02 79.01 4.38 Mention the functions of respiration. Supplies oxygen to the blood and excretes carbon dioxide, solids, moisture, ete. 8 114 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Give in full the functions of the lungs. Medium of interchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the air and blood. Name (a) two inspiratory muscles, (b) two expiratory muscles. What is the normal stimulus to the action of these muscles? (a) Diaphragm and external intercostals. (b) Abdominal and internal intercostals. Inspiration is presided over by a centre in the medulla. Ex- piration is thought to be a purely passive act. Discuss the absorption of gas by fluids. If the atmosphere, containing a mixture of gases, be exposed over a fluid containing some of these gases dissolved in it, it is found that if the proportion of dissolved gases in the fluid is less than their proportion in the atmosphere, the latter pass into the fluid until the amounts in air and fluid are equal. Likewise, if the fluid contains more dissolved gas than the atmosphere, gas will pass from the fluid to the air above until the amounts are equal. This is a process of diffusion. Define tidal air and residual air. Tidal air is the air breathed in and out in an ordinary respiration. Residual air is that which always remains after a forced expiration. Give the normal number of respirations per minute in (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the hog, (e) the dog. (a) 8-16; (b) 12-15; (ce) 12-20; (d) 10-15; (e) 15-20. What is the ratio of respirations to the pulse beats? About 1: 4. Describe the lining of the bronchial tubes, touching on epithelium and glands. The bronchi are lined with mucous membrane composed of ciliated epithelium and containing mucous glands. What is the meaning of each of the following: (a) eupncea, (b) hy- perpnoea, (c) dyspnoea, (d) apnoea? (a) Easy or normal respiration. (b) Moderate increase in the respiratory movements. (ce) Difficult or labored breathing. (d) Transient cessation of breathing following a forced respira- tion. = QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 115 Describe the different stages of asphyxia. How does asphyxia cause death? First stage: labored breathing, all muscles of respiration being brought into play; convulsions; blood-pressure rises. Second stage: inspiratory muscles less active; expiratory muscles still powerful ; convulsions cease. Third stage: unconsciousness, occasional inspiratory gaspings, mouth open, the pupils dilated, pulse imperceptible, blood-pressure falls. Death occurs from five to six minutes after the beginning of the first stage. Asphyxia causes death by creating a deficiency of oxygen and an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. Carbon dioxide is a poison and affects the cardiac centre in the brain, causing death. Give the composition of normal air and state how it supports life. By volume. By weight. WV TY fo 'sl chalaie's vo latin ole mya esta yahaidia eee eG 20.96 23.015 I UREORER ahs sc ja sd oc soy Maret adele Katee ade 79.01 76.985 Ca TUNE TORIC) fechas 3 her busiras'sy eteke:'s Sreveys ie! ch-4 si's He raed PEN) Ronee Normal air supports life by supplying oxygen which it contains in an uncombined state. What animals may, with effort, breathe through a broken long bone? Why? Birds, because they have a system of air sacs in the bones which communicate with the lungs. DIGESTION Give the different steps in the process of digestion. Prehension, mastication, salivation, deglutition, gastric digestion, jntestinal digestion, absorption and defecation. Give the dental formula for the horse and the ox, Porat ih fan 3, C i p J3-3 M 33° Total 40. No canines in mare, total 36. 0-0 ¢ 0-0 p33 yy 3-3. Total 32. a eee Ox l a 0-0 8’ BS 116 VETERINARY STATE BOARD How do horses, cattle and sheep, respectively, take in their food? Have these methods any bearing on swallowing non-alimen- tary and harmful bodies? Horses prehend the food mainly with the lips and thoroughly masticate it. Because of this thorough mastication, any foreign body is quite sure to be detected and rejected. Cattle use their long tongue to convey food into the mouth, whence it passes directly to the rumen through a thin, distensible cesophagus, hence foreign bodies are frequently swallowed. Sheep have a cleft upper lip which enables them to graze closely and pick up very small objects. They have a delicate manner of eating and are jess liable to swallow foreign bodies than eattle, but, owing to their method of swallowing their food with little or no mastication, foreign bodies are more commonly found in their stomachs than is the case with the horse. Name the digestive ferments. What digestive ferments act on (a) fat, (b) starch, (c) proteid? Ptyalin, pepsin, rennin, trypsin, steapsin, amylopsin, entero- kinase, erepsin, maltase, invertase and lactase. (a) Steapsin; (b) ptyalin and amylopsin; (ce) pepsin and trypsin. What are the physical and chemical properties of saliva? An alkaline, opalescent, or slightly turbid fluid which readily froths when shaken. On exposure to the air it throws down a deposit of calcium carbonate due to the loss of carbon dioxide. It has a specific gravity of 1005. Microscopically, it consists of epithelial scales and salivary corpuscles. Saliva consists of a 0.6 per cent. mineral matter and 0.2 per cent. organic matter, the latter consisting of mucin and small amounts of proteid matter. The salts are: calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium phosphate, mag- nesium chloride and magnesium phosphate. It contains a ferment known as ptyalin which converts starches into sugar. The gases of saliva are: carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. Name four uses of saliva. Assists in mastication and swallowing; stimulates the nerves of taste and has an amylytic action. In ruminants, it assists in rumination. Describe the cells of the parotid gland when actively secreting. The granular material passes toward the centre of the acinus or lumen, leaving each cell with a clear outer edge and the edge next QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 117 the lumen is granular; when the cells are exhausted, they are smaller and remarkably clear, only a few granules being left on the inner edge, whilst the lumen is now distinct and large and the nuclei become large and rounded, showing the nucleoli. Compare the amount of saliva in the horse with that in the ox. On what conditions does the amount secreted depend? It has been estimated that the horse secretes 84 pounds and the ox 112 pounds of saliva in 24 hours. The amount depends on the dryness of the food, more being secreted when eating dry than moist foods. How is food when swallowed prevented from getting into the posterior nares and the larynx? The soft palate prevents food entering the posterior nares and the epiglottis protects the larynx. Describe the phenomena of regurgitation in ruminants. Rumination is a reflex, nervous act and can only be performed by means of the united action of the diaphragm, stomach walls and abdominal muscles. It is performed as follows: The churning move- ment of the rumen throws the food gently against the cesophageal groove, when a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm and abdom- inal muscles forces some of the liquid content of the reticulum and the solid matter from the rumen into the esophagus. The funnel- shaped extremity of the latter contracts and cuts off the bolus, which, by a reverse peristaltic action, is conveyed to the mouth. After a thorough mastication, the bolus is reswallowed and passes directly into the third compartment of the stomach. Explain fully why a normal horse can rarely vomit. 1. The cardiac extremity of the esophagus is thickened and contracted. 2. The cesophagus enters the stomach in an oblique direction. 3. The dilated pylorus lies close to the contracted cardia, so that compression of the stomach contents forces them into the duodenum. 4, The mucous coat is thrown into folds over the cardiac opening. 5. Encireling the cardia are muscular loops the contractions of which keeps the opening tightly closed. 6. The stomach is not in contact with the abdominal wall. State the function of the stomach. It thoroughly mixes the food and through the action of the enzymes, secreted by its walls, converts proteid matter into pep- tone, thereby rendering it absorbable. In young animals, there is 118 VETERINARY STATE BOARD another enzyme, rennin, which curdles milk. In the stomach of dogs, free hydrochloric acid is present; it aids in the digesting of bone. Give the composition of gastric juice. From what is the hydrochloric acid derived? Water, hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, pepsin, rennin, chlorides, phosphates and iron. The hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice is thought to be derived from the gastric glands which form it from the chlorides, which the mucous membrane takes up from the blood. Describe the digestion of proteids in the stomach. Pepsin converts proteids into peptones. This change is effected through several stages. The intermediate products in the order in which they occur are: 1. The proteid as consumed, or native albumin. . Acid albumin, or syntonin. . Primary proteoses. . Secondary proteoses. . Peptones. or Re CO DD How many stomachs has (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the goat, (d) the camel? (a) One; (b), (ec) and (d) one stomach divided into four com- partments, which gives rise to the common statement that they have four stomachs. The fourth compartment, the abomasum, is the true stomach and is practically the same as the stomach of other animals. State the condition of food as it leaves the abomasum. It is a soft, pasty mass with a sour odor and alkaline reaction; the proteids have been converted into peptones and the starch is said to have been digested. In the young, the milk has been curdled. State the extent of the secreting (peptic) mucosa, as compared with the non-peptic, in the stomach of the horse, hog and dog and in the fourth stomach of the ox. In the horse, the peptic mucosa constitutes about two-thirds of the whole lining of the stomach, the non-peptic the remainder. In the hog, the peptic mucosa constitutes about one-third, the remainder being non-peptic. In the dog, the peptic mucosa extends over the whole extent of the stomach wall. nd QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 119 In the ox, about the same relation exists between the two as in the horse, but the glands of the pylorus are poorer in pepsin than those of the fundus. Name the different digestive ferments in the gastric secretion of the mature horse and the different proximate food principles that they digest. State how this action is affected in each case by acidity and alkalinity, respectively. Pepsin acts on proteid matter and can only do so in an acid medium. The gastric secretion is said by some to contain an amylolytic ferment; at any rate, the saliva swallowed with the food, this ferment, or both convert starch into sugar in the stomach and can only act during the early part of stomach digestion while the reaction is alkaline. What produces the sensation of (a) hunger, (b) thirst? (a) Hunger is referred to the stomach, but the reason why is not known. The pneumogastric nerves may be divided but the sen- sation of hunger remains. The stomach may be full or empty and hunger still exist. (b) Thirst is referred to the pharynx. A deficiency of mois- ture in the system is always shown by a dryness of the pharynx and palate. Nothing is known of the nervous apparatus involved in thirst. Describe peristaltic action. How is it accomplished? Peristaltic action is the worm-like movement by which the ali- mentary canal propels its contents. It consists of a wave of contrac- tion passing along the tube, anteroposteriorly. It is accomplished by the contraction of its circular and longitudinal muscular fibres. Mention the glands of the intestinal canal and state their function. Lieberkiihn’s and Briinner’s glands secrete a mucous fluid which contains enzymes as follows: succus entericus, enterokinase, erepsin, inverting ferments (invertase, maltase, lactase). These enzymes have very important digestive actions. State the difference between chyme and chyle. Chyme is the liquid mass into which the food is converted by gastric digestion. It is a yellow, frothy, precipitated, slimy fluid, which in the anterior part of the intestinal canal possesses a peculiar, mawkish smell, and in the ileum, a distinctly fecal odor. In the ileum, the contents are considerably less fluid. Chyle is the milky fluid taken up by the lacteals from the chyme in the intestines. It is a turbid, alkaline fluid, containing fat 120 VETERINARY STATE BOARD globules. In starving animals it is transparent, owing to the absence of fat, and in herbivora it is said to be yellowish or yellowish-green, owing to the chlorophyll in the food. How does chyle differ from lymph? Chemically they are very much alike, but chyle contains fat, which gives it a milky appearance. Lymph contains lymph cor- puscles and possesses the power of spontaneous clotting. State the function of the double colon in digestion. In the colon, bacteria attack the unabsorbed products of proteid digestion, reducing them to simpler end-products. These end- products are partly absorbed, but mostly passed out with the feces. What constitutes the bulk of the faeces? Compare the feces of her- bivora with the feces of carnivora. The feces consist principally of that portion of the food which is undigestible, together with that part which though digestible has escaped absorption. The feces of herbivora consist mainly of inorganic matter (58 per cent.), and they are acid in reaction. In carnivora, there is less inorganic matter (20 to 25 per cent.), and they are alkaline in reaction. The feces of carnivora contain a large amount of lime salts, What relation has the portal vein to absorption from the intestines? The portal vein drains the whole splanchnic area, hence the blood it carries is charged with substances, absorbed from the intestinal canal, that are by-products formed during the gradual breaking- down of the food substances. These substances are those which are soluble in water, such as salts, sugar, soaps, and peptone. Pep- tone is probably changed to serum-albumin during absorption, for peptone in the blood is a poison. Give the function of the liver. Secretion of bile, glycogenic function, formation of urea and a protective function (neutralizes poisons). Give the blood supply of the liver. The hepatic artery supplies the nutritive blood. The functional blood is supplied by the portal vein. What are the functions of the bile? Show how the secretion of bile in the equine differs from that in the bovine. Functions of the bile: Emulsifies fat, stimulates peristalsis and has slight antiseptic action on the intestinal contents. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 121 Equines have no gall-bladder, hence the bile is poured into the intestines as fast as it is secreted. Bovines have a gall-bladder and in this capacious receptacle the bile is stored until required. It has been computed that a horse secretes 10 ounces of bile, hourly, and the ox only 4 ounces in the same time. What is glycogen? Glycogen is commonly called ‘‘animal starch.’’ It is a carbo- hydrate from the liver, leucocytes, cartilage and other tissues. It is formed in the liver from carbohydrates and proteids, being con- verted into sugar as the needs of the system require, and is carried away in the hepatic vein. State the function of the pancreas. The pancreas secretes a digestive fluid and also has an internal secretion which, in some way not well understood, governs the amount of sugar in the body. Give the composition of the secretion of the pancreas. The pancreatic fluid is an alkaline, clear, colorless fluid with a saltish, unpleasant taste and a specific gravity of 1010 (in the dog, it is viscid). It contains over 98 per cent. water, the balance being salts, of which sodium chloride is the most important, and organic matter which contains the active principles of the fluid. These enzymes are amylopsin, steapsin, trypsin and rennin. Give the ferments of the pancreatic juice and state the function of each. 1. Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme which converts proteids into pepsin. 2. Amylopsin is a diastatic enzyme which converts starch into sugar. 3. Steapsin is a lipolytic enzyme which acts on fats. 4, Rennin is a milk-curdling enzyme. What is the action of the pancreas on the production of glucose in the urine and how is this action understood to be brought about? If the pancreas be removed, glucose appears in the blood and is separated by the kidneys, causing glycosuria. If only partly re- moved, glycosuria occurs but to a lesser extent. It is not known how this action occurs, but it is considered that the internal secre- tion of the pancreas acts upon a ferment in the muscles and makes the decomposition of sugar possible. 122 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the action of salt in digestion. Salt increases thirst and causes the animal to drink more water, which increases the fiuidity of the food and thereby aids digestion and absorption. In the stomach, it forms hydrochloric acid, which is so essential to gastric digestion. Describe several conditions that retard digestion. Improper teeth cause improper mastication of the food, which hinders the action of the digestive fluids. Improper foods (too hot, too bulky, too cold, too dry, ete.) retard digestion. Feeding hay before grain causes a retention of the latter in the stomach, and disease conditions of any part of the alimentary canal retard or entirely prevent digestion. ABSORPTION Describe the lymph as to (a) appearance, (b) source, (c) function. (a) A transparent, slightly yellow-colored fluid, alkaline in reac- tion; occasionally it is a light rose color from the presence of red blood-corpuscles, and it is often opalescent from the presence of fat globules. (b) There are two theories advanced to account for the for- mation of lymph. The more generally accepted one is the physical theory. According to this, the lymph is formed from the blood by the process of filtration and osmosis. The second or secretory theory is based on the secretory activity of the endothelial lining of the capillary walls. (ec) Lymph is a sort of mediary material between the tissues and the blood, by which nourishment is carried from the blood to the tissues and effete material taken back to the blood. Generally speaking, the lymphatic system is the drainage system of the body as contrasted with the blood, the irrigating system. Describe the lymph-spaces, the lymph-capillaries and the general arrangement of the lymphatic vessels. The lymph-spaces are irregular cavities, lined by epithelioid plates, found in the connective tissue outside of the blood-vessel walls, into which the lymph passes from the blood. From these spaces, the lymph reaches the lymph-capillaries. The latter are the most minute branches of the lymphatic vessels and their lining is composed of the same epithelioid plates as found in the spaces. Between these plates, crevices are supposed to exist through which the lymph transudes. The lymphatic vessels follow the capillaries. They have, in addi- tion to the epithelioid lining, a muscular coat and a connective-tissue ees QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 123 covering. Valves, similar to the ones found in veins, are seen in their interior. All the lymphatic vessels of the left side of the head and neck, the left fore limb, the chest, the abdominal cavity and hind limbs converge toward and empty into a central vessel, the thoracic duct, which empties into the anterior vena cava; the lymphatic vessels of the right side of the head and neck and the right fore limb collect and pour their contents by a separate duct into the same vein. What medicinal and other agencies may be employed as lympha- gogues? Ingestion of large quantities of water assists in increasing the amount of lymph. Certain agents, when injected into the cireu- lation, increase the flow of lymph, such as peptone, decoctions of intestinal wall, liver, ete., crystalline bodies such as sugar and neutral salts. The administration of sodium citrate by the mouth increases the general lymphatic circulation. In what diseases of connective tissue is the lymph specially involved? In infected wounds and suppurative inflammations. What forces assist the flow of lymph? Contraction of vessel walls, aspiration by the diaphragm, con- traction of the abdominal muscles, peristalsis, and valves in the lymph-vessels. SKIN State the function of the skin. Protective covering for the body; sense of touch; excretion of waste matter and regulation of temperature. Describe the glands found in the skin of domestic animals, noting the relative number and complexity of these in the different genera, and the attendant variation of the product in amount and facility of secretion. The sweat-glands in the ox are rudimentary, consisting merely of oval sacs found principally on the muzzle. In the horse, dog, cat, sheep and hog they are more highly developed, being long convoluted tubes which pass through the entire thickness of the skin. The sweat-glands of the horse are quite generally distributed, but there are certain parts of the skin which sweat more freely than others, for instance, the base of the ears, the neck, sides of the chest and the inside of the thighs. Mules and donkeys sweat with diffi- culty and then prineipally at the base of the ears. Dogs and eats 124 VETERINARY STATE BOARD perspire freely on the foot-pads and but very little elsewhere. The sweating of pigs is confined to the snout. Sheep are said to perspire very little or not at all. The sebaceous glands, racemose in type, are scattered quite gener- ally over the body, but are more especially developed where there is an abundant supply of hair, also in the prepuce, ears and eyelids. The ducts of the sebaceous glands, as a rule, empty into the hair follicles. These glands are very numerous in sheep and secrete the oily substance known as wool-fat or lanolin. What is the difference between sebaceous and sudoriparous glands? Sebaceous glands are racemose in type; their secretion, sebum, an oily substance, is formed principally by a fatty degeneration and breaking down of the cell-content. Sudoriparous glands secrete sweat by a true secretory activity of the cells composing them. The nerve supply to sweat-glands is more acutely developed than is the case with sebaceous glands. This is demonstrated by the effect of emotion on the production of sweat. What is sebum? State where and how it is secreted and give its func- tions. Sebum is the secretion of the sebaceous glands; it is a thick, semifluid substance, composed of fat and epithelial débris from the cells of the Malpighian layer. For manner of secretion, see answer to preceding question. Sebum saves the epithelium from the disintegrating influence of water, protects the animal from the elements, especially rain storms; keeps the skin moist and pliable and maintains a glossy hair coat. State the effect of a complete compulsory suppression of cutaneous perspiration. A loss of body heat followed by death in a few days is produced by varnishing the skin. Formerly, it was thought that this result was due to the retention of poisonous products. Of what does dandruff consist? / Epithelial seales, fat, coloring matters, salts, silica and dirt. State the difference in structure of hair, fur and wool. Fur is very fine, closely set hair, and is distinguished from ordinary hair, which is longer and coarser and generally more or less present with it. Wool is a modified form of hair, distinguished by its slender, soft and wavy or curly structure and by the highly imbricated or serrated surface of its filaments. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 125 Mention the conditions that favor the growth of wool or of improve- ment in its quality. Good feeding of a rather high nitrogenous diet; neither too hot nor too cold temperature; dry surroundings. Salt and sulphur are thought to aid the growth of wool; at any rate, the former is indispensable as a part of the diet and should be given regularly ; the latter is valuable as a mild laxative and, by its general tonic action, may improve the fleece. What precautions may be taken to limit the growth of an injuriously long, thick coat of hair? ; Warm quarters and blanketing will cause shedding. Clipping may be resorted to. URINE Give in full the functions of the kidneys. They are the filtering organs of the body. They excrete urine, which consists of nitrogenous waste products, salts and other ex- crementitious substances. What is the structure of the capsule of the kidney and how does this capsule affect the progress of the urine through the urinif- erous tubules, pelvis and ureter? It is composed largely of fibrous tissue and is rigid and unyield- ing. The internal pressure, therefore, tends to force the urine through the various canals. Describe the cortical layer of the kidney and state where the secretion of the liquid and solid elements of the urine takes place. The cortical layer is the essential secreting region. It contains the Malpighian bodies and convoluted tubules, as well as the be- ginning of the straight collecting tubules. Beneath the capsule, also between the cortex and medulla, is a narrow layer in which no glomeruli are found, otherwise the cortex is filled with them. In the glomeruli, the water and perhaps the salts are passed out, while in the tubules the organic matter is excreted. Give the composition of urine. Water. Organic matter: Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, creatine, crea- tinine, benzoic acid, ethereal sulphates of phenol and cresol, color- ing matter and mucus. Salts: Sulphates, phosphates and chlorides of sodium, potas- sium, calcium and magnesium. 126 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Compare the urine of herbivora with the urine of carnivora as to its chemical reaction and give the cause for the difference. The urine of herbivora is alkaline, owing to the excess of alkaline salts of organic acids contained in their food, such as malic, citric, tartaric and succinic. These salts are converted into carbonates during their passage through the body and appear as such in the urine. The urine of carnivora is acid in reaction, due to the pres- ence of the acid phosphate of soda. Give the reaction and specific gravity of the urine of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the dog. (a) Alkaline, 1035; (b) alkaline, 1020; (e) alkaline, 1010; (d) acid, 1050. What is the average amount, by weight, of excreta and of urine passed in 24 hours by (a) the horse, (b) the cow? (a) Excereta, 24 lbs.; urine, 814 pints. (b) Exereta, 75 lbs.; urine, 25 pints. What are the sources of urea? Urea is a nitrogenous end-product, derived from proteid food and proteid tissues. These substances, after destruction, are dis- charged into the blood in the form of ammonia compounds and are then converted into urea in the liver. State the causes, racial, dietetic and pathologic, that tend to cause acidity of the urine. The urine of carnivora is acid, due to the acid phosphate of soda. A flesh diet or starvation, when the animal is living on its own tissue, produces acidity of the urine. If a horse is fed exclusively on oats, its urine becomes acid, because the acidity increases with the nitrogen contents of the food; oats are very rich in nitrogen. The urine of herbivora is acid in fevers when the appetite is lost or impaired, also in catarrh of the intestinal tract, NUTRITION Define (a) metabolism, (b) anabolism, (c) catabolism. What is meant by the metabolism of nutrition? (a) The changes occurring in living tissues; the building up and breaking down of the body tissues. (b) The building up process or the conversion of matter into protoplasm. (c) The breaking down process or the conversion of protoplasm into a lower state of organization and ultimately into waste products. By the term ‘‘metabolism of nutrition’’ is meant the constructive or anabolic metabolism, 7.e., the process of assimilation. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 127 Name some of the important food proteids. What do green vegetables contain? Oats, rye, wheat, corn, barley, brewers’ grains, clover and grass. Green vegetables consist principally of water and are very poor in protein. The color is due to a green coloring matter, chlorophyll. Name the classes of non-nitrogenous foods. Give a list of the foods that come under each class named. 1. Carbohydrates: starch, sugar, gum and cellulose. 2. Fat: the fat part of milk and meat. 3. Inorganic matter: chlorine, potassium, sodium and iron. Mention the effete materials in the body produced from nitrogenous foods. Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, creatine and creatinine. What are the ultimate results of proteid foods in the body? See answer to preceding question. What is the chief function of fat in the body? By its oxidation, it supplies heat and energy. What would constitute a proper diet for a horse weighing 1500 lbs, and working every day? MamanGl yy DAK 5b did ine Smpaizieyar sterols imvelwbaniats 10 pounds MABE Na choal hohe «ele croinhiaetie anne es waite tae 12 pounds Wiklea Grains. a:s sfoutecetore crams che teres orehtatane ce 4 pounds RIE 5s s,s siche ees bade aeRO rol ehak a RIOEAN QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 317 Describe in detail the method by which you would administer a dose of Epsom salts to a cow. Dissolve the salts in water and put the solution in a long-necked bottle. Raise the cow’s head so that the nostrils are on a level with the eyes, but no higher. Gradually pour the solution into the mouth, watching carefully for faulty deglutition. Give the name and mention the use of each of the following: Fe,P,O,, FeSo,, Fe,Cl,. Fe,P,O, (iron sulphate) is used in diseases of bone, diabetes, and nervous exhaustion. FeSO, (iron sulphate) is used locally as an astringent and inter- nally as a hematinic and tonic in anemia; also used as a vermifuge and in chronic catarrhal conditions. Fe,Cl, (iron chloride) is used as a tonic in anemia, astringent in chronic pharyngitis and laryngitis, and externally as a styptic. What is the general action of iodine? State the dose (a) for the horse, (b) for the dog. > Alterative, resolvent, and expectorant, internally; stimulant, irritant, vesicant, and antiseptic, externally. (a) 15 grains to 1 drachm, (b) */,, to 1 grain. Give the source, general action and the dose of podophyllum. Obtained from the rhizome and roots of podophyllum pellatum Linne (mandrake or May apple). General action is a cholagogue cathartic. Dose for horse, 3i-ii. Name the different kinds of aloes. Barbadoes and Socotrine aloes are official. Cape aloes is non-official. Name two coal-tar products used to reduce temperature. Antipyrine and phenacetin. Give the properties and the uses of lobelia. Lobelia is obtained from the leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata. Its action depends on its alkaloid, lobeline. It has an acrid, nau- seous taste and very unpleasant odor; it is expectorant, diaphoretic, purgative, emetic, antispasmodic, and narcotic. Lobelia is very useful in asthma in dogs, heaves in horses, and dry coughs in general. Mention a motor excitant of (a) cardiac muscle, (b) intestinal muscle. State in each case the dose for the horse and for the cow. (a) Digitaline: Horse, 14 grain; cow, 1% grain. (b) Pilocarpine: Horse, 3 to 5 grains; cow, 5 to 10 grains. 318 VETERINARY STATE BOARD State the dose and the general physiological action of cocaine. Dose for the horse, 5 to 10 grains. Not much used internally. In small doses it is a cerebral, cardiac, respiratory, and nervous stimulant and diuretic. It is a powerful local anesthetic, and is used in this connection almost entirely. Give the source, preparation and uses of adrenalin. Obtained from the suprarenal glands of the sheep or ox. Pre- pared by freeing from fat, cleaning, drying, and powdering. Used to arrest hemorrhage from wounds, mucous membranes, and cavities of the body. It is used to render the field of operation bloodless in minor surgery; in inflammatory conditions of the eye and nose. Employed internally to check bleeding from the stomach, intestines, lungs, and uterus. What is the dose of adrenalin for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. In solution 1—-1000, intravenously, (a) 3i-iv, (b) 10 to 60 minims. What is tar? Give the uses and the actions of tar. Tar is an empyreumatic oleoresin, obtained by the destructive distillation of the wood of various species of pines, especially that of Pinus palustris. It is an antiseptic, stimulant expectorant. Externally, antiseptic and parasiticide. Used internally in cough mixtures for chronic bronchitis and heaves. By inhalation (burning on hot coals) it is used for its antiseptic and stimulating effects in bronchitis, distem- per, strangles, ete. Externally, it is used with sulphur and linseed oil in eczema and mange in horses and cattle. A common hoof dress- ing for diseases of the feet in horses. Name three acid tonics. Phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid, and nitric acid. . Mention six diuretics and state the dose of each for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. 1. Potassium nitrate, (a) 14 ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 10 grains. 2. Spirits nitrous ether, (a) 2 ounces, (b) 3 ounces, (c) 1% drachm. 3. F. E. digitalis, (a) 14 drachm, (b) 1 drachm, (c) 14 drachm. 4. Potassium citrate, (a) 14 ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (ce) 10 grains. — 5. Potassium acetate, (a) 14 ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (¢) 10 grains. 6. Balsam copaiba, (a) 4 drachms, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 14 drachm. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 319 What is cascara sagrada? Give its uses and state the dose for the dog. Cascara sagrada is an active cathartic obtained from the bark of Rhamnus purshiana (California buckthorn). It is used in dogs in doses of 5 to 30 grains to overcome chronic constipation and as a stomachie. What is mustard? State its uses in medicine. Commercial mustard is a powder obtained from Sinapis alba semina and Sinapis nigra semina, which produce white and black mustard respectively. It is an irritant or counterirritant, rube- facient, vesicant, or suppurant, according to the manner in which it is used. Used internally as an emetic for dogs and pigs. Exter- nally, it is used as a counterirritant in laryngitis, bronchitis, pneu- monia, pleurisy, colic, enteritis, peritonitis, etc. Name (a) a drug that contracts the pupil of the eye, (b) a drug that dilates the pupil of the eye. (a) Physostigmine, (b) atropine. What is the effect of massage? When is this treatment advisable? Massage exerts many of the effects of counterirritants, and, moreover, assists in mechanically relieving overloaded lymph-vessels and veins. It increases metabolism, promotes absorption, stretches adhesions, and relieves pain. It is advisable in case of edematous swellings, as in the joints, legs, and udder (mastitis); also useful in overcoming muscular atrophy, following azoturia or from other causes, and to relieve pain in neuralgic attacks. State the uses, dose and action of nitrate of potash in the treatment of the horse and cow. Potassium nitrate is used in pneumonia, influenza, mastitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, dropsical conditions, and many febrile con- ditions of the horse and cow. Externally, as a refrigerant. It possesses an alterative, febrifuge, diuretic, cardiac sedative, dia- phoretic, and feebly laxative action. Dose for the horse, 4% ounce, and for the cow, 1 ounce. State the actions, uses and dose of sugar of lead. Plumbi acetas, acetate of lead, or sugar of lead, is astringent, hemostatic, styptic, anodyne, local sedative, and desiccant. Used internally to check hemorrhage, diarrhea, dysentery, and chronic eatarrhal bronchitis; externally, to check superficial inflammation, tendonitis, arthritis, eczema, scratches, keratitis, ete. Dose, 1 drachm, 320 VETERINARY STATE BOARD State the physiologic effects, uses and dose of ether. Ether is anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, anthelmintic; a cardiac, respiratory, and cerebral stimulant, an anesthetic and a general diffusible stimulant. Used in flatulency, spasmodic colic, intestinal worms, and as a general anesthetic in surgery. Small doses are stimulant to the heart and nervous system and are useful in collapse, exhaustion, etc. How are fluidextracts prepared? Prepared by extracting (percolation) a vegetable drug with alcohol, or aleohol and water, then concentrating the resulting solu- tion by evaporation until one minim of the fluidextract represents one grain of the original drug. Give the preparations of ammonia, stating the dose of each. Aromatic spirits of ammonia, 1 ounce. Ammonium carbonate, 2 drachms. Ammonium chloride, 2 drachms. Give the source of ergot and the dose for the horse and dog. Obtained from the smut (a fungous growth) on rye. Dose of the fluidextract: For the horse, 4% to 1 ounce; for the dog, 4% to 1 drachm. Give the treatment of purpura hemorrhagica. Both general and local treatment are indicated. General treatment includes the providing of good hygienie sur- roundings and proper diet; an easily digested and laxative diet is best. Most commonly used drugs are: potassium bichromate, potas- sium chlorate, digitalis, turpentine, camphor, salicylic acid, quinine sulphate, iron preparations, strychnine, and ergot. Local treatment is directed toward swellings which threaten suffocation, and the antiseptic handling of wounds. Tracheotomy may be necessary. The advocates of serum therapy claim excellent results with polyvalent vaccines, antistreptococcic sera, ete. Give the medicinal treatment of rachitis in the dog. Calcium phosphate, or the syrup of calcium lactophosphate, is especially indicated. Iron in the form of the syrup of the iodide, and cod-liver oil are beneficial. Define (a) diuretic, (b) diaphoretic, (c) hypnotic, (d) aphrodisiac. Give an example of each. (a) A drug which increases the secretion of urine, potassium nitrate. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 321 (b) A drug which increases the secretion of sweat, pilocarpine. (ce) A drug which produces sleep, potassium bromide. (d) A drug which stimulates sexual appetite and function, can- nabis indica. Name three preparations of zinc and state the uses of each. 1. Zine chloride is used as a caustic in chronic ulcers and fistula, and as an astringent in wounds; also used in conjunctivitis and keratitis. 2. Zine sulphate is used as an emetic for dogs and pigs. Its prin- cipal use is externally as an astringent (white lotion). 3. Zine oxide is used as a dusting powder for wounds and ex- coriated surfaces. Used in the form of ointment for its desiccating, astringent and protective properties. Occasionally given internally in chorea and diarrhea. Describe tannic acid. Give the source and the actions of tannic acid. Tannic acid is a light, yellowish powder, odorless, or having a faint characteristic odor, and a strongly astringent taste. Soluble in 1 part of water. It is obtained from nut-gall. It is a powerful astringent, styptic, and coagulates albumin. Compare the action of morphine on the horse with its action on the dog. State the dose in each case. Morphine often causes cerebral and motor excitement, sweating, and dilatation of the pupil in the horse. In the dog it seldom causes excitement and sweating, but does cause contraction of the pupil, nausea, and cerebral depression. Hypodermic dose for the horse, 3 to 5 grains; for the dog, */,, to 14 grain. What is (a) a tonic, (b) an alterative? Give an example of each. (a) A tonic is a drug which produces a permanent, though scarcely perceptible, excitement of all the vital functions, Example, iron. (b) An alterative is a drug which alters the process of nutrition and excretion and restores the normal functions of an organ or of the system; ¢.g., iodide of potassium. Give the properties, actions and uses of boric acid. Occurs in transparent, white, scaly crystals; odorless, faintly bitter taste, permanent in the air, and feebly acid. Soluble in 26 parts cold water, 3 parts of warm water, and in 15 parts alcohol. It is a non-volatile, unirritating antiseptic, deodorant, and astringent, and is used in all cases where an antiseptic is indicated. 21 322 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Particularly useful as a vaginal and uterine douche and to flush the bladder in cystitis. Used in conjunctivitis and keratitis, and is given internally in diarrhea, dog distemper, and cystic catarrh. What are expectorants? Name two classes of expectorants and give an example of each class. Expectorants are agents which modify the secretion of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, and promote its expulsion. Two classes: nauseating (ipecac) and stimulating (ammonium chloride). Name three vegetable bitters. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. : Gentian, (a) 1% to 1 ounce, (b) 5 to 30 grains. Quassia (fluidextract), (a) 1 to 2 ounces, (b) 14 to 1 drachm. Cascarilla, (a) 1% to 1 ounce, (b) 10 to 30 grains. These bitters are useful in promoting the appetite in atonic indi- gestion, chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, anemia, debility, and during convalescence from acute diseases, as influenza, pneumonia, etc. They also possess some vermicidal action, especially quassia, — infusions of which are used as enemas for rectal worms. They are contra-indicated in acute inflammatory conditions of the digestive tract, as they are mild irritants. Name three vegetable cathartics. Explain briefly the action of each. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. 1. Aloes. Stimulates peristalsis and the flow of bile. (a) 8 to 10 drachms, (b) 1 to 2 ounces, (c) 20 to 60 grains. 2. Oleum lini. Acts mechanically by lubricating the bowels. (a) 1% to 1 pint, (b) 1 to 2 pints, (¢) 14 to 2 ounces. 3. Oleum ricini. Acts by increasing secretions and mechanically. (a) 1 to 2 pints, (b) 2 to 3 pints, (c) 44 to 2 ounces. Seldom used in horses and cows. Name three drugs that reduce temperature and explain the action of each. 1. Acetanilide: prevents waste and heat production, by increas- ing radiation and by depressing the activity of the heat centres. 2. Aconite: causes vascular dilatation, thus increases heat loss by radiation; retards circulation and thus lessens heat production. 3. Quinine: by its antiseptic properties lessens reflex excitability, diminishes oxidation, and depresses the heat centres. , QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 323 Describe the treatment of a case of eczema in the dog, explaining fully. In the erythematous, papular, and vesicular stages zine oxide ointment or zine oxide and starch dusting powder may be used. In the weeping stage 6 per cent. solution of nitrate of silver or some desiccant powder such as boric acid, lycopodium, or bismuth sub- gallate is used to check the weeping. Chronic eczema is treated with oil of cade, sulphuretted potash, Peruvian balsam, or creolin in suit- able dilutions. Internally, Fowler’s solution of arsenic is of great benefit. In all forms dietetic measures are employed; a laxative diet and oceasional doses of sodium sulphate help materially. Cleanliness is important, and in this connection bathing with a non-irritating soap and water is paramount. Describe a treatment for tapeworms in the dog. Fast the dog for 24 hours. Give oleoresin aspidium, 15 to 60 minims, and repeat this dose in three hours. Nine hours later give a purgative dose of castor oil. If the head of the tenia is not ex- pelled, repeat the treatment three to five days later. What are the actions and the uses of ipecac? State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. A nauseating expectorant, emetic, diaphoretic, hemostatic, ster- nutatory, stomachic. Used in bronchitis, dysentery, jaundice; also used to induce vomition in dogs and pigs. Dose (a) 14 to 2 drachms, (b) as expectorant, 14 to 2 grains; as an emetic, 5 to 30 grains. Discuss venesection. What therapeutic measures may be used in place of venesection? Venesection, or blood-letting, is employed chiefly to rapidly relieve conditions associated with a high arterial pressure and local engorgement of some organ. It reduces temperature and relieves congestion, dyspnoea, and cyanotic conditions. Venesection is employed in plethoric animals only, in acute pleurisy, pulmonary congestion, acute laminitis, urticaria, acute cerebritis or meningitis, parturient apoplexy in cows, ete. It is also employed in toxemias to remove the blood and its contained poison. Four to six and often eight quarts are drawn from the horse. Circulatory depressants as veratrum viride or aconite cause a general reduction of arterial tension and relieve local congestion. Cathartics, diuretics, and diaphoretics abstract fluid from the blood- vessels and thus lower blood-pressure. Notable among these are: arecoline, potassium nitrate, and pilocarpine. 324 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Compare the action of digitalis with the action of aconite on the heart. Digitalis slows the heart and increases its force, whereas aconite slows the heart but reduces its force. Give the action and the uses of chloroform. State the internal dose for the horse and for the dog. Chloroform is irritant, antiseptic, parasiticide, carminative, anti- spasmodic, and analgesic. Locally in spray and internally by inhala- tion, an anesthetie. It is used in dystokia to prevent straining; in chronic diarrhea, teniasis, spasmodic cough and colic. Externally, in liniments as an anodyne and counterirritant in muscular rheumatism and sprains; by inhalation, a general anesthetic in surgical operations. Dose: For the horse, 1 to 2 drachms; for the dog, 2 to 20 minims. Describe the treatment of a case of mange in the dog. Bathe with warm water and green soap to remove all dirt and scabs. Clip the hair if it is long. Apply daily for four days a mix- ture composed of Peruvian balsam 15 parts, creolin 5 parts, and alcohol 80 parts. Bathe again and repeat the application until the skin appears normal. Mention the chief uses of areca. Name two constituents of areca and give their therapeutic uses. Areca is astringent in small doses, but large amounts induce catharsis; an effective vermicide for dogs, being destructive to both tape- and round-worms. Two of its constituents are arecoline and'red tannic acid. Are- coline is used as a quick-acting cathartic in colic, acute laminitis, ete. What is the chief value of aspidium? State the dose for the dog. What precautions must be taken when administering aspidium? Chief value is its teniacide action. Dose of oleoresin aspidium (male fern) for the dog is 15 to 60 minims. It should not be given with oils; they aid its absorption. Give the actions and the uses of cannabis indica. State the dose for the horse and for the dog. Cannabis indica is an antispasmodic, anodyne, and narcotic; a cerebrospinal stimulant and aphrodisiac ; increases mental and motor activity, stimulates vasomotor nerves, and depresses sensation. It is used to relieve pain, spasm, and nervous irritability. Ser- viceable in colic, tetanus, chorea, and irritable cough. Dose of the QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 325 fluidextract: For the horse, 4 to 6 drachms; for the dog, 2 to 10 minims. Name three anthelmintics. State the dose of each for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Oleoresin aspidium, (a) 3 to 6 drachms, (b) 15 to 60 minims. Oil of turpentine, (a) 2 to 4 ounces, (b) 14 to 4 drachms. Santonin, (a) 1% ounce, (b) 2 to 20 grains. Define (a) rubefacient, (b) sedative, (c) mydriatic. Give an example of each. (a) A drug that produces slight redness of the skin, as mustard. (b) A drug that lessens functional activity of organs, lowers motility, and diminishes pain, thereby exerting a soothing influence on the whole system, as gelsemium. (c) An agent which dilates the pupil, as atropine. What is tartar emetic? Describe the actions and the uses of tartar emetic. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Tartar emetic (antimonii et potassii tartras) is prepared by mixing cream of tartar, antimony trioxide, and water. It is a systemic and local emetic, diaphoretic, cardiac, and arterial sedative, gastro-intestinal irritant, expectorant, and vermicide. Used as an emetic in dogs; in the dry stage of bronchitis and for intestinal worms in horses. Dose, (a) 1% to 2 drachms, (b) emetic 1 to 4 grains, expectorant 1/,, to 4 grain. What is pyoktanin? What are its uses? ‘*Pyoktanin’’ is the trade name for methylene blue, an aniline dye. It is antiseptic and astringent, and is used in strength of 1—1000 to 1-100 for ulcerated cornea, conjunctivitis, ulcers, and pus-secreting sores in general. Given internally, it is eliminated chiefly by the kidneys, rendering the urine blue and exerting an anti- septic action on the urinary tract, hence it is serviceable in nephritis, cystitis, urethritis, ete. Give the source, the actions and the uses of balsam of Peru. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Balsam of Peru is obtained in Central America from Tolutfera pereire. It is stimulant, antiseptic, and parasiticide externally ; stomachic, carminative, and antiseptic internally. Used in chronic eczema, mange, lousiness, ringworm, ulcers, chronic bronchitis, pye- litis, and cystitis. Dose, (a) 1 ounce, (b) 10 to 30 minims. 326 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Describe the treatment of a case of mammitis in the cow. Give a laxative (Epsom salts, 1 to 2 pounds). After purging, give potassium nitrate in one-ounce doses, twice daily. Apply hot fomentations several times daily, and follow each application with a cooling, astringent lotion, such as Burrow’s lotion, in the early stages. A suspensory bandage is serviceable to hold packs and afford relief to the patient. Afterwards, emollients such as camphorated oil and cocoa butter are indicated. The udder should be milked thrice daily. If milking is painful, use a milk catheter and apply ointments containing belladonna extract. If abscesses threaten, apply poultices to hasten their development, open and use antiseptic measures. Gangrene calls for amputation at an early date. Describe permanganate of potassium. Give its actions and uses. Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusing together caustic potash, chlorate of potash, and oxide of manganese. It occurs as needle-shaped crystals of a deep-purple color, disagreeable, astrin- gent taste, soluble in 16 parts of water. It is a powerful oxidizing agent, hence it is antiseptic and deodorant. Full strength it is caustic; diluted it is astringent. It is used to deodorize and disinfect foul-smelling wounds, nasal gleet, stomatitis, retained placenta, catarrhal endometritis (1—2000 solution). Used to sterilize hands and instruments. Internally, it is used in flatulency, puerperal fever, septicemia, and is an antidote for morphine and opium poisoning. Name four heart stimulants. Give their actions and state the dose of each for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. 1. F. E. digitalis: Slows the heart and increases its force. (a) 1 drachm, (b) 1 to 3 minims. 2. Tr. strophanthus: Same action as digitalis. (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 10 minims. 3. Spirits of glonoin: Accelerates the heart’s action and lowers blood-pressure by dilating the arterioles. (a) 14 to 1 drachm, (b) ¥% to 2 minims. 4, Spts. ammonia aromaticus: Stimulates the vasomotor centres. (a) 14 to 11% ounces, (b) 5 to 60 minims. What is an emetic? To what animals should emetics be given? Give examples of emetics, stating the dose in each case, An emetic is a drug which produces vomiting. Emetics are given to dogs, cats, and pigs. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 327 Ipecac : Dose for dogs, 5 to 30 grains; swine, 15 to 30 grains; cats, 5 to 10 grains. Tartar emetic: Dogs, 1 to 4 grains; swine, 4 to 10 grains; cats, 1 to 2 grains. Apomorphine hydrochloride: Subcutaneously, dogs, 1/;, to 1/1 grain ; swine, '/,, to1/, grain. What preparations of arsenic are most used in veterinary medicine? Arsenous acid, Fowler’s solution, and Pearson’s solution. Discuss the actions and the uses of the salicylic acid preparations. Actions: Antiseptic, antirheumatic, diaphoretic, cardiac de- pressant, antiferment, antipyretic, irritant, and astringent. Used especially in rheumatism and muscular soreness; also used in influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, and flatulency. Salicylic acid is used externally as an antiseptic in wound dressing, but is too expensive. Salol is used in diarrhcea, cystitis, urethritis, ete. Give the source, actions and uses of camphor. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Camphor is obtained from the branches and chipped wood of Cinnamomum camphora, or camphor tree. The wood is exposed to the vapor of boiling water, and the volatilized camphor is condensed and refined by sublimation. It is also obtained by tapping the trees and collecting the exudate. Actions: Antispasmodic or nerve stimulant, anodyne, antiseptic, diaphoretic, a stimulating expectorant, a cerebral excitant or nar- cotic, a gastro-intestinal irritant, a rubefacient, a carminative, a respiratory and cardiac stimulant. Used in cough mixtures (electuaries) for acute bronchitis, pneu- monia, antispasmodic in colic, ‘‘thumps,’’ chorea, ete. Influenza and dog distemper are benefited by the use of camphor. Given sub- cutaneously in collapse and exhaustion. Applied externally in lini- ments and oils for anodyne effect, also to check milk secretion. Dose, (a) 1 to 3 drachms, (b) 3 to 20 grains. Give the uses of caffeine in veterinary medicine. State the actions and the dose of caffeine. Used as an antidote to opium poisoning; dropsical swellings in dogs, heart stimulant in collapse. Its actions are cerebral and cardiac stimulant and diuretic. It increases blood-pressure. Dose for horse, 7 to 15 grains, 328 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Give the actions and the uses of strophanthus. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Strophanthus slows and strengthens the heart, same as digitalis; also has diuretic effect by increasing blood-supply to kidneys and by stimulating the secretory cells of the renal tubules. It is not cumulative like digitalis. Used in valvular disease of the heart, ascites, hydrothorax, chronic interstitial nephritis, and as a substi- tute for digitalis when the latter is losing its effect from repeated use. Dose of the tincture, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 10 minims. Give the actions and the uses of podophyllin. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Cholagogue cathartic, slow and uncertain. Used in constipation associated with jaundice and hepatic disorders. Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 1 to 2 grains. Give the composition and the therapeutic uses of Dover’s powder. Dover’s powder, or pulvis ipecachuanhe et opii, consists of ipecae 10 per cent., powdered opium 10 per cent., sugar of milk 80 per cent. Used as a diaphoretic and expectorant in colds, early stages of acute bronchitis, and pneumonia. Discuss pilocarpine with reference to its composition, actions and uses. State the dose. Pilocarpus contains two alkaloids, pilocarpine and jaborine. Pilocarpus is a diaphoretic, sialogogue, cardiac depressant, my- otic, emetic, expectorant. The alkaloid pilocarpine is used to assist eserine in its action as a quick-acting cathartic in colic, ete. Pilo- carpus is used as an expectorant in bronchitis, and as a diaphoretie to stop chills and abort inflammatory diseases such as pneumonia, lymphangitis, laminitis, azoturia, ete. Dose of the fluidextract for the horse, 4 to 1 ounce; pilocarpine, hypodermically, 2 to 5 grains. Describe croton oil as to derivation, physical properties, action, uses, dose, toxic dose and antidote. Croton oil is a fixed oil expressed from the seed of Croton tiglium. It is a pale-yellow, viscid liquid, having a slight fatty odor and an oily, burning taste. Externally it is a powerful irritant, and inter- nally it is an intense gastro-intestinal irritant, causing drastic pur- — gation. It is used as a counterirritant (cautiously). Internally it is given for its drastic purgative action to horses and cattle, in obstinate constipation when other remedies fail. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 329 Dose for the horse, 15 to 30 drops in olive or linseed oil. Toxic dose, over 30 drops, although smaller amounts may produce gastro- enteritis with bloody stools and death. Should be given cautiously. Antidote: Demulcents, opium, and stimulants. Define cataplasm, counterirritant, fomentation. A eataplasm, or poultice, is a preparation for the local appli- cation of heat and moisture. A counterirritant is an irritant used against an existing irri- tation or inflammation by reflexly causing contraction of the vessels in the congested or inflamed underlying parts. Fomentation refers to bathing parts with plain or medicated hot water, by means of sponge or cloth. Define disinfectant, antiseptic, deodorant. Explain the difference in the action of these agents. A disinfectant is an agent used to destroy microdrganisms caus- ing infectious and contagious diseases, fermentation, and putre- faction. An antiseptic is an agent used to prevent the growth and de- velopment of the microdrganisms causing fermentation, putrefac- tion, and disease, more especially the germs producing pus. A deodorant is an agent which destroys or counteracts a foul odor. Disinfectants, as a rule, are used on floors, buildings, grounds, ete. Antiseptics are less strongly germicidal and are used on or in the body. Most deodorants are disinfectants and antiseptics. Give a method of treatment of hemoglobinuria. Administer a ten-drachm aloes ball, followed by linseed oil if necessary. Provide plenty of bedding in a warm stable and roll patient over every four hours. If restless and violent, give chloral hydrate by the mouth, or cannabis indica intravenously. Evacuate the bladder and rectum several times daily. Avoid slings unless patient can stand, in which ease they are unnecessary. Enforced standing is liable to produce muscle rupture and intramuscular hemorrhage. Feed bran-mashes and supply plenty of fresh water. Give a method of treatment of lymphangitis. Give a ten-drachm aloes ball, followed by one pint of linseed oil if necessary to purge. Feed bran-mashes and give plenty of fresh water, but no hay. Cold-water irrigation is indicated during the first 24 hours, afterwards hot fomentations. Apply Burrow’s lotion 330 VETERINARY STATE BOARD after irrigating. Give a diuretic such as potassium nitrate, one-half ounce three times daily. Exercise is beneficial as soon as the patient is able to walk. Treat any wounds antiseptically. Give the treatment of constipation in a hog weighing about 200 pounds. Mention three methods of administering the medicine. Warm soap-water enemas will empty the posterior bowel and stimulate peristalsis. Add one ounce of sodium sulphate to the feed or drinking water or sprinkle upon the tongue. The stomach- tube may be used to administer liquid medicines to prevent aspira- tion of same into the lungs. Three ounces of castor oil may be given in this way. Subcutaneous injections of eserine sulphate in */,-grain doses may be useful in removing the impaction. Give the actions and the uses of resorcin. State the dose (a) for the horse, (b) for the dog. Resorcin is antiseptic externally, and internally possesses a slight local anesthetic effect. Used externally in skin diseases, psoriasis especially. Internally used in gastric fermentation and indigestion, seldom. Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 4 grains. What are the uses of protargol in veterinary medicine? Describe fully. Protargol is a non-official preparation of silver (8.3 per cent. strength). It is used in acute catarrhal and purulent conjunctivitis in from one-half to ten per cent. aqueous solutions. It has an anti- septic and astringent action and is less irritating than silver nitrate solutions. Discuss potassium nitrate as to derivation, actions and uses. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. Potassium nitrate is found in the soils in certain regions and climates (India and Chile). It is made artificially by the putre- faction of animal or vegetable material in the presence of heat, mois- ture, oxygen, and alkaline or earthy bases. It is alterative, febrifuge, diuretic, and feebly laxative in action. It is also cardiac depressant, mildly refrigerant and diaphoretie, as well as expectorant. Used in febrile conditions such as pneumonia, influenza, laminitis, mastitis, ete.; dropsical swellings in general. Externally, it is used for its refrigerant action jn local inflammatory conditions. Dose, (a) 1%4 ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 5 to 20 grains. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 331 Give the action and the uses of sodium bicarbonate. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Discuss fully. Sodium bicarbonate is antacid, alterative, and mildly anodyne (locally). It increases the flow of the gastric juice and the fluidity of the bile, and dissolves mucus. Used in eatarrh of the gastro-intestinal tract, gastric indigestion associated with flatulency and acidity. Often combined with calomel for its synergistic action. Dissolves membranes in croupous enteritis. Externally, it is used in solution to allay itching in skin diseases, burns, ete., and as an injection for leucorrhcea and chronic rhinitis. Dose, (a) 2 drachms to 2 ounces, (b) 10 grains to 14 drachm. What are(a) antiphlogistics, (b) antipyretics? Give an example of each. (a) Remedies employed to prevent the progress of inflammatory processes, either local or general, as ichthyol. (b) Agents which reduce high temperature in fever, as phenacetin. How do acids and alkalies act on the secretions? Acids lessen the secretion of the gastric juice and increase the secretion of saliva. Alkalies increase the flow of gastric juice and diminish the secretion of saliva. How are medicines classified ? A physiological classification of medicines depends upon their action, whether general or local. Drugs having a general action may be subdivided into stimulants, sedatives, tonics, and alteratives. Drugs acting locally may be classified according to the part or parts upon which they act; for instance, cardiac stimulants, cerebral excitants, gastric sedatives, ete. Name agents that prominently affect the alimentary canal or its con- tents. Aloes, calomel, bismuth subnitrate, and opium. Name agents that prominently affect the respiratory organs. Lobelia, ipecac, belladonna, veratrum, and ether. Name agents that prominently affect the follicular or glandular organs. Pilocarpine, belladonna, eserine, and arecoline. Name agents that prominently affect the nervous system. Strychnine, opium, chloral, and ether. 332 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Name agents that prominently affect the organs of reproduction. Ergot, cannabis indica, cantharides, and viburnum prunifolium. Name agents whose actions are prominently chemical. Acids, alkalies, and caustics. Name agents whose actions are prominently mechnical. Linseed oil, petrolatum, and acacia. Describe saline infusion, three methods of introduction and three indi- cations for its use. Saline infusion refers to the introduction of a solution of sodium chloride into the animal’s body to replace the normal blood-plasma which has been lost by hemorrhage or has been withdrawn for thera- peutic purposes. The solution which is used consists of 0.6 of 1 per cent. sodium chloride in sterile distilled water. The fluid may be introduced by (1) intravenous injection, (2) injections into subcutaneous tissues (hypodermoclysis), (3) rectal injection (enteroclysis), (4) intraperitoneal injection. Saline infusions are used in cases of excessive purging where a large amount of fluid is lost ; in severe hemorrhage; in certain blood- poisoning diseases the patient may be bled to rid the body of some of the toxin present, and the fluidity of the blood restored by this method. PRESCRIPTION WRITING Write a prescription for a purgative. Jan. 2, 1914. For Mr. Brown’s bay horse. R ATOeR AT DAGENSIS' oe aeyaie stelle wielete eit ieraietels 3x Hydrargyri chloridi Mitia (soc. ee es cele e ns gr. Xxx Pulvyenianzineibenisy J) yess ele hea Nal aii 3 iss SEROTEC LH) rod iel sale lai sic Wola Ansiial eve Ke) oles eh er etellaps (nyse fel qs. M. et fiant bolus No. I. Sig.—For doctor’s use. JoHN Dog, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a chronic cough. Jan. 2, 1914. For Mr. Jones’s gray gelding. B MASE COMT A Ghee eh cA NAs nea RPal la ete ierleoe ave lori kcal atone stel oes 3 iv O) CS Dire bye NEMS IERE | aM EME eer iiol MAI y TE peta NOLES ete 0 ij M. Sig.—Give one tablespoonful 3 or 4 times daily. JOHN Dor, D.V.M. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 333 Write a prescription for round worms in the dog. Give full directions. For Miss Smith’s dog. Jan. 2, 1914, BR Santonini. Hydrargyri chloridi mitis .................. 44 grs. iv Medmim | Dicarbonatisy \ 0.6. ./.:6..6.. sewcle d's 6 sleie ds 3j M. et div. pulv. No. viij. Sig.—Fast dog 24 hours, then give one powder every hour until all are given. JOHN Dor, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a two-weeks-old calf suffering from diarrhea. For Mr. Jones’s calf. Jan. 2, 1914, R Bismuthi subnitratis. TORE PTR PAPAL, 6 La wiu hohe ec esse a alale woe vee aa 3 ilj M. et ft. capsule No. X. Sig.—Give one capsule every two hours. JOHN Dog, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a horse whose temperature is 105°, respiration 30 and pulse 75 but strong, the medicine to be given in liquid form. For Mr. Brown’s bay mare. Jan. 2, 1914. BR MPSA PUR UATAE ois a Saari cleseieis a's 4 wah ais 8.6 aielele' o's, 3 iv (Ac. sulphurici, qs.) RET MCIDUG AIG ete lcuelstetecisieleel siniereiovore) Oorere eicce eid ers alelejara 5V PROMI NEL ELL. Pe! ouafe sted el a'd/s e's <4 sieves cea nerve Oj M. et ft. sol. Sig.—Give two tablespoonsful every six hours. JOHN Dos, D.V.M. Write a prescription for half an ounce of a 5 per cent. solution of cocaine. BR Cocaine ‘hydrochloratig) 7.00.1... 2c ses e ee cwee grs. xij GME GOMMARD os cc occ e kee ee se sceeses avieie 3 iv Prescribe for a dog suffering from mange. For Mrs. Smith’s dog. Jan. 2, 1914. BR Bia AAINT POLUVARITG 6 balers cements tle oils, 4 wie diRiaisle wie 3 iiss MEVRUIRTED 3 Tas kt A ead siwin 0 Fin WSN EW 9'% oaks, e Re e'e« 3 vj Aleoholis, qs. ad. ...... 0. ccccceee secs eeeeceeene Oj M. et ft. sol. Sig—Apply a small amount on affected areas once daily for four days, then bathe and repeat. JOHN Dog, D.V.M. 334 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Write a prescription for a purgative for a g00-pound cow. R For Mr. Brown’s cow. Jan. 2, 1914. Magnesii sulphatis ..........ccesesesesecscnee 3 xxiv OGSE BIOTIN once o's tes Sai Ee peinino eee bles 3 viij TE CAB UNCLE | a5. 5 cian ia jae = SOI SIP Se le ele Sites ws 3 iij PN el ono ree 5s ei she ae aGBNES yh BI ete aaron eve Oiv M. Sig.—Give at one dose as a drench. JOHN DoE, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a horse suffering from spasmodic colic, giving the directions in plain English. R For Mr. Brown’s bay mare. Jan. 2, 1914. Spts. ammonii aromatici. lel PeretEO Ue ic. o\< 4's aieleeheis maces ane ota e lt aa 3j (1 Pei) Fc 1 Ras SPP mVeneaC AS SOS Gl JPEN AR AE to eG ea URURP OS) 3 xiv M. Sig.—Give at one dose as a drench. JOHN Dor, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a tonic for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog. (a) B Liquoris potassii arsenitis ...........0..seeeeees 3 xij Tincturs CeNtiaANSiCOMP. 5.5... cecedccvcserenes 3 iss PP GEUNSS: QIGBE ioc iio dine emia ie soaps + ewe wp anne Oe 3 ij Fluidi extracti nucis vomice ............00..22005 § iss M. Sig.—Give one tablespoonful t. i. d. before meals. (b) B CUES - PRB REIB 7 5. - oon aise sp ha Meee gale eae 3 vj Ferri sulphatis ...:0.0j.00sscc0nsncerrscseccsons 5 ij Pulveris gentine radicis ..........+...+. Die sey atete 5 vj Pulveris nucis vomice .........cccc cece cc ececes 3 iss M. et ft. pulv. No. xij. Sig—Give one powder on tongue t. i. d. (c) B Syrupi ferri, quinine et strychnine phosphati...... 5 iv Sig—One teaspoonful t. i. d. before feeding. Write a prescription for a cough powder for an adult horse. B For Mr. Smith’s brown stallion. Jan. 2, 1914. Camphore. Pobancit ahloraths |...) cs TRONS MOE WER 22 aa 3 j Pialveris Bey Oy TTAB. a sv) sisisesiniviiorae seo bles yo 5 iv PL ext. helladonne «05.50 0s tiotuleiihieeeh ih... 3j Theriace qs. Misce et fiant electuarium. Sig.—One tablespoonful on back teeth t. i. d. JoHN Dog, D.V.M. See ee QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 335 Write a prescription for 15 powders for a tonic containing a simple bitter, a preparation of iron and a nerve tonic, to be given in powder form. For Mr. Black’s gray mare. Jan. 2, 1914. BR Polveris wentiane’ TAGICIS: 2's... 6. es 8s olen 3 viij POEWAC Re UA EIS hi fo oie’ eh vaste wie < eel nS aie let 5 ij SEEVCUMIN PMIPNAGS 6b ies eae cc eee e nse se grs. xij M. et ft. pulv. No. xv. Sig.—Give one powder in feed t. i. d. JOHN Dor, D.V.M, Prescribe a treatment for chronic eczema in the dog. For Miss Johnson’s dog. Jan. 2, 1914, BR Sulphuris sublimati ... 06.00... ese cc cerenscenes 3j OSG COMEAIAD 5) Soca, dow sia les sptaig » eal aiehe Sala iw oN) s Smt mlaletals & iij Adipia lane bydrogt oi 40...4ee 2s cee ae ese ee 5v M. et ft. unguentum. Sig.—Thoroughly rub in and leave for 48 hours, then wash and repeat. JOHN Dog, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a blister, in the form of an ointment. Give directions for applying the blister and state what precau- tions should be taken after it is applied. For Mr. Williams’s bay mare. Jan. 3, 1914. B Hydrargyri biniodidi. IG eris) CANENAIIS ilove cos tas nts ene n ds ea sigeinie 44 3 ij PANES ka Pia ish lo isle “oA taiais la Aisi nh oS RNa lara’ 3 iij M. et ft. unguentum. Sig —Clip hair over spavin and apply ointment with con- siderable friction. Three days later, apply vase- line over blistered area. Tie horse short to pre- vent interference by biting parts. JouHN Dog, D.V.M. Write a prescription for a cathartic for a sheep. For Mr. Black’s sheep. Jan. 3, 1914. BR Magnesii sulphatis ............--+- Siabiamslarsiote wow Ow Rgitiiy CHIGCIGD) CaP RRS Dk sere s'a cme BAS SEN ea oe 5 ij Misce et ft. pulv. No. I. Sig.—Dissolve powder in half pint of water and give as a drench. JoHN Doe, D.V.M. 336 VETERINARY STATE BOARD Prescribe treatment for a dog whose temperature is 105°, respiration 50 and pulse 120 but weak, the medicine to be given in liquid form. For Miss Brown’s dog. Jan. 3, 1914. BR Tancturee /ACONIbl, se lal waa ttgecie aolehactelee ae 6 3 iss pte MtHETIS DIGLORE 05. Calin otetdinia waite ears 3 iv PRIESTS | Sie cs n'a Gee pipiens he een eon Pa eialp Ne eae 5 ij Misce et ft. sol. Sig.—One teaspoonful every 3 hours. JOHN Dog, D.V.M. Write a prescription for scratches. For Mr. Jennings’s chestnut mare Jan. 3, 1914. BR Tincture benzoini composite. Mr EY CRTIEE voles! action, properties and uses of, 321 carbolic, source, 37 dibasic, 4 gallic, 34 hippuric, 127 hydrochloric, 318 preparation of, 26 _ source of, in gastric juice, 118 lactic, 38, 42 mineral, 40 monobasic, 4 nitric, preparation of, and uses, 19. phosphoric, 11, 318 | sulphuric, 23 graphic formula of, 11, 24 preparation of, 23, 24. ic, 34 . actions and source, 321, tartaric, 38 Acid, tribasic, 4 uric, 127 Acid-fast organisms, 162 Acne, pathology, 156 symptoms and treatment, 202 Aconite, dose of tincture, 299 maximum doses, 299 physiological actions, 298 therapeutic uses, 298 Aconitine, 315 Actinobacillosis, 180 animals affected by, 180 diagnosis and treatment, 180' Actinomycosis, 180 fungus of, 162 prescription for, 336 symptoms and treatment, 180, 227 Adrenalin, dose for dog and horse, 318 preparation, source and uses, 318 Adrenals, anatomy, 96, 98 vascular glands, 112 Aérobic, facultative and obligative, 161 term defined, 161 Age, determination of, 225, 365 of breeding, 364 Agglutinins, 163 Air, 20, 346 changes in inspired, 113, 346 composition of breathed, 346 of normal, 115, 346 constituents of, 20 injurious substances added to, breathing, 20 mixture not a compound, 20 residual, 114 i space requirements, 346 tidal, 103, 114 Anatomy, 44 Albuminuria, conditions found in, 186 Alcohols, absolute, 35 ethyl, 35 methyl, 35 preparation and uses of, 35 Aldehyde, 35 Alimentation, 104 Alkalies, 3 actions of, 300 on secretions, 331 "caustic, antidote for, 39 uses, 300 Alkaloid, 38, 311 antidote for, 38 Alkaloids, six common, 311 Allantois, 274 Allotropism, 5 Aloes, action of, 322 Barbadoes, 317 368 Aloes, Cape, 317 dose for cow, dog, and horse, 322 Socotrine, 317 Alterative, 321 Aluminum, important salts of, 31 sulphate, 31 Alums, 31 Alveolus, 45 Amalgam, 4 Amaurosis, causes, 218 defined, 218 treatment, 218 Amboceptors, 167, 168, 342 bacterial, 168 hemolytic, 167, 168 Ammonia, 19 aqua, 301 aromatic spirits of, dose, 320 sign of danger in drinking water, 19 source and uses of, 19 Ammonium acetate, 35 carbonate, 301 dose, 320 chloride, 19, 301 dose, 320 iodide, 303 dose, 314 nitrate, 20 Amnion, 274 Amorphism, 2 Amphiarthrosis, 52 Amputation of hind limb, 98 of penis, 235 of tail, indications for, 239 of udder, indications, 326 Amylopsin, 116, 121 Anabolism, 40, 126 Anzmia, 182, 141 causes of, 182 cerebral, 200 post-mortem appearance of, 155 ‘ infectious, treatment, 182 Anaérobic, term defined, 161 facultative and obligative, 161 Anesthesia, chloroform, 258, 315 dangers of, 258 of a foot for operation, 258 Anesthetic, defined, 307 general, local, and uses, 307 Anesthetics, 258 in major operations, 258 in horse, ox and dog, 258 in minor operations, 258 in horse, ox and dog, 258 Analysis, 3 Anaphylaxis, 143 Anasarca, 144 Anatomy, histological, 99 obstetrical, 259 soft organs concerned in, 259 : topographical, 98 Anchylosis, defined, 214 Anchylostoma, 197 animals attacked by, 197 INDEX nar Aten symptoms and treatment, Aneurism, 149 causes, 187 defined, 217 false, 217 of cceliac and mesenteric arteries, 149 cause of, 149 symptoms and treatment, 187 true, 217 varieties of, 217 Angioma, 146 Animal heat, 128 conditions influencing, 128 how maintained, 128 how regulated, 128 in cold-blooded animals, 128 in warm-blooded animals, 128 hacen examination of food-animals Anthelmintics, 325 Anthrax, in cattle, 175 bacillus of, 172 etal Cen me course, 175 cutaneous form, 175 5 differentiated from malignant cedema, _ 166 5 disinfecting ships, 348 immunization in, 341 method of procedure in outbreak, 349 9 post-mortem lesions, 158 ; symptoms, 175 Antibodies, 167, 168 ) Antidotes, chemical, 39 F differentiated from antagonists, 338 : for poisoning by aconite, 339 by alkaloids, 38 : by arsenic, 338 by atropine, 340 by chloral hydrate, 340 by chloroform, 340 by corrosive sublimate, 338 by lead, 339 by mercury, 339 by morphine, 340 by strychnine, 340 mechanical and physiological, 39 Antimony, 34 Antiphlogistics, 210, 331 Antipyrine, 310, 317 Antiseptic, defined, 161, 329 economic, 316 for wounds, 309 wound treatment, 206 Antiseptics, 24 Antitoxin, 163, 341 tetanus, dose, 343 source, unit, and use, 343 treatment, 341 Anus, imperforated, treatment, 296 Aorta, anterior branches, common, 64 posterior, branches of, 63 Aphrodisiac, 320 INDEX Aphthe epizodtice, 176 symptoms and treatment, 176 Apneea, 114 Apomorphine, for the dog, 308 inistration and dose, 308 use, 308, 316 hydrochloride, dose, 327 Aponeuroses, 57 Apoplexy, 155 parturient, 287 Aqueous humor, 93, 94 Arachnoid, anatomy, 71 physiology, 133 ca nut, a vermifuge, dose, 316 use and constituents of, 324 Arecoline hydrobromide, actions, 303 dose, 303, 312 Argyrol, 27 Arsenic, 33 actions and administration, 303 antidote for, 39, 338 compounds of, used in medicine, 38 Fowler’s solution of, 33 Marsh’s test for, 33 poisoning by, symptoms, 338 preparations used in medicine, 303, 327 trioxide, 33 uses, 303 Arteries, anterior mesenteric, 63 anterior tibial, 65 axillary and brachial, 64 broncho-cesophageal, 63 collateral of cannon, 64 digital, 64 external carotid and iliac, 65 external pudic, 92 femoral, 66 function, 110 gastric, 66 glossofacial, 65 hepatic, 66 histologically described, 99 humeral, 64 iliac, 64 inflammation of, 217 intercostal, 63 internal iliacs, 66 maxillary, 65 pudic, 92 lumbar, 63 middle sacral, 63 perpendicular, 64 phrenic, 63 plantar ungual, 64 popliteal, 65 posterior mesenteric, 63 radial, 64 preplantar ungual, 64 renal, 63 small testicular, 64 spermatic, 63, 92 splenic, 66 superficial temporal, 65 869 Arteries, umbilical, 67 uterine, 66 vertebral. 65 Arteritis, causes, defined, 217 Arthritis, defined, 148, 214 deforming, 214, 248 lesions of, 148 rg suppurative, and tubercular, 1 varieties of, 214 Arthrology, 51 Articulations, 51 atlo-axoid, 52 classes, 51 costochondral and costosternal, 53 coxofemoral and femorotibial, 56 humeroradial, 53 interphalangeal, 55 of the tarsus, 56 of the vertebra, 52 radiocarpal, 54 scapulohumeral, 53 structures entering into, 52 Atrophy, 141, 143 causes of, 143 Ascaris megalocephala, 195 prescription for, 195 symptoms, 195 Ascites, causes, 198 defined, 198 ,in the dog, causes, symptoms and treatment, 231 Asepsis, defined, 161 Aseptic wound treatment, 206 Asphyxia, 115 in new-born, 294 treatment, 294 stages of, 115 Aspidium, dose, 324, 325 oleoresin, 325 precautions in administering, 324 value of, 324 Asthma, bronchial, 189 animal most susceptible to, 189 causes, symptoms and treatment, 189 Atavism, 361 Atelectasis, 151 Atom, 3 Atomic weight, 5 Atlas, vertebra, 48 articulation of, 52 Atropine, action, 309 poisoning by, symptoms and antidote, 340 source, 309 sulphate, dose of, 312 Auditory nerve, 75 function of, 135, 137 Augmentation, defined, 133 Auscultation, 171 Autogenous vaccine, 344 Auto-intoxication, 142 Automatism, defined, 133 Avogadro’s law, 12 370 Axis, vertebre, 48 articulations of, 52 Azoturia, 183 differentiated from spinal meningitis, 169 etiology, 183 pathology of, 154 prevention of, 183 symptoms, 183 treatment, 183, 329 Bacillus, 160 Bang’s, 161, 277 Johne’s, 179 Koch’s, 161 necrophorus, 163 Nicolaier’s, 161 of anthrax, tetanus and tuberculosis, 162 paratuberculosis, 163 Bacteria, pathogenic, methods of dis- semination, 348 Bacteriacee, 160 Bacterin therapy, 344 Bacteriology, 160 Bacteriologic examination, 163 collecting tissues for, 163 Bacterium, 160 lactic acid, 42 method of "producing disease, 164 Migula’s classification of, 160 resistant to disinfectants, 348 Balanced rations, 127, 360 Balsam copaiba, dose, 318 Peru, actions, 325 dose, source, and use, 325 Bang, bacillus of, 161, 277 method of eradicating tuberculosis, 350 Barium, 29, 30 chloride, 30 dose, and indications for, 299 Bar-shoe, contra-indicated, 256 in corns, 254 in laminitis, 255 in thrush, 254 uses of, 256 Base, 3 Bayer’s operation for quittor, 252 Beef, cold slaughtered, 355 detection of, 355 physiological conditions rendering un- fit, 354 Beggiatoa, 160 Beggiatocex, 160 Belladonna, actions and uses, 308 Bell metal, 12 Benzoated lard, 309 preparation of and uses, 309 Bessemer process, 32 Bile, 120 functions of, 120 result of suspended secretion of, 109 salts of, 103 INDEX Bile, secretion in equine and bovine com- pared, 120 Bishoping, method of, 226 Bismuth, 31 citrate, 31 salts of, action externally, 314 subcarbonate, 31 subgallate, 31 subnitrate, 31 actions and dose, 314 subsalicylate, 31 Bitters, vegetable, 322 Bladder, urinary, anatomy, 89 paralysis of, in horse and dog, 233 ee ’ symptoms and treatment, 2 prolapse of, in mare, treatment, 233 rupture of, causes, symptoms and treatment, 233 Blastoderm, function of, 273 membranes of, 273 Bleaching powder, 8 Blistering agents, 313 for different animals, 313 Bloating, accompanying choke, 222 in cattle, 192 Blood, amount of, in horse, 107 arterial and venous compared, 108 cause of alkalinity, 108 circulation of, in brain, 112 coagulation of, 108 color of, in renal veins, 108 composition of, 101, 106, 107 defined, 106 flow of, in arteries and veins, 111 forces that cause circulation of, 110 function of, in secretion, 104 gases found in, 107 inflammatory appearances of, 210 oxygen, how carried in, 108 pathology of, 146 pressure, 111 factors that decrease and ine crease, 111 governed, 111 highest and lowest, 111 proteids of, 107 velocity of, 111 greatest and lowest, 111 vessels, 100 diseases of, 217 pathology of, 148 Blood-clot, 147 ante-mortem and post-mortem com pared, 147 Blow-pipe, oxyhydrogen, 15 Blue vitriol, 7 Bones, 44 atlas, 48 axis, 48 blood supply of, 66 carpal, 48 cuneiform, 48 development of, 44 INDEX 371 Bones, femur, fracture of, 246 frontal of the ox, 45 ilium and ischium, 50 inferior maxillary, 46 inflammation of, 212 lunar, 48 number of, in the horse, 44 of the cranium, of the ear, 137 of the foot, 48 of the fore limb, horse and ox, 47 of the head, 44 of the hind limb, 50 of the pelvis, 50 os innominatum, 50 pathology of, 147 , 48 pisiform, 48 properties of, 44, 105 pubis, 50 ribs, 51 sacrum, 50 scaphoid, 48 scapula, 47 superior maxillary, 45 trapezoid, 48 ulna, 47 unciform, 48 Bob-veal, 353 method of detection, 353 relation to health, 353 Body, excreting organs of, 105 inorganic constituents of, 106 secreting organs of, 105 vital organs of, 105 Borax, 31 Boric acid, 31 Boron, 31 Bots, in throat of solipeds, 188 Boyle’s law, 1 Brain, anemia of, pathology, 155 anatomy, 71, 72 circulation of blood in, 112 hyperemia of, 200 membranes of, 71, 133 function of, 133 Brass, 12 Breathing, Cheyne-Stokes, 166 Broken knee, treatment of, 241 Bromine, preparation of, 27 uses in medicine, 27 Bronchitis, inhalation, 188 causes of, 188 symptoms, 189 verminous, treatment in calves, 189 Bronchopneumonia, 188 appearance of lungs in, 151 Bunsen burner, Czcum, anatomy, 83 capacity of, 83 horse and ox compared, 83 puncturing, tissues involved in, 232 Caecum, puncturing, unsatisfactory results in, 232 Cesium, 29 Caffeine, actions, dose and use of, 327 Calabar bean, alkaloid of, 312 Calcification, 144 Calcium, 29 carbide, 22 hydroxide, 11 hypochlorite, 8 sulphate, 30 Calculus, defined, 212 salivary, treatment, 227 urinary, symptoms and treatment, 223 varieties of, 212 Calomel, 28, 299 preparation and properties of, 28 uses, 299 Calorie, large and small, 129 a hi actions, dose, source and uses, maxillodental, 46 palatine, 45 Cancer, varieties of, 145 Canker, 254 differentiated from thrush, 254 prognosis, 254 symptoms and treatment, 254 Cannabis indica, actions and use, 324 dose for dog and horse, 324 Cantharides, actions and uses, 302 active principles of, 314 source, 314 Capped hock, causes, definition and treat- ment, 249 Carbohydrates, 34, 41, 360 differentiated from hydrocarbons, 34, 41 Carbolic acid, 37 antidote for, 40 source, 37 Carbon, 20 allotropic forms of, 21 amorphous, 21 dioxide, 11, 21 effect on health, 20 preparation of, 21 test for, 22 weight compared with air, 22 element of proteids, 106 monoxide, 11 reducing agent, 21 ae cycle, a he ypertrophy, causes and lesions of, 148 Caries, defined, 148, 213 of the teeth, 224 causes of, 148 treatment, 224 372 Carpus, structures of, 54 Cartilage, articular, function of, 105 development of bone from, 44 ensiform, 49 lateral, 55 function of, 55, 1388 of prolongation, 47 xiphoid, 49 Caruncle, 136 Cascara sagrada, 319 dose, source and uses, 319 Cascarilla, actions, dose and use, 322 Casting, accidents in, 257 methods of, in horse and ox, 257 Castor oil, actions and dose, 322 Castration, diseases resulting from, 234 hemorrhage following, 208, 234 in the male, 234 ill effects following, 234 tissues cut in, 235 Casts, urinary, 153 blood, 153 epithelial, 153 fatty, 153 granular, 153 hyaline, 153 in acute parenchymatousnephritis, 153 in chronic interstitial nephritis, 153 in chronic parenchymatous nephritis, 153 varieties, 153 waxy, 153 Catabolism, 40, 126 Cataplasm, 329 Cataract, conditions giving rise to, 219 defined, diagnosis, and forms of, 219 Cathartics, classes of, 298 vegetable, 322 Catheterization, operation of, 233 in cow, gelding, mare and steer, 233 Caudal myotomy, object, 239 Caustic alkali, 3, 39 liquid, 29 lunar, 27 Cautery, actual, 245 value of, 245 Cavity, abdominal, regions of, 99 glenoid, 51 Cell division, 102 direct and indirect, 102 physiology and properties of, 102 Cerebellum, effect of its removal, 133 function of, 133 Cerebral anzemia and hyperemia, 200 Cerebrospinal meningitis, see Meningitis Cerebrum, anatomy, 72 function, 133 Cervix uteri, laceration of, 289 treatment, 289 Cesarean section, in mare, 281 complications of, 281 in multiparous animals, 282 Chabert method of opening guttural pouch, 220 INDEX i Chemical ection, 5 tine j y,3 ponent ti 12, 13 change, 2 equations, 8, 9, 10 prefixes, 8 suffixes, 7 Chemistry, 1, 2 distinguished from physics, 1 inorganic, 2 organic, 34 physiological, 40 Chestnut, anatomy, 95 Cheyne-Stokes breathing, 166 Choke, in the cow, treatment, 222 cesophagotomy in, 221 treatment of, 221 Chordze tendine, 103 Chorea, in the dog, causes, symptoms and treatment, 200 Chorion, 274 Choroid, anatomy, 93 Chlamydobacteriacee, 160 Chloral, 36, 313 hydrate, 36 actions, dose and preparation of, 313 compared with chloroform, 36 uses in medicine, 36, 313 Chlorine, compounds of, 26 preparation and uses of, 26 Chloroform, 36 actions and uses of, 324 action of, compared with ether, 315 compared with chloral, 36 dose for dog and horse, 324 preparation of, 36 test for bile in urine, 42 Chyle, 103 compared with chyme, 119 with lymph, 120 Chyme, 119 compared with chyle, 119 Circulation, fetal, 67 of blood in the brain, 112 in the kidney, 112 pulmonary, 67, 110 systemic, 67, 110 Circulatory organs, anatomy, 62 Cladothrix, 160 Clipping, arguments for and against, 130 Clitoris, anatomy, 93, 261 Coal-tar products used in medicine, 317 Cocaine, actions and dose, 318 prescription for, 333 Coccacez, 160 Coccidia, 197 animals infested by, 197 diagnosis, prevention and treatment, 197 in the skin, 203 oviforme, 203 Ceeliac axis, 66 Ccenurus cerebralis, 200 a eae a SoeQre ee we ee ~~ 0 Apacar a- INDEX Colic, cr nm symptoms and treatment, engorgement, 194 flatulent, prescription for, 337 in pregnant animals, causes and treat- ment, 292 elem symptoms and treatment, spasmodic, 194 differentiated from enteritis, 170 prescription for, 334 thrombo-embolic, 196 Collar-galls, treatment for, 229 Collargol, 27 Collyrium, defined, 304 Colon, anatomy, 82 double, 82 function of, in digestion, 120 floating, 83 Colostrum, composition of, 269 Combustion, 3, 17 Complement, 160, 167, 168, 342 Complement-fixation test for glanders, 167 for abortion, 182 Compounds, 3 distinguished from mixtures, 9 inorganic and organic, 7 Concrements, 212 Condyle, 51 Congestion, active, 149 of lungs, 190 causes, 149, 190 lesions, 150 symptoms and treatment, 190 passive, 149 difference between active and, 149 Conjunctiva, inflammation of, 217 physiology, 136 Conjunctivitis, acute catarrhal, 217 causes, symptoms and treatment, 217 Connective tissue, anatomy, 101 varieties of, 101 Constipation, in dog, 197 in hog, treatment, 330 prescription for, 337 symptoms, 197 Contagious disease, 165, 347 contributing causes of, 348 disinfecting in, 347 important factors in prevention, method of handling, 348 Contagious pleuropneumonia, 175 appearance of lungs in, 151 course of, 175 differentiated from influenza, 170 ‘sanitary police measures, 349 symptoms, termination and treat- ment of, 175 Contracted hoof, treatment, 256 tendons, 241 operation for, 241 shoe for, 241 Coérdination, defined, 133 373 Copper acetate, 35 uses, 315 arsenite, uses, 315 preparation of, used in medicine, 315 sulphate, 7, 24 preparation of, 24 uses of, 315 Cornea, anatomy, 93 Corns, dry, 253 pathology of, 253 side-bones, relation to, 254 suppurating, 253 treatment, 253, 254 Corona, fracture of, 251 symptoms and treatment, 251 Coronary cushion, anatomy, 96 function ‘of, 138 Corpora libra, 214 nigra, function of, 137 quadrigemina, anatomy, 72 Corpus luteum, 265 false and true, in cow and SOW, 265 Corpuscles, Malpighian, 97, 112 se pas function, size and shape of, white blood-, function, 107 Corrosive sublimate, 7, 28 antidote for, 39 Corti, membrane of, 137 Cotton-seed meal, 199 effects of overfeeding, 199 Cotyledons, animals in which found, 271 fetal and maternal compared, 266 Counterirritants, 313, 339 indications for, 313 Cow, characteristics of a good milch, 363 Cowpox, causes, 173 extinction of, 173 sequele of, 173 symptoms and treatment, 173, 174 Coxitis, 245 Creatine, 127 Creatinine, 127 Crenothrix, 160 * Crith, 5 Cross-breeding, 361 Croton oil, action, 328 antidote for, and derivation of, 328 dose, toxic, 328 properties and uses of, 328 Crude fibre, 360 Cryptorchidism, cause of sterility, 293 Crystalline lens Wr? tek 93 Culture, defin pure, 161 media, 161 Cuneiform bone, anatomy, 48 Curb, causes of unsoundness, 362 defined, 249 treatment for, 249 Curd, 42 ef aS 374 INDEX A ee Cushion, coronary, 96 Diarrhoea in new-born, causes and treat- elastic, of heel, 95 ment, 194 plantar, 95, 96 prescription for, 333 Cyanosis, age liable to occur, 187 Diarthrosis, 52 ) causes of, 187 Diastole, 109 ' in new-born, cause and symptoms, 296 Diet for a dairy cow, 127 Cystic calculi, symptoms and treatment for a horse, 127 of, 232 Diffusion, 6, 41 ovary, pathology of, 154 of gases, 6 Cysticercuscellulose, disease causedby,353 Digestion, action of salt in, 122 disposition of carcass, 353 conditions that retard, 122 ’ life-cycle of, 353 of proteids, 118 Cystitis, urinary, 141, 185 organs of, 77 causes, diagnosis "and treatment, 185 steps in process of, 115 Cysts, defined, 146 Digestive organs, anatomy, 77 degeneration, 146 Digitaline, action of, 317 foreign body, 146 source of, 312 y parasitic, 146 Digitalis, action of, on heart, 109, 326 retention, 146 compared with aconite, 324 3 active principles of, 315 Dairy cattle, breeds of, 361 fluidextract, dose, 318 : hygienic precautions in, 355 Diseases, 165 i Dandruff, 124, 156 acute general infectious, 172 Dartos, anatomy, 92 chronic infectious, 179 Deafness in the ‘dog, causes of, 220 communicable to man, 354 Death by asphyxia, 115 contagious, 165 i by lightning, lesions of, 142 contributing causes of, 348 : Decay, 34 following parturition, 284 r Decidua vera, function of, in cat, 139 incident to pregnancy and labor, 284 Decoction, defined, 304 infectious, 165, 347 ? Decussation, defined, 104 and contagious differentiated, 165 Degeneration, fatty, 143 inflammatory, 353 . differentiated from fatty infiltra- milk transmission of, 356 4 tion, 143. non-inflammatory, 353 4 Deglutition, organs of, 77, 80 of the abdomen, 229 ; Dehorning, methods of, in cattle, 228 of the blood and blood-forming organs A Deliquescence, 3 182 ‘ Demodex folliculorum, 203, 204 of blood-vessels, 217 ; Dental formula, dog, 78, 79 of circulatory organs, 186 , horse, 78, 79, 115 of the digestive organs, 191 4 ox, 78, 79, 115 of the foot, 250 Dentition, process of, from birth to five of the fore limb, 239 years, 365 of the generative organs, 234 Deodorant, 24, 329 of the hind limb, 245 A Dermatitis, gangrenous, 203 of the nervous system, 199 course, symptoms and treatment, of the new-born, 294 4 203 of the organs of locomotion, 201 ¥ Descemet’s membrane, 94 of the respiratory organs, 188 ; Desmotomy, patellar, 247 of the skin, 202 ’ object of, 247 precautions in treating smaller Development, physiology, 139 animals in, 338 Diabetes, forms of, 184 of the spinal column and pelvis, 238 insipidus, 184 ; of the thorax, 228 4 mellitus, 184 of urinary organs, 184, 232 " treatment, 184 rendering meat unfit for food, 351 : Diad, 4 specific infectious, 178 ‘$ Diagnostic inoculation, 171 Disinfectants, 24 } eae general and differential, 165 chemical, 350 ’ Dialysis, 2 defined, 161, 329 q Diamond, 21, 23 natural, 350 3 Diaphoretic, 320 use of formaldehyde as, 25 bh Diaphragm, anatomy, 61 Disinfection, defined, 141, 350 e of the horse and ox compared, 61 of ships, 348 y rupture of, symptoms of, 229 of stables, 347 # INDEX Distemper in the dog, symptoms, 176 Distillation, 14 Distoma hepaticum, 198 Distomiasis in sheep, 198 causes, symptoms and treatment, 198 Diuretic, 320 for cow, dog and horse, 318 liquid and powdered, 314 Dog distemper, symptoms of, 176 Dose, lethal and toxic, 298 Dourine, cause and definition of, 181 sanitary police measures in, 349 symptoms, 181 treatment, 182 Dover’s powder, 328 composition and uses, 328 Dropsy of the abdomen, 187 of the limbs, causes, 187 Drugs acting chemically, 332 mechanically, 332 on the alimentary canal, 331 on the glandular structures, 299, 331 on the nervous system, 331 on the pupil of the eye, 319 on the reproductive organs, 332 on the respiratory organs, 331 Duct, mammary, 91 stenosis of, symptoms and treat- ment, 238 Ductless glands, anatomy, 96 Ductus arteriosus, 68 choledochus, 84 venous, 67 Dummy, see Chronic hydrocephalus Duodenum, anatomy, 82 Dura mater, anatomy, 71 physiology, 133 Dysentery, chronic bacterial, see Johne’s disease Dyspnea, 114 Dystocia, 264, 279-284 causes of, 279 fetal and maternal, 279 Ear, bones of, 137 diseases of, 217 E. C. mixture, 305 Ectropion, defined, 218 Eczema, chronic squamous, 205 causes, symptoms and treat ment, 205 stages of, 156 treatment, in dog, 323 Efflorescence, 3 Elastic cushion of heel, 95 Elements, 6 Electricity, 6 Electrolysis, 2 Electrolyte, 2 Electro-plating, 2 Electuary, defined, 304 Elimination, 102, 103 375 Elimination, four ways of, 103 organs of, 102 Elixir, defined, 304 Embolism, 149 Embryology, 265 Embryotomy, 265 Emetics, 316 animals given to, 326 definition of, 326 Emmenagogue, 267 Emmenagogues, two principal, 267 Emphysema, pulmonary, 191 lesions, 150 symptoms and treatment, 191 in facial sinuses, 223 in frontal sinuses, 223 in guttural pouches, 220 diagnosis and symptoms, 220 in nasal sinuses, treatment, 223 Emulsion, 8, 304 difference from solution, 8 Encephalitis, 200 Endometritis, acute, causes, symptoms and treatment, 288 chronic, symptoms and treatment, 288 Endotoxin, 163 Enteritis, chronica paratuberculosa, see Johne’s disease catarrhal, acute and chronic, 152 intestinal lesions in, 152 Enterocentesis, described, 232 indications for, 232 tissues involved in, 232 unsatisfactory results in, 232 Enterokinase, 116, 119 Enteroliths, description of, 152 Entropion, defined, 218 Environment, influence on offspring, 362 Enzymes, 116, 118, 119 Epiblast, function of, 273 Epididymis, 92 Epididymitis, sterility from, 293 Epistaxis, causes, 188, 223 defined, 188, 223 treatment, 223 Epitheliomata, cylindrical, 145 squamous, 145 Epithelium, columnar, 101 histology, 101 kinds of, 101 modified, 101 specialized, 101 squamous, 101 Epizodtic cellulitis, 175 symptoms and treatment, 175 lymphangitis, 179 symptoms, prognosis and treat- ment, 179 Epsom salts, 30 administration of, to a cow, 317 | distinguished from zine sulphate, 31 preparation of, 30 376 Equations, 8, 9, 10 Erepsin, 116, 119 Ergot, actions of, 302 anatomy, 95 dose for dog and horse, 320 indications for use in labor, 280 poisoning in cattle, 198 forms of, and symptoms, 198 source, 320 uses of, 302 Ergotine, source of, 312 Ergotism in cattle, 198 forms and symptoms of, 198 Erythema, 204 causes, prevention and treatment, 204 Eserine, eee 312 dose for dog, horse and ox, 312 source and uses, 312 Esmarch’s bandage, 208 Ether, compared with chloroform, 315 dose, 320 effects and uses of, 320 Eupneea, 114 Eustachian catheter, 220 tube, anatomy, 95 epithelium of, 101 function of, 95, 137 Eutocia, 264, 278 Evaporation, 2 Excretion, four ways of, 103 organs of, 102, 103, 105 Expectorants, 322 nauseating and stimulating, 322 Exosmosis, defined, 104 Exotoxin, 163 Exudates, inflammatory, 144 Dae en, difference from _ secretion, Eye, anatomy, 93, 94 appendages of, 136 diseases of, 217 enucleation of, 219 muscles, 93 pathology, 155 tunics, 93, 94 Eyeball, anatomy, 93 muscles and structures of, 93 tunics of, 93, 94 Eyelashes, 136 Eyelids, 136 Facial nerve, 75 function of, 135 paralysis, 224, 258 a symptoms and treatment, sinuses, 85 trephining, 223 Feces, average amount of, in horse and cow compared, 126 composition of, 103, 120 of hie Bi and carnivora compared, INDEX Fallopian tubes, function of, 264 Farcy, 180 differentiated from acute lymphangi- tis, 169 tissue changes in, 157 Fats, 41, 360 palmitin, steapsin, and olein, 41 Fatty degeneration, 143 differentiated from fatty infiltra- tion, 143 infiltration, 143 differentiated from fatty degen- eration, 143 Favus, symptoms and treatment, 202 Fecundation, 264 Feeding, precautions as regards rest, 350 watering, 345 Pesto Pinner obtained through, Fehling’s solution, use of, 43 Fermentation, 34, 103 Ferments acting on milk, 118 on proteids and starch, 116 defined, 103 digestive, 116 of pancreatic juice, 121 Ferrous chloride, 11, 32, 302 uses of, 317 phosphate, 302 uses of, 317 sulphate, 32, 302 dose, 309 preparation of, 32 uses in medicine, 32, 317 vermifuge, 316 Fever, caused by infection, 141 by nezvous disorder, 141 by poison, 141 methods of reduction of, 310 Fibrin, composition of, 108 globulin, 107 Fibrinogen, 101, 107, 108 Filaria immitis, 183 conditions produced by, 188 where found, 183 Filtration, 14 Firing, 245 diagram of, 214 Fistula, bone, 211 defined, 144, 210 ear, 211 ee atl treatment of, 219 of the lateral cartilage, 211, 251 of the spermatic cord, 211 of the withers, 211, 229 treatment, 229 salivary, 227 es symptoms and treatment, Fistule, ten important, 211 Fistulous withers, chronic, 229 symptoms and treatment, 229 Flagella, 160 INDEX Flatulency, gastric, 193 causes and symptoms, 193 treatment, 193, 313 surgical, 229 Fleas, 203 Fluidextracts, preparation of, 320 Foal-lameness, 296 causes, symptoms and treatment, 296 Feetus, dead, in utero, diagnosis, 284 envelopes surrounding, 274 extraction of, mechanical means, 280 phenomena of nutrition of, 271 position of, in ninth month, 275 secretions of, 267 skin of, development, 275 Fomentation, 329 Foods, 127 ante-mortem examination of animals for, 355 carbohydrate, 127 conditions of causing paralysis, 155 fat, 127 inorganic matter in, 127 non-nitrogenous, 127 effete materials produced by, 127 proteid, 127 ultimate results of, 127 Foot, diseases affecting, 156, 250 physiology, 138 provisions for preventing concussion in, 138 Foot and mouth disease, 176 pathology, 158 prognosis and symptoms of, 176 sanitary police measures in, 349 Forage poisoning, cryptogamic, 169 differentiated from lead poison- ing, 169 hygienic measures in, 349 symptoms of, 201 Foraging overcome by shoeing, 256 Foramen, 51 infra-orbital, 45 magnum, 98 mental, 46 ovale, 68, 98 Formaldehyde, use of, in disinfecting, 25 Formalin, used in white scours, 178 Fowler’s solution, 308 composition and uses, 308 dose for dog and horse, 308 Fracture, comminuted, 213 compound, 213 conditions rendering bones liable to, 213 defined, 213 modes of union in, 213 | of the femur, 246 diagnosis and prognosis, 246 of the ilium, 239, 245 prognosis and treatment, 239 of the ischial tuberosity, 238 prognosis, symptoms and treat- ment, 238 377 Fracture of the metacarpus, 243 symptoms and treatment, 243 of the navicular bone, 250 prognosis, symptoms and treat- ment, 250 of the os corona, 251 symptoms and treatment, 251 of the os suffraginis, 243 symptoms and treatment, 243 of the ulna, 241 prognosis, symptoms and treat- ment, 241 pelvic, 238, 239 plaster-of-Paris dressing for, 213 reparative process of, 147 ribs, symptoms and treatment, 229 simple, 213 varieties of, 213 Frog, use of, 138 Frontal bone, anatomy, 45 Fur, compared with hair and wool, 124 Gall-stones, 195 factors producing, 195 prophylaxis and therapeutics, 195 Ganglion, Arnold’s, 75 ciliary, 75 Meckel’s, 75 ophthalmic, 75 otic, 75 sphenopalatine, 75 sympathetic, 77, 136 vertebral, 136 Gangrene, defined, 143, 211 kinds of, 211 of the lungs, 190 post-mortem appearance of, 150 treatment, 211 Gapes, 190 causes, symptoms and treatment, 190 Gas, calculations, 1 laughing, 18 Gastric juice, composition of, 118 source of hydrochloric acid in, 118 Generation, four stages in, 272 physiology, 139° Generative organs, changes in, after con- ception, 269 female, function of, 265 modifications after labor, 266 system, chief functions of, 264 Genitals of the cow, 92 diseases of, 234 Gentian root, 312 action, 322 dose for dog, horse and ox, 312, 322 uses, 312, 322 German silver, 12 Gestation, 269 abdominal, ovarian, and tubal, 270 Gid, in sheep, 200 causes and symptoms, 200 378 Glanders, 180 cause, course and symptoms of, 180 chronic, 157 tissue changes in, 157, 160 complement-fixation test for, 167 diagnostic tests for, 166-168 differentiated from ‘ee ol 169 from nasal gleet, 169 a tas and sanitary precautions in, nasal ulcer in, 157 Glands, adrenal, 96, 98 Briinner’ A, 119 Cowper’s, 264 ductless, 96 lachrymal, 94 Lieberkiihn’s, 119 mammary, 91, 140, 263 pituitary, 97 prostate, 92, 264 disease of, 236 salivary, 80 sebaceous, 95, 124 sudoriparous, 124 sweat, 95, 123 thymus, 97, 98 thyroid, 97 vascular, 112 Glass, 12 Glauber’s salt, 7, 29, 300 Glaucoma, defined, 218 Gleet, defined, 223 Globus major, 92 Glossitis, causes of, 191 definition of, 191 Glossopharyngeal nerve, 75 function of, 135 Glucose in tissues, 127 in urine, 121 relation of pancreas to, 121 Glycerine, preparation of, 38 Glycogen, 121 destination and origin of, 127 Glycosuria, relations of pancreas to, 121 Goitre, cystic, in dog, treatment, 228 prognosis and treatment, 228 in the dog and horse, 228 Gold, 27 test for, 27 Goll’s column, 103 Goulard’s extract, 310 preparation and uses of, 310 Graafian follicle, 139 development and maturation of, 139 Grade, 361 Gram differential stain, 164 negative and positive, 164 Gramme, defined, 306 Granular venereal disease, in abortion, 182 Graphic formula, 11, 24 Graphite, 21 Gypsum, 30 INDEX Guttural pouch, anatomy, 86 function of, 86 method of opening, 220 Chabert, 220 Viborg, 220 pus in, 220 diagnosis and symptoms, 220 Hematin, 103, 109 Hematoidin, 109 Hematuria, 153 Hemoglobin, 107 combination with oxygen, 108 semoglobinuria, 153, 183 ier Nai from spinal meningitis, 9 etiology, 183 pathology of, 154 prevention and symptoms of, 183 treatment, 183, 329 Hemolysis, 108, 167 , 168 Hemophilia, definition of, 182 Hemopis sanguisuga, 188 Hair, 95 compared with fur and wool, 124 precautions to limit injurious growth of, 125 Halogens, 25 Haustus, defined, 304 Haversian canals, 105 Healing of wounds, 207 by first intention, 207 by granulation and cicatrization, 207 by second intention, 207 by third intention, 207 under an eschar, 207 Hearing, mechanism of, 137 Heart, action of digitalis on, 109 anatomy, 62, 63 disease, lesions of, 148 hypertrophy, 148° causes and lesions of, 148 muscle, 130 motor excitant of, 317 physiology of, 109 sounds, cause of, 109 Heat, 5 animal, conditions influencing, 128 how, ig and regula stroke, 201 differentiated from heat exhaus- tion, 166 symptoms, 201 treatment, 201, 314 tissues producing greatest amount of, — 129 unit of, 129 exhaustion, differentiated from heat — stroke, 166 Heaves, symptoms and treatment, 191 lesions, 150 Hematite, 32 / INDEX Hemorrhage, 165 drugs checking, 310 following castration, 208, 234 internal, 165 methods of arresting, 208 postpartum, treatment, 290 Hemorrhagic septicemia, 174 post-mortem lesions of, 159 symptoms of, 174 Hepatitis, acute parenchymatous, in dog, symptoms and treatment, 198 chronic interstitial, 152 appearance of liver in, 152 Hepatization, gray, 150 pulmonary, changes in air-cellsin, 150 red, 150 Hereditary, 361 diseases, 363 Heredity, influence on offspring, 362 Hermaphrodism, 296 external sexual organs in, 296 Hernia, classification of, 212 defined, 212 diaphragmatic, symptoms, 229 inguinal, symptomsand treatment, 230 irreducible, 212 of bladder into vagina, 292 reduction of, 292 reducible, 212 umbilical, treatment of, 230 Heroin, action and uses of, 315 Histological anatomy, 99 Hobbles, use in casting, 257 Hog, methods of medicating, 330 Hog-cholera, symptoms of, 172 causes of, 163 immunization in, 341 simultaneous method of, 343 lesions of, 160 prophylactic measures in, 173 serum, how obtained, use, 342 Hoof, anatomy, 95 secretion of, 138 Hoose, 189 ,; Hoove, 192 ~ Horns, anatomy, 95 Horse-pox, symptoms and treatment, 173 causes of, and extinction, 173 Hoven, 192 Humor, aqueous, 93 of the eye, 94 vitreous, 93 Hunger, cause of sensation, 119 mange, see Chronic squamous eczema Husk, 189 teas Hydrargyri chloridum mite, 299 actions, dose and uses, 299 chloridum corrosivum, 299 actions, doses and uses, 299 iodidum rubrum, 299 actions, doses and uses, 299 Hydrocarbons, 34, 41 Peat from carbohydrates, 34, 379 Hydrocele, sterility from, 293 symptoms and treatment, 236 Hydrocephalus, 265, 279 chronic, causes, symptoms and treat- ment, 199 pathology of, 155 dystocia from, 279 how overcome, 279 Hydrogen, 13 an element of proteids, 106 compared with oxygen, 17 dioxide, 15, 16 sulphide, preparation of, 23 Hydrops uteri, causes and treatment, 284 amnii, 285 causes, symptoms and treatment, Hydrothorax, causes and symptoms, 191 lesions, 151 operations for, 228 treatment, 191, 228 Hygiene, 345 meat and milk, 351 Hyperemia, 141 cerebral, 200 differentiated from cerebral an- emia, 200 Hyperisotonic, 40 Hyperpneea, 114 Hypertrophy, causes of, 143 Hypnotic, 309, 320 Hypoblast, function of, 273 Hypoderma lineata, 203 Hypoglossal nerve, anatomy, 76 function of, 135 Hypo-isotonic, 40 Icterus, causes and symptoms, 193 pathology of, 153 sa gravity of, in dog and horse, 19. Tleum, anatomy, 82 Tiluminating gas, 22 Immobility, 199 causes, symptoms and treatment, 199 Immune body, 168 Immunity, 141, 164, 341 acquired, 164, 341 - active, 164 natural, 164, 341 passive, 164 varieties of, 164 Immunization, 341 in infectious diseases, 341 Imperforate anus, treatment of, 296 Impregnation, artificial, 273 Pepecenninn, use of, 273 In-breeding, 361 Incompatibility, 6 chemical, 6, 305 pharmaceutical, 6, 305 physical, 6 physiological, 6, 305 therapeutic, 6 380 Index, opsonic, how determined, 163 Indigestion, acute gastric, 193 causes, 193 prescription for, 336 symptoms, 193 treatment, 193, 313 surgical, 229 Inertia, uterine, 283 symptoms and treatment, 283 Infection, defined, 141 rise in temperature due to, 141 Infectious abortion, causes of, 182 anzmia, causes and characteristics of, 182 disease, 157, 165, 347 agents in development of, 142 disinfection in, 347 Inferior maxilla, anatomy, 46 Infiltration, fatty, 143 differentiated from fatty degen- eration, 143 Inflammation, cardinal symptoms of, 144 causes of, 209 classification of, 210 defined, 144, 209 process of, 144 productive, 144 symptoms and treatment, 209 termination of, 210 tissue changes in, 144 use of cold and heat in, 210 Influenza, causes of, 177 cellulitic form, 175 differentiated from contagious pleuro- pneumonia, 170 symptoms, 177 treatment, 300 modern forms of, 177 Infusion, defined, 304 saline, indications for, 332 methods of administration, 332 Inguinal canal, anatomy, 62 Inhibition, defined, 133 Inoculation, diagnostic, 171 Insolation, 201 ae aang | from heat exhaustion, 16 symptoms, 201 treatment, 201, 314 Insufficiency of cardiac valves, 186 causes and symptoms, 186 treatment, 187 Intestines, anatomy, 82 length of, in horse, cow and dog, 8 2 small, 82 Intussusception, defined, 194 genera most liable to, 194 prognosis and treatment, 194 symptoms, 194, 231 Invagination, genera most liable to, 194 symptoms, 194, 231 treatment, 194 Invertase, 116, 119 INDEX Iodine, 25 compounds, actions and uses, 303 dose for dog and horse, 317 general actions of, 317 preparation and uses of, 26 test for, 25 tincture, uses of, 304 Iodoform, derivation of, 36 in chronic metritis, 289 uses of, 36, 304 Ions, 2 Ipecac, actions and uses of, 323 an expectorant, 322 dose for dog and horse, 323 for cats and swine, 327 in Dover’s powder, 328 Iridocyclochoroiditis, 156 Iris, anatomy, 93 function of, 136 innervation of, 136 Tron, 31 carbonate, 32 cast, 32 chloride, 32, 302 uses of, 317 compounds of, 32 occurrence in nature, 31 ores of, 32 phosphate of, 302 uses of, 317 preparation of, 309 reduced, 32 dose of, 309 salts of, uses, 302 sesquioxide of, 302 uses of, 39, 338 sulphate, 32, 302, 309 preparation of, 32 uses in medicine, 32, 317 wrought, 32 Ischemia, defined, 147 Ischial notch, vessels and nerves passing through, 260 Ischium, 50 fracture of tuberosity of, 238 notch of, 260 Isomerism, 5 Isotonic, 40 Jaborine, 328 Jaundice, 109 causes and symptoms of, 193 pathology of, 153 Bi gravity of, in horse and dog, 19 Jejunum, anatomy, 82 Johne’s disease, 179 cause, 179, 163 genus subject to, 179 prevention and symptoms, 179 Joints, 51, 214 classification of, 51 false, 214 fetlock, 55 INDEX Joints, hip-, horse and ox compared, 56 open, treatment, 214 pathology of, 147 shoulder, 53 muscles that flex, 58 structures entering into, 52 Karyokinesis, 102 Keraphyllocele, 250 Keraphyllous tissue, anatomy, 96 Keratogenous membrane, anatomy, 96 function of, 138 Kidneys, anatomy, 89 blood supply of, 89 compared with liver, 104 capsule of, 125 circulation of blood in, 112 cortical layer of, 125 elimination by, 102 function of, 125 of horse and ox compared, 89 secretion of urine by, 125 structures of, 101, 125 King system of ventilation, 346 Labor, 278 care of dam after, 283 signs and stages of, 279 Lachrymal apparatus, 94, 136 bone and canal, 94 fistula, treatment of, 219 gland in the ox, 94 of horse and ox compared, 94 sac, 94 secretion, function of, 137 Lactase, 116, 119 Lameness, hip, 245 symptoms and treatment, 245 varieties, 245 shoulder, 239 symptoms and treatment, 239 stifle, 246 symptoms and treatment, 246 trochanteric, 245 Laminz, sensitive, 96 function of, 96, 139 Laminitis, acute, causes, symptoms and treatment, 255 pathology of, 156 chronic, 255 pathology of, 156 puerperal, in mare, causes, symptoms and treatment, 293 Lampas, defined, 210 Lanolin, source, 124 Laparotomy in the cow, 230 indications for, 230 Laryngitis, acute, 171 differentiated from acute pharyn- gitis, 171 Larynx, anatomy, 85 cartilages of, 86 epithelium of, 104 motor nerve to, 135 effect of division of, 135 381 Larynx, nerve supply to, 77, 86, 135 sensory nerve of, 135 Lateral cartilages, anatomy, 95 function of, 55, 138 Laughing gas, 18 Law, Avogadro’s, 12 of constant or definite proportions, 11 of multiple proportions, 11 Laxatives, 298, 316 Lead, 28 acetate of, 35 antidote for, 39 chamber process, 24 poisoning, 169, 195, 339 in cattle, 195, 339 symptoms and treatment, 195, 339 sugar of, action, 28 dose, uses, 319 Leech, horse, 188 Lens, crystalline, anatomy, 93 Leptomeningitis, 155, 200 Lesion, primary and secondary, 141 Leucocytes, function, 107 Leucocythemia, defined, 146 Leucocytosis, defined, 147 diseases in which occurs, 147 relation of, to phagocytosis, 147 Leucorrheea, 288 symptoms and treatment of, 288 Leukemia, definition of, 147, 182 Lice, 203 Ligaments, broad, of liver, 83, 84 of uterus, 85, 91 caleaneo-cuboid, 56 iliosacral, 260 of elbow-joint, 53 of femorotibial articulation, 56 of fetlock-joint, 55 of hip-joint, 56 of knee-joint, 54 of liver, 83 of pelvis, 260 of radiocarpal joint, 54 of shoulder-joint, 53 of vertebral articulations, 52 prepubic, rupture of, 231 round, of liver, 84 of uterus, 91 sacrosciatic, 260 suspensory, 59 sprain of, 242 utero-ovarian, 91 Ligamentum nuche, 53 elastic fibrous tissue in, 101 Light, 5 Lightning, death by, 142 lesions, 142 Lignieres, coccobacillus of, 177 Lime water, 30 Linguatula tenoides, 192 animals infested by, 192 diagnosis and treatment, 192 Linseed oil, actions and doses, 322 382 Liquid, metric unit of, 306 Liquor amnii, 272, 274 functions, 272 plumbi subacetatis, 310 preparation and uses of, 310 potassii arsenitis, 33 Cea 101 salts of, ‘uses, 301 Liver, anatomy, 83 blood nae Ba 66, 84, 120 compared with kidney, 104 cirrhotic, appearance of, 152 fluke, 198 functions, 120 ligaments of, 83, 85 nerve supply, 84 rot in sheep, see Distomiasis Lobelia, properties and uses of, 317 Lochia, 289 common in all animals, 289 treatment, 289 Loco poisoning, prevention, 199 when and where enzoétic, 199 Lugol’s solution, 303 Lumbago, 171 Seeee bed from acute nephritis, Lunar bone, anatomy, 48 caustic, preparation of, 27 uses in medicine, 27 Lungs, anatomy, 87 blood supply, 66, 88 congestion of, 190 elimination by, 103 epithelium of, 104 function, 114 number of lobes in dog, horse, ox, pig, and sheep, 87 Luxation, causes of, 215 defined, 215 patellar, 246 symptoms and treatment of, 246 Lymph, appearance, 122 capillaries, 122 described, 122 forces assisting flow of, 123 function of, 122 involved in diseases of connective tissues, 123 source, spaces, and vessels, 122 Lymphagogues, 123 Lymphangioma, 149 Lymphangitis, acute, 169 differentiated from farcy, 169 causes, 217 defined, 217 epizoétic, 158, 179 prognosis and symptoms, 179 infectious, 158, 179 pathology of, 158 symptoms and oN ats in 217, 329 bie ar glands, 7 at INDEX Lymphatic sw bronchial, 70 ac, inguinal, 71 mesenteric, 71 of the thorax, 70 popliteal, 71 posterior cervical, 70 mediastinal, 70 precrural, 71 prescapular, 70 Lymphatics, 69 Lymphoid tissue, 70 Lysins, 342 Magnesium, 29 carbonate, 30 compounds used in medicine, 30 sulphate, 30 administration of, to cow, 317 distinguished from zinc sulphate, 1 preparation of, 30 Magnetite, 32 Mammary duct, stenosis of, symptoms and treatment, 238 gland, anatomy of, 91, 263 function of, 266 of the bitch, 92, 263 of the cow, 91 of the mare, 140 Mammitis, see Mastitis Mange, demodectic, 203, 204 symptoms and treatment, 204 disposition of carcass, 354 follicular, 2 hunger, 205 prescription for, 333 psoroptic, 203, 204 sarcoptic, 203, 204 symbiotic, 203 treatment in dog, 324 Malignant cedema, 174 cause and course of, 174 differentiated from ’ anthrax, 166 symptoms, 174 pustule, 175 Mallein, 162 cutaneous test, 167 intradermal test, 166 ophthalmic test, 167 test for glanders, 166, 167 . compared with agglutination, 167 course to be pursued in, 167 Malpighian corpuscles, anatomy, 97, 112 Maltase, 116, 119 Marsh gas, 22 Marsh’s test for arsenic, 33 Massage, effect of, 319 indication for, 319 Mastitis, 238 a sequel of cowpox, 173 acute, in the cow, 291 causes, symptom and treatment, 291, 326 INDEX Mastitis, purulent, 258 ~ treatment, 238, 326 Masturbation, cause of sterility, 293 (see Onanism) Materia medica, defined, 297 Measly pork, 353 method of detecting, 353 Meat and milk, hygiene, 351 ae Si municipal and State, 35 Mediastinum, anatomy, 88 Medicine, classified, 331 theory and practice of, 165 Medicines, kinds according to general action, 316 modes of administration of, 297 comparison of, 297 Medulla oblongata, anatomy, 72 functions of, 133 Meibomian glands, physiology, 136 Melanosarcomata, 145 animals found in, 145 gross appearance of, 145 Melanosis, cause of, 145 Membrana tympani, anatomy, 95: function, 95 granulosa, 139 Membrane, Descemet’s, 94 keratogenous, 96 mucous, 100 nictitans, 94, 136 of Corti, 137 of Reissner, 137 serous, 100 tympanic, 95 Meningitis, 155 cerebral, symptoms of, 200 cerebrospinal, symptoms of, 201 hygienic measures in, 349 spinal differentiated from azoturia, 169 Menstruation, causes of, 265 in bitch, cat, cow, and sow, 267 notindependent of ovaries, 265 Mercurialism, antidote and symptoms, 339 Mercuric chloride, 7, 28 antidotes for, 39 properties of, 28 Mercurous chloride, 11, 28 properties of, 28 Mercury, 28 compounds used in medicine, 28 poucning, antidote and symptoms, preparations of, 299 Mesoblast, function of, 273 Metabolism, 40, 126 diseases of, 183 of nutrition, 126 Metacarpus, fracture of, 243 symptoms and treatment, 243 Metals, 5 alkaline earth, 29 Il, 12 : distinguished from non-metal, 9 Metastasis, defined, 142 Methzmoglobin, 109 Methylene blue, uses, 325 Metritis, 154 sterility from, 293 oe indications and operation of, Micrococcus, 160 Microérganisms, acid-fast, 162 pus-producing, 161 Microspira, 160 Miliary tubercle, 159 Milk, 41 bacterial analysis of, 359 bitter, 358 blue, 358 butter fat in, 42 certified, 355, 359 classification of, 357 cow’s, composition of, 41,140, 268,355 dangers of infection m, 356 diseases transmitted through, 356 hygiene, 351 inspected, 357 mare’s, compared with cow’s, 268 composition of, 140, 269 pasteurized, 357, 359 preservatives used in, 358 pus in, 358 red, 358 ropy, 358 sour, microérganisms causing, 359 souring of, 42 standards, 42 sterilized, 359 streptococci in, significance of, 359 suppression of, 358 test for boric acid, 357 for formaldehyde, 358 for pasteurization, 357 for salicylic acid, 357 for sodium bicarbonate, 357 typhoid germs in, 356 uterine, 139 Mitosis, 102 ; Mitral stenosis, changes following, 149 Mixture, distinguished from compound, 9 Molecular repulsion, 4 Molecule, 3 weight, 5 Monad, 4 Morphine, actions and uses, 307 on dog and horse compared, 321 defined, 307 dose for dog and horse, 307 poisoning by, symptoms and treat- ment, 340 Morula, stage of, 268, 271 Motor oculi nerve, 74 functions, 134 Mucous membrane, 100 compared with serous, 100 location, 100 | secreting gastric, 118 384 Mules compared with horses, 365 Multiparous, 266 Muscles, anconeus, 58 anterior extensor of the metacarpus, 58 caput magnum, 58 medium, 58 parvum, 58 cremaster, 92 diaphragm, 61, 114 expiratory, 114 extensor pedis, 58 suffraginis, 58 external flexor of the metacarpus, 58 flexor brachii, 58 function of, 130 gastrocnemius, 59 gemelli, 59 gluteal, 59 heart, 130 humeralis obliquus, 58 iliopsoas, 59 inspiratory, 114 internal flexor of the metacarpus, 58 obturator, 59 involuntary, 130 kinds of, 130 longissimus dorsi, 60 longus colli, 61 masseter, 57 mastoidohumeralis, 57 oblique ela gl of the metacarpus, 5 flexor of the metacarpus, 58 obturator externus, 59 of hogs, parasite in, 155 of respiration, 62, 114 of the eye, 57 of the forearm, 58 of the tail, 60 pathology of, 155 panniculus carnosus, 60 pectineus, 59 perforans, 58 perforatus, 58 popliteus, 59 psoas, 59 pterygoid externus and internus, 57 quadratus femoris, 59 sartorius, 59 serratus magnus, 61 small adductor of the thigh, 59 striated, 100 striped, 100 and unstriped compared, 100 subscapulohyoideus, 57 surgery of, 216 temporal, 57 tensor fascia lata, 59 teres externus and internus, 58 triceps, 58 unstriped, 100 vastus externus and internus, 59 voluntary, 100, 130 INDEX Muscular contraction, 130 chemical changes in, 130 phases of, 130 excitability, conditions enhancing, 131 conditions impairing, 131 Mustard, 319 an emetic, 316 dose for dog, 316 as a blistering agent, 313 Mydriatic, 309 Myocarditis, 149 Myology, 57 Myoma, 146 Myositis, causes, 216 defined, 216 symptoms, 216 Myotic, 309 Myotomy, caudal, object of, 239 Nasal gleet, 169, 188 causes of, 188 differentiated from glanders, 169 symptoms and treatment, 188 Navicular sheath, anatomy, 62 bone fracture of, 250 disease of, 252 symptoms and treatment, 252 Necrobacillosis, cause and forms of, 163 Necrosis, 143 bacillus of, 163 caseation, occurrence, 143 coagulation, 143 liquefaction, 143 Negative phase, 164 Negri bodies, 158 Nephritis, acute, 171 casts found in, 153 causes and treatment of, 185 distinguished from lumbago, 171 ec lumbar rheumatism, 1 gross pathology, 154 chronic interstitial, 185 casts found in, 153 gross pathology, 154 Nerves, abducens, 75, 134 afferent, 131 auditory, 75, 135 137 ciliary, 93 cranial, 73-76 described, 99 digital, 76 efferent, 131 facial, 75, 134 function of, in secretion, 104 glossopharyngeal, 75, 135 hypoglossal, 76, 135 median, 76 : motor, effect of electric stimulation of, 133 motoroculi, 74, 134 olfactory, 73, 134 optic, 74, 93, 134 INDEX Nerves, patheticum, 74, 134 phrenic, function of, 133 plantar, 76 pnheumogastric, 75, 135 radial and sciatic, 76 sensory and motor compared, 132 spinal, 73 effect of division of both roots of, of inferior roots of, 132 functions of, 132 number of, 73 spinal accessory, 76, 135 surgery of, 216 trifacial, 74, 134 vagus, 75, 135 Nervous system, 71, 131 cerebrospinal, 71 development of, in the foetus, 275 influence on secretion, 134 pathology of, 155 sympathetic, 77 function of, 135 Neurectomy, anterior tibial, 249 high plantar, 244 indications for, 245 relation of artery, vein, nerve and tendon, 245 median, indications for, 244 structures severed in, 99 posterior tibial, 250 trifacial, technic of, 228 unfavorable results in, 216 Neurilemma, 100 Neurology, 71 Neuroma, 146 Neurotomy, unfavorable results in, 216 Neutralization, 4 New-born, asphyxiated, 294 cyanosis, causes and symptoms, 296 treatment, 294 diarrhoea in, 294 causes and treatment, 294 diseases of, infectious, 294 non-infectious, 294 Nitrate of potash, see Potassium Nitric acid, preparation and uses of, 19 tonic, 318 oxide, 11, 12 Nitrogen, 18 _ an element of proteids, 106 compared with oxygen, 18 function of, 18 oxides of, 18 preparation of, 18 Non-metal, 9 Nutrition, metabolism of, 126 Nux vomica, dose of fluidextract, 310 uses, 310 Obstetrics, 259 bstetrist, disadvantage of, 280 veterinary, 280 Ocular sheath, physiology, 136 25 Oculomotor nerve, 74 function of, 134 (Edema, 141, 144 causes, 144 * differs from secretion, 104 of the glottis, 188 symptoms and treatment, 188 of the lungs, cause, 149 Cisophagotomy, 221 in choke, 221 (sophagus, anatomy, 80 Cistrus larvae, in throat of solipeds, 188 Oils, castor, action and dose, 322 croton, see Croton oil essential, 34 fixed, 34 linseed, action and dose, 322 Olein, 41 Olfactory nerve, 73 function of, 134 Oligemia, defined, 182 Oligocythemia, definition of, 182 Omasum, anatomy, 82 Omphalophlebitis, 295 causes, Symptoms and treatment, 295 Onanism, sterility from, 293 correction of, 293 Odphorectomy, in the bitch, 237 in the mare, accidents, 237 Odphoritis, 154 Open joint, treatment of, 214 Opium, dose for cow, dog and horse, 301 general actions, source and uses, 301 Ophthalmia, periodic, 155 pathology of, 155 prognosis, 218 symptoms and treatment, 218 contagious, animals affected by, 219 diagnosis and treatment, 219 Opsonic index, 163 how determined, 163 Optic nerve, anatomy, 74, 93 function of, 134 thalami, anatomy, 72 Orchitis, 141, 154 causes, 236 sterility from, 293 symptoms and treatment, 236 Organs, abdominal, pathology, 152 eliminating, 102, 105 genito-urinary, pathology, 153 of secretion, 105 pie seme ah pathology, 150 Orgasm, 266 Os innominatum, 50 coxa, 50 Osmosis, 41 Osteology, 44 Osteomalacia, 169 ; differentiated from osteoporosis, 169 in pregnancy, 284, 292 treatment, 292 386 Osteomyelitis, defined, 212 Osteoporosis, 169 course of, 184 differentiated from osteomalacia, 169 pathology of, 147 symptoms and termination of, 183 treatment of, 184 Ostitis, defined, 212 Otorrhoea of dog, treatment, 220 Ovaries, anatomy, 90, 262 changes in, after fecundation, 265 conditions of, causing sterility, 294 cystic, 293 pathology of, 154 during menstruation, 264 extirpation of, in bitch, 236 in mare, 237 function of, 265 of cow and mare compared, 90 of mare, cow, sheep, goat, pig, bitch and cat compared, 263 pitted in old age, 264 Ovariotomy, in the bitch, 236 in the mare, accidents, 237 Oviducts, 264 function of, 264, 265 Ovum, impregnation of, 268 journey of, 268 Oxidation, 16, 17 rapid and slow, 17 Oxygen, 16 an element of proteids, 106 compared with hydrogen, 17 compared with nitrogen, 18 how carried in blood, 108 preparation of, 16, 17 Oxyhzmoglobin, 109 Oxyuris curvula, 195, 196 ; prescription for, 195 mastigodes, 196 Ozone, 17 Pachymeningitis, 155, 200 Palmitin, 41 Palpation, 171 Pancreas, anatomy, 84 blood and nerve supply of, 84 functions of, 121 relation of, to glucose in urine, 121 relations of, 84 secretion, 121 Paper-skin disease, 189 Patheticum nerve, 74 function of, 134 Paralysis, facial, 224, 258 food conditions causing, 155 of oar ead in horse and dog, re symptoms and treatment, 3 of the lips, causes, symptoms and treatment, 224 of the masticatory muscles, symp- toms and treatment, 226 INDEX Paralysis of the penis, causes, symptoms and treatment, 235 originating in brain, cord and periph- ery, differentiated, 216 - radial, symptoms and treatment, 241 suprascapular, cause, symptoms and treatment, 240 ee symptoms and treatment, Parasites, affecting gullet of cattle, 192 in intestines of the horse, 195 of the dog, symptoms, 197 in muscles of hogs, 155 in the throat of solipeds, 188 prevention, symptoms and treat- ment, 188 of sheep, 364 of the skin, 203 Paris green, 33 antidote for, 39, 338 Parturient, apoplexy, 287 Schmidt treatment of, 287 eclampsia, 287 and parturient paresis differ- entiated, 287 in the mare, 287 causes and treatment of, 287 paresis, 287 Parturition, 279 diseases following, in cow, 284 fetal conditions interfering with, 279 sign and stages of, 279 Patella, displacement of, symptoms and treatment, 246 Pathogenic, defined, 161 Pathology, defined, 141 special, 141 Pearson’s solution, 308 dose, preparation and uses, 308 Pedal bone, anatomy, 48 connection of hoof wall with, 96 Pedigree, 362 depends upon, 362 value of, 362 Pelvis, articulations of, 260 bones of, 50 centres of ossification in, 259 defined, 259 diameters of, in cow, 260 diseases of, 238 fracture of, 238, 239 function of, 259 ligaments of, 260 of horse and ox compared, 50 of mare, cow, sheep, goat, bitch and cat compared, 259 of sheep and cow compared, 260 Penetrating street nail, treatment, 256 Penis, amputation of, 235 paralysis of, cause, symptoms and ' treatment, 235 Pentad, 4 Pepsin, 116, 118, 119 preparation and properties of, 315 INDEX Percentage composition, determination of, 11 Periarthritis, defined, 148, 2° Pericarditis, acute, 149 chronic, lesions, 149 in bovines, causes, prevention, symp- toms ard treatment, 186 Perimysium, 100 Periodic ophthalmia, 155 pathologic changes in, 155 prognosis and symptoms, 218 treatment, 218, 312 Periostitis, aseptic, 213 causes, symptoms and treatment, 213 defined, 148, 212 Peristalsis, 119 remedies promoting, 314 Peritoneum, anatomy, 84 part of spermatic cord, 92 Peritonitis, 198 causes, 198, 232 pathology of, 152 pulse in, 165 symptoms and treatment, 198 Perspiration, 124 effect of suppression, 124 Petroleum, uses, 37 Peyer’s patches, 70 in catarrhal enteritis, 152 Phagocytes, 146 Phagocytosis, 104, 146 method of stimulating, 147 relation of leucocytosis to, 147 Pharyngitis, acute, differentiated from acute laryngitis, 171 Pharynx, anatomy, 80 Phase, negative and positive, 164 Phenacetin, 310, 317 Phenol, source, 37 antidote, 40 Phlebitis, causes, and defined, 217 Phlebotomy, indications for, 228 (see Vene-, section) Phlegmon, 209 Phosphine, 11 Phosphoric acid, 11 Phosphorus, 25 allotropic forms of, 25 antidotes for, 39 occurrence, 25 physical properties, 25 source and uses of, 25 Phragmidothrix, 160 Phrenitis, 155, 200 Physical change, 2 Physics, 1 distinguished from chemistry, 1 Physiologie action of a drug, 298 salt solution, 40 Physiology, 102 a study of the properties of cells, 102 definition, 102 obstetrical, 264 387 Physostigmine, 319 Pia mater, anatomy, 71 physiology, 133 Pilocarpine, action of, 317 source of, 312, 328 Pilocarpus, actions, 328 active principles of, 328 composition, 328 dose and uses, 328 Pineal bodies, vascular glands, 112 Pisiform bone, anatomy, 48 Pituitary gland, anatomy, 97 vascular gland, 112 Placenta, 139 cotyledonary, 139, 271 development of, 271 diffuse, 139, 271 function of, 139, 271 retained, 291 prescription for, 291 zonary, 139, 271 Planococcus, 160 Planosarcina, 160 Plasma, 101 Plaster of Paris, 30 Pleura, anatomy, 88 Pleurisy, 190 of the dog, 191 lesions, 151 pulse in, 165 symptoms and treatment, 190 Pleuritis, acute diffused, 190 lesions, 151 symptoms and treatment, 190 Plexus, brachial, anatomy, 76 cardiac, 136 lumbosacral, 76 mesenteric, 136 pelvic, 91 solar, 136 Plumbi acetate, 28 actions, dose and uses, 319 Plumbism, see Lead poisoning Pluriparous, 266 Pneumogastric nerve, anatomy, 75 function of, 135 influence on heart, 109 Pneumonia, broncho-, appearance of lungs in, 151 gangrenous, 190 post-mortem appearance, 150 symptoms of, 190 inhalation, 188 causes of, 188, 258 prevention, 189 symptoms and treatment, 189 medicinal treatment of, 300 post-mortem appearance, 150 symptoms of, 190 Podophyllum, actions and uses, 328 dose, 317, 328 general action, 317 source, 317 388 Poisoning, ergot, in cattle, 198 lead, 169, 195 differentiated from forage poison- ing, 169 loco, 199 uremic, 185 Poisons, 38 irritant, 38 neurotic, 38 metallic, 39 Poll-evil, operation for, 227 Polycythemia, defined, 146 Polypi, nasal, 223 symptoms, 223 treatment, 223 pharyngeal, treatment, 221 Polyuria, causes and treatment, 185 Portal circulation, 112 vein, 69 relation to absorption, 120 Position, cephalosacral, 281 obstetrics, 278 right cephalo-ilial, 281 sterno-abdominal, 281 varieties, 279 Positive phase, 164 Post-zygopophyses, 52 Potassium, 300 acetate, 35 dose, 318 alum, 31 bicarbonate of, 29 bromide, 300 chlorate of, 11, 29, 301 dose and properties of, 311 uses, 301, 311 citrate, dose, 318 hydroxide, 29, 301 iodide, preparation of, 26 dose of, 314 uses, 301, 304 nitrate, 7, 11, 29, 300 action, 319, 330 dose, 318, 330 source, 330 uses, 319, 330 permanganate, 11, 326 | action and uses, 326 sodium tartrate, 7 Precipitation, 14 Prefixes, chemical, 8 Pregnancy, 269 ae oe food of animals during, changes in blood, 274 diseases incidental to, 284 duration of, in bitch, cow, ewe, mare and sow, 268 effects of indigestion, 270 extra-uterine, varieties of, 270 multiple, position of foetus in, 272 position of neighboring organs during, signs of, 270 INDEX Prehension, organs of, 77, 80 in horses, cattle and sheep compared, 116 Premature birth, 276 Prepotency, 361 Prescription for actinomycosis, 336 for acute indigestion, 336 for blister, 335 for bowed tendons, 216 for cathartic, sheep, 335 for chronic constipation, dog, 337 for chronic cough, 332, 337 for chronic eczema, dog, 335 for cocaine, 333 for cough powder, 334 for diarrhcea in calves, 333 for fever in horse, 333 for flatulent colic, 337 for intestinal worms, 195 for liniment, 336 for mange, 333 for purgative, 332, 334 for ringworm, 337 for round worms in dog, 333 for scratches, 336 for spasmodic colic, 334 si tonic for horse, cow and dog, 334, 35 Presentation, 278 anterior, 281, 282 most difficult, 278 most favorable and frequent, 278 normal, 278 posterior, 281 varieties, 278 Prezygopophyses, 52 Primiparous, 266 Process, basilar, 48 condyloid, 46 coronoid, 46 retrossal, 48 spinous, 49, 51 Prognosis, 165 ‘Prolapse, defined, 212 Prophylaxis, 349 Prostate gland, 92 diseases of, symptoms and treat- ment, 236 Protargol, 27 uses, 330 Proteids, elements composing, 106 ferments acting on, 116 important food, 127 Protein, 360 Proximate principles, 346 Pseudomonas, 160 Psoroptes communis, 203 Ptomaines, 39 Ptyalin, 116 Ptyalism, causes, 226 accidental, 226 disease, 226 Puberty, 364 in various domestic animals, 364 INDEX Puerperal laminitis in mare, cause, symp- toms and treatment, 293 septicemia, causes, symptoms and treatment, 291 Pulmonary congestion, 190 causes, 149, 190 lesions, 150 symptoms and treatment, 190 emphysema, 191 lesions, 150 treatment, 191 cedema, causes of, 149 Pulse, compressible, 165 dicrotic, 165 fast, 165 hard, 165 ° normal, in horse, ox, dog, sheep and cat, 112 Pupil, anatomy, 93 drugs contracting and dilating, 319 Purgatives, 298, 316 cholagogue, 298, 316 drastic, 298, 316 hydragogue, 298 ine, 316 simple, 298 Purpura hemorrhagica, causes of, 177 prognosis of, 178 symptoms of, 177 treatment of, 178, 320 Pus, microédrganisms producing, 161 in guttural pouch, 86 diagnosis and symptoms, 220 in nasal sinuses, treatment of, 223 Putrefaction, 34 Pyzmia, 209 differentiated from septicemia, 170 treatment for, 170 Pyelitis, diagnosis and treatment, 184 Pyoktanin, uses, 325 Quassia, actions, dose and use, 322 Quinine sulphate, action, 306 dose for cow, dog and horse, 306, 307 uses, 306 Quittor, 251 Bayer’s operation for, 252 symptoms and treatment, 251 Rabies, 176 course and symptoms of, 176 diagnosis of, 171 dumb, 176 furious, 176 immunization in, 341 lesions of, 157 period of incubation, 178 iad taken in bitten animals, sanitary police measures, 351 Rachitis, cause, 184 in pregnancy, treatment, 292 symptoms, 184 treatment, 184, 320 389 Radial paralysis, 241 symptoms and treatment, 241 Radium, 29 Rations, 127, 360 balanced, 127, 360 nature and value of, 127 for a dairy cow, 127, 361 for a horse, 127, 360, 361 for swine, 361 Receptaculum chyli, 70 Reduction, 5 Reflex, action defined, 104, 132 experiment illustrating, 132 movements, 134 Reil, island of, 72 Reissner, membrane of, 137 Rennin, 116, 118, 121 Repeller, indications for use, 280 Repulsion, molecular, 4 of a diseased upper molar, 226 Resection, perforans tendon, indications for, 256 Residual air, 114 Resorcin, actions, dose and uses, 330 Respiration, Cheyne-Stokes type of, 166 functions of, 113 muscles of, 62 normal number, 114 relation to pulse-beats, 114 Respiratory organs, anatomy, 85 pathology, 150 Restraint, methods of, 257 in recumbent position, 257 in standing position, 257 Reticulum, anatomy, 82 Retina, anatomy, 93 Rheumatism, articular, causes, symptoms and treatment, 201 muscular, causes, symptoms and treat- ment, 201 Rhinitis, chronic, causes of, 188 differentiated from glanders, 169 symptoms and treatment, 188 Rhino-adenitis, see Strangles Ribs, anatomy, 51 asternal, 51 fracture of, 229 symptoms and treatment, 229 sternal, 51 Rigor mortis, 131 changes in muscle in, 131 Ringbone, defined, 243 forms of, 243, 251 symptoms of, 243 treatment, 243, 251 Ringworm, cause, 203, 164 prescription for, 337 symptoms and treatment, 202 Roaring, changes in nervous and muscular tissue in, 151 operation for, 222 symptoms of, 222 Rochelle salts, 7 Rotation, obstetrics, 278 390 Rubidium, 29 Rumen, anatomy, 81 Rumenotomy, in cow, 230 Rumination, physiology of, 117 Rupture of the bladder, causes, symptoms and treatment, 233 of the diaphragm, symptoms, 229 of the flexor metatarsi, 247 of the ligamentum teres, 245 of prepubian ligament, 231 of tendons, 215 Sacrum, anatomy, 50 Saddle-galls, treatment for, 229 Salicylic acid, preparations of, 327 actions and uses, 327 Saline infusion, 332 ~~ ~ indications, 332 . methods of administration, 332 Saliva, action in stomach, 119 amount in horse and ox, 117 properties and uses of, 116 Salivary calculi, treatment of, 227 fistula, causes, symptoms and treat- ment, 227 glands, 80 nerve supply of, 77 ducts of, 80 Salol, 37 actions and uses, 327 Salt, 3 acid, 4, 12 basic, 12 Re physiologic solution of, 40 use of, 332 effect of, on growth of wool, 125 Saltpetre, 7 Salvarsan, used in contagious pleuro- pneumonia, 176 in dourine, 182 Sanitary, barn, farm, and milk-house, 358 science, used by veterinarian, 345 Santonin, dose, 325 Saphrophytic, defined, 161 Sarcina, 160 Sarcolemma, 100 Sarcoma, tissue resembling, 145 types of, 145 Sarcoptes scabei, 203, 204 Saturnism, see Lead poisoning’ Scabies, 204 in sheep, 204 Scaphoid bone, anatomy, 48 Scapula, anatomy, 47 Scirrhous cord, causes, symptoms and treatment, 234 Sclerostoma equinum, 196 tetracanthum, 196 Sclerostomata in bowels of horse, 195 symptoms, 195 Scratches, prescription for, 336 Scrotum, anatomy, 92 Sebaceous glands, 124 INDEX Sebum, functions of, 124 where and how secreted, 124 Secretion, defined, 104 differs from exudation, 104 from cedema, 104 from transudation, 104 function of blood in, 104 function of gland cells in, 104 function of nerves in, 104, 134 influenced by nervous system, 134 lachrymal, function of, 137 organs of, 105 Sedatives, action of, 298 danger of excessive use, 298 Seedy toe, 253 defined, 253 treatment, 253 Selection for breeding, 362 points considered, 362 Sense organs, anatomy, 93 physiology, 136 Senses, physiology, 136. Septiczeemia, 209 differentiated from pyzemia, 170 puerperal, 291 causes, 291 symptoms and treatment, 291 treatment for, 170 Serous membrane, 100 compared with mucous, 100 location, 100 Serum albumin, 101, 107 bactericidal, 163 bacteriolytic, 163 danger in transfer, 108 globulin, 101, 107 prophylactic, 350 therapy, 341 of hog cholera, 342 Sexual organs, anatomy, 90 Sheep, parasites of, 364 wool breeds of, 361 Shoe-boil, etiology, 240 treatment of, 240, 241 ” Shoeing, in bruised heel, 257 in canker, 254 in contracted tendons, 256 in contracted hoof, 256 in corns, 253 in laminitis, 255 in navicular disease, 252 in quarter crack, 256 in thrush, 254 physiologic, 139 to overcome forging, 256 Shoulder abscess, cold, 240 cause and treatment, 240 joint, 53 dislocation of, 239 lameness, 239 symptoms and treatment, 239 Side-bones, pathology, 251 treatment, 251 Siderite, 32 INDEX Silver, 27 compounds used in medicine, 27 German, 12 nitrate, 11, 18 test for, 27 Sinapis alba semina, 319 nigra semina, 319 Sinuses, 51 facial, trephining of, 223 frontal, of horse and ox compared, 85 galactophorus, 92 illary, 45 point to trephine, 99 nasal, pus in, treatment, 223 of the head, 85 Skin, appendages of, 95 diseases of, 202 elimination by, 102 function of, 123 glands found in, 123 parasites of, 203 pathology of, 156 Soap, preparation of, 41 Sodium acetate, 35, arsenate, 33 bicarbonate, 11, 29, 300 action, 331 dose and uses, 331 borate, 31 bromide, 300 carbonate, 7, 29 preparation of, 29 chloride, 29, 300 an emetic, 316 dose for dog, 316 citrate, a lymphagogue, 123 hydrate, 42 hydroxide, 29, 301 hyposulphite, 300, 313 iodide, 303 dose, 314 , nitrate, 18 phosphate, 29 salts, 29 sulphate, 7, 29, 300 Solder, 12 Sole, pumiced, cause, 253 prognosis and treatment, 253 Solution, 8 difference from emulsion, 8 Fehling’s, use of, 43 Fowler’s, composition, 308 dose for dog and horse, 308 uses, 308 Pearson’s, 308 dose, preparation and use, 308 Solvay process, 29 Soundness, certificate for, 172 mode of examining for, 172 sae x diaphragm, and treatment, 0 of wy of hind leg, and treatment, 2 391 Spavin, blood, 248 bog, 248, 362 forms of, and treatment, 248 . lesions of, 148 unsoundness, 362 Specific gravity, determination of, 1 of urine, 43 Spermatic artery, 92 cord, structures of, 92 vein, 92 Spermatozoa not always in semen, 266 Spider in teat, 238 symptoms and treatment, 238 Spinal accessory nerve, 76 function of, 135 Spinal column, diseases of, 238 cord, anatomy, 72 functions of, 131 inferior columns of, 132 function of, compared with superior column, 132 reflex functions of, 132 superior columns of, 132 Spinal meningitis, 169 differentiated from azoturia, 169 Spine, acromian, 47 supermazxillary, 45 Spirillaceze, 160 Spirillum, 160 Spirits, ammonia aromaticus, action and dose, 326 definition, 305 difference from tinctures, 305 glonoin, action and dose, 326 nitrous ether, dose, 318 Spirochzta, 160 Spirosoma, 160 Spleen, a ductless gland, 96 anatomy, 97 a vascular gland, 113 blood supply of, 66, 97 diseases in which enlarged, 153 engorgement of, 97 function of, 113 nerve supply of, 77, 97 of horse and ox compared, 97 Splint, etiology of, 242 symptoms and treatment, 243 Spore, 160 Sporotrichosis, 179 Stable, objectionable locations for, 345 proper drainage for, 345 Staggers, stomach, see Vertigo Stall, properly built for horse, 364 Stannous chloride, 11 Staphylococcus pyogenes albus, 161 aureus, 161 citreous, 161 Staphyloma, defined, 218 Starch, ferments acting on, 116 Starvation, 126 effect on tissue, 128 on urine, 126 Steapsin, 116, 121 392 INDEX Stearin, 41 Stenosis, mammary duct, symptoms and treatment, 238 mitral, changes following, 149 Sterile, defined, 161 Sterility, causes and treatment, 293 in female and in male, 293 defined, 293 Sterilization of hands and instruments, method of, 258 Sternum, anatomy, 49 of horse, ox and dog compared, 49 Stimulants, cardiac, 305 cerebral, 305 definition of, 305 diffusible, 305 general, 305, 314 hepatic, 305 Stomach, anatomy, 81 blood supply of, 66, 81 epithelium of, 1 function of, 117 nerve supply of, 77, 81 number of, in horse, ox, goat and camel, 118 ruptured, symptoms of, 192 staggers, see Vertigo tube, indications for use, 232 method of passing, 232 Stomatitis, causes and treatment, 225 Strangles, complications occurring in, 178 differentiated from glanders, 169 symptoms of, 178 Streptococcus pyogenes, 161 Streptothrix, 160 Stringhalt, operation for, 248 Strongylosis, bronchial, 189 symptoms, 189 Strongylus equinum, 196 rufescens, 189 disease produced by, 189 symptoms, 189 tetracanthum, 196 Strontium, 29 Strophanthus, action and dose, 326, 328 uses, 328 Strychnine, actions and uses, 310 antidote, 39, 340 dose for dog and horse, 310 poisoning in dog, and treatment, 340 Succus entericus, 119 Suffixes, 7 Suffraginis, fracture of, symptoms and treatment, 243 Sulphur, 23 an element of proteids, 106 Mate of ingestion of, on wool growth, 12 in disinfecting, 23 properties and uses of, 23 capa differentiated from exhaustion, 16 symptoms of, 201 treatment, 201, 314 Superior maxilla, anatomy, 45 Suppuration, 208 susceptibility of different animals, 208 Suprascapular paralysis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 240 Surgery, 206 Surra, causes of, 163 Suspensory ligament, anatomy, 55 sprain of, causes, prognosis, symptoms and treatment, 242 Suture, continuous, uses of, 207 Swamp fever, causes and characteristics of, 182 Sweat-glands, 123, 124 in different genera, 123 Sweeney, defined, 216, 240 treatment, 216, 240 Swine plague, 172 prophylactic measures in extinc- tion of, 173 symptoms, 172 Sylvius, fissure of, 72 Symbiotes communis, 203 Sympathetic nervous system, 77 functions of, 135 Synarthrosis, 52 Syncope in anesthesia, 258 Synechia, 156 Synergistic remedial agents, 297 Synovitis, 214 Synthesis, 3, 6 Systole, 109 Tenia ccenuris, 200 mamillana, 195 perfoliata, 195 plicata, 195 solium, 353 Tapeworm in dog, treatment, 323 in solipeds, 195 Tar, actions of, 318 coal, products of, 317 source and uses, 318 Tarsus, conditions causing unsoundness, 362 Tartar emetic, 34, 325 actions, 325 dose, 316, 325, 327 vermifuge, 316 Taste, nerves of, 134, 135, 137 primary sensations of, 137 Teeth, anatomy, 78 at various ages, 79, 225 canine, 78 composition of, 78 incisor, 77, 78 horse and ox compared, 78 modifications in upper and lower molars, 79 molar, 78 repulsion of diseased upper, 226 Temperature, body, 128 me Salli pore, for different genera, 2 INDEX Temperature, causes of the variation in, 129 in cold-blooded animals, 128 in warm-blooded animals, 128 factors in regulation of, 129 result of severe exercise on, 129 rise in, due to infection, 141 due to nervous disorders, 141 due to poison, 141 subnormal, diseases with, 171 of a germ, maximum, minimum, opti- mum, 164 Tendinitis, causes of, 215, 242 symptoms, 242 treatment, 215, 241, 242 Tendons, bowed, prescription for, 216 flexor, contraction of, treatment, 241 inflammation of, causes, symp- toms and treatment, 242 metatarsi, rupture of, 247 rupture of, causes of, 215 surgery, 215 Tendovaginitis, causes, symptoms and treatment, 215 Tenotomy, cunean, object of, 247 peroneal, object of, 248 Termination, defined, 165 Testicles, anatomy, coverings of, 92 function of, 139 Test, agglutination, 166, 167 complement-fixation, 166, 167 for preservatives in milk, 357 mallein, 166, 167 Marsh’s, for arsenic, 33 precipitin, 166 Tetanus, accessory cause, 174 bacillus of, 162 cause and prevention, 174 genera most subject to, 174 immunization in, 341 symptoms and treatment, 174, 300 Tetrad, 4 Texas fever, causes, 176 post-mortem lesions, 158 symptoms, 176 Therapeutics, defined, 297 Thermic mots symptoms and treatment of, 201 differentiated from heat exhaus- tion, 166 Thermometric equivalents, 2 Thiothrix, 160 Thirst, cause of sensation of, 119 Thoracic duct, 69, 123 receptaculum chyli of, 70 Thorax, anatomy, 87 diameters enlarged in inspiration, 113 diseases of, 228 of horse and ox compared, 87 organs contained in, 87 Thoroughbred, 361 ee mouse pin causes unsoundness, 362 pathology of, 249 oat, diseases of, 217 Thrombin, 108 393 Thrush, causes, prognosis, symptoms and treatment, 254 differentiated from canker, 254 Thumps, treatment for, 307 Thymus gland, 97, 98 a vascular gland, 112 Thyroid gland, 97 a vascular gland, 113 function, 113 Ticks, 203 Tidal air, 103, 114 Tincture, definition of, 305 difference from spirits, 305 official, 306 preparation of, 305 Tinea tonsurans, disease produced by, 164 Tissue, collecting for bacteriologic exam- ination, 163 connective, 101 elastic fibrous, where found, 101 keraphyllous, 96 Tongue, anatomy, 77, 79 Tonic, 321 acid, 318 blood and nerve, 314 Topographical anatomy, 98 Torsion, arresting hemorrhage by, 208 of uterus, symptoms and treatment, 283 Toxicology, 38, 338 Toxin, 163 Trachea, anatomy, 86 Tracheotomy, indications for, 224 in cedema of glottis, 188 structures severed in, 98 Transudation differs from secretion, 104 Trapezoid bond, anatomy, 48 Triad, 4 Trichina spiralis, 155, 202, 354 Trichinosis, 202, 354 animals affected by, 202 channels of infection, 202 diagnosis and prevention, 202 disposition of carcass, 354 lesions, 155 methods of detection, 354 Trifacial nerve, 74 function of, 134 Trochanter, 51 Trochanteric lameness, 245 ‘Trochlea, 51 anosoma Evansi, 163 Trypsin, 116, 121 tb: ; Turpentine, oil of, administration of, 311 dose, 325 source and use, 311 Tube, Eustachian, anatomy, 95 epithelium of, 101 function of, 95, 137 stomach-, indications for, 232 methods of passing, 232 Tubercle, crude and miliary, 159 Tubercula nates, 72 testes, 72 394 Tuberculin, 162 testing with, 170 sources of fallacy in, 170 Tuberculosis, 181 bacillus of, 162 Bang method of eradicating, 350 channels of infection, 162 course of, 181 generalized, 352 handling of infected herds, 348 localized, 352 rules for inspection of carcass, 351 symptoms of, 181 tissues most commonly affected, 159 Tuberosity, 51 Tumors, classification of, 145, 211 defined, 211 malignant and non-malignant, 145,211 Tunica adventitia, 99 intima and media, 99 vaginalis, anatomy, 92 Tympanites accompanying choke, 222 in cattle, 192 ante-mortem and post-mortem, 153 symptoms and treatment, 192 Udder, anatomy, 91 of the cow, 91 diseases affecting, 154 Ulcer, causes and treatment, 211 defined, 144, 210 Ulna, anatomy, 47 fracture of, 241 prognosis, symptoms and treat- ment, 241 Umbilical cord, function, 271 inflammation of, causes, symp- toms and treatment, 295 hernia, causes, symptoms and treat- ment, infection, causes, 294 Unciform bone, anatomy, 48 Uncinaria, 197 animals attacked by, 197 symptoms and treatment, 197 Unguentum hydragyri, 299 actions, doses and uses, 299 Uniparous, 266 Unit, antitoxin, 343 of measure of liquids, 306 of weight, 306 balan arstineey ‘conditions of tarsus causing, 62 diseases causing, 363 faulty conformation predisposing to, 363 iL in horses disqualifying, 363 e, } Urachus, 275 Ad persistence of, 296 symptoms and treatment, 296 Uremia, symptoms and treatment, 185 Urea, 43, 127 2 i. sources of, 126 R poe wa P INDEX Ureter, anatomy, 89 Urethra, anatomy, 90 of horse and ox compared, 90 of mare, 90 Uric acid, 127 Urinary organs, 89 fetal development of, 276 Urine, 42, 125 acidity of, causes, 126 albumin in, 186 test for, 42 average amount of, in horse and cow, 126 bile in, test for, 42 blood in, 186 composition of, 125 examination of, steps in, 185 of a hg and carnivora compared, 1 reaction of, 126 specific gravity of, 43, 126 sugar in, test for, 42 Urticaria, causes, symptoms and treat- ment, 203 Uterine inertia in mare, 283 symptoms and treatment, 283 Uterus, amputation of, 286 anatomy, 90, 261 blood supply of, 66, 262 cervix of, 27 lacerations of, 289 methods of dilating, 279 function of, 266 glands of, functions of, 262 inversion of, 238, 286 causes and symptoms, 286 treatment, 238, 286 ligaments of, 91 functions of, 262 modifications after labor, 266 during pregnancy, 269 muscular contractions of, 280 methods of overcoming, 280 nerve supply of, 77 of bitch, 262 of cow and bitch compared, 90 pregnant, influence on neighboring organs, 267 situation of, in mare and cow, 275 rigidity of the os, treatment, 284 rupture of, during labor, 289 tore of, symptoms and treatment, Vaccine, autogenous, 344 prophylactic, 350 therapy, 343 Vagina, anatomy, 91 function of, 91, 266 inversion of, antepartum, 285 causes, prognosis and treatment, 285 strictly a generative organ, 266 INDEX Vaginismus, 290 Vaginitis, causes, 290 contagious, symptoms and treatment ol, defined, 290 symptoms and treatment of, 290 Vagus nerve, anatomy, 75 function of, 135 influence on heart, 109 Valence, 4 Valves, heart, 62 ileocecal, 83 of veins, 110 Valvular insufficiency, causes and symp- toms, 186 treatment, 187 Vascular glands, 112 Vas deferens, definition of, 92 Vaseline, source of, 37 Vaso-vasorum, 99 Vegetables, green, 127 Veins, anterior cava, 68 described, 99 dorsal, 68 function of, 110 internal thoracic, 68 jugular, 69 portal, 69, 120 pulmonary, 68 spermatic, 92 superior cervical, 68 valves of, 110 vena azygos, 68 vertebral, 68 Venesection, 323 Ventilation, King system of, 346 relation of air space to, 346 Veratrum viride, actions, 306 dose for dog and horse, 306 uses, 306 Vermifuge for cow, dog and horse, 316 Version, obstetrics, 278 Vertebre, anatomy, 48 cervical, 48 common characteristics of, 49 true, 49 Vertigo, abdominal, 199 causes, prevention, and treatment, 199 Vesicovaginocele, causes, 292 reduction of, 292 Vesicule seminales, 92 absent in dog and cat, 264 function of, 263 Bere method of opening guttural pouch, 2! triangle, 220, 221 Viburnum prunifolium, uses of, 313 Vieussens, ring of, 68 Vinegar, 35 Vitreous humor, 93, 94 Vitriol, blue, 7 Voluntary movements, 134 muscle, 100, 130 symptoms 395 Vomition in cattle, diagnosis, 192 cee from regurgitation, rare in the horse, reason, 117 Vulva, anatomy, 93 function of, 266 mucous membrane of, 261 epithelium of, 261 structure of, 261 Washing soda, 7 Water, composition of, 14 decomposed, 14 hard, tests for, 15 lime, 30 purifying, 14, 345 soft, 15 tests for chlorides in, 14 for lead in, 14 for nitrates in, 14 Weight, atomic, 5 metric system of, 306 molecular, 5 of neues supported by hoof, 96, unit of, 306 Whartonian gelatin, 272 Whey, 42 White scours in calves, 178 causes and treatment, 178 Wind-galls, causes, defined, 216 Wine, 35 Wool compared with fur and hair, 124 conditions favoring growth of, 125 improvement of, 125 effect of ingestion of salt on, 125 of sulphur on, 125 Wounds, classification of, 206 healing of, 207 infection, 206 lacerated, treatment of, 208 of the coronet, treatment, 208 reopening, indications for, 207 treatment of antiseptic and aseptic, 206 Wry-neck, 279 Zinc, 31 acetate, 35 antidote for, 39 chloride, 31 uses of, 321 oxide, 31 uses of, 321 sulphate, 31 an emetic, 316 dose for dog, 316 distinguished from Epsom salts, 31 preparation of, 31 uses of, 321 Zona pellucida, 268 Zone of Zinn, anatomy, 93 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