tlWCMTY BRIGHAM -'^»i» PROVO, UlAH Do Not / By Various Authorities Fishing, etc./ Cricket. Home Gordon Football. C. W. Alcock THE ADVISORY COUNCIL OF THE VICTORIA HISTORY ,T r-BACK The Lord Arch- Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., BISHOP OF CaNTERBURV LL.D., F.R.S., ETC. 14 s Grace The Duke of Sir Edward Maunde Thomp- Bedford, K.G. ■ President of the Zoological Society His Grace The Duke of Devon- shire, K.G. Chancellor of the University oj Cam- bridge His Grace The Duke of Portland, K.G. His Grace The Duke of Argyll, K.T. SON, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. Director of the British Museum Sir Clements R. Markham, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.S.A. President of the Royal Geographical Society Sir Henry C. Maxwell-Lyte, K.C.B., M.A., F.S.A., etc Keeper of the Public Records Xhe Rt. Hon. The Earl of Sir Jos. Hooker, G.C.S.I.,M.D., Rosebery, K.G., K.T. The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Coventry President of the Royal Agricultural Society The Rt. Hon. The Viscount Dillon Late President of the Society of Antiquaries The Rt. Hon. the Lord Lister Late President of the Royal Society The Rt. Hon. The Lord Alverstone, G.C.M.G. Lord Chief Justice The Hon. Walter Rothschild, M.P. Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., F.S.A., etc. D.C.L., F.R.S., ETC. Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., etc. Rev. J. Charles Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., etc. Lionel Cust, M.V.O., M.A., F.S.A., ETC. Director of the National Portrait Gallery Charles H. Firth, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Modern History, Oxford Albert C. L.G. GiJNTHER,M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Ph.D. Late President of the Linnean Society F. Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Col. Duncan A. Johnston, C.B., R.E. Late Director General of the Ordnance Survey Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A., F.R.S., ETC. Director of the Natural History Museum, South Kensington Reginald L. Poole, M.A. University Lecturer in Diplomatic, Oxford ]. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. Walter Rye W. H. St. John Hope, M.A. Assistant Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries Among the original members of the Council were The late Duke of Rutland, K.G. The late Marquess of Salisbury The late Dr. Mandell Creighton, Bishop of London The late Dr. Stubbs, Bishop OF Oxford The late Lord Acton The late Sir William F:.ower The late Professor F. York Powell and The late Col. Sir J. Farqu- harson, K.C.B. Genera/ Editor — William Page, F.S.A. GENERAL ADVERTISEMENT The Victoria History of the Counties of England is a National Historic Survey which, under the direction of a large staff comprising the foremost students in science, history, and archaeology, is designed to record the history of every county of England in detail. This work was, by gracious permission, dedicated to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria, who gave it her own name. It is the endeavour of all who are associated with the undertaking to make it a worthy and permanent monument to her memory. Rich as every county of England is in materials for local history, there has hitherto been no attempt made to bring all these materials together into a coherent form. Although from the seventeenth century down to quite recent times numerous county histories have been issued, they are very unequal in merit ; the best of them are very rare and costly ; most of them are imperfect and many are now out of date. Moreover, they were the work of one or two isolated scholars, who, however scholarly, could not possibly deal adequately with all the varied subjects which go to the making of a county history. VII 1>A THE VICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTY OF CORNWALL EDITED BY WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. VOLUME ONE LONDON JAMES STREET HAYMARKET 1906 HAROLD B. LEE LIBRARY BHIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY PROVO, UTAH Avi Zhc IDfctorfa Ibistor^ of the Counties of lEnglanb EDITED BY WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL IN FOUR VOLUMES VOLUME I e: 'S^;^ C County Committee for Cornwall THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF MOUNT-EDGCUMBE, P.C, G.C.V.O., Lord Lieutenant^ Chairman The Rt. Hon. the Earl of St. Germans The Rt. Hon. the Viscount Clifden The Rt. Rev. the Lord Bishop of Truro The Rt. Hon. the Lord Arundell of Wardour The Rt. Hon. the Lord Kingsale The Rt. Hon. the Lord St. Levan The Rt. Hon. the Lord Courtney of Penwith, P.C. Sir William L. Salusbury-Trelawny, Bart. Sir Charles T. Dyke Acland, Bart. The Rev. Sir Vyell D. Vyvyan, Bart. Sir Lewis Molesworth, Bart. Sir William W. R. Onslow, Bart, Sir Colman B. Rashleigh, Bart. Sir James Rennell Rodd, G.C.V.O., K.C.M.G., C.B. Major-Gen. Sir Reginald Pole-Carew, K.C.B., C.V.O. Sir a. Pendarves Vivian, K.C.B., D.L., J.P. Sir George J. Smith, J.P., D.L. Sir Richard Tangye, F.R.G.S. Sir Robert Edgcumbe Sir Robert Harvey The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Gibraltar The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of St. Germans The Ven. the Archdeacon of Bodmin F. Layland Barratt, Esq., M.P. A. F. Basset, Esq., D.L., J.P. E. Beauchamp Beauchamp, Esq., D.L., J.P. R. Gully Bennet, Esq., D.L., J.P. T. B. Bolitho, Esq., D.L., J.P. T. R. Bolitho, Esq., B.A., D.L., J.P. The Rev. A. T. Boscawen, J.P. The Rev. G. Pole-Carew, M.A. Clifford J. Cory, Esq., M.P. William Coryton, Esq., J.P. A. T. QUILLER-COUCH, EsQ. W. P. Courtney, Esq. John C. Daubuz, Esq., M.A., D.L., J.P. A. Edward Dunn, Esq., M.P. John D. Enys, Esq., F.G.S. Richard Foster, Esq., M.A., D.L., J.P. Howard Fox, Esq. C. Davies Gilbert, Esq., D.L, J.P. W. J. Graham, Esq. Edward Hain, Esq. The Rev. Canon C. E. Hammond, M.A. William Hammond, Esq. The Rev. D. Percy Harrison, M.A. The Rev. W. Iago, B.A. W. A. McArthur, Esq., M.P. G. Croydon Marks, Esq. M.P. John Gwennap D. Moore, Esq., J.P. G. Hay Morgan, Esq., M.P. William C Pendarves, Esq., D.L., J.P. Thurstan C. Peter, Esq. Evelyn W. Rashleigh, Esq., J.P. Col. Edward St. Aubyn, D.L., J.P. The Rev. Thomas Taylor, M.A., F.S.A. Professor J. Westlake, K.C. H. MiCHELL Whitley, Esq. Arthur C. Willyams, Esq., D.L., J.P. The Rev. Chancellor A. J. Worlledge, M.A. xi xin CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE Dedication The Advisory Council of the Victoria History General Advertisement The Cornwall County Committe« Contents .... List of Illustrations Preface . . • • • Table of Abbreviations Natural History Geology .... Palaeontology Botany .... Introduction . . , Summary of Orders . Botanical Districts Brambles {Rubi) Menthae .... Filices, etc. .... Mosses {Musci) . Liverworts {Hepat'icae) Marine Algae . Fraehwater Algae Lichens {Licheves) Fungi .... Zoology Marine .... Non-Marine Molluscs Insects .... Introduction Aptera {Spring-tails and Bristle- tails) Orthoptera {Earwigs, Grass- hoppers, etc.) Neuroptera {Dragon-flies, Lace wings, etc.) Hymenoptera Phytophaga {Saw flies, etc.) . . Cynipidae {Gall-flies) . Entomophaga {Ichneumon flies) Braconidae Chrysididae {Ruby-wasps) Hymenoptera Aculeata {Ants^ Wasps, and Bees) By J. B. Hill, F.G.S. . By R. Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. Edited by F. Hamilton Davey, F.L.S.< By F. H4M1LTON Davey, F.L.S. By the Rev. W. Moyle Rogers, F.L.S. By F. Hamilton Davey, F.L.S. n »» • By E. M. Holmes, F.L.S. »» »» »» n By Professor Jas. Clark, M.A., D.Sc., A.R.C.S By B. B. Woodward, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S. By Professor Jas. Clark, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S, »> » » n » PACE V vii vii xiii rv xvii xxi xxiii I 47 49 55 56 71 72 73 74 79 81 90 98 106 113 160 163 166 166 169 173 176 176 180 181 181 XV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Duloe Circle . Nine Maidens, St. Columb Inscribed Stones (Plate I) . Inscribed Stones (Plate II) Inscribed Stones (Plate III) Inscribed Stones (Plate IV) Inscribed Stones (Plate V) Inscribed Stones (Plate VI) Types of Wheel Crosses Upright Slabs, Wheel Crosses with Latin Crosses with the Figure of our Lord . Crosses with Projections at the Neck, &c.. Holed Crosses ..... Cross in the Churchyard, St. Burian . Incised Crosses .... Cross No. I in the Churchyard, Lanivet Sunk Crosses ; Sunk, Miscellaneous, and Ce) Cross in the Churchyard, Cardinham . Cross-shaft in the Churchyard, St. Neot Coped Stone in Churchyard, Lanivet Sculptured Norman Tympana in Cornwall Ancient Earthworks Gunwalloe, The Towans . St. Austell, Blackhead Sl Columb Minor, Trevelgue St- Just in Penwith, Kenidjack Castle St. Keveme, Arrowan St. Levan, Treryn Dinas St. Minver, Pentire . Scilly, The Giant's Castle . Tintagel, Willapark . Bodmin, Castle Camyke Egloshayle, Killibury . Ludgvan, Castle-an-Dinas . St. Columb Major, Castle-an-Dinas St. Just in Penwith, Bartinney . Warbstow Burrows . Braddock, Largin Castle Cardinham, Bury Castle Egloshayle, Pencarrow Golant, St. Sampson, Castlcdore . Pelynt (2) . . . . St. Kew, Tregeare or Dameliock . Feock ..... Kilkhampton, Penstowc Mawnan, Carlldnack . Probus, Golden St. Ive, Cadsonbury . St. Keveme, Halwyn Crosses, and Crosses and Latin Crosses tic Ornament with the Figure of our Lord PAGE 400 402 4'3 414 417 418 421 422 425 427 428 430 431 433 435 436 439 440 442 444 447 453 453 453 453 453 455 455 459 459 459 459 459 459 463 463 463 463 463 463 465 465 465 465 '465 469 469 469 XVlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Ancient Earthworks {continued) St. Martin in Meneage, Gear ........... 469 St. Martin in Meneage, Caervallack . . . . . . . . . -471 St. Martin in Meneage, Tremaine . . . . . . . , . -471 Wendron, Grumbla . . . . . . . . . . . . .471 LIST OF MAPS Geological Map Orographical Map Botanical Map Pre-Historical Map Stone Circles Map Ancient Earthworks Map PAGE between xxviii, i 48, 49 352. 353 378. 379 450. 45» x!x i v^ PREFACE THE antiquities of Cornwall are of such extreme interest that they have to a large extent absorbed the attention of the antiquaries and archaeologists of the county, causing the history of the county to be somewhat neglected. Cornwall has nevertheless had its share of county historians, first among whom is Richard Carew, of Antony, who published his quaint and entertaining Survey of Cornwall in 1602. It is, however, to Dr. William Borlase that we turn as the principal historian of the county. His interests at first were given to natural history, but later in life he devoted most of his attention to archaeology. In 1774 he published the first edition of his Cornish Antiquities, which, although many of his deductions are by later study shown to be erroneous, is the foundation of archaeological research in the county. In his declining years he planned a parochial history of Cornwall, which, however, was never published. The Reverend Richard Polwhele published the first part of his History of Cornwall in 1803, in which he gives a general survey of the county, but with little detail as to parochial history. In 1838 Davies Gilbert, who had changed his name from Giddy, published 'The Parochial History of Cornwall in four volumes. This was founded upon The Complete History of Cornwall by William Hals, a work that was never finished, and the manuscript ' History of Cornwall ' by Thomas Tonkin, which had come into the possession of Lord de Dunstanville. Gilbert's work only gives notes about the parishes in the county without any attempt to trace the descents of the manors. Many histories of separate parishes and districts in Cornwall have been written, the most noteworthy of which has been the History of Trigg Minor by Sir John Maclean, and the Royal Institution of Cornwall has done some excellent work towards the study of the history and archaeology of the county. The Editor wishes to express his indebtedness to the Reverend Thomas Taylor, M.A., F.S.A., for his constant help ; to the Bishop of Gibraltar, Mr. J. D. Enys, F.G.S., Mr. Thurstan C. Peter and Mr. Michell Whitley for assistance and advice ; to Mr. I. Chalkley Gould, F.S.A., for notes regarding the article on Earthworks ; to many who assisted with the article on Industries, and to Mr. C. W. Dymond, the Society of Antiquaries, and the Royal Institution of Cornwall for the use of blocks for illustrations. XXI TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbrev. Plac. (Rec Com.) Acts of P.C. . Add Add. Chart. . Admir. . Agarde . . . Anct. Corresp. . Anct. D. (P.R.O.) A 2420 Ann. Mon. . . Antiq. . . . App. . . . Arch. . . . Arch. Cant. Archd. Rec. Archit. . . . Assize R. Aud. OfF. . . Aug. OfF. . . AylofFe . . Abbreviatio Placitorum (Re- cord Commission) Acts of Privy Council Additional Additional Charters Admiralty Agarde's Indices Ancient Correspondence Ancient Deeds(Public Record Office) A 2420 Annales Monastic! Antiquarian or Antiquaries Appendix Archjeologia or Archasological Archaeologia Cantiana Archdeacons' Records Architectural Assize Rolls Audit Office Augmentation Office AylofFe's Calendars Bed Bedford Beds Bedfordshire Berks .... Berkshire Bdle Bundle B.M British Museum Bodl. Lib. . . . Bodley's Library Boro Borough Brev. Reg. . . . Brevia Regia Brit Britain,British, Britannia, etc. Buck Buckingham Bucks .... Buckinghamshire Cal Calendar Camb Cambridgeshire or Cambridge Cambr Cambria, Cambrian, Cam- brensis, etc. Campb. Ch. . Campbell Charities Cant Canterbury Cap Chapter Carl Carlisle Cart. Antiq. R. . Carts Antiquse Rolls C.C.C. Camb. . . Corpus Christi College, Cam- bridge Certiorari Bdles. Certiorari Bundles (Rolls (Rolls Chap.) Chapel) Chan. Enr. Decree Chancery Enrolled Decree R. Rolls Chan. Proc. . . Chancery Proceedings Chant. Cert. . . Chantry Certificates (or Cer- t tificates of Colleges and Chantries) Chap. Ho. . . Chapter House Charity Inq. . . Charity Inquisitions Chart. R. 20 Hen. Charter Roll, 20 Henry III. III. pt. i. No. 10 part i. Number 10 Chartul Chartulary Chas Charles Ches Cheshire Chest Chester Ch. Gds. (Exch. Church Goods (Exchequer K.R.) King's Remembrancer) Chich Chichester Chron Chronicle, Chronica, etc. Close .... Close Roll Co County Colch Colchester Coll Collections Com Commission Com. Pleas . . Common Pleas Conf. R. . . . Confirmation Rolls Co. Plac. . . . County Placita Cornw Cornwall Corp Corporation Cott Cotton or Cottonian Ct. R. . . . . Court Rolls Ct. of Wards . Court of Wards Cumb Cumberland Cur. Reg. . . . Curia Regis D D. and C. . . . De Banc. R. . . Dec. and Ord . Dep. Keeper's Rep. Derb Devon . . . . Dioc Doc Dods. MSS. . . Dom. Bk. . . . Dors Duchy of Lane. Dur East. . . Eccl. . . Eccl. Com. Edw. . . Eliz. . . Engl. . . Engl. Hist. Rev. Enr. . . Epis. Reg. . Esch. Enr. Accts. Excerpta e Rot. Fin (Rec. Com.) Exch. Dep. Exch. K.B. . Exch. K.R. Exch. L.T.R. . Deed or Deeds Dean and Chapter De Banco Rolls Decrees and Orders Deputy Keeper's Reports Derbyshire or Derby Devonshire Diocese Documents Dodsworth MSS Domesday Book Dorsetshire Duchy of Lancaster Durham Easter Term Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical Commission Edward Elizabeth England or English English Historical Review Enrolled or Enrolment Episcopal Registers Escheators Enrolled Accounts Excerpta e Rotulis Finium (Record Commission) Exchequer Depositions Exchequer King's Bench Exchequer King's Remem- brancer Exchequer Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer xxni TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Exch. of Pleas, Plea R. Exch. of Receipt . Exch. Spec. Com. . Feet of F. . . . Feod. Accts. (Ct. of Wards) Feod. Surv. (Ct. of Wards) Feud. Aids . . . fol Foreign R. . . . Forest Proc. Exchequer of Pleas, Plea Roll Exchequer of Receipt Exchequer Special Commis- sions Feet of Fines Feodaries Accounts (Court of Wards) Feodaries Surveys (Court of Wards) Feudal Aids Folio Foreign Rolls Forest Proceedings Gaz Gazette or Gazetteer Gen Genealogical, Genealogica, etc. Geo George Glouc Gloucestershire or Gloucester Guild Certif.(Chan.) Guild Certificates (Chancery) Ric. II. Richard II. Memo. R. . . . Mich Midd Mins. Accts. Misc. Bks. (Exch. K.R., Exch. T.R. or Aug. Off.) Mon Monm Mun Mus N. and Q. . Norf. . , Northampt. Northants Northumb. Norw. . Nott. . , N.S. Memoranda Rolls Michaelmas Term Middlesex Ministers' Accounts Miscellaneous Books (Ex- chequer King's Remem- brancer, Exchequer Trea- sury of Receipt or Aug- mentation Office) Monastery, Monasticon Monmouth Muniments or Munimenta Museum Notes and Queries Norfolk Northampton Northamptonshire Northumberland Norwich Nottinghamshire or Notting- ham New Style Hants Harl. Hen. Heref. Hertf. Herts Hil. . Hist. Hist. MSS. Com. Hosp. Hund. R. . . Hunt. , . . Hunts . Inq. a.q.d. Inq. p.m. Inst. . . Invent. . Ips. . Itin. . . Jas. . Journ. Lamb. Lib. Lane L. and P. Hen. VIIL Lansd. Ld. Rev. Rec. . Leic Le Neve's Ind. Lib Lich Line Lond m. Mem. Hampshire Harley or Harleian Henry Herefordshire or Hereford Hertford Hertfordshire Hilary Term History, Historical,Historian, Historia, etc. Historical MSS. Commission Hospital Hundred Rolls Huntingdon Huntingdonshire Inquisitions ad quod damnum Inquisitions post mortem Institute or Institution Inventory or Inventories Ipswich Itinerary James Journal Lambeth Library Lancashire or Lancaster Letters and Papers, Hen. VIIL Lansdowne Land Revenue Records Leicestershire or Leicester Le Neve's Indices Library Lichfield Lincolnshire or Lincoln London Membrane Memorials Off. Orig. O.S. Oxf. R. Palmer's Ind. Pal. of Chest. Pal. of Dur. Pal. of Lane. Par. . . . Pari. . . . Pari. R. . . Pari. Surv. . Partic. for Gts. Pat. . . . P.C.C. . . Pet Peterb Phil Pipe R Plea R Pop. Ret. . . . Pope Nich. Tax. (Rec. Com.) P.R.O Proc. . . . Proc. Soc. Antiq. pt. Pub. R Rec. . . . Recov. R. . . Rentals and Surv. Rep Rev Ric Office Originalia Rolls Ordnance Survey Oxfordshire or Oxford Page Palmer's Indices Palatinate of Chester Palatinate of Durham Palatinate of Lancaster Parish, parochial, etc. Parliament or Parliamentary Parliament Rolls Parliamentary Surveys Particulars for Grants Patent Roll or Letters Patent Prerogative Court of Canter- bury Petition Peterborough Philip Pipe Roll Plea Rolls Population Returns Pope Nicholas' Taxation (Re- cord Commission) Public Record Office Proceedings Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries Part Publications Roll Records Recovery Rolls Rentals and Surveys Report Review Richard XXIV TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Roff. .... Rochester diocese Rot. Cur. Reg. Rotuli Curiae Regis Rut Rutland Topog. Sarum .... Ser Sess. R Shrews Shrops .... Soc Soc. Antiq. . Somers Somers. Ho. S.P. Dom. . . . Staff. .... Star Chamb. Proc. Stat Steph Subs. R. . . . Suff Surr Suss Surv. of Ch. Liv- ings (Lamb.) or (Chan.) Salisbury diocese Series Sessions Rolls Shrewsbury Shropshire Society Society of Antiquaries Somerset Somerset House State Papers Domestic Staffordshire Star Chamber Proceedings Statute Stephen Subsidy Rolls Suffolk Surrey Sussex Surveys of Church Livings (Lambeth) or (Chancery) Trans. Transl. Treas. Trin. Topography or Topographi- cal Transactions Translation Treasury or Treasurer Trinity Terra Univ University Valor Eccl. Com.) Vet. Mon. . V.C.H. . . Vic. . . . vol. . (Rec. Warw. Westm Westmld Will. Wilts Winton. Wore. Yorks Valor Ecclesiasticus (Record Commission) Vetusta Monumenta Victoria County History Victoria Volume Warwickshire or Warwick Westminster Westmorland William Wiltshire Winchester diocese Worcestershire or Worcester Yorkshire XXV A HISTORY OF CORNWALL HISTORY OF ( UKNWAJ.I GEOLOGICAL MAP - western section BASED ON THE INDEX MAPS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEV ^-■'^""^''V''\x"^-::, - Mlntao* S»«r.,ta,J ^.tian. SCALt 4 HILCS TO AH INCH era I J^etumarphii\{Jlornhitrntle I f^Wf /u'&7/i« { Diabtxst^ Epidiontif etc.) 1 Gabbro wGramle 46' J &Sn^iAaB«v * rORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND GEOLOGY THE county of Cornwall, jutting out to the western seas as a long spur, forms part of a narrowing promontory that culmin- ates in a claw, the extremities of which, known as the Land's End and the Lizard, constitute respectively the most westerly and southerly confines of Britain ; while the Scillies, yet further to the south-west, stand out of the Atlantic as its islet prolongation. Its extensive seaboard, forming a line of bold cliffs facing the seas of the Bristol and English Channels, and exposed to the full fury of the Atlantic breakers, presents a coastal scenery unique amongst the English counties ; while its extreme western walls, which overlook the Atlantic, exhibit a beauty and grandeur that attract alike the lover of the pic- turesque and the student of nature. While the problems opened up by the study of our rock formations have possessed a fascination for the scientific investigator from the earliest days of geological science, the mineral products contained within their recesses claimed the attention of observers at a period far more remote, and brought to our shores the merchants of ancient Phoenicia. From the earliest times which his- tory records up to the present day the extraction of tin has, with inter- vals of cessation, formed a staple industry of the county. In later times, when the stream deposits no longer yielded an adequate supply, the extension of this industry to subterranean sources and the extraction of other useful metals from these underground workings opened up a wider field ; the growth of these industries brought in its train more systematic observation which probably gave birth to the science of geology as related to Cornwall. Those observations and the speculations to which they gave rise have been continued to the present day, and the county can boast of a long roll of Cornish geologists whose publications have amassed a voluminous literature extending over two centuries. Their observations have been supplemented by scientific investiga- tors attracted hither from outside the county and beyond the seas. Of those able and enthusiastic pioneers. Sir Henry De la Beche, the founder and first director of the Geological Survey, stands out pre-emment, not only from his masterly observations in the field, but from the con- crete form in which he embodied them together with the scientific results of the distinguished observers who preceded him. His classic memoir constitutes a landmark in Cornish and even British geology.^ Notwith- * Report on the Geology of Comuiall, Devon and West Somerset [with Bibliography, 1 602-1 837], 1839. I I I A HISTORY OF CORNWALL standing the lapse of over sixty years since the publication of that report, during which the science of geology, then in its infancy, has advanced v^ith rapid strides, the observations and deductions recorded in its pages have needed so little modification at the hands of subsequent observers, equipped with more modern methods, as to afford the most eloquent testimony to the accuracy of his facts and the soundness of his reasoning. The bibliography of Cornish geology is so extensive that it would be impossible within the compass of this treatise to do it jus- tice. Those indeed who are at present engaged in these investigations suffer from an embarrassment of riches, so that it is no small task for the geologist of to-day to ascertain the facts that have been gleaned by former observers in the same field. The Geological Survey is at present engaged on a more detailed examination of the county, and in the official publications which will follow, the extent of their obligations to the labours of others will be adequately acknowledged. Before dealing with the successive processes of nature's operations which have evolved the present configuration of our county, it may be stated at the outset that the rocks which enter into its geology be- long to the earlier chapters of geological history, and form the natural foundations on which the strata of central and eastern England have been laid down. Moreover in the vast interval of time since their formation they have suffered profound alteration, and the pages of their history are not easily deciphered. Not only so, but the very changes which have altered the rocks to the condition in which we see them to-day were themselves brought about in a long distant geological epoch, the antiquity of which exceeds that of the most lofty mountain chains of Europe. Before inquiring therefore into the history of those ancient periods which gave rise to our rock formations, it will be convenient to take note of the changes that are going on at the present day within the ken of our own observation. For although the solid rocks of the county are of vast antiquity, its physical features and the present relation of land and sea, mark the final results of continuous agencies of change, the operations of which, though apparently slow, are yet taking place before our own eyes. Moreover it must not be understood that finality has been attained, for the changes in the past which have evolved the scenery of to-day are still going on, ever modifying to some extent the features inland and along the coast. While the surface of the county is covered by a mantle of vege- tation, save where our granite tors protrude their wild and fantastic eminences, and the rocky wastes break the continuity of the fertile pastures of the lower lands, the coast forms a line of cliffs steep and bare which almost girds the county. This dissected line affords us a series of sections of the great rocky platform which forms the mainland of Cornwall, and which otherwise is so much concealed by the materials of its own decay as to be largely beyond the limits of our observation. 1 For List of Works on the Geology of Cornwall to 1873, see W. Whitaker, 'Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, No. xvi. 1875. 2 GEOLOGY That great platform, stretching seawards and presenting to the Atlantic solid ramparts of lofty cliff, appears to withstand the constant assaults of the sea without sustaining any damage. But in spite of the obduracy of these bold headlands we know, from the effects of wave- action on softer strata, that, though imperceptibly, they must be slowly losing ground. It has been calculated that a single roller of the Atlantic ground swell (20 feet high) falls with a pressure of about a ton on every square foot ; but the winter breakers often exert a pressure of over three tons to the square foot, so that the cumulative momentum that our coast is called upon to withstand is indeed enormous. If the projecting headlands reveal small traces of the ravages made upon them by the sea, the bays, notwithstanding their more sheltered situation, readily betray their losses. While the former plunge steeply beneath the water, the softer rocks which form the bays are lined by a succession of beaches, from the platforms of which we can study the effects of wave action. It is evident from the most cursory examination of the cliff-foot that our seaboard is undergoing a slow but constant modification. The debris from the cliff which accumulates at its base is shifted by tide action, and in times of storm is hurled by the sea against the rock face from which it was detached. While this process rounds the fragments, and finally reduces them to the condition of gravel and sand, the cliff itself is gradually being undermined by the incessant pounding, and furnishes a further supply of debris, which in its turn, brought within the action of the waves, occasions a repetition of the process, and the sand and shingle so produced are still further assorted and spread on the sea floor by the action of tide and current. Not only is the cliff eroded along its base, but blocks of rock are frequently de- tached by the loosening of their joints due to the disintegrating action of the weather, such as rain and frost. This debris, if permitted to remain, would act as a shield against the continued waste of the cliff, but the moment it comes within range of the waves it is utilized as an instrument of further destruc- tion. That the gradual fretting back of our shores is a fact to be reckoned with is apparent to dwellers on the coast. During the last quarter of a century within the experience of the author, the foot- paths skirting the shores of Gerran's Bay have been gradually removed inland by the landslips along the edge of the cliff consequent on the undermining of its base ; and at the present time rents are still visible along the edge, the certain precursors of future landslips ; while large slices of the cliff are still to be seen which have not yet subsided to its base. The picturesque caverns which are so common along our sea- board are in themselves testimonies to the degradation of our coasts ; lines of weakness in the rock having, through the action of the waves, been enlarged to a wide opening. The mutual relation of our bays and headlands to the character of the rock formations is nowhere better expressed than in the termina- tion of the great headlands which enclose Mounts Bay. The bay is 3 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL hollowed out of a district mainly composed of slate, while the great promontories by which it is flanked are built up of hard igneous rock ; that of the Land's End being composed of a boss of granite, the outer limits of which approximately conform to the coastline, while that of the Lizard, which constitutes the opposite spur, consists of igneous rocks the dominant member of which is serpentine. The rela- tion of these hard and tough rocks to the softer slates is expressed not only in the configuration of cape and inlet, but the elevation of the cliffs shows similar correspondence, the cliffs of Mounts Bay being dwarfed by the more imposing mural faces of the Land's End and Lizard pro- montories. The granite of the Land's End, presenting a vertical wall to the Atlantic, forms the most impressive scenery ; while the serpentine, which enters so largely into the geology of the Lizard, breaks up into the most picturesque coast, the charm of which is enhanced by the natural polish induced by the action of the waves on that singularly beautiful rock. Our Cornish rivers, although frequently winding along deep valleys, are small and of low gradient ; in fact their declivity is so slight that their erosive powers on the valleys they traverse is now insignificant. It is a matter of common observation however that after rains they are not only swollen and more rapid, but the usually pellucid stream is turbid with the sediment borne along in its current to the muddy flats of the tidal estuaries on which it is deposited ; the force of the current being then so materially checked that none but the very finest material is capable of being held in suspension to be carried to the deeper water of the sea. If our river system therefore exerts but slight erosive powers on the drainage basins which it occupies, it is evident that it plays an important part in transporting the washings of the soil to the sea. That the amount of material thus removed is by no means unimportant is testified by the rapid silting up of the tidal estuaries. In our harbours dredging is necessary to counteract such shallowing, while in some of the narrower creeks the silting up process is so rapid that the fact is familiar to dwellers upon their banks. At Restronguet ships could ride at anchor considerably farther up the creek within the memory of men living, while the mud-flats of the river Pal below Ardevora are creeping rapidly seaward at a rate which is apparent to observation. Tradition avers that this estuary formerly extended inland as far as Tregoney, which was an important Roman settlement accessible to shipping. The Fal estuary is of especial interest as the tidal flats, instead of being banks of dark brown mud derived from the de- composition of the slates, consist of pale tenacious clay brought down from the surface of the western portion of the St. Austell granite mass. That mass being in a highly decomposed condition readily lends itself to the process of denudation, in striking contrast to the neighbouring slates, which in comparison disintegrate slowly, so that the material deposited in the estuary is made up mainly of impure kaolin from the deposits of that district, considerably augmented by the drainage of the 4 GEOLOGY waste water from the china clay works. This deposit is being utiHzed for the manufacture of bricks and the coarser class of earthenware. The vast amount of material thus collected in our estuaries and spread out on the sea floor to mingle with the deposits derived from the disintegration of the coast, is the product of the denudation of our slopes by the action of rain. The wash of the soil from steep slopes to their base is familiar to the farmer, who periodically collects the accu- mulations of the lower ground and respreads them on the denuded land to preserve its fertility; operations which entail considerable toil. While we are apt to regard the functions of rain from a standpoint of irrigation, its mechanical action is largely lost sight of. In the extensive valley system into which Cornwall is broken up, such mechanical action has the fullest play. While the floors of our valleys are lined deeply with loam or clay, the converging slopes are more sparingly covered with a mantle of soil, among which stony fragments are abundantly inter- spersed. In extreme cases the sides of the valleys contain stretches of ground in which soil is altogether absent and the bare rock protrudes. It requires indeed little observation to discern a very close relationship between the depths of our soils and the surface configuration, our low- lying basins supporting the deepest deposits, while on the slopes which converge to them the depth of the underlying rock depends upon the angle of slope, so that very steep situations are barren in consequence of the entire absence of soil. This varying soil cap, due to the form of the ground, produces marked divergence in the agricultural value of the land, apart from the nature of the parent rock from which the soil has been derived. While the richness of the soil depends upon the ever-varying nature of the rock, the quantity of soil dependent upon physical situation is a factor of equal importance in its bearing on the fertility of the county. The perpetual creep of the soil to lower levels is well illustrated in some of our upland valleys, where alluvial basins have been so encroached upon by the downward creep that their ancient margins have been completely obliterated. The stream-tin valley of Porkellis in the parish of Wendron is fringed with gentle slopes in which the granite is completely hidden by a soil-cap made up of its own dis- integration, and corresponding precisely with the granite alluvium which floors the valley ; and the one shades imperceptibly into the other. The high ground in Cornwall occupied by the granite presents frequent in- stances of basins in which the original flat is gradually being obliterated by the soil creep from the slopes. Some of the moors which so frequently occur at the head of our valleys have thus been formed. Largely composed of clay, the want of fall renders drainage difficult, and their bottoms are frequently lined with marshes. Being on this account unsuitable for cultivation they are given over to scrub and gorse and afford coverts for game, just as many of the rocky slopes in the granite districts consist of moorland stretches, clothed with gorse and bracken, the recesses of which form the congenial haunts of the fox. Large tracts on the seaboard of Cornwall owe their existence to the 5 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL direct action of wind, and form extensive sand dunes and towans. These aeolian deposits are most strongly developed on the northern coast, where large areas are permanently cut off from the operations of the plough. The most considerable of these fronts St. Ives Bay, forming the Lelant, Phillack, Upton, Gwithian and Godrevy towans. Another extensive tract constitutes the Perran Sands, and isolated patches continue as far as Newquay. Further to the north the solid rocks forming the promontory of Trevose Head are severed by the towans extending from Constantine Bay to Perleze Bay, and opposite Padstow a tract of sandhills extends from St. Michael to the Dunbar. Smaller patches occur at Gunwalloe and along the southern coast. These accumulations of sand are mainly composed of finely com- minuted sea shells, such as form our shelly beaches, and have been largely utilized in Cornwall for enriching the soil by the lime con- tained in their composition. The sandhills now occupying such ex- tensive tracts rest on the solid rocks and have been formed by the beach detritus driven landwards by the wind. The sands, ever on the move, have piled up deposits which have overwhelmed ancient buildings, the most noted instances of which are the old churches of Perranzabuloe, St. Enodoc and St. Constantine. The spread of these sand drifts is con- siderably checked by the vegetation which they support, but the dunes are continually receiving fresh accession of material by the windborne sand from the coast, which is blown considerably beyond their limits. Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., has described other effects seen at Carbis Bay during gusty E.N.E. winds in the year 1 900, from a height of 270 feet above the sea, where swirls and puffs of dust were observed to rise from the flat at the entrance of the Red river to a height of at least 240 feet, blotting out Godrevy towans and Godrevy lighthouse, and then spreading in a well defined belt across St. Ives Bay for over 3 miles in the direction of St. Ives Head, which it must have passed. He suggested that the dust, largely composed of the river-mud, might account for some local falls of ' red rain.'^ The modifications which the outlines of our county are at present undergoing have now been briefly touched upon. Under the influence of tide and current the shore materials are continually being assorted, while in some instances they have formed barriers behind which the seaward passage of the river-borne detritus has been checked. At Loe Pool for instance, below Helston, a beach has been piled up by the Atlantic breakers and has dammed back a considerable freshwater lake. The similar lake of Swanpool near Falmouth likewise owes its existence to the beach thrown up across the mouth of the valley. Our exact observation of the sub- marine floor is necessarily confined to that portion of its innermost margin which is laid bare between tidemarks. The incessant changes of the bottom beyond that zone are exemplified by the salvage operations at present being carried on in Mounts Bay on the wreck of the Anson, a ship of war lost a century ago. The shifting of the shingle on the > Nature, Ixv. 414. 6 GEOLOGY wreck is such that one moment the deck is bare and the guns visible, only in a very short interval to be completely reburied beneath the gravel. But the Hydrographical Survey furnishes us with an accurate chart of the sea floor, and in many instances with the nature of the deposits which line it. We thus know that our Cornish promontory emerges from a broad submarine plain, which, gradually deepening westward, far beyond the coast of Ireland, is suddenly truncated by a great submarine steep, which plunges into the abysmal depths of the Atlantic. On the inner fringe of this submarine plain the debris of our Cornish land is being assorted. These accumulations are steadily receiving fresh accession of material and are growing at the expense of the dry land ; and we cannot escape the conclusion that the fretting back of our coasts, assisted by the denudation of the interior, must, if unchecked, eventually involve the complete removal of the county below the surface of the waves. Far distant as such an epoch must be, the interval would repre- sent a small proportion of the time that has elapsed since our rock formations were deposited. If the present rate of degradation were con- tinued for a million years, our county would in all probability be reduced to a group of islands, mainly composed of granite, which rearing their crests above the sea would still yield a dogged resistance to its ravages, as the Scilly Isles do to-day. The examination of our Cornish coast not only teaches us that the county is silently crumbling away before the insidious advances of the sea, but brings us face to face with a more mysterious factor, the past operations of which, if repeated in the future, may either turn the tide of war in favour of the land, or by acting in alliance with the sea may hasten the time of its ultimate destruction. When we see that ancientforests on the one hand fringe our coasts beneath the limits of our lowest tides ; and when on the other hand we find the remains of former beaches above the level of the highest tides, it is evident that the sea is operating on an unstable coast, subject to vertical oscillations, by which its destructive powers are controlled. The causes of these crustal movements do not immediately concern us in the present sketch, as they are the effects of subterranean agencies on which we can but speculate ; but the results of such oscillations, and the actual knowledge of the instability of the earth's crust, are concrete facts which underlie the elucidation of the complex architecture of the rocky platform which forms our county.^ So far back as the year 1757 the submarine forest of Mounts Bay was noted by the Rev. W. Borlase, and was subsequently described by Dr. Boase in the year 1822. The latter represents it as buried beneath deposits of sand and gravel, the removal of which by the sea is constantly laying it bare — the outward prolongation of the vegetable bed extending beneath the sea. Between Penzance and Newlyn he notes a bed of vegetable 1 See W. A. E. Ussher on * The Recent Geology of Cornwall ' (articles reprinted from the Geol. Mag.), 1879 ; and The Post-Tertiary Geology of Cornwall (printed for private circulation), 1879. 7 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL remains reposing on the sand, the relics of a wood mainly composed of hazel, and to a smaller extent of alder, elm and oak ; while hazel-nuts and the remains of insects, especially of beetles, are abundantly preserved. A small portion of a submarine forest occurs at Millendreth Bay near Looe. Another at Maen Forth to the south-west of Falmouth has been described by the Rev. Canon Rogers, who observed the stump of an oak in its position of growth with peaty material enclosing its roots and containing the remains of the common yellow flag [Iris pseudacorus) still flourishing in the adjoining swamp.^ He also noticed the remains of a submarine forest with stumps of oaks and willows in their original situations a little above the level of low water at Forthleven near Helston. Mr. Nicholas Whitley has described another at Porthmellin. In the Hayle estuary, the Dunbar Sands at the mouth of the canal at Ferran Forth, Lower St. Columb Forth, Mawgan Forth, and numerous other localities, traces of submarine forests also occur. In 1898 we observed a tree stump detached from its original position on Fendower beach in Gerrans Bay, indicating a submarine forest in that vicinity. The subsidence of the land which these forest beds imply is con- firmed by the evidence of the deposits which line the mouths of our estuaries. The search for stream-tin has been the means of dissecting these accumulations below the level of the sea, both at Restronguet Creek and at Fentuan, where remains of a forest growth in its natural position are buried beneath an accumulation of deposits exceeding 50 feet in thickness, which overlies the stream tin. At Fentuan, Mr. Colenso, in 1829, found roots of the oak in their natural position at the base of this deposit with oyster shells still fastened to some of the stumps. These were overlain by a stratum of dark silt, about a foot in thickness, on the top of which was spread a layer of like extent formed of the leaves of trees, hazel nuts, sticks and moss, the moss in a perfect state of preservation, and affording evidence of having grown in the position where it was found. This latter layer occurred at a depth of about 30 feet below the level of low water, and supported a stratum 10 feet thick sprinkled with wood, hazel nuts, together with the bones and horns of deer, oxen, etc. ; and shells of the same species as those which now exist in the neighbouring sea arranged in layers in such a position as to suggest that the animals lived and died where their remains were found. In an overlying bed of sand, 20 feet in thickness, were the remains of trees lying in all directions, together with the relics of red deer, and the bones of whales. This in its turn was overlain by another bed of sand and gravel 20 feet thick, which extended to the surface. On the upper portion of the superficial layer, on the level with the low water at spring tides, were found the remains of a row of wooden piles, apparently used in the con- struction of a footbridge, which, if correct, would imply a subsidence of the land since that portion of the human era when man had reached the stage capable of such construction. ^ In the submerged forest at Maen Forth Mr. Samuel Roberts discovered the horns of a deer at present in the possession of Mr. Robert Fox of Falmouth. 8 GEOLOGY The sections of the Carnon stream works in the valley which opens from the head of Restronguet Creek, as described by Mr. Edward Smith in 1 8 17, and by Mr. Henwood some twenty-five years later, confirm the evidence at Pentuan of the burial of forest growths beneath the level of the sea. Moreover both these observers record the occurrence of human skulls, together with animal remains, principally of the deer, at a depth of over 50 feet beneath the surface. Sir Henry De la Beche mentions also that * at Pentuan human skulls are stated to have been found under about 40 feet of detrital accumulations, also mingled with the remains of deer, oxen, hogs and whales.' Assuming therefore that the forest bed noted at Pentuan 52 J feet below the surface corresponds to the similar deposit at Carnon, with human skulls 53 feet beneath the surface, then, as Sir H. De la Beche has pointed out, ' a considerable change took place in the relative levels of sea and land since man inhabited Cornwall, allowing estuary or marine deposits to be eff^ected in creeks upon a surface that previously permitted the growth of terrestrial vegetation, the remains of the marine creatures entombed in the mud, silt, or sand, showing that these creatures were of the same species as those which now exist in the adjoining sea.' The ancient beaches which fringe the Cornish coast were laid down in the Pleistocene seas, and now form ledges extending from only a few feet above the present sea level to a height of 65 feet. A beach at the latter elevation, according to Mr. Clement Reid, ' the highest raised beach yet discovered in Cornwall,' is seen in Penlee quarry, near Newlyn, where coarse beach-shingle rests on a rocky shelf 65 feet above ordnance datum. The old cliff and beach can be traced at about this level through Penzance, and sweeping round Mounts Bay behind the marshes.' Among the more noteworthy of these beaches are those which occur near Newquay and Godrevy, at St. Ives, Cape Cornwall, Coverack Cove, Falmouth Bay and Gerrans Bay. So long ago as 1758 Borlase de- scribed the deposit south of Cape Cornwall, although it is not actually certain that he grasped its significance to the extent of recognizing it as an ancient beach. In 1828 Mr. Carne indicated their occurrence at various localities along the cliffs of western Cornwall. In 1832 Mr. R. W. Fox, F.R.S., described the raised beaches of Falmouth Bay, as forming a bed of rounded quartz pebbles, gravel and sand, resembling that of the present coast, and from 9 to 1 2 feet above high water mark.^ In the same year their frequent occurrence along the Cornish coast was noticed by Dr. Boase, who considered that in maximum height they did not exceed 50 feet above sea level, and sloped from that point beneath the sea just as our present shore does. 'Thus also,' he observes, 'the beds of gravel and sand at Fistral and Gerrans Bay, and elsewhere, exhibit the same phenomena, the lower part of these sometimes touching the waves, and at others appearing on the cliffs resting on the rock far above the present sea-level.'^ These raised beaches, composed of material identical with that of 1 Trans. Geol Soc. of Cornwall, iv. 468. * Phil. Mag. and Journal of Science, Dec. 1832. I 9 2 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL their modern counterparts, are frequently cemented by oxide of iron, which has so consolidated them, that they have sometimes been utilized as building stone. In this condition they offer great resistance to the action of the waves, as is well seen in Gerrans Bay on the beach of Pendower. In some instances along the coast the ancient caves of the raised beach have been partially preserved by the old beach floor being sufficiently consolidated to form the roof of modern caves, which have been excavated in a lower portion of the same cleft, examples of which are seen in Falmouth Bay. De la Beche has figured such a cave at Porthalla, roofed by a raised beach. This consolidation is interesting as an example of rock building. Even on the coast line where beaches are absent, a tiny fringe of gravel is often visible. It may be observed along some of the steeper cliffs, its preservation being obviously due to the durability of the cement- ing material, which has not only held the particles together, but has firmly bound the gravel to the rock on which it rests. Every gradation is seen between well defined beaches and mere shreds of gravel either cemented or incoherent occurring in isolated strips above the present high water mark ; and the degradation of them causes the commingling on the modern beach of the Pleistocene pebbles with those of recent origin. The beaches of either age contain, in addition to fragmental material representing the detritus of the adjacent rock formations, numerous foreign pebbles, mainly chalk flints and cherts, which in some situations are profusely distributed. At Cape Cornwall Mr. Reid discovered a pebble closely resembling one of the volcanic rocks of Devonshire. These erratics have either been swept around the coast by current action, or have been derived from a deposit more ancient than the raised beach which fringes our coast beneath the level of the sea. The modern beach which lines the shore fronting Loe Pool is thickly strewn with these erratics. In some instances the rock shelf, planed by wave action, along our modern shore has been shaped from the rocky platform previously exca- vated by the Pleistocene seas. This is well seen in Falmouth Bay, at Sunny Cove, where the ancient platform standing but 5 or 6 feet above the present eroded shelf is fringed along the coastal notch by the inner- most edges of the older beach, averaging but a foot or so in thickness, which have not yet succumbed to the ravages of the waves. Looking at that section in which the rock terraces are so closely placed that the shingle of the present beach is driven against its ancient counterpart, with the disintegrated pebbles of which it absolutely mingles, it is difficult to realize the great interval of time which marks the gap between the past and present shore line. Yet that span has been sufficient for the sinking of the land to a depth of at least 60 feet, involving the submergence of the woodland which flourished on its outer fringe. Moreover the valleys thus invaded by the sea have been converted into estuaries which have subsequently been filled with deposits to a depth of 50 feet. In addition, the upheaval which has left 10 GEOLOGY these terraces in their present position has often materially changed the geographical features ; for instance, the present peninsula of St. Anthony in Roseland, above two miles in length, was before the uprise an island, as is demonstrated by the deposits of sand charged with marine shells on the neck of the peninsula ; while the peninsula of Pendennis, forming the opposite front of the entrance to the Falmouth estuary, has similarly emerged from the sea which completely encircled it. The antiquity of these old beaches is still further borne out by their frequently being overlain by the material which has long been known in Cornwall, and to geologists generally, as ' head.' It is sometimes stratified, and may contain beds of sand and fairly rounded gravel ; more often however the tendency to stratification is but slight, and it presents an irregular accumulation of stones, mostly angular, occasion- ally subangular. Such an accumulation is made up of material similar to the subsoil of the district. If this subsoil were transported from higher to lower levels it would probably form a deposit similar to the so-called ' head,' which often merges so gradually into the subsoil as not to be separable from it. That the surface burden which forms the subsoil is ever creeping to lower levels may be seen in the sections affbrded by the Cornish lanes, along the steeper valley slopes, where their banks have been cut through soil and subsoil into the solid rock. In these banks, no matter in what direction the lower strata are dipping, the upper surface invariably bends down the hill, the downward drag of the superficial accumulations involving the solid rock in its creep. The action of rain- wash in the passage of debris to lower levels has already been alluded to, but it is evident that modern processes are not evolving the tumultuous and stratified accumulations of 'head' such as are common features along the sea front, and have acted as a protective covering to the raised beaches. An explanation must be sought elsewhere. In Pleistocene times the whole of Britain, except its highest peaks, as far south as the Bristol Channel, was probably buried beneath a mantle of ice, and during these arctic conditions the face of the country was profoundly modified by the grinding eff^ects of the glaciers which over-rode it. While nowhere in Cornwall is there evidence of the county having been invaded by that ice cap, its proximity to the edge of the ice field must necessarily have entailed the rigours of an arctic climate, under which the land was incapable of supporting any but the sparsest vegetation. In winter, not only would the higher ground be swathed beneath a covering of snow, but the crumbling debris which so deeply covers our slopes would be frozen for many feet below the surface. The melting of the winter snows and the ice which bound the frozen soil, acting on a surface unchecked by vegetation, would involve a sweeping of material down the slopes that would amply account for the abnormal character of that deposit. In its downward course it has filled the hollows on the coast line and covered the shelf of the ancient beach to which it has afforded a protection, so that the thickest deposits of II A HISTORY OF CORNWALL *head' are found in the smaller bays by the filling of which the shore line has been modified. Some writers have considered the 'head* to have been formed beneath the sea, but the phenomena which it presents can be more satisfactorily accounted for on the above hypothesis. That the outer edge of the deposit reached the sea may be regarded as certain, and it is even probable that in sheltered situations it might creep out beneath the water and escape destruction from tidal action ; but the seaward creep on the ocean front must have been limited by the zone of wave action before which the advancing deposit was progressively trun- cated and its contents spread on the sea floor. That the raised beach which underlies the ' head ' was formed at least before the close of the glacial epoch seems all the more probable from the evidence furnished by other districts. On the northern side of the Bristol Channel for instance, Mr. R. H. Tiddeman has shown that the raised beach of Gower is overlain by glacial deposits ; while still further north the west of Scotland affords ample evidence of the glacial age of some of the raised beaches of that region. The gap therefore that divides the raised beaches of Cornwall from their modern counterparts, with which at first sight they almost appear to blend, is not only represented by periods in which the land has undergone considerable oscillations of level, but marks a period that carries us back to the glacial age. In that prolonged interval, the earliest part of which was marked by an arctic climate. Palaeolithic man inhabited Britain in association with giant forms of extinct mammalia, such as the mammoth and the gigantic Irish elk, and with the cave-bear, lion, rhinoceros, lynx, leopard, hippopotamus and reindeer. The presence of herds of herbi- vorous animals which browsed upon the pastures, implies the continental condition of Britain, permitting their migration across the plain now occupied by the eastern portions of the English Channel. Subsequent submergence which followed the age of great forests brought back once more the return of Britain to its present insular condition. Although, except in one instance which will be referred to later, the remains of Paleolithic man and the extinct mammalia coeval with his existence in Britain have not hitherto been found in Cornwall, owing in all probability to the absence of limestone caverns, and deep deposits of peat and gravels from which such remains have usually been disinterred, it may be taken for granted that our county was the habitat of early man and his congeners. His remains however, as already noted, are stated to have been discovered in association with the remains of deer and other animals beneath 53 feet of estuarine deposits at Carnon and beneath 40 feet of similar material at Pentuan. These however would probably be referred to the Neolithic period. Mr. Clement Reid and Mrs. Reid have recently discovered at Prah Sands between the head and the raised beach an old land-surface, consisting of loamy soil penetrated by small roots and containing fragments of charcoal and bone. Pieces of vein-quartz also occur and appear to have been used as implements. Mr. Reid regards these remains as the first record of palasolithic man in Cornwall. 12 GEOLOGY The Pleistocene age, in which flourished several forms of mammalia some of which are now extinct, together with the subsequent interval, make up the Quaternary period. By far the larger portion of the Quaternary deposits has been spread out on the submarine shelf that fringes the coast, a tract which the mutability of events may eventually convert into a future land surface. The preceding Tertiary period, by reason of its greater antiquity, has been subjected to a far longer experience of crustal oscillation, in which sufficient time has been afforded for those more ancient accumulations, together with such portions of the submarine shelf on which they were deposited, to be gradually upheaved ; so that a considerable area of the Cornish platform of to-day marks the site of the bed of the Tertiary seas, while the few marine accumulations of those seas that have survived the long period of denudation since their emergence from the ocean floor, yield unequivocal testimony to the vast changes in the past in which the boundaries of land and sea have taken part. The rigorous conditions of the glacial epoch were preceded by periods of subtropical climate, which characterized the Miocene age. The interval between these two extremes, in which climatal conditions represented a temperate zone, constitutes the Pliocene period, the youngest division of the Tertiary strata. Although these deposits present a very general resemblance to the beds at present being formed on our littoral, the shells which they enclose are not confined to species that now inhabit our seas, but include forms which at the present time find their habitat in the more northern and more southern seas. Not only do the fossil remains reflect the transitional conditions which connected the climatal extremes already alluded to, but a large proportion of the species which flourished in the Pliocene seas have become extinct. The only deposits in Cornwall which can with certainty be referred to the Pliocene period occur in the neighbourhood of St. Erth, occupying a very small area, and probably owe their preservation to the protection afforded them by their physical situation. The discovery of this small relic of the Pliocene shelf is very recent, and was brought about by the deepening of a clay pit which revealed shells in the subjacent clay bed. The deposits, which are covered by a few feet of head, consist of brown, blue and mottled clays, loam, sand and gravel, but the beds change very rapidly, so that adjoining sections present a different sequence. They have yielded numerous species of mollusca and other invertebrata, together with microscopic forms of life represented by the foraminifera. The marine shells were first described by Mr. Whitley, and subse- quently studied by Messrs. S. V. Wood, Robert Bell, and P. F. Kendall, while Mr. Fortescue Millett has been engaged in the investigation of the foraminifera. Finally the beds have been studied by Mr. Clement Reid, who discovered another outlier of these Pliocene deposits on the ridge north of Cannon's Town, at an elevation of 150 feet, in which the fos- siliferous clays of St. Erth are missing. Mr. Reid considers that the 13 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL fossiliferous clays were formed in a depth of water extending to 40 or 50 fathoms, an estimate confirmed by his recent discovery of the ancient shore line of the Pliocene sea at a height of about 420 feet above the present sea level. Another outlier, which has been referred by Sir Henry De la Beche to the Tertiary period, had been previously described in 1832 by Mr. John Hawkins and Dr. Boase. This deposit, which occurs at St. Agnes Beacon, and reaches, according to the latter writer, a height of 375 feet, consists of sands and clays which up to the present have not yielded determinable fossil remains. Like the St. Erth beds they exhibit rapid variation, and it is probable that they may also be the products of the Pliocene sea which Mr. Reid has shown to have exceeded even that elevation. Mr. Thomas Clark of Truro has recently found a shell frag- ment in the clay of this deposit, but too imperfect for identification. On Crousa Downs an isolated patch of gravel, consisting of rounded quartz pebbles, occupies, according to Sir H. De la Beche, an area of about half a square mile, at a height of about 360 feet above the level of the sea. The origin of this deposit is wrapped in obscurity, but its corres- pondence in elevation to the sands and gravels of St. Agnes Beacon suggests that it may also be of corresponding age. Notwithstanding the paucity of those Pliocene deposits which have survived the denudation of the subsequent ages, sufficient have remained to enable us to restore in imagination the physical features of the period to which they relate. The seas then covered large portions of the present land surface of Cornwall, and if we could restore the geography of the Pliocene period we should see an archipelago where Cornwall now stands, while the Isles of Scilly would lie beneath the waves. While the Tertiary history of Cornwall is obscure, our knowledge being confined to those few isolated deposits all of which probably repre- sent events in the more recent division known as Pliocene, it was preceded by the stupendous gap which extends over the Mesozoic ages, during which was accumulated the succession of Secondary deposits that constitutes the geology of the greater part of England. In that interval were laid down the older Tertiary deposits forming the London and Hampshire basins, the foreign equivalents of which have been involved in the structure of the European mountains, and the fauna and flora of which ushered in our present species of animal and plant life. The great depression of Creta- ceous times permitted the slow accumulation of our Chalk formation from the tiny remains of foraminifera. The still older Jurassic system, with its divisions of the Lias and Oolite, forms a broad band which crosses England from sea to sea ; and yet earlier the older Mesozoic period evolved the great formations of the Trias and Permian. Of the millions of years that occupied the building of these formations which represent the incoming and extinction of many forms 14 the records i westward "hat their the west, 1, where Tertiary Rh^tic, r from "'acter. over ably St as rked the t of beds tion heir 1 by iains ind- that icu- lave that the — vith J — — ous, )uth ^t of fUes HISTORY OF CORNWALL B£F£R£NC£ NOTE I above 2000 leet 17&0 xn 2000 iVet 1500 to 1750 feet 12.S0 U. 1500 tVel 111(10 in 1250 leel 1 800 »o 1000 feet 1 600 to 800 feet I4OO to 600 feet 1 200 to 400 foet I Sc'B Lev«l to 200 feet I Sea Level to 50 feet 50 to 100 feet mo 10 200 feet l.claw 200 feet 50* fossj 50 sh' GEOLOGY of life that tenanted the seas and lands of those remote epochs, the records of our county are silent. Whether those deposits ever extended westward on to the Cornish platform can scarcely be conjectured. That their absence in Cornwall does not negative their former presence in the west, we have had recently a vivid object lesson in the Isle of Arran, where the preservation of Mesozoic fragments in the vent of an old Tertiary volcano constitutes the sole record of the ancient extension of Rhaetic, Liassic, and Upper Cretaceous strata to the basin of the Clyde. But the rocks which enter into the geology of Cornwall differ from the later Mesozoic formations not only in antiquity but in character. The traveller who journeys by rail from London to the west passes over the Tertiary and Mesozoic formations, the character of which is admirably brought out by the various cuttings which dissect them. As far west as the river Teign in Devonshire the strata, in spite of the most marked variations, preserve a general uniform facies in striking contrast to the character of the cuttings seen for the remainder of the journey west of that river. The sections to the east reveal soft strata, succeeded by beds which, although more coherent, rarely present the same massive section as those met with west of that river, which are distinguished by their greater appearance of solidity. This change of strata is accompanied by the most marked change in the character of the scenery, the broad plains and more gentle undulations of the east being replaced by a bolder land- scape, which has given rise to an extensive system of deep valleys that have been spanned by the numerous viaducts which form such conspicu- ous objects of the Cornish railway. In that westward journey we have been passing progressively across the various geological formations that occupy the interval between the Pliocene deposits of Cornwall and the Paleozoic formations upon which they are reposing ; commencing with the older Tertiaries of the London basin, succeeded by the Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic formations, which are finally replaced in south Devon by the Permian, so well seen in the red sandstones and con- glomerates that form the cliffs at Teignmouth. Those red beds rest on the Palaeozoic formations, which extend into Cornwall and almost mono- polize the geology of the county ; and as remarked in an early part of this chapter these older rocks form the natural foundations on which the strata of central and eastern England have been laid down. The succes- sive deposits, originally horizontal, have been tilted by crustal movements, so that in our western journey we pass over the truncated edges of great piles of strata, getting gradually lower in the series, just as we might walk over the upper edges of a pile of inclined slabs. The peculiarities which have given the Palasozoic formations of south-western England their marked character, especially their indurated condition, were induced on these formations before the Mesozoic epoch, as the Triassic and Permian deposits which have been partly made up of their detritus amply testify. 15 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Before describing the various formations which compose the Palaeo- zoic system of Cornwall it will be convenient to give a brief description of the general structural features, which have imposed on them their present aspect. This will be more appropriate at this juncture as the geological phenomena to be described are posterior to the formation of the youngest member of the series ; and the chronological sequence we have adopted in tracing the course of our history from the events of to-day back to the remote past will not be departed from. From the description of the more recent deposits which we have already given it will be seen that the submarine platform from which Cornwall stands out has been subjected in the past to repeated oscilla- tions, so that the sea-floor of one epoch has formed the dry land of another, moreover the rocky platform of Cornwall itself constitutes, as regards large areas, ancient sea-floors which have emerged from beneath the waves. By these undulatory movements the adjacent bound- aries of land and sea have ever been shifting their position. When it is considered that the Pliocene shore line has been found at an elevation of 420 feet, and that the period which separates us from that landmark, in spite of its longevity, is but a fraction of the profound span which extends back to Paleozoic times, it will require no strain on the imagi- nation to realize that the sediments accumulated beneath the seas of the more distant epoch form the main ingredients which enter into the composition of the Cornish platform. Although these Palaeozoic sediments present but little resemblance to the more recent deposits which rest upon them, and to the detritus now being accumulated on our littoral fringe, they are nevertheless to a great extent their counterparts, laid down in bygone geological periods, and thereafter subjected to a series of vicissitudes that have brought about metamorphic changes in their character. The 'killas' of Corn- wall, in spite of superinduced structures which largely mask its original condition, is seen to contain alternating layers of gravel, sand and mud similar to those which are observed in our recent deposits. Moreover, preserved within the strata are the fossil remains of the marine Hfe that flourished in those ancient seas, but of types essentially different from our modern fauna ; while beds of Hmestone charged with fossils are the result of organic accumulations in clear water free from the inva- sion of sediment. In other words the rocks which enter so largely into the geological architecture of Cornwall belong to an early chapter in the history of that marine plain or great littoral fringe when its boundaries differed widely from those of to-day. Commingled however with the sediments we find the products of volcanic action in the remains of lava streams and ashes, which having been emitted on the sea-floor have been sealed beneath the overlying accumulation. Under the influence of crustal movements the Paleozoic deposits with their volcanic beds have gradually subsided, and have been buried beneath a deep pile of overlying strata. So great has been their downward movement that they have been brought within the influence of the great laboratory that lies 16 GEOLOGY beneath the crust. In those subterranean regions they have not only had to support a pile of superincumbent strata, but have been sub- jected to a vast amount of mechanical deformation by the operation of powerful earth stresses. Under the influence of pressure the incoherent particles which enter into the composition of the sediments have been compacted into solid rock. On these rocks the earth movements have produced structural modifications which have not only affected the indi- vidual beds, but also the material of which they are composed. In response to lateral pressure the strata have been bent and doubled back one over another and thrown into a set of folds closely packed together; and finally have obtained relief from the strains by actual disruption. Of the mechanical changes which these rocks have undergone, the most conspicuous is undoubtedly the production of cleavage planes, which by their action on the indurated muds have evolved the slates, the quarrying of which has formed a staple Cornish industry for at least three hundred years. Carew in 1602 described the blue roofing slates of Cornwall as * in substance thinne, in colour faire, in waight light, in lasting strong, and generally carrieth so good regard, as (besides the supply for home provision) great store is yeerely conveyed by shipping both to other parts of the realme, and also beyond the seas, into Britaine and Netherland.' The compression to which the strata have been sub- jected has resulted in the production of planes of fissility along directions at right angles to the direction of pressure. These cleavage planes, have been among the last mechanical changes effected by the lateral strains in response to the earth stresses ; they are usually of regular character, and form a close array of parallel planes which traverse the strata, independent of the original stratification and to some extent of the folding in which that stratification has been involved. Although bearing no relation to the original bedding, their disposition in regard to the flexures is more defined, as the cleavage planes show a marked tendency to lie parallel with the axes of the folds. When the material which has been cleaved was originally a pure clay of uniform consistency, the result has been a perfect roofing slate in which the earlier structures of stratification and folding have been either completely obliterated or preserved as bands, only to be distinguished by slight variations in colour. Instead however of this homogeneous character so favourable for the formation of slate adapted for economic purposes, these Palaeozoic deposits are mostly of heterogeneous composition, the cleavage of which exhibits marked variations, so that the slate that can be wrought as an article of commerce is restricted to limited areas. The * killas ' of Cornwall being largely made up of alternating bands of diverse texture, its compression in lieu of effecting a uniform cleavage has produced a complex set of structures, the elucidation of which requires much patient and minute investigation. Where cleavage for instance has been set up in alternating layers strongly contrasted, such as shale and sandstone, the common type in fact which the coasts of Falmouth Bay and Gerrans Bay exhibit, the cleavage planes I 17 3 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL change their character according to the nature of the layer which they traverse. Those which cross the slate are not only more numerous than those which traverse the sandstone, but incline at different angles ; so that two shale bands which are divided by a sandstone display parallel cleavage, but this parallelism is broken in the interposing sandstone. Moreover if the latter is sufficiently massive it has resisted cleavage alto- gether, so that we see the phenomena of cleavage in perfect parallelism as regards the upper and lower members while it is absolutely severed by a band in which this structure is wanting. As the sandy beds present every gradation in their texture, there are corresponding gradations in the degree of fissility which they exhibit. Another factor which constitutes a dis- turbing element and still further varies the cleavage, is the disruption of the rocks — the fractures produced having acted as planes of relief bringing about a cessation of the stresses in their neighbourhood — so that beds of similar strength present different degrees of fissility. In study- ing the effects of cleavage on the Cornish strata the fact must be borne constantly in mind that flexure, fracture and cleavage are intimately related, and express different phases in the history of their deforma- tion by the same stresses. The coast sections already alluded to dis- play marked variation in the degree of deformation both as regards the intensity of folding and the nature of the fissility in strata of similar lithological type. While the cleavage has resulted merely in the flattening of the component particles of the strata, as illustrated by the distortion of the fossils, the rearrangement of our ' killas ' formations does not always stop at this comparatively simple process, but the crushing to which they have been subjected has set up interstitial movements. These movements resolve themselves into a succession of small slips along the cleavage planes, and have often been sufficiently severe to set up a transverse cleavage on their own account ; the latter in many cases so well developed as to form the dominant cleavage of the rock, and in its turn to have acted as planes for further interstitial movements. In response to lateral pressure the strata have been folded, the folds have been closely packed together, bringing their limbs into a general parallelism, so that no further relief from pressure is to be obtained by plication. But the strength of the rock sometimes fails before the stresses which still continue to bear, and rupture occurs. The fractures still follow the disposition of the folds, and snap their arches, the planes so formed allowing one part of the mass to override that which adjoins it. So that the folding stage has been replaced by a phase of fracture which takes the form of thrusts by which individual segments are pushed forward. The reversed faults so formed are known as thrusts, to distinguish them from normal faults, in which the ruptured rock segments have dropped down- wards. While the strata on the large scale have been thus modified, their component particles have been undergoing on the small scale precisely the same process which has set up interstitial movements. The individual i8 GEOLOGY layers which form the beds have been thrown into a set of minute folds, the arches of which have been broken by tiny cleavage planes which resolve themselves into miniature faults, and there is the same tendency to override that we see in the larger divisions of the beds. On examination the rock is frequently seen to be full of these little folds and thrust planes, with a disposition to a secondary cleavage, while minor movement planes appear in the more resisting core itself, with accompanying strain-slip cleavage ; and the cleavage planes which pass through the axes of the minute folds often culminate in small thrusts. But besides the structures we have enumerated, these crushing processes acting on heterogeneous strata have produced in Cornwall a set of widely distributed breccias which closely simulate the coarser products of erosion. These breccias or pseudo-conglomerates are well developed on the western side of the Carrick Roads, in a belt that extends from Feock to Falmouth and is broken by the estuaries which form the creeks of Penryn, Mylor and Restronguet, along the shores of which they may be conveniently studied. They consist of slate fragments enclosed within the strata ranging from the size of peas up to 5 or 6 inches in length, with their flat sides lying in more or less parallel planes. As a rule the larger fragments are angular, while the smaller are sub-angular and may sometimes be per- fectly rounded. They may consist of either argillaceous or siliceous material, and are identical in composition with the matrix of the slate in which they are enveloped, and from which they have been obviously derived. Instead however of being water-worn as their appearance suggests they owe their origin to agencies very much more complex, and represent a phase of those processes of deformation to which we have drawn attention, so that instead of being an original structure of the rock, they present a most striking record of its subsequent deformation. The Mylor beds, in which these phenomena are best displayed, are made up of dark blue argillaceous and fine quartzose beds which succeed one another in such thin alternations that the strata are conspicuously striped. The changing nature of these interlamina- tions, and the corresponding variation in their limits of compression, have resulted in different degrees of resistance to the crustal movements ; the softer beds having easily yielded, while the more resistant strata, separated from each other by bands which are beginning to yield, and being thus deprived of support, are smashed, and the fragments become involved in the more yielding mass. Under the influence of these movements the particles not only become detached from the parent rock, but are frequently rolled in the process and simulate pebbles. If we endeavour to trace the normal laminated beds into the fragmental or brecciated type, we see that the former gradually lose their regular appearance, and become affected by small folds and thrusts, until at last they are nothing more than a mass of segments more or less detached, and it becomes 19 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL apparent that the breccia has originated in little overfolds which have been isolated by small thrust faults. Although direct evidence of this origin is not always forthcoming, we occasionally see, step by step, every process in the manufacture, beginning with a regular banded rock, followed by minute folding and small thrust planes, partially severing the bands, until at last these processes have not only succeeded in brecciating the rock, but have culminated in the rolling and rounding of the frag- ments to such an extent that a pseudo-conglomerate has been produced. This type of brecciation has sometimes been brought about without folding ; instead of fractures succeeding plication, the stresses have re- sulted in the direct production of movement planes, which have isolated the fragments from the main mass. These pseudo-conglomerates are not confined to that restricted area in which they are so prominent, but are met with over many parts of the county. At Rosemullion a bed of this nature 2 or 3 feet in thick- ness bears a striking resemblance to a boulder bed ; the fragments, which may attain a length of 3 inches, are rounded, and consist of hard sandy material precisely similar to the matrix in which they are embedded. In the Veryan area this structure is noticed close to the junction of the slate and quartzite of that district. In one of the bands of brecciated slate we observed a crinoid stem, apparently unbroken, unmistakable evidence that the rock, as a whole, may undergo considerable deforma- tion, while portions may escape, probably as a result of the very violence of the processes which have produced zones of fracture relieving the strains on intermediate material. A brecciated structure of a much coarser type, which severs the continuity of thick seams of rock, occurs on the coast section south of the Helford river. Beyond that horizon the * killas,' which consists of blue slates and fine sandy beds of the same type which occurs in Gerran's Bay and Falmouth Bay, has suffered more severely from the stresses which have induced the folding and the cleavage of the rocks. At Dennis Head the structures set up by these movements have been carried a step further. The strata have been subjected to crushing or mylonitiza- tion of a coarse type, insomuch that they have been reduced to a mass of coarse lenticular patches of rock, the lenticles being several feet, in some cases several yards, across, the whole presenting the character of a regional breccia. These lenticles, when they have been torn from quartzose beds, resemble huge boulders ; in other places the apex of a folded limb has been detached and isolated from the parent mass. This extremely coarse type of brecciated structure is more or less continuous along the coast as far as Porthalla, where the northern edge of the Lizard ' complex ' appears. The quartzite which occurs a little inland above the cliff, south of Nare Point, is represented on the shore by a lenticle about 10 feet long and 5 or 6 feet wide, having been isolated by these move- ments from the parent mass. While earth stresses have so deformed 20 GEOLOGY the rocks as to interfere with the continuity of individual seams as in this quartzite, the same causes have in other cases produced quite an opposite eiFect ; for instance, the quartzite at Carne, which on the coast of Gerrans Bay below is only a few feet thick, has been so intensely folded that it occupies a considerable area on the hillside above, and presents the appearance of a bed of considerable thickness. In this case the quartzite has been folded, and the folds so packed together that a narrow bed has been made to occupy a considerable outcrop, while on the other hand the quartzite south of Nare Point (St. Keverne) has been so squeezed and dislocated that it is only represented by a series of lenticles. A small quartzite band that occurs in the Falmouth estuary presents similar features. On the coast between Restronguet Point and Porth- gwidden this quartzite seam i or 2 feet thick is represented by a series of lenticles among the folded and brecciated slates in which it occurs. The belt of country which is bounded by the coast line extending from Gerrans Bay to the Helford river includes so many estuaries, which penetrate far into the heart of the county, that the tortuous and ex- tensive coast line presents every facility for studying the rock structures. As this area includes several sedimentary divisions and every variety of deformation, a summary of its structural characteristics will convey a very fair idea of the processes of rock-building to which the Paleozoic deposits of Cornwall have been subjected, as the result of their sojourn in the subterranean depths of the earth's crust. A detailed study of those coast sections reveals a complex set of structures, which have been brought about by powerful earth stresses. Folds may be detected immediately in any of the sedimentary divisions, but as the folds are generally isoclinal (closely packed) the plication is not so conspicuous as in a region of normal folding. But the evidence of plication is everywhere so marked that the apparent dip of the strata can only be interpreted as the inclination of limbs of folds. The folding has been accompanied by faults which are almost as numerous as the folds to which they bear a direct relation. The faults often occur every few yards, both parallel to the strike (or trend of the beds) and in oblique directions, with the result that the whole rock-mass when seen in ground plan presents the appearance of a huge mosaic. On that part of the coast with which we are now dealing neither large faults nor large folds are common. It would appear that at an early stage of the folding process the resistance to the strains was so feeble that fractures were readily produced. In many districts reversed faults are as numerous as those of normal type. Although the rocks are everywhere cleaved we can in most cases on the south coast distinguish between the cleavage and bedding. The alternations from argillaceous to arenaceous material are so numerous that there is little difficulty in distinguishing these structures. The cleavage which is usually oblique to the bedding varies with the nature of the 21 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL material it traverses, and is always deflected in crossing from an argilla- ceous to an arenaceous bed, and vice versa. The slates on this part of the south coast have a prevailing south- easterly hade, both in bedding and cleavage. By bedding should be understood the lithological alternations due to original stratification, which in most cases along the coast section represent the limbs of folds. Where these are regular in their hade, and the cleavage is uniform, the section may present such an undisturbed appearance that the folding might easily be overlooked. Where the folding follows the normal type it can be readily detected, but the amount of compression of the strata is often far less than when the folding is isoclinal, and the evidence of this is not so apparent. The obHquity between the cleavage and bedding is not constant. As the cleavage and folding have both been brought about by the same agencies, we see every variation depending on the character and curve of the fold, and the obliquity of the cleavage to the bedding will often vary over the different portions of the fold. Although we may often see the cleavage transverse to the bedding, the general tendency has been for the beds to be thrown into a set of isoclinal folds with a definite general hade, and for the cleavage to cross somewhat obliquely at a low angle. The more the folds depart from this general hade, the greater will be the variations between cleavage and bedding. Besides cleavage the slates are traversed by other structural planes analo- gous to those found in schistose rocks, and this is especially noticeable where they are made up of alternations of varying material. For not only have these composite beds been more readily acted upon owing to the less uniform resistance they have offered to pressure, but their banded appearance reveals the structures which in slate of more homogeneous material cannot be so readily detected. On examination we often, as already noted, find the rock full of tiny folds and thrusts, the latter passing through the axes of the former, while the secondary cleavages are often as prominent as the dominant cleavage of the beds. While it will be readily understood that under the influence of pressure the sands and muds of the Palaeozoic seas have been indurated and changed to the condition which is generally known in Cornwall as * killas ' — which along the coastline presents a rocky shore in striking contrast to the material of the beaches which fringe it — the rock which has been referred to as quartzite is so markedly different in character that a word or so is necessary in explanation. The sandstone beds within the killas are built up from the aggregation of quartz grains, together with felspathic, and even argillaceous material, while scales of mica from original deposition are commonly distributed. Instead of this hetero- geneous mixture the quartzite consists of quartz grains among which other ingredients are but sparingly distributed. In the depths of the earth this purely siliceous deposit has been welded by pressure into a rock of uniform type corresponding to the uniformity of its ingredients, 22 GEOLOGY and as the quartz which forms the grains is the hardest of the common rock-forming minerals, the rock which has been evolved from the weld- ing of those grains is of exceptional strength. The compacting of the grains by pressure has been accompanied by the filling of their inter- spaces with a deposit of silica, which has acted as a cement and has been precipitated chemically from heated waters. The killas is traversed by veins of white quartz which not only occupy planes of fissure but ramify in all directions amongst the rock masses. The amount of quartz so distributed is enormous, and to its destruction we owe the greater part of the shingle on our beaches. This siliceous rock formed no part of the original marine deposit, but has origin- ated at a subsequent period during the subterranean phase of the Palse- ozoic formations in which it is enclosed. In those depths the formations have been more or less saturated with thermal waters which circulate be- neath the surface. As rocks are not absolutely impervious the entire mass was constantly searched and subjected to a process of leaching. The re- peated passage of heated waters over every particle of the entire rock mass removed silica in solution and redeposited it by chemical precipitation along lines of fissure, which are the main channels to which such waters ultimately converge. Notwithstanding the marked contrast which exists between the ' killas ' and the quartz veins, the silica of which the latter are entirely composed enters so largely into the composition of the killas either in the pure mineral of the quartz grains, or in chemical combin- ation with other substances, as to form more than half of the total material of the rock mass, so that the chemical relations of the veins and enclosing rocks are of the closest nature. These veins moreover are not all of the same age. While some have participated in the flexure and brecciation to which the * killas ' has been subjected, others are undisturbed and have evidently been formed at a period when the movements had ceased. The downward digression of that pile of marine accumulations of the ancient Palaeozoic seas not only involved them in the disturbances of the terrestrial crust represented by their mechanical deformation already described, but brought them in close proximity to those great subter- ranean furnaces, the home of vulcanism, the presence of which is often so painfully manifested by the effects of volcanic action. In that subterranean region the Palaeozoic deposits have been invaded by enormous masses of molten rock, which have produced extensive alteration on the killas within their vicinity, carrying their metamorphism a stage further, whereby the slates have been converted into schists of such an advanced stage of crystallization, that in some cases the sedi- mentary deposits formed on the sea floor have been confounded with the products of volcanic eruption. 23 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL While subsequent upheaval followed by denudation has afforded us the opportunity of studying the sea bottoms of those ancient periods, it has also laid bare for our inspection the subterranean regions of volcanic energy. The deeper seated magmas, the cooling of which occupied long periods of time, are represented in Cornwall by the extensive masses of granite which enter so largely into the geology of the county. But be- sides the granite which forms a series of bosses along the watershed and constitutes the most elevated portions of the area, smaller intrusions of igneous material have been forced into the killas as sills and dykes, that are represented by the greenstones, mica traps and elvans. In discussing these various products of igneous intrusion sealed up within the killas, priority naturally attaches to the granite from its greater superficial extent, and the important position it occupies as the seat of the staple industries of the county ; in the raising of metal, stone and clay, both as regards the granite itself and the killas which flanks its margins. The granite which comes to the surface in Cornwall resolves itself into five well marked bosses, along a line which approximates to the central axis of the county. To the north-east lies the Brown Willy mass which extends over Bodmin Moors ; the Hensbarrow granite forms a somewhat smaller boss in the neighbourhood of St. Austell ; and west of the Falmouth estuary the Carn Menelez granite, with its two out- liers of Carnbrea and Carnmarth, occupies an extensive ring within the limits of Falmouth, Helston and Camborne. Another large mass forms the western peninsula of Cornwall extending from St. Ives to the Land's End ; while the fifth mass constitutes the Isles of Scilly. Of the smaller granite patches are those of St. Michael's Mount, and Tregonning and Godolphin Hills, those of Carnbrea and Carnmarth already noticed, Cligga Point (near St. Agnes), Castle-an-Dinas and Belovely Beacon (near St. Colomb Major and Roche), Kit Hill and Hingston Down (near Callington), and other minor intrusions in close proximity to the larger masses. The granites vary considerably in texture, but their mineral composition is so closely allied that we are driven to the conclusion that the various individual bosses derived their material from a common source of supply. Mining operations have demonstrated the underground connection of the granites of Carnbrea and Carn Menelez. Similarly the smaller patches which occasionally flank the larger bosses are in all probability united below ground with the main mass. From this reasoning it might be in- ferred that if we could strip off the overlying killas the larger granite masses would be similarly connected ; but in spite of their close petro- logical relationship these larger bosses have acquired a marked individu- ality both as regards their texture and the distribution of their chemical contents. It would appear therefore that each of these bosses marks the site of individual eruptive centres, the materials of which have been derived from a common magma at lower depths. Moreover, although 24 GEOLOGY their upper surfaces appear to be domes, it is by no means unlikely that they are huge laccolites, which have been forced laterally between the strata under somewhat similar conditions to the smaller injections which constitute the greenstone sills. Further, although derived from the same magma basin they may differ widely in geological age. Of these five larger bosses the Carn Menelez granite occupies the central position. As it is also the chief seat of the Cornish granite industry, as well as our most important mining centre, its composition and structure will be more particularly described, and the remaining granite masses will be touched upon later in so far as they depart from this type. In the Carn Menelez granite we shall include the two ad- jacent patches of Carnbrea and Carnmarth which are in such close con- tiguity as to lie within the same eruptive centre. This mass may be described as a grey and coarse textured granite consisting of orthoclase and plagioclase felspar, abundant quartz and both black and white mica, together with tourmaline in varying pro- portions. Lithia mica is a common constituent in parts of this granite. Porphyritic felspars are commonly distributed, and include individuals of idiomorphic orthoclase exhibiting twinning of the Carlsbad type. Andalusite and topaz are of rare occurrence. Although not so coarse as some of the other Cornish granites, which contain porphyritic crystals of large size, like those of the Land's End type or of the mass near St. Austell, yet the Carn Menelez rock presents a texture which, as compared with other British granites, is not only coarse as regards the matrix, but also in the size of its porphyritic felspars, which are often 2 or 3 inches in length. While both muscovite and biotite are usually present, every variation may be observed in their relative abundance. In some localities muscovite may occur almost to the exclusion of the biotite, while in others the mica may be almost entirely of the latter variety. Tourmaline is usually brown, sometimes blue and rarely green, and it occurs both as a constituent of the ground mass, in which it generally takes the form of stumpy prisms, and as a later introduction coating the faces of joint planes in needle-shaped crystals, which tend to dispose themselves in bunches, and sometimes attain a length of 2 or 3 inches. Tourmaline seems to be a conspicuous mineral in the more acid portions of the granite which vein the normal type. In some veins of coarse acid granite tourmaline occurs to the exclusion of biotite, and some of the individuals noted under these conditions are as large as half an inch in length. Where such coarse acid veins have been observed to contain tourmaline as well as massive schorl, contiguous veins which are finer in texture are found to be rich in biotite, with tourmaline entirely absent. In the coarse veins containing tourmaline the mica that occurs is muscovite, and other instances have been observed where the mica of the coarse acid veins is confined to the white variety. Although no sharp change of texture constituting a chilled margin has been noticed at the outer edges of this granite, yet if the mass be regarded on the large scale, the marginal portions are often finer grained than the interior, contain a larger proportion I 25 4 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL of biotite, frequently to the almost entire exclusion of white mica, and are heavier than the coarser grained material, so much so as to affect its commercial value. This increased specific gravity (about i per cent) is no doubt due to differentiation in the mass prior to consolidation by the concentration of the basic oxides to the cooler peripheral portions. Although this granite mass here and there shows veining of its evenly-textured material, by granite much finer in grain, more especially perhaps in the parish of Wendron, the evidence is clear that such flowage within the mass was effected before final consolidation, and does not represent two generations of granite. The finer veins frequently contain porphyritic felspars, identical both as regards size and form, with those of the adjoining normal type of granite, while in some instances the veins are so charged with these individuals that the fine-textured ground mass occupies but a subordinate position. Between Bolitho and Boswyn the fine textured granite covers a tract exceeding a square mile. The Land's End granite is far coarser than the Carn Menelez mass, and includes an area of about seven square miles of fine grained grey biotite granite with small scattered crystals of orthoclase and pinite, which according to Mr. Reid is of later age than the coarse granite into which it has been intruded. Much of the town of Penzance has been built of this stone. As the Carn Menelez granite is but rarely seen in actual contact with the killas the precise nature of its junction has not been observed, but judging from the margins of the other granite masses of which the coast affords so many examples, there is no reason to doubt that veins protrude from its mass into the adjoining killas. Beautiful examples of such veins are seen on the coast that fringes the Land's End granite mass, as in the vicinity of the Gurnard's Head, Cape Cornwall, Whitsand Cove, at Mousehole, at Trewavas near Porthleven and other localities — and similar phenomena may be seen at St. Michael's Mount. These intrusions of molten rock have effected profound alteration on the killas into which they have been injected. The Carn Menelez mass presents an aureole of alteration which extends for about i,ooo yards from its margin, the innermost portions of which have been metamorphosed into mica schists crowded with andalusite, while the outer aureole consists of knotted slate. In the latter case mineralization is in the incipient stage, while in the former it is complete, the micas of the schists (both muscovite and biotite) being the products of crystalliza- tion, due to chemical action set up by the heated granite mass. The metamorphic aureole of the Land's End granite is still greater, while metamorphism has been more intense, the sedimentary rocks being indurated and hornfelsed to such an extent that it is often difficult to distinguish these rocks from the greenstones. The difference in area of the two masses is not great, but on the other hand they differ widely in texture, the Land's End mass being much coarser, and the explanation of its greater metamorphic action is to be looked for in its slower cooling. 26 GEOLOGY This relation of the metamorphic aureole to cooling conditions finds substantial corroboration in the smaller granite mass of Godolphin, the more rapid consolidation of which is seen in its strongly developed chilled edge, while its limits of metamorphism are confined to a few hundred yards. These peculiar zones of metamorphism are sometimes observed where visible granite is absent ; Mr. E. Dixon has recorded two such metamorphic areas, one north of Gwinear, the other around Leeds- town, from which we may confidently infer that bodies of granite lie below the surface. Moreover the great elvan region which abuts against the granite at Gwennap contains large areas of spotted slate, but the meta- morphism is more feeble than that found bordering the granite mass. The granite of the Brown Willy district frequently contains large porphyritic crystals of felspar, and is more particularly schorlaceous towards the south. The granite district of Hensborough or St. Austell is far more variable and more schorlaceous. This granite was described by Dr. Boase and in more recent years by Mr. J. H. Collins. The latter observer alludes to the large size of the porphyritic felspars, and calls attention to veins almost entirely composed of that mineral, while others consist almost exclusively of mica. He also records the occurrence of both lithia and fluorine in the micas of this granite, and the relation which the latter element bears to the decomposition of felspar into kaolin, with which the very existence of our china clay industries is linked. As the industries and minerals of Cornwall will be treated in a separate section it will suffice here to state that china clay and china stone are the products of the decomposition of the granite in situ^ and that this chemical alteration appears to be mainly brought about by the action of fluoric acid. The relative abundance of fluorine therefore in the original rock mass is probably the determining factor in the production of china clay, and its restriction as regards commercial purity to limited areas. In the Carn Menelez granite for instance the decomposition of its mass rarely yields china stone, and in conjunction with this fact we find an almost entire absence of fluor spar except in association with the mineral veins. According to Mr. Collins bands of greisen are very frequent in the Hensbarrow granite where decomposed. This mixture of quartz and white mica is common in the Cornish granites, and has in almost all cases been brought about by modification of the granite by subsequent chemical action resulting in the removal of the felspar. The schorlaceous portions of the granite are in many cases the products of a similar alteration but with a diff^erent result. The beautiful rock found in detached blocks in the neighbourhood of Luxullian is a variety of tour- maline granite, in which the conversion of a part of its felspar into clear quartz crowded with tourmaline needles has been described in its various stages by Professor Bonney, F.R.S., while brown grains of tourma- line are supposed to represent the mica of the granite. To attempt the 27 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL discussion of the long array of mineral substances which have been pro- duced in the granites and the neighbouring killas by chemical action since the consolidation of the granite, many of which are of economic value and constitute the metalliferous ores, would be beyond the scope of this article. Mr. J. H. Collins has compiled a list of eighty-six minerals that occur in the Hensbarrow granite and in the killas aureole in close proximity. The granite of the Land's End district is characterized by a general uniformity of texture, notwithstanding the finer grained portions to which attention has been drawn, by the coarseness of that texture exhibited in the large size of its porphyritic felspars, as well as by the frequent presence of pinite. Schorlaceous granite is a common feature along its northern margin, beautiful varieties being seen in the vicinity of St. Ives, where the larger porphyritic felspars are replaced by schorl and quartz, in which the original outlines of the felspars are still preserved. In these pseudomorphs the preservation of the casts of the earlier mineral by retaining its crystalline form, leads to its precise identification notwithstanding the complete removal of its substance. The granite of the Scilly Islands is usually a somewhat coarser variety in which finer material appears in the form of veins, while schorl is apparently rare. The granite of Godolphin Hill is variable in type, and according to Dr. Boase is in part extremely rich in felspar, which acts as a base in which white crystals of felspar, nodules of clear quartz and black mica are thickly embedded, while schorlaceous veins are common in it. The granite of St. Michael's Mount is generally fine grained, with a small proportion of mica. The joint planes of this granite often con- tain quartz, topaz, cassiterite and other minerals, and are bounded by bands of greisen which pass imperceptibly into the granite. The very slow consolidation of the granite masses has resulted in their complete crystallization. The constituent crystals however have mutually interfered with one another so that they interlock. In the earlier generations of the felspar represented by the porphyritic forms, we frequently see perfect crystals, while mica and tourmaline likewise occur idiomorphic ; the smaller felspars on the other hand have a less perfect contour, while the quartz which in normal granite has been the last constituent to consolidate has been forced to accommodate itself to the interspaces which remain. When however cavities occur in the rock we find all the various minerals lining their walls in well formed crystals, which are frequently of large size and beauty, especially the purer varieties of silica such as rock crystal, amethyst, etc., while in such situations topaz and other minerals which fall under the category of gems have also been obtained. Such cavities probably owe their origin to the imprisonment of steam, and in this connection it may be pointed out that the quartz itself which enters into the composition of the granite, and the crystallization of which mineral marks the final consolidation of the rock, contains 28 GEOLOGY liquid bubbles that move about in tiny cavities, and have resulted from the condensation of steam which such cavities formerly imprisoned. The system of jointing pertaining to the Carn Menelez granite bears a definite relation to the crystalline arrangement. There are three well defined joint planes ; one set of vertical joints, having a prevalent direc- tion of N.N. W., is crossed by another vertical set at right angles. These two systems, in conjunction with a third set more or less horizontal, divide the whole rock into a set of rough prismatic segments. Such vertical columns of rectangular blocks are admirably displayed by the weathering of the granite in the rugged coast scenery of the Land's End. The rock cleaves most readily along planes parallel to the hori- zontal joints ; the next easiest cleaving plane is that parallel to the N.N.W. joints, while the rock cleaves most irregularly parallel to the E.N.E. joints. Not only is there a close connection between the major joints and the grain of the rock, but the grain itself is dependent on the internal mineral arrangement, and all these phenomena are closely related. The internal crystalline arrangement appears to consist first in a tendency for the mica to lie with its basal planes horizontal ; secondly, in a dispo- sition of the felspars, both as constituents of the matrix and as porphyritic individuals, to rest with their flat sides in a similar position ; and thirdly, in the orientation of the felspars with their long axes parallel to the N.N.W. (cleaving way) joints. The first and second of these structures probably explains the proneness to cleave parallel to the horizontal joints ; while the third seems to show why the rock tends to cleave in planes parallel to the cleaving-way joints. The uniformity in these structural features is not only diffused over the whole granite mass, but is common to the whole of the post-Car- boniferous granites of Cornwall. While the granite presents only exceptionally a marked foliated appearance, it has evidently undergone throughout a rude and initial stage of foliation, whereby its component minerals have been forced to rearrange themselves in a definite direction so as to acquire a cleavage. Judging from the data furnished by the district between Gerrans Bay and Truro, there are reasons for believing that the sediments owe their deformation to stresses acting along a N.N.W. direction which agrees with one of the main cleaving directions of the granite. There are strong grounds therefore for assuming that the granite irruptions and the earth movements are not only closely related, but that the movements had not ceased to operate before the final solidification of the granite. This assumption is still further supported by the evidence of two sills of foliated granite that flank the margin of the Carn Menelez mass near Penryn, and by the foUated or gneissose character of the marginal granite at Kennal Vale near Ponsanooth, the foliation in both instances coinciding with the cleavage of the adjacent slates. A small intrusion of tourmaline-muscovite granite near Truthall is so sheared that the quartz and felspar are often granulitic with muscovite bent and dragged out. 29 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The set of major joints which trends approximately E.N.E. corre- sponds to an extensive system of fissures which have been formed in the granites and Palaeozoic rocks of Cornwall by the subterranean dis- turbances to which the former owe their origin and the latter their deformation. This system of fissures is parallel with the axis of granitic intrusion, and also with the general trend of the elvan dykes and mineral lodes, both of which have taken advantage of the fissures for the intro- duction of the material that enters into their composition. These phenomena are well illustrated in the Carn Menelez mass. Within that granite of the Mabe and Constantine districts mineral lodes and elvan dykes are practically absent, while the E.N.E. system of fissuring is almost entirely confined to the visible joints. These joint- faces however frequently display slickensided surfaces which indicate rela- tive displacement of the walls, and are sometimes seen to be small faults that have displaced the horizontal beds of granite to the extent of a few feet. Moreover the finer grained aplite veins tend to take a course parallel to these same joints. In the parish of Wendron, which forms the central belt of that granite, this E.N.E. fissuring has been so sensibly increased that the stone which is quarried on a large scale in the two former parishes previously mentioned is no longer wrought. With this change elvan dykes make their appearance, also an extremely attenuated set of mineral veins which have been worked for tin ; moreover the granite, which is of coarse texture, is extensively veined by finer grained material. The E.N.E. fissuring is no longer confined to the major joints, but the interspaces between the fissures are very closely fractured along parallel planes. Frequently they consist of tiny cracks which sever the various crystals along their course. In the next stage the cracks have been infilled with quartz, which has been followed by the introduction of schorl as an accompaniment of that mineral, and finally to almost its total exclusion. With the oncoming of wider veins the rock takes on a banded appearance, the black schorlaceous veins standing out in striking contrast to the granite. The schorlaceous veins carry tin, and in some instances it is quite clear that the lode follows the E.N.E. joint. Over the whole district the schorlaceous bands rarely exceed a few inches in width. When this granite however is followed into the districts of Redruth and Camborne, the magnitude of the fissures and lodes and the extent of the elvans have reached their maximum at that marginal zone of the mass which constitutes the heart of the mineral area of Cornwall. These E.N.E. fissures, into many of which elvans have been in- jected, while others have formed the repositories of the mineral ores, especially copper and tin, have been brought about by the volcanic dis- turbances of the newer Paleozoic periods, whereas the set of transverse fissures, locally known as cross-courses, which have effected vertical dis- placements of considerable magnitude, are of later date. After a pro- longed cessation of volcanic activity, extending over the Mesozoic ages, 30 GEOLOGY renewed igneous action on a colossal scale broke out in the Tertiary period, producing a new set of fissures of N.N.W. trend. It has left imposing relics in the British Isles, along the line of the Inner Hebrides (Skye, Mull, Rum, etc.) and in the north-east of Ireland, while along its Atlantic prolongation remnants of volcanic activity are still manifested. In Cornwall no igneous rocks connected with this epoch are known to occur, unless we except the phonolite of the Wolf Rock, which may probably be referred to it. But the fissures in connection with the line of disruption extend to regions far removed from the volcanic centres, and we have little hesitation in assigning to that Tertiary epoch the extensive system of fractures known in Cornwall as cross-courses. The elvan dykes which have been already incidentally alluded to make a conspicuous feature in Cornish geology. Related to the granite by the closest ties of chemical afiBnity, their difference in mineral com- position is mainly one of degree of crystallization. Instead of being restricted to the plutonic phase, involving such slow cooling that the mass is entirely built up of visible crystals, the elvans represent a type of intru- sion in which the contents of the subterranean reservoirs have been injected into a series of fissures, forming wall-like masses, the cooling of which has not been sufficiently protracted to admit of so coarse a type of crystallization. As some of them pierce the granite their intrusion must in part at least be referred to a period subsequent to its consolidation, and from their intimate petrological relationship we may confidently infer that both types of intrusion have been derived from a common source of supply. After their mode of occurrence the most essential particular in which the elvans differ from the granite is the occurrence of a base or matrix in which individual minerals are porphyritically embedded. These minerals are precisely similar to those of the granite. They exhibit however more perfect crystalline shape, and this is particularly illustrated by the quartz crystals. This mineral, instead of forming as in granite irregular shapes among earlier developed minerals, has been free to build up its own type of crystal, viz. a short prism bounded by terminal pyramids. These quartz crystals have often rounded angles which in extreme cases result in their appearance as bleb-like patches without crystalline form. Not only are there all degrees in the texture of the matrix, but the variation is equally wide in the porphyritic constituents both as regards individual size, number, and the nature of the mineral which is porphy- ritic. In some cases the porphyritic felspars are of large size and have been formed in the plutonic magmas from which the elvans have been derived ; and there is necessarily every gradation between crystallization of the dyke and plutonic phase, the growth of many crystals having been continuous in both of these conditions. Although identical minerals occur in both elvan and granite, mica 31 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL is more distinctly predominant, in proportion to the other constituents, in granite than in elvan. A characteristic feature of the elvans is the tendency for the white mica to assume a radiating or plumose habit, and in the matrix of the rock to combine with the felspar in forming a pegmatitic structure. The granophyric habit is not confined to this type, but pseudo-spheru- litic structures have also been noted. In width the elvans range from a few feet to many yards ; a dyke however of abnormal dimensions has been traced following an east and west course through Gwennap, and attaining a width of 150 to 200 yards. Although the elvans are usually very steeply inclined, they exhibit much variation in this respect, and sometimes lie nearly flat. They occur in greatest abundance in districts invaded by granite, although the number that pierce that rock is far inferior to those enclosed by the killas. Occasionally they are found penetrating green- stone, as at Burntcoose in the parish of Gwennap. Besides the differences we have noted these rocks present great variations in their decomposition, being often represented by a soft clay, as their felspars readily decompose into kaolin. On the other hand the durability of certain elvans is such that they provide some of the best building material which the county possesses. Their general distribution is noted on the map, from which it will be seen that the greatest departure from their usual trend, parallel to the longitudinal axis of the county, occurs in the elvan system of St. Austell, which follows a course slightly north of west. The mica traps of Cornwall consist of dyke-like intrusions, the range of which is mainly restricted to a belt of country running north and south between Newquay and Falmouth Bay. This peculiar type of intrusions as related to Cornwall was first described by Mr. J. H. Collins. Their most characteristic feature in the field is a marked readiness to decompose, so that a fresh surface of the rock is seldom visible, and consequently they have been utilized to a trifling extent as building material. They are usually of a rusty brown colour, and occur as dykes and sills within the slates, not usually continuous for more than short distances. They vary in width from a foot to 50 yards, and have effected a very limited amount of contact alteration on the slates which they traverse. They often exhibit spheroidal structure, cores of more solid rock being encircled by concentric outer layers of exfoliating material ; and flow structure is not uncommon, more especially in the finer grained marginal portions. Notwithstanding their advanced state of decomposition, the ground-mass of these rocks can generally be seen to consist of a medium-grained admixture of biotite and felspar, while inclusions of quartz and crystalline felspathic rock are character- istic. These inclusions range to as large as 9 inches and may be rounded, 32 GEOLOGY or may occur as perfectly rectangular fragments, so that some mica-traps have a brecciated appearance. The rocks thus vary considerably both in texture and composition, and they appear to have been intruded after the slates had been cleft but before the final cessations of the stresses, some of the joints of the sills being parallel to the movement planes in the adjoining slates, while there is a tendency to a parallel structure corre- sponding with these joints. Moreover the minor dislocations in the slates have heaved the mica traps. The mechanical deformation they have suffered is slight, and is limited to the distortion of the mica, as is rendered evident when they are examined under the microscope. The dominant felspar of these rocks is orthoclase, and augite has been recognized, while a striking characteristic of some of the dykes is the abundance of apatite they contain. They are conspicuously developed in the Fal estuary between Malpas and Mesack Point. Besides the igneous intrusions represented by granite, elvan and mica trap, the killas has been invaded by another class of volcanic rock more ancient than the foregoing, the products of which are known as Greenstone. These rocks, although not so widely distributed as the elvans, are not so restricted as the mica traps. Like the former they occur in greatest abundance in the neighbourhood of granite masses, as is particularly emphasized in the western division of the county by the greenstone masses which partly encircle the Land's End and Carn Menelez granites. The intrusive greenstones occur in the form of elongated sill -like masses, and represent the heavier material of the magmatic reservoir. Not only do they contain less felspar than the acid intrusives already described, but that mineral is more commonly plagioclase, the soda variety ; quartz has almost disappeared, while the ferro-magnesian constituents are strongly represented. Hornblende is undoubtedly dominant in the rocks, and the prevailing green colour of this mineral and of its decomposition products has given rise to the name of Greenstone. As these rocks have been involved in the earth movements which have deformed the slates they exhibit various stages of the process of deformation. Moreover their great development within the granite aureoles of contact alteration has involved thermal metamorphism in addition. As the result of these changes the rocks have often been profoundly modified from their original conditions not only as regards structure, but likewise as regards mineral composition. The researches of Messrs. Allport and Phillips conclusively demon- strate that these intrusions were originally dolerites and basalts in which the augite has been almost entirely replaced by hornblende. While the more massive varieties of the rock which have resisted dynamic metamorphism still retain some of their original felspar, yet the bulk of that mineral is represented by a later generation. I 33 5 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The greenstones which flank the Cam Menelez granite vary from coarse amphibolites or epidiorites to fine grained rocks of basaltic texture, and from masses which are highly sheared to others which have suffered no mechanical deformation. Microscopic examination leaves no doubt that the coarser masses are altered gabbros, while those of finer texture were for the most part originally basalts. At Bellevue near Penryn the massive amphibolite still retains its original felspar, whereas the augite has been replaced by a mat of actinolite (horn- blende), and iron ore is in process of alteration to granular sphene. Near Ponsanooth the rock shows a Uttle foliation, the felspar which is less abundant is mostly in a granulitized condition, and besides some magne- tite the rock contains pale brown flakes of mica, probably the direct re- sult of the contact alteration by the granite. The sill between Pengreep and Treviskey is more variable in texture ; while portions are as coarse as that just described, the greater part of the rock is of fine grain. Moreover, as at Devis, the mass has undergone considerable mechanical movement, the finer, more compact zones and those of coarser crystal- line condition having been so packed and squeezed together that the coarser portions exhibit shearing. This rock strongly approaches the type of greenstone seen near St. Ives, which has been so profoundly metamorphosed by the granite of that region, and some of its structures recall the banded hornblendic rocks of the Lizard area. These greenstones may be taken as typical of this class of basic intrusion of Cornwall. While their principal constituents are felspar and hornblende considerable variation is seen in the relative proportions of those constituents. Moreover in the crushed varieties the secondary products may be so widely diffused that the original character of the rock is entirely destroyed. The intrusive greenstones however are not confined to the basic phase, but rocks of intermediate composition find their place within that group. Both from Newlyn and Flushing greenstones have been determined both by microscopic examination and chemical analysis to belong to the Andesite group. Although these rocks are much altered they have suffered little or no mechanical deformation. The Newlyn rock is unsheared and but little modified ; the felspar is fairly fresh, and the alteration of augite to hornblende is mainly paramorphic. The Flushing rock occurs outside the aureole of granite metamorphism and is more decomposed, the hornblende and biotite being represented by chloritic and serpentinous material. The varieties which have been metamorphosed into serpentinous products, such as the olivine dolerite of Clicker Tor and the serpentinous greenstone of Duporth, in which also olivine was probably an original constituent, represent an extreme phase of the basic greenstones. Some greenstones occur at Camborne extensively veined by massive garnet, some- times associated with epidote and pyroxene, all of these minerals having taken their present crystalline form subsequent to the shearing of the rock. Gametiferous greenstones have also been noted in other parts of Cornwall, 34 GEOLOGY The greenstones therefore have a considerable range in chemical composition, and vary extremely in their mechanical deformation, which is more pronounced in the basic rocks. It may be inferred therefore that the basic have experienced a greater severity of earth stresses than the acid varieties and are consequently of higher antiquity. What period separated the greenstone intrusions from the granites is not evident ; but as the granites themselves were subjected to stress prior to final consolidation the whole of these igneous intrusions may have been derived from a common magma. In investigating this genetic relationship however we are confronted with the fact that while some of these rocks retain their original structures, in others they are so far obliterated as to render them useless for comparative study. In so far as the granites and elvans are concerned their affinities are so pronounced that their petrological relationship is obvious. In the case of the green- stones however, both basic and intermediate, we can no longer trust petrological comparisons, but fall back on geological considerations based on the nature and extent of their deformation and mineral alteration, taken in conjunction with their relations to the granite intrusions and to the earth stresses with which we suppose these latter to be linked. From this point of view the elvans and mica traps are the latest. While the former were intruded when a state of equilibrium had been established, the mica traps appear to have shared in some of the stresses from which the elvans have escaped. The prior granite intrusions con- solidated under conditions of stress which induced parallel structures on them. The acid type of greenstone, although demonstrably older than the granite, has suffered comparatively little from earth movements, while the basic forms exhibit variations from types in which the original structure is partially preserved, to others in which it is entirely obliterated. It is possible therefore that the members of this igneous assemblage may be inter-related and have originated from a common magma. This hypothesis is indeed supported by the fact that it would include a con- nected series of igneous rocks from basic to acid, which would also represent the order of intrusion. The ancient Palaeozoic ridge of which Cornwall forms a part owes its origin to those earth movements the effects of which have been de- scribed, and the final result of which has been to raise the products of the subterranean depths to the surface. From the fact that the deposits were not submerged below that part of the crust known as the zone of frac- ture, we may assume that the subsidence was confined to a maximum depth of 5 or 6 miles. We have seen that the ancient sedimentary formations have suffered profound alteration by which their original characters are more or less obliterated. In spite however of this meta- morphism we can to a large extent decipher their more ancient history. That history covers an enormous span, for notwithstanding a very general 35 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL uniformity which these deposits exhibit as a consequence of their subter- ranean treatment, the period occupied by their formation may exceed that vast interval which has subsequently elapsed. For the present we will leave out of consideration the rocks which occupy the Lizard peninsula, which will be treated later. Of the Paleo- zoic deposits which enter into the rest of the county the Devonian for- mation undoubtedly takes the most prominent position. Occupying the greater part of Cornwall, it is flanked on the north by the overlying Culm Measures, and on the south by Ordovician rocks, between which are interposed some non-fossiliferous beds, possibly Silurian. As the metamorphism to which these formations have been subjected is more intense in the western portion of the county, the original structures have consequently been better preserved in the eastern part. This difference is expressed in the greater preservation of the original minerals such as augite in the greenstones of east Cornwall, in the identification in the same area of undoubted lava and ash beds, the absence of which in the western region may possibly be explained by their more complete defor- mation having led to their inclusion with the intrusive greenstones. As regards the killas it may be stated that whereas in the western region the mechanical deformation has reached such an advanced stage that the rock structures are analogous to those of schistose rocks ; in the eastern area the process has generally stopped far short of that stage, and the cleavage has been sufficiently uniform to admit of the rock being exten- sively wrought for slate as in the well known quarries of Delabole. Moreover these differences in metamorphism are accompanied by the most marked divergence in the preservation of organic remains ; while the eastern area has yielded fossils in tolerable abundance, albeit in a poor state of preservation, the western district is characterized by their extreme rarity. The unravelling of the stratigraphical sequence therefore is attended with serious difficulties. For not only have the ancient stratigraphical boundaries been masked by the extensive deformation to which the rocks have been subjected, but their included fossils to which we might other- wise appeal as chronological landmarks have shared in these processes. The better preservation of the fossils in the eastern area has permitted the historical succession of the formations to be more accurately defined than in the west. An inspection of the map will show the southern boundary of the Culm Measures as extending from the vicinity of Boscastle to Horsebridge, which spans the Tamar near the horizon of Tavistock. The Devonian formation which occurs below the Culm Measures, although tolerably defined in its upper limits by that undulatory boun- dary, does not admit of such precise definition as regards its base. A zone that traverses the county from St. Austell Bay to Holywell Bay, approximately defines the limits of the lowest Devonian beds which have yielded reliable zonal fossils. South of that zone the killas is singularly barren of fossil remains 36 GEOLOGY excepting the narrow strip which forms its eastern margin, where be- tween Mevagissey Bay and Gerrans Bay the grey quartzites yielded to the late Mr. C. W. Peach fossils of Caradoc or Bala age. In the south- westerly prolongation of that zone, which traverses the Meneage peninsula and contains similar lithological types, the quartzites have yielded fossils to Mr. J. H. Collins, while the limestones of both areas enclose frag- mental remains of crinoids. It will be seen therefore that the succession from the Culm Measures (Carboniferous) to the Caradoc (Ordovician) is broken by the geological chapters which separate the latter epoch from the Lower Devonian. The relations which the barren deposits of south-west Cornwall bear to those missing chapters have not been determined. Further, we are not aware of the exact base of the Devonian in Cornwall. Even within the present year Mr. Clement Reid in his examination of the north coast in the vicinity of Newquay has extended the palaeontological hori- zons to lower limits of the Devonian system than hitherto discovered in that locality. In view of the uncertainties which attend the unravelling of the Palaeozoic sequence we have not placed the inquiry in a prominent position, and more especially because the subsequent history of those for- mations in the subterranean depths has impressed upon our county its dominant geological type. It is therefore on this stage in the building up of Cornwall that we have more particularly dwelt. In recent years an important advance has been made in the strati- graphy of west Cornwall by Mr. Howard Fox's discovery of radiolarian cherts at Mullion Island in association with lavas of a peculiar pillowy or sacklike appearance, an association closely resembling that found to occur in the Arenig beds of the south of Scotland. Moreover Mr. Fox has traced these radiolarian horizons into the Gorran area. Further, in the latter district we have found the pillow lavas of Mullion Island on a similar geological horizon associated with limestone and quartzite ; so that the Ordovician age of the Cornish pillow lavas and their associated cherts has been clearly established. While in the Veryan area these Ordovician beds appear to pass quite conformably into the barren deposits which extend so largely over the south-west of Cornwall, in the Meneage peninsula, their continuity appears to be broken by a conglomerate. That coarse deposit includes pebbles of distantly derived material, which makes it a very impor- tant horizon. For not only amongst its contents do we find boulders of quartzite, but amongst its finer detritus the microscope reveals the pres- ence of the pillow lavas. The conglomerate also contains foliated igneous rocks, some of which have certainly been derived from the Lizard area, so that we have in Cornwall at least two periods of meta- morphism, one of which is prior to the formation of the conglomerate and its included pebbles of pillow lava, and one later. Of the age of the former we have no evidence, except that it must be pre-Arenig, while the latter is posterior to the Culm Measures. 37 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The ' killas ' which separates the conglomerate of the Meneage district from the fossiHferous Devonian strata of the Newquay district, has been divided into three Hthological divisions, viz. the Portscatho series, the Falmouth series and the Mylor series/ All these divisions are composed of argillaceous and sandy alternations, and all are characterized by the absence of limestone. Their Hthological types are however suffi- ciently distinct to admit of their being separable on geological maps. The Portscatho and Mylor series are blue and dark in colour ; the Port- scatho contains the coarser sandstone beds, while the Mylor rocks besides being more shaly are more distinctly banded. The Falmouth series exhibits greater variation, is usually buff in colour, but includes zones which are purple and red. The rocks also appear to be of lesser thickness than either of the two series which they divide. Their occurrence in the Fal basin between Falmouth and Truro in a series of parallel lenticles is an ad- mirable illustration of the geological structure of the county ; for although the strata have a general south-easterly dip, and we are apparently cross- ing the strike from the coast to the heart of the county, yet instead of getting deeper in the stratigraphical series we are on precisely the same geological horizon at Truro as at Falmouth, the intervening ground being made up of a succession of isoclinal folds. On leaving the barren belt occupied by these rocks we find between Holywell Bay and Boscastle on the north coast, and between St. Austell Bay and the Tamar on the south coast, an assemblage of strata which is not only fossiHferous, but in which limestones occur. The fossil re- mains with which they are charged leave little doubt that this belt is occupied in the main by Devonian strata, but until the region has been more closely investigated it would be unsafe to assume that an area so folded is entirely restricted to that formation. It is possible that the fine grained conglomerate of Probus and Grampound and the Nare Point conglomerate may represent an unconformity dividing the Silurian and Devonian formations. As the northern coast of Cornwall truncates the Culm Measures as well as Devonian rocks, while the former are not seen on the south coast, a brief description of the fossiHferous rocks of north Cornwall will sufficiently indicate our knowledge of the pal^ontological remains that are entombed within the strata. For the following description of those formations we are indebted to Mr. Howard Fox : — The rocks of the north coast of Cornwall do not yield fossils in as good a state of preservation as those of the south-east coast and of the South Petherwin beds near Launceston. Between Holywell Bay and Newquay no determinable fossil of interest has as yet been found. At Newquay Mr. Clement Reid has recently collected a considerable num- 1 J. B. Hill, Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1898, p. 97. 38 GEOLOGY ber of species, though most of them are badly preserved. They include several corals, polyozoa, crinoids, brachiopods, with more rarely Actinoceras^ Orthoceras and trilobites. Mr. C. W. Peach records remains of the Devonian trilobite, Phacops latifrons. North of St. Columb Forth we have a range of i\ miles of brightly variegated slates, purple, green, buff and grey, similar to those between Fowey and Polperro, the Devonshire counterparts of which have been named by Mr. Ussher the ' Dartmouth and King's Wear Slate Group.' These rocks contain fish-remains. In Watergate Bay the fossiliferous beds are thin and not plentiful. In some beds the fossil scales, spines and plates are abundant, in others more scattered. Pteraspis cornubica is one of the most frequent forms and may be reckoned a Lower Devonian fossil. There are occasional fossiliferous beds in Step Cove, the northern boundary of Watergate Bay, in Beacon Cove and Mawgan Forth, but it is not till we reach Bedruthan Steps that we are rewarded with any determinable zonal fossil. Bedruthan is a most interesting locality. Huge blocks are constantly falling from the high cliffs, and some of them come from fossiliferous beds inaccessible to the climber. The coast is open to the Atlantic seas, and these lift the sand and dash it on the rocks, creating such a scour that fresh fossils are weathered out constantly, and the fossil seeker may find a rich treasure when he least expects it. The rocks in situ on the foreshore are in cer- tain places crowded with organic remains, a few of which may show good structure and some others may be in a fair state of preservation, though the great majority are indeterminable. The most abundant are corals, crinoids, polyzoa, brachiopods, gastropods, Orthoceras^ fish remains, with an occasional trilobite and starfish, etc. To this list fragments of a new fossil have lately been found in abundance, which may be looked on as a zonal fossil,^ Pteroconus mirus, Hinde [Nereitopsis, Upfield Green). The most perfect specimen is in the British Museum. Both Samaritan Island and Diggory Island yield fossils, the latter some good examples of Pleurodictyum ; and ascending Fentire Steps at the north end of the Bedruthan range we pass the bold igneous peninsula of Fark Head, and if we descend into Lower Butter Cove may find a Petraia^ Conularia^ or fragment of Pteroconus^ and for certain some crinoidal fragments. There are several distinct fossiliferous horizons at Forth Mear. Trescore Islands and mainland, and Boathouse Cove adjoining, show many fossils, some of which are interesting ; amongst others Phacops latifrons (?) has been found. Forth Cothan exposes a great surface of blue slate with occasional corals, trilobites and Conularia. Pleurodictyum occurs in Rowan Cove north of Forth Cothan, and northward of that we have found no fossil of value until we reach Con- stantine Bay and its northern division Booby's Bay, immediately south of Trevose Head. Here an Upper Devonian fossil, Cardiola retrostriata^ is found with Bactrites^ Zaphrentis^ Pachypora^ Phacops^ a brachiopod, Pleuro- dictyum, Tentaculites, etc. The fossil however which characterizes the ^ Geol. Mag. decade iv. vol. vii. No. 430, 1900 ; Trans. R. Geo/. Soc. Com. vol. xii. pt. 5, 1900. 39 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL northern end of Constantine Bay is a new species of Conularia. It occurs on the surfaces of the shales as nearly black flattened fragments, which often retain the surface markings. In these surface markings this form, according to Dr. Hinde, differs from all the other examples of Conularia known from the Devonian rocks of America and Germany, principally in the marked fineness of the transverse lines, and it probably belongs to a new species. There was not a single example of this genus from the Devonian rocks of this country either in the British Natural History Museum or in the Museum in Jermyn Street in 1894, when some speci- mens were given to them by Dr. Hinde. Two large pyritized forms resembling Crustacea 15 to 18 inches long, were found here, one of which is deposited in the Penzance Museum. The slates on the isthmus of Dinas Head show some organisms, but the chief interest of this projection from Trevose Head is the ex- posure of nearly an acre of a soda-felspar rock, weathering white, with a chert-like appearance and fracture, and supposed to be a sedimentary rock altered by contact with the igneous rock of which the peninsula is composed. This rock contains about 10 per cent of soda.^ Similar porcellanized slates are seen in many of the greenstone promontories north of this and at Lundy Beach near Port Quin, north of the Camel, where the rock contains 9*35 per cent of soda and '39 per cent of potash. East of Trevose Head lies Mother Ivey's Bay, where at the east end of the beach a shelf of blue slate near high water mark has yielded Tenta- culites, small brachiopods, Centronella, a form allied to Retzia longirostris^ Orthoceras^ and a specimen of Hyolithes^ all pyritized. This locality has become famous recently by the discovery of a fragment of a large new trilobite, Homalonotus Barratti, so named by Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S., in honour of the discoverer.^ We next reach Cataclews Point, famous for its variety of igneous rocks. It gives its name to a stone that has been quarried for centuries for archi- tectural purposes. The tomb of Prior Vivian in Bodmin church is an example of its durability and value. It is a fine grained greenstone, for the most part an altered picrite. Harlyn Bay is more famous for its pre- historic cemetery than for older remains, and New Train Bay introduces us to Trevone, which has proved a storehouse of interest. The fossils are mostly pyritized, and unfortunately the scour of the sand is not sufficiently severe to weather fresh fossils rapidly. Trevone cliffs and foreshore have yielded Orthoceras^ Bactrites, Goniatites^ Euomphalus^ Tentaculites, trilobites, corals, brachiopods, Styliola, and two fossils characteristic of Upper Devonian rocks, viz. Bactrites budesheimensis^ F. Roemer, and Cardiola retrostriata. Von Buch.^ Trevone Bay is bounded on the north by Roundhole Point, and the northern side of this promontory is composed of the noted ' Marble Cliffs, 1 Described Geol. Mag. decade iv. vol. ii. No. 367, 1895. 2 Vide Geol. Mag. No. 463, January, 1903, pp. 28-31. 3 Vide Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Corn. xii. 535-45. 4Q GEOLOGY which are formed of alternate bands of limestone and shale extending from the foreshore to the top of the cliff for a distance of 350 yards. The limestone bands vary from 2 inches to 2 feet thick, weather a yellowish grey, and form a marked contrast with the dark shale ; there are from sixty to seventy distinct beds of each dipping at a low angle under the greenstone. The blue and grey slates on both the north and south banks of the Camel yield fossils of small interest, and amid these slates are other beds 2 miles in extent of purple and green variegated slates with a general southerly dip which have hitherto yielded no fossil of any kind. North of these occasional fossiliferous beds of slate occur ; the most interesting of which is in Epphaven Cove in Port Quin Bay. This has recently yielded a small starfish, Ophiurina (?), besides some tiny pyritized thorn-like organisms at present undetermined. Mr. S. R. Pattison,^ writing on the geology of the Tintagel district in 1847, says that fossils between Boscastle and Port Isaac were found in and near the good slate and in an earthy bed among the slates. He records Fenestella at Bossiney, Spirifera gigantea and S. disjuncta and crinoids at Tintagel, Delabole, Lesnewth and Trevivian, and Terebratula and Orthoceras at Tintagel. He adds : ' Fragments of Spiriferce may be seen in the roofing and flooring slates of all the quarries from Grower to Delabole.' Good specimens of much flattened Spirifers are still con- stantly found in the Delabole quarries. Sir Henry De la Beche in his Report gives a sketch of the junction of the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks as seen from a boat outside the harbour of Boscastle. He writes thus : 'Proceeding now to the southern boundary line of this (Carboniferous) system . . . we find that the upper series rests upon the lower near Boscastle, in a bay between the Meachard Rock and Short Island. Here though the one rests con- formably upon the other, as represented (plate 4, fig. i), there is no passage of the one system into the other. On the contrary, there is a marked line between the carbonaceous slates and arenaceous rocks above and the clay slates passing into roofing-slate beneath.' About a mile north of this junction line, the crest of Fire Beacon Point, a very conspicuous landmark 469 feet above sea level, is composed of a cherty rock showing casts of radiolaria. The foldings of the in- tervening beds of grit and shale are numerous, but cannot be on a large scale, as the chert appears nowhere else on the north coast. As we follow the coast northwards the foldings and contortions increase in size and complexity till we reach the extraordinary sections for which the ' Northern Door ' and ' Millook ' are so notable. Further north General McMahon in writing of Bude says that in some places the contortions and convolutions are too comphcated for verbal description . . . Beds are not only doubled up and folded on themselves, but they are crushed, ruptured and severed from each other in a way that has, in places, reduced them to the condition of a Chinese puzzle. The conclusion he arrived at after a microscopical examination of the rocks, was that the » Trans. R. Geol. Soc Corn. vii. 3-12. I 41 6 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Culm series at Bude appears to have been deposited in tranquil water un- disturbed by strong currents. As the radiolarian chert of Mullion Island traced eastward into Goran gave a datum line for the Ordovician rocks of south Cornwall, so this northern chert acts as a datum for the lower Culm Measures of Cornwall, Devon and Somerset/ From Fire Beacon Point it is traced in surface stones and in a series of quarries and exposures from this point to the Tamar. A quarry i J miles north of Launceston is marked on the 6-inch ordnance map ' Barracadoes Quarry (killas).' The beds in it however are not at all of the nature of killas, but consist mostly of light-tinted, banded, very hard siliceous rock with interbedded soft grey shaly beds, which are crowded with radiolaria and sponge spicules. Carzantic Quarry, 2 miles E.S.E. of Launceston, exposes a thickness of 50 feet of beds of compact chert without admixture of soft shaly beds, and throughout the series radiolaria can be distinguished, being in some beds thickly crowded together. If the formation of these cherts is mainly due to the silica separated from the sea-water by radio- laria, possibly also in part by sponges and diatoms, we must draw a heavy cheque on the bank of geological time to allow for the enormous interval necessary for the accumulation of such a thickness of rock by the gradual deposition of the skeletons of these microscopic organisms. Dr. Holl in his paper * On the Older Rocks of South Devon and East Cornwall,' ^ gives the result of his careful survey of the Culm Measures of east Cornwall, and makes his line of junction between the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks cross the Tamar at Horsebridge near the horizon of Tavistock. The radiolarian character of the cherts in this district confirms Dr. Roll's view that they belong to the Culm series. Quarries near Landlake Cross, at Trenute, Trekenner Head, with out- lying patches at Painter's Cross, 4 miles north-west of Saltash, and a quarry 500 yards east of Pillaton church are all composed of radio- larian cherts, the southern ones being brought up by Lower Culm folds. Mr. S. R. Pattison,^ in his paper on the Carboniferous system in Cornwall, says the plant remains in the broken cliffs close to the breakwater at Bude are found in greater numbers and better preserva- tion than elsewhere, although still in an extremely defective state as specimens. He records ' Posidonice and Goniatites with plants at Truscott and St. Stephens, and Trilobites, Orthides and Turbiriolopsis at Under- wood and St. Stephens.' The rocks which enter into the composition of the Lizard pen- insula, as defined by the seaboard extending from Porthalla to Polur- rian Cove, are of a totally different character from the rock bands ^ ' On a well-marked Horizon of Radiolarian Rocks in the Lower Culm Measures of Devon Cornwall and Somerset,' by G. J. Hinde, F.R.S., and Howard Fox, Q.J.G.S. 11. (1895), 609-67. 2 Q.J.G.S. xxiv. (1868), 401-14. 3 Trans. R. Geo/. Soc. Com. vi. 267-75. 42 GEOLOGY which occupy the rest of Cornwall. The transition between the respec- tive rock types is sudden, and the line of demarcation appears also to be a line of dislocation. The precise relations therefore of the killas and the Lizard rocks have not been determined. The dominant rock in the Lizard peninsula is undoubtedly ser- pentine, which covers an area of about 20 square miles, while asso- ciated with it are considerable masses of gabbro and hornblende schist. Granite and greenstone (epidiorite) are of subordinate occurrence ; while the extreme south of the peninsula is occupied by schists and gneisses. The serpentine extends from Lizard Town on the south to Polwin in the north. It is seen along the east coast from Coverack Cove to the bay below the village of Landewednack ; and on the west coast between Pentreath Beach and George's Cove, and further north at Mullion Cove. Smaller masses occur in the vicinity of Porthalla. The variety of the Lizard serpentine constitutes one of its most striking characteristics. This is largely due to the fact that the rock is a product of alteration of pre-existing rock masses ; not only did the latter differ in mineral constitution, but the extent of their decomposition, which has given rise to the serpentine, has not been uniform. While in some instances the metamorphism has been complete, in others the original rock is still represented by portions that have been undestroyed. The serpentine has been mainly derived, as shown by Professor Bonney, from olivine bearing rocks, the decomposition of that mineral especially favouring its production. Moreover, other magnesian minerals pass into serpentine in a similar manner. According to Professor Bonney, the handsome mottled varieties, with conspicuous crystals of bronzite occur chiefly in the southern and south-eastern regions, along the coast from the Balk to Coverack Cove, and as far inland as the neighbourhood of Ruan Major : the fine black variety with glittering bronzite crystals being found on the coast south of Caerleon Cove ; as also on the west coast to the north of Kynance Cove (near the Horse). South of that and at the Rill, as well as to the north at Gue Graze, George Cove and near Mullion Cove, compact dull-coloured varieties are com- moner, and these are seen by the Helston Road on the northern part of the mass. In close association with these is the dull-coloured variety, containing small glittering crystals, which appear to be mainly a pyrox- enic or hornblendic mineral (grammatite), found especially about Lower Pradanack and in Mullion Cove.* A small patch of serpentine also occurs (beyond the Lizard region) in Gerrans Bay near the Nare Head. This rock varies from a massive to a sheared serpentine, and like the serpentine of the Lizard occurs in association with gabbro. The relations however of the serpentine and gabbro to the ' killas ' are obscure, as neither of the former reaches the coast. Next in importance to the serpentine are the large intrusive masses of gabbro ; moreover smaller veins of gabbro pierce the ser- 1 ^art. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxxix. 23. 43 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL pentine. A large mass of gabbro forms the cliffs between Coverack and' Manacle Point, and extends inland for about 4 miles as an ovate mass occupying an area of 6 or 7 square miles, including the districts of St. Keverne and Crousa Downs. A smaller mass ^ mile in width extends inland from the headland of Karakclews to Gwinter. Another considerable exposure occurs on the shore near Landewednack. According to Mr. Teall the principal constituents of the Lizard gabbro are plagioclase, augite or diallage, hornblende, olivine and saussurite, while original iron ores are rare or altogether absent. The dioritic rocks that occur in this region appear as veins in the gabbro, and as part of a banded series consisting mainly of diorite and a fine grained granite. In places the two latter types vein each other, while they sometimes occur together as parallel bands. Mr. Teall describes the constituents of the dioritic rocks as felspar, biotite, green hornblende, sphene, iron ores and apatite. The granite of the Lizard peninsula occurs as veins in the serpen- tine, gabbro and dioritic rocks, and is of different character from the Cornish granite already described from beyond that region. That of the Lizard has been deformed into schist. It veins the serpentine at Kynance, a dioritic rock at Pen Voose, and occurs in a gabbro north of the last-named locality, and also veins a diorite at Kennack Cove. Hornblende schist forms a wide band at the northern edge of the Lizard complex and appears to extend practically right across the pen- insula from sea to sea. This rock differs from the hornblendic rocks described from beyond the Lizard area in the frequent development of a highly banded character, which is so perfect that viewed from a short distance the white and green striping, representing the differentiation of the felspathic and hornblendic minerals, strikes the eye as a parallel arrangement of almost mathematical precision. Between Porthoustock and Landewednack greenstone dykes occur in the gabbro and serpentine, ranging from epidiorite to hornblende schist, while in some a certain amount of pyroxene still remains. But in the neighbourhood of Coverack there are found dykes of olivine dolerite which have retained their original character. In the southern portion of the peninsula there is a zone of fine micaceous and actinolitic schists which in the outlying islands have reached a still further stage of metamorphism, and as pointed out by Mr. Howard Fox consist of typical gneiss. As remarked by Mr. Teall this zone of intense mechanical metamorphism includes lenticles and bosses of greenstone associated with actinolitic and hornblende schists, the latter having originated in part at least from the metamorphism of the former. In recent years keen controversies have arisen among geologists regarding the origin of the foliated igneous rocks and the relative ages of the serpentine and hornblende schists. On one hand it is contended that the foliation of the gabbro and the passage of dykes of porphyritic epidio- rite into hornblende schist have been produced by dynamic metamor- 44 GEOLOGY phism after the consolidation of the rocks from the original magma. On the other hand the foliation sometimes present in the gabbro is ascribed to movements when the rock was in a condition of imperfect fluidity, and not to pressure after the consolidation of the rock. The cleavage of opinion regarding the relative ages of the serpentine and hornblende schist is equally well marked. On the one hand it is maintained that the hornblendic and granulitic groups were in their present condition when the rock which is now a serpentine was injected, the serpentine being the result of the alteration of some variety of peri- dotite. It is further contended that the granulitic group includes two types of rock, one acid, the other basic, the former being intrusive into the latter, and that as a result of this increase of temperature, or from some other cause, the temperature of the whole mass was so elevated as to permit of movements that gave rise to the finely stratified appearance of the two varieties. On the other hand the opinion is held that the serpentine, horn- blende schists, etc., form a banded complex of crystalline foliated rocks, the relative ages of which cannot be satisfactorily determined ; but if there be any difference in age that the serpentine is probably the earlier of the two. ADDENDUM Since this article was written we have obtained important evidence bearing on the relations of the Devonian and Silurian formations of Cornwall. In the previous pages we referred to the fact that the conglomerates of Nare Point, Grampound, and Probus probably represented an unconformity dividing those formations. That inference has now been finally established. The Nare Point conglomerate is seen at Gillan Harbour in association with the Portscatho series, and the boulders of the former have been mainly derived from the latter series. The fact, moreover, that the fragments were veined with quartz prior to such incorporation sufficiently indicates the magnitude of the break represented by this unconformity. The conglomerate is associated with sandstone and clay slate that are often slightly calcareous. The conglomeratic deposit is by no means continuous, so that the finer beds often represent the base of the formation, where they may be seen at Manaccan wrapping round the bosses of Silurian quartzite. The identity of this younger sequence of Manaccan with corresponding beds at Probus and Grampound has been further estab- lished, and as the latter in their northward extension pass into fossiliferous horizons of Devonian Age, this conglomeratic series represents the base of that formation. In the Meneage peninsula these rocks extend in a westerly belt from the coast between Gillan Creek and Nare Head. In that westerly extension they abut for some distance against the Lizard metamorphic rocks, the margin of which is otherwise in contact with the Silurian formation. The junction therefore between the Lizard rocks and the killas must represent a profound discordance. The Portscatho series, therefore, and the associated Falmouth, Mylor and Veryan beds belong to the Silurian system ; and as the Veryan beds appear to pass into the Caradoc quartzite, they may probably be relegated to the lower division of that system. The upper Silurian division is nevertheless represented, as determinate fossils have been recorded at Gorran Haven, Porthluney, and other localities. The Devonian of Meneage may be regarded as a large outlier amongst the Silurian horizons. The main boundary between the two formations extends in an easterly direction from Porth Towan to Probus and Creed, it then passes to the north of Tregoney, from which it sweeps round to the south and thence follows an irregular course to the coast at St. Michael Caerhayes, 45 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Recent researches of Mr. Howard Fox have extended our palaeontological knowledge of the Devonian tract described by that geologist and embodied in this article, an account of which will be found in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall (vol. xiii, parts I and 2). The geological map requires a word of explanation. The author would have preferred to leave the Culm measures undifferentiated, but having been divided in the Devonshire map, the editor felt it incumbent to adopt the same system in Cornwall for the sake of uniformity. This differentiation however was not undertaken by the author, who desires to point out that the junction drawn between the Culm measures and the Devonian must not be taken to represent an unconformity as the colouration would suggest. The two small patches of serpentine east of Porthallow have been incorrectly coloured as Silurian. The following errors, moreover, appear in the right-hand column of the index of the map : — * Devonian Red Sandstone ' should read ' Devonian killas ' ; ' Upper Silurian * should read ' Lower Silurian.' 46 PALAEONTOLOGY VERTEBRATE remains are very scarce in Cornwall, this being no doubt due to the nature of the rocks of the county. Among mammals remains of the red deer [Cervus elaphus) are recorded from the superficial deposits of St. Columb, and those of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)^ the wild horse {^Equus cabal lus fossilis)^ the mammoth [Elephas primigenius), and the great cave-lion [Felis leo spelaea), from Otterham. Of far greater interest than any of the foregoing are, however, certain bones of a whalebone whale from a superficial formation at Petuan in the parish of St. Austell, which are preserved in the museum at Penzance and have been described by the late Sir William Flower in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for 1872 (ser. 4, vol. ix, p. 440), and in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall for 1 875 (vol. ix, p. 117) under the name of Eschrichtius robustus. They were dug up some time prior to the year 1829, at a distance of about half a mile from the shore at a depth of some twenty feet below the surface in a bed of river- silt and gravel. By Sir William Flower they were identified with a species previously known by a subfossil skeleton from the Swedish Island of Graso in the Baltic, which had been named Balaenoptera robusta by Professor Lilljeborg,but which Dr. J. E. Gray made the type of the genus Eschrichtius. That skeleton was found in a deposit of partly clay and partly sand at a depth of between two and four feet below the surface, and from ten to fifteen feet above the present level, and at a distance of over 800 ft. from the shore. That these two skeletons indicate a whale generically distinct from any now inhabiting the Atlantic and adjacent seas is quite certain ; and the only question is whether the Pacific grey whale, described subsequently as Rhachianectes glaucus, is not the same. It is scarcely likely that a species which lived at such a comparatively recent epoch as the one indicated by the deposits in which the two skeletons were found should have become totally extinct. Between the foregoing scanty list of mammals from formations of Pleistocene or later age, no vertebrate (or perhaps we should rather say chordate) remains appear to be known from the county till we reach the Lower Devonian, from which formation at Polperro, Fowey, and Lani- vet Bay have been obtained numerous specimens of the bony shields of armoured fish-like creatures constituting the Palaeozoic {2ircn\y Pteraspididae. Originally these interesting fossils were described by the late Sir F. M'Coy^ as sponges, and named Steganodictyum cornubicum; but their fish-like nature ' Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) viii, 481 (1851). 47 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL was subsequently recognized by Mr. C. W. Peach,^ who collected many specimens ; and still later they were assigned by Mr. J. W. Salter^ to the typical genus Pteraspis^ although this determination was not accepted by Professor E. Ray Lankester/ who renamed them Scaphaspis cornubka. Even this determination was not, however, final, for in 1 898 Dr. A. Smith Woodward, in describing* some of the finely ribbed plates of these fish-like creatures from Lanivet Bay, wrote as follows : — ' They have sometimes received the name of Scaphaspis^ which now proves to be applicable to the ventral shield of any member of the family ; more recently they have been provisionally assigned to the genus Pteraspis. All the known specimens are, however, very fragmentary ; and hitherto there have been no means of determining their generic relationships. A specimen recently submitted to me by Mr J. H. Collins, and two other specimens in the British Museum, now seem to furnish the neces- sary facts for this determination, and indicate that, so far as the dorsal armour is concerned, the Cornish species truly belongs to the type genus Pteraspis ' It is thus evident that the Cornish Devonian pteraspidian has a complex ^ dorsal shield, that the orbit is completely surrounded by a special orbital plate, and that a short dorsal spine is fixed in a cleft at the hinder border of the median disc. These, in combination, are the special characteristics oi Pteraspis as now defined, and prove, as already mentioned, that the Cornish species is correctly described under the name of P. cornubica. It seems to be the largest species of the genus hitherto discovered 'It may be added that in Western Europe Pteraspis is characteristic only of the Lower Devonian or Lower Old Red Sandstone, not descending below the base of this formation, where it is preceded by [forms with] a simple shield, Cyathaspis. In Galicia, however, typical species occur in strata which are claimed to be of Downtonian or even Ludlow age.' Fragmentary remains probably of Cephalaspis have also been found with these Pteraspidians ^ ; and some associated plates may belong to the Arthrodiran Phlyctaenaspis? ' Rep. Brit. Assoc, for 1843, ^rans. Sect. p. 56. * Geol. Mag. v, 247 (1868). ' Ibid. 248. * Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corntvall, xii, pt. 4 (1899). ^ Misprinted ' complete ' in the original, * A. Smith Woodward, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, xii, pt. vi (1901). ' A. Smith Woodward, Geol. Mag. [4] vii, p. 148 (1900). 48 HISTORY OF CORlfWALl. BOTANICAL DISTRICTS SCILILYISJLES On Uie same scale ^Whiu t. BatalLuiiB9\ C.CoilIWEL 40' dO' J G Bar^oLnn*"' BOTANY A BRIEF glance at a map of Cornwall would prepare the average field botanist for a rich harvest. Favoured geographically, in- asmuch as they come within range of the genial operations of the Gulf Stream ; including a coast line which may be taken approximately as 250 miles ; furnished with a chain of bold hills forming a sort of backbone to the county ; and including among other advantages densely wooded and well watered valleys opening to the sea on both the north and the south coast, a good deal of land peculiarly favour- able to paludal and ericetal plants, and long stretches of beach and blown sand where all kinds of littoral subjects lurk, the 887,740 acres of which from a botanical point of view Cornwall is comprised hold probably a larger number of species than any other British county of the same size. If meteorological values be added to the map another key will have been furnished to the richness of the flora. To say nothing of the high mean bright sunshine, and of the mean range of temperature for the coldest months whereby the winters become ' languid springs,' the rainfall is so high, and taking the county as a whole so erratic, as greatly to modify the botanical features. Compared with many other English counties Cornwall's mean rainfall of 48 inches is rather great, but its peculiarity does not end there. Although only 80 miles in its greatest length there is a marked contrast between the rain- fall of the two extremes of the county. East Cornwall has an average rainfall of 55 inches and west Cornwall 43 inches. The higher figure corresponds with the greatest breadth of the county, which may be taken as 45 miles, and the lower with the narrowest section, which in one place falls below 6 miles. As will subsequently appear, the two sections so marked off have their own characteristic floras. East Cornwall may be regarded as the haunt of Rubi, and west Cornwall as the district of Leguminosce and Characea. The only islands off the Cornish coast possessing special botanical interest are the Scillies, lying 27 miles west of the Land's End. Between the flora of these islands and the mainland there is much in common, though the absence of hills, woods and rivers tells a very important tale. Nearly two-thirds of the plants growing on the mainland have been found on the Scillies. Among the absentees however are several very common species. Plants which have been found there and not on Cornish soil proper are Polygala calcarea (one specimen), Trifolium repens var. Townsendii, Ornithopus ebracteatus^ Filago spathulata^ Eleocharis uniglumis^ I 49 7 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Carex ligerica, Festuca uniglumis^ Seslerta ccerulea and Ophioglossum vulgatum var. polyphyllum. Of these the second and third have yet to be sought out in other parts of Great Britain, and the sixth has only been found in one other county, viz. Norfolk. The Cornish heights are singularly unprolific. A few Batrachian Ranunculi and Utricularias in shallow pools, half a dozen or so local Carices on the windswept heaths, and the two species of filmy ferns are all they offer of interest to the collector. Sixteen of these hills run to over I, GOO feet, the highest, Brown Willy, 1,375 feet above sea- level. In the east the Cornish heights possess much of the wild grandeur associated with the Tors of Devon, but towards the west the chain becomes much interrupted and the hills lose elevation until at the Scillics the highest peak is only 220 feet. This goes far to explain the difference in the rainfall above mentioned. As the sources of the thirty-three principal streams the hills play no unimportant part in plant geography, for it is along the moist shady banks and at the estuaries of the streams that the most varied flora exists. The narrowness of the county pre- cludes the possibility of great rivers. Those at all deserving that name are the Tamar, draining 40 miles of the county, Fowey 30 miles. Camel 29 miles, Lynher 27 miles, Fal 19J miles, Inny 19 miles, Attery 14 miles, and the Seaton and Looe 12 miles each. With the exception of the Camel the principal streams run from the ' backbone' of the county to the south coast. Here again the result is two markedly distinct floras. The only sheets of water west of the Tamar approaching lakes are the Loe Pool near Helston, Dozmare Pool in the parish of St. Neot, Swanpool near Falmouth, and Hayle Kimbra on the Goonhilly Downs. Loe Pool is the only place in Cornwall where Corrigiola Httoralis has been found, and the only British station for Nitella hyalina. Swanpool gives Chara aspera^ C. hispida and C. canescens, while Hayle Kimbra gives C. aspera and its interesting variety desmacantha, Dozmare Pool has no attraction for the botanist. While the character of Cornwall has been much changed by culti- vation on the one hand and by mining operations on the other, not a single species of plant has suffered extinction by these causes. Those portions of the county which were marshes and bogs 100 years ago are for the most part in the same condition to-day, and the rarities which Ray and Turner and Jones found are still there. Along the coast also, where a continual fretting away of the cliffs is going on, and where the encroachment of the sands is becoming more and more manifest, the old species hold their ground albeit in some cases showing a diminution in the number of plants. Among the species which have become extinct through no other apparent cause than inability to retain a hold on the soil are Ranunculus circinatus, Mathiola sinuata, Hypericum linarifolium, Althcea officinalis, Lathyrus maritimus, Potentilla argentea, Pyrus domestica, Drosera anglica, hy thrum Hyssopifolia, Diotis candidissima, Chenopodium hybridum, Urtica pilulifera, and 'Trichomanes radicans. Corrigiola Httoralis, once so abundant on the Loe Pool, has not been found there now for four 50 BOTANY years. The water level of the Pool has been so raised as completely to cover the ground where this humble plant grew, and it is to be feared that it must now be included amongst the extinct species of the county. The occurrence of Trichomanes radicans near Tintagel has been much questioned in botanical circles, but the letter from Mr. Everard F. im Thurn in Nature^ 27 April 1871, leaves no reasonable room for doubt that it was really gathered in that locality. A few plants have been included in Cornish lists through miscon- ception. Until stronger evidence than we already possess is forthcoming the following must be accepted with considerable reserve : Thalictrum Kochii, Helianthemum marifolium^ Geranium syhaticum, Rhamnus catharticus, Trifolium stellatum^ Saxifraga stellaris^ Cicuta virosa^ CEnanthe Phellandrium^ Galium Cruciata, Gnaphalium luteo-album^ Senecio squalidus, Arnoseris pusilla^ Hieracium corymbosum^ Campanula latifolia. Primula farinosa, Veronica spicata, Melampyrum sylvaticum^ Lathraa Squamaria, Suceda fruticosa, Damasonium stellatum^ Rynchospora fusca, Asplenium fontanum, A. septen- tr ion ale, Ophioglossum lusitanicum. Recent investigations have not only added many native species to the flora of the county but have shown that several foreign plants have secured a permanent footing, and will have to be accounted for in future handbooks of the British flora. 'Erysimum repandum has long been known near Launceston in goodly numbers and occurs more sparingly at Fal- mouth and Penzance. Lepidium virginicum springs up annually at Par and Penzance, and for more than a quarter of a century Rapistrum rugosum has claimed two or three spots at Falmouth. Impatiens Roy lei grows by the thousand in the valley between Liskeard and Looe, and more sparingly though none the less luxuriantly near Tintagel. Aster Novi-Belgii is a striking plant at Looe and Par, where it has long been growing. Matricaria discoidea is perhaps the most astonishing case of an alien becoming a denizen. First appearing at Falmouth less than a decade ago, it has now become a pestiferous weed all over the district, being found in fields and by the roadside in at least half a score of parishes. Mimulus Langsdorffii, M. moschatus, Omphalodes verna and Phalaris aquatica are other foreign subjects which have shown adapta- bility to Cornish soil. To say Cornwall possesses more specialities than any other English county is to repeat what most botanists already know. The last county geographically, it is the first botanically. Here Brassica Cheiranthus, a plant still restricted by the London Catalogue to the Channel Isles, has been flourishing for half a century and more. Here only in Great Britain grow Lavatera syhestris, Cytisus scoparius var. prostratus, Trifolium Molin- erii, T. Bocconi, Ornithopus ebracteatus. Erica vagans, Echium plantagineum, Pinguicula grandijiora, Herniaria ciliata, Juncus pygmaus, J. capitatus, Bromus rigidus, Chara fragifera and Nitella hyalina. With Devon it has shared exclusive possession of Hypericum undulatum, H. linarifolium, Pyrus cordata, Physospermum commutatum. Lobelia urens, Scrophularia Scorodonia, Euphorbia hiberna. Iris tuberosa and Romulea Columnce. 51 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Plants occurring in Cornwall with a lower Watsonian comital num- ber than ten are : Thalktrum majtis, Mathiola incana^ Polycarpon tetraphyl- lum. Genista pilosa^ Medicago falcata, Lotus atigustissimus, L. hispidus, Rubus nemoralis, R. leucandrus, R. ramosus^ R. Borceanus, R. Barren^ R. oigoc/ados, R. botryeros [Lejeunei), R. thyrsiger^ R. plintho stylus^ Pyrus rotundifolta, Eryngium campestre^ Hypochceris maculata. Erica ciliaris, Microcala jiliformis^ Gentiana baltica, Linaria siipina^ Sibthorpia europcea^ Orobanche amethystea^ O. Picridis^ Mentha pubescens^ Melittis Melissophyllum^ Illecebrum verticillatum^ Herniaria glabra. Polygonum maritimum, Hippophce rhamnoides. Asparagus officinalis, Scilla autumnalis, Juncus tenuis. Arum italicum, Cyperus longus, Scirpus carinatus, S. triqueter, Fibichia umbellata, Briza minor, Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, Char a canescens, Nitella gracilis. Until Devon has been more thoroughly worked, a comparison of the floras of the two westernmost counties can only be approximately correct. Although many good lists have been compiled since the publication of the Botanist's Guide, nearly one hundred years ago, large tracts still need sys- tematic attention. Investigations in Devon show that its more moun- tainous character and its greater range of sylvan and moorland features notwithstanding, its flora is not separated from that of Cornwall by any sharp line of demarcation. Neither of the counties is rich in those remnants of a northern flora to which H. C. Watson gave the name ' Highland ' and Professor Edward Forbes ' Alpine,' while both have their share of Watson's ' Atlantic ' and Forbes' ' Asturian ' and ' Ar- morican ' types. The total number of plants reported for Cornwall and for which records for Devon are still wanting is 129, but for a satisfactory comparison of the two floras this number must be greatly reduced. Taking no count of species printed in italics in the London Catalogue, and excluding those which though natives of other parts of Great Britain have found their way into Cornish lists on the strength of a stray record or as recognized aliens or strays from cultivation, Cornwall may claim sixty plants not yet known to occur in the neigh- bouring county. Some of these have been already mentioned when dealing with plants restricted to Cornwall. Of the remainder the more important are : Thalictrum Jlexuosum, T. majus, Silene conica, Arenaria verna var. Gerardi, Genista pilosa, Galium sylvesire. Aster salignus, Filago apiculata, F. spathulata, Hieracium rigidum, H. crocatum. Erica ciliaris, Gentiana baltica, Mentha pubescens, Herniaria ciliata, Atriplex littoralis. Euphorbia platyphyllos. Allium Schcenoprasum, A. sibiricum, Cyperus longus, Eleocharis uniglumis, Cladium Jamaicense, Chara polyacantha, C. baltica var. affinis. Among the 69 items by which Devon has Cornwall at a disadvantage are : Myosurus minimus, Fumaria Vaillantii, Nasturtium am- phibium, Helianthemum Chamacistus, H. polifolium, Dianthus deltoides, Hypericum hirsutum, Hippocrepis comosa, Potentilla verna, Bupleurum tenuis- simum, B. aristatum, Trinia glaberrima. Aster Linosyris, Artemisia maritima, Lithospermum purpureo-cceruleum, Teucrium Scordium, Pinguicula vulgaris, Utricularia intermedia, Hydrocharis Morsus-rance, Malaxis paludosa. Orchis ustulata, Listera cordata, Epipactis media, Ophrys muscifera, Sagittaria sagitti- 52 BOTANY folia^ Acorus Calamus^ Scirpus Holoschcenus, Carex teretiuscula, C. paradoxa, C. rigida^ C. digitata^ C. montana^ C. strigosa, C. filiformis^ Alopecurus fulvus^ Spartina stricta, Calamagrostis lanceolata^ Equisetu??i hyemale^ E. variegatum, Selaginella selaginoides^ Lychnothamnus steliiger. The comparatively late date at which anything like serious atten- tion was given to Cornwall by botanists, added to the insularity of its flora, would naturally provoke an inquiry as to how many and what British plants were first recorded from the county. Naturally the list is small. Until Ray's time Cornwall was not even dreamed of as a charmed county for wild flowers, and few references to Cornish plants will be found in botanical works published before the Catalogus Plan- tarum Anglia (1670). Flowering plants first recorded for Great Britain from Cornwall are : Fumaria confusa^ Cardamine amara, Coronopus didy- mus, Lepidium ruderale. Reseda alba, Viola lactea, Erodium maritimu?n, Oxalis stricta, Trifolium Molinerii, T. Bocconi, 'T. strictum, Lotus hispidus, Ornithopus ebracteatus, Potentilla Fragariastrum, Agrimonia odorata, Physo- spermum commutatum, Fceniculum vulgar e, Valerianella dentata. Erica ciliaris, E. vagans, Microcala Ji I if or mis, Erythrcea pule he I la, Gentiana baltica, Linaria repens, Scrophularia Scorodonia, Sibthorpia europcea, Bartsia viscosa. Ore banc he amethystea, Pinguicula lusitanica, Littorella juncea, Illecebrum verticillatum, Herniaria ciliata. Polygonum Raii, Euphorbia Peplis, Iris tuberosa. Allium sibiricum, A. triquetrum, 'Juncus pygmceus, y. capitatus, Fibichia umbellata, Briza minor. The abbreviated character of this list will be appreciated when it is understood that although the works of Turner, Lobel, Bauhin, and Gerarde, ranging from 1538 to 1641, con- tain several hundred first notices, Cornwall was an unknown land to those authors. Gerarde's Herbal (1633) is the starting point of Cornish botany, but it contains only one reference ; even that one, Plantago maritima, belongs to the Scilly Isles. With Merrett's Pinax Rerum Naturalium, Parkinson's Theatrum Botanicum, Ray's several works, Hudson's Flora Anglica, and Withering's Arrangement, disappeared the old order. The publication of the Botanist' s Guide (1805) was the beginning of that vast accumulation of facts, scattered it is true, which is now at the disposal of the student of the flora of Cornwall. Jones' Botanical Tour (1820) and Watson's New Botanist's Guide (1835) brought the county more into line with its neighbours. Then in rapid succession followed a number of workers — Rev. W. T. Bree, C. C. Babington, W. Borrer, Rev. W. S. Hore, G. S. Gibson, Rev. C. A. Johns, W. Curnow, Dr. Ralfs, F. V. Pascoe, T. R. A. Briggs, I. W. Keys, H. C. Bastian, T. Q. Couch, Rev. W. Moyle Rogers, H. and J. Groves, J. Cunnack, Dr. Hind, J. G. Baker, Miss Warren and others, whose contributions to the Botanical Gazette, the Phytologist, the Journal of Botany, and to the Transactions of local scientific societies are of greatest value. The most serious work on the flora was done by Mr. Keys, Mr. Briggs, and Dr. Ralfs. In the Transactions of the Plymouth Institution and Cornwall Natural History Society, 1865-71, Mr. Keys published in 53 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL five parts a * Flora of Devon and Cornwall.' The effort was a very am- bitious one, but while in many respects a valuable piece of work it was marred by grave defects. Intended as a guide to the flora of both counties, it gives only a few localities for each plant, and while showing some acquaintance with the writings of older botanists, it omits men- tion of many valuable records. Briggs' Flora of Plymouth on the other hand is the work of a man who is careful, thorough, methodical, and trustworthy. It deals only with that portion of the county lying within twelve miles of Plymouth, but that area has been most exhaustively treated both as regards field work and reference literature. Dr. Ralfs' industry is shown by the MS. Flora of West Cornwall, running into ten volumes, now in the possession of the Penzance Library Committee. Few more enthusiastic botanists have explored the hills and valleys of Cornwall, and none have left behind a more lasting monument of their labours. To Mr. F. Townsend must be given credit for the first serious attempt to compile a flora of the Scilly Isles. Before his visit in 1864 the literature bearing on the subject was aggravatingly restricted. Borlase's Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of Scilly (1756) makes mention of just a handful of plants. North's Week in the Isles of Scilly (1850) adds many species, particularly in the way of ferns, and a great fillip was given to the study in 1852 by the publication of a paper by Misses L. and M. Millett in the Report of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society. Twelve years later the "Journal of Botany printed Mr. Townsend's contribution, and for the first time ' Lyonesse ' had received justice. Further discoveries have since been announced by Dr. Ralfs, Mr. A. Somerville, and Rev. H. Boyden. It is but fair to add that in June 1902 the writer of this article printed for private circulation among the ever-increasing band of workers who are assisting him in elucidating the flora of Cornwall A Tentative hist of the Flowering Plants^ Ferns ^ etc. This volume of about 300 pages summarizes all that has been done in connection with the flora of the county from earliest times down to the commencement of the year 1902. Grateful acknowledgment is here made of valuable assistance re- ceived by the writer from botanists long recognized as specialists in certain branches of the science. To Mr. E. M. Holmes, of the Pharma- ceutical Society's Museum, he is indebted for the valuable lists of mosses, marine and freshwater alg«, fungi, lichens, etc. Mr. Holmes has long been an industrious worker at these sections, and his contributions to this article will afford an excellent bird's-eye view of the richness and almost unique character of the Cornish flora. The Rev. W. Moyle Rogers, whose unrivalled knowledge of the genus Kubi is too widely known to call for comment here, has prepared a capital summary of what has been done regarding the brambles of the county ; and Messrs. H. and J. Groves of Chara fame have very kindly corrected the list of plants with whose distribution they are so intimately acquainted. 54 BOTANY SUMMARY OF FLOWERING PLANTS, FERNS, ETC., FOUND IN CORNWALL Arranged in orders according to the London Catalogue, 9th edition (1895) Species Species Species Species Order in roman in italics Total Order in roman in italics Total I . Ranunculaceae . . 33 I 34 48. Gentianeae . II II 2. Berberideas . I I 49. Polemoniaceae I I 3. Nymphaeceae 2 2 50. Boragineae . 16 4 20 4. Papaveraceae 7 2 9 51. Convolvulaceae 5 I 6 5. Fumariaceas 8 I 9 52. Solanaceae . 4 2 6 6. Cruciferae . 52 13 65 53- Scrophularinae 40 5 45 7. Resedaceae . 2 I 3 54- Orobanchaceae 7 7 8. Violarieae , II II 55. Lentibularieae 5 5 9. Polygaleae . 4 4 56. Verbenaceas I I 10. Frankeniaceae I I 57- Labiatae . . 46 5 51 1 1 . Caryophylleas 42 2 44 58. Plantagineae 6 I 7 12. Portulaceae . 2 2 59- Illecebraceae 5 5 13. Tamariscineae I I 60. Amaranthaceas 2 2 14. Elatineae I I 61. Chenopodiaceae 21 21 15. Hypericineas 10 3 13 62. Polygonaceas 25 1 26 16. Malvaceae . 6 3 9 63. Thymelasaceae I I 17. Tiliaceae 2 I 3 64. Elaeagnaceas I I 18. Lineae . . 3 I 4 65. Loranthaceze I I 19. Geraniaceae 14 5 19 66. Santalaceae . I I 20. Ilicineae . I I 67. Euphorbiaceae 12 I 13 21. Celastrineas I I 68. Urticaceas . 6 I 7 22. Rhamneze . I I 69. Myricaceae . I I 23. Sapindaceae . I I 2 70. Cupuliferae . 8 8 24. Leguminosae 64 8 72 71. Salicineae . 14 I 15 25, Rosaceae 89 5 94 72. Ceratophylleae I I 26. Saxifrageae . 5 I 6 73- Coniferas 3 I 4 27. Crassulacea^ 6 3 9 74- Hydrocharideae I I 28. Droseraceae. 3 3 75- Orchideae . 16 16 29. Halorageas . 9 9 76. Irideae . . 3 3 6 30. Lythrarieze . 3 3 77- Amaryllideae 3 3 6 31. Onagrarieae 10 2 12 78. Dioscoreae . I I 32. Cucurbitaceas I I 79- Liliaceae 15 3 18 33. Umbelliferas 40 6 46 80. Juncaceae . 21 21 34. Araliaceae . I I 81. Typhaceae . 5 5 35. Cornaceae . . I — I 82. Aroideae 2 2 36. Caprifoliaceae . 6 I 7 83. Lemnaceas . . 3 3 37. Rubiaceae . . 14 I 15 84. Alismaceae . . 3 3 38. Valerianeae . 9 9 85. Naiadaceae . . 20 20 39. Dipsaceae . 5 5 86. Cyperaceae . 63 63 40. Compositae . 89 12 lOI 87. Gramineae . 93 10 103 41. Campanulaceae 7 7 88. Filices . . . 30 30 42. Vacciniaceae I I 89. Equisetaceae 5 5 43. Ericacea5 . . 5 5 90. Lycopodiaceas . 3 3 44. Plumbagineae . 3 3 91. Marsileaceas I I 45. Primulaceae 13 13 92. Characeae . . 12 12 46. Oleaceae . . 2 2 47. Apocynaceae . I I 2 1 1,253 55 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL I. Upper Tamar District This area lacks homogeneity of character to a sensible degree. Such as they are, its rivers alone would almost warrant a cutting up of the district into smaller sections, while the quick changes of sylvan and moorland scenery, arable and waste land impart an indescribable charm to the country. Its geology has similar ranges. In a large measure the division is a great hollow between the Devon and Cornish heights. On the north it has a coast line ex- tending from Devon to Tintagel Head. Its eastern boundary is Devon as far south as where the Launceston road crosses the Tamar near Polston. The southern limit is marked by the high road from Launceston to Bodmin as far as Altarnun, where it follows a narrower road across the moors, past the hut circles under Leskernick Hill. Thence the line runs north, on the east of Brown Willy to Oldpark and Newpark, beyond which it takes the road across Davidstow Moor to the Camelford-Stratton road. From this point it goes to a little beyond Davidstow, and then follows the road to Tintagel Head. Included in this district are the rivers Strat and Valencey, flowing to the north coast, and the source of the Tamar, with its tributaries the Attery, Inny, and Kensey. The greater portion is drained by the Attery. Near the sister county it is well wooded, but as the Bodmin Moors are approached the country takes on a wild and desolate appearance. From Stratton to Launceston there is much low ground, corresponding generally with river ramifications. A large slice of this area is composed of Upper Devonian rocks enclosing bands of green- stone or metamorphosed siliceous slate mixed with argillaceous beds of a particularly fine and hard nature. Towards Tintagel and Egloskerry these rocks impinge the Lower Devonian which sweep around the Bodmin Granite Boss. A limited part of the north-east of the division is occupied by the grits and shales of the Carboniferous system. Until the ' seventies ' the flora of this district was an unknown quantity, but thanks to the industry of the Rev. W. Moyle Rogers, Dr. Hind, Messrs. Briggs and Wise cosmos has replaced chaos. The sandy shore between Stratton and Bude is the classic spot mentioned by Merrett for Math'iola sinuatOy the only place in the county where it has been found. It disappeared a long time ago. Tintagel by some mistake has been credited with Trifo/ium squamosum. T. arvense was the plant meant. In the Valley of Rocks, near Trebarwith, Impatiens Roylei and Mimulus Langsdorffii have become naturalized, and in some seasons present a striking appearance. Erysimum repandum has long obtained permanency near Launceston. Rich in Ruhi^ this district can also claim the distinction of being the only portion of Cornwall where Vic'ia Orobus^ Geum rivale, Carum verticil/aium, Galium sylvestre^ Galeopsis versicolor y Habenaria viridis^ Potamogeton coloratus^ Calamagrostis epigeios and Equisetum sylvaticum have been found. Allium Schcenoprasum at Tintagel and Cladium jamaicense at Morwinstow are problems in plant distribution, the only other Cornish district for them being the Lizard. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Upper Tamar District » Ranunculus Drouetii, Godr. — peltatus, Fries — Lingua, Linn. — sardous, Crantx Caltha palustris, Linn. Helleborus viridis, Linn. — foetidus, Linn. Delphinium Ajacis, Reichb. Papaver sotnni/erum, Linn. — hybridum, Linn. Meconopsis cambrica, Fig. Glaucium flavum, Crantz. Neckeria lutea. Scop. — claviculata, A^. E. Br. Barbarea pracox, R. Br. Alyssum maritimum, Linn. Erophlla praecox, DC. Cochlearia anglica, Linn. Sisymbrium Thalianum, J. — Sophia, Linn. Camelina sativa, Crantx Brassica alba, Boiss. Diplotaxis tenuifolia, DC. — muralis, DC. Coronopus didymus, Sm. Thlaspi arvense, Linn. Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br. Crambe maritima, Linn. Viola lactea, Sm. Polygala oxyptera, Reichb. Dianthus Armeria, Linn. Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. Buda rupestris Hypericum calycinum, Linn. — dubium, Leers. — undulatum, Schousb. Geranium sanguineum, Linn. — phceum, Linn. — pratense, Linn. — pyrenaicum, Burm.fil. Gay — rotundifolium, Linn. — lucidum, Linn. Erodium moschatum, UHirit. — maritimum, UHerit. 1 Non-native plants are printed in 56 Genista anglica, Linn. Trigonella purpurascens. Lam. Medicago denticulata, Willd. Melilotus alba, Desv. — arvensis, JVallr. Trifolium subterraneum, Linn. — scabrum, Linn. — fragiferum, Linn. — filiforme, Linn. Lotus tenuis, Waldst. li Kit. — hispidus, Desf. Lathyrus Aphaca, Linn. — sylvestris, Linn. Spiraea salicifolia, Linn. Rubus suberectus, Anders. — plicatus, W. y N. — imbricatus, Hort. — pulcherrimus, Neum. — villicaulis var. Selmeri {Lin- deb.) — pubescens, Weihe — micans, Gren. y Godr. italics. BOTANY en- Rubus mucronatus, Blox. — anglosaxonicus, Gelert. — Borreri, Bell Salt, var tatifolius, Briggs — echinatus, Lindl. — longithyrsiger, Bai. — plinthostylus, Genev. — hirtus, W. y K. — Balfourianus, Blox. Alchemilla vulgaris, Linn. Agrimonia odorata, Mill. Rosa obtusifolia, Desv. — stylosa, Desv. Pyrus torminalis, Ehrh. — rotundifolia, Bechst. — germanica, Hook. fil. Bryonia dioica, 'J acq. Eryngium maritimum, Linn. — campestre, Linn. Physospermum commutatum, Spreng. Sison Amomum, Linn. Pimpinella major, HuJs. Adoxa Moschatellina, Linn. Sambucus Ebulus, Linn. Valeriana Mikanii, Willd. Valerianella carinata, Loisel. — rimosa. Bast. Scabiosa Columbaria, Linn. Aster Tripolium, Linn. Erigeron acre, Linn. Inula crithmoides, Linn. Anthemis arvensis, Linn. Matricaria Chamomilla, Linn. Senecio erucifolius, Linn. Arctium majus, Bernh. Cnicus pratensis, Willd. — acaulis, Willd. Mariana lactea. Hill. Crepis taraxacifolia, Tbuill. — biennis, Linn. Hieracium aurantiacum, Linn. — rigidum, Hartm. Tragopogon pratense, Linn. Campanula rotundifolia, Linn. Statice auriculaefolia, Vahl. Primula veris, Linn. Anagallis cserulea, Schreb. Blackstonia perfoliata, Huds. Gentiana Amarella, Linn. — campestris, Linn. Verbascum Blattaria, Linn. Sibthorpia europaea, Linn. Bartsia viscosa, Linn. Orobanche major, Linn. — minor, Sm. Pinguicula lusitanica, Linn. Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Melittis Melissophyllum, Linn. Leonurus Cardiaca, Linn. Chenopodium polyspermum, Linn. — murale, Linn. Polygonum minus, Huds. — Bistorta, Linn. Fagopyrum esculentum, Mcench Daphne Laureola, Linn. Euphorbia Paralias, Linn, — portlandica, Linn. Elodea canadensis, Michx. Neottia Nidus-avis, Rich. Epipactis latifolia. All. Orchis incarnata, Linn. Ruscus aculeatus, Linn. Polygonatum multiflorum, All. Convallaria majalis, Linn. 1. Lower Tamar District Allium Ampeloprasum, Linn., var. Babingtonii {Borr.) Scilla autumnalis, Linn. — verna, Huds. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Linn. Typha latifolia, Linn. Potamogeton crispus, Linn. Zostera marina, Linn. Scirpus sylvaticus, Linn. Eriophorum vaginatum, Linn. — latifolium, Hoppe. Rynchospora alba, Fahl. Carex pallescens, Linn. — distans, Linn. — fulva, Good. Setaria viridis, Beauv. Alopecurus myosuroides, Huds. Phleum arenarium, Linn. Gastridium australe, Beauv. Koeleria cristata, Peis. Glyceria plicata, Fr. — maritima, Mert. i^ Koch. Festuca sylvatica, Vill. Lolium temulentum, Linn. Lepturus filiformis, Trin. Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm. — unilaterale, Borj. Asplenium lanceolatum, Huds. Ceterach officinarum, Willd. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fee Ophioglossum vulgatum, Linn. Botrychium Lunaria, Sw. Lycopodium clavatum, Linn. Chara fragilis, Desv. Nitella flexilis, Agardh — opaca, Agardh On the east this division is bounded by Devon, on the south by the English Channel, on the west by the several roads running from Downderry to Trenodden, Pengover Green, Way- land, Upton and Henwood. A little beyond the latter place the line passes across Twelve Men's and East Moors and joins the Bodmin-Launceston road above Cannaframe. Its northern boundary is the Upper Tamar District. The exquisite beauty of this section of the county is too well known to call for lengthy notice here. Its valleys and glens court comparison with the best in the west of England ; its parks are almost unrivalled, Mount Edgcumbe, Antony, Port Eliot, Pentillie and Trebartha Hall being but a few of the beauty-spots. The only elevations of any significance are Kit Hill, i,o88 feet, and Trebartha Tor, 1,029 ^^^^' From their summits extensive views may be had of a softly undulating country made up of a mosaic of sylvan, moorland, and up- land wealth peculiar to that portion of Cornwall lying south of the backbone. The valleys through which the Tamar, Lynher and Tidy have cut their way are deep and well wooded, in many places remarkably sinuous and with precipitous banks. In its eastern part this division is drained by the Tamar and its tributary the Inny, and in the west by the Lynher and Tidy, both of which rise just within the border-line. Between the Lynher and the Tamar there is a good deal of hilly country stretching from below Callington to Lewan- nick on the fringe of the Upper Tamar District. From the foot of these hills proceed the numerous feeders of the Lynher. From Pensilva to Cannaframe the upper portion of the western division-line crosses a wild part of the eastern escarpment of the Bodmin Moors, amid such elevations as the Caradon Hills and Smallacoombe Downs on the one side and Hawks Tor and Trebartha Tor on the other. Launceston stands on a continuation of the Upper Devonian rocks noticed when dealing I 57 8 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL with the Upper Tamar District, At South Petherwin the Lower Devonian are exposed and occupy the greater part of this district. West of the Lynher a small portion of the Bodmin Granite Boss is included ; on a much smaller scale the same rock appears at Kit Hill and Gunnislalce. At Torpoint, and on the coast a little to the west of Rame Head, small patches of limestone of an inferior character crop out from the argillaceous slates. They are very restricted both superficially and in depth, and certainly have no appreciable influence on the flora, Beds of greenstone and trappean rock traverse the Upper and Lower Devonian systems, while the granite and the Lower Devonian encircling it are intersected by short elvan courses running from east to west. As might be expected from a consideration of its physical features this slice of the county offers many attractions to botanists. Ruhi are represented here more largely than in any other part of Cornwall, the result in a great measure of the good work of Mr. Briggs, Ran- unculus aur'tcomuSy R. arvensis, Viola ericetorum^ Silene noctijiora^ Trifolium glomeratum^ T. agra- riumy Lathyrus sylvestrisy Sedum alburn^ Pimpinella major^ Specularia hybrida^ Linaria purpurea^ Zostera nana, all rare in other parts of Cornwall, have been gathered in the lower half of this district. In the upper half Physospermum commutatum stretches right across the country from Halton Quay on the Tamar to the western boundary-line. Sisymbrium Thalianum^ not recorded from west of Bodmin, is common on walls and dry banks around Torpoint and Rame, and Hypericum undulatum occurs in most marshy places. On the dry slopes above Whitsand Bay Lotus angustissimus and L. hispidus keep each other company, the latter being the more abundant. Along the banks of the river at St. Germans and Tideford large cushions of Atriplex portulacoides are scattered over the beds of Salicornia herbacea and Suada maritima. Sandy soil near N otter Bridge gives a home to Scirpus sylvaticus, and in a large marsh on the left bank of the Tidy just below Tideford, as well as in a salt marsh at Cotehele and a mud- flat below Danescombe, on the Tamar, Ahpecurus bulbosus is very abundant. The muddy banks of the Tamar between Calstock and Morwellham is the one tract in Cornwall where grow Scirpus triqueter and C. carinatus. The following are also unrecorded for any other county division : Viola odorata x hirta^ Rubus erythrinuSy R. gratus, R. silvaticus^ R. Boraanus^ R. ihyrsiger, Crepis nicceensis. Campanula Tracheliumy Atropa Belladonna, Until recorded from this district in 1870 by Mr. Briggs, Pyrus cordata was not known as a British plant. Orobanche amethystea was also added to the British flora in 1845 by its dis- covery along Whitsand Bay by Rev. C. A. Johns, Attention is directed to the fact that five broomrapes have been found in a small area in this division. A damp meadow near Weir Head furnishes a luxuriant crop of Poterium officinale. Occurring but sparsely west of this division until the Lizard peninsula is reached its presence by the Tamar in such profusion is a matter of considerable interest. Vicia lutea^ Spiraa Filipendula and Orobanche rubra^ three other well known Lizard plants, crop up here also. Jacob's West Devon and Cornwall Flora (1837) mentions Nasturtium palustre for the banks of the Lynher and Polycarpon tetraphyllum for Port Wrinkle, but both plants have long disappeared from the district. Euphorbia Peplis was last seen on Seaton sands by Mr. F. P. Pascoe in 1847, ^^^ E. platyphyllos known to grow at Torpoint in 1842 long ago took its departure. Whether erroneously recorded or whether it has died out is difficult to say, but no one appears to have seen Trifolium suffocatum at Crafthole since Jones placed it on record in his Botanical Tour (1820). Quite rightly we think did Mr. Briggs warmly inveigh against the ruthless collecting of certain grabbers whereby Cornwall was robbed of its only patch of Potentilla argentea. It was found by Mr. Briggs at Trevol in 1865 and continued in occupa- tion of the spot until 1878, when it was entirely lost sight of. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Lower Tamar District Helleborus viridis, L'tnn. Berberis vulgaris, Linn. Papaver hybridum, Linn. Meconopsis cambrica, Vig. Glaucium flavum, Crantz Neckeria lutea^ Scop. — claviculata, A^. E. Br. Barbarea intermedia, Boreau Erophila prascox, DC. Cochlearia anglica, Linn. Erysimum cheiranthoides, Linn. Brassica oleracea, Linn. — alba, Boiss Diplotaxis muralis, DC. Lepidium ruderale, Linn. — campestre, R. Br. Thlaspi arvense, Linn. Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br. Cakile maritima, Scop. Raphanus Raphanistrum, Linn. — maritimus, Sm. Polygala oxyptera, Reichb. 58 Dianthus Armaria, Linn. Stellaria umbrosa, Opix. Buda rupestris Hypericum hircinum, Linn. — calycinum, Linn. — dubium, Leers — montanum, Linn. Malva pusilla, Sm. Linum usitatissimum, Linn. Geranium striatum, Linn. — pyrenaicum, Burm.fil. BOTANY Geranium pusillum, Linn. — rotundifolium, Linn. — lucidum, Linn. Erodium moschatum, L'Herii. — maritimum, L'He'rit. Oxalis corniculata, Linn. Medicago denticulata, Willd. Melilotus alba, Desr. — arvensis, Walk. Trifolium scabrum, Linn. Rubus suberectus, Anders. — plicatus, W. l£ N. — affinis, fF. W iV.,var. Briggs- ianus, Rogers — imbricatus, Hori. — incurvatus, Bai. — ■ dumnonlcnsis, Bai>. — villicaulis var. Selmeri {Lin- deb:) — leucandrus, Foche — ramosus, Briggs ■ — mucronatus, B/ox. ■ — ■ anglosaxonicus, Gelert — Leyanus, Rogers — echinatus, Lindl. — oigoclados, Muell 13 Lefv. — longithyrsiger, Bab. — Balfourianus, Blox. Agrimonia odorata, Mill. Pyrus germanica, Hook. fil. Myriophyllum spicatum, Linn. Epilobium lanceolatum, Seb. 13 Maur. Eryngium maritimum, Linn. Carum Carvi, Linn. Sison Amomum, Linn. Anthriscus vulgaris, Bemh, Comus sanguinea, Linn. Adoxa Moschatellina, Linn. Valerianella eriocarpa, Desv. — carinata, Loisel. — rimosa. Bast. Filago minima, Fr. Antennaria dioica, R. Br. Inula Helenium, Linn. — crithmoides, Linn. Senecio erucifolius, Linn. Arctium majus, Bemh. Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuill. — biennis, Linn. Tragopogon pratense, Linn. Campanula rotundifolia, Linn. Statice auriculasfolia, Fahl. Primula veris, Linn. Lithospermum arvense, Linn. Cuscuta Trifolii, Bab. Lycium barbarum, Linn. Verbascura Blattaria, Linn. Linaria spuria. Mill. Sibthorpia europasa, Linn. Bartsia viscosa, Linn. Orobanche major, Linn. — Hederas, Duby — minor, Sm. Pinguicula lusitanica, Linn. Mentha gentilis, Linn. Thymus Chamasdrys, Fr. Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Melittis Melissophyllum, Linn. Leonurus Cardiaca, Linn. Lamium hybridum, Fill. — Galeobdolon, Crantz. Chenopodium Vulvaria, Linn. — murale, Linn. Polygonum Raii, Bab. — maculatum. Trim. i3 Dyer — Bistorta, Linn. Rumex rupestris, Le Gall. Daphne Laureola, Linn. Euphorbia Paralias, Linn. — portlandica, Linn. Neottia Nidus-avis, Ricb. Epipactis latifolia, Jll. Narcissus bi^orus, Curtis Galanthus nivalis, Linn. Ruscus aculeatus, Linn. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Linn. Juncus squarrosus, Linn. Luzula Forsteri, DC Typha angustifolia, Linn. Eleocharis multicaulis, 5«. Scirpus sylvaticus, Linn. Carex divulsa. Good. — pallescens, Linn. — vesicaria, Linn. Setaria viridis, Beauv. Alopecurus bulbosus, Gouan. Milium efFusum, Linn. Gastridium australe, Beauv. Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. Briza minor, Linn. Poa compressa, Linn. Glyceria distans, Wahlenb. Festuca procumbens, Kunth. Lepturus filiformis, 7W«. Hymenophyllum unilateral, Boiy Ceterach officinarum, Willd. Lycopodium clavatum, Linn. Nitella opaca, Agardh 3. FowEY District Having for its eastern boundary the Lower Tamar District, for its southern a much broken and for the most part precipitous coast line ranging from Downderry to Pentewan, for its western the high road from Pentewan through St. Austell, Ruddlemoor, and Roche, to the five turnings a mile or so beyond the latter village, and for its northern the road from the five turnings mentioned through St. Ingunger, Lanhydrock, Bodmin, Cardinham Downs and Bolventor, to Poldew, this division repeats most of the physical features so markedly noticeable in the two districts already described. It is essentially a district of woods and romantic valleys, and an ideal hunting-ground for the botanist. Along their upper parts the valleys through which the Fowey, Looe and Seaton rivers flow offer nothing of startling importance, but as the estuaries are reached a considerable variety of plants will be found, not a few of them being among the rarest in the British flora. Save the north-east, which includes a goodly portion of the Bodmin Moors and the Caradon Hills, and a small corner of Hensbarrow Hill, in the west, this piece of Cornwall rarely rises above 600 feet. On the whole its flora has much in common with that of the Channel Islands and north France. From the eastern limits of this district to about 2 miles west of the common estuary of the two Looe rivers Lower Devonian rocks occur. Upper Silurian become visible a little to the west of the Hore Stone, and join the Lower Silurian in an almost straight line to about midway between Lostwithiel and Bodmin. A small exposure of the same rocks is again met skirting St. Austell Bay, terminating with Black Head. West of the Upper Silurian the Hensbarrow Granite Boss rises through an almost perfect belt of Lower Silurian to an elevation of 1,026 feet. At Clicker Tor, between Menheniot and the coast, there is a limited outcrop of magnesian rocks analogous in character with those of the Lizard District Erica vagam^ a glorious feature of the Goonhilly Downs, has been reported from the Menheniot 59 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL rocks, but the record is a very old one, and the indigeneity of the heath has been frequently discussed. Although the plants which are confined to this part of Cornwall are not so numerous as can be cited for some of the other seven districts, they form an interesting group. Nasturtium palmtre^ once found along the banks of the Tamar, and at Copperhouse near Hayle, is now believed to be restricted to a very circumscribed area near Lostwithiel. Brassica Cheiranthus simply abounds at Par and Pentewan, and stretches away in scattered patches and single plants several miles from the two centres. Since it was first noticed at Pentewan more than fifty years ago as a straggler, it has seized on hedge-banks, waste-heaps, blown sand and pasture land to an astonishing extent. Between Par Sation and Fowey Point Silene Armeria occupies the hedges and sandhills at intervals over fifteen miles of country. This announcement was made thirty years and more ago, and like many another species which has immigrated to that part of the coast from the continent, the plant has settled on the soil. Two localities are known for Eryngium campestre^ each having two thriving colonies of plants. Near the Looe locality CEnanthe silaifolia grows in tolerable quantity, and here only in the whole county. Twenty-four years ago Lobelia urens was accidentally discovered between Polperro and Fowey, the find bringing Cornwall into touch with Devon. To the remoteness from the track of the average plant grabber of the two damp places where it grows must be attributed the power of the plant to hold its own and even to increase its numbers. Hayle at one time shared with St. Blazey Bay the honour of being the only bits of Cornish soil where Linaria supina grew. While disappearing from the western town many years ago, it is busy extending its borders in the district now under notice. Around Par village it is the commonest weed, and along the roadsides two or three miles away dozens of wanderers may be found every autumn. Like most ' colonists ' with a predilection for sandy soil, it is taking advantage of the railway as a means of transit, and has already migrated to such distant parts as Fowey and Menheniot. From near Fowey Romulea Columns and Juncus tenuis have been recorded to the present writer and voucher specimens submitted. A very recent addition to the flora of Cornwall and indeed to the flora of Great Britain is Bromus rigidus, found in 1901 at Par by Mr. A. O. Hume. Whatever may be the means whereby it reached that locality, or how long since, it has established itself beyond fear of early disappearance. This district marks the most western occurrence of Mecompsis cambrica, Stellaria umbrosa and Atripkx portulacoides. East of it Apium inundatum^ a very common plant in many parts of mid and west Cornwall, and Epipactis pa/ustris have not been found. It furnishes three of the five British LycopodSy but is unaccountably barren in Charas. On the elevated moors Carex dioica^ C. curta^ C. rostrata, Eriophorum vaginatum and E. latifoUum may be sought for. Carex diluta has a home on the cliffs near Charlestown, and C. acutiformis is associated with other riparian subjects at the head of the West Looe river. The visitor to Par on botanical intent will be struck by the number of aliens which there find shelter. Perhaps the most interesting among them are Lepidium virginicum, Coronilla varia, Aster Novi-Belgiiy Matricaria discoidea^ and Cannabis sativa. In the East Looe valley, above Sandplace, Impatiens Roylei has become naturalized to a degree. No finer sight can be conceived than the thousands of luxuriant full-flowered plants standing 7 feet and more out of the streams and damp ground. Near Lostwithiel Mimulus Langsdorffii has filled a ditch along one side of a meadow, and affords a splendid picture when in bloom. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Fowey District Ranunculus trichophyllus, Chaix — Baudotii, Godr.y var. confusus {Godr.) — tripartitus, DC. — Lingua, Linn. Helleborus viridls, Linn. — foetidus, Linn. Delphinium Ajacis, Reichb. Fumaria muralis, bonder Nasturtium sylvestre, R. Br. Barbarea intermedia, Boreau Alyssum incanum, Linn. — maritimum, Linn. Sisymbrium Thalianum, J. Gay Brassica oleracea, Linn. Diplotaxis tenuifolia, DC. — muralis, DC. Lepidium ruderale, Linn. — campestre, R. Br. — Draba, Linn. Iberis amara, Linn. Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br. Reseda lutea, Linn. Viola hirta, Linn. — lactea, Sm. Dianthus Armeria, Linn. Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. Stellaria umbrosa, Opiz. Hypericum dubium, Leers — undulatum, Schousb. 60 'M.3\vi parvi/Jora, Linn. Geranium striatum, Linn. — phceum, Linn. — pratense, Linn. — rotundifolium, Linn. Erodium moschatum, VHerit, — maritimum, UHerit. Oxalis comiculata, Linn. Medicago denticulata, Willd. Melilotus alba, Desr. — arvensis, Wallr. Trifolium subterraneum, Linn. — scabrum, Linn. — glomeratum, Linn. Lotus angustissimus, Linn. BOTANY Lotus hispidus, Desf. Lathyrus Aphaca, Linn. — latifolius, Linn. — svlvestris, Linn. Spiraea salicifolia, Linn. Rubus pulcherrimus, Neum. — vUlicaulis var. Selmeri (Lin- deb.) — leucandrus, Focke — micans, Gren. U Godr. — radula var. anglicanus, Rogers — longlthyrsiger, Bab. Alchemilla vulgaris, Linn. Agrimonia odorata, Mill. Poterium polygamum, Waldst. U Kit. Pyrus cordata, Desv. — germanica, Hook.jil. Epilobium lanceolatum, Zeb. 13 Maur. Carum Petroselinum, Benth. iff Hook.jil. — segetum, Benth. H Hook.jil. Sison Amomum, Linn. Peucedanum sativum, Benth. 13 Hook.fil. Adoxa Moschatellina, Linn. Sambucus Ebulus, Linn. Valeriana dioica, Linn. Valerianella rimosa. Bast. Filago minima, Fr. Antennaria dioica, R. Br. Inula Conyza, DC, Senecio erucifolius, Linn. Arctium intermedium, Lange. Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuill. — biennis, Linn. Lactuca Scariola, Linn. yVzr. dubia, Jord. Specularia hybrida, y/. DC. Blackstonia perfoliata, Huds. Anchusa officinalis, Linn. Volvulus Soldanella, Junger. Cuscuta Trijolii, Bab. Lycium barbarum, Linn. Verbascum virgatum, Stokes — Blattaria, Linn. Linaria supina, DesJ. — repens, Mill. Scrophularia Scorodonia, Linn. Veronica Anagallis-aquatica, Linn. Bartsia viscosa, Linn. Orobanche major, Linn. — amethystea, Thuill. Utricularia neglecta, Lehm. minor, Linn. Origanum vulgare, Linn. Melissa officinalis, Linn. Melittis Melissophyllum, Linn. Marrubium vulgare, Linn. Lamium Galeobdolon, Crantz Chenopodium murale, Linn. — rubrum, Linn. — Bonus-Henricus, Linn. Atriplex littoralis, Linn. Polygonum Convolvulus, Linn., var. subalatum, F. Hall. — minus, Huds. — Bistorta, Linn. Euphorbia Paralias, Linn. Mercurialis annua, Linn. Listera ovata, R. Br. Orchis Morio, Linn. Habenaria conopsea, Benth. — bifolia, R. Br. — chloroleuca, Ridley Leucojum aestivum, Linn. Ruscus aculeatus, Linn. Convallaria majalis, Linn. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Linn. Lilium pyrenaicum, Gouan. Potamogeton crispus, Linn. Ruppia rostellata, Koch Zannichellia pedunculata, Reichb. Scirpus maritimus, Linn., var. monostachys, Zond. Rynchospora alba, Vahl. Carex vesicaria, Linn. Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin Poa Chaixii, Fill. Glyceria maritima, Mert. 13 Koch — distans, Wahlenb. Bromus madritensis, Linn. — rigidus, Koch Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Lycopodium Selago, Linn. — inundatum, Linn. — clavatum, Linn. 4. Camel District On its eastern and southern sides this district is coterminous with the Upper Tamar and Fowey Districts. Its coast line lies between Tintagel Head and Padstow, but does not include any portion of the northern side of the Camel estuary outside of Padstow town. The road from Padstow to Winnard's Perch, through St. Columb Major to Blue Anchor, is the western boundary, and the Mitchell-Bodmin road from Blue Anchor to the north-western corner of the Fowey District completes the southern line. By far the greater portion of this district is occupied by Devonian rocks. From Padstow towards Port Isaac the lowermost of the series prevail. Upper Devonian overlie these as Camelford is neared. At Blisland Lower Silurian abut on the granite of the western side of the Bodmin Moors and narrow away to Wadebridge on one side, and to Bodmin on the other. From the Lower Devonian between Padstow and Fraddon two bosses of granite arise at Castle- an-Dinas ; another outcrop is exposed at St. Columb. If for botanical purposes river-basins are to be accepted as the most satisfactory of county divisions, this district of the eight into which Cornwall has been marked off for the purpose of this paper is least open to criticism. East and west it is drained by the Camel and its tribu- taries and has no other river or stream of any consequence within its boundary. The Camel itself rises in the parish of Davidstow and with its numerous feeders great and small drains the whole of the north-east. One of its branches, the Lank, drains the Bodmin Moors, start- ing from between Rough Tor and Brown Willy, not far from the origin of the Fowey. Another, the Alan, has its source between Camelford and Delabole Station and pursues an almost straight course to the parent stream, which it joins at Egloshayle. From Pentire Point to St. Tudy and from Wadebridge to Lanivet there are long stretches of low-lying ground, and it has been repeatedly remarked by botanists that the flora of these tracts is distinctly sub-maritime. In the extreme east the country rises to altitudes not reached in any other part of the county. Brown Willy, the giant of Cornwall, rises to 1,375 feet ; Rough Tor, 1,296; Hawk's Tor, 1,005 5 Alex Tor, 860. In the west St. Breock Down has an elevation of 739 feet and Castle-an-Dinas 702 feet. Up the several valleys of the 61 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Camel the scenery is extremely beautiful, and offers marked contrast to the barren character of the neighbouring moors and the rugged features of the distant coast. This district has received very much attention at the hands of botanists. Messrs, J. G. and E. G. Baker have thoroughly explored and reported on the coast flora from Boscastle to Port Isaac and inland to Camelford. St. Minver parish has been closely scoured by Mr. Darell, who has recently published a complete list of plants occurring there. Mr. Briggs spent several holidays in the parish of Blisland and did good work in connection with the Brambles and Roses of the Camel valley. Finally Mr. R. V. Tellam has taken a roving commission, and with that enthusiasm which has been an outstanding feature of his botanical work has searched out many good things from Bodmin to Brown Willy and Padstow Bay. Few are the distinctly local plants to be found here. Remarkable also is it that through- out this extensive and favoured portion of the county Glyceria Borreri and Elymus arenarius are the only plants which have not yet been reported from one of the other seven districts. Stellaria aquatka, Arenar'ta verna^ TrifoHum strictum and Elymus arenarius grow in the parish of St. Minver. Meconopsis camhrica affects a place or two near Camelford, and Polygala oxyptera has a limited distribution in the parish of Lanivet. In the Camel valley Stellaria umbrosa may be sought for as well as many of the Rubi appearing in the subjoined list. Bodmin woods, as every British botanist must know, shelter Physospermum commutatum ; it was here in fact that it w^s first discovered on British soil. Along the coast we find the usual maritime flora — Inula crithmoideSy Statice auricula folia^ Volvulus Soldanella^ three Erodiums, Lotus angustissimus, L. hispidus, Eryngiutn maritimum^ Asplenium marinum. The marsh above Wadebridge contains the usual riparian plants, which are here cheek- by-jowl with those of littoral predilections. Cochlearia anglica^ Trifolium fragiferum^ Atriplex littoralisy Catabrosa aquatica and Glyceria distans are just a few which are worth looking up. On Tretoil Moor, Lanivet, and at Withiel, Genista anglica is sparsely represented. Pyrus torminalis and P. germanica, both very rare plants farther west, may be said to be general in this district. At Withiel Cornus sanguinea takes its most westernly stand. St. Minver and St. Breock are localities for Gentiana Amarella, and Polzeath must be visited for Allium Ampe- loprasum var. Babingtonii and Cyperus longus. The downs and wind-swept hills and cliffs are not wanting in Carices and even afford such ferns as Hymenophyllum tunbridgense^ H. unilaterale, Adiantum Capillus-Venerisy Phegopteris Dryopteris^ P. polypodioides. On Hustyn Down in our march west we make our first acquaintance with Pilularia globuUfera. Not many miles distant, at Withiel, Char a fr a gilts may be gathered, while Nitella translucens grows at the same place and near Helmentor. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Camel District Clematis Vitalba, Linn. Ranunculus sceleratus, Linn. — sardous, Crantx, var. parvulus {Linn.) Caltha palustris, Linn., var. Gue- rangerii (Boreau) Helleborus viridis, Linn. — fcEtidus, Linn. Aconitum Napellus, Linn. Berberis vulgaris, Linn. Papaver Argemone, Linn. — hybridum, Linn. Neckeria lutea, Scop. — claviculata, N. E. Br. Arabis hirsuta, Scop. Sisymbrium Thalianum, J. Gay Brassica alba, Boiss. Coronopus didymus, Sm. — Ruellli, All. Raphanus maritimus, Sm. Reseda lutea, Linn. Viola hirta, Linn. — lactea, Sm. Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. Sagina maritima, Don , var. densa aord.) Sagina ciliata, Fr. — subulata, Presl. Buda rupestris Hypericum dubium, Leers — undulatum, Schousb. Malva rotundifolia, Linn. Geranium phaeum, Linn. — Robertianum, L/»«., var. pur- pureum, auct. angl. Ononis spinosa, Linn. Trigonella purpurascens, Lam. Medicago denticulata, Willd. Trifolium subterraneum, Linn. — scabrum, Linn. Ornithopus perpusillus, Linn. Rubus suberectus, Anders. — rhamnifolius, W. tff H . — pulcherrimus, Neum. — leucandrus, Focke — micans, Gren. i^ Godr. — leucostachys, Schleich. — longithyrsiger, Bab. Potentilla procumbens, Sibth. Agrimonia odorata, Mill. Rosa tomentosa, Sm., var. scabrius- cula (5ot.) 62 Rosa canina, Linn., var. dumalis {Bechst>i — stylosa var. leucochroa {Desv.) Epilobium lanceolatum, 5^^. U Maur. Anthriscus vulgaris, Hofm. Foeniculum vulgare, Mill. CEnanthe Lachenalii, C. Gmel. Valeriana dioica, Linn. Valerianella rimosa, Basf, Aster Tripolium, Linn. Erigeron acre, Linn. Filago minima, Fr. Antennaria dioica, R. Br. Inula Conyza, DC. Anthemis Cotula, Linn. Matricaria Chamomilla, Linn. Carduus crispus, Linn. Picris hieracioldes, Linn. Crepis taraxacifolia, Tbuill. Tragopogon pratense, Linn. Specularia hybrida, A. DC. Primula veris, Linn. Glaux maritima, Linn. Anagallis caerulea, Schreb. Centunculus minimus, Linn. BOTANY Blackstonia perfoliata, Huds. Gentiana campestris, Linn. Cynoglossum officinale, Linn. Cuscuta TrifoHi, Bab. Solanum nigrum, Linn. Verbascum virgatum, Stokes — Blattaria, Linn. Linaria viscida, Mcench Antirrhinum Orontium, Linn. Scrophularia Scorodonia, Linn. Sibthorpia europsea, Linn. Veronica Anagallis-aquatica, Linn. Orobanche minor, Sm, — amethystea, Thuill. Utricularia minor, Linn. Mentha gentilis, Linn. Origanum vulgare, Linn. Thymus Chamaedrys, Fr. Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Scutellaria galericulata, Linn. — minor, Huds. Melittis Melissophyllum, Linn. Marrubium vulgare, Linn. Leonurus Cardiaca, Linn. Littorella juncea, Berg. Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus, Linn. Suasda maritima, Dum. Polygonum amphibium, Linn. Euphorbia Paralias, Linn. — portlandica, Linn. Myrica Gale, Linn. Listera ovata, R. Br. Spiranthes autumnalis, Rich. Orchis Morio, Linn. — incarnata, Linn. Habenaria conopsea, Benth. — bifolia, R. Br. — chloroleuca, Ridley Narcissus incomparabilis, Mill. — biJJorus, Curtis — poeticus, Linn. Polygonatum multiflorum, Jll. Muscari racemosum. Mill. Scilla autumnalis, Linn. — verna, Huds. Juncus squarrosus, Linn. — glaucus. Leers 5. North Coast District Juncus maritimus, Lam. Alisma ranunculoides, Linr. Potamogeton crispus, Lin7i. Scirpus pauciflorus, Light/. Rynchospora alba, Fahl. Carex dioica, Linn. — disticha, Huds. — divulsa. Good. — curta. Good. — pallescens, Lifin. — fulva, Good. — riparia, Curtis • — rostrata, Stokes Phleum arenarium, Linn. Gastridium australe, Bcauv. Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. Poa nemoralis, Linn. — compressa, Linn. Festuca procumbens, Kunth. — arundinacea, Schreb. Agropyron junccum, Beauv. Ceterach officinarum, Willd. Lycopodium Selago, Linn. Nitella flexilis, Agardh. This takes in a long narrow tract of country at no place more than 7 miles wide, and for a considerable distance little above 3 miles wide. As the crow flies its length from Stepper Point, outside Padstow Harbour, to Hayle is about 33 miles. Its boundary is the road from Padstow through St. Columb to Blue Anchor, forming the western limit of the Camel District. From Blue Anchor the line follows the turnpike road through Mitchell, Zelah, and Scorrier to Redruth. At the mining town of Redruth it takes the Helston road across Buller Downs, turning ofFat Nine Maidens, and at Praze Station joining the railway line to Hayle. Geologically this is an interesting district. From Stepper Point to the northern bank of the Gannel at Newquay the soil is Lower Devonian, and the whole of that district has been brought to a fine state of cultivation. West of the Gannel, coast wards from a line drawn from the head of the creek to Perranporth, the country is Upper Silurian intersected by elvan courses and the well known Perran Iron Lode. A little distance from the south bank of the upper waters of the Gannel there are faint traces of a small deposit of limestone. Inland from the line above indicated Lower Silurian cover portions of the parishes of Cubert, Newlyn East, and Perran, while at St. Enoder the district takes in a small portion of the same rocks which form a belt around Hensbarrow Hill. These two patches are separated by a continua- tion of the Lower Devonian rocks, which sweep around the Perran branch of the Lower Silurian to about Chapel Porth, west of St. Agnes Head. There they are replaced by beds which have been provisionally classed as Cambrian. These are the oldest slates of the county, and in the district under notice, save an unimportant deposit of Lower Silurian west of Portreath, they occupy the coast-line from Chapel Porth to Godrevy. Inland they range to Blackwater and Redruth, sweeping round the western side of Carnmarth and the northern side of Carn Brea Granite Boss to Camborne, in which parish Lower Silurian are again ex- posed and occupy the remainder of the district. Here perhaps better than in any other part of the county is one able to institute con- trasts between the north and the south coasts. Placing this district against that which is to follow, it will be found poor in those densely wooded valleys which open on the south coast and afford shelter for a rich patchwork flora which has ' been " taken in in numbers " and bound afterwards.* Here and there one happens upon a quiet sylvan oasis watered by a clear stream, but on the whole the district answers to the description of the Devonshire wag who thought Cornwall scarcely grew trees enough to supply timber for coffins for its inhabitants. The downs of this district offer little to the botanist beyond the everyday species of the county ; even in the rare weeds of cultivated land it is singularly poor, and where a marsh occurs it is irritatingly restricted and yields few of those plants which are the pride of paludal haunts south of the county's backbone. Its coast flora, with but i&vf exceptions to be presently noticed, is simply a thinning away of that of the Camel and Upper Tamar 63 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Districts, and although it has long stretches of blown sand offering apparently suitable conditions for many of the species which crown Northam and Braunton Burrows in the neighbouring county, never a trace of them has been found. Viola Curtisii, Teucrium Scordium^ Epipactis palustrisy Polygonum maritimum, Juncus acutus^ Scirpus Holoschcenus^ and Festuca uniglumis might be expected to occur in some of the grassy hollows of the Towans, but it is quite certain they do not. Several other surprises will attend the investigations of the botanist in this district. If he commences operations in the spring, and knows anything at all of the flora of the other districts, the way in which the cowslip is distributed from Newquay to Hayle will come as a pleasant discovery. Near Hayle it is one of the features of the meadows, downs and marshes. From Newquay to St. Agnes, that prettiest of heaths. Erica ciliaris, infests the waysides and wastrels, the equally charming hybrid Ciliaris x tetralix keeping it company. At Connor Downs a tongue of the lizard flora, represented by Erica vagans and Spiraa filipendula^ runs out to the sandhills. On downs in the parishes of Cubert, Newlyn, Perranzabuloe, St. Agnes, and Gwinear, Antennaria dioica is frequent, and a careful search will be rewarded with Gentiana campestris. G. Amarella grows east of Newquay and at Forth Towan and Conner on the west, but only very sparingly. From between Padstow and Cubert three interesting Batrachian Ranunculi have been reported, viz. R. trichophyllus^ R. Drouetiiy R. Baudotii. The most important plants to be met in a coast walk from Padstow to Hayle are : Papaver Argemone^ P. hyhridum^ Arabis hirsuta^ Viola hirta^ V. lactea^ Arenaria verna^ Sagina subulata^ S. nodosa^ Geranium sanguineum^ Genista pilosa^ Trifolium squamosum^ T. fragiferum^ Lotus hispiduSy Anthriscus vulgaris^ Inula crithmoides^ Cnicus acaulisy Mariana lactea^ Statice auri- culafolia, Orohanche Hedera, 0. amethystea^ Utricularia vulgaris^ Mentha pubescens^ Marrubium vulgare^ Lamium hybridum^ Euphorbia Paralias^ E. portlandica^ Ruscus aculeatus^ Scilla autumnalis, Scirpus Caricisy Phleum arenarium. Several instructive object-lessons in plant naturalization are to be found in this district. On the cliffs at Newquay Mathiola incana^ Cheiranthus Cheiri^ Carum Petroselinum, Scabiosa maritima and Narcissus bijlorus have long been in occupation and are yearly spreading. The churchyard at Mawgan and the Nunnery walls above, as well as the churchyard at Newlyn, and one or two other places, may be counted on every year for a crop of Hieracium aurantiacum. Of a different character are Asperugo procumbens^ Althcea hirsuta and Claytonia perfoliata^ which occur only at uncertain intervals. In the year 1883 Euphorbia hiberna was discovered in a wood at Portreath by Mr. E. D. Marquand, the find being duly recorded in the Transactions of Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society a year later. Up to that time the only British locality for this spurge was in Devon. More recently still Filago apiculata has been discovered in the parishes of St. Columb and Perranzabuloe, and Cnicus acaulis on the sandhills at Perranporth. In the Botanical Gazette^ 1850, Astragalus glycyphyllus was recorded for Cubert and Vicia hithynica for Perranzabuloe ; but too great stress must not be laid on the accuracy of the statements. Fruitless searches have repeatedly been made for the plants in the parishes named as well as in other parts of the county. The Phytologist^ 1847, °" ^^^ authority of Mr. F. P. Pascoe, cites Newquay as a Cornish station for Lathraa Squamaria ; but three years later, when drawing up his list of Cornish plants for H. C. Watson, Mr. Pascoe made no mention of this parasite. Miss Warren, a very industrious botanist, contributed to the Herbarium of the long defunct Horticultural Society of Cornwall a specimen of Orobanche elatior^ labelled ' Cubert Porth ' ; one of Allium Scorodoprasum from ' Perran Minor,' and one of Ceratophyllum submersum endorsed ' Perranzabuloe.' Unfortunately the specimens are too poor to admit of an opinion at this late date. The broomrape has been found in some of the other county districts, but the garlic and pondweed are without any other record. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the North Coast District Delphinium Ajacis, Reichb. Aconitum Napellus, Linn. Fumaria Boraei, Jord. Erophila vulgaris, DC. Cochlearia anglica, Linn. Brassica oleracea, Linn. Diplotaxis muralis, DC. Coronopus didymus, Sm. — Ruellii, All. Lepidlum Draba, Linn. Reseda lutea, Linn. Stellaria umbrosa, Opiz.. Buda rupestris Hypericum dubium, Leers — undulatum, Schousb. Malva rotundifolia, Linn. Linum usitatissimutn, Linn. Geranium sanguineum, Linn. 64 Geranium striatum, Linn. — phoeum, Linn. Erodium maritimum, VHirit. Genista anglica, Linn. — tinctoria, Linn. Trigonella purpurascens, Lam. Melllotus alba, Desr. Trifolium subterraneum, Linn. — arvense, Linn. BOTANY Trifolium scabrum, Linn. Lathyrus sylvestris, Linn. Potentilla palustris, Scop. Pyrus torminalis, Ehrh. Saxifraga tridactylites, Linn. Sedum reflexum, Linn. — rupestre, Linn. Eryngium maritimum, Linn. Carum segetum, Benth. y Hook. Pimpinella major, Huds. CEnanthe Lachenalii, C Gmel. Adoxa Moschatellina, Linn. Valerianella rimosa, Bast. Erigeron acre, Linn. Inula Conyza, DC Anthemis Cotula, Linn. Tanacetum vulgare, Linn. Artemisia Absinthium, Linn. Doronicum planta^neum, Linn. Picris hieracioides, Linn. Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuill. Campanula rotundifolia, Linn. Specularia hybrida, ji. DC. Primula veris, Linn. Anagallis caerulea, Schreb. Centunculus minimus, Linn. Microcala filiformis, Hoffmgg. ijf Link. Blackstonia perfoliata, Huds. Erythraea pulchella, Fr. Cuscuta Tri/o/ii, Bab. Lycium barbarum, Linn. Hyoscyamus niger, Linn. Verbascum Blattaria, Linn. Linaria spuria. Mill. — supina, Desf. — purpurea. Mill. — repens. Mill. Antirrhinum Orontium, Linn. Scrophularia Scorodonia, Linn. Sibthorpia europa;a, Linn. Mentha pubescens, Willd., and var. hircina (Jiull) Melissa officinalis, Linn. Salvia Verbenaca, Linn. Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Scutellaria galericulata, Linn. — minor, Huds. Melittis Melissophyllum, Linn. Lamium intermedium, Fr. — maculatum, Linn. — Galeobdolon, Crantz lUecebrum verticillatum, Linn. Amaranthus retroflexuSy Linn. Chenopodium polyspermum, Linn. — murale, Linn. — urbicum, Linn., and var. in- termedium, Moq. Atriplex laciniata, Linn. — portulacoides, Linn. Salicornia herbacea, Linn. Suceda maritima, Dum. Polygonum Raii, Bab. Rumex rupestris, Le Gall. Hippophea rhamnoides, Linn. Mercurialis annua, Linn. Salix triandra x fragilis — aurita x viminalis Iris fcetidissima, Linn. Allium Ampehprasum, Linn., var. Babingtonii (Borr.) — triquetrum, Linn. Scilla verna, Huds. Juncus glaucus. Leers Typha latifolia, Linn. — angustifolia, Linn. Arum italicum, Mill. Potamogeton crispus, Linn. — pusillus, Linn., var. tenuissi- mus, Kocb Ruppia spiralis, Hartm. Zannichellia palustris, Linn. Cyperus longus, Linn. — hirta, Linn. Gastridium australe, Beauv. Koeleria cristata, Pers. Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. Briza media, Linn. — minor, Linn. Agropyron junceum, Beauv. Lepturus filiformis, Tr/w. Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm. — unilaterale, Bory. 6. Falmouth District The boundaries are : east, the Fowey District ; north, the North Coast District ; south, the English Channel from Pentew^an to Port Navis on the Helford river ; west, the parish road branching from the Redruth-Helston road near Carnmenellis and running through Carn- kie to the Helston-Falmouth turnpike. After keeping to the turnpike as far as the Traveller's Inn the boundary follows a narrow lane leading to Eathorne, Trewoon, Bosvarren, and Port Navis. The Devonian rocks which occupy so large a portion of the North Coast District pass right across this to the coast between Pentewan and Mevagissey, taking in parts of the parishes of Ladock, St. Allen, St. Erme, Kenwyn, Probus, Grampound, Tregony and St. Ewe. From Probus and Tregony Church-towns, with the exception of a small patch of Devonian between Mevagissey and Gorran, and a little serpentine at the Nare Head, the rocks of the Roseland District are Lower Silurian. On the western side of Falmouth Harbour these rocks sweep from Restronguet Creek to Port Navis and again appear farther inland in the Gwennap and Chacewater District. The Carnmenellis granite mass occupies the parishes of Wendron, Stithians, Mabe, Budock, and parts of Gwennap, St. Gluvias, Mawnan, and Constantine. Around it, from the western end of Gwennap to Penryn, a narrow band of Cambrian rocks occur, which at Ponsanooth strikes out through the southern end of Perran-ar-worthal and makes up the whole of the parish of Feock and a goodly portion of Kea. The rivers of the district run in two opposite directions, emptying themselves in the several creeks of Falmouth Harbour. To the Fal belongs chief place. Rising on the Goss Moor, it takes an even course south by west, and after a flow of 19^ miles through a finely wooded and highly cultivated country pours its waters into the tidal creek at Ruanlanihorne. At a mile or so east of Grampound Road Station it is augmented by a stream which brings down the drainage from Hensbarrow Downs. Next in importance to the Fal is the Tre- sillian river, whose source is in the parish of St. Enoder. With its tributaries its principal drainage area is the parishes of Ladock, St. Erme, and Probus. The remaining streams all fall below 6 miles in length. The Allen rises at Ennis in St. Erme, and takes an almost due north to south direction. Almost on the border line of the North Coast District in the parish I 65 9 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL of Kenwyn rises a stream which takes its name from the parish. After a course of 4 miles it joins the Tresillian river at Truro. Calenick, Carnon, and Kennall streams, of about equal length and all running from west to east, receive the drainage of the country lying between Three Barrows and Carnmenellis and pour it into the creeks at Calenick, Carnon, and Perran- wharf respectively. Mining operations in the parishes of Gwennap and Kenwyn have so changed the conditions of the Carnon watershed as to make it a very poor district to botanists. If a definition in the terms of half a dozen plants were invited for this portion of Corn- wall, Chrysanthemum segetum, JVahlenbergia hederacea^ Erica c'tliarh^ Sibthorpia europaa^ Linar'ta repensy and Bartsia viscosa could be mentioned. In summer and autumn field after field is transformed into a blaze of yellow with the corn marigold, to the keen chagrin of the careful farmer. Pasture-land, crofts, and waysides alike bear the viscid yellow bartsia in great pro- fusion, the plant being a much more abundant weed in this district than its congener. The ivy-leaved campanula lurks in almost every damp waterside meadow and shady hedge, often accompanied by the less obtrusive little Cornish moneywort. Erica ciliaris is more eclectic. Starting with the woods at Carclew, where it ranges over scores of acres, it stretches north- ward over the crofts between Perranwell and Truro, eventually joining the ciliaris tract of the North Coast District, the offspring between it and Tetralix everywhere keeping it company. While a stray patch or two of Linaria repens may be met in the parishes of Gwennap and St. Gluvias, it is at Mabe and Budock that it attains its maximum frequency. In the autumn mile after mile of the wayside hedges is adorned with its delicately pencilled flowers. Rare sylvestral plants are not to be counted on in this district. Many of the woods bear Listera ovata^ Asperula odorata^ Melittis Melissophyllum^ and Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus. Neottia Nidus-avis has persisted in a safe place in the woods at Enys for more than half a century, and Convallaria majalis is sparingly represented near Ponsanooth. On the moors in the north-eastern corner of the district Ranunculus tripartitus and Illecebrum verticillatum have been found, but only in small quantity. In the south-western corner the latter plant is by no means uncommon, the present writer being acquainted with one place where there are acres of it. Utricularia minor^ by no means frequent in Cornwall, can always be gathered in shallow pools in the parishes of Gwennap, St. Gluvias, Mabe, and Wendron. Practically every moor of note gives Drosera rotundifolia^ D. intermedia^ and Pin- guicula lusitanica. Quite recently a poor specimen of Hippuris vulgaris was found in a small bog in the parish of Mabe, the only county record for nearly ninety years. Goss Moor is the only spot in Cornwall where Nympheea lutea is certainly wild. Fifty years ago Draba muralis was reported for an old wall near Carclew. In point of fact the record may have been correct, but there is much to be said for the hesitancy which botanists have shown for accepting it other than as an escape. In no other part of the county, unless it be at Par, have so many casuals appeared as at Falmouth. Every year almost their number is increased and not a few have become definitely established. Aliens also run into a long list, but of these the major part are but plants of a season. Rapistrum rugosum has long been a fixture, and although of more recent appearance Matricaria discoidea has seized a much larger area and bids fair to become a great nuisance. From Falmouth Phalaris aquatica has spread to Ponsanooth and Perranwell. St. Anthony-in-Roseland gives quarters to Allium Ampeloprasum var. Babingtonii^ Lemna gibboy Cyperus longus, and Festuca sylvatica. Ophrys apifera was found there many years ago as well as near Falmouth, but there is no recent record for it at either place nor for any other part of the county. That the Cornish records for so comparatively common a plant as Lemna gibba should begin and end with this parish is enough to stimulate the watchfulness of every west-country botanist. Swanpool will always repay a search. Ranunculus Baudotiiy Fumaria Borai, Rumex limosus, Ruppia spiralis^ R. rostellata, Briza maxima, Chara aspera, C. hispida, C. canescens, Nitella trans- lucens and N. opaca are all to be found there. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Falmouth District Ranunculus peltatus, Schrank Fumaria muralis, Zander. CameRna sativa, Crantz, var. — arvensis, Linn. — purpurea, Pug. faetida {Fr.) Helleborus viridis, Linn. Nasturtium sylvestre, DC. Diplotaxis tenuifolia, DC. [Syme Papaver hybridum, Linn. A/yssum maritimum, Linn. — muralis, DC, var. Babingtonii, Glaucium phceniceum, Crantz Hesperis matronalis, Linn. Coronopus didymus, Sm. Neckeria lutea, Scop. Sisymbrium aliissimum, Linn. — Ruellii, All. — claviculata, A^. E. Br. Erysimum perfoliatum, Crantz Lepidium ruderale, Linn. 66 BOTANY Lepidium Draba, Linn. Thlaspi perfoliatum, Linn. Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br. Raphanus maritimus, Sm. Reseda a/i>a, Linn. — lutea, Linn. Viola hirta, Linn. — lactea, Sm. Dianthus Armeria, Linn. Saponaria Faccaria, Linn. Cerastium quaternellum, Fenxl. Stellaria palustris, Retz. Sagina maritima, Don. — cillata, Fr. — subulata, Presl. — nodosa, Fenzl. Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Linn. Claytonia perfoliata, Don. Hypericum hircinunty Linn. — elatum. Ait. — calycinum, Linn. — undulatum, Schousb. Malva rotundifolia, Linn. Geranium striatum, Linn. — phceum, Linn. — pratense, Linn. — pyrenaicum, Burm. fit. — rotundifolium, Linn. Erodium moschatum, UHerit. — maritimum, L'Herit. Oxalis coimculata, Linn. Trigonella purpurascens, Lam. Medicago falcata, Linn. — denticulata, Willd., van api- culata {Willd) Melilotus alba, Desr. — arvensis, Wallr. Trifolium squamosum, Linn. — scabrum, Linn. — fragiferum, Linn. — resupinatum, Linn. Lotus angustissimus, Linn. — hispidus, Desf. Vicia lathyroides, Linn. Lathyrus Aphaca, Linn. — Nissolia, Linn. — latifolius, Linn. — sylvestris, Linn. Alchemilla vulgaris, Linn. Agrimonia odorata. Mill. Pyrus rotundifolia, Bechst. Saxifraga tridactylites, Linn. Sedum Telephium, Linn. — album, L/K«. — rupestre, Linn. Epilobium roseum, Schreb. Slum erectum, HuJs. Daucus gummifer. Lam. Caucalis daucoides, Linn. Asperula arvensis, Linn. Valerianella carinata, Loisel. — rimosa. Bast. Scabiosa Columbaria, Linn. Erigeron canadense, Linn. — acre, Linn. Filago minima, Fr. Inula Conyza, DC. Anthemis Cotula, Linn. — arvensis, Linn. Doronicum Pardalianches, Linn. Mariana lactea. Hill. Picrls hieracioides, Linn. Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuill. Lysimachia Nummularia, Linn. Anagallis casrulea, Schreb. Centunculus minimus, Linn. Microcala filiformis,//o^ y Link. Blackstonia perfoliata, Huds. Symphytum tuberosum, Linn. Lithospermum officinale, Linn. Echium vulgare, Linn. Lycium barbarum, Linn. Datura Stramonium, Linn. Verbascum Lychnitis, Linn. Linaria purpurea, Linn. Antirrhinum Orontium, Linn. Scrophularia Scorodonia, Linn. Orobanche major, Linn. — elatior, Sutton — minor, Sm. — amethystea, Tbuill. Littorella juncea. Berg. [Linn. Chenopodium polyspermum, — murale, Linn. — rubrum, Linn., var. pseudo- botryoides, H.C. Wats. — Bonus-Henricus, Linn. Polygonum Raii, Bab. — maritimum, Linn. — mite, Schrank. Daphne Laureola, Linn. Hippophae rhamnoides, Linn. Euphorbia platyphyllos, Linn. — portlandica, Linn. Myrica Gale, Linn. Carpinus Betulus, Linn. Elodea canadensis, Michx. Neottia Nidus-avis, Rich. Orchis Morio, Linn. — incarnata, Linn. Habenaria conopsea, Benth. Iris foetidissima, Linn. Narcissus incomparabilis. Mill. Allium triquetrum, Linn. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Linn. Juncus squarrosus, Linn. — glaucus, Leers — maritimus. Lam. Luzula Forsteri, DC Sparganium simplex, Huds. Arum italicum, M///. \_\3 Koch Potamogeton obtusifolius, Mert. Zannichellia palustris, Linn. Zostera marina, Linn. Eriophorum vaginatum, Linn. — latifolium, Hoppe. Rynchospora alba, Vahl. Carex dioica, Linn. — divisa, Huds. — divulsa. Good. — Boenninghausiana, Weihe. — pendula, Huds. — distans, Linn. — fulva. Good. — extensa. Good. — acutiformis, Ehrh. — riparia, Curtis — rostrata, Stokes Setaria viridis, Beauv. Milium efFusum, Linn. Agrostis setacea, Curtis Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. Gastridium australe, Beauv. Fibichia umbellata, Koel. Koeleria cristata, Pers. Melica uniflora, Retx. Briza media, Linn. — minor, Linn. Poa nemoralis, Linn. Glyceria maritima, Mert. l£ Koch Festuca procumbens, Kunth. Bromus tectorum, Linn. Lolium temulentum, Linn. Agropyron junceum, Beauv. Lepturus filiformis, Trin. Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm. Adiantum Capillus- Veneris, Linn. Asplenium lanceolatum, Huds. Ceterach officinarum, Willd. Polypodium vulgare, Linn., var. Cornubiense, Moore — polypodioides. Fee Ophioglossum vulgatum, Linn. Equisetum maximum. Lam. Pilularia globulifera, Linn. 7. Lizard District The western line of demarcation of the Falmouth District, a short portion of the North Coast boundary lying between Nine Maidens and Praze Station, the high road from Praze through Sithney to the five turnings half a mile or so beyond, thence to Porthleven, and the coast from Porthleven to Port Navis, give the outline of this district. To the geologist the Lizard has furnished more material for contention than it has to the botanist. For while even in the earliest days of the science of plant geography botanists were able to offer shrewd observations on the why and the wherefore of the flora of the district, we are still a long remove from hearing the final word about the interesting group of rocks at and 67 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL around the Lizard. In the north of the district, in the parish of Wendron and stretching away through Mabe and Constantine, we make our last acquaintance with the Carnmenellis Granite Boss. South of it a wide belt of Lower Silurian rocks extends right across the peninsula from Porthleven to Nare Point. From the Manacles through the parishes of St. Keverne, St. Martin, and Cury to Mullion, with but a slight break to the south of Mawgan, there is a belt of varying breadth of micaceous slates, generally classed as Archaean. They consist of gneissose rock, hornblende schist, gabbro, diabase, etc., and are said to be similar in character to those forming the southern extremity of Devonshire between Bolt Tail and the Start, and those on which the Eddystone lighthouse is built. The Lizard Head is made up of the same rocks. Between Nare Point and Manaccan village there is a slight remnant of Lower Devonian. The remainder of the peninsula is made up of serpentine and diallage, the diallage occurring principally in the parish of St. Keverne. The Cober, rising on the moors near Carnmenellis, takes to the Loe Pool the greater part of the drainage of the parish of Wendron. Its length is about lo miles. A number of streams, having their origin at different points on and around Goonhilly Downs and the parishes of Wendron and Mabe, drain the remainder of the district. The lower Cober Valley between Helston and the Loe Pool, and the several tidal valleys on the Helford river, possess scenery of rare quality. Not less interesting in their own way is the extensive view to be obtained from the summit of Carnmenellis, 8i8 feet above sea level, the wild grandeur of the breezy Goonhilly Downs when heath and furze have enlivened the scene with their flowers, and the rugged scenery of the precipitous coast. A brief paragraph or two will be sufficient to show why for so many years this part of Cornwall has been the Mecca of British botanists. Mile for mile, it may be questioned whether any other part of the British Isles contains so many rare indigenous plants. Here only, for instance, have we Cornish records for the following species : Thalictrum dunense, T. co/Iinum, T. majus, T.flavum^ Ranunculus heterophylluSy Silene comca^ Arenaria verna\2LX. Gerardi^ Vicia sylvatica^ Hypochceris maculata^ Erythraa [capitata] var. spharocephala^ Gentiana balt'ica^ Orobanche Picridisy Rumex maritimuSy Juniperus communisy Asparagus offic'tnalisy Juncus pygmauSy Sparganium neglectuniy hemna trisulcGy Carex axillar'tSy Avena pratens'tSy Chara polyacanthay C. haltica var. affinis. As stated earlier in this paper, Corrigiola littoralis must now be reckoned among extinctions. To the British flora the district contributes the following, i.e. plants not occurring in any other part of the British Isles : Cytisus scoparius var. prostratuSy Trifolium Molineriiy T. Boccon'iy Herniaria ciUatay Nitella hyalina. Strong reasons can be furnished for excluding Herniaria glabra and Salvia Verbenaca var. clandestina from the flora of this district. Plants in the British Museum and in the late Professor Babington's herbarium labelled ' glabra ' certainly show nearer approach to H. ciliata than to that species. The late Mr. J. Cunnack, who was thoroughly acquainted with the botany of the Lizard, left a note which the writer has seen expressing doubt about the identity of the plant. With regard to the Salvioy Dr. Syme was among the first to challenge Cornish records. Without any qualification soever he says the specimens he had seen from Cornwall were all referable to Verbenaca. Recently, at the writer's request, Mr. C. E. Salmon of Reigate made a careful inspection of the specimens in Professor Babington's herbarium, and while of opinion that they must be accepted as forms of Verbenacay he was perfectly satisfied that they were not emphatic enough for clandestina. Whether it be the higher moorlands in Wendron, the extensive downs which make up such a large portion of the district, or the coast with its numerous valleys, they all contain a rich assemblage of plants. On the granite moors Teesdalia nudicauUsy Filago minimay Utricularia minory Pinguicula lusitanicay and Illecebrum verticillatum are common. The downs give miles oi Erica vagans and Spiraa Filipendulay and, among many other things, the following : Ranun- culus heterophylluSy Viola lacteay Genista anglicay G. pilosay G. tinctoria var. humifiisay Poterium officinaky Microcala filiformisy Gentiana campestrisy G. balticay Littorella junceay 'Juniperus communisy Allium sibiricuniy Juncus pygmaus^ J. capitatuSy and many of the PotamogetonSy CariceSy and Charas mentioned in the list of species. Along the coast and up the inlets the diligent observer will meet Thalictrum dunensey T. coUinumy T. majuSy T. flavumy Viola Curtisiiy Silene conicay S. noctijioray Cerastium pumilumy Arenaria verna var. Gerardiy Geranium sanguineumy Cytisus scoparius var. prostratuSy Trifolium Molineriiy T. Bocconiy T. strictumy Lotus angustissimuSy L. hispiduSy Vicia lutea, Filago apiculatay Inula Heleniumy I. crithmoideSy Hypochceris maculatOy Statice auriculcsfoUay Erythrtea [capitata'] var. spharocephahy Orobanche rubray Herniaria ciliatay Ruscus aculeatuSy Allium Schoenoprasumy A. sibiricumy Scilla autumnalisy Cyperus longus. 68 BOTANY The Loe Pool, the largest sheet of inland water in the county, has yielded a number of rare and local plants. To the keen regret of west-country botanists a recent raising of the water level has resulted in the disappearance of Corrtgiola littoralis ; but almost at the very time of that unfortunate occurrence a genuine solace was forthcoming in the discovery by the Rev. G. R. Bullock- Webster of Nitella hyalina^ the first and still the only British record for a particu- larly graceful plant. Castalia speciosa, Elatine hexandra, Pyrus tormina/is^ Bidens cernua^ B. tripartita^ Mimulus Langsdorffii^ Sibthorpia europaa^ Utricularia minory Scutellaria galericulata^ Melittis Melissophyllum^ Chenopodium rubrum var. pseudo-botryoideSy Euphorbia portlandica^ Ruscus aculeatusy Juncus pygmaus^ Polygonum maritimum^ Potamogeton perfoliatm^ Ruppia spiralis^ R. rostellata^ Zannichellia pa/ustrisy Eleocharis acicularisy R. Br., are but a few of the plants to be found on, in, or adjacent to the Pool. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Lizard District Ranunculus Baudotii, Godr. — tripartitus, DC. — Lingua, Linn. Helleborus viridis, Linn. Papaver hybridum, Linn. Fumaria pallidiflora, jfo!-^/. Alyssum maritimuniy Linn. Erophila vulgaris, DC. Camelina saliva, Craniz Brassica oleracea, Linn. Coronopus didymus, Sm. Lepidium Draba, Linn. Thlaspi arvense, Linn. Iberis amara, Linn. Raphanus maritimus, Sm. Viola hirta, Linn. Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. Sagina ciliata, Fr. — subulata, Presl. — nodosa, Fenzl. Buda rupestris Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Linn. Hypericum hircinum, Linn. — elatum. Ait. — undulatum, Schousb. Malva rotundifolia, Linn. Geranium sanguineum, Linn., and var. prostratum {Cav.) — striatum, Linn. — phaeum, Linn. — lucidum, Linn. Erodium moschatum, UHerit. — maritimum, Z,'//mV. Trigonella purpurascens, Lam. Medicago denticulata, Willd. Melilotus arvensis, Wallr. Trifolium subterraneum, Linn. — scabrum, Linn. — fragiferum, Linn. Potentilla palustris, Scop. Agrimonia odorata, Mill. Poterium polygamum, Waldst. ij Kit. Sedum reflexum, Linn. Myriophyllum spicatum, Linn. — alterniflorum, DC. Eryngium maritimum, Linn. Apium graveolens, Linn. — inundatum, Reichh.fil. Sison Amomum, Linn. Sium erectum, Huds. Pimpinella major, Huds. CEnanthe fistulosa, Linn. — pimpinelloides, Linn. — Lachenalii, C Gmel. Sambucus Ebulus, Linn. Asperula odorata, Linn. Valerianella carinata, Loisel. — rimosa. Bast. Anthemis Cotula, Linn. — arvensis, Linn. — nobilis, Linn. Senecio erucifolius, Linn. Mariana lactca. Hill Crepis biennis, Linn. Tragopogon pratense, Linn. — porrifolium, Linn. Campanula rotundifolia, Linn. Centunculus minimus, Linn. Symphytum tuberosum, Linn. Echium plantagineum, Linn. Cuscuta Trifolii, Bab. Verbascum virgatum, Stokes Linaria repens. Mill. — viscida, Maench. Orobanche major, Linn. — minor, Sm. Mentha pubescens, Willd. — hirsuta, Huds., var. citrata {Ehrh) — sativa, Linn., var. subglabra. Baker — gentilis, Linn. — Pulegium, Linn., and var. erecta, Syme Thymus Chamaedrys, Fr. Calamintha Clinopodium, Spenn. Melissa officinalis, Linn. Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Leonurus Cardiaca, Linn. Lamium intermedium, Fr. Chenopodium polyspermum, Linn. — murale, Linn. — urbicum, Linn. — glaucum, Linn. — Bonus-Henricus, Linn. Polygonum Raii, Bab. — minus, Huds. — mite, Schrank. — maculatum, trim. l£ Dyer Rumex rupestris, Le Gall. — limosus, Thuill. 69 Euphorbia Paralias, Linn. Orchis Morio, Linn. — incarnata, Linn. Habenaria conopsea, Benth. Iris foetidissima, Linn. Allium Ampeloprasum, Linn., var. Babingtonii (Borr.) — triquetrum, Linn. Scilla verna, Huds. Typha latifolia, Linn. Sparganium simplex, Huds. Arum italicum. Mill. Alisma ranunculoides, Linn. Eleocharis acicularis, R. Br. Scirpus Caricis, Retz. Rynchospora alba, Fail. Cladium jamaicense, Crantz Carex dioica, Linn. — divisa, Huds. — disticha, Huds. — divulsa, Good. — Bcenninghausiana, Weihe — curta. Good. — pallescens, Linn. — rostrata, Stokes Gastridium australe, Beauv. Koeleria cristata, Pers. Briza media, Linn. minor, Linn. Poa Chaixii, Fill. Glyceria aquatica, Sm. — distans, Wahlenb. Lolium temulentum, Linn. Lepturus filiformis, Trin. Asplenium lanceolatum, Huds. Ophioglossum vulgatum, Linn. Equisetum maximum. Lam. Lycopodium Selago, Linn. — inundatum, Linn. — clavatum, Linn. Pilularia globulifera, Linn. Chara fragilis, Desv. — fragifera, Durieu — aspera, Willd., and var. des- macantha, H. y "J . G. — hisplda, Linn. — vulgaris, Linn., var. bracteata, Kuetz — canescens, Loisel. Nitella flexilis, Agardh — opaca, Agardh longi- A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 8. Land's End District All that portion of the county lying to the west of the railway line from Hayle to Praze and of the high road from Praze through Sithney to Porthleven, including the Scilly Isles, is included in this district. Its coast line is therefore greater than that possessed by either of the districts already noticed. Geologically it is of homogeneous character. The eastern boundary line runs across the Cambrian rocks which encircle the greater part of the Carnmenellis granite, and of which only a small area is included in this district. They stretch across the parishes of Breage and Germoe to the detached mass of granite forming Tregonning and Godolphin Hills. As far west as Newlyn, Madron, Ludgvan, and St. Ives, the rocks are Lower Silurian, much inter- rupted by lodes, cross-courses, and elvan dykes. Beyond this the country is entirely granite, belted along the coast from Cape Cornwall to St. Ives with a narrow fringe of greenstone. Greenstone is also found in the Lower Silurian rocks along Mount's Bay. The scarcity of trees, the extensive chain of hills stretching from Lelant to Cape Corn- wall and the Land's End, the wild crofts and moors dotted with the ruins of a decadent industry, and the stray vestiges in stone and tumuli left by a long vanished people, give a seductive wildness and grandeur to the landscape to the north and west of Penzance. From causes difficult to explain more plants have disappeared from this district than from any other section of the county. The extinctions include Ranunculus circinatus^ Hypericum UnarifoUuniy Althcea officinalis^ Lathyrus maritimus, Drosera anglica^ Hippuris vulgaris^ Lythrum HyssopifoUa^ Diotis canclidissima, Linaria supina^ Cladium jamaicense. On the other hand the district is being continually enriched by * casuals ' and * aliens,' though in this respect there has been a marked falling off since the old days when winnowing was largely carried on on the Eastern Green, Penzance. Under this head must be classed Fumaria densiflora^ F. parviflora^ Medicago sylvestris^ M. denticulata^ Melilotus indica^ Sedum sexangularCy Asperula arvensis., Centaurea CalcitrapOy C. solstitialisy Stachys annua^ Plantago aren- ariay Mercurialis annua^ Polypogon monspeliensisy Jpera Spica-venti^ Lagurus ovatus (Scilly Isles), Poa alpinoy Bromus madritensis, B. arvensis. Pinguicula grandiflora was accidentally introduced from Ireland many years ago by Dr. Ralfs, and is now very plentiful in a marsh or two to the west of Penzance. In a ravine near Zennor Mimulus Langsdorffii has established itself almost to the exclusion of other riparian plants. Reseda alba^ Lavatera sylvestris^ Oxalis stricta, Echium plantagineunty and Iris tuherosa were admitted into the British Flora on the strength of their naturalization in this district ; and Daucus gummifer was elevated from varietal to specific rank from a consideration of specimens gathered near Zennor. Outside this district Cornwall does not possess the following : Viola tricolor var. nana^ Lavatera sylvestris, Oxalis stricta^ Ulex nanuSy Medicago minima, TrifoUum repens var. Town- sendiiy Ornithopus ebracteatus, Filago spathulata, Limosella aquatica, Mentha rubra. Iris tuberosa, Eleocharis uniglumisy Carex arenaria var. ligerica, Cryptogramme crispa, Ophioglossum vulgatum var. polyphyllum. Erica vagans has been reported from Zennor and Orobanche purpurea from Penzance, but Dr. Ralfs never countenanced the records. Species and Varieties Worth Noting in the Land's End District Ranunculus peltatus, Fries — Baudotii, Godr., var. confusus (fiodr.) — sardous, Crantz, var. parvu- lus {Linn.) — arvensis, Linn. Helleborus viridis, Linn. Castalia speciosa, Salisb. Papaver somniferum, Linn. — Argemone, Linn. — hybridum, Linn. Glaucium flavum, Crantz, Fumaria pallidiflora, 'Jord. — Boraei, 'Jord. — muralis, bonder. Arabis hirsuta, ^cop. Alyssum maritimum, Linn. Erophila vulgaris, DC. Cochlearia anglica, Linn. Erysimum perfoliatum, Crantz. Camelina sativa, Crantz, var. fcetida (Fr.) Brassica oleracea, Linn. Diplotaxis muralis, DC. Lepidium ruderale, Linn. Thlaspi arvense, Linn. Reseda lutea, Linn. Viola lactea, Sm. — Curtisii, Forster Polygala calcarea, F. Schultz. Dianthus Armeria, Linn.^ Saponaria Vaccaria, Linn. Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. — pumilum, Curtis 70 Sagina maritima, Don., var. de- bilis (Jord.) — subulata, Presl. — nodosa, Fenzl. Polycarpon tetraphyllum, Linn. Elatine hexandra, DC. Hypericum dubium. Leers — undulatum, Schousb. — montanum, Linn. Malva. pusilk, Sm. Geranium striatum, Linn. — pusillum, Linn. — rotundifolium, Linn. Genista pilosa, Linn. Ononis spinosa, Linn. Trigonella purpurascens, Lam. Medicago falcata, Linn. BOTANY Medicago denticulata, Willd., var. apiculata {Willd.) Melilotus arvensis. Walk. Trifolium glomeratum, Linn. — sufFocatum, Linn. — fragiferum, Linn. Lotus angustissimus, Linn. — hispidus, Desf. Rubus suberectus, Anders. — Lindleiaaus, Lees — rhamnlfolius, W. i^ N. — ramosus, Briggs — rusticanus, Merc. — mucronatus, Blox. — Leyanus, Rogers — foliosus, W. iff N. — hirtus, W. y K. — Balfourianus, Blox. Potentilla procumbens, Sii>tl>. Agrimonia odorata, Mill. Sedum Telephium, Linn. Apium inundatum, Reichb.jil. CEnanthe fistulosa, Linn. — pimpinelloides, Linn. Caucalis daucoides, Linn. Sambucus Ebulus, Linn. Galium Vaillantii, DC. Asperula odorata, Linn. Valerlanella eriocarpa, Desv. — carinata, Loisel — rimosa, Bast. — dentata, Foil. Inula Helenium, Linn. — crithmoides, Linn. Carduus crispus, Linn. Statice auriculaefolia, Vahl. Primula veris, Linn. Anagallis caerulea, Schreb. Centunculus minimus, Linn. Microcala filiformis, Hofftngg. y Link. Gentiana Amarella, Linn. Gentiana campestris, Linn. Anchusa officinalis, Linn. Lithospermum arvense, Linn. Echium plantagineum, Linn. Solanum nigrum, Linn., var. miniatum {Bernh.) Lycium barbarum, Linn. Verbascum virgatum, Stokes — Blattaria, Linn. Scrophularia Scorodonia, Linn. Rhinanthus major, Ehrh. Orobanche major, Linn. — elatior, Sutton — Hederae, Duby — minor, Sm. — amethystea, Thuill. Utricularia vulgaris, Linn. — neglecta, Lehm. — minor, Linn. Pinguicula lusitanica, Linn. Mentha pubescens, Willd. — hirsuta, Huds., var. citrata {Ehrh.) — gentilis, Linn. Thymus Chamaedrys, Fr. Melissa officinalis, Linn. Nepeta Cataria, Linn. Scutellaria galericulata, Linn. Marrubium vulgare, Linn. Galeopsis Ladanum, Linn. Lamium intermedium, Fr. Littorella juncea, Betg. Illecebrum verticillatum, Linn. Chenopodium Vulvaria, Litm. — murale, Linn. — urbicum, Linn. — rubrum, Linn. — Bonus-Henricus, Linn. Polygonum Raii, Bab. — maculatum. Trim, y Dyer Rumex rupestris, Le Gall Hippophae rhamnoides, Linn. RUBI Euphorbia Paralias, Linn. — portlandica, Linn. Elodea canadensis, Michx. Epipactis palustris, Crwitz Orchis pyramidalis, Linn. — Morio, Linn. — incarnata, Linn. Ruscus aculeatus, Linn. Allium triquetrum, Li?tn. Scilla autumnalis, Linn. — verna, Huds. Ornithogalum umbellatum, Linn. Juncus capitatus, Weigel Typha latifolia, Linn. Arum italicum. Mill. Potamogeton perfoliatus, Linn. Ruppia rostellata, Koch. Cyperus longus, Linn. Scirpus pauciflorus, Light/. Eriophorum vaginatum, Linn. Setaria viridis, Beauv. Gastridium australe, Beauv. Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. Fibichia umbellata, Koel. Sesleria coerulea, Ard. Briza media, Linn. — minor, Linn. Poa compressa, Linn. Glyceria distans, Wahlenb. Festuca uniglumis, Soland. Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm. — unilaterale, Bory. Adiantum Capillus- Veneris, Linn. Phegopteris polypodioides. Fee Pilularia globulifera, Linn. Chara fragilis, Desv., var. capil- lacea, Coss. y G. — fragifera, Durieu Nitella translucens, Agardh — flexilis, Agardh Cornwall cannot yet be reckoned among those British counties whose brambles are mostly known. Indeed but for the late Mr. T. R. Archer Briggs' exhaustive examination of the forms of this genus which occur within twelve miles of Plymouth, this county would have had to be classed with those the brambles of which have in great part still to be ascertained. So diligently however did Mr. Briggs explore the eastern end of the county before the production of his Flora of Plymouth that that work alone (published in 1880) contains the names of 3 1 species of Rubus found by him in greater or less abundance within his area on the Cornish side. Several of these happen to be of exceptional interest to the bramble student, e.g. Rubus erythrinus., Genev., referred to in Fl. Plym. p. 1 1 2, as ' allied to Lindleianus,' but afterwards in the Journal of Botany for 1890, p. 102, correctly named by Dr. Focke, and in pp. 204—6 of the same volume fully described by Mr. Briggs ; R. dumnoni- 71 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL ensis^ Bab. {R. incurvatus, Bab., FL Plym. p. 113), described as a new species by Professor Babington in Journ. Bot. 1890, pp. 338, 339. These were both unknown for the British Isles until discovered in the neighbourhood of Plymouth, although now ascertained to be rather widely distributed in Great Britain and Ireland. R. dumnoniefisis, still undetected on the continent of Europe, has also been found at the Lizard and in the Channel Islands. Among the other rare brambles discovered by Mr. Briggs within twelve miles of Plymouth on the Cornish side may be specially men- tioned R. affinis var. Briggsianus, Rogers {R. affinis, FL Plym.)\ R. leu- candrus, Focke [R. hirtifolius^ FL Plym) ; R. ramosus, Briggs [Journ. Bot. 1 871, pp. 330-2); R. sihaticus, Wh. & N. [Journ. Bot. 1890, pp. 274-6); R. oigocladus, Muell. & Lefv. [R. fusco-ater, FL Plym.). About six additional forms have been observed in other parts of east Cornwall, raising the number now known for that division of the county to 36 or 37. The brambles of west Cornwall are much more imperfectly known. About 28 forms in all have been recorded for this division, but most of them are reported from one or two localities only. Of these 5 are at present unknown in east Cornwall. So the county as a whole may now be credited with a total of about 42 forms, a number which will prob- ably be increased considerably by further research. In the west thus far the Penzance neighbourhood seems to have been most closely worked. Thus of the 5 Cornish forms at present peculiar to this division 4 come from that neighbourhood, viz. R. ne- moralis, P. J. Muell.; R. clivicola, A. Ley; R. amplificatus^ Lees, and R. adornatus, P. J. Muell.; while the fifth, R. dasyphyllus, Rogers [R. pallidus^ Bab., not of Wh. & N.), has been recorded from woods at Falmouth and Mawnan. This last form, which is far the most abundant glandular bramble in the north, is very thinly scattered in the south of England. MENTHtE Two only of the species enumerated in the London Catalogue are wanting from Cornwall, viz. M. gracilis and pratensis. In the following table of distribution the numerals correspond with the divisions of the county. Mentha rotundifolia, Huds. i-8 b. subglabra (Baker). 3, 5, 6 — alopecuroides, Hull. 3, 5 c. citrata (Ehrh.). 7, 8 — longifolia, Huds. 1-3, 5-8 Mentha sativa, Linn. 1-8 b. nemorosa. 4, 5 b. paludosa (Sole). 1-3, 6-8 c. mollissima (Borkh.). 2-4. c. subglabra, Baker. 2, 4-7 — viridis, Linn. 2, 3, 5-8 — rubra, Sm. 8 b. crispa. Hook. 5, 6 — gentilis, Linn. 2-4, 6-8 — piperita, Linn. c. Pauliana (F. Schultz.). 5, 6 a. ofRcinalis (Hull). 1-8 — arvensis, Linn. 1-8 b. vulgaris (Sole), i, 3, 5, 7, 8 b. Nummularia (Schreb.). 3 — pubescens, Willd. e. agrestis (Sole), i, 4 a. palustris (Sole). 5, 7, 8 — Pulegium, Linn. 2-8 b. hircina (Hull). 5 b. erecta, Syme. 3, $-8 — hirsuta, Huds. 1-8 72 BOTANY FILICES, EQUISETACEiE, LYCOPODIACEiE, MARSILEACE^E The ferns of Cornwall run into a goodly number. A few of them are very local and scarce, and one or two have only a single station against them. The controversy about Trtchomanes radicans at Tintagel has long been silenced, most botanists being satisfied of the bona Jides of the record ; but whether it was a native or a naturalized subject must always remain a matter of conjecture, as the plant was soon lost to the locality. Adiantum Capillus-Veneris cannot much longer hold out against the phytological plunderer. One by one its old stations have had to be expunged from county lists until the ' irreducible minimum ' is nearly reached. In the subjoined table where it has been known to occur rather than where it may now be found is indicated. 'Equisetum syhaticum was found on Cornish soil for the first time nearly twenty years ago. It is restricted to a small area in the parish of Week St. Mary. The other four species of Equisetum are generally distributed over the county. FiLiCEs Lastraea dilatata, Presl. Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm. I, 3-8 l^- tanacetifolia, Moore, 3, 6 — unilaterale, Bory. I, 2, 4, 5 — aemula, Brackenbridge. 1-8 [Trichomanes radicans, Sw.]. i Polypodium vulgare, Linn. 1-8 Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, Linn. I, 4-6, 8 ^. serratum, Willd. Pteris aquilina, Linn. 1-8 c. Cornubiense, Moore. 6 Cryptogramme crispa, R. Br. 8 Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fee. 1,4,6 Lomaria spicant, Desv. 1-8 — polypodioides, Fee. 4, 6, 8 Asplenium lanceolatum, Huds. 1-8 Osmunda regalis, Linn. 1-8 c. microdon, Moore. 8 Ophioglossum vulgatum, Linn, i, 2, 4-8 — Adiantum-nigrum, Linn. 1-8 b. polyphyllum, Braun. 8 b. obtusum. Kit, & Milde. 5, 6 Botrychium Lunaria, Sw, i, 2, 4, 8 d. acutum. Poll, 6 Equisetace/e — marinum, Linn, 1-8 Equisetum maximum, Lam. i, 6-8 — Trichomanes, Linn. 1-8 — arvense, Linn. 1-8 — Ruta-muraria, Linn. 1-8 _ sylvaticum, Linn, i Athyrium Filix-foemina, Roth. 1-8 palustre Linn. 1-8 Ceterach officinarum, Willd. 1-8 ^^ polystachyum, auct. 5, 6 Scolopendrium vulgare, Adans. 1-8 ^_ nudum, Newm. I, 3, 6, 8 Polystichum lobatum, Presl. 4, 8 _ Hmosum, Sm. 1-6, 8 b. aculeatum, Syme. 2, 4-8 ' 3^ fluviatile (Linn.). 2, 4-6 — angulare, Presl. 1—8 Lastrxa Oreopteris, Presl. 1-4,6-8 , ,. Lycopodiace^ — Filix-mas, Presl. 1-8 Lycopodium Selago, Linn. 3, 4, 7 f. palacea, Moore. 1,2,4 — inundatum Linn. 3,6-8 — spinulosa, Presl, 1-4, 6-8 — davatum, Lmn, 1-3, 6, 7 d. glandulosa (Moore, ex p.), i Marsileace.^ — dilatata, Presl. 1-8 Pilularia globulifera, Linn. 4, 6-8 CHARACE^ Before the final word can be written about the Characece of Corn- wall, a great deal of systematic field work must be done. Strictly speaking, less than one-third of the county has been thoroughly searched. From the Tamar to Redruth there is an unbroken stretch of practically virgin ground for this particular class of plants, and the well-known fact that the unexpected always attends the movements of the Chara hunter, and that as recently as 1898 in Nitella hyalina Cornwall gave Great I n ^o A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Britain a brand new species, should suffice to arouse the interest of a few resident botanists. From the eastern boundary of the county to Falmouth there are only five records for so common a species as Chara fragilis, and from Bridgerule to Hayle, a good two-thirds of the county, C. vulgaris, with three of its varieties, has only eight recorded stations. The appended table shows that not a single Chara has been reported from the Fowey division, and that only one species is known to occur in the Lower Tamar area. No one can accept this as a correct index of the Chara flora of those parts. As a British plant C. fragifera, Durieu, is quite unknown outside the Lizard and Land's End divisions. Around Helston, on the Lizard Downs, near Marazion, on Chy-an-hal and Hale Ager Moors, west of Penzance, and on Tresco, one of the Scilly Islands, it can always be re- lied on if the summer is not an abnormally dry one. C. polyacantha, Braun, and C. baltica var. affinis, H. & J. Groves, are confined to a restricted area west of the Lizard Head. C. hispida, Linn., although generally distributed in other parts of the country, has only been found at Swanpool near Falmouth and at Kynance near the Lizard. Nitella hyalina, Agardh, as already stated, is one of the rarest of British plants, a few square yards in the Loe Pool representing the area of its known occurrence in the British Isles. N. gracilis, Agardh, was reported for the Goonhilly Down in the Phytologist, 1845, but in the absence of voucher specimens and recent confirmation the statement must be accepted with caution. Those were days when the Characece of this country were but little understood, and it is almost certain some other species, probably N. opaca, was mistaken for N. gracilis. Chara ffagilis, Desv. i, 4, 6-8 var. barbata, Gant. 8 var. capUlacea, Coss. & G. 8 — fr^g'fif'^j Durieu. 7, 8 — aspera, Willd. 6, 7 var. desmacantha, H. & J. G. — polyacantha, Braun. 7 — baltica var. affinis, H. & J. G. — hispida, Linn. 6, 7 — vulgaris, Linn, i, 5, 7, 8 Chara vulgaris, Linn. var, longibracteata, Kuetz. 5, var. atrovirens (Lowe). 8 var. melanopyrena, H. & J. G. — canescens, Loisel. 6, 7 Nitella gracilis, Agardh. 7 ( ?) — translucer.s, Agardh. 4-6, 8 — fiexilis, Agardh. i, 4-8 — opaca, Agardh. i, 2, 6, 7 — hyalina, Agardh, 7 MOSSES [Musci) Cornwall is exceptionally favoured by its physical conditions for the growth of mosses. The moist air, warmed by the Gulf Stream, conduces to the growth of many southern species that find here con- ditions similar to those which obtain in the south-west of Ireland ; and a few south European species have in Cornwall their northern limit. On the highlands of the Bodmin Moors a number of subalpine species grow, and on the calcareous sand of Hayle and St. Minver, and the serpentine formatio-n of the Lizard, others grow which are absent from 74 BOTANY the granite and clay slate. A comparatively small portion of the county has been explored for mosses, but the neighbourhood of Bodmin, in the eastern half, has been thoroughly examined by Mr. R. V. Tellam, who pub- lished a list of species in the 'Transactions of the Penzance Natural History Society^ new ser. ii. 354 (1887-8), and the neighbourhood of Mount Edgcumbe, Saltash, and Torpoint, on the Cornish side of the Tamar, by Messrs. F. Brent and E. M. Holmes, whose records are given in vol. iii. of the Annual Reports and Transactions of the Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society. The country around Penzance was carefully searched for many years by Mr. W. Curnow and Dr. Ralfs, and latterly by Mr. E. D. Marquand. A list of the species found by these botanists was given in the Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society^ new ser. i. 117, 422, including a few others found by Messrs. E. M. Holmes, W. Mitten and W. B. Waterfall. Still later a few have been added by Mr. H. N. Dixon. Dixon and Jameson's Handbook of British Mosses has been followed throughout in the lists here given, with the exception of the Sphagnacece, for which Horrell, The European Sphagnacea (after Warnstorf) has been utilized. The rarer species met with in the county are indicated by an asterisk preceding the name, and the very common species, 93 in number exclusive of varieties that occur in most counties, are not given in this list. The mosses characteristic of high moorland or subalpine districts are naturally fewer in number than in Devonshire, where the great extent of Dartmoor offers better conditions for their growth than the limited and somewhat warmer Bodmin Moors, which form its counterpart in Cornwall. Of the rarer species Campylopus introfexus is usually found on granite near the sea ; Tortula canescens on sunny, rocky declivities ; Philo- notis rigida in deep sheltered spots or glens. Hookeria Icete-virens has been found nowhere else in Great Britain, and very sparingly in Ireland. Eurhynchium strigosum for many years was known to occur only near Truro in this country, and the locality has not been refound. Ditrichum subulatum occurs very sparingly near Truro and Saltash, and in a few spots in Devonshire on the opposite side of the Tamar, where it reaches apparently its northern limit. Fissidens serrulatus is a very rare Euro- pean species and has not been found north of Cornwall, where only the male plant has been detected as yet. F, polyphyllus is also very rare, but has been found in Devon, north Wales, and Ireland. Epipte- rygium Tozeri seems to occur more abundantly on a yellowish clay-slate, which also Tortula cuneifolia^ Schistostega osmundacea and Ditrichum subula- tum seem to prefer, but it is rarely found in fruit. Species preceded by a note of interrogation, although recorded by other botanists, have not been seen by the writer, who cannot guarantee their correctness. The rarest species are marked by an asterisk. 75 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL SPHAGNACEi^ Sphagnum balticum, Russ. Penzance — cuspidatum, Russ & Warnst. Rough Tor var. plumosum, Nees. Trungle Moor var. falcatum, Russ. Penzance — cymbifolium, Warnst. Rough Tor var. fusco-flavescens, Russ. Penzance — fimbriatum, Wils. Helmentor Moor^ Penzance — fuscum, Klinggr. Penzance — *Girgensohnii, Russ. CardinhaWy Pen- zance — *Gravetii, Russ. Helmentor — inundatum, Warnst. Withiel — molluscum, Bruch. Halgaver Moor^ Bodmin — obesum, Schp. Rough Tor — papillosum, Ldb. Halgaver Moor^ Bodmin var. normale, Warnst. Penzance f. conferta, Warnst. » Helmentor — quinquefarium, Warnst. Moor^ Penzance — rubellum, Wils. Halgaver Moor^ Bod- min var. flavum, Klinggr. Penzance — rufescens, Warnst. Carn Galva Moor — subnitens, Russ. & Warnst. Cardinham^ W.C. var. flavescens, Warnst. Penzance ; 5/. Mary's^ Scilly — subsecundum, Nees. Helmentor AnDREACEjE Andreaea petrophila, Ehrh. Rough Tor — Rothii, W. & M. Gunwin Moor var. hamata, Lindb. Helmentor var. falcata, Lindb. Madron TETRAPHIDACEi^ Tetraphis pellucida, Hedw. Lanivet^ Car- dinhamy Penzance POLYTRICHACE^ Polytrichum aloides, Hedw. var. Dicksoni, Wallm. Roche — *alpinum, L. Roche^ Bodmin^ Chyan- dour commune, L. var. perigoniale, B. & S. Halgaver Moor^ Bodmin var. minus, Weis. Roche — formosum, Hedw. Bodmin^ Trevayler — gracile, Dicks. Chyandour — nanum. Neck. var. longisetum, Lindb. Bodmin^ Tre- vayler — urnigerum, L. Roche^ Bodmin^ Chyan- dour BUXBAUMIACE^ Diphyscium foliosum, Mohr. Cardinham, Helmentor^ Chyandour DiCRANACEiB Archidium *alternifolium, Schimp. Hustyn Down, Penzance Pleuridium axillare, Lindb. Bodmin^ Roche^ Penzance Ditrichum flexicaule, Hpe. St. Minver^ Sennen — homomallum, Hpe. Bodmin^ Newlyn — *subulatum, Hpe. Saltashy Truro Rhabdoweissia fugax, B. & S. St. Breock^ Boscastle Cynodontium Bruntoni, B. & S. Hel- mentor Dichonodontium flavescens, Lindb. Camel River — pellucidum, Schp. Camel River Dicranella cerviculata, Schp. Bodmin^ Helmentor — *crispa, Hedw. Penzance — heteromalla, Schp. Bodmin var. stricta, Schp. „ var. interrupta, B. & S. St. Breward — rufescens, Schp. Withiel — * squarrosa, Schrad. Penzance Dicranoweissia cirrhata, Lindb. Roche Rock Campylopus atrovirens, De Not. Bodmin — brevipilus, B. & S. Penzance — flexuosus, Brid. Helmentor^ Penzance var. uliginosus, Ren. Boswarva Moor^ Madron — fragilis, B. & S. Bodmin^ Penzance — *introflexus, Brid. Penzance Dicranum Bonjeani, De Not. Halgaver Moor, Penzance var. juniperifolium, Braithw. Roscorla^ St. Austell — majus, Turn. Bodmin^ Carn Galva — *Scottianum, Turn. Rough Tor^ Carn Galva FiSSIDENTACEii: Fissidens adiantoides, Hedw. Bodmin^ Tremethick Moor — crassipes, Wils. Halgaver Moor^ Bod- min — decipiens, De Not. Withiel^ Trevay- ler — *exilis, Hedw. Egloshayle — osmundoides, Hedw. Boscastle, Withiel — *polyphyllus, Wils. Dozmare Pool, Penzance — *serrulatus, Brid. Penzance — *tamarindifolius, Wils. Truro — viridulus, Wahl. Padstow, Bodmin, Penzance var. Lylei, Wils. Withiel, Trungle Moor, Penzance GRIMMIACEiB Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw. var. rivularis, W. & M. "| St. Minver, var. gracilis, W. & M. j Bodmin 76 BOTANY Grimmiace^ {continued) Grimmia decipiens, Lindb. Endellion — *leucophaea, Grev. Newquay^ Tintagel^ Whitsand Bay — maritima, Turn. Seaton^ Tintagel^ St. Minver^ Trefusis^ Penzance — *Muhlenbeckii, Schp. Kynance — *patens, B. & S. Bodmin Moors, Brown Willy, Penzance — *subsquarrosa, Wils. Cam Galva — trichophylla, Grev. St. Cleer, WithieJ^ St. Minver, Ruthern, Penzance Racomitrium aciculare, Brid. var. denticulatum, B. & S. Camel River, Bodmin — *fasciculare, Brid. JVithiel, Helmentor, Penzance, Mill Bottom — heterostichum, Brid. var. alopecurum, Hub. Rough Tor var. gracilescens, B. & S. Helmentor — *protensum, Braun. „ — sudeticum, B. & S. Cheesewring, St. Cleer Ptychomitrium polyphyllum, Furnr. Wit- hiel near Bodmin Helmentor, Pen- en- Hedw^igia ciliata, Ehrh. zance ToRTULACEiE Acaulon muticum, C. M. Roscorla, St. Austell Phascum curvicolle, Ehrh. Gossmoor Pottia *asperula, Mitt. JVithiel, Falmouth — crinita, Wils. Endellion, Penzance — Heimii, Furnr. Looe, Marazion — Starkeana, CM. Slades Bridge, Eglos- hayle — *viridifolia, Mitt. St. John's, Bodmin — *Wilsoni, B. & S. Looe, St. Minver Tortula ambigua, Angstr. Wadebridge, Penzance atrovirens, Lindb. Seaton, Truro canescens, Mont. Penlee Point (the only Cornish locality knovv^n) — cuneifolia, Roth. Wadebridge, Truro — intermedia, Berk. St. Minver, Lelant — papillosa, Wils. St. Johns — ruraliformis, Dixon. Hayle Sands, Penzance Barbula cylindrica, Schp. Bodmin, St. Minver, Penzance var. vinealis, Braithw. Saltash — Hornschuchiana, Schultz. Penzance — *recurvifolia, Schp. Hayle — sinuosa, Braithw^. Bodmin, Sancreed — tophacea, Mitt. St. Minver, Penzance Leptodontium flexifolium, Hpe. Penzance Weissia mucronata, B. & S. Withiel — tortilis, C. M. Marazion — verticillata, Brid. St. Minver, Pen- zance — mutabile, Bruch. St. Min- enzance St. Min- Withiel ToRTULACE^ {continued) Trichostomum crispulum, Bruch zance — flavovirens, Bruch. Saltash, Gerrans — *inclinatum, Dixon. St. Minver, Ger- rans, Newlyn Cliff Looe, St. Minver var. littorale, Dixon. St. Minver Hayle (in fruit) Pleurochaste squarrosa, Lindb. ver, Hayle Cinclidotus fontinaloides, P. B ENCALYPTACEiE Encalypta streptocarpa, Hedw^. ver ORTHOTRICHACEiE Zygodon *conoideus, H. & T — Mougeotii, B. & S. Colquite Wood, St. Mabyn Ulota Bruchii, Hornsch. Dunmeer Wood, Bodmin — crispa, Brid. Withiel var. intermedia, Dixon. St. Tudy var. crispula, Hamm. Bodmin — Hutchinsiae, Hamm. Bodmin Moors, Brown Willy — phyllantha, Brid. Withiel, Newlyn Orthotrichum Lyellii, H. & T. Dunmeer Valley, Bodmin — *pallens, Bruch. Minney, Madron — pulchellum, Sm. Withiel var. Winteri, Braithw. Penzance — rivulare, Turn. Bodmin, Lizard — stramineum, Hornsch, Penzance — tenellum, Bruch. Bodmin Moors SCHISTOSTEGACE^ Schistostega osmundacea, Mohr. Mount Edgcumbe, Penzance Splachnace^ Splachnum ampuUaceum, Linn. Withiel FuNARIACE^ Funaria *calcarea, Wahl. Endellion — ericetorum, Dixon, var. Curnowii, ' Davies. Penzance — fascicularis, Schp. Seaton, Penzance — *Templetoni, Sm. Newlyn Cliff Bartramiace^ Philonotis *rigida, Brid. Morvah, Mouse- hole Breutelia arcuata, Schp. Withiel, Hel- mentor BrYACEjE Leptobryum pyriforme, Wils. Helmentor Moor, Redruth Webera albicans, Schp. Anthony, Withiel — annotina, Schwgr. Chyandour Moor — elongata, Schweegr. Lanivet Epipterygium *Tozeri, Schp. Saltash, Newlyn Cliff Zieria *julacea, Schp. Penzance (in fruit) 77 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Brvace^ {continued) Bryum alpinum, Huds. Whit$and Bay, Boscastle var. meridionale, Schp. Lands End — *Donianum, Grev. St. MinveVy New- lyn Cliff (in fruit) — erythrocarpum, Schwgr. Lanivet^ Pen- zance — filiforme, Dick,, var. juliforme, Dixon. Carbis Bay — inclinatum, Bland. St. Minver^ Le- lant — intermedium, Brid. Bodmin^ Hayle — murale, Wils. Bodmin^ Newlyn Cliff — obconicum, Hornsch. Penvose^ St. Tudy — pallens, Sw. Lanivet, Redruth — pallescens, Schleich. Truro — pseudo-triquetrum, Schwgr., var. com- pactum, B. & S. Halgaver Moor^ Bodmin — roseum, Schreb. Endellion^ St. Breock, Bodmin (in fruit) — torquescens, B. & S. Bodmin, IVade- bridge Mnium cuspidatum, Hedw. St. Minver^ Long Rock near Marazion — rostratum, Schrad. St. IVenn — undulatum, Hedw. Bodmin (in fruit) FoNTINALACEi^ Fontinalis antipyretica, Linn. St. Keyne's Well, Loe Pool var. gigantea, SuU. JVithiel var. gracilis, Schp. Land's End — squamosa, Linn. Fowey River var. Curnowii, Card. Penzance CRYPHi^ACE^ Cryphaea heteromalla, Mohr. St. Minver Neckerace^ Neckera crispa, Hedw. St. Breock, Pen- zance — pumila, Hedw. Anthony, Penzance var. Philippeana, Milde. JVithiel Homalia trichomanoides, Brid. Bodmin, Penzance HoOKERIACEi^ Hookeria *laetevirens, H. & T. Mousehole (in fruit) Pterygophyllum lucens, Brid. Mount Edgcumbe, Penzance Leucodontace/e Leucodon sciuroides, Schwgr. St. Minver Pterogonium gracile, Sw. IVithiel, Tol- carne Antitrichia curtipendula, Brid. Rough Tor Porotrichum alopecurum, Mitt. Bodmin, Penzance Leskeace^ Leskea polycarpa, Ehrh. Boscarne, Bodmin, Newlyn Saltash, St. & S. Bodmin, Tolcarne Bodmin Bodmin, Castle Hor- Leskeace^ (continued) Leptodon Smithii, Mohr Tudy Heterocladium heteropterum, B Helmentor, Penzance Thuidium *abietinum, B. & S. Lelant HvPNACEiE Climacium dendroides, W. & M. Truro Penzance Orthothecium *intricatum, B. & S. Pen- zance Camptothecium lutescens, B. & S. St Minver, Hayle Brachythecium glareosum, B. & S. Nan- stallan Downs, Bodmin — illecebrum, De Not. Torpoint, Mouse- hole — plumosum, B. & S near Penzance — populeum, B. & S — rivulare, B. & S. neck — *salebrosum, B. & S. Mousehole var. palustre, Schp. Connor Downs near Hayle Hyocomium flagellare, B. & S. Bodmin, Trevayler Eurhynchium circinnatum, B. & S. St. Minver (in fruit), Hayle — crassinervium, B. & S. Fowey, Pen- zance — hians, Lesq. & James. Penzance — megapolitanum, Milde. St. Breock, Hayle — murale, Milde. Penzance — piliferum, B. & S. IVithiel, Cardinham — pumilum, Schp. Cardinham, Newlyn — *speciosum, Schp. Bodmin, Newlyn — *strigosum, B. & S. Truro (the only British locality known) — *Teesdalei, Schp. Penzance — tenellum, Milde. Wadebridge Plagiothecum Borrerianum, Spr. Bodmin, Penzance — sylvaticum, B. & S. Mount Edgcumbe, Penzance — undulatum, B. & S. Rough Tor, St. Breock ? Amblystegium confervoides, B. & S. Bod- min — filicinum, De Not. Bodmin var. Vallisclausae, Dixon. St. Minver, Penzance — fluviatile, B. Sc S. Camel River, Bod- min Hypnum aduncum, Hedw. Chyandour Moor (in fruit) var. Kneiffii, Schp. St. Minver — chrysophyllum, Brid. St. Germans, Lelant 78 BOTANY HyPNACEii: (continued) Hypnum commutatum, Hedw. Penzance — cordifolium, Hedw. Chyandour Moor — *elodes, Spr. Hayle — exannulatum, Giimb. Bodmin^ Chyan- dour Moor var. purpurascens, Dixon. Land's End — *falcatum, Brid. Penzance — *imponens, Hedw. Helland — lycopodioides, Schwgr. Hayle Kimbra near Lizard — ochraceum, Turn. Tokarne — palustre, Linn. fVithiel^ Trengwainton — Patientiae, Ldb. Launceston^ Truro — revolvens, Sw. Bodmin^ Chyandour Moor var. Cossoni, Ren. Penzance Hypnace^ {continued) *Hypnum sarmentosum, Wahl. Bodmin^ Trungle Moor — scorpioides, Linn. Lanivet^ Penzance — Sendtneri, Schp. Halgaver Moor^ Bodmin — stellatum, Schreb. thick Moor Withiel^ Treme- stramineum, Dicks. gwainton uncinatum, Hedw, Roscorby Tren- Launceston^ St. Minver Hylocomium brevirostre, B. & S, Bodmin^ Cardinham — loreum, B. & S. Bodmin^ Helland LIVERWORTS {Hepatica) Although the Cornish list of Hepaticae is not so rich as that of Devonshire, it contains some very rare species not recorded for the latter county. The rarest of these is perhaps Scalia Hookeri^ found by Mr. W. Curnow on Chy-an-hal Moor, whence it has since disappeared. This species had previously only been found in the New Forest. It grows intermixed with Aneura mult'ifida and is best recognized by its fleshy rooting base. Petalophyllum Ralfsii (first discovered by Dr. Ralfs) is another, less rare, but by no means common, occurring usually in the damp hollows of sand dunes in company with Pallavicinia Hibernica and Fossombronia angulosa. It was formerly found between Loggans Mill and Treeve, Phillack, and between Hayle Causeway and St. Erth, but the locality was subsequently destroyed. It has since been found on sand flats at Gwithian, and it is hoped that Pallavicinia Hibernica var. Wilson- iana^ which was destroyed in the former localities, may again be detected elsewhere. The rare Lejeunia calyptrifolia, formerly found at Trevayler Bottom, has now disappeared. Several species not commonly found fertile occur in that state in Cornwall, of which may be mentioned Plagiochila asplenioides, Lunularia vulgaris, Kantia arguta, 'Jungermannia injiata, Lepidozia setacea, Anthoceros Icevis, A. punctatus, and Metzgeria furcata. On the other hand some common species appear to be rare, or infertile : Marchantia polymorpha and Reboulia hemispharica are rare, and Fegatella conica has not been noticed in fructification, although the male receptacles have been found occasionally. There is little doubt that care- ful search along the damp rocks near the sea would reveal several more species, especially those of a southern type. Targionia Michelii should certainly occur, as it is not infrequent around Plymouth Sound. Mr. Holmes also found a spiny Riccia, probably R. ciliifera. Link, on cliffs near Tintagel. It has been identified as R. tumida by Mrs. Tindall, but it is not purplish underneath as in that species. Riccia crystalhna is not unlikely to occur on marshes near the sea. Dumortiera irrigua, which occurs in Devon, near Ilfracombe and Torquay, should also be found in Cornwall by streams near the sea. Mr. W. Curnow paid especial 79 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL attention to this group of plants for many years, and his herbarium, in the form of a large album, now in the museum which Mr. W. E. Bailey has given to his native town, Mansfield, is probably the most perfectly mounted collection of British Hepaticae ever made. From the delicacy of their fronds and the ephemeral nature of their delicate hyaline fruitstalks, they rarely retain their natural appearance in herbaria ; but Mr. Curnow's specimens are almost as perfect and recognizable as artistic illustrations in printed works. Many of them were culti- vated on damp slate so as to free them from the soil, v/hich adheres closely to their delicate rootlets under ordinary circumstances. No such care- fully mounted collection exists even in our national herbaria. The classification and nomenclature in the following list are those of Pearson's Hepaticae of the British Isles. The Hepaticae are well represented in Cornwall so far as the sub- alpine species are concerned, but alpine species and those favouring lime- stone are noticeably absent from the list. The rarer species are indicated by an asterisk prefixed to the name. Common species omitted from this list are fourteen in number. JUNGERMANNIACEiE Frullania *fragili folia, Tayl. Croft West^ Kenwyn ; Gurnard's Heady Carn Galva^ Sci/Iy Isles — *germana, Tayl. Mullion Cove — microphylla, Pears. Lizard j St. Mary's^ Sci/Iy Isles — Tamarisci, Dum. Penzance var. cornubica, Carr. Tredavoe^ Paul Jubula *Hutchinsiae, Dum. Morvah Lejeunia calyptrifolia, Dum. Trevayler — Mackaii, Spreng. Gulval Carn^ Lizard — minutissima, Spruce. Bologgas, Trevay- ler Porella platyphylla, Lindb. Clicker Tor {E.C.)y Penzance — Thuja, Moore. Lizard^ Morvah — *pinnata, Lindb. Clicker Tor^ Men- heniot *var. torva, Lindb. Penzance Blepharostoma trichophylla, Dum. Tre- vello Carn, Morvah (a stout form) Lepidozia *cupressina, Carr. Carn Galva Trichocolea tomentella, Nees. Portreath, Chyandour Bazzania trilobata, Carr. & Pears. Carn Galva Kantia arguta, Carr. & Pears. Penzance — Sprengelii, Pears. Penzance Cephalozia bicuspidata, Dum, Tredavoe, Paul var. viridis. "New Bridge, Penzance — byssacea, Dum. Morvah, Kerris Moor — connivens, Spruce. Carn Galva, Mor- vah *Cephalozia dentata, Lindb. Carbis Bay — divaricata, Dum. Redruth, Penzance var. Curnow^ii, Slater. Kynance — *Jackii, Limpr. Hayle, Carbis Bay — *Lammersiana, Spr. Marazion Marsh — Sphagni, Spr. Trengwainton, Treme- thick Moor, Carnagwidden, Gulval — *stellulifera, Tayl. MS. Redruth, Lizard Scapania compacta, Dum. Kerris Moor, Chyandour Moor — purpurascens, Tayl. Weir Head, Ta- mar River, Bodmin, Gurnard's Head — resupinata, Dum. Trevayler, Trungle Moor — *uliginosa, Dum. Gurnard's Head, St. — irrigua, Nees. Marazion Marsh, Chy- an-hal — undulata, Dum. E.C., Bologgas, Treng- wainton Lophocolea *spicata, Tayl. St. "Just Chiloscyphus polyanthus, Dum. Trembath Mills, Stable Hobba, Skennels Bridge, Morvah Plagiochila asplenioides, Dum. Chyune Grove (in fruit), Paul — exigua, Tayl. Carn Brea, Carn Galva — punctata, Tayl. „ „ — spinulosa, Dum. Tredavoe, Carn Galva — tridenticulata, Tayl. Carn Galva Jungermannia affinis, Dum, Seaton, Hayle Causeway, Lelant Ferry, Portreath, Carbis Bay — barbata, Schreb, Trevayler So BOTANY Jungermannia crenulata, Sm. Redruth^ Chacewater^ Marazion Marsh — gracilis, Schleich. Penzance — inflata, Huds. Truro^ Marazion Marsh — pumila, With. Truro^ Helston — quinquedentata, Carr. h Pears. Truro^ Penzance — riparia, Dum. Carbis Bay^ St. Ives — turbinata, Raddi. Hayle Causeway^ Lelant Bay — ventricosa, Dicks. Redruth^ Penzance Saccogyna viticulosa, Dum. Trevayler Nardia emarginata, Carr. Newlyn Cliff' — *hyalina, Spruce. Lower Ninnes^Madron Scalia Hookeri, Carr. Chy-an-hal Moor Fossombronia *angulosa, Raddi. Tre/issicky Kymyal Cliff, Mousehole (in fruit), Lamorna^ Hayle, Land's End Petalophyllum *Ralfsii, Gottsche. Near Phillack and near St. Erth, Gwithian Pellia calycina, Nees. Marazion^ Newlyn Cliff Pallavicinia*hibernica, Hook., var. Wilson- iana, Gottsche. Near Phillack, Hayle Sands Blasia pusilla, Linn. Tremhath, Chy-an-hal^ Trungle Moor, Madron, Gurnard's Head Metzgeria furcata, Linn. Penzance var. aeruginosa, Hook. W .C. Aneura *ambrosioides, Nees — bipinnata. Mitt. Mousehole — multifida, Dum. Mousehole, W.C. — pinguis, Dum. Hayle, Lands End Lunularia vulgaris, Mich. Castle Horneck, Trengwainton (in fruit) Reboulia hemisphaerica, Raddi. Paul Hill, Chyune Hill Fegatella conica, Tayl. Hayle Riccia glauca, Linn. W.C. — *bifurca, Hoifn. Penzance — *ciliifera, Link. Trebarwith near Tin- tagel — *glaucescens, Carr. Newlyn Cliff — *sorocarpa, Bisch. Chyune Grove, Paul — *tumida, Link. Penzance Anthoceros *laevis, Linn. Stable Hobha, Trungle — *punctata, Linn. W.C, MARINE ALG^ The earliest contributor to a knowledge of the Marine Algas of Corn- wall was probably Mr. J. Stackhouse of Pendarves, who, at the end of the seventeenth century published a work on Marine Algae entitled Nereis Britannica, containing numerous illustrations. It is stated in the Biblio- theca Cornubiensis that Mr. Stackhouse built Acton Castle for the purpose of pursuing his researches on Marine Algae, and he was probably the first to experiment on the propagation of algs from their spores. In the early part of the last century Miss Warren of Flushing paid much attention to this group of plants, and sent many specimens to the late Professor Harvey of Dublin, whose Phycologica Britannica still remains the classical work on British Marine Algae. Desirous of recognizing the valuable assistance he received from her he honoured her name by giving it to a species which he believed to be new, viz. Schizosiphon Warrenice, but which, unfortunately, owing to the recently accepted laws of priority of nomenclature, has been altered to Rivularia Biasolettiana, Menegh., a name previously given to it by an Italian botanist. Dr. Herman Becker, F.L.S., also studied the marine flora of Cornwall and added to it the very rare Desmarestia Dresnayi, Lamour, which he dredged off the Lizard in December 1864. In more recent years Dr. W. P. Cocks, late of Plymouth and Falmouth, and the Rev. W. S. Hore explored that portion of Cornwall between Mount Edgcumbe and Saltash. Mr. Henry Goode worked the same district and also the neighbourhood of Penzance in west Cornwall, where he was fortunate enough to meet with the rare Carpomitra Cabrera and Stenogramme interrupta, thrown up after storms. Mr. F. W. Smith for many years collected marine algae at Falmouth, but unfortunately did not examine them microscopically, I 81 II A HISTORY OF CORNWALL nor did Mr. H. Goode, and as the two gentlemen exchanged specimens, and the latter obtained many foreign species, which were not always labelled with their localities, some little doubt pertains to some of the specimens distributed by Mr. Smith. For many years Dr. J. Ralfs, a most accurate botanist, explored the marine flora of west Cornwall, in company with Mr. E. D. Marquand and Mr. W. Curnow. Mr. A. Henwood Teague for a short time collected algas in Mount's Bay and added the new British species Peyssonelia atropurpurea^ Crn. Mr. R. V. Tellam has added many species to the Cornish flora, and not a few of the records from Saltash, Fowey, Looe, Pridmouth, Par, Falmouth and Pad- stow are the result of his long continued and persevering research. Mr. E. M. Holmes has also visited Mount Edgcumbe, Torpoint, Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, the Lizard, Penzance, Padstow, Newquay and Bos- castle, and is therefore able to confirm many of the Cornish records from these localities. Some of the rarities found in these places have been issued in the ten fasciculi of Holmes' Algce Britannica rariores. In the following list these are indicated by the letter * H ' followed by their number in the fasciculi. The algas of the Scilly Islands have been but little investigated. Mr. Jesse Robbins, formerly of Kew Gardens, collected at Tresco in 1885, where he found the rare Gigartina pistillata. The late Mr. E. George visited the islands in 1899 and 1900, and discovered a species new to science, which has been named after him Rhodophysema Georgii by Dr. E. A. L. Batters. Another interesting species found by him in the same islands is a species described by Kiitzing under the name of Phycolapathum crispatum. This species had been lost sight of as a European plant for nearly fifty years until its rediscovery by Mr. George. It has since been referred to another genus by Dr. Batters as Punctaria crispata. One of the most interesting discoveries made in this county was that of a Japanese seaweed, found by the late Mr. T. H. BufFham, F.L.S., amongst rejectamenta at Falmouth. It is furnished with remark- able hooked branchlets, by the development of which into narrowing rings the plant attaches itself firmly to other algs, and continues its growth. In 1900 Mr. Holmes in company with Mr. George found the plant actually growing in considerable quantity at Falmouth, and the previous year it was found by Mr. George at Shanklin ; so that the plant has evidently become naturalized in this country, and is the first instance of a naturalized alga on record, although there is a possibility that Nito- phyllum venulosum^ which Mr. Holmes found growing at Whitsand Bay, but elsewhere known only from the Adriatic, as well as Stenogramme interrupta dredged at Plymouth, Penzance and Wicklow in Ireland, but which is a native of the Australian seas, may have been naturalized many years ago in this country. The species at present restricted to Cornwall but which may possibly be hereafter found in other counties are : — Ectocarpus Stilophoras, Cm., f. cervicornis, Nitophyllum venulosum, Zan. Batt. Punctaria crispata, Batt. Hymenoclonium serpens, Batt. Rhizoclonium riparium, var. Casparyi, Nemastoma marginifera, J. Ag. Holm. & Batt. 82 BOTANY Of these the first was detected by the late Mr. T. H. Buffham ; the second was recognized as new to Britain by Mr. Holmes, and identified as Callithammon serpens^ Crn. by Dr. Batters, and placed by him in a new genus, Hymenoc ionium. The third was detected by Professor W. G. Farlow of Harvard University amongst specimens sent him from Ply- mouth. The fourth was described as new by Mr. Holmes under the name of N. thysanorrhizans^ but was subsequently found to be an Adriatic species previously described by Zanardini under the name of N. venulosum. Elsewhere in Europe it is only known from that sea. The fifth, Punctaria crispata^ was found bythe late Mr. E. George, and the sixth by the late Dr. Caspary. The general character of the Cornish Marine Algas is that of the algal flora of the north and central French coasts, the influence of the Gulf Stream being also decidedly shown by the number of south Euro- pean species met with. Several northern species that are generally regarded as outside the flora of southern England have been reported to occur in Cornwall, but the records must be received with some hesitation until further confirmation is obtained. These are Fhyllo- phora Brodicei^ which Mr. Holmes has never seen further south than Anglesea ; Delesseria angustissima^ not reported south of Yorkshire ; Chordaria divaricata^ not collected south of Ayrshire ; Ptilota plumosa and Dictyosiphon Ekmani, which are distinctly northern species. Others, frequent on Spanish and Mediterranean shores, including Gigartina pistillata and Carpomitra Cabrera, etc., may possibly find their northern limit in this county. There are probably still many species to be detected by careful dredging off the Cornish coast, especially at Pen- zance and Falmouth, since by dredging many new species have been added to the Devonshire flora by the researches of workers in the Marine Biological Laboratory at Plymouth. The classification followed is that given in Holmes and Batters' ' Revised List of British Marine Algae ' published in the Annals of Botany, V. 63-107, with a few emendations, in accordance with the names now adopted in Engler's Naturlichen PJianzen-Familien, but it has not been deemed useful to adopt the changes of well-known specific names as given by Dr. Batters in the Journal of Botany for December 1902, pp. 99-100, except where necessitated by the adoption of a new genus generally recognized by algologists. The species common all round the coasts of Great Britain are omitted to the number of eighty-five. The rarer species are indicated by an asterisk. The letters ' B.M.' indicate that a specimen has been seen in the British Museum by Mr. Holmes. The following species are found only in a few other counties : — Bonnemaisonia hamifera, Har. Devon, Acrochaetium microscopicum, Nag. Devon, Hampshire Northumberland Calothrix parasitica, Thur. Dorset Bornetiasecundiflora, Thur. Devon, Channel Carpomitra Cabrerae, Kutz. Devon Islands Acrochaetium luxurians, Nag. Dorset, Ceramium Crouanianum, J. Ag. Devon Channel Islands CladophoraBrownii,Harv. Devon, IVicklow A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Crouania attenuata, J. Ag. Devon^ Channel Islands Desmarestia Dresnayi, Lamour. Devon^ Ireland Ectocarpus Stilophorae, Cm. Erythropeltis discigera, Schm. — ciliaris, Batt. Scotland Gelidium sesquipedale, Thur. Griffithsia Devoniensis, Haw. Haematocelis rubens, J. Ag. land Helminthocladia Hudsoni, J. Ag. Devon Nitophyllum literatum, J. Ag. Devon Dorset Kent Devon Northumber- Monostroma crepidinum, Farl. Sussex — orbiculatum, Thur. Dorset Peyssonelia atropurpurea, Cm. Channel Islands — Harveyana, Crn. Devon — Rosenvingii, Schm, Devon, Dorset, Northumberland Polysiphonia ceramiiformis, Cm. Dorset — foetidissima, Cocks. Devon, Sussex — Rhunensis, Thur. Devon Rhodophysema Georgii, Batt. Devon Stenogramme interrupta, Mont. Devon, Ireland CYANOPHYCEiE CHAM^SIPHONACEi^ Dermocarpa prasina, Born. Padstow OsCILLATORIACEi^ Oscillatoria margaritifera, Kiitz. Saltash Phormidium papyraceum, Gom. Saltash, Penzance — autumnale, Gom. Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Lyngbya majuscula, Harv. Marazion Symploca hydnoides, Kiitz. Saltash, Fowey, Padstow, Penzance Microcoleus chthonoplastes, Thur. Looe RlVULARIACE^ Calothrix parasitica, Thur. Forth Cressa, Scilly Isles — aeruginea, Thur. Padstow Rivularia Biasolettiana, Menegh. Wade- bridge, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance — nitida, C, Ag. Saltash, Padstow, Hayle, Maraxion — buUata, Berk. Looe, Fowey, St. Minver, Marazion NoSTOCACEiE Anabaena variabilis, Ktitz. Hayle, Penzance — torulosa, Lagenh. Penzance CHLOROPHYCEiE Ulvace^ Monostroma laceratum, Thur. Wade- bridge, Lostwithiel, H. 15 — *crepidinum, Farl. Falmouth — Wittrockii, Born. Saltash, Fowey — Grevillei, With. Falmouth — *orbiculatum, Thur. Falmouth Enteromorpha clathrata, J. Ag. Cawsand, Falmouth, Penzance — Linkiana, Grev. Padstow, Fowey, Looe — prostrata, Le Jol. Looe, Falmouth — Hopkirkii, Mac Calla. Looe — Linza, J. Ag. — erecta, J. Ag. Falmouth — torta, Reinb. Looe, Penzance Whitsand Bay, Fowey, Ulvace^ {continued) Enteromorpha ramulosa, Harv. Falmouth ; St. Martins, Scilly Isles var. tenuis, Hauck. Scilly Isles — *usneoides, J. Ag. St. Martin's, Scilly Isles Ulva lactuca, Linn. Falmouth (rare) — myriotrema, Born. „ „ Ulothrichace.^ Ulothrix *speciosa, Kutz. Mount's Bay — implexa, Kiitz. Looe CH^TOPHORACEiT Tellamia *contorta, Batt. Padstow, Fal- mouth — *intricata, Batt. Padstow, Falmouth CLADOPHORACEiE Urospora isogona, Batt. Par, Penzance Chaetomorpha tortuosa, Kutz. Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, Mount's Bay — sutoria. Berk. Penzance — Melagonium, Kutz. St. Minver, New- quay, Lizard, Mount's Bay ; Tresco, Scilly Isles Rhizoclonium implexum, Batt. Mount Edgcumhe, Penzance — arenosum, Kiitz. Talland Bay — arenicola, Reinb. Marazion var. Casparyi, Holm. & Batt. Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance Fowey, Wadebridge Cladophora pellucida, Kutz. Looe^ Falmouth, Penzance — Hutchinsiae, Harv. Fowey, Falmouth, Scilly Isles — diffusa. Holm. & Batt. Falmouth — *rectangularis, Harv. Whitsand Bay, Scilly Isles — hirta, KUtz. Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, Land's End — utriculosa, Kutz. Scilly Isles — *trichocoma, Kiitz. Falmouth — gracilis, Kiitz. Looe, Falmouth, Penzance — sericea, Kiitz. Looe, Padstow, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance — *glaucescens, Harv. Looe, Falmouth, Penzance 84 BOTANY Cladophorace^ (continued) Cladophora flexuosa, Harv. Looe^ Fowey, Fa/mouthy Penzance — *Rudolphiana, Harv. Falmouth (scarce) — *Brownii, Harv. Mousehole near Pen- zance Bryopsidace^ Bryopsis *hypnoides, Lam. Looe^ Fowey^ Falmouth^ Penzance^ Scilly Isles Vaucheriace^ Vaucheria sphaerospora, Nordst., f. synoica, Nordst. Saltash f. dioica, Rosenv. Saltash^ Fowey — Thureti, Woron. Falmouth CODIACE.^ Codium *adhasrens, C. Ag. Fowey^ Fal- mouth^ Land^s Endy Sennen Cove — *amphibium, Holm. & Batt. Falmouth — tomentosum, Stackh. Looe^ Padstow^ Fowey^ Falmouthj Penzance^ Scilly Isles — Bursa, C. Ag. Coasts of Cornwall^ (Batters' Catalog, p. 22) PHiEOPHYCEiE Desmarestiace^ Desmarestia viridis, Lamx. Looe^ PadstoWy Falmouthy Trefusis^ Penzance — *Dresnayi, Lamx. Lizard Punctariace^ Phaeostroma pustulosum, Kuck. Scilly Isles Litosiphon pusillus, Harv. Looe^ PadstoWy Falmouthy Penzance^ Scilly Isles — Laminariae, Harv. Looe^ Fowey^ Bos- castky PadstoWy Penzance^ Scilly Isles Phlceospora brachiata, Born. Mount Edg- cumbe, Fowey, Falmouth, He Iford River, Lizard, Penzance, H. 250 Stictyosiphon *sub-articulatus, Hauck. Bos- castle, Falmouth Striaria attenuata, Grev. Torpoint, Bos- castle, Falmouth var. crinita, J. Ag. Boscastle Punctaria latifolia, Grev. Looe, Falmouth, Marazion — tenuissima, Grev. Boscastle, Falmouth — *crispata, Batt. Scilly Isles (E. George), H. 247 SCYTOSIPHONACE^ Phyllitis Fascia, Kiitz. Looe, Padstow, Pen- zance AsPEROCOCCACE^ Asperococcus bulbosus, Lamour. Looe^ * Falmouth, Penzance compressus, GrifF. Boscastle, Prid- mouth, Falmouth, Marazion ECTOCARPACE^ Strepsithalia *BufFhamiana, Batt. Fal- mouth EcTOCARPACE^ (continued) Streblonema *Zanardinii, Cm. Falmouth, H. 249 Ectocarpus Stilophorae, Crn. Falmouth var. cervicornis, Batt. „ — tomentosoides, Farl., var. punctiformis, Batt. Penzance — velutinus, Ktitz. Looe, Fowey, Penzance — simpliciuscula, C. Ag. Marazion — simplex, Crn. Fowey, Padstow, Fal- mouth, Lizard, H. 8 — repens, Rke. Boscastle, Fowey, Prid- mouth, Falmouth — *microspongium, Batt. Mount Edg- cumhe — terminalis, Kutz. Bude, Padstow, New- quay, Looe, Fowey, H. 36 — globifer, KUtz. Pridmouth, Falmouth var. rupestris, Batt. Boscastle, Pad- stow, Newquay, Penzance, H. 62 — *Sandrianus, Zan. Pridmouth, Fal- mouth — Crouani, Thur. Boscastle — siliculosus, Kiitz. var. typica, Kjellm. Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance var. spalatina, Kjellm. Boscastle, Fowey, Marazion, H. 81 var. longipes, Harv. Fowey, Padstow — secundus, Kiitz. Looe — hiemalis, Kuck. Padstow — penicillata, C. Ag. Cawsand — fasciculatus, Harv., f. congesta, Crn. Lizard, Penzance, H. 238 var. draparnaldioides, Crn. Falmouth — Hincksiae, Harv. Looe, Fowey, Fal- mouth, Penzance — *fenestratus, Berk. Bude Pylaiella littoralis, Kjellm., var. firma, Kjellm. Whitsand Bay, Looe, Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance var. ramellosa. Holm. & Batt. Par, Padstow, Newquay Isthmoplea sphaerophora, Kjellm. Caw- sand, Looe, Boscastle, Padstow, Fal- mouth, Lizard, Penzance, Land's End Myriotrichia *densa, Batt. Scilly Isles — repens, Hauck. Padstow, Falmouth Arthrocladiace^, Thur. Arthrocladia *villosa, Duby. Torpoint, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Elachistace^, Rke. Myriactis pulvinata, Kiitz. Looe, Padstow, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance — *stellulata, Duby. Falmouth Elachista *flaccida, Aresch. Looe, Padstow, Penzance — scutulata, Duby, Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance Halothrix *lumbricalis, Rke. Padstow 85 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL SPHACELARIACEiB Sphacelaria radicans, Harv. Par, Prid- mouth, Falmouth, Penzance, Sennen Cove — olivacea, Pringsh. Par, Pridmouth — cirrhosa, Ag. Falmouth, Lizard var. pennata, Hauck. Looe, Pads tow, Falmouth, Penzance var. fusca, Holm. & Batt. Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance, Land^s End — *plumula, Zan. Pridmouth, Falmouth Halopteris *filicina, Ktitz. Boscastle, Pad- stow, Looe, Falmouth, Penzance Stypocaulon scoparium, KUtz. Looe, Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles Myrionemace^ Myrionema *aecidioicles, Sauv. Falmouth Ulonema rhizophorum, Fosl. Falmouth, Lizard Chilionema *Nathaliae, Sauv. Looe Ascocyclus orbicularis, Magn. Scilly Isles — *sphaerophorus, Sauv. Scilly Isles Ralfsia clavata, Crn. Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance CHORDARIACEi^ Spermatochnus *paradoxus, Rke. Torpoint, Falmouth Stilophora *Lejolisii, Rke. Looe, Falmouth (?) Chordaria divaricata, C. Ag. Falmouth Mesogloia *GrifEthsiana, Grev. Falmouth, Penzance Castagnea Zosterae, Thur. Penzance, Scilly Isles Petrospongium *Berkeleyi, NSg, Boscastle, Padstow, Looe, Penzance Sporochnace^ Sporochnus *pedunculatus, C. Ag. Tor- point, Falmouth Carpomitra *Cabrerae, KUtz. Fowey, Pen- zance Chordace/e Chorda filum, Stackh., var. thrix, W. Hook. Penzance — *tomentosa, Lyngb, Boscastle LAMINARIACEi^ Laminaria saccharina, Lamx. Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance var. phyllitis, Le Jol. St. Minver, Looe Saccorhiza bulbosa, De la Pyl. Cawsand, Fowey, Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Alaria esculenta, Grev. Boscastle, Fowey, Falmouth, St. Ives, Padstow, Lizard, Penzance, Land's End CuTLERiACE^, Thur. Cutleria multifida, Grev. Falmouth f. reptans, Reink. Fowey, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance FuCACE^ Fucus ceranoides, Linn. Fowey, Falmouth FuCACE^ (continued) Fucus platycarpus, Thur. Fowey, Penzance var. spiralis (Linn.) Fowey, Falmouth — vesiculosus, Linn., var. spliaerocarpus, J. Ag. Cornwall — serratus, Linn., var. angustifrons, Stackh. Falmouth var. integer, Turn. St. Ives Bifurcaria *tuberculata, Stackh. Boscastle, Padstow, Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, Lizard, St. Ives, Penzance Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb. Looe, Fowey, Padstow, Lizard Cystoseira *ericoides, C. Ag. Whitsand Bay, Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Pen- zance — *granulata, C. Ag. Looe, Fowey, Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance — *discors, C. Ag. Padstow, Falmouth — fibrosa, C. Ag. Looe, Padstow, Fal- mouth, Penzance TiLOPTERIDACEiE Tilopteris Mertensii, Ktitz. Mount Edg- cumbe, Falmouth, Penzance Akinetospora *pusilla. Born. Cawsand, Boscastle, Newquay, Penzance, Land's End DlCTYOTACE^ Dictyota dichotoma. Lam., var. implexa, J. Ag. Padstow, Falmouth var. latifrons. Holm. & Batt. Fal- mouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles Taonia *atomaria, J. Ag. Padstow, Pen- zance Padina *pavonia, Gaill. Boscastle Dictyopteris *polypodioides, Lamx. St. Austell Bay RHODOPHYCEiE PoRPHYRACEii: Goniotrichum *elegans, Le Jol. Padstow Erythropeltis *discigera, Sch., var. Flustrae, Batt. Scilly Isles Erythrotrichia carnea, J. Ag. Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance — *ciliaris, Batt. Scilly Isles — *Bertholdi, Batt. Falmouth, Helford, Scilly Isles — *ceramicola, Ralfs. Falmouth, Penzance — *Boryana, Berth. Scilly Isles Bangia fusco-purpurea, Lyngh., var. crispa. Holm. & Batt. Padstow — *lutea, J. Ag. Marazion (B.M.) Porphyra leucosticta, Thur. Mount Edg- cumbe, Falmouth, Scilly Isles — linearis, Grev. Pridmouth, Falmouth, Penzance Helminthocladiace^ Acrochaetium microscopicum, Nag. Kyn^ ance, Penzance 86 BOTANY Bay, Pen- Bay, HELMINTHOCLADIACEi^ [continued] Acrochastium virgatulum, J. Ag. Torpoint, Looe, PadstoWy Falmouth — secundatum, Nag. JVhitsand Bay, Looe, Penzance — luxurians, Nag. Mount Edgcumbe — Daviesii, Nag. Looe, Padstow, Fal- mouth, Penzance — sparsum, Batt. Mount's Bay Nemaleon lubricum, Duby. Falmouth, Land's End, Scilly Isles — multifidum, J. Ag. Whitsand Pridmouth, Padstow, Falmouth Helminthocladia *purpurea, J. Ag. zance, Whitsand Bay — *Hudsoni, J. Ag. Whitsand Sennen Cove Helminthora divaricata, J. Ag. Whitsand Bay, Padstow, Pridmouth, Falmouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles Ch^tangiace^ Scinaia *furcellata, Bivona. Torpoint, Pen- zance, Scilly Isles GELIDIACEiE Naccaria *Wiggii, Endl. Mount Edgcumbe, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance Pterocladia capillacea, Born. Mount Edg- cumbe, Lizard, Penzance Gelidium crinale, J. Ag. Padstow, Looe — pusillum, Le Jol. Penzance — aculeatum (Grev.) Pridmouth, Fal- mouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles var. abnorme, Batt. North Cornwall, Penzance — pulchellum, Kiltz. Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance — attenuatum, Thur., var. confertum, Batt. Falmouth — corneum, Lamour. Padstow, Falmouth — latifolium, Born. Fowey, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance var. flexuosum, Batt. Mount Edg- cumbe, Newquay — sesquipedale, Thur. Lizard, Scilly Isles GlGARTINACE^ Chondrus crispus, Stackh. Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance f. virens, Turn. Cornwall (Batters) f. aequalis, Turn. Falmouth Gigartina *acicularis, Lamour. Penzance — *pistillata, Stackh. Whitsand Bay, Padstow, Lizard, St. Ives, Penzance, Scilly Isles, H. 65 — mammillosa, J. Ag., f. acuta, Good. & Woodvv^. Falmouth f. prolifera, Turn. Looe, Falmouth f. incurvata. Turn. Cornwall Phyllophora (?) Brodiei, J. Ag. Falmouth — *Traillii, Holm. & Batt. Mount Edg- cumbe, Fowey, Falmouth, Lizard Falmouth On Ahnfel- St. German's Lizard, Pen- Fowey, Pen- GiGARTiNACE^ [continued) Phyllophora palmettoides, J. Ag. Whitsand Bay, Padstow, Penzance Stenogramme *interrupta, Mont. Torpoint, Mount Edgcumbe, Penzance Gymnogongrus *Griffithsiae, Mont. Mount Edgcumbe, Fowey, Padstow, Pen- zance — Norvegicus, J. Ag. Boscastle, Talland Bay, Falmouth, Penzance — patens, J. Ag. Padstow Actinococcus subcutaneus, Rosenv. Fal- mouth — aggregatus, Schm. Penzance — peltaeformis, Schm. Falmouth Callocolax neglectus, Schm. Falmouth, Penzance Colacolepis incrustans, Schm. Sterrocolax decipiens, Schm. tia plicata Callophyllis laciniata, Kiitz. River, Looe, Falmouth, zance Rhodophyllidace^ Catenella Opuntia, Grev. zance RhodophylHs bifida, KUtz. Torpoint, Bos- castle, Padstow, Looe, Falmouth, Pen- zance var. incrassata, Harv. Falmouth, Scilly Isles — *appendiculata, J. Ag. Penzance SPHi^ROCOCCACE^ Sphaerococcus coronopifolius, Grev. Looe, Padstow, Pridmouth, Falmouth, Pen- zance Gracilaria *dura, C. Ag. Padstow — *compressa, Grev. Penzance — *multipartita, J. Ag. Whitsand Bay, Torpoint Calliblepharis ciliata, Kiitz. Fowey, Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance — jubata, Ktitz. Looe, Fowey, Falmouth, Scilly Isles var. dilatata. Holm. & Batt. Coast of Cornwall (Batters) Rhodymeniace^ Rhodymenia palmata, Grev., f. sobolifera. Padstow, Falmouth — palmetta, J. Ag., f. acutifolia, Kiitz. Lizard f. discocarpa, Kiitz. Penzance f. flabelliformis, Kutz. Padstow, New- quay, Pridmouth, Scilly Isles f. spathulata, Kiitz. Falmouth f. subdivisa, Kiitz. Newquay — Nicaeensis, Holm. Pridmouth — *ligulata, Zan. Falmouth Cordylecladia *erecta, J. Ag. Falmouth Pridmouth^ 87 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Rhodymeniace^ [continued) Lomentaria clavellosa, Gaill. Torpoint^ Padstow, Falmouth^ Penzance var. sedifolia, Harv. Falmouth — *rosea, Thur. Mount Edgcumhe^ Bos- cast/e, PadstoWy Lizard, Penzance, H. 78 Champia parvula, Lamx. Padstow, Lizard, Penzance var. implexa, Batt. Padstow Chylocladia kaliformis var. squarrosa, Harv. Penzance, Porthcurnow — ovalis, W. Hook. Saltash, Looe, Bos- castle, Padstow, Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance — *reflexa, Lenorm. Padstow, Penzance Bay Delesseriace^ Nitophyllum *Bonnemaisoni, Grev. Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance var. crassinerve, Batt. Falmouth, Pen- zance, Scilly Isles — Gmelini, Harv. Torpoint, Pridmouth, Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance — Hilliae, Grev. Fowey, Falmouth, Pen- zance, Scilly Isles — laceratum, Grev., f. miniatum, Grev. Lizard, Penzance var. unciniatum, Grev. Padstow, Lizard — *literatum, J. Ag. Scilly Isles var. ocellatum, J. Ag. Padstow, Penzance var. Pollexfenii, Harv. Torpoint — punctatum, Grev. Torpoint, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance — reptans, Crn. Pridmouth — *Sandrianum, Zan. Falmouth — *venulosum, Zan. Torpoint, JVhitsand Bay, H. 219 — *versicolor, Harv. Pridmouth, Penzance Gonimophyllum *BufFhanii, Batt. Scilly Isles Delesseria (?) angustissima, GrifF. Penzance (R.V.T.) — Hypoglossum, Lam. Torpoint, Padstow, Falmouth f. crispa, Crn. Falmouth f. arborescens, J. Ag. Falmouth — ruscifolia, Lam. Fowey, Torpoint, Bos- castle, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance BoNNEMAISONIACEiE Bonnemaisonia asparagoides, C. Ag. Tor- point, Looe, Falmouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles — *hamifera, Hariot. Falmouth RHODOMELACEiE Bostrychia scorpioides, Mont. Fowey Rhodomela subfusca, C. Ag,, f. firmior, J. Ag. Falmouth Torpoint Padstow Cawsand, Pad- Talland Rhodomelace^ {continued) Rhodomela (?) lycopodiodes, C. Ag. Padstow, Falmouth Laurencia obtusa, Lam. Falmouth, Pen- zance var. pyramidata, J. Ag. Scilly Isles — hybrida, Lamx. Looe, Falmouth, Pen- zance Chondria *tenuissima, C. Ag. Falmouth — dasyphylla, C. Ag. Whitsand Bay, Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Polysiphonia macrocarpa, Harv. IVhitsand Bay, Looe, Padstow, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, Land's End — *Rhunensis, Born. Padstow, Falmouth — *fcetidissima. Cocks. St. Germans River, Falmouth, Newlyn IVest — urceolata, Grev. var. Formosa, J. Ag. var. patens, J. Ag. var. roseola, J. Ag. stow — elongella, Harv. Torpoint, Bay, Padstow, Falmouth — violacea, Wyatt. Torpoint, Looe, Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance var. allochroa, J. Ag. Falmouth — fibrillosa, Grev. IVhitsand Bay, Pad- stow, Looe, Falmouth, Penzance — *variegata, J. Ag. Torpoint, St. Ger- mans River, Padstow — *furcellata, Harv. Falmouth var. patula, J. Ag. Falmouth, H. 71 var. forcipata, J. Ag. Falmouth — *ceramiiformis, Crn. Falmouth — simulans, Harv. Torpoint, Falmouth, Penzance — atrorubescens, Grev. Mount Edgcumbe, Torpoint IVhitsand Bay, Looe, Fowey, Padstow, Penzance var. Agardhiana, Grev. Torpoint — *obscura, J. Ag. Mount Edgcumbe, Pridmouth, Penzance — fruticulosa, Spreng. Looe, Fowey, Pad- stow, Falmouth, Penzance — nigrescens, Grev., var. affinis, Harv. Cawsand — *opaca, Zan. Falmouth Brongniartella byssoides, Bory. Torpoint, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Pterosiphonia thuyoides, Schm. Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance — *complanata, Schm. IVhitsand Bay, Padstow, Falmouth, Land^s End — parasitica, Grev. Boscastle, Padstow, Looe, Falmouth, Penzance Halopithys pinastroides, Kiitz. IVhitsand Bay, Falmouth Heterosiphonia coccinea, Falk. Torpoint, Looe, Fowey, Falmouth 88 BOTANY Rhodomelace^ [continued) Heterosiphonia coccinea, Falk. var. tenuis, J. Ag. PadstoWy Lizard var. squarrosa, Harv. JVhitsand Bay Dasya arbuscula, C. Ag. PadstoWy Fal- mouthy Lizardj Land^s End^ Scilly Isles — ocellata, Harv. Torpointy Looe^ Pad- stoWy Falmouthy Penzance Ceramiace^ Spondylothamnion *multifidum, Nag. Tor- pointy Looe^ PadstoWy Falmouth^ Pen- zance var. pilifera, C. Ag. Foivey Spermothamnion Turneri, Aresch. Pad- stoWy Falmouthy Lizard f. repens, Le Jol. Padstow — barbatum, Born. Penzance var. mesocarpum, Batt. Falmouth Trailliella *intricata, Batt. Falmouth Ptilothamnion *pluma, Thur. Looey Prid- mouthy Penzance Griffithsia corallina, C. Ag. Torpointy Fal- mouthy Penzance — *Devoniensis, Harv. Torpointy Mount Edgcumbe — setacea, C. Ag. Torpointy Falmouthy Penzance Halurus equisetifolius, Ktitz. PadstoWy Falmouthy Penzancey Land's End *var simplicifilum, Harv. Boscastle Bornetia secundiflora, Thur. Scilly Isles Monospora pedicillata, Solier. Foweyy Pad- stow y Falmouthy Penzancey Scilly Isles f. comosa, Holm. Sc Batt. Falmouth — clavata, J. Ag. PadstoWy Falmouth Pleonosporium *Borreri, Nag. Torpointy Looey PadstoWy Falmouthy Sennen Cove f. fasciculatum, Holm. & Batt. Pad- stow Rhodochorton Rothii, Nag. PadstoWy Fal- mouthy Penzance — floridulum, Nag. PadstoWy Falmouthy Penzance Callithamnion *tenuissimum, Kutz. St. Germans Rivery PadstoWy Newquayy Falmouthy Lizardy H. 54 — roseum, Harv. Torpointy Looey Pad- stow y Falmouthy Penzancey Scilly Isles — *Dudresnayi, Crn. Torpoint — Hookeri, C. Ag. Foweyy Looey Fal- mouthy Penzance — *Brodiasi, Harv. Pary Falmouthy Pen- zance — *tetricum, C. Ag. PadstoWy Falmouthy Lizardy Penzancey Scilly Isles — granulatum, C. Ag. Looey PadstoWy Pridmouthy Falmouthy Penzancey Sen- nen Covey Scilly Isles Ceramiace^ {continued) Callithamnion byssoides, Am. Torpointy Boscastle, Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance f. seirosporifera, Holm. & Batt. Tor- point Seirospora *Griffithsiana, Harv. Torpoint, JVhitsand Bayy Padstow f. versicolor, Holm. & Batt. Torpoint Compsothamnion *thuyoides, Schmitz. Mount Edgcumbey Trebethericky Foweyy Boscastky PadstoWy Falmouthy Land's End — *gracillimum, Schmitz. Torpointy Fal- mouth (rare) — *decompositum, Crn. Falmouth Plumaria elegans, Schmitz. PadstoWy Fal- mouthy Penzance Ptilota plumosa, C. Ag. Falmouth Antithamnion *cruciatum, Nag. Looey Lizard — Plumula, Thur., var. crispa, J. Ag. Torpointy PadstoWy Falmouthy Pen- zance Hymenoclonium *serpens, Batt. Mount Edgcumbe Crouania *attenuata, J. Ag. Falmouthy Penzancey Scilly Isles Spyridia filamentosa, Harv. Penzance Ceramium gracillimum, Harv. „ — *fastigiatum, Harv. Penzancey Tor- point — tenuissimum, J. Ag. Pridmouthy Looey PadstoWy Penzance — Deslongchampsii, Chauv. Torpoint — strictum, Harv. Pridmouthy PadstoWy Falmouthy Penzance var. delicatum, J. Ag. Cornwall (Batters' Catalog, p. 90) — diaphanum. Roth. PadstoWy Falmouthy Penzance circinnatum, J. Ag. Looey JVhitsand Bayy Padstow — arborescens, J. Ag. Mount Edgcumbe — Crouanianum, J. Ag. Falmouth — *pennatum, Crn. Torpoint, Looe, Prid- mouth, Constantine Bay, Falmouth — echionotum, J. Ag. Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles — acanthonotum, Carm. Padstow y Fal- mouthy Penzance — ciliatum, J. Ag. Foweyy PadstoWy Pen- zancey Scilly Isles — *flabelligerum, J. Ag. PadstoWy Looey Falmouthy Penzance Microcladia *glandulosa, Grev. Pridmouthy Falmouth, Penzance, Scilly Isles, H. 88 Glceosiphoniace^ Gloeosiphonia *capillaris, Carm. Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance 89 12 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL GRATELOUPIACEi^ Halarachnion ligulatum, Ktitz. Torpoint^ IVhitsand Bay, Falmouth f. dichotomum, Harv. Whitsand Bay, Padstow f. ramentaceum, Harv. JVhitiand Bay f. latifolium, Harv. Torpoint Grateloupia *filicina, C. Ag. Wh'tUand Bay, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance f. intermedia, Holm. & Batt. Padstow — *dichotoma, J. Ag. Fowey, Padstow, Newquay, Falmouth, Penzance, H. 41 — *minima, Crn. Falmouth DuMONTIACEiE Dudresnaya coccinea, Crn. Torpoint, Fowey, Falmouth Dilsea edulis, Stackh. Boscastle, Padstow, Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance NEMASTOMACEiT Schizymenia Dubyi, J. Ag. Mount Edg- cumbe, Padstow, Penzance Nemastoma *marginifera, J. Ag. Whit- sand Bay, Padstow SQUAMARIACEiB Petrocelis cruenta, J. Ag. Fowey, Looe, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Cruoria pellita, Lyngb. Pridmouth, Pen- zance Cruoriella Dubyi, Schm. Pridmouth, Pen- zance Rhodophysema *Georgii, Batt. Scilly Isles Peyssonelia Harveyana, Crn. Penzance — *Rosenvingii, Schm. Cornwall (Batters' Catalog, p. 95) — *atropurpurea, Crn. Penzance, Scilly SouAMARlACEi^ {continued) Hxmatophlcea *Crouani, Crn. Padstow, Penzance CoRALLINACEiE Lithothamnion *coralloides, Crn. Penzance — lichenoides, Fosl. Looe, Fowey, Pad- stow, Falmouth *f. agariciforme, Fosl. Falmouth Epilithon membranaceum, Fosl. Fowey, Penzance Lithophyllum racemus, Fosl., *f. crassa, Fosl. Falmouth — incrustans, Phil., f. Harveyi, Fosl. Fal- mouth, Lizard Melobesia farinosa, Lamx. Looe, Padstow, Falmouth — Lejolisii, Rosan. Falmouth, Scilly Isles — Corallinse, Solms. Looe, Fowey, Pad- stow, Lizard, H. 12 — *hapalidioides, Fosl., f. confinis, Fosl. Boscastle, Portquin, Endellion, Fal- mouth Dermatolithon pustulatum, Fosl. Fal- mouth, Penzance — macrocarpum, Fosl., f. Laminariae, Fosl. Fowey, Padstow Choreonema Thureti, Schm. Lizard Corallina squamata, Ellis. Fowey, Fal- mouth, Lizard, Penzance — *mediterranea, Aresch. Fowey, Prid- mouth, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance, H. 2 — rubens, Ellis var. corniculata, Hauck. Looe, Fowey, Padstow, Falmouth, Penzance Isles FRESHWATER ALGiE Under this heading systematic algologists usually include the algae that are not found in sea water, whether they are met with on land, or on trees, or in streams and ponds. Those which are found in brackish water are sometimes classed under freshwater algas and sometimes under marine algse. Unfortunately the classification and nomenclature adopted in different works vary considerably, and whilst it is necessary to keep as nearly as possible up to date so far as general classification is concerned, yet the identification of species by their synonymy is of considerable importance when consulting old records. On this account the general classification here adopted is chiefly that of Engler and Prantl, Die Nat- urlkhen PJianzen-familien, and for the specific names, De Toni's Sylloge Algarum, and for the Cyanophyceae, Bornet and Flahault's Nostocacees Heterocystees and Gomont's Monographie des Oscillariees. In these works the synonymy is excellent, and there is no difficulty in tracing out the species in old records by means of the references therein given. Although the freshwater algas of the county have been investigated 90 BOTANY chiefly in the neighbourhood of Penzance, the work has been done by one of the keenest and most careful botanists of the last century, viz. Dr. Ralfs, whose Monograph of the British Desmidiece, published in 1848, is, for lucidity of description and exquisite delineation of the forms of the species, unsurpassed even at the present day. The list of Cornish fresh- water algae is therefore, especially as far as concerns the Desmidiacece^ Diatomacece (now usually called the Bacillariacece) and Palmellacea^ un- usually rich as regards records. During the last quarter of the century the materials collected by Dr. Ralfs were carefully collated and added to by Mr. E. D. Marquand, who published an account of the freshwater algse of the Land's End district in the Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, ii. 133, 380. Other botanists who contributed to this record were Mr. J. B. Major ; Prof O. Nord- stedt of Lund University in Sweden, who paid a visit to Penzance and detected a number of new species there ; Mr. A. W. Bennett, who searched the north of Cornwall, and Mr. R. V. Tellam, who collected some species in the neighbourhood of Bodmin. In the Land's End district Mr. E. D. Marquand indicates Chy-an-hal and Tremethick Moors as particularly rich in unicellular species, and the dripping rocks between Mousehole and Lamorna, and the coast between Lelant and Carbis Bay as yielding many species not observed elsewhere. The large number of species detected in this small portion of the county suggests that Cornwall is probably one of the richest counties in England in this group of plants, although it is possible that the mountainous counties near the sea, in Wales and the west of Scotland, might be richer in Alpine forms. That the list will probably be greatly extended in the future is shown by the fact that many species new to the county, and a few new also to science, are recorded in the fournal of Botany for February and March, 1903. The following are the species new to science : — Phaeosphaera gelatinosa, West & G. S. West Cosmarium quadrimammillatum, n. sp. Ic. Bumilleria pumila, n. sp. Ic. pi. 446, figs. pi. 446, fig. 12 22, 23 Debarya desmidioides, West & G. S. West, Conferva obsoleta, n. sp. Ic. pi. 446, figs. Ic. pi. 446, figs. 1-9 18, 21 The species new to the county are : — Bulbochaete subintermedia, Elfn. Sennen Closterium pusillum, Hantsch. var. monolithum, With. Gurnard's Head — macilentum, Br6b. Mullion pronum, Br6b. » Br^b. reme thick Euastrum lobulatum, Moor^ St. Just, Sennen, Land's End Genicularia spirotaenia, De Bary. Hayle Cosmarium Lundelii, Delp. Mousehole — abbreviatum, Racib. Crowan — commissurale, Br6b. St. Just Staurastrum granulosum, Ralfs. Crowan — brachycerum, Breb. Sennen — vestitum, Ralfs. St. Just Zygnema Vaucherii, C. Ag., var. stagnale, Kirchn. Lizard Conferva affinis, Kiitz. South of Helston, St. Mary's, Scilly Characlopsis minuta, Borzi. Penzance Centrosphsera Fasciolae, Borzi. Sennen Bulbochaete subintermedia, Kotz. „ Euastropsis Richteri, Lagerh. )> 91 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL CYANOPHYCEiE RHODOPHYCEiE Gongrosira viridis, Kutz. Tremethick Chantransia Scotica, Kutz. Mousehole Hapalosiphon Hibernicus, West & G. S. Sacheria mammillosa, Sirod. Penzance West. Sennen In Mr. Marquand's list no definite localities are given, and where records are not obtainable elsewhere, W.C. indicates that his list is the authority for their record in this part of the county. The species re- corded by him as rare are indicated by an asterisk. E.C. and N.C. indicate East and North Cornwall respectively. Schizothrix Cresswellii is only found elsewhere at Sidmouth in Devon. Cosmarium commisurale is found nowhere else in the British Islands so abundantly as in Cornwall, and C. quadrimammillatum has not been observed elsewhere in Britain. The genus Centrosphcera is new to Britain, and Euastropsis Richteri has previously only been found in Germany and Norway ; Mougeotia gelatinosa^ elsewhere in Wales and Scotland, in one locality in each ; Genicularia Spirottsnia is the rarest of all desmids ; Gongrosira viridis is known only elsewhere in the British Isles from Lough Beg, Londonderry. CYANOPHYCEiE Chroococcace^ Chroococcus turgidus, Nag. JV.C. Gloeocapsa *coracina, Kdtz. Carbis Bay — livida, Carm. Carbis Bay — quaternata, Ktltz. „ „ Aphanocapsa virescens, Rab. Carbis Bay Aphanothece microscopica, NSg. „ „ Microcystis marginata, Kirchn. „ „ Ccelosphaerium Kutzingianum, NSg. Car- bis Bay Merismopedium glaucum, NSg. Carbis Bay OSCILLATORIACE^ Schizothrix *Cresswellii, Harv. Mousehole — *rubra, Mcnegh. Mousehole — *tinctoria, Gom. Newbridge near Penzance Microcoleus vaginatus, Gom. JV.C. Plcctonema Tomasinianum, Born. „ Symploca muscorum, Gom. Lyngbya ochracea, Thur. Phormidium autumnale, Gom. — inundatum, Kutz. JV.C. — papyrinum, Bory. „ Oscillatoria amphibia, C. Ag. — limosa, C. Ag. IV.C. — nigra, Vauch. — princeps, Vauch, — splendida, Grev. — subfusca, Vauch. inq. JV.C. — tenuis, C. Ag. JV.C. Beggiatoa leptomitiformis, Trevis. (?) JV.C. Spirulina *oscillarioides, Turp, inq. RivulariacEj^ Isactis * plana, Harv. Mousehole Rivularia dura, Kutz. JV.C. — *granulifera, Carm. Carbis Bay Gloeotrichia Pisum, Thur. JV.C. SiROSIPHONACEiE Gongrosira viridis, Ktltz. Tremethick *Hapalosiphon Hibernicus, West & G. S. West. Sennen Stigonema minutum, Hass. JV.C. — ocellatum, Thur. JV.C. — panniforme, Gom. „ SCYTONEMACE^ Scytonema HofFmanni, C. Ag. JV.C. — Myochrous, C. Ag. JV.C. Tolypothrix lanata, Wartm. JV.C. NoSTOCACEit Nostoc *casruleum, Lyngb. Chy-an-hal Moor — microscopicum, Carm. JV.C. muscorum, C. Ag. »> JV.C. — verrucosum, Vauch. „ Anabaena catenula. Born. & Flah. — Flos-aquae, Br^b. JV.C. — oscillarioides, Bory. Chy-an-hal Moor — torulosa, Lagerh. „ |, — variabilis, Kiitz. Hayle Cylindrospermum stagnale, Born. & Flah. JV.C. JV.C. JV.C. » BACILLARIACE.^ {Diatoms) Naviculace^ Navicula aestiva, Donk. — amphisbaena, Bory. — aspera, Ehr. — bacillum, Ehr. — biceps, Ehr. — borealis, Ktltz. — cancellata, Donk. — Cluthensis, Greg. — crabro, Kiitz. var. pandura, Rabenh. — cruciformis, Donk. »> }) 92 BOTANY )) » )) » )> 55 55 55 55 55 5) 55 Penzance NAViCULACEiB [continued) Navicula cuspidata, Ktitz. W.C. — dicephala, Ehr. — didyma, Ehr. — firma, Kiitz. — forcipata, Cnw. — gregaria, Donk. — Hennedyi, W. Sm. var. clavata, V. H. — humerosa, Breb. — Iridis var. affinis, V.H. — lineata, Donk. — lyra, Ehr. — maxima, Greg. — musca, Greg. — parvula, Eweg. — placentula, Kutz. var. anglica, Grun. — praetexta, Ehr. — pygmata, Kiltz. — rhyncocephala, Kiitz. — serians, Kiltz. W.C. — Smithii, Br6b. „ — sphasrophora, Kiitz. W.C. — stauroptera, Grun. Rough Tor Libellus rhombicus, De Toni. W.C. — Grevillei, Cleve. Okcdenia inflexa, Eulenst. Pleurosigma acuminatum, Grun. — angulatum, W. Sm. var. aestuarii, Br6b. var. elongatum, V.H. var. quadratum, W. Sm. — arcuatum, Donk. Padstow — Balticum, W. Sm. W.C. — decorum, W. Sm. — distortum, W. Sm. — formosum, W. Sm. — Hippocampus, W. Sm. — intermedium, W. Sm. — lanceolatum, Donk. Padstow — marinum, Donk. „ — rigidum, W. Sm. W.C. — Spencerii, W. Sm. Scoliopleura latestriata, Grun. — tumida, Rabenh. — Westii, Grun. Rhoicosigma compactum, Grun. Toxonidea Gregoriana, Donk. Padstow — insignis, Donk. Frustulia Lewisiana, De Toni. — neglecta, De Toni. „ — rhomboides, De Toni. W.C. var. Saxonica, De Toni. Schizonema Dillw^ynii, C. Ag. — ramosissima, C. Ag. — Smithii, C. Ag. Berkcleya fragilis, Grev. — obtusa, Grun. — parasitica, Grun. )> 55 55 55 n 55 55 » 55 55 55 Amphitropidace^ Amphiprora alata, Ehr. — gigantea, Grun. Penzance — lepidoptera, Greg. Padstow — maxima, Greg. W.C. Plagiotropis vitrea, Grun. „ Cymbellace^ Cymbella aequalis, W. Sm. Rough Tor — affinis, Kutz. W.C. — Cistula, Kirchn. var. maculata, Grun. — cuspidata, KUtz. Rough Tor — cymbiformis, Br^b. W.C. — lanceolata, Kirchn. Encyonema caespitosum, Kiitz. — prostratum, Ralfs. Amphora arenaria, Donk. — decipiens, Grun. Hayle — Erebi, Ehr. „ — levissima, Greg. Penzance — marina, W. Sm. — membranacea, W. Sm — ovalis, Ktitz. var. pediculus, V.H. — proteus, Greg. — salina, W. Sm. GOMPHONEMACE^ Gomphonema acuminatum, Ehr — constrictum, Ehr. — dichotomum, Kiltz — insigne, Greg. — olivaceum, Kiitz. — parvulum, Kutz. Rhoicosphenia curvata, Grun. COCCONEIDACE.^ Cocconeis diaphana, W. Sm. — dirupta, Grev. — placentula, Ehr. — scutellum, Ehr. AcHNANTHACEiE Achnanthes brevipes, C. Ag. — coarctata, Grun. — exilis, Kiitz. — longipes, C. Ag. — minutissima, Kiitz. — subsessilis, Ktitz. NlTZSCHIACE^ Nitzschia acicularis, W. Sm. — acuminata, Grun. — angularis, W. Sm. — angustata, Grun. Padstow W.C. 55 Sennen » Sennen Penzance W.C. n 5) 55 » n n n 55 » )> >» » » >5 55 apiculata, Grun. Brebissonii, W. Sm. circumsuta, Grun. — epithemoides, Grun — lanceolata, W. Sm. W.C f. minor, V.H. Padstow — linearis, W. Sm. W.C. — macilenta, Greg. 55 Penzance — navicularis, Grun. 55 93 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL NiTzsCHIACEiB [continued) Fragilariace^ {continued) Nitzschia palea, W. Sm. /r.c. Fragilaria virescens, Ralfs. W.C. — plana, W. Sm. n Grammonema striatulum, C. Ag r — rostrata, Grun. n Rhaphoneis amphiceros, Ehr. )) — Sigma, W. Sm. )) Dimerogramma fulvum, Ralfs. Padstow var. curvula, Brun. }) LlCMOPHORACE^ — Smithii, Ralfs. »» Licmophora flabellata, C. Ag. W.C . — spathulata, Br^b. » — Lyngbyei, Grun. »» — vivax, W. Sm. » — ovata, Grun. >» Hantzschia amphioxys, G run. w,c. — paradoxa, C. Ag. Penzance — virgata, Grun. Pads tow SxRIATELLACEiE — marina, Grun. „ Tabellaria fenestrata, Kutz. W.C. SuRIRELLACEiE — flocculosa, Kutz. )> Suriraya biseriata, Br^b. fV.C. Grammatophora angulosa, Ehr. >j — elegans, Ehr. » var. hamulifera, Grun. )> — fastuosa, Ehr. >» — marina, Lyngb. » var. lata, V.H. )> — oceanica, Ehr. )) — gemma, Ehr. j> var. macilenta, Grun. >> — linearis, W. Sm. 5> — serpentina, Ralfs. » — Moelleriana, Grun. Sennen Rhabdonema Adriaticum, Ktitz. )> — ovalis, Br^b. w.c. — arcuatum, Kutz. )) var. angusta, V.H. » — minutum, KUtz. j> var. Crumena, V.H. )} Striatella unipunctata, C. Ag. » var. minuta, V.H. » EuNOTIACEii: var. ovata, V.H. n Cystopleura argus, Kunze. » var. pinnata, V.H. n var. longicornis, Grun. » var. salina, V.H. » — gibberula, Kunze. j> — robusta, Ehr. » var. rupestris, Grun. » — Smithii, Ralfs. »» — ocellata, Br(5b. » — spiralis, Kiitz. »» — turgida, Kunze. j> — splendida, Kotz. » var. Westermannii, Grun. >) Cymatopleura solea, W. S \m. >j Eunotia alpina, KUtz. >) Campylodiscus parvulus, W. Sm, j> — arcus, Ehr. » — Ralfsii, W. Sm. n — diodon, Ehr. )) var. pinnatus, Perag. n — gracilis, Rabenh. n — Thuretii, Brdb. n — major, Rabenh. yy DlATOMACE^ — pectinalis, Rabenh. yy Diatoma elongatum, C. Ag. » — robusta, Ralfs. yy var. tenue, C. Ag. )) — Soleirolii, Rabenh. yy — hiemale, Heib. )) — tetraodon, Ehr. » var. mesodon, Grun. » Pseudoeunotia biceps, Grun. )) — obtusum, Kirchn. » — flexuosa, Grun. yy Odontidium marinum, Grun. Penzance — lunaris, Grun. yy Meridionace/e var. bilunaris, Grun. yy Meridion constrictum, Ralfs. ff^.C. Rhizosoleniacace Fragilariace/e Rhizosolenia styliformis, Brightw. W.C Synedra affinis, KUtz. » IsTHMIACE-ffi: var. tabulata, V.H. )> Isthmiella enervis, Cleve. yy — Gallionii, KUtz. » BiDDULPHIACEiE — pulchella, KUtz. Penzance Biddulphia pulchella. Gray. yy — Ulna, Ehr. W.C. Denticella Mobiliensis, Grun. » var. splendens, Brun. )» Amphitetras alternans, Br^b. yy — Vaucherias, Ktitz. » — antediluviana, Ehr. yy Ardissonia crystallina, Grun. » Triceratium pileus, Ehr. yy — superba, Grun. ») CHi€TOCERACE^ Toxarium Hennedyanum, , Grun >> Chaetoceros armatus. West. yy — undulatum. Bail. )> — confervoides, Ralfs. yy Fragilaria capucina, Desmaz. >) — didymus, Ehr. yy — hyalina, Grun. » — incurvus. Bail. » var. minima, De Toni. )> Syndendrium Diadema, Ehr. yy 94 BOTANY EUPODISCACE^ Auliscus sculptus, Ralfs. IV. C. COSCINODISCACE^ Actinocyclus Ralfsii, Ralfs. — sparsus, Rattr. — subtilis, Ralfs. Brightivellia splendida, Rattr. Coscinodiscus excentricus, Ehr. — lineatus, Ehr. — radiatus, Ehr. MELOSIRACEi^ Lysigenium varians, De Toni. Gallionella nummuloides, Bory. Melosira Dickiei, KUtz. — ochracea, Ralfs. — orichalcea, Kutz. — Roeseana, Rab. var. dendroteres, Grun. Paralia sulcata, Cleve. Podosira Montagnei, Kiitz. Hyalodiscus stelliger, Bail. Heliopeltace^ Actinoptychus splendens, Shadb. — undulatus, Ralfs. W.C. » )> )) )> » »> n it » » CHLOROPHYCEiE Desmidiace^ Desmidium cylindricum, Grev. tV.C. — Swartzii, C. Ag. „ — *quadrangulare, KUtz. Penzance Hyalotheca dissiliens, Br6b. „ — mucosa, Ehr. W.C. Sphaerozosma excavatum, Ralfs. IV.C. — *vertebratum, Ralfs. „ Onychonema filiforme, Roy & Biss. Chy- an-hal Gymnozyga moniliformis, Ehr. W.C. Gonatozygon asperum, Cleve. Kerris Moor — Ralfsii, De Bary. W.C. Cosmocladium constrictum, Josh. Treng- wainton Genicularia Spirotaenia, De Bary. Hayle Spirotaenia condensata, Breb. Penzance — minuta, Thur. W.C. — obscura, Ralfs. Penzance Mesotaenium Braunii, De Bary — parvula. Arch. W.C. Cylindrocystis Brebissonii, Menegh. Bod- min — diplospora, Lund. W.C. Closterium acerosum, Ehr. W.C. — acutum, Br^b. Bodmin^ Penzance — angustatum, Kiitz. W.C. — attenuatum, Ehr. Penzance cornu, Ehr. W.C. — costatum, Corda. — Cynthia, De Not. — Dianas, Ehr. — didymotocum, Corda. Desmidiace^b [continued) Closterium Ehrenbergii, Menegh, — gracile, Br^b. W.C. — incurvum, Br6b. — *intermedium, Ralfs. — Jenneri, Ralfs. • — juncidium, Ralfs. W.C. — Leibleinii, KUtz. — linea, Pert. — lineatum, Ehr. Rough Tor^ Penzance — macilentum, Br^b. Mullion — lunula, Nitsch. W.C. — moniliferum, Ehr. „ — parvulum, Nag. Bodmin — pronum, Br6b. Mullion — pusillum, Hantzsch. Penzance var. monolithum, Wittr. Gurnard'.i Head rostratum, Ehr. Penzance W.C. ■>■> Penzance )) )> ■)■> Penzance W.C. ■)■> — setaceum, Ehr. — striolatum, Ehr. — turgidum, Ehr. — Venus, Kutz. W.C. Penium closterioides, Ralfs — didymocarpum, Lund. — digitus, Breb. — interruptum, Breb. — lamellosum, Br^b. — margaritaceum, Breb. — navicula, Breb. — oblongum, De Bary. — *truncatum, Ralfs. Tetmemorus Brebissonii, Ralfs. — granulatus, Ralfs. — laevis, Ralfs. — *penioides, Benn. Mawgan Docidium baculum, Breb. W.C. — *granulatum, Benn, Mawgan — minutum, Ralfs. W.C. — siculum. Bodmin Disphynctium annulatum, NMg. W. — cucurbita, Reinsch. — *curtum, Breb. — cylindrus, Nag, — quadratum, Hansg. — sinuosum, Hansg. var. decedens, Reinsch, Penzance Pleurotaenium clavatum, De Bary. W.C. — Ehrenbergii, Delponte. „ — nodulosum, De Bary. Penzance — truncatum, Nag, W. Pleurotaeniopsis aculeatum, Ehr, — Ralfsii, Lund, Xanthidium armatum, Br^b. — Brebissonii, Ralfs. C. cnstatum, Br^b. — fasciculatum, Ehr. Cosmarium abbreviatum, Racib. ■ — amasnum, Brdb. W.C. — ansatum, Kiitz, „ C rowan 95 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Desmidiace^ (continued) Cosmarium bioculatum, Br^b. ff^.C, — Boeckii, Will. Bodmin — Botrytis, Menegh. Penzance — Br^bissonii, Menegh. „ — *Broomei, Thw. N.C. — caelatum, Ralfs. Bodmin, Rough Tor — *commissurale, Br6b. St. Just W.C. » — crenatum, Ralfs. var. subcrenatum, Rab. — cristatum, Ralfs. A^'.C — cylindricum, Ralfs. W.C. — discretum, Benn. Roche, St. Dennis — erosum, Delp. Penzance — galeritum, Nordst. W.C. — *granatum, Br6b. — Hammeri, Reinsch. — laeve, Rab. „ — *Lundelii, Delph. Mousehole — margaritiferum, Menegh. W.C. — — melanospermum, Arch. Bodmin — — Meneghinii, Br(;b., var. angulosum, — Desmidiace^b (continued) Euastrum *rostratum, Ralfs. W.C. — verrucosum, Ehr. „ *Euastropsis Richteri, Lagerh. Sennen ; previously found only in Norway and Germany Micrasterias denticulata, Ralfs. W.C, — Jenneri, Ralfs. — mucronata, Rab. Penzance — papillifera, Br6b. W.C. — radiosa, C. Ag. » » » » Rab. Penzance *mon ill forme, Ralfs. orbiculatum, Ralfs. ornatum, Ralfs. 'enzance » » W.C. » W.C. Penzance ■)■> *Phaseolus, Breb. Portianum, Arch, pseudopyramidatum, Lund. var. stenonotum, Raddi. pyramidatum, Br6b. *quadrimammillatum, West & G. S. West. Lizard Regnesii, Reinsch. Penzance rectangulare, Grun. Bodmin reniforme, Arch. W.C. speciosum, Lund, sphasricum, Benn. tetraophthalmus, Breb. *tinctum, Ralfs. undulatum, Corda. N.C. Wittrockii, Lund. »> Arthrodesmus convergens, Ehr. — incus, Hass. — octocornis, Ehr. Euastrum affine, Ralfs. W.C. y> » » binale, Ralfs. crassum, Ktitz. var. Cornubiense, Benn. crenulatum, Benn. N.C. didelta, Ralfs. W.C. elegans, Kiitz. St. Dennis » — erosum, Lund. N.C. gemmatum, Br^b. „ insigne, Hass. Lizard, Penzance insulare, Wittr. N.C. oblongum, Ralfs., var. Cornubiense, Benn. Mawgan, W.C. pectinatum, Br^b. Penzance pulchellum, Br^b. „ Penzance n n n 'Roche — rotata, Ralfs. — truncata, Br(5b. Staurastrum apiculatum, Br^b. — alternans, Brdb. — *asperum, Br6b. — *avicula, Br^b. — bifidum, Br6b. W.C. — brachiatum, Ralfs. „ — brachycerum, Br6b. Sennen — brevispina, Br^b. W.C. controversum, Brdb. — cristatum, Arch. — *Cornubiense, Benn. — *cuspidatum, Brdb. Penzance — cyrtocerum, Br6b. W.C. — dejectum, Br^b. „ — *Dick.iei, Ralfs. Penzance — dilatatum, Ehr. W.C. — dispar, Brdb. „ — furcatum, Ehr. Penzance — furcigerum, Br<5b. W.C. — glabrum, Ralfs. — gracile, Ralfs. — granulosum, Ralfs. — hirsutum, Br^b. — inconspicuum, Nordst. — *lunatum, Ralfs. — margaritaceum, Menegh. Pen- zance — *monticulosum, Bieb. W.C. — mucronatum, Penzance — *muricatum, Brdb. W.C. — *muticum, Br6b. — orbiculare, Ralfs. — paradoxum, Meyen. „ — pilosum, Arch. Rough Tor — polymorphum, Brdb. W.C. — polytrichum, Perty. „ — pterosporum, Lund. Penzance — *punctulatum, Br6b. W.C. » Crowan W.C. » j> » *pungens, Br6b. — pygmaeum, Br^b *sexcostatum, Br6b. — spinosum, Br6b. — *spongiosum, Br^b. — teliferum, Ralfs. — tetracerum, Ralfs. — tumidum, Br^b. — vestitum, Ralfs. St Penzance W.C. )> )> < Just 96 BOTANY M0UGE0TIACE.B De Barya desmidi'oides, West & G. S. West. Lizard Mougeotia capucina, C. Ag. Tremethick Moor — depressa, Wittr. TV.C. — gelatinosa, Wittr. Li-zard — genuflexa, C. Ag. — gracillima, Wittr. — ovalis, Nordst. — parvula, Hass. var. angusta, Kirchn — punctata, Wittr. — recurva, De Ton!. — scalaris, Hass. — viridis, Wittr. Spirogyra arcta, Ktltz. „ var. catenaeformis, Kirchn. Lizard — inflata, Rab. Lizard^ Kerris Moor n n n » » »> — longata, Kutz. Kerris Moor — maxima, Wittr. — nitida, Link. — porticalis, Cleve. — stictica, Will. — tenuissima, K(itz. Zygnema cruciatum, C. Ag. — ericetorum, Hansg. » » — pectinatum, C. Ag. var. anomalum, Kirchn. „ — peliosporum, De Bary. Chy-an-hal Moor — Ralfsii Wittr. Chy-an-hal Moor — stellinum, C. Ag. TV.C. var. stagnale, Kirchn. Lizard var. Vaucherii, Kirchn. W,C. VOLVOCACE^ Eudorina elegans, Ehr. Sancreed Gonium pectorale, Muell. Pandorina morum, Bory. — aureus, Ehr. Trungle Volvox globator, Ehr. Moor Trungle Moor^ etc. Kennall Valley^ Palmellace^ Apiocystis Brauniana, Nag. TV.C. Botryococcus Braunii, Ktitz. Characium heteromorphum, Reinsch — Hookeri, Hansg. — longipes, Rab. — ornithocephalum, A. Br. — Sieboldi, A. Br. Characiopsis minuta, Borzi. Penzance Ccelastrum cubicum, Nag. „ — sphaericum. Nag. Boscastle Dictyosphaerium Ehrenbergianum, Nag. N.C. Eremosphasria viridis, De Bary. N.C. Centrosphaera facciolae, Borzi. Sennen Gloeocystis gigas, Lagerh. W.C. — rupestris, Rab. W.C. Bos- ■>■» n Palmellace^ [continued) Gloeocystis versicolor. Nag. IV, C. Nephrocytium Agardhianum, Nag. Ophiocytium cochleare, A. Br. Palmodactylon simplex. Nag. — subramosum, Nag. Pediastrum biradiatum, Meyen. — Boryanum, Menegh. — constrictum, Hass. — Ehrenbergii, A. Br. — integrum, Nag. Tintagel — tetras, Ralfs. Pleurococcus vulgaris, Menegh. „ Protococcus frustulosus, De Toni. castle Raphidium polymorphum, Fresen. W.C. var. aciculare, Rab. „ var. falcatum, Rabenh. „ Scenedesmus bijugatus, KUtz., var. alter- nans, Hansg. Chy-an-hal and Tre- methick Moors — obliquus, Ktitz. Chy-an-hal var. dimorphus, Rabenh. — quadricaudra, Br^b. Schizochlamys *gelatinosa, A. Br. Pen- zance Sciadium *arbuscula, A. Br. Chy-an-hal Moor Selenastrum Bibrayanum, Reinsch. Chy- an-hal Moor — bifidum, Benn. Chy-an-hal Moor Sorastrum bidentatum, Reinsch. Mawgan — spinulosum, Nag. Staurogenia rectangularis, A. Br. Tetraedron enorme, Hansg. — regulare, Ktitz. Tetraspora gelatinosa, Desv. — lubrica, C. Ag. Urococcus insignis, Hass. UlVACEiB Prasiola calophylla, Menegh, — crispa, C. Ag. — furfuracea, Menegh. Ulothrichace^ Bumilleria pumila, West & G. S. West. Sennen Hormidium murale, Kutz. Hormiscia asqualis, Ktitz. — moniliformis, Rab. — zonata, Aresch. var. catenaeformis, Rab. Hormospora mutabilis. Nag. Microspora fugacissima, Rab. „ — vulgaris, Rab. „ Confervace^ Conferva affinis, Ktitz. Helston; St. Marfs^ Scilly Isles — obsoleta, West & G. S. West. Pen- zance ; St. Marys^ Scilly Isles 97 13 Mawgan » Sennen IV. c. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL » » Ch^tophorace/e Aphanochaete globosa, Wolle. Land's End — repens, Berth. Kerris and Chy-an-hal Moors Chstophora endiviaefolia, C. Ag. IV.C. — pisiformis, C. Ag. „ — tuberculosa, W. Hook. „ Draparnaldia glomerata, C. Ag. Bodmin Stigeoclonium fastigiatum, KOtz. Chy-an- hal and Trungle Moors — protensum, Kiitz. W.C. — tenue, Rab. — thermale, A. Br. CHROOLEPIDACEi^ Microthamnion vexator, Cooke. W.C. Trentepohlia aurea, Mart. — umbrina, Born. CEDOGONIACEiE Bulbochaete crassiuscula, Nordst. — mirabilis, Wittr. — polyandra, Cleve. — pygmaea, Wittr. Chy-an-hal and Ker- ris Moors — rectangularis, Wittr. Near Grumbler — sessilis, Wittr. Bodmin — setigera, C. Ag. JV.C. — subintermedia, Elfv. Sennen — subsimplex, Wittr. JV.C. CEdogonium Areschougii, Wittr. JV.C. — Borisianum, Wittr. St. MarySy Scilly Isles — Boschii, Wittr. JV.C. — Braunii, Roth. Lizard — capitellatum, Wittr. Jt^.C. — cardiaceum, Kiitz. — ciliatum, Pringsh. — Cleveanum, Wittr. — crispum, Wittr. — cyathigerum, Wittr. — decipiens, Wittr. Sennen — echinospermum, A. Br. JV.C. — flavescens, Kiitz. „ — inerme, Hirn. 5/. Marys, Scilly Isles — Landsboroughii, Wittr. JV.C. — macrandrum, Wittr. — oblongum, Wittr. — platygynum, Wittr. » » » » CEdogoniace^ {continued) CEdogonium Rothii, Pringsh. JV.C. — rufescens, Wittr. St. Mary's, Scilly Isles — sphasrandrum, Wittr. JV.C. — Vaucherii, A. Br. „ CoLEOCHi^TACEi^ Coleochaete scutata, Br^b. „ Cladophorace.^ Cladophora canalicularis, Kiitz. JV.C. BoTRYDIACEiE Botrydium granulatum, Grev. Marazion Marsh (August) Vaucheriace.^ Vaucheria dichotoma, C. Ag. JV.C. — DiUwynii, C. Ag. JV.C. — geminata, D.C. — sessilis, D.C. — terrestris, Lyngb. » RHODOPHYCEiE BANGIACEiD Porphyridium cruentum, NSg. JV.C. LEMANIACEit Lemania fluviatilis, C. Ag. „ Sacheria mammillosa, Sirod. Penzance HELMINTHOCLADIACEit Batrachospermum *Dillenii, Bory zance, Bodmin — moniliforme, Roth. Bodmin, nooth Pen- Ponsa- — *pygmaeum, Sirod. JV.C. *vagum, C. Ag. )) n Balbiania *investiens, Sirod. Penzance Chantransia Hermanni, Desv. JV.C. — chalybea, Kutz. — compacta, Ralfs. — pygmaea, Kiitz. Mawgan — Scotica, KUtz. Mousehole HiLDENBRANDTIACEit Hildenbrandtia *rivularis, J. Ag. St. Knighton's Kieve, Bodmin PHiEOPHYCEiE PHi«OCAPSACEi« Phaeosphaera *gelatinosa, West & G. S. West. Tremethick Moor — psaegmatosporum, Nordst. >» LICHENS {Lichenes) Few English counties can boast of so rich a lichen flora as Corn- wall, and few have been worked by so many good lichenologists. Half a century ago the Rev. T. Salwey and the Rev. F. Pentreath published a list of Cornish lichens in the second volume of the Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society. The celebrated botanist Mr. W. Borrer frequently joined Dr. Ralfs and the Rev. T. Salwey in rambles after rare species. In 1880 a more complete list of the lichens 98 BOTANY of West Cornwall was published in vol. i. new ser. of the same work (pp. 215, 422) by Dr. Ralfs. In 1884 (loc. cit. ii. 73, 379) Mr. R. V. Tellam published a very full list of the lichens of the eastern part of the county. T'he hist of Scale Mosses and Lichens of Devon and Corn- wall^ published at Plymouth in 1872 by Mr. E. M. Holmes, also con- tains a number of Cornish localities for lichens. Other lichenologists who have explored various parts of the county are the late Mr. Dawson Turner, Dr. H. B. Holl, Mr. E. G. Varenne, Mr. E. D. Marquand, the Rev. J. M. Crombie, and others. The largest contributors to the Cornish lists have undoubtedly been the Rev. T. Salwey, Dr. Ralfs, Mr. W. Curnow, and Mr. R. V. Tellam. Mr. Holmes has visited in search of lichens the boundary line of the Tamar from Mount Edgcumbe to Saltash, Whitsand Bay, Fowey, Padstow, St. Ives, Newquay, Bedruthan, Falmouth, Lizard, Penzance and Land's End. Lichens from these local- ities that do not appear in the published lists are mostly records taken from specimens in his herbarium. The characteristic lichens of the county are chiefly those that occur on maritime rocks, especially on granite, clay, slate, and serpentine. Those characteristic of hard limestone, and of mountainous or subalpine regions, are fewer in comparison, although there are many cretaceous species found on the shelly sand dunes, as at St. Minver, and on the mortar of old walls. The abundant oak coppices, clothing the sides of damp ravines, as in the neighbourhood of Bodmin, furnish many southern species ; others are found in the warm climate of Scilly Isles, Penzance, and the Lizard that are not found further north, or very sparingly so on the north-west of Great Britain, where the influence of the Gulf Stream is felt. Thus Lecidea Muddii is found on the coast in Westmorland, and Sticta Thouarsii and 6*. crocata occur near Oban and elsewhere on the west of Scotland. Several species usually sterile in Britain have been found in fructification in moderate abundance in Cornwall. Amongst these may be especially noticed Roccella fuciformis and jR. phycopsis, Parmelia Borreri, P. caper ata, P. per lata ^ and Physcia flavicans. The following are some of the rarer lichens found in the county, which are characteristic of a southern flora : Myriangium Duricei^ found only in Cornwall and the Channel Islands, chiefly on ash trees ; Sticta aurata^ found in the Scilly Islands, but extremely rare in Dorset and Hants ; S. Dufourei^ Physcia speciosa^ P. leucomela ; Opegrapha amphotera elsewhere recorded only from Bala Lake in Wales ; Lecanora subexigua^ L. discorella, L. Ralfsii^ Lecidea strepsodina, L. herbarum, L. scopulicola, Opegrapha lentiginosa, 0. Ctesariensis, O. grumulosa^ Lithographa petrcea^ L. dendrographa^ Arthonia ilicina, Graphis Lyellii, G. Ruiziana, Stigma- tidium circumscriptum^ Chiodecton Sarniense, and the maritime species of Verrucaria. The Graphidiei are particularly well represented in the county, almost as richly indeed as in the south-west of Ireland. Ramalina Curnowii, named after Mr. William Curnow, one of the princes of Cornish botanists, does not appear to have been detected elsewhere, 99 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL except in Jersey. One very rare species, Flacodium fulgens, forms a zone of a golden yellow colour on a calcareous sand dune near Padstow, and also occurs on flat ground near Constantine Bay. The species common on old trees or old wood in drier countries are remarkable for the absence of records, especially the genera Calicium and Phlyctis. The species of the genus Pertusaria, though fairly repre- sented, do not appear to fruit so freely as in the Devonshire ravines. The Collemacei also, as might be expected from the absence of limestone, are not very numerous. Where limestone does occur however, as at Cremyll near Mount Edgcumbe, species characteristic of that formation, such as Placodium cirrhochroum^ Lecanora ochracea, L. calcarea^ Verrucaria immersa, and V. conoidea, etc., are met with. The Gyrophorei, which are fairly abun- dant on the Dartmoor Tors, are represented in Cornwall very sparingly, JJmbilkaria pustulata and TJ. polyrrhiza only having been detected hitherto, the former at St. Breward, Helmentor, and Tremoran Hill, and the latter only near Helmentor. Lithographa dendrographa appears to occur much more sparingly than in Devon, but Stigmatidium circumscriptum is notice- able everywhere near the sea on the clay slate and the serpentine, growing often in the most provoking manner across the grain of the clay slate, so that it is almost impossible to get a good specimen. Although so large a proportion of the British lichen flora has been detected in Cornwall, there is little doubt that many rare species will yet be found on the maritime rocks and inland coppices, and possibly on old trees in some of the parks scattered through the county. The classification followed is that of Crombie's British Lichens as far as Vrceolaria and Leighton's British Lichen Flora from Lecanora to Melano- theca, the species being arranged alphabetically for facility of reference. The rarer species in the list are indicated by an asterisk. Ephebacei, Nyl. Sirosiphon compactus, Ktitz. IV.C. Gonionema velutinum, Nyl. St. Cleer^ E.G. Ephebe pubescens, Nyl. E.C.^ Rough Tor Lichina pygmzea, Lightf. St. Minver^ B.C. ; Penzance^ Scilly Isles — confinis, Ach. Antony^ B.C. j Fal- mouthj Penzance Collemacei Collema cheileum, Ach., f. nudum, Nyl. B.C. — concinnum, Flot. Penzance — crispum, Ach. St. Minver sub-sp. ceranoides, Nyl. St. Minvery Penzance f. cristatulum, Nyl. St. Minver — flaccidum, Ach. Boconnoc^ Camelfordy St. Minver — furvum, Ach. Porth Burrow — glaucescens, Hoffm. B.C. — granuliferum, Nyl. St. Minver — nigrescens, Ach. Lizard^ Penzance Collemacei {continued) Collema plicatile, Nyl. B.C. var. hydrocharum, Nyl. W.C. — pulposum, Ach. W.C. var. pulposulum, Nyl. E.G. — tenax, Ach. E.C. Collemodium biatorinum, Nyl. Wadebridge — fluviatile, Nyl. St. Minver — Schraderi, Nyl. „ — turgidum, Nyl. JVadebridge Leptogium amphineum, Nyl. Penzance — lacerum, Gray, f. fimbriatum, HofFm. E.C. sub-sp. pulvinatum, Nyl. Hayle Sands sub-sp. lophaeum, Nyl. B.C. — Scotinum, Fr. Hayle Sands — muscicolum, Fr. Penzance — palmatum, Mont. Marden Woods near Penzance — subtile, Nyl. Withiel — tenuissimum, Koerb. Penzance — tremelloides, Gray. St. Issey^ Ruan Minory Lamorna 100 BOTANY Caliciei Calicium trachelinum, Ach. E.C. Spinctrina turbinata, Fr. Withiel Sph^rophorei Sphaerophoron compressus, Ach. W.C. — coralloides, Pers. HelmentoKy Cheese- wrings Zennor^ Penzance — fragilis, Ach. Liskeard Baeomyces roseus, Pers. St. Breock Down^ Tregawn^ Trengwainton — rufus, DC. Withiely Boconnoc var. subsquamulosus, Nyl. Bodmin Stereocaulei Stereocaulon coralloides, Fr. Helmentor^ Cheesewring — evolutum, Graewe. E.C, Leprocaulon nanum, Nyl. Lamorna^ Hel- mentor Cladoniei Pycnothelia *papillaria, Dufl. St. Breach^ Zennor. (Rare in Cornwall) Cladonia alcicornis, Floerke. JVithiel^ Scilly Isles — bacillaris, Nyl. Wadebr'tdge var. sub-coronata, Nyl. St. Breward — bellidiflora, Floerke. Hustyn Down, E.C, — caespititia, Flcerke. St. Breward, E.C. — cariosa, Spreng. fP^.C. — cervicornis, Schaer. TVithiel, Penzance — coccifera, Schaer. St. Breward, Wade- bridge f. cornucopioides, Fr. St. Breward sub-sp. pleurota, Cromb. „ — deformis, HofFm. E.C. — delicata, Floerke. St. Breward, E.C. — digitata, HofFm. W.C, — fimbriata, Fr. Truro var. conista, Nyl. Lanivet var. tubaeformis, Fr. St. Breward, E.C. f. macra, Cromb. Bodmin — furcata, HofFm. Temple Moor var. corymbosa, Nyl. Withiel, Pen- zance sub-sp. racemosa, Nyl. E.C, f. recurva, Floerke. „ — gracilis, HofFm. Penzance — Lamarckii, Nyl. Bodmin — macilenta, HofFm. Withiel f. styracella, Nyl. „ f. clavata, Fr. W.C. var. scabrosa, Nyl. Bodmin, W.C. var. coronata, Nyl. „ „ — ochrochlora, Flcerke. Bodmin f. ceratodes, Floerke. „ — pityrea, Floerke. Helmentor — pungens, Floerke. St. Merryn, Pen- zance — pyxidata, Fr. St. Breward, Bodmin f. lophyra, Coem. St. Breock Cladoniei {continued) Cladonia pyxidata, Fr. var. pocillum, Fr. Bodmin var. chlorophaea, Floerke. Helmentor, Penzance — scabriuscula, Nyl. Penzance — sobolifera, Nyl. St. Breock, Helmentor — squamosa, HofFm. „ f. cucullata, Nyl. Withiel — subsquamosa, Nyl. Penzance, E.C. — verticillata, Floerke. St. Breock f. laciniolata, Nyl. Carn Galva — sylvatica, Nyl. Tregawn f. lacerata, Nyl. Bodmin f. portentosa, Leight. Penzance — uncialis, Nyl. Respryn, near Lanhy- drock f. adunca, Cromb. Withiel, Pen- zance f. turgescens, Cromb. W.C. Roccellei Roccella fuciformis, DC. Tintagel, Lizard (in fruit), Lamorna Cove, Logan Rock — phycopsis, Ach. Tintagel, Lizard (in fruit), Pentire f. tenuior, Nyl. E.C, Scilly Isles Ramalinei Ramalina calicaris, Nyl. Respryn, Pen- zance var. subampliata, Nyl. Penzance var. subfastigiata, Nyl. „ — Curnowii, Cromb. Penzance, Land^ End ; St. Mary's, Scilly Isles — cuspidata, Nyl. St. Breock, Tintagel, Lizard, Land's End f, minor, Nyl. Fowey, Penzance var. crassa, Del. Penzance sub-sp. breviuscula, Nyl. PolperrOy Tintagel — evernioides, Nyl. Endellion, Tintagel — farinacea, Ach. Withiel, Penzance sub-sp. intermedia, Nyl. „ — fastigiata, Ach. Penzance, Withiel — fraxinea, Ach. „ var. ampliata, Ach. E.C, — poUinaria, Ach. Penzance, Lizard, Tresco, Scilly Isles f. humilis, Ach. Penzance — polymorpha, Ach., f. ligulata, Ach. W.C. — scopulorum, Ach. St. Michaels Mount, Lamorna, Land's End ; St. Mary's, Scilly Isles var. incrassata, Nyl. Penzance — subfarinacea, Nyl. „ (Fruit), Annet, Scilly Isles (fruit) Usneei Usnea articulata, HofFm. Liskeard — ceratina, Ach., f. ferruginascens, Cromb. Withiel 101 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL UsNEEI [continued) Usnea dasypoga, Nyl. E.C.y W.C. — florida, Ach. E.C.y Boconnoc^ Pen- zance — hirta, HofFm. E.C.y Penzance Alectoria bicolor, Nyl. HelmentoVy W.C. — jubata, Nyl. Helmentor^ Rough Tor sub-sp. chalybeiformis, Nyl. Trungle Moor, W.C. Cetrariei Cetraria aculeata, Fr. f. hispida, Cromb. E.C.y Scilly Isles Platysma glaucum, Nyl. LamornOy Hel- mentory Castallack f. fallax, Nyl. Helmentor — ulophyllum, Nyl. W.C.y Castallack near Penzance EVERNIEI Evernia furfuracea, Fr. Helmentor f. ceratea, Nyl. )> 'en- — prunastri, Ach. f. sored iata, Ach. W.C. Parmeliei Parmelia Borreri, Turn. Withiely zance — caperata, Ach. BoconnoCy Withiel (in fruit), Penzance ; St. Mary's, Scilly Isles — cetrarioides, Nyl. Helmentor — conspersa, Ach. Helmentor, Zennor, Penzance f. isidiata, Leight. Withiely Penzance var. stenophylla, Ach. Penzance — exasperata, Nyl. Withiel — fuliginosa, Nyl. St. Breock (in fruit), Penzance var. laetevirens, Nyl. Penzance — laevigata, Ach. Withiely Penzance — lanata,Wallr. Corwtf^// (Mr. Stephens) var. b. laetevirens, Nyl. Penzance — Mougeotii, Schaer. Withiely Penzance — omphalodes, Ach. Helmentor, Trungle Moor, Penzance var. b. panniformis, Ach. Helmentor, Penzance — perforata, Ach. Withiel, Penzance — perlata, Ach. Boconnoc, Withiel, Pen- zance (in fruit) sub-sp. ciliata, Nyl. Helmentor, Pen- zance, Scilly Isles — pertusa, Schaer. Tregawn, PenzancCy Zennor — physodes, Ach. E.C.y Lamorna f. labrosa, Ach. Withiely Penzance f. tubulosa, Midd. „ „ f. platyphylla, Ach. E.C. — prolixa, Nyl., sub. sp. Delisei, Nyl. Penzance var. isidiascens, Nyl. Helmentor, Pen- zance Parmeliei {continued) Parmelia reddenda, Stirt. Redruthy Pen- zance — revoluta, Nyl. Withiely Penzance var. rugosa, Cromb. Lizard f. panniformis, Cromb. Helmentor, P entire — saxatilis, Ach. Redruthy Penzance f. furfuracea, Schaer. Helmentory Pen- zance — scortea, Ach. E.C. — sinuosa, Ach. W.C, Trengwainton near Penzance — subaurifera, Nyl. Penzance — sulcata, Tayl. Withiel, Penzance — tiliacea, Ach. E.C. — *xanthomyela, Nyl. W.C. Stictina crocata, Nyl. Carn Galva, Zennor — Dufourei, Nyl. Menheniot, Liskeard, Pentire, Lizard ' — fuliginosa, Nyl. Launcestony BoconnoCy Camelfordy Penzance — limbata, Nyl. Boconnoc, Withiel, Pen- zance — sylvatica, Nyl. Boconnoc, Penzance Lobarina scrobiculata, Nyl. Liskeard, Tre- gawn, Helmentor, Lamorna Lobar ia pulmonaria, HofFm. Boconnoc, Camelford, Pentire, St. Minver, Lis- keard, Helmentory Penzance f. hypomela, Cromb. Bryher Islandy Scilly Sticta aurata, Ach. Tresco and Bryher Islandsy Scilly Ricasolia amplissima, Leight. St. Minver, Boconnoc, Lamorna — laetevirens, Leight. St. Austell, Bocon- noc, Lizard, Bryher Island, Scilly Peltigerei Nephromium lusitanicum, Nyl. Launceston, Respryn, Liskeard — parile, Nyl. E.C, St. Austell, Lizard f. panniforme, Cromb. Penzance f. hibernicum, Nyl. Launceston Peltigera canina, HofFm. Withiel, Penzance var. membranacea, Nyl. Penzance — horizontalis, Hoffm. Pentire — polydactyla, HofFm. Withiely Penzance — rufescens, HofFm. Penzance f. praetextata, Flcerk. Boconnoc — scutata, Leight. Withiel Physciei Physcia adglutinata, Nyl. Penzance — aipolia, Nyl. (?) „ var. cercidia, Nyl. Withiel, Penzance — aquila, Nyl. Roche Rocksy Helmentory Penzancey Lizard — astroidea, Nyl. Penzance — caesia, Nyl. Withiel, Penzance f. teretiuscula, Nyl. Penzance 102 BOTANY Physciei (continued) Physcia ciliaris, DC, var. saxicola, Nyl. IVithie/ — erosa, Leight, Withiel^ Penzance — flavicans, DC. Bude^ BoconnoCy Wit- hie l^ Penzance (in fruit) — leucomela, Mich. Bray^ Altarnum^ Lizard^ Scilly Isles — lychnea, Nyl. St. Austell^ Penzance — parietina, De Not. var. aureola, Nyl. Withiel f. congranulata, Cromb. St. Minver — pulverulenta, Nyl. Withiel var. angustata, Nyl. Bodmin sub-sp. pityrea, Nyl. Penzance sub-sp. venusta, Nyl. „ — speciosa, Nyl. Rough Tor^ Lizard var. hypoleuca, Ach. Rough Tor — stellaris, Nyl. var. leptalea, Nyl. Bodmin^ Penzance sub-sp. tenella, Nyl. Withiel^ Penzance — tribacia, Nyl. „ „ — tribacoides, Nyl. Penzance — ulothrix, Nyl. „ var. virella, Cromb. Newlyn Cliff Gyrophorei Umbilicaria pustulata, HofFm. Helmentor Gyrophora polyphylla. Turn. & Borr. St, Cleer — polyrrhiza, Korb. Helmentor Placodei Pannaria rubiginosa, Del. BoconnoCy Respryn var. b. coeruleobadia, Mudd. Withiel var. c. nebulosa, Nyl. St. Germans^ Withiely Penzance Pannularia microphylla, Nyl. Penzance f. cheilea, Nyl. E.G. f. triptophylla, Nyl. St. Breock f. nigra, Nyl. St. Minver f. carnosa, Cromb. Penzance Coccocarpia plumbea, Nyl. [07 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Agaricus {continued) (PhoHota) aurivellus, Batsch. Penzance — capistratus, Cooke. Trevayler — *erebius, Fr. Keneg'te — mutabilis, SchaefF. Trereife — prascox, Pers. Marazion — pudicus, Bull. Newlyn — spectabilis, Fr. Kenegle^ Rosehill near Penzance — *terrigenus, Fr. Trengwa'inton (Hebeloma) geophyllus, Fr. Son. Rosehill near Penzance — lacerus, Fr. Keneg'te — *maritimus, Fr. Rosemorran — muticus, Fr. Lamorran — pyriodorus, Pers. Rosehill near Pen- zance — rimosus, Bull. Trengwainton — *scabellus, Fr, Penzance — scaber, Mull. Rosehill near Penzance — trechisporus, Berk. Trevayler (Flammula) *gummosus, Lasch. Treneer — inopus, Fr. Lamorran — picreus, Fr. Trengwainton — sapineus, Fr. Penzance (Naucoria) erinaceus, Fr. Penzance — graminicola, Nees. Trengwainton (Tubaria) embolus, Fr, Penzance (Crepidotus) *applanatus, Pers. Penzance — mollis, SchaefF. Trereife^ Lelant — *haustellaris, Fr. Trannack — *Ralfsii, Berk. & Br. „ (Stropharia) aeruginosus, Curt. Trengivainton (Psalliota) squamosus, Fr. Trevayler — campestris, Linn. Tredavoe van silvicola, Vitt. Rosemorran — melaspermus. Bull. Praa Sands — *subgibbosus, Fr. Penzance (Hypholoma) epixanthus, Fr. Trevelloe — lachrymabundus, Fr. Penzance — pilulaeformis. Bull. Trengwainton (Psilocybe) physaloides, Bull. Carna- gwidden (Psathyra) gossypinus, Fr. Trengwainton (Panaeolus) *caliginosus, Jungh. Madron — fimicola, Fr. Penzance (Psathyrella) *crenatus, Fr. Marazion — hiascens, Fr. Rosehill near Penzance — *hydrophorus, Bull. Madron (Coprinus) *cothurnatus, Godey. Rosehill near Penzance — extinctorius, Fr. Madron — niveus, Fr. Rosemorran — ovatus, Fr. Ding Dong (Bolbitius) apicalis, W. G. Smith. Trereife (Dermocybe) cinnamomeus, Fr. Pendarves (Telamonia) helvelloides, Fr. Penzance — torvus, Fr. Rosehill near Penzance (Hygrocybe) *acutus, Fr. Penzance — leucopus, Fr. Rosehill near Penzance Agaricus {continued) (Hygrocybe) obtusus, Fr. — Reedii, Berk. Rosemorran Paxillus giganteus, Fr. Lamo'^ran Hygrophorus *glutinifer, Fr. Rosemorran — *nemoreus, Lasch. — obrusseus, Fr. Lamorna^ Rosemorran — ovinus, Fr. Trevayler — russo-coriaceus, Berk. & Br. Mara- zion — *vitellinus, Fr. Ding Dong Lactarius deliciosus, Fr. Goldsithney — *aurantiacus, Fl. Dan. Russula depallens, Fr. Trevayler — nitida, Fr. Trevelloe^ Carn Cantharellus albidus, Fr. Kenegie — aurantiacus, Fr., var. lactea, Ralfs MS. Carnagwiddeny Rosehill Marasmius angulatus, B. & Br. Pendarves — languidus, Fr. Madron — Vaillantii, Fr. Lamorna^ Rosehill Lentinus tigrinus, Fr. Pendarves^ Camborne POLYPOREI Boletus bovinus, Linn. Ponsanoothy Treng- wainton — parasiticus. Bull. Tremenheere^ l88o Polyporus *acanthoides, Fr. Penzance — adiposus, Berk. & Br. Trengwainton — amorphus, Fr. Goldsithney — czesius, Fr. Trengwainton — crispus, Fr. Rosemorran — epileucus, Fr. Trench — farinellus, Fr. Rosehill nc3.r Penzance — *fragilis, Fr. New Mill — heteroclitus, Fr. Lamorran — hirsutus, Fr. Penzance — intybaceus, Fr. Lamorran — lucidus, Fr. Castle Horned — *Michelii, Fr. Penzance — moUuscus, Fr. „ — *mucidus, Fr. Trengwainton — nummularius, Fr. Penzance — *pectinatus, Kl. „ — pomaceus, Fr. Newlyn Cliff" Polyporus Rostkovii, Fr. Lamorna — *sanguinolentus, Fr. Trevelloe^ Carn — *tephroleucus, Fr. Lamorran — terrestris, Fr. Rosemorran — velutinus, Fr. Penzance — vitreus, Fr. Trengwainton Daedalea *cinerea, Fr. Penzance — *polyzona, Fr. Merulius moUuscus, Fr. Hydnei Hydnum *aureum, Fr. — *denticulatum, Pers. — *diaphanum, Chr. — ferruginosum, Fr. Trevayler » ^enzance »> >> — niveum, Pers. Penzance — squalinum, Fr. Kenegie \ox BOTANY » HvDNEI [continued) Hydnum Weinmanni, Fr. Trerelfe Irpex *carneus, Fr. Penzance Phlebia contorta, Fr. — *lirellosa, Pers. — merismoides, Fr. Kenegiey Lamorran AURICULARINEI Stereum rufum, Fr. Kenegie — *stratosum, Berk. & Br. Penzance — *vorticosum, Fr. Trengwainton — tabacinum, Fr. Lower Tremenheere Auricularia mesenterica. Bull. Trereife Penzance Corticium *maculae forme, Fr. — puberum, Fr. Rosemorran — *umbrinum, Fr. Penzance — *uvidum, Fr. Carbis Bay Cyphella *Curreyi, Berk. & Br. Rose- morran Clavariei Sparassis crispa, Fr. Trevayler^ Rosemorran^ Rosehil/y Rosewoon Clavaria acuta, Son. Penzance — amethystina, Bull. Rosehill near Pen- zance — coralloides, Linn. Trengwa'inton — flaccida, Fr. Rosehill near Penzance — *pyxidata, Pers. Penzance — stricta, Pers. Trannack^ Madron Calocera *corticalis, Fr. Trereife Typhula gyrans, Fr. Penzance Tremellini Tremella *brassicaecola, Berk. MS. Tre- reife — indecorata, Sommerf. Penzance — intumescens. Sow. Trengwainton — versicolor, Berk, & Br. Nematelia nucleata, Fr. Dacrymyces chrysocomus, Tul. Trevayler ■>■> » GASTEROMYCETES HvPOGiEI Octaviana asterosperma, Vitt. EnySy Ponsa- nooth Melanogaster ambiguus, Tul. Trengwain- ton Trichogastres Geaster fornicatus, Fr. St. Mabyn — giganteum, Batsch. Penzance — saccatum, Vahl. Truro Scleroderma Bovista, Fr. Kenegie — verrucosum, Pers. Carbis Bay^ Rosehill near Penzance Myxogastres Reticularia umbrina, Fr. Trereife Spumaria alba, DC. Trevelloe Diderma lucidum. Berk. Gulval — vernicosum, Pers. Pendarves — *eflFusum, Link. Tregony Didymium hemisphasricum, Fr. Treng- wainton Myxogastres [continued) Didymium nigripes, Fr. Penzance — squamulosum, A. & G. Rosemorran Physarum nutans, Pers. Lamorran Angioridium sinuosum, Grev. Penzance Badhamia hyalina. Berk. Trengwainton Craterium leucocephalum, Ditm. Gulval Stemonitis ferruginea, Ehr. Trevethoe^ Lelant — obtusata, Fr. Rosemorran — ovata, Pers. Trengwainton Arcyria incarnata, Pers. Tredavoe Trichia chrysosperma, DC. Castle Horneck — pyriformis, HofFm. Penzance — *scabra, Rostk. Rosemorran — variabilis, Pers. Trewidden Licea cylindrica, Fr. Rosemorran — fragiformis, Fr. Penzance Nidulariacei Cyathus striatus, HofFm. Castle Horneck Crucibulum vulgare, Tul. Trevayler Sphaerobolus stellatus, Tode. Rosehill near Penzance CONIOMYCETES Penzance Tode. Sph^ronemei Sphaeropsis atrovirens, L^v. Fuchelia Plowrighti, Nest. Acrospermum compressum, Tode. Pen- zance Septoria insularis. Berk. & Br — Lepidei, Desm. — lituus. Berk. & Br. — Ralfsii, Berk. & Br. Gulval, Treneer — salicella, Berk. & Br. Penzance Excipula strigosa, Fr. Ceuthospora Laureri, Grev. TORULACEI ^enzance )) » » Torula pulveracea, Corda. Penzance Berk. & Br. Sporidesmium abruptum, Trevethoe PUCCINI^I Uromyces Fabae, Cooke. Penzance — Rumicis, Schun. Castle Horneck — Scillarum, Grev. Penzance — Valerianae, Wint. „ — annulosus, Wint. „ (1852) Puccinia Betonicas, DC. Kennall Valley^ Penzance — Buxi, DC. Newlyn, Tredavoe — Circaeae, Pers. Rosehill near Penzance — Galii, Wint. Penzance — Glechomatis, DC. „ (1852) — glomerata, Grev. „ — Hieracii, Mart. Madron — Lapsanas, Fckl. Gulval — Lychnidearum, Link. Hea Moor — Phragmitis, Schrot. Gulval — Primulas, Grev. Kennall Valley, Pen- zance 109 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PucciNliTi (continued) Puccinia Smyrnii, Corda. Kennall Valley^ Newlyn — truncata, Berk. & Br. Penzance — Umbilici, Gudp. — variabilis, Grev. C^OMACEI Melampsora mixta, Plowr. Gulval Coleosporium Sonchi, Plowr. Penzance Caeoma alliorum. Link. — Orchidis, Alb. & Schw. » HYPHOMYCETES Stilbacei Stilbum aurantiacum, Bab. Penzance Atracteum flammeum. Berk. & Br. Tren- gwainton Tubercularia granulata, Pers. Penzance Myrothecium roridum, Tode. „ — inundatum, Berk. Trengwainton lUosporium coccineum, Fr. Penzance — roseum, Fr. Kerris Moor Dematiei Dendryphium *atrum, Corda. Rosemorran Monatospora megalospora, Berk. & Br. Trereife Helminthosporium Smithii, Berk. & Br. Penzance MUCEDINES Aspergillus candidus. Link. Penzance Nematogeneum aurantiacum, Desm. Tre- reife Peronospora *nivea, Ung. Penzance — parasitica, DC. — Urticae, Casp. Haplaria grisea, Link. Penicillium candidum, Link. Dactylium roseum, Berk. Sepedoniei Sepedonium chrysospermum. Link. Tre- vayler ASCOMYCETES Elvellacei Morchella esculenta, Pers. Hayle Helvella crispa, Fr. Lamorran — elastica, Bull. Pendarves Mitrula paludosa, Fr. Trevayler Leotia lubrica, Pers. Rosemorran — nana, With. Pendarves Geoglossum glabrum, Pers. Penzance — hirsutum, Pers. Peziza alboviolascens, A. & S. — auriflava, Cooke. Helston — caulicola, Fr. Gulval — cerea, Sow. Penzance — cochleata, Huds. Trevethoe — *Cornubiensis, Berk. & Br. Penzance — corticalis, Pers. Trevayler — episphxria, Mart. » » Elvellacei (continued) Peziza fibrillosa, Curr. Penzance — fusarioides. Berk. — hemisphaerica, Wigg. Penzance — humosa, Fr. — *hydnicola, Berk. & Br. — inflexa. Bolt. — lecideola, Fr. — melaxantha, Fr. Trevayler — omphaloides, Bull. Penzance — *peristomialis. Berk. & Br, gwainton — repanda, Wahl. Rosehill near Tren- ■'en- zance » — rhabdosperma, Berk. & Br. Trevayler — rubra, Cooke. Gulval — Schumacheri, Fr. Penzance — *scutula, Pers. Falmouth — subhirsuta, Schum. Penzance — theleboloides, A. & S. Gulval — umbrosa, Fr. Trungle Moor — variecolor, Fr. Penzance — villosa, Pers. „ — venosa, Pers., A. & S. Trengwainton — vulgaris, Fr. Castle Horneck — Wrightii, Berk. Slabb Hobbo Helotium aeruginosum, Fr. Lamorran — calyculus, Fr. Madron — claroflavum. Berk. Castle Horneck — pallescens, Fr. Rosemorran — pruinosum, Jerd. Trengwainton Patellaria atrata, Fr. Praa Sands — rhabarbarina. Berk. Penzance Tympanis conspersa, Fr. „ Cenangium ferrugineum, Fr. Trengwainton — fuliginosum, Fr. Penzance — pulveraceum, Fr. Madron^ Trevethoe Ascobolus viridis, Curn. Bulgaria sarcoides, Fr. Pendarves^ Chyan- dour Stictis radiata, Pers. Trengwainton Phacidiacei Phacidium dentatum, Fr. — ilicis, Fr. Heterosphaeria patella, Grev. Trevayler Rhytisma acerinum, Fr. Penzance Hysterium conigenum, Moug. & Nestl. Golsithney — Fraxini, Pers. Penzance — maculare, Fr. „ — Pinastri, Schrad. Goldsithney — pulicare, Pers. Trevayler — xylomoides, Chev. Penzance Stegia ilicis, Fr. „ Trochila craterium, Fr. Trereife — Laurocerasi, Fr. Penzance Sph^riacei Torrubia militaris, Fr. Rosemorran Hypocrea rufa, Fr. Lower Tremenheere Hypomyces aurantius, Tul. Trereife IIO BOTANY SPHiTRlACEI (continued) Nectria aquifolia, Berk. Trengwainton — episphaeria, Fr. Treneer^ Lelant — erubescens, Fr. Trevayler — mammoidea, Fr. „ — Peziza, Fr. Trengwainton — Ralfsii, Berk. & Br. Castle Horneck — sinopica, Fr. Trengwainton Xylaria vaporaria, Berk. Penzance — argillacea, Fr. Trengwainton Hypoxylon rubiginosum, Fr. Gulval — serpens, Fr. Trevayler — udum, Fr. Gulval Eutypa Acharii, Tul. Germoe — lata, Tul. Rosemorrany Treneer — scabrosa, Fckl. Trevayler Melogramma gastrinum, Tul. Penzance Dothidea filicina, Fr. Penzance — graminis, Fr. — Rosae, Fr. — Ulmi, Fr. Diatrype ceratosperma, Fr. Castle Horneck — corniculata. Berk. & Br. „ „ — disciformis, Fr. Rosehill near Penzance » Sph^riacei {continued) Diatrype ferruginea, Fr. Madron — hystrix, Fr. Rosemorran — *leprosa, Pers. Trevayler^ Trereife — stigma, Fr. Trevayler — Ulicis, Berk. Trengwainton Melanconis longipes, Tul. Penzance Valsa nivea, Fr. Treneer — prunastri, Fr. Penzance — quaternata, Fr. „ — salicina, Fr. Trereife Sphaeria aggregata, Lasch. Penzance — aquila, Fr. Trevayler — ceuthosporoides. Berk. Penzance — clypeata, Nees. „ — confluens, Tode. „ — cyanogena, Desm. Gulval — Desmazierii, Berk. & Br. Trengwainton — doliolum, Pers. Trevayler — Epochnii, Berk. & Br. Trereife — herbarum, Pers. Penzance — leprosa, Pers. „ — lirella, Pers. „ — mastoidea, Fr. „ ADDENDA During the two years which have elapsed since this article was prepared many important discoveries have been made, but a list of added species and of the more important of the varieties must suffice. The figures in parentheses correspond with the county-divisions. Fumaria occidentalisy Pugsley, in fournal of Botany^ I904> 217 (5, 7, 8); a handsome plant, new to science, and at present not known to occur out of Cornwall. F. Boraei^ Jord. var. verna^ CI. (6) ; var. muraliformis^ CI. (6). F. conjusa^ Jord. var. hihernica^ Pugsley (6). Polygala serpyllacea^ Weihe, var. vincoides, Chodat (6) ; a striking form quite new to science. Ulex Galliiy Planch, var. humilisy Planch. (1—8). Rubus fissus^ Lindl. (4). R. pHcatuSy Wh. and N. var. hemistemon (P. y. Muell.) (4). R. nitidus, Wh. and N. subsp. opacuSy Focke (4). R. cariensisy Rip. and Genev. (4). R. argentatuSy P. J. Muell. var. robustuSy P. J. Muell. (6, 7). R. macrophyllus (sp. collect.), var. macrophylloides (Genev.) (6). R. thyrsoideuSy Winm. (7). R. lentiginosuSy Lees (6). R. pyramidalisy Kalt. (6). R. curvidenSy A. Ley (4, 6). R. infestusy Weihe (7). R. rudisy Wh. and N. (6). R. podophylluSy P. J. Muell, (6). R. rosaceusy Wh. and N. subsp. Powelliiy Rogers (6). R. horridicaulisy P. J. Muell. (6). R. dumetoruniy Wh. and N. var. feroxy Weihe (3). Potentilla norvegicay Linn. (3). Drosera a?iglicay Huds. (5). Caucalis latifolwy Linn. (3). Artemisia maritimay Linn. (8). Senecio Cinerariay DC. (5). Gentiana lingulatay C. A. Agardh, var. pracoxy Townsend (Murbeck) (5). Euphrasia borealisy Town. (5). Nepeta Glechomay Benth. var. parvifloray Benth. (5, 6). Galeopsis Tetrahity Linn. var. bifida (Boenn.) (5, 6). Salicornia strictay Dumort. (5). S. ramos- sisimay Woods (5). Narcissus odoruSy Linn. Potamogeton interruptuSy Kit. (8). Carex Pairaeiy F. Schultz (7). Anthoxanthum Puelliiy Lee and Lam. (2). Further testing of the merits of the records compels the writer to omit the following from the Cornish list : Ranunculus fluitanSy Silene conicay Stellaria nemoruniy Arenaria tenuifoUoy Medicago minimay Vicia lathyroideSy Rubus saxatilisy CEnanthe silaifoliay Galium Vaillantiiy Filago apiculatOy Rhinanthus majory Orobanche elatiory Cryptogramme crispa. As a result of these additions and exclusions, the total strength of the flora of Cornwall is now brought to 1,265 species. Ill ZOOLOGY MARINE ZOOLOGY The unique geographical position of Cornwall as the most southerly as i well as the most westerly county in England, and the consequently genial temperature of its waters, its form as a long irregular wedge projecting out into the Atlantic, its two hundred and fifty miles of much indented coast line and the possession of the largest amount of southern 'sea frontage' of all the Channel counties naturally create the highest expectations as to the richness and variety of the marine life in its coastal waters. In spite of the j barren character of almost the whole of the north coast with its long sea walls of seamed and fissured cliff and its desolate surf-beaten beaches, first expectations are more than realized in the wealth of species not only in the large sheets of enclosed and sheltered sea like Mount's Bay, Falmouth Bay, Mevagissey and St. Austell Bay and Plymouth Sound and the many land- locked coves and tidal estuaries, but also in the long stretches of coastal j waters exposed to the full force of the Atlantic storms. To the great variety of littoral and of sea bottom as well as of exposure are due that delight- | ful diversity of fauna that makes both shore hunting and dredging along this southern coast so full of interest. Fine sand, coarse sand, friable shales, slate rock and granite are all abundantly represented in the happy hunting , ground between tide-marks, and on many parts of the coast rock pools are J plentiful. The rocks are in places densely covered with Fucus, Pehetia, and other brown sea-weeds, frequently arranged in definite zones, and the cracks, , crevices, and overhanging ledges of the rocks themselves are often thickly i tenanted. The characteristic laminarian and coralline zones are in places ' extensively developed, and the zostera beds occasionally yield an exciting ' harvest. In deeper water shell sand alternates with gravel and with stones, and there is in places an admixture of mud with the former. Many of the trawling grounds contain a rich and varied population, which is naturally increased by the frequent patchy character of their deposits. Though the difficulties of dredging on some of the stony bottoms are at times consider- able, the results on the average are more than proportionate to the trouble involved. : The richness of the Cornish marine fauna has naturally attracted a large number of enthusiastic local observers, as well as many eminent naturalists from without. Jonathan Couch of Polperro, his son Richard ; I 113 15 ' A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Quiller Couch of Penzance, and his staunch disciple and helper William Laughlin the Polperro coastguardsman, together with Mr. C. W. Peach, the indefatigable Dr. Cocks of Falmouth, and Mr. Williams Hockin of Truro, were all of them devoted workers, and they laid a splendid foundation for the study of the marine hfe of the Cornish seas. Then came that wonderful band of Penzance naturalists, whose studies covered nearly the whole domain of county systematic biology, and whose records in the Transactions of the Penxance Natural History and Antiquarian Society (new series) and else- where are constantly referred to in almost every natural history article in the present volume. Two at least of these naturalists, namely Mr. Fortescue W. Millett and Mr. George Fox Tregelles, though both departed from the county, are still students of Cornish marine zoology, and from their ripe experience have given great assistance to the writer. During the past fifteen years the Marine Biological Association has been engaged inter alia in a systematic and continuous examination of the marine life of the Plymouth district, and the results as summarized in * The Plymouth Marine Invertebrate Fauna' in vol. vii, part 2 (1904) of their Journal h-AVc been laid under extensive tribute for the present article. Between 1890 and 1900 Mr. Rupert Vallentin worked assiduously at the plankton and marine fauna generally of the Falmouth district, and is now engaged in making similar investigations at St. Ives. Among the naturalists from without who have collected along the Cornish coast are Barlee, Montagu, Forbes, Alder, Jeffreys, Bowerbank, Hincks, Canon Norman, and Macintosh, and Victor Carus at Scilly, so that references to Cornwall occur in nearly every monograph on the marine life of the British Isles. In the following annotated list an attempt is made to indicate the distribu- tion of the species in the Cornish seas so far as the available data will permit. Notwithstanding the many observers our knowledge of several of the sections is still in a very fragmentary condition. While the Mollusca and Bryozoa have been widely studied and recorded over a considerable area, the extreme difficulty of identifying the Sponges and Compound Ascidia makes a record of their country distribution impossible, and but for the fortunate circumstance that many of the earlier specimens passed through the hands of Bowerbank and Milne-Edwards respectively, the county lists for these two extensively represented groups would have been meagre in the extreme. Most sections, too, have naturally been much more carefully studied around some centres than others, and certain parts of the coast have received minute attention, while others have been neglected. The Plymouth district, Falmouth Bay, and Mount's Bay have been diligently examined but except on the Mol- lusca at Hayle and Padstow very little work has been done anywhere along the north coast. Polperro, Fowey, and Gorran are classical ground, but in spite of recent work systematic dredging would be certain to prove remunerative all along the whole of that coast. Very little attention has been given to the waters around the Lizard peninsula, and much remains to be done to the west of Penzance. Victor Carus studied the fauna of the Scillonian seas for several months in 1850, and George Henry Lewes published some jottings on his observations there, but except for the Mollusca comparatively little has been done on the marine life since Carus's visit. 114 MARINE ZOOLOGY In the list that follows records of previous county workers are incor- porated where there is no doubt as to identification, but there may be omissions due to the inaccessibility of some of the literature to one who is working in the country. The writer's observations on the Cornish marine fauna began nearly twenty years ago, and have been continuous over the last seven years. A large amount of shore collecting has been done from the spring of 1900 onwards by his Nature Study and Biology students at the County Technical Schools, and there are few beaches of importance in the south of the county that have not been visited at low spring tides. Trawl refuse has also received a considerable amount of attention, and though the specimens obtained are frequently in poor condition they are generally suffi- cient for identification. A good deal of dredging has been carried out in Falmouth Bay and elsewhere, and some awkward but remunerative work done in thirty-five to forty-five fathoms off the Dodman. A long and valuable fauna list has been kindly supplied by Mr. Rupert Vallentin for Falmouth and the neighbourhood, and a large series of unpublished records by Mr. A. Robinson for the Polperro district. Lists have also been received from Mr. E. Heron Allen and from the late Mr. W. E. Baily for Mount's Bay, and considerable assistance has been given by Mr. Matthias Dunn and other members of the County Fisheries Committee. To these and to his many other helpers and co-workers the writer wishes to express his hearty thanks, not only for what they have done but for the spirit in which their help has been given. To his friend Dr. E. J. Allen, Director of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, he is under great obligation for placing the resources of that institution so freely at his service, and for much personal help and advice in the preparation of the article. Through the exigencies of space it has been found necessary to adopt the following abbreviations in the lists of species, viz : — abund. denotes abundant ; B. bay ; c. common ; dist. distribution, distributed ; esp. especial, especially ; f. c. fairly common ; gen. general, generally ; gnds. grounds ; Harb. Harbour ; h. t. high tide ; h. w. high water ; 1. w. low water ; n. c. not common ; n. unc. not uncommon ; occ. occasion, occasionally ; r. rare ; rr. very rare ; S. Sound ; spec, specimen ; s. t. spring tide ; t-m. tide-mark ; var. variety, variation ; v. c. very common ; w-m. water- mark. Among the names of authorities and recorders the following are indicated by initials, viz : — Couch, Jonathan = (J. C); Couch, R.Quiller = (R. Q. C); Hincks, S. = (H.) ; Marshall, J. T. = (M.) ; Marine Biological Associa- tion = (M. B. A.) ; Museum of the Royal Institution of Cornwall = (M. R. I.) ; Peach, C. W. = (P.) ; Smart and Cooke = (S. & C.) ; Vallentin, Rupert =(V.). The records for which the writer is responsible are marked ! FORAMINIFERA The following list of county foraminifera is based on the work of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth, on a MS. list kindly furnished by Mr. F. W. Millett of the Foraminifera of Mount's Bay, on a similar list by Mr. E. Heron Allen of the species taken by him at Poljew Cove, MuUion, in 1892, and on work done by the Biological Department of the County Technical Schools at Truro. Where no authority is given for localities in the Plymouth district the records 115 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL are taken from the Journal of the Marine Biological Association. Similarly Mr. Millett is the authority for the Mount's Bay records, Mr. Heron Allen for those from Mullion, and the Biological Department of the schools for all the others whose source is not acknowledged in the text. The writer takes the opportunity of expressing his indebtedness to Mr. Millett, Mr. Heron Allen, and Mr. R. H. Worth for generous assistance as unexpected as it was welcome. 3- 4- 6. 7- 8. S 9. S, lO, 1 1. 12, 13- 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. 19. 20. Gromia dujardinii, M. Schultze. Mud pools on the Fal, esp. Restronguet Creek ; Helford G. oviformh, Duj. Mud pools on the Fal ; shallow water, St. Mawes Nubecularia kcifuga, Defr. Falmouth Harb. ; Mount's B. Biloculina ringens, Lamk. Taken at intervals, chiefly in deep water, Cawsand B. to Mount's B. ; occ. c. Porthcurnow ; Scilly B. depressa, d'Orb. Widely dist. but not abund. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. Gerran's B. ; Maenporth; Poljew Cove, Mullion Mount's B. ; Hayle B. elongate, d'Orb. Five m. W. \ S. from Rame ; Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. Spiroloculina planulata, Lamk. F. plentiful Rame- Eddystone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. ; Pol- perro ; Mount's B. ; Padstow ; Scilly limbata, d'Orb. Rame-Eddystone and Eddy- stone-Looe Gnds. ; Polperro ; Gerran's B. ; Fal- mouth; Mount's B. ; in 40 fm. off Menavawr, Scilly tenuiseptata, Brady. Occ. specs. Rame-Eddy- stone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. S. excavata, d'Orb. Gen. dist. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. r. ; Falmouth B. ; Poljew Cove, Mullion 5. fragtHssima, Brady. Eastern slope of Hand Deeps Miliolina tngonula, Lamk. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. scarce ; n. unc. Fal- mouth B. ; Mount's B. ; Poljew Cove, Mul- lion ; Sennen Cove M. tricarinata, d'Orb. Rame-Eddystone Gnds., unc. ; Mount's B. ; Porthcurnow M. oblonga, Mont. C. in deep water along S. coast Rame-Eddystone Gnds. to Scilly ; locally c. in shell sand M. semulinutn, L. Cawsand B. ; Rame-Eddy- stone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. c. ; Polperro ; on smaller fuci, corallines, etc., and from deepish water in Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. ; Poljew Cove, Mullion ; St. Ives ; Padstow and Scilly M. gracilis, d'Orb. Poljew Cove, Mullion M. sclerotica, Karrer, Mount's B. ; Porth- curnow M. candeiana, d'Orb. Mount's B. M. subrotunda, Mont. C. and gen. dist. In shallow water and locally In 15 to 40 fm. Plymouth to Padstow ; Scilly M. circularis, Bornem. C. Rame-Eddystone Gnds. ; a few specs, dredged In 30 fm. off Polperro ; Poljew Cove, Mullion ; Porthcurnow 21, 22. 23. 24. 26. 27- 28. 29. 30- M. secans, d'Orb. In shallower dredgings around Plymouth ; Gerran's B.; Falmouth B.; Mount's B. M. bicornis. Walker and Jacob. Gen. dist. throughout Plymouth district ; Gerran's B. ; Mount's B. ; Poljew Cove, Mullion; and Scilly M. houeana, d'Orb. Gen. about Plymouth ; sparingly, Polperro M.pulchella, d'Orb. Mount's B. and Porth- curnow Eddystone (Spence Bate) ; 31- 32. 33- 34- 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. M.ferussacii, d'Orb. Falmouth B. M. undosa, Karrer. Poljew Cove, Mullion M. agglutinans, d'Orb. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. and everywhere In shal- lower water round Plymouth; c. in 15 to 20 fm. off Polperro ; Gerran's B. and Falmouth B. Sigmoirtna tenuis, Czjzek. Mount's B. Cornuspira foliacea, Phlllppl. Gen. but spar- ingly dist. Rame-Eddystone Gnds. ; Eddy- stone-Looe, r. ; scarce and local Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. C. involvens, Reuss. Gen. dist. and in some dredgings numbers found on hydroids, Rame- Eddystone and Eddystone-Looe Gnds. ; scarce In 30 fm. off Polperro ; trawl refuse, Helford ; Mount's B. In shallow water and In 18 fm. Haliphysema tumanotviczii, Bwbk. Abund. at times on Queen's Gnd., and sparingly In deeper dredgings In Plymouth district ; abund. Fal- mouth In 1 891 (V.) and 1902 ; Mount's B. ; c. in shallow water, Pentle B., Scilly, 1904 H. ramulosum, Bwbk. Mount's B. ; Scilly in 1890 (Bell) Reophax diffiugiformis , Brady. Falmouth (Miss VIgurs) ; in 10 fm. off Gyllyngvase ; Mount's B. R.findens (?), Parker. Mount's B. R. scorpiurus, Montfort. Once in 40 fm. off Maenporth ; Mount's B. ; St. Ives (R. Bell) Haplophragium canariense, d'Orb. N. unc. and sometimes quite plentiful Rame-Eddystone and about Plymouth, but showing a preference for more silty areas ; Polperro, scarce ; n. unc. Falmouth Harb., Pennance, Helford ; Mount's B. ; St. Agnes H. fontinense, Terquem. Near the Eddystone and possibly elsewhere on the outer Plymouth Gnds., but nowhere c. H. globigeriniforme, Parker and Jones. In small numbers on Rame-Eddystone Gnds. ; Mount's B. ; once at Porthcurnow Placopsilina varians. Carter. Mount's B. Ammodiscus incertus, d'Orb. Rame-Eddystone, unc; Fowey 116 MARINE ZOOLOGY 41. Ammodiscus gordiaRs, Parker and Jones. Rame- Eddystone, r. ; off the Dodman ; Mount's B. ; Poljew Cove, Mulllon 42. Tiochammina ochracea,'W\\\. Over the whole Ply- mouth area but n. c. ; twice at Polperro 43. T. squamata, Parker and Jones. Mount's B. ; Porthcurnow, r. 44. T . plicata, Terquem. Mount's B. 45. T. inflata, Mont. Dist. about Plymouth similar to that of Haplophragmium canaiiense, but found also well outside 30-fm. line ; Looe ; Falmouth Harb. ; Helford ; Mount's B. ; Padstow 46. T. marcrescens, Brady. A few spscs. Whitsand B., Land's End 47. T. nitida, Brady. Poljew Cove, Mullion 48. Textularia sagittula, Defr. One of the less fre- quent of the arenaceous Textulariae, but widely spread in the Plymouth district ; n. unc. and fairly typical at Falmouth ; Mount's B. ; Poljew Cove, Mullion \T. trochus, d'Orb. Worth is dubious about the identification of this species in the Plymouth area, * always mo3t suspiciously like a somewhat unorthodox 7". gramen '] 49. T. agglutinans, d'Orb. Gen, dist. in Plymouth area. 50. T. gramen, d'Orb. C. on S. coast and at Padstow ; Newquay and Scilly 51. Gaudryina JiHformis, ^QTi. Mount's B. 52. Ferneuilina poljstropha, Reuss. Drake's Is. and sparingly throughout Plymouth district ; shal- low water Polperro and Fowey ; locally n. unc. Falmouth Harb. ; Mount's B. ; Padstow 53. Bulimina pupoides, d'Orb. C. on S. coast down to 40 fm. ; Newquay ; Padstow 54. B. ovata, d'Orb. Mount's B. ; Sennen Cove ; Whitsand B., Land's End 55. B. margLnata, d'Orb. N. unc. on S. coast ; Scilly 56. B. aculeata, d'Orb. C. on S. and at intervals along N. coast 57. B. elegansy d'Orb. Occurs sparingly throughout Plymouth district ; Falmouth r. Var. exilis, Brady. 4J m. W. \ S. and 5 m. W. ^ S. from Rame 58. B. elegantissima, d'Orb. Gen. dist. Plymouth to Helford ; Mount's B. ; Sennen Cove 59. Firgulina schreibersiana, Czjzek. C. in Plymouth district ; Polperro ; Pendower ; Helford ; Mount's B. 60. V. subdepressa, Brady. Poljew Cove, Mullion 61. Bolivina punctata, d'Orb. Widely dist. but local round the coast ; c. in places 62. B. plicata, d'Orb. Mount's B. 63. B. textularoides, Reuss. N. unc. round BE. coast, but scarce about Falmouth ; Poljew Cove, Mullion 64. B. difformis. Will. Irregularly dist. and usually scarce Plymouth to Whitsand B., Land's End 65. Bolivina nitida, Brady. Poljew Cove, Mullion ; Mount's B. ; Porthcurnow 66. B. di/atata, Reuss. Gen. throughout Plymouth district ; c. Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance and Helford ; Poljew Cove, Mullion 6"/. B. aenariensis, Costa. F. c. Plymouth area and near Fowey ; Falmouth 68. CassiduHna crassa, d'Orb. F. c. Plymouth dis- trict ; c. near Polperro ; Pendower ; Gyllyng- vase and Mount's B. ; once at Helford 69. C. Bradyi, Norman. Evidently gen. dist. and n. unc. Plymouth to Mevagissey ; not found further W. 70. Lagena globosa, Mont. Gen. round coast and at Scilly ; var. striata. Will. Eddystone (Spence Bate) 7 I . Z. apiculata, Reuss. R. in Plymouth district ; a few obtained in Falmouth B. 72. L. botelliformis, Brady. N. unc. in SE. ; once at Gorran 73. L. laevis, Mont. Widely spread along S. coast, and often c. ; var. pellucida. Will. Eddystone (Spence Bate) 74. L. clavata, d'Orb. Gen. dist. Plymouth S. to Coverack, but usually somewhat scarce ; Mount's B. ; Scilly. 75. Z.. gracillima, Seguenza. Widespread along S. coast but erratic in dist. and seldom plentiful "jG. L. lyelli, Seguenza. Mount's B. 77. L. aspera, Reuss. R. and local but with a pre- ference for the shallower waters, Plymouth ; Falmouth, Helford, Mount's B. 78. L. hispida, Reuss. R. in Plymouth district ; Polperro 79. L. lineata. Will. N. unc. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. ; r. Falmouth ; Mount's B. 80. L. distoma, Parker & Jones. Gen. dist. in small numbers in the Plymouth area 81. i/. sulcata. Walker & Jacobs. F. c. along S. coast and at Scilly 82. L. acuticosta, Reuss. Poljew Cove, Mullion 83. L. wilUamsoni, Alcock. Mount's B. ; Sennen. 84. L. costata. Will. Mount's B. 85. L. striata, d'Orb. F. c. and locally abund. along S. coast 86. L. curvilineata, Balkwill & Wright. Mount's B. 87. L. semistriata. Will. C. locally along S. coast and at Scilly 88. L. gracilis. Will. Gen. dist. around Plymouth ; Falmouth ; Poljew Cove, Mullion, r. 89. Z. squamosa, Mont. C. along 8. coast ; Padstow 90. L. melo, d'Orb. Mount's B. ; Sennen. 91. L. hexagona. Will. Somewhat irregularly dist. but locally plentiful on S. coast. 92. L. laevigata, Reuss. Mount's B. ; Sennen 93. L. lucida. Will. Mount's B. ; near Land's End 94. L. acuta, Reuss. Mount's B. 95. L. trigono-oblonga, Seg & Sid. Mount's B. II' A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 96, 97 98, 99, :oo, 101. [02. 103. [04. 105. 106. [O7. 108. 109. 10. I I. 12. 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. 19- ;2o. 21. 122. Lagena marginata,'^ AYtx & Boys. Gen. dist. and c. in Plymouth area, and at Falmouth ; Mount's B. ; local at Scilly ; small forms sometimes difficult to discriminate from L. orbignyana ; var. ornata. Will. About Plymouth, r. L. trigpno-elliptica, Balkwill & Millet. Mount's B. L. trigono-marginata, Parker & Jones. Single specs, n. infrequent in sand dredged from Rame- Eddystone Gnds. ; Mount's B. L. quadrata. Will. Present everywhere in small numbers in the Plymouth area ; n. unc. locally Falmouth B. ; Helford, and Mount's B. ; var. semi-alata, Balkwill & Millett. Mount's B. L. faba, Balkwill & Millett. Mount's B. L. orbignyana, Seg. C. along S. coast, at Scilly and Padstow L. lagenoides. Will. Gen. dist. along 8. coast ; Scilly and Padstow ; var. tenuistriata, Brady. Mount's B. Nodosarla radicula, Mont. Sennen and Whit- sand B., Land's End A', pyrula, d'Orb. Gen. dist. but scarce about Plymouth ; Pendower, after a storm ; Mount's B. A^. communis, d'Orb. Evidently widely dist. in deepish water Plymouth district ; Polperro ; Fowey ; Falmouth ; Helford ; Mount's B. N. jugosa, Mont. Falmouth B., r. ; only 1 slightly costate var. of N. communis N. mucronata, Neugeb. Mount's B. A^. scalaris, Batsch. Gen. dist. in the Plymouth district but scarce in places ; Mount's B. A^. obliqua, L. Falmouth, from laminarian zone down to 35 fm. n. c. ; Mount's B. A^. calomorpha, Reuss. N. unc. Plymouth dis- trict ; small and probably overlooked elsewhere Lingulina carinata, d'Orb. Found in Plymouth S. by Spence Bate. FaginuHna kgumen, L. From some shore scrap- ings, Lelant (Bell) Crisullaria crepidula, Fichtel & Moll. Gen. dist. and f c. as far W. as Falmouth ; Mount's B. ; a few at Scilly C rotulata Lamk. C. on S. coast ; Scilly C. vortex, Fichtel & Moll. Occ. specs, found in Plymouth district. C. italica, Defr. Gen. dist. around Plymouth but scarce ; Scilly (Bell) Amphicoryne faix, Jones & Parker. Plymouth district, r. {Polymorphina lactea. Walker & Jacobs \P. gibba, d'Orb. Gen. dist. and n. unc. along S. coast and at Scilly ; local on N. P. aequalis, d'Orb. Mount's B. ; Sennen P. communis, d'Orb. Poljew Cove, Mullion P. orbignyii, Zbor. Mount's B. ; Lelant (Bell) P. oblonga. Will. Drake's Is., occ. specs. Rame- Eddystone Gnds. ; r. near Helford ; Mount's B. ; n. unc. on Zostera, Scilly II 123. Polymorphina compressa, d'Orb. Drake's Is. ; occ. elsewhere in Plymouth district ; f c. Falmouth ; Mount's B. 124. P. concava. Will. Mount's B. ; Sennen 125. P. myristiformis. Will. Mount's B. ; Whit- sand B., Land's End 126. Uvigerina angulosa. Will. Gen. dist. but n. c. along S. coast and at Scilly 127. U. pygmaea, dHOxh. Porthcurnow 128. Sagrina raphanus, Parker & Jones. Poljew Cove, Mullion ; Whitsand B., Land's End 129. Globigerina bulloides, d'Orb. Gen. dist. Ply- mouth district ; abund. Polperro ; widely spread, Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. ; Scilly 130. G. inflata, d^Ox\>. An occ. spec, in Plymouth district ; Mount's B. 131. Orbulina universa, d'Orb. An occ. spec, in Plymouth district 132. PuUenia sphaeroides, d'Orb. Whitsand B., Land's End 133. Sphaeroidina dehiscenSyYirVcT Si. Jones. Around Plymouth, r. 134. Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenb. Drake's Is.; gen. on the Rame-Eddystone Gnds., but n. c. ; widely spread Falmouth and Helford ; Poljew Cove, Mullion ; Mount's B. ; Sennen 135. 5. margaritifera. Will. An occ. spec, on the Rame-Eddystone Gnds. ; Mount's B. 136. 5. tuberculata, Brady. Whitsand B., Land's End 137. PatelUna corrugata. Will. Widely dist. but apparently local along the S. coast 138. Discorbina globularis, d'Orb. Gen. dist. along S. coast ; occ. abund. on Zostera, Scilly 139. D. rosacea, d'Orb. C. along S. and locally on N. coast 140. D. orbicularis, Terquem. Gen. dist. and locally plentiful, Plymouth to Scilly 141. D. parisiensis, d'Orb. Cawsand B. and sparingly represented in most dredgings in Plymouth area though in some places apparently scarce ; Polperro ; widely dist. but n. c. in Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. 142. D. bertheloti, d'Orb. Occurrence about Ply- mouth similar to D. parisiensis ; Whitsand B., Looe (Marryat) ; Falmouth B., r. 143. D. vesicularis, Lamk. Poljew Cove, Mullion 144. Planorbulina mediterranensis, d'Orb. Gen. dist. along the S. coast and at Scilly ; locally abund. Padstow 145. P. acervalis, Brady. Poljew Cove, Mullion 146. Truncatulina refulgens, Montf. Poljew Cove ; Land's End (Bell) 147. T. lobatula. Walker & Jacob. Abund. along S. coast and at Scilly wherever hydroids are plentiful 148. T. deprcssa, d'Orb. Poljew Cove, Mullion 149. T. variabilis, d'Orb. Falmouth B., scarce ; Pol- jew Cove ; Sennen 8 MARINE ZOOLOGY 0. Puhinulina repanda, Fichtel & Moll. Cawsand B. and gen. dist, but n. abund. in Plymouth dis- trict 1. P. menardii, d'Orb. Probably only a casual in Plymouth district ii;2. P. auricula, Fichtel & Moll. Mount's B. 1^3. P. elegans. Poljew Cove ; Scnnen ; Whit- sand B., Land's End 4. P. pauperata, Parker & Jones. Poljew Cove ; in 40 fm. off Menavawr, Scilly 5. P. ex'igua, Brady. Poljew Cove, Mullion ; Porthcurnow 6. Rotalia beccari, Lamk. Gen. dist. along S, coast and at Scilly, on fine sand abund. ; Newquay and Padstow 7. R. nitida, Will. C. and gen. dist. along S. ; Scilly and Padstow 8. Gypsina hihaerans, Schul. Poljew Cove ; Mount's B. 9. N onionina depressula. Walker & Jacob. C. every- where round coast and at Scilly 160. Nonionina umbilicatula, Mont. Widely spread along 8. but n. c. ; Scilly and Camel Estuary 161. A^. iurgida. Will. Gen. spread throughout Plymouth district, n. abund. ; Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. ; Sennen 162. N. scapha, Fichtel and Moll. Occurrence in Plymouth district similar to A^. turgida ; Fal- mouth B. ; Poljew Cove, Mullion 163. iV. stelligera, d'Orb. Gen. dist. along S. but r. in places ; Whitsand B., Land's End 164. Polystomellacrispa,\,zxak. Gen. dist. in Plymouth district within the 15-fm. line, but below 20 fm. almost unknown ; evidently abund. at least locally around coast ; Scilly 165. P. subnudosa, Mlinster. N. infrequent around Plymouth outside 28 fm. 166. P. macella, Fichtel & Moll. Widely spread in Plymouth district ; Falmouth ; Padstow 167. P. striato-punctata, Fichtel & Moll. Cawsand B., Drake's Is. ; c. along S. coast ; Scilly 168. P. arct'ica, Parker & Jones. Throughout the Plymouth district, but n. abund. 169. OpercuRna ammonoides, Gron. Poljew Cove, Mullion. PORIFERA The serious difficulties attending the satisfactory identification of many of the sponges have resulted in the accompanying list becoming in places a mere compilation. Large quantities of material from Polperro, off the Dodman, and from Falmouth Bay have been examined from time to time, but the rigorous exclusion of ail records where there was any uncertainty as to the identification has made the list in places simply an enumeration of the county specimens mentioned by Bowerbank in his monograph. The classification and nomenclature is that given by Dr. R. Hanitsch in his ' Revision of the generic nomenclature and classification in Bowerbank's Spongiadae,' {Proc. Liverpool Biol. Soc. viii). 1. Leucosolenia botryoidesy E. & S. Gen. dist. round the coast and in places abund., esp. on sea- weeds between t-m. ; Scilly ! 2. L. complkata, Montagu. Locally c. on S. coast in rock-pools and occ. down to 20 fm. ; St. Ives ; Perranporth ! Newquay ! Widemouth B.! 3. L. variabilis, Hacckcl. C. in rock-pools all round coast and locally at Scilly 4. Clathrina coriacea, Fleming. N. unc. on rocks and stones between t-m. along S. coast ; Chapel Forth ! Padstow ! Scilly ! 5. C. lacunosa, Johnst. Occurs at 30 fm. or more on the Rame-Eddystone Gnds., off the Dodman and in Mount's B. 6. Sycon compressum, Flem. C. on rocky ground at 1. w. along S. coast and locally abund. on N. coast and at Scilly 7. S. coronatum, E. & S. N. unc. round coast and at Scilly on rocks at 1. t. 8. Sycandra ciliaia, O. Fab. 9. S. compressa, O. Fab. 10. Leucandra Gossei, B. All three found ofF Cor- nish Coast by Rev. Canon Norman 1 1. 12. 13- 14. 16. 17- 19 20. Leucandra fistulosa, Johnst. Found oiF the Eddy- stone by J. H. Stewart L. Johnstonii, Carter. Found off Polperro by Laughlin L. nivea. Grant. On rocks and stones at l.w., Falmouth ; on laminarian roots. Mount's B. Halisarca dujardinii, Johnst. Mevagissey, 1902, on the roots of Laminaria ! Craniella cranium, Lamarck. On a stone in trawl refuse at Falmouth, 1901! P achymatisma johnstonii, B. Gorran Haven, Porth- loe and Mount's B. ! Chalina cervicornis, Pallas. Occ. at Fowey, in Falmouth B. (Cocks), once at Whitsand B. Land's End (Baily) and sent in from N. coast C. oculata, Pallas. N. unc. along the S. coast and occ. on N. ; at times f. c. in Falmouth B. Pachychalina Hmbata, Mont. A spec, obtained by Peach on a Terebratula at Fowey. Halichondria albescens, Johnst. Cast up occ. in some quantity along coast after a storm on laminarian roots, Sertularia, &c. 119 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 21. Halichondria falladosa B. Collected by Peach in 41. Fowey Harb. 22. H.panicea, Pallas. C. all round coast esp. after 42- a storm ; Scilly 23. Reniera cinerea. Grant. At v. 1. w. at Fowey 4-3- (Peach) and Falmouth (Cocks) z\. R. dense, B. Type spec, obtained by Norman at Fowey 25. 7?. indistincta, B. Collected by Peach in Fowey Harb. +5- 26. R. MacAndrewly B. Found by Norman at Polperro , 46. 27. Gellius couchi, B. Type spec, obtamed by Jonathan Couch on Cornish coast 28. Stylotella incognita, B. Type spec, collected by ^-._ Peach at Fowey [Esperiopsis funalis, B. One spec, on the Atlantic cable 1 50 m. from Land's End in 200 fm.] g 29. E. Alderi, B. Obtained by Bowerbanlc at Mill B. near Land's End ^- 49. 30. E. fucorum, Johnst. In pools between t-m. along coast on Sertulariae ; Scilly 3 1 . Esperella aegagrophila, Johnst. Collected by Bowerbanlc on Cornish coast 5°- 32. Desmacidon fruticosum, Mont. Obtained by Peach at Fowey 5> 33. Homaeodictyon palmata,]o\).n%t. In trawl refuse at Penzance ; occ. cast up in Falmouth B. after a storm 52* 34. Dendoryx incrustans, Esper. N. unc. along coast on rocks at 1. w. ; Scilly 53* 35. D. Dickle't, B. Collected by Norman at Polperro 54- 36. Lissomyxilla sptnosa, B. Type spec, obtained by Peach at Fowey ; collected by Bowerbank in 55- Mount's B. 37. Stylosiichon plumosum, Mont. Collected by Bower- 56. bank at Sennen Cove. 38. Microciona carnosa, B. Found at Sennen Cove by Bowerbank, at Polperro by Norman ; Falmouth ! 57. 39. M. atrasangumea, B. Found by Bowerbank at Sennen Cove 58. 40. Raspailia hispida, Mont. N. unc. in trawl refuse at Falmouth and Penzance ; obtained by 59. Couch and Norman at Polperro Raspailia pumila, B. Collected by Peach at Fowey ; Zen nor ! R. ramosa, Mont. Found at Polperro by Norman Ophlitaspongia striata, Grant. Found at Fowey by Peach, at Falmouth by Norman ; Padstow, surrounding the stems of Laminaria ! Hymeniacidon caruncultim, B. Obtained by Bower- bank at Mill B. near Land's End H. invalidum, B. Type spec, obtained by C. Stewart off Rame Hd. ; Mount's B. (Baily) H. medium, B. Type spec, obtained by C. - Stewart at Plymouth ; dredged by Burkill at Scilly H. sanguineum. Grant. N. unc. locally along the coast, Rame Hd. to Mount's B. ; Zennor ! H. viridans, B. Found by C. Stewart coating small boulders at Plymouth (B.) Tragosia infundibuliformis, Flem. Found by Cocks on a stone in trawl refuse at Falmouth ; Mount's B. (Baily) ; Eddystone-Looe Gnds. (M.B.A.) Tragosia polypodioides, O. Schmidt. One spec, obtained near Laregan Rks. Mount's B. and identified by Bowerbank (Baily) Suberites carnosus, Johnst. Found by J. H. Stewart at Plymouth (B.) 5. domuncula, Olivi. N. unc. along S. coast ; Zennor, Newquay, and Scilly ! , S.fcus, Esper. N. unc. on dead shells in trawl refuse along S. coast , S. virgultosus, Johnst. Obtained on Cornish coast by Jonathan Couch (B.) . Polymastia mammillaris, MUll. Polperro (B) ; occ. Falmouth B. ! Clione celata. Grant. First found on Cornish coast by Beach (B) ; occ. cast up at Falmouth after a storm ; Eddystone Gnds. and Rame- Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) Tethya Lyncurium, Linn. Occ. on rocks at 1. s. t. on S. coast and at Whitsand B., Land's End. Leiosella pukhella. Sow. Attached to hydroids from deep water ; Falmouth and Mount's B. Sponge liafra^ lis, M. Var. irregularis n. unc. round coast. HYDROIDS The principal contributors to our knowledge of the county representatives of this fascinating group have been R. Q. Couch, Peach, Cocks, and Hincks. The observations of the first-named are recorded at some length in (Jonathan) Couch's Cornish Fauna ^ pt. 2 (1841) ; Peach published his notes in the Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall (1849 ^"^ ^^7^) > while those of Cocks appeared in his ' Cornish Fauna ' {Seventeenth Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornw. Polyt. Soc. 1 849). From the time of Peach's last paper the group has been somewhat neglected, but of recent years Vallentin has paid some attention to the species of the Falmouth district. E. T. Browne has published some obser- vations on the occurrence of Medusa stages at Scilly, and excellent work has been done around Plymouth. 120 MARINE ZOOLOGY 19. 21. 22. A. ANTHOMEDUSAE 18. {Hydroid Stage) 1. Clava multicorn'ts, Forskal. C. between t-m. and esp. in rock-pools on stones, dead shells, ^^f/, &c. all along S. coast and locally on N. ; Scilly 2. C squamata, Mull. Drake's Is., Barnpool and St. Germans river (M.B.A.) ; near 1. w. Pol- 20. perro and Mevagissey ; sparingly between t-m. on Fucus veskulosus, Falmouth and St. Michael's Mt. ; n. unc. at Scilly 3. C. leptostyla, Agassiz. Under the Hoe at Plymouth (M.B.A.) and in Barnpool (Woodward) 4. Tubickva lucerna,PA\mzn. Millbay Chan. (M.B.A.) ; on stones in a rock pool S. of Mevagissey ! 5. Merona cornucopiae, Norman. N. unc. along the S. coast in 1 5 to 60 fm. on shells of Aporrhais, Dentalium, Turritella (M.B.A.), Buccinum, Trito- nofusus, Ocinebra, MangiUa and "Nassa tenanted by Phascol'ion strombi, and on living Dentalium and Venus fasciata 6. Turris neghcta. Lesson. The bright coral-red gonozooids have been observed at Bude 7. Hydractinia echinata, Fleming. Gen. dist. and f, c. on S. coast, ranging from 1. w-m. down to 40 fm. on shells of Buccinum,Tritonofusus, 'Nassa reticulata and "N. incrassata, Gibbula magus, Calliostoma 2/zj;/^/»a/&c., inhabited by Eupagurus bernhardus; occ. taken on living Buccinum (M.B.A.) ; at times on N. coast ; n. unc. at Scilly 8. Podocoryne carnea,M. Sars. N. unc. along S. coast and at Scilly in shallow water, esp. on the shells of Nassa reticulata and A^. incrassata ; occ. on N. coast ; in Cawsand B., small colonics c. on living A', reticulata (M.B.A.) ; medusae at Pcniee Pt. 9 July, 1902 ; n. unc, at Scilly 9. Lar sabellarum, Gosse. Millbay Chan. (M.B.A.), and near Mevagissey on Sabellid tubes ; also on Potamilla torelli (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth B., r. ! 26. 10. Coryne pusilla, Gaertner. N. unc. lately about Falmouth on Ceramium rubrum, and esp. among 27. the roots oi Laminaria ! 23- 24. 25. 11. C. vaginata, Hincks. C, and gen. dist. in rock- pools lined with algae near 1. w-m. all round coast ; Scilly 12. C. fruticosa, Hincks. Polperro ; Gorran Haven (Peach) ; on fuci. Mount's B. (Hincks) 13. Syncoryne eximia, AUman. Off Penlee Pt., Sept. 1897 (M.B.A.) 14. 5. gravata, T. S. Wright. Drake's Is. ; Mt. Edgcumbe (M.B.A.) ; on stones in a rock-pool Polperro ! 15. Zanclea implexa, Alder. A single colony on an encrusting polyzoan dredged from rocky ground between Penlee Pt. and Rame Hd. (M.B.A.) 16. Cladonema radiatum, Dujardin. Gonozooids f. c. at Falmouth in summer, polypites never seen (V.) 17. Stauridium productum, Wright. In rock-pools E. of Newquay, in places c. ! I 121 28. 29. 30. 31- Clavatella proHfera, Hincks. Gonozooids c. in summer at Falmouth, polypites never found (V.) Myriothela phyrygia. C. under stones at 1. t., Drake's Is., Mt. Edgcumbe, Rame Hd. ; also on Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; n. unc. at 1. s. t. Polperro and Mevagissey ! scarce Falmouth ; Mousehole Eudendrium rameum, Pallas. In 30 fm. at the Eddystone, n. unc. (M.B.A.) ; in 25 fm. off Polperro ; in 60 fm. off the Dodman (R.Q.C.); f. c. on shells and Sertularia from trawl refuse at Falmouth and Helford ; on a valve of Pinna at Scilly E. ramosum, L. F. c. but irregularly dist. along S. coast from 1. w. down to 60 fm., gen. on shells, often on roots of Sertularia, Antennularia, &c. ; Widemouth B. near Bude, after a storm 1 E. capillare. Alder. On Antennularia and other hydroids, on Delesseria sanguinea and other sea- weeds and occ. on tubes of Annelids — once on Thelepus concinnatus; Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); Polperro (Hincks) and Mevagissey ! n. unc. locally in 30 fm. Falmouth B. ; in shallow water, Helford ! E. insigne, Hincks. In a shallow rock-pool close to the Black Rk., Widemouth B. ! E. album. Nutting. Abund. about Plymouth in spring (M.B.A.) ; Polperro and occ. Mevagissey! Perigonimus repens, T. S. Wright. From shallow water to 40 fm. on living Nassa reticulata and also on dead shells ; on Dentalium; on Turritella, both living and dead ; outside and inside Bucci- num shells ; on Sertulariae and on Antennularia ; on the abdomen of Carcinus, the claw of Eupa- gurus bernhardus, on the back of Stenorrhynchus, and of Maia squinado ; on stones and on clin- kers ; nowhere c, but evidently gen. dist. along S. coast Perigonimus serpens, Allman. On Eddystone buoy, 1898 (M.B.A.) Hydranthea margarica, Hincks. On Flustra foliacea in Widemouth B. ! Garveia nutans, T. S. Wright. At several stations in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Fowey (Martyn) ; Mevagissey ! Bimeria vestita, T. S. Wright. On Delesseria sanguinea 1. s. t., Polperro ; on Antennularia and on fuci near Helford ! Heterocordyle conybearei, Allman. Abund. Ply- mouth S., on living Nassa reticulata, and fre- quently also on dead shells (M.B.A.) ; n. unc. locally in dredgings and trawl refuse along the S. coast on Buccinum, Turritella and Natica in- habited hy Eupagurus bernhardus ; occ. on living Nassa reticulata at Helford I Bougainvillea ramosa, van Beneden. N. unc. about Plymouth S., on Polychaete tubes and other hydroids, Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); at 1. s. t., Polperro ! and in trawl refuse Meva- gissey ! brought in on a stone from 60 fm. off the Dodman ! 16 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 32. Tubularia indiv'tsa, lAnn. F. c. about Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Whitsand B. ; c. on stones from 30 fm. off Polperro ! in rock-pools near 1. w., Mevagissey ! Gorran Haven on rocks at 1. s. t. ! in trawl refuse on cork floats, timber and ships' bottoms, Falmouth (Cocks) ; c. locally in deep water, Falmouth B., and on the Manacles ! Mount's B. ; Newquay and Widemouth B, ! St. Mary's S., Scilly (R.Q.C.) and on the beach at Annett ! 33.7'. larynx, E. & S. Abund, on buoys in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; on algae and stones at 1. s. t. Pol- perro ! in trawl refuse and on cork floats, Mevagissey ! on a valve of Pinna from 60 fm. off the Dodman ! c. locally in Falmouth B., 5 to 30 fm. ! Widemouth B. ! Scilly, n. unc. 34. T.coronata,Ah\\gmdi. R. Fowey (Peach) ; in trawl refuse on shells and sponges, Mevagissey ! Fal- mouth, r. ; occ. on shells and Sertulariae, Helford ! 35. T. humilis, Allman. In tide pools below the Hoe and in Barn pool, Plymouth (M.B.A.) 36. Corymorpha nutans, M. Bars. The hydroid gene- ration decidedly scarce, though the medusa is c. ; three spec, at Fowey (Peach), five in 3 fm. off Fort Tregantle May, 1887, one on Queen's Gnd. and one in Cawsand B. June, 1904 (M.B.A.) ; one in 12 fm. off Helford, May, 1900 ! and one in St. Ives B. 1905 (V.) [Medusa Stage) 1 . Sarsla fximia, Allman. Plymouth district, some specs. July 2 . S. gemm'ifera, Forbes. About Plymouth, occ. in May, June, July, and Sept. ; at Falmouth usually in June and July ; some years abund. in harb. (V.) ; Scilly 3. S. prol'ifera,Yorht%. About a hundred in Whit- sand B., E., May, 1896, and v. abund. off Rame Hd. July, 1899 ; Penzance (Forbes and Peach) ; often abund. at Falmouth * in immense profusion in sheltered places in the harbour,* May, 1899 (V.) 4. S. tubulosa, Sars. Occ. in Plymouth 8. May ; Saltash Bridge, May, 1898 ; Falmouth, most years in May; taken by Heron Allen at Penzance 5. S. pukhella, Haeckel. Three specs, at Falmouth June, 1893 (V.) 6. Ectopleura dumortieriy L. Agassiz. One spec. Ply- mouth S. 7. Dipurena halterata, Forbes. Occ. about Plymouth ; Gyllyngvase, 1836 (Cocks) ; found by Forbes in Mount's B., and by Browne at Scilly 8. D. ophiogaster, Haeckel. One spec. Plymouth, July, 1897 9. Steenstrupia rubra, Forbes. Abund. spring and early summer, Plymouth district ; v. c. Fal- mouth Harb. April, 1902 ! Mount's B. (Peach); c. Scilly April, 1903 ! 1 o. S.faveola, Forbes. Found by Forbes in Mount's B. I I . Hybocodon prolifer, Agassiz. N. unc. about Ply- mouth April, 1898 ; a few specs, with numerous buds April, 1894; taken at Scilly by Browne, May, 1903 12. 14. Euphysa aurata, Forbes. A single spec. 4 m. S. of Plymouth Breakwater, Sept. 1897 ; a few around Plymouth April to June, 1898 ; taken at Scilly by Browne, July, i 899, and May, 1903 13. Amphineura dinema, Peron and Lesueur. F. c. about Plymouth Sept. 1893, scarce, 1895 and 1897 ; odd specs. May and June, c. July, I 899: f. c. Scilly July, 1899, mostly adult specs, with ripe gonads (Browne) Perigpnimus repens, T. S. Wright. Plymouth ; specs, of Perigonmus taken by Browne at Scilly, April-May, 1903, but too young for deter- mination 15. Ttara pileata, k.. h%i%%vL. Occ. specs. Plymouth district ; 4 taken at the mouth of Falmouth Harb. June, 1902 ! I spec, taken by Browne at Scilly, July, 1899 16. T. octona, Forbes. Once at Falmouth in 1895, abund. May, 1899 (V.) ; Gyllyngvase and Macnporth (Cocks) ; Mount's B. (Forbes) 17. Lizzia blondina, Forbes. Occ. in large shoals Plymouth district, at times very scarce ; abund. Falmouth B. and Harb. Sept. 1902 ! found by Peach in Mount's B. ; f. c. Scilly July, 1899 (Browne), and Aug., 1902 ! 18. Podocoryne camea, Sars. Plymouth district, March, July, and Aug. 19. Cytaeandra areolata,YiiiCc)/if:\. Intermediate stages occ. found around Plymouth, Sept. 1897 20. Marge/is autumnafis, C. Hartlaub. Scarce about Plymouth, Sept. 1897, and 1898 ; a few adults at Scilly July, 1899 (Browne) 21. M. bella, Hartlaub. A young stage at Plymouth in May and 4 in June, 1898 22. M. britannica, Forbes. End of April, Plymouth district ; taken at Falmouth, i M.iy, 1900 (V.) 23. M. principis, Steenstrup. End of April, Ply- mouth district 24. M. octopunctatttm,Sdir%. Numerous specs. Plymouth district latter half of Feb. and March, 1893, less abund. 1894, scarce April and May, 1898 c. some years at Falmouth, May and June abund. 1901 ! found by Peach in Mount's B. one spec, with medusa buds at Scilly May, 1903 (Browne) 25. Gemmaria implexa. Alder. Two specs. Plymouth Aug. 1895, one Cawsand B. Sept. 1897 ; f. c. Scilly July, 1899, chiefly adults with ripe gonads (Browne) 26. Willia stelIata,Yorht%. Evidently scarce Plymouth district, obtained there from May to Sept. ; Falmouth in June, July, and Aug. ; taken by Peach and by Forbes in Penzance B. ; f c. the third week of May, and in early July, 1903, at Scilly ! B. LEPTOMEDUSAE {Hydroid Stage) I. Clyt'ta Johnstoni, A\d.G.v. C. all round the coast and locally abund. on algae, Zostera, hydroids and antennae of crabs from near 1. w. down to 60 fm. ; several times off the Dodman on a valve of Pinna ; c. Scilly 122 MARINE ZOOLOGY 5 8. Obtlia dichotoma, Linn. C. along S. coast and at Scilly on hydroids, stones, worm-tubes, polyzoa, and occ. on valves of Pecten, Pinna and Cyprina from 1. w. down to 40 fm. ; Padstow and Widemouth B. ! O. geniculata, Linn. V, c. along S. coast and locally at Scilly on Laminaria, Fuci, Dekssarw, wooden piles, and occ. on other algae, Cellaria, Crustacea, dorsal and caudal fins of Pickin dog- fish (R.Q.C.), stones, &c., from 1. w. to 30 fm. ; probably overlooked on N. coast. O. /ongissima, Pallas. N. unc. locally in trawl re- fuse and in dredgings from 20 to 35 fm. ; S. of the Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; Looe, Polperro, Mevagissey ! Gorran Haven (Peach) ; in 30 fm. Falmouth B. ! Obelaria gelatinosa, Pallas. Large colonies up to 1 3 in. in deep water, Lynher river, under Sheviock Wood (M.B.A.) ; in 30 fm. off Pol- perro and in trawl refuse Mevagissey ! Campanukria volubiliSylAnn. Plentiful in 5J fm. N. of Plymouth Breakwater (M.B.A.) C. hincksii, Alder. C. Rame-Eddystone and Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; in trawl refuse Meva- gissey ! C. intfgta, Macgillivray. On a stone from deep water off the Dodman. Hincks suggests that the C. laevisoi Couch may be this species C. verticillata, Linn. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; once in trawl refuse Mevagissey ! on Pinna off the Dodman (R.Q.C.) ; twice in trawl refuse Falmouth C.flexuosa, Hincks. C. all round the coast on stones, seaweed, buoys, &c., and in pools gen. between t-m. ; often abund. Scilly ! C angulata, Hincks. On Zoitcra at Helford ! C. neglecta. Alder. Apparently n. unc. locally along S. coast, but gen. overlooked ; on hydroids and under stones between t-m. ; Whitsand B. (Robinson), near Mevagissey ! Helford ! and Mount's B. (Baily) C. raridentata. Alder. Gorran Haven (Peach) ; trawl refuse, Falmouth B. ! 1 4. Gonothyraea loveni, Allman. C. Plymouth S. and found up the Tamar as far as Saltash Pier (M.B.A.) ; on Fucus occ. at Polperro at 1. s. t., on the bar at Helford and for some distance up the river! Campanulina repens, Allman. Between Penlee Pt. and Rame Hd. on algae and on stems of Tubularia (M.B.A.) ; in shallow water, Pol- perro B. ; on Delesseria between Gyllyngvase and Swanpool, Falmouth! Opercularella hispida, Nutting. The type spec. from Plymouth on a stone associated with Clava multicornis (M.B.A.) O. lacerata, Johnst. N. unc. between t.-m. St. Ives (Hincks) Lafiea dumosa, Fleming. C. round coast and at Scilly on stones, shells, corallines, hydroids, worm-tubes ; occ. on polyzoa in trawl refuse and in dredgings from shallow water to 40 fm. ; sometimes c. between t.-m. var. robusta, Sars, off the Cornish coast (Hincks) lo II 12 »3 «5 16 J7 18 19. 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. 25. 26. 27, 28. 29. 3°- 31- 32- 33. 3+' L. fruticosa, M. Sars. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; on dead shells and hydroids in trawl refuse, Mevagissey Calycella syringa, Linn. C. and occ. abund. along S. coast on corallines and small algae gen., on laminarian roots, Tubularia and other hy- droids, polyzoa, Crustacea, Sec, from between t.-m. down to 20 fm. ; Padstow B. ! and Scilly C.fastigiata, Alder. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; on Plumularia tubulifera from Cornwall (Hincks); Mount's B. ! Cuspidella costata, Hincks. Inner Eddystone trawling Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Looe (Marryat) C. grandis, Hincks. On stems of Hakcium tenellum (M.B.A.) ; on stems of various hydroids, Fowey (Martyn) File Hum serpens, Hassall. On large Sertularidae and esp. S. abietina,c. In 30 fm. off Polperro! in trawl refuse, Mevagissey! and at Gorran Haven (Peach) Trichydra pudica, T. S. Wright. On fine gravel, Eddystone Gnds.; the Eddystone buoy (M.B.A.) Coppinia arcta, Dalyell. On various hydroids on the Eddystone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; in 30 fm. off Polperro! once in trawl refuse Mevagissey ! Gorran Haven (Peach); in trawl refuse from Falmouth B. and at 1. s. t. St. Michael's M.! Hincks suggests that Cam- panularia intertexta, Couch, may be this species Hakcium beani, Johnst. On stones, shells, and hydroids from 1. s. t. to 60 fm. ; n. unc. in Plymouth S. and on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Looe and Polperro! Mevagissey! in trawl refuse from Falmouth B. (Miss Vigurs) ; on worm-tubes at Helford! H. hakcinum, Linn. On stones, shells, esp. Pinna, and Chaetopterus tubes, shallow water to 60 fm. ; n. unc. Plymouth S., and on Eddy- stone, Rame-Eddystone and Looe-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro, Mevagissey! the Dodman, Gorran Haven ! and Falmouth in trawl refuse and dredgings ; Padstow B. and Scilly! H. muricatum, E. and S. (J.C.) ; and in trawl refuse, (Cocks) H. labrosum. Alder. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); on fisherman's lines off the Dodman (Marryat) H. tenellum, Hincks. In 18 fm. off Plymouth (M.B.A.) Haloikema lankesteri, G. C. Bourne. Duke Rk. and Jennycliff B., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Fowey (Martyn) Ophiodes mirabilis, Hincks. On laminarian roots, Padstow B.! Sertularella gayi, Lamouroux. Plymouth S.; on fine sand grounds about the Eddystone ; dredged also on Rame-Eddystone and Looe-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro and in trawl refuse Mevagissey! on Gorgonia 60 fm. off the Dodman (Hincks), and from fisherman's lines, Gorran Haven (Peach) Mevagissey r. Falmouth B. r. 123 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 3 7' 39' |0. 41, 42. 43- 35. Serlularella polyxonias, Linn. C. along S. coast and at Scilly from 1. s. t. to 60 fm. on stones, shells, seaweeds and corallines 36. S. rugosa, Linn. On the roots of Laminaria, on Fucus serratuSj sponges, Flustra foltacea and various hydroids, 1. w. to 30 fm. ; Lantivet B. (R.Q.C.) in trawl refuse, Mevagissey ! locally c. Falmouth B. ! 5. tenella. Alder. On fisherman's lines off the Dodman, r. (Peach) S.fusiformis, Hincks. In crevices in rock pools near 1. w.-m., Gyllyngvase, Falmouth ! Diphasla rosacea, Linn. On shells, stones, wooden piles, hydroids, Crustacea, &c. from between t.-m. to 60 fm. ; Plymouth S. and occ. on Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro r. ! on Pinna off the Dodman and at Gorran (Peach) ; local in Falmouth B. ! off Cadgwith (Rovvc) and in Mount's B.! D. attenuata, Hincks. On the fine sand of the outer trawling grounds, Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Gorran Haven (Peach) D. pinaster, E. and S. C. in trawl refuse, Plymouth (M. B. A.), and occ, Mevagissey and Falmouth D. iamarhca, Linn. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; on Pinna in deep water off Mevagissey (R.Q.C.) ; occ. in trawl refuse, Falmouth D. pinnata, Pallas. Five m. S. of the Eddy- stone (M.B.A.) ; c. a few miles W. and NVV. of the Eddystone (R, Q. C.) ; Polperro in 40 fm., 10 or I 2 m. from the shore (Laughrin); in trawl refuse n. unc. Falmouth ; the Lizard (Pallas) ; Mount's B. ! 44. Sertularia pumi/a, Linn. C. between t.-m. all round coast and at Scilly on rocks and sea- weeds, esp. on F. serratus 45. S. graci/is, Hassall. Off the Dodman r. (Peach) 46. S. operculata, Linn. On the stems of large fuci and of Laminaria ; abund. Eddystone rock, 1898 ; c. and in places abund. along S. coast and at Scilly ; locally c. on N. at 1. t. and in shallow water. In 1899 a clump twenty-five in. in circumference was picked up on the shore at Mevagissey! 47. 5. JilicuJa, E. and S. On fuci from Talland B. (Couch) on Fucus serratus at 1. s. t. Gyllyngvase (Cocks) ; has not been found since 48. 5. abietina, Linn. C. in trawl refuse and in deep water dredgings along S. coast and at Scilly on stones and shells; finest specs, on Pinna valves from 60 fm. off the Dodman ; on Pecten oper- cularis at Widemouth B., Bude after a storm ! 40. S. argentea, E. and S. F. c. in trawl refuse and dredgings along S. coast from shallow to deep water on stones and shells, esp. Pecten ; St. Ives (R.Q.C), Padstow ! and in deep water offTresco, Scilly (R.Q.C). In 1905 remark- ably abund. at Mevagissey ! 50. S. cupressina, Linn. Occ. and in places n. unc. in deep water along S. coast and at Scilly ; Queen's Gnd., c. in trawl refuse from the Eddy- stone (M.B.A.) ; Porthloe ! Falmouth, Helford, and St. Ives ; Tresco, Scilly (R.Q.C) 51 52 53 54 >3- 56. 57- 58. 59- 60. 61. 62. 63. . Hydrallmania falcata, Linn. C in deep water along S. coast and occ. cast up on N. attached to shells and stones ; Tresco, Scilly . Thuiaria thuja, Linn. From deep water, Pol- perro (R.Q.C.) ; in trawl refuse St. Ives and Portreath (Cocks) ; fragments on Porthcressa B. St. Mary's Scilly (R.Q.C.) . T. articulata, Pallas. On stones, shells, Crustacea, &c., from deep water down to 50 fm. (R.Q.C.) ; occ. in trawl refuse along S. coast and at St. Ives , Antennularia antennina, Linn. On shells, esp. Pinna and oyster, on stones and often among gravel and muddy sand from shallow water to 30 fm. ; c. gen. in trawl refuse along S. coast ; St. Ives ; St. Mary's, Scilly (R.Q.C.) , J. ramosa, Lamouroux. With A. antennina, but not so plentiful except in the neighbourhood of Mevagissey, where in 1904 and 1905 it was v. abund. ! Aglaophenia helleri, Marktanner-Turneretscher. Eddystone rock (M.B.A.) A. pluma,lj\r\n. On the fronds oi HaHJrys sili- quosa and once on Fucus serratus ; abund. along S. coast as far as Coverack ; Scilly (Hincks) A. tubulifera, Hincks. N. unc. Eddystone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; on the legs of Hyas coarctatus off the Dodman (Peach) ; on Gorgpnia from deep water (Hincks) A. myiiophyllum, Linn. F, c. on fine sand and sandy gravel Eddystone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; on the back of the spider crab and on a slab of limestone, Gorran (Peach) ; from about 50 fm. off the Dodman on a shell fragment with Rhopalomenia aglaopheniae twined round its base ! on the back of the Corwich crab in trawl refuse, Falmouth (Cocks) A. pennatula, E. and S. On Pinna from deep water off the Dodman (R.Q.C.) ; several times on the Corwich crab and the stems oi Lami- naria digitata ; a magnificent mass from Gorran Haven (Peach) ; on Pecten maximus, trawl refuse, Falmouth (Cocks) Plumularia pinnata, Linn. On shells, stones, wooden piles, sunken timber, worm-tubes, hydroid Crustacea, etc., from between t.-m. down to 40 fm. ; Plymouth, Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), and W. to Gorran Haven ; unc. in trawl refuse at Falmouth P. setacea, Ellis. On sea-weed, rock, stones, sunken timber, worm-tubes, hydroids from be- tween t.-m, to 30 fm. ; c. but irregularly dist. Plymouth to Helford ; St. Michael's Mt. 1. s. t. ! Hincks' branched var. was originally described by Peach from Cornish specs, and is v. c. around Plymouth, gen. on Halichondria panicea (M.B.A.) P. catkarina, Johnst. On corallines, worm-tubes, shells, esp. Pinna, and occ. on tests of Ascidia from shallow water down to 60 fm. ; c. Eddy- stone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), and local as far as Helford ; a fnigment off St. Martin's, Scilly (R.Q.C.) 124 MARINE ZOOLOGY 64. Plumularta echinulata, Lmk. Plymouth S, (M.B.A.); Fowey Harb. r. (Peach) ; on Zostera Falmouth, and St. Ives (Cocks) ; local in Fal- mouth B. ! 6^. P. simi/is. Hi neks, C. under the Hoe and on the Devonshire side of Plymouth S. (M.B.A.), occ. off Polperro ! among Laminaria from Mount's B. (Baily) 66. P. obliqua, Saunders. Found by R. Q. Couch off the Cornish coast (Hincks) {Medma Stage) 1. Clytta johnstoni. Alder. Medusae taken by Browne at Scilly in April-May, 1903, just as they were liberated from the hydroid; adult form, probably Phialidium temporarium 2. Agastra m'lra, Hartlaub. A single spec. Ply- mouth S., August, 1897 3. Obelia luctfera, Forbes. V. c. Plymouth, June, 1 892 ; most abund. leptomedusan in the Sound and outside, September, 1897 ; one at Fal- mouth, 25 March, a few 13 April, 19 July, and many in August, 1897 (V.) ; Falmouth most seasons ; a few adults at Scilly July, 1899 4. O. nigra, Browne. V. abund. Plymouth district, April and May, 1898, and June, 1899 ; a few adults found by Browne at Scilly in July, 1899 5. Tiarops'ts multicirrata, Sars. Plymouth, April, 1895 ; certain protected places in Falmouth Harb. almost solid with these medusae from 20 May to 30 June, 1897 (V.) 6. Euchihia pilosella, Forbes. C. every summer at Plymouth ; Falmouth Harb. (Cocks) ; two small specs. Scilly, July, 1899, and either very early or intermediate stages found there early in May, 1903 (Browne) 7. Laodice calcarata, Ag. C. Scilly July, 1899,3 very early stage, with four tentacles, taken at Scilly, 9 May, 1903 ; an intermediate stage taken 12 May (Browne). 8. Phialidium buskianum, Gosse. Plymouth district, Sept. 1893, Sept. 1895, and Sept. 1897, once in June, 1898 ; c. Scilly, July, 1899 ; in May, 1903, only early and immature stages at Scilly (Browne) 9. P. cymbaloideum, van Ben. Never v. abund., a few specs, gen. about Plymouth — Sept. 1893, Sept. 1897, April-May, 1898, June-July, 1899 10. P. temporarium, E. T. Browne. Nearly always present in the Plymouth and Falmouth waters from spring to autumn, but not found by Browne at Scilly either in July, 1899, or in April-May, 1903 Eutima insignis, Keferstein. Taken on at least five occ. in the Plymouth district, but gen. as single specs. Saphenia mirabilis, Wright. Plentiful near the Eddystone, July, 1891 ; occ. in Plymouth district since, but either singly or in very small numbers ; taken occ. by Vallentin about Fal- mouth in June and July ; three specs, with well-developed gonads taken at Scilly by Browne, July, 1899 13. Octorchis gegenbauri, Haeckel. One spec, in Ply- mouth district Sept. 1895 ; four in July, and one in August, 1899 14. Irene pellucida. Will. Falmouth Plymouth rr. ; once at I. 1 1 12 TRACHYMEDUSAE Liriantha appendiculata, E. Forbes. V. abund. Plymouth district Sept.-Oct. 1893, rr. since Solmaris coronanthe, Haeckel. Plymouth, Sept. 1895 ; spec, of Solmaris from Falmouth, but too small for identification (V.) SIPHONOPHORA Mug^aea atlantica, J. T. Cunningham. Gen. found in considerable quantity along S. coast and at Scilly, Aug. and Sept. ; occ. at other times Cupulita sarsi, Haeckel. Single spec. Plymouth, March, 1902 ; many detached swimming bells and a few fragments at Scilly, April-May, 1903 (Browne) STAUROMEDUSAE Lucernaria campanulata, Lamouroux. Single specs. Cawsand B. and Whitsand B., E. Haliclystus auricula. Fab. Occ. on Zostera Caw- sand B. (M.B.A.) ; rock-pools Mevagissey and Falmouth B. ! f. c. on Zostera at Helford in 1 902 ! Depastrum cyathiforme, Sars. Drake's Is., Mt. Edg- cumbe, Rame Hd. (M.B.A.) ; Mevagissey B.! Gyllyngvase ! DISCOMEDUSAE Chrysaora isosceles, L. Occ. during summer months about Plymouth ; Falmouth B., scarce Cyanea capillata, L. Plymouth ; Mevagissey ! occ. Falmouth B. and Harb. C. lamarcki, Peron and Lesueur. Sparingly every summer at Plymouth ; Polperro ! Falmouth B. ! Aurelia aurita, Lamarck. In some years v. abund. in Plymouth district, and occ. as far as Saltash ; often plentiful at Fowey and in Falmouth Harb.; taken at times at Malpas ; Helford ; in 1896 and 1897 almost completely absent from the whole Falmouth dist. (V.) ; ephyrae often taken in enormous quantities in March Rhizostoma octopus, L. Occ. Plymouth; Falmouth B^ ALCYONARIA Sarcodictyon catenata, Forbes. Red form often" abund. in Plymouth dist. on old shells and gen. v.c. on clean shell ground, Eddystone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro, Mevagissey, Falmouth B. from 1. s. t. to 30 fm. r. Akyonium digitatum, L. Large colonies abund. in deep water, Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) off the Dodman and in Falmouth B.; in places n. unc. 1. s. t. downwards A. glomeratum, Hassall. In trawl refuse Meva- gissey, Porthloe ! Falmouth B. r. ; Mount's B. (Baily) A. palmatum, Pallas. Mount's B. (Baily) Eunicella cavolini, G. v. Koch. N. unc. on rocky ground, Plymouth district ; Queen's Gnd. Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; c. locally about Polperro ! beyond Helford! Virgularia mirabilis, Milll. Single spec. Eddy- stone; once 6 m. WSW. of Penlee Pt. (M.B.A.) 125 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL ZOANTHARIA The Zoantharia, which include the sea anemones and corals, were made a subject of special study by Dr. Cocks at Falmouth, who not only gave a list of local species in his 'Fauna of Falmouth' in 1849, but published a descriptive account of all the county species he had examined, with plates, in the Jnn. Rep. Roy. Cornw. Polyt. Soc. (1852). Mrs. Gough, of Penzance, devoted a considerable amount of attention to the sea anemones of Mount's Bay, and embodied her observations in a paper in the Tram. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Ant'tq. Soc. (new ser.), ii. (1885-8). 18. 1. Actinoloba dianthus, Ellis {Metridium senilis, L.). F. c. along S. coast from Whitsand B. to Sennen within l.w-m. on sheltered shelving rocks, in tidal caves, and occ. to 25 fm. ; j ._ St. Ives, Newquay, Boscastle, rock-pools of Annett, and from 40 fm. ofFMenavawr, Scllly! 2. Zagartia be His, E. & S. {Cereus pedunculatus. Pennant). Locally c. all round the coast and at Scilly on indented and fissured rocks, in rock- pools and in crevices in muddy nooks. Of Gosse's vars., tyriensis, versicolor, modesta and sordida all occur about Mount's B. Cocks's S. Johnstoni from Gyllyngvase is probably a variety of this species I j, 3. 5. miniata, Gosse. Plymouth district (M.B.A.) Gorran! Coverack! Mount's B. (Mrs. Gough), Scilly and Boscastle! 16. 4. S. rosea, Gosse. Recorded so far only from the Manacles and from Scilly (Alford) 5. 5. orw^/^, Holdsworth. Single specs, from Mount's ''' B. (Tregelles), Padstow on the roots of Lamin- ar ia digitatal 6. S. venusta, Gosse. St. Michael's Mt. (Marquand), Annett, Scilly and near Newquay on washed-up Laminaria ! 7. S. nivea, Gosse. Once at Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; also on a Pinna valve in trawl refuse, Meva- gissey! and at Scilly (Alford) 8. S. {Thoe) sphyrodeta,Go%iQ. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.); Scilly (Alford) 9. S. pallida, Holdsworth. Found by Tregelles in trawl refuse from Mount's B. ID. S. coccinea, Mtlller. Found on the S. coast by Peach 11. S. troglodytes, Gosse {Cylista undata, Mliller). 21. Gen. dist. along S. coast, in rock crevices be- tween t-m. just beyond l.w-m. and in deepish water ; c. Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Whitsand B. (Couch), Polperro, Fowey, Gorran Haven, Falmouth, Coverack, Sennen, near Newquay, 22. at Boscastle ; Tresco, Annett and St. Martin's, Scilly ! 1 2. S. (Cylista) viduata, Mull. C. Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth, and f.c. between t-m. at Helford ; Annett, Scilly! on 13 March, 1904, was abund. at Padstow after a violent gale ! 2 7. 13. S. parasitica. Couch [Adamsia polypus, Forskal). Apparently n. unc. at 5 to 30 fm. gen. associated with Eupagurus bemhardus, but occ. found on 24. Pinna ingens, Cyprina islandica, and on the claw of the Corwich crab, Maia squinado (Couch) ; 126 S. Alderi, Cocks S. pellucida. Cocks. \ S. Tarrelli, Cocks 5. bellii. Cocks. 19. 20. c. Plymouth, Fowey, Mevagissey, Gorran Haven, Falmouth, Helford, Penzance, St. Ives, Newquay, and at Scilly ! . chrysosplenium. Cocks. Scarce but occ. found under surfaces of stones at extreme l.w. and in rock-pools at Gyllyngvase, Pennance, Helford and St. Ives (Cocks) ; Laregan Rocks, Mount's B. (Mrs. Gough) Described by W. P. Cocks from specs, from Falmouth, but not satisfactorily iden- tified by any subsequent naturalist Adamsia palliata, Bohadsch. Gen. dist. and c. on S. coast, 15 to 30 fm., with Eupagurus prideaux ; St. Ives, Newquay, Padstow and Scilly! Aeptasia Couchii, Cocks. Plymouth district not infrequently (M.B.A.); Falmouth, Mawnan Beach and Helford river (Cocks) Anthea cereus, E. & S. {A nemonia sulcata. Pennant). Abund. in bright shallow pools between t-m. all along the S. and locally on the N. coast ; Annett, Tresco, and St. Mary's, Scilly, c! vars. smaragdina, rustica, sulphurea, and alabastrina occur in Mount's B. (Mrs. Gough) Actinia mesembryanthemum, E. & S. {Actinia Eques, Linn.). Most abund. along S. and locally on N. coast, and at Scilly on rocks and stones between t-m. The eleven vars. described by Gosse occur in Mount's B. (Mrs. Gough) Bolocera tuediae, Johnst. Occ. among trawl refuseat Falmouth (Cocks), and once at Gorran Haven! Bunodes gemmacea, E. & S. Gen. dist. and often c. on exposed rocks and shallow pools between t-m. ; Annett abund. and f. c. in other parts of Scilly! B. Ballii, Cocks. Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; the type occurs sparingly about Falmouth and in Mount's B. from tidal ground to deep water. Var. dealbata at Fowey and Gorran Haven and funesta at Scilly (Alford) B. (CAitonactis) coronata, Gosse. A single spec, on the Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), and one off the Dodman ! [Egeon Alfordi, Gosse. Discovered by the Rev. D. P. Alford at Scilly, but apparently not referred to by subsequent writers] Paraphellia expansa, Haddon. A few specs, on the Eddystone Gnds. apparently buried in the sand ; Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) Tealia {Chondractinia) di^tata, Mull. A few about the Eddystone (M.B.A.) and about Fal- mouth (Cocks) ; one from Mount's B. (Dunn) MARINE ZOOLOGY 25. 27- 28 29 30 31 33 Tealia crassicornis, Milller {Urtkina felina, Linn). Gen. dist. and locally abund. along the entire coast and at Scilly, littoral to 20-30 fm. Gosse's five vars. recorded from Mount's B. (Mrs. Gough) T. tuberculata. Cocks (?). C. on shelly ground off the Dodman, most frequently on valves of Cyprina islandica and Pinna, also in 30 fm. of water W. of the Eddystone (Cunningham) ; Cocks found it on Pecten maxlmus 1 3 m. SW. of Falmouth 34 Ilyanthus Mitchelii, Gosse. A dead spec, obtained by Tregelles from trawl refuse, Penzance Peachia hastata, Gosse. A single living spec. Helford, 25 Oct. 1905 ! Halcampa chrysanthellum. Peach. Discovered by Peach under stones in muddy sand near l.w. Fowey ; found by Cocks and by Vallentin at Falmouth ; N. of Tresco, 1903 ! Gonactinia prolifera, Sars. Dredged for the first time off the coast of Great Britain by Vallentin on old oyster shells near the Vilt Buoy, Fal- mouth, on 5 June, 1893 ; found again by the same naturalist on some clean dead oyster valves from the main channel of Falmouth Harb. early in July, 1897 Edwardsia callimorpha, Gosse. Several dead and one living spec, in trawl refuse at Falmouth, 1899! 32. E. carnea, Gosse. Two specs, Mevagissey, 1897 Cerianthus Lloydii,Goi%c. Once, Drakes Is.; single adult spec, taken in muddy sand off Fowey, 1901 ! the free-swimming larvae Arachnactis albida often abund. in tow-net gatherings at Falmouth 35 Zoanthus {Epixoanthus) Couciii, Johnst. F. c. in deep water off the south coast ; St. Ives, New- quay, and off N. of Tresco, Scilly! Z. incrustatus, Diiben and Koren. A characteris- tic species of, and confined to, the * Outer ' trawling gnds. at the Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; in trawl refuse, Penzance, 1903 ! 36. Capnea sanguinea, Forbes. Obtained by Cocks on a valve of Pecten maximus dredged 4 leagues W. of Falmouth ; from about 40 fm. to W. of Menavawr, Scilly! Aurelianla augusta, Gosse. One spec, found by Tregelles among trawl refuse from Mount's B. ; one at Boscastle that lived in captivity for several weeks ! A. heterocera, Thompson. One spec, found by Tregelles on trawl refuse. Mount's B. Corynactis viridis, Allman. F. gen. in dist. and not r. on rocky ground on S. coast between t-m. to 20 or 30 fm. ; St. Ives, Newquay, and Boscastle, and frequently at Scilly! CaryophylUa Smithii, Stoker. Gen. abund. on stones and shells and in crevices in rocky stations on S. coast at 20 fm. or more ; New- quay, Cowrie Haven near Bude and at Scilly! Sphenotrochus JVrightii, Gosse. Obtained by Peach in Lantivet B. S. Macandretvanus, Thompson. Dredged off Scilly by MacAndrew and obtained by Peach off the Dodman. Balanophyllia regia, Gosse. N. unc. on W. coast at extreme 1. w. ; Mousehole and St. Michael's Mt. (Marquand), Sennen B. ! between Zennor and St. Ives (J.C), E. of Godrevy (Dr. Mont- gomery) 37 38. 39 40 41 42 43 CTENOPHORA These have received little attention, and there are certainly more species in the county waters than the four given below : — I. Bolina infundibulum. Fab. Abund. some years about Plymouth, May ; also recorded in Sept. 2 Beroe cucumis. Fab. A few small specs, at Plymouth; Scilly! Specs, of Beroe occ. Falmouth, but not identified 3. B. Qvata, Eschscholtz. A very early stage, Scilly, May, 1903 (Browne). 4. Pleurobranch'ia pileus. Fab. Abund. about Plymouth towards end of May, and in some years c. Mevagissey and Falmouth, B. ECHINODERMA The literature on Cornish Echinoderms consists chiefly of a very full list of the species from Falmouth Harbour and Bay by Dr. Cocks in the Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Ant, Soc. (old ser.), i, and in his 'Fauna of Falmouth' {Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornw. Polyt. Soc. 1849), ^^ ^ paper on the ' Echinodermata of Mount's Bay,' by Mr. G. F. Tregelles [Penz. Tram. new. ser. i), and of the section on Echinodermata in t\i&yourn. Marine Biol. Assoc, vol. vii, pt 2. In the Catalogue of British Echinoderms by Professor F. Jeffrey Bell, many Cornish specimens are referred to. Records from this British Museum Catalogue are marked (B.M.) in the following list. In North's JVeek at the Isles of Scilly a brief list of species is given from the western archipelago : — Synapta digitate, Montagu. Occ. specs. Rame- Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro (B.M.) ; Falmouth (Cocks), Helford river ! S. inhaerens, O. F. MuU. On gravelly bottom, Polperro (B.M.) ; Helford river ! Scilly ! Cucumaria brunnea, Thompson. C. on hydroids, algae, etc., from rocky ground and from trawl- ing gnds. around Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; off the Dodman ! Falmouth B. ! 127 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 5. c 6. C 10. 12. 13' 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. 19- 20. Cucumaria hyndmanniy Thompson. Occ. specs. Rame- Eddystone and Looe-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), off the Dodman ; one spec. offHelford river ! normani, S. Pace. N. unc. in crevices and under stones on rocky ground about Plymouth 1, vf. to 10 fm. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro, and locally in Falmouth B. down to 25 fm. ! saxkola, Brady & Robertson (C. pentactes. Mull.). F. c. along S. coast under stones be- tween t-m., in crevices of rock at 1. w. and in trawl refuse ; occ. Scilly! C. lactea, Forbes & Goodsir. Occ. Falmouth B. and Mount's B. C. frondosa. Gunner. One spec, off the Dodman (Dunn) ; one from Plymouth (B.M.). Thyonefusus, O, F. Mull. Occ. specs. Cawsand B. and in i 5 to 3 5 fm. on gnds. outside Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; at times in Falmouth B. chiefly after storms, and twice, 1. s. t. Scilly Psolus phantopus, Linn. N. unc. in trawl refuse at P'almouth (Cocks) Phylkphorui drummond'i, Thompson. Occ. Fal- mouth Holothuria nigra. Gray. Occ. specs. Queen's Gnd. Plymouth, off Penlee, on clean shell gravel, Eddystone Gnds., Whitsand B. (M.B.A.) ; in 20 fm. off Polperro (B.M.) ; off Gyllyngvase, Falmouth; fc. Mount's B. 5 to 20 fm.; n. unc. Scilly! near Newquay! Antedon bifida. Pennant. Known in Cornwall 200 years ago, as Llw}'d sent specs, from Pen- zance to Link of Leipzig when the latter was engaged on his magnificent folio ; Plymouth district, v. abund. in certain small areas, but practically limited to these (M.B.A.) ; locally abund. Porthscatho i 5 to 20 fm. in great var. of colour! n. unc. Falmouth, deep water and extreme l.w-m. (Cocks) ; c. locally Mount's B.; at Scilly frequent between t-m. in 1903 and infested with Myxostoma ! \Potitaster tenuisp'mh, Dub. & Kor. Obtained by the Porcupine SW. of Scilly in 305 fm. (B.M.)] A stropecten irregularis, Pennant. C. along the S. coast in 10 to 35 fm. on fine clean sand ; St. Ives B., Newquay, Padstow and occ. at Scilly! Luidia ciliaris, Philippi, F. c. between t-m. to deep water, Polperro to Mount's B. L. sarsii, Duben & Koren. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off Gorran Haven ! one spec. Helford river! Hippasierias phrygiana, Parelius. N. unc. in trawl refuse at Falmouth (Cocks) Porania puhillus, O. F. Mull. Occ. at about 3 m. S. of Plymouth Breakwater, and on Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; r. in trawl refuse at Falmouth (Cocks) ; n. unc. deep water Mount's B. (Tregelles) Asterina gibbosa. Pennant. C. rock-pools along S. coast ; Scilly, on Annett, St. Martin's and Forth Cressa B., St. Mary's ! near Newquay ! Palmipes placenta. Pennant. F. c. in places along S. coast in 15 to 30 fm.; Eddystone and Rame- 12 Eddystone Gnds., f. c. about 3 m. S. of the breakwater (M.B.A.) ; Gorran Haven, Fal- mouth B. and Mount's B. 21. Stichaster roseus. Mull. In deep water off the Dodman ! n. unc. in trawl refuse, Falmouth (Cocks) 22. Solaster papposus. Fab. F. c. 10 fm. downwards along S. coast ; occ. 1. s. t. ; Scilly 23. 5. endeca, Linn. Occ. deep water ; off the Dodman ! Falmouth B. (Cocks) 24. Henricia sanguinolenta, O. F. Mdll. N. unc. locally, 1. s. t. downwards ; Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off the Dodman ! Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. ; W. of Menavawr, Scilly ! 25. Asterias glacialis, Linn. C. along S. coast and locally at Scilly, l.w-m. to 40 fm. or more ; Per- ranporth, Newquay, Padstow I 26. A. rubens, Linm. Occ. in pools between t-m. and gen. c. in deep water round coast and at Scilly 27. A. hispida. Pennant. Two specs, in trawl refuse at Falmouth (Cocks), and one at Mevagissey (Mathias Dunn) 28. Ophiura ciliaris, Linn. C. in deep water along S. coast, Plymouth to Mount's B. 29. O. albida, Forbes. Gen. along S., often found with O. ciliaris in 5 to 20 fm. 30. Ophiocnida brachiata, Mont. C. on a Zostera bed in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth ; Hel- ford ! 3 I . Amphiura chiajii, Forbes. Two specs, from Ply- mouth district (M.B.A.) ; very local Falmouth B. ! * When dredging off Penlee Pt., Penzance, a mass of writhing miniature snakes came up, completely entangled and as big as two fists. These were detached arms of A. chiajii with not a single disc among them . . . Though the fine sand betwixt St. Michael's Mount and Mousehole Island teems with un- attached arms, whole specimens are very rare.' (Tregelles) 32. A.filiformis, Mull. One spec. 2 m. WSW. of Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; v, scarce Falmouth Harb. and B. ; a single arm Mount's B. (Tregelles) 33. A. elegans. Leach. C. and in places abund. under stones, in rock-pools, and among coral- lines from Plymouth to Mount's B. 34. Opkiactis halli, Thompson. C. but local along the S. coast and at Scilly in rock crevices, under stones, on roots of algae, shells, Flustra, tubes of Chaetopterus and egg cases of Fusus and Buccinum ; occ. in rock-pools but gen. 1. s. t. to 40 fm. ; Newquay ! 35. Opheopholis aculeata, L. Recorded by Cocks as n. unc. in trawl refuse, Falmouth 36. Ophiocoma nigra, Miill. Gen. dist. in Plymouth district where its numbers vary greatly accord- ing to locality (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! Meva- gissey in trawl refuse ! very irregularly dist. but not unc. in Falmouth B. ! one small spec. Mount's B. (Tregelles) 8 MARINE ZOOLOGY 37. Ophiopsila aranea, Forbes. N. unc. Mewstone Ledge and Stoke Pt. Gnds., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; one spec. Polperro (Robinson) ; two in trawl refuse, Mevagissey ! 38. Ophiothnx fragUis, Mall. Occurs along the S. coast and locally on the N. ; often plentiful and at times abund. under big stones, in crab pots and irregularly from all depths to 40 fm. ; Scilly! 39. Echinus acutus, Lamk. Gen. dist. Plymouth Gnds. 15 to 35 fm., commoner in deeper water where it replaces E. esculentus (M.B.A.) ; Pol- perro, trawl refuse Mevagissey! locally Falmouth B. ; one spec. Mount's B. (Tregelles) ; one adult and one young spec, from 30 fm. off Menewethan, Scilly (Carus) 40. E. mlHaris, Leske. C. along S. coast in rock crevices between t-m. to 35 fm.; Scilly \\. E. esculentus, L. Occ. Queen's Gnd., c. outside Plymouth breakwater in 15 to 35 fm. (M.B.A.) ; c. Polperro and in trawl refuse, Mevagissey and Falmouth ; abund. Penzance at all depths, weed gatherers often collecting numbers in from i to 2 fm. (Tregelles) ; c. at Scilly, where in April, 1904, spines in remark- able abund. were found in the sand in depressions among the lower rocks on Outer Innisvouls ! \E. melo, Lamk. Forbes {Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1855, p. 153) speaks of an Echinus found by Peach on the Cornish coast as ' apparently identical with E. melo of the Mediterranean,' but doubt has been expressed as to the occurrence of this species in the British Isles.] 42. Strongylocentrotus drocbachiensls, Mtill. R. in trawl refuse at Falmouth (Cocks) 43. S.lividus, Lamk. N. c. in trawl refuse Falmouth Harb. (Cocks) 44. Echinocyamus pusillus, Mtill. N. unc. on gravel bottom in 10 to 35 fm. Plymouth district (M.B.A.); Polperro ; Falmouth ; f c. Mount's B. and at Scilly ; the white shells denuded of spines at Porthcurnow and elsewhere! 45. Spatangus purpureus, Milll. F. c. in coarse sand and gravel on most of the ' grounds ' in Ply- mouth district (M.B.A.) ; Polperro, Meva- gissey and Falmouth in trawl refuse ; Helford ; at Penzance brought in by the trawlers from deep water (Tregelles) ; n. unc. locally, Scilly ; Perranporth ! 46. Echinocardium cordatum. Pennant. Occ. Cawsand B. and outside the Plymouth Breakwater in 15 to 35 fm. on fine sand (M.B.A.) ; Meva- gissey ! local in Falmouth B. ! v. c. in Am- phiura chiajii sand. Mount's B. ; F. W. Millett described them on one occ. as ankle-deep between Marazion and Penzance (Tregelles) 47. E. pennatijidum. Pennant. N. unc. Rame-Eddy- stone and Looe-Eddystone Gnds., Plymouth (M.B.A.) 48. E. flavescens, Mlill. R. Looe-Eddystone Gnds. with E. pennatijidum (M.B.A.) TURBELLARIA The Turbellaria or flat-worms of Cornwall have up to the present received very little attention. Dr. Cocks recorded a few from Falmouth, but the only publication of importance on the subject is *The Turbellaria of Plymouth Sound,' by Dr. F. W. Gamble {Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, iii). The following is a list of the species recorded by Dr. Gamble, all of which were obtained in the Plymouth district. A few additional localities have been added where there was no doubt about the identification : — Proporus venenosus, O. Schmidt Monoporus rubropunctatusy O. Schmidt Aphanostoma diversicolor. Oersted — elegans, Jensen Convoluta saliens, v. Graff — paradoxa. Oersted, Falmouth — flavibacillum, Jensen Microstoma groenlandicum. Lev. Promesostoma marmoratum, Schulze — ovoideum, O. Schmidt — solea, O. Schmidt. Falmouth ; Helford — a^le, Levinsen Byrsophlebs Graffi, Jensen — intermedia, v. Graff Proxenetes cochlear, v. GrafF — flabellifer, Jensen Mesostoma neapolitanum . v. GrafF P seudorhynchus bifidus, Mcintosh Acrorhynchus caledonicus, Claparede Macrorhynchus naegeli, KoUiker — croceus. Fab. — helgolandicus, MetschnikofF Gyrator hermaphroditus, Ehrbg. Hyporhynchus armatus, Jensen — penicillatus, Schmidt Provortex balticus, Schultze — affinis, Jensen — rubrobacillus , Gamble. Encysted stage c. Pentuan, Falmouth Fecampia erythrocephala, A. Giard PlagLostoma dioicum, MetschnikofF — elongatum. Gamble — pseudomaculatum. Gamble — sagitta, Uljanin — caudatum, Levinsen — vittatum, Frey u. Leuckart. Polperro ; Falmouth ; Hel- ford — Koreni, Jensen Plagiostoma siphonophorum, Schmidt — girardi, Schmidt Vorticeros auriculatum, O. F. Miiller. Pentuan ; Falmouth — luteum, V. GrafF Enterostoma austriacum, v. GrafF — fingallianum, Claparede Cylindrostoma quadrioculatum, R, Leuckart — inerme, Hallez — elongatum, Levinsen Monoophorum striatum, v. GrafF 129 Monotus lineatus, O. F. Miiller — fuscus. Oersted — albus, Levinsen Automolus unipunctatus. Oersted — horridus. Gamble — ophiocephalus, Schmidt Tovia affinis, Stimpson. Whitsand B., E. ; Pentuan ; Falmouth Cryptocelis alba, Lang Leptoplana tremellaris, O. F. Muller. C. Falmouth, Helford — draebachensis, Oersted — fallax, Quatrefages Stylochoplana maculata, Quatrefages Prostheceraeus vittatus, Mont. Pol- perro ; Gyllyngvase, Fal- mouth Cycloporus papillosus, Lang. On Botryllus,Falmouth and Scilly Eurylepta cornuta, O. F. Miiller. Mevagissey ; Falmouth B. Oligocladus sanguinolentus, Quatre- fages. Falmouth B. Stylostomum variahile, Lang. Prosthiostomium siphunculus, Delle Chiaje 17 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL NEMERTINI The Nemertean worms have only received intermittent attention at Truro, so that the list gives a very inadequate idea of the distribution of many of the species. A systematic account has been kept of those found during dredging excursions in Falmouth Bay, but from Polperro, Mevagissey and Gorran the records are fragmentary. Littoral species only have been obtained from Mount's Bay, and Scilly is represented by a fevi^ specimens picked up casually during the summer of 1903. The list is based on that published for the Plymouth district by Mr. J. H. Riches in the Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, vol. iii, and the nomenclature follow^ed is chiefly that of BUrger in Nemertinen des Golfes von Neapol, 1895. 10. II. 12. 13- H- Carinella linearis, Mont. Two specs. Duke Rk. 1892 (M.B.A.) ; one near Looe (Marryat) C. polymorpha, Renier. One spec, half-way be- tween Rame and Eddystone ; one 4 m. W. of the Eddystone (M.B.A.) C. superbn. Drake's Is., Rame to Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 20 fm. Fal- mouth B. ! C. annulnta, Mont. Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd., 6 m. SW. of Rame, Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 15 fm. off Polperro! off Meva- gissey ! One small but typical spec, under a stone at l.w-m. Gyllyngvase beach, Falmouth, August, 1905 ! Cephalothrix bioculata. Oersted. about Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; gissey, and Falmouth in Marazion and Mousehole ! C. between t-m. Polperro, Meva- sand and mud ! C. linearis, Rathke. A few in deepish water outside Plymouth Breakwater, but chiefly between t-m. in Rum B. (M.B.A.) ; 4 from sand between t-m. near Gorran Haven ! several near Swanpool, Falmouth (Thomas) ; 2 from Marazion ! Eunemertes graciUs, Johnst. About Plymouth Breakwater and Drake's Is. (M.B.A.) ! among roots of Laminaria, Mevagissey and Falmouth ! Mount's B. ! Nemertes neesi. Oersted. Abund. Plymouth Break- water ; found on the Bridge and Drake's Is. (M.B.A.) Nemertopsis Havida, Mcintosh. C. in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; occ. found between t-m. at Fal- mouth, Helford, Mount's B. and Sennen ! Ampiporus pulcher. Taken once or twice on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) A. lactiflorus, Johnst. Under stones and sea-weed between t-m. ; c. Drake's Is. and Mt. Edg- cumbe (M.B.A.) ; Looe (Marryat) ; Meva- gissey, Gorran Haven, Falmouth, and Helford ! 1. s. t. Marazion ! Sennen Cove A. dissimulans. Riches. Abund. Millbay Chan. Once between t-m. Drake's Is. ; dredged Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth Harb. 10 fm. ! Depranophorus speciabilis, Quatrefages. Queen's Gnd., Cawsand B., Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth B. in an eroded stone from 25 fm. ! Tetrastewma candidum, Miill. The type and various forms or species closely allied to it c. in Plymouth S. and Falmouth Harb. and B., and occ. found between t-m. and in Zostera, as at Fowey, Mount's B. and Tresco Flats, Scilly ! 15. Tetrastemma cephalophorum. Burger. Dredged Queen's Gnd., Drake's Rk. and elsewhere in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) 16. Oerstedia dorsalis, Zool. Dan. V.c. in dredgings from Cawsand B., Queen's Gnd., Asia shoal, 5 m. S. of Penlee Pt., Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; in 30 fm. off Polperro, in 12 fm. ofFPennance ! abund. in Zoslera in spring of 1904 at Fal- mouth ! 17. O. nigra, Riches. On Codium and other weeds from the laminarian zone in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; on Codium between Gyllyngvase and Swanpool, Falmouth ! Scilly I 1 8. O. immutabilis. Riches. Among weeds on the shore and dredged at Duke Rk., Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; 2 specs, dredged off Polperro ! 19. Malacobdella grossa, Mull. A single example occurs in the branchial cavity of almost every spec, of Csprina islandica taken around Ply- mouth, Polperro, and Falmouth 20. Eupolia carta, Hubrecht. Eddystone Gnds. and 2 m. W. of Eddystone ; one small spec. Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) Lineus longissimus, Gunn. Occ. specs, dredged and found on the shore in all p.irts of Plymouth S., largest 6 ft., the majority much less ; Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; n. unc. along S. coast under stones at 1. w. One on Pentcwan beach July, 1905, over 20 ft. long and only ^ in. thick ; one at Tresco Scilly among weed on a barge, several specs. St. Mary's ! L. gesserensis. Mull. Apparently c. under stones between t-m. all along S. coast : v.c. in Fal- mouth district L, lacteus, Grube. Between t-m. on N. of Drake's Is., and occ. in Cawsand B. (M.B.A.) L. bilineatus, Mcintosh. Dredged on all stony ground in Plymouth S., the Eddystone Gnds., and \\ m. S.W. of Penlee Pt. (M.B.A.) ; n. unc. near Mevagissey and locally in Falmouth B. I Micrura fasciolata, Ehrenberg. Dredged from stony ground in all parts of Plymouth S., on the Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Gorran Haven, and n. unc. in Falmouth B. and Helford ! M. purpurea, Dalyell. In dredgings from stony ground Plymouth S. and on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! Helford in 10 to 15 fm. ! 21, 23- 25. 26. 130 MARINE ZOOLOGY 27. M. aurantiaca, Grube. Single specs. Queen's Gnd., Asia shoal, and elsewhere in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) Cerebratulus fuscus, Mcintosh. On Queen's Gnd., Drake's Is., Eddystone Gnd., &c. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! and unusually large spec. Falmouth under weed-covered stones at 1. s. t, ! CHAETOPODA Except for a paper entitled ' Horae Zoologicae ' by R. Quiller Couch [Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist. a7id Jfitiq. Soc. old series, i, 1845), and a section in Dr. Cocks's 'Fauna of Falmouth' this important group seems to have been completely neglected by county naturalists. But for the invaluable assistance given by Mr. H. Thomas, who took up the study of Cornish sea-worms with extraordinary enthusiasm the county list would have been somewhat meagre both in species and in details, for the help he gave went far beyond the records to which his name is attached. ARCHIANNELIDA 13- 1 . Dinophilus taematus, Harmer. More or less abund. in spring on green algae and mud in rock pools round Plymouth (M.B.A.), at Gorran, Falmouth 1 4. and Helford ! No spec, found about Falmouth in 1904 2. Polygordius <^o^», Mcintosh ? Dredged on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) 15, 3. Protodrilus kuckarti, Hatschek. Reared at Ply- mouth from tow-nettings taken in Sept. jg (M.B.A.) 4. Histnobdella homari, van Beneden. Frequent on the eggs of lobsters taken off Plymouth '' (M.B.A.) POLYCHAETA 1. Typosyllis proHfera, Krohn. Drake's Is., Queen's '8. Gnd., &c., Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; 2 specs, from mud in Falmouth Harb. ! 2. T. alternosetosa, de St. Joseph. Dredged on 19' the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) 3. Sj/Z/j cornuta, Rathke. Dredged on the Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro (Thomas) 20. 4. S. Krohni'i, Ehlers. In tubes of sand under stones at 1. w. ; occ. colonies at Helford and St. Minver ! 21. 5. S. armillaris. Mull. Near Maenporth at 1. s. t. 6. S, gracilis, Grube. In dredgings from Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro (Thomas) 7. Odontosyllis ctenostoma, Q\a.Y>3.rhdQ. From the shore under stones and among weeds, &c. ; Drake's Is., Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; near 1. w-m, Gyllngvase, Falmouth and Helford ! 8. O. fulgurans, Clapar^de. In dredgings from Queen's Gnd. Plymouth (M.B.A.) 9. O. gibba, Clap.irede. In dredgings from Queen's Gnd. and Asia shoal (M.B.A.) 23 I o. Trypanosyllis zebra, Grube. Frequent in dredgings from Asia shoal and Millbay Chan., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; in shallow water oft" Polperro (Thomas) ; I spec, in 10 fm. off Helford ! 24 1 1 . Jmblyosyllis spectabilis, Johnston. Not infre- quent from Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd., Plymouth, occ. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; In 30 fm. off" Polperro (Thomas) and in 20 fm. Falmouth B. ! 22. 1 2. Spkaerosyllis ovigera, Langerhans. One spec, in dredgings from Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) 25- Pionosyllis malmgreni, Mcintosh. Under stones near 1. w-m. near Mevaglssey and at Pennance, Falmouth ! Autolytus pictus, Ehlers. Often c. in Plymouth S. among sponges and akyonidium (M.B.A.) ; occ. plentiful at Polperro (Thomas), Pentuan, Gyllyngvase and Helford ! c. Mount's B. A. prolifer, Miiller. Occ. at 1. s. t. Falmouth beaches A. rubropunctatus , Grube. Frequent in dredgings from Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) Myrianida pinnigera, Mont. Frequent in Ply- mouth S. (M.B.A.) ; on an overgrown timber baulk on the old breakwater at Falmouth Harb. M. fasciata, Milne Edwards. The anterior half of an adult spec, in trawl refuse at Meva- glssey ! Kefersteinia cirrata, Keferstein. Under stones at 1. w. m. Drake's Is., Mt. Edgcumbe, and in dredgings from Asia shoal (M.B.A.) Castalia punctata, Miill. C. in dredgings from Asia shoal, and occ. Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) ; in 10 fm. Falmouth B. ! Magalia perarmata, Marion et Bobretzky. N. unc. in dredgings from Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; off Helford ! Aphrodite aculeata, Linn. On most fine-sand grounds off^ Plymouth, between 20 and 30 fm. (M.B.A.) ; between t-ms. on the S. coast occ. after very stormy weather ; dredged in 30 fm. off" Polperro (Robinson), in 40 and taken in 60 fm. off" the Dodman and in 25 fm. Falmouth B. ! In March, 1905, several hundreds were thrown up on W. side of Bryher, Scilly, and a number on St. Mary's ! Hermione hystrix, Savigny. Most frequently on gravel grounds in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; in 20 fm. off" Polperro (Thomas) ; occ. in 10 to 25 fm. Falmouth B. ! Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn. C. along the S. coast from under stones and sea-weed between t-m. down to 60 fm. ; sometimes abund. in the laminarian zone ; Porth Cressa B., St. Mary's, Scilly, and on Annett ! L. clava, Mont. C. under stones and clumps oi fuci, esp. at s. t. 1. w-m. all along the S. coast 131 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 26. Gattyana c'trrosa, Pallas. In dredglngs near the Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro commensal with Amphitrite Johnstoni (Thomas) ; on St. Martin's bar, Scilly, commensal with Chae- topterus ! 27. Lagtsca Jloccosa, Savigny. C. all along the S. coast from between t-m. down to 40 fm. 28. L. extenuata, Grube. N. unc. about Plymouth breakwater ; Eddystone Gnds. scarce (M.B.A.) ; among roots of Laminaria, Talland B. (Thomas), Gorran haven, Gyllyngvase ! 2 specs. Helford ! 29. L. rarispina, Sars, Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) 30. Harmothoe imbricata, Linn. About Plymouth Breakwater among laminarian roots and on Eddystone Gds. (M.B.A.) ; 3 specs, among fucus near 1. w-m. between Gyllyngvase and Swanpool ! under stones at Coverack ! 31. //. iptnifera, Ehlers. C. Plymouth S. on rocks and stones (Hodgson), near Polperro (Thomas) ; near Mevagissey ! near the Manacles ! 32. E. lunulata, delle Chiaje. Plymouth breakwater and bridge (Hodgson) ; under stones at 1. s. t. near Polperro (Thomas) 33. H. setosbsima, Sav. Among Cellar'ta and in Chaetopterus tubes from the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; onespec. off theDodman in 40 fm.! areolata, Grube. Among Polyzoa and 34. ^ 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 41. Chaetopterus tubes on (M.B.A.) ; in trawl Falmouth ! the Eddystone Gnds. refuse Mevagissey and In chinks of the rocks, H. marphysae, Mcintosh. Polperro (Mcintosh) Evame impar^ Johnston. C. throughout the Plymouth area from between t-m. downwards (M.B.A.) ; Talland B. and under stones at Fowey (Thomas) ; in shells of bivalves, trawl refuse, Mevagissey, in laminarian roots and trawl refuse, Falmouth ! Scalisetosus communis, delle Chiaje. On shore at Mt. Edgcumbe, in dredgings from Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; in 20 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) S. assimilis, Mcintosh. On the oral region oi Echinus esculentus, Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; in trawl refuse, Mevagissey ! Malmgrenia castanea, Mcintosh. N. unc, Ply- mouth commensal on Spatangus escukntus ; occ. off Polperro, in Falmouth B., and in trawl refhse Mount's B. and Wolf Rock ? also in 60 fm. off the Dodman ; from 30 fm. off Polperro in the ambulacral grooves of Astro- pecten Irregularis (Thomas) Halosydna gelatinosa, M. Sars. On the shore under stones and occ. in deep water, Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; among laminarian roots near Pol- perro (Thomas) and at Helford ! under stones between t-m. Marazion ! C. in tubes of Po/ymnia and Mt. Edgcumbe Po/ynoe scolopendr'ma, Sav nebulosa, Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; one spec, on the Eddystone Gnds (Hodgson) ; 2 in crevices of large stone from I o fm. Polperro (Thomas) 42. 43- 44. 45- 46. Acholoe astericola, della Chiaje. Present in the ambulacral groove of most examples of Astro- pecten irregularis round Cornish coast ; taken at Newquay and Padstow ! Sthenelais boa, Johnst. C. between t-m. on sand and esp. muddy sand, and in Zostera beds on S. coast; in 10 fm. off Polperro (Thomas), abund. 12 fm. off Pennance, Falmouth ! Mount's B. (Allen) S. limicola, Ehlers. Large specs, found by Mcintosh in deepish water off Polperro ; 2 by Thomas in same locality Pholoe minuta. Fab. From Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; in rock pools, Polperro ! Euphrosyne foliosa, Aud. and Edw. Occ. specs. Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd., Plymouth, and on gravel round the Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; in crevices of stone from 1 8 fms. off Polperro (Thomas) ; several specs, at 1. s. t. under stones, Gyllyngvase, Falmouth ! a bright orange form sent in from Penzance ! Eulalia viridis, Mull. C. on rocky shores Ply- mouth S. and found on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; one spec, on fucus, Mevagissey ! at the roots of seaweed. Mount's B. ! Eulalia punctifera, Grube. On shore at Mt. Edgcumbe, and in dredgings from Asia shoal and elsewhere in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) E, aurea, Gravin. C. in dredgings from Asia and Queen's Gnd., Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Whitsand B. 8 fm. (Thomas) E. clapar}dei, de St. Joseph. N. unc. in dredg- ings from Asia shoal and occ. from Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) E. obtecta, Ehlers. C. in dredgings Queen's Gnd. ; occ. Asia shoal and elsewhere, Plymouth (M.B.A.); locally c. in 5 to 15 fm. Fal- mouth B ! E. ornata, de St. Joseph. In dredgings from Asia shoal and Millbay Chan. (M.B.A.) E. pallida, ClaparWe. V. c. in dredgings from Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd. Plymouth(M.B.A.) ; Whitsand B. and Polperro (Thomas) Pterccirrus macroceros, Grube. Occ. specs, on Queen's Gnd, Plymouth (M.B.A.) Phyllodoce laminosa, Sav. Between t-m. on Drake's Is. and Plymouth breakwater ; in dredgings on Asia shoal and elsewhere (M.B.A.) ; among Laminaria, Polperro (Thomas) ; Mevagissey ! Falmouth and Helford ! P. maculata, Milll. On the shore at Drake's Is., c. on Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; in shallow water, Talland B. (Thomas) ; Helford, n. unc. near 1. w-m. ! Mount's B. (R.Q.C.) 57. P. rubiginosa, de St. Joseph. C. in dredgings from Drake Is., Asia sho.il &c., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Mevagissey and Gorran Haven ! 58. P. paretti, Blainville. In trawl refuse Mcva- 47- 48. 49. 50. SI- 52. 53- 54- 55- 56. gissey 32 MARINE ZOOLOGY 59. Eteone picta, Quatrefages. Queen's Gnd. and Barn Pool, Plymouth (M.B.A.) 60. Tomopteris helgolandica, Greef. In tow-nettings Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth B., June 1900 ! 60A. T. on'tsciformis, Esch. Early stages, Scilly (Browne) 61. Nereis cultnfera^ Grube. C. between t-m. in muddy gravel and sand along S. coast 62. N. d'wersicolor, O. F. Mull. C. in mud flats of the Tamar, Plym (M.B.A.), Fal and Helford ! and on Par sands ! 63. N. dumerilliy Aud. and Edw. C. at 1. t. and in shallow water, Plymouth to Helford at least ; Mount's B. (R.Q.C.) 64. N.fucata, Sav. In the topmost whorls of dead Buccinum shells, esp. those inhabited by Eupa- gutus bernhardus ; Rame-Eddystone and Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 30 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) ; 40 fm. off the Dodman ! at 1. w. Gorran Haven ! occ. specs. Falmouth B. from 1. s. t. downwards ! 65- 66. 67. 68. 69. 71- 72. 73- 74- 75- A^. irrorata, Malmgren. N. unc. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; in sand between t-m. Whitsand B. and Polperro (Thomas) ; Pendower, Gyllyng- vase and Helford ! A^. longissima, Johnst. Occ. specs, in fine sand between t-m., Drake's Is. and Mt. Edgcumbe (M.B.A.) A^. pelagica, Linn. N. unc. along S. coast among seaweed on rocky shores and in dredg- ing from stony ground down to 60 fm. ; also near Zennor, at Perranporth and Widemouth B. ! Nephthys caeca. Fab. Sandy shores Plymouth (M. B. A.) and Whitsand B. (Thomas) ; in i 5 to 20 fm. Polperro and Falmouth B. ! stray specs, occ. Gyllyngvase beach ! A'', hombergi, Aud. et Edw. Between t-m. Ply- mouth and on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); in sand Whitsand B., Gyllyngvase and Mount's B. ! in trawl refuse Mevagissey ! A^, cirros, Ehlers. In sand between t-m. Drake's Is. (M. B. A.) Eunice harassi, Aud. et Edw, On shore and in dredgings Plymouth S. and on Rame-Eddy- stone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; c. locally down to 30 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) ; in trawl refuse Mevagissey ! c. Helford in shallow water ! Onuphis conchilega, M. Sars. On coarse shell gravel in 20 to 30 fm. S. of Rame Hd. and off the Eddystone (M. B. A.) ; in 60 fm. off the Dodman (Martin) Hyaltneecia tubicola, Mull. C. on muddy gravel and sand 12 to 30 fm. ; Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; Looe (Thomas) ; Mevagissey ! local in Falmouth B., but abund. Pennance and Helford ! Mafphysa sanguinea, Mont. Often in crevices on rocky shores and under stones at 1. w. Plymouth to Zennor M. belli, Aud. et Edw. On the shore between t-m. on Drake's Is. (M. B. A.) ; n. unc. in Zostera beds, and occ. under stones as far W. as Mount's B.! I 77- 78. jS. Lysidice ninetta, Aud. et Edw. C. Plymouth S. on shore and in dredgings (M. B. A.) ; occ. Whitsand B., 2 at 1. w. Polperro (Thomas) ; Fowey ! trawl refuse Mevagissey ; shallow water Helford ! 2 specs. Mouschole ! N ematonereis unicornis, Grube. Between t-m. Drake's Is. and Mount Edgcumbe, and in dredgings from S. (M. B. A.) ; on shore, Tel- land B. and occ. 5 to 20 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) ; Gorran Haven and Falmouth B ! Lumbriconereis impatiens, Clapar^de. On coarse grounds Eddystone-Rame, abund. Queen's Gnd. in spring 1903 (M. B. A.) ; Polperro ; brought in from 60 fm. off the Dodman ! v. c. 10 to 15 fm. off Helford ! L. latreilki, Aud. et Edw. On shore and in dredgings Plymouth S. (M. B. A.) ; Whitsand B. r. ! around Polperro c. (Thomas) ; c. Fal- mouth B., occ. Falmouth Harb. ! Maclovia iricolor, Mont. Occ. small specs, at 1. w. from Plymouth to Helford Staurocephalus rubrovittatus, Grube. Evidently local but n. unc. in shallow water on S. coast 5. ciliatus, Kcferstein. Once from Queen's Gnd. Plymouth (M. B. A.), and once off Meva- gissey ! 5. pallidus, Langerhans. Dredged once on Asia shoal (M. B. A.) Ophryotrocha puerilis, Clpd. et Meczn. Dredged once in quantity 5 to 8 fm., between Macn- porth and Helford ! Glycera convoluta, Keferstein. Between t-m. Drake's Is. ; in deepish water Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 30 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) ; under stones near 1. w-m. Gorran Haven ! 20 fm. Falmouth B.! G. lapidum, Quatrefages. Near Queen's Gnd. and elsewhere in Plymouth S. (M. B. A.) ; between t-m. Talland B. (Thomas), and near Maen- porth ! G. gigantea, Quatrefages. Is. (M, B. A.) Goniada maculata. Oersted breakwater (M. B. A.) Ephesia gracilis, Rathke. mouth to Helford ; also 1 5 to 25 fm. off Pol- perro (Thomas) ; and in 20 fm. Falmouth B. 1 Scoloplos armiger, Miill. In dirty sand and shale, at Rat Is. mouth of the Lynher, and in sand Drake's Is. (M. B. A.) ; c. in sand and de- composed shale along S. coast. In April, 1902, thousands of the stalked, brown, pear-shaped egg masses on the bar at Helford ! Scolelepis vulgaris, Johnst. Numerous but very local, Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; on sand under fucus clumps near Mevagissey ! in mud between t-m. Bar Pt., Falmouth Harb ! up the Fal to Restronguet Creek ! S. giardi, Quatrefages. One spec. Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; with S. vulgaris in Falmouth Harb., but scarce ! 79- 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. Between t-m. Drake One spec. Plymouth Occ. near 1. w. Ply- 33 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 93. Nerhe drratulus, dclle Chiaje. E. side Plymouth S. (M. B. A.) ; Falmouth B. ; between t-m. on Mullion beach ! 94. N. coniocephala, Johnst. On E, side Drake's Is. (M. B. A.) ; rather deep in the sand near 1. w. Gyllyngvase ! 95. Aomies oxycephala, Sars. Devonshire side Ply- mouth district (M. B. A.) ; in Zostera Hel- ford ! 96. Pohdora ciliata, Johnst. Boring in limestone of Plymouth Breakwater (M. B. A.); in soft mud tubes, St. Mawes and Helford ! 97. P. flava, Clapar(ide. In crevices and debris of shale, Rat Is. at mouth of the Lynher (M. B. A.) ; Mevagissey and Veryan B.! 9S. P. caeca. Oersted. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; on a sponge from 60 fm . off the Dodman ! 99. P. hoplura, Claparede. Boring in the limestone of Plymouth Breakwater (M.B.A.) ICO. Poecikchaetus serpens, Allen. Larvae in tow- nettings in Falmouth B. end of June, 1905. loi. Chaetopterus var'iopedatus, Renier. C. in muddy gravel Eddystone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; occ. specs, along S. coast ; c. 10 to I 5 fm. off Pennance, Falmouth, and in shallow water off St. Martin's, Scilly ! 102. Magelona paptHtcorn'is, Fr. MuUer. Devonshire side of Plymouth district (M.B.A.). Deeply buried in sand between t-m. Gyllyngvase ! 103. Ozveniafusiformts,6.c\\&Ch\i.]&. Devonshire side of Plymouth district (M.B.A.). In sand at 10 fm. Whitsand B. (Thomas) ; 3 specs. 15 fm. off Helford ! 104.. Audouma tentacukta, Mont. C. locally in sand and gravel near h. w-m. Plymouth to Falmouth 105. A. chratus, Mull. Under stones partly em- bedded in the sand, Gyllyngvase 106. Dodecacer'ta concharum,Otr%\.^i.. Boring in lime- stone Plymouth Breakwater, abund. (M.B.A.) ; among the roots of Laminaria, Talland B. (Thomas) 107. Amph'itrite gfaciRt, Grube, C. in sand between t-m. and between layers of shale, Plymouth S., including Mt. Edgcumbe and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; local in Falmouth B.! loS. A. johnstoni, Malmgren. Under stones partly embedded in mud and muddy sand near Fowey (Thomas) ; Falmouth and Helford ! 109. Terebella lapidana, Kahler. C. in shale. Rum B. Plymouth (M.B.A.); tubes horizontally adherent to the under surface of stones partly embedded in muddy sand at Helford ! 1 10. Polymn'ta nebulosa, Mont. Locally c. between • t-m. in muddy and shaly sand from Mt. Edgcumbe westwards ; occ. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 10 to 20 fm.off Polperro (Thomas) abund. 1 2 fm. off Pennance ! n. unc. Falmouth Harb. 111. P.nestdensh, delle Chiaje. Between t-m. Mt. Edgcumbe (M.B.A.), Fowey (Martin) and Helford ! dredged in shallow water Asia shoal and Cawsand B. (M.B.A.), Mevagissey and Fal- mouth B. ! 112. Lattice conchilega,'?3i\\^%. C. on sandy shores along S. coast W. to Porthcurnow ; Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; r. 20 to 30 fm. off Polperro ! on stones and shells in trawl refuse from Fal- mouth B. ; abund. at Helford (V.) ; Scilly 113. Nicolea zostericola. Oersted. Somewhat scarce, N. side, Drake's Is. (M.B.A.) 114. N. venustula, Mont. Occ. in 10 to 25 fm.off Gyllyngvase and at Bar Pt., Falmouth ! 115. Pista cristata, Moll. One spec, dredged in shallow water off Helford ! 116. Thekpus concinnatus. Fab. One spec, with tube attached to a valve of Cypritia islandka and covered with hydroids was found in trawl retuse Mevagissey! 117. T. setosusy Quatrefages. Dredged on Queen's Gnd. and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) 118. Poly cirrus aurantiacus, Grube. Occ. Asia shoal Queen's Gnd. and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; c. 10 to 20 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) ; Mevagissey and locally c. F'almouth B.! 119. P. caliendrum, Claparede. In dredgings from Queen's Gnd. and Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; Fowey (Martyn) 120. Loimia medusa, Sav. In shell gravel near 1-w. Drake's Is. and on Queen's Gnd., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! Fowey ; Pcntewan beach. Mount's B. and Porthcurnow ! 121. Terebellides stroemi, Sars, One spec. 4 m. SVV. by S. of Rame Hd. (M.B.A.) ; one in 12 fm. off Pennance, Falmouth, on muddy sand ! 122. Melinna adriatica,v. Marinzeller. In soft muu from between t-m. downwards, c. in Ply- mouth S. (M.B.A.) ; occ. Fowey (Martyn), Falmouth Harb. and Hellord ! 123. Ampkicteis curvipaka, Claparede. One spec. 4 ra. SW. by S. of Rame Hd. (M.B.A.) 124. Pectinaria {Lagis) Koreni, Malmgren. C. S. of Batten Castle, Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; projecting from the sand at l.s.t. near Fowey (MartynJ ; once on the bar at Helford ! 125. P. (Ampiicrene) auricoma, Miill. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); once in trawl refuse Mevagissey! 126. P. belgica. Pall. Very sparingly from Gyllyng- vase to Helford ! 127. Capitella capitata. Fab. Usually under stones and shale sand about l.w. ; Plymouth district (M.B.A.), Gerran's B. and Falmouth Harb.! 128. Notomastus rubicundus, Keferstein. Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Fowey not infrequent (Martyn) 129. N. latericeus, Sars, Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Fowey occ, at l.w. (Martyn) 130. Ammotrypane aulogaster, Rathke. Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; once in 20 fm, off Polperro \ 134 MARINE ZOOLOGY 131. Polyophthalmus pictus, Dujardin. Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; scarce near 1. w-m. Nare Ft., Helford ! 132. Arenuola marina, Linn. Gen. dist. and locally abund. round coast and at Scilly between t-m. 133' ■^- grubei, Claparede. Drake's Is. and else- where in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) 134.. J. ecaudata, Johnst. Drake's Is. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro (Thomas) ; Helford ! in mud and sand between t-m. at Mount's B. (R.Q.C.) 135. Sckrochetlus minutus, Grube. Occ. Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; once Falmouth B.! 136. St'^larioides {Trophonla) plumosa, Mull. Asia shoal and elsewhere in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; 20 to 30 fm. off Polperro (Thomas) ; among laminarian roots Gorran Haven ! 137. Slphofiosioma {Flabelligera) dipkcka'ttos. Otto. Once under stones at l.s.t. Pentewan ! 138. S. {Flabelligera) affinis, M, Sars. Between t-m. on Drake's Is., under Rame Hd. and in dredg- ings from Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) ; between t m. Polperro (Thomas) ; in decpish water off Mevagissey ! 139. Sabella pavonina,S3.v. EddystoneGnds. (M.B.A.); sparingly off the bar at Helford ! 140. Branchiomma vesiculosum, Mont. Drake's Is. and Barn Pool, Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Fowey (Martyn) ; single specimens twice on the bar at Helford ! at l.s.t. near Marazlon ! 141. Dasychone bombyx, Dalyell. Asia shoal. Queen's Gnd. and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); in muddy sand 12 fm. off Pennance, Falmouth ! at l.s.t. near Marazion ! 142. C hone infundibulifor mis, YLxQycT. One spec, with 2. the tube attached terminally to a small cfinker near Helford ! 143. Potamilla reniformisy Mall. One in an old oyster shell near mouth of Falmouth Harb. ! 144. P. /(7/W/r, Malmgren. C. near mouth of Helford river 2. 145. Bispiravolutacornis, Mont. Plymouth (M.B.A.); in deep crevices at l.s.t. near Mevagissey, and at St. Michael's Mt. ! v. c. on Mawnan beach in 1901, but none found in 1905 ! '* 146. Myxicola injundibulum, Renier. N. side Drake's Is. and in Barn Pool (M.B.A.) ; c. in Helford river at l.s.t. ! 4- 147. Serpula vermicularis, Linn. Occ. Plymouth S., Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); n. unc. down to 30 fm. off Polperro (Thomas); in trawl refuse Mevagissey and from 60 fm. off the Dodman ! c. locally on stones, shells, and corallines down to 25 fm. in Falmouth B. ! Mount's B. and Sennen B ! 148. Pomatoceros triqueter, Linn. C. along S. coast between t-m. to 30 fm. ; Whitsand B., Land's End ! occ. on N. coast, and at Scilly ! 149. H-^droides norvegica, Gunn. C. esp. on shells aiong S. coast ; 20 fm. off Polperro, abund. (Thomas) 150. Filograna implexa, Berkeley. Occ. in trawl refuse and dredgings, Plymouth to Helford ; abund. on the old piles, Penzance docks and pier ; c. at Fowey (Martyn) and in Falmouth Harb. ! 151. Spirorbis borealis, Daudln. C. almost every- where on Fucus, stones, shells, &c. 152. P rotula tubularia, yiont. R.ime-Eddystone and EddystoneGnds. (M.B.A.); Polperro (R.Q.C); n. unc. in trawl refuse about Mevagissey, Falmouth and Helford ! Mount's B. (R.Q.C.) 153. Sabcllaj'ia ahcolata, Linn. C. irregularly along S. coast on rocks on sandy shores from Whit- sand B. westward. The mound-like colonics reach their greatest development on N. coast, esp. on the outer rocks of the foreshore N. and S. of Polzeath sands and on Lundy beach, where they occ. reach a length of 4 or 5 ft. and a thickness of i J to z\ ft. 154. S. spinulosa, Leuckart. Attached to shells, stones, and clinkers from Queen's Gnd., Asia shoal and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 10 to 30 fm. off Polperro (Thomas), in trawl refuse from off Mevagissey! Falmouth, and Wolf Rk. ; dredged occ. 20 to 25 fm. Falmouth B. ! MYZOSTOMARIA I. Myzostomum cirriferum, Leuckart. C. sometimes abund. on Antedon bifida along S. coast, and at Scilly. OLIGOCHAETA 1. ClitelUo arenarius, ClaparWe. In mud at Drake's Is. and on the shores of Plymouth S. (M.B.A.); Falmouth Harb. and Helford ! 2. C. ater, Claparede. In mud at Drake's Is. and on shores of Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth Harb.! GEPHYREA Petalostoma minutum, Keferstein. Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; Helford (Thomas) Phascolion strombi, Mont. Frequent at intervals along the whole of the S. coast in shells of Aporrhais pes-pelecani Thalassema neptuni, Gaert. C. Drake's Is. in stones from Asia shoal, Queen's Gnd. r. (M. B. A.) ; c. Polperro (Thomas) ; c. Falmouth B. ; off the Lizard ! Phoronis hippocrepia, Wright. Abund. Plymouth S. and at times at least c. along S. coast to Mount's B. HIRUDINEA Pontobdella muricata, L. Occ. on the outside gnds. around Plymouth, parasitic on the skate (M. B. A.) CHAETOGNATHA I. Sagitta bipunctata, Quoy and Gaimard. In tow- nettings throughout the year and often abund.; Plymouth, Mevagissey, Falmouth, Mount's B. and Scilly A HISTORY OF CORNWALL BRYOZOA In addition to Hincks, the principal county workers on this attractive group have been R. Q. Couch, Peach, Cocks, and the late Mr. Bernard Magor of Penzance. Couch, Peach, and Cocks recorded their observations in the works referred to in the introduction to the Hydroids (q. v.). Magor embodied his in a paper on 'The Polyzoa of West Cornwall ' {Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Anttq. Soc. new series, i, 1884). The examination of the Truro Collection is not yet completed. 1. Jetea angu'tna, Linn. Evidently f. c. at intervals along the S. coast, Plymouth to Porthgwarra ; occ. cast up in quantity at St. Ives, and in Oct. 1904 at Padstow! local at Scilly 2. A. recta, Hincks. F. c. on Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.), c. Polperro, Gorran (R. Q. C), and off the Dodman (P.) ; once at Scilly ! 3. j^. iruncata, Landsborough. Cast up on an oyster shell at St. Ives in autumn 1903 I 4. Eucratea chelnta, Linn. Gen. dist. along S. coast ; abund. St. Ives and occ. at Newquay, Padstow, and at Scilly ! 5. Gemellaria loricata, Linn. Polperro (R. Q. C.) and at Gorran Haven (P.) 6. Scrupocellaria reptans, Linn. Evidently abund. all round coast and at Scilly 7. S. scrupea. Busk. Oft St. Ives on stones (H.) 8. 5. scruposa, Linn. C. along S. coast ; St. Ives, Padstow and Cowrie Haven near Bude ! 9. Caherea El/isii, Flem. R. Q. Couch found a single but typical spec. ; off" the Runnelstone (Magor) C. Boryi, Audouin. One spec, found by Peach at Gorran Haven, one by Magor at Lamorna Cove and one also by Magor in Crow S. Scilly Buellaria ciliata, Linn. F. c. in Plymouth dis- trict (M. B. A.) ; n. unc. at Fowey; only occ. further W. ; twice at Scilly 12. Bugula avkular'ta, Linn. Eddystone and Rame- Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; single specs, at Mevagissey and Mount's B.; Helford ! off" the Lizard and Porthgwarra (Magor) B. flabellata, J. E. Gray. C. Plymouth S. and occ. on the Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; one spec, off" Porthgwarra (Magor) B. plumosa, Pallas. C. Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; r. on rocky ground, Polperro (R. Q. C.) ; Falmouth (Miss Warren) B. turbinata. Alder. F. c. in dredgings Plymouth S. (M. B. A.) ; Falmouth (Cocks) ; on stone off" Porthgwarra (Magor) ; on driftwood Per- ranporth ! 16. Beania mlrabilts, Johnst. Falmouth on crab float (Cocks) ; Mount's B. on Laminaria at 1. w. (R. Q. C.) ; off Scilly on valve of Pecten maximus (McAndrew) 17. Flustra foliacea,\Ann. C. along S. coast ; Scilly and St. Ives 18. F. papyracea, E. and S. Queen's Gnd. Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; single specs. 8 leagues S. of the Dodman, off" the Dodman (P.), and off" Porth- gwarra (Magor) 10 1 1 13 14. 15- 19. 20. 21. 22. 23- F. securifrons, Pallas, from Sennen I One spec, sent by Baily specs, sent by F. carhasea, E. & S. Three small Baily from Sennen ! Membranipora aurita, Hincks. On stones and shells off" the Cornish coast (H.) M. catenular'ia, Jameson. On almost every Pinna drawn from deep water off" the Dodman Pt. and W. to the Lizard (R. Q. C.) ; Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; W. of Mcnavawr, Scilly ! M. curvirojtris, Hincks. The type spec, obtained 10 or 12 m. S. of Polperro in 40 fm. ; Eddy- stone Gnds. 24 M. dumerili, (M. B. A.) ; Audouin. Eddystone Gnds. off" the Dodman, 60 fm. (H.) 25. M. Fkmingi, Busk. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.); off" Porthgwarra (Magor) ; Land's End district (R. Q. C.) 26. M.JIustroidejy Hincks. Off" the Dodman, 60 fm. (H.) 27. M. spiniftra, Johnst. Locally c. on S. coast on stones, shells, and laminarian roots between t-m. 28. M. craticula. Alder. C. on stones in beach pools at Whitsand B., Polperro, Gorran Haven, Fowey (R. Q. C.) ; in deep water off" the Dodman (P.) 29. M. imbelHs, Hincks. On shells and stones from deep water off^ the Dodman (H.) 30. M. lacroixi, Audouin. N. unc. on mussels Ply- mouth to Newquay ; abund. on dead oyster and mussel shells in the Fowey, c. in the Fal 31. M. hexagona, Busk. Fowey Harb. and off" the Dodman on an ascidian (P.) 32. M. lineata. C. locally between t-m. along the S. coast ; St. Ives, Newquay, and Scilly ! 33. M. membranacea, Linn. Gen. dist. and abund. on Laminaria digitata round coast and at Scilly 34. M. pilosa, Linn. Abund. round coast and at Scilly on stones, shells, and esp. on fuci and corallines 35. M. rosselii, Audouin. On Queen's Gnd. and Cawsand B., Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; Fowey Harb. and off" the Dodman, r. (P ) ; Helford ! 36. M. noduhsa, Hincks. One spec, sent in by Baily from Mount's B.! 37. Micropora coriacea, Esper. wall (H ) ; on shell in Gorran Haven (P.) 38. Steganoporella Smittii, Hincks. Founded on two specs, encrusting a Serpu/a found by Peach in deep water off" the Cornish coast, one near Gorran Haven In deep water, Com- Fowey Harb. and at 136 MARINE ZOOLOGY 39- 40. 41. 42. +3- 44. 45- 46. 47- 48. 49. 50. 51- 52. S3- 54- 55- 56. 57. 58. Cellaria Jjstulosa, Linn. C. and in places abund. round coast from shallow to very deep water ; Falmouth to Lisbon cable from 89 to 205 fm. ; Scilly C. salicornmdes, Lamouroux. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) C. sinuosa, Hassall. C. at least locally along S. coast; gen. with C.fistulosa CribrUina figtilaris, Johnst. Off Cornwall, 30 to 60 fm. (H.) ; Eddy»tone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; twice off the Dodman (P.) C. annulata. Fab. Cornwall (H.) ; sent in by Baily on Laminaria from Mount's B ! C punctata, Hassall. On stones and algae between t-m. in Mount's B. C. radiata, Moll. In 60 fm. off Cornish coast, both radiata and innominata forms (H.) ; Rame- Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; Fowey and Mount's B. ; off Polperro (Magor) Membraniporella nitida, Johnst. N. unc. along S. coast between t-m. on stones, shells, laminarian roots, and polyzoa Microporella c'tUata, Pallas. N. unc. on Laminaria, limpets, dead shells and stones from between t-m. to deep water along S. coast and at Scilly ; 60 fm. off the Dodman (H.). Van personata also occurs (H.) M. impressa, Audouin. N. unc. along coast on red seaweeds, shells, and stones, Plymouth to Mount's B. ; usually littoral, but found by Hincks in 60 fm. off the Dodman M. malusii, Audouin. On S. coast n. unc, but not found W. of the Dodman M. violacea, Johnst. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off Fowey and off the Dodman (P.) Diporula verrucosa, Peach. The type spec, is a fragment obtained by Peach in Lantivet B. Lepralia foUacea, E. & S. F. c. Plymouth S., and on all the outside gnds. (M.B.A.) ; occ. off the Dodman (R. Q. C.) ; Falmouth B. (Miss Vigurs) ; Porthgwarra (Magor) ; off the Run- nelstone ; occ. at Scilly ! L. pallasiana, Moll. F. c. on small stones between t-m. along S. coast and at Padstow ! L. pertusa, Esper. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; found by Peach off Fowey and the Dodman L. edax. Busk. Peach got altogether five specs, off the Dodman, each covering a small 'Nassa 59- 60. 61. 62. 63. [5. 64. 65. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71- 72. 73. 74- Umbonella verrucosa, Esper. Drake's Is. (M.B.A.) ; between t-m. at Polperro and in 40 fm. of}' the Dodman (H.) ; Gorran (P.) ; Falmouth B. ! 75. Mount's B., off Land's End, Padstow! and Scilly Chorixopora brongniarti, Audouin. N. unc. from 1. s. t. to deep water (60 fm. off the Dodman) jS. Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) to Gorran Haven Porella concinna. Busk. Locally f. c. in deep water (60 fm. off the Dodman), Eddystone Gnds. to Gorran Haven Porella compressa. Sow. C. in deep water from Polperro to Gorran Haven (R.Q.C. & P.) ; Land's End district (R. Q. C.) P. laevis, Fleming. In deep water off the Dod- man and in the Land's End district (R.Q.C.) ; on a stone 4 in. in diameter, with 4 spec, of Caryo- phyllea Smitkii, dragged up off the Lizard (V.) Smittia cheilostoma, Manzone. In deep water, Cornwall (H.) ; Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) S. reticulata, Macgillivray. One of the most abund. species on the Cornish pinnae from 60 fm. (H.) ; on stone off the Dodman (P.) ; on stone in crab-pot, Porthgwarra (Magor) ; occ. Scilly ! 5. Landsborovti, Johnst. On Sertularia abietina in 30 fm. (H.) ; off the Dodman (P.) ; Mount's B. (R. Q. C), Newquay ! marmorea, Hincks. Probably from Cornwall (H.)] S. trispinosa, Johnst. N. unc. from inshore to 60 fm. (H.), Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) to Falmouth B. Phylactella labrosa. Busk. Off Fowey and 5 m. off the Dodman (P.) P. collaris, Norman. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) P. eximia, Hincks. One spec, off the Dodman (P-) Mucronella Peachii, Johnst. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; Falmouth B. ; on whelk shells in crab-pot, Porthgwarra (Magor) M. ventricosa, Hassall. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; off the Dodman (P.) ; Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. (R. Q. C.) M. variolosa, Johnst. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; 60 fm. off the Dodman on Pinnae (H.) ; from same locality and coast gen. (P.) ; Land's End district (R. Q. C.) M. coccinea, Abildgaard. A c. littoral species along S. coast and at St. Ives, Newquay, Padstow! and Scilly. Var. mamillata (Hincks) n. unc. Palmicellaria skenei, E. & S. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; off Polperro (H.) ; on stones and Pinnae off the Dodman, r. (R. Q. C.) ; ofi" Porthgwarra (Magor) Rhynchozoon bispinosum, Johnst. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; on stones in 60 fm. off the Dod- man (H.) Retepora couchii, Hincks. On a stone off Land's End (R. Q. C.) ; on a large stone found by Laughrin in 40 fm. off Polperro (H.) ; probably from Scilly by Borlase {Cornish Fauna, iii, 130) Hippothoa distans, Macgillivray. From Cornwall in Hyndman's dredgings on stones from deep water (H. & P.) ; Land's End ? (R. Q. C.) H. divaricata, Lamouroux. One spec. Queen's Gnd., Plymouth ; Rame-Eddystone and Eddy- stone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; other records may be H. distans li- nn Schizoporella armata, Hincks. Type spec, tained on stones in 30 fm. off Polperro 18 ob- A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 79- 80. 81. 82. 83- 84. 85. of Polperro, 30 fm. dist. and abund. round On stones, Cornwall, unc. on Lamlnaria and 78. Schizoporella aur'iculata, Hassall. From 1. s. t. to deep water, 60 fm. (H.); Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); Mount's B. 5 fm. ; Scilly (McAndrew). Var. ochracea, Hincks, 30 fm. off the Cornish coast (H.) ; off the Dodman (P.) 5. cectlii, Audouin. Eddystone, 20 fm. (M. B. A.) ; coast of Cornwall, on stone, &c., from deep water (H.) 5. kyalina, Linn. Gen. dist. and usually abund. along the coast from inshore to deep water on stones, shells, and sea-weed, from the smallest up to Laminaria saccharina ; Scilly 5. vulgaris, Moll. SW. (H.) S. linearis, Hassall. Gen, coast, 1. w. to 60 fm. 5. sanguinea, Norman, deep water (H.) 5. spinifern, Johnst. N. stones along S. coast, but not recorded W. of Gorran Haven. 5. unicornis, Johnst. Locally c. along coast from between t-m. to deep water ; abund. Fowey Harb., off the Dodman (P.), Falmouth B., and Mount's B. The form ansata occurs off Corn- wall, 30 to 40 fm. (H.) 86. Mastigophora dutertrei, Audouin. Off the Dod- man, 60 fm. (H.) ; one spec, in the same locality (P.) 87. Schi-z.othecafissa,'2>\ii%V. Eddystone Gnds, (M.B. A.); off the Dodman, 30 to 40 fm. (H.) ; on a stone 5 m. off the Dodman (P.) 88. Ccllepora avicularis, Hincks. Locally c. from moderate to very deep water on Sertulariae, Gorgoniae, &c. ; Eddystone Gnds. (M.B. A.) ; off the Dodman (P.); W. of Menavawr, Scilly ! 89. C. costaxii, Audouin. N. unc. on S. coast from the laminarian zone downwards ; Cawsand B., Polperro, Gorran Haven, Helford, Mount's B. 90. C armata, Hincks. On shell probably from deep water, Cornwall (H.) 91. C. dichotoma, Hincks. In 20 to 30 fm. at the Eddy- stone (M.B. A.); off Polperro, 30 fm. (H.) ; off the Dodman (P.) ; Padstow ! 92. C. pumicosa, Linn. N. unc. from 1. s. t, to deep water along the S. coast ; St, Ives, Padstow, and Scilly ! C. ramulosa, Linn. N. unc. on corallines, stones, &c., from deepish water along S. coast ; New- quay and Padstow ! Crisia aculeata, Hassall. N. unc. at 1. s. t. on red sea weed in Falmouth B. ! 93- 94- 95- 96. C. cornuta, Linn. F. c. from between t-m. downwards apparently all round coast and at Scilly on seaweeds, zoophytes and the Cor- wich crab C. denticulata, Lamarck. N. unc. along coast and at Scilly from 1. w-m. to the laminarian zone C. eburnea, Linn, C. round coast and at Scilly, from between t-m. downwards chiefly on red sea-weeds, Sertulariae and the Cor- wich crab 98, 99. 100. lOI. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107, 108. 109. 1 10. 1 11. 1 12. 113- 114. 115. 116. I r 118. Crisia ramosa, S, F, Harmer, V. c. Plymouth district, 4 to 30 fm, gen. on stones, but also on shells, red sea-weeds, &c, (M.B,A.); Falmouth B. Diastopora obelia, Johnst, Gen, dist. round coast shallow to deep water ; specs, exposed at 1. s, t., Falmouth B, D. patina, along S, coast Padstow ! Lamarck, N, unc, deep water and at Scilly ; Newquay, D. sarniensis, Norman. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 40 fm. off Polperro (H.) ; Lantivet B, on Isocardia cor. (P.) D. suborbicularis, Hincks. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) Entalophora clazata. Busk. Wolf Rk. (P) ; Porthgwarra (Magor) Idmonea serpens, Linn. Locally c. along S. coast from between t-m. downwards. Var. radiata on Cornish Pinnae (H). Tubulipora liliacea, Pallas. N. unc. on shells, stones, hydroids, &c. S. of the Plymouth Break- water, 15 to 30 fm. ; Rame-Eddystone Gnds. ; Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth B. T. phalangea. Couch. C. along coast from shallow water downwards on stones, shells, wicker-work of crab-pots and in the hollow 'bulbs' o{ Laminaria bulbosa ; abund. Scilly T. plumosa, W. Thompson. Abund. Ply- mouth district on Cystoseira granulata and on Saccorhiza bulbosa (M.B.A.), Mevagissey ! Stomatopora granulata, Milne-Edwards. From deep water, Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), off the Dodman, in Falmouth B. ! S.johnstoni, Heller. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B,A,) S, major, Johnst, N. unc, locally on stones and shells in deep water ; Eddystone Gnds, (M.B,A.) ; Polperro, Land's End (R,Q.C.) ; Falmouth B. ! 5. incrassata, Smitt. Cornwall (H.) On shells from deep Mevagissey B. and off the On Pinna from deep water, 38 S. dcflexa. Couch water ; Polperro, Dodman (R.Q.C.) S. fungia. Couch. On shells and stones c. Eddystone to the Dodman (R.Q.C.) ; 40 fm. off Polperro (H.) ; Land's End (R.Q.C.) Lichenopora hispida, Fleming. C. deepish water all along S. coast Alcyonidium gelatinosum, Linn. N, unc. deep water, Plymouth to Land's End A. hirsutum, Fleming. On algae from between t-m. to shallow water ; one spec, from Cawsand B. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro, Mevagissey (R.Q.C.) ; n. unc. Pennance, Falmouth ! abund. Mount's B. (Magor), Padstow ! A. mytili, Dalyell. Plymouth (M.B.A.) and Mount's B. (H.) A. parasiticum, Fleming. Plymouth on 5. cupressina (M.B.A.) ; Fowey and Falmouth B. on S. abietina and Hydrallmannia falcata MARINE ZOOLOGY 119. Tlustrella hisptda^Yd^o. V. abund. round coast and at Scilly on /uci between t-m. 1 20. Fesicularia spinosa, Linn. Off the Dodman on corallines, r. (R.Q.C.) 121. Amathia lendigera, Linn. Locally n. unc. on fuel and corallines esp. about 1. s. t-m. ; Penlee-Rame Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro, Lan- tivet B. (R.Q.C.) ; Gorran Haven (P.) ; Fal- mouth B., Mount's B. and Scilly ! 122. Bowerbankia mbricata, Adams. On Juci about 1. vv-m. ; Polperro, (R.Q.C.) ; Helford ! and St. Ives 123. B. pustulosa, E. and S. On fuci about I. s. t. ; Plymouth v. c. (M.B.A.) ; Fowey Harb. and off Gorran Haven, rr. (P.) ; one dense arborescent tuft at Pennance, Falmouth ! 124. Cylindroecium giganteum, Busk. On rocks near ]. w. ofF Gorran Haven and the Dodman (P.) 125. C. dilatatum, Hincks. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth (Mann) 126. Hypophorella expansayY^Azxi. N. unc. Plymouth area on the tubes of Chaetopterus variopedatus (M.B.A.) Tritkella boecki, G. O. Sars. One spec, on Gonoplax rhomboides on the Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) Valkerta uva, Linn. Often abund. on corallines in rock pools along coast. The form uva locally V. c. The form cuscuta occurs on most beaches down to the laminarian zone Mimosella gracilis, Hincks. Locally c. in laminarian zone along S. coast ; Polperro, Gorran Haven (R.Q.C.) ; Falmouth B. ! ' Mount's B. and elsewhere (P.) 130. Pedici//ina cernua, Talh?. Gen. dist. and plentiful E. of S. coast, but evidently scarce in the mid- dle and not recorded W, of Falmouth B. ; between t-m. to deeplsh water, more esp. on hydroids, algae and other polyzoa 131. P. gracilis, Sars. On Laminaria at I. t-m. near Zennor ! 127. 12 120. BRACHIOPODA I . Megathyris decollate, Chemnitz. Dredged at Scilly by the late Clifford Burkill about i^ m. NE. of Menavawr in 35 fm. He obtained 3 dead specs, and 2 single valves 2. M. cestellula, S. V. Wood. Single valves dredged at Scilly by Burkil lin 40 fm. ; obtained also by Marshall, 30 fm. off the Eddystone MOLLUSCA From its geographical position, its variety of coast line and of littoral, its diversity of sea-bottom, and the relatively equable temperature of its waters, Cornwall is peculiarly rich in molluscan life. The local workers, too, have been numerous, and though the published lists have been few, the results of their observations are in most cases still preserved in the collections they have made. Among the earliest investigators in this fascinating field were Jonathan Couch, the famous naturalist surgeon of Polperro, W. P. Cocks of Falmouth, and Williams Hockin of Truro, all of whom published local lists of great value. Later on Miss Hannah Tyacke and Miss E. Carne of Penzance, Miss Hockin of Phillack, the Rev. R. N. Dennis of Penzance, and the Rev. W. Rogers collected assiduously and for many years in the west of the county, and their results, along with those of Mr. E. D. Marquand, Mr. W. E. Baily, and Mr. Theodore Brown, and those of the Rev. R. W. J. Smart among the Isles of Scilly, were brought together and considerably augmented by Mr. G. Fox Tregelles in his paper on ' The Marine Testaceous Mollusca of Cornwall ' [Tjide infra). This list also contains a number of data by Mr. R. V. Tellam from the St. Minver district and Par, as well as many compiled from the records of older visiting naturalists, like Montagu, Barlee, Jeffreys, and McAndrew. In the early eighties the Rev. R. W. J. Smart and the Rev. A. H. Cooke gave a great deal of attention to the marine shells of Scilly, and much also has been done there and along the south coast of the county by Messrs. C. Burkill and J. T. Marshall. The more important papers on Cornish marine mollusca are as follows : — i. Jonathan Couch, Cornish Faunay 1S4.1. As pioneer work this list is admirable. 2. W. P. Cocks, ' Fauna of Falmouth ' {Rep. Roy. Cornw. Polyt. Soc. 1849). 3. 'List of Shells, Mount's Bay, 1855' {Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (old sen), ii). This is evidently the work of several naturalists, but their names have not been preserved. In the accompanying list of county species it is referred to as the 'Penzance List.' 4. Williams Hockin, 'Cornish Marine Shells' {Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. 1866). 5. G. Fox Tregelles, ' Marine Testaceous Mollusca of Cornwall ' {Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (new sen), ii, 1885). 6. The Rev. R. W. J. Smart, M.A., and the Rev. A. H. Cooke, M.A., ' Marine Shells of Scilly ' {Journ. of Conchology^ 1885 and 1886). This paper gives the results of four years' close shore hunting and a limited amount of dredging among the islands. It also contains a list of mollusca recorded from Scilly by the Rev. J. H. Jenkinson and his son Mr. F. Jenkinson, but not found by the authors. 7. C. Burkill and J. T. Marshall, 'Marine Shells of Scilly ' {Journ. of Concho logy ^ 1885 and 1886). These contain an account of species, previously unrecorded from the islands, obtained by Mn C. Burkill and identified by Mr. J. T. Marshall. 8. W. Garstang, M.A.. 139 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL * Opisthobranchiate Mollusca Found at Plymouth' in the Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. (1890). 9. G. Fox Tregelles, *The Marine Mollusca of Cornwall' {Journ. of Conchology^ 1896). This is by far the most complete list of species with their distribution around the county that has yet appeared, and includes practically all the previous records. 10. J. T. Marshall, * The Marine Shells of Scilly' {Journ. of Conchology^ 1897). This consists of an additional list of Scillonian species obtained by the author. 1 1. * Plymouth Marine Invertebrate Fauna ' {Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc, vii). This list includes all the more prominent forms of marine mollusca from the district, but is incomplete as regards the smaller and more critical species. In addition to the data from these various published papers the list that follows contains all the more important records of the Nature Study Society at the Technical Schools, Truro, during five years' ardent shore collecting by many of its members. A considerable amount of dredging has also been done on the south coast, but especially in Falmouth Bay and in 35 to 45 fathoms off the 4 Dodman, and a great deal of attention given to trawl refuse wherever it has been available. Mr. A. Robinson has very kindly supplied the writer with a MS. list of his takings around Polperro, Mr. C. P. Richards of species obtained in the St. Austell district, Mr. J. H. James of those he has taken in the Truro, Falmouth and Helston districts as well as elsewhere in the county, Mr. Rupert Vallentin of those found by him around Falmouth, and Mr. F. W. Thelwell of those secured by him at Harlyn Bay, near Padstow. The collections of Cornish shells in the museum of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, of Mrs. Paull at Bosvigo, Truro, and of Mr. J. H. James, have been of great service in the preparation of this section of the work, and much labour has been saved to the writer through the kindness and thoughtfulness of Mr. G. F. Tregelles in lending him a carefully annotated copy of his 'Marine Mollusca of Cornwall.' The records of critical species and varieties in the following list are for the greater part limited to specimens that have been identi- fied by Mr. J. T. Marshall, the Rev. A. H. Cooke, and the late Mr. Robert Bell, so that their geographical distribution in the county is in many cases undoubtedly wider than the number of localities mentioned would suggest. Where there is uncertainty about any particular record the doubt is always indicated in the text. LIST OF CORNISH MARINE MOLLUSCA AMPHINEURA 1. Rhopahmcnta aglaophcma, Kov. & Mar. Occ. twined round the base of the stem of the hydrold Aglaophenia myriophyllum ; c. Eddystone and Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off the Dodman ! in 35 fm. Falmouth B. ! 2. Myzomenia banyulensis, Pruvot. Often associated with the erect form of Lafoea dumosa ; Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off the Dodman ! 3. Lcpidoplciirus cancellatus, G.B. Sow. Scarce at Fal- mouth and Hclford ; St. Mary's S., Scillv (M.) 4. Hanleya hanleyi. Bean. Falmouth (Cocks) ; a per- fect example and several plates in St. Mary's S., Scilly (M.) 5. Tonicella rubra, hovfQ. Falmouth (Cocks) ; Mount's B. (Penzance List) 6. Callochiton laevis, Mont. N. unc. under stones near 1. w- m., Plymouth S. ; Fowey, Fal- mouth, Helford, Mount's B., Land's End, and St. Mary's S., Scilly 7. Craspidochilus onyx, Spengler. N. unc. along the S. coast and in places abund. from 1. w-m. to deepish water ; Hayle, Padstow, and n. unc. in the Menavawr dredgings at Scilly. var. rissci Jeffreys, found at Scilly by Marshall 8. C. cinereus, Linn. Under loose stones between t-m. in Plymouth S. ; and at Fowey, Port- scatho, Falmouth, Mount's B. (Tregelles) and Scilly 9. C. albus, Linn. Under stones between t-m. on Porthpean beach, St. Austell (Richards) ; dredged in shallow water near Helford ! 10. 1 1. 12. 13- 14. Under stones and s. t. ; probably all Acanthochites fasciculnr'is, Linn, among barnacles down to 1 along the S. coast from Whitsand B. to Mouse hole ; not recorded from the Lizard ; Fal- mouth and Scilly, r. A. discrepans. Brown. Lantivet B. (J.C.), Fal- mouth, Helford and Mount's B. r. PELECYPODA Protobranchia Nucula nucleus, Linn. Locally c. from lo fm. downwards round the coast ; shells cast up along S. and at Hayle, Perranporth, St. Minver, Bude ! live specs. Cawsand B. and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), off the Dodman, 40 fm. ! in Falmouth Harb. i 5 fm. (V.) and at Scilly ; var. radiata, F. & H. Falmouth (Hockin) and in Mount's B. (Tregelles) A^. nitidii, G. B. Sow. Cawsand B. and * outer ' trawling gnd. at the Eddystone (M.B.A.); 40 fm. off the Dodman ! 15 fm. at Helford ! Falmouth (Cocks), Mount's B. (Penzance List), Porthcurnow! Wolf Rk. and Hayle (Miss Came) FiLIBRANCHIA Anomia ephippium, Linn. V. gen. dist. on S. coast and at Scilly, between t-m. down to 20 or 30 fm.on rocks, stones and shells ; Hayle,Perran- porth ! Harlyn B. (Thelwell) and Padstow B. 1 var. squamula Linn. Land's End (Hockin) ; Scilly (S. & C). var. aculeate Mull. Land's End (R.Q.C.) ; Scilly (8. & C.) 140 MARINE ZOOLOGY 1 5. A. patelliformh, Linn. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth ; off Helford 15 fm. ! Mount's B., Land's End, Wolf Rk. (Miss Carne), Hayle, Scilly (M.). var. striata Lov. Falmouth (Hockin) 16. Glycimeris glycimeris, lAnvL. C. locally on sandy a id muddy gravels from just beyond 1. s. t. to 40 fm. ; dead shells all round coast to Bude and at Scilly ; live specs, c. on Queen's Gnd., Cawsand B., Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), Polperro and Gorran Haven ; off the Dodman, in 40 fm. and Falmouth B., 15 fm. downwards ! Mount's B., 5 to 20 fm., and at Scilly, esp. in 40 fm. on stony ground. \ZT.pilosa Linn. Helford (Hockin) 17. Litnopsis aurita^ Brocchi. Two unpaired valves, Gorran Haven, 16 March, 1904 ! 18. Barbatia lactea, Linn. Irregularly dist. between t-m., Plymouth to Bude ; also in 5 fm. Queen's Gnd., Plymouth, in 15 fm. Falmouth Harb. ! in 20 fm. and over. Mount's B. ; occ. in 40 fm. dredgings at Scilly 19. Area tetragona, Poli. Rather sparingly dist. along S. coast in crevices and among stones from 1. w. downwards ; Hayle r. ; a single valve Harlyn B. (Thelwell) ; at Scilly single valves abund., live specs, occ. on stones from 40 fm. 20. Mytilus edulisy Linn. Gen. dist. and abund. all round coast ; Scilly, but n. c. and always solitary and small, var. ungulata Linn. Hayle (Miss Hockin), St. Minver (Tellam). var. incurvata Penn. Gorran Haven, Falmouth (Cocks), Newquay, St. Minver (Tellam). var. gallopro- vincialis Lmk., at Par, Falmouth (Cocks), Hel- ford, Hayle (Dennis), var. pellucida Penn, at Falmouth, Maenporth (Dennis) Helford, Hayle and Newquay, var. flava Poli, at Newquay (Miss Hockin). var. pallida Marshall, at St. Austell (Richards), Newquay (James), Forth (Richards) 21. Vohella modiolus, Linn. Occ. thrown up at Par, Falmouth, Helford, St. Minver, and Scilly 22. V. barbata,lAnn. From under boulders between t-m. to deep water ; a littoral and shallow water species at Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; 1 5 fm. Falmouth B. ! Mount's B. (Tregelles) ; Pad- stow ! several valves at Bude ! very small specs, dredged outside Menavawr, Scilly, often on sea- weed (S. & C). V. adriatica, Lmk. Occ. cast up at Falmouth and at Helford, Mount's B. (Penzance List) and Hayle ; at Scilly, dredged off Menavawr in a nest or case (S. & C), and occ. cast ashore dead ; var. ovalis Sow, at Falmouth (Tregelles), Helford (M.R.L) and Pentle B. Scilly (S. & C.) 24. V. phaseolina,'?\(i 67 c. locally along between t-m. 55. M. bidentata, Mont. Occ. in 5 to 1 5 fm. on fine sand in Falmouth B. ! Mount's B., Porth- curnow, Land's End ; 4 valves in Harlyn B. (Thelwell), 2 valves at Bude ! c. in 8 fm., Crow S., Scilly (S. & C.) M. dawsoni, Jeffreys. * A single valve but unmistakable,' dredged in 40 fm. off Menavawr, Scilly (M.) M. donacina, S. V. Wood. A single valve at Falmouth in 1839 U^fi^^yO- TelUmya ferruginosa, Mont. F. S. coast in fine sand, from to 30 fm., usually with Echinocard'ium cordatum ; Whitsand B., E. ; Polpcrro ! trawl refuse, Mevagissey. Porthscatho ! occ. dredged in TO to 15 fm. in Falmouth B. ! Mount's B., Porthcurnow, Hayle (Miss Hockin), Harlyn B. (Thelwell), Padstow ! c. in 8 fm. Crow S., Scilly (S. & C.) Diplodonta rotundata, Mont. Dead shells, often quite perfect, sparsely dist. round coast to Padstow, and on St. Martin's Flats, Scilly (S. & C.) Kell'ia suborb'icularisy Mont. F. c. on S. coast and in places abund., esp. on rocky shores, from 1. w. to 40 fm. in crevices, attached to stones, in molluscan rock-borings and in fine silt inside dead shells ; Hayle, Harlyn B. (Thelwell), Widemouth B. near Bude ! Scilly in 40 fm. off Menavawr, and under stones on St. Martin's Flats but never c. (S. & C). [var. lactea Brown marked by Hockin as Cornish but no spec, hai been preserved.] Lasaea rubra, Mont. C. between t-m. round coa^l, esp. in crevices on rocky shores ; abund. even at Newquay and Widemouth B. ! Harlyn B. (Thelwell) ; widely dist. Scilly. var. pallida Jeff., rocks under Cromwell's Castle, Scilly (S. & C.) Lcpton squamosum, Mont. Dead shells occ. be- tween t-m. and in dredgings ; Plymouth, Fowey (Alder), Helford (Hockin), Mount's B. (Tregelles), and Scilly (Jenkinson) L. nitidum, Turton. Falmouth (Rogers) and St. Mary's S., Scilly (M.). var. convexa Alder, Falmouth (Hockin), and S. Mary's S., Scilly (M.). \AT. pisidialis Jeffreys in 40 fms. Scilly (M.) L. sykesii. Chaster. Dr. Chaster found this in sand dredged by Tregelles in Mount's B.; previously only from Guernsey. L. sulcatulum, Jeffreys. Bur kill and Marshall found a dozen perfect specs, and many valves at Muncoy Neck and off Menavawr, Scilly ; off Land's End (M.) L. clarkiae, Clark. Fowey (Barlee), Falmouth (Hockin), Sennen and St. Ives (M.) ; a few valves off Menavawr, Scilly (M.) Galeomma iurtoni, J. de C. & G. B. Sow. Two single valves off Menavawr, Scilly, one by Smart, the other by Burkill 68. Syndosmya prismatica, Mont. Single valves f. c, occ. abund. around Falmouth, Mount's B., and Hayle ; live specs, at times in trawl refuse, Falmouth and Porthloe ! dredged from patch of 69. 70. 71- 72. 73- 74- 75- 76. 77- 78. 79- muddy sand in 15 fm. off Pennance ! and in shallower water. Mount's B. ; c. at Scilly in 8 fm. in Crow S. and inside Round Is. (S. & C.) Syndosmya nit'tda. Mall. Occurs with prismatica in all the above localities, though often scarce ; Cawsand B. (M.) 5. alba. Wood. Probably often overlooked ; identified in trawl refuse at Falmouth, though not found off Pennance ! valves found in Hel- ford river, at Hayle, and Harlyn B. (Tellam); Mount's B. ; Scilly (Smart). var. oblonga Marshall, Scilly (M.) 5. tenuis, Mont. Dead valves. Mount's B. (Miss Tyacke), Hayle (Hockin) Scrobicularia plana, da Costa. Usually found in silt and fine mud. Headquarters in creeks of Falmouth Harb. and Helford river ; c. in St. John's Lake, Hamoaze ; Looe, Par, Fowey, Mount's B., Hayle, mouth of the Camel, and at Porthellick, St. Mary's, Scilly (S. & C.) Ervilia castanea, Mont. Valves occur in Whit- sand B., St. Austell B., Gorran Haven ! scarce in Falmouth B., at Mullion, abund. locally Mount's B. and Land's End, Hayle ; and Bude (3 valves !) ; Scilly, off Menavawr and Muncoy and in St. Mary's S., the two first-named places having each yielded one perfect adult example (M.). var. subtrigona Marshall, Land's End and Scilly (M.) Gastrana fragilis, Linn. Found at Falmouth by Miss E. Carne Tellina balaustina, Linn. A single valve from trawl refuse Falmouth, Aug. 1845, and a per- fect shell from same boat, 1848 (Cocks). A fine valve in fresh condition from St. Mary's S., Scilly (M.) T. crassa, Gmelin. Evidently gen. dist. from Plymouth to Padstow ; single valves Bude and Marsland Mouth ! often between t-m. after storms, c. in trawl refuse ; dredged down to 40 fm. off the Dodman ; n. unc. at Scilly. var. tf/i^/Vj Jeffreys, equally c. with the type, Porthpean, St. Austell (Richards) ; often dredged with the type in 10 to 25 fm., Falmouth B. ! with the type near Pentle B., Scilly (S. & C.) 7". squalida, Pulteney. Dead shells found from Plymouth to Hayle, but usually scarce on beaches, though at times c. in trawl refuse ; live specs. St. Austell B. (Richards) ; Gorran Haven ! c. off Helford river ; at Scilly, alive on St. Martin's Flats, valves c. Crow S. (S. & C.) T. donacina, Linn. Sparingly dist. in sandy bays along S. coast, often between t-m. or at 1. s. t. ; Whitsand B. (Robinson), near Looe (Waters), Pcndower beach, Gyllyngvase beach. Mount's B., Porthcurnow (Dennis) ; occ. in trawl refuse ; Scilly, n. c. 1. pusilla, Phillppi. Dist. and habitats similar to those of 7". donacina, more c. ; not recorded E. of Fowey ; Harlyn B. (Thelwell) and stray valves at Bude ! Pentle B. and St. Martin's Flats (S. & C.) A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 80. Tellina serrata,'RcmcT. Two valves found by Mar- 93. shall in dredgings from 40 fm. off Menavawr, Scilly 8 I . T*. tenuis, da Costa. Dead shells often met with from Par westwards ; sometimes v. c. Falmouth, Helford, locally in Mount's B., at Porthcurnow and Hayle ; St. Austell B., Crinnis and Pen- tewan beaches (Richards) ; occ. dredged in Fal- 94. mouth B. ; 2 or 3 examples cast up on sandy beaches Scilly (S. &. C.) 82. 7 . fabula, GronowiMS. N. unc. along the S. coast, 95- chiefly in Zostera beds, but occ. in sand at 1. w. ; Cawsand B. (M.B.A.), Falmouth Harb.; Gyl- lyngvase beach, Helford, Mount's B. Dead shells at times f. c. at Hayle ; Padstow ! 2 or 3 perfect specs. Crow S,, Scilly (S. & C.) % I. Macomabalthica, Linn. Usually found in estuarine 9^- sand at 1. w. One spec, from Saltash is the only record for the Plymouth district ; n. unc. Fowey ; abund. Par (Richards) ; Falmouth B. r., though dead shells at times abund., esp. in Harb. ; local in Mount's B. ; Hayle ; not found at Scilly. var. minor Jeffreys, Helford (Rogers) ; var. n'wea Jeffreys, Land's End (Hockin) ^7. 84. Donax vittatuSy da Costa. Dead shells often with perfect valves irregularly from Whitsand B. to Mount's B., and from Hayle to Padstow ; live specs, in sand at 1. w. at Whitsand B., Fowey ! Pendower and Gyllyngvase ! and 2 in Padstow B. ! Not known at Scilly. var. nitida Jeffreys found at Hayle by Miss Hockin 85. D. variegatus, Gmelin. Single valves only on 8. 9''- sandy beaches from Plymouth to Porthcurnow ; Hayle and thrice at Padstow ! have never seen a live spec, from Cornwall ; Scilly (Jenkinson) 86. Mactra stultorum, Linn. Single valves c. from Whit- sand B., E. to Padstow, and occ. at Bude ! live specs, found occ. in trawl refuse along S. coast ; Scilly (Jenkinson). var. cinerea Mont. Falmouth (Cocks) ; Hayle (Miss Hockin) 99- 87. M. glauca, Borm. Single valves occ. Hayle, one at Padstow ! and several fragments at Land's End (Lindsay), var. luteola Jeffreys, at Hayle Geff-.) 88. Spisula solida, Linn. C. in sandy bays round coast 100. and at Scilly. var. intermedia Jeffreys, at Scilly (Smart), var. truncata Mont, often with type, esp. c. in Pentle B., Scilly (S. & C.) 89. S. elliptica. Brown. Irregularly dist. but gen. c. from Plymouth S. to Land's End on the shallow trawling gnds. ; dead valves often found between loi . t-m. ; not recorded for N. coast ; Scilly 90. S. subtruncata, da Costa. Sandy bays from Par to the mouth of the Camel ; occ. in trawl refuse ; Scilly. var. striata Brown, at Helford (Rogers) 9 1 . Lutraria elUptica, Lmk. At 1. w-m. in sandy bays and In the Zostera beds round coast from Ply- mouth S. to Padstow ; valves occ. at Bude ! c. and of large size at Scilly (S. & C.) 92. L. o^/oK^iZ, Chemnitz. Live specs, n. unc. at Par and Helford ; fresh valves, Falmouth and St. Minver (Tellam) ; Scilly (Jenkinson) 144 102. Lucinopsis undata. Pennant. Live specs, c. near the mouth of the Helford and taken in Mount's B. ; single valves occ. Plymouth S., Whitsand B., Falmouth, Hayle, and Padstow ! Type does not occur at Scilly. var. aequalis Jeffreys. First recorded from Scilly by Lord Vernon ; found by Smart sparingly on St. Martin's Flats Dosinia exoleta, Linn. C. round coast and at Scilly, in sandy bays, and on sand or fine gravel down to 40 fm. ; abund., Scilly D. lupina, Linn. As widely dist. but not so c. as D. exoleta ; scarcer in E. than in W., and more c. in deep water than in shallow ; on N. coast chiefly represented by dead shells ; St. Mary's Flats and Pentle B., Scilly, but seldom found alive (S. & C.) Meretrix chione, Linn. Dead shells round coast from Plymouth S. to Padstow ; live specs, occ. on the sand at 1. s. t. at St. Austell B. (Richards), and at Gyllyngvase beach ; c. in two patches in Falmouth B. in i 5 fm. ! dredged in Mount's B. ; n. unc. in clean sand, Scilly ; often large and beautiful on St. Martin's Flats and Pentle B. at 1. s. t. (S. & C.) Venus {Clausinella) fasciata, da Costa. C. round coast and at Scilly in sand and gravel from 1. w. m. to 40 fm. off the Dodman ! and off Menavawr (S. & C.) ; c. also on Coralline ground, var. radiata Jeffreys. With the same range in depth occurs at Polperro ! Falmouth B.; Porthcurnow; Hayle; Scilly littoral and at 40 fm. (S. & C.) V. {Fentricola) casina, Linn. Locally from 1. w. to 60 fm. (Peach, off^ the Dodman) ; occ. on gravel gnds., 10-30 fm., outside Plymouth S.(M.B.A.); Falmouth B. at 1. s. t. and at 20 fm. ! Mullion ; Mount's B. ; Porthgwarra (Dennis) ; Hayle ; Wolf Rk (Hockin) ; c. Pentle B. at 1. w-m. on St. Martin's Flats and between Bryher and Tresco (S. & C.) y. {F.) verrucosa, Linn. Gen. dist. on sand and gravel along S. coast ; occ. at 1. s. t., as on Pen- dower beach and at Helford, gen. at 10 to 30 fin., but off the Dodman in 40 fm. and over ; odd valves at Hayle and Newquay ! Scilly, n. c. (S. & C.) F. {Timoclea) ovata, Pennant. F. c. along S. coast on coralline ground, in trawl refuse, in 10 to 60 fm. dredgings, esp. on gravel ; often attached to the byssus of Pinna (Couch) ; valves at Hayle, Perranporth ! and Padstow ! Scilly, c. from deep-water dredgings. V. {Chamelaed) galUna, Linn. In sand and fine gravel from between t m. to 40 fm. ; f c, Cawsand B. and occ. on the outer gnds. round Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro, at 1. w. ; Porthpean beach, St. Austell (Richards) ; trawl refuse Mevagissey, Falmouth B. in 20 fm. ! dead shells at Hayle ; live specs, at Perranporth and Newquay at 1. s. t. ! Scilly, n. c, from Crow S. and along the shore (S. & C.) • Tapes aureus, Gmelin. Only dead shells found around Plymouth (M.B.A), but live specs, at Par, from Pendower to Hayle c, and at Helford and the bar at Falmouth, abund ; also occ. MARINE ZOOLOGY 105. sands at Padstow and at Scilly locally abund. var. ovata Jeffreys, obtained by Jeffreys at Fal- mouth, var. quadrata Jeffreys, found at Fal- mouth (Hockin), and at Hayle (Miss Hockin) 103. T. virgineus, Linn. C. on sand and gravel from Plymouth S. to Padstow, sometimes between t-m. as at Porthpean, St. Austell (Richards), and. at Helford ; often from 10 to 40 fm. in trawl refuse and dredgings ; at Scilly f. c. on St. Martin's Flats and on the sandy shores of Tresco. var. samiensis Turton, at St. Austell and Falmouth (J. C); cat Helford (Richards); Scilly, r. (S. & C.) 104. T. pullastra, Mont. In sand and fine gravel from between t-m. to 1 5 or 20 fm. ; occ. Plymouth S., Whitsand B., Par ; Porthpean beach (Richards) ; in trawl refuse, Mevagissey ! Fal- mouth B. ; and abund. at Helford, Mount's B., St. Minver ; at Scilly, esp. Tresco to Bryher (S. & C). var. perforans Mont., about Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; Par (Tellam) ; Falmouth and Penzance (Burkill) and Helford (Hockin) T. decussatCy Linn. N. unc. on most sandy or gravelly beaches and in dredge refuse along S. coast ; abund. Helford ; r. Newquay and St. Minver (Tellam) ; the scarcest of the Tapes at Scilly, found in numbers only at one spot on Tean (S. & C.) 106. Gouldia minima, Mont. N. unc. trawl refuse and in dredgings on sand and gravel from 5 to 40 fm. along S. coast ; occ. on Queen's Gnd. and on Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth and Mount's B. ; Wolf Rk. (Hockin) ; single valves at Porthcurnow ; Hayle ; 2 at Padstow ! At Scilly in 40 fm. off Menavawr (S. & C). var. triangularis Mont. occ. Falmouth 107. I rus irus, hinn. Falmouth (Cocks) ; Mousehole (Baily) ; Porthcurnow ; Land's End (E. D. Marquand) ; Hayle and Harlyn B. ; Scilly, r. (M.) 108. Cardium aculeatum, Linn. Trawl refuse r. ; dead shells cast up at long intervals, Pentuan (J. C.) ; Falmouth ; Helford ; Mount's B. and Hayle ; dead shells in almost perfect condition dredged off Helford river, fragments n. unc. in other parts of Falmouth B. ! 109. C. echinatum, Linn. Live specs, n. c. in 8 to 30 fm. on sand and gravel and gen. immature ; dead shells dist. irregularly Plymouth S. to Hayle and in fresh condition are characteristic of the * Inner ' and * Outer ' trawling gnds. at the Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; live specs, at Falmouth (V.) ; off Helford in 1 5 fm. ! Mount's B. and in Crow S., Scilly (S. & C). var. expanse Jeffreys, in Plymouth S. (M.) I 10. C. tuberculatum, Linn. Single valves round coast, Looe to Bude ! and occ. fresh dead shells in beautiful condition in trawl refuse and in dredgings from about 20 fm. in Falmouth B. ; have never seen a live Cornish spec. III. C. papillosum. Poll. Two fresh valves Falmouth Harb. in 19 fm. (M.) ; Helford (Rogers), Mount's B., dredged (Tregelles), St. Ives (Dodd), and a fresh valve in 40 fm. Scilly (M.) I I 1 12. Cardium exiguum,Gva^\VL. On sand and gravel from 1. w. to at least i 5 fm., locally c. round coast ; Polperro ! Par sands, Falmouth B., in Mount's B.; r. Hayle, Perranporth ! Newquay ! and young specs. Harlyn B. (Thelwell) 113. C.fasciatum, Mont. C. in 40 fm. off the Dod- man ! n. unc. in trawl refuse and dredgings, Falmouth B., though gen. small ! Mount's B. ; Porthcurnow, dead shells n. unc. ; Whitsand B., Land's End ! Hayle, and in deep water off Menavawr, Scilly (S. & C). var. alba Jeffreys, at Scilly (M.) 114. C. nodosum, Turton. Dead shells n. unc. from Fowey westwards, live specs, apparently only in deep water ; in 40 fm. off the Dodman ! in Falmouth B. 20 fm., chiefly dead shells, but live specs, occ. ! Mount's B. (Tregelles), Wolf Rk. (Miss Came) ; c. in deep water off Menavawr and occ. alive (S. & C). var. rosea Lmk., at Falmouth (Hockin) 115. C. edule, Linn. Abund. in sandy bays and flats to Padstow, though only an odd valve has been found at Newquay ; Truro and Helford river, c. ; found at Bude ! Scilly, v.c. var. rustica Jeffreys, at Falmouth (James), var. crenulala Lmk., Mount's B. (Miss Hockin) ; Hayle (M.R.I.) ; a form approaching this var. occurs abund. near Pentle B. (S. & C.) 116. C. minimum, Phil. Two small valves from Muncoy neck, Scilly (Marshall) ; the first occur- rence on the English coast 50 m. NW. of Land's End in 50 fm. (McAndrew) 117. C. {Laevicardium) notx>egicum, Speng. N. unc. and f. gen. dist. on gravel and coarse sand from 1. t-m. to 40 fm. along S. coast ; dead shells often c, and occ. at Hayle ; n. unc. alive in Pentle B. and on St. Martin's Flats (S. & C). var. gibba Jeffreys, Hayle (Miss Tyacke). var. rotunda Jeffreys, Helford (H.). var. pallida Jeffreys, Helford (Rogers), Mount's B. (Tregelles), Hayle (Miss Hockin) 118. Gari tellinella, Lmk. In variable numbers in sandy gravel round coast to Padstow, and also on gravels and coarse sands in deep water, e.g. on the Rame-Eddystone Gnds. in 30 fm. (M.B.A), off the Dodman in 40 fm. ! Falmouth B. in 8 to 20 fm. ! c. 1. t-m. and deep water, Scilly 119. G. costulata, Turton. Gen. with G. tellinella oxv mainland, and at Scilly but less c. ; on the N. coast only from Hayle 120. G. ferroensis, Chemnitz. Dead shells dist. all round coast to Padstow, and in places down to 40 or 50 fm. ; live specs, n. unc. from 1. w. downwards, and at times plentiful on the beaches after stormy weather ; f c. St. Martin's Flats, Scilly (S. & C.) 121. G. (Psammocold) depressa. Pennant. Sparingly dist. on sand and fine gravel between t-m., but odd valves more in evidence than live specs. ; Polperro ! Fowey ! Falmouth B. ; Mount's B. (Marquand), Land's End (M.R.I.) and Hayle, and a few valves at Padstow ! Scilly, but never abund. (S. & C.) 45 19 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 123. 124.. 122. Mya truncata, Linn. Valves c. at Falmouth and in the Truro river, but live specs, somewhat scarce ; Mount's B. (Tregelles) and Scilly (Jen- kinson) Sphenia binghami, Turton. Falmouth (Hockin), Helford (M.R.I.), Land's End (M.), Harlyn B., I valve (Thclwell) Corbula gibba, Olivi. In colonies in muddy sand and gravel from shallow water down to 30 fm.; Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.), Pol- perro (Robinson), Fowey ! Gorran ! Falmouth B. 10 to 15 fm. ! Mount's B. (Tregelles) ; Crow S., Scilly, and elsewhere (S. & C). var. rosea Brown, off Nare Pt., Helford (Hockin) ; Fal- mouth (M.R.L) 125. Sokcurtus scapula, TuTton. One spec. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; 4 ofF Polperro in 10 fm. (Robinson) ; Falmouth (Hanley) ; dead shells occ. dredged Falmouth B. ! Penzance (McAn- drew & Forbes), Hayle (Hockin) ; not unc. 1. w-m. Pentle B., Scilly (S. & C). var. oblonga Jeffreys, Porthcurnow (Miss Lavars) 126. S. antiquatus, Pulteney. A single live spec. off Rame Hd., though dead shells n. unc. (M.B.A.) ; several live specs, and many dead shells off Polperro (Robinson), Looe (Mont.), Gorran Haven (Peach), Falmouth (Jeffreys) ; dead shells at times, Falmouth B. in 20 fm. ! Mount's B. (Tregelles) \Pharus legumen, Linn. Occurs on the list at Tresco and was reported in trawl refuse by Cocks, but there is no Cornish specimen in any collection] 127. Cultellus pellucidus. Pennant. Cawsand B. c. (M.B.A.), occ. Polperro ! locally c. 10 to 1 5 fm. Falmouth B. ! abund. Mount's B. ; Hayle (Hockin) ; Scilly in 8 fm., Crow 8., and inside Round Is. (S. & C). 128. Ens'is ensis, Linn. N. unc. locally along the 8. coast about 1. w-m. on sandy beaches and on sandy patches ; Cawsand B. (M.B.A.), Polperro (Robinson), Falmouth B., Coverack (James), Mount's B., and Padstow (Tellam) 129. E. sillqua, Linn. Gen. dist. in sand at 1. w-m. from Looe to Camel Est. and at Scilly ; dead shells Plymouth S. and N. coast at Bude ! var. arcuata Jeffreys, occ. Pentuan beach (Rich- ards) ; Coverack (James) 130. ^olen vagina, Linn. Drake's Is. in 20 fm. off Polperro (Robinson), 1. w-m. Fowey (M.R.L), in 30 fm. Falmouth (Hockin), shallow water to 10 fm., Helford ! Mount's B., Hayle (Dennis) 131. Saxicava rugosa, Linn. On ledges and rocky beaches between t-m. to 40 fm. at least ; evi- dently gen. dist. and locally c. on S. coast and at Scilly ; Perranporth and Widemouth B.! young specs. Harlyn B. (Thelwell) 132. S. arctica, Linn. Evidently c. at 20 to 40 fm. on shells and the roots of Hydroids and in sand-cracks ; Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; in 30 fm. off Polperro (Robin- son), in 40 fm. off the Dodman ! occ. Porth- 33- 134- 135- 136. 137- 138. 139' 140, 141 142 H3 144 pean, St. Austell (Richards) ; in 20 fm. Fal- mouth B. ; Mount's B. ; off Land's End, odd valves ; valves also found at Hayle ; in 40 fm. at Scilly. var. praecisa Mont. c. on rocks at 1. w. attached to the roots of coralline by a byssus (J.C). var. cylindrka 8. V. Wood, Land's End (M.) Gastrochaena dubia, Penn. Plymouth break- water and Asia shoal (M.B.A.). One spec, boring in an oyster shell, in 40 fm. off the Dodman ! 2 valves dredged in 20 fm. Fal- mouth B. ! Penzance (S. & C.) from 1. w. to 20 fm. (M.) Pholas dactylus, Linn. Attacks shale, friable slate and sandstone, but apparently has not been found in granite ; near Fowey (J.C), the Dodman ! Falmouth, in rocks on the littoral, at the Manacles ! Marazion (Millet), Penzance (E. D. Marquand), Hayle (Miss Hockin) Barnea Candida, Pennant. In very friable shales and in sandstone ; Pridmouth (Tellam) ; Fal- mouth, scarce ; Helford, abund. in a low ridge of rotten shale ! Mount's B. (Miss Tyacke) B. parva. Pennant. Pridmouth (J-C.) ; dead shells in sandstone at Gyllyngvase ; a colony in the seaward end of the ridge containing B. Candida at Helford ! Penzance (E. D. Mar- quand) Zirphaea crispata, Linn. Dead shells occ. Fal- mouth ; Hayle (Hockin) Pholadidea loscombiana, Goodall. V.c. in reddish sandstone in deep water (J.C.) ; n. unc. Fal- mouth in soft slate and sandstone ; a mass of sandstone dredged in 10 fm. off Helford con- tained 2 live specs, and several dead shells ! Hayle (Miss Hockin) ; 4 dead shells in soft slate on Millook beach (Miss E. A. Reynolds) None of the last six species occurs at Scilly Xylophaga dorsalis, Turton. Plymouth 8. (M.) ; a single valve in 40 fm. off the Dodman ! Fal- mouth (Miss Vigurs) ; the Lizard (Miss Came); a single valve off Menavawr (S. & C), and dredged in St. Mary's S. (M.) Teredo norvegica, Speng. In driftwood, Fowey ! in timber of Falmouth breakwater ; driftwood at Macnporth (Tregelles) ; in jetty, Penzance ; Land's End (Hockin) ; Hayle (Miss Hockin) T. navalis, Linn. N. unc. in drift and sub- merged wood, breeding in July (M.B.A.) ; much of the woodwork at Pentuan riddled by this mollusc (Richards) ; in most submerged timber at Falmouth ; Newquay (V.) T. megptara, Hanley. Occ. in ship's timber at Falmouth ; washed up in driftwood at Gorran Haven (J.C.) and Gurnard's Hd. (Dennis) ; docks, Hayle. var. mionata Jeffreys, in cork washed ashore (Jeff.) T. malleolus, Turton. Falmouth (Norman), in cork floats from deep water (Cocks) ; in drift- wood at Gurnard's Hd. (Dennis) T. bipinnata, Turton. In oak timber fi-om deep water at Falmouth (Cocks) ; live specs, washed ashore in timber at Hayle (Hockin) 146 MARINE ZOOLOGY [Teredo fimbriata, Jeffreys. In the keel of a Dutch barque at Falmouth (Howard Fox)] 145. Pandora tnaequ'walvis, Linn. Apparently n. unc. 15 to 40 fm. along the S. coast, often in trawl refuse ; occ. Cawsand B. on the Rame-Eddy- stone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); in 30 fm. off Polperro (Robinson), in 40 off the Dodman ! Falmouth B. i 5 fm. ! Mount's B. 20 fm. (Tre- gelles), about Wolf Rk. (Miss Carne), one spec. 40 fm. off Menavawr and one off Round Is. Scilly (S. & C.) 146. Lyonsia norve^cay Chemnitz. Occ. Cawsand B. (M.B.A.) ; in I 2 fm., Falmouth B. ! Mount's B. (McAndrew and Forbes) ; in St. Mary's S., Scilly (M.) 1+7- 148. Cochlodesma praetenue, Pulteney. In sand at 1. s. t-m., but somewhat scarce ; Looe (Harris), Falmouth, Maenporth, once at Helford ! Mount's B. (McAndrew and Forbes) ; rr. St. Martin's Flats (S. & C). Dead shells more c. and widely dist. Plymouth district, Porth- curnow, and at Hayle Thracia fragilis, Pennant. In sand at 1. w., evidently scarce ; Helford (Dennis) Mount's B., Porthcurnow (E. D. Marquand), Hayle, i young valve at Harlyn B. (Thelwell) ; abund. in sandy bays at Scilly. var. villosiuscula Mac- gillivray ; same dist. as type except Harlyn B. ; Wolf Rk. (Miss Carne) 149. 1 . pubescensy Pulteney. Occ. in trawl refuse at Falmouth ; dead shells only in Plymouth district 150. T. fo«f^Arrng\x\hrc. Dead shells not infrequently found along S. coast ; and at Maw- gan Forth (Perrin), and Harlyn B. (Thelwell) ; live specs, in 30 fm. off Polperro (Robinson) ; in 40 fm. off the Dodman ! in Falmouth B. ! on the Menavawr gravels abund. (S. & C). var. pellucida Brown, Scilly (M.) 327. T. obtusa, Mont. Helford ; Mount's B. (Pen- zance List) ; Hayle (Hockin) ; Crow S. and at Guthers, Scilly, but r. (S. & C.). var. lajonkai- reana Bast. Scilly with the type (8. & C.) 328. T. nkidula, Loven. Scilly (M.) 329. T. umbUicata, Mont. Dead shells, Falmouth ; in 1 2 fm. off Pennance ! Mount's B. ; Hayle (Hockin) ; Crow S., Scilly c. (S. & C.) 330. Diaphana expansa, Jeffreys. Several dead specs. obtained by Marshall off Menavawr, the first English record 331. D. hyalinay Turton. Obtained occ. in trawl refuse, occ. in the stomach of Tr'tgla lyra ; Mevagissey ! Falmouth (Cocks) ; Helford ! Porthcurnow, dead shells ; Land's End (Hockin) ; I or 2 only, deep water, Scilly (S. & C.) 332. Scaphander lignarius, Linn. C. on most of the trawling gnds. along S. coast ; in muddy sand in 12 fm. off Pennance, and in 10 fm. off Helford river ! occ. in sand at 1. s. t. ; some- times at Hayle, and sparingly at Scilly. var. alba Jeffreys, Mount's B. (Tregelles) and Hayle (Miss Hockin) 333. Volvulella acuminata, Bruguiere. Dead shells round Plymouth and off Polperro ! off Nare Pt., Helford (Hockin) 334. Bulhnella cyRndracea, Pennant. N. unc. locally on S. coast in muddy sand ; near Fowey ! in Falmouth Harb. (Mont.) ; in 1 2 fm. off Pen- nance ! in Mount's B. (Tregelles) ; n. unc. Hayle ; v. c. on muddy patch in 8 fm., Pad- - stow B. ! Crow S., Scilly (S. & C.) 335. Haminea kydatis, Linn. Occ. abund. in Zos- tera beds and in muddy sand in shallow water on S. coast, and at Scilly ; very local, Ply- mouth ; in 1902 V. abund. Falmouth, in 1903 and 1904 rr., in 1905 none found ! 336. Roxania utriculus, Brocchi. One spec, off Penlee Pt. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth (Hockin); in 12 fm. off Pennance ! Mount's B. (M.) 337. Acera bullata, Muller. Occ. about Falmouth and Helford; Scilly (Lord Vernon and A. H. Cooke). Vallentin obtained young specs, at Falmouth in the sub-genital pits of Atirelia aurita 338. Philine scabra, Mull. One spec. Whitsand Bay (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth ; Mount's B. ; Hayle (Hockin) ; one at Mawgan Forth (Perrin) ; dead shells c. in Crow S., Scilly (S. & C). var. circa Marsh., dredged off Muncoy, Scilly (M.) 339. P. catena, Mont. In 40 fm. off the Dodman ! in 20-25 fni. Falmouth B ! Mousehole (Dennis) ; Porthcurnow, dead shells ; Land's End (Hockin) ; i spec. Harlyn B. (Thelwell) ; in St. Mary's S. and off Menavawr, Scilly (M.). var. zona Jeffreys, off Menavawr, Scilly (M.) 340. Philine angulata, Jeffreys. St. Ives and Scilly (M.). var. circumlmtra Marsh., off the Eddy- stone in 28 fm. (M.) \P. quadrata, S. V. Wood. Marked as Cornish by Hockin, but no authentic spec, has been preserved] 341. P. punctata, J. Adams. N. unc. locally along S. coast from shallow water down to 40 fm. ; Hayle and among Obelia at Padstow ! Scilly (Jenkinson). var. n«^/<7/ Aeolidella glauca, A. and H. Queen's Gnd. and once from Mt. Edgcumbe (M. B. A.) ; near Polperro ! Falmouth (Cocks) A. alderiy Cocks. Plymouth S. ; under stones in pools between t-m. Falmouth, r. (Cocks) Berghia caerulescens, Guerin Meneville. Outside Plymouth Breakwater (M. B. A.) Cuthona aurantia, A. & H. A few times in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.), once at Fowey (Alder) Cratena amoena, A. & H. Occ. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.), several specs, at Fowey in 1847 (A. and H.) C. viridis, Forbes. Rame-Eddystone and Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro in 30 fm. (Robinson) ; Cornwall in 25 fm. (Forbes) C. olivacea, A. & H. Occ. Queen's Gnd. and elsewhere in Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; one on the hulks at Falmouth, Oct. 189 1 (V.) ; Pen- zance (Alder) C. peachi, A. & H. Fowey (Peach) ; 2 specs. S. of Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) C. couchi. Cocks. One spec, on the under sur- face of a stone at extreme 1. s. t., Gyllyngvase, Falmouth (Cocks) 384. Tergipes despectus, Johnst. Barnpool and Duke rock, Plymouth S. ; Fowey (Alder) ; v. c. 385. March, 1904, at Mevagissey! at Gorran Haven in spring 1900 ! at long intervals c. at Falmouth Embleton'ia pulchra, A. and H. A single spec, on Asia shoal, Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) Amphortna coerulea, Mont. N. unc. on Asia shoal, Queen's Gnd. ; dredged on Rame-Eddy- stone and Mewstone-Eddystone Gnds., and off Tregantle (M.B.A.) ; in 30 fm. off Polperro (Robinson) Gahina chgulata, A. & H. Plymouth S. ; Mevagissey, several among sea-weed 1902 ! 386. G. plcta, A. & H. C. on Zostera, Cawsand B., on Asia shoal and Queen's Gnd., Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; one on piles in Fowey Harb. ! one 387. on a moored hulk, Falmouth Harb. (V.) G. tricolor, Forbes. F. abund. on the trawling gnds. around Plymouth in 20-35 fm. (M.B.A.); 388. several found by different collectors, Falmouth ; c. in 1902, 18-25 fm. off Helford ! 155 379- 380. 381. 382. 383- Galvina exigua, A. & H. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.); Fowey (Alder) ; Mevagissey ! Falmouth ; V. abund. Helford, Aug. 1849, and July, 1904 ! Coryphella rufibranchialis, Johnst. F. c. on the inner trawling gnds., Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; in 20 fm., Whitsand B. (M.B.A.) ; occ. in trawl refuse Mevagissey ! Falmouth (Cocks) ; Mount's B. (Tregelles) C. smaragdina, A. & H. In Millbay Chan. and on Asia shoal. May, 1898 (M.B.A.) C. lineata, Loven, Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) C. landsburgi, A. & H. Occ. Plymouth S. and outside (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro (Robinson) ; several on a large stone covered with hydroids and polyzoa from deep water off St. Mawes Castle (V.) Favorinus albus, A. & H. Drake's Is., Cawsand B. and in Barnpool on Tucus (M.B.A.) ; in rock-pools near Gorran Haven ! Falmouth Facelina coronata, Forbes & Goodsir. Cawsand B. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro (Robinson) ; Fowey (A. & H.) ; c. Mevagissey at intex^vals ! Fal- mouth (V.) F. drummondi, Thompson. Queen's Gnd. and Cawsand B. (M.B.A.) F. punctata, A. & H. Cawsand B. and rocky gnd. off Penlee (M.B.A.) ; at times f c. Fowey to Gorran Haven ! often c. at Falmouth (V.), several at Helford, Nov., 1905 ! Calma glaucoides, A. & H. Once on Queen's Gnd. and frequently obtained in the W. entrance of Plymouth S. among goby eggs, which appaiently constitute a congenial habitat (M.B.A.) ; off Gorran Haven in large shells of Buccinum undatum along with eggs of the goby or butterfly blenny ! (See J. M.B.A. vol. vii, p. 281) Fiona marina, Forskal. Two specs, at 1. w-m. Bar Pt., Falmouth, in 1849 (Cocks) Antiopella cristata, della Chiaje. Queen's Gnd. and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; casual specs. Polperro, Fowey, Mevagissey, Falmouth, Hel- ford ; spawning in great number at Fowey in early Sept. 1902 ! In Oct. 1891, literally swarmed on the sides of the hulks at Falmouth (V.) ; and in Sept. 1895 some large balks of creosoted timber under the eastern break- water that were dry for at least an hour each tide were fairly sprinkled with specs, of excep- tional size, which disappeared early in Oct. (V.) A. hyalina, A. & H. Several small specs, on Queen's Gnd., Plymouth 8., also 2 to 4 m. NE., of the Eddystone (M.B.A.) Hero formosa, Loven. Outside Plymouth Break- water and on the Eddystone Gnds. ; has not been seen there since 1898 (M.B.A.) Lomanotus marmoratus, A. & H. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; 2 specs, on Antennularia near Meva- gissey ! A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 389 390 39' 392 393 39+ 39=; Lomanotus portlandicus, Thompson. Very scarce ; 3 m. SSW. of Rame Hd., young specs, on Anten- nularla. Queen's Gnd. (M.B.A.) Doto frngUis, Forbes. C. on Antcnnulaiia on the outside gnds. at Plymouth, less frequent in the Sound (M.B.A.) ; c. off Polperro and the Dodman ! Fowey (Alder) ; Mevagissey ! Fal- mouth, r. (V.) ; f. c. in 20 fm. off Helford ! 4 specs. Newquay (V.) D. pennatifida, Mont. Gen. dist. and c. on ^«/^«««/^r/<7, Plymouth S. and outside (M.B.A.); n. unc. locally off Polperro and Mevagissey ! D. coronata, Gmelin. F. c. at most of the dredging stations round Plymouth on Anten- nidaria (M. B. A.) ; Mevagissey and Gorran Haven ! c. Falmouth (V.) ; at times abund. Helford ! Hancockia eudactyhta, Gosse. Cawsand B. on Zostera and Laminaria (M. B. A.) Dendronotus frondosus, A. & H. Occ. Plymouth S. ; on Queen's Gnd. ; I large spec, in the Tamar near Saltash ; on Eddystone and Rame- Eddystone Gnds. (M. B, A.); off Mevagissey and off the Dodman in deep water ! Falmouth 8 specs, on the bottom of a dredger, Aug. .891 (V.) Scylltiea pelagica, Linn. 3 specs, found on Laminaria bullosa at Bar Ft. Falmouth after a storm in 1845 by Cocks 396. Pleurophyllidia loveni, Bergh. A single spec. 2 m. N. of the Eddystone (M.B.A.) Tritonia hombefgi, Cuvier. C. on the outer trawling gnds. round Plymouth S., Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; occ. specs, in 40 fm. off the Dodman ! c. on the trawling gnds. N. of the Longships, Land's End (Garstang) 398. T. (fiandiella) pkbeia,]o\iv\si. Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; in 35 m. off Polperro (Robinson) Archidoris tuberculata, Cuvier. N. unc. between t-m, on most rocky shores on S. coast and at Newquay (V.) and Widemouth B. on the N. ! at times abund. in dredgings to 40 fm. Scilly A.flammea, A. & H. Two specs. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; scarce between t-m. Falmouth (V.) Rostanga coccinea, A. & H. Occ. between t-m.; Downderry (M.B.A.) ; Fowey, Mevagissey and Gorran Haven ! Falmouth (Cocks) ; deep water, Polperro (Robinson), and Trefusis P., Fal- mouth Harb. (V.) Jorunnajohnsioni, A. & H. Occ. between t-m. on rocky and stony shores ; Plymouth S., Mevagissey ! Gorran Haven ! Falmouth Platydoris testudinaria, Risso. Barnpool, Mt. Edgcumbe ; Queen's Gd. v. occ, ; Rame-Eddy- stone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; in trawl refuse, Meva- gissey, r. ! Aegires punctilucens, d'Orb. Queen's Gnd. and Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; off Polperro (Robinson) ; Pridmouth near Fowey (Pench) ; occ. in deep water, Falmouth (V.), on the fronds of F. serratns &c. 1. s. t. Gyllyngvase (Cocks) 397- 399- 400. 401 402. 403- 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 41 41 2. 413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 56 Triopa clavigera. Mall. Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; in 20 fm. off Polperro ! Fowey (Alder) ; Mevagissey ! Falmouth, in deep water (V.) ; Helford, n. unc. Thecacerapennigera, Mont. Cornwall (R. Q. C.) ; Queen's Gnd., Plymouth ; I spec, in 20 fm. off Rame Hd. (M. B. A.) ; sparingly in deep water, Whitsand B. ! under a stone near 1. w., Pentewan beach ! Falmouth, deep water (V.) T. virescens. A, & H. 2 specs, found by Cocks at Bar Pt., Falmouth, 1 849 T. capitata, A. & H. Dredged in 25 fm. off St. Ives, 1853 (Barlee) Palio lessoni, d'Orb. The var. ocellata A. & H. Queen's Gnd. and Mt. Edgcumbe (M. B. A.), Fowey ! Falmouth in tidal pools, and in deep water (V.) Polycera quadrilineata, MqII. Usually c. on Zostera beds along the S. coast as far W. as Coverack and Mount's B., and frequently dredged down to a depth of 40 fm. At end of Oct. 1895 Vallentin found numbers deposit- ing their imperfect coils of spawn on the Zostera in Falmouth docks. Acanthodoris pilosa, Mull. Occ. between t.-m. along S. coast, and in places n. unc. in deepish water ; Queen's Gnd. and 2 m. N. of the Eddy- stone (M. B. A.) ; in 20 fm. off Polperro ! off Mevagissey ! in Mount's B. (Tregelles) Lamellidoris aspera, A. & H. Plymouth 8. (M. B. A). ; in shallow water off Polperro (Robinson) L. bilameHata, Linn. C. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; off Polperro (Robinson) ; at Mevagissey ! L. diaphana, A. & H. R. along the Falmouth beaches at 1. s. t. (Cocks) L. depressa, A. & H. Once on the inner side of the Plymouth Breakwater (M. B. A.) L. pusilla, A. & H. Plymouth (M. B. A.) ; twice found by Cocks at extreme 1. t-m., Gyl- lyngvase, Falmouth L. oblonga, A. & H. Evidently abund. at times on Cellaria, Rame-Eddystone and Eddystone Gnds. (M. B. A.) ; v. c. Mevagissey in March 1902, but not seen there since April of that year ! Goniodoris nodosa, Mont. F. c. and at times locally abund. as a littoral species along S. coast, often sheltering under clumps oi fuci left ex- posed by the tide ; in April 1 900 v. abund. near Gorran Haven ! and in 1902 at Polperro ! in March 1 892 v. c. at Helford (V.) ; often dredged down to 25 fm. G. castanea, A. & H. Cawsand B. and Rame- Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; occ. specs. Fowey ! Gorran Haven! Falmouth. \\\ Dec. 1891 an extraordinary number appeared on the coal hulks at Falmouth, of a rich dark-red colour, hardly distinguishable from the tunicate Lepto- clinum gelatinosum on which they were feeding. In many cases they deposited their coils of spawn about three inches under the water line MARINE ZOOLOGY 420. Idallna ekgnns, Leuckart. Recorded by Spence Bate for the Cornish coast I spec, off Pen- I spec, dredged 421. /. {Idalielld) aspersa, A. & H. lee Pt. (M. B. A.) 422. /. {Idalielld) pulchella, A. & H. off St. Ives in 1853 (Barlee) 423. Ancula cristata. Alder. Cawsand B. (M. B. A.) ; under stones on Pentewan beach, n. unc. Feb. igoi ! several obtained at 1. s. t. off Tre- fusis Pt., Falmouth Harb. (V.) ; found by Cocks not infrequently on the Falmouth benches PULMONATA 424. Ot'tna Otis, Turton. V. abund. and gregarious in rock crevices in a cave under Rame Cliff Pt. (M. B. A.) ; Lizard and Tintagel (Cooke) ; Mousehole ; Land's End (Hockin) ; Piper's Hole, Tresco, c. (S. & C). var. Candida Jeffreys, Sennen. var. alba Cooke, Newquay (Cooke) 425. Leuconia bidentata, Mont. Local along the S. coast in crevices near h. w. m. and under stones between t-m. ; Hayle Towans (Hennell) ; Scilly, n. unc. 426. Alexia denticulata, Mont. Mevagissey ! Fal- mouth (Cocks) ; Porthcurnow (Hennell) ; Scilly (Jordan), var. myosotis Drap., Truro (King) ; Penzance, Porthcurnow, and Whitsand B., Land's End (Hennell) ; dead shells at Scilly 427. Oncidiella celtica, Cuv. Whitsand B., E. (Spence Bate) ; Lantivet B. in crevices of the rocks a little above h. w. m., apparently feeding on Lichina pygtnaea (Laughrin) Cephalopoda 428. Ommastrephes sa^ttaius, Lmk. I Hex coindeti, Verany. It is impossible to say to which of these two species the examples recorded by Laughrin from Polperro and by Cocks from Falmouth belong 429. Todaropsis eblanae. Ball, i spec, from the neigh- bourhood of Plymouth (M. B. A.) 430. Spirula perroni, Lmk. Dead shells not infre- quently cast ashore on the Cornish beaches from Pendower to Padstow and on Scilly 431. Loligo forbesi, Steenstrup. Evidently of gen. occ. along S. coast, but irregular in its appear- ance ; occ. some little way up the tidal rivers ; Scilly, July 1903, c! 432. L. media, Linn. St. John's Lake, Hamoaze ; Cawsand B. ; Whitsand B. (M. B. A.) ; Pol- perro ! Mevagissey ! Falmouth ; St. Ives ! St. Mary's S., Scilly, July 1903 ! 433. L. marmorae, Verany. One spec, off the Draystone, Plymouth (M.B.A.) 434. Sepia officinalis, Linn. Gen. dist. along S. coast and usually c. in bays and estuaries in July ; Scilly, c. 435. 5. elegans, d'Orb. N. unc. at times along S. coast in trawl refuse; one at Padstow, May 1900 ! [5. d'Orbignyana, Ferussac. Twice reported from St. Austell B. but not confirmed] 436. Sepiola scandica, Steenstrup. A single spec. Plymouth S., Nov. 1887, and another off the Mewstone, Oct. 1899 (M.B.A.) 437. Rossia macrosoma, delle Chiaje. Two specs. Ply- mouth S., autumn 1892, and occ. taken on the trawling gnds. (M.B.A.), once, Mount's B. ! 438. Polypus vulgaris, Lmk. As a rule sparingly dist. along coast, but occ. abund. In 1900 abund. outside Falmouth Harb. and several caught at Malpas near Truro ! Scilly 439. Moschites cirrosa, Lmk. Not infrequent on trawling gnds. and in lobster pots along S. coast and at Scilly ; 2 near Widemouth B., July, 1905 1 TUNICATA The Tunicates of the Cornish seas are usually abundant both in numbers and species, but the impossibility of identifying the majority of them greatly restricts the dimensions of the accom- panying list. Several very common compound ascidians in Falmouth Bay are known at Truro only by the names the students have invented. Fortunately the compound ascidians collected by Dr. Cocks in the neighbourhood of Falmouth were named by Milne-Edwards, otherwise the list would have been a great deal smaller than it is. The classification and nomenclature followed is that of Herdman in * A revised Classification of the Tunicates' {Trans. Linn. Soc. 1891). 1. Molgula oculata, Forbes. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); n. unc. locally around Falmouth and in trawl refuse from Helford 2. M. simplex. Alder and Hancock. N. unc. on Chaetopterus tubes on the Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) 3. M. citrina, A. & H. Occ. in Falmouth B. 4. Cynthia dura. Heller. One damaged spec, in trawl refuse Mevagissey, showing the six branchial folds and the lanquets at the posterior end ! Cynthia moms, Forbes. Fowey ; f. c. Pennance, Falmouth, May 1900 ! in 25 fm. Mount's B. (Forbes and McAndrew) ; Scilly (Carus) C. squamulosa. Alder. Two specs. Scilly 1 903, both showing the inner surface of the test white and soft ! C. quadrangularis, Forbes. Scilly (Carus) Pelonaia corrugata, Forbes. Occ. Falmouth B. P. glabra, Forbes. From trawl refuse, Helford river (Cocks). In Falmouth B. a smooth pilose brownish yellow form has been taken which evidently belongs to this species ! 157 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL lO. 1 1. 12. 13- 14. 15- 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. 25. 26. 27- 28. 29. 30. 31- Forbesella tessellata, Forbes. Rame-Eddystone Gnds. ; a single spec. Eddystone Gnds. on fine gravel (M.B.A.) ; trawl refuse, Mevagissey ! Falmouth B. scarce ! in 25 fm. Mount's B. (Alder). [C. limacina, Forbes, from 25 fm. Mount's B. (Forbes and McAndrew) and from Scilly (Carus), may be a var. of this species] Styelopsis grossuhrta, van Beneden. Abund, on rocks between t-m. Mt. Edgcumbe, occ. in dredgings from Queen's Gnd.,n. unc. particu- larly on Pecten shells on the gravels W. of Eddystone (M.B.A.) ; f. c. locally, Falmouth B. Polycarpa rustica, L. N. unc. Falmouth B. ; Scilly (Carus) P. pomparia, Savigny. Eddystone Gnds., on one occ. V. plentiful m. WNW. of the Eddystone (M.B.A.) Corella larvaeformis, Hancock. Off the Eddystone (M.B.A.) C. parallelogramma, Miill. Two specs. Devonshire side of Plymouth district (M.B.A.) ; Scilly (Carus) Phalluiia mam'illata, Cuv. N. unc. Devonshire side of Plymouth district (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! Gyllyngvase, Falmouth ! Ascidtella venosa, MuU. Occ. specs, on the Eddy- stone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth B. sparingly, 5 to 2 5 fm. ! A. aspersa, MUll. Locally c. Plymouth S. (M.B.A.) ; Sennen Cove ! Scilly (Carus) A. arachnoidea, Forbes. N. unc. on Cornish Coast (Alder) A. scabra, Miill. Gen. present on Eddystone Gnds. but spec, abund. where Sertularella Gayi is plentiful; Rame-Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.) ; c. in about 40 fm. off the Dodman ! Falmouth B. ! Scilly (Carus) A. albida, A. & H. In trawl refuse from Fal- mouth Harb. (Cocks) ; Helford ! (May be a var. of the preceding species) A. conchilega, Miill. N. unc. in Falmouth Harb. and not infrequently cast up in Falmouth B. during a storm A. prunum, Mull. F. c. locally, Falmouth B. A. mentula, Miill. Devonshire side of Plymouth district (M.B.A.) ; n. unc. Falmouth Harb. and B. ; Scilly (Carus) A. depressa. Alder. Bolt Hd. (M.B.A.); n. unc. Falmouth B. (Cocks) A. pustulosa. Alder. Dredged by Alder in Fowey Harb. A. elRptica, A. and H. Under stones at l.w-m., St. Mary's Chan. Scilly A. pellucida, A. & H. Under stones between t-m., Gorran ; at 1. s. t. Falmouth (Cocks) A. sord'ida, A. & H. Attached to hydroids in shallow water, Polperro and Falmouth B. A. vitrea, van Ben. Occ. Falmouth B. (Cocks) Ciona can'ina, Miill. N. unc. Falmouth B. ; Scilly ! I 32. C. tntest'inaRs, L. Comparatively r. in Plymouth district till 190 1 when it became v. abund. in Millbay docks (M.B.A.) ; Fowey ! sometimes c. in Falmouth Harb. and B. ; plentiful New- quay, 1905 ! Scilly ! 33. Diazona violacea,Sa.v. Eddystone Gnds. (M.B.A.); in 20 fm. off Helford ! [Perophora banyuknsis, Lahille. Duke Rk. Plymouth (M.B.A.)] 34. P. Rsteri, Wiegmann. Queen's Gnd., Asia shoal (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! Fowey, on the fronds of fucus ! n. unc. Falmouth B. and Harb. ; Mount's B. 35. Pycnoclavella aurilucens, Garstang. Plymouth S. and at Mewstone (M.B.A.) 36. Clavelina kpad'tformis. Mull. Occ. at extreme 1. t. Drake's Is., Queen's Gnd. Mt. Edgcumbe, rr. in 10 to 15 fm. off Penlee (M.B.A.) ; in shallow water, Polperro ! in Falmouth Harb. and B. ; Scilly 37. D'lstapelia rosea, Delia Valle. On stones and dead shells in the Plymouth district (M.B.A.) [Archidistoma aggtegatum, Garstang. V. abund. Duke Rk., Plymouth] 38. Distoma rubra, Sav. On stones, in pools, and on laminarian stems, Gyllyngvase, and Pennance (Cocks). 39. D. crystalHnum, Ren. Sennen B., Land's End ! 40. Apl'idium zostericola, Giard. Attached to stalks of Bowerbankia or Amathia, Plymouth (M.B.A.) 41. A. fallax, Johnst. Attached to rocks and the under surface of stones, Falmouth B. (Cocks) 42. A. ficus, Linn. Trawl refuse, Bream B. sands, Falmouth, r., Helford river, c. (Cocks) 43. A. nutans, Johnst. N. unc. on rocks and under- surface of stones, Falmouth B. (Cocks) 44. Amourouc'ium albicans, Milne-Ed. Off the Mew- stone, Plymouth (M.B.A.) ; on stems of young Fucus serratus and the under surface of stones, Falmouth (Cocks) 45. A. nordmanni, Milne-Ed. One spec. Church Reef, Wembury B., Plymouth (M.B.A.); c. in pools at Falmouth on stones and shelving rocks (Cocks) ; Falmouth (Alder) 46. A. proliferum, Milne-Ed. On stones and rock- sides in pools at l.w-m., Falmouth, c. (Cocks) ; n. unc. in Cornwall (Alder) \A. punctum, Giard. A single colony 3 m. S. of Mewstone (M.B.A.)] 47. Morchellium argus, Milne-Ed. C. everywhere in Plymouth district on rocks between t-m. (M.B.A.) ; Polperro ! Fowey ! c. at l.w-m. Falmouth and Mount's B. ; Sennen ! 48. Morchelliodes alderi, Herdman. On stones, shells, and roots of Laminaria, Asia shoal, Plymouth (M.B.A.) [Fragarium ekgans, Giard. Duke Rk., Plymouth, on stones (M.B.A.)] 58 MARINE ZOOLOGY +9- 50. 51- 52. Circinalium concrescens, Giard. Drake's Is., on reef leading to the Bridge, on roots of Laminavia at extreme l.w. (M.B.A.) Leptodinum durum, Milne-Ed. Several small colonies conspicuous by their yellow colour on laminarian roots at Sennen ! L. maculosutn, Milne-Ed. C. in shallow water at Scilly ! Milne-Ed. N. and Cystoseira L asperutn, Lamtnaria (Cocks) on laminarian roots unc. on roots of ericoides, Falmouth 53, Z, aureum, Milne-Ed. N. unc. after heavy 54 weather about Falmouth (Cocks) L. gelatinosum, Milne-Ed. N. 55 unc. on stones and laminarian roots at l.w-m., Falmouth B. (Cocks) L. Hsterianum, Milne-Ed. N. unc. Falmouth B. on fronds and stem of Fucus serratus, Cysto- seira ericoides, &c. (Cocks) 56. Polycyc/us savignyi, Herdman. Several specs, of a non -encrusting Polycycius with test of a dark dingy blue in 1 90 1 in 20 fm. Falmouth B., feebly attached to various sea-weeds. They had 8 large and 8 small tentacles, and the terminal bulbs in the test showed up as con- spicuous brown dots ! 57. Botryllus smaragdus, Milne-Ed. N. unc. Selley's beach and Gyllyngvase, Falmouth (Cocks) ; a green Botryllus at Polperro, Fowey and Fal- mouth is probably this species 58. B. violaceus, Milne-Ed. C. on rocks, under stones and on weed at 1. w. shores ot Plymouth district (M.B.A.) ; plentiful Polperro 1 and Falmouth ; Sennen Cove, on Fucus ! 59. B. schlossert, Pallas. On rocks, stones, and sea- weeds in Falmouth B. and Harb. (Cocks) 60. B. gemmeus, Sav. In Falmouth Harb. on Fucus serratus (Cocks) 61. Botryllus rubens, A. & H. N. unc. attached to stones, Falmouth (Cocks) 62. B. virescens, A. & H. N, unc. on stones and Laminaria about Falmouth (Cocks) 63. B. bivittatus, Milne-Ed. On stones and fuel about Falmouth (Cocks) ; Falmouth (Alder) 64. Botrylloides rubrum, Milne-Ed. C. below stones under the Hoe (M.B.A.) ; Falmouth B. on young fronds of Fucus serratus, r. (Cocks); c. Falmouth (Alder) 65. B. rotifera, Milne-Ed. N. unc. Falmouth B. under stones and on stems of young Fucus serratus (Cocks) 66. B. clavelina, Giard. Crow S., Scilly, 1903 ! 6"]. Doliolum nationalis, Borgert. Plymouth district plentiful in tow-nettings, Aug. and Sept. 1893, and abund. in 1895 ; several specs. S. of the Eddystone Nov. 1904 (M.B.A.) 68. Salpa fusiformis, Cuvier. Aggregated form at the surface, north of the Eddystone, Aug. 1 901 (M.B.A.) 69. S. mucronata, Forskal. Large shoals, Plymouth S. in 1893, from about 15 June to 7 July (M.B.A.) 70. Oihopleura dioica, Fol. Gen. present in tow- nettings in Plymouth district, Falmouth B. and Scilly ; occ. abund. 71. O.flabellum, J, Mull. Abund. in tow-nettings, Scilly, July, 1903 ! 72. Fritillaria boreaRs, H. Lohmann. Plymouth, March, Oct. and Nov. 1899, Eddystone, Aug. 1903 (M.B.A.) 159 MOLLUSCS NON-MARINE Owing to the scarcity of calcareous soils, the paucity of woods and quiet streams and the fouling of many of the rivulets by the waste products of the mines and china-clay works, Cornwall is not a county favourable to the development of terrestrial and fluviatile mollusca. Still out of a total of 139 species known to occur in the British Islands 82 have been recorded from the duchy. This does not take count of the following species, which have been cited, but seemingly in error, viz. Punctum pygmceum, Buliminus montanus. Pupa anglica^ Vertigo substriata^ Clausilia biplicata^ Planorbis marginatus and Sphcerium lacustre. Some of these forms, and sundry others, may however yet be found when more thorough search has been made than has hitherto been the case. The most interesting member of the fauna is Hygromia revelata^ whose distribution in the British Isles is confined to south Devon, Corn- wall, the Scilly and Channel Islands. Like Helix pisana, which occurs in west Cornwall, Hygromia revelata is a south-western form, and seemingly a survivor of the fauna which inhabited the old lowlands, now sub- merged, that in Pleistocene times extended along the west coast of Europe down to Portugal. In this connection the recent discovery * in the Neolithic burial ground at Harlyn Bay of abundant examples of Hygromia montivaga (West.), a species closely allied to H. revelata, but now only found living in Spain and Portugal, becomes of the highest interest ; and one would not be greatly surprised were living examples of the Irish slug [Geomalacus maculosus, Allman), which is itself another survivor of the old lowland fauna, to be discovered some day in one or other of the little wooded valleys around the Cornish coast. A handsome and striking variety of the big black slug [Arion ater) seems common in the county. This instead of being entirely black has a broad yellow stripe along either side, and it has in consequence had the varietal name of bicolor bestowed upon it. The Cornish streams being as a rule both short and rapid the larger freshwater molluscs are nowhere to be met with, save the freshwater pearl mussel [Unio margaritifer) , which prefers these waters, and which has been taken in the Camel, the Tamar and other streams from the hilly districts. Roughly speaking this species is confined to the area north and west of a line joining Plymouth and Hull. The pearls from ^ Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. v. i88. 160 MOLLUSCS these mussels are sometimes fine, and British pearls in ancient days en- joyed some celebrity ; they even had their attractions for Julius Casar. Papers on the Cornish non-marine molluscan fauna as a whole are not abundant, and deal more with the western than the eastern portion of the duchy. The more important are a series by Mr. T. Cocks in the Annual Reports of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society (No. 17, 1849, p. 61 ; No. 24, 1856, p. 20 ; and No. 45, 1877, p. 124), and one by Mr. E. D. Marquand in the 'Transactions of the Pen'zance Natural History and Antiquarian Society (new ser. 1883—4, i. 403). From these, the Records of the Conchological Society and various scattered sources, the accompanying list has been compiled. A. GASTROPODA I. PULMONATA a. Stylommatophora Testacella maugei, F6r. Penzance ; Hayle ; Truro ; Falmouth — haliotidea^ Drap. Newlyn ; Heamoor ; Penzance Limax maximus^ Linn. — flavus^ Linn. — arhoruniy Bouch. -Chant. Agriolimax agrestis (Linn.) — lavis (Mull.) Amalia sowerbii (F^r.) — gagates (Drap.) Vitrina pellucida (Mull.) Local j it also occurs in the Scilly Isles Vitrea crystallina (MuU.) — lucida (Drap.) — alliaria (Miller) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles — glabra (Brit. Auct.) — cellaria (Mull.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles — nitidula (Drap.) — pura (Aid.) — excavata (Bean) Land's End — nitida (Mull.) Trevaylor — fulva (Mull.) Towans ; Falmouth Arion ater (Linn,) Plentiful and large ; the variety hicolor is common — hortensis^ Fer. — circumscriptus, John. — subfuscus (Drap.) Pyramidula rupestris (Drap.) — rotundata (Mull.) Helicella virgata (Da C.) — ita/a (Linn.) — caperata (Mont.) — harbara (Linn.) Hygromia fusca (Mont.) Local — granulata (Aid.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles Also occur in the Scilly Isles Hygromia hhpida (Linn.) — revelata (Fer.) Whitsand Bay ; St. Michael's Mount ; Lizard ; Falmouth ; Newquay ; and in the Scilly Isles — rufescens (Penn.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles Acanthinula aculeata (Mull.) Penzance ; Fal- mouth ; Truro Vallonia pulchella (Mull.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles Helicigona arbustorum (Linn.) Morvah Helix aspersQy Mull. "1 Also occur in the — nemoralisy Linn. J Scilly Isles — hortensisy Mull. Newquay — pisana, MuU, Whitsand Bay ; St. Ives ; Falmouth Buliminus obscurus (MuU.) Falmouth Cochlicopa lubrica (Mull.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles Azeca tridens (Pult.) Truro Pupa cylindracea (Da C.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles — muscorum (Linn.) Sphyradium edentulum (Drap.) Local Vertigo pygmcea (Drap.) Local Balea perversa (Linn.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles Clauiilia bidentata (Strom.) Succinea putris (Linn.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles — elegansj Risso. b. Basommatophora Carychium minimum^ MuU. Melampus denticulatus (Mont.) Penzance ; Falmouth Alexia myosotis (Drap.) Land's End ; Pen- zance ; Whitsand Bay ; Truro ; Scilly Isles Lenconia bidentata (Mont.) Land's End ; Mousehole ; Hale ; Scilly Isles Ancylus Jiuviatilisy Mull. i6i 21 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Lhnnaa pereger (Miill.) Also occurs in the Scilly Isles — palustris (Mull.) — truncatula (Mull.) — glabra (Mtill.) Rivulet on hill-top on road to Trevayler through Tremere ; Madron Well between Fowey and Love Amphipeplea glutinosa (Mull.) Near Fal- mouth Planorhis alhus^ Miill. — glaher^ JefF. Penzance — nautileus (Linn.) — vortex (Linn.) Scilly Isles Planorhis spirorbis, Miill. Physa fontinalh (Linn.) | j,^,^^^^^ — hypnorum (Linn.) J II. PROSOBRANCHIATA Paludcstrina ventrosa (Mont.) Land's End (?) ; Scilly Isles — stagnalis (Bast.) Hale Bithynia tentaculata (Linn.) Valvata phcinalis (Mall.) Pomatias elegans (Mull.) Perranporth (rare) Acicula lineata (Drap.) Falmouth Neritina ^uviatilis (Juinn.) Shell drift, St. Ive's Bay B. PELECYPODA Unio margar'itifer (Linn.) River Camel ; River Tamar Spharium corneum (Linn.) Scilly Isles Pisidium amnicum (Mull.) Castle Horneck Gate ; Falmouth Pisidium pus't Hum (Gmel.) Crantock; Trevc- thow Pond ; Scilly Isles — fontinah (Drap.) ADDENDA Since the foregoing was written and set up in type some important additions have been made to the fauna of the county. Arion intermedins, Norm., has been found near Land's End ; Vallonia costata, Miill., now known to be distinct from V. pulchella, Miill., has been taken at Truro ; Pisidium milium. Held. [i.e. P. gassiesianum, Dupuy] has been met with near Penzance ; and P. obtusale, Pfr., recorded from the Swan Pool, Falmouth ; whilst from the top soil near Newquay a single specimen of Clausilia laminata (Mont.) has been obtained. On St. Michael's Mount a shell of Testa- cella maugei, F^r., was picked up. This is not a likely place for it to have been intro- duced, and in view of the fact that it has lately been found in a holocene rain-wash at Porlock Weir, near Minehead, in a spot too remote from habitation to permit of its pre- sence being accounted for by introduction, this species must now be held to be indigenous to the British Isles. 162 INSECTS The geographical position of Cornwall does not appear to have so much influence on its insect population as upon its marine life and its birds. In common with the other southern counties of England, it possesses a number of insects with a very limited range to the north, but neither in wealth of species nor in pride of peculiar possession is it greatly distinguished from the adjoining counties. The width of the Channel no doubt diminishes the number of casual but exciting visitors from the Continent, though at Falmouth, Penzance, and occasionally elsewhere aliens ' of assisted passage ' are taken from time to time. There is evidence now and again of immigration on the south coast sometimes on an extended scale, but migratory movements seem to be much more frequent on the Bristol Channel side. At Bude, Mawgan Forth, Hayle, and elsewhere on the north coast a long fringe of black scum has been occasionally observed on the advance water of the inflowing tide or else a crape-like band on the sand at high-water mark, which on examination is found to consist of millions of drowned insects, presumably overtaken by adverse weather when en route^ or blown out to sea by sudden storm. At Chapel Forth, St. Agnes, and at Mawgan Forth in the vale of Lanherne, an irregular stream of insects has been occasionally observed for hours at a stretch passing steadily out to sea, some- times in large flocks, sometimes in twos and threes, never showing undignified haste, but rarely loitering much before their departure. When cabbage whites are abundant this emigration stream becomes very conspicuous, and hundreds of thousands of these butterflies must at times in the course of a single after- noon pass out of the county to the north at Chapel Forth. As drowned butter- flies have never been reported in quantity along the north coast, it would appear that most of them effect a landing somewhere. There is little direct evidence to show that immigrant swarms come in on the Bristol Channel coast, but the number of waifs and strays from more northern localities, especially among the Lepidoptera, that are from time to time captured in Cornwall, certainly suggests movements of this kind. The remarkably genial climate of Cornwall might have been expected to favour the presence of a few specially southern insects, particularly round the head of Mount's Bay, but so far as known there are none peculiar to the district, and, indeed, the specially Cornish insects favour the north coast rather than the south, and the most obvious effect of the mild winters is to disturb the rest of hibernating species and hasten the appearance of some that emerge in the early spring. In some orders, and notably in the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera there is a marked scarcity of insects throughout the county, and the number of species recorded is no index to the density of insect population. In both the orders named a much greater proportion of species than usual is represented by only one or two specimens, and if these casuals were removed from the lists there would be a very considerable shrinkage in their dimensions. 163 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The entomology of Cornwall has not received so much attention as its marine zoology, and several of the sections have been entirely neglected by local observers. The Lepidoptera have naturally attracted many workers, and the late Mr. W. E. Baily of Penzance summed up their observations and his own in the annotated hst of 799 county species he pubHshed in 1894. This list is excellent so far as it goes, but contains practically no records from the north of the county and almost none from the district between the Bodmin Moors and the Tamar, while the rich collecting district about Liskeard and Looe is scarcely referred to at all. About 600 species of Coleoptera have been recorded from the Penzance and Land's End district, but except for the extreme south-east of the county and the Isles of Scilly the rest of Cornwall, so far as beetles are concerned, has been practically a land unknown. The published lists of county Hymenoptera are almost entirely confined to the Aculeata of the Land's End district and of the north coast, and to a list of 125 Entomophaga from the country around Penzance, but there are occasional references to Ichneumons from other parts of the county. The saw-flies, on the other hand, have been almost wholly neglected. The dragon-flies have received a fair amount of attention, but the only other records of importance for the Neuroptera are some notes by Mr. W. C. Boyd on the occurrence of a few Trichoptera in the west. The county Orthoptera have never received systematic attention, but many valuable data have been preserved. The Diptera are represented by a list of 340 species collected by Messrs. J. C. and C. W. Dale in the west of Cornwall and by a list from Colonel Yerbury of his captures on the Isles of Scilly, together with occasional references in periodical literature. The Hemiptera Heteroptera of West Cornwall were ably dealt with by Mr. Marquand ; a few occurrences have been noted from the south coast, and Mr. C. G. Champion has published a list of his captures at Scilly. The Homoptera, however, have received practically no attention. No attempt appears to have been made so far to identify the Aphides, but Mr. E. D. Marquand has published a list of forty-eight Cornish species of that seldom-studied order, the Aptera. When this article on Cornish Entomology was originally planned, the sections on the Lepidoptera and saw-flies were to have been written by Mr. W. E. Baily, on Entomophaga by the Rev. T. A. Marshall, and on the Coleoptera, Aculeate Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, and Aphides by the present writer, while it was hoped that other local entomologists might be induced to take up the other sections. The death of Mr. Baily and of Mr. Marshall, and the absence of local workers on the less popular sections of entomology, caused the whole of the responsibility for the work to devolve upon the author. Fortunately the Biological Department of the County Technical Schools at Truro is a very large one, and systematic entomology has been taught there for the last six years, so that with the enthusiastic co-operation of a number of his senior pupils the difficulties of the work have been gradually overcome. In addition to the systematic workers on various orders, there has been from year to year a large number of collectors, many of whom have rendered admirable service. The necessity for completing the work somewhat hurriedly has prevented full use being made of all the material collected, and though every species about the identification of which no doubt exists, is given on the following lists, the distribution in the county is not always so com- 164 INSECTS pletely described as it might have been had there been more opportunity for collating the material in the different collections. For the past seven years considerable attention has been given in the Agricultural Department of the Technical School to the injurious pests of the county, and in connexion with the County Council agricultural work, farmers and market-gardeners have been encouraged by gratuitous advice or treatment to report on damage done, and to send in specimens for identification. In each of the orders throughout this article special reference is made to the extent of the injury caused by different species in the county since systematic observations began, but the limited space prevents more than occasional reference to pre- ventative and remedial methods of treatment. The following table shows at a glance the number of Cornish insects in each order that, so far as the writer is aware, have been identified up to 31 March, 1906. It is more than probable that the numbers given are in some cases slightly understated, as it has been impossible for the author at Truro to gain access to all the monographs on British insects or to ransack all the entomological periodicals for records : — Aptera . , , 48 Orthoptera (including introductions) , , 36 Neuroptera ..... 222 Dragon-flies. 24 Pseudo-neuroptera 66 Neuroptera-planipennia 34 Trichoptera . 98 Hymenoptera • • 1,012 Phytophaga . 218 Entomophaga 531 Aculeata, &c. 263 Coleoptera . h703 Lepidoptera. • « i>ii3 Rhopalocera 48 Heterocera . 1,065 Diptera • • 722 Hemiptera . • 319 Heteroptera . 218 Homoptera . lOI Aphides • • 98 Total 5,273 These numbers, of course, are approximately true only up to the date specified, as several of them will be considerably increased when the Lizard peninsula and the north coast receive systematic and continuous attention. Unfortunately, too, our knowledge of the insects of the entire eastern half of the county, except the Whitsand Bay and Plymouth district, is still in a frag- mentary condition because of the dearth of resident entomologists. Among the Diptera and the Entomophagous Hymenoptera there must be many hundreds of county specimens waiting identification, and in every order, save the Aptera and the Orthoptera, there is a residue of doubtful and unidentified species, several of which may prove new to the British Isles. In addition to the help from so many ' brethren of the net ' acknowledged in almost every section of the work, the writer wishes to express his great 165 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL indebtedness to Mr. G. C. Bignell, Mr. H. Goss, Mr. J. H. Keys, Mr. C. G. Lamb, Mr. W. J. Lucas, and also to the late Mr. C. G. Barrett, and the late Mr. R. McLachlan for such encouragement, assistance, and advice as only the experienced can give, and without which many of the difficulties might have proved insuperable. APTERA In spite of their simplicity of structure and their abundance, the beautiful, active little insects popularly known as ' Spring-tails ' have been singularly neglected by entomologists generally. The difficulties in the w^ay of their effective preservation, their minute size, and their remarkably unobtrusive habits are probably in great measure responsible for this unmerited neglect. Moisture and darkness seem to be necessities of life among the many, and their customary habitats are among damp leaves, under wood and stones, and the bark of decaying trees, by streams and ditches, and in one or two instances the surface of water in stagnant pools. Disused flowerpots stored away in a damp shady corner of the garden are a happy hunting-ground for the beginner. In Lord Avebury's monograph on the order, sixty-one British species are described. The Cornish species have been carefully examined by E. D. Marquand, who in the Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society (new series), vol. i, gives a minute description of forty-eight species, one of which is new to the British Isles. The county species are as follows : — Smynthurus viridis — fuscus — aureus — niger Papirius fuscus — ornatus — nigromaculatus Orchesella cincta — villosa Tomocerus longicornis — plumbeus — niger Templetonia crystallina Seira platani — nigromaculata — buskii Beckia argentea Lepidocyrtus curvicollis — lignorum — violaceus — gibbulus — purpureus Degeeria nivalis — annulata — lanuginosa — nicoletii — cincta Isotoma arborea — viatica — viridis — aquatilis — anglicana Isotoma grisea Achorutes dubius — purpurescens — murorum — similatus, Nic. (new) Podura aquatica — Tullbergii Lipura ambulans — Burmeisteri — fimetaria — maritima Anoura muscorum Campodea staphylinus Lcpisma saccharina Machilis polypoda — maritima ORTHOPTERA Earwigs^ Cockroaches^ Grasshoppers, and Crickets With the exception of Dr. Cocks of Falmouth, none of the resident entomologists of the county have paid more than passing attention to this attractive order, and up to the present the literature consists of some notes by Cocks in the Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society for 1858 and a short paper by C. W. Dale, * Orthoptera of West Cornwall,' in vol. iii of the Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian iSec/V/y (1890), together with sundry records scattered through various papers and journals. In Burr's valuable little work on the British Orthoptera there are many references to Cornwall formed on these published data. The following notes are based on the records of previous collectors, on the varied material brought in by the students of the Technical Schools during the past seven years, and on notes kindly supplied by fellow-entomologists. FORFICULARIA Earwigs Two specimens of that southern species, Anisolabis annulipes (Lucas), probably introduced by some calling vessel, were taken by W. Oliver not far from Falmouth Station in June, 1900. They both possessed nine abdominal segments, and were, therefore, presumably males. The lesser earwig {Labia minor, L.) is locally abundant in summer, flying round heaps of stable manure in the bright sunshine. In 1902 it was plentiful in a recently built stone hedge-bank near Newquay, and in 1904 was common for a hw days flying over the flowers in the Victoria Gardens, Truro. 166 INSECTS The common earwig {Forficuia auricu/aria, L.) is ubiquitous and far too common everywhere. It is a most troublesome pest, as it is omnivorous, and frequently works sore havoc among garden flowers. It varies considerably, especially in the length of the forceps, the most distinct varieties being media, which is not uncommon about Truro, Falmouth, and Newquay ; horealis, which is scarce, but has been taken at Truro and near Bude ; and forcipata, which occurs at Falmouth and at Tresco, Isles of Scilly. The latter, as pointed out by Parfitt, is generally beaten out of trees and bushes. Forficuia pubescens has been recorded by C. W. Dale {Entomologist for 1895, p. 333) from the Isles of Scilly, but Burr suggests that all the British captures recorded as pubescens may prove to be lesneiy Finot. This latter species is evidently scarce in the county, but single specimens have been taken at Falmouth and at Wadebridge, and it has been reported from Launceston. BLATTODEA Cockroaches Ectobia lapponica has occurred at Fowey, as a fresh but damaged specimen was brought in one day in June, 1903, by a farmer, who said he had seen several. Ectobia panzeri was first recorded from the county by Stephens. It seems to be very erratic in its appearance, as in 1901 it was not uncommon at Falmouth and at Perranporth, but has not been seen in either locality again. It has been taken at Carbis Bay, at Tresco, Scilly, by J. H. Keys at Tregantle, and by Bignell at Downderry. In 1905 several specimens of the paler-coloured Central Europe form were taken at Fowey. The variety nigripes occurs somewhat sparingly about Hayle, and in 1905 was captured at Widemouth Bay, near Bude. Ectobia livida is evidently rare, as it is represented by a single specimen taken at Falmouth by Mrs. Clark in July, 1899. Phyllodromia germanica has been occasionally taken in houses near the docks at Falmouth, where it is in all probability an introduction. In May, 1904, a specimen was picked up dead at Malpas. The common cockroach {Blatta orientalis) is a too well-known household pest to require comment. In some dry close sultry days in the summer of 1902 it was frequently taken several hundred yards away from all house shelter. The large American cockroach [Periplaneta americana) was abundant in Saltash about forty years ago, but appears to have died out again. It has been twice sent in from Penzance. Five examples of the handsome Australian cockroach {Periplaneta australasiae) were taken lately by one of the under-gardeners in a greenhouse at Carclew, where it appeared to have temporarily established itself. A fine specimen of the giant Rhyparobia maderae was taken at Falmouth in August, 1900, and is now in the museum of the Royal Institution of Cornwall. ACRIDIODEA Grasshoppers and Locusts Stenobothrus lineatus is usually rare, but has been taken occasionally on the sandhills between Newquay and Perranporth. In July, 190 1, ten were captured within half an hour in one particular spot about a hundred yards across, and the short shrill stridulation of several others could be heard around. Stenobothrus viridulus is usually abundant all over the county in August and September. In 1902 it was remarkably common about Newquay, and several specimens were captured showing the pretty rose-colour variation about the head and elytra. The long drawn-out stridulation, beginning low and gradually rising in pitch, is very characteristic. Stenobothrus rufipes is scarce and apparently local. It has been taken several times at Newquay, and has occurred near Penzance, Falmouth and at Bishop's Wood, Truro. Stenobothrus hicolor is very common on open land throughout the county. The attractive green form (5. mollis, Charp.) has been taken near Trebartha. Stenobothrus elegans has been captured at Gyllyngvase, at Mount's Bay and on Hayle towans, but appears to be scarce. Stenobothrus parallelus is common on higher meadow-land throughout the county, but its colour, habits, and immature appearance generally cause it to be overlooked by the inexperienced. Gomphocerus rufens is local, but usually common at Maenporth, near Perranwell, and about Bude. The dainty-spotted Gomphocerus maculatus is widely spread on grassy downs and sand-land all over the county and at Scilly. The colour variation is at times extensive. 167 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The migratory locust Pachytylus cinerascens is a casual wanderer to the county. Probably all the records published under P. migratorius are referable to this species. In 1846 a number of locusts belonging to one or both of these species appeared on the east coast of England, and a few stragglers came as far west as Cornwall. In 1857 another wave appeared, and half a dozen at least were taken in the county. In 1876 there were numerous English records, but no captures were reported from the south-western counties at all. Back in the sixties two specimens were taken at St. Mary's, Scilly, and one was captured on St. Agnes in 1897, which lately passed into the writer's possession and is undoubtedly P. cinerascens. Examples of the ' migratory locust ' were obtained at the Lizard in the early forties the description of which agrees well with the species, and in 1 902 an unusually fine female of P. cinerascens was taken near Godolphin, A solitary specimen of Oedipoda coerulescens was captured by E.T.Price in the vicinity of Hugh Town, St. Mary's, Scilly, in 1 903. The bright blue of its wings had attracted the attention of several of the islanders, who had already made one or two attempts to capture it before Price secured it, and the specimen in consequence was somewhat damaged. The large North African locust, Schistocerca peregrina, visited England in considerable numbers in 1869 and 1870. Bignell says that between 9 and 1 1 October, 1869, about thirty specimens were taken in and around Plymouth. Three were taken in the autumn of that year at St. Germans, and it was captured at Looe and at Falmouth, while two were taken near Hayle and at least four in the neighbourhood of Newquay. In October of the following year another small flight of this locust visited Cornwall, and several were taken at Falmouth and a number at the Lizard. About that time large locusts were also taken at Bude. The variable little grasshopper Tettix bipumtatus is recorded by Bignell from Pill and Saltash, and seems indeed to be fairly common throughout the county on warm dry slopes covered with short grass and on dry, sheltered, sunny pastures. It is an early insect, but has been found in Cornwall in mature condition in every month of the year. Tettix subulata, another very variable grasshopper, is also widely spread but apparently local, and even in its favourite haunts about Newquay is much scarcer than the preceding species. LOCUSTIDAE Grasshoppers Leptophyes punctatissima is not uncommon near Boscastle in a broad, overgrown, bramble-covered hedgebank, and is occasionally taken at sugar. Single examples have been taken at Budock, Falmouth, and at Kea, Truro. A solitary specimen of the pretty Phaneroptera falcata from Central France was taken by Mason at Porthgwarra near the Land's End in September, 1881. As McLachlan suggested, it had probably found its way ashore from a passing vessel. Meconema varium is not uncommon in the east of the county and frequently occurs as far west as Bodmin. About Truro and Falmouth it is decidedly scarce, and has not been reported from the Penzance district at all. Locusta viridissima is the largest of our indigenous Orthoptera, and is by no means uncommon locally on rough herbage and among coarse-growing herbaceous weeds throughout the county. In some seasons it is plentiful about Truro, Falmouth and Newquay, and in 1902 was unusually common everywhere. Thamnotrizon cinereus is very local. It is at times fairly common about Falmouth, and in some of the bramble-lanes and nettle-beds there its short, sharp chirp may often be heard far into the night. In 1901 and 1902 it was common about Bishop's Wood, Truro, but is never seen or heard there now. It is often plentiful up the valley of the Gannel, and has been reported from Looe. Platycleis grisea appears to be confined to a few favoured spots on the south coast. It occurs near the Land's End, is occasionally taken on rest-harrow near Portscatho, and has been reported from Mevagissey. Of the allied species P. hrachypterus one example has been taken by Tellam near Bodmin and one in the valley of Millook ; about thirty years ago several were taken at Falmouth. Germonprez found a very young Platycleis larva at Par, which Burr refers doubtfully to the somewhat northern species P. roesalii^ of which scarcely half a dozen specimens have been found in England. GRYLLODEA Crickets The wood cricket {Nemobius sylvestris) has been recorded from Trevaylor, Penzance, but its occurrence there is somewhat improbable and no specimen has been produced. The field cricket {Gryllus campestris) is described as Cornish by Stephens, but no recent specimens have been found and it is probably extinct. 168 INSECTS The house cricket [Gryllus domesticus) is fairly common still in bakehouses and old kitchens throughout the county, but is not nearly so plentiful as it was twenty years ago. The mole cricket {Gryllotalpa gryllotalpd) was first recorded from Cornwall by Stephens. It is still found in the county, and one warm spring evening two years ago the writer was delighted to hear the welcome * churr ' of this fine insect only a short distance away from Truro. During the last six years seven specimens have been captured in the county and many more could have been taken but for the fear of exterminating it. The Grylhpalpa cophta of de Haan, merely a variety with abbreviated wings, was captured last year (1905) at Marazion. NEUROPTERA PsocidSy Stone-flies., Dragon-flies, and Lacewings With the exception of the Dragon-flies, the Neuroptera of Cornwall have received very little attention. Some notes by Mr. W. C. Boyd on his captures in the west of the county in vols, xxxviii and xxxix of the Entomologist^ s Monthly Magazine are apparently the only published records of any extent. The list that follows is based on the work of the writer and his biological pupils from 1900 to 1904, on a small collection formed by the late Mr. W. E. Baily of Penzance, and on data published or furnished by fellow entomologists. It contains 24 Dragon-flies, 66 Pseudo-neuroptera, 34 Neuroptera-Planipennia, and 98 Trichoptera, in all 222 species, and is undoubtedly very incom- plete. The arrangement followed in the Dragon-flies is that of Lucas, in the Trichoptera that of McLachlan in his European Trichoptera, and in the remainder that of McLachlan and Eaton in their Catalogue of British Neuroptera. The author's thanks are due to Mr. W. J. Lucas for much kind assistance. He also wishes to express his great obligation to the late Mr. R. McLachlan, without whose help the article could not have been undertaken. ODONATA Dragon-flies In spite of their evil reputation as suggested by the popular names of ' Horse-stangs ' and 'Blood-suckers,' dragon-flies do not possess even the rudiments of a sting, and their jaws are incapable of making any impression on the human skin. Their large size, truculent appearance, and uncanny flight are no doubt responsible for the remarkable prejudice that has everywhere caused them to become objects of dread. It is true they are carnivorous in their habits and possess an almost insatiable appetite for insects, which by their superior power and agility of flight they capture on the wing, but this persistent hawking of insect life is, from an economical point of view, beneficial rather than otherwise, and their ferocity is exhibited only in the facility of capture and promptness of consumption of their prey. The dragon-flies in Cornwall, as in many other counties, have been unaccountably neglected by resident entomologists. Dr. Cocks paid some attention to them (see Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Societfs Report for 1862), but the only recent attempt at enumeration is a paper by the late Mr. W. E. Baily, entitled ' Our Common Dragon-flies,' in vol. ii (new series) of the Transactions of the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society. Several additional records have been published by Major A. Ficklin and others, and these, with the captures made by the students during the past three years, bring the total for the county up to twenty-four. The handsome Sympetrum striolatum is widely distributed over the county, occurring even on Tresco and St. Mary's, Isles of Scilly, and at least occasionally on Tean. In many localities it is abundant, as in the neighbourhood of Truro, Falmouth, and Penzance, in the valley of the Gannel, and here and there on the Camel. It has been taken every month from June to December, but in cold weather becomes so sluggish that it can be caught with the fingers. Sympetrum scoticum was first taken near Falmouth in July, 1 902. Since that date it has been captured on six occasions in the same locality and, with the exception of a wandering male, all within seventy yards from the spot where the first specimen was obtained. A single specimen has also been reported from the Tamar above Launceston. A female of Sympetrum fonscolombii, presumably the second captured in the British Isles, was taken by W. C. Boyd on 4 June, 1903, at a little village called Sheffield on the road to Trewoofe, near Penzance [E. M.M. vol. xxxix, 201). Libellula depressa is generally distributed over the whole county, and is frequently found at a considerable distance from water. In spite of its wide range it does not seem to be plentiful any- where, and on account of its wariness is much more frequently seen than caught. Libellula quadrimaculata is widely distributed but evidently local, and in most years nowhere common. On 20 June, 1901, however, fourteen examples were taken and many more seen near I 169 '" 22 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Marazion, a locality where it does not seem to have occurred before or since. It is a well-known micrratory species, and these may have been recently-arrived aliens from the Continent. Orthetrum coerulescens is apparently local. It is often common in the Land's End and Penzance district from July to October, is not infrequently captured in College and Trefusis Woods, Fal- mouth, and in the neighbourhood of Bodmin. It was recorded by Briggs from Bude, and in 1905 was plentiful about a little marsh adjoining a strip of wood in the Millook valley. That grand dragon-fly Cordulegaster annulatus is widely spread, and though somewhat local is often plentiful. It occurs on most of the streams on the east of the county, and on the Gannel, the Fowey, and Truro river. It has been taken by Briggs at Bude and beside the Camel above Wadebrid(4. At Falmouth it frequents College and occasionally Trefusis Woods, and Baily says that it is abundant everywhere around Penzance throughout the summer, even into late November. Brachytron prateme^ though not common, is pretty generally distributed along the southern half of the county as far west as Falmouth. In the north it has been taken in the vale of Lanherne. Aeschna juncea is evidently scarce. One was taken by Marquand at Trevalyor, and one by Baily at Paul near Penzance, and the latter states that it has been seen at Marazion, Madron valley, and St. Ives ; C. W. Dale also records it from the Penzance district. One was obtained and several have been seen over the reed-beds at Pencalenick, near Truro. It is one of the most difllicult insects in the county to capture. Aeschna cyanea is of frequent occurrence in the east along the middle and lower courses of the streams, and in the quieter country lanes. Along the south it is locally fairly common as far west as Mabe and Constantine. In the north it has been taken near Wadebridge. Aeschna grandis is rare, but has been taken several times on marshy land near Falmouth, once in the Technical School gardens at Truro, and once in the vale of Lanherne. The fairy-like Cahpteryx virgo^ with its gentle fluttering flight, is often one of the most attractive features of the wooded streams of the Penzance district during June, July and the early part of August. It is frequently seen near Falmouth, and is at times plentiful about Pencalenick and elsewhere in the neighbourhood of Truro. It is occasionally abundant by the Gannel near Trevemper Bridge, and is reported from the Camel above Wadebridge. It is common about Plymouth and locally so along the bush-fringed streams in the east of the county. Cahpteryx spUndens is much more local and not nearly so common as C. v'lrgo. It is occasionally plentiful about Launceston, Egloskerry, and Altarnun, has been taken about Calstock and Botus-Fleming, and as far west as Truro river. Z/«/« j/>.) — longicornis, Schum. Kea, near Truro ; Newquay — varipennis, Mg. Budock Bottoms, Falmouth — scripta, Mg. Pencalenick, Truro ; Kea; Budock; W. Cornwall — luteipennis, Mg. Pencalenick and Ruan-Lanihorne, Truro ; Falmouth ; JV. Cornwall — lunata, L. Kea ; Devoran ; JV. Cornwall — vittata, Mg. Penzance and Land's End — gigantea, Schrk. Pencalenick ; W. Cornwall (D.) lutescens, F. E. Cornwall (M..) ; Bodmin ORTHORRHAPHA (continued) NEMATOCERA (continued) Tabanidae (continued) Tipula oleracea, L. Common throughout the county and at Scilly. The frequent wet autumns in Cornwall make this pest at times unfortunately abundant, andalthough the damagedone to crops is almost invariably attributed to the wireworm, there is no doubt that in some years, like 1904, these * leather jackets ' cause a large amount of damage. In the winter of 1903-4, some autumn-sown wheat near Falmouth was com- pletely destroyed by this pest and the spring- sown oats in the same field were ruined. It seems probable that Pachyrrhina maculosa is at times so common locally as to be a source of considerable loss to the farmers, especially among young seeds T. p.iludosa, Mg. Fairly common in 1904 about Bodmin ; of frequent occurrence around Truro and Falmouth; W. Cornwall; probably fairly general in its distribution T. o:hracea, Mg. Newquay ; Truro; Swanpool ; Land's End; JV. Cornwall (J).) Rhyphidae Rhyphus fenestralis. Scop. Padstow (L.) ; JV. Corn- wall (D.) — punctatus, F. JV. Cornwall (D.) BRACHTCERA Stratiomyidae Pachygaster Leachii, Curt. Very abundant in a ditch near Trescore, Porthcothan (L.) ; JV. Corn- wall (D.) Nemotelus pantherinus, L. Padstow (L.) — nigrinus, Fin. Padstow (L.) Oxycera Morrisii, Curt. Two specimens on a tree outside Trescore (L.) — pulchella, Mg. Padstow (L.) — trilineata, F. Padstow (L.) Stratiomys chamaeleon, L. JV. Cornwall (D.) Odontomyia viridula, F. Padstow (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) Sargus cuprarius, L. JV. Cornwall (D.) Chloromyia formosa, Scop. Padstow (L.) Microchrysa polita, L, Padstow (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) — flavicornis, Mg. Padstow (L.) Beris vallata, FOrst. Padstow (L.) Chorisops tibialis, Mg. Padstozv (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) Tabanidae The Tabanidae are popularly known as Breeze Flies, Horse Flies, Gad Flies and Clegs. Though the males appear to frequent flowers and live on their nectar the females are all bloodsuckers and cause considerable annoyance to stock and more especially to horses. The larvae are not parasitic, but live in the ground, and in some species in water, and appear to be carnivorous. 2'10 INSECTS ORTHORRHAPHA {continued) BRJCHrCERJ (continued) Tabanidae (continued) Haematopota pluvialis, L. The Rain Cleg. Evi- dently generally distributed throughout the county and often uncomfortably abundant ; specially troublesome on farm stock in and after stormy weather during the summer and on very hot days H. crassicornis, Whlbg. Botus Fleming (M.) ; common on the Middle Lynher, i June, 1900 Therioplectes solstitialis, Mg. Near Trebartha; above Altarnun Atylotus fulvus, Mg. Two females captured near Marazion Marsh, 12 June, 1904 Tabanus bovinus, (L.) The Gnat Gadfly. Common above the Cascade Wood at Trebartha in July 1902 ; plentiful near Draynes Wood, Liskeard, in 1904. ; not uncommon Bishop's Wood, Truro (T.) ; Pencalenick ; Budock Bottoms. T. sudeticus, Zlr. Altarnun; sparingly taken near Bodmin, 14 June, 1904 — autumnalis, L. E. Cornzvall (M.) ; Millook ; Looe (A.) ; Stvanpool, 18 September, 1903 — bromius, L. E. Cornzvall (M.) ; Millook; Lost- withiel ; W. Cornwall ij).) — maculicornis, Ztt. Middle Lynher, i June, 1900 — cordiger, W. Near Calstock ; Looe (A.) ; Lost- withiel — glaucopis, Mg. Two females taken on the banks of the Inney near Altarnun, 10 July, 1901 Chrysops caecutiens, L. Widely spread throughout the east of the county in 190 1, and annoyingly abundant about Altarnun ; common locally at Millook m 1905 ; Liskeard; plentiful z^t Bishop'' s Wood, Truro (T.), at Pencalenick and Ruan-Lani- horne ; Nezvquay ; W. Cornzvall (D.) — quadrata, Mg. Altarnun, 10 July, 1901 ; Tre- bartha, August 1902 — relicta, Mg. Near Calstock, 4 June, 1904 Leptidae Leptis scolopacea, L. Penzvethers, Truro (T.) ; W. Cornzvall (D.) — tringaria, L. W. Cornzvall (D.) — lineola, F. Trebartha ; Liskeard Chrysopilus aureus, Mg. Padstozv (L.) ; W. Cornzvall (D.) — auratus, F. Padstozv (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Atherix marginata, F. Middle Lynher ; Looe (A.) — ibis, F. Looe (A.) ; Falmouth Ptiolina Wodzickii, Frfld. One specimen on Porth- cothan Bay, blown down there by high wind ; true place of origin not found (L.) Xylophagus ater, F. Liskeard ; Doublebois AsiLIDAE Leptogaster cylindrica, Deg. Padstow (L.) ; W.Corn- wall (D.) Dioctria Baumhaueri, Mg. Above Trebartha; Altarnun — flavipes, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) Isopogon brevirostris, Mg. Above Trebartha; Lis- keard Asilus crabroniformis, L. Padstow (L.) ; five or six just beyond the Grammar School, Truro (T.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) 23 ORTHORRHAPHA {continued) BRACHTCERA (continued) AsiLIDAE (continued) Philonicus albiceps, Mg. St. Ives (L.) Epitriptus cingulatus, F. Padstow (L.) Neoitamus cyanurus, Lw. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Mount Edgcumbe Machimus atricapillus. Fin. Padstow (L.) Eutolmus rufibarbis, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) Dysmachus trigonus, Mg. Padstow (L.) ; W. Corn- wall (D.) BoMBYLIDAE Anthrax paniscus, Rossi. Padstow (L.) ; Camborne ; St. Ives ; Land's End Bombylius canescens, Mik. Padstow (L.) Phthiria pulicaria, Mik. Padstow (L.) Therevidae Thereva nobilitata, F. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — funebris, Mg. Padstow (L.) — annulata, F. Padstow (L.) Scenopinidae. Scenopinus niger, Deg. W. Cornwall (D.) Empidae Hybos grossipes, L. ) [ull. I W. Cornwall (D.) W. Cornwall (D.) W. Cornwall (D.) — femoratus, M Rhamphomyia nigripes, F. — cinerascens, Mg, — spinipes, Fin. j — tarsata, Mg. Newquay — flava. Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) Empis tesselata, F. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Looe (A.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) ■ — livida, L. — stercorea, L — trigramma, Mg. ■ — ■ punctata, Mg. — lutea, Mg. — pennipes, L. Looe (A.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — pennaria, Fin. W. Cornzvall (D.) Pachymeria femorata, F. E. Cornwall {M..) ; W. Corn- wall (D.) Hilara cilipes, Mg.> — maura, F. — obscura, Mg. — thoracica, Mcq. Microphorus velutinus, Mcq.^j Oedalea flavipes, Ztt. \ W. Cornwall (D.) Ocydromia glabricula. Fin. J Clinocera bipunctata, Hal. Middle Lynher ; W. Corn- wall (D.) Heleodromia stagnalis, Hal. W. Cornwall (D.) — fontinalis, Hal. W. Cornwall (D.) ; St. Martins Scilly (Y.) Wiedemannia bistigma. Curt, j Hemerodromia precatoria. Fin. — melanocephala, Hal. — unilineata, Ztt. Ardoptera irrorata. Fin. — guttata, Hal. Lepidomyia melanocephala, F. W. Cornwall (T>.) W. Cormcall (D.) A. HISTORY OF CORxNWALL ORTHORRHAPHA {continued) BRACHTCERA (continued) E M PI D A E {cont'.nued ) W. Cornwall (D.) Drapetis assimilis, Flu. Tachista arrogans, L. Elaphropeza ephippiata, Fin. Tachydromia minuta, Mg. — maculipes, Mg. — flavipes, F. — fasciata, Mg. — varia, Wlk. DoLICHOPODIDAE Psilopus platypterus, F. Padstow (L.) ; JV. Cornwall Padstow district (L.) (D.) — longulus, Fin. ) — - contristans, W. j Eutarsus aulicus, Mg \p,^,t,^ district (L.) Dolochopus atripes, Mg. J — plumipes, Scop. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — pennatus, Mg U^^^^,^ district (L.) — gnseipennis, otan.) — signifer, Hal. Two specimens taken by Lamb in the Padstozu district, but exact locality un- known. These are the only specimens cap- tured since Haliday described the species from the west coast of Ireland — simplex, Mg. Padstow (L.) — festivus, Hal. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — brevipennis, Mg. IV. Cornwall (D.) — ungulatus, L. Padstozv (L.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) Tachytrechus notatus, Stan. Abundant on the sand at the mouth of the little stream in Constantine Bay, Padstozv (Lamb) — insignis, Stan. Padstow (L.) Poecilobothrus nobilitatus, L. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Uskeard; Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Hercostomus gracilis, Stan. — chaerophylii, Mg. — nigripennis, Fin. — parvilamellatus, Mcq. Hypophyllus obscurellus, Fin. Orthochile nigrocoerulea, Ltr. at Harlyn and also a few at Crackrattle (L.) Chrysotus laesus, W. ) „ , ,-, . ' ■ ^1 Padstow (L.) — gramineus, rln. j ^ ' Diaphorus oculatus, Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) Argyra diaphana, F. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Looe (A.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — argyria, Mg. Padstow (L.) — leucocephala, Mg. Padstozv (L.) ; Mevagissey Porphyrops nemorum, Mg.^j Syntormon pumilus, Mg. \Padstow district (L.) — pallipes, F. j Xiphandrium caliginosum, Mg. Padstow (L.) — appendiculatum, Ztt. W. Cornwall (D.) — brevicorne, Curt. Padstow (L.) Medeterus micaceus, Lw.^ — muralis, Mg. — flavipes, Mg. — truncorum, Mg. — ■ dendrobaenus, Kow. — petrophilus, Kow. Scellus notatus, F. Padstow (L.) ; iV . Cornwall (D.) Hydrophorus nebulosus, Fin. IV. Cornwall (D.) — balticus, Mg. ) „ , ,t s ' T u \ Padstow (L.) — praecox, Lehm.J ^ ' Padstow district (Lamb) Taken on the towans 'Padstow district (L.) ORTHORRHAPHA {continued) BRACHTCERA (continued) DoLICHOPODIDAE {continued) Liancalus virens. Scop. Whitsand Bay east ; Looe (A.) ; Padstow (L) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) Campsicnemus scambus. Fin. Scilly (J.) — curvipes. Fin. IV. Cornwall (D.) Sympycnus annulipes, Mg. Looe ; Padstow (L.) — aeneicoxa, Mg. ) „ , /r % Y .u ui . ij 1 \Padstow (L.) Aanthochlorus ornatus, Hal. J ^ ' Bathycranium bicolorellus, Ztt. A solitary specimen taken by Lamb near Porthcothan Aphrosylus celtiber, Hal. Padstozv (L.) — ■ ferox, Hal. By sweeping seaweed at Looe ; Pad- stow (L.) LONCHOPTERIDAE Lonchoptera lutea, Pz.^j — punctum, Mg. \^. Cornwall (D.) — tristis, Mg. J CYCLORRHAPHA PROBOSCIDEA Platypezidae Opetia nigra, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) Callimyia amocna, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) Platypeza modesta, Zit. E. Cornwall {M.); Bodmin Pipunculidae Verrallia pilosa, Ztt. Looe (A.) Pipunculus furcatus, Egg. Looe (A.) ; E. Cornwall (M.) — moJcstus, Hal. There is still some doubt as to whether some specimens from Mount Edgcumbe and Looe belong to this species or to P. zonatus — campcstris, Ltr. Looe (A.) ; Penzance (V.) — geniculatus, Mg. Bodmin, 12 September, 1900 ; JV. Cornzvall (D.) — littoralis. Beck. Hayle towans in 1902 — sylvaticus, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) Syrphidae Paragus tibialis. Fin. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Truro ; Penzance (V.) ; VV. Cornwall (D.) — virens, F. Padstozv (L.) ; Bodmin (Tellam) ; Pen- zance (V.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) — flavitarsis, Mg. Budock Bottoms, Falmouth, 4 and 20 June, 1902 Pipiza noctiluca, L. Truro ; Land's End (V.) — lugubris, F. Looe, 1890 (A.) Orthoneura nobilis, Fin. Connvall (V .) Liogaster metallina, F. E. Cornwall {J\\.) ; Looe{k.)', Padstow (L.) ; Newquay ; Truro ; Penzance (V.); IV. Cornwall (D.) Chrysogaster splendens, Mg. E. Cornzvall (M.) ; Millook ; Padstow (L.) ; Penzance (V.) — hirtella, Lw. Lcoe (A.) ; Bodmin (Tellam) ; Padstow (L.) — virescens, Lvv. Padstow (L.) — chalybeata, Mg. Cornzvall (V.) ; Looe (A.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) — solstitialis, Fin. Saltash, 7 June, 1902; Padstozv (L.) ; Penzance (V.) 232 INSECTS CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Syrphidae {continued) Chilosia sparsa, Lw. E. Corntvall (M.); St. Ives (V.) — antlqua, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) ; St. Ives (V.) — scutellata, Fin. IV. Cornwall (D.) — soror, Ztt. Looe (A.) — — pulchripes, Lw. Penzance (V.) — variabilis, Pz. E. Cornwall (Js/l.) ; Penzance (V.); fV. Cornwall (D.) — — intonsa, Lw. Padstow (L.) — illustrata, Harr. Penzance (V.) ; W. Cornwall — (D.) — grossa, Fin. One in the Grammar School garden, — Truro (T.) — albipila, Mg. Looe (A.) — — impressa, Lw. Penzance (V.) — albitarsis, Mg. Penzance (V.) ; W. Cornwall — (D) — fraterna, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) — vernalis, Fin. Callington ; Liskeard ; "Newquay — proxima, Ztt. Cornwall (V.) — Platychirus manicatus, Mg. Padstow (L.) ; Penzance, — common (V) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — — discimanus, Lw. Liskeard — peltatus, Mg. Lower Lynher — — albimanus, F. Padstow (L.) — — scutatus, Mg. Padstow (L.) — clypeatus, Mg. Liskeard; Newquay; Truro; Land's End (V.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) Pyrophaena granditarsa, FOrst. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — rosarum, F. Kea, Truro; Marazion ; W. Corn- wall (D.) Melanostoma mellinum, L. Liskeard; Bodmin ; Pad- stow (L.) ; Bishop's Wood, Truro — scalare, F, Padstow (L.) ; Bishop's Wood and Kenwyn Hill, Truro Xanthandrus comtus, Harr. Padstozv (L.) ; one spe- cimen in Grammar School garden, Truro, Sep- tember, 1903 (T.) ; Scilly (J.) Leucozona lucorum, L. Common from May on- wards at Bishop's Wood and elsewhere round Truro (T.) Ischyrosyrphus glaucius, L. Penzance (V.) — laternarius, Miill. Liskeard; Bishop's Wood, Truro Didca fasciata, Mcq. Tate has several specimens of Didea taken at scabious on Kenwyn Hill, Truro, which appear to belong to this species, but there is still some uncertainty as the differences be- tween it and P. intermedia appear to be very trivial Launceston ; Liskeard; Bod- fairly common about Truro Catabomba pyrastri, L. min; Padstow (L.) ; (T.) Syrphus albostriatus. Fin. Launceston; appears to be common about Truro (T.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) — tricinctus, Fin. Tate has taken five or six at scabious on Kenwyn Hill, Truro — venustus, Mg. Launceston; Liskeard; Carnanton Woods, St. Columb; Helston (V.) — lunulatus, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) — torvus, O. S. Padstow (L.) ,- Scilly (J.) — grossulariae, Mg. A stray specimen or so at Penzance (V.) CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Syrphidae {continued) Syrphus ribesii, L. Millook and Launceston; Trebartha ; Liskeard and Looe ; Bodmin ; Padstow (L.) ; Newquay; Truro and Falmouth; St. Ives ; Hayle and Penzance; Scilly — vitripennis, Mg. Millook and Launceston ; Bos- castle ; Padstow (L.) ; Truro, My lor, Flushing, Penryn; Gulval, St. Burian — latifasciatus, Mcq. Padstow (L.) ; Newquay ; Truro (T) ; Malpas; Flushing — corollae, F. Launceston ; Millook ; Liskeard ; Pad- stow (L.) ; Truro luniger, Mg. Liskeard; Malpas ; Truro ; Scilly bifasciatus, F. Common in gardens about Truro (T.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) balteatus, Deg. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Launceston ; Liskeard; Bodmin; Padstow (L.) ; Truro (T.) ; Malpas, Penryn, Falmouth; Mawnan ; Penzance (V.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) ; Scilly — cinctellus, Ztt. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Liskeard — cinctus, Fin. Botus-Fleming (M.) — auricollis, Mg. Launceston; Liskeard; Bodmin; Penzance (V.) ; Scilly (J.) — umbellatarum, F. W. Cornwall (D.) — compositarum, Verr. Penzance, rare (V.) — lasiophthalmus, Ztt. Not uncommon at sallow in early spring in the Truro district Sphaerophoria scripta, L. Millook, not uncommon on grass, July, 1905 ; Padstow (L.) ; common around Truro (T.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — menthastri, L. Liskeard ; Land's End (V.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) var. taeniata, Mg. Is recorded by Dale from W. Cornwall — flavicauda, Ztt. From asparagus beds at St. Columb (Black) Mg. Occasionally found hedges about Millook and (L.) ; not very common Scarce about Millook and Looe (A.) ; evi- Xanthogramma ornatum, low down on the Liskeard; Padstow about Truro Baccha obscuripennis, Mg Launceston ; E. Cornwall (M.) dently rare about Truro — elongata, F. Millook; Padstow (L.) Sphegina clunipes. Fin. A single specimen taken at Cowrie Haven, Poundstock, 16 September, 1905 Ascia podagrica, F. Abundant in a border of herba- ceous perennials in the garden at St. Guron's, Bodmin, 10 April, 1902, and 25 April, 1904; Padstow (L.) ; common about Truro (T.) ; plentiful in the garden at Penwerris Grammar School, Falmouth, 20 May, 1901 — dispar, Mg. /F. Cornwall (D.) Brachyopa bicolor, Fin. Common on tree trunks sunshine in the Cascade Wood, Trebartha May, 1902 Rhingia campestris, Mg. Evidently common over the county Volucella bombylans, L. The type is not uncommon at Liskeard, Bodmin, Truro, Falmouth and W, Cornwall (D.) The var. haemorrhoidalis occurs sparingly about Bishop's Wood, Truro (T.). The var. plumata is fairly common there, at King Harry Ferry and at Bodmin m in all 233 30 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Syrphidae {continued) Volucella inanis, L. Two were found in Bishofs Wood, Truro, by Tate, 26 July 1902, but none have been found since that date in spite of careful searching — inflata, F. Cornwall (V.) ; Mount Edgcumbe (A) — pellucens, L. Common about Millook, Launces'.on, Liskeard, Looe, Truro; College Wood, Penryn ; Penzance (V.) Eristalis sepulchralis, L. W. Cornwall (D.) — aeneus, Scop. Padstow (L.) ; one specimen on mesembryanthemums at Tresco, Scilly (Y.) — cryptarum, F. Looe (A.) — tenax, L. Evidently generally distributed through- out the county and at Scilly — intricarius, L. Liskeard; Looe; Padstow; Truro; Newquay ; Penzance ; Scilly (Y.) — arbustorum, L. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Liskeard ; Bodmin; Padstow (L.) ; Truro (^.) ; Penzance; Scilly (J.) — nemorum, L. Launceston ; Padstow (L.) ; Fal- mouth ; St. Martin's, Scilly (Y.) — pertinax, Scop. Botus-Fleming ; Saltash ; Double- bois; Padstow (L.) ; Truro (T.) — horticola, Deg. Millook; Launceston; Trebartha ; Liskeard; Padstow (L.) ; Truro (T.) ; Falmouth; Penzance (V.) Myiatropa florea, L. Launceston ; E. Cornwall (M.) ; Doublebois ; common about Truro (T.) and Falmouth ; Penzance (V.) ; W. Cornwall (D) Helophilus trivittatus, F. Padstow (L.) ; Truro (T.). Though generally regarded as a coast species Tate found his two Truro specimens in a marsh beyond Bishop's Wood — hybridus, Lw. Tate found two typical examples of this beautiful fly at ragwort by the marsh beyond Bishop's Wood, Truro — pendulus, L. Padstow (L) ; Truro (T.) — versicolor, F. Cornwall (V.) ; Budock Bottoms, Falmouth lunulatus, (Baily) transfugus. Mg. Cornwall (V.) ; Land's End (V.) ; Marazion and Looe (A.) ; Lis- L. Cornwall Land's End (Baily) — lineatus, F. E. Cornwall (M.) keard ; Swanpool, Falmouth Merodon equestris, F. Though evidently a recent importation to Cornwall, this fly has unfor- tunately established itself in many parts of the county and in the larval stage causes at times a great deal of damage to narcissus bulbs, more especially by eating its way through them from the base upwards. In 1896 it seriously injured the narcissus beds of the flower-growers in W. Cornwall, and seems now to spread through- out the whole county from the Tamar to the Isles of Scilly wherever daffodil bulbs are grown in quantity. In 1897 the fly was reported by Marshall to be plentiful in his garden at Botus- Fleming. The following year several of the Penryn growers suffered severely from its attack. Injured bulbs have during the past seven years been sent in from all the important growing districts and from many gardens in the north, east, and south of the county as well CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Syrphidae {continued) Cnorrhina berberina, F. Cornwall (V.) ; Botus- Fleming, June 1897 (M.) — oxyacanthae, Mg. Occurs occasionally at haw- thorn in Bishofs Wood, Truro (T.) ; W. Corn- wall (D) — floccosa, Mg. Cornwall (V.) ; Carnanton Woods, Mawgan-in-Pyder (L.) ; common on hawthorn, Bishop's Wood, Truro — asilica. Fin. Occasionally taken about Penzance Xylota segnis, L. On undergrowth in the Cascade Wood, Trebartha, 6 September, 1902 ; Double- bois ; very common about Truro (T.) ; Fal- mouth and Mawnan ; W. Cornwall (D.) — lenta, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Looe (A.) — sylvarum, L. Launceston; plentiful near Tre- villis, Liskeard, 22 July, 1904 ; Doublebois Syritta pipiens, L. Millook; abundant about Laun- ceston, 16 September, 1904 ; common at Lis- keard, 2 May, 1905; Bodmin; Padstow {L.) ; common at Truro (T.) and Falmouth ; W. Cornwall (D.) Eumerus sabulonum. Fin'. One male at Penzance, 7 July, 1 87 1 (V.) — ornatus, Mg. Paul, Penzance (Baily) — strigatus. Fin. Padstow (L.) ; St. Ives; Penzance QJ .) Chrysochlamys cuprea. Scop. A single specimen taken by Tate on the trunk of a tree in the Grammar School garden, Truro, in May 1904, and another caught on the same tree-trunk a year later Arctophila mussitans, F, Tate has taken altogether about a dozen on a patch of Scabious on Kenwyn Hill, Truro ; W. Cornwall (D.) Sericomyia borealis. Fin. Common above Trebartha, 29 August, 1902 ; plentiful about Truro (T.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Chrysotoxum cautum, Harr. One taken by Tate in Bosvigo Wood, Truro — octomaculatum, Curt. A single example taken by Tate near Penwethers — elegans, Lw. Padstow (L.) — festivum, L. Padstow (L.) — vernale, Lw. A male taken at Penzance 1 3 July, 1 87 1, named by Loew himself (V.) — bicinctum, L. Padstow (L.) Microdon mutabilis, L. Liskeard, 16 June, 1904 CONOPIDAF. Conops flavipes, L. Looe (A.) ; Tate says Conops is common at Bishops Wood, Truro, but the species has not been determined Physocephala rufipes, F. Looe (A.) ,- Padstow (L.) ; Bishop's Wood, Truro (T.) ; W. Coniwall (D.) Oncomyia atra, F. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Sicus ferrugineus, L. Bishop's Wood, Truro (T.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Myopa buccata, L. Padstozv (L.) E. Cornwall (M.) ; Looe (A.) testacea, L. Oestridae Gastrophilus equi, F. The Horse Bot Fly. The fly though seldom caught is undoubtedly com- mon in the county, and horses that live much in the open and receive little grooming suffer much from its attacks 234 INSECTS CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Oestridae {continued) Gastrophilus nasalis, L. Mevagissey Hypoderma lineatum, VIll. Launceston ; Truro — bovis, Deg. The Warble or Bot Fly. The swellings or * bumps ' produced on the backs of cattle by the parasitic larvae of this fly are only too well known to the Cornish farmer, though the fly itself is very rarely observed Oestrus ovis, L. The Sheep Nostril Fly. Most of the larvae of this fly sent in to the schools have come from the east of the county Tachinidae Phorocera serriventris, Rnd. ^ — pumicata, Mg. \ W. ComwalKJ).) Cjonia capitata, Deg. ^ ' Melanota volvulus, F. , Macquartia flavipes, Mg. Middle Lynher Anthracomyla melanoptera, Mg. fV. Cornwall (D.) Demoticus frontatus. Boh. Looe (A) ; Launceston Myiobia fenestrata, Mg. Above Trebartha ; Altarnun — inanis, Fin. Above Trebartha ; near Liskeard Olivieria lateralis, F. W. Cornwall (D.) Micropalpus vulpinus, Fin. Looe (A) ; W. Cornwall Erigone radicum, F. Altarnun; Liskeard Echinomyia fera, L. W. Cornwall Fabricia ferox, L. Padstow (L.) Servillia lurida, F. Between Liskeard and Douhlebois, 28 April, 1904 Siphona geniculata, Deg. Millook ; Altarnun; Lis- keard; Truro and Falmouth ; probably generally distributed Onesia sepulchralis, L. E. Cornwall (M.) Sarcophaga carnaria, L. W. Cornwall (D.) — nigriventris, Mg. Tresco, Isles of Scilly (Y.) Dexiosoma caninum, F. ) „r /-. ;; /i-\ \ T>, • • T? \ W. Cornwall (D.) Dexia rustica, r. ) ^ ' MUSCIDAE Stomoxys calci trans, L. Mount Edgcumbe ; Liskeard ; Padstow (L.) ; Truro ; Falmouth ; W. Cornwall Haematobia stimulans, Mg. Millook ; Middle Lynher ; Liskeard; Truro. Pollenia vespillo, F. Evidently generally distributed. — rudis, Fabr. Millook; Middle Lynher ; Liskeard; Padstow (L.) ; Newquay ; Truro Myiospila meditabunda, F. Padstow (L.) Graphomyia maculata. Scop. Above Trebartha ; Altarnun ; Padstow (L.) Musca domestica, L. ) ^ n j- -i j T, \ (jenerally distributed — corvma, r. j ^ Cyrtoneura stabulans, Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) Morellia simplex, Lw. E. Cornwall (M.) — hortorum. Fin. IV. Cornwall (D.) Mesembrina meridiana, L. Padstow (L.) ; W. Corn- wall (D.) Pyrellia cyanicolor, Ztt. E. Cornwall (M.) Calliphora erythrocephala, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Looe (A.) ; Middle Lynher (T.) ; ^T. Cornwall (D.) — vomitoria, L. Common at Millook in 1905 ; Liskeard ; abundant at Padstow (L.) ; Newquay ; Truro and Falmouth CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEA (continued) MusciDAE {continued) Euphoria cornicina, F. Launceston ; Liskeard; Double- bois ; Padstow (L.) ; Truro ; Mawnan ; W. Corn- wall (D.) Lucilia caesar, L. W. Cornwall (D.) Anthomyidae Polietes lardaris, F. W. Cornwall (D.) Hyetodesia lucorum. Fin.' umbratica, Mg. — errans, Mg — signata, Mg. — erratica. Fin. — scutellaris, Fin. — pallida, F. Mydaea vespertina. I W. Cornwall (D.) Fin. — pagana, F. I W. Cornwall (D.) Spilogaster duplicata, Mg. Males taken by Colonel Yerbury on 5/. Martin's and Tresco, Isles of Scilly communis, Dsv. IV. Cornwall (D.) Hydrotaea irritans, (Fin.) | ^_ ^^^^^^^^ • — dentipes. e. ) ^ ' Padstow (L.) W. Cornwall (D.) Ophyra leucostoma, W. Hylemyia variata (Fln.)> — pullula, Ztt. — strigosa, F. — coarctata. Fin. Anthomyia. One or two anthomyid larvae, whose specific identification is somewhat uncertain, do considerable damage to various members of the cabbage family and occasionally to turnips throughout the county by eating into the stems and roots, particularly in the earlier stages of growth A. pluvialis, L. W. Cornwall (D.) ; Penzance district (Baily) — radicum, L. Looe (A.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) — sulciventris, Ztt. Penzance district (Baily) Chortophila albescens, Ztt. W. Cornwall (D.) Phorbia cepetorum, Meade. The larvae of this fly, or a closely allied species, destroy large numbers of spring-sown onions every year by eating into the bulb when it is still small. This species has been recorded by Colonel Yerbury from St. Martin's, Scilly Pcgomyia betae. Curt. The beet fly. This fly had not been observed in Cornwall till 1902, when crops of mangels at Newquay and St. Agnes received a severe check in June from the wholesale destruction of the foliage by thi larvae. It was again noticed at Newquay in 1903, and some mangels were slightly affected near Truro in 1905 — bicolor, W. W. Cornwall (D.) Homalomyia scalaris, F. — canicularis, L. — mutica, Ztt. Caricea tigrina, F. IV. Cornwall (D.) — means, Mg. Hoplogastermollicula,Fln.y Fucellia fucorum. Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) — maritima, Hal. JV. Cornwall (D.) ; St. Martin' s, Scilly (Y.) ^35 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEA (continued) CoRDYLURIDAE Cordylura ciliata, Mg. IV. Cornwall (D.) Norellia spinimana, Fin. Lhkeard ; Padstow (L.) ; Truro; W. Cornwall {^) Scatophaga scybalaria, L. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Lh- keard; Truro — lutaria, F. W. Cornwall {T>.) — stercoraria, L. Plentiful at Mlllook in 1905 ; Altarnun ; Padstow (L.) ; T^ewquay ; abundant locally about Truro; St. Martin's and Tresco, Scilly (Y.) — squalida, Mg. fV. Cornwall (D.) — litorea, Fin. Liskeard ; Padstow (L.) ; common about Truro; W. Cornwall (D.) ; commonest species of the genus at Scill-j (Y.) — villipes, Ztt. Padstow (L.) ; not uncommon on St. Martin's and Tresco, Isles of Scilly, under seaweed, but found also on rhododendron leaves (Y.) Phycodromidae Orygma luctuosum, Mg. Not uncommon under sea- weed at Looe ; Padstow (L.) ; Falmouth ; St. Martin's and Tresco, Isles of Scilly (Y.) Phycodroma sciomyzina, Hal. Padstow (L.) Coelopa pilipes, Hal. Padstow (L.) ; Tresco, Scilly Fucomyia gravis, Hal. Padstow (L.) — parvula, Hal. IV. Cornwall (D.) Helomyzidae Helomyza rufa, Fin. Padstotv (L.) — similis, Mg. Looe (A.) Eccoptomera longiseta. Padstow (L.) Blepharoptera spectabilis, Lw. \ — ruficauda, Ztt. >■ Padstow district (L.) — flavicornis, Lw. ) Heteromyza atricornis, Mg. IV. Cornwall (D.) — commixta, Coll. Padstow (L.) Tephrochlamys rufiventris, Mg. Padstozv (L.) — flavipes, Ztt. St. Martin's, Scilly (Y.) Heteroneuridae Heteroneura albimana, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) Stomphastica tigrina. Fin. JV. Comtvall (D.) Sciomyzidae Lucina fasciata, Mg. Found sparingly along the coast from Porthcothan to Harlyn ; very abundant in two extremely restricted spots, one at Con- stantine ']ust opposite the bungalow standing close to the sea, the other on Harlyn towans (Lamb) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) Actora aestuum, Mg. ) n j . /t \ /^ J L T?i r Padstow (L.) Oedoparea buccata, rln. ) ^ ' Dryomyza flaveola, F. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Neuroctena anilis. Fin. Padstow (L.) Neottiophilum praeustum, Mg. JV. Cornwall (D.) Sciomyza cinerella. Fin. Padstow (L) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) — dubia, Fin. Padstow (L.) CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Sciomyzidae {continued) Tetanocera elata, F. jiltarnun ; JV. Cornwall (D.) — laevifrons, Lw. Padstow (L.) — ferruginea. Fin. E. Cornwall (M.) ; above Tre- bartha ; Bodmin — robusta, Lw. E. Cornwall (M.) — coryleti, Scop. E. Cornwall (M.) — umbrarum, L. JV. Cornwall (D.) — punctulata. Scop. Padstow (L.) Limnia marginata, F. Padstow (L.) ; St. Ives unguicornis. Scop, "j — rufifrons, F. Padstow district (L.) — obliterata, F. j Elgiva albiseta. Scop. ) „ , , j- . • . /t \ ^j ,• c> '^ \ Padstow &i%\.x\c\. [L^ — dorsal IS, F. J ^ ' — cucularia, L. | ^. ^^^^^^^^ ^ Scpcdon sphegcus, r. ) ^ ' — spinipes, Scop. Padstow (L.) PsiLIDAE Psila fimetaria, L. 1 „ . ^ .y . 11- J U1 r Padstow (L.) — pallida. Fin. j ^ ' — rosae, F. The carrot fly. In 1904 a large bed of carrots near Truro, intended for market, was almost entirely destroyed by the larvae of this fly. About 1900 there were one or two bad attacks in the Penzance district. — nigricornis, Mg. Padstow (L.) Loxocera albiseta, Schrk. E. Cornwall (M.) ; Pad- stotv (L.) — sylvatica, Mg. E. Cornwall (M.) Lissa loxocerina. Fin. JV. Cornwall (D.) Micropezidae Micropeza lateralis, Mg. Calobata petronella, L. JV. Cornwall Ortalidae Pteropaectria nigrina, Mg. JV. Cornwall (D.) — palustris, Mg. Padstow (L.) — oscillans, Mg. JV. Cornwall (D.) — frondescentiae, L. Middle Lynher ; Padstow (L.) Platystoma seminationis, F. JV. Cornwall (D.) Rivellia syngenesiae, F.| p if n \ Scoptera vibrans, L. j ^ ' Trypetidae Acidia heraclei, L. Padstow (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) Spilographa Zog, Mg. Padstow (L.) Trypeta jaceae, Dsv. Padstow (L.) — onotrophes, Lw. Altarnun ; St. Ives — cornuta, F. Padstow (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) — tussilaginis, F. E. Cornwall (M.) — • florescentiae, L. Padstow (L.) — colon, Mg. JV. Cornwall (D.) — serratulae, L. Padstow (L.) Urophora solstitialis, L. stylata, F. cardui, L. Padstow (L.) The gal s produced by this fly are at times very conspicuous features on thistle stems Sphenella marginata. Fin. Padstow (L.) Ensina sonchi, L. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) !36 INSECTS Padstow (L.) CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEA (continued) Trypetidae {continued) Tcphritis miliaria, Schrlc. Padstow (L.) — corfticulata, Fln.^j — absinthii, F. \ W. Cornioall (D.) — hyoscyami, L. j — guttatofasciata (?), Lw. * The insect provisionally placed under this name is extremely like the figure and description given by Locw. It cannot with certainty be introduced so far, but the doubt as to identification is very small ' (Lamb in lit.) T. vespcrtina, Lw. \ p j , n \ — bardanae, Schrlc. / ^ ' Urellia eluta, Mg. Padstotv (L.) — stellata, Fuessl, Padstozv (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) LoNCHAEIDAE Palloptera ustulata, Fin.) Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall — umbellatarum, F. j (D.) — trimacula, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) — arcuata, Fln.| — usta, Mg. j Toxoneura muliebris, Harr. Padstow (L.) ; W. Corn- wall (D.) Peplomyza Wiedemanni, Lw. Padstow (L.) Sapromyza longipennis, F. W. Cornwall (D.) ■ — fasciata, Fin. Padstow (L.) — inusta, M. | ^ ^^^^^^^^ — decempunctata, rln. J ^ ' — quadripunctata, L. Padstow (L.) — rorida, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) — praeusta, Fin. W. Comwall (D.) — plumicornis, Fin. Padstow (L.) Lauxania aenea, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Opomyzidae Balioptera tripunctata, Fln.^j — combinata, L. \ Padstow (L.) — venusta, Mg. j Opomyza germinationis, L. W. Cornwall (D.) — florum, F. Padstow (L.) Pelethophila flava, L. Padstow (L.) Sepsidae Sepsis punctum,F. I w. Cornwall {T>) — nignpes, Mg. ) ^ ' Nemopoda stercoraria, Dsv.^j — nigricornis, Mg. \ IV. Cornwall (D.) Thermira minor, Hal. j Saltella sphondylii, Schrk. Padstow (L.) PlOPHILIDAE Piophila casei, L. W. Cornwall — p'^'Z' ^fT 1 P^'^^^"^ (L) Madiza glabra, tin. j ^ ' — rufitarsis, Mg. Scilly (J.) Geomyzidae Anthomyza gracilis, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; W. Corn- wall (D.) — flavipes, Ztt. Padstow (L.) Geomyza obscurella, Fin. Padstow (L.) Diastata punctum, Mg. W. Cornzuall (D.) CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Ephydridae Notiphila uliginosa, Hal.j ^_ Co,-nwall {D.) — riparia, Mg. j ^ ' Discomyza incurva, Fln."\ Psilopa leucostoma, Mg. >• Padstow (L.) — nitidula. Fin. j Athyroglossa ordinata, Bech. Not uncommon on Constantine towans. The common species A. glabra does not seem to be present (Lamb) Hecamede albicans, Mg. * Common in suitable places. The ordinary statement that this in- sect is generally found on rocks is as far as I know erroneous. It is very rarely seen there, but can readily be obtained by sweeping the marram grass on the cliff edges near the sea. In this way it can be taken commonly at Harlyn and Trevone ' (Lamb in lit.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Ilydrellia griseola, Fin. Padstotv (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) ; S/. Martin's, Scilly (Y.) Philhygria punctatonervosa. Fin. Padstow (L.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) — interrupta, Hal. Padstow (L.) Hyadina guttata, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Axysta cesta, Hal. IV. Cornwall (D.) Pelina aenescens, Stnh. Padstow (L.) Ochthera mantis, Deg. Padstow (L.) — mantispa, Loevv. * One specimen swept just below the bridge in Porthcothan Bay — a very interesting capture since the insect is a southern form' (Lamb) Canace nasica, Hal. Common in Porthcothan Bay on the green weed on the sides of rocks and in similar places m all the bays around (Lamb) Parhydra quadripunctata, Mg. St. Martin's, Scilly (Y.) — coarctata Fin. Padstow (L.) ; St. Martin's, Scilly (Y-) Ephydra npana Fln.| ^ Cornwall {D.) Ilythea spilota, Hal. j ^ ' Scatella quadrata. Fin. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall — sibilans, Hal. Padstow (L.) — sorbillans, Hal.'j — aestuans, Hal. >• Padstow (L.) — stagnalis, Fin. ) — noctula, Mg. IV. Cornwall (D.) Mosillus subsultans, F. Padstow (L.) Drosophilidae Scaptomyza graminum, Fin. Padstow (L.) Drosophila transversa. Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) — fenestrarum. Fin. Padstow (L.) ; IV. Cornwall (D.) — confusa, Staeg.j ^^^^^^^ — funebris, r. j Noterophila glabra, Fin. Padstow (L.) Chloropidae Camarota flavitarsis, M. Padstow (L.) ; VV. Cortnvall (D.) Meromyza pratorum, Mg. "I Padstow (L.) ; W. Corn- — saltatrix, L. j wall (D.) — variegata, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) — lacta, Mg. Padstow (L.) '37 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Chloropidae {continued) Center cereris, Fin. IV. Cornwall (D.) Eutropha fulvifrons, Hal. Padstow (L.) Diplotoxa messoria, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) Chlorops taeniopus, Mg. The Gout Fly. In some years this fly causes serious injury to the barley crops of the county by laying its eggs in the sheathing leaves in close proximity to the form- ing ear while the plant is still young. In 1887 it did great damage in the county, and in 1897 many fields of barley suffered severely. Since that time its ravages have not been very serious, though affected ears are frequently sent in for identification Chloropisca ornata, Mg.j l.) — glabra, Mg. j ^ ' Oscinis frit, L. The Frit Fly. In Cornwall at least this fly confines its attention exclusively to oats and in dredge corn leaves the barley unscathed. In 1888 the fly was remaricably prevalent in Cornwall and Devon, and on many farms throughout the former county destroyed the oat crops to a disastrous extent. It was com- mon about Bodmin and in the Blisland district in 1902, but has not been noticed since that date Elachyptera brevipennis, Mg. W. Cornwall (D.) — cornuta, Fin. Scilly (J.) Agromyzidab Ceratomyza denticornis, Pz. "j Leucopis griseola, Fin. >• Padstow (L.) Ochthiphila polystigma, Mg.j — juncorum, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; JV. Cornwall (D.) — aridella, Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) — flavipalpis, Hal. Padstow (L.) CYCLORRHAPHA {continued) PROBOSCIDEJ (continued) Agromyzidae {continued) Schoenomyza litorella, Fin. Padstow (L.) ; St. Mar- tin's, Scilly (Y.) — fasciata, Mg. Padstow (L.) Phytomyzidae Napomyza lateralis, Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) Chromatomyia obscurclla, Fin. W. Cornwall (D.) ASTIADAE Astia amoena, Mg. Looe (A.) ; W. Cornwall (D.) BoRBORIDAE Borborus nitidus, Mg. JV. Cornwall (D.) ; St. Mar- tin's, Scilly (Y.) — equinus. Fin. Sphaerocera subsultans, F. — vaporariorum, Hal. Limosina Zosterae, Hal. — sylvatica, Mg. fV. Cornwall (D.) Phoridae Conicera atra, Mg. Trineura aterrima, F. Phora rufipes, Mg. — flava, Fin. fr. Cornwall (D.) Hippoboscidae Ornithomyia avicularia, L. Looe (A.) ; fV. Cornwall (D.) Melophagus ovinus, L. The so-called Sheep Tick. HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA A list by Mr. E. D. Marquand of the Hemiptera Heteroptera collected by him in the Penzance district, in the Transactions of the Penxance Natural History and Antiquarian Society (new series), vol. ii, and a note by Mr. G. C. Champion in the Entomologists' Monthly Magaxine^ xxxiii, on his captures at Scilly, together with records by the Rev. T. A. Marshall, Dr. Mason, the Messrs. Dale, Mr. G. C. Champion, Mr. E. A. Newbery, Mr. J. J. Walker, and others referred to in Saunders's monograph, constitute the principal published data on county Heteroptera. The writer has to thank Mr. J. H. Keys not only for a MS. list of his own captures about Whitsand Bay east, but for valuable notes from Mr. E. A. Newbery and Mr. G. C. Champion. The Heteroptera of the county include some rare and interesting forms. Eurygaster maura was taken by J. C. Dale at Land's End. Geotomus punctulatus was found by Saunders at Whitsand Bay, Land's End, in 1864, under stones and among Erodium, and G. C. Champion obtained it in the same locality in August, 1897. Pentatoma baccarum has been captured at Tregantle, at Gerran's Bay, at Land's End, and at Scilly. The rare Strachia oleracea was found by Dale at Kynance Cove. Picromerus bidens and the beautiful steel-blue Zicrona coerulea are not infrequently found in the Land's End district, and the latter has also occurred at Tregantle. Enophps scapha has been recorded for Mount Edgcumbe, Whitsand Bay East, Falmouth, and Land's End. The quaint Verlusia rhombea was found many years ago by J. J. Walker at Whitsand Bay East. Alydus calcaratus occurs at Downderry and in the Land's End district in company with Formica rufa. The pretty Therapha hyoscyami with its striking display of red and black was taken in some numbers on the wing at Boscastle by Keys in June, 1898, and some years previously by C. W. Dale near the Land's End. Metacanthus punctipes was one of Walker's finds at Whitsand Bay East. Henestaris laticeps occurs locally all along the south coast from Tregantle to Land's End. H. halo- philus was another of the good things found by Walker at Whitsand Bay. That very local species, 238 INSECTS Rhyparochromus praetextatuSy occurs at St. Ives, and the nearly related R. antennatm near Land's End. The cliffs near Boscastle, where it was found by the Rev. T. A. Marshall, appear to be the only known British habitat for Trapezonotus Ullrichi. Aphanus rolandri was found in July, 1 90 1, under some blown hay near Liskeard, and A. lyncem has twice been taken at St. Ives. That elegant and beautiful insect, Beosus /uscuSy is widely spread, and though taken most frequently about Whitsand Bay East, occurs also at Boscastle, St. Ives, Gerrans Bay, and Land's End. The very rare Emblethis verbasci was obtained by Champion at St. Mary's, Tresco and Samson, Scilly. The first specimens of the extraordinary sub-marine hemipteron Aepophilus bonnaireiy found in England, were obtained by F. Smith, near Polperro, in 1879. A second colony was discovered by E. D. Marquand in 1886 at Mousehole on the very border of the laminarian zone. The developed form of Vel'ia currens has been taken near Tintagel, and that of Nabis lativentrh occurred near Marazion in 190 1. The rare Lopus flavomarginatus was obtained by Marshall at Polperro, and L. sulcatus has been taken lately by Keys at Tregantle. Phytocorls reutert appeared in a small orchard near Newquay in 1900. Allodapus rufescens was found among the Isles of Scilly by Mason. Orthotylus nascatus occurs in the oak-lined coombes of the Kilkhampton district and also around Penzance. Plagiognathus saltitans has been taken sparingly all over the west of the county, and Macrocoleus tanacetus is not uncommon near Launceston. GTMNOCERATA PENTATOMINA SCUTELLERIDAE Corimelaena, White — scarabaeoides, L. Eurygaster, Lap. — maura, L. Podops, Lap. — inuncta, Fabr. Whitsand Bay (Keys) ; Falmouth Cydnidae Geotomus, Muls and Rey — punctulatus, Costa Sehirus, Am. S. — bicolor, L. — biguttatus, L. Gnathoconus, Ficb. — albomarginatus, Fabr. Whit- sand Bay (J. J. Walker) Pentatomidae Neottiglossa, Curt. — inflexa, Wolff Pentatoma, Oliv. — fuscispina, Boh, — baccarum, L. Sc' — prasina, L. Piezodorus, Fieb. — lituratus, Fabr, Tropicoris, Hahn — rufipes, L. Strachia, Hahn — oleracea, L. ASOPIDAE Picromerus, Am. S. — bidens, L. Asopus, Burm. — punctatus, L. 1 Wheie species that are common on the mainland have been taken at Scilly their names are marked * Sc' on the list. HETEROPTERA GTMNOCERATA (cont.) PENTATOMINA {cont.) AsopiDAE {cont.) Zicrona, Am. S. — coerulea, L. ACANTHOSOMINA Acanthosoma, Curt. — haemorrhoidale, L. — interstinctum, L. COREINA CoREIDAE Enoplops, Am. S. — scapha, Fabr. Syromastes, Latr. — marginatus, L. Verlusia, Spin. — rhombea, L. Coreus, Fabr. — denticulatus, Scop. Alydidae Alydus, Fabr. — calcaratus, L. Stenocephalidae Stenocephalus, Latr. — agilis, Scop. Sc. — neglectus, H. S. Therapha, Am. S. — hyoscyami, L. CoRIZIDAE Myrmus, Hahn. — myriformis, Fall. Bude (Big- nell) ; moors near St. Austell Chorosoma, Curt. — schillingi, Schml. BERYTINA Berytidae Berytus, Fabr. — minor, H.S. Camelford ; Gram- pound 239 GTMNOCERATA (cont.) BERYTINA {cont.) Berytidae {cont.) Berytus signoreti, Fieb. Valley of the Lynher ; Looe ; Truro ; Falmouth Metacanthidae Metacanthus, Cost. — punctipes, Germ. LYGAEINA Lygaeidae Nysius, Dall. — thymi, Wolff. Sc. Cymidae Cymus, Hahn. — glandicolor, Hahn. — claviculus, Fall. Ischnorhynchus, Fieb. — resedae, Panz. — geminatus, Fieb. Henestaridae Henestarls, Spin. — laticeps, Curt. — halophilus, Burm. Heterogastridae Heterogaster, Schill. — urticae, Fabr. Sc. Pachymeridae Rhyparochromus, Curt. — praetextatus, H. S. St. Ives (Mason) — antennatus, Schill. Falmouth ; Land's End (Dale) — dilatatus, H. S. — chiragra, Fabr. Sc. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Bodmin ; district Wh'itsand Land's End Sc. Riv(r Gannely GTMNOCERATA (cont.) LYGAEINA {com.) Pachymeridae {com.) Ischnocorus, Fieb. — angustulus, Boh, Macrodema, Fieb. — micropterum, Curt. Truro ; Penz.ance (Marquand) Plinthisus, Fieb. — brevipennis, Latr. Bay (Keys) ,• Polpcrro (Mar- shall) ; St. Ives (Mason) ; Scilly Acompus, Fieb. — rufipes, WolfF. (Dale) Stygnus, Fieb. — rusticus, Fall. — pedestris, Fall. — arenarius, Hahn. Pentrechus, Fieb. — nubilus, Fall. Netvquay — luniger, Schill. Whitsand Bay (Keys) ; Downderry (Jii\%nc.\\)\ Portscatho ; Falmouth ; St. Ives and Scilly (Mason) Trapezonotus, Fieb. — agrestis, Panz. — ullrlchii, Fieb. Aphanus, Lap. — rolandri, L. — lynceus, Fabr. — pini, L. Beosus, Am. S. — luscus, Fabr. Eremocorus, Fieb. — podagricus, Fab. Millook (Rev. G. L. Allen) Emblethis, Fieb. — verbasci, Fab. Sc. Drymus, Fieb. — sylvaticus, Fabr. — brunneus, Sahib. Notochilus, Fieb. — contractus, H. S. Scolopostethus, Fieb. — affinis, Schill. — neglectus, Edw. — decoratus, Hahn. Sc. Gastrodes, Westw. — ferrugineus, L. Kilkhamptot ; Scotch pines, Doubkbois TINGIDINA PlESMIDAE Piesma, Lap. — quadrata, Fieb. Ltskeard ; Doubkbois ; Falmouth — capitata, WolfF. Millook TiNGIDIDAE Orthostira, Fieb. — brunnea. Germ. Coombe Valley, Kilkhampton ; Millook GTMNOCERATA (cont.) TINGIDINA {cont.) TiNGIDIDAE {cont.) Orthostira parvula. Fall. Tregantle (Keys); Liskeard ; Truro; Falmouth ; Penxance district (Marquand) Dictyonota, Curt. — crassicornis, Fall. — strichnoccra, Fieb. Liskeard, on firs and pines Derephysia, Spin. — foliacca, Fall. Monanthia, Lep. — ampliata, Fieb. — cardui, L. Sc. — dumetorum, H. SchifF. Aradi.na Aradus, Fabr. — depressus, Fabr. HYDROMETRINA Aepophilidae Aepophilus, Sign. — bonnairei, Sign. Hydrometridae Hydrometra, Latr. — stagnorum, L. Veliidae Velia, Latr. — currcns, Fabr. Gerridae Gerris, Fabr. — najas, De G. — thoracica, Schum. — gibbifera, Schum. — lacustris, L. — odontogaster, Ztt. — argentata, Schum. Several fe- males in a meadow, Saltmills, Saltash, 24 May (G. C. Bigncll) REDUVIINA Reduviidae Reduvius, Fabr. — personatus, L. Falmcuth Coranus, Curt. — subapterus, De G. Heathy places, Falmouth ; Land's End (Dale) Nabidae Nabis, Latr. — lativentris, Boh. — major. Cost. — limbatus, Dahlb. 240 GTMNOCERATA (cont.) REDUVIINA {com.) Nabidae {cont.) Nabis ferus, L. — rugosus, L. Saldina Salda, Fabr. — pallipcs, Fabr. Sc. — littoralis, L. Downderry (Keys) ; Falmouth — orthochila, Fieb. — lateralis. Fall. Falmouth; St. Ives (Mason) — c-album, Fieb. — saltatoria, L. Sc. — cincta,H. S. Marazion ; Land's End {j.C. Dale) CIMICINA CiMICIDAE Cimex, L. — lectularius, L. — colurabarius, Jen. Anthocoridae Lyctocoris, Hahn. — campestris, Fall. One in valley of the Lyn/ier Piczostethus, Fieb. — galactinus, Fieb. — cursitans, Fall. Anthocoris, Fall. — confusus, Reut. — nemoralis, Fabr. — gallarum-ulmi, De G. — sylvestris, L. Acompocoris, Reut. — pygmaeus, Fall. Triphleps, Fieb. — niger, WolfF. Newquay — majuscula, Reut. Botus Flem- ing — minuta, L. Microphysinidae Microphysa, Westw. — elegantula, Baer. Beaten out of whitethorn hedge, Botus Fleming (G. C. Blgnell) ; Liskeard; Malpas C A P S I N A Capsidae Pithanus, Fieb. — maerkeli, H. 8. Miris, Fabr. — holsatus, Fabr. — calcaratus. Fall. — laevigatu', L. Megaloccroea, Fieb. — erratica, L. INSECTS GTMNOCERATJ (cont.) CAPSINA {cont.) Cafsidae (cont.) Megaloceroea longicornis, Fall. 5/. Ives (Mason) — ruficornis, Fourc. Leptopterna, Fieb. — ferrugata, Fall. — dolobrata, L. Bryocoris, Fall. — pteridis. Fall. Monalocoris, Dahlb. — filicis, L. Pantilius, Curt. — tunicatus, Fabr. Lopus, Hahn. — sulcatus, Fieb. — flavomarginatus, Don. Phytocoris, Fall. — populi, L. — tiliae, Fabr. — longipennis, Flor, — reuteri, Saund. Netvquay — varipes, Boh. — ulmi, L. Calocoris, Fieb. — striatellus, Fabr. — fulvomaculatus, De G. — sexguttatus, Fabr. — bipunctatus, Fabr. — chenopodii, Fall. — roseomaculatus, De G. — infusus, H. S. — striatus, L. Oncognathus, Fieb. — binotatus, Fabr. Lygus, Hahn. — pratensis, Fabr. — contaminatus, Fall. — lucorum, Mey. — viridis, Fall. — pabulinus, L. — pastinacae. Fall. — cervinus, H. S. — kalmii, L. — rubricatus, Fall. Valley of the Lynher ; Lis heard Zygimus, Fieb. — pinastri, Fall. Poeciloscytus, Fieb. — unifasciatus, Fabr. Liocorls, Fieb. — tripustulatus, Fabr. Capsus, Fabr. — laniarius, L. — scutellaris, Fabr. GTMNOCERJTA (cent.) CAPSINA {com.) Capsidae {cont.) Rhopalotomus, Fieb. — ater, L. Allodapus, Fieb. — rufescens, H. S. Sc. Labops, Burm. — saltator, Hahn. Dicyphus, Fieb. — errans, WolfF — globulifer. Fall. Campyloneura, Fieb. — virgula, H. S. Cyllocoris, Hahn. — histrionicus, L. — flavonotatus, Boh. Aetorhinus, Fieb. — angulatus, Fabr. Mecomma, Fieb, — ambulans, Fall. Cyrtorrhinus, Fieb. — caricis, Fall. Orthotylus, Fieb. — tenellus, Fall. — flavinervis, Kb. — nassatus, Fabr. — flavosparsus, Sahib. — chloropterus, Kb. — ericetorum, Fall. Malacocoris, Fieb. — chlorizans, Fall. Loxops, Fieb. — coccinea, Mey. Heterotoma, Latr. — merioptera, Scop. Heterocordylus, Fieb. — tibialis, Hahn. Macrotylus, Fieb. — paykulli, Fall. Hoplomachus, Fieb. — thunbergi, Fall. Macrocoleus, Fieb. — molliculus, Fall. Fozvey ; Fal- mouth — tanaceti, Fall. Pad/«/r(?.f^r«, Claus, belonging to a genus exclusively marine, is recorded by Vallentin from Falmouth, In the family Arpacticidae the cephalothorax is not strongly distinguished from the pleon. In the wide sense this is an enormous group. For convenience it has been broken up into several subor- dinate families or sub-families. To the Longipediidae belong Longiped'ia scotti^ Sars, called L. coronata^ Claus, by Brady, who found it ' off St. Mary and St. Agnes, Scilly Islands ' ; ^^ Ectinosotna sarsii, Boeck, called E. spinipes by Brady, from ' Scilly Islands, 10 to 40 fathoms ' ; '^ E. me/anicepSy Boeck, found 'sparingly amongst weeds near low-water mark at St. Mary's, Scilly' ; ^^ and Bradya typica^ Boeck, ' taken off Porcressa Bay (Scilly Islands) in a depth of 20 fathoms.' ^* To the Tachidiidae, Brady assigns Tachidius brevicornis (O. F. M.), from ' pond at St. Mary's, Scilly Islands,' ^* and Euterpe gracilis^ Claus, recorded by Vallentin from Falmouth, and by Giesbrecht identified with the earlier Euterpina acutifrom (Dana).^® The Stenheliidae are represented by Stenhelia ima^ Brady, from St. Mary's, Scilly," S. pygmaea^ Norman and Scott, near Eddystone ; 5. varians^ Norman and Scott, outside Fowey, Parastenhelia anglica^ Norman and Scott, from the same locality, and Daniehsenia fmiforynis (Brady and Robertson), which ' occurred plentifully in a dredging made off Porcressa Bay, Scilly, in 20 fathoms, on a bottom of hard sand.' ^^ The Canthocampidae have in the title genus Canthocampm (Westwood), C palustris^ Brady, ' taken in a large pond, subject to occasional tidal influx, at St. Mary's (Scilly),' ^^ and Cocks reports C, minutus^ Baird, from ' water-butt, pond, etc.,* and C. stromiiy Baird, from 'minute Algae^ corallines, etc., ponds on rock, Gwyllyn-vase.' Of these two species Brady accepts the former as C. minutus (O. F. M.), but transfers the other to Dactylopus (Claus) (now Dactylopusia^ Norman). D. ornata and several other new copepoda have ' Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumb. etc. (1891), vol. xi, pt. I, p. 10 5. '^ Monograph of British Copepoda, vol. i (1878), p. 44. * Mon. in Das Tierreich (1898), p. 106. ^ Mon. Brit. Cop., vol. i, p. 50. * Ibid. p. 71. ^ Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc, Northumb. etc. (1891), vol. Iv, pt. i, p. 78. ' Ibid. p. 91. * Ibid. p. 92. ^ Mon. Brit. Cop. vol. i, 120. '" Ibid. p. 93. " Ibid. vol. ii (1880), p. 8. '' Ibid. p. 10. "Ibid. p. 12. "Ibid. p. 18. 'Mbid. p. 22. '^ Pela^sche Copepoden von Neapel (1892), Mon. 19, p. 555. " Mon. Brit. Cop. vol. ii, p. 36. '^ Ibid. p. 41. '•^ Ibid. p. 54. 285 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL recently been added to the Cornish fauna by Norman and Dr. T. Scott. ^ Tetragoniceps malleolata^ Brady, was a new species 'found amongst dredged material from a depth of 12 fathoms inside St. Agnes (Scilly Islands).' ^ D'maccus tenuicornts (Claus), was taken ' on weeds at low-water-mark, St. Mary's, Scilly." Of Laophonte serrata (Claus), Dr. Brady says, * This is by no means a common species. Mr. Robertson and I dredged a few specimens in a depth of 10 to 12 fathoms off St. Agnes (Scilly), and likewise took a few amongst weeds at St. Mary's.''' L. simi/is (Claus) was found at the 'Scilly Islands, dredged in 14 fathoms, and plentiful on weeds between tide marks' ;* L. lamellifera (Claus) was obtained in dredgings from a depth of 20 fathoms among the Scilly Islands;® and L. hisptda (Brady and Robertson) at the same locality in depths of 10 to 20 fathoms.^ Laophontina duhia^ Norman and Scott, was dredged at St. Mary's in 1 903. Normanella duhia (Brady and Robertson) occurred ' at New Grimsby and Porcressa Bay, Scilly, 1 4 to 20 fathoms.' ® Cletodes limicola (Brady), was taken ' amongst the Scilly Islands ' ; C. propinqua^ Brady and Robertson, ' In 20 fathoms off St. Mary's, and in 14 fathoms. New Grimsby Harbour'; C //«^^r/i (Claus), amongst Algae at St. Mary's.* Euhydrosoma curvatum (Brady and Robertson) was procured ' off Porcressa Bay and in New Grimsby Harbour (Scilly Islands), dredged in 10 to 20 fathoms.' ^° The Arpacticidae in a restricted sense include Dactylopus'w tisboides (Claus) from the 'Scilly Islands, 10 to 40 fathoms'; D. hrevicornii (Claus), from the same place, between 20 and 40 fathoms ; and D. stromii (Baird) from the same locality, but procured by the surface net.'^ Concerning the last Brady says : ' Some doubt must rest upon the identification of this with Dr. Baird's Canthocamptus Stromii^ but as I am unable to suggest any other species to which Dr. Baird's description might better apply, I follow the nomen- clature adopted by Dr. Claus and Mr. Norman.' Thalestris mysis, Claus, is reported from the 'Scilly Islands, dredged in 10 to 12 fathoms, and taken in the surface-net and amongst weeds at low water ' ; and T. rufocincta^ Brady, from the same islands at the same depth, ' and also on algae in Porcressa Bay, St. Mary's.' In discussing the localities of T. harpactoides, Claus, Brady says : * I have a single specimen, apparently belonging to the same species, which was dredged amongst the Scilly Islands.' There also he took T. c/ausii, Norman, and of T. serru/ata, Brady, a single specimen, a male, was ' dredged on a bottom of muddy sand in New Grimsby Harbour, at a depth of 14 fathoms.' T. longimana^ Claus, was dredged by Brady abundantly at these islands, and also got in the surface-net. Of T. peltata (Boeck) ' one specimen only was found in dredged material from a depth of 40 fathoms off St. Agnes.' ^^ Westwoodia nobilis (Baird) was found by Brady 'near St. Agnes (Scilly), 10 to 12 fathoms,' ^^ and is also recorded by Cocks as Arpacticm nobilis (Baird) from ' Ponds on rocks, Gwyllyn-vase.' Arpacticm chelifer (O.F.M.) was found by Brady in the Scilly Islands,^^ and by Cocks ' In sea-water from Green Bank.' A. jftexus^ Brady and Robertson, was 'dredged in depths of 10 to 20 fathoms amongst the Scilly Islands ' ; Zaus spinatuSy Goodsir, 'in 10 to 12 fathoms' ; Alteutha crenulata, Brady (assigned in the first instance to Peltidiuni\ was found ' On Algae near low-water mark at St. Mary's and St. Agnes (Scilly Islands), where it was also taken in the surface-net in the evening.' ^* Peltidium conspicuum^ Norman and Scott, was taken in New Grimsby Harbour in 1903. To the Porcellidiidae are assigned PorcelUdium tenuicaudoy Claus, 'One specimen dredged off St. Agnes (Scilly) in a depth of 10 fathoms' ; P. fimbriatuniy Claus, and P. viride (Philippi), both from St. Mary's.^* In the Idyidae stand Scutellidium tisboides, Claus, found ' on weeds in Porcressa Bay,' and S. fasciatum (Boeck), also from the Scilly Islands.^" To the Thaumatoessidae (otherwise called Monstrillidae) belongs Monstrilla rigida, Thompson, to the Corycaeidae Corycaeus ang/icus, Lubbock, both rare species, recorded by Vallentin from Falmouth. Under the Ascidicolidae Canu brings the species Notodelphys alhnaniy Thorell. Cocks records this as A^, ascidico/a, Allman ; but Allman's specific name has been rejected by later authors on the ground that under it two or more species had been inextricably confused together. To theAsterocheridae belong Dyspontius striatusy Thorell, and Acontiophorus scutatus (Brady and Robertson), ' both dredged in a depth of 40 fathoms off St. Agnes.' ^^ In Giesbrecht's opinion the puzzling Nicothoe astaciy Audouin and Milne-Edwards, should stand near to this family. It is parasitic * on the gills of the common lobster,' as recorded by Cocks, who supposes himself to have discovered a variety, which, however, he does not describe. That industrious collector further gives the names of nine species of the Copepoda commonly known as fish-lice, some of which attain a much larger size than what is common in the free-living species. Their vagaries of form no doubt add some difficulty to the study, but at the same time they stimulate observation by their oddness and help to lift this particular ' Am. Nat. Hist. Ser. 7, vol. xv, 284. » Mon. Brit. Cop. vol. ii, p. 67. * Ibid. p. 70. * Ibid. p. 73. * Ibid. p. 79. * Ibid. p. 84. ^ Ibid. p. 86. « Ibid. p. 88. ' Ibid. pp. 92, 94, 97. •" Ibid. p. 100. " Ibid. pp. 108, 119, 114. '^ For the species oi Thalestris, see Mon. Brit. Cop. vol. ii, pp. 123-139. " Ibid. p. 142. '^ Ibid. p. 149. '^ Ibid. pp. 152, 155, 164. "^ Ibid. pp. 166-168. 1' Ibid. pp. 177, 180. " Ibid. vol. iii, 67, 71. 286 CRUSTACEANS group above the level of the commonplace. The family Caligidae have a broad depressed carapace, uncinate second antennae, second maxillae and maxillipeds ; the stiliform mandibles are included within a suctorial beak ; the ovisacs are a pair of cord-like tubes. In the genus Caligus (O. F. MuUer), though not in that exclusively, the frontal border has a pair of ' lunulae,' often mis- taken for eyes. Cocks gives the following record : Caligus diaphanus^ Nordmann, cod and haddock, fish market ; rapaxy M. Edwards, haddock and whiting, fish market ; Muller't^ Leach, haddock, cod, etc., fish market, with the remark added : 'It is the common opinion that it is the Cal'igi which force the salmon from the sea up rivers towards the waterfalls, Miiller.' The species which especially attacks the salmon is Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer), belonging to a genus devoid of frontal lunulae, but Caligus rapax includes the salmon among its numerous victims. C. miilleri, Leach, and C. diaphanuSy Baird, are now accounted synonyms of C. curtus, O. F. M.^ Cocks records ' Pandarus bicolor^ Leach. From the skin of the Carcharius gleucus.^ The name of the host should be Carcharias glaucus. He gives ' Cecrops Latreilliiy Leach, from the Orthagoriscus molaey by Arthur Chard, jun., fisherman.' The specific name of the huge, strangely truncate sun-fish, on which this large copepod is only one of many parasites, should be not molaey but mola. To this family also belongs a remarkable parasite which Milne-Edwards described in 1840 as Phyllophora cornutOy from a specimen taken at Tongatabu. The generic name alluded to the leaf-like plates on the creature's back, but being preoccupied it has just been changed to Phyllothyreus by Norman, who says : ' I may take this opportunity of announcing this interesting species as a member of the British fauna. It has been known to me for more than forty years. It was sent to me by William Laughrin at a time when I was employing that old coastguardsman to collect fish parasites for me. He said that he had found it on the blue shark at Polperro.' ^ In the Chondracanthidae the males are minute, and the females have the body completely or indistinctly segmented, often with irregular lobes and prolongations. To this family belong two species recorded by Cocks as ' Lernentoma asellinoy Linn., attached to gills of tub-fish [Trigla hirundoy House. — Lophiiy Johnston. From a Lophius piscatorius ; beach, near Boyer's cellars.' The former has recently been placed in a new genus by Mr. Bassett-Smith, so that it now stands as Oralien asellinus (Linn.) ; the latter is Chondracanthus lophii (Johnston).^ I cannot find any Mr. House as an authority on tub-fishes, and conjecture, therefore, that Cocks in the above quotation could give no more precise locality for the fish than his own home at which he examined it. The Lernaeidae, while young, even if sexually mature, are not specially abnormal, but ' in the older and fixed parasitic condition the females are long, worm-like, generally without limbs, some with irregular excrescences from the anterior portion, others with elongated appendages from the genital segment or abdomen.' * Cocks reports ' Lerneonema encrasicoliy Turton, attached to the eye of a young pollock, fish-stall, Back hill.' Bassett-Smith transfers this to the genus Lernaeenicus (Lesueur),' a name which the author of the genus spells Lerneaenicus. Encrasicolus was Willoughby's name for the anchovy. Lastly, Cocks gives ' Lernea hranchialisy Linn. Removed from the gills of the haddock, by Miss Vigurs,' adding : ' Kroyer states that he observed a singular phenomenon when he touched an individual (L. branchialis) ; it squirted from the vent a transparent stream of fluid to the distance of a foot and a half, and this it repeated several times one after another.' The generic name as written by Linnaeus himself is Lernaea. The passage translated from Kroyer occurs in the first volume of his Naturhistorisk Tidsskrifty p. 183, published in 1837. Kroyer does not say that the Lernaea squirted a stream of fluid, but * a clear fluid to a distance of a foot to a foot and a half,' which brings the rapid repetition of the discharge within the limits of probability ; since each volley might have been a few drops instead of a stream. The Thyrostraca or Cirripedes are no less indebted than the other groups of Cornish crusta- ceans to the untiring zeal of Mr. Cocks. It is true that in 1850 he still included them among the MoUusca.^ But of this the explanation is simple, namely, that the volumes of Darwin's great monograph were not published by the Ray Society till 1851 and 1854. It would naturally not count for much in conservative England that our own countryman, J. Vaughan Thompson, had led the way some twenty years earlier in proving barnacles to be crustaceans and not molluscs. We must still be grateful to Mr. Cocks for his catalogue, the value of which is not really impaired by its misplacement in classification. The simplest way of dealing with it will be to interpolate in square brackets the names preferred by Darwin in his monograph, and supply occasional notes. Of the sessile Thyrostraca, Cocks gives the following list : — ' Genus Balanus. Balanus communisy Mont. \B. perforatusy Bruguiere]. On rocks, stones, etc., Barpoint, Castle, Gwyllyn-vase, Swanpool, etc., common ; very large on the Black rock, from f of an inch, to l|^ of an inch in length. — laevis, ' See Bassett-Smith, Proc. Zool. Soc. Land. (1899), p. 447. - Ann. Nat. Hist. (1903), Ser. 7, vol. xi, 368. ' Proc. Zool. Soc. Land. (1899), pp. 490, 494. * Ibid. p. 480. ^ Ibid. p. 484. ^ 'Contributions to the Fauna of Falmouth,' in The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Roy. Cornw. Polyt. Soc 1849, PP- 75-77- 287 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Brug. — Parasitical on the Anatif. laevis, and A. laev., Far.^ taken from the bottom of a vessel from Black Sea. — balanoides^ Mont. [(Linn.)]. On rocks, stems of the Lam. digit., shells, Crustacea, cork, Penryn Creek, Bar, Castle, Gwyllyn-vase, Swanpool, etc. : common. — Cornubiensis^ Penn. [B. perforatus, Bruguiere]. Covering rocks, Patel. vul. etc., in multitudes, Barpoint, Castle, Gwyllyn-vase, Swanpool, Pennance, etc. Far. (B. Punctata, Mont.) {Chthamalus stellatus (Poli) ].^ In some localilites : very common. — depressa^ Cocks. [Poli has a var. depressa of his Lepas ste/Iata].^ On polished and flat surfaces, viz. slates, insides of broken bottles, jars, oyster shells, and stems of Lam. digit, etc., not uncommon. On cork : rare. — pusi/lus. Cocks [not known to Darwin, or Weltner in 1897]. Attached to wood, and old cork floats, from deep water: not common. Rocks, shells. Castle : very rare, — costatus, Donov. [ ? B. porcatus, da Costa].^ Attached to stems of the Lam. digit. ; from deep water ; on old and well-seasoned cork floats, Gwyllyn-vase, Penzance, and Bream bay : rare. — rugosus, Mont. [ ? B. crenatus^ Bruguiere]. On wood, stones, shells, cork, etc., from deep water : rare. Var. Mont. On wood, cork, roots of Lam. digit, from deep water ; not uncommon on the beach, stormy weather. — tintinnabulum^ Linn. Two living specimens on a piece of (wreck) timber, washed on the beach. Castle, in the year 1844. Procured three living, and more than fifty dead, shells, December 1848, Bar beach. The schooner, Mary^ of Dartmouth, from Acra, coast of Africa, went on the rocks under the Rev. W. J, Coope's house, Gwyllyn- vase, Dec. 7, 1849 : attached to her bottom and sides were magnificent specimens of the Bal. tintinnabulum, 2^ inches in height, and 2\ inches in diameter [Darwin gives ' basal diameter of largest specimen very nearly 3 inches ; height of the highest specimen 3 inches ' ].■* Bal. conoides [May this be the B. cornubiensis conico ore minore, of Ellis, 1758 ? ],^ B. rugosus, Ost. parasit., etc. — convexu/a, Penn. [apparently not known to Darwin or Weltner]. Several fine and perfect specimens on a cork-float, Pennance : rare. — spinosuSy Cocks. Shell truncated, elliptic, diaphanus, composed of six pieces, transversed by opaque white, longitudinal striae ; aperture large, edge entire, smooth ; operculum, composed of four valves of a reddish purple colour ; shell and operculum covered with vitreous-like spines ; size ^^j of an inch ; on a cork float (from deep water), sands, Gwyllyn-vase : very rare. [The description, which has been overlooked by succeeding authors, as it well might be, embedded thus in a faunistic catalogue, is rather suggestive of a young speci- men of the later published Balanus improvisus^ Darwin, var. assimilis].^ — elongatus^ Mig. [Darwin gives B. elongatus, Auctorum variorum, among the synonyms of B. crenatus, Bruguiere, and B. balanoides (Linn.). Cuvier uses Mig. as short for F^lix Miger]. On the rocks, Castle, low-water mark : not uncommon. rugosus^ Macg. [Cocks takes no note of the circumstance that he has already accorded ' B. rugosuSy Mont.']. On the rocks, Castle, low-water mark, and near the magazine : not uncommon : angu/osus, Macg. [Darwin gives B. angu/osus, Lamarck, as a synonym of B. porcatusy Bruguiere]. On the rocks, Castle, low-water mark, and at Pennance, etc., but local. fistulosuSy Macg. [B. balanoides (Linn.)]. On the rocks. Castle, low- water mark, at Pen- nance, etc., but local. clavatuSy Macg. [Synonym of B. crenatus, Bruguiere, or B. balanoides (Linn.)]. On the rocks. Castle, low-water mark, at Pennance, etc., but local. ' Genus Acasta. Lam. Acasta Montaguiy Leach, \^A. spongiteSy Poli]. Found embedded in sponge, from deep water ; very rare. Var. — Free of spines and a flat base ; on the sands, Gwyllyn- vase, Pennance, Bream Bay, etc., after stormy weather in autumn and spring : not uncommon. ' Genus Creusia. Creusia striatay Lam. [Under C. spinulosay Leach, Darwin notes C. striatay Chenu, as a species too insufficiently described for recognition].^ On stones, shells, cork, stems and roots of Lam. digit. : very common, Var. : not uncommon. ' Genus Pyrgoma. Sav. Pyrgoma Anglicuniy on shells, stones, etc., low-water mark : not uncom- mon. On the Caryophylli[a] Smithii, from deep water ; very common ' [the species is G. B. Sowerby's, the genus Pyrgoma was instituted by Leach]. Of the Pedunculate Thyrostraca Cocks mentions the following : ' Genus Anatifera. Lam. \LepaSy Linn.]. Anatifera laevisy Lam. [Synonym of Lepas anatiferay Linn., or of L. hillii (Leach) ]. Attached to the bottom of vessels, wood, cork, charcoal, cocoanut husk, or sepiae, feathers, etc. : Custom house quay, Bar sands, Gwyllyn-vase, Pennance, Bream bay, etc. : not uncommon. Var. : Shell ventricose, plates, with ribs coarse and strong, point of ventral plate, (very) obtuse, edge of mantle and cirri bright yellow, pedicle short, coarse and corrugated ; some of the specimens were covered with the Laomedea geniculata ; from the bottom of a vessel from the Black Sea. [It is not improbable that both the species and the variety here described may be Lepas pectinatOy Spengler, for which Darwin gives a list of attachments similar to that detailed by Cocks, and which Cocks himself subsequently records as L. sulcata']. — anseriferay Linn. — Bottom of vessels, logs of wood, portions of wrecked timber, etc., not common. — fascicularisy Mont. [Ellis and Solander.] Attached to gull feathers, cork, Fucus serratus, etc. (Nov. 7th, 1845), procured more than lOO living specimens, 1 See Darwin, Balanidae, p. 455, and compare pp. 267-8 on B. balanoides. 2 Ibid. p. 456. 3 Ibid. pp. 256, 493. * Ibid. p. 198. Mbid. p. 231. * Ibid. p. 250. Mbid. p. 382. 288 CRUSTACEANS attached to Fucus serratus, covered with Sertul. pumila, Laomedea Geniculata, and L. gelatinosa, Nov. 1 2th, 1847, hundreds were thrown on the sands, Gwyllyn-vase, Pennance, etc. — sulcata^ Mont. [Z,. pectinata^ Spengler]. On cork, feathers, or sepiae, etc. : not common. I removed several young ones (May, 1849) from the bottom of a vessel from Leghorn (In Col. Montagu's specimens there were only fifteen ribs ; Mr. Couch's, twenty-eight in one and twenty-nine in another ; and in some of mine there are thirty-eight to forty ribs), Gwyllyn-vase, Swanpool, Pennance, Bream bay, etc. ' Genus Pollicipes. Lamarck. [Leach]. PoUicipes mitellay Chenu. \_Pollicipes mitella (Linn.)]. From the bottom of the schooner Mary Ann^ of Jersey, laden with oil, from Gallipoli, Naples, Jan. 5th, 1850, dead specimens from beach, near custom-house quay. — scalpellum^ Lam. [Scalpellum vulgar e^ Leach]. Attached to Sertularia polyzonias, S. nigra, Gorgonia verrucosa, etc., deep water, trawl refuse : common. ' Genus Cineras. Leach. [Conchoderma^ Olfers]. Cineras Cranchii^ Leach. \Conchoderma virgata (Spengler), for which C. virgatum should be read]. Bottoms of vessels : not uncommon. ' Genus Otion. Leach. [Conchoderma^ Olfers]. Otion Cuvieri. [Darwin gives Conchoderma aurita (Linn.), for which C. auritum should be read] — attached to bottoms of vessels from the Black Sea, Egypt, Leghorn, etc., Custom-house quay, bar sands : not uncommon. 'Genus Alepas Rang. Alepas parasita^ Lesson. [Sander Rang]. Attached to umbrella of the Cyanaea tuberculata, Pennance sands, Aug. 1845. In 1846, two from the bottom of a brig from Odessa, Custom-house quay.' From Darwin's own work the following notices may be taken : — Concerning Balanus porcatus^ da Costa, he says, ' Mr. Jeffreys, who knows this species well, has found it common on the extreme southern shores of England.' ^ On Bate's authority he reports Alcippe lampasy Hancock, a member of the Lepadidae, from south-eastern shores, off the Eddystone Lighthouse.' ^ In discussing Alepasparasita^ he says that it ' has been always taken on Medusae,' and does not reconcile this with the apparent exception of which he had been informed by Mr. Cocks. ^ On the attachment of Scalpellum vulgare Darwin remarks that * Specimens are attached to various horny corallines, and occasionally to the peduncles of each other,' with a footnote, 'Mr. Peach [Transact. Brit. Assoc. 1845, p. 65) states that this is sometimes the case in Cornwall ; and I have seen a similar instance in a fine group from Naples.' * When dealing with the ' complemental male ' of this species, Darwin acknowledges his great indebtedness ' to Mr. Peach for his unwearied kindness in procuring me fresh specimens.' He had some dozen specimens from Cornwall, on all, or nearly all of which there were these ' parasitic males.' Only on very young specimens they never occur, ' On a Cornish specimen, with a capitulum a little more than one-fifth of an inch in length, it may be mentioned as unusual that there were three males. In young specimens there is generally one male on each scutum, but sometimes there are two, and sometimes none on one side. In large old Cornish specimens I have counted on the two sides together, six, seven, and eight males, and in one Irish specimen no less than ten, seven all close together on one valve, and three on the other, but I do not suppose that these were all alive at the same time.' ' In bringing to a close this chapter on the Crustaceans of Cornwall I can imagine the mild spirit of modesty suggesting to the author some apology for its inordinate length. What the subject itself more imperiously demands is quite a different attitude — not that I should ask pardon for having written too much, but that I should plead the sense of moderation as my only warrant and excuse for having explained too little. Borlase compared the form of the county to a cornucopia. It has proved to be indeed a cornucopia in regard to its crustaceans, and, while that is true of those already known, there can be no doubt that before long the ' horn of plenty ' will be found to contain many more species than as yet it has yielded to science. ' Balanidae, p. 258. ^ Ibid. p. 530. The name Alcippe being preoccupied, Norman in Ann. Nat. Hist. (1903), Ser. 7, vol. xi, p. 369, substitutes Trypetesa. ^ Lepadidae, pp. 159, footnote, 164. ■* Ibid. p. 226. * Ibid. 240. 289 37 FISHES In consequence of the geographical features of Cornwall, the penin- sula being surrounded on three sides by the sea, and having a great extent of coast-line in proportion to its terrestrial area, marine fishes occupy a large and important place in its natural history, and play an important part in its economics. In numbers of individuals its waters are scarcely as productive as those of the North Sea, but in number and diversity of species they are surpassed by few if any other parts of the British or Irish coasts. Projecting in a south-westerly direction into the Atlantic Ocean, the peninsula extends into the area of distribution of several southern species, for example the pilchard, which are rare or wanting in other parts of Britain ; and wanderers or visitors of other southern or oceanic species, more frequently reach the coasts of Cornwall than other coasts of the British Isles. On the other hand, species of northern distribution, as for example the haddock {Gadus ceglefinus) and the viviparous blenny (Zoarces viviparus), are rare or absent from Cornish waters. Until lately the county has been fortunate in the number and enthusiasm of its local ichthyologists. In the earlier half of last century Dr. Jonathan Couch at Polperro studied the local fishes with unremitting attention, and his observations, first published in occasional papers, are collected for the most part in his complete work on the Fishes of the British Islands (1862-5). ^^ ^^^^ published special details on Cornish fishes in the Cornish Fauna in 1838, of which a second edition, with the fishes revised by T. Cornish, was published in 1878. R. Couch and T. Cornish made observations at Penzance, which were recorded in the Zoologist. Cocks noted remarkable captures at Fal- mouth. During a long lifetime at Mevagissey the late Matthias Dunn studied the natural history of marine fishes with remarkable success, and added to the fish-lore of the county by the information and specimens which he supplied to J. Couch, to Dr. Francis Day, and in his last years to the Plymouth Laboratory, even more than by his own communications to the scientific societies of the county and his other publications. Among marine fishes the pilchard is the most characteristic fish of Cornwall : it occurs in great abundance oflF the coasts of this county, and extends to the south coast of Devon, but is absent or extremely scarce on all the other coasts of Great Britain. The pilchard is the same species of fish which is called the sardine in France. Its habitat extends from Corn- wall and the south coast of Ireland to the neighbourhood of Madeira and throughout the Mediterranean. In the waters of the Atlantic however 291 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL the fish reaches a larger size, and therefore two races have been distin- guished, the oceanic sardine and the Mediterranean sardine : the former reaches the length of loor even ii inches, while the latter seldom ex- ceeds 7J inches. The sardines which are sent to England preserved in oil in air- tight tins, although small fish, are not derived from the Mediterranean, but are the young of the oceanic race. They are from 5 to 7 inches long, and are caught on the west coast of France from Brest to Bordeaux, and also on the Atlantic coasts of Spain and Portugal. On the French coast these small sardines appear in great numbers in summer from May to November. The pilchards caught in Cornwall are from 7 to 10 inches in length, usually 8 or 9 inches. These larger fish are also caught on the French coast in winter. It would naturally be presumed that the smaller fish would occur also on the Cornish coast, and, in fact, that is the case to a certain extent. But pilchards under 7 inches in length are usually so scarce in Cornish waters that it would be impossible to depend upon a supply of them for manufacture. In some seasons they are abundant in November and December in the neighbourhood of the Rame Head, and at times thou- sands of them are caught in the seines, but their occurrence is very uncer- tain. The present writer when holding a post under the Technical Instruction Committee of the Cornwall County Council was authorized to carry out a systematic series of experiments with French small-meshed nets and the French method of fishing, and the experiments were con- tinued for two seasons in Mount's Bay, Falmouth Bay, at Looe and Mevagissey, but without any more success than is indicated in the above conclusions. It has been conclusively established that the summer sardine caught off the French coast is immature, and it is probably a year old. The study of the reproduction of the mature sardine was found to be difficult, as fish containing ripe spawn were seldom caught. Of the vast numbers caught by the fishermen of Cornwall very few show any marked signs of the reproductive condition. It was ultimately ascertained that ripe pilchards are usually only to be found at a considerable distance from the coast. In fact, the habits of the fish are the reverse of those of the herring : pilchards approach the coast in order to feed, and go seawards when about to spawn. Matthias Dunn observed years ago that the ripe but unfertilized spawn floated in a bucket of sea-water, and at the Ply- mouth Laboratory the present writer proved that the fertilized spawn was normally buoyant, and possessed features which made it easy to identify the ova when collected from the sea. It was found that such ova occur constantly in the sea off the south coast of Cornwall and Devon from May to September. The history of the investigations concerning the spawn of the pil- chard is somewhat curious, and a brief summary of it may be of interest. Matthias Dunn's observation, made in 1871, that pilchard eggs floated in 292 FISHES sea water, has already been mentioned. In 1888 Raffaele, an Italian zoologist working at Naples, described buoyant ova from the sea with certain peculiarities, and suggested that they belonged to the sardine. About the same time the present writer working at Plymouth obtained similar ova from the sea, and from comparison of these with ripe but unfertilized eggs taken from the pilchard concluded that they belonged to this species. In the two or three years following Professor Pouchet investigated the question on behalf of the French Government at Con- carneau in Brittany, with the object of throwing some light on the cause of the failure of the French sardine fishery at that time. He refused to believe that the eggs of the sardine were buoyant, and maintained that there was no evidence that the fish spawned near the coast at all. At the same time Professor Marion at Marseilles from his own observations sup- ported the conclusions published by Raffaele and the present writer. The question was finally settled in 1893, when the present writer obtained living spawn actually taken from pilchards and artificially fertilized, and found that the ova agreed in every respect with those previously assigned to the species. The spawn thus obtained was actually hatched. The development of the young pilchard was also traced at Plymouth, and the young fish only 2 to 3 inches long were obtained from the stomachs of mackerel in November 1891, and from the Hamoaze in September 1893. In former times, until about the year 1883, pilchards annually visited the north coast of Cornwall, especially St. Ives Bay, in autumn in large shoals, but at present they are seldom found in abundance on this part of the coast, where herrings have taken their place. It is impossible to decide from any evidence at present available what is the cause of this change in the migrations of the pilchard. It would appear that there is on the north coast of Cornwall an alternation of pil- chard periods and herring periods, and it is natural to surmise that this is due to some alternating change in the physical conditions of the sea. As the Cornish coasts form the northern limit of the range of the pilchard, it seems possible that in certain periods the drift of warm water from the south extends further to the north, and that the pilchard then extends its wanderings to the north coast of Cornwall, while in other periods the drift of warm water is weaker or takes another direction, and that for this reason the north coast is deserted by the pilchard and visited by the her- ring. The present writer attempted to get evidence upon this point by comparing observations of the surface temperature of the sea taken by fishermen at various parts of the coast, but constant difi^erences supporting the above suggestion were not discovered. It might be suggested that the change is due to the increase of drift-net fishing, but this does not seem probable, for it is difiicult to see how this method of fishing could at the same time cause an increased abundance of herrings. The estuaries of Cornwall are broad and long, but the fresh waters above the reach of the tide are for the most part narrow and of limited 293 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL extent. Hence the freshwater fishes are not abundant either in species or individuals. Salmon and peal are regularly fished in the Camel and Fowey, but the freshwater trout are small, and a number of freshwater species common in central England, as, for example, the pike {Esox lucius^ Linn.), the roach {Leuciscus rutilus^ Linn.), the chub (L. cephalus^ Linn.), the bream (Abramis brama, Linn.) are entirely absent. An asterisk prefixed to the name in the following list indicates a freshwater species ; two asterisks denote occurrence Ln both fresh and salt water. TELEOSTEANS ACANTHOPTERYGII Perch. Perca Jluv'tatilis^ Linn. Museum of a specimen from Falmouth. Epinephelus aneus occurs in the Mediterranean, and on the west coast of Africa, but has not Stated by Borlase m 1758 to be unknown y^t been found on the coasts of Portugal or m Cornwall, but according to J. Couch was ^^e west coast of France. introduced in the last centurj. 5. Stone Bass. Polyprton amer'tcanuSy Bl. Schn. ; P. cerniuniy Day. First recorded in British waters by Couch, who obtained it at Polperro. Reported in 1845 as common between Land's End and the Scilly Isles. Mr. Dunn sent one from at other parts of the coast, and is caught by Mevagissey to the Plymouth Laboratory in It often enters the estuaries, 1892 ; Mr. Cornish obtained one at Penzance ** 2. Sea Bass. Morone lahraxy Linn. ; Labrax lupuSy Day. Common, and often of large size. Large shoals are sometimes seined near Sennen Cove at the Land's End. It is also taken in seines hook and line e.g. Helford river, the Tamar, etc. 3. Comber. Serranus cahrilla^ Linn. First obtained by J. Couch at Polperro ; occurs frequently at Mevagissey ; recorded by T. Cornish from Mount's Bay {Zool. 1866). 4. Epinephelus aneuSy GeofFr. Under the English name dusky perch and the scientific name Serranus gigaSy Cuv., J. Couch in his British Fishes described and figured a specimen 3 feet long taken with a line near Polperro about the year 1830. Day gives a description and figure under the same names, his figure being taken from a specimen sent from the museum at Berlin. Later in 1878. This fish is often called the wreck- fish from its habit of following wreckage, apparently in order to feed on the barnacles with which floating timbers are usually covered. Mr. J. B. Cornish gaffed one near wreckage off Ncwlyn in 1893 {Rep. Penz. Nat. Hist. Soc. 1893-4). 6. Maigre or Shade-fish. Sciana aquiby Lac^p. According to Day this fish is often taken off the coasts of Devon and Cornwall in summer and autumn. He mentions records of one in 1843 taken off Mevagissey which was 6 feet long; in 1844 one taken off Fowey ; in 1863 one at Penzance recorded ichthyologists, namely Moreau, Poissons de la by Cornish, and a small one in 188 1 taken in Francey and Doderlein, Mediterranean Ichthy- a trammel at Mevagissey. ologyy have identified the figures of both Couch and Day as representing a fish of the species Epinephelus aneuSy Geoffr., and not Serranus gig^Sy and this conclusion is confirmed by Dr. G. A. Boulenger {Brit. Mus. CataloguCy ed. 2, vol. i.) J. Couch states that two 7. Four-toothed Gilt Head. Dentex vulgarisy Cuv. & Val. A Mediterranean species of which occa- sional wanderers have been taken on the south coast. Two obtained by Cocks at other specimens of S. gigas were obtained Falmouth in 1846 and 1 851 are recorded in by Cocks at Falmouth, one of which was J. Couch's British Fishes. sent to the British Museum, and R. Q. Couch (ZW. 1846) stated on the authority of 8. Black Sea Bream. Cantharus lineatuSy Mr. E. Chirgwin that two other specimens Montagu. had been caught in Mount's Bay. Whether Couch records two at Polperro, and Mr. these other specimens were or the same Cornish others at Penzance. The latter species as Couch's or not it is impossible to observer states that one 7^ inches long was decide, as nothing is known at the British taken at Penzance in May 1880, and a 294 FISHES young specimen only 6;^ inches long was ground seines ; they are also caught with taken by Mr. Holt in July 1897 at the trammels and set-nets. In Helford river the mouth of the Lynher or St. Germans river owners of yachts catch them in considerable numbers with trammels. The plain mullet, M. barbatus^ is the Mediterranean form, the striped mullet the form found in the Atlantic and oflF the south coast of England. It is doubtful whether the plain form has ever been taken in Cornwall. in the Hamoaze. 9. Bogue. Box vulgarisy Cuv. & Val. The first specimen in British waters was obtained at Falmouth in 1843 in a seine. Several others have been obtained at the same place. In March 1873 a specimen 12 inches long was taken in Helford river. Labrus maculatus^ Linn. 10. Common Sea Bream. Pagellus centro- dontuSy De la Roche. Common all round the coast. The young are called chad, though these are often sup- posed to be of a distinct species. Chad take a bait very freely in summer and autumn. Large bream are often abundant at the Run- nelstone Buoy near the Land's End. II. Spanish Brunn. Bream. 18. Ballan Wrasse. Very common on rocky shores among sea- weed. It is very variable in colour, the commonest coloration being brown or greenish with a bright blue or white spot on every scale. Specimens taken in Zostera may be of a uniform green ; the L. lineatus of Dono- van is a variety of a green colour with yellow streaks. The var. L. comber^ Gmel., has dark transverse bars dorsally, and a white band along the side. But Mr. Holt has shown Pagellus bogaraveo, ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ individual can change its colour in a short time. Not very rare, but only single specimens are taken, usually with hook and line. 12. Axillary Bream. Pagellus oweniiy Giin- ther. Has been recorded from Cornwall. 13. Pagellus acarne^ Cuv. & Val. A specimen in the British Museum from Cornwall ; it was in Leach's collection. 14. Pandora Sea Bream. Pagellus erythrinus^ Linn. Common. Day states that the young were abundant at Mevagissey in August 1880. 15. Couch's Sea Bream. Pagrus orphuSy Risso. According to Day the only undoubted British specimen was one obtained by Couch about two miles south of Polperro, and de- scribed by him as a new species. The specimen was 20 inches long and 6 lb. in weight. 16. Gilt-Head. Pagrus auratuSy Linn. Another rare visitor. Mr. Cocks obtained two in the Falmouth market in 1846. In 1870 Mr. Cornish recorded one 18^ inches long, taken at Penzance in a mullet net {Zool.) 17. Red Mullet, Mullus barbatuSy Linn.; var. surmuletuSy Linn. Common, but not very abundant. In March they are found some miles out at sea, and are taken by the trawlers. After June they come close in shore and are taken in 19. Cook or Cuckoo Wrasse. Labrus mixtuSy Linn. Fairly common, but usually in deeper water than the ballan wrasse. The colours of the male are very brilliant, red with blue stripes. The female is yellow, with three black spots on the hinder part of the back. 20. Conner. Crenilabrus melopSy Linn. Very common. 21. Jago's Goldsinny. Ctenolabrus rupestrisy Linn. Common. Mevagissey, Mount's Bay and elsewhere. 22. Scale-rayed Wrasse. Acantholabrus pal- loniy Risso. Two specimens recorded by J. Couch ; one taken in 1830 at Deadman Point in up- wards of 50 fathoms of water ; the other was 10 inches long. 23. Rock Cook. Centrolabrus exoletuSy Linn. Not uncommon. 24. Rainbow Wrasse. Coris julhy Linn. A Mediterranean species of which the female is dull coloured, and has been de- scribed as a separate species under the name C. glofredi. A male, a little over 7 inches in length, was taken in Mount's Bay in 1802, and came into the possession of Donovan. '25. Miller's Thumb. Common in rivers. Cottus gobioy Linn. 295 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 26. Father-lasher, Short spined Bull-head, a resident of Cornwall, and I know of no Coitus scorpiuSy Linn. record of its spawning there. Wanderers This species is the northern form, and is however are occasionally taken. Mr. Cor- nish records in the Zoologist a male full of milt, of the size and colour of a female, taken in a mackerel drift net off Penzance in March 1873, ^"^ ^^° females captured in the same way in 1876. J. Couch also mentions that comparatively rare on the Cornish coast Cot t us bubalisy 27. Long-spined Bull-head. Euphr. Very common in rock pools and near the shore, and also in deeper water. The ordinary specimens are black or dark brown, with yellow patches, but specimens are some- times obtained from deep water in which these colours are replaced by red and white. Day mentions such a specimen obtained at Mevagissey. 28. Grey Gurnard. Tr'tgla gurnardus, Linn. Abundant on the trawling grounds. 29. Piper. Trig/a lyra^ Linn. Fairly common. they are occasionally taken in drift nets at the surface. This is not in accordance with their structure and usual habits, but indicates that they sometimes swim in open water. Mr. J. B. Cornish records both a male and a female at Penzance in 1894 [Zoo I. 1894). 37. Sea Snail. Ltparis vulgaris^ Flem. Also a species of northern latitudes. Rare in Cornwall ; has been taken at Falmouth. 38. Montagu's Sucker. Liparis montaguiy Cuv. 30. Tub or Sapphirine hi r undo y Linn. Common and valuable, but less abundant than the grey gurnard. 31. Streaked Gurnard. Trig/a lineata, Gme\. A somewhat rare species first obtained by Mr. Jago in Cornwall. Mr. Cornish stated that he obtained twenty-nine at Penzance from 1858 to 1866 {Zoo/. 1866). Mr. Holt [Journ. M.B.A. v. 109) says this is called the Gurnard. Trigla Occurs, but is not abundant. 39. Two-spotted Goby. Gobius ruthensparri^ Euphr. According to Day it is rather rare in Corn- wall, but is probably fairly common in Zostera and Laminaria beds. Holt states that it is fond of laying its eggs inside the bulbous roots of L. bulbosa. This naturalist has recently published an excellent revision of the British and Irish Gobiidas {Rep. Fisheries of Ireland for 1 90 1, pt. IL Scientific Investigations ; Dep. Polperro bull-dog at Plymouth, and is one of the commonest gurnard's of the district in deep Agricul. and Tech. Educ. Ireland^ 1 903). water, and that it was taken on one occasion in Cawsand Bay. 32. Red Gurnard or Elleck. Trigla cuculus^ Linn. Common on the trawling grounds. Gurnard. Trigla obscura^ 33 Lanthorn Linn. Mr. Cocks obtained specimens at Falmouth and Helford river. It only occurs occasionally. It is common in the Mediterranean. 34. Pogge or Armed Bull-head. cataphractuSy Linn. Rare, but occurs occasionally. Agonus 40. Willughby's Goby. Gobius paganellus^ Gmel. Abundant among rock-pools and under stones between tide marks, and on rough ground in shallow water. 41. Rock Goby. Gobius niger^ Linn. Common in estuaries. According to Holt the name rock goby is not very appropriate, as it occurs on comparatively clean muddy or sandy ground from tide marks to a depth of a few fathoms. 4 1 A. Giant Goby. Gobius capito, Cuv. & Val. This species is distinguished from Gobius 35. Armed Gurnard. Peristethus cataphractus^ paganellus^ which it most resembles, by the Gmel. Was taken in 1849 in Mount's Bay. J. Couch records two taken off Gorran, and another from Penzance. 36. Lumpsucker. Cyclopterus lumpus^ Linn. This is distinctly a northern species, common in Greenland and absent from the Mediterranean. It can scarcely be said to be 296 following peculiarities : (i) The anterior membrane of the united ventral fins forms a pointed lobe on each side ; (2) the eyes are smaller and the width between them greater. The species is well known in the Mediter- ranean and is common at Marseilles. In 1899 it was discovered for the first time by Mr. Boulenger on the west coast of France in the Gulf of St. Malo. Couch stated that his FISHES largest specimens of Gobius nt'ger, up to 9^ It was also taken in April 1897 "^ ^^^ Lyn- inches in length, were found in rock pools her river, above Waterlake to Anthony Pas- above the reach of ordinary tides, and Mr. sage, in company with young herrings of Boulenger suggested that these large speci- similar size. Also in Kiln Bay, Tamar river, mens might have been really Gobius capita. In August 1903 Mr. Pickard- Cambridge 47- Crystal Goby. Crystallogobius nUssomi, found such large gobies in the rock-pools at JJiib. & Kor. Portscatho east of Falmouth, and they were Abundant in the deeper part of Falmouth identified by him and Mr, Boulenger as Bay, forming, as probably on other offshore Gobius capita, which was thus added to the grounds along the coast, the chief food of half- British fauna. The fish when adult is from grown dories and large scald-fish. 7 to 10 inches in length, much larger than any other species of goby. It is thus evident that Couch saw specimens of this species but erroneously identified them as Gobius niger (see Field, 24 Oct. 1903, where figs, are given). 42. Freckled Goby. Gobius minutus, Linn. According to Holt there are two main races of this variable species. One is the typical form, G. minutus major, which is larger ^^^ sent to the Queen, when the Prince but more slender and reaches 3^ inches in Consort identified it as C. aper. In later length. This is found on open coasts down X^ars many records were published in the to about 50 fathoms. The second race is 'Zoologist. At the present time the fish is estuarine and is identical with the G. parnelli abundant in summer on the trawling grounds of Day ; it is stouter in build but smaller, ^om the Start to the Lizard, and also off 'Y\\Q, Mount's Bay. 48. John Dory. Xeus faber, Linn. Common. Larger specimens are taken by the trawlers in deep water, small ones occur in shallow water in summer. 49. Boar-fish. Capros aper, Linn. In the early part of the nineteenth century this fish was regarded as a rarity ; in 1842 a specimen was found on the beach at Brighton not exceeding 2\ inches in length largest and most brightly coloured specimens came from the clean and sandy estuaries of the north of Cornwall, the smallest and most dingy from the muddy and brackish estuaries of the North Sea. 50. Trumpet Fish. Centriscus scolopax, Linn. A Mediterranean species of which speci- mens have rarely been found on British coasts. Day states that one undoubted example was thrown on shore at Menabilly near Fowey in 1804, and recorded in the second edition of Pennant's British Zoology in 1 8 12. 43. Painted Goby. Gobius pictus. Malm. Abundant on the south coast of the county. 44. Jeffreys' Goby. Gobius jefreysii, GVan- 5 1- Mackerel. Scomber scombr us, Unn. ther. The chief fishing season for mackerel off This is a deep water species ranging from the coasts of Cornwall is the spring, from the 19 to 180 fathoms. It has been found near beginning of March to June. At this time a the Eddystone, and probably occurs further fleet of several hundred boats, steam and sail, west also. makes its headquarters at Newlyn, while others are fishing from St. Ives, Falmouth and 45. Gobius scorpioides, Collett. Mevagissey. The fish are found about the This is one of the smallest fishes known. Scilly Isles, north of St. Ives, and in the Eng- It was first described by Collett in 1874; lish Channel. They spawn in May and June two specimens were obtained off the coast of and the eggs are buoyant. In summer and Norway and one in the Cattegat. The autumn mackerel approach the shore, and are longest was not quite i^ inches in length. In July 1897 Mr. Holt obtained a specimen in Falmouth Harbour at a depth of 1 8 fathoms. It was a mature female. He has since found it plentiful in Ballynakill Harbour in Ireland. caught, though in smaller numbers, by hook and line and by the seine. In winter the Cornish boats fish for them off Plymouth. 52. Spanish Mackerel. Scomber colias, Gmel. A Mediterranean species of which occa- sional specimens occur off Cornwall. 46. Transparent Goby. Aphia pellucida, Nardo. Abundant in Cawsand Bay in July, and 53- Short-finned Tunny. Thunnus thynnus, probably at other parts of the coast. Accord- Linn. ing to Collett it is an annual species, reaching Mr. R. Couch considered these fish to be maturity in one year and dying after breeding, common off west Cornwall and the Scilly I 297 38 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Isles, and Day states that they were abundant 6l. Ray's Bream. Brama raii^ Bl. Schn. off Cornwall in 1840. They are occasionally taken in the mackerel and pilchard nets. 54. Germon or Long-finned Tunny. Thunnus germo^ Lac6p. According to Day has been twice taken in Mount's Bay, the last time in 1846. 55. Pelamid. Pelamys sarda^ Bloch. Several specimens have been recorded by Dunn, Couch and Cornish, taken at Meva- gissey, Polperro, Mount's Bay and other places, but have sometimes been mistaken for Thunnus thynnus. 56. Plain Bonito. Aux'is roche'ty Risso. Specimens recorded in 1843 and 1844 at the present writer. Looe and Mount's Bay. 57. Sucking-fish. Echeneh remoroy Linn. Mr. Dunn obtained a specimen, which he gave to J. Couch, from a blue shark taken eighteen miles off the Deadman, near Meva- gissey. As the blue shark is common off the Cornish coast, it is possible that the sucking- fish frequently accompanies it. 58. Scabbard-fish. Lepichpus caudatus^YjXX^hr. Day mentions several records for Cornwall, beginning with two specimens taken in Mount's Bay. Cocks, in Rep. Roy. Cornwall Polyt. Soc. 1869, described one taken near This fish seems to live in rather deep water in the Atlantic and is occasionally thrown on shore or found in shallow water after storms. There are several records from Cornwall. R. Couch {Zoo/. 1846) stated that two speci- mens had been taken at Polperro, and one near the Runnelstone in Mount's Bay. In 1866 {Zoo/.) Mr. Clogg recorded one washed ashore at Looe. In 1874 and 1875 in the same journal Mr. Cornish mentioned two found near or on the beach near Penzance. In March 1891 a specimen about i ft. 8 in. long taken with a gafF at the surface near Portscatho, was sent to the PI) mouth Labora- tory by Matthias Dunn, and examined by 62. Opah or King-fish. La mpr i s /una yGme\. Also belongs to the deep water of the At- lantic, and has been most frequently taken on the Norwegian coast and the northern shores of the British Isles. A list of captures is to be found in Rep. Roy. Corn. Po/yt. Soc. for 1869. J. Couch mentions one taken in the west of Cornwall in 1835. In June 1865 a large specimen was taken in St. Austell Bay. 63. Luvarus imperia/is, Rafin. This is a Mediterranean species, not com- mon even in that sea. The only British length. 64. Scad or Horse-Mackerel. Caranx tra- churuSy Linn. Frequently taken in the mackerel nets and sometimes in seines. Falmouth at Gyllyng Vase which was 53^ specimens have been taken in Cornwall : one inches long. J. Couch stated that he had thrown on shore at the Deadman m 1866 records of four taken in Cornwall, one of ^^^ sent by Dunn to Couch, another found which was 64 inches long. floundering in a tide-pool at Falmouth m the same year. The first specimen is in the 59. Silvery Hair-tail. Trlc/?iurus /epturus, British Museum, the second was 4 feet in Linn. J. Couch figures the first authentic British specimen of this species ; it was 2 ft. 3 in. long and was thrown ashore at Whitsand's Bay near the Land's End in 1853. Since then a large number have been recorded as obtained in Cornwall. According to Mat- thias Dunn they were common in the winter 65. Pilot-fish. Naucrates ductor^ Linn, months from 1865 to 1875, but scarce before Celebrated as the companion of sharks, it and since that period. In 1867 one was also accompanies ships, and has often followed taken in a mackerel net in Mount's Bay, and the latter into British harbours. Mr. Cocks Mr. Cornish recorded others subsequently stated that in 1856 a shoal of these fish ap- {Zoo/. 1867, 1871, and 1872). Specimens peared at the Custom House pier at Falmouth, have also been recorded from Looe and and dozens were taken by people on the Helford river (Hardwicke, Sc. Gossipy 1872). beach. Mr. Cornish recorded two at Pen- One was taken in 1876 in St. German's zance in 1868, two taken in mackerel nets in river (Gatcombe, Zoo/. 1876). Mount's Bay in 1873 and another in 1874. 60. Sword-fish. Xip/yias g/adiuSy Linn. 66. Derbio. Liclna g/aucoy Linn. In August 1878 a specimen 8 ft. 7 in. Couch obtained a specimen 13^ inches long and weighing 138 lb. was taken by hook long taken in a drift net near the Runnelstone and line in Mount's Bay (Cornish, Zoo/. in 1857. Mr. Cornish recorded a second p. 35 1)' specimen taken near Penzance in 1878. 298 FISHES 67. Lichia vadigo, Risso. In the Report of the Penzance Natural History Society^ 1893-4, Dr. Gunther records a specimen of this species 19 inches long taken in a pollack net off Prussia Cove in 1892 (see also Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, X. 335). 68. Rudder-fish. Pammelas perciformis^ Mitchill. The only British specimen was obtained about six miles from Penzance in October 1874 and was recorded by Mr. Cornish {Zool. 1874). It was found alive in a floating wooden case of which one board was wanting from the top. Day states that it was pre- served in the collection of Sir John St. Aubyn. Mr. Cornish, thinking it was a new species, gave it the name Pimelepterus cornubiensis. Mr. Holt gives an interesting paper on this and other species of the family Stromateida {Rep. Fisheries of Ireland for 1901, p. 70), Holt in Falmouth 'Bay, July 1897, depth 30 nets, as though they were in the habit of swimming towards the surface at night. 72. Lesser Weever, Viper Weever. Trach- inus vipera^ Cuv. & Val. Common in sandy bays. In both this and the larger species there is a spine at the upper part of the operculum which is poisonous, and a prick from it causes intense pain for a short time. 73. Dragonet or Skulpin. CaUionymm lyra^ Linn. Very common. The male is distinguished by its brilliant blue and yellow colouring, and by the great elongation of the rays of the anterior dorsal fin. The eggs are buoyant, and the sexes perform an elaborate courtship. 74. Spotted Dragonet. Callionymus maculatus^ Bonap. A fully developed male trawled by Mr. and states that in September 1901 a large shoal of rudder-fish followed a barnacle- covered log which drifted ashore at the Aran Islands. The peasants were so afraid of them that they ran away, believing that they were sheeogues or fairies. 69. Blackfish. Centrolophus pompilus^ Linn. Two specimens were taken at Looe in I 72 1 and recorded by Borlase in his Natural History of Cornwall. Couch mentions one taken in 1830, a second on a hand-line near Polperro in 1831, and another came with a ship into St. Ives Harbour and was gaffed. There are several later records. Mr. Gat- combe {Zool. 1872) records one taken in a mackerel net off the Deadman, which ap- peared to have followed a large porbeagle taken in the same net. Mr. Dunn knew of a dozen taken at Mevagissey. Mr. Holt describes six or eight specimens taken in a mackerel net near the Runnelstone in 1891. They were all small specimens between 12 and 14 inches in length {fourn. M.B.A. ii. 265). 70 to 35 fathoms. Previously known from the Hebrides and the :Firth of Clyde, and from the west coast of Ireland. Common in the Mediterranean. 75. Cornish Sucker. Lepadogaster gouanii^ Lac6p. Common under stones and in pools between tide marks. 76. Double-spotted Sucker bimaculatuSy Flem. Lepadogaster Not so common as the preceding species. 77. Connemara Sucker. Lepadogaster decan- dolii. J. Couch states that he obtained only a few specimens. In his account of dredging excursions subsidized by the British Associa- tion in 1866 he mentions a specimen obtained at 40 fathoms. 78. Cat-fish or Wolf-fish. Anarrhichas lupus^ Linn. According to J. Couch has been taken at Looe and Fowey, but it is a northern fish very seldom seen in Cornwall. 79. Gattorugine. Blennius gattorugine, Bloch. Common in rather deep water, and fre- Cornish Centrolophus. Centrolophus hritannicus^ Gilnther. This is probably a spurious species. A specimen was thrown on the shore near Looe, obtained by Couch and presented by him to quently taken in crab-pots the British Museum, where it was stuffed and the descriptions and figures were taken from the stuffed specimen which, according to Day, is distorted. It was probably a specimen of C. pompilus. 71. Greater Weever. Trachinus dracoy h'mn. Common on sandy ground. Couch men- 80. Montagu's Blenny. Blennius galerita, Linn. Common in Mount's Bay between tide marks, and on other parts of the coast. 81. Butterfly Blenny. Blennius ocellaris^ Linn. Not uncommon at Falmouth (Cocks), and tions that they are sometimes taken in drift occurs also in Mount's Bay. 299 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 82. Shanny. Blennius phoUs^ Linn. Common in rock pools and under stones between tide marks. 83 Blenny. Carelophus ascanit Crested Walb According to R. Couch has been frequently obtained, but is rare in Mount's Bay, Cornish having recorded the first at Penzance in 1878. 84. Butterfish or Gunnel nellus^ Bl. Schn. Common between tide marks perro in 1840. According to Matthias Dunn young poutassou were abundant in the neigh- bourhood of Mevagissey in 1861, 187 1 and 1881. Gadus virenSy Linn. 93. Coal-fish. In Cornwall this fish is known as the raun- ing pollack, which appears to mean ravenous pollack. It is often more common than the true pollack, and is of large size. Many are landed by the long-liners at Polperro, and I Centronoius gun- y^zvc caught fine specimens off the Runnel- stone Buoy near the Land's End. 85. Red Band-fish. Cepola rubescenSy Linn. Mr. Dunn recorded it from Mevagissey. 86. Angler, Fishing Frog, Monk-fish, or Sea Devil. Lophius piscatoriuSy Linn. Common. The spawn is shed in a gela- tinous band. The writer has seen some of 94. Pollack. Gadus pollach'iuSy Linn. Common ; caught by the long-lines, and also by amateurs by whiffing and other methods. 95. Norway Pout. Gadus esmarkiiy Nilsson. Mr. Matthias Dunn obtained specimens of a Gadus unknown to him from the stomach this spawn brought up on to the deck of a of a pollack caught in a trawl 40 miles north- trawler off the Wolf Rock, and Mr. Dunn west of St. Ives. Two of the specimens obtained a band which was floating at the were sent to the Plymouth Laboratory in surface off Mevagissey and sent it to the Ply- mouth Laboratory. ANACANTHINI 87. Cod. Gadus morrhuay Linn. Plentiful and of good size, but usually somewhat smaller and inferior in flavour to those of the North Sea. 88. Haddock. Gadus aglefinuSy Linn. At present haddock are rare off the Cornish coast. I have not paid particular attention to the point, but if caught at all only single specimens are taken occasionally. Mr. Dunn stated that they were plentiful off Mevagissey until 1870, in weight up to I2 lb., but en- tirely left the coast in that year. R. Couch observed that they spawned in Cornwall. 89. Bib, Pout, Whiting-pout. Gadus luscus, Linn. Abundant. These fish are often called blens or blinds in Cornwall from the peculiar bulging of the opaque cornea of the large eyes after death. 90. Power or Poor Cod. Gadus m'lnutuSy Linn. Equally common with the bib. 91. Whiting. Gadus merlangusy Linn. Abundant, taken by hand lines and also by the trawlers. 92. Poutassou. Gadus poutassou^ Risso. Mr. Couch obtained a specimen at Pol- 1897 and identified by Mr. Holt as G. esmarkii {Journ. M.B.A. v. 79). The species had been previously found off the west coast of Scotland and the west coast of Ireland at depths between 26 and 144 fathoms. In August 1900 Mr. Garstang identified a speci- men taken in a ground seine between Saltash and the Lynher river. This specimen was about 7 inches long. 96. Hake. Merluclus vulgaris^ Cuv. A characteristic Cornish fish, but accounts agree in stating that it is much scarcer now, especially in inshore waters, than it used to be. It is a fish which ranges to deep water, and the steam trawlers landing at Plymouth and Milford Haven catch very large numbers at the mouth of the English Channel, and even in the Bay of Biscay. 97 Greater Fork-beard. Phycis blennioideSy Bl. Schn. J. Couch considered this species rather common in Cornwall, but Mr. Cornish states that it is rare ; he obtained one at Penzance in 1864 and one at the Land's End in 1870. In 1873 one was taken in a herring net at Looe. In 1892 one was received at Ply- mouth caught on a whiting hook 5 miles from shore, and according to Holt one has been trawled in Cawsand Bay. 98. Ling. Molva vulgaris^ Flem. Common ; numbers of large specimens are caught by the long-lines at Polperro and elsewhere. 300 FISHES 99. Five-bearded Rockling. Motella muitela^ Linn. Common. 100. Four-bearded Rockling. Motella c'lm- bria^ Linn. Cocks has recorded it from Falmouth. Mr. Cornish states that it is small and rare in Cornwall. Holt mentions a specimen taken from the stomach of a hake trawled in or off the Bristol Channel. It was Z\ inches long, and the first ray of the dorsal fin was over 2 inches in length [Journ. M.B.A. v. 343). lOi. Three-bearded Rockling. Motella tr't- cirratOy Bl. Very common. There are three principal stages in the life history of this fish. Li the first stage they are silvery little fish with long pectoral fins which are black at the ends. These are known as mackerel midges and swim at the surface in June. The older fish up to a length of about 6 inches are of a uniform dark colour and are found under stones between tide marks. The adults, which reach a length of 20 inches and are spotted, are found in deeper water. 102. Lesser Fork-beard. Raniceps raninus^ Linn. Mr. Dunn has obtained it at Mevagissey, and Mr. Cornish recorded it several times from Mount's Bay from 1863 to 1878. 103. Bearded Ophidium. Ophidium harbatunty Linn. A specimen 10 inches in length from Pad- stow is in the British Museum. PLEURONECTOIDEI 104. Halibut. Hippoglossus vulgaris^ Flem. This fish is very seldom caught on the Cornish coast, but a few specimens have been recorded. One weighing 102 lb. was obtained at Mevagissey in 1870, and another weighing about a hundredweight was taken on a spiller in Mount's Bay in 1882 (Cornish, Zoologist). 105. Long Rough Dab. Hippoglossoides I'lmandoideSy Bl. Cocks obtained a specimen at Falmouth. 106. Turbot. Rhombus maximuSy Linn. Common, and reaches a large size. The young up to a length of i inch or i;^ inches and in process of metamorphosis swim at the surface, and are often to be seen in harbours in May or June, e.g. Mevagissey. 107. Brill. Rhombus lavisy Gottsche. Common, taken by trawlers. The young 301 are similar to those of the turbot, but smaller, and are found in similar conditions. 108. Common Topknot. Zeugopterus puncta- tus, Bl. ; Rhombus punctatus, GUnther. Rather common, but not abundant. Day obtained it at Penzance in i88l,and Cornish stated in the Zoologist that he obtained forty- eight specimens between 1858 and 1866. 1 09. One-spotted Topknot. Zeugopterus uni- maculatuSy Risso. J. Couch alludes to a specimen from the Bristol Channel in 1863, ^"'^ Cornish ob- tained one in 1880. It is evidently rarer than the common topknot. 1 10. Norway Topknot. Zeugopterus norwegi- cuSy Giinther. Four specimens trawled in July 1891 be- tween the Eddystone and Rame Head in 25 fathoms. One specimen trawled six miles from Plymouth Breakwater in March 1892. The last specimen was a ripe female. It does not exceed 4 inches in length. 111. Sail Fluke or Megrim. Lepidorhombus megastomoy Donov. Common on the trawling grounds. The sail-fluke and carter of J. Couch's British Fishes are the same species, but it is usually called the megrim in the fish trade. The legend of its floating to the shore in the Orkneys with its tail erected as a sail seems to be founded on fact, as it seems to come to the surface and be thrown ashore there in storms. 112. Scald-fish or Scald-back. Arnoglossus laternoy Walb. Very common on sandy ground, the young in shallow water, the adults on the trawling grounds. The A. kphotes of Giinther, dis- tinguished by the elongation of the anterior rays of the dorsal fin and of the rays of the pelvic fins, is the adult male. 113. Broad Scald -fish. Arnoglossus groh- manniy Bonap. Two females trawled by Holt in Gerran's Bay, July 1897, both full of spawn. 114. Plaice. Pleuronectes platessay l^'xnn.. Abundant, but not so large as those of the northern part of the North Sea. There are several local races of plaice differing not only in size at maturity, but in minute structural characters ; the English Channel race ex- tends to the coasts of Holland, further north is a larger race, while the Iceland plaice and Baltic plaice are quite distinct. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 115 125. Globe-fish. Tetrodon /agocepha/uSy Linn. A specimen obtained at Penzance i foot in length was described in Pennant's British Zoology (1776), A specimen from Mount's Bay was recorded by Boase in Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1833. In 1867 one 19 inches long was taken near Truro, and in 1868 one at Penzance {Zoo/. 1868). Couch, without giving the 117. Witch or Pole-Dab. Pleuronectes cyno- years, states that one was taken at Polperro, Lemon Dab. P/euronectes microcepha/uSy Donov. Usually called lemon sole in the fish trade. Common on the trawling grounds, scarce in shallow water. 116. Dab. P/euronectes /imanda, L.inn. Common. g/ossuSy Linn. Dunn obtained one at Mevagissey, and Mr. Cornish considers it rare along the Cornish coast. It is a northern species of which only occasional wanderers occur in Cornwall. **li8. Flounder. P/euronectes JiesuSy hinn. Very common in the estuaries; descends to the sea in the spawning season, February to May. The young of this species are abun- dant in the tide pools of Mevagissey Harbour in April and May in various stages of meta- morphosis, the youngest being quite trans- parent. 119. Sole, So/i'(i vu/garisy Quensel. Common and fine. A few young speci- mens about ^ to I inch long occur with the young flounders at low tide in Mevagissey Harbour in May. 120. Lemon Sole, Sand Sole, French Sole. So/ea /(iscarisy Risso. This is a true sole quite distinct from the lemon dab, which is called lemon sole by fish dealers. It is at first sight similar to the common sole, but distinguished by the colour and by the dilated fringed nostril on the blind side. It is comparatively rare. two in Mount's Bay and one at St. Ives, belongs to the tropical Atlantic. It 121. Thick-back or Variegated Sole. variegatay Donov. Common on the trawling grounds. So/ea 122. Solenette. So/eo /uteoy Risso. Common in sandy bays as well as in deeper water. Does not exceed 4 or 5 inches in length, and is often erroneously supposed to be the young of the common sole. PLECTOGNATHI 123. Spotted File-fish. Ba/istes macu/atuSy Gmel. A single specimen in the British Museum stated to have been received from Polperro, but Day thinks this is probably a mistake. 124. File-fish. Ba/istes capriscuSy Gmel. A specimen was taken in 1865 at Porthloe, and came into the possession of J. Couch. 126. Sun-fish. Ort/yagoriscus mo/ay Linn. Large specimens are occasionally captured in summer and autumn. Borlase mentions a specimen from Mount's Bay, and I saw a large specimen a i^^ years ago at Penberth, west of Penzance. 127. Oblong Sun-fish. Ort/jagoriscus trun- catuSy Retz. Borlase also mentions this species in his Natura/ History of Cornwa// as taken at Pen- zance in 1743. Couch mentions two taken in Mount's Bay in 1855. One was taken at Charlestown and is in the Truro Museum. In 1883 one was caught in Looe Harbour (Clogg, Zoo/.) PERCESOCES ** 128. Thick-lipped Grey Mullet. Mugi/ ch)e/oy Cuv. This species is abundant at certain times and places. Large specimens are captured in large numbers at Sennen in winter time by means of seines. They are common about the docks at Falmouth, and in the Swan Pool near that town. In the latter place the water is almost fresh, but the sea water enters at flood tide. The outlet is protected by a grat- ing so that mullet can only enter when small and young. ** 129. Thin-lipped Grey Mullet. Mugtl capita y Cuv. Day states that he obtained many speci- mens from the south-west coast, but the present writer has never identified it. 130. Sand Smelt or Atherine. At/jerina presbytery Jenyns. Very common in all the harbours and estuaries. 131. Larger Launce or Sand Eel. Ammody- tes /anceo/atusy Lesauvage. Common on sandy shores. 132. Lesser Launce or Sand Eel. Ammody- tes tohianuSy Linn. More abundant than the preceding species. 302 FISHES Largely caught with seines at St. Ives for use as bait. 133. Garfish. Belone vulgaris^ Flem. A {&vi specimens are usually taken with every catch of mackerel. At Newlyn I found in their stomachs copepods and sand- eels, and I have suggested that the chief function of the long snout may be to probe the sand in pursuit of the latter. 134. Saury Pike or Skipper. Scombresox saurus^ Bl. Schn. Large shoals stated by Mr. Dunn to appear annually at Mevagissey in the autumn pil- chard season. He considers them to be con- stantly at war with the pilchards, but it is diffi- cult to see for what reason they should attack the latter. When skippers and pilchards were enclosed together in a seine, thousands of the pilchards had their eyes knocked out, or their heads or bodies transfixed by the beaks of the skippers. 135. Greater Flying-fish. Exocoetus volitans^ Linn. R. Couch stated that these fish were not rare in Mount's Bay, and that in 1845 he saw many start out of the water. This however does not amount to identification, and the only authenticated specimen men- tioned by Day is one found on the beach at Helford river and given to J. Couch. HEMIBRANCHII ** 136. Three-spined Stickleback. Gastros- teus aculeatus^ Linn. The variety trachurus, which is marine or estuarine, occurs in Cornwall. The variety spinulosus, which has four spines, is al- so common, and the smooth-tailed form, G. gymnuruSy probably equally so. 137. Fifteen-spined Stickleback. Gastrosteus spinachia^ Linn. Common in the estuaries. founded with it. For the distinctions between the two see Journ. M.B.A. v. 175. It has been obtained from Cawsand Bay, and is pro- bably common all along the coast. 141. Snake Pipe-fish. Nerophis cequoreus^ Linn. Common. 142. Straight-nosed Pipe-fish. Nerophis ophidian^ Linn. Common. 143. Worm Pipe-fish. Nerophis lumbrici- formisy Yarr. Common under stones between tide marks. OSTARIOPHYSI *I44. Carp. Cyprinus carpio^ Linn. Occurs in ponds. *I45. Gold-fish. Cyprinus carassius^ Linn., var. auratus. In ornamental ponds. *I46. Gudgeon. Gohio fluviatilisy Flem. Said by J. Couch to have been introduced and to be thriving in some ponds near Pen- zance, but Mr. Cornish, in the Cornish Fauna^ ed. 2, said he did not know of it. *I47. Dace. Leuciscus dobula^ Linn. Common in the Tamar and its tributaries [Cornish Fauna). *I48. Minnow. Leuciscus phoxinus, Li'inn. Common in many of the rivers, but not in all (Couch). *I49. Tench. Tinea vulgaris, Cuv. Lives in ponds at Trengwainton near Penzance, where they were placed by Sir Rose Price (J. Couch). A common pond fish in Cornwall (Cornish). *I50. Loach. Nemachilus barbatuluSy Linn. Common in some rivers. LOPHOBRANCHII 138. Broad-nosed Pipe-fish. Siphonostoma typhky Linn. Common in Zostera beds, where it is con- cealed by its protective resemblance to a frond of the weed. 139. Greater Pipe-fish. Syngnathus acusj Linn. Common, chiefly among Fucus. 140. Syngnathus rostellatuSy Nilss. This is a species similar to S. acus but of smaller size, and has until lately been con- MALACOPTERYGII **I5I. Salmon. Sa/mo sa/ar, hinn. Chiefly caught in the Fowey river, the Camel and the Tamar. **I52. Peal. Sa/mo trutta, Linn., var. cam- bricuSy Donovan. Taken in the same rivers as the salmon, and occasionally in drift or moored nets off the coast. *I53. Trout. Salmo farioy Linn. The trout of Cornwall, at least in the small streams, belong to the variety S. cor- 303 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL nubiensisy Walb,, retaining the parr marks usually throughout life, and only reaching 7 or 8 inches in length. They are however fairly abundant, and afford good sport. The streams in west Cornwall are too narrow and overgrown for the artificial fly, and amateurs mostly use insects and woodlice as bait. 154. Anchovy. Engraulis encras'icholuSy\Anr\. Matthias Dunn stated long ago that anchovies were common every autumn off the coast from Polperro to Falmouth, and in 187 1 he reported the capture of 150,000 of these fish at Mevagissey, which were used as manure. Usually a few specimens are taken in the pilchard nets, but there is no regular fishery for them, as the supply is not suffi- ciently constant. In 1 89 1 and 1892 a few hundreds were caught in small-meshed nets employed by the staff of the Plymouth Labora- tory off the Rame Head. There is a regular fishery for anchovies in the Zuyder Zee in Holland in summer, and it is believed that they migrate in winter through the English Channel. 155. Herring. Clupea harengus^ Linn. Herrings are caught sometimes on the south coast from Looe and Mevagissey, but the more regular fisheries are on the north coast of the county at St. Ives, Newquay, and Port Isaac. The chief fishery is that of St. Ives, which has of late years taken the place of the old seine fishery for pilchards. The fishery lasts from the beginning of October to the end of January, but the chief months are November and December. The fish spawn at the end of the season in Bassett's Bay. 156. Sprat. Clupea sprattus, Linn. Sprats occur in small numbers along the Cornish coasts, but they are not abundant, and there is no regular fishery for them except with ground seines at Saltash and the shores of the Hamoaze. 157. Pilchard. Clupea pi Ichardus^ Linn. Abundant from July to Christmas. **I58. Allis Shad. Clupea alosa^ Linn. Occurs on the south coast. Matthias Dunn states that as many as 600 have been caught at one time in a mackerel seine at Mevagissey. ** 159. Twaite Shad. Clupea finta^ Cuv. According to R. Couch, frequently taken in pilchard and mackerel nets in west Cornwall. 160. ParaUpis coregonoideSy Risso. A single specimen was taken by hand at Polkerris near Mevagissey, in 1869, by Mr. Dunn, who sent it to J. Couch ; the latter presented it to the British Museum. It be- longs to the Mediterranean, but is rare even there. The Cornish specimen, in spirit, was 10 inches long. APODES **l6l. Eel. Anguilla vulgarisy Turton. Common, but not abundant. The young, from 2 inches in length upwards, are found on the shore between tide marks, and in freshwater streams in early summer, e.g. at Mevagissey. 162. Conger. Conger vulgaris, Cuv. Abundant ; mostly taken on long lines baited with pilchard. All the marketable conger caught are females. The fishermen do not recognize the roe, which is in two bands loaded with fat. The eggs are very small. The males do not exceed 2^ feet in length, and it has been shown by researches at the Plymouth Laboratory that both sexes die after spawning. The ripe fish are not caught, because they do not feed for several months before spawning. The young form known as Leptocephalus is transparent, flat, and ribbon-shaped, and has only rarely been obtained. 163. Muraena. Murana helenay Linn. A specimen 4 ft. 4 in. long was captured on a line at Polperro in 1834, and obtained by J. Couch, who also received information of another caught in a trammel at Fowey in 1866. GANOIDS **l64. Sturgeon. Acipemer sturio, Linn. Rare in Cornwall according to the Cornish Fauna, but no records are given by Day. CHONDROPTERYGIANS 165. Blue Shark. Carcharias glaucus, Linn. A specimen 8 ft. 3 in. long was taken on a Common on the mackerel grounds in line near Fowey in September 1868. summer, and sometimes entangled in the nets. 304 FISHES 1 66. Tope. GaJeus vulgaris^ Flem. Not uncommon. 167. Hammerhead, Zygana malleuSy Risso. A specimen is recorded as taken at New- lyn in 1834. 168. Rough Hound or Small-spotted Dog- fish. Scyllium canicula^ Linn. Very common. 169. Nurse Hound or Large-spotted Dog- fish. Scyllium cntulus^ Cuv. Common, but not so abundant as the pre- ceding. The eggs of this species are found attached to stems of Laminaria at low tide at St. Just in Falmouth Harbour. 170. Black-mouthed Dog-fish. Fristiurus melanostomus^ Bonap. One specimen 25 1 inches long was taken at Polperro in 1834. 171. Smooth Hound. Muller & Henle. Common. Mustelus vulgaris.) 172. Porbeagle. Lamna cornuhica, Gmel. Has been frequently taken. Dunn re- corded a pair taken at Mevagissey in 1881, the male 9^ feet long, the female 8^ feet* 173. Thrasher. A lopias vulpes^ Gvat\. Not uncommon. Is frequently captured by the mackerel or pilchard nets. A specimen was landed at Cadgwith about the year 1900, and the writer has seen it leap clear above the surface of the sea off Falmouth. Mr. Gatcombe records one 5 ft. 6 in. long taken at Mevagissey on a common whiting hook. In 1878, according to Mr. Dunn, the crew of a trawler reported that they saw a thrasher and a sword fish attacking a rorqual in Meva- gissey Bay. 174. Basking Shark. Selache maxima^ G\xnn. A specimen brought ashore in Cornwall and described in J. Couch's British Fishes measured 31 ft. 8 in. in length. A specimen landed in St. Austell Bay near Menabilly, the seat of the Rashleighs, was 29 ft. 4 in. long, had a mouth 2^ feet wide and weighed 175. Six-gilled Shark. Notidanus griseus^ Gmel. In May 1873 one 2^ feet long was taken by baited hook three miles offshore at Meva- gissey. In 1846 one 26 ft. 5 in. long was captured at Polperro, and another 6 feet long taken at the same place is in the British Museum. 176. Picked Dogfish or Spur Dog. Acan- thias vulgaris^ Risso. Abundant ; sometimes swarms in such numbers as seriously to interfere with the pil- chard and mackerel fishing. At Mevagissey a year or two ago I saw a large number being cleaned and prepared to be sent to market for eating. It is viviparous. 177. Centrina salviani^ Risso. A specimen was obtained by Mr. Cornish in 1877 which had been trawled near the Wolf Rock. 178. Spinous Shark. Gmel. Echinorhinus spinosus^ A large number of captures of this species in Cornwall have been put on record : one 8 1 feet long in 1849 ^Y Cocks at Falmouth ; a female 7 J feet long on a line at Polperro in 1867; in 1881 one 6 feet long was caught sixteen miles off the Deadman. Mr. Cornish recorded five taken in Mount's Bay between 1865 and 1881. 179. Angel-fish or Monk-fish. Rhinasquatinay Linn. Common. Taken sometimes in trammels and cut up as bait for crab-pots, also trawled and caught on long lines. It is often 5 or 6 feet long, and is said to reach even 8 feet. 180. Torpedo. Torpedo nobiliana^ Bonap, Has frequently been captured. Couch alludes to five taken in one year in Mount's Bay, and two or three which came under Cocks' observation at Falmouth. T. Cornish records one trawled in 1873 between the Lizard and Land's End, and a second near Penzance. In 1881 specimens were taken at Pen7ance, St. Ives, Falmouth, Polperro and Mevagissey. In the Report of the Penzance 4 tons. The peculiarities of the head of this Nat. Hist. Soc. 1883-4 two are recorded as specimen as shown in a drawing given to Couch led him to describe it as a distinct species under the name Polyprosopus rashleigh- anuSy but later authorities consider it to have been Selache maxima. A specimen 9 feet long captured in a ground seine at Porthleven. 181, Common Skate. Raia batis^ Linn, Common. was taken in Mount's Bay in 1870 (Cocks, Corn. Polyt. Soc. 1 870). 182, Flapper Skate, Raia macrorhynchus, Ra.f. Occurs. 305 39 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 183. White Skate, Burton Skate, or Bordered Ray. Rata alba^ Laccp. Not uncommon in deep water. 184. Long-nosed Skate. Raia oxyrhynchus^ Linn. Has been obtained (Couch). 185. Shagreen Ray. Raia fuUonica^ Linn. Rare in Cornwall (Couch). 186. Thornback Ray. Raia c/avata^ hinn. Common. 187. Spotted Ray or Homelyn Ray. Raia macu/ata, Montagu. Common. 188. Blonde. Raia hlanda. Holt & Cal- derwood. A species formerly confounded with R. maculata^ Montagu. It is larger and more spiny than the latter : J. Couch's description of R. maculata^ according to Holt, applies to both species, but was based on a specimen of the blonde. 189. Painted Ray. Raia microcellata^^on- tagu. Common. T. Cornish states that this form, locally called ' the owl,' is plentiful off Pra Sands in Mount's Bay, and, according to Dunn, it is common at Mevagissey. 190. Cuckoo Ray or Sandy Ray cularis. Couch. Raia cir- Occurs in deep water on sandy ground. 191. Sting Ray. Trygon pastinaca, h'mn. Has been frequently taken. Couch refers to one from Whitsand Bay, Cornish recorded in the Zoologist one taken at Porthcurnow in 1870, and Day mentions one at Penzance and two at St. Ives in 1881. 192. Eagle Ray or Whip Ray. Myliohatis aquila^ Linn. Stated in the Cornish Fauna to have been taken once off Cornwall. Both this and the previous species are viviparous : the ' purse ' attributed to Myliohatis by J. Couch belongs to a Raia. CYCLOSTOMES **I93. Sea Lamprey. Petromyzon marinus, Linn. Common, according to the Cornish Fauna. Two have been recorded from St. Ives, and Mr. Dunn took one from the stomach of a hake at Mevagissey. *I94. Lampern or River Lamprey. Petro- myzon JIuviati/is, Linn. Common in spring in the rivers of eastern Cornwall. *I95. Planer's Lamprey or Mud Lamprey. Petromyzon hranchialis, Linn. Common. CEPHALOCHORDA 196. Lancelet. Branchiostoma lanceolatum^ Pall. Occurs on sandy shores, but is not easily obtained. Couch found his specimen buried in sand under a small flat stone in 1831. The specimen figured by Day was dredged with others at Mevagissey in 1883. 306 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS Though the adder, the grass snake, the bUnd-worm, the Hzard, the newt, the toad, and the frog are better known to the untrained observer than the animals in any other section of the county fauna, they have received very little attention from local naturalists in Cornwall, and there has been but little attempt to discriminate between allied species. Borlase speaks of them in his Natural History of Cornwall (1758), Jonathan Couch gives an account of them in his Cornish Fauna (1838), and Cocks an annotated list for the Falmouth district in 1849. Since that date the only descriptive county list that has appeared is Cornish's revision of Couch's article in 1878. Possibly on account of this lack of attention the county list save for its casuals is some- what commonplace. REPTILES CHELONIA [Luth or Leathery Turtle. Spkargis coriacea. Borlase records the occurrence of this turtle, the largest of all existing Chelonians, in the Cornish seas, and speaks of one that weighed nearly 800 lb. In the Appendix to his Cornish Fauna, pt. iii, 149, Couch quotes the account from the Falmouth Packet of an unsuccessful attempt to capture a very large turtle near Land's End, in August 1839, ^^^^ prob- ably belonged to this species.] [Green or Edible Turtle. Chelone my das. A specimen of the Edible Turtle covered with seaweed and barnacles was taken alive in a drift-net in Mount's Bay, about two miles south of Mousehole Island, on 5 October, 1874. Speaking of this re- markable capture Cornish says, * This turtle sometimes appears in English waters, washed overboard from ships or out of a wreck, but it is probable that this particular specimen found its way across the ocean naturally (by coming with the current), not only from the state in which it was when taken, but also from the fact that within four days of its capture, Pimekptcres cornubiensis, a tropical fish, was taken alive in Mount's Bay, out of a floating packing case, which was covered with barnacles. The fish and the turtle probably floated across the Atlantic in some sort of involuntary company.'] [Loggerhead Turtle. Thalassochelys caretia. The nearest breeding station of this turtle is in the Mediterranean, but it is a casual visitor to the Bay of Biscay, and has been captured several times in the south-west of England. In September, 1896, a specimen weighing 1 20 lb. was taken by some fisher- men about eight miles SSE. of Pvlousehole.] LACERTILIA 1. Common Lizard. Lacerta v'lvipara, Jacq. Widely spread and common in suitable localities throughout the county. [Sand Lizard. Lacerta agilis, Linn. Borlase mentions this as a county species, and Couch retains it on his list. Cornish never saw a speci- men west of Dartmoor, but Miss F. Tripp, the bryologist, refers to it in some MS. Natural History notes as being rare on the moors above Altarnun, The writer has a specimen given to him by Mr. Dingle, who believed it came from near St. Cleer, but there is some uncertainty about its history. So far as can be ascertained there is no undoubted Cornish example in any collection. If it does occur in the county it is either very rare or else very local, and, in spite of its larger size, stouter build, and general appearance, it may, of course, have been confused with the preceding species. Gadow's description of it may be useful for identification : — ' A typically-coloured male during the breeding season is grass-green on the sides and suffused with green on the under parts ; the sides are dotted with black with whitish eye-spots. The under parts are spotted with black. The adult female is brown or grey above, with large dark-brown, white-centred spots, which are arranged in three rows on each side. The under parts are cream- coloured, with or without black specks.' {Amphibia and Reptiles, 554.)] 2. Slow-worm or Blind-worm. Jnguis fragilis, Linn. Very common throughout the county. 307 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL OPHIDIA 3. Ringed or Grass Snake. TropUonotus natrix, Linn. Bell, Natrix torquata. Not uncommon but somewhat local ; generally found in damp meadows and about marshy land. It swims well with body partly submerged and head erect, and is capable of climbing low bushes. The largest county specimen handled by the writer measured 3 ft. 3 in. in length. 4, Viper. Fipera berus, Linn. Locally, Longcripple. Widely distributed and in some districts com- mon. It swims almost as well as the grass snake, but does not take so freely to the water. The largest specimen submitted to the measuring tape during the past seven years was 2 1 in. long. The variety known as the * Red viper ' is apparently not uncommon. BATRACHIANS ECAUDATA I. Common Frog. Rana temporaria, Linn. Abundant. [Edible Frog, Rana esculenta, Linn. Though occasionally referred to as a Cornish species this frog does not occur in the county.] I. Toad, Bufo vulgaris, Linn. Generally distributed and common. [Natter-jack Toad. Bufo calamtta, Laur. Has been several times recorded for the county, probably through mistaken identification. A yellow stripe down the back easily distinguishes it from the common toad.] CAUDATA [Both the Great-crested and the Common Smooth Newt have till recently been generally accepted as members of the county fauna. There are, however, no specimens of either in any available county col- lection, and none have been seen by recent observers. Though it seems probable that the smooth newt at least may occur in Cornwall both species must be removed from the county list till authenticated speci- mens have been obtained.] Palmated or Schneid. Webbed Newt. Molge palmata. Bell, Lissotriton palmipes. Locally, Asker, Evat, Eft. Very common about Truro and Falmouth, and probably generally distributed throughout the county. As Boulenger points out, it may be distinguished ' at all stages of life and at all seasons by the absence of every trace of pigment on the throat, which is of a transparent flesh colour.' 308 BIRDS The striking geographical position of Cornwall gives a peculiar interest to the study of its bird life. It naturally emphasizes many phenomena of distribution, and causes the omissions from the seasonal bird population of the county to become in many cases as interesting as the inclusions. It makes the county the theatre of complicated migratory movements, and conse- quently the recipient of many waifs and strays. It has caused it to become a gathering ground for many migratory species in the autumn where they may linger for days, or even weeks, before moving to their winter quarters in the south. It confers on the county a remarkably mild and genial climate, that by its influence on food supply, particularly during autumn and winter, naturally attracts the more nomadic species, and adds to the charm of everyday field work the joy and excitement of the unexpected. As the first and last land in England Cornwall offers the first shelter to autumn migrants that after getting beyond the mouth of the Channel are driven back by storms and contrary winds ; and the last asylum to birds that during the winter are driven south or west by the severity of the weather, and are either unwilling or unable to make the passage to the Continent. A cursory examination of the physical features of the county shows that in its diversity of soil and covering, and its happy admixture of land and water, Cornwall is pre-eminently adapted for a most varied ornis. Its 250 miles of coast, its projecting headlands, its rocky islets, and its famous western archipelago, its long sea-walls of seamed and fissured clifF broken by delight- fully sheltered combes, its well-watered, well-wooded valleys running down to the sea, its wide and varied beaches, its open bays, its branching estuaries and tidal rivers, its long reaches of sandy dunes, its breezy downs and stretches of heath-land, its magnificent furze-brakes, its wild moorland, its wealth of upland valleys and shady wooded streams, its lofty tors and granite cairns, its high-lying bogland and desolate marshes, its brackish and freshwater pools, its low-lying reed-beds and swamps, its orchards, gardens, woods, its many grades of cultivated land — all these together off^er a congenial habitat for every type of British bird. As might be expected, therefore, Cornwall is rich in resident species, and most of the sections are well represented. On account of its position in the extreme south-west, however, there are several note- worthy absentees from its list of breeding birds. Not only does it lie outside the breeding area of such species as the pied flycatcher, lesser redpoll, wry- neck, long and short-eared owls, merlin, golden plover, black-headed gull, and stone curlew, but it is too far west for the nesting of the lesser whitethroat, the nightingale, and the hawfinch, and yet the three breed regularly in the sister county, Devon. The yellow wagtail probably only occasionally ventures across the Tamar to nest, and in the county itself we come across the western breeding limit of the redstart, garden warbler, wood-wren, and tree-pipit, all of which are practically confined to the woods of the Tamar valley. Up till 309 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL fifty years ago the starling, though an abundant winter visitor, was not known to breed in the county. In 1854 a single nest was noticed at Trebartha in the parish of North Hill, and from that time onwards it gradually spread itself all over the county, and now breeds abundantly as far west as Penzance, This year (1905) several nests were found within 2| miles of Land's End. Forty years ago the great green woodpecker during the breeding season did not venture beyond Lostwithiel ; now it is abundant throughout the county, even in the treeless districts of the Lizard and Land's End. Still more recently the greater spotted and the lesser spotted woodpeckers were practically con- fined to the woods along the Tamar and its tributaries. The former has now reached Penzance, and the latter breeds as far west as Falmouth. From 1842, when it was first found nesting near St. Germans, the Dartford warbler gradually spread westward, and by 1880 had become fairly common in the furze-brakes about Land's End. One or two severe winters unfortunately almost completely exterminated it, and for twenty years it seemed to be lost to the county. Lately it has been re-discovered nesting at Penryn and at Linkinhorne, near Callington. The stock-dove and the rock-dove have also in recent years established themselves as residents in the county, and are gradually creeping westward during the breeding season. The former was first noticed nesting at North Hill in 1885, and the latter at Kilmaur in the early seventies. For various reasons the general features of autumn migration in Cornwall are much more pronounced than those of the spring and early summer. From the beginning of August till late in October the migratory activity is at its height. Even in the latter half of July the common sandpiper begins to gather along the coast, and the swift to assemble in favoured localities ; while occasional whimbrel and bunches of passing oyster-catchers put in an appearance. The earliest of the summer migrants to leave our shores is the adult cuckoo. After the middle of July one rarely sees an adult bird, at least in the middle of the county, though young birds are in evidence till October. It appears to collect in some numbers at the Lizard before depar- ture, but for the most part, like many other birds, it slips away unnoticed. During the month of August departing summer guests, like the whitethroat, the willow-wren, the spotted flycatcher, the sand-martin, the swallow and the wheatear leave their nesting quarters and gradually draw together in anticipation of their journey south. By the middle of the month the swift has gone, leaving only a few stragglers behind, and by its close the sand-martin and spotted flycatcher have begun to depart. Among our resident birds, the common sandpiper and oyster-catcher become much more plentiful along the coast ; the dunlin is much in evidence in the estuaries and on mud-flats, and mistle-thrushes, pied wagtails, and goldfinches collect together on congenial gathering grounds. Among the birds of passage the whimbrel is in most years fairly abundant throughout the month ; the sanderling puts in an appearance at Helford about the third, and becomes gradually common ; the turnstone and the knot appear in the second week, and the white wagtail almost invariably occurs among the early flocks of the pied wagtail. Before the end of the month the black-headed gull usually descends on our shores in considerable numbers, and solitary specimens of another winter visitor, the redshank, are generally reported from the south coast. 310 BIRDS The month of September witnesses the exodus of most of our summer migrants. Large and small flocks and scattered companies of departing and passing sand-martins, white-throats, willow-warblers, spotted flycatchers, ring- ouzels, wheatears, chiffchafFs, swallows, house-martins, and occasional small detachments of corncrakes, tree-pipits, blackcaps, and towards the close of the month of whinchats, garden-warblers, sedge-warblers and redstarts are reported from various localities on the south coast, the most favoured in order of importance being Mount's Bay, the Lizard, Swanpool, Portscatho, and Looe. Before the end of the month the sand-martin and spotted flycatcher have completely disappeared, and in ordinary years only a few willow-wrens and ring-ouzels are left. All the other numerically important summer migrants continue with us in diminishing numbers during the month of October, and odd specimens of the others just mentioned are recorded in the first half of November. Stray specimens, or at the most, small parties of the wood-warbler, grasshopper-warbler, reed-warbler, and nightjar have been seen or obtained on migration in September and October, and in the case of the reed-warbler twice in November, apparently always in the company of other migrants. During the month of September wide-spread movements are in process among the resident species. Large flocks of pied wagtails, chaffinches, linnets, greenfinches, skylarks, meadow-pipits and goldcrests enter and leave the county ; while, as a rule, the song-thrushes, wrens, coots, mallards, teal, and particularly the starlings, receive reinforcements from the outside. The most interesting winter visitor of the month, though generally occurring singly, is the black redstart, which in some years continues to arrive irregu- larly throughout the winter. A few wigeon may put in an appearance, and the advent of one or two jack-snipe heralds the approach of the great autumnal migratory invasion from the north-east. Among the birds on passage are the curlew-sandpiper, the green sandpiper, the yellow wagtail, the black tern, and occasionally the wry-neck and dotterel, in addition, of course, to the whimbrel, knot, sanderling and turnstone. The great event in October is the inrush of winter visitors. The summer migrants have now practically left the county, with the exception of the house-martin, swallow and wheatear, large numbers of which may still linger on. By the middle of the month the last flock of martins departs ; by the twentieth the swallows, too, have vanished, except for small companies and stragglers; and before the close the last of the wheatears has disappeared. By the time the swallows and martins leave us the great migratory stream from the north-east has become fully established, and from northern and north-central Europe sweeps diagonally across England into this far corner, bringing not only our typical winter visitors like the fieldfare, redwing, golden plover, jack snipe, woodcock, siskin and brambling, but large flights of snipe, and immense flocks of lapwings, starlings, larks, and occasionally of thrushes and warblers, and naturally a number of waifs and strays that have been caught up in the migratory rush, and carried far away from their normal lines of flight. Probably most of the birds brought to the county in this great stream continue their journey with or without a pause, but large numbers of course settle down for the winter. During the month of October nearly all our other winter visitors arrive, 311 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL though several of them receive accessions during the winter, probably as the result of adverse weather elsewhere. The majority of our ducks are most abundant during frost, but in the average years wigeon are fairly common by ^the close of the month, and the shoveler, scaup, and common scoter have all put in an appearance, the first-mentioned at times in considerable numbers. The red-breasted merganser, purple sandpiper, divers and great-crested grebe are generally reported before the beginning of November, as also are the hawfinch, snow-bunting and short-eared owl. The fire-crest has thrice been identified in October, but seems to arrive as a rule in November, or later, often in the company of gold-crests. The stone-curlew, for which bird Cornwall appears to be the northern winter limit, is rarely seen till November. Among the birds of passage the sanderling is still in evidence ; the wood- sandpiper is occasionally obtained, and the bar-tailed godwit often lingers on our mud flats till far into November ; the grey plover can generally be seen during the month on Marazion beach ; the grey phalarope is rather uncertain in the time of its appearance, sometimes showing itself in the early part of September, in other years not recorded till the middle of November. Lapwings, golden plover, jack-snipe and full-snipe continue to arrive throughout the month of November, and stray bitterns are not infrequent. Severe weather in the winter months usually causes extensive invasion, and during a hard frost the Lizard and Land's End districts become the temporary refuge of an incredible number of redwings, fieldfares, thrushes, blackbirds, starlings and larks. Both surface-feeding and diving ducks, too, become at times very plentiful. When the severe weather extends over a large area and is long-continued, the white-fronted, the bean-, and the bernacle-goose may locally become fairly common, and both the whooper and Bewick's swan may appear in small flocks in our estuaries and sea-side pools. In spring the migratory movements are not nearly so pronounced as in the autumn months. Large numbers of birds, especially of the resident species, appear to steal away quietly, and in such loose formation that their departure is not noticed. It is obvious, also, that the majority of the return- ing birds travel by another route, probably further to the east, where the sea passage is so much shorter. Evidently, too, on account of the relatively much greater width of the sea between Cornwall and the Continent, the incoming of the summer migrants and the transit of the spring birds of passage is feeble compared with the rush that occurs in the south-eastern counties. Of the fifteen species recorded in the county list as birds of passage, six occur regularly during autumn migration only : namely the grey phalarope, bar-tailed godwit, greenshank, green sandpiper, grey plover, and black tern. The grey phalarope in fact has been only once recorded in the spring, and up till four years ago the black tern had not been observed half a dozen times alto- gether during that season. Of the remainder, the knot, though at times a fairly conspicuous feature in autumn, is as a rule a scarce bird in the spring ; the yellow wagtail, though seen every year in March and April, never occurs in flocks, as it occasionally does at the Lizard and St. Ives in the autumn ; and the white wagtail is decidedly scarcer in spring than it is in August and September. The whimbrel, sanderling, wood-sandpiper, and the migrating turnstones, on the average of the last six years, seem to be about as numerous BIRDS in spring as in autumn. The dotterel is a regular passer-by in small numbers in spring, but a rare bird in autumn. It must be remembered, however, that its spring route was only discovered a few years ago, and it is quite possible its line of flight in autumn has escaped observation. There are, moreover, only two spring birds of passage that are practically absent in the autumn, namely the hoopoe, a regular visitor from March to April or May, only occasionally seen in August and September ; and the golden oriole, which occurs every year in the west of the county from about the middle of April till the beginning of June, and has so far not been with certainty recorded for the autumn months at all. An examination of the casuals and vagrants that have been obtained in the county gives some idea of the extent and variety of the immigration in autumn as compared with spring. It is quite true that strange birds are much more likely to be shot in the autumn and winter than in spring and summer, but this alone would not account for the difference. Of the 70 species of Cornish casuals 22 have been obtained during the period of autumn immigra- tion only, 25 during the winter only, when the incoming of birds is largely a question of weather, 5 during autumn and winter, 8 during both autumn and spring migration, 7 during spring immigration only, and 3 in spring and summer. In other words, 35 species have occurred in autumn, 30 during winter, 18 during spring, and 3 during the summer months. Similarly, of the 65 Cornish vagrants, 27 have occurred exclusively during autumn immi- gration, 1 5 during the winter, 4 during both autumn and winter, 9 during both autumn and spring immigration, 7 during the spring alone, 2 in summer, and I — the two-barred crossbill — is uncertain ; that is to say, 41 species have occurred in the autumn, 19 in winter, 16 in spring, and 2 in summer. These figures include the Scillonian as well as the mainland waifs and strays. Spring migration begins among the resident species whose numbers have been increased during the winter. In February, when the weather is normal, starlings, goldcrests, larks, and rooks move to the east or north-east, occasion- ally in large flocks. The snipe, too, begins to leave, and so also do detach- ments of chaffinches, greenfinches, linnets, song-thrushes and meadow-pipits. Of the winter visitors the woodcock is among the first to go, and is not often seen after the early days of March. By the end of February departing flocks of fieldfares are occasionally seen, and small companies of redwings. In March the easterly migration of the starling, goldcrest and finches still continues. Pied wagtails, too, begin to move, and flocks of a thousand or more have been reported from Bude in the beginning of the month. Flights of chaffinches, linnets and wagtails, companies of up to forty or fifty goldfinches, bullfinches and stonechats, and at times fairly large mixed flocks of the smaller birds come in on the south coast. The groups of dunlin disappear from our estuaries, and several other shore birds diminish in numbers. The sanderling completes its passage before the end of the month, and so as a rule does the white wagtail, which, as in the autumn, seems almost always to occur in flocks of the pied wagtail. Among our winter visitors the redwing and fieldfare continue the movement begun in February, and the jack-snipe, golden plover, black-headed gull, and great crested-grebe begin to go. After this month the great northern and red-throated divers become as a rule very scarce, and the short-eared owl is not often reported. The most interesting feature, I 313 40 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL however, of March migration is the advent of the sumnaer migrants. The first to appear is usually the chiffchaff, sometimes the wheatear, and every now and again the willow-warbler, the earliest county record for the three being 2 March, 21 February, and 20 March respectively. The chiffchaff, the wheatear, and another March immigrant, the sand-martin, are generally well represented by the end of the month, but the willow-warbler is rarely much in evidence till the middle of April. The blackcap has once been obtained as early as 5 March, and has been reported several times from Calstock between the 20th and 26th of the month, but these dates appear to be quite exceptional. Spring migration is naturally most active during the month of April. Of the resident species the chaffinch, linnet, goldcrest, wagtails, and other small birds still continue to be reported as coming in on the south coast, and occasionally a small flock of rock-pipits. The teal and remaining snipe that have wintered with us depart. Fieldfares and jack-snipe complete their migration early in the month, and by its close only an occasional redwing is left in the county. Wigeon, shovelers, scoters, and red-breasted mergansers disappear before the end of the month. Black-headed gulls and golden- plovers still continue to leave, often in fairly large flocks, and the purple sand- pipers are rarely seen after the third week. Among the birds of passage the turnstones and sometimes the whimbrels are numerically the most important, though by far the most interesting is the hoopoe. This bird is by no means scarce, and it is not uncommon to have as many as twenty recorded in a single season. The golden oriole, a more social bird than the hoopoe, generally comes to us in May, but stray specimens have been seen at Penzance and by the Fal before the middle of April. The most popular feature of April migration is, of course, the coming of such well-known summer migrants as the cuckoo, swallow, house-martin and swift. The earliest authentic appearance of the cuckoo on the Cornish mainland is 2 April. At St. Mary's, Scilly, Dorrien-Smith saw one on 30 March, 1904, and the same or another bird was seen near the same spot by several observers two days later. As it is generally silent on first arriving it usually escapes observation. Its incoming is in most years recorded by the middle of April. The earliest date for the arrival of the swallows is 2 i March, for the house-martin the 31st, and for the swift 8 April. The swallow is abundantly distributed before the middle of April, the martin by the end of the month, and the swift by the first week in May. In the first half of the month small flocks of ring-ouzels and common sandpipers come in on the south coast, whitethroats appear in considerable numbers, and occasional companies of tree pipits are observed. In the third or fourth week small parties of whinchats and sedge-warblers have been occasionally recorded. On 29 April, 1 904, a flock of about thirty garden-warblers, along with various other small birds, came in at Looe — the only time this species has actually been seen on migration in the spring. Throughout the month large flocks of wheatears are not uncommon on the south coast. During the first week in May the wood- warbler, nightjar, and corncrake return, and large flocks of arctic and common terns are frequently reported on the south coast, with now and again a flight of sandwich terns. By the middle of the month our latest summer migrant, the spotted flycatcher, ventures across the Channel. Of our winter visitors 314 BIRDS small flocks of immature black-headed gulls, a few golden-plover, and occa- sionally a few redshanks, may still linger on. The only important bird of passage is the whimbrel, which in some years is very plentiful. Occasional knots and wood-sandpipers are also seen, and of late years a flight of black terns may linger in the west. The latest incoming birds at this season of the year are swallows, flocks of which have been recorded on the south coast, not only in the latter part of May, but as late as 9 June. These are probably on their way to nesting sites on the northern limit of their breeding area. Recent investigation has shown that land birds on migration avoid high- lying ground, adhere more or less closely to well-defined routes, often skirt the general shore-line for great distances, enter the land at regular openings on the coast, and when passing overland usually follow the direction of river valleys. The usual routes or flight lines of Cornish birds on migration appear to be somewhat complex. In the great autumnal invasion from the north-east many birds undoubtedly come into the county from Devon, but there is at the same time an important flight-line down the coast of the Bristol Channel. Systematic notes for the north coast, however, are still unfortunately somewhat scanty. The county lies too far away to participate in the great east-to-west rushes from the Continent that are so conspicuous a feature during the autumn months in the eastern counties, and consequently there is an absence of several east-coast casuals and vagrants, such as the blue-throated warbler, the barred-warbler, the icterine-warbler, Pallas's warbler and the great spotted cuckoo. Still it receives considerable accessions from birds that are migrating down the Channel both along the English and French coasts, and it seems probable that many of our casuals, as well as birds of a higher status from northern and central Europe, come to us, not across England, but along the western shores of the Continent. Both in the Channel and beyond it birds on autumn migration at times encounter heavy gales, particularly from the south-west, and are driven back on to the Isles of Scilly and the Cornish main- land, and especially into that great bay that stretches from Land's End to the Lizard. Most of the birds so driven on to our shores in the autumn are resident species, summer migrants and birds of passage in Cornwall, and cannot as a rule be distinguished from those belonging to the county, except when waifs and strays of an exceptional character are associated with them. It is probably due to the disturbance of coastal migration down the west of the European mainland by adverse weather, that we receive the fire- crest practically every autumn or winter. The occurrence of such vagrants at Scilly as the yellow-browed warbler, lesser-shrike, woodchat, ortolan- bunting, short-toed lark, little ringed-plover, tawny-pipit and red-breasted flycatcher, as well as of various unexpected accidental visitors on the south coast of the Cornish mainland as far east as St. Austell Bay is evidently due to the same cause. A remarkable feature among accidental visitors in the autumn and winter to the western half of the county is that no less than eighteen of the species are American. It is difficult to believe that these birds, with the possible exception of one or two individual cases of ' assisted passage,' could have come across the Atlantic. The usual explanation of the presence of such species in Western Europe is that the birds lose their way in the far north, and 315 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL travelling along the border of the Arctic Ocean in the company of normal migrants till they reach the north of Norway, turn southwards along the west coast of Northern Europe. That these birds cross England with the great migratory stream from the north-east is incredible, as such wanderers occur much more frequently in Cornwall than in the counties over which such a route would lie, and in which indeed most of the species have not been recorded at all. Of the six examples of Bonaparte's gull recorded for the United King- dom, three have occurred in the south of Cornwall ; of the three solitary sandpipers so recorded, one was obtained at Scilly, and one at Marazion Marsh ; of the nine Bartram's sandpipers, three have been shot at the Lizard ; of the three yellowshanks, one was shot at Marazion ; of the two killdeer plover, one occurred at Scilly ; of the four American stints, one was obtained at Marazion and one at Penzance ; while the little green heron shot near St. Austell in October, 1889, is the sole European representative of this species from tropical and temperate America. It is remarkable that of the forty-two indisputably Cornish examples of the American species, thirty-one, including eighteen from Scilly, have been obtained to the west of a line drawn from Godrevy lighthouse to St. Michael's Mount, four from the Lizard, six from the immediate neighbourhood of Fal- mouth, and only one, the little green heron already referred to, from further east in the county. This suggests either that they have migrated down the Channel and been driven back, or else that wandering round by the north of Scotland they have come down the west coast, either through the Irish Sea, or round by the west of Ireland, and so struck the westernmost portion of the county. Some, no doubt, have come by the latter route, but as only four out of the twenty-four American birds that have been obtained on the Cornish mainland were captured on the north coast, and no less than twenty on the south, one may conclude that the Channel route is the usual one. Many flocks and irregular flights of birds come in from the north, both at Hayle and at Scilly ; but there is little to indicate where they originated, or by what route they have travelled, and migratory records at both stations are still unfortunately meagre. During autumn and winter flocks of starlings, larks, redwings, thrushes and various undetermined land birds have been observed at Scilly coming in from the north-west, on two occasions against a fairly stiff south-easterly breeze, so that it is more than likely birds cross over from the south-east of Ireland to the west of the county, but to what extent this is a genuine annual migration is at present uncertain. The routes or flight-lines adopted by our emigrant birds in autumn are towards the south, the south-west, and the west. Occasional flocks are reported by fishermen in the Channel as moving towards the south-east, and the St. Ives fishermen at long intervals observe very large flocks moving towards the north-west. There is, of course, a very considerable east-to-west movement at times between the mainland and the Isles of Scilly, and in the late autumn immense numbers of starlings, larks, redwings, fieldfares and other birds pass over these isles, particularly at night, in a westerly direction that if persisted in must carry them right into the Atlantic ! In spring the immigrants come in from the south-west, the south, and the south-east. Coasting flocks are occasionally noticed on the south moving 316 BIRDS from east to west, and at intervals on the north coast in the opposite direction. In the west birds have been reported coming in from the north-west. Mount's Bay, the Lizard, Swanpool, the Fal, Fowey, and Looe are all favourite landing places. Flocks are often reported coming in at the Land's End, Portscatho, and Par, while many birds spread westward from theTamar. Several comparatively scarce birds pass up the Pentuan valley every spring, while the Looe valley, the Fowey, and the Fal, with its many creeks and tributaries, are regular highways for birds passing into the county. The county may be divided provisionally into seven ornithological districts: — i. The Bodmin Moors; 2. The Bude and Camel district; 3. The St. Columb-Camborne district ; 4. The Tamar-Fowey district ; 5. The Truro-Falmouth district ; 6. The Lizard and Land's End ; 7. The Isles of Scilly. I. The Bodmin Moors These form a wild, irregular plateau of hill land, rising here and there into lofty, often granite-crowned tors, with elevated expanses of treacherous bog and rough marsh-land. Many of the hill-sides are irregularly strewn with granite boulders. The great stretches of coarse, shaggy, faded grass by their monotony give in places an aspect of peculiar desolation. On the moors themselves there is little cover of any kind, save what is offered by the brakes of gorse and fern and heather, and by the occasional reed-beds. Though Dosemary Pool is the only important sheet of water in this wild upland country, the moors are the great collecting-ground for the waters of the Camel, the Fowey, the Lynher, the Inney and the Attery. These rivers and their tributaries have carved for themselves valleys, often of exquisite beauty, down the side of the plateau. Only the higher rills and streams of course belong to the moorland proper, but even into the moorland valleys the dipper, grey wagtail, and marsh-tit ascend, and where there is gorse we find the linnet, stonechat, long-tailed tit, willow-warbler, and nightjar. In bygone days the moors were a great resort of birds of prey, but now only the buzzard and the kestrel are left. On the southern moors Montagu's harrier nested till about 1830, but has very seldom been seen during the last sixty years. The kite bred at Tolvern Wood till about 1835, and on the moors above St. Neot till 1842 at least, but the last recorded casual was shot in 1869. The marsh-harrier bred in Redmoor Marsh till 1855, but is now a rare autumn casual. In the forties the rough-legged buzzard bred between Jamaica Inn and Bolventor. The last known nest was destroyed on Gonzion Downs in 1858 or 1859, and since then the bird has never with certainty been seen on the moors again. The hobby nested in woods on the south and east of the moors in 1844, 1859, 1862, and probably in 1869, so that it also may have been a regular summer migrant. It is still a not infrequent summer casual. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the black grouse or heath- poult was abundant, and as late as 18 16 fourteen were killed in one day between the Cheesewring and Jamaica Inn. For the last fifty years, however, it has been perilously near extinction. The spotted crake bred at Crowdy Marsh in i860, and again in 1874. There is a strong suspicion 317 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL that the green sandpiper occasionally breeds on the moors about Trewortha Marsh, but no nest has ever been found. The most characteristic moorland birds in summer are the wheatear and ring-ouzel. The former is fairly common on the granite-strewn hill-sides, the latter still breeds in small scattered colonies among the rocks and heath of the higher tors. The snipe, curlew, lapwing, mallard, teal, coot, moorhen, water-rail, and meadow-pipit all breed regularly on the moors, though some of them are by no means abundantly represented. The dunlin, too, nests in small numbers in the marshes round Brown Willy and Roughtor, and on the moors and turf-pits between St. Neot's stream and the Upper Fowey. The golden plover has never been known to breed, though birds with fully developed plumage may be seen in the month of May. The common sand- piper nests among the old Streamworks by the Upper Fowey, and wherever there are old sand-banks on the moors. The raven is not so scarce as it was fifteen years ago. The stock-dove breeds abundantly on one or two of the granite tors, often in the company of the swift. During the winter the moors are dreary and desolate. Bird-life in general is scarce, and small birds are almost entirely wanting. In the average winter, snipe, jack-snipe, woodcock, lapwing, and golden plover are usually well represented. Teal are fairly plentiful, and wigeon at times abundant. Duck, too, often occur in considerable numbers, particularly at the beginning and at the close of severe weather, while pintail and golden-eye are not uncommon during frost. The spotted crake is occasionally flushed on the snipe marshes, and the merlin is a regular winter visitor. 2. The Bude and Camel District This takes in the coast-line from Marsland Mouth to Trevose Head. It includes that part of the county to the north of Launceston and the Bodmin Moors, and, in addition, the valleys of the Camel and Allen, with the estuary at Padstow. The former consists for the most part of a strip of high-lying, wind-swept land, of open tracts of undulating grass, trimmed short by the sea-breezes and tufted by sea-pinks and little mounds of wind-sculptured gorse, with here and there rough arable land, stony bits of common and stretches of heathery down, ending seaward in a great wall of seamed and fissured cliff^s of slate, and broken abruptly by deep sheltering coombes. Down in the ' bottoms,' at the head of the coombes, wherever in fact there is shelter from the pitiless gales, the trees, and especially oaks, grow spontaneously and abundantly, but in the open the struggle is hopeless. Further back from the sea there is more arable land, and of better quality, but except in the valleys this makes little difference to the bird-life, for the inhospitable winds destroy all trees. The most important break in the rock- girt coast from HennaclifF to Tintagel is formed by the shallow low-lying valley of Bude. The gardens and orchards of Boscastle and the lovely sheltered wooden glen of Minster form another delightful oasis for bird life, and several woodland birds show a special affection for the charming Kneighton's Kieve, with its long strip of wood and abundant undergrowth. Though the high cliff-land is more or less persistent all the way round to Trevose Head, the western portion of the district contains a good deal of 318 BIRDS fairly-sheltered land by the middle and lower reaches of the Camel, in the fertile valley of the lower Allen, and the long low-lying stretch of land between Pentire Point and St. Tudy. The estuary and tidal river have naturally a considerable influence on the bird-life, while the low-lying land from Wadebridge southwards facilitates the passage of birds into the district from the southern half of the county. The wild coast-land to the east is the home of the chough and the buzzard. Probably nowhere in the British Isles is the latter so common as between Hennacliff and Boscastle. To see half a dozen at a time is a common occurrence, and this year five nests were found along half a mile of cliff face. The chough is unfortunately scarce, but has lately been increasing. The raven is also unusually common in the east of the district, especially about Kilkhampton. The white-tailed eagle appears to be an occasional visitor to the cliffs between Hennacliff and Bude, and peregrines still breed sparingly on the coast. The sheldrake nests regularly and in increasing numbers at the mouth of the Camel, its only breeding station in the county. The stock-dove breeds among dead gorse on the cliff face, and on the undercliff at Dizzard Head and elsewhere, while the rock-dove has recently established itself at several centres along the coast. The rock-pipit is locally plentiful. The shag is common, but the cormorant somewhat scarce. The oyster-catcher now breeds as far east as Bude, and the razorbill and guillemot at intervals up to the Gull Rock, near Marsland Mouth. The puffin nests in considerable numbers at Tintagel, and there is a colony every year at Trevalga. The herring-gull is locally common, but the lesser black-backed gull relatively scarce. Two or three pairs of the greater black-backed gull breed every year. The kittiwake is often much in evidence, but does not appear to nest. In spite of the increasing number of jackdaws, bird-life, however, except about Gull rocks and other favoured spots, is not by any means abundant on the coast. Of small land birds the most interesting is the lesser white-throat, which occurs as a fairly regular autumn casual between Launceston and Bude, but has not been observed anywhere else in the county, except once at Scilly and once at Bodmin. The absence of suitable cover on the long stretches of exposed land naturally results in a scarcity of warblers, wagtails, goldcrests, and many other small birds, and a greatly interrupted distribution of the starling, the jay, the rook, and the hooded-crow. While the dipper, willow-warbler, great, blue and long-tailed tits, wren, grey wagtail, meadow-pipit, chaffinch, greenfinch, linnet, corn and yellow buntings, swallow, martin, magpie, nightjar, green woodpecker, and cuckoo are widely distributed, the whitethroat, blackcap, spotted flycatcher, nuthatch, sand-martin, pied wagtail, gold-crest, coal-tit and marsh-tit, though all breeding in the low-lying portion of the western area, are practically limited in the eastern half to the valley of Bude, where most of them are autumn migrants. There is, however, a large colony of sand-martins at Widemouth every year. The goldfinch is fairly common about Boscastle, and, like the bullfinch, occurs in several of the coombes. The long-eared owl appears to be unknown, except by the Camel to the south of Egloshayle. The white owl still lingers in the St. Minver district and about Poundstock. 319 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 3. St. Columb-Camborne District This district includes the coast line from Trevose Head to Gwithian. In its northern division lies the beautiful vale of Lanherne, and to the east the picturesque Luxulian valley, with its surroundings of rough, dry heath-land. The middle division includes the Cornish china clay district, which with the Tregoss and other moors practically fills up the triangle between the Par to Newquay railway and the main line ; while the western portion coincides with the most important mining area in the county. The coast-line consists for the most part of bold precipitous cliffs,with a long stretch of sand dune to the north of Perran Porth, and another at Gwithian. As in the Bude and Camel district the coast-land is pitilessly wind-swept, and therefore destitute of trees and in many places of cover of any kind. From an ornithological point of view the most important openings on the coast are Mawgan Porth, where a low-level marshy tract leads inward to the sequestered well-wooded brook-gladdened vale of Mawgan, the sheltered valley of the Gannel with its tree-brakes and abundant cover, and the flat inlet of Perran Porth at the south end of Perran Bay. The ornis possesses few features of special interest. The chough still nests between Trevose Head and Mawgan Porth but the buzzard is only a casual visitor. The snow-bunting appears almost every winter on the dunes between Perran and Newquay, and the cirl-bunting probably breeds near the mouth of the Gannel, the only locality where it has been seen in North Cornwall. The whinchat is occasionally found about Newquay and the grass- hopper warbler apparently nests there quite regularly. In the vale of Lan- herne and the valley of the Gannel warblers and small birds generally are better represented than anywhere else in the northern districts. The lesser woodpecker breeds every year near St. Columb, and the reed-bunting near Luxulian. In 1901 a pair of hoopoes nested near Carworgie. The quail is by no means an unusual summer visitor, and occasionally breeds. One morning in early autumn some years ago fourteen were killed between Car- worgie near St. Columb Road station and St. Dennis. In 1888 several Pallas's sand-grouse were shot on the Goss Moors and several on the moors near St. Austell. On the Goss Moors and elsewhere in the china-clay dis- trict the breeding birds include the lapwing, the curlew, snipe, mallard, teal, coot, moorhen, and common sandpiper, and occasionally at least the dunlin. In 1904 a pair of redshanks nested near Roche. The spotted crake is not uncommon, and the great solitary snipe has been observed several times. The ordinary sea-birds are commoner than in the Bude and Camel dis- trict, with the exception of the puffin. There is a small summer colony of the Manx shearwater near Newquay — the only breeding station on the Cornish mainland. A few kittiwakes nested on one of the chfFs down till 1904, but none of them appeared last year. The spoonbill occasionally appears at Newquay in winter, and as many as nineteen have been observed in a flock. 4. Tamar-Fowey District This district extends from Werrington above Launceston southward be- tween the Bodmin Moors and the Tamar to the sea, and westward between 320 BIRDS the Moors and the sea to the eastern boundary of the St. Columb-Camborne district. Many factors combine to make this the head quarters of the passerine birds of the county. The abundance of streams and deep wooded valleys, the quick alternation of sylvan and moorland, farmland and waste, and the reaches of sheltered fertile land, make it specially attractive to warblers, tits, wagtails, and finches ; while its hills and exposed uplands, cul- minating in the Kingston Downs, the transition, sometimes gradual, some- times abrupt, from the bleak borders of the moors through grazing and arable land to the richly-wooded Tamar on the east, and the warm inviting coast on the south, with its sheltered estuaries and tidal rivers, its broken and preci- pitous coast and its seductive valleys running up from the sea, attract birds of many different types. The deep valley of the Tamar and the lateral tributary valleys from the Bodmin Moors on the one side and Dartmoor on the other, and the easy passage of birds from north and south Devon, favour migration in the eastern part of the district ; while the valley of the Fowey and its affluents and the valley of the Looe materially influence the movements and distribution of birds in the south. In the eastern half of the district the redstart, wood-warbler, tree-pipit, and garden-warbler breed every year, nesting as far west as Trebartha. The grey wagtail, the dipper, and the spotted flycatcher, though breeding in suitable localities throughout the county, have their head quarters in this district. So also have the blackcap and the nuthatch, which breed but sparingly further west, and the greater and the lesser spotted woodpeckers, which till recently had not ventured outside the area between Trebartha and the Tamar. The cirl-bunting nests regularly, and the yellow wagtail occasionally in the south- east of the district. The willow-warbler, the sedge-warbler, and the coal-tit are locally abundant, and the whinchat and grasshopper warbler breed in the eastern half and at least occasionally between Looe and Liskeard, while the reed-warbler occurs every summer in the Looe valley. The marsh-tit is common, and about Trebartha is more abundant than anywhere else in the county. The corn-bunting is somewhat scarce, but the reed-bunting is repre- sented by several widely separated colonies. The woodlark nests sparingly over the whole district from the Tamar to Restormel valley. The kingfisher is specially plentiful on some parts of the Fowey. The buzzard breeds at Boconnoc, and both the kestrel and the sparrow-hawk are much commoner than in the northern districts. The peregrine nests at Pelyn near Lostwithiel. Several pairs of ravens breed in the district. The heron is much in evidence, there being two heronries on the Fowey near Lostwithiel, one at Trenant near Looe which formerly contained about thirty nests but has now dwindled to two or three, and one in Sheviock Wood near St. Germans. There is also one at Warleigh on the Devonshire side of the Tamar. The stock-dove and the rock-dove are locally common both inland and on the coast. The wood- pigeon has become plentiful of late years in consequence of the increase of fir plantations. The sea-clifFs are in many places thickly populated with martins, jackdsPws, swifts, shags and herring-gulls, with a few cormorants, lesser black- backed gulls, guillemots and razor-bills. The kittiwake still breeds in at least one locality. Oyster-catchers and ringed-plovers nest on the beaches at Looe and elsewhere. The lesser grebe is not uncommon on the estuaries and tidal rivers during the breeding season, and the great crested and occasionally the I 321 41 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Slavonian grebe in winter. The red-necked grebe is an irregular visitor, in most w^inters scarce, but sometimes abundant — as in January, 1 895, December and January, 190 1-2, and March, 1905. The eared-grebe is occasionally seen during the winter months about Looe and the mouth of the Fowey. The great northern and the red-throated divers are regular winter visitors, though their numbers fluctuate greatly from year to year. The black-throated diver is an irregular winter casual. These divers are nearly always in immature plumage. Among the regular inland autumn and winter visitors are the black redstart, the brambling, the siskin, and the hawfinch. The lesser redpoll appears most winters in the neighbourhood of Lostwithiel. 5. Truro-Falmouth District On the north this district extends from Par to Gwinear Road station along the southern boundary of the St. Columb-Camborne district. It in- cludes the coast-line from Par to Nare Point below the mouth of the Helford river. The central topographical features of the district are Falmouth Bay and the estuaries of the Fal and Helford rivers, with their many tidal creeks and tributary streams. At low water the greater portion of most of the creeks consists of extensive reaches of mud divided by the shifting bed of the stream. In many cases the creek banks are richly wooded as at King Harry's reach, on the Ruan river, along the left bank of Tresillian river, and on the Helford river. At Plum Garden creek near Truro the fruit-trees over- bang the water. The district as a whole is hilly and mixed in character, woods and downs, magnificent furze-brakes, moorland and bog, being plentifully scattered among cultivated land of varied quality. The fine private grounds at Tregothnan, Carclew, Heligan, Penrice, Killiow, Enys, Clowance, Pendarvis, and elsewhere are naturally important centres of bird life, and the reed-beds at Swanpool and Pencalenick are more than usually attractive. The coast too is very varied, sea-cliff alternating with covered slope and low-lying land. The long stretches of warm sand and boulder-strewn beach are broken by bold headlands, and the sea-line is cut by many wind-sheltered coves and bays. The cliffs in many parts are bold and rugged, draped here and there with ivy and patched with gorse. Some of the warm sheltered slopes like those round by Pendennis Castle have abundant cover and offer ready and congenial shelter to the adventurous forerunners of spring migration. The landlocked sea running far into the hills, the diversity in the physical aspect and covering of the land, and the remarkably mild and equable climate of the sheltered area, make this in many respects the most favoured bird district in the county. Every bird mentioned above as breed- ing in the Tamar-Fowey district has nested at least occasionally here, with the solitary exception of the tree-pipit. Even the redstart, the woodwarbler and the yellow wagtail have nested in the district. The nuthatch may breed regularly about Penryn ; the greater and lesser spotted woodpeckers have lately become residents in several of the private grounds. The red-backed shrike, the blackcap, the grasshopper warbler, the reed-warbler, the whinchat and the cirl-bunting appear to breed every year ; the sedge-warbler, white- throat and willow-warbler are locally abundant. The garden-warbler and 322 BIRDS the marsh-tit are fairly common about Falmouth. The corn-bunting is plentiful and the bullfinch locally common, but the goldfinch is gradually disappearing. The wood-lark appears to be confined to the east of the district. The kingfisher is seen at times on most of the streams in winter, but is becoming scarce in summer. The wheatear breeds on the downs ; the grey wagtail on one, or perhaps two, of the moorland streams. The dipper and the goat-sucker are by no means rare and are generally distributed. Lately the corncrake and the water-rail have been noticeably scarce. The quail breeds not infrequently about Falmouth. The stock-dove nests as far west as the Helford river, and the rock-dove is now a well-established colonist at intervals along the coast. Perhaps the most conspicuous bird of the dis- trict is the heron, which has populous head quarters about Tregothnan and at Bosahan. No less than thirty-five were counted one afternoon along the sides of the main creek during a canoe journey between St. Just-in-Roseland and Truro. The little grebe, or ' dipchick,' the moorhen, the mallard, and the coot breed in suitable localities throughout the district, but the last two are much commoner in winter than in summer. The other grebes and the divers are on the whole commoner than in the Tamar-Fowey district. The regular winter visitors include the merlin, the black redstart, the brambling, the spotted crake and the redshank, the latter occasionally venturing as far up the estuary as the quay at Truro. The snow-bunting and the fire-crest are of frequent occurrence. In severe weather the bean-goose, brent-goose, and bernacle-goose are frequent visitors, the two former often occurring in large flocks. The white-fronted goose is only occasionally seen. The mallard is the only duck that breeds regularly in the district, though young teal are not infrequently reported in the summer months. In the winter, however, not only are those two species abundant, especially in severe weather, but shovelers, pintail, and wigeon often appear in considerable numbers, and the pochard, golden eye, and of late years the scaup, are regular visitors. The tufted duck is erratic, but by no means rare, and the garganey is a not uncommon spring casual. The sheldrake is frequently seen in autumn and winter. Falmouth Bay is naturally the centre of extensive migratory movements both in autumn and spring, and consequently many vagrants have been recorded from the two estuaries and from Swanpool, a small bird-fi-equented ley on the intervening coast, which forms the annual gathering-ground for many migratory species in the autumn. The vagrants include such rare birds as the red-breasted flycatcher, mealy redpoll, red-footed falcon, American red-winged starling, ruddy sheldrake, red-crested pochard, ferruginous duck, surf-scoter, avocet, black-winged stilt, pectoral sandpiper, little stint, Bonaparte's gull, ivory gull, black guillemot and Briinnich's guillemot. 6. Lizard — Land's End District The island-promontory of the Lizard is one of the wildest and most solitary districts in Cornwall. It consists for the most part of an extensive plateau two or three hundred feet high, the central portion of which is formed by the Goonhilly Downs, while to the south lies the rough heathland that covers the outcrop of serpentine. The undulations on this great stretch 323 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL of exposed upland are insignificant. The scarcity of trees, save towards the north-west, the absence of valleys, and the general monotony of the feature- less surface make the number of resident species of land birds in the island promontory relatively small. The coast-line is one of great magnificence and beauty, with many inaccessible cliffs, numerous sea caves, and strips of narrow beach of sand, shingle and pebble. There is an entire absence of estuaries and creeks, as the Helford river, which forms one of the geographi- cal boundaries of the peninsula, is for ornithological purposes more appro- priately included in the Truro-Falmouth district. In the north-west, however, is the Loe Pool, a narrow winding stretch of fresh water, a mile and a half long, and separated from the sea by a bar of pebbles. Here the oak coppice that creeps down to the water's edge, the sloping tangled banks, the park of Penrose, the shelving meadows at the top of the lake, and the pretty wooded valley of the Cober, attract a bird population in many respects similar to that around the Fal. Several sheltered dells and charmingly-wooded grounds occur, too, on the north-western slopes of Goonhilly Downs. The most southerly strongholds of woodland birds in England are at Bochym and Bonython, halfway between Helston and Lizard Point. Mount's Bay, from its geographical position, its remarkable climate, its splendid marshes, its orchards, groves, and the timber brakes that are scattered over the southern slopes for about two miles inland, is one of the most remarkable ornithological centres in England ; while to the north St. Ives Bay, with its circhng towans and great expanse of sandy beaches, presents unusual attractions to all kinds of wading birds. The Land's End peninsula consists of granite and slate, the former predominating. Outside the zone just indicated, there are practically no trees, but for the most part a rough ragged country, with no taller cover than gorse. The interior consists, for the most part, of chains of granite hills, wild crofts, and desolate moors. To the north the scenery is wild and harsh, and dotted with granite tors. The fresh-water pools and marshes in the west naturally attract a large number of surface-feeding ducks during the winter. The coast presents a magnificent series of headlands and cliff^s, chiefly of granite, jointed and weathered into enormous slabs of titanic masonry. On the south the granite barrier is broken at intervals by sheltered porths and coves ter- minating seawards in a patch of sandy beach. Such of the cliff-land along the south as is well sheltered from prevailing winds is, where practicable, devoted to the cultivation of broccoli, early potatoes, and narcissi. With the exception of Montagu's harrier, which still breeds on Goon- hilly Downs, there is no nesting bird peculiar to the district. The extreme westerly position and the exposed character of much of the surface result in a thinning-out of land species that, during the breeding season, are well represented in the Truro-Falmouth district, and a very local distribution of birds that elsewhere are fairly common throughout the southern half of the county. The nuthatch, lesser spotted woodpecker, garden -warbler, grass- hopper-warbler, grey wagtail, marsh-tit, coal-tit, and wood-lark have not been recorded as breeding in this district, though they all do so in the neighbourhood of the Fal. The magpie is abundant, but it is doubtful if the jay has nested anywhere except in the neighbourhood of Meneage. The latter bird has been seldom seen at any time of the year either about 324 BIRDS Penzance or the Lizard. After the lapse of twenty-five years the Dartford warbler has again appeared among the gorse brakes round St. Burian. The blackcap, long-tailed tit, and lately the greater spotted woodpecker breed in the vicinity of Penzance, and the great tit is in evidence there the whole year round, though no nests have been found in that neighbourhood for several years. The whinchat and the goat-sucker nest sparingly, and the red-backed shrike has bred at least twice during the last six years near Marazion. With the exception of the chaffinch the finches seem to be on the decrease. The bullfinch has been well-nigh exterminated around the market-garden area ; the goldfinch is now very scarce about Penzance, though not uncommon at one or two places in the Lizard peninsula, and even the greenfinch and linnet have greatly diminished in numbers round Helston. The corn-bunting is abundant ; the reed-bunting nests in Marazion Marsh, and the cirl-bunting is still a summer migrant on the south of the Lizard. The sand martin no longer breeds about Penzance, and the swallow and martin are not so common as ten years ago. The swift, on the other hand, is much more numerous. The green woodpecker is now ubiquitous, and appears to be still increas- ing. The starling, too, now breeds as far south as the Lizard and as far west as Sennen. The wheatear, the lapwing, and the curlew breed on Lady Downs, near Penzance, and on Goonhilly. The ring-ouzel nests at least occasionally on the latter. The dipper breeds in the Cober valley, and the snipe near the Loe Pool, in the marsh at Penzance and in the parish of Crowan. Corncrakes are, as a rule, well represented in the Lizard, and cuckoos are usually commoner there than anywhere else in the county. The common sandpiper nests near Zennor and in the marsh at Penzance. Early last century the kite bred both in the Lizard and the Land's End district, and the hen harrier has been known to nest on Goonhilly Downs. The chough nested near Kynance and at Mullion as late as 1832, at Tol-pedn-penwith, near the Land's End till 1849 ^^ least, and on the cliffs at Zennor till about 1870. The buzzard used to breed in the Land's End district, and in the late seventies a solitary pair were nesting near Zennor. The peregrine and the raven both breed at intervals round the coast. The tawny owl has a some- what limited distribution, but big flights in winter are not uncommon. The barn owl is now very scarce. During winter the short-eared owl is plentiful, but the long-eared owl is only occasionally seen. Sea birds in places breed abundantly. Oyster-catchers and ring-plovers nest here and there, from Prussia Cove to Newlyn, and less commonly further west. The herring gull is abundant, the lesser black-backed gull nests at Kynance, Mullion, Gurnard's Head, and elsewhere. The kittiwake breeds on Mullion Island, and the greater black-backed gull at the Lizard and near Gurnard's Head. Shags and cormorants nest in considerable numbers all round the coast, and though the latter are in the minority they are much commoner as a breeding species in this district than anywhere else round the mainland. A few guillemots breed west of Kynance, and there is a small colony at Tol-pedn-penwith and probably also at Bosiggran Castle. Large numbers of razor-bills breed from Kynance westwards. Of the non-breeding birds of the district the most remarkable are the golden oriole and the fire-crest. The former is a regular spring visitor to the sheltered parts of the Land's End peninsula from Marazion westwards. One of their favourite haunts is Trevethoe, near 325 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Lelant, where they appear almost every year, and occasionally linger till the beginning of June, and give rise to the vain hope that they may be breeding. In April, 1870, several flocks of from eight to tv^enty birds frequented the grounds of Trevethoe for several weeks. Treviden, near St. Burian, and the warm fairly-timbered slopes around Mount's Bay have also great attractions for this beautiful bird of passage. The fire-crest is now an erratic but constant winter visitor to the Lizard and the Penzance district. Though generally occurring in twos and threes, companies of a dozen to twenty have been occasionally seen, and in the winter of 1880-1 and in November, 1905, there must have been many hundreds scattered over the district. The hoopoe is a frequent visitor in the spring, but does not appear to linger. In addition to green and golden plover, snipe and woodcock, the winter visitors naturally include a large number of ducks. Mallard breed in the district and are always fairly common on the Loe Pool and on the fresh-water ponds and marshes of the Land's End during winter. So, too, are teal, wigeon, and shoveler, the last-named being at times the most abundant duck in the Land's End district. Pintail, pochard, and sheldrake are by no means scarce, and the other surface-feeding ducks occur irregularly. Coots are often plentiful, many hundreds appearing at a time on the Loe Pool. The red- breasted merganser is a winter visitor of regular occurrence in immature plumage, and in some years is very common. The grey-lag goose has been obtained several times. Brent and bean geese may appear in large flocks, the bernacle goose in little parties, and the white-fronted goose irregularly but not uncommonly, sometimes singly, sometimes in small gaggles, sometimes in considerable flocks. The whooper and Bewick's swans frequented Mount's Bay in some numbers during the severe winter of 1890— i. During the winter the black-headed gull often occurs in considerable numbers, particularly at Hayle. The purple sandpiper, too, is often in evidence both in Hayle estuary and Mount's Bay. The bittern is an irregular visitor to the district, but in the winters of 1 880-1, 1 890-1 was fairly common. The marsh pools of the Land's End are visited every winter by a variable number of great crested, red-necked, Slavonian, and eared grebes, for the most part in immature plumage, as well as by little grebes which breed both there and by the Loe Pool. The great northern and red-throated divers occur every year off the Lizard, at Mount's Bay, and occasionally at Hayle. The black-throated diver puts in an occasional appearance, and during the last few years has occurred several times between St. Ives and Godrevy. The remarkable ornithological character of the district lies not so much in its residents and regular visitors as in the number, variety and nature of its casuals and vagrants. As the most westerly land in England, this district is naturally the seat of extensive migratory movements, and in addition offers the most convenient refuge for continental autumn and winter migrants that, passing southwards along the coast-line of the European mainland, are driven back by contrary winds and storms from the south after passing beyond the mouth of the Channel. For storm-tossed birds from the south, Mount's Bay is not only an ideal haven of refuge, but from its position is the most likely landing-place in England for such as are driven northwards when weathering the western promontories of Brittany or in traversing the Bay of Biscay. In autumn and winter large flocks and detached parties of coasting birds of all kinds seek 326 BIRDS refuge here, and as elsewhere are often accompanied by stragglers that have become detached from their own kind on migration and lost their way. At times, too, solitary waifs and unattached parties that have wandered far from their regular flight-lines put in an appearance. Among the remarkable vagrants that have been obtained around this bay are three crested-larks, an ashy-headed wagtail, four Kentish plovers, two Baillon's crake, two American stints, a bufF-breasted sandpiper, a solitary sandpiper, a yellow shank, a Bonaparte's gull, an ivory gull, and a sooty shearwater. The roseate tern formerly put in a casual appearance, but has not been recorded since 1842. Richard's pipit has occurred at least twice, and the wry-neck, the little stint, Temminck's stint, and the spoonbill are occasional but very irregular visitors. In the Land's End district the stragglers include the roller, the bee-eater, the white stork, the avocet, the Scandinavian water pipit, the velvet scoter, Baillon's crake (at Zennor), the bufF-breasted sandpiper, the white-winged black tern, the gull-billed tern, and Pallas's sand-grouse, which appeared both in 1863 and in 1888. The rose-coloured pastor is by no means an infre- quent visitor to the district from Marazion and Gwithian westwards to Land's End. The rare visitors to the Hayle estuary include two Bonaparte's sandpipers, several glossy ibis, and a number of little stints. Sabine's gull has visited the estuary several times, and in the autumn curlews and sandpipers are occasionally abundant. The spoonbill is more frequent in its visits here than at Mount's Bay, and parties of five to eleven have been recorded. During the autumn months there is a strong migratory stream towards the west past the Lizard lighthouse, and this may be responsible for the appearance of such casuals as the dotterel, red-start, tree creeper, garden warbler and tree- pipit on the southern portion of the peninsula. Among the genuine waifs and strays to the Lizard district are an alpine swift, a yellow-billed cuckoo, a little owl, two Greenland falcons, a purple heron, a collared pratincole, three Bartram's sandpipers, and a flock of twelve bee-eaters. The late Mr. F. V. Hill of Helston mentions that a golden eagle frequented the woods atTrelowarren in January and February, 1859, and that though fired at several times escaped without injury. 7. The Isles of Scilly The islands of Scilly form an archipelago 10 miles in length from NE. to SW., with a maximum breadth of 5 miles, and lie about 25 miles west of Land's End. By far the greater number are rocky islets, and of the five inhabited islands only Tresco, by virtue of the Abbey gardens and adjoin- ing woods, can offer adequate shelter for the majority of visiting woodland birds. Except in the sheltered dip of Holy Vale trees are practically absent on St. Mary's ; and St. Martin's, St. Agnes, and Bryher have no tall cover to offer except the hedges of veronica and escallonia that in all the cultivated islands protect the bulb beds from the wind. The rock throughout is granite, and though the highest point in the archipelago is only 170 feet above sea level, several of the cliffs are imposing and practically inaccessible. The fresh- water pools at Tresco are naturally much frequented by aquatic birds of pass- age and winter visitors, and the moors of St. Mary's and elsewhere at times attract a considerable population. During the breeding season such rocky islets as are not exposed to the occasional wash of an Atlantic breaker are thickly populated by the sea birds — gulls, razor-bills, puffins, shags, cormorants, 327 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL recorded for the rest of the county Yellow-browed warbler Water pipit Lesser grey shrike Woodchat Ortolan bunting Short-toed lark Iceland falcon and a few guillemots all noisily living in company. Terns, as a rule, form separate colonies on the smaller inner rocks. The greater part of the flat turf- covered island of Annett is literally riddled with the burrows of puffins and Manx shearwaters that nest here in thousands. Ringed plovers, oyster-catchers, and rock-pipits breed in great numbers all round the inhabited and on several of the uninhabited islands including Annett, Samson, St. Helens and Great Ganilly. The conditions of bird life in Scilly differ greatly from those on the mainland. From the point of view of migration these islands are second in importance only to Heligoland, but the subject is too complex to treat in limited space. The extent to which the migratory movements over the archipelago differ from those that affect the bird population of the mainland is to some degree indicated by the fact that no fewer than fourteen species have occurred as accidental visitors at Scilly that have not been at all. These fourteen species are : Lesser kestrel American bittern Little ringed plover Killdeer plover Red-breasted snipe Esquimaux curlew Whiskered tern Nearly all these waifs and strays have occurred in autumn, and indeed most of the rarities at Scilly occur at that season, so that the autumn migratory movements are presumably much more complex than those of the spring. The total number of species in the county ornis is 303, exclusive of sundry introductions and escapes from captivity. The number for Devonshire as indicated in D'Urban and Mathew's Birds of Devon (ed. 2) is 290, and the inclusion of the melodious warbler and Continental Coal Pit brings the total up to 292. The following table shows the status of the birds in the two counties : — Residents . Summer migrants Winter visitors . Birds of passage . Casual visitors Accidental visitors Miscellaneous 303 292 The miscellaneous birds include in each county the pheasant, an in- troduced resident ; and for Cornwall the turnstone, which occurs in the county all the year round and may have bred at Scilly; the gannet, which is cer- tainly resident but does not appear to have ever bred in the county; the turtle- dove, a regular summer visitor for which only one single nest has been recorded, and the roseate tern, which formerly bred at Scilly, but has been extinct in the county for more than thirty years. Apart from the pheasant the introduced and semi-naturalized birds that have been shot in the county include : — Canadian goose (3) American summer duck (l) Egyptian goose (2) Red-legged partridge (i) Spur-winged goose (i) Barbary partridge (2) 328 rnwall Devon 83 . 85 27 31 38 • 38 15 17 70 66 65 . 54 5 I BIRDS In addition to the i lo residents and summer migrants that breed in the county, the following birds formerly nested regularly, but have ceased to do so subsequently to 1 840. The date after the name is that of the last authen- ticated nest : — Marsh harrier (1855) Hen harrier (1841 ? 1 903-5) Rough-legged buzzard (about 1859) Kite (1842) Hobby (1862) Roseate tern (after 1854) Black-headed gull (about 1845) The following species have nested at least once in the county since the middle of the century : — Yellow wagtail (frequently) Hawfinch (once) Hoopoe (once) Turtle-dove (once, Scilly) Quail (often) Spotted crake (often) Turnstone (more than once, Scilly) ? Redshank (once) Woodcock (once) Among the accidental visitors to the county there are, as previously mentioned, no less than eighteen American species, namely : — Red-winged starling Yellow-billed cuckoo Hawk owl Little green heron American bittern Surf scoter Killdeer plover Pectoral sandpiper Bonaparte's sandpiper American stint Buff-breasted sandpiper Bartram's sandpiper Solitary sandpiper Yellow shank Red-breasted snipe Esquimavix curlew Bonaparte's gull Ivory gull Apart from introduced species there are thirteen birds that have occurred in Devonshire and not in Cornwall: — Nightingale Red spotted bluethroat Black-headed warbler Rufous warbler Alpine accentor Crested-tit ? Serin Nutcracker BufF-backed heron Red-breasted goose American green-winged teal Caspian tern Great black-headed gull Of these the nightingale is a summer migrant, the crested-tit a casual and all the others accidental visitors. The little egret has occurred in Devon- shire, and may have to be added to the above list, as there is some doubt about its appearance in Cornwall. Twenty-four species have occurred in Cornwall that have not yet been found in Devonshire : — Yellow-browed warbler Tawny pipit Scandinavian rock pipit Red-breasted flycatcher Ortolan bunting Red-winged starling Short-toed lark Scop's owl Spotted eagle Iceland falcon Lesser kestrel Little green heron Collared pratincole Red grouse Baillon's crake Little ringed plover Killdeer plover Bartram's sandpiper Solitary sandpiper Yellow shank Esquimeaux curlew Roseate tern Bonaparte's gull BrUnnich's guillemot 329 42 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Of these the roseate tern formerly bred in Cornwall, Baillon's crake is a casual, and the red grouse may have been introduced. The others are acci- dental visitors. Among the accidental visitors to the county five have been included in the accompanying annotated list of Cornish birds, the evidence for the occurrence of which is not sufficiently conclusive, namely, the great reed warbler, the pine grosbeak, the crested-tit, the little egret, and the sooty tern. These are enclosed in square brackets in the list and are not included in any of the totals or numerical references. 1. Mistle Thrush. Turdus viscivorus, Lmn. Locally, Holmscreetch. A fairly common resident throughout the county. From July to October large flocks of young birds are frequent in the east and occasional in the middle and west, lingering in favoured localities for days and sometimes for weeks. A fairly regular winter visitor to Scilly, usually in small numbers. 2. Song Thrush. Turdus mus'tcus, Linn. Locally, Gray bird. A very common resident, and breeding on all the in- habited islands at Scilly. From September to Novem- ber in W. Cornwall the migratory birds greatly out- number the natives. The winter movements are complex, and at times very few birds seem to be left in the county. 3. Redwing. Turdus iliacus, Linn. Locally, Winnard. A winter visitor, usually common and generally distributed on higher ground throughout the county, but numbers and distribution vary considerably. Though it does not leave a locality so promptly as the fieldfare on the approach of severe weather, during hard frosts it is usually very abundant in the Lizard and Land's End district. Plentiful at Scilly. 4. Fieldfare. Turdus pilaris, Linn. Locally, Blue Bird. A winter visitor, usually common, but in some years, as in 1859-63, 1892, and 1899, remarkably scarce ; usually abundant in the Lizard and Land's End district in severe weather. Common at Scilly. 5. White's Thrush. Turdus varius, Pallas. An accidental visitor ; one killed near Probus in January, 1874, one in Tresco Abbey gardens, 2 De- cember, 1886, one at Looe in the winter of 1898-9, and one seen repeatedly near Devoran in March, 1903, by several observers. 6. Blackbird. Turdus merula, Linn. An abundant resident, evidently increasing. Com- moner at Scilly than on the mainland. 7. Ring Ouzel. Turdus torquatus, Linn. A summer migrant breeding in small scattered colonies on the Bodmin moors in the neighbourhood of Rough Tor, Brown Willy, Kilmaur, Hawk's Tor, and the Cheesewring, sparingly on the Kilhampton moors, and at long intervals on Goonhilly Downs. Numerous passing migrants, occasionally in flocks of twenty or more, may be seen on the moors through- out the county as far west as Zennor in the spring and again from August to October. Occasionally one or two may be seen for several weeks at a time in the east of the county during the winter months when the weather is not very severe. In the sixties it used to nest in considerable numbers, but of late years has been somewhat scarce at the breeding season. Fre- quently seen during September and October at Scilly, On 12 April, 1903, a flock of over 100 arrived with a south-easterly wind on the north side of Old Town Bay, St. Mary's. 8. Wheatear. Saxicola oenanthe (Linn.).' A summer migrant, commoner during the breeding season in the east than in the west of the county, but abundant in the Lizard and in some parts of the Penzance district. Large flocks arrive on the south coast every spring, most of which after resting for a few days resume their journey to the north. A con- siderable number, however, pass slowly along well- defined routes to the uplands of the county, where they breed, while a few pairs remain to nest by the sea. It appears in large numbers on the low-lying fallow-land from the end of August till the middle or end of October. It breeds rather sparingly in Scilly, but is abundant during spring and autumn migration. 9. Whinchat. Pratincola rubetra (Linn.). A somewhat local summer migrant, occasionally seen in the east of the county during the winter ; breeds sparingly as far west as Falmouth, and is fairly common about Poundstock ; flocks occasionally seen about Mount's Bay in September, as in 1899 and 1904. Occurs at Scilly singly in autumn. 10. Stonechat. Pratincola rubicola (Linn.). Locally, Furzechitter. A common resident throughout the county ; more abundant in summer than in winter. In the first week of May, 1903, there must have been about thirty pairs on St. Helen's, Scilly, all evidently breeding. 1 1 . Redstart. Ruticilla phoenicurus (Linn.). One of the scarcest of Cornish summer migrants ; nests in the east of the county by the side of the Tamar and occasionally at least at Trebartha and about Liskeard. In the spring of 1904 two nests were found between Truro and Falmouth, the only known instances of its breeding in the west of the county. Occurs at Scilly every autumn both in pairs and in small flocks. 12. Black Redstart. Ruticilla titys (Scopoli). A not uncommon winter visitor throughout the county except on the north coast ; often occurs singly, and generally in immature plumage ; a fairly frequent solitary migrant at Trebartha in the autumn. Visits 1 Brackets placed round the name of the original describer of a species indicate that he did not employ the generic name which is now adopted. 330 BIRDS Scilly during autumn migration and irregularly through- out the winter. 13. Redbreast. Erithacus rubecula (LAnn.). Common and generally distributed throughout the county, including Scilly. 14. Whitethroat. Sylvia cinerea (^tchsttivi). A summer migrant, but very unevenly distributed ; common about Launceston, Liskeard, Bodmin, the Lizard and Penzance, but never seen about Camel- ford, rare at Trebartha, and though remarkably abundant about Truro in 1902, was not again re- corded till 1905. An autumnal visitor at Scilly. 15. Lesser Whitethroat. Sylvia curruca (Linn.). A casual autumn visitor to the Bude and Launceston district ; obtained at Bodmin in September, 1904, and at Scilly in 1857. 16. Blackcap. Sylvia atricapilla (lAnn.). A summer migrant, not uncommon in the east of the county, but scarce elsewhere, though nesting as far west as Penzance. Has been seen at Scilly occa- sionally on autumn migration and twice in January. 1 7. Garden Warbler. Sylvia hortensis (Bechstein). A summer migrant breeding regularly in the east, but except around Falmouth apparently rare in the rest of the county ; on 27 September, 1900, a storm- tossed flock of fifteen appeared at Kenwyn, Truro, and rested there for two days, the only record of its occurrence in that district ; recorded as an autumn migrant at the Lizard. Only reported three times from Scilly, viz., 1849, October, 1874, and 29 Sep- tember, 1900. 18. Dartford Warbler. Sylvia undata (^oAddL&n). Locally, Pink-eye. This resident bird was in the late seventies fairly common in the Land's End district and bred in suitable localities throughout the county. The severe winters of 1 880-1 and 1886-7 seem to have almost exterminated it in the south-western peninsula, and from 1885 there is no further Cornish record till May, 1899, when it was seen by Miss E. A. Reynolds at Hayle. In April, 1904, a nest with five eggs was found near Penryn, and in 1905 a nest with four young ones near Linkinhorne, and another with four eggs near St. Burian. 19. Gold-crest. Regulus cristatus (Koch). Resident ; fairly common and generally distributed in congenial localities, but not nearly so abundant as twenty years ago ; in the autumn and winter fre- quently reinforced by immigrant flocks, which on several occasions during the past five years must have con- tained many thousands of birds. Does not breed at Scilly, but arrives in large flocks in autumn and winter. 20. Fire-crest. Regulus i^icapillus (Brehm.). A regular visitor, usually in small numbers, in autumn and winter, to the south of the county from Looe to Scilly, but most frequent in the west. In October, 1900, several came in at the Lizard on an easterly wind with a large flock of chifFchaffs and several black redstarts, and two were seen at Tresco. In January, 1901, over a dozen frequented some fir trees near Tregothnan, with a number of gold-crests, for about a fortnight. In November, 1902, one was shot near Truro ; in November, 1903, there were several at Tresco, and in the first week of December, 1904, two were seen for several days near Gulval, and one was shot near Helston. At times common at Scilly. 2 1 . Yellow-browed Warbler. Phylloscopus superciRosus (J. F. Gmelin). Two shot on St. Martin's Common, Scilly, in October, 1867, by Pechell, were mistaken for fire-crests in immature plumage, and were not identified till 1890. On I October, 1905, David Smith killed another specimen with a stick on Tresco. 22. ChifFchafF. Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein). A fairly common summer migrant, not infirequently heard and seen during the winter months. Small flocks on migration are common in the autumn, espe- cially with an easterly wind. Appears on Tresco and St. Mary's every autumn, and has been recorded so frequently during the winter that it is probable a few remain most years till the spring. 23. Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus trochilus (Linn.). A summer migrant, common but local ; fond of nesting near running water. In some years extra- ordinary numbers arrive on the south coast about the middle of April. So far only recorded for Scilly as an autumn bird of passage, but two were both seen and heard in Tresco Abbey gardens in April, 1904. 24. Wood Warbler. Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechstein). A summer migrant locally common in the east of the county, but either very rare or overlooked in the middle and west and at Scilly. In 1904 it nested near Devoran, and in May, 1903, several specimens were seen and heard at Tresco ; at least an occasional bird of passage in spring and autumn at Scilly. 25. Melodious Warbler. Hypolais hypoglotta (Vieillot). An accidental visitor, represented by a solitary adult male shot at Sandplace, near Looe, 12 May, 1905. 26. Reed Warbler. Acrocephalus streperus (Vieillot). A summer migrant, scarce and local, known only in the south of the county from Looe to Falmouth ; has bred near Truro every year since 1899. In April, 1904, there were several in song by the side of the Long Pool, Tresco. [Great Reed Warbler. Acrocephalus turdoides (Meyer) . About the end of September, 1 884, David Smith shot a bird on the reeds at Long Pool, Tresco, which he identified as this species. He had it in his hand, and * It spread out its tail like a fan ; before he could kill it, it slipped from his hand and went away like a mouse.' (Note in the Abbey MS. Bird Record for the Isles of Scilly.)] 27. Sedge Warbler. Acrocephalusphragmitisi^cchntin). A summer migrant locally distributed throughout the county, but commoner in the south and west than in the north. Breeds freely on Tresco. 28. Grasshopper Warbler. Locustellanaevia{^o^diZttt.) A scarce summer migrant, somewhat commoner on autumn migration ; nests have been found now and then from Trebartha to Falmouth and at Newquay. Recorded by the Rev. H. O. Astley, on Tresco, 12 May, 1 90 1, and two were watched for over an hour on Samson, 13 April, 1903. 331 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 29. Hedge Sparrow. Accentor modularis (Linn.). Resident and abundant throughout the county, except on the Bodmin moors ; large flocks occa- sionally seen at the Lizard in the autumn. A com- mon resident at Scilly. 30. Dipper. Cinclus aquatkus, Bechstein. A resident, fairly common on the upper portions of the Lynher, Inney, and Camel and on the Drayncs river, Liskeard ; nests regularly on several of the streams of the middle and west. 31. Bearded Tit. Panurtu Siamicus (Linn.). A rare accidental visitor, obtained thrice in the county ; once near Helston, by Humphrey Grylls of Bosahan ; once in January, 1 846, in a sedgy bottom near St. Levan church ; and once on the higher moors, St. Mary's, Scilly, in the fifties. 32. Long-tailed Tit. Jcreduht caudata (Linn.). Locally, Bottle Tit. Resident, fairly abundant, but local throughout the county ; decidedly uncommon about Camelford, and since 1900 in the Truro district. Small flocks arrive on the south coast during the winter. Till lately the only record of this bird at Scilly was for October, 1876, when David Smith shot three out of a family of seven, but several birds were seen at Trcsco in the autumn of 1903 and again in 1905. 33. Great Tit. Parus major, Linn. A common resident and generally distributed ; in some years specially abundant at the Lizard in the autumn ; though common in the Penzance district, has not bred there lately ; scarce about Launceston during the winter. Appears at Scilly in small num- bers in autumn, and occasionally lingers for several weeks about Tresco. 34. Continental Coal-Tit. Parus ater, Linn. Though the distinction between this species and the next is dubious, it is interesting to record a typical specimen shot 3 April, 1904, at Mount's Bay. 35. British Coal-Tit. Parut britannicus, Sharpe and Dresser. A fairly common resident in fir and pine planta- tions, especially in the east of the county, but not so abundant as the great tit ; nests as far west as Falmouth, but not in the Penzance district, and is rarely seen at the Lizard ; scarce about Launceston in winter. Has occurred only once at Scilly, in October, 185 1. 36. Marsh-Tit. Parus palustris, Linn. Resident but local ; breeding in the east of the county and freely in the west about Falmouth, but elsewhere a scarce bird at all times of the year ; at Trebartha more plentiful than the coal-tit during the breeding season, abundant during the autumn, and in the winter season the commonest member of the family. Obtained at Scilly about the same time as the coal-tit mentioned above, and also seen twice by F. R. Rodd about 1863. 37. Blue-Tit. Parus coerukus, Linn. Locally, Hackeymall, Hickmall. Resident, abundant and generally distributed. Occurs at Scilly occasionally singly or in pairs during the autumn and winter ; probably blown off the mainland by storms. [Crested-Tit. Parus cristatus, Linn. John Harris of Liskeard saw two crested-tits in the autumn of 1899 at High Wood, Looe Mills. One was in some alders ; the other in a little adjoining plantation.] 38. Nuthatch, ^itta caesia. Wolf. Resident ; a familiar bird in the eastern woodlands ; breeds regularly as far west as Doublebois, in most years about Bodmin, and occasionally about Fal- mouth ; has nested twice at Helston ; common in the middle and west as a winter visitor. 39. Wren. Troglodytes parvulus, Koch. Resident ; common andgencrally distributed through- out the county and at Scilly ; about Truro and Fal- mouth usually more abundant in winter than in summer. 40. Tree-Creeper. Certhia familiaris, Linn. Resident ; nesting and fairly common in most of the old woods throughout the county ; not infrequently seen at the Lizard. 41. Pied Wagtail. Motacilla lugubris, Temminck. Locally, Dishwasher, Tinner. Resident ; generally distributed except in the Camel- ford district and on the north coast from Pentire, Padstow to Dizzard Head, where wagtails are repre- sented only by occasional casuals ; in many districts extraordinarily abundant. Large migratory flocks chiefly of immature birds occur in the south and west of the county in September. From 6 to 9 Septem- ber, 1904, a flock of two or three thousand lingered on passage in the neighbourhood of Bude. In the spring from the second week in March till the end of the second week in April numerous small flocks come in on the south coast, the first arrivals being ex- clusively adult males. Nests on all the larger islands at Scilly. 42. White Wagtail. Motacilla alba, Linn. Evidently a regular spring and autumn bird of passage about St. Ives, Falmouth, and Penzance, and an occasional passing visitor elsewhere ; almost always associated with migratory flocks of pied wagtails. On 29 May, 1904, an adult male was killed near Truro. Several were seen on St. Mary's early in October, 1903, in a large flock of pied wagtails. 43. Grey Wagtail. Motacilla melanope, Pallas. Resident, but more abundant as a winter visitor ; breeds in considerable numbers by the side of the streams in the east of the county, and occasionally as far west as Truro. At Scilly a regular autumn and winter migrant. In the spring of 1903 was common about High Town, St. Mary's, from 10 to 18 April. 44. Blue-headed Wagtail. Motacilla flava, Linn. A casual spring and summer visitor to the west of the county. Two specimens were shot by Pechell at Scilly in September, 1 87 1, but it has not been recorded there since. [Ashy-headed Wagtail. Motacilla cinereicapilla, Savi. Of this subspecies, one of the two recorded English specimens was killed at Penzance and was identified by Gould.] 45. Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla raii (Bonaparte). A spring and autumn visitor in small numben, lingering at times for several weeks on both journeys ; 332 BIRDS in some years, e.g. 1901, 1902, and 1903, a few birds spend the winter about Truro and Falmouth ; occasionally seen during the winter on Marazion Marsh flats ; has nested several times in the east and middle of the county. Large numbers appear at the Lizard in the autumn. Fairly plentiful at Scilly in the autumn of some years, notably 1890 and 1903. 46. Tree Pipit. Anthus triv'talis (Linn.). A summer migrant abundant in the east of the county, occasionally seen in the middle and at long intervals on migration in the west. An occasional autumn and winter visitor to Scilly. An adult male was found dead on St. Agnes early in June, 1902. 47. Meadow Pipit. Anthus pratensu (Linn.). Resident ; abundant and generally distributed in all open situations throughout the county during the warmer months, but for the most part restricted to lower-lying ground in the winter ; numbers increased by immigration during autumn and winter. A com- mon resident at Scilly. 48. Tawny Pipit. Anthus campestris (Linn.) An accidental visitor, represented by a single speci- men shot by Pechell near Old Grimsby, Trcsco, ig September, 1868, and by one caught at Bodmin, 16 September, 1899. 49. Richard's Pipit. Anthus richardi, Vieillot. A casual autumn and spring visitor to the west of the county and Scilly, obtained on at least eight different occasions and seen twice. On 16 May, 1903, a pair were watched for over an hour near Holy Vale, St. Mary's. 50. Water Pipit. Anthus sp'tpoletta (Linn.). A rare casual, so far only once obtained in the county, namely by Clark at Scilly, 6 May, 1903. 51. Rock Pipit. Anthus obscurus (Latham). Locally, Pinnick. Resident ; common in many localities around the coast ; large flocks of passing birds come in from the south-east in the spring. Nests in considerable num- bers on nearly all the islands at Scilly, including Guthers and Round Island. 52. Scandinavian Rock Pipit. Anthus rupestris, Nill- son. A rare casual ; one specimen killed near Land's End by J. H. Gurney, and one at Scilly, 1 1 May, 1903, by J. G. Millais. 53. Golden Oriole. Oriolus galbula, Linn. An annual passing visitor in spring to W. Corn- wall and Scilly, appearing usually in April and re- maining sometimes as late as the beginning of June. The groves of Trevethoe, near Lelant, are a favourite haunt of this bird, and in 1870, over forty occurred there during the course of the season. It frequently appears on the slopes round Mount's Bay and through- out the Land's End district. At Tresco it appears every spring in the Abbey gardens, where five have been heard singing at one time. It has been occa- sionally reported from the middle and twice from the east of the county. 54. Great Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor, Linn. A rare casual winter visitor, taken three times in the county, including once at Gweek about thirty years ago, and once, an adult male, at Bodmin on 26 November, 1898. 55. Lesser Grey Shrike. Lanius minor, J. F. Gmelin. A rare accidental straggler ; a single specimen shot at Scilly by Pechell in November, 185 1, but at first mistaken for the preceding species. 56. Red-backed Shrike or Butcher Bird. Lanius collurio, Linn. A scarce summer migrant in the west and north of the county, less infrequent in the north-east ; last recorded nests, Marazion, May, 1899, and Killiow, Truro, June, 1902. A rare autumnal visitor at Scilly. 57. Woodchat. Lanius pomer anus, Sparrman. An accidental visitor to Scilly in 1 840 and again in the autumn of 1849. 58. Waxwing. Ampelis garrulus,\Jva.Xi. A casual winter visitor ; several specimens killed about the Lizard in 1828, one at Scilly in the early forties, and a number throughout the county in the winter of 1849-50, since which date there is no further record. 59. Pied Flycatcher. Muscicapa atricapilla, Linn. A not infrequent autumn and spring visitor to Scilly, but on the mainland seldom seen ; one taken at Penzance in autumn, 1849, two at Looe in 1878, one at Par in May, 1886, one near Wadebridge, 23 April, 1 89 1, and one at Liskeard in September, 1900. 60. Spotted Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisola, Linn. A summer migrant ; very common in the east, but breeding in suitable localities throughout the county. Hitherto only recorded from Scilly as an autumn bird of passage in immature plumage ; but on 7 July, 1903, a nest with young birds was found by Clark on the west side of Bryher. 61. Red-breasted Flycatcher. Muscicapa parva, Bech- stein. An accidental autumn and winter vagrant ; first British specimen, a female, shot by Copeland near Constantine, Falmouth, in January, 1863 ; a second specimen shot at Scilly, October, 1863, and a third also at Scilly, 5 November, 1865. 62. Swallow. Hit undo rustica, Linn. An abundant summer migrant, generally distri- buted ; occasionally seen in November, sometimes seen in December and even in January. 63. House-Martin. Chelidon urbica (Linn.). An abundant summer migrant and generally dis- tributed, but does not breed so commonly in the west as formerly ; has been occasionally recorded in Novem- ber, December, and January. Does not breed at Scilly, but is by no means uncommon. 64. Sand-Martin. Cotile riparia (Linn.). A summer migrant ; usually found where suitable nesting sites are available ; has not bred about Pen- zance for some years, though formerly common in that district ; very local on the north coast. Only a casual visitor to Scilly in spring and autumn. 65. Greenfinch. Ligurinus ch/oris (Linn.). Resident ; common and generally distributed. Large 'flocks arrive in the autumn and depart in the early spring. In November, 1894, a flock of many thou- 333 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL sands put in at Portscatho, A winter visitor at Scilly, occasionally, as in 1849, 1894, and 1904, in large flocks. 66. Hawfinch. Coccothraustes vulgaris, Pallas. A scarce but regular winter visitor, evidently in- creasing in numbers in the middle of the county ; was common at Boconnoc during the winter of 1901— 2 ; has nested at least once, near Launceston. An occasional visitor at Tresco in spring and autumn, in immature plumage. 67. Goldfinch. Carduelis ekgans, Stephens. Resident ; but nowhere common, and in some districts becoming very scarce. The numbers seem to be reinforced on thistle ground in the early autumn, and in March small flocks arrive on the south coast, and occasionally travel inland without dispersing. Towards the end of March, 1900, fifty birds, evidently all males, were seen at Tolcarne. Appears at Scilly in family parties in autumn and winter, 68. Siskin. Carduelis spinus (Linn.). A regular winter visitor to the Lostwithiel district, sometimes in large numbers, arriving in October and staying till March, latest date the 25th of that month ; a frequent winter casual in the rest of the county. Seen occasionally at Tresco during the autumn and winter. In Januarj-, 1904, five spent some days among the Pinus lambertianus on the Abbey drive, 69. House Sparrow. Passer domesticus (Linn.). Resident ; extremely abundant and generally dis- tributed wherever human habitations are to be found, except in some of the valleys among the Bodmin moors, where it is decidedly scarce. In July, 1903, it was common on Samson. 70. Tree-Sparrow. Passer montanus (Linn.). A casual winter visitor, rarely recorded but possibly overlooked. The last two birds shot in the county were, at Scorrier in the autumn of 1897, and near Pencalenick in November, 1904. In the list of Scilly birds at the end of Rodd's Birds of Cornwall this species is said to be occasionally met with, but no authentic specimen or definite record can be found. 71. Chaffinch. Fringilla coelebs, Linn. Locally, Fink, Copperfink, White Finch (fe- male). Resident ; very abundant and generally distributed except about Newquay, where it is not common. Large flocks occasionally seen in autumn, winter, and spring. Occasionally, as in March, 1 904, large flocks, usually of females, visit Scilly. 72. Brambling. Frin^lla montifringilla, Linn. A winter visitor chiefly recorded from the southern half of the county, usually rare, but in some seasons remarkably abundant, as in March, 1858, the winters of 1859-60 and 1890-1, and in October, 1902. 73. Linnet. Linota cannabina (Linn.). Resident ; common and generally distributed ; large flocks about Falmouth and the Lizard in autumn and winter. Occurs at Scilly in large flocks often mixed with chaffinches in autumn and spring, and irregularly during the winter. In 1903 nests were found on Garrison Hill, St. Mary's, and on St. Martin's. 74. Mealy Redpoll. Linota linaria (Linn.). A casual visitor represented by an adult male shot many years ago at Carrythenick, and one in imma- ture plumage near Feock on 19 December, 1903. 75. Lesser Redpoll. Linota rubescens (Vieillot). A casual winter visitor from the north ; often caught with siskins at Lostwithiel, with linnets at Penzance, and occasionally shot singly at Stratton and elsewhere. 76. Twite. Linota favirostris (Linn.), A rare casual winter visitor. One shot at Pen- zance over thirty years ago. After the cold stormy weather of March, 1901, seven birds were seen at Cardinham and two shot. One was killed at Lost- withiel towards the end of November, 1904. 77. Bullfinch. Pyrrhula europaea, Vieillot, Locally, Hoop, Hope, Bud-picker. Resident ; locally distributed throughout the county, and in some places fairly numerous ; formerly common in the Penzance district, but has been almost exter- minated by the market-gardeners. It does not appear to have visited Scilly till the last few years. In the spring of 1903 it was plentiful on St. Mary's, Samson, and Bryher, and in April, 1904, a flock of about twenty spent several days in the churchyard at Old Town. [Pine Grosbeak. Pyrrhula enuckator (Linn.). In a letter to E. H. Rodd, dated 29 March, 1877, Alan Furneaux, of St. Germans, writes, ' I observed [on 8 November, 1868] a pair of strange finches feeding on the cones of an arbor vitae not five yards from a window in this house. I had time to view them with the aid of a binocular. The back of the male was bright crimson, and to the best of my recollection relieved with dusky spots. The man- dibles were short and blunt, but to my view ended in a distinct point and did not cross. On comparing the bird with the plate [of the pine grosbeak] in Mr. Morris's work I felt no doubt.' '] 78. Crossbill. Loxia curvirostra, Linn. A fairly common casual visitor of irregular occur- rence ; on several occasions seen in flocks, those of August and September, 1898, being fairly well dis- tributed throughout the county. 79. Two-barred Crossbill. Loxia bifasciata (Brehm). A single specimen of this accidental straggler was shot at Lariggan a few years prior to 1843, when it was seen and identified by E. H. Rodd. 80. Corn-Bunting. Emberixa miliaria, Linn. Locally, Horse lark. Bunting lark. Resident ; scarce in the east of the county, but common along the north coast and at the Lizard and in the Falmouth and Truro districts, where it has a strong partiality for telegraph wires. Also a resident at Scilly, but most abundant in flocks late in the autumn. 81. Yellow Hammer. EmberiTM citrinella, lAnn. Locally, Gladdie. Resident ; a common hedgerow bird throughout the county. Very rare at Scilly ; Pechell shot one in the autumn of 1849, and saw another some years later. 1 See also J. H. Gurney in the Zoologist for 1877, p. 248. 334 BIRDS 82. Cirl Bunting. EmBeriza c'trlus, Linn. Resident but local ; breeds south of Liskeard, in most years at the Lizard, and sparingly elsewhere on the south coast ; has been seen on the Gannel near Newquay, and may have nested there. So far only two specimens recorded from Scilly, one obtained Novem- ber, 1857, and one December, 1859. 83. Ortolan Bunting. Emberiza hortulana, Linn. One example of this accidental visitor was shot by Pechell on a wall at Tresco Abbey, 7 October, 1 8 5 1 . 84. Reed Bunting. Emberiza schoenklus, Linn. Resident in small colonies throughout the county, on the moors at Trebartha, at St. Germans, at Gunwon, Luxulian, and at Marazion. An occasional autumn and winter visitor at Scilly, singly or in small parties. 85. Snow Bunting. Plectrophlanes nivalis (Linn.). A fairly constant but not very common winter visitor to the high lands near the coast, occasionally singly, but usually in pairs or in small parties ; almost invariably in immature plumage. A regular early autumn visitor at Scilly, occasionally appearing during the winter and rarely in spring. All have been in autumn plumage except one splendid specimen in full breeding attire, shot by Dorrien-Smith on 29 April, 1890. 86. American Red-winged Starling. Agelaeus phoe- niceus, Vieillot A specimen of this accidental visitor from N. America was shot at Swanpool, Falmouth, in August, 1881. 87. Starling. Stumus vulgaris, Linn. Up till 1854 only a winter visitor to the county, though in great numbers ; that year a pair bred at Trebartha, and by i860 fourteen pairs were breeding there. From 1855 to 1858 a single pair bred yearly at Bodmin ; then they began to increase in numbers and to spread. They were first observed breeding at St. Germans in 1865 by Furneaux, at Liskeard in 1866 by Harris and Trathen, at Truro in 1873 by the late Alderman Worth, at Falmouth in 1887 by J. Tilly, at Camelford in 1890 by H. H. M. Lawrence, at Penzance about 1892 by A. W. Hawey, and at the Lizard about the same time by R. Harris. Enormous numbers still come in the autumn and leave in February and March. At Scilly it is one of the earliest of the winter visitors ; its numbers fluctuate considerably during the winter, and at times many thousands roost in the reed-beds and low plantations on Tresco. As a rule, only a few stragglers remain after the middle of April. 88. Rose-coloured Pastor. Pastor roseus (Linn.). A casual visitor of not infrequent occurrence in the west of the county from April to October. Probably many young birds pass unnoticed on account of the closeness of their resemblance to young starlings. One specimen was shot by Pechell at Scilly, probably in 1848, and another in June, 1892, by David Smith. (1602) speaks of it as a daw * peculiar to Cornwall and there-through called a Cornish chough ' ; and the name was in use long before his time. Upton, a canon of Salisbury, writing about the middle of the fifteenth century, speaks of it as specially found in Cornwall (Newton). Camden, in his Britannica (1607) singles it out as the only bird of the county worthy of special comment. Till early last century it was common all round the Cornish coast. It used to breed at Looe, but Stephen Clogg (born 1 8 1 2) could not remember it. It nested at Turbot Point, to the south of Mevagissey, till after 1820, at Kynance and Mullion till about 1832, at Tol-pedn-penwith, near the Logan Stone, till about 1849, and a nest was found at Trewavas Head in 1854. It used to be caught on the sands at Perran by means of barbed steel traps, and Dr. Bullmore says he has seen as many as five lying dead at one time, and that seven dozen used to be sent annually to Falmouth for sale during the game season. A nest was found on the cliffs near Zennor in 1870, and it may have bred there for a few years later. The last nest at Newquay was destroyed, along with the sitting bird, about 1882, and since that date it does not appear to have bred west of Mawgan Porth. In 1901 only seven nests could be found as the result of a careful survey of the coast between Newquay and HennaclifF. A less thorough examination in 1904 showed the presence of ten nests, and this year (1905) twelve have been recorded. The only example obtained at Scilly was shot by some fishermen during Christmas week, 1899. 90. Jay. Garrulus glandarius (Linn.). Resident ; common throughout the woodlands of the east and south as far west as Meneage, and locally in the north ; a very scarce casual in the Penzance district. Has not been recorded for Scilly, 91. Magpie. Pica rustica (Scopoli). Resident ; very common throughout the county, including the Lizard and by no means confined to wooded districts. Two were blown over to Scilly from the mainland with a flock of rooks during a violent gale in October, 1859. One was shot at St. Agnes and the other on St. Helen's by Pechell. 92. Jackdaw. Corvus moneduhy Linn, Locally, Chaw, Resident ; has greatly increased in numbers during the past sixty years, and is now most abundant throughout the county. Occasionally carried over to Scilly by winter storms along with rooks, as in November, 1870, January, 1885, and November, 1 90 1. On 2 November, 1905, a flock of about 400 put in at Tresco, 93. Raven, Corvus corax, Linn. Resident and increasing especially about Launceston and in the north-east of the county generally ; nests at intervals along the cliffs both on the north and on the south coasts, and regularly at many inland stations. A casual wanderer to Scilly, but appears to have bred at least once on Gorregan about 1 840, 89. Chough. Pyrrhocorax graculus (Linn,). 94. Carrion Crow, Corvus corone, Linn. This bird, still fortunately a resident with us, has Resident ; fairly general in the east and south of been associated with Cornwall for over 400 years, the county, but absent from much of the north coast, though by no means confined to that county, Carew The only representative of the genus in permanent 335 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL residence in Scilly, breeding regularly on the larger uninhabited islands. 95. Hooded or Grey Crow. Cofvus cottiix, Linn. Locally, Marketjew Crow. About a century ago fairly well known in the west of the county ; now only a casual visitor, but not so rare as is generally supposed. Recent records include two at the Lizard in November, 1900, one at Lanreath and one on the Helford river in the autumn of the same year ; one at Trengwainton in March, 1901 ; one on the Helford river, October, 1903, and one near Bodmin, December, 1904. An occasional visitor at Scilly from November to May. A few at times spend the greater part of the winter at Tresco, as in 1870-1, 1900-1, and 1903-4. One was shot by L. R. George at Holy Vale, St. Mary's, May, 1900 ; a flock of five spent some days there in the spring of 1 90 1, and on 14 April, 1903, a solitary bird was seen, so that it may prove to be a spring bird of passage on that island. 96. Rook. Corvus frugilegus, Linn. An abundant resident. In the autumn the rookeries in a district often unite into one enormous flock for roosting purposes, and come together at the same headquarters every evening like the starlings. A few are occasionally blown over to Scilly from the mainland, and usually remain till the spring. In the early fifties a whole rookerj- was driven over to Tresco in the autumn, and not only remained through the winter, but towards spring attempted to establish themselves near the Abbey, but the locality was unsuitable, and they gradually disappeared. 97. Skylark. Alauda arvensis, Linn. Resident, common and generally distributed ; does not breed in as great numbers as in the midlands ; large accessions in winter. At Scilly it breeds in small numbers, but during the period of autumn migration and irregularly throughout the winter arrives in large flocks. 98. Wood-Lark. Alauda arbor ea, Linn. Resident ; local but probably often overlooked ; appears to breed most commonly between Liskeard and Truro ; occasionally seen in the east and in spring about Penzance ; has not been recorded for the north of the county except about Newquay. A casual visitor to Scilly ; two shot by Pechell behind the Great Rock, Tresco, 5 December, 1859 ; two at the same place by F. R. Rodd, 29 December, 1870 ; and one by David Smith in 1891. 99. Crested-Lark. Alauda crhtata, Linn. An accidental visitor represented by two specimens shot by Vingoe between Penzance and Marazion in September, 1846 ; one by J. N. R. Millett near Penzance in October, 1850 ; and one by Gill, of Falmouth, at Budock Bottoms in December, 1865. 100. Short-toed Lark. Alauda brachydactyla, Leisler. An accidental vagrant, of which a single example was shot at Skirt Point, Tresco, by Pechell, 20 September, 1854 ; the only record for the county. 102. Swift. Cypselus apus (Linn.). A summer migrant ; common, in some districts abundant and increasing, but somewhat local ; breeds not only about cottages, sea cliffs, and in hollow trees, but in colonies under the granite ledges on many of the Tors on the Bodmin moors. At Scilly it is an occasional bird of passage in small numbers, both in spring and late summer. 103. Alpine Swift. Cypselus melba (Linn.). A rare accidental summer visitor. One specimen taken off the Lizard came into the hands of Jonathan Couch,' a second was obtained by Jackson of Looe, and on his death passed into the museum of the Royal Institution of Cornwall ; a third was shot by Allen Daniel at Mylor in the summer of 1859, and is in the Rodd Collection at Trebartha Hall. 104. Night-jar or Goatsucker. Linn. Caprmulgus europaeus. 1 01. Shore- Lark. Otocoryj alpgstris (Linn.). A casual winter visitor ; two shot in the parish of St. Merryn, near Padstow, 30 October, 1879. Locally, Dorhawk. A summer migrant throughout the county ; com- moner in the east and middle than in the west, but nest- ing occasionally in the Land's End district. Not uncom- mon at Scilly in autumn. In August, 1 90 1, Dorrien- Smith saw a great flock of these birds on Annett. 105. Wryneck. Jynx (orfuilla, Linn. A casual autumn migrant, occasionally reported from the Liskeard district, the Lizard, and Scilly. Single specimens have been obtained at Trebartha, Cam Gulva, near Zcnnor, and Penzance. One was shot at Scilly by Dorrien-Smith, 4 April, 1893. 106. Green Woodpecker. Gecinus viridis (Linn.). Resident and generally distributed throughout the county. Till forty years ago a rare casual visitor to the west, though well known in the east of the county from the Tamar to Lostwithiel ; first nested near Truro about 1869, and at Falmouth in 1873, though stray birds were seen yearly about Tregothnan and the river Fal from 1866 ; first recorded as nesting at Penzance in 1882. Apparently n on -migratory, but numbers increased considerably during the severe winter of 1894-5. A single specimen recorded for Scilly in September, 1 90 1. 107. Greater Spotted Woodpecker. Dendrocopus major (Linn.). Resident ; up till 1877 bred regularly at Trebartha and Liskeard, and was only a casual visitor to the rest of the county. That year it nested at Doublebois, and has been slowly moving westward ever since. A nest was found near Bodmin in 1884, at Lostwithiel in 1 891, at Tregothnan in 1897, and it probably nested at Enys (Penryn) about the same time. It is now common in trees close to Penzance, and in all probability has nested there for several years past. Has not been recorded from the Lizard. 108. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. Dendrocopus minor (Linn.). Resident ; like the previous species was at one time known to breed only in the east of the county, but of late years has nested not infrequently about Tre- gothnan, and in 1 904 near St. Columb ; occasionally appears further west in the autumn and winter ; prob- ably often overlooked. ^ Couch's Cornish Fauna, pt. iii, p. 147. BIRDS 109. Kingfisher. Alcedo ispiddylJvnxi. 118. Tawny Owl. Syrnium a/uco (Linn.) Resident ; except in the Launceston district and on Resident ; generally distributed through the wood the Camel and the Fowey, scarcer now during the land districts, and in some places abundant, breeding season than formerly, but still widely spread throughout the county ; more abundant in winter than in summer except about Launceston. Has occurred at Tresco, Bryher, St. Mary's, and Tean, and among the western rocks as an accidental winter visitor, almost always singly. no. Roller. Coracias garru/us, Linn. An accidental vagrant, obtained at least seven times in W. Cornwall, the two last records being Land's End, June, 1861 ; and St. Burian, October, 1887. Not recorded for Scilly. 111. Bee-eater. Mero/>s a/>ias/er, Linn. ' A rare accidental straggler ; four seen and two killed at Madron in 1807, twelve seen and eleven killed at Helston in May, 1828 ; one repeatedly seen at Scilly, June, 1878 ; two or three seen and one, a male, shot at Holy Vale, St. Mary's, in October, 1901. 112. Hoopoe. TJpupa epops, Linn. A regular spring visitor in small numbers, occasion- ally repassing in autumn. In 1901 a pair nested near St. Columb. Five eggs were laid, of which four were hatched, and the young birds were successfully reared. In April, 1903, five were seen together on Castle Down, Tresco. 113. Cuckoo. Cucu/us canorus, Linn. A summer migrant, not nearly so common as in the midland counties, but generally distributed ; remark- ably common about Truro in 1892 ; in most years common about the Lizard and at Scilly. At Holy Vale, St. Mary's, as many as nine have been seen at one time. 114. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Cucu/us americanus (Linn.). A rare accidental straggler ; one Cornish specimen referred to by Yarrell, and one picked up dead near Helston in October, 1887. 115. White or Barn Owl. Ztrix Jlammea, Linn. Resident ; formerly much commoner in the east than in the west of the county, but through foolish persecution now almost extinct in many districts ; increasing about Launceston and St. Minver. A single specimen shot by Jenkinson, 1 3 November, 1858, is the only record for Scilly. 119. Little Owl. Athene noctua (Scopoll). A rare accidental straggler ; one specimen killed at Constantine in 1828 and one at St. Keverne in 1830 ; subsequent records doubtful. 120. Snowy Owl. 'Nyctea scandiaca (Linn.). An accidental straggler till lately represented by a single storm-battered specimen found near St. Germans in 1838, and recorded by Bellamy in his Natural History of South Devon, p. 201. Couch saw it in the Rev. Mr. Hore's collection, and mentions it in his Cornish Fauna} In September, 1905, an adult bird was shot on St. Martin's, Scilly, and is now in the Abbey Collection. 121. Hawk Owl. Surniafunerea (lAnn.). A rare accidental wanderer ; a single specimen of the dark American form taken in an exhausted con- dition from the rigging of a collier off the coast of Cornwall in March, 1830.* 122. Scop's Owl. Scops giu (^co'poYi). A rare accidental wanderer ; one captured in an exhausted condition on Tresco, in the first week of April, 1847 ; one at Trevethoe, near Hayle, in January, 1871. Vingoe had two Cornish specimens that probably also came from Scilly. 123. Marsh Harrier. Circus aeruginosus (Linn.). Now a rare casual, but formerly bred in the east of the county, where it was generally called the * Moor buzzard ' ; nested every year in a tuft of stunted willows in the middle of Redmoor Marsh till about 1855, and up till 1863 stray birds were seen in that neighbourhood almost every year. Has been obtained several times in the Penzance district, once at Swanpool, Falmouth, and thrice at Scilly. 1 24. Hen Harrier. Circus cyaneus (Linn.) . A casual visitor of not infrequent occurrence ; has been known to breed on Goonhilly Downs (F. V. Hill) and has nested in the county for the last three years ; occasionally met with on the moors of the middle and west, but rarely of the east. Until about 1875 female hen harriers were to be seen at Scilly almost every year, though only one male had been shot. During the last twenty-five years one example only has been obtained, namely, in May, 1888. 116. Long-eared Owl. Asia otis (Linn.), A winter visitor in the east and throughout the south of the county, but a casual in the north ; commoner in the west than in the east, but evidently local. Common at Scilly in autumn and winter, not infrequently occurring with the short-eared owl. Chiefly found on Tresco. 117. Short-eared Owl. Asio accipitrinus (Pallas). Locally, Woodcock Owl. A winter visitor to the greater part of the county and to Scilly, but most in evidence in the east on autumn migration ; usually more abundant than the preceding species. In some years very common at the Lizard. I 337 125. Montagu's Harrier. Circus cineraceus(M.ont3gu). Has been a scarce summer migrant to the west of the county for at least forty years, but in the early fifties was a rare casual ; still breeds in the Lizard district, where a bird was unfortunately killed in 1902, and another, an adult female, by mischance in April, 1903 ; stray birds occasionally recorded be- tween Penzance and Truro, and at long intervals from the east and north. First recorded from Scilly in April, 1852, when three were shot, but apparently not seen again till April, 1868. It is still an occa- sional visitor, chiefly in the spring, and was seen on St. Martin's, 9 April, 1903. 1 Op. cit. pt. ii, p. 69, App. ' Thompson, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. (1835), yj. 43 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 1 26. Common Buzzard. Buteo vulgaris. Leach. Resident ; breeding now in considerable numbers from Boscastle to Marsland Mouth ; nests also at Boconnoc, and at times on the Bodmin Moors ; did so some years ago in the Land's End district, but lately birds seen there only at intervals and in the winter. A fairly regular passing autumn visitor to Scilly, singly or in pairs. 127. Rough-legged Buzzard. Archebuteo lapopus (J. F. Gmelin). Now a rare casual, but formerly a summer migrant ; in the forties Trathen and Geach used to find it breeding between Jamaica Inn and Bolventor. Trathen shot the last sitting female seen in the county at Gonzion Downs, Snaith, and took the eggs, prior to i860. The only county records since that time are one in the Truro district, date uncertain, and one near Land's End in 1880, 128. Spotted Eagle. Aqutla naevia (J. F. Gmelin). An accidental visitor ; one shot in Hawk's Wood, TrebarthaHall,on 4 January, i860, by the gamekeeper, H. Couch, and another in November, i860, at Carnanton, St. Columb, by Sam Gilbert, an innkeeper at Mawgan. 129. Golden Eagle. Aqutla chrysaetus (Linn.). A rare casual visitor ; one immature specimen recorded by Couch ' as the ring-tailed eagle ; one killed on Lanherne Downs, in the parish of Mawgan, on 28 October, 186 1. 130. White- tailed Eagle. Halia'etus albicilla (Linn.). A casual visitor of rare occurrence ; an immature bird killed near Kilkhampton in November, 1 844 ; an adult seen by Walter Pike, of Camborne, near Tehidy, in the autumn of 1877 ; a young bird killed at Bude Haven in November, 1 893, and one seen by W. Waddon Martyn at Moorwinstow, in November, 1901. So far no eagles have been ob- served at Scilly, but there is a tradition of one of this species having been seen near The Seven Stones in 1835. 131. Goshawk. Astur palumharius (Linn.). Bellamy, in his Natural History of S. Devon,* says that a young bird of this species was shot at Falmouth in 1838. The specimen was seen by Stephen Clogg, of Looe, in 1866, who says * It is a young bird of good size, but ruined by moth.* 132. Sparrow Hawk. Accipiter nisus (Linn.). Resident ; still common in the east, but in the west the number of nests has greatly diminished during the past ten years. Generally visits Scilly in the autumn with the starlings, but is never common there. 133. Kite, Milvus ictinus, Savigny, Bred in the county as late as 1842, but for many years a rare casual visitor ; last county records, Trebartha, 1 December, 1869 ; Clowance, Cam- borne, 1882 ; Scilly, 9 September, 1890. 134. Honey Buzzard. Pemus apivorus (Linn.). A casual visitor, in immature plumage, to the west, usually in autumn ; eleven specimens recorded from the county, including one at Scilly, shot byjenkinson 18 October, 1866 ; one at Hobb's Hill, Snaith, about i860, one at Land's End in the autumn of 1 90 1, one at Carclew 1902, and one at Ladock, near Truro, 21 October, 1904. There is strong presumptive evidence that this bird may have nested in the county as a very young male, with its primaries not full grown, and which, therefore, could not long have left the nest, was sent to Dr. Leach from Cornwall, and is now in the National Collection.' 135. Greenland Falcon. FaUo candicans, J, F. Gmelin. An accidental straggler ; an adult female killed at Gwavas Grade, near the Lizard, in 1830 ; an adult male at Port Eliot, St. Germans, in 1834 ; one at the Lizard 24 March, 1884, and one at Scilly 27 March, 1903. A young falcon, either Greenland or Iceland, was shot at St. Just-in-Penwith in the winter of 1902-3. It may have escaped from the Norwegian bark Luna, which foundered with all hands off Pendean. 136. Iceland Falcon. Falco islandicus, J. F. Gmelin. A rare straggler ; represented by a single adult male, shot at St. Martin's, Scilly, by Dorrien-Smith, 15 January, 1895. 137. Peregrine Falcon. Falco perfgrinus, TunstaW. Locally, Blue Hawk, Cliff Hawk. Resident ; breeds at intervals all round the coast and occasionally inland. Down to 1854 at least, a pair bred regularly on Round Island, Scilly ; then they alternated between Round Island and Menavawr, with an occasional pair on Castle Bryher, but they have not bred at Menavawr since 1896. Though a pair still nest at Scilly in most years, the old haunts appear to be quite forsaken. 138. Hobby. Falco subbuteo, lAnn. A not infrequent summer casual ; in 1862 nested in the Old Plantation at Trebartha, and probably at Trelask, near Trebartha, in 1869. A specimen was shot by Jenkinson on St. Mary's Moors previous to 1863, and one was found dead near the telegraph wire on St. Mary's on 29 April, 1897. 139. Merlin. Falco aesalon,T-an%t3\\. A winter visitor, as a rule not uncommon on the eastern moors, but in the west of the county some- times not seen for the year. A fairly regular autumn or winter visitor to St. Mary's, Scilly. 140. Red-footed Falcon. Falco vespertinus, Linn. A rare accidental straggler ; one seen by W. P. Cocks at Budock, Falmouth, in May, 185 1;* one obtained near Helston in the autumn of 1867. There was also a Cornish specimen in Vingoe's collection. 141. Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus, Linn. Locally, Windhover, Hover Hawk, Criss Hawk. A common resident, both in the county and at Scilly ; breeds freely among the cliffs along the coast, and in smaller numbers inland ; in the east of the county commoner in summer than in winter. 142. Lesser Kestrel. Falco cenchris, Naumann. A rare accidental straggler ; an adult male shot at Scilly, 3 March, 1891. 1 Cornish Fauna, pt. i, p. 10. » Op. cit. p. 198. * Mag. Nat. Hist. (1837), 339. * Naturalist, i, 163. 338 BIRDS specimens have been taken in the county, but none in adult plumage. 150. Night-Heron, Ny ciicorax griseus (L\nn.). A casual visitor, usually in April or May, of which eleven well-authenticated samples, chiefly adults, have been recorded for the county. A pair in adult plumage, shot near Hayle in the second week of May, 1869, suggested the possibility of its breeding in the county. A solitary example was knocked on the head by David Smith in a clump of bushes on Tresco 15 May, 1849. 151. Little Bittern. JrJetta minuta (JJmn.). A casual visitor, probably often overlooked ; an adult female picked up in an exhausted condition on Coverack beach previous to 1850 ; an adult male shot at Tresco, Scilly, 13 June, 1866 ; an adult male captured in an orchard in the parish of St. Hilary 12 October, 1867 ; an adult female obtained at Resident, both in the county and at Scilly ; much Skewjack, near Land's End, in the end of May, 1870 ; commoner as a breeding bird than the cormorant ; and an adult male, with a broken leg, picked up on not uncommon in the winter on Dosemary Pool and Lostwithiel Parade early in August, 1901. 152. Bittern. Botaurus stellaris {h\r\n.). Sula bassana (Linn.). A winter visitor in very irregular numbers, occur- A common visitor to the Cornish coast all the year ring annually on snipe marshes and swampy moors ; round, but most frequently seen in the autumn in particularly abundant in December, 1867, and in the winter of 1890-1. In one week in 1891 the Penzance taxidermist received seven specimens. Six or seven examples recorded for Scilly, including one on the marshes at Porthellick Bay, St. Mary's. 153. American Bittern. Botaurus kniiginosus (Mont.). An accidental wanderer. A specimen in a very exhausted condition was picked up on Bryher in October, 1903, and is still alive in the aviary at Tresco. 143. Osprey. Pandion haliaetus (Linn.). A casual autumn visitor to the estuaries of the west and to Scilly, usually in immature plumage. At least eight specimens have been obtained since 1849, the last three being : one at Mawnan, Falmouth, in October, 1865 ; one at Pendarvis, Camborne, in the autumn of 1882, and one at St. Winnow, Lostwithiel, in March, 1903, which may have been the same bird that was seen by Clark at Godrevy and Lelant in September, 1902. One that used to roost on the flagstaff at the beacon on Castle Downs, Tresco, was shot by Pechell in September, 1849. 144. Cormorant. Phalacrocorax carbo (Linn.). Resident ; fairly common and thinly distributed along the coast and estuaries ; more in evidence in the west and round the Lizard district than else- where ; abundant at Scilly. 145. Shag. Phalacrocorax graculus i^Jmn.). other inland waters 146. Gannet or Solan Goose. small flocks. It flies westward in October, and returns with the pilchard shoals which migrate east- ward along the south coast later on in the same month. It has never been known to breed in the county. It may be seen on the open seas round Scilly at all times, but does not as a rule come among the islands. 147. Heron. Ardea cinerea, Linn. A common resident. There are heronries near Truro, Lostwithiel, Looe, and St. Germans, but so far as can be ascertained none in the north of the county. Herons, however, are to be seen at Scilly, and on most of the streams and shallow ponds of Cornwall all the year round. The Stack Rock between Tresco and St. Martin's, and Guthers between St. Martin's and St. Mary's can almost always show one or two birds, and twenty or thirty at a time is by no means an uncommon sight. 148. Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea, Linn. An accidental straggler, chiefly to the west of the county ; an adult shot at Killiow, Truro, about 1843 ; another at St. Burian, 8 April, 1850 ; a third on the Tamar, in 1851 ; a female killed at the Lizard in April, 1867 ; one in rufous immature plumage shot by Dorrien-Smith on St. Mary's Moors 30 August, 1878, and another immature bird at Scilly in April, 1898. [Little Egret. Ardea garzetta, Linn. Couch, in his Cornish Fauna (pt. i, p. 22), says of this species, 'One or two specimens are known' ; and J. Brooking Rowe " speaks of ' one or two specimens on the Tamar.' In the absence of an authentic Cornish specimen, however, these statements are too vague to entitle the species to a place in the county ornis.] 149. Squacco Heron. Ardea ralloides, Scopoli. An accidental straggler in the spring, chiefly to the west of the county, including Scilly. Over twenty 1 Trans. Plymouth Intt. i862-3« 154. Little Green Heron. Butorides virescens (Linn.). The only British representative of this wanderer from tropical and temperate America was shot at Penrice, St. Austell, on 27 October, 1889, and exhibited at the Linnean Society in April, 1890, by Sir Charles Sawle.* The specimen is now in the museum of the Royal Institution of Cornwall. 155. White Stork. Ciconia alba, Bechstein. An accidental straggler ; in May, 1848, an adult bird killed in the Land's End district ; one seen by F. NichoUs on White Marsh, Lostwithiel, November, 1885. 156. Black Stork. Ciconia nigra (Linn.). An accidental autumn visitor ; one killed on Beggar's Island in the Lynher in November, 1831 ; one at Scilly in September, 1887, and another in October, 1890. 157. Glossy Ibis. Plegadis falcinellus {yi\nn^. An occasional accidental autumn wanderer to the west of the county and Scilly, always in immature plumage; has occurred at Scilly in 1854, 1866 and 1902 ; has also been shot at Paul and at Hayle; and in 1900 was obtained at Saltash, and again at Hayle. 158. Spoonbill. Platalea leucorodia,\ATva.. A casual visitor, but by no means rare, appearing for the most part during the autumn migration ; has ' Zoologist, 1890, pp. 105, 1 8 1. 339 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL been seen at irregular intervals throughout the whole county near the sea coast. Recorded for Scilly about half-a-dozen times in autumn and winter. An adult male, with well-developed occipital crest, was obtained there 7 June, 1850. 159. Grey Lag-Goose. Anser c'lncreus, Meyer. A casual winter visitor to the west, single specimens ofwhichwereobtainedat Marazion in March, 1862, at Hayle in November, 1 8 7 5 , at Falmouth in March, 1890, between Marazion and Penzance in the nineties, at Glendurgan, Falmouth, in December,! 90 1 ; thrice ob- tained at Scilly, namely, November, 1863, October, 1870, and two in October, 1885. 160. White-fronted Goose. Jnser albifrons {^co^oXi). An occasional winter visitor in the west, and at long intervals at Looc ; sometimes fairly common in severe weather. Two gaggles visited Tresco in October, 1854, three out of the second gaggle being shot by Pechell. Other records from Tresco are October, 1879, October, 1880, and during the winter i 890-1. 161. Bean Goose. Anser segetum (J. F. Gmelin). A winter visitor, generally in evidence in severe weather, and often occurring in very large flocks both by the coast and inland. In the blizzard year ( 1 890-1) great flocks were reported all over the county. Before a frost large flights are frequently Christmas 1 890, of which four were shot, and another flock of ten occurred in the winter of 1895-6. 166. Mute Swan. Cygnus olor (J. F. Gmelin). One shot at Caspar Pool, Crowdy Marsh, in 1864, and several at Scilly in the winter of 1 870-1. 167. Sheld Duck. Tadorna for««/, T Stone ImpI X Bronze Im Y Gold Ornam 0 Chambered IT (Quoits . Z Contracted a Undergroun V Wui Circles ^ Hut Cluster A Beehive Hu K Early iron 1 Longstones H Wo/erf S^on£ Note. 7V?e Barrows and in Cornwall that it has to mark their sites on rt < ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ outh Rttrae Head Lapp Cornwaljl,^ ^t Whitesand Bay Land's Ead H A N JV Between pages 352 and 355. F*Pii HJ u ST@) m u e Ma\?' CO R N WALL. Scalp of MilPS 4 G n 10 Capp CoTaway. Whiteiaiul^ O ' Bay Land's Eadv Sennen ' Reference T Stone Implements . X Bronze Implements Y Go/rf Ornaments O Chambered Barrows TT Quoits Z Contracted Burials ■ a Underground' Chambers . V Wui Circles v/ Wuf Clusters . A Beehive Huts . K Early iron Ornaments . I Longstones H «o/erf Stones . Note . TAe Barrows and Tumuli are so numerous in Cornwall that it has been Found impossible to mark their sites on this map . Bcnveen paga 352 and 353 EARLY MAN THE period which the present article is intended to cover extends from the very first appearance of man until the period when written history begins, however feebly, to illuminate the subject. The materials from which this very early part of the story of man in Cornwall may be built up consist, of course, not of inscriptions or documents, but of crude and often fragmentary traces of man's handiwork in pottery or stone, or metallic objects such as weapons, tools, etc. The stone circles, of which there are a large number in the county, although properly coming within this classification, have been thought to be of sufficient importance to be dealt with in a special chapter. Prehistoric antiquities of the character here dealt with, although by no means rare in Cornwall, are perhaps somewhat more restricted in range than we find in the case of more eastern or midland districts in England. In certain classes of prehistoric remains, however, Cornwall is remarkably well- represented, as will be shown in the following pages. Following the usual classification of prehistoric antiquities adopted in the Victoria History of the Counties of England, the following main divisions will be made in this article, although the first of these is but imperfectly represented, viz., Palaeolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Early Iron Age. THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE It has generally been supposed that Cornwall has not hitherto yielded any palaeolithic antiquities, either in the form of river-drift implements, or of those cave implements of which the adjoining county, Devonshire, has fur- nished so many famous examples. Recent discoveries at Prah Sands, however, have been made by Mr. and Mrs. Clement Reid, in which an ancient land- surface, certain rude implements (?) of vein-quartz, and traces of fire, and perhaps of hearths, were detected, all of them, it was suggested by the discoverers, being probably of Palaeolithic Age.^ Whatever the final verdict may be as to the definite age of this land-surface after further observations may have made it possible to arrive at a clear idea as to its character, there can be little if any doubt as to the fact that this is really an ancient land- surface, certainly as old as the neolithic period. It comes well within the scope of prehistoric archaeology, but in order to prevent any possible misunderstanding it has been considered wiser to include a description of it in the neolithic section rather than in the palaeolithic section. THE NEOLITHIC AGE The antiquities found in Cornwall furnish abundant evidence of early man during this period. These consist of the actual remains of human beings discovered in interments, as well as the implements and weapons made ' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Ix, 106-110. Feb. 1904. I 353 45 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL by man ; and also, in the case of the ancient floor at Prah Sands first referred to, the actual sites of fires, etc., made probably by neolithic men. It will be convenient, perhaps, to deal with the last-mentioned discovery first. In the years 1902 and 1903, during some severe gales, much of the talus and sand which masked the foot of the cliff between Sydney Cove and Hoe Point, at Prah Sands, was washed away. The beach was removed in several places, so as to show the rocky floor beneath. In this way the ancient floor was laid bare at the foot of the cliffs. It occurred as a black seam about six inches thick, consisting largely of small fragments of charcoal, mixed with small splinters of carbonized bone, and fragments of burnt earth. On carefully examining this black layer Mr. Clement Reid ^ ascertained that this charcoal was particularly abundant at several spots where the loam, as a rule nearly clean, contained groups of three or four blocks of flattish slabs of stone, which were generally of elvan. At these spots the black loam was commonly full of pieces of quartz, usually small, possibly the remains of larger blocks shattered by fire. ' As we had evidently found a true land-surface,' writes Mr. Reid, ' on which man had made hearths and lighted fires, a careful search was made in this black layer. Unfortunately the deposit seems to have been thoroughly decalcified, and the fossils destroyed by percolating water, for only carbonized remains are preserved. We found, however, some of the larger pieces of vein-quartz in this layer were apparently fashioned into rude imple- ments ; but these had been battered into shape, not flaked. This absence of flaking seems, however, to be due to the intractable nature of the only material available. Vein-quartz breaks with a rough, splintery fracture, for each lump is usually made up of portions of many crystals, and the material will not flake like chalk-flint or like large crystals of quartz. . . . The quantity of charcoal observed, and the number of hearths found (six or seven) were surprising ; but this bay must have been a particularly favourable locality for observation. It faces south, is sheltered by high land, and behind the terrace of raised beach the old sea-cliff" in all probability furnished many dry caves suitable for dwellings. Within a few yards was also a stream of fresh water.' As far as the ' implements ' are concerned, it must be confessed that a careful examination hardly tends to confirm the theory that their shape is due to human agency. They are so irregular in form, and composed of a material of such an unserviceable character for cutting or piercing, that, for the present at any rate, and until some further evidence is produced, it seems wiser to regard them as naturally shaped blocks of stone. The discovery of roughly constructed hearths and associated charcoal would point, however, to the presence of man. Cornwall has furnished numerous neolithic antiquities, in addition to sepulchral deposits, stone circles, and remains of dwellings, which will be dealt with in the present paper. Flakes of flint, of the regular neolithic types, have been found in some abundance in different parts of the county, but flint is by no means the only material employed, greenstone, jadeite, serpentine, aphanite (a species of hornblende rock), and even granite, having been used in the manufacture of celts, axe-heads, and other articles. Some of the objects made of stone, however, such as the perforated axe found in association with a bronze dagger at Pelynt, and a whetstone found with urns ' Quart. Jouni. Geo/. Soc. Ix, 108. The spot has since been covered by a landslide. 354 I. Socketed Knife from Leiant. Bronze Implements, 2. Ferrule from Leiant. 3. Saw from Mawgan. to face page 354. EARLY MAN at Brane Common, belong perhaps to the Bronze Age rather than the NeoHthic. The scraper, flint knife, lance-heads, and arrow-heads found at Carn Brea, as well as the rough celts of greenstone from St. Just, and now in Truro Museum, are probably of genuinely Neolithic Age. The minor objects which call for no special remark will be found mentioned in the topographical list of prehistoric antiquities at the end of this article. THE BRONZE AGE The-abundance of both copper and tin in Cornwall, and the evidence showing that the latter of these metals was worked at a very early period, might naturally lead one to expect to find many remains of early bronze implements and weapons within the county. As a matter of fact, several examples of these interesting antiquities have been found, and if they are perhaps rather less in numbers than one might anticipate, they are of very great interest for other reasons, particularly on account of their association with personal ornaments of gold, and enriched with purely Bronze-Age forms of ornamentation. Of the bronze antiquities those in the form of hoards, and consisting of several articles placed together, should perhaps first be mentioned. Cornwall has yielded six^ of these hoards, of which the following are brief details : — 1. Kenidjack Cliffy (St. Just-in-Penwith). — During the construction of the butts for rifle practice here, some stones set on edge (probably the remains of an ancient building) had to be removed, and below them were found two socketed and looped celts, a palstave much broken towards the cutting end, an oval piece of bronze, probably a 'jet,' resulting from casting a bronze article, from twenty to thirty pieces of pure copper, and a single fragment of well-baked pottery. The purity of the lumps of copper points to this hoard having been the property of a founder of bronze tools or weapons. 2. Lelant.^ — This hoard was discovered by a farmer. Two feet below the surface he found amongst ashes many celts both perfect and broken. In the bottom of one of the largest and most perfect of the celts were some small bars of gold about the size of a straw. The hoard also contained a socketed knife, a bronze ferrule, and a very symmetrical jet of metal, circular in form, with four irregularly-conical runners proceeding from it. These three last-named objects, which are now preserved in the rooms of the Society of Antiquaries of London, are shown in the accompanying illustrations. 3. Mawgan.* — At a depth of 1 2 ft. under a bed of black mud were found a fine rapier of bronze in excellent preservation, a rude bronze saw, also of bronze, and socketed celts and a palstave. 4. St. Hilary.^ — The most remarkable feature of this hoard, which contained celts and spear-heads, was a number of lumps of bronze weighing 14 or 15 lb, a piece, the total weight of the hoard being 80 lb. 5. Carn Brea.^ — 'In the year 1744 in the side of Karn Bre Hill were dug up several hollow instruments of brass of different sizes, called celts.' ' Leland (1530) wrote : 'There was found of late yeres syns spere heddes, axis for warre and swerdes of coper, wrappid up in lynin scant perished near the Mount in St. Hilaries paroch in tynne works.' This is probably the same find as is mentioned in Camden, 188, and Norden, 37. ^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. vi, 1 91-193. ^ Arch. XV, 118. Evans, Bronze Imp. 285. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iii (1868), 48 ; Lysons, ccxx. * Arch, xvii, 337, 338 ; Lysons, ccxx. * Arch. XV, 120. Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv. iii (1868), 48 ; Lysons, ccxx. ^ Borlase, Ant'iq., 281 ; Lyson?, ccxx. 355 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 6. At Higher Roseworthy ^ (Camborne) fragments of 40 to 50 socketed celts of bronze were found in a pit about i ft. deep covered by a small stone. The secret burial of collections of metal of this kind points to a primi- tive condition of the population of Cornwall. The aim was to secure treasure and valuable belongings of this character from depredations of enemies. It has been believed that in order to hide such deposits successfully remote and unfrequented spots were selected, and this doubtless was so ; but in the case of the Kenidjack Cliff hoard it seems possible that the bronze valuables were buried for safety under or near a stone-built dwelling. Apart from hoards such as the foregoing, some bronze weapons have been dis- covered from time to time. There are records of a dagger or small sword 1 6 in. long, which was found with a palstave at Benallack, near Par ;' a smaller dagger, 8 J in. long, found in tin stream-works at St. Ewe ; ^ a fine spear-head and a small chisel at Pentuan ; * a double-looped palstave of very rare type found at Penvores, in the parish of Mawgan-in-Meneage ;' and isolated celts at Altarnun," Carn Brea,^ Launceston,** St. Merryn,'' and Penzance,^*' and some of these were found in company with Roman coins. ^^ Although it has generally been believed that the presence of copper in Cornwall was not known at such an early period, the discovery of a stone with a depression made in the surface, which might have been a mould for casting celts, in company with a small hollowed basin of greenstone, in a field below the vicarage of Altarnun,^^ and of a stone mould for casting buckles at Camelford,'^ render it possible that some of the bronze implements may have been actually made in the county. The gold ornaments found in Cornwall are of the greatest archaeological interest, and deserve careful study. They comprise no less than four examples of those crescent-shaped plates to which the terms lunette, diadem, and gorget have at various times and by different writers been applied. Their general forms and their decorative details will be understood from the accompanying figures. One beautiful Cornish example was found near Penzance, and is now in the British Museum. It was figured by Lysons in Magna Britannia ^* in 18 I 3 or 1 8 14, and the engraving shows very clearly the definite Bronze-Age type of ornamental forms used. These consist of lozenges, triangles, zig-zags, etc., and the only curves introduced are those formed by the ornament following the outline of the gorget. A second example on record is said to have been found in the parish of St. Juliot, but unfortunately it is not known where it is at present. It was seen many years ago by Mr. Albert Way, from whom an outline drawing was obtained by Mr. Edward Smirke.^' Two other gold lunulae and a bronze celt of early type were found on the estate at Harlyn, in the parish of Padstow, before the year 1865. The objects were claimed as treasure-trove by the Duchy of Cornwall, and were ' Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (i 880-1), 74. ' Borlase, Naen. Com. 5. * Borlase, Jntiq. of Corntv. 311. * Evans, Bronze Imp. 95. * Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv. (1888), 350. ^ Evans, Bronze Imp. 119. '" Evans, Bronze Imp. 81. '•' Journ. Roy. Inst. Comw. (1849), 57. '* Vol. iii, plate opposite page ccxxi. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. ii, 88 ; now in museum. ' Borlase, Antiq. 281. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv . ii, 136. " Borlase, Naen. Com. 5. " Evans, Bronze Imp. 438. '* Journ. Roy. Inst. Comtv. ii, 135. 356 Golden Gorget found near Penzance. Bronze Celt from Harlyn, Padstow, SECTION ( I I _iSF= Grave and Chamber in Cairn at Tregiffian. PLAN fl I L. ' ' ' 6" Grave and Chamber in Cairn at Tregiffian. Bronze Armlet. KiSTVAEN with CONTRACTED BuRIAL, TrETHILL. To fact page 356. EARLY MAN purchased by the Royal Institution of Cornwall and are now in the Museum at Truro. They have been described and figured in the 'Journal'" published by that institution. It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the extraordinary value and archaeological interest of these four specimens of gold ornaments. There is no reasonable doubt now that they were worn on the throat or breast as objects of personal adornment, and were not ornaments for the head as the term diadem would suggest. Whilst met with in some numbers in Ireland, gorgets of this character are very rarely found in England, and are still rarer on the continent of Europe. It is probable that they were all made in Ireland and distributed by the means of commercial intercourse amongst the various countries where they have been found. Another extremely important discovery which may be noted at this point was the gold cup found in a barrow at Rillaton in association with a bronze dagger.^ The cup is 'i^\ inches high. In a general form it follows pretty closely the shape of a typical earthen drinking-cup of the Bronze Age, and there is no doubt that it is to that period that it may be assigned. The bottom is of small diameter, and the sides in the lower part of the cup swell out to rather more than twice that diameter. Above this there is a slight contraction, which produces a species of waist : the mouth again expands slightly until it reaches a diameter of 3J inches, just the height of the cup. Thirteen raised bands run horizontally round the sides, and four concentric circles are placed round a small conical boss on the bottom. The relative size, position, and ornamentation of the handle are all suggestive of the amber cup found in a Bronze-Age barrow at Hove, Sussex. This gold cup at Rillaton was found in association with a bronze dagger (it has been erroneously called a celt). This circumstance, and the general similarity of form to typical Bronze-Age cups in clay, make it pretty clear that the gold cup is a relic of the Bronze Age. The following objects in gold have also been found in Cornwall : — Six armlets found at Carne in Morvah, and now in the British Museum. Part of a plain armlet' found at Tredinney in Sancreed in 1864, and now in the Museum at Penzance. Part of an armlet (or ? brooch) * found near the Lizard in 1824, now in the British Museum. A chain about 18 inches long found at West Looe Down, in Talland, about 1806^ and now lost. In addition to these some ' gold ornaments ' appear to have been found in St. Winnow,® but no particulars are recorded, and there is a statement in The Barrow Diggers (1839, p. 72) that a gold celt had been found in Cornwall, but it is of doubtful accuracy. Barrows The difficulty of classifying the pre-historic sepulchral remains of Cornwall, and of differentiating burials of the Stone Age from those of the ' Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. n, plate opposite page 142. * Ibid, iii, 34. and plate 48. ' Trans. Penz.. Nat. and Antiq. Soc, (1862-5), 38 ; Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iii, 46. * Jout-n. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iii, 47. ^ Gilbert, Parochial Hist. ofComzu. iv, 33. ® Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. ii (1866), xx. 357 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Bronze Age or later periods, was pointed out by Mr. W. C. Borlase, F.S.A., in Naenia Cornubiae. It is an undoubted fact that the barrows and other sepulchral deposits of Cornwall present features which, compared with those in other parts of the kingdom, may be regarded as abnormal, but the character of the objects contained in or accompanying them is sufficiently well- pronounced to indicate the relative positions to which the burials may be assigned. The following particulars of Cornish barrows include those both of the Stone Age and of the Bronze Age, and as it is not possible in every case to differentiate them it has been deemed best to treat them together under the genera] head of barrows : — Although many barrows have been removed from time to time for the purpose of agricultural improvements, there still remains a very large number on the hills, the moors, and the cliffs throughout Cornwall. The author of Naenia Cornubiae mentions that five kinds of barrows, known respectively as the cone-shaped barrow, the bowl barrow, the bell barrow, the flat barrow, and the ring barrow, are found. But these distinctions are perhaps little more than differences in height, the Cornish barrows varying in height almost as much as in diameter. The dimensions range from 1 8 in. in height^ and 9 ft. diameter,^ to 28 ft. in height and 116 ft. in diameter.^ It seems probable that these differences are due to the amount of time and material which the builders had for the work rather than to any deliberate plan of construction. If they be arranged according to their contents they show two marked classes, viz., [a) the chambered barrow, which is sometimes long * and sometimes round ; * and {b) the more usual round barrow, containing one or more small kist vaens or urns. The distinction between these two types is very noticeable, and as at Chapel Carn Brea^ a kist vaen was found in the mound covering a chambered barrow, it is just possible that the one may be of an earlier date than the other. In the round chambered-barrows the chamber is nearly square, while in the long specimens it is oblong. In every case it occupies the greater portion of the whole bulk of the mound ; the sides and one end are built of stone, and the roof composed of long stones laid across, and the whole covered by a mound. In one of the ' Giants Caves ' at Scilly ^ the chamber was 22 ft. long, 4ft. 8 in. wide, and 4ft. 10 in. high ; and in the other 14ft. long, 2 ft. high, and 4 ft. wide in the middle ; while that of the Pennance ^ barrow is 9 ft. 6 in. in length, 4 ft. in width, and 4 ft. 4 in. in height. The ' Botrea Hill, Sancreed, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 234 ; Edmonds, Tie Land's End District, 33 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 134. * Trannack, Madron, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 234 ; Edmonds, op. cit. 32 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 208. ' Veryan Beacon, Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv. (1855), 23 ; Drew, Hist, of Cornzv. ii, 289 and 664; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 204. * Scilly, Borlase, Observations, 30 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 72 ; Pennance, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1862-5), 44; Ibid. (1883-4), 310; Gent. Mag. 1865 (and plan); Borlase, Naen. Corn. 74; Tregiffian, /oar«. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1879), 211 (and plan). ^ Treen in Zennor, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 73 ; Brane, Sancreed (as Chapel Euny), Journ. Roy, Inst. Cornw. (1865), 19 (and plan) ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 75 (fig. and plan). * Borlase, The Age of the Saints, Introd viii. ' Scilly, Borlase, Observations, 30. * Pennance, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1862-5), 44 » ^^lid. (1883-4), 3^°' 358 EARLY MAN others are shorter than these, but much the same in other dimensions. The barrows on the Isles of Scilly are generally of this kind,' but only five are now known in Cornwall, and they are all in the extreme western extremity beyond Penzance. Most of those on the islands have been rifled by irre- sponsible people, and of the Cornish specimens three, viz., Pennance, Treen,^ and Brane,^ have been opened longer than any records and used as shelters for calves. At Tregiffian,* which is curious for its irregular shape and in being more in the nature of two chambers, one higher than the other, opening into one another, Mr. W. C. Borlase found in 1879 on the floor, under the stones and earth of which the chamber was full, a stratum of human bone mixed with the ashes of a peat fire, and everywhere indications of great heat ; and at Tregeseal ^ were the bases of three urns, a large quantity of burnt human bones, a whetstone with a hole in it, and at the back of the chamber, standing in a little stone kist, the largest sepulchral urn ever found in Cornwall. The urn, which was nearly 2 ft. high, was, as is so often the case in barrows of the other type, standing mouth downwards. At Kerris ® was found a small urn of finest red clay, which Dr. Borlase thought to be Roman. The rest of the Cornish barrows are of the other kind referred to. They are round, and some of them are built up around a natural earn or projecting rock and surrounded by a single ring of stones,'^ while in others the mound is entirely artificial and surrounded at the base by a circle of flat stones set on edge.^ It is probable that many which are now without this protection originally possessed it, the stones having been removed for hedging or other purposes, as sometimes traces of some such foundation are still to be seen.^ In some cases the barrow contains one^*^ or two,^^ and in one instance four ^^ concentric stone walls buried under the material of which the whole is composed. Most of the barrows still existing are to be found on the hill sides and higher moorlands, but this may be due to the fact that those which perhaps ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cortiw. 48th Report, 1863, 50. * Borlase, Naen. Corn. 73. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. i (1865), 19. * Ibid. (1879), II. * In St. Just, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (i 880-1), 19. ® Dr. Borlase, Antiq. 307, mentions that in 1723 in removing an old hedge the workmen discovered *a vault about 8 feet long and 6 feet high, the floor paved with stone, and the roof arched over with the same materials.' Unless his informant was mistaken this is unique in Cornwall, and cannot be classed with any other of the monuments. ' Trewavas Head, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1867), 306 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 140 ; Tredinney, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 232 ; Trescaw in Breage, Borlase, Antiq. 200 ; Carmenelez, Wendron, Borlase, Antiq. 200, 308 ; Boscawen Un, Borlase, Naen. Com. 219. ^ Clahar Garden Mullion, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 224; Pradanack, '^ox\d.%&, N aen . Corn. 240; Morvah Hill, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 249; Pelynt, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 191 ; Hustyn, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vii, 144. The circle at Duloe, where an urn was found, may have been the base of a barrow of this description, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 127. ' Goonornan Downs, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 133 ; Boscreggan, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1879), vi. 204 ; Durval, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 172. '" Bosporthennis, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 284 ; Lanyon, Ibid. 154 ; Hustyn, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vii, 144. " Ballowal, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vi (1879), '94 '■> Bodinnar, Trans. Petiz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. .Soc. i, 235 ; Bosavern, Borlase, Antiq. 235 ; Bosporthennis, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 284 ; Boleigh, Traits. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 229. " Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. zznd Ann. Rep. (1840), 39 and section. Mr. Millett describes this barrow as being on Carn Gollewa (Galver), but there is no such thing on that hill ; it is presumed that he meant the north eastern barrow on the adjoining (Morvah) Hill. This is composed entirely of loose stones. It is ■difficult to discover four walls there now 359 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL were on the lower grounds have been destroyed. A few occupy prominent places on the headlands * and one ^ stands conspicuous on the exact crest of a hill. In some parts of the county considerable numbers are grouped together within a comparatively small area/ suggesting a contemporary origin, and in others * there seems to be a possibility of methodical arrangement. Not only have a very large number been carelessly rifled and their contents destroyed, but even in many cases where a proper examination has been made the records are unfortunately incomplete in many important details, but it is certain that in the greatest number the barrow contained within its area, not necessarily in the centre," a kist vaen, usually of small size, measuring about 2 ft. or 3 ft. each way, but in some cases large enough to take a human body.'^ The smaller of these kists are made of four flat stones for sides, and one for a cover, and generally, but not always, one for a floor ; but in some cases the sides are built of small stones.^ Sometimes a pit has been sunk into the natural ground over which the barrow has been raised. At Glendorgal, Tresawsen, and Fowey, the pit was lined with flat stones.^ At Bosporthennis in Zennor' two urns, and at Tredinney in St. Just^" one, were found with no kist vaen or pit, but with small stones carefully packed in round them and otherwise unprotected. Whether there is a kist vaen or a pit, or not, in almost every case the barrow has been found to contain traces of cremation in the form of burnt bones or a black greasy mould, and as frequently one or more burial urns, rudely made, of local materials, generally with some slight zigzag ornament, and often with handles, containing calcined human bones. Several specimens of these urns are to be seen in the museums of the Royal Institution of Cornwall at Truro and the Natural History and Antiquarian Society at Penzance, but unfortunately a large number have been allowed to pass into private collections. ' Trevalga in St. Columb Minor, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 80 ; Trewavas, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1867), 306; Ballowal, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vi (1879), 194. ^ Chapel Cam Brea, Borlase, Age of the Saints, Introd. viii. * Carland in St. Erme, Pelynt, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1845), 34, (1846), 43; Gwallon Downs, St. Austell, Borlase, l now in Truro Museum ; Maen, Borlase, Antiq. 237 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 79 ; Towednack, Borlase, Antiq. 300; Borlase, A^(7^«. Corn. 268 ; Conker Downs, Ibid. 210 ; Tywardreath, Carew, Surv. of Cornzv. 137 ; Wendron, Borlase, Antiq. 307 ; Withiel Carew, op. cit. 148 ; Drew, Hist, ii, 683 ; Zennor, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1883-4), 31°; Nanstallon, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. x (1890), 196; Hustyn, Ibid, vii, 144, fragment now in Truro Museum; Harlyn, Ibid, x (1890), 199; Sennen, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 230, now in Truro Museum ; St. Austell, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1846), 42. ' Borlase, Antiq. 214, 237. ' Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 231 ; Edmonds, Tie Land's End District, 31 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 207, now in Penzance Museum. * Borlase, Naen. Corn. 286. ^ Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (i 862-5), 1 1 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 219, now in Penzance Museum. * Borlase, Naen. Corn. 223. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. xiii, 438, now in Truro Museum. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. {,235. ' Borlase, Antiq. 235. '" Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 234 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 208, two now in Penzance Museum. " Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vi (1879), 201, fragments of three now in Truro Museum. '^ Ibid. 194, fragment now in Truro Museum, " Borlase, Antiq. 234, fragments of two now in Truro Museum. '^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. x (1890), 204. '^ Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 234 ; Borlase, Naen. Com. 208. "■' Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vi (1879), 201. " Borlase, Naen. Corn. 219. '® Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. x (1890), 196. '^ Ibid, iii (1869), xxxiv. '*'' Borlase, Naen. Corn. 242, 246. *^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1840), 61 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 197. ^ Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 234 ; Borlase, Naen. Com. 208. " Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1846), 43. '^* Borlase, Antiq. 214, 237. ** Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vi (1879), 209, now in Truro Museum. I 361 46 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL case the barrow contained a kist, the urns were found outside it. Sometimes it is recorded that the kist was empty,^ but this may be an error from want of careful examination, because in several instances ^ where there was no urn discovered there were burnt bones and evidence of cremation. Kists have occasionally been discovered,^ and sometimes* containing urns, where there was no barrow at all, but it is most likely that in all these cases the barrow had been removed, while the kist having been originally placed in a sunk pit escaped the destruction. This inference is borne out by the observations made at Ladock and Manaccan,^ where the surface showed evident traces of having been levelled. In 1886 two kiln-dried urns, both broken, but one containing bones, were found at some depth below the surface in ground which had been previously broken in Penzance Cemetery.^ In 1899 another part of this same ground yielded two copper coins of Vespasian. In eight cases in Cornwall and one at Scilly the body seems to have been buried in a kist or sunk grave under a barrow without having been burnt, and of these three ^ are apparently cases of contracted burial ; at Bosavern ^ the body is stated to have lain at full length ; at Trevalga,* the Gugh at Scilly,^ and Cardinham,® the evidence is slight or the record imperfect. The discovery at Maen in- Sennen in 17 16 recorded by Dr. Borlase ^^ is quoted by the author of Naenia Cormibiae as an instance of contracted burial, but admittedly * a very doubtful ' one. The extreme scarcity of this form of burial in the barrows is particularly interesting in comparison with the discoveries at Harlyn Bay and Sheviock." Objects of metal are but rarely found in the Cornish barrows. The Rillaton cup, found in 1837 in a barrow near the Cheesewring, is the only article of gold ^" of which there is definite record, and iron is unknown. At Trelan in St. Keverne in a kist vaen, one of a group of ' several,' were discovered, about 1833, a bronze mirror, two brass rings, gilded, two fragments of bronze fibulae, and some fragments of brass rings and bronze ornaments. ^^ The mirror is now in the British Museum. Some thin bits of brass (.?) which may have been parts of a broken sword were found in a barrow at Trelowarren ;^* a bronze palstave in one near ' Ladock, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. viii (1884), 211 ; Ballowall, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. vi (1879), 194 ; Bodinnar, Trans. Penx. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 235 ; Manactan, Drew, Hist, of Cornw. i, 378. ^ Pelynt, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cor;;z£'. (1846), 43 ; Durvall Downs, Borlase, A^(7^«. Com. 171 ; Veryan Beacon, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1855), 23 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 204 ; Trewortha, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. xi, 290. ^ Ladock, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. viii (1884), 211 ; Gwithian, Borlase, y/«//f. 236 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 170 ; Trelan in St. Keverne, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iv (1873), 266. * Gerrans, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1844), 19; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 204; Gwithian, Borlase, -^;7//y. 236 ; Fowey, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1840), 65 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 202 ; Sennen, Borlase, Antiq. 237; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 79; Calartha, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1883-4), 249; Brance Common, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 212, now in Penzance Mujeum. ' Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1886-7), 293. ^ Camelford, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. ii (1867), 279; Trevalga, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 80; Lesnewth, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 79 ; Maclean, Parochial Hist, ii, 400. ' Borlase, Antiq. 235. * Mr. G. Bonsor found part of a human skeleton in a chambered barrow here ; from the relative position of some of the bones he inferred a contracted position. ^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iv (1875), ^H- '" Borlase, Antiq. 237 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 79. " See p, 366 infra. ^* Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iii (1868), 34 and pi. ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 37; Evans, Stone Imp. 448; Bronze Imp. 408. '* Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iv (1873), 266. '* Borlase, Antiq. 214, 237, 290. 362 EARLY MAN Charlestown ; ^ a bronze ring at Cardinham ; ^ a bronze dagger 6| in. long, with two rivets, at Angrowse ; ^ a similar dagger with two rivets 4! in. long, at Harlyn.* These and a celt having the appearance of copper from one of the barrows at Pelynt;^ a metal spear head with two rivets which ' when cut shone like brass' from another ; some bits of brass (?) 'supposed to be parts of a helmet and the point of a brazen sword ' from Maen ; ^ and two bronze bracelets from a barrow at Peninnis Head, St. Mary's, Scilly,^ practically complete the list. For although Mr. J. Couch mentions^ that the remains of a sword with the handle well preserved have been found ' in a tumulus in Cornwall,' he does not mention either the time or place, and there is no other record of any such discovery. Objects of stone are even more scarce, a few flint arrow-heads,^ scrapers, and chips ; a curious little perforated hammer of greenstone from one of the Pelynt barrows,^'' and an equally curious axe of granite about 4 in. long from Trevalga ; ^^ a cement button from Boscreggan ; ^^ a whetstone and some stone celts from Tregeseal,^^ are all the barrows have yielded of which records have been kept, except the Roman coins, the presence of which affords evidence of the time when the barrows were being made and used. Several discoveries of Roman coins in the barrows have been recorded from time to time,^* but as the evidence was not altogether satisfactory they were regarded with a certain degree of scepticism until the author of Naenia Cornubiae opened the barrow on the south-west end of Morvah Hill in 1863.^^ There, inside the kist vaen, Mr. W. C. Borlase found * several Roman coins,' one of them a ' middle brass ' of Constantine, and he states ' that from the position of these coins, their distance from the surface, and the construction of the kist itself, it is quite impossible that by any means they could have reached the situation in which they were found after the covering stone had been once set in its place.' In this barrow was an urn containing burnt bones, placed in the usual type of kist vaen. Except for the fact that it was ' con- structed of several layers of stones fitted together one over the other without mortar, forming as it seemed a cone over the entire tumulus,' there was nothing to distinguish the barrow from the general character of the majority. This find, recorded at the time and made by a man whose great experience in opening Cornish barrows renders his account unquestionable, induces a corresponding faith in the probability of the earlier and less authentic records, one of which contained in a letter from Tonkin to Dr. Gibson, dated the 4 August, 1733, and quoted by Dr. Borlase,^^ is worth special mention as ' Borlase, Haen. Corn. i88. - Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. iv (1875), 214. ^ Borlase, Naen. Corn. 236 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 314 ; Bronze Imp. 243, now in Truro Museum. * Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. x (1890), 206. * Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1845), 34. * Borlase, Ant'iq. 237 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 79. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1863), 50 ; Borlase, "Naen. Corn. 162, now in Truro Museum. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1845), 34. ' Tregiffian, Borlase, Naen. Com. 107 ; Boscreggan, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. \\ (1879), 201 ; Pelynt, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1845), 34 ; Botrea, Trans. Penx. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 234 ; Edmonds, Th Land^s End District, 33 ; Borlase, Naen. Com. 36, 134 ; Bosporthennis, Borlase, Naen. Com. 286. '" Journ. Roy. Inst. Comzv. (1845), 34. " Borlase, Naen. Corn. 87. '^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Comzv. vi (1879), ^°^ > Evans, Stone Imp. 455. " Borlase, Naen. Com. 131 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (i 880-1), 20 ; Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vi (1879), 191 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 84, 269. Two small squared oblong whetstones were found with the urn at Brane Common, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 213 ; one is now in Penzance Museum. '* Borlase, Antiq. 306 ; C. S. Gilbert, Hist. Survey, i, 193 ; Drew, Hist, i, 377. '^ Borlase, Naen. Corn. 247. '® Borlase, Antiq. 300 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 268. 363 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL apparently showing that in some cases the Roman coins were placed in a kist with the urn deliberately. In that instance an urn full of ashes was found in the year 1702 in the parish of Towednack, under ' a prodigious rock' of moorstone ' supported by four pillars of the same,' and beside the urn a round ball of earth, and in this ball four-score silver coins of the late emperors, ' very fair and well preserved.' It is unfortunate that no measurements of this * prodigious rock ' and the four pillars were kept, as the description would be applicable to a quoit ^ rather than to a kist vaen of the character usual in Cornwall. The distinction between the two is almost entirely a matter of size. While the kists are generally about 2 ft. or 3 ft. square, the tallest side stone in Trethevy quoit^ is 9 ft. 8 in,, and that at Zennor '^ is 8 ft. 7 in. ; while the covering stones vary from 8 ft. by 5 ft. at Grugith * to 18 ft. 6 in. by 13 ft. 6 in. at Lanyon.' But the shape of the quoit is in general that of a huge kist vaen having two," three,^ four,^ or even six** side stones with one big covering stone resting on them. Those at Zennor,^" Mulfra,^^ Lanyon,^^ and Carwynnen" have fallen at different times, and the two latter have been restored ; ^* but even in these cases it seems as though they had all been merely variations from the type represented by Trethevy^" and Chyoon,^^ which latter the editor of Naenia Cornuhiae rightly describes as the ' most perfect and compact ' in Cornwall. ^^ There is reason to believe that all the Cornish quoits, except perhaps Grugith,^^ which is unique in having only two supporting stones, were origin- ally surrounded, if not covered, by a mound, as some traces of such a structure are found in every instance, except at Carwynnen, where it must be remembered the whole structure fell, and has been restored. ^ The monuments usually described as ' cromlechs ' are always called * quoits ' in Cornwall, where a cromlech or * grumbler ' means a circle, and a tolmen a holed stone. '^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1850), 31 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1850), 435 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 45 ; Lukis, Pre-hist. Stone Mon., 11, 13, pi. xxvii ; Lysons, Magna Brit, ccxix. ' Borlase, Jntiq. 23 I; Borlase, Nacn. Com. 51 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 200 ; (1882-3), 203 ; Lukis, op. cit. 10, 28, pi. xxi ; Lysons, ccxix. * Borlase, Naen. Corn. 278 ; Lukis, op. cit. 10, 29, pi. xxiii. ^ Borlase, Antiq. 231 ; Lukis, op. cit. 8, 25, pi. xviii ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 197; Lysons, Magna Brit, ccxix. •^ Grugith, Borlase, Naen. Com. 278 ; Lukis, op. cit. 10, 29. ' Lanyon, 'Qor\zst, Antiq. 231 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 197 ; Carw)'nnen, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 25 ; Lukis, op. cit. 11, 29, pi. xxiv ; Lysons, ccxix. ' Chyoon, Borlase, Naen. Com. 55 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 198 ; Borlase, Antiq. 227 ; Lukis, op. cit. 9, 24, pi. XX ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxix, and pi. "^ Zennor, supra note (3) ; Trethevy, supra note (2). '"Borlase, Antiq. 231 ; Bolase, Naen. Corn. 51 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 200; (1882-3), 203 ; Lukis, Pre-hist. Stone Mon. 10, 28, pi. xxi ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxix. " Borlase, Antiq. 230 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 198 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 59 ; Lukis, op. cit. 9, 28, pi. xix ; Lysons, op. cit., ccxix. '- Borlase, Antiq. 231 ; Lukis, Pre-hist. Stone Mon. 8, 25, pi. xviii ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 197 ; Lysons, Magna Brit, ccxix. '^ Borlase, Naen. Corn. 25. " Lanyon fell in 18 15, and was re-erected in 1824. Dr. Borlase says {Antiq. 231) in 1759 i^ ^^^s so high that a man could sit on horseback under it ; it is now 5 ft. 8 in. in height. ^^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1850), 31 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1850), 435 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 45 ; Lukis, Pre-hist. Stone Mon. 11, 13, pi. xxvii ; Ljsons, Magna Brit, ccxix. '^ Borlase, Naen. Corn. 55. " The specimen which gave the name to the townplace of Quoit, on the Goss Moors in St. Columb Major, appears to have been very much like that at Chyoon, but perhaps larger. It fell, and the stones were broken up and removed before 1871 ; Borlase, Naen. Com. 62. '* Borlase, Naen. Com. 278 ; Lukis, Pre-hist. Stone Mon. 10, 29, pi. xxiii. 364 TRETHEVY STONE: A DOLMEN NEAR SI CLEER, COR N WALL. /7sjit/fte(/ r/riftilfon o/ ihe .\I rto-/i r / rr ^\'ee ft H n's , ft fi f/ I'tjhi'e - i/f'tte IV / 1 /^ Ji a / r , aft eV m it'/i in c/ott e <^ I'uhlims. The proslratt stunt is s f lait/ et/.t-c .^■: ■«^^- ^^>/' w '-is.. ■'Ay lO i\ 12 r~TT'Tr'Tt To face page 364. EARLY MAN Of the others Pawton ^ was 'half buried,' Zennor^ had 'a stone barrow heaped round about it ; ' at Lanyon'^ there were faint traces; atTrethevy* the barrow, though ' greatly shorn,' was 2 ft. 6 in. in height ; at Mulfra ' and Chyoon^ about 2 ft. ; while at West Lanyon ^ the quoit was completely buried. The danger and difficulty of working under these great masses of stone have prevented proper examination from being made in most cases. Dr. Borlase records the discovery of a grave about 6 ft. deep under Lanyon which ' had been rifled more than once,' and at Pawton there was found nothing but an empty grave, and here too, as the cover stone is broken, it is possible that it had been searched. There is record of nothing more than ' a small pit ' at both Grugith and Chyoon. Some labourers found at Zennor a whetstone and part of an urn, and West Lanyon yielded a broken urn and human bones. Under Mulfra Dr. Borlase found a pit containing peat, clay, and black, greasy loam. There are no accounts of any discoveries at Carwynnen, or Trethevy, but Mr. Pattison ® notes of this last that 'the inside has been disturbed and its contents removed.' ;>^''A' ... ^' .. ■;/• -• . -a — /*>^ Horth SiJe. South Side. Trethevy Stone. These meagre results are not enough to establish any definite conclusions, but as far as they go they do not show any noticeable marks of distinction from the contents of the larger barrows, such as Bosavern,^ Trevalga,^*' or Veryan.^^ The identity of origin would be much more closely established or disproved if it were only known whether the Towednack monument ^^ were a barrow or a quoit. ' Borlase, Naen. Com. 32 ; Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1840), 30; Lulcis,op. cit. xi, and pis. xxv-xxvi. ^ Borlase, Jntiq. 231 ; Borlase, Naen. Com. 51 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 200 ; (1882-3), 203 ; Lukis, op. cit. 10, 28, pi. xxi ; Lysons, ccxix. ^ Borlase, Jntiq. 231 ; Lukis, op. cit. 8, 25, pi. xviii ; Trans. Pcnz. Nat. and Antiq. Soc. i, 197 ; Lysons, Magna Brit, ccxix. * Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1850), 31 ; Trans. Penz: Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1850), 435 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 45 ; Lukis, op. cit. 11, 13, pi. xxvii ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxix. ' Borlase, Antiq. 230; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 198 ; Borlase, Naen. Com. 59 ; Lukis, op. cit. 9, 28, pi. xix ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxix. * Borlase, Naen. Com. 55 ; Borlase, Antiq. 227 ; Lukis, op. cit. 9, 24, pi. xx. ' Borlase, Naen. Com. 43 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 196. ^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Comzo. (1850), 32. "* See p. 360 supra. " See p. 35 8 supra. ' See p. 361 supra. " See p. 363 supra. 365 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL In view of the scarcity of cases of contracted burials in the barrows in Cornwall to which attention has been already directed/ the discoveries at Sheviock ^ and Harlyn Bay ^ are of peculiar interest as evidence of the exist- ence of a race of people quite distinct from those by whom the barrows with their accompanying burial urns were created. At Trethill, in the parish of Sheviock, in 1881, some workmen, making a hole in order to set up a pole, came across a flat stone, and on raising this they found several objects like iron bars. They then saw a skull in the corner, and perceived that it was the remains of a human body doubled up so that the arms were hugging the knees. With the body were fragments of a small earthenware vessel from which Mr. Spence Bate was only able to conclude that it must have been about four inches in diameter. It was ornamented by lines impressed by twisted cord or bark, the ends of which overlapped each other. Ornamentation made in the same way, but apparently more skilfully has been noticed on urns from the barrows.* The kist in which the body was placed was 3 ft. 3 in. long, 3 ft. broad, and 2 ft. 9 in. deep. Mr. Bate, who examined the place immediately after the discovery, had no doubt that it was a genuine case of contracted burial accompanied by a food vessel resembling those found in Derbyshire and else- where. The body was placed with the skull in one corner of the kist (' the east or south-east ') and lying on the right side ; the kist itself, formed of four flat stones, with the soil for a bottom, was almost square. In these details the Sheviock burial differs materially from those discovered at Harlyn Bay in 1900, where the graves are four feet or more in length by two in width, and the bodies generally are found lying on the left side with the head to the north and in the middle of the grave. Harlyn Bay Pre-historic antiquities of bronze and gold had already been found in this neighbourhood when, in 1900, while digging for the foundations of a house, an important group of interments within cists, or stone-lined graves, was found. Under 12 to 15 ft. of fine wind-blown sand, the surface of an old brown sand hill was found, and a few inches under this a large number of shallow stone graves, the sides and ends consisting of flat slabs of slate-stone and the covering stones of the same. A careful removal of the overlying sand showed that there were great numbers of these graves, which were arranged in lines, the graves being placed end to end, a space of about three feet sepa- rating the head of one from the foot of the next. There were several of such lines running in parallels, and they have been traced for a length of at least ninety feet, and there is no reason to doubt that they extend into the sand hills to a much greater distance. The majority of the graves were oblong and contained a skeleton lying on the left side facing east in the * contracted ' position, but some were six or eight sided, and one was round, divided in the middle, and some contained remains of more than one skeleton, while in some ' See p. 362 iupra. ^ Jouiti. Roy. Inst. Comw. vii, 136. ' P/ym. Inst, xiii, pi. iii (1900), 203 ; Harlyn Bay, by R. A. Bullen. * Gerrans, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 204 ; Trevelloe, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Ant'iq. Sec. i, 231 ; Edmonds, Tie Land's End District, 3 1 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 208 ; Denzell Downs, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 244 ; Morvah Hill, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 248. 366 CHYWOON QUOIT, N E AR M ORVAH , COR N WALL. MCASURED JIf O R A i^r /s/ BY C.i^.OY/V90/V0,C£., 21 '~T /I U C .JSJG . A W- NIEMORANDA . 'Utt- (ookiv^a .Y. .V. E /r<»n A f'H? Icsyfljal" . ti r»rt jyr^ u »*ff t t< n <* t't* I't^c u r r\ '2 1^ tf t'i i ' A < f/f . tt it 'i nAt tt f .32 /'* '// cAtTf »T( <•/*•>•. fY /Viv a/ ^/t€ ttrt^fttfitftf sfftitti ,• ,t y/fc j'iftt nf n'/Ld.cn it I e sffff i ^t ,V/rti I'h< Si/t r f f /it <■/'**'/' 'i /■ f.). ftf fUt 60.'fcin.A>.O-*.'*<)^ ,t ti % H S ': f/te St^e-,f/rnt-i ritr/nt. titv rtrt/ /mic/i t tt n tt fri /rin ** i**'* ff'< fop. To face page 366. EARLY MAN the body lay on the right side and in a few on the back. At one place a large number of bones was found thrown together, giving the impression that they had been removed from the graves and collected, perhaps to make room for later interments. The remains were of men, women, and children of various ages, and the general appearances suggested use by a comparatively small number of people through a long space of time rather than by large numbers for a short period. With these remains were found implements of slate, some flint flakes, bronze rings, earrings, bracelets, and fibulae, the latter being very fine. Some of these are thought to date from about the time of the Roman invasion of England, and this is borne out by the fragments of iron, apparently remains of a bracelet, a dagger pommel, and a small hook, which have been recorded. Pottery is almost unknown amongst these discoveries, but some spindle whorls and beads have been found. The possibility of the existence in this remote part of Cornwall at a comparatively recent date of a people marked ofi^ by this curious burial custom, as distinct from any of the previously known occupants of the county, is par- ticularly interesting, and encourages a hope that the excavations at Harlyn Bay may be continued, and that similar discoveries may be made in other parts. There is a record in Drew's History^ that in 1778 a violent storm shifted a great quantity of sand on the towans in the parish of St. Minver, in consequence of which ' many coffins of slate-stone were discovered which con- tained human bones in large quantities,' and with these ' several coins, some rings, and various implements of dress ' ; these coins, it is said, were dated from 1 10 1 to 1558 A.D., and were preserved by 'Mr. Sandys, the late vicar.' St. Minver is the parish on the other side of the Padstow estuary, and, not far from Harlyn Bay, is equally remote from the main life of the county. It would be most satisfactory, seeing the great likeness of this discovery to the burial ground at Harlyn Bay, if these coins could even now be traced and the accuracy of the account in Drew's History tested. Underground Chambers Under the head of megalithic remains some particulars have already been given of traces of ancient dwellings.^ They are all built after the same manner, a deep wide trench sunk into the ground or excavated into the side of a small hill or rising land, the sides built up with large stones without mortar, the inside facing of the stone being fairly smooth, forming a not uneven sur- face, and the roof made of long flat slabs of stone laid across from wall to wall, and the whole covered completely with earth. None of them show above the ground level and they are not easy to find. The longest in the county is that at Halligey,^ near Trelowarren, in Mawgan in Meneage, where the main chamber is 90 ft. long, 3 to 5 ft. in breadth, 6 ft. high in the middle, but lower towards the ends, and the smaller chamber at right angles to the east end of the main chamber is 28 ft. long, 5 ft. 6 in. wide and 6 ft. high. All those which have been thoroughly explored have been found to have one or more smaller chambers connected with them, the opening between ' Drew, op. cit. ii, 495. * The local name is ' Fogou ' or * Vau.' * Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. viii (1885), 243, with plates ; Arch, xl ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. 367 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL being a small doorway usually about 3 or 4 ft. in height and about the same in width. ^ The cave at Bodinnar in Sancreed may have consisted of a single chamber only, but it was in ruins in 1769^ and had wholly disappeared in 1845.^ That at St. Eval * seems to have been always a single chamber, but it makes up for that deficiency in being the largest in internal dimensions, being 50 ft. long by 8 ft. high and 10 ft. wide, the average size of these structures being from 30 to 40 ft. in length, 5 to 6 ft. in height, and 3 or 4 ft. wide. The most striking of the class is the cave at Chapel Euny, in Sancreed,^ which has on the north side of the main gallery a large round chamber about 14 ft in diameter and 12 ft. high in the centre, with a domed roof of stones, of ' beehive ' pattern. The caves at Chysauster,*' Boscaswell,' and Trewardreva® have all been much destroyed, and a portion of the side chamber at Trewoofe ^ has shared the same fate ; the others have not been explored or no records have been kept.'"" There is an underground tunnel about 90 ft. long at Bodean Veor, in St. Anthony in Meneage,'^ but this differs from the regular ' Fogous ' in that it is a mere excavation without any stones for walls or roof. At Trenear, in Wendron,^^ is a building of stone, 13 ft. by 9 ft., of which the roof is made of eight blocks of granite, four on each side, standing on the walls and leaning to meet in the middle, forming an acutely pointed roof ; at the back of this ' room,' an aperture 31 ft. high leads into a tunnel 19 ft. long, cut into the ' country,' of which part of the walls are faced with stone. This building was said, in Tonkin's time (1739),^^ to have been a cellar and Trenear house, ' one of the hunting seats ' of the ' ancient dukes of Cornwall.' A few of these caves have been carefully searched. Dr. Borlase examined Pendeen and found in the floor of the second chamber a pit 3 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. deep, ' but nothing in it remarkable ' ; ^' a similar pit is recorded ^* at Trewardreva which contained ashes. It is stated that an urn containing human ashes, a cup, and some bones, supposed to be those of a deer, were found at Halligey.^* At Treveneague,^^ which was filled with earth and * Trewoofe, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Ant'iq. Soc. i, 249 ; Borlase, jintiq. (as Bolleit), 292 ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. Chapel Euny, Edmonds, Tke Land's End District, 52 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1862-5), 14; Lukis, op. cit. 18 and plan. Treveneague, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1867), 3. Boscaswell, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1864), ii, 7. Pendeen, Borlase, Antiq. 293 ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. Halligey, near Trelowarren, Jouiti. Roy. Inst. Cornw. viii, pt. iii (1885), 243 ; Arch, xl; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. ^ Borlase, Antiq. 292 ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. ^ Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 247 ; Bateman, Vestiges, 5. ^ Borlase, Antiq. 292 ; Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. i, pt. iv (1865), 64. * Chapel Euny, Edmonds, The Land^s End District, 52. * Edmonds, The Land's End District, 5 i . ' Boscaswell, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. ii (1864), 7. ^ In Constantine, Polwhele, Hist, of Cornw. (as Bos au-an), i, 129 ; Lysons, ccxx, now used as a fowl-house. ' Tremenheere in MuUion, Borlase, Naen. Corn. 240 ; Polkanogou in St. Keverne, Polwhele, Hist, i, 129 (note); Altarnun near Roughtor, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1885), 252; Altarnun at West Carne, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1888), 342 ; at Trew in Breage, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1888), 360 ; Chysauster in Gulval, Edmonds, op. cit. 51, '" Polwhele, op. cit. i, 129. " Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1887-8), 348. '■ Gilbert, Paroch. Hist, ii, 138. " Pendeen, Borlase, Antiq. 293 ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. '■' Polwhele, Hist, of Cornw. i, 129; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. '* Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. viii (1885), 243 ; Arch, xl ; Lysons, op. cit. ccxx. '* Treveneague, Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1867), 3. 368 EARLY MAN rubbish, Mr. Blight found pottery (fragments of seventeen different vessels), charcoal, bones of animals, bits of flint and pieces of iron, the largest of these being part of an iron implement which had apparently one cutting edge and was long-bladed. It was made with some skill and is described by Mr. Blight as ' similar to the mediaeval glaive.' This cave also yielded a spindle whorl, a granite mortar, and some stones evidently used for grinding. In 1863, Mr. W. C. Borlase completed the excavation of the cave at Chapel Euny, which had been partly cleared by a miner some twenty years before. He found in addition to a paved and drained floor, some coarse pottery both black and red, a small piece of ' beautiful red pottery, possibly Samian ware,' an iron crook, an iron spear-head 21 in. long, and numerous whetstones, mullers, ashes, bones of animals, a small circular stone amulet, i in. in diameter, with a hole through the centre and a considerable quantity of partly melted tin.^ The object for which these structures were made is quite conjectural. The names do not help to any solution. Those at Boscaswell," Bodinnar,' and Trew * are each known as the * Giant's Holt,' but most of the others are simply called the ' Fogou ' or ' Vau,' which, with its other form of ' Hugo,' is the Cornish word for a cave. Hal, writing of Trewoofe (Trove), says that ' in the wars between Charles I and his Parliament, divers of the royal party, pursued in the west by the Parliament troops under Sir Thomas Fairfax, were privately conveyed into this vault .... where Mr. Leveale fed and secured them till they found opportunity to make their escapes.'* It is possible that some such purpose as this was the original cause of their existence, for the caves at Chysauster,^ Bodinnar,'^ Chapel Euny,^ and Roughtor® are in the immediate vicinity of hut-circles or dwellings, and at Altarnun ^° and Halligey ^^ are traces of fortifications. This last was according to Hal also the case at Trewoofe. ^^ The remains of the early dwellings in the county are of two marked varieties. The rudest and apparently earliest are now to be noticed as low circular banks of earth and stone, generally containing some large flat stones still standing on edge ; the enclosed area is roughly level or slightly sunk. They are usually found grouped together in large numbers. In Blisland such groups are to be seen at Carwen,'^ on Kerrowe Down,^* and on the west side of Challowater.^^ Sir John Maclean speaks of them as existing at Garrah in St. Breward ' by scores ' ;^^ there are numerous examples in Altarnun ^^ on Rowtor, on Scaddick hill, at Carne Down, and Hendra. Mr. T. C. Peter ^* found traces of more than 100 on Carn Brea in Illogan ; there are several inside the entrenchment of Castle Pencair on Tregoning Hill, in Breage ; and a group of five at Colvadnack in Wendron.^^ Very few isolated instances ' See p. 368 supra. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzo. (1864), No. ii, 7. ^ Borlase, Jntiq. 293. * Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1888), 360. * Gilbert, Paroch. Hist, 143. " Edmonds, op. cit. 51. ' Borlase, .(^«W^. 293. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1862-5), 14. ^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1885), 252. "* Ibid. (1888), 342. " Ibid, viii, part iii (1885), 243. Jrch. xl. " Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 249. " Maclean, op. cit. i, 23 and plan. " Ibid. 24. " Ibid. 24. '^ Ibid, i, 351. " Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. ix, pt. iii (1888), 349. Vestiges, 19 and plan. ^'^ Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. xiii, pt. i (1895), 93. " Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1887-8), 349. I 369 47 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL are known ; there is a noticeable specimen on the crest of headland at Kenidjack in St. Just ; but probably many more would be discovered by a systematic search on the moors and hills. They vary very much in size ; from 14 ft.^ up to 20 are the usual limits ; but some are as much as 40, and even 60 ft. in diameter.^ Some of those on Carn Brea are as small as 8 ft., while others are as much as 20 ft. A thorough examination of those on Carn Brea in Illogan was made by Mr. Thurston C. Peter in 1895. Several of the huts were so constructed that two or more sides were formed of naturally-placed boulders, and most of these had in them hearths or cooking holes or both. These cooking holes were pits sunk into the ground floor of the hut, generally square, but one was triangular. One was lined with stone, a single flat stone on each of three sides, the fourth built up with small stones. The wood ash which came from these cooking holes was of oak, birch, hazel, and alder. All the ' finds' from these huts are in the Museum of the Royal Institution of Cornwall at Truro, and include a large number of well-made flint arrow-heads, some flint celts and scrapers, spindle whorls, two pieces of ground flint, a bronze ring, and a silver denarius of a.d. 70. Apparently no articles of iron of any sort were found.* This fact, although only negative evidence, combined with their evidently superior structure and design would seem to show that the ' hut-clusters ' of Cornwall are of a more recent date than these hut-circles. The hut-clusters, of which perhaps the best preserved is at Chysauster in Gulval,* consist of several rooms or huts within one enclosing wall. The walls are faced with stone on the inside and are in some cases still standing 5 or 6 ft. above the floor level of the contained hut or room. The outside of the wall is an earth bank, and the whole is very thick and solid. Two of these enclosures at Chysauster have been examined, and they are both laid out on much the same ground plan. In the course of the exploration of the first Mr. W. C. Borlase found that some of the huts or rooms were roughly paved, and more than one contained a hearth. He found black wheel-made pottery in fragments, stone mullers, millstones, and a piece of insufficiently smelted tin in the condition locally known as ' Jew's house tin.' ^ The second cluster was excavated by the Penzance Antiquarian Society in 1897. Here, too, was rough paving, and in the centre of one hut a large flat stone lying level on the ground, having in it a circular pit, and in the pit a round stone about 5 inches in diameter. There were also found the upper half of a stone hand-mill in good preservation, large quantities of burnt furze wood, fragments of at least twelve vessels of coarse pottery, several hones, and a lump of the stone from which they were made, two very small pieces of rusty iron, and several rounded pebbles.® All these objects are now in the Museum of the Society. Mr. W. C. Borlase records that he had three Roman coins, 'third brasses' of a.d. 265 to 282, which were part of a hoard found at or near the hut-cluster at Bodinnar in Sancreed.^ After Chysauster the best specimens of these ' hut-clusters ' are to be seen at Bosullow in Madron. Some excavations have been made in these, but not on an extensive scale ; and nothing has been found except * Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. ix, pt. iii (1888), 349. Vestiges, 19 and plan. * Maclean, op. cit. i, 24. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. xiii, pt. i (1895), 93. * Edmonds, op. cit. 50 ; Lukis, op. cit, 1 9 and plan ; Vestiges, 12. ' Bateman, Vestiges, 15. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1893-8), 107. ' Bateman, op. cit. 5. 370 J? SECTION FROM O TO C , LOOKING SOUTH. f SecTiott- t X \/y .«^' **^«w«.-i- ^' 0 t « 6 « It It 14- IS IS 20 ' ' 1 — - — 1 1 1 I I I I Beehive Hut, Bosporthennis, Zennor. To face fage 3 70. EARLY MAN some paving, and quantities of burnt ashes, and fragments of at least seven vessels of pottery.^ Pottery was discovered in excavating at Trewortha.' Remains at Smallacombe in Linkinhorne' may on examination prove to be the ruins of a similar cluster. There was a good specimen at Bodinnar,* and there is a more ruinous one at Mulfra in Gulval/ One which Edmonds mentions at Bojuthno is now destroyed.*' Dr. Borlase records the existence of a series of similar structures at Chygwidden in Sancreed,'^ within a protecting rampart, but now all traces of the huts have been removed, and nothing except a part of the rampart remains. Coins are said to have been found in clearing the ruins. There are a few instances of ' beehive ' huts in Cornwall, two ^ being still in fair preservation. These are circular buildings about 1 5 feet in diameter ; the walls are carried up straight for about 5 feet, above which each course is laid overlapping the one below until the roof meets in the centre. The one at Bosporthennis has an oblong square-cornered room opening out of it, the southern end wall of which appears to have had almost a gable end. There is a curious hut or chamber built in an enormous bank of earth and stones at Ding Dong in Madron.^ The bank is faced with stone through which a doorway 3 ft. wide leads into a long chamber, similar to the underground caves previously described; from this another doorway 2 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 6 in. opens into a small square room 9 ft. on each side. This is roofed by four long blocks of granite placed on the walls, which are 4 ft. high, across the corners. Four similar stones are laid across the angles of the first course, and one large single stone covers the remaining space. Although somewhat different and apparently more modern than the beehive huts already mentioned, the * Culver house ' at Bussow, in Towednack,^° may serve as a fitting conclusion for this notice. It is circular, 18 ft. high, and the dome or roof is formed of eight layers of stone, each overlapping the one beneath it. The small square openings through the walls are supposed to indicate that it was built for use as a pigeon house, but the history of this curious little tower is unknown. THE EARLY IRON AGE In addition to the bronze mirror discovered in a grave at Trelan Bahow, St. Keverne, and the bronze collar discovered at Trenoweth, in the parish of Lelant, which are given in Mr. J. Romilly Allen's list of late Celtic objects," Sir John Evans ^^ recorded the discovery of a bronze brooch at Redmore, near St. Austell, which probably belongs to the Early Iron Age. A bronze fibula inlaid with coral (.?), found in tin stream-works at Treloy in St. Columb Major ^^ (now in the Museum at Truro), and a brass jewelled collar found with a bowl of block tin in tin stream-works in St. Stephen in Brannell,^* (now in the Museum at Truro), present certain features which resemble late Celtic ornaments from Yorkshire, and there is no reason to doubt that they belong to the same period. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Jntiq. Soc. i, 286. " Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv. xi, 290. ' Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv. iii (1868), 10. * Edmonds op. cit. 46 ; Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 247 ; Bateman, op. cit. 3. * Bateman, op. cit. 15. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Jntiq. Soc. i, 249. ' Bateman, op. cit. 16. ® Bosporthennis in Zennor, Lukis, op. cit. 19, fig. xxxix ; J. Romilly Allen, Jrch. Camb. ix; Bateman, op. cit. 16. Fernacre near Brownwilly, Bateman, op. cit. 8 and sketch. ' Bateman, op. cit. 7. '" Bateman, op. cit. 8. " Arch. Camb. (Ser. 5), vol. xiii, 331. " Evans, Bronze Imp. 400. " Journ. Roy. Inst. Corntv. iv, 220. " Ibid, iii (1869), xi. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL THE 'LONGSTONES' This list contains the single upright stones, which are conspicuous for their great height, and those which have been shown by excavations, or other methods of observation, to be artificial in origin and connected with the subject of this chapter. In the present limited state of scientific know- ledge as to their origin it has been considered best to omit, as natural, all which do not come under either of the foregoing descriptions. CoNSTANTiNE. — 'Men Perhen': 20 ft. in height; broken into twenty gate-posts in 1764. Borlase, Antiq. 162. Lelant. — At Bosava (sic, ? Beersheba), 10 ft. in height. Bh'ght, Crosses of W. Cornw. 71. LuDGVAN. — At Tremenheere ; now destroyed. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 95. Madron. — At Trewren. Two stones, 5 ft. and 6 ft. in height respectively; 10 ft. apart, ENE. In excavating between them on 21 October, 1752, a grave was found 6 ft. 6 in. long, 2 ft. 9 in. wide and 4 ft. 6 in. deep, containing black greasy earth. Borlase, Antiq. 187; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 22. At Boswarthen, about 8 ft. in height. At Mulfra, 'a little below the Cromlech, is a stone l 5 ft. long, which seems to have been formerly erect.' Canon Rogers quoted in Borlase, Naen. Corn. 99. MoRVAH. — Kerrow hill, 6 ft. in height. Blight, op. cit. 71. Paul. — At Chyenhal, 8 ft. in height. Blight, op. cit. 71. At Tresvenneck, 12 ft. in height. A slab of granite was turned up by the plough at the foot of the 'pillar,' in April, 1840. It covered a very large urn, and a small one was found about 18 in. away. Both are now in Penzance Museum. Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 233. Edmonds, The Land's End District, op. cit. 32. St. Austell. — Near Mount Charles, 1 1 ft. 6 in. in height. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 99. St. Breock. — On Downs. Two stones, 12 ft. 4 in. and 8 ft. in height respectively. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 96 ; Lukis, Prehist. Stone Mon. 76, pi. xxxi. St. Burian. — ' The Pipers,' at Bolleit, 15 ft. (the tallest now standing in Cornwall) and 13 ft. 6 in. respectively. Excavations made under the tallest produced nothing. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 107 ; Blight, op. cit. 71 ; Lukis, op. cit. 14, pi. xxx. At Boscawen Un, 8 ft. 6 in. in height. Blight, op. cit. 71. At Goon Rith, 10 ft. 6 in. in height. Excavations produced nothing. Borlase, iV^ff^n. Corn. 107; Blight, op. cit. 71 ; Lukis, op. cit. 14, pi. xxx. At Pridden, 1 1 ft. 6 in. in height. Excavations disclosed a small pit containing splinters of burnt bone, under a cover stone. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 10 1. At Boscawen Ros., 10 ft. in height. Blight, op. cit. 71 (as Tregiffian). Borlase, Naen. Corn. 108. At Trelew, 10 ft. 4 in. in height. Excavations disclosed splinters of burnt bone and burnt clay. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 102 ; Lukis, op. cit. 14, pi. xxx; Blight, op. cit. 71. St. Columb. — ' The Old Man,' 7 ft. 6 in. in height. ' Once apparently surrounded by a small circle of stone set on edge.' Borlase, Naen. Corn. 99 ; Lukis, op. cit. 1 5, pi. xxxi, now destroyed. St. Just. — Blight [Crosses of W. Cornw.) mentions one at Brew, but there is no such place in the parish ; and another at Longstone Downs, Boslow, but this is at Boswens, Sancreed, q.v. St. Keverne. — At Tremenheere, 9 ft. 5 in. in height. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 277. St. Mabyn. — ' Longstone,' a little E. of the church, removed and broken up ' to brave ridiculous legends and superstitions,' Maclean, op. cit. ii, 451. Sancreed. — At Boswens, 9ft. in height. Borlase, Antiq. 163 and pi.; Blight, op. cit. 71. At Drift or Trigganeris. Two stones, 8 ft. 6 in. and 6 ft. in height respectively, and 16 ft. apart. Excavations disclosed a grave between them 6 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 5 ft. deep ; it was empty. Borlase, Antiq. 187 ; Blight, op. cit. 71 ; Borlase, Naen Corn. 23 ; Lukis, op. cit. 1 5, pi. xxx. At Trenuggo, 1 1 ft. 2 in. in height. Bones, chips and ash found at foot. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 1 02 ; Lukis, op. cit. 14, pi. xxx ; Blight, op. cit. 71. SiTHNEY. — On Longstone Down, 1 1 ft. in height. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 99. Wendron. — Near Burras, about 10 ft. in height, in a field on the E. side of main road. Zennor. — Porthmeor, 6ft. Sin. in height. Lukis, op. cit. (as Polmeor) 15, pi. xxx. THE HOLED STONES The most striking monuments of this description in Cornwall are : — The MfiN-AN-ToL in Madron, consisting of two upright stones, each about 4 ft. in height, now standing 19 ft. apart ; midway in the line between them stands a flat stone roughly circular, 372 o\ U) U Z 0 _i h -1 U) < ^ U z 111 cf h o < u ^B o I o < > Iff a: U) 0 < 5 «0 < "• W z I M h z — ? ^ o Q -1 O ^ h 0 -1 Z 3 < M 1 M 7 O m Ul Z Ul I h ^- 4s. ^0 face page 372. EARLY MAN 4 ft. in diameter, having a rounded hole through it, 21 in. by 19 in. in diameter. The westernmost stone has been moved and brought into a straight line with the other two since 1 81 5. Borhse, y^ntiq. 177 and pi.; Paris, Guide to Mounts Bay, 77; Edmonds, op. cit. 19 and 212 ; Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iv (1872), 152; Lukis, op. cit. 17, pi. xxxiv. St. Burian. — At Rosemoddress, N. of circle. The stone is 5 ft. 4 in. in height, now used as a gate-post; the hole is 5^ in. in diameter. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 214; Lukis, op. cit. 17, pi. xxxiii ; Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1862), 27. At Rosemoddress, E. of circle, now used as a gatepost. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 214; Lukis, op. cit. I and 22. St. Just. — The four-holed stones at Tregeseal are described in the chapter on 'The Stone Circles ' {post). At Tregiffian ; the stone roughly round, 2^ ft. in diameter, the hole 6 in. in diameter ; moved and now lost. Lukis, op. cit. 17 and 27, pi. xxxiii. Sancreed. — At Boswarthen. Stone 3 ft. 3 in. in height ; hole near the top 3^^ in. in diameter. Now used as a gatepost. Lukis, op. cit. 1 7, pi. xxxiii. ToLVAN. — Near Gweek, in Constantine, a triangular flat stone, upright, 7 ft. 9 in. in height ; near the exact centre is a hole l ft. 4 in. in diameter. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (1862), 24; Lukis, op. cit. 17, pi. xxxiii. Wendron. — Similar to the Tregiffian Stone, but the hole is not in the centre. Lukis, op. cit. 17, pi. xxxiii. There are probably many more holed stones of this description in the county, which are not recorded. The small square stones with large holes, such as those at Trelew in St. Burian ^ and in the lane leading to Rosemod- dress^ are axle-stones, made to take the wooden axles of the water-wheels, before iron was used. ANCIENT BRITISH COINS Examples of uninscribed gold coins of the types recorded by Sir John Evans,^ as Plate A, Nos. 4 and 5 ; Plate B, No. 6 ; Plate D, No. 4 ; and Plate E, No. 9, have been found at Carn Brea. Borlase, in his Antiquities of Cornwall (1754), gives a plate showing twenty-five of these coins. Another coin, inscribed * Catti,' was found at Camborne* in the year 1865. QUERNS, ETC. In Cornwall, especially in the west, stone querns are found in con- siderable numbers, both round and saddle, and others which are merely a circular pit in a large flat stone with a round handstone for grinding : specimens of these latter were found in Chyoon Castle and in one of the huts at Chysauster. Although querns of this sort are very primitive, there is reason to believe that they were in use in Cornwall down to a comparatively late date. There is a particularly good collection of these in the Penzance Museum. Circular flat stones are also often found, the use of which is at present unknown. Stone bowls or basins, some not more than 3 in. in diameter, are also found ; these are always of very neat finish and may have been in many cases stoups used in the old chapels or oratories. TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF SMALL ANTIQUITIES Altarnun. — Flint scrapers, knives, arrow-heads, etc., at Trewint Moor. Journ. Roy. Irist. Cornw. (1888), 350. There is said to be an underground building or fogou at West Came. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. (l888), 342, and another between Roughtor and Buttern Hill. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. viii (1885), 252. BoDMiN.^Stone with pit-marking. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. x (1890), 188. ' Lukis, op. cit. 17, and pi. xxxiii, No. 4. ' Borlase, Naen. Com. 214 ; Lukis, op. cit. i and 22. ' Evans, j^nct. Brit. Coins, 50, 51, 62, 81, 94. * Evans, Jnc/. Brit. Coins, 488. 373 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Breach. — Some bronze flanged palstaves found in Godolphin Mine between 1740 and 1 7 50. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 41. Camborne. — Stone Axe found at Higher Rosworthy, now in Penzance Museum. Tram. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1880-1), 74. Cardinham. — Bronze ring, found in barrow at Vcnns Cross. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. iv (1875), 214. Creed. — Urn found in a barrow about 1724. Drew, Hist, ii, 186. Crowan. — Polished flint celt, found at Clowance in 1766. Borlase, Antiq. 287 and pi. CuRY. — Four polished greanstone celts, found at Bochym in 1869. Evans, Stone Imp. 130. A round stone with pointed ends, found at Bochym. Evans, Stone Imp. 242. Urn, fragments in Truro Museum. Falmouth. — Polished celt of jadeite, now in Truro Museum. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 3 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 1 07. Urn from Pendennis, fragments now in Truro Museum. Helston.— Fragments of an urn from Carminow, now in Truro Museum. Illogan. — At Cam Brea : flint arrow-heads, Evans, Stone Imp. 389 ; a scraper, op. cit. 309 ; a flint knife, op. cit. 331 ; a flint lance-head, op. cit. 334. MoRVAH. — Urn found at Carne. Drew, ii, 497 ; Borlase, Nat. Hist. 322 ; Borlase, Naen. Corn. 182. MuLLiON. — Urn found at Winnington, now in Truro Museum. Perranzabuloe. — Pieces of iron and brass money found in barrows. Borlase, Antiq. 311. Redruth. — Barbed flint arrow-head from four barrows, now in Penzance Museum. St. Agnes. — Barbed flint arrow-head. Evans, Bronze Imp. 389. St. Breward. — Three curious pointed stones found near Bradford. Maclean, i. 351. St. Columb Minor. — Flint axe-head. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 4. Rock markings. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. x (1890), 190. St. Ives. — There is a curious double- walled hut at Cam Ellis. Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1882-3), ^99* St. Just. — Two small stone bowls found at Leswidden. Borlase, Antiq. 310. An urn found at Leswidden. Borlase, Antiq. 310. Stone Celt, found at Kelynack Moor, now in Penzance Museum. Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. i, 19. Stone axes found at Tregeseal Circles. Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1880-1), 20. Sancreed. — An urn, now in Penzance Museum, and two perforated stones, one of black marble, the other a brown sandstone, found near Chapel Euny in 1842. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 212. Truro. — Polished stone celt. Evans, Stone Imp. 138. Bronze celt found at Mopus. Borlase, Naen. Corn. 5. Zennor. — Whetstone from the Quoit in Penzance Museum. Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1882-3), 203. Urn from hill above Pennance, now in Penzance Museum. Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (l 883-4), 310. » 374 ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS A MPLE reasons for the marked absence of Anglo-Saxon remains dating /% from the Pagan period in Cornwall may be found in the political / % history of the county ; but a remarkable memorial of King Alfred's time must here be specially mentioned. In the year 1774 some miners who were searching for tin in a stream-work near St. Austell, in the manor of Trewhiddle, found, about 17 feet below the surface, a silver cup and a number of coins and ornaments, most of which were presented to the British Museum, in 1880, by Mr. J. J. Rogers, M.P.^ The cup had been placed in a heap of loose stones, the refuse of an old tin-working, and covered with a common slate. It was evident that the objects had been intentionally deposited where they were found, the cup containing the rest of the hoard ; but after being so deposited, the metal had been considerably crushed by the collapse of the covering slate, and the cup has only been recently restored to its original shape (fig. i).^ It was, however, at once recognized as a chalice, and had been made in three pieces, the baluster stem being separate and somewhat thicker than the bowl and domed foot. Though devoid of ornament or inscription, it can be accu- rately dated by an examination of the silver pennies found within it. A detailed list of these, in the possession of Mr. Philip (and subsequently of Jonathan) Rashleigh, is given by Mr. Rogers,^ which may be summarized here: — one each of Offa (757-796), Coenwulf (796-822), and Beornwulf (823-825), nine of Berhtwulf (839-853), thirty-nine of Burgred (853-874), and one of Ceolwulf II (874), the last king of Mercia ; a silver penny (not as usual a styca) of Eanred, probably the king of Northumbria (807-841), two of Ecgbeorht (802-838), six of Ethelwulf (838-858), two of Ethelred I (863-871), two of Alfred (871-901), five of Ceolnoth, archbishop of Canter- bury (833-870), and a single specimen of Louis le Debonnaire, king of the Franks (814-840). As many as 1 14 pieces were found altogether, but they passed into several hands, and only two or three are now preserved with the other articles, one being an unpublished variety of Ethelwulf, struck at 1 The donor exhibited the find to the Society of Antiquaries in that year {proceedings, viii, 313), but it had been already illustrated by the Society in 1788 {Arch. ix. 187, pi. viii). An account is also given in Arch. Joum. xxi (1864), 183. 2 The illustration in Arch, xi, pi, vii, is now seen to be unsatisfactory. 8 "Joum. Roy. Inst, of Cornwall, ii (1866-7), 295. 375 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Canterbury by the moneyer WFA. The occurrence of a coin of Ceolwulf in this hoard shows that the deposit cannot have been made earher than 874, while the small number of Alfred's coins included, points to the earlier years of his reign. There can be little hesitation, therefore, in fixing the date between 874 and 880. Four objects belonging to the hoard had been lost sight of before 1866, but they were illustrated with the rest by Mr. Philip Rashleigh ^ in 1788, and are here reproduced. A gold pendant (fig. 2) consists of a thin looped plate to which is applied filigree work, in six closely-coiled spirals. Fig. 2. Gold Filigree the grouud being furnished with annulets of the same wHWDLf. ^^°^ ^^' it^aterial. The other piece of gold was a small angular ingot ; and of two silver finger-rings one (fig. 3) had a quatrefoil bezel apparently inlaid with niello, the designs resembling those on the polygonal head of the pin (fig. 6), while the other (fig. 4) was of uniform breadth, the hoop being faceted in a manner not unlike the well-known ring of Alhstan, bishop of Sherborne (823-867), and no doubt inlaid with similar material. The scourge or disciplinarium (fig. 7) included in the hoard has met with a better fate, and is in perfect preserva- tion. It consists of a double-plaited silver chain of ' Trichi- nopoly ' pattern, looped in a large glass bead at one end, and at the other divided into four short chains terminating in knots. Seven plaited slides of silver wire are placed at in- tervals, and the total length is 2ii^ inches. There can be no doubt that this formidable instrument was intended for peni- tential purposes, and it would be difficult to find another of the kind, at least in such perfect condition. A similar chain, 15 inches long, with similar crossbands but without the four ' tails,' was indeed found in a woman's grave of the Viking period at Ballinaby, near Loch Gorm, in the island of Islay off the west coast of Scotland ; but even if it had been originally part of a scourge, it had evidently been last used as a personal ornament. It is perhaps significant that the site was only about forty miles due south of the famous lona, the cradle of the Scottish church, and another feature of the Trewhiddle find suggests that it was the property of a religious ascetic. Apart from the chalice there was evidently an ecclesiastical significance in the equal-armed cross engraved on the back of an oval silver box (fig. 5), the use of which is not altogether clear. It is bottomless and has a flat lid unsecured, while the sides are engraved in panels containing beaded crosslines. It may have belonged to some perishable vessel of wood or horn that was also decorated with the three silver bands (fig. 8) which diminished in propor- tion and seem to have been affixed to some vessel of circular section intended to be seen only from one side. All these are inlaid with niello, and the design of the smallest band is a free scroll of foliage, while the other two have trian- gular panels filled with grotesque animals and geometrical devices, such as are ' Arch. Ix, pi. viii. 376 Fig. 3. Silver Fin- ger - RING FROM Trewhiddle. \ FiG. 4. Silver Fin- ger - RING from Trewhiddle. \ Fig. I. — Silver Chalice from Trewhiddle. (|) Fig. 5. — Silver Box with Cross from Trewhiddle. (i) Fig. 6. — Silver Pin and Details from Trewhiddle. (i) To face page 376. ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS I I seen on a few surviving relics that may be referred to the same period.^ The style has most affinity v^ith that of the Merovingian illuminated manuscripts, but seems to have been specially developed on English soil, v^hile on the Continent a new era began with the accession of Charlemagne. The pin with polygonal head (fig. 6) is ornamented in the same manner, and was perhaps used for securing a loosely-woven fabric, as was also the penannular brooch (fig. 9). This bears a close resemblance to one found at Croy, Inverness-shire, with a coin of Coenwulf, king of Mercia (795-8 1 8), and both belong to a comparatively early stage in the interesting evolution of this type of brooch, which culminated in the famous Tara and Hunterston examples. Other items were bronze strap-ends for facilitating the use of the buckle, one example of the latter, without a tongue, being included in the find. Also connected with a strap were two bronze runners with oblong opening and lozenge-shaped top for keeping together overlapping lengths of leather : these, and one pair of tabs, were devoid of ornament, but the other pair was fig. 9. Silver Penannu- engraved and inlaid with niello in animal patterns lar Brooch. ^ (fig. 10) similar to those on the two longer bands. It is indeed a piece of good fortune that coins were found in undoubted association with this hoard, as otherwise there would either have been a lively controversy about its date, or the discovery would have passed into oblivion altogether. As it is, we have here one of the few landmarks in later Anglo- Saxon art, and can determine by its means not only the relative but the absolute date of several other relics. Towards the close of the ninth century England was exposed to the ravages of Danish piratical hordes, and it may be that these treasures were hidden in the ground during one of the attacks on the western coast recorded in history. The year 877 is marked by a disaster of that kind ; and the following year the Danes appeared in twenty-three ships, and no doubt spread terror and devastation far inland. Any Christian priest or hermit would then have had every reason to conceal the few church vessels and valuables in his possession, in the hope of quieter times. The art of the silversmith here exemplified is of a distinctly high order, and though related to the Merovingian school may be looked upon as that prevailing in Alfred's time in England. The absence of any Irish elements enables us to determine with some degree of certainty the ecclesiastical rela- tions of the West Welsh, who had till the year 823 been independent in Cornwall. Egbert had left the court of Charlemagne in 802 to ascend the throne of Wessex, and had marched into Cornwall first in 815, but towards the end of his reign found the natives combining with the Northmen against him, and the decisive blow only came in 835 at Hengestdun (Hingston Down). The intimacy of their first Saxon overlord with the Prankish court may account for the adoption of the ornamental designs and processes here employed, and may also have led to the immigration of a certain number of Frankish ^ These are detailed in Proc. Soc. Jntiq. Lend, xx (1904), 54. I 377 48 Fig. 10. Silver Tag OF Strap, a A HISTORY OF CORNWALL ecclesiastics. An English bishopric was not created in Cornwall till 931, and the following succession is put forward ^ as the probable course of Christian activity in the west country. The Irish saints here date between 450 and 550 A.D., and the Welsh saints between 550 and 682, while the Armorican phase was the last of native Christianity previous to its absorption into the English system. The conclusion then is reasonable that this deposit was made by some ecclesiastic, monk, priest or hermit, who had perhaps come over from the opposite coast of France or at least had dealings with the Church in Gaul, and was driven to hide his treasures during the Danish incursions that ushered in the reign of King Alfred. 1 Borlase, The Age of the Saints, 174. 378 Fig. 7. — Scourge of Silver Chain from Trewhiddle. (I) Fig. 8. — Silver Mounts with Niello FROM Trewhiddle. (J) To face page 378. tp ^ ^ ^ <^ onport mouth Rome Head. 'enlefP! H N H JV Befween pages 378 ami 379. MAP showlrig If Nil; Stqih^ji Cii^^C'ikiis ^ of CO R N WALL Scale of Miles 4 6 8 10 \ Kdkhampton ^ Bude Strattilnl Gizzard Pomi ^ WhitstOpe I ,. . ^ ^oS^Gennys Cum.b(?aX /—' z. ' o Jscobstow 'oBoscasUe ' O,' "Tmlagel f _Davidstow m Launcestd •^ -?> >^ Reference 1 . Tregaseal ( 2 circles , in Si- Just Parish, Southern slope oF Cam Kenidjack Z Boscawen un ( Burian Parish). 3 Dawns men I Burian Parish , on S E of road ) 4 Boskednan ( Madron Parish ) 5 Wendron ( 2 circles , E of and close to road Prom Redruth to Wendron 6 . Trippet Stones I Blisland Parish , E of road to Bradford Bridge ) 7 Stripple Stones (Blisland Parish , S E. slope of Hawk's Tor ) . 8 Leaze I St Breward Parish, R. bank of De Lank River). 9 Stannon I S' Sreward Parish ) 10 . Fernacre I ■■ ,. . S of Roughtor ) 11 . Nine Stones ( border of Parishes Altarnun and North Hill ) . 12 . Hurlers I 3 circles , border of S' Cleer and Linkinhorn Parishes , 5 W of Cheesewring I 13 . Duloe I close to and N E of Duloe church ) Pentirc PoItlI Trevosc Head^ PadstowA S^Columb , Major fCamelford Irewen ^Itarrun.^ •■ Lew3n\ick 11 North Hill Linkinflhorn

y Y^/' ' Bay DodmrniPotnX V Zennor ^^^^'^^ oGwinear i f 3 A^ M' y f^ y^ 0 Mori/ah ^ "' 0 jL PenWn "*< J A, j Bay / •, Ludgvan/ Crowan |\ <^==°*^^^^ M3^f t'app ComwaUj ** ^g^Marazion ^^"''''''" ^ ^ Falmoutfy^ "''gpidJawes Whltesand S^t °^S^^ °^°'°^==»s^ Sithney // /] r Bay Bay, .,-^pC^^-^ ,. • r ^ una no 1 V\ Y ^ '^"'Al t?^^-;* Land's Ead.*^ Sennen 9^ J V/^ Mawgan S*Afeirer/»e°^ iChynhflUe Poiat / Blork Heod CL tan/; tewednack ^y r.izard Poiat (_J/ 7/ N N Bcfuicen pages 378 an J 379. STONE CIRCLES IF any excuse be sought for devoting a special article to stone circles in the history of a county so rich in prehistoric remains, it must be found in the great development of these particular monuments in Cornwall. Within the county area are found stone circles of several varieties, grouped in twos and threes, or standing singly, with stones wide apart or close together, with as few as eight and as many as seventy. The question immediately arises — What is a stone circle .? and in trying to answer it we can hardly do better than accept the definition given by the late William Copeland Borlase, F.S.A., — that when the stones are set up on end, at some distance apart, and enclose a level piece of ground, it constitutes a * stone circle,' but when the stones are set on their edges, contiguous to each other, and enclose a rock, mounds, or an area of uneven ground, it is a ' ring barrow ' and sepulchral in character. Most of the Cornish circles belong to the former class, but whether they are sepulchral or not is still an open question, and though one indeed, that at Duloe, appears to be undoubtedly sepulchral, for the rest such evidence as there is points to a ceremonial use rather than to burial. boscawen-On No. Height Remarks Breadth Thickness No. Height Remarks Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I 3 10 2 7 I 0 13 3 3 2 7 0 8 2 3 9 2 I I 9 14 4 3 quartz 3 3 3 10 3 3 5 2 8 I I 15 4 5 leans in 4 3 2 8 4 3 8 3 3 2 2 16 3 8 2 3 I 9 5 4 7 2 3 2 6 17 3 6 2 9 I 8 6 3 8 I 10 I 10 18 3 3 3 I I 3 7 3 5 I 1 1 I 3 19 3 5 2 7 I 8 8 4 3 2 3 I 7 20 9 0 centre 2 10 I 3 9 3 7 2 10 I 8 stone, 10 3 8 2 7 I 7 leans out II 3 8 2 7 I 6 3 8 12 3 2 3 4 I 10 {-) flat stone 3 10 3 6 {h) » 2 10 3 II — Boscawen-un Circle is situated in the parish of Buryan, 4I miles west of Penzance, on a farm of the same name, south of and near to the road to the Land's End, and having been restored and well cared for by a former landowner, and protected also by the present pro- prietor, Mr. T. B. Bolitho, it is now one of the most perfect examples 379 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL left in the county, or in the country. It is elliptical in shape and com- paratively small, the greater diameter (8 to 17) being 81 ft. 3 in. and the lesser (4 to 13) 72 ft. 6 in. There are nineteen stones in the ring, all of moderate size, and one in the centre rather larger, which stands 9 ft. out of the ground and leans towards the north-east. As will be seen by the above table no other stone exceeds 4 ft. 7 in. in height ; one (14) is of quartz and the rest are of granite. The photograph gives a good idea of the appearance of the circle, and the plan shows in detail the position of the stones. Only two other circles in the county, Stripple Stones and Nine Stones, possess a central monolith, and the stone in the latter is of doubtful antiquity. This leaning stone has been thought to act the part of a gnomon in a sundial, but Dr. Stukeley's suggestion, ' that somebody digging by it to find treasure disturbed it,' ^ commends itself as reasonable. The average spacing is 1 1 or 12 ft., but a gap of 22 ft. on the west side would allow room for another stone, if such existed. Between two standing stones on the north-east lie two flat stones, the halves of a large stone, which, according to W. Cotton's plan of 1826, formerly lay outside the circle and at right angles to its present position. Dr. Borlase took it to be part of a dolmen, and it has the appearance of the cover- ing stone of a kist-vaen. Having examined the monument itself we may turn our attention to its im- mediate neighbourhood. North-east of the circle are two menhirs, sketches of which are here given. The nearer one is 8 ft. 1 1 in. high and is distant 416 yards (N. 44° E.) from the circle, the top being just visible over intervening hedges ; the farther menhir is 7 ft. 5 in. high and stands in the hedge of the lane leading to the farm ; it is 690 yards from the circle (N. 54° E.) and not visible from it ; these two menhirs stand west-south-west (S. 72° W.) and east-north-east of each other. There are two small barrows near by. On the south-west, 60 yards away, is one which was opened in 1864 and yielded a small urn, now in the Penzance Museum, a portion of a stone mortar and a flat stone; in the centre is a large granite boulder, sometimes called the ' money rock.'^ Another barrow, on the south-east, was opened by W. C. Borlase, who found a small urn and some minute pieces of bronze, possibly the rivets of a dagger.^ ' W. C. Lukis and W. C. Borlase, Prehistoric Monuments oj the British Isles: Cornwall (1885), p. i. ' J. T. Blight, Churches of West Cornwall (186$), pp. 123-4. ' Nania Cornubia (1872), p. 219. 380 a^* ^d.s MENHlWa NSAR QOS C AW.E iw-u N tefcBfeiB^E^ l«et Md, A". //. Prcslcn] [J'cnzitme BoSCA\VKN-UN, From the South-east. Chapel Carn Brea in the distance. t 'p "^ »<«Ji'^^/^j J:^ i», ,* -V J \, ,, R. II. Preston] Dawns Men, From the North. [Pcnynice To face page 3 So. STONE CIRCLES The very first reference to this circle that we find is in a Welsh triad, quoted by the Rev. John Williams ab Ithel. It runs as follows : — The three principal Gorsedds of the Isle of Britain : the Gorsedd of Meriw hill ; the Gorsedd of Beiscawen ; and the Gorsedd of Bryn Gwyddon. or another version : — the hill of Evwr ; Beiscawen ; and Bryn Gwyddon.^ This the author quotes as among the ' Triads of the Bards — the Triads of Privilege and Usage,' from the book of Llywelyn Sion. Sion was born about 1516 and died about one hundred years later ; he had access to the Welsh MSS. of the earl of Pembroke, stored in Raglan Castle, which were destroyed during the wars of the Commonwealth, and he is supposed to have compiled his book from these. There is no certainty that he did not compose the triad himself, but its topo- graphical character makes this unlikely, and without doubt this reference to Boscawen-un is not later than the sixteenth century, probably much earlier. Gorsedd means * a great seat,' or * a session,' such as is held by the bards before an eisteddfod to declare it open, and the use of the word here implies that Boscawen-un was a traditional meeting place for secular or religious ceremonies, perhaps both. We find ourselves on firmer ground when we read what William Camden had to say about it in 1586^: 'In the neighbourhood of this [Buryan], in a place which they call Biscawe Woune, are to be seen nineteen stones arranged in a circle, every one about twelve feet distant from another, and in the centre rises one much larger than all the rest.' It is evident that there can have been little change in the circle for 300 years at least. Dr. Borlase's drawing (1754)^ shows eighteen stones standing in the ring, and one fallen. Britton and Brayley (1801) notice it, but inaccurately : ' Another of these Druidical circles is named Boscaiven- Un. This also consists of nineteen upright stones, and is about twenty- five feet [? yards] in diameter, having a single leaning stone in the centre.'* William Cotton^ gives an excellent plan of the circle, but curiously enough substitutes north for east ; he shows a hedge crossing it, occupying the present gap between Nos. 15 and 16 and enclosing ' Tair Priforsedd Beirdd Ynys Prj'dain, Gorsedd Moel Meriw, — ^ (' Moel Efwr Gorsedd Beisgawen, — V or \ Beisgawen a Gorsedd Bryn Gwyddon. j I a Bryn Gwyddon. — Barddas (1862), ii. 76-7. * * In huius vicinia in loco, quern Biscawe Woune dicunt, vndeui^nti lapides in orbem difpofiti con fpiciuntur, singuli xii quafi pedibus inuicem diftantes, y in centra cateris omnibus multo maior exfurgit' (^Britannia, p. 72). * Antiquities of Cornwall, pi. xiii. * Beauties of England and Wales, ii. 496. * Illustrations of Stone Circles, etc. in the West of Cornwall (1826), pi. ii. 381 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL No. 4 on the other side ; Nos. 7 and 2 have fallen, and a large flat stone lies outside the position now occupied by two halves. This hedge was noted by other writers, but about 1862 the landowner. Miss Elizabeth Came, had it removed, the fallen stones replaced, and a hedge built round the ring to protect it. At the same time she caused a trench to be cut through the circle, but nothing was found to throw light on its origin, and the circle is as this lady left it, a model for landowners who stand possessed of such monuments. DAWNS MEN No. Remarks He ght Breadth Thickneu No. Remarks Height Breadth Thick nets ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I 3 4 2 0 I 3 II wide 3 7 4 0 I 8 2 3 2 3 2 0 II at base 3 4 I 3 7 0 10 12 4 0 2 8 I 8 4 3 5 2 8 I 3 1^3 4 4 2 8 I 0 5 3 1 1 2 4 I 6 1 H 4 6 2 3 I 7 6 3 7 2 5 I I 15 leans out 4 4 2 0 I 8 7 shaped 3 5 2 5 0 1 1 16 3 II I I I I I like cross 17 3 6 3 0 0 9 8 4 I I 9 2 2 !l8 leans in 2 10 3 0 I 0 9 4 6 2 7 I 5 19 3 4 3 5 0 8 10 4 3 3 6 I 0 South of Boscawen-un and in the same parish is the circle called Dawns Men, which has some features in common with the other. It is situated on Rosemoddress farm, near to the hamlet of Boleit and 5 miles south-west of Penzance. The road makes a detour here, and a field-path, a short cut, crosses the grass field in which is the circle and passes through the circle itself. The diameter is 76 ft. and, as will be seen by the plan, the circle is nearly exact, though the spacing is rather irregular ; here also we find a gap wide enough to hold another stone, but on the east side. The stones are of granite, very uniform in size, and none exceeding 4 ft. 6 in. in height ; there is no centre stone ; one stone has been rudely hewn, probably at a later date, into a shape resembling one of the round-headed crosses so plentiful in the parish. The surroundings of a circle are important contributions to the con- sideration of its history, and the neighbourhood of this one is singularly rich in prehistoric remains. Two large menhirs, known as the ' Pipers,' stand at distances of 350 and 450 yards in a north-easterly direction (N. 40° E.), but probably were at no time visible from the circle, even without hedges. Sketches of these stones are given ; they are 13 ft. 6 in. and 1 5 ft. high, both are of granite and are much splintered and weather beaten. Another menhir stands 350 yards away on the south-south-east (S. 81° W.) in a cultivated field, formerly a piece of moorland called the Gun Rith ; this menhir is of granite also, and 10 ft. 6 in. high. W.C. Borlase caused excavations to be made at the bases of these three, but 382 BOSCAW E N - U rsl. B V n » A IST ^ y ■> 2 9 2 4 12 » 3 3 2 0 e •>■> 2 6 2 3 14 )) 4 6 0 7 f » 3 0 2 3 * Beauties of England and Wales, ii. 496. ' Jnt. ofComw., (ed. i),pp. 169, 170, 183. * Illustrations of Stone Circles, pp. 21— 2, pi. i. * Trans. Penxance Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. old ser. i. 381-2. * Prehistoric Monuments, pp. i , 2 1 , pi. i. * Report of Devonshire Association (1896), pp. 182-3 ; (1897) pp. 147-8 384 *<- ^ » < -T O s < < O td K b O to Z < ■-) P-, P To face page 384, ' J STONE CIRCLES Two circles are situated about a mile from St. Just-in-Penwith, on the southern slope of the rough and boulder-strewn Carn Kenidjack. They lie east and west of each other, their supposed centres 150 ft. apart, and are divided by a hedge, into which are built some stones of the western circle. The eastern circle stands on the common and is the more perfect of the two, though, owing to its incomplete condition, we can only state its diameter as about 66 ft. 6 in. ; thirteen stones remain out of nineteen or twenty, seven of them standing and six fallen ; the largest is only 4 ft. high. All are of granite, hewn no doubt from the blocks with which the moor is strewn. The condition of this circle is unsatisfactory, but that of the western one is worse. Its probable diameter is 74 ft. ; five stones only remain erect, and of these three are built into the aforesaid hedge ; five are prostrate, one being split, and to make the confusion worse many granite blocks, cleared from the field, have been thrown in among the fallen stones of the circle. A group of unshaped boulder-like stones forms a semicircle round No. 21 in the plan, and beyond this again is a cairn of small stones, not apparently connected with the circle. W. Cotton shows this enclosure in his plan N.E S.w. HOLED STONES M E. A R Tf?EqASEAL. i f» •*■ t^ I II I I I I I I ^^ fee.t (1826), and the Rev. John Buller also depicted it sixteen years later. The object of this enclosure must be more or less conjectural, but we find a structure rather hke it within the ring of Keswick Circle, on the east side ; of the Keswick example ' nothing remains,' says Mr. Dymond, ' to show for what purpose this chamber was constructed,' ^ but later in- vestigation suggests a sepulchral origin. Rather more than a quarter of a mile away, in a north-easterly direction, there stand by the side of the footpath leading to the North St. Just road four holed stones, sketches of which are here given. There is no apparent connexion between these stones and the circles, but as there were three holed stones at Dawns Men these particular examples should also be mentioned. They have been described and figured by J. T. BHght ' and by Lukis and Borlase.' W. C. Lukis remarks : ' From their arrangement in a Hne north-east and south-west I conclude that they all formed together one monument ' ; while R. N. Worth suggests that the monument was a prosaic fence rail, hardly taking into account ' 'Joum. Brit. Arch. Ass. March, 1878. * Prehistoric Monuments, pp.17, 27, and pi. xxxiii. 385 * Arch. Camb. (1864), loc. cit. 49 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL how near it would be to the ground and the fact of the holes being splayed. It may be fairly stated that we do not know the object of this arrangement of stones. The fifth stone, which formerly stood ICO yards farther on, is not now to be seen. In the same direc- tion, north-east, there stands on Longstone Down, Boslow, a tall menhir, 9 ft. high, the top of which is just visible over the hedge from the circles. This is the third instance of a menhir, or menhirs, being found near circles in West Cornwall. Here as elsewhere the moor is dotted with barrows, and from one of them the late W. C. Borlase obtained the very fine urn now in the British Museum and known as the ' Tregaseal urn.' We are indebted to Dr. Borlase for an early mention of these circles; in his MS. Parochial Memoirs (1738) he says: 'On Tregaseal-downs are two circles of stones placed on end, standing east and west of each other. In the eastern, 17 stones are still standing, two prostrate, one broken off. Diameter, 23 paces. In the western, 10 standing, four prostrate, about 26 paces diameter, called Tregaseal Dancing Stones.' ^ In the 164 years covered by the various plans and descriptions there has been a steady deterioration of this interesting monument. It may be noted that these circles lie east and west of each other, with the small error of 1° or 2° between their centres. The Scilly Isles are plainly visible west-south-west. Other instances of two circles side by side are found in the Grey Wethers, Dartmoor, and the Wendron Circles. BOSKEDNAN No. Height Length Breadth Thickness No. Height Length Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I 4 0 leans out ,^ I I 6 7 fallen 4 6 2 3 2 leans out, 5 6 I 9 I 8 8 4 8 I 6 I 8 nearly down 9 10 fallen 6 4 7 6 2 6 2 I I 6 3 3 10 I 6 2 3 1 1 down. 6 0 I 9 4 3 9 leans out 3 10 I 2 covered with furze 5 3 9 ditto 2 5 I 0 6 leans in, nearly 4 7 down 2 0 0 10 Boskednan Circle is in the parish of Gulval and lies about \\ miles north of Penzance, on the high moorland between Ding Dong Mine and Carn Galva ; it takes its name from the farm near by, and the land- owner is Mr. T. Robins Bolitho. The diameter is 69 feet, which is about the average for West Cornwall, but most of the stones are above that average in size. The largest stone, a fallen one (9), is 7 ft. 6 in. long ; one end of it can be seen in the foreground of the photograph ; another (10) stands 6ft. 4in. out of the ground, and a third (11), pros- ' Prehistoric Monuments^ 2. 386 --r'*sSw*''7s!^"' .■'^- -5E- *■ A'. //. I'rciloii] {VCIVMHLC Tregaseal, From the East. Gibson & Sons] B OSKEDNAN, From the North-west. [Penzance To face page 386. STONE CIRCLES trate and covered with furze, is 6 ft. long : this group of large stones is on the north side of the circle. Eleven stones remain altogether, six standing and five fallen, so that this venerable monument presents a rather dilapidated appearance. The stones are of granite, the moor- stone of the immediate neighbourhood, for the circle-builders of Cornwall certainly laboured under few disabilities in the supply of material, though they hardly availed themselves to the full of their advantages. An unusual feature of this circle is the small barrow, 36 ft. in diameter, which stands on the south of it and has overflowed and invaded a portion of the circumference. This is the only example in Cornwall of a barrow so placed, for as a rule they are at a respectful, nay a con- siderable, distance from the circle. A somewhat similar instance is found at Arbor Low in Derbyshire, where a tumulus has been constructed in the bank which surrounds the circle ; this is regarded as a secondary structure and not contemporaneous, and in all probability the barrow at Boskednan is also much later than the circle. J. T. Blight tells us, on the authority of a credible person in the neighbourhood of Penzance, that about fifty years ago labourers opened this barrow and found some urns.^ W. C. Borlase in 1872 ' caused a trench to be dug across it and the four side-stones of a Kist-Vaen were soon discovered. . . . The cover had been unfortunately removed, and the chamber rifled. Con- tinuing the trench in a westerly direction, the workmen discovered, at a distance of two feet from the Kist-Vaen, a large quantity of burnt wood ; and two feet further still, the fragments of an urn, formed of very coarse clay.' ^ The kist has suff^ered injury since Mr. Borlase examined it, and only the two side stones remain in situ. Two other cairns are to be seen near by, one 100 yards away north-west, and a large but dilapidated one 200 yards east of the circle. There is an earth-fast stone on the north-west, which looks like the base of a broken menhir, and on Watch Croft, west-north-west, is a menhir 6 ft. 3 in. high. The Men-an-Tol and the Men Scryfa are in sight, but hardly distinguishable on the grey moor, and Mulfra Quoit can be seen on the hill to the eastward (N. 8o°E.). The moors here fairly bristle with the relics of a forgotten social order, with huts, barrows, menhirs, hill-castles, clifF-castles, dolmens ; but there is no evidence that any of these remains stood in a definite relation to the circle ; even the barrow touching the ring gives the impres- sion, after examination on the spot, that it is a late intrusion and not part of the original design. Dr. Borlase gives a sketch of this circle, showing nineteen stones in the periphery, thirteen of which are standing and six fallen.* Judging by the spacing of the stones that remain the original num- ber would have been twenty-one or two — unless we allow for a gap here, as at Boscawen-un and Dawns Men. W. Cotton's plan of 1826 ' 'Notes on Stone Circles,' Gent. Mag. (1868), pt. i. pp. 308-19. * Nania Comubice, 281. * Ant. of Cornzv., pi. xiii. 387 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL shows the same stones standing then as now ; but of the nine stones then prostrate five have disappeared. WENDRON No. Remarks Height Breadth Thickness No. Remarks Height Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I 3 4 2 I I 3 6 in hedge 5 0 I 10 2 leans in 3 5 2 6 I 4 7 » 4 o 2 8 3 3 6 2 2 I 4 8 » 3 10 2 3 — 4 3 o 2 6 I 7 5 3 8 3 7 I I Four miles south of Redruth, on the road to Helston, is a piece of waste land called Nine Maidens Downs, and at the southern end of this in a grass field, close to two cottages, are the remains of two circles, known locally as the Nine Maidens. They are situated in Wendron parish, and as ' Nine Maidens ' is a generic term they are usually dis- tinguished by the name of the Wendron Circles. Five stones remain in the southern and smaller circle and only three in the other. The southern circle probably had a diameter of 51 ft. and consisted of about fourteen stones ; those that remain are of granite and well cut, though the largest is only 3 ft. 8 in. high. Another stone once stood at the point marked (a) in plan E; it was subsequently removed to (b), and has now dis- appeared. A hedge crosses this circle, but there do not appear to be any more stones in the hedge or on the north side of it, in land formerly waste, but now enclosed and cultivated. The northern circle is repre- sented by three stones built into hedges, but in Dr. Borlase's day there were ten of them ; it was perhaps 60 ft. in diameter. Dr. Borlase's account is contained in his MS. Parochial Memoirs (1738) quoted by Lukis and Borlase.^ He tells us that there were ' two incomplete Circles of stones erect, the southernmost having 8 large stones from 4 to 7 feet high still standing ; one or two gone ; the other larger in circumference, having 10 stones still to be seen, two of which are large and tall ; most of the rest fallen.' Hals is quaint and inaccurate as usual. He says : ' In another part of this parish, by the post road, or highway, are set up, in perpendicular manner, about ten feet asunder in a line, nine large moor stones commonly called the Nine Maids, or Virgin Sisters ; probably set up in memory of so many sister nuns heretofore interred there.' ^ Lukis and Borlase give plan, sketches and description of these monuments. There are no menhirs near to or visible from this place ; a barrow stood 20 or 30 yards to the west and another is to be seen on a hill, called Hangman's Barrow, about 1,000 yards in the same direction. ' Prehistoric Monuments, 29. * D. Gilbert, Paroch. Hist. ofComtuall (1838), ii. 137. 388 N BOSKEONAN C U I- V A I. ■ J J /^fT. l.i^.ijjj.ujd- /"l NINE MAIDE.NS W E N O RON ^PJ /^-i MiritMtl , Is /cci Plans of Boskednan and Nine Maidens. To /jc^ ^ij||-? 3 1 STONE CIRCLES The five circles in the hundred of West Penwith lie, as we have seen, close together in a district strewn with megalithic remains, and it might be assumed that other moorland districts would also yield examples of this class of monument, but here, in the Carnmenellis region, the Wendron Circles stand alone ; the neighbourhood of Carn Brea is with- out one, also the wide stretch of moor north of St. Austell, and no other is found till we get lo miles east of Bodmin. TRIPPET STONES No. Height Length Breadth Thickness No. Height Length Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I 4 9 leans in I 3 I 4 7 4 4 3 9 I O 2 fallen 5 II 2 3 8 4 7 2 O I O 3 4 9 3 5 o 7 9 broken off 4 o 4 fallen 6 9 2 0 10 5 2 I lO I 2 5 4 4 I 9 I I 1 1 fallen 5 6 I lO 6 5 0 I 6 I 4 12 4 9 4 3 I 3 Trippet Stones is the name of a circle standing on Blisland Manor Downs, Bodmin moors, close to the road from Temple to Bradford Bridge; it is in Blisland parish, and the landowner is Mrs. Collins of Blisland Manor House. The diameter is 103 ft.; twelve stones remain out of a possible twenty-six and of these eight only are erect, but the cattle have so worn away the turf and soil round the base of the standing stones that it is to be feared that others will shortly fall, a danger threatening nearly every circle on these moors. The stones are of granite and rather larger than the type prevailing in West Cornwall ; indeed this circle approxi- mates in character to those of Dartmoor. One stone (9) has been broken, and the largest which remains standing (10) measures 5 ft. 2 in. out of the ground. There is nothing specially noticeable about the position of the circle, unless it be supposed to have some relation to Stripple Stones, visible across the moor (N. 79° E.), while the Cheesewring on Carbilly Tor makes a conspicuous object on the north-west (N. 57° W.). The name — Trippet Stones — has no reference to any farm near, but is probably descriptive ; in all probability also it is English and not Celtic in its origin. None of the, early county historians have mentioned this or any other circle on the Bodmin moors, and it appears that the late J. T. Blight was the first to call attention to it ; he gives a sketch and says that nine stones were standing in 1858, the date ot his book.^ Sir John Maclean refers to it (1873),^ and Lukis and Borlase (1885) give a plan and sketches of the stones, one of which (11) has fallen since their day.* * Ancient Crosses, etc., in East Cornwall, 131. ' Hist, of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, i. 24. * Prehistoric Monuments, pp. 3-30, pi. vii. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL STRIPPLE STONES No. Height Length Breadth Thickness No. Height Length Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I fallen, lialf buried 10 0 in grass 4 9 8 fallen, half buried 10 3 5 4 9 5 8 leans out 3 6 I 6 2 3 " leans in 2 5 o 8 10 fallen 6 6 3 0 ?, on edge 6 0 I 6 O 10 1 1 )) 8 II 3 0 against hedge 12 6 8 4 0 0 1 1 13 fallen 9 6 I 8 4 split. 6 6 2 0 O 10 14 » 9 I 2 1 1 portion against hedge 15 » 6 10 4 0 16 fallen, buried 6 10 2 1 1 5 buried 8 o 3 9 17 fallen 6 9 I 1 1 stone 18 centre 13 3 4 2 6 4 10 2 9 on! stone, 7 fallen, broken 1 9 o 5 o 1 fallen and broken {a and c) Buried fragments. {I) Stone shown by Lukis and Borlase, now removed. Stripple Stones, at once the finest and the most injured of our stone circles, stands on the south-eastern slope of Hawk's Tor, within sight of Trippet Stones. The parish is Blisland, and the landowner is Sir W. Onslow, bart. The striking feature of this monument is that it stands on a circular platform, 178 ft. in diameter, which again is surrounded by a ditch and bank, each about 10 ft. wide. Owing to the ruined state of the circumvallation these dimensions must be taken as approximate only. The surrounding bank expands at three points, as will be seen by the plan, into curved extensions or ' demilunes,' the one on the west side being still clearly distinguishable, while the other two have all but disap- peared ; an entrance is cut through the bank on the west in the direction of Trippet Stones. The whole structure, as depicted by Lukis and Borlase in 1885, is faintly outlined in this plan, and the thicker lines show such portions of it as could be distinguished in 1902. Time, exposure, the feet of cattle, and neglect have all done their worst, but the crowning injury is the work of the landowner, who has erected a hedge cutting off a segment of the circle itself and obliterating much of the earthwork ; this hedge was made about the year 1885. On the platform stood a circle about 1 45 ft. in diameter, mostly of large stones and perhaps number- ing originally about twenty-eight, with a tall and massive central monolith. Now four stones remain standing, twelve (including the central one) are prostrate, two are buried, and there are some buried fragments. One fallen stone (<^), shown by Lukis and Borlase, has been taken away, and two others lean against the new-take hedge ; No. 7 has been broken, probably by its fall ; No. 1 5 has fallen since the date of Lukis and Bor- lase's visit, and the massive central stone has had a slice cut out of it, most likely to make a gatepost. All the stones are of granite, and the table of dimensions will show that they are large, and that the average 390 N 1% TRiPPE T 5TON EIS St. I S U A M D Mikii'vef'C. ae.v> AT loi^ — /y ■Si*- \ ?? 7 ,^c I .,^ -y L E A Z E D R E. v« A A O ^SJ ,f,^ t" IjjjjJjjjjJ Plans of Trippet Stones at Blisland and Leaze. To face page 390. to /r€t Thtn tmf. — AitnA ar^J. ait-cA in. ft. I i \ \> NINE STONES .B «■•'•• -js t Ij.MdJ /«^ ^. ^. J. f^az . Plans of Stripple Stones at Blisland and Nine Stones at Altarnun. To face page 390. STONE CIRCLES size is above that of any other circle in the county. Only one other circle in Cornwall has a central stone of undoubted antiquity, viz. Boscawen-un, and the possession of such a central monolith marks them out as of exceptional importance, which appears to have been the case, since one is mentioned in a Welsh triad and the other has this elaborate and unique circumvallation. The earthwork seems of too slight a character for defensive purposes and it is likely that here, as at Stone- henge, the bank was intended as an enclosure — it may be a sacred enclosure — giving a finish to the monument. The entrance (S. 79° W.) is clearly marked, and was perhaps designed to admit processions of some sort ; its choice of direction, towards Trippet Stones, may have been more than accidental. The ditch and bank, or the ditch alone, is a not uncommon adjunct to some of the larger and more important stone circles. Stone- henge, as already mentioned, has a ditch and bank, with an entrance on the north-east ; Avebury circle has a deep ditch and high bank ; Arbor Low has a considerable entrenchment round it and entrances on the south-east and north-west ; the Ring of Brogar, Orkney, has a ditch crossed by two causeways. There are no menhirs to be seen near, but in the ploughed field on the east is a kist-vaen, 5 ft. long by 3 ft. wide, which was once enclosed in a barrow 24 ft. in diameter. The position of this circle is remarkable ; it is situated, as has been said, on the south-east slope of Hawk's Tor, and over the shoulder of that hill, due north, appears the top of Garrow Hill, 1,086 ft. high, while beyond and above that again, in the same line, shows the top of Row Tor, 1,31 1 ft. Between Garrow and Row Tor, in the northern line, but out of sight, is another circle called Fernacre. The accompanying photograph shows the position of these two hills, and in the foreground are a stone of the circle (No. 2) and the offending hedge. Seeing that traditions cluster round Dawns Men and that Bos- cawen-un is credited with being the site of some Celtic festival, it is disappointing that no legend is attached to this more striking monu- ment. An early reference indeed there is, but it throws no light on the history of Stripple Stones. In 1599 Nicholas Boscawen brought an action against Manner Hill and Nicholas Burnard for trespass on Her Majesty's manor of Bliston, alias Blisland, and one of the witnesses, John Burnard, being interrogated at Bodmin as to certain boundaries, deposed that the boundary line ran ' to tynne pytt, and from thence to Strypple Stones, and from thence a thwarte into the Torre called Hauxtorre.' ^ All we learn from this is that three hundred years ago it was known by the same name, spelt difi^erently. It is probably owing to the isolation and desolation of these moors that Stripple Stones has been passed over by nearly all the writers who have described the beauties and antiquities of Cornwall. Sir John Maclean mentions it as having five stones erect,^ and Lukis and Borlase include in their ' Exchequer Depositions, 41 Eliz. Mich. 3. ^ Hist, of Trigg Minor, i. 24. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL handsome volume a plan, sketches and description/ though they over- looked some of the buried stones. It is much to be regretted that this circle, which Mr. Lukis described as ' the most interesting and remarkable monument in the county,' should have been allowed to reach such a state of ruin and to run the risk of more complete dilapidation, since the stones now standing will certainly fall unless protected in time, and the outline of the bank will disappear. On the landowners must necessarily rest the responsi- bility for the neglect of the prehistoric monuments on their land, and it is to the landlords that the public looks for the protection of these relics of a dim past. LEAZE No. Height Length Breadth Thickness No. Height Length Breadth ThickneM ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. j ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I 3 7 2 9 I 2 8 fallen 4 5 I 7 I 5 2 3 3 I II I 8 9 3 J leans out I 5 I 5 3 3 6 I 5 I 2 10 3 2 2 3 0 10 4 3 4 2 0 I I II 3 9 leans in I 10 I I S 3 9 leans out I 6 I 3 i 12 3 6 leans out J 9 I 4 6 fallen, 4 7 2 6 13 3 6 2 6 0 10 built into 14 fallen 4 4 I 4 hedge 15 j> 3 I I 6 7 fallen 5 o 2 4 Leaze Circle is picturesquely situated on a farm of the same name, overlooking the De Lank river. It is in the parish of St. Breward, and Mr. Reynolds of St. Breward is the landowner. Between it and Stripple Stones interpose the mass of Hawk's Tor and the river aforesaid. It stands on the side of a hill, a ruined hedge crosses it north-north-west and south-south-east, and a furze-brake occupies the centre. This is a comparatively small circle for the Bodmin moors, the diameter being only 80 ft. ; the number of stones was perhaps twenty-two originally, but only fifteen and a fragment are now to be seen, the missing stones being doubtless used in constructing the hedge. Only ten stones are standing and five have fallen ; most of the latter are covered by furze and one lies in the hedge. All the stones are of granite, but none are large ; the highest stand 3 ft. 9 in. out of the ground and the largest fallen one measures 5 ft. ; they are particularly well cut, solid and regular in out- line unlike those of any other circle in the county. On the farm are the remains of many hut-circles and barrows, and near to the circle is a curious wide and deep trench, running down the hillside, which may have been a tin stream-work. This circle has been generally overlooked by antiquaries. Lukis and Borlase do not refer to it, and Mr. A. L. Lewis appears to be the only one who has ever mentioned it,^ but he has not published any plan. He calls attention to the positions of three hills which rise to the eastward, ^ Prehistoric Monuments, pp. 3-30, pis. viii., ix. ' Jrch. Journ. (1892), xlix. 136 ; Joum. Anthrop. Inst. (Aug. 1895). A. L. LEWIS, I83I-4-. King Arthur's Hall, Near St. Breward, Cornwall. To face page 392. STONE CIRCLES Butter Tor (N. 58° E.), Catshole Tor (N. 69° E.), and Tolborough Tor (N. 85° E.), and which were, he suggests, associated in the minds of the circle builders with the sunrise. He also points out the alignment of Trippet Stones, Leaze, and Row Tor (N. I2°E.), Trippet Stones being invisible from Leaze. KING ARTHUR'S HALL On King Arthur's Downs, about 800 yards north-west of Leaze, stands the curious enclosure known as King Arthur's Hall. It may be described as a rectangular enclosure 159 ft. long by 66 ft. across, formed by a solid bank of earth from 1 2 ft. to 20 ft. wide and 7 ft. to 5 ft. high ; this bank is kept in position within by a retaining wall of large stones set on end and embedded in the bank. About forty of these are now erect and in place, sixteen have fallen, and probably a large number have been removed ; they are far from being uniform in size, the largest is 5 ft. 8 in. high and others approach this in bulk. The axis of the enclosure is N. 5° W. A depression in the centre usually holds a pool of water, a feature of very old standing, and when this exceeds its bounds, as well it may in winter on these wet moors, it finds an exit by the south-western corner. The earliest reference that we find to this curious enclosure is by John Norden, who visited it about 1584 and wrote his work, Speculi Britanniae Pars, in 1610, though it was not published till 1728. He says : ' Arthures Hall, d. 14. A place so called, and by tradition helde to be a place whereunto that famous K. Arthure resorted. It is a square plott about 60 foote longe and about 35 foote broad, situate on a playne Mountayne, wroughte some 3 foote into the grounde ; and by reason of the depression of the place, ther standeth a stange or Poole of water, the place sett rounde aboute with flatt stones in this manner.' Then follows an illustration showing it to have been very much as it is now, with the pool in the middle. Mr. A. L. Lewis has described it in the before- mentioned paper,^ and the plan which illustrates it is, by his kind permission and that of the secretary of the Anthropological Institute, reproduced for the use of this volume. Many are the conjectures as to the origin of Arthur's Hall. It has been called ' a great cattle pound, a place of assembly, or an earthwork occupied by a small detachment of Roman troops.' ^^ To this should be added a suggestion by Mr. A. L. Lewis that it may have been a place for cremation.^ Enclosures of a similar shape were found in Brittany, which showed unmistakable signs of burning on specially prepared granite pyres and which yielded fragments of pottery and flint flakes. These rectangular enclosures are iio ft. by 50 ft. and 120 ft. by 40 ft. respectively, and into the walls are built menhirs.* There are also, near the city of Guatemala, rectangular enclosures which bear a superficial resemblance to this, and which are associated with burial mounds and sacrificial stones.^ After three visits to the spot the present writer is ' Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Aug. 1895. * Rev. W. Jago, Joum. Roy. Inst, of Cornwall, 1895. * Loc. cit. " Rear-Admiral Tremlett, Joum. Anthrop. Inst. (November, 1885). * Report of Smithsonian Inst., 1876 ; A. L. Levv^is, Joum. Roy. Inst, of Cornwall, 1896. I 393 50 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL inclined to regard it as a cattle pen or pound, with an entrance at the south-west corner, now partly choked by the settlement of the banks. FERNACRE No. Height Length Breadth Thickness No. Height Length Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I I II 2 2 0 8 42 2 5 2 0 0 9 6 4 6 2 6 I 6 51 2 0 2 10 0 7 7 leans in 2 0 3 3 0 9 63 3 0 2 0 0 9 14 3 9 3 6 I 2 65 fallen 6 10 2 6 I 2 16 I 6 leans out 2 5 0 8 ' 66 leans in 2 4 2 9 0 8 21 2 9 leans in I 6 0 9 67 3 0 2 8 I 3 .S2 3 6 2 8 0 II 68 fallen 3 0 I 9 0 8 34 3 0 3 8 I 0 69 2 4 leans out 2 2 0 II The next two circles belong to quite a different class from those already described, one of considerable area, irregular outline, and a large number of stones in the ring, many of them small. Fernacre Circle lies under the southern slope of Row Tor, 5 miles south-east of the town of Camelford, and takes its name from the nearest farm ; it is situated in St. Breward parish and the landowner is Sir W. Onslow. In diameter alone it is one of the largest in Cornwall, being about 146 ft. across, but the irregularity and small size of the stones reduce it to quite an inferior rank ; it appears to correspond closely with W. C. Borlase's definition of a * ring barrow,' so many of the stones are set on edge and close together, although not touching, but there is no tumulus in the centre. Out of the sixty-nine stones shown in the plan thirty- eight are standing, ten fallen, fourteen are buried, and seven have sunk so far into the peaty soil that only their tops are visible. The tallest standing stone (6) is but 4 ft. 6 in. high, and the largest fallen one (65) measures 6 ft. 10 in. in length. All are of granite. The table of dimensions includes only the more important stones, the great majority being quite insignificant. About 160 ft. away, eastwards, in line with the highest point of Brown Willy, is a small erect stone. Row Tor rises due north of the circle, Garrow due south, and in line with these two hills and the circle there lie, out of sight on the south as already mentioned, Stripple Stones, on the slope of Hawk's Tor. On the east is Brown Willy, the highest hill in Cornwall, and on the west, over the shoulder of Louden Hill, is another circle, Stannon. Thus we have two lines crossing Fernacre at right angles, or nearly so, for as a matter of fact the eastern line formed by Brown Willy, Fernacre, and Stannon is 2° out. If, as might appear probable, this very exact alignment, north and south, east and west, was intentional and part of a plan, and Fernacre was the pivot of the whole, it is a curious feature that the three circles mentioned should have been so effectually hidden from each other by intervening hills. Mr. A. L. Lewis has suggested that the diameters of these circles and their distances apart bear certain fixed ratios to each other, expressed 394 TERN AC R E ■31 0 MS ine^K o iSttfxMtn J tone , Co^ shfrtno ■;?■ ■d i X. .. ^N. ST A N M O N ' a ■*« »*■>* * o N'^-^-r:*? ^» O' f if .'V ., # v?:^^ ,^ lBB^=t= I I 1 y-«- Plans of Fernacre and Stannon. To face page 394. STONE CIRCLES in terms of a unit of 25* i in., an Egyptian or Royal Persian cubit ;^ but space will not allow of its adequate discussion here. Fernacre, like other monuments on these moors, has escaped notice, and the only published plan seems to be that of Lukis and Borlase, who include it in their work on Prehistoric Monuments.^ They admit however that bad weather greatly interfered with their survey, and it is therefore not surprising that it has been necessary in the accompanying plan to correct and add to theirs in several particulars. A very large number of ruined huts and enclosures and some barrows are to be found on the hills near by, especially under the south and west faces of Row Tor ; if all these dwellings were inhabited at one time they must have accommodated a considerable population of tin- streamers and cattle-owners. Did the people who lived in these huts put up and use the circle } STANNON No. Height Length Breadth Thickness No. Height Length Breadth Thickness ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. I fallen, 3 0 I 0 37 2 3 2 7 0 8 half buried 38 I 4 2 6 I 3 2 I 7 leans in 3 2 0 10 39 I 9 2 5 0 II 3 2 2 3 0 I 0 40 I 8 leans in 2 0 0 8 4 I 8 2 5 0 9 41 leans out, 3 I 2 8 I 3 5 fallen 5 0 2 7 nearly 6 » 4 6 3 0 buried 8 I 2 I 8 0 5 42 I 6 2 6 0 7 9 fallen, 5 0 3 II 0 10 43 fallen 3 9 2 2 half buried 44 » 4 8 2 0 10 I 8 I 10 I 3 45 buried 4 0 - — 12 2 2 2 0 0 II 49 3 7 4 6 0 10 15 I I I 2 3 0 9 50 fallen 4 3 2 9 17 I 5 I 1 1 0 8 51 4 2 I 7 1 4 18 I 4 I 6 0 8 52 fallen 4 0 covered by furze 19 I 7 leans in I 1 1 0 7 53 3 9 I 4 I 0 20 fallen in 4 3 I 1 1 54 I 7 2 7 0 8 21 I 4 partly- buried 2 10 0 II 55 fallen out covered by furze 2 6 22 I 10 leans out I II 0 10 56 2 0 I 4 0 9 23 I 4 I 10 0 9 57 fallen, 2 9 2 0 24 I 2 leans in 2 9 0 II half buried 25 2 8 )> 3 7 0 II 58 4 0 leans out 4 5 0 10 27 I 5 2 0 0 5 59 2 4 2 0 0 9 29 2 0 thin 2 5 61 I 10 2 10 0 9 30 fallen in 3 I I 8 0 1 1 62 2 3 2 5 I 7 31 2 2 2 9 0 10 63 2 8 2 9 I 9 32 fallen in 2 5 I 4 66 2 8 2 0 I 3 33 I 10 leans in 2 2 0 6 67 2 4 2 6 0 9 34 2 3 2 0 0 10 68 I 5 2 6 0 10 35 2 6 2 7 0 9 69 I 8 2 6 0 II 36 fallen 5 5 I 6 70 2 4 3 9 I 0 ' Joum. Anthrop. Inst. * PP- 3» 30» pl- vi. (Aug. 1895) and Proc. Soc. Jntiq. (1892). 395 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Stannon Circle takes its name from the farm near by and is in the parish of St. Breward, south-east of Camelford and 4 miles by road from that town ; Sir W. Onslow, bart., is the landowner. This circle and Fernacre belong, as has already been said, to a class apart, of large area, irregular outline and small stones set near together, but with no barrow in the middle. The stones here are perhaps rather larger and more uniform. The ring is so flattened on the north side as to make it quite unsymmetrical, and it is curious to note how many stone circles are thus irregular, although it would have been easy, with a stake for centre and a rope of some sort for radius, to have traced out an exact circle. ' Long Meg and her Daughters,' a circle in Cumberland with an average diameter of 332 ft., has the same flattening of the northern limb. The average diameter of this one is about 138 ft. ; there are seventy stones in the ring, forty-one of which are erect and the rest fallen, some buried. The stones are small, as the above table will show, and the largest now standing (58) is 4 ft. high and 4 ft. 5 in. wide; all are of granite. Viewed from the circle, the great hills which dominate these moors. Row Tor and Brown Willy, are conspicuous objects. The summit of Row Tor lies N. 68° E. from here and shows such a curious cleft that the question arises whether at any special season the sun would rise just behind this notch in the hill-top. Actual observation on the spot would decide, but the sunrise on Mayday would be about N. yi^E., three degrees farther south than the cleft. Brown Willy is less conspicuous, although its several points show up in a striking manner, due east, or nearly so, just over the slope of Louden Hill, Fernacre lying out of sight between. On Stannon farm are the remains of several hut- circles; a few are to be seen on the moor near by and many more on Louden Hill. Lukis and Borlase do not mention this monument, but Mr. A. L. Lewis has described it in the paper so often referred to and has illustrated it by a plan.^ NINE STONES No. Remarks Height Breadth Thickness No. Remarks Height Breadth Thickness I leans out ft. in. 3 8 ft. in. 3 " ft. in. 0 8 1 6 ft. in. 3 8 ft. in. I 6 ft. in. I 0 2 3 7 I 7 I I 7 3 10 I 10 0 10 3 4 3 7 3 10 2 10 I 10 0 9 0 8 8 9 Centre 4 2 3 9 2 0 I 2 I 2 0 9 5 Stone at base of No. 5 3 3 2 6 long 2 4 2 0 0 7 stone, looks com- paratively modern This circle has apparently never been figured or described by any Cornish antiquary and yet it is of a type unusual in the county, from ' Joum. Anthrop. Inst. (Aug. 1895). 396 STONE CIRCLES its small diameter and small number of stones. It stands on Nine Stones Down, half in the parish of Altarnun and half in that of North Hill, about 2j miles from Altarnun church-town ; like most of the circles in East Cornwall it lies high, 900 ft. above the sea, with a wide panorama of hills and open country. The diameter is 49 ft. ; there are eight stones in the ring and one near the centre, and a flat triangular stone lies at the base of No. 5 ; the stones are of granite, none are large, the tallest (8) being 4 ft. 2 in. above ground. The spacing is rather irregular and there is a large gap of over 40 ft. on the north which may have held, and probably did hold, another stone ; if, as seems likely, the central stone is a late addition, the extra stone would merely complete the ring and still justify the name of Nine Stones, now more truly applicable to this circle than to most of the numerous families of Nine Maidens. If the gap was intentional we still have warrant for that in several British circles, possibly at Boscawen-un and Dawns Men, and very probably at Whitemoorstone, Dartmoor. The number 'nine ' is not uncommon in stone circles, and Mr. W. C. Borlase has mentioned several instances.^ He says : * Near Schonermark and at Standelchen [Germany] were several of nine stones. In most cases the number of stones was seven.' The 'Steintanz' already referred to con- sisted of three circles with nine stones each, and at St. Pau, south of the Garonne, ' there was a circle of nine stones called Las Naou Peyros, . . . nine enormous unhewn blocks, near which stands a menhir.' The boundary of the two parishes of Altarnun and North Hill is marked by a line of stones running east-north-east (N. 63° E.) from the circle in one direction and south-west in the other. The centre stone very probably belongs to this boundary line and not to the circle. Some of the stones, but not all, have the appearance of great age, lending colour to the theory that we may have here a genuine stone row in connexion with the circle, such as is found on Dartmoor, but which has been added to and utilized as a parish boundary. The flat stone at the base of No. 5 appears to be purposely so placed and yet to have no part in propping or supporting the standing stone. Stannon has several such prostrate stones, and it is a nice point whether or not they may have had some significance in the original scheme. On the Ridge close at hand are various barrows, and on the east side of the circle and on Fox Tor are a number of hut-circles, but complying with the general rule they have been kept at a distance. THE HURLERS Leaving the circles on the Bodmin moors we go south as far as the Cheesewring Hill, on the south-west of which is a group of three circles known as the Hurlers. They are situated in the two parishes of Linkinhorne and St. Cleer, on the open down 5 miles north ■ ' Tie Dolmens of Ireland (1897), ii. 502, 534, 584. 397 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL of Liskeard. In a description of these circles and a survey of their history very little can be added to the paper by Mr. C. W. Dymond, F.S.A., in the 'Journal of the British Archaeological Association (30 Sep- tember, 1879), and it is with his kind permission that this article is illustrated by his admirably drawn plan, which though made in 1 877 is still (1902) a correct representation of the monument. The three circles lie north-north-east and south-south-west, but not in line, for we may put it that the northern circle is slightly east of the axis of the other two. The diameters are : N., 114 feet ; middle, 140 feet ; S., 108 feet. The following stones remain : N., 6 standing, 6 fallen ; middle, 8 standing, 5 fallen ; S., 2 standing, 9 fallen ; and in addition several of the so-called erect stones are leaning. The ground within the circles is rent and torn by numerous trial-pits dug in search of tin or copper, and by the removal of masses of moor- stone lying on or near the surface. Besides this many stones have been removed from the rings themselves. Without the line of circles, 386 ft. west of the centre of the middle one, are two large stones so placed that a line drawn through both and produced would be tangential to the southern limb of the middle circle. These two stones are both leaning and look as if they might fall before long. What they were for, or what their relation to the Hurlers, it is impossible to say. They may have formed part of another circle or of a stone row or avenue. The moors around, like the Bodmin moors, furnish many examples of early habitation. On the Cheesewring Hill is an ancient hill-fortress; several barrows are found in the neighbourhood, from one of which came a most interesting gold cup, found in 1818;^ further north are numerous hut-circles. A suggestive parallel may be established between these circles and those at Stanton Drew in Somersetshire ; " in each case there are three circles lying in a north-north-westerly direction, not quite in line, but deviating in the same way ; in each case the central ring is the largest ; in each case there are two outlying stones. There are considerable discrepancies also which may be noted : [a) the Somersetshire circles and the individual stones which compose them are on a much larger scale ; {b) the northern circle is there the smallest ; (r) the outlying stones at Stanton Drew, the ' cove and a monolith are aligned with the centres in a remarkable manner' ; [d) there are two short avenues attached to the circles. It is nevertheless curious that these two prehistoric monu- ments, so far apart geographically, should yet have so much in common. Why stone circles should be grouped in twos and threes is a mystery, and greatly complicates the problem of their origin and object. Whereas on the Bodmin moors we had to deplore the absence of records of the past state of the various circles, we are met here by a literary embarras de richesse, a crowd of commentators, more or less un- ' Neenia Cofnubir 7- o 2.U _ _ 7 u S. S _ _ *. O /. o B u S./O _ _ 2. 2 /. tf 9 u s. s _ _ 2. -t /. 8 0 to / _ _ S. o 1. e _ _ ft / _ _ J. e *.s _ _ ? H / ->. e _ _ 3.C J./O i5 / *. .V - - 3. S i. 2 i p _ _ s. /' 3. 8 _ _ Il 2 u S. tt _ _ /. /O _ li u ■5 p _ _ G, .; 1, 9 _ _ . # p _ •_ 3. o •i. 0 _ _ u S p _ _ 7. a 2. 2 _. _ 6 V ■P.IO _ _ 3. ■* J. 8 < 7 p — _ d. 6 2. O _ _ N 0 p _ . ■*. 1 f. 2 _ _ 9 p _ _ 1. -> - 7 _ _ •> W p _ _ S.9 /. // _ _ tt p S./l /. 2 1 2 f ■S. .{ -- 2.^ /. It 1- e L__ , SurrtytJ iff C /^ Ifymend . C. E. , II *^Stpt,tail. Betiveen pages ;^g8, -^qg. THE HURLERS; THREE STONE CIRCLES. He, NCAA SI c L c e: R , CORNWALL -f>. M EMOfiAN DA. Prmttralt . f/»tf/4/ StiMf»«t r>^fr»y^ . l,g-Kt/y . OrrrKmmfw "*■ £vJt outUMt, ._ Jit*r*9j ftvrttvTt* . tt*. dotted * _ rrt LIST or 9TOMt.9, /. . . . . ttttltnwd 0, . , MvJfrwOf JVmi't/tm»-t» fftfl* . Mirffi/M _^ _ 4*Q . _ I08 . . eg O^ Ml / OKTMCMtO STOmM, ttf* of n^T-tAfftt ettv/w S*B' 9' . n^w^ctU . .latf' G' IS' 3o: fr • s * \ « n # _ _ s. e J. o _ _ ^ J. t *. « ^ p s. « *.4 — i J.f0 _ _ t. 1 i. 9 1/ i.tt 2. O t. 1 Tf ^ _ _ e.s ».« 0 a. ♦ f . tf' tt J. X _ _ J. t '- 7 O ♦. s «. J '•7 u «. s J.M> /. 2 / 3. a 1. / /. « p >r«j«ai tf. * X O /. 6 » #. * t. s _ _ «■ p - _ S. 9 c. « / 9.IO t. 9 /. 7 u u *. 7 _ _ X. 2 /. » « 1 3.* ^ - C. 9 - 7 t> p *»^t 7- » a.// _ - u J. J _ _ «. « /. o V X/O _ _ a. 2 /. tf u J. J _ _ a. ■# /. 8 « , _ _ X o /. « , _ Q / _ _ 3. 8 #.9 « / ■». o _ _ d.« 1.10 ' ♦. .V 3.S 1. 2 ^ S. 7 3. 8 _ _ *i » .r. u -. - i.to _ M u p _ _ tf. .» f. 9 < p _ ■_ 3. (f 2.6 u p _ _ 7. tf 3. : -|- u ■t,l0 _ _ 3. ■# y. 8 * 0 _ _ d. tf 2. o # *. * t. 2 « ^ /. ♦ - 7 i to m _ S.9 /. // _ , n tl F J.JI /. 2 m 1 2 ' S. .1 2. J 1. J- /. 6 Sur.ty.J ig, C ff Vym^^nJ.C E . II "^S.pt.ltn. Bcf^'een pages 598, ?Q9. STONE CIRCLES intelligent, from the sixteenth century onwards. The first to mention the Hurlers is John Norden, who visited them about 1584 : — The Hurlers, c. 1 6, certayne stones raysed and sett in the grounde of some 6 foote high and 2 foote square ; some bigger, some lesser, and are fixed in suche straglinge manner as these Countrye men doe in performinge that pastime Hurlinge. . . . This monumente seemeth to importe an intention of the memoriall of some matter done in this kinde of exercise, thowgh time haue worne out the maner.^ The illustration which accompanies this paragraph shows that he was unaware that the stones were arranged in circles. The next in order of date is WiUiam Camden, who says that — the neighbours call them Hurlers^ persuaded by a pious error that they were men changed into stones because they had profaned the Lord's day by throwing a ball. Others will have them to be, as it were, a trophy in memory of some battle, and some believe them to be placed as boundaries.^ It will be seen that the legend of the Hurlers is very similar to that of Dawns Men and other Cornish and some German circles, only the game of 'hurling' is here pressed into service. Richard Carew (1605) men- tions also * that a redoubled numbring neuer eueneth with the first.' ^ Mr. Dymond quotes from a History of the Parish of Linkinhorne (written by the Rev. W. Harvey, vicar of the parish, in 1727 and published in 1876) an extract from a Latin account of the district, published in Amsterdam (1661), which repeats the legend. Mr. Harvey him- self, however, manages to be original, for, after relating the usual tra- ditional story, he adds : — But the truth of the story is, — it was a burying place of the Britons, before the calling in of the heathen sexton into this kingdom. And this fable, invented by the Britons, was to prevent the ripping up of the bones of their ancestors, and so called by the name of The Hurlers to this day. Mr. Harvey's tally of remaining stones agrees very nearly with a drawing by Dr. Borlase (1769),* which depicts in the northern circle nine stones standing, seven fallen ; in the middle one eight standing and nine fallen ; in the southern circle three standing and nine fallen. A reference to the plan and table will show that there has been little alteration since that date, but that some of the fallen stones have been taken away. Several other writers, such as Hals, Thomas Bond of Looe, Britton and Brayley, C. S. Gilbert and John Allen, mention these circles, but con- tribute neither to our knowledge nor amusement. Next to Mr. Dymond's monograph the best description and plan yet published are those of Lukis and Borlase (1885).' DULOE Duloe Circle, in the parish of that name, is 4 miles north of Looe and near to Duloe church, the cluster of houses close by being called ' Speculi Britannice Pars, Cornwall, p. 94. ^ * Hurlers vicini vocant, pio persuasi errore homines fuisse In saxa transformatos quod pila iactanda diem Dominicum profanassent,' etc. (Britannia, ed. of 1607, p. 139). ' ^urve'j of Cornwall (ed. of 1605), p. 129. * Ant. of Cornw.{cd.. 2),pp- 198-9, pi. xvii, ^ Prehistoric Monuments, pp. 4, 3 1 and pis. x. xi. xii. 399 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Stonetown in honour of the circle. This is the smallest circle in Corn- wall and stands in other ways in a class by itself. The diameters are 37 ft. and 39 ft., so the circle is undoubtedly small, and the large and for the most part shapeless masses of stone seem greatly out of proportion to the size of the ring. The stones are of quartz rock ; seven are standing and one is fallen and broken. Quartz is rarely used in these megalithic monuments, and its use here is probably attributable to the distance from the granite and the still more brittle nature of the local stone, clay slate ; while the friability of the quartz will account for the dimensions of the stones used and the absence of any attempt at symmetry. N NA^ # f f to 5. o to 20 =1= 30 =:±= so S&ikl<, of F^ct DuLOE ClBCLB. Mr. C. W. Dymond, to whom we are indebted for the loan of the accompanying plan and sketches, has very fully described this circle in the journal of the British Archceological Association (February, 1882). There is no very early reference known, the first being by Britton and Brayley in 1801 : — Within a furlong north-east of the church is a small Druidical Circle^ that has not hitherto been noticed. It consists of seven or eight stones, one of which is about nine feet in height : four are upright ; the others are either broken or concealed by a hedge, which divides the circle ; part being in an orchard and part in an adjoining field. ^ ' Beauties of England and JVales, ii. 400-1. 400 STONE CIRCLES Three other writers who follow content themselves with reproducing this description: Bond's Looe (1823), Penaluna's Survey of Cornwall (1838) and Allen's Liskeard (1856) ; but Murray's Handbook for Devon and Corn- wall (1856) goes into detail and is more accurate. The writer says : — A hedge bisects it, one stone lies prostrate in the ditch, five only stand upright, and three appear to be wanting to complete the circle. The stones, which are rough and unhewn, are principally composed of white quartz, and one is about 9 ft. in height. The hedge referred to crossed the circle between Nos. 5 and 6, i and 8 (see plan) ; Nos. i, 5, 7 and 9 were prostrate ; No. 3 leaned ; Nos. 4, 6 and 8 were erect. About the year 1858 the hedge was removed, and in 1861 (or 1863) the fallen stones were set up, all but the largest (No. i), which was broken in the process. When digging to raise this stone the workmen discovered, at about 3 feet deep, a small cinerary urn, buried in loose earth by the side of the stone, and containing human bones, some entire and 3 inches long, which crumbled to dust on exposure to the air.^ The urn itself was broken by the workmen and only one small portion was preserved, which passed into the possession of the landowner, the late Rev. T. A. Bewes of Plymouth, and is shown in Mr. Dymond's sketch. W. C. Borlase thought that it corresponded with an urn found by him in a barrow on Morvah Hill, with which was found a coin, a 'middle brass' of Constantine the Great. Mr. E. H. W. Dunkin, who has published a description of the circle, says : — On my recent visit to the circle I was informed that a considerable quantity of charcoal was found within the enclosure when the bisecting hedge was removed, and that much still remains beneath the turf.^ Mr. Dymond had occasion to remove some of the earth round the fallen stone and found no trace of charcoal ; it may have been absent from that spot, or Mr. Dunkin's informant may have mistaken the black peaty earth for charcoal. In addition to the before-mentioned works, Lukis and Borlase have published description, plan, and sketches of this circle.^ There can be little doubt that this ancient monument, from its small area, the rude masses of quartz rock, the cinerary urn found within it, and the charcoal reported under the turf, was sepulchral in character and had little in common with the other circles which have been described. The late W. C. Borlase gave it as his opinion, in a private letter, that there never had been a tumulus within the ring. If the resemblance between the fragment preserved and the urn found on Morvah Hill can be taken as proving in any degree a like date for the two burials, then the Duloe circle may be of comparatively recent construction, but this in no way helps us to arrive at a date for the circles of a different type. . * Nania CotTiubia, 127, 247-52. ' *On the Megalithic Circle at Duloe, Cornwall,' Jrch. Camb. (1873), No. 13, p. 45. * Prehistoric Monuments, pp. 4, 30, pi. xiii. I 401 51 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL NINE MAIDENS, ST. COLUMB MAJOR It seems as though the Tamar were an insurmountable barrier to certain habits and ceremonies of the primitive inhabitants, for ' stone rows,' so plentiful on Dartmoor, are almost absent from Cornwall. As they are often associated with stone circles and barrows and apparently played an important part in ceremonial observances, their absence suggests a difference in cult across the border. Reasons have been given for the suggestion that the boundary line at Nine Stones, Altarnun, may have been a stone row originally, and another and less doubtful Cornish example may well be included in an article on stone circles. In the parish of St. Columb Major, nearly 4 miles on the road to Wadebridge, is a line of stones known as the Nine Maidens. There are, as the name implies, nine stones, eight erect and standing in line in the plane of their ''Me ouo MtA« F»ll<'\ tStt-n.t. J^o t:2)xttanctjfttt/7e.3.. tt/t ATo S>../r, S W. Sw faces and one fallen ; the line is north-east (N. 35°E.) and south-west ; all the stones are of quartz. The north-eastern stone (i) is prostrate and broken, it measures 15 feet in length ; the tallest of those still standing (7) is 6 feet 7 inches high ; another (4) is broken off; No. 3 leans out- wards and is almost down. The accompanying sketch will give an idea of the appearance of the stones. These nine monoliths cover a distance of about 345 feet, with rather irregular intervals, and in line with them, 800 yards up the hill, there once stood a menhir of quartz, 7 ft. 6 in. high, known as the ' Old Man ' or * Grey Man.' This menhir was some years ago thrown down by two men charged with the repair of the road, and it was broken up for road metal, but its shape and size can be seen from Lukis and Borlase's drawing. The earliest historical reference is by Richard Carew, who thus describes the stones : — Wade bridge deliuereth you into a waste ground, where 9 long and great stones, called The sisters, stand in a ranke together, and seeme to have been so pitched, for continuing the memory of somewhat, whose notice is yet enuied vs by time.^ ' Sufvey of Coi-nwall {\6o^), p. 144. 402 STONE CIRCLES William Hals' account is to the same effect and very like his description of the Nine Maidens, Wendron : — On another part of this parish, near Retallock Barrow ... is still extant, in the open downs, nine perpendicular stones, called the Nine Maids, in Cornish Naw-voz, alias the nine sisters, in Cornish Naw-whoors, which very name informs us that they were sepulchral stones, erected in memory of nine natural or spiritual sisters of some religious house, and not so many maids turned into stones for dancing on the Sabboth Day, as the country people will tell you.^ The Rev. Richard Warner, writing in 1808, says that vv^hen he visited the spot only three stones were upright, ' the remainder lying on the ground.'^ W. C. Borlase refers to them in Ncenia Cornubice (1872) as — nine erect stones averaging from 1 1 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. high, forming an ortholith, or single line ... In the same line with these pillars, to the N.E., stands a single rude Menhir, 7 ft. 6 in. above ground, and once apparently surrounded by a small circle of stones set on edge. This goes by the name of the * Old Man,' which to the believer in the theory of sun-worship, will sound strangely like ' Houl Maen,' or the ' Sun Stone.' Indeed it seems very probable that this stone formed part of the same monument as the Nine Maidens, and that, like many of the circles, a religious, rather than a sepulchral origin, should be assigned to it.^ From this it is evident that six of the stones were set up again between 1808 and 1872, and that the tallest stone, which has fallen since 1872, stood II ft. 6 in. out of the ground. With regard to the suggestive name of ' sun stone,' it must be borne in mind that, viewed from the stone row, the ' Old Man ' would have been too far north to mark the midsummer sunrise, at that spot approximately 55° E. of N. Lukis and Borlase include a description, plan, and sketches of these stones in their great work,* and Mr. Lukis remarks : ' Mr. W. C. Borlase states that it [the " Old Man "] was " once apparently surrounded by a small circle of stones set on edge," but I saw none.' Such is the past history and present condition of the Nine Maidens, but it is no easy task to form an opinion as to its origin. The late R. N. Worth, a recognized authority on the stone rows of Dartmoor, classed it with them ; ^ and as he considered them to be associated with burial and burial rites, it is to be assumed that he regarded these stones also as sepulchral. W. C. Borlase, on the other hand, as we have seen, thought them religious in character ; and we are free to accept whichever hypo- thesis most pleases us. A natural sequel to a description of the stone circles and allied megalithic monuments of Cornwall would be an inquiry into their uses, date and authorship, and, so far as space admits, these points must be considered here. At the outset we are met by a considerable obstacle — the circles have never been examined systematically by digging. Reck- less or unskilled excavation is much to be deprecated, but a judicious use of the spade is essential if these monuments are to be fully investigated. ' D. Gilbert, Paroch. Hist, of Cornwall, i. 220. ' A Tour through Cornwall, pp. 320-1. ^ pp. 98-9, * Prehistoric Monuments, pp. 15-16, 29-30, pis. xxxi. xxxii. ' Report of Devonshire Assoc. (1894), xxvi. 297. 403 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The opinion appears to be held by some antiquaries that stone circles are necessarily sepulchral^ and they point to the majority of the Scotch and Cumbrian circles as examples. On the other hand the principal English circles, such as Stonehenge, Avebury, Stanton Drew, and Arbor Low have never been proved to be of this character, and one Cumbrian circle, Swinside,^ must be classed with them. Duloe Circle, just described, is probably sepulchral, but as regards the other Cornish circles no evidence exists of burial within the ring. It is yet further alleged that the barrows found near to most of the Cornish circles lead to the ' presumption that they were sacred enclosures, in some way con- nected with the burial of the dead.' This cannot be denied or disproved, but on similar grounds a church might be described as a mortuary chapel, because of the graves in the churchyard. The Dartmoor Exploration Committee have found fragments of charcoal under the turf at Fernworthy Circle and in the two circles called the Grey Wethers on Dartmoor, and their Report says : ' This seems to favour the assumption that the so-called " sacred circles " were places devoted to cremation, or for funeral feasts.' ^ Charcoal has, it is said, been found at Duloe, but so far none has been recorded at any other Cornish circle. It has been a cherished theory of generations of antiquaries that these monuments are ' sacred enclosures,' open air temples for worship and sacrifice ; this was the view of Dr. Borlase, and it has its fascina- tions, explaining as it does some of the facts and satisfying a love for the picturesque with visions of white-robed Druids, golden sickles and sacrificial flint knives. In a rather indirect way it has the support of Diodorus Siculus, who, writing of what he has heard of the Island of the Hyperboreans, says that they honour Apollo the sun-god above all others, * and there also exists upon the island a grove of Apollo, exceedingly beautiful and a temple worthy of notice, of a round form [t« (TyJ]ixaTi a-(l>aipoeiSn]y adomcd with many votive offerings.'^ This round temple may very well be Stonehenge, as Sir Norman Lockyer suggests, and both he, the astronomer, and Mr. W. Gowland, the antiquary, after very thorough investigation, regard it as a sun temple and not a sepulchre. A central feature of Stonehenge, its very raison d'etre^ appears to be the orientation to sunrise at the summer solstice, and if the same could be alleged of the Cornish circles, or of any of them, it would go a long way towards proof of a religious origin. The writer has taken a number of compass bearings of hill tops, menhirs, etc., from various circles, with a view to searching for evidence of orientation, and has chosen two Celtic festivals. May Day and Midsummer Day, as probable seasons for the observation of the sunrise. His thanks are due to the Astronomer Royal for kindly furnishing accurate data on which to base the inquiry.* The ' C. W. Dymond, in the Trans. Cumb. and West. Jntiq. Soc. 1902, vol. ii. new ser. * Re/>ori of Devonshire Assoc. 1899, xxxi. 153. ' Lib. ii. 47. ^ West Cornwall : sunrise i May, N. 66° 24' E., correction for 5° elevation of horizon 6^° ; sun- rise 24 June, N. 51° 38' E., correction as before 7^°. East Cornwall: sunrise I May, N. 65° 57' E., correction as before 6^° ; sunrise 24 June, N. 51° 9' E., correction as before j\°. Declination of mag- netic needle, June, 1902 : West Cornwall, 18° 19' W. ; East Cornwall, 17° 54' W. 404 STONE CIRCLES result is mainly negative ; there is not apparently such evidence of orien- tation as would satisfy a critical observer, and the circles themselves are but poor observatories, having no fixed point, like the great trilithon at Stonehenge, to guide the sight. The following is a brief summary of some of the facts. At Tregaseal, the Boslow menhir is N. 66° E., and the probable sunrise point on i May, N. 69° E. From Dawns Men, Chapel Carn Brea lies N. 55° W., and sunset on 24 June would be N. 53° W. approximately. Viewed from Leaze, Catshole Tor, already mentioned, is N. 69° E., and the probable sunrise point on i May would be N. 6Si° E. From Stannon, the top of Row Tor is N. 68° E., and sunrise on i May about N. 71° E. The highest point of Louden Hill lies N. 67° W. of Fernacre, and sunset on i May about N. 70° W. More detailed information on this point will be found in sundry papers by Mr. A. L. Lewis, who has paid special attention to the question.^ Apart from exact orientation there is, as we have seen, a marked tendency towards alignment in a north-easterly direction, instances of which are the position of the menhirs at Boscawen-un and Dawns Men, of the three circles, the Hurlers, and of the Nine Maidens, St. Columb. Another phase is touched on by Richard Edmonds of Penzance," who points out that Dr. Borlase has recorded nineteen stones in four of the circles of West Cornwall and seeks for an explanation in the pages of Dio- dorus Siculus. We have seen that there are at present nineteen stones at Boscawen-un and Dawns Men, and at Whitemoorstone Down on Dart- moor ; and that, allowing for a gap in each case, Tregaseal (E) and Boskednan might have had the same number. Careful removal of the turf may some day decide whether or no nineteen was the original number of stones, but it is equally likely that the point will never be settled. Assuming Dr. Borlase to be right, and he was a careful observer, it is suggested that the number nineteen was intentional and had an astronomical reference, being in fact the Greek Metonic cycle. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is in continuation of the one already quoted. ' They say also that the god comes into the island at intervals of nineteen years, in which time the stars perform a complete revolution ; and therefore the period of nineteen years is among the Greeks called a great year.'^ This is the Metonic cycle, the golden number of the Prayer Book, and it may be urged that this astronomical symbolism is too subtle a development for the builders of such rude monuments. This may be so, but it must be borne in mind that a difference of opinion about the dates of festivals was one of the bones of contention between the Celtic and Roman Churches. The Phallic cult is an obscure subject, but if we remember that in other parts of the world menhirs, single or grouped, are often associated ' Arch. Joum., 1892, xlix. 136 ; Joutti. Anthrop. Inst. Aug. 1895 ; Proc. Soc. Antiq. 28 April, 1892. ^ Trans. Penx. l^ at. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. 1850, p. 383-6. ' XcycTtti 8e Kol Tov 6ebv St' cTtoi' ivveaKaiSeKa KaravTav eis ttjv vrjcrov. iv ots koX at twv acrrprnv (xtto- KOTao-racrets cirt reXos ayovrai- koI Sea tovto tov ewcaKaiSe/catT^ xpovov viro t notices the inscribed pillar stone at Castle Dor, and Carew in his Survey of Cornwall, 1 602, 1 29, gives a quaint little woodcut of the inscription on the Redgate cross-base. Camden's Magna Britannia contains very few illustrations of the inscribed stones, ' See * A list of the different purposes for which the Cornish crosses have been re-used,' Langdon, Old Comish Crosses, 22-24, ^'^Z' * J. R. Allen in Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, xliv (1888), 301. 408 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS the first edition having only a curious print of the Redgate stone, while the editions of 1772, 1789, and 1806 contain a plate illustrating the stones at Bleu Bridge, Mawgan Cross, Biscovey (now at Par), Castle Dor (now at Four Turnings), and St. Cleer (Redgate). It was not until William Borlase in 1754 brought out his Observations on the Antiquities of Cornwall that any considerable number of monuments was illustrated. His twelfth chapter is devoted to * The Inscribed Monuments before the Conquest,' in connexion with which he gives two plates^ illustrating ten of the stones. In the Magna Britannia of Samuel Lysons, 18 14, three of the rude pillar stones already published by Borlase are given on one plate, while on another is a drawing of the inscribed cross at Lanherne. Borlase and most subsequent authors on the subject are indebted to Edward Lhwyd, a writer of the seventeenth century, for having given the first satisfactory readings and translations of the inscriptions, and for having assigned a correct date to the monuments. The labours of Edward Lhwyd in this direction have been ably carried on by Professors Rhys and Westwood, H. Longueville Jones, the Rev. W. Jago, Dr. Emil Hiibner, and others. The most complete work on the subject is A Catalogue of the Early Christian Monuments in Cornwall,^ compiled in 1895 by J. Romilly Allen and the writer. Even since then three other stones have been added to the list, one having been found at Cardinham^ on 3 September, 1901, by the writer. The six plates in this article illustrate all the ancient inscribed stones at present known to us in Cornwall. It is probable that all the rude pillar stones with inscriptions found in the Celtic portion of Great Britain are of Christian origin, and they are classed as such by Hiibner. The chief grounds for this opinion are (i) that they are entirely different from the pagan sepulchral stones, and in a very large majority of cases are found in or near churches ; (2) that some of the stones are marked with the Chi-Rho monogram, and others have early forms of the cross, there being no evidence to show that these symbols were added after the inscriptions ; (3) that several of the names mentioned are distinctly Christian, such as Paulinus and Martinus ; (4) that the persons commemorated are in some cases specified in the inscription as being officers of the church, such as bishops or priests ; and (5) that the form of the inscription is often of a distinctly Christian character, such as Requiescat in pace. The most common is, of course. Hie jacet, while one instance of Hie in tumulo occurs at Hayle. The geographical distribution of rude pillar stones with ogams and debased Roman capitals shows that they are of Celtic origin, as they have only been found in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Devon, Cornwall, Somerset, Dorset, Hants, and Northumberland, and not in the Saxon or Danish parts of England. * The later edition of 1769 contains the same plates. * Arch, Camb. 5th ser. vol. xii (1895), 50. ' Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist, viii (1902), 50. I 409 52 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The inscriptions may be classified as follows : — (i) Ogams and \ k f- A (2) debased Roman capitals J • • • • 45 5 (3) Anglo-Saxon capitals ..... about 650 to 850 (4) Hiberno-Saxon minuscules .... about 750 to 1050 Anglo-Saxon capitals are occasionally found mixed with Roman capitals, while the fourth class is employed principally on the ornate crosses. The Ogam ^ alphabet consists of four groups of five letters, each letter composed of a straight stroke or strokes, numbering from one to five, the vowel-strokes being much shorter than the others. The strokes are cut with reference either to the vertical angle of a square pillar, or to a vertical stem-line on the face of the pillar. The first group is cut at right angles to, and on the left of, the vertical angle or stem-line, and the second group similarly on the right, the third group diagonally across the line, and the fourth group, or vowels, at right angles across the line. For the sake of convenience the stem-line is placed horizontally in the following groups : — First group : Second group : B L F S N OR V H D T C Q Third group : M G NG ST R Fourth group 1 II III Mil Hill AGUE I There are three or four other additional characters in this alphabet, but since their occurrence is rare and they are not found in Cornwall it is not necessary to include them here. ' See R. R. Brash, Ogham Inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhll (1874) '■> ^'r S. Ferguson, Ogham In- scriptions in Ireland, Wales, and Scotland (1887) ; Prof. J. Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology (1887). 410 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS Debased Roman capitals are found with Ogam inscriptions on the same stone. Of their palaeographical pecuHarities, the chief consists in joining up of two letters together, a part of the first letter forming part of the one adjoining, as, for instance, the m and v in the word tvavlo on the stone at Hayle. In five cases, viz. at Par, Mawgan Cross, Cuby, Sancreed No. i, and South Hill, the first f of the word filivs, or fili, is run into the following i, thus [^, while in the example at Sancreed No. I the + preceding the word filivs is run into the f^, thus forming a threefold combination.^ Likewise in five other instances, viz. at Bleu Bridge, Cuby, Mawgan Cross, South Hill, and Worthyvale, the l of the same word is run into the following i, thus U^. It v/ill be noticed that amongst the foregoing there are two cases in which the word fili is written by both combinations thus pjH' ^^^' ^^ Cuby and South Hill. It is also a common practice to place the final i of a name horizontally, thus — , as in nearly all of the inscriptions on the rude pillar stones. Anglo-Saxon capitals differ from the last by a tendency to assume angular forms, as in the c ([^) at Doydon, Waterpit Down, and Trevena. The A has a horizontal bar across the apex, and an additional vertical stroke hanging from the v-shaped cross-bar thus /^, a peculiarity which occurs in the inscription upon the celebrated Ardagh chalice in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy, a Celtic work of art of the best period.^ It is also found on a stone at Llandawke, Carmarthenshire, and in Cornwall there are five examples on the altar slab at Camborne. The two a's on the stone at Welltown are similar, but without the top stroke, while that in the name aelnat on the stone at Trevena has the extra bar across the top, but not the bottom one. It is interesting to note the alteration in the form of the Roman g ; at Doydon and Nanscowe the bottom stroke is brought back thus Q, and on the Lewannick No. 2 and St. Clement's stones the sickle-shaped G is used thus CJ . Other characteristic letters are the q made like a p backwards, the 'S for th, and p for w, as on the Saxon stone at Lanteglos by Camelford. Hiberno-Saxon minuscules were the natural outcome of the art of writing, in which greater speed was attained by the rounding of the letters ; e.g., v became u, made in one stroke instead of two. The letters in this alphabet^ are practically the same as those in use at the present day, the chief differences being £ for e, f for f, 5 for g, 1 for 1, Jl for r, Y or ( for s, and ^ for t. By far the best example in Cornwall of a minuscule inscription is that on the inscribed cross-base at Redgate, as with the exception of Cardinham No. 2 it is the only inscription in which the whole of the letters are of this form, all others being more or less mixed up with debased Roman capitals. ' See pi. Ill, fig. 24. * George Petrie, Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language, ii, 50. * J. R. Allen, Monumental History of the British Church, 66. 411 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL A short list will suffice to illustrate the principal points to be noted in connexion with the inscribed stones : — (a) Ogam ^ inscriptions ; 2, both at Lewannick. (b) Inscriptions written in horizontal lines^ 3 ; Biscovey (now at Par), on both front and back, Hayle, and Lewannick No. i. (c) Inscriptions preceded or followed by a Cross. These are very rare on the monuments with debased Roman capitals only, an isolated example being found on the cross at Sancreed, No. I. The remarkable position of this portion of an inscription seems to suggest that the cross is a converted pillar stone. In inscriptions with mixed capitals and minuscules they are much more common, and occur at Biscovey (front and back), Boslow, Cardin- ham No. 2, Lanherne, Lanteglos by Camelford, Trevena, and on the Camborne altar slab. No. I. (d) Ornamented crosses^ 6 ; Cardinham No. 2, Lanherne, Penzance, Sancreed Nos. I and 2, and Trevena. (e) Ornamented cross-shaftSy 3 ; Biscovey, Gulval, and Waterpit Down. (f) Cross-baseSy 2 ; Lanhadron and Redgate, the latter has Celtic ornament on its three other faces. (g) j^ltar slabsy 2 ; In Camborne Church, and at Pendarves ; both have key-pattern borders. (h) Stones with a cross in reliefy 3 ; Castle Dor, St. Clement, and Doydon. (i) Shafts with a mortice at the top (as if for the reception of some terminal), 4; Biscovey, Castle Dor, Doydon, and Waterpit Down; the top of the rude pillar stone at Mawgan Cross appears to have been roughly shaped as a tenon. It would be interesting to know by what the stones at Castle Dor and Mawgan Cross were surmounted. The remainder would probably have had a cross-head. (J) ^'^^ '^^ Chi-Rho monogram^ 5. The number of stones bearing this symbol, which is common in Italy and Gaul, is very small in Great Britain, only twelve examples being at present known to exist, or to have existed. Five of that number, in fact all in England, belong to Cornwall,'' viz. : — England (Cornwall) St. Endellion . . . On Doydon headland Phillack . . . .In gable of south porch of church St. Just in Penwith, No. I Found at St. Helen's Chapel, Cape Cornwall, now missing „ „ „ „ No. 2 In the church South Hill . . In the rectory garden Scotland (Wigtonshire) Stoneykirk . . .In the old burying ground of Kirkmadrine (two).' * A drawing of a third stone (at Stoneykirk) has been preserved by Dr. Mitchell, in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland^ but the monument itself is unfortunately either lost or destroyed.' Whithorne . . . Now preserved in the ruined church of St. Ninian.* ' The Rev. W. Jago considers that the Worthyvale stone has Ogam characters upon it, but as they merely consist of some three or four doubtful notches, and the edge of the stone above and below them is quite clean, showing no further remains whatever, there does not seem to be very much foundation for this theory, more especially since such an authority as Professor Rhys has described it to me as * a doubtful bit of Ogam.' * Since the above was written the author has found a small incised Chi-Rho monogram 4^ inches high, and of the later form. It is cut on a jamb stone on the Norman south doorway at the church of Lanteglos by Fowey. ' Proc. Soc. Jntiq. Scot, ix, 586. Stuart, Sculptured Stones of Scotland, ii, pi. Ixxi. * Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot, ix, 578. Stuart, Sculptured Stones of Scotland, ii, pi. ixxviii. See also J. R. Allen, Early Christian Monuments of Scotland (1903), 495, figs. 532, 533, 534. 412 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS PLATE I (R) Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Pr»«»n» Ground Ui Jarium Pfa//iae,p\. Ixxix, No. 2, and p. 175 ; JrcA. Camb. (1863), 257. See also J. R. Allen, Early Christian Symbolism, where most of the above are illustrated. * Jrch. Camb. 6th ser. v (1905), 70. ^ Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist, viii (1902), 126. * The name o r i occurs on a stone at Llystyn Gwyn, in Carnarvonshire. See Proc. Soc.Ant. (ser. 2), xix, 255, and Arch. Camb. (ser. 6), iv, 149. It is not clear whether the o r i on the Cornish stone is in itself a name, or only part of one, for at Fowey (Castle Dor) the second name in the inscription ends in o R I, as does also the first name on the stone at St. Columb Minor (Rialton).* A HISTORY OF CORNWALL town) against wall of wagon shed on farm. Formerly it was inside this building, a gate being hung to it. Inscription: vailathi fili vrochani. (Plate IV, fig, 28.) Castle Dor. — See Fowey. CuBY. — Rude pillar stone built into south-west angle of church just above the ground. It is often known as the Tregoney stone. Inscription in four lines : nonnita ercilini(?) RIGATI TRIS FILI ERCILINCI. (Plate II, fig. 8.) DoYDON. — See St. Endellion. Four Turnings. — See Fowey. FowEY. — Rude pillar stone now standing at Four Turnings, on the high road from Fowey to Lostwithiel. It was formerly called the Long Stone, and stood at Castle Dor, in the parish of Tywardreath, two miles north of its present position. On the front of the stone is the inscription in two lines : ciRVSius Hic iacit cvnomori filius. On the back is a Tau cross in relief. (Plate II, fig. 9.) Gulval. — (i) Cross-shaft with interlaced ornament, standing on south side of churchyard, found on taking down the chancel of the church, 18 September, 1885. It is fixed upside down, the tenon being upwards. Inscription in two lines : v N v I. (Plate VI, fig. 39.) (2) Rude pillar stone standing in Barlowena Bottom, by roadside, between the churches of Gulval and Madron. In Borlase's time it was lying across the brook, used as a foot-bridge. Inscrip- tion in two lines : quenatavci ic dinvi filivs. (Plate I, fig. 3.) Hayle. — See St. Erth. Indian Queens. — See St. Columb Major. Lanhadron. — See St. Ewe. Lanherne. — See Mawgan in Pyder. Lanivet. — Rude pillar stone, lying in the churchyard in two pieces by the south porch and near the coped stone. Formerly built in upside down in the wall of an old house near west end of church. Inscription: annicvs. (Plate II, fig. 15.) Lanteglos by Camelford, — Pillar stone standing in the churchyard on south side of church. Formerly used as a prop to a barn roof at Castle Gough, afterwards moved to rectory garden, and thence to churchyard in 1900. Inscription on front of stone in two lines : -|- ^lsel'S 7 genereS poHTE "Sysne sybstel sel,^ continued in one line on right side : for ^LpYNEYs soul 7 for hey. (Plate VI, fig. 40.) Lewannick. — (i) Rude pillar stone standing on south side of churchyard, found by A. G. Langdon, 7 June, 1892. Inscription on front in four lines: incen vi mem oria, and on the angle in Ogam characters : ""■//""iiiii'iir""/""/"///// / G £ N A V I M E M 0 R (Plate I, fig. I.) (2) Rude pillar stone standing in the church, found by F. H. Nicholls, 17 July, 1894, in two pieces in the south porch, built into different walls. Ogam inscriptions on both front angles, and between them an inscription in Roman letters, thus : A 1 0 V 0 N I I1P'miiI//""'IIIII a in CIACIT VLCAGNI # V L C A G N I (Plate I, fig. 2.) ' s E L on the front of the stone is really the end of the inscription on the side, thus : Heysel. 416 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS °n Fig. 17. Fig. 23, (h o Fig. 18. Fig. 21. Fig. 19. J Fig. 60. Fig. 58. Upright Slabs, Wheel Crosses with Latin Crosses, and Crosses with the Figure OF OUR Lord. Fig. 44. Lower Drift — Fig. 55. Kenidjack, No. i — Fig. 56. Cairn — Fig. 57. Tredorwin— Fig. 58. Boskenna Cross- Fig. 59. Trevorgans — Fig. 60. Trebehor. 427: A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PLATE IX .••'*v. '•'••. \ f v' ! Fig. 62. Crosses with the Figure of our Lord Fig. 61. Ripper's Mill— Fig. 62. Trevease. 428 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS (c) Tf^ith a Latin Cross or Crosses in reliefs the upper limbs contained in the head Breage^ St. — Trevena ; Buriany St. — Boskenna Gate Cross ; Camborne — Trevu, No. I ; Halsetown — In village ; Helston — In a garden ; Just in Penwithy St. — Kenidjack (2) (fig. 55), Nanquidno; Keverne^ St. — Trelanvean ; Lanteglos by Camelford — Tregoodwell ; Lelant — Cairn (fig. 56), Sea Lane ; Ludgvan — In churchyard ; Mabe — In vicarage garden ; Madron — Boswarthen ; Paul^ St. — In vicarage hedge ; Pendeen — In vicarage garden ; Sennen — In cemetery, Sennen Green ; Stithians — In vicarage garden ; Towednack — Tredorwin (fig. 57) ; Warleggon — In churchyard ; Zennor — In churchyard. (d) With the figure of our Lord in relief on the front of the heady and a cross on the back As a rule the figure is shown alive upon the cross, according to the Byzantine fashion, clothed in a tunic, the limbs being extended perfectly straight along the three arms, while the head rests unbent against the fourth. Some other ways in which our Lord is depicted may be seen in Old Cornish Crosses, 1 20. There are altogether forty-seven examples, of which about one half occur on unorna- mented crosses, and the rest on ornamented crosses. Buriany St. — Boskenna Cross (fig. 58), In Churchtown, Trevorgans (fig. 59) ; Camborne — Pendarves, No. l ; Constantine — Trevease (fig. 62) ; Crowan — Clowance (2), Praze-an-beeble ; Dayy St. — Scorrier, No. l ; Erthy St. — In churchyard, In Churchtown ; Feocky St. — In church- yard ; Gulval — Rosemorran ; Gwennap — In vicarage garden ; Gwinear — In churchyard, No. 2 ; Lelant — In cemetery (2) ; Levan, St. — Trebehor (fig. 60) ; Ludgvan — White Cross ; MichaePs Mounty St. — On west side ; Phillack — In churchyard, No. I ; Stithians — Repper's Mill (fig. 61) ; Treslothan — Near village (missing) ; Zennor — In Vicarage garden (2). 3. Crosses with Projections at the Neck This type exhibits the first development, in the introduction of an architectural feature on a plain wheel cross, whereby the form of its outline is changed. The projections consist of a bold bead running from front to back of the stone on either side of the neck, i.e., the junction of the head and shaft. It is a quaint and curious type, and being peculiar to the county may be called, par excellencey the Cornish Cross. There are altogether thirty-one examples of this type, an inclusive list of which is given below. Some of them, however, possess certain additional characteristics which place them in other groups, and to distinguish the latter from those now under consideration, they have been marked with an asterisk. Alleny St. — In churchyard (fig. 66), Trevalsa ; Altarnun — Trekennick ; Boconnoc — On Druid's Hill ; Bodmin — Carminnow* ; Camborne — In churchyard,* Outside the Institute*; Cleery St. — The Longstone* ; Clether, St. — On Basil Barton, 4, viz.. No. l, by Inney Bank (fig. 63). No. 2, near Basil farmhouse. No. 3, Cross gates. No. 4, near Tarret Bridge ; Davidstow — Trevivian ; Dayy St. — Scorrier, in grounds,* No. 2 ; Eastbourne [Sussex) — In Manor House grounds* ; Egloshayle — * Three-hole-Cross ' *; Gwinear — On Connor Down* ; Gwithian — In churchyard ; Julioty St. — In churchyard. No. 2 (fig. 64) ; Laneast — On Laneast Down ; Lanteglos by Camelford — In churchyard (2) ; Lesnewth — In churchyard ; Lewannick — Holloway Cross (fig. 65), Trelaske* ; My lor — In churchyard* ; Penzance — In Library garden* ; Perranzabuloe — On Perran Sands* ; Phillack — In a field ; Roche — In churchyard* ; Wendrony St. — In Mrther Uny old churchyard.* The simpler forms of this type are all pretty much alike, varying chiefly in the form of the cross on the head, or the shape of the space containing it. Three examples in the foregoing list have the addition of a central boss on the head, viz. : — Boconnoc — On Druid's Hill ; Gwithian — In churchyard ; Lanteglos by Camelford — In churchyard ; and in the last named there are four more bosses, one in each of the spaces between the limbs of the cross and the bead on the edge of the head. There is a unique example at New Park, St. Clether (fig. 67), where in addition to the projections at the neck there is a rectangular projection on the top of the head. 429 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PLATE X Tig. 63; Fig. 66. Fig. 67. .:rr'-j wv^"^? Fig. 64. Fig. 77. Fig. 76. *^M Fig. 68. .•2S=5k Fig. 75. Crosses with Projections at the Neck, etc., and Latin Crosses. Fig. 63. Basil, No. i — Fig. 64. St. Juliot, No. 2 — Fig. 65. HoUoway Cross — Fig. 66. St. Allen — Fig. 67. New Park- Fig. 68. Treslea Cross — Fig. 75. St. Minver — Fig. 76. Carlanken — Fig. 77. Trerank. EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS PLATE XI Fig. 74. Fig. 72. Holed Crosses Fig. 69. Three-hole Cross — Fig. 70. Trevenning Cross — Fig. 71. Tresmeer — Fig. 72. Michaelstow — Fig. 73. St. Wendron — Fig. 74. Pencarrow. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 4. Wheel Crosses with Crucial Projections ^ The distinctive feature of this type consists in the addition of three rectangular projec- tions extending beyond the rounded head. There are four examples, viz. : — Blhland — St. Pratt's Well, Peverell's Cross ; Cardinham — In churchyard, No. I, Treslea Cross (fig. 68). See also type 5 (c). 5. Holed Crosses This term is applied to those crosses which have two, three, or four holes between the arms and ring of the head. With the exception of the cross in Phillack churchyard, which has only the two upper holes pierced, and the two crosses at Egloshayle (fig. 69) and Perranzabuloe, which have three,^ all have four holes, and are locally called ' Four-hole Crosses.' There are altogether twenty-eight examples of four-holed crosses, of which the following thirteen are unornamented. Buriarij St. — In churchyard ; Egloshayle — Pencarrow ; Erth^ St. — In churchyard. No. i ; Laneast — In church ; Lanhydrock — Lanhydrock Park ; Lawhitton — Treniffle ; Lewannick — Trelaske ; Michaehtow — In churchyard ; Padstow — In churchyard. No. i ; Pauly St. — On churchyard wall ; Trcsmeer — In church porch ; Tudy, St. — Trevenning Cross ; JVendron, St. — In churchyard. In monuments of this kind the limbs of the cross are connected by a ring, which is slightly recessed from the face, and kept within the extremities of the limbs. The four holes, which are in a few cases circular, are pierced through the triangular spaces left between the limbs of the cross and the inside line of the ring. As a rule the sides of the spaces are first splayed inwards for a short distance from front to back, and the remaining portion is pierced. The lower limb of the cross is, in all cases, larger than the others. These crosses may be classified as follows : — (a) Plain Crosses with no beads on the Head Laneast — In church ; Lanhydrock — In Lanhydrock Park ; Tudy^ St. — Trevenning Cross (fig. 70). (b) With beads on the Head and Projections at the Neck Lewannick — Trelaske. Only the head of this cross now remains. (c) IVith Crucial Projections Tresmeer — In church porch. The only known specimen of the type (fig. 71). (d) TVith an abacus^ or projecting bead surrounding the Neck The four holes in the head are very large, and occupy the whole of the space between the ring and the equal limbed cross within. The type is not found out of the county. Lawhitton — Treniffle ; Michaelstozu — In churchyard (fig. 72). The cross at Michaelstow is a very fine example, and stands ii ft. 3 in. high, while that at Treniffle is only a cross-head. (e) With five bosses on both front and back of the Head Wendron St. — In churchyard (fig. 73). (f ) With the figure of our Lord on the front ^ and five bosses on the back Burian, St. — In churchyard (Plate XII) ; Erthy St. — In churchyard. No. I ; Paul, St. — On churchyard wall. ' Other crosses possessing this feature will be found at Penmon, Anglesea, and on some of the West Highland crosses, as Maclean's Cross, lona ; and Kilchoman, Islay. ' These are the only two specimens of this type at present known to exist in Great Britain. In outline they resemble type 3 . 432 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS PLATE XII < h OD Q < s- X u D W U u S o U A HISTORY OF CORNWALL (g) IVith three rolls or cusps in the holes These cusps are formed by rounded rolls or beads, running from front to back of the stone, and projecting, one from either limb and one from each quadrant of the ring. In no case are the cusps pointed. This treatment of the holes is another peculiarity confined to Cornwall. On some of the Irish crosses, as at Monasterboice, a single rounded projection is found on the inside of the ring, but those on the limbs are always omitted. Egloshayle — Pencarrow (fig. 74) ; Padstow — In churchyard. No. I. 6. Latin Crosses Considering the immense number of crosses in Cornwall, it is not suprising to find that Latin crosses are more numerous in this district than in any other. The chief characteristics of the plain Latin crosses are : — (i) In most cases the head and arms are slightly tapered towards their ends ; (2) in some cases the arms are tilted upwards ; and, (3) in others the arms are narrower than the head ; all which details are, we believe, confined to the county. Other slight varieties are found in those with nearly circular shafts and arms, as at Davidstow and Godolphin, while that at Lavethan, No. i, has expanded limbs. There are altogether about thirty-one examples which may be classified as follows : — (a) Plain Latin Crosses Altarnun — Opposite St. Vincent's mine ; Blisland — Lavethan, No. I ; Cardinham — Pinchla ; Columb Major^ St. — Black Cross ; Davidstow — Lambrenny ; Germans^ St. — Carracawn ; Godolphin — Spernon Cross ; Ludgvan — In churchyard. No. 2 ; Madron — Tremathick or TrereifFe Cross; Minver^ St. — In churchyard (fig. 75) ; Neot^ St. — In vicarage garden, No. I ; North Hill — Trebartha, No. I ; Paul^ St. — Carlanken (fig. 76) ; Halwyn ; Paul Down ; Sheviock — Crafthole ; Temple — In churchyard, No. I. (b) IVith a Cross in relief on front and hack Cleer^ St. — St. Cleer's Well ; Roche — Trerank (fig. 77) ; Tresmeer — In churchyard, (c) IVith the figure of our Lord in relief on the front Mawgan in Pyder — Mawgan Cross ; Nezvlyn {Penzance) — Near church. (d) Latin Crosses of semi-Gothic character with chamfered angles Allcn^ St. — In churchyard; Blisland — Cross Park; Lelant — Lelant Lane ; North Hill • Kingbear ; Pinnocky St. — Bosent Cross ; Sheviock — At four cross roads ; Stephen by Saltashy St. — Trematon. Class 2.— ORNAMENTED CROSSES The ornamented crosses may be divided into four sections, as follows : — I. Monuments with Incised Crosses, or with Incised Ornament (a) Incised Crosses or Wheel Crosses Allen^St. — Trefronick (fig. 79); Altarnun — Halvinney Moor (fig. 81); Blisland — Lavethan (2) ; Breward^ St. — Middlemoor ; Budock — In churchyard (2) (fig. 80) ; Camborne — Pendarves, No. 2 ; Ives^ St. — Penbeagle ; Just in Penwith, St. — In vicarage garden, No. I ; Michaelstow — Travenning (2) ; Neot^ St. — Newtown ; Phillack — Copperhouse ; Sancreed — Trenuggo Hill (fig. 78) ; Wendron^ St. — Boderwannack, Manhay Vean. (b) On Latin Crosses Austell., St. — In churchyard ; Blisland — Lavethan, No. 4, Tregaddick (fig. 82) ; Brad- dock — Kill-boy-Cross ; Godolphin — In churchyard ; Lansallos — In churchyard ; Neot., St. — In vicarage garden (2) (fig. 83), Hilltown (fig. 84), in the village j North Hill — Trebartha, No. 2 ; Temple — In churchyard (3). 434 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS PLATE XIII ■■*••■;:;.>■ Fig. 78. Fig. 82i Fig. 79. Fig. 80. m. Fig. 85. Fig. 83. Fig. 86. '■•Iff 1, Jl k i',v*-5 Fig. 88. Fig. 87. Incised Crosses. Tig. 78. Trenuggo Hill — Fig. 79. Trefronick — Fig. 80. Budock, No. 2 — Fig. 81. Halvinney Moor — Fig. 82, Tregaddick — Fig. 83. St. Neot, No. 3 — Fig. 84. Hilltown— Fig. 85. Helston— Fig. 86. Vellansajer— Fig. 87. TreguUow, No. 2 — Fig. 88. Trevu, shows the figure incised 435 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PLATE XIV o Z '^^m^ "^^^f^ o at U 436 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS (c) Similar to the foregohig^ hut with the figure of our Lord in relief on the front Burian, St. — Chyoone. (d) Incised crosses in outline or partly in outline^ the remainder being in relief. All the examples occur on wheel crosses. Day^ St. — Tregullow, No. i (fig. 87); Burian^ St. — Vellansajer (fig. 86); Constantine — Bosvathick, Merthen ; Cury — In churchyard ; Feock — Trelissick^ ; Gerrans — In churchyard ; Helston — Cross Street (fig. 85) ; Hilary^ St. — In churchyard ; Just in Penwith^ St. — In vicar- age garden, No. 2 ; ^ Landewednack — Lizard Town ; Lanlivery — No-Man's-Land ; Ludgvan — In churchyard, No. 3, Crowlas ; Madron — In churchyard ; ^ Sancreed — Brane ; Tyward- reath — Tregaminion, No. 2 ; Wendron^ St. — Merther Uny Cross. (e) Incised Crosses with simple ornament Brewardy St. — Deaconstow ; Carnmenellis — In churchyard ; Constantine — Trewardreva; Mullion — Pradannack ; Perranarworthal — In vicarage garden ; Wendron^ St. — Trevethick. (f) JVith the figure of our Lord incised Camborne — Trevu, No. 2 (fig. 88) ; Flushing — In churchyard ; Sennen — Trevilley. Incised Ornament The simplest forms of incised work in Cornwall consist of straight lines, zig-zags, curved lines, rude scroll-work, and the like ; most of which are roughly executed. Of all the different devices which are employed to decorate a surface, the most common, and at the same time most curious, consists of a number of little conical holes or dots, which we believe are not found out of the county. They are placed either in horizontal or diagonal rows, or indis- criminately distributed over the surface, but are always close together, and as a simple method of ornamentation are very effective. Three crosses are entirely decorated with them, viz. : in the Library garden at Penzance, on Connor Down, Gwinear, and the three-holed cross on Perran Sands, Perranzabuloe. In the first and last cases they are arranged in fairly regular rows in panels, while in the other they are best described as being placed ' anyhow,' similar to those on the right side of one of the crosses in Lanivet churchyard, seen on Plate XIV. In addition to their local decoration, they all possess the unique Cornish feature of projections at the neck. (g) On Wheel Crosses Altarnun — Tresmeake Bridge ; Boconnoc — In Boconnoc Park ; Cardinham — Higher Deviock ; Dennis^ St. — In churchyard ; Lanivet — In churchyard. No. I (Plate XIV) ; Lanteglos by Camelford — Trevia, No. 2 ; Levan^ St. — In churchyard No. 2 ; Tywardreath — Menabilly. Plate XIV is perhaps the best example of its type. (h) On Wheel Crosses with Projections at the Neck Camborne — In churchyard ; Cleer^ St. — On St. Cleer Common ; Eastbourne^ (Sussex) — In Manor House grounds ; Gwinear — On Connor Down ; Penzance — In Library garden. A sixth example, outside the Institute at Camborne, has the figure of our Lord in relief upon it. (i) On a Three-holed CrosSy with Projections at the Ned Perranzabuloe — On Perran Sands. (j) On a Four-holed CrosSy with Projections at the Ned Bodmin — Carminnow Cross. (k) On a Latin Cross Madron — Boscathnoe. 2. Monuments with Sunk Crosses, or with Sunk Ornament (a) On a Pillar Stone Wendron^ St. — Bodilly. ' Has figure of our Lord in relief on the front. * See footnote, p. 426. 437 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL (b) On Wheel Crosses Bur'ian, St. — Crowz-an-wra, Nlin Careg ; Constantine — Nanjarrow ; Crowan — Clowance, No. 3; Helston — In a garden, No. 2 (fig. 91); Mabe — Helland ; Madron — Trembath ; Temple — In churchyard, No. 2. (c) On Wheel Crosses, with Projections at the Neck Day, St. — Scorrier, No. 2 ; Enoder, St. — In churchyard (fig. 89). (d) On a Latin cross, Menheniot. — Tencreek (fig. 90). 3. Monuments with Miscellaneous Ornament (a) On Wheel Crosses At Washaway, Egloshayle (fig. 92) on both front and back ; and at Penwine St. Mabyn, on the back only, there is a fleur-de-lis on the head in place of a cross. At Trevean, St. Erth, the cross has on each side of the head a human head in relief, connected by a bold bead passing over the top of the cross, the chins of the heads being on a level with the neck of the cross. The cross at Trevalis, No. i, Stithians, has the figure of our Lord in relief, the feet resting on a boldly projecting heart. That at Trevalis, No. 2, has, beneath the figure, a beaded ring containing an incised cross. (b) On Wheel Crosses, with Projections at the Neck The cross in Mylor churchyard is by far the tallest in Cornwall, its total length being 17 feet 6 inches ; but unfortunately it has been sunk nearly 7 feet in the ground. On each of the projections at the neck is an incised circle. Just above the level of the neck is a boss surrounded by two concentric beads, forming the top of an incised panel. On the right side of the cross in Roche churchyard there are a series of horizontal beads, and on the left side is an incised sword, with dot ornament on front and back. On the back and right side of the cross in Merther Uny old churchyard there is a row of six short projecting beads ; on the former about 5 inches long from the neck downwards, and on the latter somewhat longer. On both front and back of the shaft is a boss surrounded by a bold bead, this being the only instance of bosses in this position. 4. Monuments with Celtic or Hiberno-Saxon Ornament Blazey, St. — Biscovey* (now at Par) ; Breage, St. — tin churchyard ; Breward, St. — if In cemetery ; In churchtown ; Cardinham. — In churchyard,* No. 2 (Plate XVI) ; C leer, St. — • tin churchyard, Redgate No. i,* Redgate No. 2 ; Colurnh Major, St. — if In churchyard, No. 2 (fig. 93); Erth, St. — In churchyard. No. 2 ; Gulval — In churchyard*; Gwennap — In church wall (concealed) ; Just in Penwith, St. — In church wall ; Lanhydrock — tin churchyard ; Lanivet — tin churchyard. No. 2 ; Mawgan in Pyder — Lanherne * ; Minster — Waterpit Down*; Minver, St. — tin St. Michael's churchyard; Neot,St. — In churchyard (Plate XVII),t Four-hole-cross; Padstow — In churchyard. No. Ji and No. 2. J Prideaux Place; Phillack — t In churchyard,No. 2 ; Quethiock — % In churchyard ; Sancreed — In churchyard (2)* ; Teath, St. — t In cemetery ; Tintagel — Trevena*; Tywardreath — t Trenython. * Inscribed, t Holed cross without cusps. X Holed cross with cusps. The well known * Four-hole-Cross ' on Temple Moor shows two methods of decoration, incised and Hiberno-Celtic. The letters -p .^^ on the front are merely the initials of a land- owner, and an instance of the manner in which the Cornish monuments were mutilated. The crosses at St. Breage and St. Minver are only cross-heads with a small portion of the shaft attached, while that at St. Cleer, found as recently as the year 1 904, is merely a fragment, with only two holes remaining. The cross at Tywardreath ^ is similar to the two former, but has more of its shaft remaining ; it is much mutilated, and the only ornament now distinguish- able is a short piece of square key-pattern on either side of the shaft, with perhaps a triquetra knot on one arm. The cross in St. Breward cemetery is only a portion of a cross-head, having lost its lower limb and both adjoining parts of the ring. ' Illustrated in the Cornish Mag. i (1898), 74. 438 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS PLATE XV fmmi 1 ■'■•■-■:• Kyi^ 01 v4i/-!fi,>;^>'t>.- Fig. 89. Section Fig. 90. <:,;0jwui' Fig. 91. Fig. 92. Fig. 93. Sunk Crosses ; Sunk, Miscellaneous, and Celtic Ornament, Fig. 89. St. Enoder — Fig. 90. Tencreek — Fig. 91. Helston, No. 2 — Fig. 92. Washaway — Fig. 93. St. Columb Majqr. 439 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PLATE XVI ^!'g^-^^'^s»^y;'^y:<'~''"V-!'^~?-^''^*y^^ tj^..M^.^^- jiffi,'' -*^" ■• e'er :sr5 -^m *>^^' T^Jr^^^^^^^l^S^ s < X z Q < u Q < X u B! D S u Ed X o te. U 440 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS The cross at St. Columb Major is a beautiful little specimen, although it now only retains about 6 inches of its shaft, and the back of the head is somewhat mutilated. The head of the cross at Prideaux Place, Padstow, is unique, for instead of the usual ring, the limbs of the cross are connected by four straight portions set diagonally. The Quethiock cross is a very fine one and the tallest of its kind in Cornwall, measuring 13 feet 4 inches in height from the base. Redgate No. 2, called by Borlase and other early writers * The Other Half Stone,' stands close to the inscribed cross-base at Redgate ; only one face is decorated, and has a long panel filled with an eight-cord plait broken at the top. St. Erth cross-shaft is mutilated and broken in two ; the upper portion appears to retain the remains of the head, as part of the figure of our Lord is carved thereon. During the restoration of Gwennap Church many years ago a portion of a granite shaft was found with interlaced work upon it ; but when the foundations of a new vestry were being put in it was unfortunately re-used by the masons during the vicar's absence. The shaft in the church wall at St. Just in Penwith ^ is unfinished, only one panel being complete, near the bottom, whilst a second is started from the top. The St. Neot cross-shaft, Plate XVII, is the finest of all, the four sides being richly ornamented with interlaced work of different patterns. The broken cross-shaft and base in the churchyard at Padstow, in the south-east corner, must at one time have been a very fine monument, as the shaft is 3 feet wide at the bottom, and 13!^ inches thick, while its base is over 8 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 13 inches thick. There is interlaced work on the front and on both sides, and some curious ornament in relief on the back, but only 3 feet 6 inches of the shaft remains. Writing on the ornament found on the Cornish crosses, Mr. J. Romilly Allen observes^ : — * Illustrations of the best examples of the Scotch, Irish, and Welsh monuments of a period corresponding to that when the Cornish crosses were erected are to be found in the works of Dr. J. Stuart, H. O'Neill, and Professor J. O. Westwood, so that we have no difficulty in showing what relation the crosses of Cornwall bear to those in the Celtic portions of Great Britain. But the part which was played by the Anglo-Saxons in the development of the art of these monuments has never yet been fully understood, because the English examples have never been collected together in one work, where they may be compared with each other and those elsewhere. ' All the evidence with regard to the date of the monuments which has been collected tends to show that the Northumbrian crosses are of an earlier rather than of a later date than those in Ireland ; and the most ancient illuminated manuscript with a really reliable date in which the so-called Celtic ornament occurs is the Lindisfarne Gospels, which is of Saxon work, and executed in Northumbria aVffl a.d. 720. My own opinion is, that . . . this style of ornament arose in consequence of the continual intercourse between the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic Christians which took place after about a.d. 650, so that the Hiberno-Saxon or Anglo- Scotic is a more appropriate title to apply to the style than Celtic or Irish. In its highest development the chief peculiarity of Hiberno-Saxon art is the combination of the following decorative elements : — (i) interlaced work; (2) key patterns; (3) spiral patterns; and (4) zoomorphic designs highly interlaced. Scrolls of foliage also occur in special areas, chiefly in Northumbria, but are entirely absent in the earlier manuscripts and on most of the sculp- tured stones in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. This is not the place to discuss the origin of Hiberno-Saxon art, and we must content ourselves by saying that we look upon it simply as a local variety of the Lombardo-Byzantine style which existed in Italy, Gaul, and Britain, from say, A.D. 600 to 900, modified in each different country according to the artistic capacity of the inhabitants. ' There is not much variety in the patterns of the interlaced work on the Cornish crosses, the most common knots being the figure-of-eight knot, the twist and ring, the Stafford knot, the spiral knot, and in one case the S-shaped knot.^ Oval rings, placed crosswise and inter- laced, are also of frequent occurrence, sometimes combined with a double circular ring. The triquetra knot will also be found on the expanded arms of a large proportion of the crosses. The style of the interlaced work on the Cornish crosses corresponds more nearly with that on the crosses of South Wales than those of England, Scotland, or Ireland. ' Old Cornish Crosses, 404 ; also Journ. Royal Inst. Cornwall, vol. xiv (1900), 186. ' Old Cornish Crosses, 348. ^ See PI. XVII, middle panel of first side. I • 44^ 56 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PLATE XVII ^^^'«»*«!!«Bw^»2S: ■•JW«_i'.„ii^»i.,i: .':J,«L»i**rii»»i'.--w. afcni.i_«.«**i — "-■«- ? jf -^Cit^ i '/..*'»«i*«*>.-# o oi < >• X S u X H < X o u • * • '• • vib w i i-^ » .i/^.'T.&l^ )B^-j-> Ui>''^ 442 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS * The Manx chain-of-rings patterns, which is peculiarly Scandinavian, occurs on the side of the Cardinham ^ cross, being the only instance in the south or west of England. It is combined with a key-pattern composed of T's, as on the cross at Penmon, in Anglesey, which also has the ring-pattern. The ornament on the Penmon cross is akin partly to that found in North Wales and Cheshire, partly to that in the Isle of Man, and partly to that in Ireland, showing a very mixed style. It is not easy to account for the resemblance between the patterns on the Cardinham cross and those of North Wales, Cheshire, and the Isle of Man, especially as the rude scrolls of foliage on the Cardinham cross faces are purely Cornish. ' Of the key-patterns . . . there is little to be said, except that those on the Lanivet ^ coped stone are interesting as being identical with those on the cross-shaft at Penally in Pembrokeshire. ' As regards zoomorphic designs, the only one which occurs on the Cornish crosses is a dragon, whose body forms a series of undulations, each filled in with a Stafford knot made by the tail.^ The same creature is to be seen on the beautiful little coped stone at Bexhill, Sussex, and on one of the crosses at AyclifFe, co. Durham,* thus showing that there must have been a considerable amount of intercourse between the Cornish and Saxon Christians in pre- Norman times. The coped stone at Lanivet^ has a zoomorphic termination in this respect resembling those in the north of England and Scotland. I can detect no Irish influence upon the art of the Cornish crosses.' MISCELLANEOUS MONUMENTS COPED STONES « Up to the present only four coped stones have been found in Cornwall, viz. : — Burian, St. — In churchyard ; Lanivet — In churchyard ; Phillack — In churchyard ; Tudy St. — In churchyard. Those at St. Burian and Phillack are only portions of the stones ; the former appears to consist of the middle third, and the latter of about half of its original length, showing one end. The Lanivet stone, shown on Plate XVIII, is by far the best example. It is of the boat- shaped type. The top and sides are filled with key-patterns, and on what may be termed the hips of the stone are four animals resembling dogs, while on each end are two double beaded rings interlaced, and on each of the slopes above a triquetra knot. The key-patterns upon it are found in two other instances, at Penally, Pembrokeshire, where they both occur on the same panel of the cross-shaft, the lower portion of which contains the pattern found on the top of the Lanivet stone, and the upper portion bears that found on its sides, and also on the bronze sword-hilt of Leofric in the British Museum, dug up in 1883 under the foundation of a house in South Street, Exeter. Mr. Romilly Allen noticed this last instance, and embodied all three with illustrations in a short paper.^ The St. Tudy coped stone is similar in shape to that at Lanivet, but is wider at one end than the other. The sides are arcaded, and the top has on one side scroll-work, and on the other a four-cord plait ending in a twist. On the slope of the wider end is a triquetra knot, and op the ends wide bead-work. EARLY CROSS SLABS « There are only five of these, viz. : — Lanivet — In churchyard ; Temple — In churchyard (2); Towednack — In churchyard ; Wendron^ St. — In church ; and all are different from each other. ' See PI. XVI. ' See PI. XVIII. ' The two examples in Cornwall are on the sides of the Lanherne and Sancreed No. 2 crosses, a third instance of the pattern being on the Waterpit Down cross-shaft (PI. VI, No. 43), but the head is either omitted or has been broken off. * A somewhat similar design, but with two dragons, is carved on a sepulchral slab at Barningham, Yorkshire. See Cutts, ^epukhral Slabs, PI. XXXV. ' See PI. XVIII. « Old Cornish Crosses, 411. ^ See Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist, vol. v (1899), 189. ® Old Cornisli Crosses^ 419. 443 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL PLATE XVIII .>VA'i' W Bcv'clojjcd fJan d to|> [from the rubbing] N CoPED Stone in Churchyard, Lanivet. 444 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS The opportunity must here be taken of publicly protesting against the disgraceful manner in which the monuments have been neglected, mutilated, broken, and even destroyed, as can be proved by a glance at my * List of purposes for which some of the Cornish Crosses, etc., have been re-used.' ^ This list occupies three pages, and contains about ninety instances. Dozens have been used as gateposts, though only some fifteen of the most striking examples are given under this head, eight cases of which will be found amongst the inscribed stones. Some few have been rescued, but a great many more yet remain in use. It is impossible to comment too forcibly on this subject, especially as the partial destruction of our monuments is by no means a thing of the past, for only recently ^ we had to complain of the mutilation of a small and unique cross in Cardinham churchyard,' because the sides of its shaft had been hacked off to make it fit the top of an ancient inscribed stone,* on which it was stuck. The amount of ignorance, apathy, and indifference displayed by those who should be most concerned in preserving, instead of mutilating, is appalling ; few seem to care, and none trouble to interfere. There is an extraordinary practice now prevalent in Cornwall of sticking cross-heads on the tops of new and very tall granite shafts. We submit that this is not restoration, and consider that the parish churches are the proper places in which to preserve these fragments, a precaution which was taken in the case of the second Ogam inscribed stone found at Lewannick. Or if the cross is fairly complete with head and shaft, and its original site is unknown, let it be erected in the churchyard on a rough boulder as a base. The taller of the two crosses discovered at Crane, near Camborne, in 1896, was aptly fixed in a base which happened to be in the churchyard. Perhaps the worst case of this so-called restoration is that of the fine cross-head at Carminnow, near Bodmin. It has been ' skied ' on top of a huge granite shaft, too high even to allow of a proper examination of the ornament, and by way of making the restoration more ridiculous, it has been mounted on a base of two steps, exactly like those used for the late Gothic crosses. A few public-spirited persons, at their own expense, have done something in the way of restoration, properly speaking, and among the monuments thus rescued the following may be mentioned : — The second inscribed stone found at Lewannick. The fine ornamented cross-shaft at Par, formerly at Biscovey. The two ornamented crosses in Sancreed churchyard. The Water pit Down ornamented cross-shaft. The tall wheel cross at No-Man's-Land,® Lanlivery, which had been cut in two and re-used as steps in a stile, was taken up in September, 1900, by Mr. Richard Foster, properly dowelled together, and fixed in a rough moorland granite base, in a well selected position, close to where it was found. But the most remarkable instance of the restoration of a cross is that in St. Teath new churchyard, effected by the Revd. F. Worthington, while curate in charge, about 1883. The cross had been deliberately broken up, but after a careful search five pieces of the shaft and most of the head were found. All were matched, and the whole, with bolts and cement, was once more erected. It is much to be deplored that such a praiseworthy example is not more often followed, especially since the expense attached is not very considerable, and there is plenty of this good work to be done. The importance of insisting on the necessity of protecting ornate monuments from the weather cannot be too strongly urged, as from experience we have found that by simply rubbing the hand over the surface of such a stone the small particles of which the granite is formed can be heard falling on the base. This is due to what is known as * bruising,' which means that every blow necessary for cutting the ornament bruises the face of the stone, and thus loosens the particles, and the weather does the rest. So destructive does this become in time, that in pulling out a small piece of the tough lichen that grows on the crosses, a little root, so to speak, of granite comes away with it. As with the perishable nature of the ' Old Cotftish Crosses, 22. * Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeolo^st, viii (1902), 50. * Old Comish Crosses, 173. * PI. I, fig. 4. ^Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist, vii (1901), 130. 445 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL ornament, so it is with the inscriptions, for Borlase tells us what the inscription was on the Indian Queens stone, but now only a very few letters are legible. It is most desirable that proper archaeological maps should be prepared on a large scale, with all the monuments marked thereon. These should then be carefully registered, and included under the ' Act for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments.' Till some such steps are taken, there will be no obstacle to the constant and deplorable shifting about ^ of these ancient memorials, or still worse, to the spectacle of their use for alien purposes, or perhaps even to a similar case of mutilation to that at Cardinham just described. Mr. J. Romilly Allen's remarks on this subject are much to the point ^ : — 'It maybe worth while remarking that no other nation possesses such a wonderful series of monuments, illustrating the history of Christian art at one of its most obscure periods, and probably no other nation would have treated them with such scorn, or allowed them to be so ruthlessly destroyed. Many of these priceless treasures have been lost altogether, others have been damaged by persons ignorant of their real value, and the whole are perishing miserably from exposure to the weather. Casts, or at least photographs should be taken before every trace of the sculpture has disappeared. This is the more important, as many fragments which have been preserved for centuries by being built into the walls of churches are being brought to light from time to time in the course of modern restorations and alterations, and these are now also in many cases exposed to the weather. A gallery of casts of Celtic sculptured stones would be invaluable for purposes of archaeological research, and might be the means of reviving the national taste for the art of sculpture, in which our own countrymen at one time attained so high a standard of excellence.' SCULPTURED NORMAN TYMPANA There are eleven examples in the county, one of which, at Tremaine, has unfortunately been entirely defaced. They fall into two classes, namely, those with figure sculpture, and those with other ornament. In the first class an Agnus Dei occurs at Egloskerry, No. i, St. Michael Caerhays, Perranarworthal, and St. Thomas by Launceston ; a dragon at Egloskerry, No. 2, and Tremaine (defaced) ; and a tree between two beasts at Treneglos. Only six retain their original doorways, viz., Cury, Egloskerry, No. 2, St. Michael Caerhays, Mylor (both), and Tremaine. The remainder of the tympana, except in one case, have been found in the walls of their respective churches during re-building. With regard to the method of executing the sculpture, it may be briefly stated, that as a rule, it is in rather shallow relief, the general effect being produced by sinking the back ground surrounding the subject, but not to any great depth, a characteristic which is most noticeable in those at Egloskerry and Treneglos. Egloskerry^ No. I. — This stone, Plate XIX, fig. i, was discovered during alterations to the church in 1887. It had been used as building material in the wall of the south aisle, and is now built into the inside wall of the church immediately over the south doorway. It is made of a sandstone not known in the neighbourhood, and measures 3 feet 1 1 inches long and I foot 1 1 1^ inches high. Within a curiously shaped recess having a moulded border is an ' By * shifting about ' is meant being taken up and used, e.g., by private persons as tombstones to someone or other, an object for which they were certainly never intended. One gentleman is blessed with two on the large stone that covers his grave. ^ Early Christian Symbolism, 82. 446 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS PLATE XIX Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7 Fig. 9. Fig. 8. Fig. 10. Scale, j^ actual size. Sculptured Norman Tympana in Cornwall. Fig. I. Egloskerry, No. i — Fig. 2. St. Michael Caerhays — Fig. 3. Perran Arworthal — Fig. 4. St. Thomas-by-Launceston — Fig. 5. Treneglos V',rr f. Pul/^clrorrif Mi-i -> Via -r Pnrv Vicr S? Mvlnv Wn. I Fior n Mvlnr 'NTn f—Vicr in Momp Vitr IT. St. AnthonV-lIl- A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Agnus Dei, one of whose legs is missing. Above the head is a rectangular object, cut rather on the slope, and probably intended for a book, St. Michaely Caerhays. — In shape the tympanum is elliptical, Plate XIX, fig. 2, the curved portion having a quaintly moulded border projecting about a couple of inches beyond the recessed face within ; including the border it is 3 feet 4 inches wide and i foot 5 inches high. On the recessed face is an Agnus Dei ; this subject on a north doorway is of very rare occurrence. Perranarworthal. — This tympanum, Plate XIX, fig. 3, was discovered during the renovation of the church in 1884-5, and 'S now built into the wall over the south doorway. It is 3 feet wide and I foot 5 inches high. The subject is an Agnus Dei, in a border formed by an undulating stem, the spandrels being filled with late Romanesque leaf-work, very similar to the enriched band on the lower portion of the font bowl in the church of St. Stephen ^ by Launceston. St. Thomas^ Launceston. — Built in the wall of the south porch of the church, east of the doorway, immediately above the plinth, is the greater part of a tympanum, Plate XIX, fig, 4, having an average thickness of 8 inches. It had evidently been cut up to fill the space it now occupies, extending from the moulded jamb of the doorway to the south-east angle of the porch, being further mutilated at the top to form a better joint with the adjacent stones. The original dimensions would have been 5 feet wide by 2 feet 6 inches high, and it was therefore the largest in Cornwall, exceeding that at Mylor, No. i, by 3 inches. Within a moulded border are two large circles, that on the left containing a curiously shaped equal-limbed cross, and that on the right a wheel-like design, consisting of eight radiating bars of equal width, square at their ends, and mitred at the centre. Above the circles is an Agnus Dei in a somewhat contorted position. To what building this stone originally belonged is not known, while a like mystery is attached to the beautiful twelfth-century doorway which now forms the principal entrance to the White Hart Hotel in Launceston. The doorway and tympanum are of the same material, from the once famous quarry at Hurdwick, near Tavistock, but there may be no further connexion between the two. In addition to the four instances of the Agnus Dei already described there is one other contemporary example (fig. 11) on the inner order of the Norman south doorway of the church of St. Anthony in Roseland, near Falmouth. In this example the primitive method of indicating the wool by means of incised zig-zag lines should be noticed, and the incised cross cut at the intersection of the arms of that borne by the Lamb. Treneglos. — This (Plate XIX, fig. 5) is now built into the south wall of the church, directly over the label of the doorway. The material from which it is made is a bad piece of ' ventergan,' a kind of local green slate, and the stone being face-bedded is flaking badly. It is 4 feet 3 inches wide, 2 feet 5 inches high. The subject illustrated is composed of a central tree having an undulating trunk with three leaves in the spaces thus formed, from the top of which spring two curved branches right and left having foliated terminations, while on the top is a fan-shaped piece of foliage. It is probably intended to represent * The Tree of Life,' so often found in this style of work. Beneath are two beasts, one on either side of the trunk, placed symmetrically and facing each other, their tails bent round between the hind legs, carried upwards to the top of the heads, and finished with a leaf-shaped end, Egloskerry, No, 2. — The doorway of which this tympanum, Plate XIX, fig. 6, forms a part is situated on the north side of the church, and although now built up is intact both inside and outside. It is 3 feet i|- inches wide, and i foot 8 inches high at the apex, and is made of the same stone as the other in this church. The subject is a dragon, Tremaine. — On the north side of the church is a doorway; formerly built up, but reopened in 1903, It is made of one of those numerous varieties of green slate which abound in this part of the county, and has a tympanum 3 feet 6 inches wide, and i foot 8^ inches high. Amongst the writers who mention the existence of sculpture on this stone is Polsue,' who says in his remarks on this church, ' a blocked north doorway has a tympanum . , . on which is rudely carved a dragon,' but the whole of it has been ruthlessly hacked oflF, probably at the time when the circular hole was cut through the stone for the passage of a flue pipe. ' Illustrated in Arch. Camb. 5th Ser, xiii, 348. * J Complete Parochial History of the County ofComtvall, vol, iv (1872). 448 EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS The only vestige of carving now^ remaining is a small loop near the top of the hole, which might perhaps be a bit of the dragon's tail. Cury. — This tympanum (Plate XIX, fig. 7) is over the south doorway of Cury church. The greenish-coloured stone of w^hich it is made does not appear to have been procurable in large blocks, and it is made up of four separate stones, the peculiar jointing of w^hich is show^n on the drawing. It is 4 feet long, and i foot 10^ inches high. It has a border of chevron moulding within which is a design of five interlacing rings,^ having a portion of one passing over and under the ring at each end, and terminated at the top on the right side by a rosette, and on the left by a drooping leaf, while in each of the lower corners is a rosette. Mylor. — Like Egloskerry, the church at Mylor possesses two tympana, but in addition retains both its doorways,^ one (No. i) forming the northern, and the other (No. 2) the western entrance to the building ; the former being the larger and finer of the two, while the latter appears to have suffered somewhat by restoration, and a good deal of it is new. No. I, Plate XIX, fig. 8, measures 4 feet 9 inches wide, and 2 feet 4^ inches high, and is carved with a plain cross, in low relief, in a circle ; it has widely expanded limbs and a pronounced inclination to the right. The little quadrants at the intersection of the limbs occur on both the Mylor tympana, and are also found on four of the Cornish crosses,^ viz., St. Agnes, St. Kew, Roche, and Lesnewth. A line of chevrons with three little bosses in the interior angles runs nearly across the bottom of the stone, and is a continuation of the same moulding on the jambs. No. 2 is 3 feet 9^ inches wide, and i foot I of inches high. The subject is a cross of an elaborate nature, Plate XIX, fig. 9. The bead running along the springing line is a con- tinuation of that on the jambs below, which is thus carried completely round the opening. Rome, — This tympanum is now built into the west wall of the south aisle of the church. It was found in this aisle in 1884, and having been used as a building stone is somewhat mutilated. It is made of a similar kind of stone to that at Cury, and measures only 2 feet 9^ inches long, by I foot 4^ inches high. The ornament upon it is contained in three circles, a large one in the centre, and a much smaller one on either side ; the bottom of the circles being on a level. In the largest circle is a kind of double cross, Plate XIX, fig. 10. The smaller circle on the right contains a cross like that on tympanum No. i at Mylor, while that on the left is occupied by what seems to have been a six-pointed star, the missing portions of which are suggested by the dotted lines. A star of this kind is found on most of the sides of a particular type of font, of which there are nine examples in Cornwall, namely, Altarnun, Callington, Jacobstow, Landrake, Laneast,* Lawhitton, Lezant, St. Thomas the Apostle,* and Warbstow.^ In conclusion it only remains to add that the illustrations of the tympana, like those of the inscribed stones, the ornamented crosses, and coped stones, have been with four exceptions prepared from the writer's own rubbings, photographed to scale so as to ensure accuracy. ' A band of plain interlaced rings similar to these extends across the bottom of a tympanum at Beckford, Glouc. See J. R. Allen, Early Christian Symbolism, 261. An ornate fragment of Norman sculpture with interlaced rings, preserved in the Chapter House at Westminster Abbey, is engraved by Parker in his J. B.C. of Gothic Architecture, 3rd ed. 1882, 79. ^ Excellent photo illustrations will be found in the Journ. Royal Inst. Cornwall, xiv (1901), 394. ^ Langdon, Old Cornish Crosses, 76 to 79, and 165. * Illustrated in Jrch. Camb., Ser. 5, vol. xiii, 159. * Ibid. 347. ® Ibid. 160. 449 57 Between pages 4.50 an J 451- ANCIENT EARTHWORKS AND DEFENSIVE ENCLOSURES IN this chapter, which will be found to contain a fairly complete list of the ancient earthworks of the county, an attempt is made to classify them according to their physical characteristics. This plan has been adopted partly because no other method is at present equally available, and partly because the distinctions upon which the arrangement is based are well marked. With the exception of the work done at Chyoone Castle by the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society in 1895 ^"^ ^^ Tregeare in St. Kew by Messrs. Burnard and Baring-Gould in 1902, nothing in the nature of organized excavation has been attempted, and in the absence of the information which may be derived from such a source, or from historical record, this classification cannot at present be regarded as final, but the differences in the typical features which lead to it are obvious, and encourage the assumption that they have a historical foundation. This method of classification has also the advantage that it agrees with the scheme for recording such works prepared by the committee appointed for that purpose by the Congress of Archaeological Societies and published in 1903, with an appendix in 1905. The first list (Class A) contains defensive works which are * partly inaccessible by reason of precipices, cliffs or water.' In each case in Cornwall there is a rocky headland, connected to the main by a narrow neck of land across which run often two and sometimes three lines of entrenchment. On the sea side they are practically inaccessible. With the exception of Little Dinas in St. Anthony in Meneage, which perhaps may yet prove to be of a different origin from the others, it would be impossible to land except on a very few summer days, while on the land side they are completely overlooked. King Arthur's Castle at Tintagel is, as far as the situation is considered, a grand specimen of the class ; but although there may perhaps have been mere defensive entrenchments there at one time, they have long since been strengthened by the mason-built walls, which give it quite another character, and in consequence it is not included as a cliff castle coming within the limit of this chapter.^ The second list, which corresponds with the Class B in the scheme of the committee, contains the hill castles. These are earthen or rough ^ See Maclean, iii. 194, etc. for plans, etc. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL 5tone entrenchments which occupy the tops of prominent hills. They are roughly circular following the shape of the hill, large in diameter and having generally two and in some cases three lines of entrenchments. In many the walls are still of considerable height. Dr. Borlase wrote in 1769 of Chyoone Castle in Morvah : 'By the ruins of these walls I judge that the outermost could not be less- than 10 feet high, and the innermost about 15, but rather more.'^ As a class these hill castles stand, plain to be seen, on the summits of steep hills. Conspicuous for miles, they were surely the work of confident men who wished to command the country and had no fear of being seen. Castle an Dinas in St. Columb lords it haughtily over 100 miles of land and sea, and Chyoone Castle in the west, only second, tops the hill crest like a crown. Of the total number of this class given in the appendix, it is note- worthy that nine are west of Redruth, and of these seven are in the small district in the extreme western end of the county beyond Hayle estuary, while there are none on the tops of the greater hills on the Bodmin moors. The works put in the third list are very different. They are as a rule single banks of earth enclosing spaces of which some are round, some square with rounded corners, and some oblong, both round and square-sided. They stand on low ground, and in most cases where the land slopes to a river or stream. Hidden in sheltered places and now in many cases ploughed down so that only a low mound or terrace marks the site, they are not easy to find. Mr. S. R. Pattison observed^ of Upton Castle in Lewannick that it was commanded on all sides, and this is true of all these entrenchments which are in the neighbourhood of the hills. Near Upton, in the parishes of North Hill, Lezant, and Linkinhorne, there are many, and all, even within the limits of human eyesight, may be said to be at the mercy of any man who would hide himself under a furze bush on the Caradon Hills. From this it would seem to follow that to the men who threw up these earthworks the hills with their castles were a matter of no moment, and they sought to protect themselves against quite other dangers. They have been divided into two divisions, distinguishing those which have more than one bank or line, or which have outworks or the appearance of an outer court, and though subsequent research may show that this is not a real ground for making a distinction, yet in the present state of knowledge it seems worth making. It might have been possible to divide this class further into round and square-sided, but some of them are very irregular, and some might be considered as either, while the other features by which they have been classed are more uniform. Some such subdivision may yet be established. Beyond this classification they do not lend themselves readily to fit the headings suggested in the report of the committee. ^ j^ntiquities of Cornwall, p. 347. ' Joum. Roy. Inst. Cor-nw. (1871), vol. iv. pt. xiii. p. 73. GuNWALLOE, The Towans. St. Austell, Blackhead. Ca.fh9tifa.l Ca.'/ern Mead Sr Columb Forth . , "y^^^."- ^ St. Columb Minor, Trevelgue. ^jz-v*' r "^^^ " •jCALt OrFKCT lOO xoo %oo St. Just in Penwith, Kenidjack Castle. St. Keverne, Arrowan. Carnc/r Luz CLIFF CASTLES, LIST I. 453 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL In 1848 Mr. McLauchlan^ mentions 'a valuable suggestion by Mr. J. D. Crook respecting the number of these camps surrounding the heads of the two estuaries of the Fal, at Grampound and Truro.'" The number on the shores and in the immediate neighbourhood of the Helford and its creeks is also noticeable.^ There is also the peculiar feature here that on the north side of the main estuary the five camps, Carwythennack, Nancenoy and Merthen in Constantine, Grumbla in Wendron and the camp south of Gweek in Mawgan, are high up on the slopes, and overlook the tidal waters or valleys which were possibly tidal when the camps were made ; while on the south all the camps, except the one at Tremaine in St. Martin, are placed well away from and out of sight of the creeks. And it is also noteworthy that to the north of the Helford, from Penryn to Helston, the district of about 10 miles by 4, including the parishes of Mabe, Stithians, Constantine and Wendron, is the largest area of land in Corn- wall, throughout which no camps of any kind are found except the four on the shores already mentioned. But south of the estuary in the Lizard district there are not less than twenty. It may be that these camps will yet tell us something of the days when the Channel swarmed with the war-galleys of the Northmen.* Two of the ' camps ' in List III., both nearly exact squares with rounded corners, namely 'Tregear' at Nanstallon, in Bodmin, and Bos- ence in St. Erth are, from the character of the objects found in them, usually accepted as Roman, and they have therefore been placed in a subdivision under this description. A division of these earthworks in the manner here attempted has been made by previous writers. Dr. Borlase * arranged them in two classes, describing the hill and cliff castles as Danish and the others as Roman. In this scheme the cliff castles are the places at which the invaders made good their landing, and the hill castles are their subse- quent holds on the country. In attributing to the hill castles a Danish origin he was supporting the theory which prevailed in his day and, as Leland knew nothing of it, perhaps originated with R. Carew,* who wrote in 1602 of the hill castles 'which are termed Castellan Denis or Danis as raysed by the Danes when they were destyned to become our scourge.' Dr. Borlase mentions only six of the entrenchments, including in these Little Dinas in St. Anthony, and there can be little doubt but that he was greatly influenced to call these Roman by the finds then recently (1756) made at Bosence in St. Erth, and by the 24 gallons * of Roman brass money of the age of Constantine ' found in 1735 at Condurrah near Little Dinas. ' Roy. Inst. Comw. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 25. ^ See Probus, Kenwyn, St. Clement, in List III. Div. ii. ^ See Constantine, Manaccan, St. Anthony, St. Martin, and Mawgan in Meneage. * Pol. bk. ii. ch. i. * Borlase, The j^ntiguities of Cornwall {x"] 6^), pp. 34—8. * Carew, Survey ofCofnwall{\6o2). 454 Ca,sne Ea,srZa,r/n ^ Horra,e6 Littto Qoulan tG«L(OPFICT too «09 St. Levan, Treryn Dinas. flumps Point St. Minver, Pentire. CLIFF CASTLES, LIST I. 455 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The next writer who dealt with this subject, the Rev. R. Polwhele/ agrees with Dr. Borlase in calling the entrenchments Roman, and goes further. He was apparently acquainted with a larger number of them, and he writes confidently ' almost all of our camps are Roman.' On the other hand he entirely refuses to accept a Danish origin for the hill and the cliff castles which he puts together (including amongst them, quite unaccountably, Carnabargus in St. Erth) and calls them Irish. Since these two writers little has been done towards a systematic investigation of these camps and earthworks until recent years. In 1881 Mr. T. Cornish wrote a paper "^ in which, beginning at Hayle, and being guided largely by the syllable car^ gar or gear as meaning ' camp ' in the place names, he built up a suggestion of military operations extending from Phillack to Helston, in which the Cornish folk defended themselves against a Saxon invasion from the estuary on the north coast ; and sug- gested here the identification of the three battles in which, according to the Chroniclers,^ the Cornish with the help of Ivor, king of Brittany, recovered their land from the Saxon in the year 755 a.d. In 1890 the Rev. W. lago,* starting with the objects of Roman origin found at the * Tregear ' camp at Nanstallon in Bodmin, and guided largely by the distinction between square camps and round, constructed a Roman invasion from Port Isaac opposed by the Cornish. Yet another explanation, and perhaps the most fruitful of all, has been put forward quite recently. In 1871 Mr. Pattison ° expressed an opinion that Upton Castle in Lewannick was made to protect ' the possessions of a group of villagers in their huts.' But it is to Mr. O. B. Peter ^ that we owe the broad idea that all these entrenchments are fortified villages, appropriate to a time when men needed rather to protect their herds and property, especially at night, from a surrounding of lawlessness and disorder than from any actual military operations. In addition to the features of these ' village entrenchments ' described by Mr. Peter, it may well be noted that the greatest number of them are found in the districts on the north and the east side of the Bodmin moors. In these same parts, and especially between the moors and the Tamar, Saxon and Cornish place names are freely intermixed, and many of the Saxon names end in * stow ' or ' stock.' Our chroniclers relate ^ that although the Cor- nish were driven out of Devonshire about the year 735 a.d. the warfare did not end until Athelstan fixed the Tamar as the boundary between the two races in 936. These entrenchments, * stockades,' are imprints which two centuries of border warfare might well leave on the face of the country. There is also a large number near together in the parishes north of Truro, in Newlyn, St. Allen, Perranzabuloe and St. Enoder; and here ' History of Cornwall {\%oi), pt. i. ch. iv, p. 73. * Trans. Penz. Nat. Hist. ifS Antiq. Soc. vol. i. (new ser.) (1882), p. 126. ^ Borlase, Antiquities, 410. * Joum. Roy. Inst. Cormv. (1890), vol. x. p. 229. ^ Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. (1871), vol. iv. p. 73. * Ibid. (1902), vol. xv. p. 107. Borlase, Antiquities, 410. 456 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS too are traces of Saxon in the names of Newlyn, Crantock and Tre- sausen.^ Both these districts are comparatively low ground, in fact St. Enoder is said to be the most level part of Cornwall, and both have been long under cultivation. Mr. Peter includes as ' village entrenchments ' Tregeare in Eglo- skerry, Warbstow burrows, Helsbury Beacon in Michaelstow, and Kelly Rounds in Egloshayle, all of which have, in the Appendix to this chapter, been placed among the hill castles as being more of that character. There are in Cornwall three medizeval castles which stand on the summits of small partly artificial hills, viz. Launceston, Trematon and Restormel. There may very possibly have been more primitive defences on these hills originally, but there is now no trace, and the existence of the more modern buildings do not allow them to be included in this chapter. The two remaining classes into which the earthworks of Cornwall are divided in the Appendix are Class IV., the long banks or dykes which do not enclose a space, and Class V., the Plain-an-Gwariow. The name, which is still in use in St. Just in Penwith, is applied to circular enclosures or amphitheatres in which sports were held and the miracle plays are said to have been acted. Gwennap Pit is included, but it is possibly caused naturally by the running together of old mine workings. Carew in his Survey of Cornwall in 1602 (p. ji) speaks of earthworks of this class as though they were thrown up temporarily when and where required, and Dr. Borlase'' says, 'We have great numbers of them.' He however mentions only two, St. Just [Antiq. 208) and Perran [Nat. Hist. 298), both of which are still in fair preservation. The two at Newlyn East and Indian Queens (each of which is known locally as ' the Pit ') were made about 60 years ago for religious meetings. They are still used for this purpose and are carefully kept in good order. Although not ancient they are included because they preserve the pattern of the older works from which they were undoubtedly copied. Those at Ruan Major, Ruan Minor and Landewednack have disappeared, while at Redruth little or nothing remains but the name at the north end of the town. EXPLANATION OF AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO Arch. Camh. = Archaologia Cambriensis (1863) Blight List = List of the Antiquities of Penwith and Kirrier^ by J. T. Blight (1862) Bond = Typographical and Historical Sketches of the Boroughs of East and West Looe^ by Thomas Bond (1823) Borlase= The Antiquities of Cornwall, by W. Borlase, LL.D., F.R.S. (1769) Borlase Nat. Hist. = The Natural History of Cornwall, by W. Borlase, LL.D., F.R.S. (1758) Buller = Statistical Account of the Parish of St. Just in Penwith, by Rev. John Buller, LL.B. (1842) C.A.A. = The Report of the Cambrian Archaeological Association (Visit to Cornwall) (1862) Carew =^ The Survey of Cornwall, by R. Carew (1602) ' Tre = ' a dwelling,' Sausen = * Saxon.' ' Antiquities, 207. I 457 58 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Couch— The History of Polperro, by Jonathan Couch, F.L.S. (1871) Daniel = A Geography of Cornwall^ by Rev. J. J. Daniel (1854) Drew — A History of Cornwal/y hy Fortcscue Hitchins, published by Samuel Drew (1824), 2 vols. Edmonds = The Land\ End District^ by Richard Edmonds (1862) Gilbert ^The Parochial History of Cornwall, by Davies Gilbert, F.R.S. (1838) Hals = Parochial History of Cornwall [cxrcz 1700), published in Gilbert, q.v. Leland = Itinerary of Cornwall, by John Leland (1533-40); Hearne's (17 10) edition, pub- lished in Gilbert, q.v. Lysons = Magna Britannia, by Rev. D. Lysons and S. Lysons, vol. iii. Cornwall (18 1 4) Maclean = The History of Trigg Minor, by Sir John Maclean, F.S.A., 3 vols. (1873) Nan. Corn. = Nania Cornubia, by W. Copeland Borlase, F.S.A. (1872) Paris = A Guide to Mount's Bay, by Ayrton Paris (18 14) P.N.H. bf A.S. = Transactions of the Penxance Natural History and Antiquarian Society Pol. — The History of Cornwall, by Rev. R. Polwhele (1803-6). The references are to bk. i. ch. iv. unless otherwise stated Rashleigh = Notes on the Parish of Golant alias St. Sampson s, by E. W. Rashleigh (1885) R.I.C. = The Reports or Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall. Truro, half-yearly. Mr. H. McLauchlan's plans are in the Reports 1846-52 inclusive. R.G.S.C. = Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance Thomas. Those mentioned with this reference only are included on the authority of some maps ' showing the sites of ancient forts, barrows, etc.,' drawn by Mr. R. Thomas of Perranarworthal in 1842, and now in the Museum of the Penzance Antiquarian Society Tonkin = Parochial History of Cornwall (circa 1720), published in Gilbert, q.v. TVhitaker = Notes on Tonkin, published in Gilbert, q.v. IV. of Worcester = The Itinerary of William of Worcester (1478), published in Gilbert, q.v. All the earthworks mentioned in the following lists are marked in the I -inch ordnance survey, except where otherwise stated. List I CLIFF CASTLES CuBERT. — At Kelsey Head [R.I.C. 31st Rep. (1849), p. 36, O.S. xxxix. 5] GuNWALLOE. — Above the church \^Drew, ii. 302, O.S. Ixxx. 10] Illogan. — Near Tehidy [Borlase, 344; Polwhele, ill ; Lysons, ccxlvi., O.S. Ixii. 4 and Iv. 16, one plan] Mawgan in Pyder. — At Griffin's Point [R.I.C. 31st Rep. (1849), p. 36, O.S. xxxii. 5] Padstow. — At Stepper Point [O.S. xviii. 11] Perranzabuloe. — At Penhale Point [Thomas'} St. Anthony in Meneage. — ' Little Dinas.' The entrenchment and the headland enclosed by it are larger than is the case with the clifF castles generally. Tonkin (about 1730) says that Little Dinas was ' formerly fortified and had some guns placed on it to secure the entrance of Hailford Harbour.' It was held for the king in the Civil War and surrendered about 1646 [Hals; Tonkin; Borlase, 312 ; Polwhele, 12 1 ; Lysons, ccxlvi. ; Drew, ii. 31 ; Daniel, 199 ; R.I.C. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 33 and plan] St. Austell. — Black Head [O.S. Ix. i] St. Columb Minor. At Trevelgue [R.I.C. 31st Rep. (1849), p. 36 ; Neen. Com. 201 O.S. xxxi. 16] St. Eval.— ' RedclifF Castle,' Bedruthan [R.I.C. 31st Rep. (1849), P- 3^ 5 R.I.C (1865^ i. 64, O.S. xxiv. 13] St. Gennvs. — At Pencarrow Point [O.S. viii. 5] St. Goran. — At Pabyer Point The Dodman. Leland wrote, ' About a myle west of Penare is a forte near the shore in the paroch of St. Gerons. It is single-dykyd and within a but shot of the north side of the sayme apperith an hole of a vault broken up by a plough yn tylling. This vault had an issue from the Castelle to the se.' This description was identified by 458 Forth Log^oy ^ Tumu/us S&laHee N. SCALCorrtCT SciLLY, The Giant's Castle. CLIFF CASTLES, LIST I. TiNTAGEL, WiLLAPARK. t . -. ; <<.'':^ La r gin — Hood Braddock, Largin Castle. SCALE or reer '90 igo jijj. •"■'■\ •*•'•* '^ \ -* - -« 3 \ ., •■•• * *. scALEor rccr Cardinham, Bury Castle. .-'' ■■■•,,iiiii'"""""ift;. 1 1 !>>"' V* .-^ 'tit-' li r\ -J^i 51 V ' 5..= I' #1 Oh SCALCOF rCCT 100 too 300 too GoLANT, St. Sampson, Castledore. Egloshayle, Pencarrow. DEFENSIVE ENCLOSURES, LIST III., DIVISION I. 463 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL III ; Maclean^W. 5 and plan, 80, O.S. xix. 4]. This is marked in the ordnance map as Dameliock, the castle which figures in the King Arthur legend (see Hahy sub Dun- dagell), but on what authority ? See Helsbury Beacon, Michaelstow. There is a camp called Demelza in St. Wenn, and see Hals (sub St. Tudy). Excavated in 1902 by Messrs. Burnard and Baring-Gould. Slingstones, rusty iron and pottery were found, but not enough evidence to justify any conclusions as to date or origin, except that there was no trace of Roman influence. St. Stephen in Brannel. — *Trethullian Castle' [O.S. 1. 10] ' Resugga Castle,' faint traces [Lysons, ccxlix. ; R.I.C. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 22 and plan [O.S. \. 9] St. Thomas (Launceston). — At Kestle Wood \^R.I.C. (1902), xv. iio and plan. A drawing of this camp was presented to the Truro Museum in 1852 by Mr. S. R. Pattison, 34th Rep. (1852), p. 23, O.S. xvi. 7] Tintagel. — At Bosinney village [^./.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 19 and plan ; Maclean^ iii. 215, Trevenna, O.S. x. 13]. There is a large circular mound of earth on the site I rsT III Division II.— DEFENSIVE EARTHWORKS with Single Banks Bodmin. — At Dunmere Wood [Lywm, ccxiviii. ; R.I.C. 31st Rep. (1849), p. 24 and plan ; R.I.C. (1890), x. p. 227 ; Maclean^ i. I 14 and plan, O.S. xxvi. 13] Callington. — ' Castlewitch ' [Danie/, 107 ; R.I.C. (1902), xv, 114, O.S. xxix. 14] Camborne. — 'Treyeur ' at Drym [Drew, ii. 142, mentions these two camps, but probably by mistake for Tregear and Drym in Crowan] Colan. — Near Mellancoose [O.S. xl. 2] Constantine. — At Carwythennack. Nearly obliterated [Po/. 124, O.S. Ixxvi. 8] At Merthen. There are two large square-sided entrenchments, end to end, looking down the Helford to the open sea near Polwheveral Creek [O.S. Ixxvii. 9] Circular camp at Nancenoy [O.S. Ixxvii. 5] Creed. — At Trevillick, i mile north-east of Grampound [R.I.C. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 19 and plan] One mile north-east of St. Ewe Church [R.I.C. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 21 (as Pen- coose) and plan [O.S. lix. 6] Crowan. — 'Tregear' at Church Town [Drew, ii. 191, O.S. Ixx. 5] At Drym. This is included here on the authority of Drew, ii. 191. Drym is near Nancegollan station, but there is now no trace or record of a camp Cubert. — One mile south-east of church [O.S. xxxix. 15] CuRY. — Near Polwyn. Some remains in 1842 [Thomas, O.S. Ixxx. 3, Burncoose] Davidstow. — One mile south of Otterham station [O.S. xi. 9] Gerrans. — At St. Anthony's Point. This is included in this list as it is rather a camp on the clifF than a clifF castle [O.S. Ixxii. 13] ' Dingerein Castle.' In Drew, ii. 287, this is identified with the ' forte ' mentioned by Leland as being * a myle by west of Penare in the paroch of St. Gorans,' but it is more probable that Leland was referring to the Dodman (see St. Goran in List I) [Tonkin ; Drew, ii. 287, 289 ; Daniel, 1 76, O.S. Ixv. 5] GoLANT, St. Sampson. — ' Mount Dwen.' This is close to Castle Dore near Little Pinnick (see Golant, Division I.), but a much more primitive work [Rashleigh, 5, O.S. Ii. 4] GwENNAP. — At Trebowland Augear [O.S. Ixiii. 16] Gwinear. — At Coswinsawsen [P.N.H.&J.S. (1882), new ser. i. 129, and (1888), new ser. ii. 193, 195, O.S. Ixii. 16] GwiTHiAN. — ' Trevarnon Round ' was possibly used in the Civil War. A cannon ball has been dug up. It is more than half ploughed down [Drew, ii. 311 ; P.N.H.^A.S. (1882), new ser. i. 128, and (1888), new ser. ii. 193, O.S. Ixii. 10] Helland. — At Penhargard, near the castle (see Division I. and compare ' Castle Dore ' and ' Mount Dwen ' in Golant) [R.I.C. 32nd Rep. (1850), p. 36 and plan ; Maclean, i. 114, ii. 5, and plan, O.S. xxvi. 10] Helston. — ' Castle Wary ' or ' Wera ' near Nansloe [Hals ; Drew, ii. 317] The Bowling Green. Drew's Hist. (i. 637) says as on the authority of W. of 464 SCALC or rcer O too 20« »o* Pelynt. /^ / A^ LanrennicH ttood Pelynt. SCALE or rc«T lo* too •»1 Kew, Tregeare or Dameliock. fllVEf^ ^ fll- ICALCOf FttT Feock. DEFENSIVE ENCLOSURES, LIST III, DIVISION I. W^''%. ^¥ KiLKHAMPTON, PeNSTOWE. SCALECrrCCT 9 190 ipo yi» Mawnan, Carlidnack. DEFENSIVE EARTHWORKS, LIST III, DIVISION XL 465 59 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Worcester that there was a castle here, the residence of Edmund, Earl of Cornwall, But as W. of Worcester includes Treryn in St. Levan (List I.) and Castle-an-Dinas in St. Columb (List n.) in the same list, it may not have been a mediaeval castle. Nor does he say that Edmund resided here ; his statement is ' C. Helston dirutum : comes Cor- nubiae Edmundus ' (cf. his reference to Restormel, ' ubi manebat ') Illogan. — Near Portreath [Le/andy O.S. Ivi. 14. Nance Wood] Kea. — At Tregullas, perhaps used as a Plane-an-Gwarre in later times [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 33 and plan, O.S. Ixiv. 3] At Goodern [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), P- 35 ^"^ P'^"] Kenwyn. — At Chyvelah „ „ „ p. 42 „ (as Gwyloweth) 2^ miles west of Truro on the road to Chacewater At Governs [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 43 and plan (as Pentinney), i mile N.N.E. of Chyvelah, O.S. Ivii. lo, 11, 15] At Langarth, i mile N.N.W. of Chyvelah At Halgarras near Short Lanes End [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 43 and plan, O.S. Ivii. 3] Supposed site of castle (the present Cattle Market) [O.S. Ivii. 12] There was a camp at Gwarnick, i mile north of Short Lanes End, which was destroyed about 1790 [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), P- 44 ^"'^ plan] KiLKHAMPTON. — At Bamacott. Probably the one referred to in Pol. 106 [O.S. iii. 12] At Stowe Wood [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 113, O.S. iii. 4 ; and Winwood Castle, LysonSy ccxlvii, O.S. iv. I. Winsewood Castle] * Penstowe Castle.' The area is completely filled by three high mounds of earth [O.S. iii. 4] One mile east of Church Town [O.S. iv. 2] Ladock, — At Creens [O.S. xlix. 15 and 16] At Tregeare [O.S. xlix. 14] Lanreath. — At Bury Down [Borlase, in Nat. Hist. 325, mentions two here, but only one can be traced now ; Macleariy i. 114; LysonSy ccxlviii., says this had a double vallum and there was a small triangular camp 800 feet away to the south-east, O.S. xliii. 7] At Carwen, almost destroyed [R.I.C. 28th Rep. (1846), p. 30 and plan] At Castle Mawgan, not marked on ordnance map. Included here on the authority oi PolwheUy who says (p. 1 20) : 'To the East of Fowey, we have Castle Mawgan and the promontory of Pencarrow.' But it is possible that he was allowing himself to be guided by the names only Lanteglos by Camelford. — 'Newbury' near Helstone [^./.C. (1902), xv. iii,O.S. xiv. 15] Launcells. — At Brays Hill [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 113, O.S. vi. 5] Lawhitton. — At Cal Hill near Church Town [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xvii. 9] Lewannick. — At Trelaske Wood [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 113, O.S. xvi. 15] At Trethinna [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 113, O.S. xvi. 10] ' Upton Castle.' This is a small circular work enclosing two square-sided structures built of small stones. The ramparts were made of blocks of elvan laid in horizontal courses without mortar [R.I.C. vol. iii. No. xii. p. 30 ; Rep. (187 1), p. 73 ; (1888), ix. 344 and plan ; (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxii. l]. Polwhele mentions five in this district by the names ' Ridgehill,' ' Bastreet,' ' Caerneglos,' ' Dryworks ' and ' Deep hatches,' all of which he calls Roman Lezant. — At Carthamartha Wood [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxiii. 3] At Castle Park Hill [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxiii. 2. Grey Stone Wood] Linkinhorne. — ' Roundbury,' near Browda [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxviii. 4] At Church Town [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxii. 16] Liskeard. — 'Roundbury.' This camp is in a field i mile north of Liskeard where the St. Cleer road branches off at right-angles eastward to Launceston. Worn down by ploughing it might be easily overlooked [O.S. xxxvi. 2] LuxuLiAN. — At Innis Downs, 2 miles south-west of Lanivet [O.S. xxxiii. 16] Madron. — Trewern Round [Edmondsy 39, O.S. Ivii. 16] Manaccan. — At Rosemorder [Pol. 125. Entrenchment at Tregidden, O.S. Ixxxi. 2] Near Trenower Thomas marks the following : At Kestle At Treath 466 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS At Carply [O.S. Carplight, Ixxxi. i] At Treworgie At south-east of Rosemorder Marhamchurch. — At Walesborough. Not marked in the ordnance map. Included here on the authority of Borlase^ II2 [Pol. 107 ; Drew^ ii. 449 j more probably the site of an ancient chapel, Lysons^ ccxlvii.] Mawgan in Meneage. — At Carlidna South of Gweek. This, which is on the edge of a hill looking over the creek, is a round camp, while the others which command these creeks (see Wendron and Constan- tine) are square \_Drew^ ii. 451 ; Daniel, 198, O.S. Ixxvi. 12] Mawgan in Pyder. — At Carloggas [JF. of Worcester] Mawnan. — At Carlidnack [O.S. Ixxvii. 3 and 4] Minster. — At Boscastle. This is supposed by some to be the site of Bottreaux Castle, and there may have been a mediaeval castle here. There is no trace of such a building, and even W. of Worcester is vague. He speaks of ' Castrum vocatum Botreaux Castel ' [DreWy ii. 491 ; Gilbert; Daniel^ 152; R.I.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 19 and plan]; Forrsbury Common, O.S. x. 7] At Slaughter Bridge there are traces of earthworks, at the junction of the rivers above the bridge [R.I.C. 32nd Rep. (1850), p. 39 and plan]. This is the legendary site of the battle in which King Arthur was mortally wounded Newlyn. — Near CargoU [O.S. xxxix. 16] At Trewinnon Camp [O.S. xl. 14] North Hill. — 'Rings Camp' near Coad's Green [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxii. 7. Trefuge] ' Killabury,' at Newton [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxii. 7] ' Alabury' near Trebartha „ „ „ See note under Lewannick [O.S. xxii. 10] Paul. — 'The Roundago ' at Kerris [Borlase, 198 (plan at 206) ; Pol. bk. ii. ch. iv. 193 ; Paris, 70 ; Drew, i. 131 ; Daniel, 211 ; Edmonds, 1 6 ; Nan. Corn, lj6 ; P.N.H. & A.S. (1890), new ser. iii. 215]. Not marked in ordnance map * The Round ' at Castallack [R.I.C. (1865), vol. i. p. i. ix. 66 with plan]. Nearly destroyed Perranzabuloe. — 'Round' at Penhallow [O.S. xlviii. 14] At Tresawsen [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 29 and plan ; Pol. bk. i. ch. xi. p. 211 calls this ' a double entrenchment,' O.S. Ivii. 2] Near Engelley (Higher Gilley) [Thomas; R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), P* 29 and plan (as Kerrowangilley)]. Not marked in ordnance map Thomas marks remains of a camp near Lambourn, and of another ' nearly square ' near Penwortha Phillack. — 'Castle Cayle' [Leland ; Whitaker ; Gilbert; Daniel, 206 ; Edmonds, 39, 214; P.N.H.^A.S. i. 345, and (1882), new ser. i. 128, O.S. Ixix. 6] At Riviere. There is now no trace of this except the name. Leland said that in his time it was ' as sum think drounid with sand ' [Drew, ii. 108, 555-6 ; Daniel, 206] Poughill. — Stamford Hill is the site of an ancient earthwork and of Sir Beville Grenville's victory over the Parliament troops on 15 May 1653 [Drew, ii. 564 ; R.I.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 21 and plan, O.S. iii. 16] PouNDSTOCK. — At Trebarfoot [Borlase, 312 ; Polwhele, 107 ; R.I.C. (1902), xv. Ill j Mil- look, O.S. viii. 2] Probus. — At Golden. The reference in Leland is to the manor house, not to the camp [Borlase, 312 ; Lysons, ccxlvii. ; Polwhele, 120, and vol. i. ch. xi. p. 209 ; JVhitaker ; Drew, ii. 569 ; R.I.C. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 24 and plan, O.S. Iviii. 8] At Carvossa. There is a legend of a battle fought here between the Cornish and the Danes [Lysons, ccxlvii ; Tonkin ; Drew, ii. 568 ; R.I.C. 30th Rep. (1848), p. 24 and plan ; Pol. bk. i. ch. xi. p. 209, O.S. Iviii. 4] At Resparva [Drew, ii. 569 ; Pol. bk. i. ch. xi. p. 209] Near railway station The following are not marked on the ordnance map, and are inserted here on the authority oi Drew, ii. 569, as having been traceable (nearly circular) in 1824 > ^"^ P°^- bk. i. ch. xi. p. 209 : At Helland At Trewithan A little south of Church Town 467 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL QuETHiocK. — At Hammett. In two fields much worn by the plough and almost obliterated [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxxvi. 4 and xxxvii. i] St. Agnes. — Thomas marks remains of camps at Trevisack and Mevagissey St. Anthony in Meneage. — At Gillybowls near Tregithey. Not marked on the ordnance map. Included here on the authority of Ha/s and Pol. 122. Thomas marks traces or remains of the following which are not marked on the ordnance map : — At Condurrow Between Trezebal and Higher Boden On a hill near Gillan Haven Near Gillan Haven East of Roskreeg farm St. Austell. — ' Castle Gotha ' near Penrice [LysonSy ccxlix ; R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 19 and plan, O.S. li. 13] St. Breward. — ' King Arthur's Hall,' at Emblance Downs. This is of a curious struc- ture in having the stone facing on the inside of the walls or ramparts [R.I.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 22 ; (1895), xiii. 108 and plan ; Maclean, i. 352 ; Norden and plan] St. Burian. — At Trewoofe ; a little south-west of the present farmhouse on the other side of the stream there is an artificial cavern or ' fougou ' in a bank. There is no sign of any entrenchment to be seen now, but Hals speaks of traces being visible in his time [Drew, ii. 131 ; C.A.A. 34, 36 ; Gilbert, i. 143] St. Clement (Truro). — At Dinas, a quarter of a mile south of Church. (?) Castle Moresk [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 22 and plan, O.S. Iviii. 12] At Tregurrow [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 23 and plan, O.S. Iviii. 4]. Site of Castle Polwhele [see fV. of Worcester, O.S. Iviii. 9] St. Columb Major. — At Carnanton. Between the East Gate and St. Columb. Very little visible. This may be the ' Castle Fust ' mentioned by W. of Worcester [Pol. 108 ; Drew, ii. 458, O.S. xxxii. 10. Lower Tresacole] St. Dominick. — At Brendon Mill [O.S. xxix. 12] St. Enoder. — At Goonhoskyn [Pol. 108, or the next as ' Carvinnack,' O.S. xl. 14] At Resparva [O.S. xlix. 2] At Summercourt [Near road from Summercourt to Penhale Round, O.S. xl. 15] Near Church Town [O.S. xl. 15] St. Erme. — Carland and Coskeyle. Site of Killigrew [O.S. xlix. 5] St. Erth. — ' Carnabargus ' near (south of) vicarage [Pol. 112 ; Gilbert ; R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), ^"<^ pl^" > (1890), X. 243, O.S. Ixix. 5] ' Castle Menneck,' at Tredrea [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), P* 37 ^^^ plan]. Existing traces very faint There is a semicircular embankment at Hayle on a low promontory overlooking both estuaries, marked (O.S. Ixix. i) as a ClifF Castle, now used as a public walk. An inscribed stone said to have the date 500 was found here St. Ervan. — At Carnevas. There is now no trace of any camp. It is inserted on the authority of Polwhele (108). There may have been something visible in his time, or he may have been guided by the name only. His reference is ambiguous. St. Eval. — At Trevisker [O.S. xxxii. 2] St. Gennys. — At Tregayor [R.I.C. (1902), xv. iii, O.S. viii. 6] At Pengold „ „ „ O.S. viii. 13] At Resparrett „ „ „ O.S. xi. l] St. Gluvias. — Near the church. Site of camp [O.S. Ixxi. 7] St. Goran. — At Castle Hill [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), P* 3° ^^^ P'^^" » ^^ Golowras Pol. bk. i. ch. xi. p. 208, O.S. lix. 16] Pol. i. ch. xi. p. 208 mentions *a small round entrenchment at Bodrigan.' St. Issey. — Half-mile south-west of church [O.S. xxiv. 12] St. IvE. — *Cadsonbury' near Newbridge [Lysons, ccxlviii ; R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxix. 13] 'Tokenbury' [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 114, O.S. xxviii. 7] St. Keverne. — On Goonhilly Downs [O.S. Ixxxi. 13]. There is a small camp close to this At Halwyn near Porthalla [Polwhele, 125, O.S. Ixxxi. 3] Thomas marks traces of another near Athay 468 Iarti DEFENSIVE EARTHWORKS, LIST III., DIVISION II. 469 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL St. Kew. — At Tregilders [R.I.C. (1890), x. 231, O.S. xxv. 4] At Trevinnick [R.I.C. {iSgo), x. 229; R.I.C. (1902), xv. iii, O.S. xix. 7]. These two are classed as Roman in Mr. lago's scheme [Mac/ean, ii. 80] At Polrode [R.I.C. (1902), xv. iii, O.S. xx. 5] St. Martin in Meneage. — 'The Gear' [PoL 125 ; Dreiu^ ii. 451 ; Daniel^ 198, O.S. Ixxvi. 16] At Caervallack [DreWy ii. 451 ; Daniel^ 198, O.S. Ixxvi. 16] At Tremaine [O.S. Ixxvii. 13] St. Mewan. — Near Trelower [R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), P- 3"^ ^^^ P^^"> O.S. 1. 15] St. Minver. — At Dinham. There is no trace of a camp here, but Polwhele (p. 108) says : ' We observe in the parish of St. Minver a Roman camp on a little tongue of land washed by the Camel. It is called the Dinas.' The identification is hypothetical, and see Maclean^ iii. 7 St. Neot. — At Goonzion Down [O.S. xxxv. 2] St. Stephen in Brannel. — Near Langerth [Nanzearth, O.S. 1. 6] St. Teath. — Near Castle GofF. See Lanteglos St. Wenn. — At Demelza [Pol. bk. i. ch. xi. p. 210, O.S. xxxiii. 10] Sancreed. — At Trannack Downs [Thomas] Sithney. — St. Elvans, now a small field, roughly circular with a ditch on the north side, called the 'Garland ' (Caer-Lan r). There is a local tradition that it was once a graveyard. It is the property of the churchwardens [O.S. Ixxvi. 9] South Petherwin. — ' Battle Ring,' at Brockle [R.I.C. (1902), xv, 113, O.S. xvi. 16] Stoke Climsland. — On Kit Hill. This earthwork is of a different character, and perhaps origin, from the types of the class. It is however included here until digging, or some other source of information, afford more reliable knowledge. It is the site of a legendary battle [O.S. xxix. 7] Stratton. — At Binnomay. Stated by Dr. Borlase and Polwhele to be a Roman camp. But certainly the site of a later building, as William of Worcester says that ' Castle Bynamy ' was standing in his time, and was the property of Sir John Colshill or Colville [W. of Worcester \ Borlase., 312 ; Pol. 107 ; Lysons^ ccxlvii ; R.I.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 20 and plan, O.S. v. 4] ' The Castle,' half-mile north by east of Stratton. Not marked in ordnance map [R.I.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 21 and plan] * Yerdbury,' at Hunthill [Lysons^ ccxlvii. (and ? Grews Hill) ; R.I.C. 34th Rep. (1852), p. 21 and plan (as Hardbury) ; (1902), xv. 113, O.S. iv. 9] Talland. — At Bury Park, Trelaske near Kilminorth [Gilbert-^ Bond, 165; R.I.C. 28th Rep. (1846), p. 27 and plan] Tintagel. — ' Trenalebury Ring' [R.I.C. (1902), xv. ili ; Maclean, iii. 189, O.S. x. 14] Veryan. — Near Trengrowse, Castle Ends [O.S. Ixvi. i] Near Gvvendra ; south of Church Town [Carne, O.S. Ixv. 12] Week St. Mary. — 'Ashbury' [Lysons, ccxlvii ; R.I.C. (1890), x. 233; (1902), xv. 113, [O.S. viii. 8] At Swanacot „ „ „ „ „ „ „ [O.S. ix. i] At Church Town [R.I.C. (1902), xv. 113 ; Daniel, 137, O.S. viii. 8] Wencron. — At Grumbla, i^ miles north-west of Gweek [O.S. Ixxvi. 7] Whitstone. — AtHikonWood [Ly sons, ccxlvii. ; R.I.C. (1902), xv. 112, O.S. vi. 13] * Froxston Castle ' „ „ „ „ ,,113 PROBABLE ROMAN CAMPS Bodmin. — ' Tregear ' at Nanstallon. No systematic investigation has been made, but various objects, many of them of undoubted Roman origin, have been found here from time to time. A full list and description are given in R.I.C. (1890), x. 211, etc. The camp is square-sided with rounded corners. It lies low near the river, and is completely overlooked by Dunmere Woods (see Bodmin Sup.) [Daniel, 143 ; R.I.C. 31st Rep. (1849), p. 21 and plan ; Maclean, i. 114 and plan] St. Erth. — At Bosence. No systematic search has been made. In 1756 the farmer found and cleared out a pit 36 feet deep in the west corner, in which a bowl with an inscription on the bottom, a jug and other articles, probably Roman, were found. Dr. Borlase 470 St. Martin in Meneage, TremainEo lifa c^ye. -^ C£ •wQ N A HI QQ|\I'^ Lysonsy ccxlvi. ; R.I.C. 29th Rep. (1847), p. 28 ; Pol. bk. i. ch. xi. p. 205] List V PLANE-AN-GWARIOW Gwennap. — Gwennap Pit. It is doubtful if this place was ever used for plays. John Wesley preached here, and it has since been used almost exclusively for that purpose. It is not marked in the ordnance map [Gilbert ; Daniel^ 194] Landewednack. — Near the church. Not marked in the ordnance map and not traceable. Inserted on the authority oi Polwhele ^ bk. ii. ch. iv. p. 192. Polwhele was vicar of Man- accan in this neighbourhood Newlyn East. — About |- of a mile north of Church Town on west side of the road ; modern Perranzabuloe. — * Perran Round.' This was used for plays and sports, but may have had an earlier origin. The plan in Dr. Borlase's Natural History shows a most noticeable foss outside [Borlase, Nat. Hist. 298 (with plan) ; Polewhele^ bk. ii. ch. iv. p. 192 ; Gilbert ; DreWy ii. 542 ; Daniel^ 1 86, O.S. xlviii. 6] Redruth. — Part of the north end of the town is still called Plane-an-Gwarry. The place is marked in Martin's map of Cornwall, 1759 [Tonkin ; Polwhele, bk. ii. ch. iv. p. 192 ; Gilbert ; Daniel, 204, O.S. Ixiii. 3] RuAN Major near the church ) Both included on the authority of Polwhele, bk. ii. ch. iv. RuAN Minor at Trealeage ) P- 192 472 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS St. Columb Major. — A little south of the main road at Indian Queens ; modern St. Just in Penwith. — In the market place. The wall facing which now protects the Round on the outside was built about forty years ago. This is still called locally the ' Plane-an-Gwarry,' or short, ' The Plane ' [^Borlasey 2o8 (with plan) ; Polwhele^ bk. ii. ch. iv. p. 193 j Buller } Daniel^ 218, O.S. Ixxiii. 2] SiTHNEY. — Plane-an-Gwarry [O.S. Ixxv. 5]. There is a tenement so called about \ mile east of Church Town, but nothing now existing to mark the actual site. There is a shallow circular depression in a field here which is identified on the ordnance survey, but this is not in the field known as the ' Playne Field * 473 60 MARITIME HISTORY Hitherto France and Spain have been the only two powers that have threatened an invasion of England from the south ; and Cornwall, being the nearest to Spain and opposite the great military ports of Brittany and the Bay of Biscay, was thought to be peculiarly exposed to danger. Asa fact, it has never experienced anything more serious than inconsiderable raids, and that portion — the Scilly Islands — which for two centuries Cornish men were constantly representing to the Government as especially subject to assault and especially attractive to an enemy, has never been attacked at all since the Viking era. These islands, although extremely dangerous of approach, often shrouded in sea fog, with an anchorage exposed to the full force of the frequent westerly gales, and, at least in former days, unable to supply a fleet with water or provisions, might possibly have served as a temporary base for an enemy who had obtained the command of the Channel and was bent on destroying commerce. But, of old, an enemy having obtained such command would have used it for a purpose more important than commerce destruction, and the Scillies are useless for invasion. The tactical value of the islands has never been tested, because no modern enemy has ever held the command of the Channel long enough to make use of them ; but it is obvious that their safety, like that of the Channel Islands, depends not on the forts and garrisons for which successive governors pleaded, but on sea power, and that their possession stands or falls with the supremacy of the British Navy. No part of the mainland of Cornwall can be described as offering particular facilities for invasion, but nature has marked out sharply between the north and south coasts the divergence from mere peril to infinite risk. From the sea mark on St. Martin's Island, Scilly, to the north-west extremity of Cornwall is a stretch of some 85 miles of reefs, sands, and foul and rocky cliflF : grim and forbidding under the most favourable conditions ; almost certain destruction when, as frequently happens, it is a lee shore in gales from west round to north-east. In this length of coast there are only two harbours : St. Ives, dangerous in winds from north to east, and Padstow, difficult or even hazardous of entrance, while neither affords shelter for any craft much bigger than a coaster.^ It is therefore not surprising that we do not hear of the appearance of an enemy on this coast except in the shape of an occasional privateer. The southern seaboard has proved sufficiently fatal to mariners, but compared with that of the north it offers spacious bays, sheltered anchorages, and safe harbours, of which the best — Falmouth — seemed at one moment likely to become the chief military and commercial port of the west. There are no statistics available, but it is not unlikely that half the wrecks that occurred in early times on the southern shores of Cornwall were due directly or indirectly to the Lizard, and the reputation of the promontory has affected the whole coast ; but the Lizard itself has been the salvation of vessels caught under certain conditions of wind and situation. On the whole, however, we have a county rock-bound and studded with reefs, projecting into the English Channel in such a direction as to form a trap for vessels driving down before easterly gales, or entering, whether from the south or north, before westerly ones, and with the jagged mass of the Lizard jutting out as the tongue of the trap to ensure destruction. In the middle ages such a coast, uncharted and unlighted, was safe enough from attack for eight months out of the year, for it requires little imagination to picture the reflections of the foreign seaman who found himself off it on a black winter night or approaching it during the short and dark winter day. From the point of view of the invader the ports that would tempt him afford compensating advantages to the defender. Falmouth could shelter an invader's fleet, but many thousands of men and many batteries in outlying positions would be necessary to protect the Carrack Roads from the defender's attack. Fowey could have received the fleet of a mediaeval invader, but there also the same network of outlying positions would be required, though on a smaller scale. But the great disadvantage of the county from the invader's standpoint is the distance from any vital centre to which he must force his way before commencing decisive operations ; while the rugged character of the interior, offering the defender excellent military positions, would make his advance slow and costly. More- over, the invader of Cornwall would have had great difficulties of transport to reckon with, for the county was probably one of the most backward in England in the construction of roads for wheeled carriages. Mn tfie twenty-four years 1823-46 there were 131 vessels lost between the Land's End and Trevose Head, a distance of little more than 40 miles {Pari. Papers, 1859, x, pt. i, 331). Of course steam has largely diminished these risks. 475 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL As the early inhabitants of Cornwall and Devon are described as having intercourse with Gaul and as having been more civilized than the other tribes of the south coast, we may suppose that in maritime matters they had advanced beyond the simple coast fishery which is the first step towards navigation. This inference is supported by Caesar's statement that the Veneti were assisted by British ships, and these must have crossed the Channel to the Bay of Biscay to join their allies. On the other hand, in that stage of social development there was no room for two maritime nations of equal strength to live in peace within striking distance of each other, and we may be certain that the ships belonging to the south-western coasts were not in number or size of a kind to cause the Veneti jealousy or fear, nor is there any statement that local shipping was employed in the transport of tin. The Romans are said to have adopted a long, low, fast-sailing boat in use among the Britons, and this, no doubt, belonged to the south coast. Some antiquaries believe that there is evidence indicating the existence of Roman naval stations at Polruan, on the Fal, and at Condurra, but it is not sufficient to outweigh the antecedent improbabilit}^ The long struggle of the Saxon conquest and settlement did not affect Cornwall in any way that has procured notice in maritime annals before the subjection of the West Welsh in the campaigns undertaken by Ecgberht. The Danes settled in Ireland soon found their way across the sea, and their alliance with the natives and the battle of Hengston in 837 imply many previous leagues on a smaller scale between the Cornish and the raiders, who could have found little to tempt them in Cornwall compared with the richer country farther east.^ It is possible that the West Welsh not only supplied recruits to the Viking armies, but themselves harried the neighbouring coasts in their own vessels ; and this may have been one factor impelling ^thelstan to his march to the Land's End in 925, since which Cornwall has been an integral part of the kingdom. No doubt for nearly a thousand years the men of the coast had carried on an unambitious maritime business, principally in the fishery, perhaps trafficking with their kindred in Brittany, who probably then visited Cornish waters for fishing purposes, as they did in later centuries. Perhaps, too, Cornish ships ventured as far as the ports of Guienne, and such vessels may have formed a portion of the fleets levied by the later English and Danish kings before the Conquest. For some years after 1066 William I had no fleet, but when the necessity arose he found no difficulty in raising one from his English and Norman territories, and between the last threat of a Danish invasion in 1 083 and the loss of Normandy in 1204 there were few occasions for great maritime levies, seeing that the Channel then was not a disputed tract, but only the sea road between dominions under the same sovereign. In 1 171, at Milford Haven, there were collected 400 vessels to carry Henry II and his army to Ireland, and from geographical situation it is certain that Cornwall must have furnished its quota to the expedition. But for upwards of a century only small fleets for transport purposes were required in the desultory dynastic wars occurring, and for these it was sufficient to call upon the Cinque Ports, London, and the adjacent districts ; the king's writ ran in the west, but it was cheaper and quicker to levy in the centre of maritime traffic, where ships were larger, men more numerous, and there would be less delay. A fleet conveying the main body of the Crusaders left Dartmouth in April, 11 90, but most of the vessels were obtained from the Continental possessions of the crown. With the reign of John we have the first official reference to the maritime life of Cornwall ; in 1205 orders were sent to the bailiff^ of that and other western counties to procure expert workmen and seamen to build and navigate the king's ships,- and their existence in 1205 imports previous generations of craftsmen who furnished unrecorded services. The Patent and Close Rolls show that the right of impressing ships and men was strictly enforced during this reign, and the ' common form ' character of the orders proves that it was no new proceeding. The names of ships and their owners in the various ports were registered by William of Wrotham, the administrative head of the navy, and Cornwall is always included in the writs sent to the counties generally. There is a list of fifty-one galleys belonging to the Crown in 1205, with the ports at which they were stationed, but there is none between Exeter and Bristol. John's wars in Ireland and Wales in 1 210 and 1212 necessitated general arrests of ships in those years, but we have no details of the part taken by the several ports nor of the proportions in which they furnished the great fleet of 500 vessels in 12 13 which won the victory of the Swin. The naval history of Cornwall during the reign of Henry III is not important, the principal reliance being placed in the Cinque Ports service, which formed the backbone of the royal fleets. In 1224, war with France being expected, there was a general arrest of shipping round the east and south coasts, but it ended at Dartmouth. In 1226 there was an order forbidding ships to sail to French ports, and writs were directed to the bailiffs of Fowey and Falmouth amongst others ; "* in 1230 there was another general arrest of all ships capable of carrying sixteen or more horses, for an invasion of Brittany, and this time the ' Grimsby and St. Agnes in the Scillies and Helford and Gweek on the mainland are Norse names (Taylor, Words and Places'), and suggestively well-chosen stations. ^ Pat. 6 John, m. 2. ' Close, 10 Hen. Ill, m. z"] d. 476 MARITIME HISTORY writs were directed also to Cornwall.^ Fowey and Falmouth are the only two Cornish ports as yet referred to ; and at the latter, in 1226, a trading vessel of Bruges was plundered by the crews of four English ships, apparently coasters.^ A feature of the thirteenth century is the appointment of one or more persons, sometimes for one county and sometimes for a group of counties, as keepers of the coast, a step towards organiza- tion and systematic defence. In August, 1224, Geoffrey de Lucy was nominated keeper of the whole coast from Pevensey to Bristol, but on 7 September John of Bayeux is entrusted with the keepership of Cornwall and Devon.* As Lucy was in command of the fleet his superior appoint- ment was no doubt made to qualify him to give orders to the keepers in the various counties. The duties of the keeper were both military and judicial ; but, practically, he was expected to put down piracy, to beat off raiders, to enable coasters and fishermen to sail in peace, and to summon the county to arms on invasion. To do this he could call upon the coast districts to furnish men and ships. The office did not continue long, for during the second half of the fourteenth century the growth of the admiral's court, the increased power of the admirals, and finally the creation of the office of High Admiral, lessened its importance. Historically, however, he seems to be the ancestor of the conservators of truces instituted locally by Henry V, and the latter and more fully developed vice-admirals of the coast we find acting from the middle of the sixteenth century. A part of the system of defence under the care of the keeper was the line of beacons, corresponding to the modern coastguard stations, which encircled the coast, usually placed on the hill nearest to the shore and guarded in war time by a watch from the neighbouring parishes.* The Welsh wars of 1277 and 1282-3 ^"^ ^^^ Scotch war of 1295 were mainly fought by the feudal armies ; squadrons of ships were present, but the fighting units were chiefly pro- vided by the Cinque Ports, as was usual at this time. Edward himself went to Sluys in 1297, and for this expedition there was a general arrest of ships of 40 tons and upwards along the south coast.^ In 1301 and 1302 Cornwall was required to assist in the Scotch war: in the first year Looe and Fowey were called upon to send each one ship ; in the second year Looe, Saltash, and Portpilham ^ were grouped for one, and Lostwithiel, Bodmin, Fowey, and Polruan for another.^ In the case of the 1302 levy security was to be taken from the owners that the ships would actually appear ; for in the previous year several towns, including Fowey, had ignored the king's writ.* Probably shipowners found piracy or privateering more profitable, and Cornish proclivities in this direction had already attracted the king's attention,^ but there was no general disinclination to respond to the demands of the crown. The constant levies of ships and men were apparently destructive of commerce, but in reality were not nearly so disastrous to it as they appear. A trading voyage involved great risk of loss from wreck, piracy, and privateering, or in the sale of the cargo ; the royal service meant certain pay for the fitting and hire of the ship, sixpence a day for the officers, and threepence a day for the men — very liberal wages allowing for the different value of money. The incessant embargoes that harassed trade — then much increased — under Edward III were not yet common, and the alacrity with which most of the ports responded to the demands made upon them shows that the assistance required was neither too oppressive nor unwelcome, especially as those who contributed to the sea service were freed from any aid towards that by land. There was no permanent naval organization at this time. The king possessed some ships of his own, and the commanders were usually charged with their maintenance. When a fleet was to be raised from the mer- chant navy a certain extent of the coast was allotted to one of the king's clerks, or to a serjeant-at-arms, who acted with the bailiffs of the port towns in selecting ships and men and seeing them dispatched to the place of meeting. If a ship did not appear, or the men deserted, they, or the owner, might be required to find security to come before the king ; and, although there was as yet no statute ^^ dealing with the offence, they were imprisoned by the authority of the king alone, or punished at the discretion of the admiral.^^ In 1306 the steward of Cornwall was ordered to commit to Launceston Castle any mariners who refused to serve at the king's cost ; ^^ but Edward usually preferred persuasion to rougher methods, and in 1303 requested the burgesses of Liskeard, Launceston, and Portpira^* to aid those of Looe, Portpilham, ^ Close, 14 Hen. Ill, ra. ij d. ^ Pat. 10 Hen. Ill, m. 7. ^ Ibid. 8 Hen. Ill, m. 3, m. 5. * 'Signa consueta vocata beknes per ignem.' Cf. Southey, Lives of the Admirals, i, 360 (quoting Froissart), as to the method of constructing them. '" Pat. 25 Edw. I, pt. ii, m. 10. ^ West Looe. ' Pat. 29 Edw. I, m. 20 ; 30 Edw. I, m. 2. ® Ibid, 30 Edw. I, m. 14, m. 10. Ibid. 21 Edw. I, m. 14, m. \od. The first statute was 2 Ric. II, stat. i, c. 4, by which deserters were fined double their wages, and imprisoned for a year. " Pat. 30 Edw. I, m. 13 ; 32 Edw. I, m. 28 ; Close, 17 Edw. II, m. 6 d. In the case of Fowey, in I 301, the punishment was left to the discretion of the king's clerk sent down (Pat. 30 Edw. I, m. 14). '^ Ibid. 35 Edw. I, m. 45. " Polperro. 477 9 10 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL and Saltash in equipping a ship, explaining that he set 'special store' on the naval side of the campaign, and that the inhabitants of the three towns assessed could not by themselves suffice for the expenses.^ The plunder of wreck was, of course, more or less common all round the coast ; but in Cornwall lawlessness seems already to have reached an extreme limit, perhaps because it was so far from the seat of government. In 1305 William le Poer, the coroner of the Scilly Islands, went to Tresco to inquire into a wreck, and to take charge of the salved cargo ; but he was seized and imprisoned by a mob, the ringleader being the prior of St. Nicholas, until he bought his freedom, and subsequent inquiry showed that the men-at-arms and their leader, who garrisoned the islands, were the principal offenders.^ Shortly afterwards a Spanish ship was wrecked on the mainland, the cargo plundered, and the owner kept in confinement at Mousehole for a year.^ Another bad case caused a commission of inquiry in 1340 ; here an Irish ship came ashore at Porthleven, when sixty- one persons named, including several religious, broke up the vessel * into little pieces,' and carried away timber and cargo,^ Smuggling, in the shape of the secret and unlicensed exportation of wool, was another branch of maritime enterprise, and piracy was an ordinary business venture. Many of the cases of so-called piracy, however, were simply seizures of enemies' goods in neutral ships, and would merely have provided legal arguments had an Admiralty Court existed ; others can have had no such explanation, such as an instance in 1312 when a ship lying at Fowey was boarded by Fowey and Lostwithiel men, taken away and sold abroad, and the owner held a prisoner at Lostwithiel.® The townsmen of the various ports eventually found the methods of Edward II in unpleasant contrast to those of his father, for they were frequently called upon to supply ships at their own expense. But at first the ordinary course was followed ; and a large fleet being fitted out for the Scotch war in 131 1, Looe and Fowey were required to send two vessels, for which the cost would be paid in coin at the Exchequer, allowed on the farm of the towns, or deducted from any debt due to the king.'' Again, in 13 14 the same towns were assessed for two ships ;^ but by 1316a depleted exchequer necessitated what must have appeared to be injustice, for two of the king's clerks were sent to the ports between Southampton and Falmouth to take up ships at the expense of the burgesses for the guard of the Channel.^ In 13 17 Looe and Fowey were ordered to send a ship to serve at their own cost for a month and afterwards at the king's, and in 13 19 Looe, Fowey, Bodmin, and Falmouth were desired to send as many ships as they could to serve three or four months at their own expense.^ The naval service for the Scotch war had pressed most heavily on the Cinque Ports and the east coast, and the eastern towns must have welcomed a truce, in 1320, for two years. In 1322 the war was renewed, and on 3 April Edward applied to many ports, but in Cornwall only to Falmouth, for ships at their own expense. Apparently there was no ready response to this, for on 25 April the same application was repeated with the proviso that the levies were to be at the cost of the crown, and Fowey and Looe were now included. ^^ In 1323 a truce for thirteen years was made with Scotland, but war with France followed immediately, and transports were required for the conveyance of an army to Gascony, for which Fowey sent one vessel. ^^ A series of embargoes and preparations, attended by little result, succeeded, until the menacing attitude of Isabella in 1326 caused urgent preparations to be made to meet the imminent invasion. Early in the year powerful fleets had been commissioned in the North Sea and in the Channel, but on 12 August an embargo was placed on every ship in England, even fishing boats bein^ detained. ^^ In Cornwall the order was directed to Fowey, Polruan, Lostwithiel, Looe, Hayleworthy, Oldestowe (Padstow), Mousehole, St. Michael's Mount, and Falmouth, and we find that Fowey was to send two ships and forty-six men, and Looe four ships and eighty-four men.^^ As the other ports sent no vessels it may be presumed that they did not possess any of 50 tons, but it is worth noticing that the similar writs to the east coast were for vessels of 30 tons and upwards, which suggests that those belonging to the south coast were of an average higher tonnage. Foreign war did not prevent civil war between the towns of the southern counties. On 29 January, 1320— i, a writ issued ^* commanding the men of the Cinque Ports not to injure those of Lostwithiel, Fowey, and Polruan, nor to prevent them trading in the Cinque Ports. The quarrel arose from the west-countrymen having taken a man accused of murder — no doubt a ' Pat. 31 Edw. I, m. 28. ^ Ibid. 33 Edw. I, pt. i, m. i 3 W.I. 1 808-1 1. Broken up 181 1. Avon (sloop), 391 tons, 16 guns ; built at Falmouth 1805. Services: C. and C. 1805-6; W.I. 1 807-1 1; undergoing repair 1812 ; Ireland 18 13-4. Sunk (Capt. Hon. J. Arbuthnot) by United States man-of-war IVasp i Sept. 18 14. Cynthia (sloop), 232 tons, 10 guns; built at Falmouth 1821. Services: Wrecked W.I. 6 June, 1827, while running as packet brig. Aladdin (packet), 233 tons; built at Falmouth 1824. Services: Post Office steam packet, 100 h.p. Name subsequently changed to Jasper. 5H INDUSTRIES INTRODUCTION CLIMATE, mineral wealth, and geo- graphical position are the three elements which have determined in the past and which still deter- mine the occupations of the in- habitants of Cornwall. A coast-line of enormous extent with estuaries which afford safe shelter for ships and fishing craft ; mineral resources such as no other county in England possesses ; a climate which enables sub-tropical plants and shrubs to grow in native luxuriance — to these natural ad- vantages Cornwall's chief industries — fishing, mining, and horticulture — are to be attributed. Foundries and boat building, the manufacture of explosives, safety fuses and the like, are merely subsidiary and supplementary. In the present work the larger industries are dealt with separately by writers of practical knowledge and experience. In what follows here it will suffice to call atten- tion to those industries which have either become extinct or have not acquired a leading position in the county. The numerous references in the Patent and Close Rolls to the king's mines of gold and silver in the counties of Devon and Cornwall render it certain that, in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies, gold and silver were found in these counties in sufficient quantities to be worth working. In 1378^ the prior of Bodmin and the abbot of Buckfast had letters patent enabling them ' to control the profits arising from the gold and silver mines ' leased to Henry of Burton, and re- quiring them to account for one-seventh of the profits to the king. Thirteen years later ^ a commission was appointed to survey the ' newly- found mines of gold, silver, lead, and tin, and other metals, and to set the necessary workmen and labourers to work them for the king's ad- vantage.' In 1461^ Sir John Nevill received a grant of ' the king's mines in Devon and Corn- wall in which gold and silver can be found,' at a rent of £100 yearly. In 1480* surveyors were appointed to superintend the agreement which had been made nine years previously with Sir John Fogge for the working of all mines bearing gold and silver in Devon and Cornwall. These references are illustrative of many others, all of which go to prove that mining for gold and silver was carried on with satisfactory results. It is curious however that the rolls supply no data enabling us to discover either the precise locality of the mines or the amount of gold and silver obtained from them. Within comparatively recent years small quantities of gold have been found in the parishes of St. Stephen in Brannel, St. Austell, Redruth, Gwennap, Manaccan, Illogan, Budock and else- where, but nowhere in payable quantities.' Lead ore rich in silver — at Wheal Pool near Helston, yielding forty ounces of silver to the ton, and at Wheal Rose, yielding sixty ounces to the ton — was discovered towards the end of the eighteenth century, but the cost of working was so great as to lead to the abandonment of the enterprise. At Guarnek near Truro good results were obtained in or about the year 17 20; and when operations were resumed at the same mine in 18 14, out of 800 tons of silver-lead ore thirteen-twentieths were silver. In 1788 lead rich in silver, and also fibrous native silver in the gossan, were discovered in the parish of Per- ranzabuloe at Wheal Mexico ; but it was soon found that below a certain level the silver dis- appeared. Nevertheless, at Trebisken, in the same parish, so late as i860 the following results were obtained : — ^ tons cwts. qrs. lb. £ s. d. 1859 Sep. 14 I 14 2 o worth 164 15 6 ,,26 200,, 734 i86oMayl3 I 3 16 „ 41 4 4 „ 14 3 19 „ 100 14 I „ 4 3 II „ I 16 4 Aug. 14 I 9012 „ 485 3 o „ 2 19 O I „ 286 3 ID 1087 5 'Pat. ^Pat. ^Pat. ^Pat. 2 Ric. II, 3 July. 1 5 Ric. II, 1 1 August. I Edw. IV, 2 May (p. 191). 20 Edw. IV, 12 June (p. 213). At Herland in Gwinear, early in the last cen- tury, silver worth ;^8,000 was obtained in the form of vitreous silver ore, arsenicated silver ore, and black oxide of silver. A little later, a dis- covery of native silver and silver ore was made at Wheal Duchy near Callington. The value of the silver obtained there was about ^3,000. Besides the places already mentioned, the most noteworthy sources of silver in the past have been Dolcoath, Wheal Basset, Ludcott near Liskeard, and Wheal Brothers near ,Calstock. * Traits. Roy. Geol. Soc. ofCornzv. xii, 241. ^ Given by R. Hunt, F.R.S., in his British Mining, from the account books of the mine. 513 65 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Moreover there is good authority for the state- the lease, leaving Mr. Sampson sole proprietor, ment that silver has been found in small quanti- who in 1827 also acquired the gunpowder works ties in nearly every mining district in the county, and business which had been carried on since Quite recently, at Perranuthnoe, not far from 1822 by Mr. John Nicholls at Cosawes about Great Wheal Neptune (a lode running east and a mile from Kennall. Mr. Richard Lanyon west whence silver to the value of /^500 is said became manager of the works in 1828 with a to have been obtained some fifty years ago), a tenth share in the business. In 1840 Mr. Samp- new lode called the Sedgman, bearing about 10° son died and was succeeded by his nephew, W. of N., has been discovered. The silver Mr. Benjamin Sampson. On the death of mineral, which occurs here in the gossan, con- Mr. Richard Lanyon in 1863 his eldest son sists almost entirely of cerargyrite (silver chloride, Mr. William Henry Lanyon became manager. In otherwise known as horn silver), but a few speci- the following year Mr. Benjamin Sampson (the mens of argentite (sulphide of silver) have also nephew) died, and Mr. William Shilson succeeded been found. An inspection of the assay-returns to his interest in the business. Upon the retire- of this lode shows that the yield of silver has ment of Mr. William Henry Lanyon in 1868, been extremely uncertain and fluctuating in Mr. Shilson became sole owner of the works, amount, the ore, along the course of the lode, which he carried on under the name of The having afforded in some parts as much as 1 1,000 Kennall Gunpowder Company until his death in ounces per ton, while in others it has produced 1875. After his death his sons, Messrs. Charles less than an ounce per ton. The Sedgman lode Shilson and Daniel Henry Shilson, as his execu- has been found to extend for at least 800 yards ; tors, carried on the business until the year 1898, and, at the present time, there is every indica- when a limited company, under the name of tion that the mine will prove sufficiently rich in Curtis's & Harvey, Limited, was formed for the silver not only to pay expenses but also to yield purpose of effecting the amalgamation of the a fair return on past outlay.^ various gunpowder businesses in the United The manufacture of textile fabrics has never Kingdom, and the Kennall works were then been considerable at any time in Cornwall. In turned over to the new company, by whom they the reign of Edward III Cornish wool was re- are still owned ; but little, if any, business is garded as so 'gross and weak' that the collectors now being done there. Other powder factories were constrained to obtain an ordinance from were built in various parts of the county — at St. the king and council whereby a composition of Allen by Mr. Humphrey Willyams ; at Nance- one hundred shillings in money was effected for kuke, which was for some years held on lease by every sack of wool required by the king.^ An Mr. Thomas Davey, and at Herodsfoot. The Act of Queen Elizabeth' allowed the manufac- two former have long since been abandoned, ture of ' woolen clothes called plaine white while the latter, after having been for many straightes and pinned white straightes.' These years carried on by Mr. J. C. Isaac and other are described as a *base and course kind of clothes members of his family under the name of The usually made for the use of poore people beyonde East Cornwall Powder Company, was taken over the seas and most commonly shipped into Brit- by Curtis's & Harvey on the occasion of the taine (Brittany) to serve the use of the poorer formation of that company. sort there.' More recently the woollen manu- The kind of powder used in the mines prior facture was carried on at Launceston, Menheniot, to the invention of the higher explosives was the Callington, Ponsanooth and Truro, but it is now common large-grained powder. At Kennall decayed. there was also manufactured compressed powder, To meet the growing demands of the mining cylindrical in shape, with a small hole in the industry, which had hitherto been dependent centre through which the safety-fuse could be upon London for its supply of blasting material, passed ; but this was not used to any great extent in or about the year 1813 the manufacture of in Cornwall. gunpowder was commenced at Kennall Vale by In the autumn of the year 1879 — at the re- Messrs. Benjamin Sampson, John Ferris Devon- quest of many practical mine agents, engineers, shire, and Edward Allen, who entered into a deed and others interested in mining — a committee on of partnership, dated 30 December, 18 12, for a mining explosives was appointed jointly by the term of twenty-one years, with the object of Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, the Miners' carrying on a gunpowder business, in the name Association of Cornwall and Devon, and the of The Kennall Gunpowder Mills Company, on Mining Institute of Cornwall, to inquire into land at Kennall which had recently been acquired the nature, economy, efficiency and safety of the by them for that purpose. Messrs. Devonshire various explosives in use or proposed for use in and Allen retired prior to the determination of the mines of Cornwall and Devon. This com- ' From information supplied by the proprietor, Mr. "'^"^^ conducted two series of experiments at G. D. McGrigor, including a report by Mr. F. H. Seveock Quarry, near Chacewater, and also ob- Butler, M.A., A.R.S.M. tained answers to numerous questions bearing ' Ca/. of Close 17 Edw. Ill, p. 13. upon the subject from the leading mine managers 27 Ellz. cap. 18. in Cornwall. The committee reported in the 514 INDUSTRIES following year.^ In their report they stated /«/^r searched before commencing work for such alia that ' for all ground which is not of great articles as may, under any circumstances what- hardness or very wet the explosives of moderate ever, cause ignition or explosion ; while the power, such as compressed powder and common buildings used for the making and storing of powder, are most advantageous,' and ' for ground explosives are kept scrupulously clean. As the of extreme hardness or which is very wet, the result of these precautions human life is shown, stronger explosives should be used, such as dyna- by statistics, to be quite as secure within the mite, Liverpool cotton-powder and tonite.' Their factory as outside. The most serious accident experiments proved that a piece of ground could which has occurred was on 5 January, 1904, be driven more cheaply by powder than by dyna- when four men lost their lives. This accident mite, but that in the use of the dynamite, by is supposed to have been caused by the sudden reason of its being a more powerful explosive, fall of a lead-lined wooden tank cover which less of it was required for each hole that was slipped from a workman's hands when engaged charged, and that it was not necessary to bore in running off nitro-glycerine from the tank, such deep holes for it as for powder. Conse- The products manufactured here are of various quently the miner preferred the dynamite, for kinds. Besides explosives for mining purposes, although it might be a little more costly per including dynamite (No. l), haylite, gelignite, fathom of ground, it entailed less labour, and the gelatine-dynamite and blasting gelatine, and an ground could be driven more quickly. From enormous quantity of raw materials in the shape that time the use of powder in Cornish mines of sulphuric acid, nitric acid and nitro-glycerine, decreased whilst that of dynamite increased, the National Explosives Company contracts Powder continued for some little time to be used largely with His Majesty's Admiralty and War in the mines to a limited extent for driving in Office, and with many foreign governments, for soft ground, but the price of dynamite, which at the supply of materials required for the purposes the time of the trials above referred to had been of ammunition. These consist of the following j^200 per ton, fell during the next ten years to explosives : gun-cotton, collodion cotton, com- £t$y and the use of powder in the mines then pressed gun-cotton, cordite, and cordite M.D. ceased almost entirely. In granite and other The cordite manufactured here is of very superior quarries in the county powder continues to be quality and has recently received commendation used because the nitro-compounds are too violent from a commission appointed to investigate War for quarrying purposes and shatter the stone too Office contracts.* much ; but the depression in the granite trade, Soon after the formation of the National Ex- owing to the import of granite from Norway and plosives Company, in the same year a second other causes, renders the demand for powder in- company was founded with a similar object by considerable. Mr. Thomas Pryor of Redruth and Mr. P. R. At the present time very little dynamite is Mackay of London. This was the British and used or made, that particular form of explosive Colonial Explosives Company, who acquired a having been superseded by improved forms of tract of land and established a factory for the nitro-compound explosives known as gelignite, manufacture of dynamite at Perranporth. For gelatine-dynamite, and blasting gelatine. four years this company maintained a fierce but For the manufacture of these high explosives, unequal struggle with Nobel's Explosives Com- as they are called, two factories of considerable pany of Glasgow, who, for the purpose of de- importance have been built in Cornwall. feating the new competition, lowered their prices The factory of the National Explosives Com- to such an extent as to render the manufacture pany at Upton Towans, near Hayle, was opened of explosives at Perranporth unremunerative. in 1889. Various considerations led to the Negotiations were opened between the two selection of this particular site, the chief of these companies, and resulted in the transfer of the being the cheapness and extent of the land there Cornish factory to Messrs. Nobel in November, and then available, its isolation as a property, and 1893. At that time there were altogether at the same time its comparative nearness to the about 100 persons employed. Since theamalga- numerous mines in the county. It embraces mation, allowing for periods of depression, a profit- within its boundaries over a square mile of able and progressive business has been carried on. downs, and includes several properties besides The Perranporth Factory, which covers about Upton Towans. From the date of its inception 150 acres, and now employs in round numbers the factory has been uniformly successful. It is 200 persons of both sexes, embraces five depart- now four times larger than it was in 1889 and ments : — (i) Blasting Explosives Department for affords employment, in round numbers, to five hundred men and two hundred women. To ' Of the National Explosives Company the Corn- guard against accidents numerous precautions are missioners say, ' This firm has manufactured sizes (of adopted. Discipline, according to carefully de- ^o-'dite) 50, 44> 30, 20 and 5, and has been very fined rules, is rigidly enforced ; the employes are '^''f'^^y '^^ '^;^^> ^^P^'^'f ^ \" '^^. ^'^ T'^'.-Ta ^ o J » r J pared with other contractors. — clue Book entitled, ' Report of the R.C.P. Soc. 1880. Supplement. IVar Office Contracts, i August, 1900, p. xxviii. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL the manufacture of dynamite (No. i), blasting gelatine, gelatine-dynamite, and gelignite ; (2) Acid Works ; (3) Nitrate of Lead Department ; (4) Artificial Manure Works; (5) Engineering Department. By means of the recently opened railway line between Newquay and Chacewater the factory has been brought into direct com- munication with the Great Western Railway system. It will be observed that this factory, unlike that at Hayle, does not engage in the manufacture of explosives required for the pur- poses of ammunition. The manufacture of safety fuse at Tucking- mill demands something more than a passing notice, not only because it is the largest industry of its kind, but also because the inventor of the safety fuse was a Cornishman born in that neighbourhood. The frequent accidents result- ing from the use of explosives in tin and copper mining, and chiefly owing to the uncertain duration of the time between the lighting of the rush or quill and the exploding of the charge, led Mr. William Bickford in or about 1830 to turn his thoughts towards the invention of some method whereby blasting operations could be conducted with the minimum of risk to the miner. Mr. Bickford's motives were purely philanthropic ; it remained for his successors to turn his invention into an extensive and legiti- mate commercial enterprise. On 6 September, 1 83 1, Mr. Bickford took out his first patent for the ' Miners' Safety Fuse.' His object was to provide a protected core of powder, thin and continuous, along which the fire might travel slowly at a uniform and determinate rate of speed. This result he obtained by causing a number of jute threads, passed through an orifice and stretched by means of a weight attached to their extremities, to rotate slowly while, at the same time, a small current of fine powder fell into the tube thus formed, and was retained therein as a slender core. To use his own words in the specification of his process : — I embrace in the centre of my fuse, in a con- tinuous line throughout its whole length, a small portion, or compressed cylinder, or rod of gun- powder, or other proper combustible matter pre- pared in the usual pyrotechnical manner of fire- work for the discharging of ordnance ; and which fuse so prepared I afterwards more effectually secure and defend by a covering of strong twine made of similar material, and wound thereon, at nearly right angles to the former twist, by the operation which I call countering, hereinafter described ; and I then immerse them in a bath of heated varnish, and add to them afterwards a coat of whiting, bran, or other suitable powdery substance, to prevent them from sticking together or to the fingers of those who handle them ; and I thereby also defend them from wet or moisture or other deterioration, and I cut off the same fuse in such lengths as occasion may require for use ; each of these lengths constituting when so cut off a fuse for blasting of rocks and mining, and I use them either under water or on land, in quarries of stone and mines for detaching portions of rocks, or stone or mine, as occasions require, in the manner long practised by, and well known to miners and blasters of rocks. Previous to the invention of safety fuse the devices for conveying the fire to the charge were of the most crude and primitive description. Sometimes a small trail of fine gunpowder from the charge to an extemporized slow-match, such as impregnated paper ; sometimes quills plucked from geese, filled with fine grain powder and lengthened where needful by the insertion of one quill into another ; while, oftener still, rushes were used, the rush having been first split, the pith scooped out, its place filled with powder, and the two halves bound together again by fine string. Mr. Bickford's invention has been well described as ' the very best means of blasting ever devised, combining certainty, economy, and safety.' ^ Numerous and important improvements have since been effected by the inventor's successors, resulting in the adoption of Bickford's safety fuse throughout the world. It has for many years been used by the English War Office, Admiralty, and other Government departments both at home and in the colonies; whilst its adoption by foreign governments and by foreign engineers and miners has led the proprietors to establish many factories on the continents of Europe, America, and Australia. Of the im- provements introduced within the last twenty years, the most important has been an ingenious device whereby the danger resulting from the use of a naked light or spark, for the purpose of igniting the fuse, has been completely obviated. By means of this ' Colliery Fuse and Safety Lighter,' blasting operations can be performed with safety in collieries and mines where inflam- mable gases are present, both the ignition and combustion of the fuse being effected without the emission of any spark or flame to the sur- rounding atmosphere. Another invention worthy of note is the voUey-firer and instantaneous fuse, by means of which several charges can be fired simultaneously, and a greater effect obtained than if the same charges were fired independently. To the late Major John Soloman Bickford, and to the late Dr. George Smith, antiquary and historian, who married the inventor's daughter, belongs the credit of laying the foundations of safety fuse as a commercial undertaking. They directed its manufacture throughout their lives, and were succeeded by the inventor's three grandsons, the late Mr. Bickford Smith, M.P., Sir George J. Smith of Treliske, and Mr. H. Arthur Smith, M.A., Barrister-at-law. With the two latter are now associated four great- grandsons of Mr. Bickford. To Mr. Thomas ' Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, p. 527. :i6 INDUSTRIES Davey belongs the larger share of the credit for the original mechanical appliances, and to other members of the Davey family, still identified with the industry, the credit for bringing chemi- cal science to bear upon the processes. At the Tuckingmill factory, where between 20O and 300 persons are employed, there has also been a remarkable hereditary succession of the original employes (chiefly feminine), which to-day includes grandchildren and great-grandchildren of those who made the first safety fuse under the guidance of Mr. William Bickford. It might have been supposed that ship-building and boat-building would have been assigned a prominent position in the annals of Cornwall. Such is not the case. The industry is hardly once referred to in the histories of the county.^ Neither has it been possible to supply the defect from other sources. The large number of ships which sailed from Cornish ports in the fourteenth century to take part in the French wars, the close association of Falmouth with the Mail Packet service for more than 160 years, and above all the Cornish fisheries, would lead us to conclude that boat building and repairing have been established for centuries in the leading ports. All that we certainly know, however, is that it was to Little Falmouth that the packets went for repairs and refit ; that at Mevagissey ship-building existed 150 years ago; that at St. Ives boat-building has been carried on by members of the same family for a century ; that it was introduced into Scilly in 1 820. The history of the industry at the latter place is prob- ably typical. It was at its zenith from 1840 to i860, and during that period wooden ships up to 600 tons register were built. It became ex- tinct about 1885. At Falmouth twenty years ago there were upwards of a dozen yards, now there are only three or four. At Par, between the years 1867 and 1879, ten ships were turned out whose tonnage ranged from 160 to 450 tons ; now repairing only is done. At Penzance ocean-going vessels were built forty years ago, and schooners at Newlyn ; now ship-building is abandoned, and only small boats are constructed. The same holds good of Looe and of Cornish ports generally. The cause of the decline has been the substitution everywhere of steam for sails, iron or steel for wood, and also the unre- stricted port to port trade which is permitted to foreign vessels. Within the last twenty-five years, however, a few sea-going schooners have been built at Falmouth, Truro, Penryn, and Fowey, while yachts up to 20 tons, and boats known locally as quay-punts are still built at Falmouth ; fishing boats, pleasure boats, and boats for the customs and coastguard at St. Ives ; lifeboats at Mevagissey ; and boats suitable for local needs in some other places. More impor- tant still, there are between seventy and eighty vessels registered at Lloyd's of Cornish construc- tion. Of these, twenty-six are built of wood, and the rest of iron and steel. The former were built at Newquay, Polruan, Padstow, Fal- mouth, and Calstock; the latter at Falmouth and Hayle. Three are steel steamers ranging from 1,978 to 3,860 tons, and were constructed by Messrs. Harvey and Company, a firm which no longer builds vessels. Steamers, steam tugs, the latter well known for their efficiency, and composite vessels of different sorts, continue to be built at the Falmouth Docks Ironworks, which in its various departments employs between 500 and 600 men. Of other Cornish industries, besides those dealt with in separate articles, the most note- worthy is the flour mill at Loigans, with its biscuit factory at Hayle, affording employment for 184 men and 32 women. There are breweries at Falmouth, St. Austell, Redruth, and Hayle ; flour mills throughout the county ; biscuit and jam factories at Truro ; boot and bacon factories at Redruth ; rope-walks at Pen- ryn, Penzance, and elsewhere ; all of which, together with some minor industries, have been created by and administer to local needs. In the preparation of the foregoing sketch the writer has received valuable assistance from Sir George J. Smith of Treliske, Mr. D. H. Shilson of St. Austell, Mr. J. W. Wilkinson of Hayle, Mr. J. Turner of Perranporth, Mr. G. D. McGrigor of Penzance, Mr. A. Scott of Lloyd's, Messrs. Cox & Lean of Falmouth, and Mr. Paynter of St. Ives. To these and to many others who have answered questions respecting the several industries referred to, he desires to tender his grateful acknowledgements. GRANITE QUARRYING The enormous increase in the commercial enterprise and trade of the country in the first half of the last century made the construction of extensive dock and harbour works necessary ^ Carew's statement is rather ambiguous. * Corn- wall,' he writes, ' is stored with many sorts of shipping (for that term is the genus to them all), namely, they have cock-boats for passengers, sein boats for taking of pilchard . . . barks and ships for traffic' Survey, d. 1 8 II. p. 91, e in order to accommodate our rapidly increasing naval and mercantile marine. A comparatively strong, durable, and cheap material for those portions of such engineering works as had to resist heavy pressure or wear was found in the granite of Cornwall, and especially in that which lies in the Penryn district. Cornish granite, generally speaking, is much coarser in texture than that found in other parts of the British Isles, and granite having this 517 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL peculiar formation has the advantage of being found in larger and more regular masses or beds than the finer-grained granite of these islands. The composition of Cornish granite also allowed of its being cheaply worked by masons into the various-shaped stones required for large public works, and so in consequence a new industry for Cornwall rapidly sprang up, and till within a few years ago all engineering works of any magnitude on which granite was used were mainly supplied with that material from this county. Cornwall has not only supplied the granite for dock, harbour, and other engineering works in Britain, but has also supplied it for similar purposes to other parts of the world. When the demand arose for granite blocks, the ' Moormen ' first used the boulders which were thickly strewn in the granite districts. They were cut up and exported in the rough or cloven state. These surface stones, however, which were in many cases partially decomposed, were not really suitable, and it was soon realized that the material must be quarried systematically, and from a depth which would ensure sound rock ; and further, that the stones should be worked on the spot. Gradually quarries were opened in the most favourable situations, and men were trained to fashion the rough blocks into the required shapes. At first the most primitive appliances were all that were required to quarry and handle the stones, which in these early days were close to the surface. As time went on, and the quarries grew larger, mechani- cal appliances were introduced, until they cul- minated in the equipment consisting of the most modern steam cranes, blondins, etc. The transport of the stone from the quarries to the loading quays was at first carried out by means of teams of horses ; but as trade developed tramways and railways were laid down wherever possible, and of late years traction engines have been introduced to supersede the horse on the highways. While the quarries and the transport arrangements were gradually developing, accom- modation for storing the dressed blocks prepara- tory to shipping had to be provided ; and this was done by building loading quays, on which at first hand-cranes, and then hand-travellers running on gantries, covering many hundreds of square feet, and latterly steam-travellers covering many thousands of square feet, were erected. The principal districts in which granite quarry- ing is carried on are as follows : — Gunnislake. — This is a considerable pit, and yields a stone remarkable for its white appearance when taken from the better beds. Kithill. — Situated near the top of the hill of that name. It was extensively worked in the past, but only on a small scale for the last twenty or twenty-five years. Cheesewring. — This is near the top of Cheese- wring Hill, and close to the famous pile of stones which forms a noted landmark. It is a large 5 quarry, producing a medium-grained stone which has been largely used in many important works. There are extensive openings near this quarry, such as Kilmar and Bearah Tor, which have not been worked for a quarter of a century. Delank. — This is situated in St. Breward parish near Bodmin, and is one of the most im- portant quarries in the county. The quality of the granite is highly prized, and the present Eddystone Lighthouse was built of the material from this quarry. Par. — There are several quarries in this dis- trict, the most important being Colkerrow and Tregarden. The rocks here are remarkably large, and lie in regular beds. Immense quanti- ties have been exported, as no doubt the cost of production and transit by rail to the shipping port of Par is moderate. Penryn is the centre of the Cornish quarrying industry. There are scores of quarries near here, the most important being Carnsew, Maen Rock, Rosemenewas, Polkanuggo, Tresaher, and Bosahan, which all produce rock extensively used for engineering purposes. The stone from Carnsew Quarries is much finer in the grain than that procured from the others in this dis- trict, and on that account it is preferred for the more important blocks required in docks, bridges, etc. The Fastnet Lighthouse was built of Carnsew granite, and it has been much used for the fronts of buildings, monuments, and decora- tive purposes. It does not appear that Cornish granite has taken a high position for decorative or polishing purposes, but an extensive polishing works has been in operation at Penryn for some years, and many large contracts have been exe- cuted. Carnmarth and Helston. — There are several quarries in this district ; they are situated more inland than those near Penryn, and mostly supply local wants. Lamorna Cove Quarries are near Penzance. At one time extensive operations were conducted here, but the risk attending shipment, due to the exposed and dangerous coast, led to their aban- donment some years ago. Subsequently steam power was introduced, and by that means the stones were hoisted to the top of the cliff, whence they were conveyed to Penzance for shipment. Newmills and Sheffield are also important quarries in this district. Kithill, Delank, Cheesewring, and some of the Par quarries are connected by tramways or by railroads direct to the shipping ports of Calstock, Wadebridge, Looe, and Par respec- tively. The various quarries scattered within a radius of from l to 6 miles of the shipping ports of Penryn and Port Navis are not con- nected by rail : the expense of linking up so many quarries, the majority of which are small, has evidently been prohibitive ; but, as before stated, traction haulage has been successfully introduced. i8 INDUSTRIES The procedure in quarrying granite is briefly as follows. A suitable position for opening a quarry having been determined on, the subsoil and loose and poor rock are removed. When this is finished, an examination of the joints is made, and the discovery of a good bed or hori- zontal joint determines the proper position for boring a hole to receive the explosive. The object is to dislodge a mass from its natural position with as little alteration as possible in its form, and it is therefore very important that all obstacles which might impede its free movement should be removed. Any neglect in this re- spect may result in the rock being shattered. It will therefore be understood that a great amount of judgment and experience is required to quarry successfully, and a hasty or ill- considered operation will most probably result in not only spoiling the rock to be moved, but also cracks may be developed in the rocks remaining in sitUy and these may lead to trouble later on. When the rock has been dislodged by the successful firing of the hole, the quarrymen split it up into the smaller blocks to make the various-sized stones required. The splitting is accomplished by steel wedges inserted into numerous small holes drilled by hand across the various faces of the large rock, in such positions and in such lines as are determined by the experience of the quarryman. The dressing of the blocks for engineering works, as before mentioned, is done in the quarries ; but for building purposes, and for work which requires great care and skill, the dressing is usually done in the dressing yards adjacent to the shipping quays. Mention has been made of blondins as applied to the quarries. These lifting and transporting machines take their name from the famous acrobat and rope-walker who successfully ex- hibited his wonderful powers at Niagara Falls. The machine consists of a wire rope stretched across the quarry on which a carriage runs. This carriage can be made to travel to and fro on the rope by means of smaller ropes, which are controlled from a steam winch, conveniently placed so that the driver has an uninterrupted view of the quarry. The carriage has a lifting rope in connexion with it which is also con- trolled from the steam winch. Such machines command a very wide range, and as they are arranged to work at a high rate of speed they are particularly adapted to quarry work. It is well known that the tin industry of Cornwall has materially suffered from foreign competition. It appears likely that history will repeat itself, and the granite industry of the county will suffer in the same way. Of late years the vast resources of Scandinavia have been requisitioned. Abundance of granite is found there, in such positions and under such conditions that it is already proving a very formidable rival to the Cornish stone. SLATE QUARRYING The slate-quarrying industry of Cornwall has been of importance for at least three centuries, and especially during the last hundred years. Many efforts have been made to trace its history, but no authentic records of its commencement have been discovered. The earliest record found is that of Norden, who, writing in the year 1584, describes Menheniot slate as the best in Corn- wall. Carew, writing in 1602 in reference to Cornish roofing slate, is more explicit : — * In substance thin, in colour fair, in weight light, in lasting strong ; and generally carrieth so good regard, as (besides the supply for home provision) great store is yearly conveyed by shipping both to other parts of the realm and also beyond the seas into Brittany and the Netherlands.'^ Borlase again, writing in 1758 of Delabole slate, says that for lightness and endurance of weather it is generally preferred to any slate in Great Britain, and is perhaps the finest in the world. Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S., says Delabole quarries have long been celebrated for producing a beautiful and durable material combining con- ^ Carew's Survey ofCornwa//, p. 20 (ed. 181 1). siderable lightness with strength, and not liable to be damaged by frost. Delabole slate is described by Bishop Watson in his Chemistry as the very best in England. In 1865 Frederick Penny, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, writes : — * I have made a scrupulous comparison of the Old Delabole slate with the Welsh, Highland, and Cumberland slates ; the results showing that the Old Delabole slate is of very superior quality. It is light in colour, thin and firm in lamination, close and compact in texture, extremely hard, and not easily worn by attrition. In strength and endurance of weather and friction it excels these well-known slates.' At the time of Borlase and De la Beche there were within six miles of Delabole many small quarries, but they were chiefly worked by small bodies of men. Most of them were worked for only a few years ; either the beds of slate rock were small and worthless, or the rock was so unproductive that it could only be worked at a loss. For some years past there have been only two quarries at work besides Delabole — namely, Lanterden and Lambshouse. Both are in the parish of Tintagel. 519 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The Delabole Slate Quarries are in the parish of St. Teath. They are nearly three miles from Camelford and about two miles from the sea, at an elevation of over 500 feet above the sea level. It is supposed that in the first instance the slate was discovered in the bed of a small water-course at the junction of two rivulets. The land on the east belonged to one owner, on the north to another, and on the west to another. The quarrying was carried on for many years only on the west side. In 1750 several men were at work, and during the following fifty years the quarry became con- siderably enlarged. At the end of this time also operations had been begun on the north side, which was worked on a lease by twelve quarrymen, who employed others, and about 1844 operations were commenced on the east side. In the earlier period men carried the slate out of the quarry on their backs ; then donkeys were employed, as many as forty at one time ; later still horses were used, and these were succeeded by a horse-whim. Previous to the introduction of steam power the rock could be worked only to a certain depth, and then as one part was worked out it was filled in with rubble from the new excavations. The first steam engine, named the Speedwell, was erected in 1834 on the west property, and was principally used for drawing rubble over a short incline. In a few years other steam engines were erected on the other properties. In 1 841 a joint-stock company was formed under the name of the Old Delabole Slate Company, for the purpose of working the two quarries on the east and west sides, and in 1849 the quarry on the north side came into their possession. At first the quarries were held on lease, but after a few years the company pur- chased the freehold of the quarries and a con- siderable quantity of land, and the three quarries were merged into one. In 1898 the company disposed of their interest to a syndicate, and a new company under the Limited Liability Act was formed under the old name. The quarry is about 25 acres in extent, and the rubble heaps or spoil banks occupy about 130 more j altogether there are 155 acres. In the early days as the quarry deepened the drainage became a difficulty. About 100 years ago an adit was driven from the valley beneath for nearly half a mile to the quarry, and this carried off the water to the depth of about 200 feet, but when the depth increased a water wheel was erected for pumping the water to the adit, and several years ago two other larger wheels were added, which are driven by water from the surface, and are so arranged that the water passes over each. When the surface supply is not sufficient in summer to keep the wheels going, steam is used for working the pumps. After the introduction of modern machinery the following method was adopted for hauling the top-rock and slate-rock to the surface : Parapet-heads, or poppets as they are locally called, were employed, which consisted of strong wooden stays secured at one extremity to the surface, and projecting 14 feet over the edge of the quarry ; these were furnished at the other extremity with a pulley, over which the chain used for hauling was passed. One end of this chain was wound round a cage or drum near the engine-house, while the other, after passing over the pulley, was left free so that it could be taken to that part of the quarry from which the rock was being extracted and attached to the load. Afterwards, when the parapet- heads were discarded, wire ropes were substituted for chains, the ropes being found cheaper, stronger, and more durable. In place of parapet-heads inclines have now been con- structed, and the rock and rubble are hauled in wagons over them to the surface by means of stationary engines at the top. The operations in the quarry are as follows : — Powder is usually used for blasting the ordinary rock, but for hard and unproductive rock dynamite is sometimes used, and the men who do the blasting are called rock men. If the rock is useless the payment is by the ton, if slate- producing it is by the dozen for roofing slate or by the foot for slabs. After being blasted the rock, whether good or bad, is taken in charge by men called fillers, who load the wagons and send it over the inclines or the parapet- heads, whence it is received by men called landers, and then taken by locomotive engines, the useless to the waste tip, and the good to the deposit floors or to the manufacturing sheds. At the sheds the men called splitters or cleavers take charge of those blocks which are to be converted into roofing slates. By means of a mallet and flat chisel the blocks are split into slabs 2 in. or 3 in. thick, and if too wide to work to advantage they are placed on a circular saw-table and sawn at right angles to the cleavage^ and then further subdivided into the required thickness. Then the several pieces are passed to the slate-dresser, who cuts them into the largest sizes they will make. The slates are then taken charge of by men called pitchers, who sort them, placing each kind by itself. The foreman takes the count, and the men are paid according to his return. What- ever damage is done before the count takes place is at the loss of the men. A considerable quantity of slate is made into what is called scantle, which is squared both sides and at one end, and is irregular in length and breadth. About 700 scantle slates are required to do a square (i.e. lOO superficial feet) of roof- ing. These are used principally in West Corn- wall and Belgium. Many years ago a number of churches in Devon and Cornwall were covered with them. A large quantity of another kind is made, called rags. They are like scantle, irregular 520 INDUSTRIES in length and breadth, and are squared both an inclination of 5 in 12. One engine will sides and at one end, but are much larger, only continue to be used for hauling to the parapet- about 130 being required to a square. These head, one for pumping water, and three for until recently were used for cattle sheds and driving the machinery in the manufacturing farm buildings. The slater in using the scantle sheds and in the engineering, carpenters', and and rags has to shape them according to require- smiths' shops. Two locomotives take the wagons ments. The rags make a stronger roof than to the manufacturing sheds and rubble tips, sizes, being thicker and generally rather coarser. Cranes and derricks are used in various parts of The roof does not present so even a surface as the works. when made of sizes, and this is a feature which The general method adopted in the produc- some architects have of late years been favouring, tion of roofing slate, in the working department. During the last five years they have been used is as follows : — The men who blast or raise the in various parts of the country on large build- slate-rock in the quarry and the splitters and ings not of the class named. Slate is used for dressers in the sheds are partners and usually many purposes besides roofing, such as floors for share equally, so that the more care and good kitchens, halls, and lighthouses, for dowels to judgement, exercised in preparing the blocks the connect granite blocks in lighthouses, for win- better for each man, and also for the shareholders, dow sills, corn chests, brewers' vats, ridge rolls. Many comparatively rough blocks are refused by urinals, chimney-pieces, and for water cisterns the contract men, and these are passed on to up to 2,000 gallons. These goods are prepared men and boys called cullers, who are paid a in sheds which are distinct from those for the fixed price, and make as much out of them as manufacture of roofing slate, and furnished with they can. The sawing and planing are paid for the necessary sawing machines, planes, and other by the foot. Filling the wagons in the quarry, appliances. landing at the parapet-heads and incline, and tip- The veins or beds of slate-rock run in various ping at the deposit end are performed at so thicknesses, from 2 ft. to 10 ft. with a dip from much per ton. Everything taken from the east to west of about 3 in. in a foot, with a quarry passes over a weighbridge. A quarry- slight inclination from north to south. In some man's wages average about 21s. per week, beds a small quantity of quartz is found mixed Fillers and others earn about ijs. with the slate, and sometimes this prevails to It should be observed that it is only during such an extent as to render the slate useless for the last fifteen years that circular saws have been commercial purposes. The colour of the slate gradually introduced for cutting the large pieces is grey blue, and the quality continues to be of slate, which is done at right angles to the cleav- good and quite maintains its former prestige, age, after they have been divided into thicknesses Twelve and a half cubic feet weigh one ton. of two or three inches. When the saws are not The number of persons employed from time used the slate is cut by a process called flerrying. to time has varied. In 1850 it was about 600. In this the stone is laid flat, and with a gouge a Five years later a reduction took place by the small groove is chipped in one side ; a chisel is discharge of the women and girls who up to then placed in the centre of the groove and is that time had been employed as slate-splitters, struck with the hammer until the effect of the In justice to the women it may be said that as blows is seen in a small crack dividing it into regards ability they were equal to the men. Up two pieces. The disadvantage of this method to 1 87 1 the number of employes had nearly is that the split frequently goes in the wrong reached 600, but in that and the two following direction and waste follows. This plan is still years the number was reduced to 466, and with pursued to some extent at Delabole, and alto- slight variations so it has continued, the number gether in the other two quarries. Until the at the present time being 463. introduction of saws it was the only method The output of rubble and rock has varied con- employed in this and all other quarries in Corn- siderably from time to time. The earliest date wall. So far no machinery has been introduced for which it can be given is 1873, when the for the splitting of slate, but slate-dressing ma- total quantity was 242,146 tons. In 1880 it chines have been used for some years at Delabole, was 359,549 tons, which is the largest on record, and are now in general use. In 1893 it was 147,093 tons, and in 1903 it Previous to the construction of the London was 274,105 tons. The value of the products and South Western railway line to Wadebridge, for the past three years may be reckoned as ap- the slate, sent by water, was shipped at Port proaching ^^34,000 a year. The price has Gavorne, about five miles distant from the quarry, varied considerably during the last 50 years, and The wagons were brought alongside the vessels, has quite if not more than doubled. and the slate was passed from the wagons to the There are now eight stationary steam engines, vessel by women and men. Sixty years ago the two of which are used for hauling rubble and wagons were drawn by two bullocks and a horse, rock over the inclines. Arrangements are in afterwards by horses owned principally by small progress for adding another engine to the main farmers, who did this in connexion with their incline, which is about 1,000 ft. long, and has farm work. The London and South Western I s2i 66 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Railway station is within a few yards of the quarry banks where the slates are pitched, and a siding runs into that part. Since the line was opened to Wadebridge and Padstow all the slate sent by water has been conveyed by rail and shipped from one or other of those places. Lanterden Quarry is near Trebarwith Strand, on the north side, in the parish of Tintagel. It was opened more than two hundred years ago, and judging from its size many men were em- ployed when it was first opened, but for the last sixty years only three or four have been working there. A windlass worked by hand is used for raising the slate to the surface, and the top rock and waste are deposited in the old workings. Lambshouse Quarry is also in the parish of Tintagel, on the glebe there, and about half a mile south of King Arthur's Castle. It was opened more than one hundred years ago, and has been worked by different persons with vary- ing success. It was closed for several years. In 1855 it was reopened, and has been worked continuously since that time. The average number of hands employed has been about twenty, but at present the number is forty-two. A steam engine and a horse-whim are used for raising the slate, and the unproductive rock and the waste are thrown over the cliff into the sea. The shipments are made at King Arthur's Castle, but some of the slate is also dispatched from the London and South Western Railway station at Camelford. The methods of raising the rock and preparing the slate for the market are the same as those which are adopted in other quarries. TIN MINING The antiquity of British tin,^ and the supposed voyages to Cornwall of the Phoenicians, have been too long the subject of antiquarian research ^ to need further elaboration. As the Isles of the Cassiterides, Cornwall appears to have been visited as early as looo B.C.' by Phoenician or by Iberian or Gallic traders,^ who acted as dis- tributing agents for its tin throughout the known world, some going even as far as the Indies.* Diodorus Siculus describes Britain as triangular. The promontory nearest the mainland was Cantium (Kent), that at the opposite extremity Bolerium, and that turned toward the sea Orca. The inhabitants of Bolerium were hospitable, and, on account of their intercourse with strangers, civilized in habits. They it was who produced tin, which they melted into astragali^ and carried to an island in front of Britain called Iktin,® a peninsula at low tide, where they trans- ported the tin in carts from the shore. Here the traders bought it and carried it into Gaul, ' * The Antiquity of Mining in the West of Eng- land,' by R. N. Worth, Joum. Plymouth Inst, v, 133- 135- ^ For the more important treatises see Geo. Smith, The Cassiterides ; R. Edmonds, On the Phoenician Tin Trade with Comzvall ; * The Tin Trade of Antiquity,' by * L,' "Notes and Queries, 2nd series, v, loi ; G. C. Lewis, Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients, 450-457, 481-482 ; 'The Sources and Supply of Tin for the Bronze Tools and Weapons of An- tiquity,' by J. Crawford, Trans. Ethnological Soc. of London, ill, 350-356. ^ Geo. Smith, The Cassiterides, 43. * ' The Tin Trade of Antiquity,' by Hyde Clark, "Notes and Queries, 2nd series, v, 287 ; * The Ancient Cornish Tin Trade,' by C. D. Saunders, Rep. Roy. Cornzv. Polytechnic Soc. 1865, 42-45. * Geo. Smith, The Cassiterides, 23. ^ For the propriety of this name see R. Edmonds, On the Phoenician Tin Trade with Conitvall, 8. across which it was taken on horseback in about thirty days to Marseilles.^ Of the Romans in Cornwall no written re- cords are extant, and it is doubtful if they meddled with the mines there during their stay. Great variety of opinion, however, exists on this question. It certainly seems strange that the Romans, aware of the richness of the tin mines, and accustomed to dealing with other metals in the same island,® should have neglected to exploit the stannaries. But the ievf Roman remains in Cornwall suggest trading posts only ;^ and although some have professed to see traces of Roman occu- pation in the circular earthworks surrounding some of the old mines,^*' it is far more likely that these were erected by the Cornish to guard their secrets from alien traders.^^ The Anglo-Saxon regime in England was, until Athelstan's conquest of Cornwall in 937, contemporaneous with the existence of an in- dependent Cornish kingdom of native Celts, under which the stannaries, although probably hampered by the three-cornered struggle of Saxon, Dane, and Briton,^^ continued in opera- tion. Saxon ornaments and coins have been ' Diodorus Siculus, v, c. 21, 22. * They are known to have worked the lead mines. W. H. Pulslfer, Notes for a History of Lead, 27, 28 ; Robt. Hunt, British Mining, 27 et seq. ^ * The Romans in Cornwall,' by Otho Peter, Joum. Roy. Inst. Comtu. xv, 1 1 . '" ' The State of the Tin Mines at Different Periods before the Eleventh Century,' by J. Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comtv. iv, 72. " 'The Romans in Cornwall,' by Otho Peter, Joanr. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. xv, 1 1 ; ' The Romans in Corn- wall,' by J. B. Cornish, Joum. Roy. Inst. Comzv. xiii, pt. 4, 430-434 ; R. Polwhele, Hist, of Comzvall, i, 175- " Lysons, Magna Britannia, iii, pp. xi, xii. 522 INDUSTRIES found in the St. Austell tin grounds ; ^ state- Scandinavian, and Flemish * as well) formed ments are extant that the Saxons carried tin to with his fellows of the district a state within a state. France in the seventh century, and sold it at He paid taxes, not as an Englishman, but as a fairs established by Dagobert ; ^ while in the miner. His law was not the law of the realm. Life of St. John of Alexandria, who died in 6l6, but that of his mine. He obeyed the king only is the story of an Alexandrian galley which when his orders were communicated through the journeyed to Britain and bore away a load of warden of the mines, and even then so long tin.^ only as he respected the mining law. His For the most part, however, the mines during courts were the mine courts, his parliament the the early Middle Ages are as a sealed book, mine parliament. He owned no lord, lived on Nowhere are they mentioned in Domesday, no manor, paid no dues, was subject to no feudal which, considering that this contains references levy, and might be called out by the king only to the iron * and lead * mines of the kingdom, under important restrictions. Mr. Hunt has explained by the fact that tin The origin of these privileges is obscure, was considered royal property, and so not likely Excluding England, two theories prevailed in to be noted in a survey projected to ascertain the Middle Ages with regard to property in the value of the country for purposes of taxation.® mines. ^ By the first, the sovereign was looked This explanation should be taken with caution ; upon as absolute proprietor, and the landowner for a century later, as we know, the tin mines had no rights, save to indemnity for property were not royal property in the sense of being damaged. By the second, ownership of the exempt from taxation,^ but paid a round tax as surface carried with it a right to the mines the price of their existence. A more probable beneath, but a third person was given power to reason for their not figuring in the Domesday acquire an interest when the owner was unable Book would be the possible fact that at that time, or unwilling to exploit them. In both cases as later, the prerogatives over the mines were the enjoyment of mines was subject to regula- exercised by some baron, possibly the earl of tions from the crown, which also commonly Mortain, or, what seems most unlikely, that established a claim to one-tenth or other propor- from 1086 to 1156 the stannaries were extinct/ tion of the produce, so that in practice the two Whatever the true hypothesis, it is not until the theories might coincide. latter date that the history of Cornish mining In Germany ^° the idea of a royalty in mines may be said to have begun. is supposed to have made its first appearance, and Here it may be well to offer a few words of to have obtained firmest footing ; but even there premonition, in view of the account which is no claims appear until the close of the eleventh to follow. The usual conception of a history of century,^^ when the revival of Roman law co- mining, that of a history of picks and shovels, operated with the assumed succession of the drainage engines and smelting furnaces, is at German crown to the rights of the Caesars, fault when one goes back for an account of it to to give currency to the claims of sovereignty the Middle Ages. Few subjects are so little over mines. According to the Justinian Code,^^ known or appreciated as the story of the rise one might work a gold mine upon condition of and progress of the mediaeval free miner, the conforming to certain regulations, and of giving liberties which guaranteed him his position, and preference in sales to the imperial fisc. By a the relation in which he stood to the rest of the constitution of Gratian,^^ also, a general permis- community. This type of workman (and here sion had been given to take marble from the what we say applies not only to the English land of private persons upon payment of a tenth miner but to the German, French, Austrian, to the owner. The interpretation of these rules • ' Saxon Ornaments and Coins found at Tre- ® The Belgian miners presented certain exceptions whiddle,' by J. J. Rogers, Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornio. to the general rule, which, however, it is not worth jj 2Q2. while to discuss in this paper. On this subject see ' '^ Macpherson, Annals of Commerce, i, 288; Smirke, ^/V^ r. T^zwj/, App. 86, 1 12 ; Delebecque, 'The Men who made the Cornish Mines,' by Legislation des Mines, i, i^i ; ]zts. Voyages Metallur- J. B. Cornish, Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornw. xiii, pt. 4, gijues, i, 371-3^1, 382-^^02 ; De Lonvrex, Recuei/ des A'} A. Edits, pp. 228 et seq. ' ' The Tin Trade of Britain and Alexandria in "A Sketch of the Origin of Mining Laws In the Seventh Century,' by E. Smirke, Joum. Roy. Inst. Europe,' by J. Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geo/. Soc. Coniw. Comw. ii, 283-291. vl, 84-90. * H. Ellis, Dom. Bk. i, 136-138. ""Observations on the Mmmg Law of Germany,' 5 Ibid, i, 138. by C. Lemon, Trans. Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornw. vi, 150- •^ ' Notes on the Remains of Early British Tin 172. Works,' by Robt. Hunt, Gent/eman's Magazine, xiii, " Hullman, Geschicbte des Rega/ien, 62 ; Eichorn, yQi_ Deutsche Staats und Reciitsgesc/iichte (ed. 1834), "» A'^\- ^ ' The Men who Made the Cornish Mines,' by '* Lib. xl, tit. 7/J. J. B. Cornish, Joum. Roy. Inst. Cornw. xiii, pt. 4, " Lib. xi, tit. 7, 1. 3 ; Theodosian Code, lib, x, 431-432. tit. 19, 11. I, 8, 10, II, 14. 523 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL by the Lombard commentators^ made them applicable to mines of all descriptions and in all countries, and the German emperors in the twelfth century succeeded in enforcing their pretensions and in taking all mines under their peculiar care.^ It was found, however, that attempts to treat the miners as so many agricultural labourers would be disastrous. The technical difficulties con- nected with mining made it essential that the men be secured from interruption, and also that skilled workmen be called in by special grants of privileges. The upshot was that the emperor, and his imitators, the lesser princes, gradually commuted their mining rights for a proportion of the produce, and threw open the mines to all comers under a series of charters,^ the pro- visions of which we shall find exemplified, in the main, by those of the Cornish tinners. Germany's policy was followed some centuries later by France, the edicts of Charles VI * and Louis XI * removing the miner from the power of the landlords, and granting privileges to pro- spectors. Even Norway and Sweden appear at an early date to have regarded the mining classes as of a special status.^ In England, in the same general period, we meet with similar codes, applied, however, not to all mines, but to several scattered mining communities — the lead miners of the Mendip Hills,^ Derbyshire,^ and Alston Moor,^ the iron and coal miners of the Forest of Dean,^*^ and the tanners of Cornwall. It would simplify matters could we regard these codes as descended from Roman law, as was probably the case upon the ' See extracts from the Gloss of Accursius and the Summa of Azo, printed in E. Smirke, Fice v. Thomas, App. 104. ^ See charters of mines, printed in the Spkulegtum Eccksiasticum, Luenig, Reichs Archiv. and cited by J. F. Gmelin, Gtschichte des Teutschen Bergbau, 220, 24.1. ^ See F. L. von Cancrin, Grunds'dzze des Teutschen Bergrechts, 149. A specimen charter is that of Iglau, Peithner, Versuch tiber die Naturliche und PoUtische Geschichte der Ebhm'ischen und M'drischen Bergteerke, App.; Jars, Voyages Mitallur^ques, iii, 461-51 1 ; Reyer, Zinn, 35, 53, 54, 56, 79. * Recueil des Anciennes Lois Fran^aises, vii, 386-390. ' Ibid. X, 623; ' The Mining Laws of France,' by M. Migneron, Trans. Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornzv. vi, 239— 258. ^ Swank, Iron in all Ages (ed. 2) 29 ; 'A Sketch of Mining Law in Germany and other Countries,' by C. Lemon, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. vi, 1 71-172; Jars, Voyages Metallurgiques, i, 403-416 ; Heron de Villefosse, De la Richesse Minerale (Extrait par M. Patrin, 181 1), 40-41. ' Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. iii. » Esch. Enr. Accts. 16 Edw. I, No. 34 ; Add. MS. 6682, fol. 65 ; Compleat Mineral Laws ofDerb. ^ Pat. 4 Hen. V, m. 8 ; 30 Edw. I, pt. iii, m. 23 ; Pari. R. (Rec. Com.) i, 64. '° Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. ii ; NichoUs, The Forest of Dean. continent. This, however, is not easy to prove. The early references to the English miners' privi- leges give the impression of unwritten law, arisen through custom, rather than of rights formally conferred by charter. ^^ In Derbyshire the lead-miners' customs rested on immemorial usage,^^ to which Edward I in 1288 merely affixed his confirmation." In Dean the law 'used time out of mind ' was but restated in the so- called mine charter of 1286.^* The Alston miners received a charter from Henry V ; " but, again, nothing was granted that had not been previously enjoyed. What also seems strange is that, although these mining camps were operated under conditions of great liberality to the adventurer, all mines outside their limits should be the property of the king ^^ or of the landlord. ^^ This is no place for a dissertation upon the general subject of the origins of English mining law; but I may here state my opinion, formed after a study of the sources, that, while the king unquestionably tried to imitate the continental sovereigns in claiming all metallic mines,^^ this pretension was never permanently established except for the precious metals, other mines, as a rule, remaining the property of the ground-lord.^' Under these circumstances, the existence, under peculiar mining codes, of several isolated tracts well known to be the seat of the oldest mines in England, seems due, not to any engrafting of Roman law from the continent, but, as the miners themselves declared, to usage time out of mind. It has been stated that the authentic history of the tin mines begins with the year 11 56. The earliest entries are but brief items in the Pipe Rolls,^ but in 11 98 appears a letter ^^ from " * The Origins of Mining Law,' by J. Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornw. vi, 90. '^ It is said that Wilham the Conqueror expressly refrained from disturbing them. Add. MS. 6682, fol. 197. " Esch. Enr. Accts. 16 Edw. I, No. 34. " NichoUs, The Forest of Dean, 1 7. '* Pat. 4 Hen. V, m. 8. '* As in the case of mines royal {Pipe R. of Cumb. Westmld. and Dur. Introd. xxiv-xxvi. Fines, 18 Edw. II, m. I 5 ; Cal. of Pat. 1300, 502 ; 1461, 19; Plowden, Commentaries (ed. 1761), 310 (Case of Mines); 'Rudi\ng, Annals of the Coinage, i, 124 et seq.). '' As in the coal mines in the north (Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 18, 21, 23, 24. 27» 37-39» 4+> S9» 69, 73; Patrick, Early Mining Records of Scotland, Introd. xlv). '* Dugdale, Mon. (ed. 1 846), ii, 289 (grant by Rich. I to the bishop of Bath) ; Cal. of Pat. 1283, 73 (grant of lead mines to the Carthusian monks). '' Plowden, Commentaries (ed. 1761), 310 (Case of Mines). *" Pipe R. 2 Hen. II, Devon, and for the following years. It is probable that these entries comprised both the Devon and the (then) less important Cornish stannaries. " Black Book of Exchequer, No. 10. 524 INDUSTRIES the warden of the stannaries to the justiciar, by safe-keeping of both instituted a bureaucracy of means of which we may deduce the previous collectors and check-clerks, together with a code position of both mines and miners. In 1156 of regulations calculated to bring all tin under the production of tin was small, and for the the view of the king's servants. The produc- most part confined to western Devon. From tion had now risen to 900 thousand-weight,^^ 1 1 56 to 1 160 the tax on output, 30^. per which, under the new system, yielded the king thousand-weight in Devon and 5;. in Cornwall,^ a revenue far greater than all Cornwall, the mines was farmed by the sheriff of Devon for an excepted.^^ annual sum of ^^16 13J. 4^.,^ revealing a pro- Thesupply of metal, however, in the year 1200 duction of about 133 thousand-weight of tin.^ had fallen to 800 thousand-weight,-^' and it may During the succeeding decades the farm was have been to sustain the industry which brought raised to keep pace with the increasing output, him such profit that John in 1201 issued their which, if we retain our previous criterion of first charter to the stannaries.^* Its provisions estimate, rose to 183 thousands in 1163,* 533 in were brief, but important. It confirmed the 1 1 69,* and 640 in 1171.^ The miners them- ancient privileges of bounding, and of fuel and selves were, as yet, not far removed in social water, and, most important of all, removed the status from the villeins, being probably subject tinners from all pleas of serfs. Over them no to the same customary payments and services, magistrate had jurisdiction save their warden, owing suit to the manor and hundred courts, who alone, or through his officers, might summon and probably varying their underground pursuits them from work for civil and criminal matters, with that of farming. Around the industry. This charter was followed after a few years by however, had already grown a customary law, a decided increase in production ; the supply of and of this the provision which more than any tin, which from 1 20 1 to 1209^* had fallen to other tended to elevate the tinner above the 600 thousand-weight per annum, touching 800 in ordinary labourer was the so-called right of 121 1, ^^ 1,000 in 1212,^^ and two years later the bounding '^ or of freely searching for tin where- record yield of i,200 thousand-weight, or about ever it might be found regardless of landlord. 600 long tons.^^ But the disastrous effects of the Had it been otherwise, and the mine been the new charter upon the manorial lords, offering as it perquisite of the owner of the soil, probably did complete freedom to any villein who would nothing could have saved the stannaries from a turn miner, brought about its practical revocation regime of semi-slavery such as disgraced the at the instance of the barons. Devon had been Durham coal mines,® and lasted in Scotland disafforested in 1204,^^ and in 1 215 John restored until 1799,^ As it was, any man who would to the men of Cornwall the liberties which they might own a freehold tin mine by the simple had enjoyed under Henry II, promising that no process of 'staking out a claim.' one should lose the services of his men, whether The government of the stannaries had been or no they dug tin.^'' In the following reign, confined chiefly to the collection of the annual however, the charter was solemnly confirmed to tax; but in 1198 the tin mines of both countries the miners,^^ and, inasmuch as, even before, we were placed under the supervision of a warden find the tinners of Devonshire in possession of a (De Wrotham) appointed by the king. De court,^^ it is a question whether, after all, the Wrotham's innovations had still to do with the provisions of the stannaries' charter were ever in question of taxation. He convened juries of practice wholly abrogated. miners from the two shiremoots,^'' and by their The thirteenth century has left little evidence aid rectified the weights for the official measure- as to the administration of the stannaries, for the ment of tin slabs on occasion of the collection of reason that, beginning with 121 5, the king the tax. He imposed a further tax of a mark resumed the practice of farming them for a lump per thousand-weight, and for the collection and " Chanc. R. i John, Cornw. ' Black Book of Exchequer, No. 10. '^ Pipe R. 2 John, Cornw. ' Pipe R. 2-6 Hen II, Devon. " Ibid. * The thousand-weight of i,20olb. " Chart. R. 36 Hen. Ill, m. 18. * Pipe R. 9 Hen II, Devon. >' Pipe R. 8-9 John, Cornw. * Ibid. 1 5 Hen. II, Devon. '^ Ibid. 1 3 John, Cornw. * Ibid. 17 Hen. II, Devon. ^' Ibid. 14 John, Cornw. ^ For the rules governing bounding in later '^ Ibid. 16 John, Cornw. years see Pearce, Latvs and Customs of the Stannaries, ** Chart. R. 5 John. passim; The Lazvs of the Stannary of Devon, (ed. ^^ Chart. R. 16 John, m. 2. The process had been 1575). partially inaugurated in Cornwall in 1204 (Chart. R. ^Dur. Cursltores Rec. 23 Hatfield, No. 3i,m. \d. ; 5 John, m. 9). 29 Hatfield, No. 31, m. 5 d. ; Galloway, Annals oj -' Chart. R. 36 Hen. Ill, m. 18. Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 269. ^^ Pipe R. 27 Hen. Ill, Devon. Apparently, how- ^ Vcitnck, Early Mining Records of Scotland, x\vm,\xv. ever, the tinners of Dartmoor at least were not '" This proves the non-existence, as yet, of stannary wholly emancipated in 1250. See Lysons, Magna courts. Britannia, vl, p. cclxxx, citing Pat. 35 Hen. III. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL sum,^ thus removing them from the subjects embraced by the Pipe Rolls and similar state documents. From 1225 to 1300 Cornwall, with its stannaries, was under the earls Richard and Edmund,^ whose ordinances and regulations, if any, have completely disappeared. It is necessary to emphasize this point, in view of the statement so frequently seen in the older histories of Cornwall, that the two earls gave the tinners charters of privilege which in 1 305 were merely confirmed by the king.' No evi- dence exists to verify this assertion, and there is almost positive proof of its falsity, to say nothing of the fact that, possessing as we do the earlier stannary documents, it is well-nigh incredible that we should find no trace at all of a charter, which, if issued, must have been of vast import- ance ; the reason for the charter of 1305 be- comes clear enough when we examine the peti- tion of the Cornish tinners in 1304, namely that they have their charter of liberties not con- jointly with the men of Devon, 'juxta con- firmationis Regis Henrici.' * This can refer only to the confirmation in 1252 of John's charter,* and the fact that the latter is here referred to as the great charter of the tinners is evidence that no grants of importance were made in the intervening period. The administration of the stannaries probably varied little all this while from the system instituted in 1198. A few minor changes took place in the fiscal bureaucracy, while the appoint- ment of a warden was sometimes accompanied by that of one or more * clerk-wardens ' * who in all likelihood performed the warden's work, while he himself, often as well the farmer of the stannaries, remained in London.^ The issue of the charter of 1305, at which date the Cornish stannaries were partially separated in administration from those of Devon,^ marks an important step in stannary government, not merely because it contained new features, but because, with one addition, it remained from ' Pat. I Hen. Ill, m. 5 ; 4 Hen. Ill, pt. i, m. 1 ; 5 Hen. Ill, m. 4, 6, 8 ; 8 Hen. Ill, m. 1 1 ; 19 Hen. Ill, m. 16 ; 37 Hen. Ill, m. 18 ; Close, I Hen. Ill, m. 23 ; 5 Hen. Ill, m. 8 ; 6 Hen. Ill, m. 3 ; 8 Hen. Ill, m. 14 ; 9 Hen. Ill, m. 4 ; 10 Hen. Ill, m. 27. Fine, 5 Hen. Ill, m. 7 ; 6 Hen. Ill, m. 2. Ca/. Orig. R. (Rec. Com.), 38 Hen. Ill, r. 3 ; 32 Edw. I, r. 7. * Close, 9 Hen. Ill, m. 7, 9. Chart. R. 15 Hen. Ill, m. 4. ' Carew, Sutv. of Cofnw. (ed. 181 1), 17. De la Beche, Geology of Comzv. Devon and West Somers. 526. * Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), i, 164. * Chart. R. 36 Hen. Ill, m. 18. * Chanc. R. 3 John, Cornw. Pipe R. 1 1 John, Cornw. ' Pat. 9 John, m. 16. * Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40, 41. Duplicate charters were issued to the two stannary counties, and save for both being subject to the warden, they remained separate from that day onward. that day till less than a century ago the consti- tution of the tinners. To analyse it briefly, it confirmed the customary rights of bounding, freed the tinners from ordinary taxation, confirmed the already existent practices of tin coinage and pre-emption, and attempted rather unsuccessfully to give precision to the jurisdiction of the warden and his lieutenants. This charter almost completing as it does the list of the tinners' privileges, a slight digression may here be made to describe them more fully. Bounding has been referred to as the basis of the superior status of the free miner * ; but this liberty was qualified by restrictions. A limita- tion existed as to the kinds of lands which might be invaded, and, secondly, the owner of the soil was entitled to compensation. Cornish law, after excluding highways, houses, and church- yards from devastation, allowed any man to dig for tin in all wastrel,'*' and in enclosed lands, if the latter were of the duchy manors, or had been anciently bounded and assured for wastrel.'^ Anywhere else the owner's consent was requisite. The bounds were tracts of land enjoyed by their possessors in respect to tin only, and the ceremony of taking up a claim '^ was the digging of a small pit, and the making of a small pile of turf at each of the corners of the plot.'' This had to be repeated each year, else the bounds were said to have lapsed.'^ The laws of the stannaries contain no provision regulating the amount of land which might be included in a pair of bounds, and a possible outcome of this omission is seen by the fact that in 1786 all Dartmoor, comprising 5,000 acres, was taken by a single bounder.'* Nor has there ever been any definition of the work necessary to hold the bounds, with the possible exception of one which made toll tin obligatory at the end of the third year,'® else the land reverted to its lord. The tak- ing up of new bounds, as well as the renewing of old ones, had, after 1495 at least,'^ to be reported at the nearest stannary court, where, having ' The right of bounding was universal in all free mining communities. Cf. Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. iii, art. i. '" Terris fastis et moris in the charter of 1305 is obviously * wastrel lands and moorlands.* " Convoc. 12 Chas. I, c. 4. Cf. also Compleat Mineral Laws of Derb. pt. i, art. 12. " In Derbyshire the prospector applied for his claim ^ to the barmaster, who delivered him two ' meers.' , Compleat Mineral Laws of Derb. pt. iii, art. I. " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 27. " The law, however, still allowed the old occupant to retain his shaft, provided it be not extended laterally (Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 30). As the custom of bounding survives largely in modern mining law, I have set down only the more salient features. '* * The History of the Custom of Tin Bounding,' by E. Smirke, Englishes Mining Almanack, i, 156. '« Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 30. " Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, loi. Add. MS. 6713, fol. 101-104. 526 INDUSTRIES been there proclaimed at the three following sessions, in default of opposition, the bounder's title became valid. ^ The mediaeval tinner had also the right of access to running water,^ vi^ithout the use of which to cleanse the ores mining would have been impossible. In the miners' charters this right appears as that of diverting streams,' and served not only to permit the washing of ore, but also to lay bare the river beds for searching for stream tin. With the above privilege went that of buying brushwood for smelting purposes,* amounting, doubtless, to a right of seizure in case the owner refused to sell. In an age when pit coal was rarely used in the metallic industries, this was a concession of importance, especially in view of the fact that the barrenness of the Cornish moors made it difficult to procure a sufficient stock of fuel. Partly in consequence of this, and partly because of the approaching exhaustion of the Cornish peat beds, the tinners were permitted to cut turf in the royal forest of Dartmoor. For Devon this right probably derives its sanction from a custom as old as bounding,® but it was not enjoyed by Cornwall until I465.« In Cornwall, the claims of the lord of the soil in which a mine existed were satisfied by the payment of a fixed proportion of the ore on the day of the ' wash ' or ore-dressing, when a servant of the landlord, known as the ' toller,' met the tinners, and received his master's share in kind.^ The proportions of toll were not uniform throughout the stannaries. The tenth ^ or fifteenth dish was usually given, but this de- pended partly on local custom, and partly upon special enactment of the stannary convocation,^ a general rule prevailing that wastrel land should pay less than arable. In lieu of toll the landlord might receive a share in the mine itself,^" a ' Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 31. P.R.O. Ct. R. bdle. 161, No. 18. ^ Chart. R. 3 3 Edw. Ill, m. 40. For the custom in Derbyshire see Compleat Mineral Laws of Derb. pt. i, art. 2, 9. ^ ' Et divertere aquas ad operationem eorum ' (Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40, 41). *■ The king's miners had like privileges {Cal. of Pat. 1283, 69; Cal. of Close, 1333, 152; 1337, 190 ; 1339, 286). Similar liberties prevailed in the Forest of Dean (Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. ii, art. 26, 28, 29, 34), and in Derbyshire {Com- pleat Mineral Laws of Derb. pt. i, art. 1 1 ; Add. MS. 6682, fol. 68). * Pat. I Hen. Ill, m. 5 ; Close 3 Hen. Ill, pt. i, m. () d, 23. * Pat. 5 Edw. IV, pt. ii, m. 7. ' Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries, p. xix. ® In the Mendip mines the lord received the tenth dish. (Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. iii, c. 11). ' Convoc. Cornwall, 1 2 Chas. I, c. 4. '" Ibid c. 3. Carew, Surv. of Cornwall (ed. 181 1), 44. practice, however, more frequently to be found in Derbyshire ^^ or in the Forest of Dean.^^ Doubt exists as to whether or no the miners were subject to impressment for work in the royal mines or elsewhere. We find undoubted grants of exemption from forced labour ;^^ but, on the other hand, besides several royal writs and letters which call upon the sheriffs of Devon and Corn- wall to furnish workmen for the king's mines,^* positive evidence from at least one Receiver's Roll for the Duchy of Cornwall shows that tinners were occasionally made to work at the king's wages,^* a hardship which in Derbyshire,^® Mendip," and the Forest of Dean ^^ was taken quite as a matter of course. In addition we know that the tinners were frequently called upon for special military service, the sole condi- tion being that they be impressed by and with the consent of the warden, ^^ and mustered separ- ately from the rest, under his command,^'^ a custom which has as a result one of the pro- visions of the Militia Act of 1802.^^ The remaining privileges, those of exemption from the jurisdiction of any but the stannary courts and from the incidence of ordinary taxa- tion, deserve less summary treatment, inasmuch as they are connected with stannary institutions of a similar nature. The clauses in the charter of 1201 which placed criminal and civil jurisdiction over the tinners in the l»ands of the warden had resulted in the division of the mining districts of Corn- wall into several distinct provinces or stannaries. ^^ The local limits of each of the four stannaries have never been defined. They probably grew up from this general grant of jurisdiction, which we find to have been usual in other mines,^* and which, perhaps, constituted a mixed personal and local law. The character of the locality seems to have resulted from the aggregation of the tin works in certain situations favourable to them, and the name of each stannary points out " Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. i, art. i. " Ibid. pt. ii, art. 14. " Cal of Pat. 1305, 331 ; 1308, 61. " Cal. of Close, 13 19, 134; 1336, 579. Cal. of Pat. 1320, 537 ; 1328, 318. '* Receiver's R. 29 Edw. III. Add. MS. 24746, fol. 120. '® Cal of Close, 1288, 499 ; 1319, 212 ; 1328, 478 ; 1333, 52 ; 1380, 527. 1' S.P. Dom. Jas. I, clii, 9. '^ Cal. of Close, 13 19, 127. " S.P. Dom. Jas. I, Addenda, dxxi, loi. '"Add. MS. 6713, fol. 113. S.P. Dom. Eliz. cxii, 23; ccix, 22; ccxvi, 48; cclxii, 73. S.P. Dom. Jas. I, Ixxviii, 36. Convoc. Cornw. 30 Eliz. c. 6. ^1 Stat. 42 Geo. Ill, c. 72. *^ The Derbyshire lead fields were also divided into various administrative districts. {Compleat Mineral Laws of Derbyshire) ^^ Pat. 47 Hen. Ill, m. 12 ; 27 Edw. I, m. 35 ; 15 Edw. IV, pt. i, m. 22 ; I Hen. VII, pt. ii, m. 25. 527 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL its original nucleus. Five tracts of stanniferous warrants issued by any justice of the peace,' wastrel, with their adjunct vales, supplied the writs of cercionary from the royal courts,^ and ancient stream works of Cornwall. The moor writs of replevin from any one but the warden, between Launceston and Bodmin, in which the and all attempts to remove suits from the stan- Fowey River has its source, gave rise to the nary courts once they had there begun. Writs northern stannary of Foweymore. Hensborough of prohibition, habeas corpus, and corpus cum Beacon with the tin grounds of Roche, Luxulian, causa, were allowed where the plea was one of and St. Austell formed that of Blackmore. A land, life, or member, ^^ but no litigant might smaller district on the north coast, including St. procure these writs under any other circum- Agnes and Cligga, and extending inland to stances. The use of royal writs of subpoena to Truro, constituted the stannary of Tywarnhail. sue a tinner out of the stannaries for matters The stannaries of Penwith and Kerrier included there determinable was equally forbidden, and two great tracts of waste, of which one lies north the writ itself might be broken with impunity. ^^ of Helston in Kerrier, and the other between No appeals were permitted from stannary judge- Lelant and Land's End. ments to foreign courts, either by writs of error In each district was established a court, pre- or of certiorari. ^^ Save in the few cases where a sided over by a steward, as the warden's repre- tinner might legally be tried in a foreign court,^' sentative. In Devon, where analogous divisions in which event the jury was composed half of had taken place, already by 1243 ^^ ^"^ ^^^ tinners,^^ the latter were immune from jury stannary courts recorded in the Pipe Rolls. ^ service save in their own tribunals.'* A host of Cornwall, by the year 1297,^ contained the prosecutions recorded in mediaeval stannary stannaries of Blackmore, Penwith and Kerrier, court rolls for violations of the above regulations and Tywarnhail, each with its court; but of not only confirm our views as to their antiquity, Foweymore we have no trace until 1342.' but prove conclusively that they were in no Gradually, also, arose a code, partly from pre- sense dead letters.'* scription and partly no doubt from enactment From almost the first the stannary courts were by early stannary parliaments, the object of obliged to contend for the maintenance of their which was to make it dangerous for either tinner prerogatives with the non-mining part of the or foreigner to infringe the judicial liberties of population, partly by reason of conflicts of juris- the mines. It is unfortunate that we have not diction, and partly because of the miners' disre- the records of the first stannary convocations, with gard in their operations for ordinary rights of which to trace the gradual steps by which the property. Thus in 1309 we find the sheriff screw tightened. As it is, we must depend upon of Cornwall mobbed by the Blackmore tinners, the law as defined by the convocations held from on his attempting to levy upon their chattels.'® the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.* No A few years later we see the tinners of Devon tinner, so it reads, might appear at an assize,* or charged before the king with having intimidated might sue, or allow himself to be sued, in any the bailiffs of the hundred moots, and of having foreign court(anycourt outside the stannaries), save made arbitrary use of the stannary writ." Matters, for pleas of life, limb, or land, under penalty of a however, did not come to a head until 1376, heavy fine.® No case determinable in the stannary when two long petitions from the people of court might be tried elsewhere, violations of this Cornwall and Devon were answered in the Good rule being punishable whether or no the offender Parliament.'^ But before examining their con- were a tinner.^ Warrants and writs issued tents, a slight retrospect is essential for a clear against the tinners from foreign courts were not view of the constitutional questions involved, allowed, and officers attempting to serve them One reason for these disputes seems to have were liable to arrest. In this category came been the lack of precise definition with which ' Pipe R. 27 Hen. Ill, Devon. ^ Exch. K. R. Bailiffs' Accts. of Edmund of Corn- » Add. MS. 6713, fol. 112. Helston Court, wall, 24-25 Edw. I. 12 Hen. VIII. ^ Receiver's R. 26 Edw. III. ^ Ibid. fols. 129, I 30. * In the earliest existing court roll of the stannaries '" Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 30. (P.R.O. Ct. R. bdle. 156, No. 26) we find instances " Add. MS. 6713, fol. 127 (Penwith and Kerrier of men charged with impleading tinners in a foreign Customs). court. '* Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 30. ' Add. MS. 6713, fol. 191. " Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40. * Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 7. Cf. Compleat " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 43. Mineral Law i of Derbyshire, pt. i, art. 13, 18, 37; '^ P.R.O. Ct. R. bdle. 159, No. I; bdle. 156, pt. 2, art. 40. Thomas Houghton, The Compleat No. 26, etc. Miner, 14, art. 3 i ; pt. ii, art. 21. 'Certain Peculiari- '^ Pat. 3 Edw. II, m. 43*/. ties in the Old Mining Laws of Mendip,' by C. "Pat. 12 Edw. II, pt. i, m. 15, sched. Cf. also Lemon, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Co?tiw. vi, 330. Close, 7 Edw. Ill, pt. i, m. <)J. ; Pat. 8 Edw. II, ' Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries, p. xx. pt. ii, m. zd. ; Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), i, 190, 297, 312, A similar provision held in the Forest of Dean. 382. Houghton, T/:e Compleat Miner, pt. ii, art. 21. 1* Par/. R. (Rec. Com.), ii, 343, 344. 528 INDUSTRIES the charters had left the powers of the stannary royal domains, claimed stannary privileges, and courts. In practice stannary law covered five that not only labourers but their masters enjoyed subjects ; first, all rights and interests justly the freedom of the mines ; that the stannary acquired under stannary law and custom, in the courts were taking cognizance of pleas between absolute usufruct of underground soil for the tinner and foreigner arising elsewhere than in the purpose of mining, and also a qualified usufruct former's place of work ; that the warden allowed of streams whose natural course might run with- tinners imprisoned at Lostwithiel for felony to in the surface limits of these rights, or whose use run at large ; and that he seized into the stan- might be essential for mining operations, and, nary gaol villeins whom their masters were conversely, the prevention of injustice by the about to imprison for arrears of accounts, and usurpations of such rights in violation of stannary treated them so well that they refused to return law ; secondly, the securing to the lords of the to their lords. soil their due proportion of toll tin ; thirdly, the regulation of all dealings between miners and blowers or smelters ; fourthly, the enforce- The exposition allowed on these points by Parliament and the king was in some details To the inquiry as evasive, and in others clear ment of the assay and the coinage ; fifthly, the to whether, in other than in the king's domains, power of adjudicating upon all matters in dispute the tinners were free, the king contented himself between persons concerned in mining operations with pointing out that the charter of 1305 per- as regards tin, so as to entitle them to the character and privileges of tinners, or between such persons and any others not so concerned. In these matters concerning tinners' rights two questions at once arose. The first con- cerned the definition of the word * tinner.' Did it, as the stannaries claimed, include not only mitted the digging of tin in the lands of all parties. For other complaints, he appointed a commission of inquiry, whose findings, if ever made, were suppressed.^ He promised that pleas arising between tinners and foreigners and outside places where mining was actually carried on should not be taken to the stannary courts. the manual labourers, but their employers, the and finally he defined the word * tinner ' to com- mmes, the dealers in tin and holders of shares m in ore, and all the artisan classes connected with tin mining ? Or was it, as insisted on by their opponents,^ to comprise only the working miners, and so long only as they remained at work ? The evidence is not a model of consistency. Our earliest, namely De Wrotham's letter of 1198,^ says nothing, of course, with regard to a stannary court, but it includes among those classes whose customs are to be respected all diggers of tin, buyers of black tin, first smelters, Chaplin, ^^ the declarations of the stannary con- and merchants of tin of the first smelting. The vocation in 1588,^^ the three successive attempts charter of 1 20 1 ^ addresses its privileges to 'all made in 1608,^^ 1627,^^ and 1632^® to decide tinners so long prise only manual labourers in the tin works, and for so long only as they remained at work. This exposition, confirmed by Richard II a few years later, ^ remained unchanged in principle for over a century.* We may pass rapidly over the wording of the Charter of Pardon of Henry VII, ^ the finding of his successor's commission in 1524,^° the deductions to be drawn from two of the latter's statutes, ^^ the case of Boscawen against as they are at '6^ work. The the question with the aid of the judges, the charter of 1305* repeats this qualification, and resolutions passed by the convocations of 1624^^ then, apparently, adds another, confining its scope and 1636,^* the attempt of the Long Parliament to the miners on the king's demesne lands. The ambiguities of phrasing with which this latter instrument abounds, and which were caught up by the stannary officials in support of their aggressive campaign against competing jurisdic- tions, gave rise to many complaints similar to those already cited, which in 1376 culminated in the two petitions introduced into Parliament by the people of Devon and Cornwall,* which with their answers form a landmark in the con- stitutional history of the stannaries. It was protested, first, that the tinners, even off the ^ Cf. Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), ii, 343, 344. » Black Book of Exch. No. 10. ^ Chart R. 36 Hen. Ill, m. 18. * Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40. In Devon the existence of the tax known as ' white rent,' levied upon the owners of white tin, whether miners ornot, seems to show that the term ' tinner ' was there inter- preted broadly. (Pipe R. 20 Edw. I, Devon.) * Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), ii, 343, 344. to settle matters, once and for all. by a reversion " and lat er to the exposition made in 1376, promulgations on the same head by the stannary 8 ; 27Hen. VIII, c. 23. * Coke, Institutes (ed. 1644), bk. iv, 932. ' Harl MS. 6380, fol. 99. Add. MS. 6713, fol. 196. ® Cf. Stat. 16 Chas. I, c. 15, preamble. ^ Pat. 23 Hen. VII, pt. vii, ra. 29-31. ^^ Ratified by the Convocation of the Stannaries of Cornwall, 16 Hen. VIII, c. i. " Stat. 23 Hen. VIII, c. " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 9. " Convoc. Cornw. 30 Eliz. c. 7, 8. " Close 6 Jas. I, p. 5. ^* Geo. Harrison, Report on the Laws and Jurisdiction of the Stannaries, App. K. '^ From a manuscript volume in Cornwall Office. '' Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 12. '^ Ibid. 12 Chas. I, c. ^^ Stat. 16 Chas. I, c. the Duchy of 2, 5. 15. 529 67 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL parliaments of 1687^ and 1752.^ That so privileges of wood and water ; and grants them many efforts were made to adjust matters resulted (including for the first time those not actually from the close attention which the question of engaged in manual labour) the right of pleading stannary jurisdiction had begun to attract from in the stannary courts. These were given lawyers and jurists of all sorts. From the tin- cognizance, on the civil side, of all pleas between ners' complaints to their warden^ it is evident tinners, and between tinners and foreigners, pro- that a more or less concerted movement was on vided the case arose within the stannaries, with foot to break down the stannary courts altogether, the proviso that, in any suit in which a tinner or, at least, to reduce them to a mere shadow was involved, if he wished to put it to an of their power. Essentially a product of the inquest of the country, half the jury must consist reforming spirit of the Puritans, however, the of tinners. Criminal cases, where the accused movement lost headway and seems to have died was a tinner, were dealt with in the ordinary out altogether with the Restoration. courts, with the concession to the stannaries that Can we reconcile with one another these various tinners were to be lodged in a special gaol, interpretations? There is little doubt but that, The exposition given in 1376 referred merely granted at the outset a customary law of mining, to the franchises granted for the first time by exemption from all outside jurisdiction was pur- this charter, and left untouched the ancient posely confined to tinners whose personal attend- customary rights which antedated all written ance was deemed essential for production. As documents. What we have to note with regard for the others, whether their cases were decided to the word ' tinner ' is the fact that it dealt on the manor, or in the shire and hundred courts, merely with the special privileges granted to or whether by the royal justices, it is not for us tinners on the royal estates. In their case it to say. Doubtless, as time went on, they grad- was defined as including only manual workers ually, and quite illegally, came to use the stannary so long as they worked. Upon the more courts for law suits, and to plead before the important question as to the comprehensiveness warden and his officers to the exclusion of all of the word, applied to the great mass of tinners other tribunals. When we say that, even in the outside the royal domains, no complaint appeared thirteenth century, there probably existed many and no definition was attempted, quasi-capitalist miners who conducted their opera- After a lapse of one hundred and thirty-one years tions through the medium of hired labour, to we arrive at the Charter of Pardon granted by say nothing of dealers in ore and refined tin,* Henry VII.* The specific persons to whom when we admit the possibility of numerous this applied were bounders, owners of tin works technical questions arising between owners and and smelting houses, and buyers of ore and adventurers and their hired help, which could tin, men of conditions of life far above that of not be settled save in the stannary courts where the labouring tinner. They had offended against the latter were forced to plead, and add to this certain ordinances made by Prince Arthur for the the aggressive spirit which, from the fourteenth direction of the stannaries.® Now these ordinances century, as we know, characterized the stannary could not be applicable to, or bind any others courts, the above supposition becomes highly than those who came within the operation of the probable. customs, and consequently within the jurisdic- To interpret the charter of 1305, one must tion of the stannaries, and therefore all these bear in mind the fact that, addressed at the out- offenders could only have incurred the penalties set to all tinners, it includes, in the opening from which they were to be relieved, in the paragraph, certain grants of privileges to specifi- character of tinners, in the most extensive con- cally mentioned bodies, namely, the tinners on struction of the term, embracing all persons the royal demesne lands, the king seemingly having an interest or concern in any mining ignoring the charter of 1 201 and its later con- operations regarding tin. firmation, and granting freedom from pleas of The commission of inquiry in the sixteenth serfdom to working miners on his own estates, year of Henry VIII adopted the term ' tinner ' with the additional privilege of being liable for in this sense, as embracing ' such as have portion actions arising in the stannary, and not involving of tin works, or that employ some charge on land, life, or limb, solely before the warden and the sinking, working, or in the making things his officers. The remainder of the charter is necessary for the getting of tin.' The same in- addressed to all tinners, and confirms the terpretation is to be found by a close examination ancient rights of bounding, with its concomitant of the two Acts of Parliament above cited,^ and I r> ^r T TT '" the cases of Boscawen against Chaplin,® and L-onvoc. Cornw. 2 las. II, c. 1—4.. 8. 2^. •-r j • ^ v■^^■ ^ 9 » Tu-j r> TT o +' "» ■'J* 1 rewynnard agamst Killisrew.'' Ibid. 27 Geo. II, c. 1-4, 8-10, 14, 17. y b t- ^ On this question see Pearce, L^ccs and Customs * Pat. 23 Hen. VII, pt. vii, m. 29-31. of the Stannaries, 147, 149-151. S.P. Dom. Eliz. * Add. MS. 671 3, fol. 101-104. ccxxvii, 8; Jas. I, Ixxvlii, 36. Add. MS. 24746, ' Stat. 23 Hen. VIII, c. 3 ; 27 Hen. VIII, c. 23. fol. 92. Manuscript volume in Duchy of Cornwall * Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 9. Office, fol. 337. 9 Harrison, Report on the Laws and Jurisdiction of the * Black Book of Exch. No. 10. Stannaries, i^^. INDUSTRIES In following definitions of the word ' tinner,' we meet with a novel and arbitrary mode of in- terpretation. The old distinction between tin- ners on the royal estates and those elsewhere had probably long been dropped, and in its stead arose a theory which attempted to apply to all tinners that contrast between working and non- working tinners brought out in 1376,^ the main point being the claim that only working tinners might be excluded from all but stannary courts, while others possessed rights of suit at stannary or' common-law courts at their choice. Granted this proposition (and it seems to have found ac- ceptance from the first), the question remained as to what tinners belonged to the privileged class, and which were merely ' tinners at large.' The judges, in 1608, decided that the former comprised blowers and all other labourers while at work. The stannary convocation in 1624 seems to have extended the privilege of not being suable in other than the stannary courts, to another sort, namely, to owners of blowing-houses and adventurers who were at any charge for getting or making tin. It was probably this extension of privilege which occasioned the second reference to the judges three years later. Their explana- tory decision amounted to little more than a reversion to the rule of 1608, and the same state- ment may be made with regard to the rules laid down by the king in council in 1632, and the statute of 1 64 1. An inspection of succeeding codes of stannary law in the reigns of James II and George II makes it clear that their provi- sions are built upon this principle, and an unin- terrupted course of usage and practice in con- formity with it carried the doctrine down to 1837- The second great question concerned itself with the local limits for the exercise of the stan- nary jurisdiction. None seem to have been prescribed until the charter of 1305, in which, as regards miners on the royal estates, exemption was granted from pleading elsewhere than before the stannary courts for all pleas arising ultra predictas stannarias^ i.e. which were on the demesne lands. Other miners were answerable to the stannary court for pleas arising among themselves, and between themselves and out- siders, concerning all trespasses, plaints, and contracts made in places where they worked within the stannaries arising. In answer to the petitions of 1376, the above was interpreted to mean that the jurisdiction extended to places where the workmen were at work and nowhere else, a decision which, if acquiesced in by the tinners, would have resulted in unending con- fusion. The charter of 1305 itself, in its clause of pre-emption, calls for the coinage of the tin in Lostwithiel, Bodmin, Liskeard, Truro, and Helston. All contracts made there for the sale ' Expediency, of course, was the sole excuse for this interpretation. and purchase of tin were unquestionably de- terminable in the stannary courts, of which we have had an instance in the case of Boscawen against Chaplin, where the cause of action arose upon a contract made at Truro between persons who were not labourers, which, nevertheless, was decided by a stannary court. The judge before whom the question was raised in 1608 decided that transitory actions between tinner and tinner, and worker and worker, might be decided in the stannary courts, even if the cause arose outside the stannaries, or at common law, at the election of the plaintiiF. But if in such a case only one of the parties were a tinner, the defendant might have the case removed to a foreign court. They further ruled that the courts of the stannaries had no jurisdiction over local cases arising outside the stannaries, and that the privileges of workmen did not extend to any local case arising outside the stannaries whereby any freehold should be demanded, ' for that matters of life, member and plea of land were exempted by the express words of the charter.' The stannary convocation in 1624 recognized stannary juris- diction as embracing the contracts or dealings of all persons whomsoever in the buying or selling of uncoined tin, without limitation or qualifica- tion as to their condition and withont reference to the place where they might be entered.^ By the resolutions of the judges in 1627 it was decided, with reference to the extent of the stannaries, that they comprised every village, hamlet, or tithing wherein tin works existed, or should be wrought, during such time only as active mining operations should be carried on. A further step was taken by the Privy Council in 1632, when they decided that, since in prac- tice all Cornwall had been treated by the stan- nary courts as within their jurisdiction, and as the other provisions of the mining charters applied to the entire county, matters had best continue in statu quo. In the twenty-first section of the laws of the parliament of the Cornish stannaries of 1636, the stannary jurisdiction is recognized as embracing all dealings in black tin, and gives a remedy to the party wronged without qualifica- tion as to the condition of the two parties, or reference to the place of dealing. The statute passed by Parliament in 1641 returned to the exposition of 1376, 'that the words in locis ubi operantur^ be expounded of the village, hamlet, and tithing where some tin work is situated, and not elsewhere, and no longer than the same tin work is, or shall be working.' Its operation, however, was deemed, in practice, to be confined to the case of labouring tinners, and this construc- tion was adopted in the laws of 1687 and 1 752, and has so continued until recent times. It has been seen that, from a legal standpoint, the stannaries were a peculiar jurisdiction, under the operation of certain laws, customary and * Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 5. 531 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL statutory, technical and non-technical, for the administration of which a royal officer, the warden, was responsible. The head of the stannary sys- tem was, accordingly, the king, or, after 1337, the Prince of Wales, as Duke of Cornwall, Beneath him stood the warden, then the vice- warden, and lastly, the lower stannary courts with their stewards and juries of miners. The warden, however, as far back as we find records, invariably delegated his judicial and magisterial powers to his lieutenant and to the stewards, and interfered in legal questions only in appeals from the vice-warden's verdicts.^ The latter's powers were, first of all, magisterial, for the prevention, by summary process, of offences against stannary laws, and for their summary punishment, if perpetrated.^ Next, as judge of the vice-warden's court, he had original jurisdic- tion in matters of equity. The origin of this power will always remain obscure, as it is im- possible to find warrant for it in any reasonable interpretation of the charters of 120 1 and 1305, which contain no legal phrase not to be found in common-law writs.^ On the other hand, the early petitions addressed to the Prince of Wales ^ are rarely made to the warden, but to the prince's proper officer whoever he might be ; neither were they restricted to the subject of mining.' Gradually, without doubt, from these petitions and the orders from the prince's council arose an equitable jurisdiction. Similar petitions to great lords and their councils ripened into courts of chancery, notably the case of the courts of the president and council of Wales,^ and probably only the interposition of parliament prevented the growth of many courts of local equity.^ The prince's council survived those of other subjects,^ and in the case of the Duchy of Cornwall, long usage, the faCt that many of the petitions related to the stannaries, and the union of the warden- ship with the other high offices of the duchy ^ for centuries, co-operated to narrow the prince's jurisdiction to the same subjects as those embraced by the tinners' charters. As no records were kept of the proceedings of the vice-warden's court till 1752,^° one cannot ^ The warden was the general representative of the stannaries as against the government of England, mustered the tinners in times of war, and acted as their spokesman with regard to stannary affairs. * Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 6, 12, 13. ^ Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. 102. * White Book of Cornwall, 23 Nov. 34. Edw. Ill, cited by E. Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. 26. * White Book of Cornwall, i, c. 15. ^ Coke, Institutes (ed. 1661), bk. iv, p. 242-245. ^ Stat. 15 Ric. II, c. 12 ; 16 Ric. II, c. 2. * It was recognized by parliament {Pari. R. ii, 371). ^ Close, 8 Edw. II, m. 7. ^^ Convoc. Cornw. 27 Geo. II, c. 16. The case of Boscawen v. Chaplin, in the reign of Henrj' VIII, seems to have been dealt with as a special case, as it appears to have been tried before the ' underwardcn say how early it had actual practice in equity. Carew, in 1602, wrote of the warden that 'he supplieth the place, both of a judge for law, and of a chancellor for conscience, and so taketh hearing of causes either in forma juris or dejure et equo. He substituteth some gentleman in the shire, of good calling and discretion, to be his vice-warden.' ^^ In a dissertation a few years later, we find words to the same efFect,^^ and the vice- warden's power in equity was, in 1608," declared by Coke to be founded on prescription. The express recognition of these powers in later years, and their unopposed exercise, leave no doubt as to their validity in theory and in practice.^^ The vice-warden's appellate jurisdiction dates certainly back to 1510,^^ and probably earlier. In that year we see that the course of appeals in the stannary courts lay from steward to vice-warden, from vice-warden to warden, and from warden to the prince's council, and in 1565 this measure was confirmed in the case of Trewynnard against Roskarrock,^® as well as affirmed repeatedly in stannary records of later years. More recently, however, arose a practice, quite unwarranted, of using the vice-warden's court as one of original common-law jurisdiction. This seems to have been exercised chiefly in cases of debts due to merchants and tradesmen for the supply of materials or goods requisite for the working of the mines, and to tinners for their labour. The delays in the stewards' courts had proved vexa- tious beyond measure," and the fact that, nor- mally, the case was certain to come eventually before the vice-warden now caused it to be carried to him direct. This practice seems also to have been due to the system of adventuring, which in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was at its height in Cornwall. The creditors who supplied the mines were made to look for payment to the purser of the company,^^ and as he received all moneys arising from the produce of the mines they could usually reach him by petition to the vice-warden,^^ while the purser, in turn, had and chief steward,' the ' understeward,* and a jury of twenty-four, half tinners and half merchants. Cf. also Jets of P. C. 1593, 266, 342. " Carew, Sar^. ofComtv. (ed. 1811), p. 58. '* Harrison, Report on the Laws and J urisdiction of the Stannaries, App. I. " Close, 6 Jas. I, pt. v. '* Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 21 ; 12 Chas. I, c. 18 ; 27 Geo. II, c. 9, II ; Add. MS. 6682, fol. 507. " Add. MS. 6713, fol. 190, 191. '^ Coke, Institutes (ed. 1 661), bk. iv, p. 233. The same plaintiff had also met similar defeat in 1562 on presenting his bill of complaint in the Court of the Queen's Bench. ^' Harrison, Report on the Laws and f urisdiction of the Stannaries, App. M. '^ Convoc. Cornw. 2 Jas. II, c. 6. •' Ibid. 27 Geo. II, c. II. 532 INDUSTRIES power to recover against his fellow-adventurers, was the steward's duty to hold special sessions If on investigation a question should arise as to at the request of litigants, when necessary, for the the sum due to the petitioning creditor, the vice- warden, on request of either party, would direct an issue to the stannary court to try that point by a jury. The law of 1752, which established this procedure, was silent as to the mode the creditor was to pursue for recovery, and it would seem to have a twofold aspect as to jurisdiction, with reference to the different objects it em- trial of rights in tin works,® and to hold * cus- tomary ' courts which, according to ancient custom, * were always held the morrow after certain fairs within each stannary for the benefit of such as do attend the fair and court.' '' If we omit from consideration the two last ^ we shall find the legal business of the lower courts transacted in thirteen sessions,^ held each braced. The first paragraph of the Act was year in each of the four districts, of which two, confined to a transaction altogether of legal charac- one in the spring and one in the fall, were courts ter, namely, a contract between an adventurer leet. In all, however, the cases, criminal and in a mine (the purser), exclusively of his co- civil, were decided by a jury of tinners (usually adventurers, and a merchant, for the supply of four in number),^'' a procedure at least as old as material, or a working tinner for the sale of 1305,^^ and probably older. The pleas consisted his labour. The other aspect is shown in the of all manner of personal actions, many of them following paragraphs which related to the settle- relating to trespasses, for taking tin and for enter- ment of the purser's claims upon his partners, ing opera stannaria^ or tin works.^^ In 1495, when the practice of entering bounds in the court rolls seems first to have been established,^^ find them described as opus stanni or opera we and this, as a matter of equity, should have been settled by the vice-warden. The course of procedure, therefore, would have been consistent throughout. The creditor would proceed against stannaria^ and there seems little doubt, therefore, the purser at common law in the court of the that the court exercised the power of adjudicating steward, and the purser would have his remedy upon this species of property. There were also, against his partners, in equity, in the court of to a late date, numerous entries of hue and cry the vice-warden. raised in respect to trespasses levied upon tinners, The effects of the unlawful practice of suing and presentments of bailiffs of unjust raisings of for debts directly to the vice-warden was to hue and cry were a common cause of amercia- diminish the activities of the lower courts by ment.^^ Cases of debt and contract, assault and withdrawing from them nearly all their proper battery,^' offences peculiar to mining law, such as business, since, with regard to simple contracts the diverting of a mine's watercourses, formed a having no connexion with mining, recourse, by large proportion of the legal business transacted, this time, was usually had to the common law.^ Another class of cases shows how completely the Matters thus continuing for a considerable period, tinners were separated from the ordinary courts ; the above exercised jurisdiction of the vice-warden for example, the encroaching upon a neighbour's was suddenly called in question and denied by cornfield with one's swine and geese,^® infractions two successive law-suits.^ As a result, both vice- of the Assize of Beer,® or, shortly after the Black Death, evasions of the Statute of Labourers.^" A phenomenon illustrating the connexion of the steward's court with the hundred and shire warden and stewards declined to hold courts until their respective jurisdictions could be set- tled, and confusion continued until the passage of the Stannaries Act of 1837. The stewards' courts, of which there were four, had been the place of usual resort for stan- nary cases. The stewards, who seem to have been appointees of the warden,^ began to exer- cise their authority at least as early as 1 243.* Like the vice-warden, they were invested with powers of magistrates within their respective stannaries,^ and their jurisdiction in ordinary court matters has already been discussed. In general, it may be remarked that their courts were to that of the vice-warden as the common-law courts are to those of chancery. In addition to the exercise of his magisterial and ordinary judicial powers, it 'The statute 16 Chas. I, c. 15, gives leave for tinners to sue one another outside the stannary- courts. ^ See Hall v. Vivian, printed in Smirke, Fice v. Thomas, 37. ^ E. Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. p. 97. * Pipe R. 27 Hen. III. * Convoc. Cornw. 1 2 Chas. I, c. 1 2. ' Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 30. ' Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 18, 27 ; 12 Chas. I, c. 22. ' Of customary courts not a record remains. Special courts are entered under that name, although it is probable that the inquisitions and findings of juries respecting trespasses in such works (of which entries are frequent) may be referable to adjourned courts so held upon the works themselves. * A tri-weekly barmote court was held in the Derby- shire mines by the barmaster and a miners' jury {Compkat Mineral Laws of Derbyshire, pt. iv, art. 2 ; pt. i, art. 16). '"Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 3. Harrison, Report on the Laws and Jurisdiction of the Stannaries, p. 170. "Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40. " P. R. O. Ct. R. bdle. 156, No. 27. " E. Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. 10 1. " P. R. O. Ct. R. bdle. 168, No. 5. 'Mbid. bdle. 156, No. 27. " Ibid. bdle. 159, No. i. >nbid. bdle. 161, No. 81. 533 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL courts is the part played by the village tithing- as it seems to have been the common meeting men as assistants to the court bailiffs in present- place of the miners, and the administrative ment of criminals/ while as regards civil suits, centre of the stannary district. There the the stannary lavi's inform us that in cases which tinners chose such officers as they had within involved a bailiff the returns were made by the their power to elect. What the manner of pro- tithingman of the place where the venire arose,* cedure had been in earlier times it is hard to say, and the same procedure held good when the bailiff but by the seventeenth century the power of was challenged in a civil suit on grounds of choice had become vested in the grand jury, favouritism.^ Presentments were made also by Thus, from the records of the Cornish mine the toller, who seems to have served as connect- parliament of 1636, it appears that they desig- ing link between the stannaries and the manor, nated, at the first law court after Michaelmas, a We have seen in him the servant of the lord who receiver for the stannary common funds, while, received from the tinners their toll. Next we at the same time and place, the receiver for the find him, no doubt in his master's interests, inter- time being accounted for his charge and turned vening in the bailiff's absence to arrest ore in it over to his successor.'* There a jury of twelve dispute,^ and to commit it to custody until the decided on measures to be used against tinners contention was settled. From that it was but a who refused to pay their stannary assessments,^' step for him to be empowered to make returns while the grand jury nominated a few petty for civil suits when neither bailiff nor tithingman officers of a quasi-manorial character, such as was able to act,^ while repeated instances also can supervisors of roads and port-reeves.'^ be found of presentments of offenders by the The leet served also to register the initiation toller of this or of that place, in the same nature oaths of stannary officials. In open court ap- as those brought by the tithingman and bailiff.^ peared the head bailiff, the weigher, and the The two leet courts with view of frank- assay master and his deputies, who weighed and pledge ^ contained several novel features. In the tested the tin at the coinage, and in the presence stannary of Blackmore, as far back as the earliest of the jury took oath to fill their office justly.^* extant court rolls,^ eight tithingmen in the hun- The owners of blowing-houses appeared and dred of Powder appeared with their tithings to registered their house-marks in the steward's do suit and to present criminals, acting in the book, and presented their men to take an oath of latter capacity as ^r <7^« ■ • 1 11 * Hirl MS 6?8o f 1 lo tribal assemblies among the oritish, and the * Add MS 671 ^ Vol 246 exasperating way in which all documentary evi- ' P. R. O. Ct. R.'bdle. 161, No. 81. ^^nce before the reign of Henry VIII has dis- ' Add. MS. 24746, fol. 122. The leet courts in appeared, tempt one to speculate as to the origin Dean were known as the Mine Law Courts, and were of these bodies instead of proving it. In both held by the constable of the Castle of St. Briavel's (Houghton, T/ie Compleat Miner, pt. ii, art. 20). In '* Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 36. Derby they were known as the Great Barmote Courts " Ibid. 30 Eliz. c. 27. {Compleat Mineral Laws of Derbyshire, pt. ii, art, '* P. R.O. Ct. R. bdle. 156, No. 21, Convoc. Cornw. 18, 25). 22 Jas. I, c. 32. 1355- '^ Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 1 2. ^ Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 3. P. R. O. Ct. R. bdle. '« Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 17. P. R. O. 157, No. 13. Ct. R. bdle. 156, No. 21. '" Convoc. Cornw. 30 Eliz. c. 26. Add. MS. 6713, " Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 20. fol. 259. Note also that a special jury of four * of the '^ Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries, 154. best sort of tinners ' was returned by the grand jury. The stannaries were, of course, at the mercy of an Act to assess amerciaments (Convoc. Cornw. 30 Eliz. c. 27). of Parliament. Cf Stat. 16 Chas. I, c. 15; " 'The Ancient Stannary of Ashburton,' by R. N. 4 Hen. VIII, c. 8, dealing with Strode's case. Worth, Trans. Devon Jssoc. vii'i, 321. Fines for non- '' Add. MSS. 24746, fol. 122 ; 6713, fol. 279. attendance appear in various court rolls. Cf. P.R.O. ="" Nicholls, T/^^ Forest of Dean, 45, 47, 49, 54, Ct. R. bdle. 152, No. 21 ; bdle. 159, No. 16. chap. iv. 534 INDUSTRIES counties the parliaments were probably an ex- pansion of and an offshoot from the grand juries in the stannary courts, which, as we have seen, were called upon to declare the customs, and which often prefixed to their presentments of criminals a confirmation of existing stannary law.^ It is stated in the older local histories that until 1305 the tinners of Devon and Cornwall met in one parliament, on Hingston Hill, near Callington,^ and that after the charters of that year the two counties held their parliaments apart.^ All that can be stated, however, is that the records of the Devon parliaments go back only to 1 5 10,'* while those for Cornwall begin with 1588,^ by which latter date the convoca- tions were assembled in accordance with the articles of the Charter of Pardon. This docu- ment was the indirect result of the cupidity of Henry VII, who, in consequence of violations of the stannary laws on the part of the tinners, especially of the regulations initiated by Prince Arthur,^ had declared the stannary charters for- feited, and restored them in 1507 only upon pay- ment of a fine of ;^i,ioo. To the original document he added a grant of new powers to the Cornish parliament. Twenty-four ' stannators ' were to be nominated, six by the mayor and council of each of the towns of Lostwithiel, Truro, Launceston, and Helston, representing the stannaries of Blackmore, Tywarnhail, Fowey- more, and Penwith and Kerrier, and the convo- cation so constituted had power to allow or disallow any statute or proclamation made by the king, or by the Prince of Wales, which should be * to the prejudice of any tinner, or other person having to do with black or with white tin.'^ Under these auspices began the parliaments whose records can still be traced.^ The question as to whether they represented all classes of tinners requires to be answered with some circumspection. Although in Devon- shire the manner of election was highly demo- cratic,^ in Cornwall the case was different, due to the fact that the nomination of stannators was * The lead mines of Derbyshire and of Mendip do not seem to have held parliaments, but the great Bar- mote Courts of the former really performed the functions of a parliament, together with those of a court {Compleat Mineral Laws of Derbyshire). The Devon parliaments were spoken of as ' Great Courts,' and the members as j urates. ^ Carew, Surve-^ of Cornwall (ed. 181 1), p. 17. 'Add. MS. 6682, fol. 507. ^ Laws of the Stannary of Devon (ed. 1575). * Add. MS. 6713, fol. 195, et seq. ^ Ibid. fols. 1 01- 1 04. ' Pat. 23 Hen. VII, pt. vii, m. 29, 30, 31. ^ The order of procedure observed differed little from that of the House of Commons. See Add. MS. 6713, fols. 415, 456. '^ ' The Ancient Stannary of Ashburton,' by R. N. Worth, Trans. Devon Assoc, viii, 321. the privilege of the mayors and councils of the stannary towns. How they exercised their powers for the first century and a half we do not know, but in 1687, in consequence of the failure of the convocation to ratify a royal contract for the preemption, we find the warden suggesting to the king the possibility of so returning mem- bers * that they will consist of loyal, sober persons,' ^'^ and ten years later complaint was made that the mayors of the stannary towns who returned convocators were the bitterest enemies the tinners had.^^ Even where appointments were free from bias, it is doubtful if the Cornish parliaments repre- sented any class but that of the large mine-owners or tin dealers, inasmuch as a perusal of the lists of members reveals few who were neither knights, baronets, gentlemen, nor esquires.'^ Further evi- dence to the same effect is supplied by the origin of the body known as * the assistants.' As early as Elizabeth's reign the stannators had petitioned the queen that their numbers be doubled, and that the additional members from each stannary be chosen by the stannary courts as in Devon. ^^ The request was not granted, but by 1674 we find the stannators each nominating an assistant, and the latter summoned by the vice-warden to consult with the convocation, the idea being that by this means the latter would be kept better informed of the situation among tinners of the lower ranks.^* It is questionable whether this was the effect. The assistants as well as their principals appear to have been gentlemen,^^ and, whatever their station, their sole function seems to have been to say yes or no to propositions submitted for their approval. They were allowed no votes, they were not even present at the ses- sions, but were placed in a separate apartment, and called in only on rare occasions ; nor does it appear that they ever ventured to dissent from any bill upon which their opinion was sought. As to the actual power which these parlia- ments could exert in the face of royal or of princely opposition, the meagreness of the records does not permit of a satisfactory answer. So far as they go they reveal two or three instances in which the royal will was thwarted. Thus in the reign of Charles II we find the appointment of Penzance as a coinage town nullified for some time, by the neglect of the convocation of tinners to extend to it the ordinary laws of the coinage.^® In 1674, again, the parliament was at '" Treas. Papers, ii, 10. " The Tinners'' Grievance. ''Add. MS. 6713, fols. 194, 223, 353, 415, 456. Treas. Papers, ii, 58. See also Hist. MSS. Com. Rep. ix, pt. ii, 90-94. '^ Convoc. Cornw. 30 Eliz. c. 5. '* The practice is referred to as having been In use previous to 1674 (Add. MS. 6713, fol. 392). '* See Add. MS. 6713, fol. 393 et seq., 459. '* T. Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries, 103. 535 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL loggerheads with the king, on account of its refusal to delegate its contracting powers to a select committee who were to be summoned to Whitehall and overawed into signing a contract for the preemption,^ On the whole, however, the relations with the crown seem to have been friendly enough. There would, in any case, be little cause for friction, the main flurries between the stannaries and royalty being conflicts of courts, while the proclamations and statutes which the parliaments were called upon to dis- allow seem seldom to have been numerous or unreasonable. As time advanced, the occasions for the calling of parliaments grew less and less frequent, and for the last one, that of Devon, in 1822, our sole information is that the mem- bers, having been sworn in at Crockerntorre, adjourned to a neighbouring town.^ The exemption of tinners from ordinary taxa- tion seems, excepting the case of ship money in the year of the Armada,^ to have been recog- nised as absolute.* Occasionally the privilege was attacked and attempts were made by royal officers to tax the tinners illegally,* but these were usually repudiated by the crown and the liberties up- held. Such an instance took place in 1338, when a levy of the tenth and fifteenth was answered by the miners refusing to operate their works until their grievance had been redressed.* Legal protection from collectors was also sought by the tinners in their courts, and the bailiff, cus- tomer, or sheriff, who included tinners in his lists, came under the operation of the penal statutes of the stannaries.^ The tinners, however, were subject to assess- ments of their own. Of some of the older im- positions we have already had occasion to speak. Even at that period, when the production of tin was low, we find the king's mark for both stan- nary counties totalling ^600 in 1199/ ;^668 in 1212,^ and ;^799 in 1214,^ amounting to more than the combined revenues from Cornwall and Devon. ^'^ It was this importance of tin as a source of royal income which guaranteed the ' Add. MS. 6713, fol. 387. ^ De la Beche, Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, 586. ' Acts of P. C. 1588, 198 ; S. P. Dom. Eliz. ccxii, 53 ; ccxvi, 48 ; cclxii, 73. * Pat. 12 Edw. Ill, pt. I, m. 23d' ; i Edw. IV, pt. iii, m. 13 ; Close, Edw. Ill, pt. ii, m. 20 ; 12 Edw. Ill, pt. iii, m. 13 ; Add. MS. 24746, fol. 92 ; Convoc. Cornwall. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 10. * Close, 12 Edw. Ill, pt. iii, m. 13. * Add. MS. 6713, fol. 253. This exemption from ordinary taxation gave rise to continual frauds on the part of men who wished to become tinners merely to escape payment of rates. P. R. O. Lay Subs. R. bdle. 95, Nos. 12, 22 ; Pat. 12 Edw. Ill, pt. i, m. 2 3(^; 16 Edw. Ill, pt. iii, m. 2' Cal. S. P. Dom. 1651, 313-315 ; S. P. Dom. Chas. II, xxxvii, 19 ; ccxxx, 75 ; Treas. Papers, Ixxxvi, 102; vii, 73; Ixxxiv, 138. Collins, .^ /"/iTd for the Bringing in of Irish Cattle. '' White Book of Cornwall, 32 Edw. Ill, c. 89. . 53^ INDUSTRIES realized from his shares in several of the mines With a single exception ^^ the tinners were let themselves,^ w^hile, from such of the mines as alone until the seventeenth century, w^hen, in a were on the duchy manors, the duke drew toll regime of monopolies, the preemption of the tin tin at the local rates.^ Tribulage, a poll tax was exercised or farmed for the greater part of levied in Blackmore at the rate of ^d., and in that century. The amounts which the Stuarts ^^ Penwith and Kerrier at ^^.,' and after the Black received for the farm of the preemption were Death at id.,'^ for each labouring tinner, in the exceedingly generous. Two thousand pounds best of times amounted to but a few pounds* were paid in 1 60 1,^^ but, as the privilege was seen each year. to be worth more, the rent was raised gradually Many of the above were frequently farmed to ;^i 2,000 per annum in 1628,^^ a sum far ex- to collectors for round sums, and this fact be- ceeding in amount that of all the other stannary comes especially prominent in the case of the receipts combined. preemption.^ Its origin cannot be traced back But the most important tax laid on the stan- further than 1195, when Richard I made a con- naries was the coinage dues, formed of a union siderable profit in tin trades.'^ It seems also to of the ancient farm and of the king's mark, have been exercised by John,^ and Edmund of By 1305 these had become dissociated from the Cornwall made use of it in 1297,® and possibly process of smelting and had been fixed at 4;. per at other times.^*^ The right of preemption was hundredweight, assessed and paid at the coinage embodied in the charter of 1305,^^ and during towns.^' For a couple of centuries the affair took the fourteenth century was exercised on half a place at two periods in the year. Midsummer and dozen different occasions, although in some cases Michaelmas, the approximate date being settled the opposition of the tinners was so great as to by the Duke of Cornwall,^^ but the minor arrange- compel its withdrawal. Edward II used it in ments by the three officers of the coinage. The 1312,^^ and, later, made it over to Antonio of receiver, the controller,^^ and the steward of the Pisa, an Italian merchant to whom he was district in which the coinage was to be held, in debt.^^ His exactions," and the tinners' hearing the stamping hammer ^^ and official opposition,^* resulted in the speedy withdrawal weights, met at the towns the weigher,^^ the of the patent,^^ and the same result followed an attempt, a few years later, to farm the preemption to two of the king's servants.^^ An effort on the part of Edward III, in assay-master ^'^ (whose duty it was to ascertain the quality of each block of tin presented, by chipping a piece from the corner), and other minor officials and porters.^^ Thither also came the mine owners. 1338,^^ met with a similar fate, but the Black with their tin, while from London and the ports Prince not only exercised the prerogative for came the would-be purchasers. The tin was his own direct benefit,^^ German merchant.^*^ but leased it to a ' P. R. O. Accts. Exch. K. R. bdle. 266, No. 2. ^ Only £1^ was received in this way in 1504 (Receiver's Roll, 18 Hen. VII). ' Exch. K. R. Bailiffs' Accts. of Edmund of Cornwall, 24-25 Edw. I. * Receiver's Roll, 23 Edw. III. * In 141 7, j^ I 3 7/. (Receiver's Roll, 5 Hen. V). * This right was exercised in the Derbyshire lead mines {Ca/. S. P. Dom. Chas. I, cccxli, 629 ; ccclxxvii, 5 ; cccx, II ; Add. MS. 6682, fol. 69). ' Pipe R. 7 and 9 Ric. I, Cornw. ® Ibid. I John, Cornw. ^ Exch. K. R. Bailiffs' Accts. of Edmund of Corn- wall, 24-25 Edw. I. 1" Pat. 8 Edw. II, pt. i, m. 12, 29 d'. " Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40. ''^ Close, 6 Edw. II, m. 23. '^ Cf. Pat. 8 Edw. II, pt. i, m. 12, z^ d. " Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), i, 308. '* Pat. 10 Edw. II, pt. i, m. 4. ^^ Pat. 7 Edw. II, pt. ii, m. 10 ; 8 Edw. II, pt. i, m. z%d, z()d; 9 Edw. II, pt. i, m. 25 a', sched. dorse ; Close, 8 Edw. II, m. 7. " Pat. 10 Edw. II, pt. ii, m. 24, 28 ; Close, 14 Edw. II, m. 23. '^ Close, 12 Edw. Ill, pt. ii, m. 20, 23 d, 25. '^ PRO. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 263, No. 15. *•> Pat. 21 Edw. Ill, pt. ii, m. 3. Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), ii, 168, 180, 203. taken from the coinage-hall where it lay stored, weighed, assayed, and stamped, piece by piece, and a voucher given each owner.^^ This as a rule the latter disposed of at a discount to the mer- chants,'^ who on paying the dues might call for the tin.'^ " Pat. 7 Edw. VI, pt. iii; Lansd. MS. -jG, fol. 34 ; S. P. Dom. Mary, iv, 5 ; Manuscript volume in Duchy of Cornwall Office, fol. 92. ^' Dewes, Parliamentary Debates, 647, S. P. Dom. Eliz. cclxxiii, 74 ; cclxx, 123 ; cclxxvi, 18 ; cclxxxvi, 26 ; Jas. I, xxxiii, 57 ; Audit Accts. Duchy of Cornw, 1646, Lansd. MS. 121 5, fol. 226-230, Treas. Papers, ii, 44; ccviii, 30; Add. MS. 6713, fols. 432, 442. ^^ S. P. Dom. Eliz. cclxxxvi, 2. *^ Lansd. MS. 121 5, fols. 226-230. ^^ Chart. R. 33 Edw. I, m. 40. ^^ Cf. Pat. 9 Edw. Ill, pt. i, m. 8; Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 31. " S. P. Dom. Eliz. xlvi, 54. ^ Ibid. Eliz. cvi, 55. '^ Ibid. Also Pat. I 2 Ric. II, pt. i, m. 3 ; l Hen. IV, pt. viii, m. 34 ; I Edw. IV, pt. ii, m. 21. '" Carew, Survey of Cornwall, (ed.i 8 1 1), p. 45, note. Treas. Papers, ii, 44. 3' S. P. Dom. Eliz. cvi, 55. 32 Lansd. MS. 18, fol. 52. The Tinners' Grie- vance. 33 Hargrave MS. 321, fol. 41. " S. P. Dom. Eliz. cvi, 54. 537 68 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL To meet the difficulty that the ordinary coinages These rules were possibly as old as the mines were insufficient to accommodate all the tin, existed themselves, but as we have no records of the ' post-coinages,' consisting of one or more supple- parliaments of the stannaries previous to the six- mentary coinages held by special warrant.^ Tin teenth century, and as the presentments in the stamped here paid an extra 4 I Hen. IV, pt. viii, m. 14 d' ; Close, 7 Edw. II, m. 10 ; 8 Edw. II, m. 7 ; S. P. Dom. Eliz. ccxliii, 113; Jas. I, 36, 37 ; Fourth Report of the Dean Forest Commission clxxxvii, 26 ; Treas. Papers, ii, 10 ; xi, 10. (1835), 6, 8-10, 13, 14 ; Award of the Dean Forest * P. R. O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 264,^^0.24. Commissioners, 17, 19, 21. ^ Receiver's View, 1700. « Ibid. 17 10. " Add. MS. 6713, fol. 242. Ibid. 1750. " Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 15. * The Civil War brought with it the final extinction " Ibid. 30 Eliz. c. 6. of trlbulage, dublet, and thefineoftin ; but the coinage " Ibid. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 13. and post-coinage dues, supplanted by an excise tax '^ Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries, 204. under the Commonwealth, were revivedat the Restora- '* Add. MS. 6713, fol. 191. tion, and continued in force until 1837. " Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 33 ; Add. MS. ^ Arthur's Ordinances (Add. MS. 6713, fols. loi- 6713, fol. 248. 104)- '* Add. MS. 6713, fol. 237. '" On the other hand, the miners of the Forest of '^ Ibid. fol. 236. Dean formed a close corporation, which admitted ^ Cf. Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 48. no outsiders to membership, and endeavoured to pre- " Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 31. Cf. * Cer- vent the growth of large mining enterprises. See tain Peculiarities in the Old Mining Law of Mendip,' Houghton, The Compkat Miner, pt. ii, art. 1-3, 30, by C. Lemon. Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornw. vi, 33.3. INDUSTRIES law reads, ' ought to buy or receive any black tin, otherwise than openly, at a wash, from the sheet, nor buy or receive any tin shift, or the leavings of blowing-houses, from any suspicious person that is not known to be an adventurer for tin, a worker of white tin, or owner in a blowing-house.' ^ In later years this rule was supplemented by one which compelled the pre- sence of two witnesses at each sale, and the entry on the book of the blowing-house where the tin was to be smelted of the names of the person from whom it was purchased, and the amount; and the blowing-house books were to be open to the inspection of any who desired.^ Ore which had passed the wash, and perhaps had already changed hands once, was still subject to the control of the central authorities. Each owner was made to register a private mark at the stannary exchequer at Lostwithiel,^ and on the court book in his own stannary district.^ Each proprietor of a blowing-house also must register his private mark,^ and must not employ a blower (or, after 1752, a smelter) without having first presented him at the steward's court, there to be sworn to use himself according to his vocation, and without corrupting or mingling tin in deceitful manner.^ The reason may be seen in the fact that the blowing-house, by reason of its technicalities of operation, offered strong temptations to unjust dealing. Several qualities of tin were possible : soft or standard merchantable tin, hard tin, pilian tin, cinder tin, and relistian tin, each a grade poorer than the one above. According to law, every block had to be stamped by the blower with the initial letter of its quality,^ and, besides, with the owner's mark, and the mark of the blowing- house. In case a dealer found that he had been cheated, he might return a piece of the tin con- taining the marks of identification. The sample was melted in court, and, if bad, the original owner was obliged to recompense the dealer, and forfeit his tin to the prince, besides paying a fine,^ while the blowing-house owner was dealt with in proportion as it could be proved that the mis- demeanour had been due to his negligence or connivance.^ But for the blower himself no excuse might avail, and he was fortunate if he escaped with a fine o( £^?^ If, on the other hand, the tin proved good, the complainant himself ' Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 24. * Ibid. 1 2 Chas. I, c. 21. ' Prince Arthur's Ordinances of 1495 (Add. MS. 6713, fol. lOl). * Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 18. * Prince Arthur's Ordinances of 1495 (Add. MS. 6713, fol. 10 1). * Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 1 7. ' Ibid. c. 20. ^ Ibid. 12 Chas. I, c. lo. « Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 33. " Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. lo ; cf. Add. MS. 6713, fol. 242. was fined. ^^ A further Act imposed penalties upon any merchant who connived with the owner of tin to conceal its falsity.-"^ These regulations were based upon the as- sumption, not only that the merchant should be protected against fraud on the part of the tinner, but that the whole consuming public had an interest in the blocks being what they were re- presented. This explains two further restric- tions. No person owning blowing -house or crazing or stamping-mill might allow irrespon- sible persons to ' knock braws, rocks, or any other stuff whereof tin might be made, black or white, without the said owners will answer for the same tin.'^^ Pewtercrs and plumbers were not to be sold 'ashes, skimpings,' or other leavings of the blowing, under penalty of a fine to buyer and seller.^* At the coinage, again, the tinner was hedged about by rules designed not only to protect the consumer, but to guard against the loss of duchy revenue. To ensure that no tin left the blow- ing-house without being brought to the coinage town, the blowing-house owner at each coinage was made to deposit at the stannary exchequer at Lostwithiel a bill certifying, with the names of the owners, how many pieces of tin he had blown. ^* The conveying and selling of uncoined tin was punished by imprisonment, confiscation of the metal, and satisfaction to the prince in the shape of a fine,^^ In the later Stuart period, coincident with the efforts to put down smug- gling by the appointment of supervisors of blow- ing-houses,^^ ordinances appear prescribing the disposal of the tin after smelting. No carrier was to take any tin above one pound in weight from the blowing-house, otherwise than by the direct and common road from blowing-house to coinage town ; ^^ the journey must be made be- tween sunrise and sunset ; ^^ the shortest road was to be taken, and a reasonable time only allowed for the trip.^° One more rule remains to be noted, namely, the persistent enactments against the conveying of shares in a tin work to wealthy or powerful men, for the purpose of getting their assistance at law or in other ways,*^ a provision similar to " Add. MS. 6713, fol. 243. » Ibid. " Ibid. fol. 279. Presentment of the grand jury of Penrith and Kerrier, 1636. " Convoc. Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. II. '* Prince Arthur's Ordinances of 1495 (Add. MS. 6713, fol. 1 01). '^ Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 14. " Cal. Trees. Papers, i, 13 ; Treas. Papers, ii, 10 ; xi, 10. '® Convoc. Cornw. 2 Jas. II, c. 1 7. '' Ibid. ^ Ibid. " Convoc. Cornw. 16 Hen. VIII, c. 11 ; Pari. Devon, 2 Hen. VIII, c. 1 1. This ordinance appears in Derbyshire (Houghton, The Compleat Miner, ^i- 22; Compleat Mineral Laws of Derbyshire, pt. i, art. 24). 539 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL the prohibition of liveries^ among tinners, and single instance will suffice, Tribulage produced aflPording an insight not only into the unscru- in 1349 £1 los. 3^.;^ in 1350, 15;, ?>d. ; ^° pulous practices at times resorted to, but perhaps and in 1357 only 95. 4^." The actual amount as well the early forms assumed by capitalistic of tin mined in 1355 from Cornwall was but enterprise. 496 thousand-weight,^' nor was it until about From this sketch of stannary administration we 1390 that affairs began to improve.^' So may now turn to the operations of the industry great, indeed, appear to have been the ravages itself, the nature and distribution of the mines, the of disease among the miners, that the Prince excavation of the ore, its smelting, and the disposal of Wales was obliged to make proclama- of the refined product. At the outset, attention tion that no tinner or owner of shares in a tin should be called to the absolute amounts of tin work should neglect to bestow upon it as much put upon the market from year to year. Already labour and expense as had hitherto been usual." it has been noticed that the yield, judged from A third period of depression began in, and modern standpoints, was small ; yet until the lasted through, the fifteenth century, the produc- reign of Charles II little permanent increase was tion, which in 1400 had been almost sixteen obtained over the amount produced in 1 2 14. hundred thousand-weight,^* falling to eight hun- The industry seems to have been subject, in some dred in 1455,^^ and not rising much above a inexplicable way, to long waves of activity or of thousand until forty years later.^^ In the first depression. half of the sixteenth century the yield slightly Although the story of the wealth which increased, averaging over sixteen hundred thou- Richard of Cornwall is said to have drawn from sand-weight,^^ until Elizabeth's reign, when it his tin-mining prerogatives cannot be confirmed, fell again to small proportions and so continued ^* a decline is evident in the output of tin during until the period of the Commonwealth, dying the last quarter of the thirteenth century and out completely during the Civil War.^' Then, the first years of the fourteenth. The produc- for reasons to be named later, began a renewed tion in Devon fell from 87 thousand-weight in activity in tin mining, and the annual production 1291,' to 38 in 1296.* That of Cornwall mounted steadily, until the maximum was reached was but 560 thousand-weight in 130 1,* and some decades ago. although it had risen to 863 in 1306,' it was far What were the conditions under which all below its level of the previous century.* this metal was produced ? Cornwall's chief Whether or no it was the economic situation geological features consist of a central ridge of of the miner which gave rise to the charter of rock which runs longitudinally from east to 1305, its issue was followed by a mining 'boom,' west, throwing out ramifications that meet the interrupted only by the Black Death, the amount sea, on either side, in the rugged outlines that from Cornwall in 1337,^ namely, 1,328 thousand- render the country so attractive to the tourist weight, proving the greatest yield on record, and the artist. This ridge gives rise to numer- The plague, however, almost ruined Cornwall, ous streams, flowing, for the most part, from Thorold Rogers does not believe that the Black north to south, and traversing small valleys, Death extended into the extreme western parts broadening out at places into moorlands of con- of England.^ He might have been of another siderable extent. Here it was that tin mining opinion had he seen the stannary tax-rolls for the had its birth. years immediately before and after 1350. A Tin ore occurs either in veins in rocks, or in the form of gravel or sand, in alluvium. The ' Prince Arthur's Ordinances of 1495 (Add. MS. detrital tin deposits are easily explained. The ^'^IVJf- '°-^l- T ^'P'PeR-2 3Edw. I, Devon, j^j^^ ^^^^ ^een degraded, and their contents ^ Ibid. 20 Edw. I, Devon. , , t,, -r -^ c ^^ 4 Ti J /^ washed out. The specinc gravity of tm ore is Ibid. Cornw. 1 • 1 /^ ox 1 1 • r r i_ ^ Exch. K. R. Duchy of Cornw. Accts. port. 5. ^^ ^igh (6-8), that, as the carrying force of the « Due, possibly, to the banishment of the Jews from water moderated, it sank to the bottom in beds."'" England in 1290. The question as to the presence of Jews In the tin mines is one which admits of no satis- * Mins. Accts. 23 Edw. III. fectory answer. The probabilities, however, seem to " Ibid. 24 Edw. III. " Ibid. 31 Edw. III. point to their playing an important part in the " Receiver's Roll, 29 Edw. III. In Devon appar- industry. The question as to the derivation of the ently every mine shut down. name * Marazion ' may be neglected, but the ordin- " P.R.O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 263, Nos. 21,22. ances issued by De Wrotham in 1198 are made to " White Bk. of Cornw. 25 Edw. Ill, Feb. apply explicitly to both Christians and Jews. Abra- '* Receiver's Roll, i Hen. IV. ham the Tinner in 1342 owned a number of '^ Ibid. 33 Hen. VI. stream works in Cornwall (Smirke, Fice v. Thomas, " Ibid. 1 1 Hen. VII. '^ Receiver's Roll. App. p. 25), and the county as a whole did not lack '* Duchy of Cornw. Audit Accts. 1 646-1 648. Hebrew names among its inhabitants in the Middle ^^ ' The Antiquity of Mining In the West of Ages. (*The Jews In Cornwall,' by J. Baumeister, England,' by R. N. Worth, Journ. Plymouth Inst. Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. Oct. 1867, 324-331.) v, 126; Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Origin ' Exch. K. R. Duchy of Cornw. Accts. port. I. an J Progress of Mining Skill, 5, 8-10 ; Pryce, Min- Hist. of Agriculture and Prices, i, 601-602. eralo^a Cornubiensis, 66. 540 8 INDUSTRIES This is the origin of the * stream tin ' deposits in the metal was extracted were in size from sand- the valleys of Cornwall, especially those to the like grains to that of a small egg. They were south of the watershed, and, to a lesser extent, included in a bluish marl, mixed with sand and in the valleys of the Dartmoor rivers. containing various marine excuviae. The depth Probably attention was first directed to deposits of the principal bed was nearly twenty feet, and of stream tin by an agency similar to that lead- its breadth six or seven. This appears to have ing to their formation. Streams and rivers, been worked at a very remote period, and before swollen by rains, would cut deeper gutters iron tools were employed, as large pickaxes of through the alluvium of their valleys, and expose oak, holm, and box, have been found there, layers of tin stones, pebbles, and gravel. What In St. Blazey, St. Austell, St. Stephen in Bran- was thus shown to occur in several valleys would nel, and St. Ewe, are many old stream works be anticipated and sought in similar situations which men commonly attributed to Jews. The elsewhere, although the surface indications might most considerable stream of tin in Cornwall not precisely correspond or be so decisive ; and, is that of St. Austell Moor, which is a narrow by degrees, discovery would become an art. valley about a furlong wide (in some places some- Nor could stream works be long in operation what wider) running nearly three miles from the without some evidences of their connexion with town of St. Austell southward to the sea. On the lodes in adjacent hills. The early miners each side, and at the head, above St. Austell, are might not recognize the fact that the quantity of many hills, betwixt which are little valleys, which tin stone washed down into the valleys and all discharge their waters and whatever else they moors was a measure of the denudation of the receive from the higher grounds into St. Austell more elevated regions of the country; but they Moor, whence it happens that the ground of this could not fail, as they worked upward, to dis- moor is adventitious for about three fathoms cover some traces of the veins from which stream deep, the shodes and streams from the hills on tin had been derived. Hence, unquestionably, each side being here collected and caught into arose the practice of * shoding.' ^ floors according to their weight and the suc- ' The ores of tin,' wrote Pryce in 1778,^ cessive dates of their coming thither. The * are shode, stream, and mine. The shode is uppermost mat consists of thin layers of earth, adjacent to and scattered to some distance from clay, and pebbly gravel, about five feet deep, its parent lode, and consists of pebbly and The next stratum is about six feet deep, more smoothly angular stones of various sizes, from stony, the stones pebbly formed, and with a a half-ounce to some pounds in weight. Stream gravelly sand intermixed. These two coverings tin is the same as shode, but smaller in size and being removed they find great numbers of tin arenaceous, and in that state is formed of small stones from the bigness of a goose-egg, and larger, pyramids of various planes, broad at the base and down to the size of the finest sand. The tin is in- tapering to a point at the top. Stream tin ore is serted in a stratum of loose, smooth stones, from the smaller loose particles of the mineral de- a foot diameter down to the smallest pebbles, tached from the bryle, or backs of sundry lodes. From the present surface of the ground to the situated on hilly ground, and carried down into solid rock or " karn " is eighteen feet deep at a the vales by the retiring waters of the floods. In medium. This stream tin is of the purest kind, the solid rock of the valley there is no tin ore, and a great part of it, without any other manage- but immediately upon it is deposited a layer of ment than being washed on the spot, brings stream tin of various thicknesses, perhaps over thirteen parts for twenty at the melting-house.' ' that a layer of earth, clay, or gravel, and upon From the shallowness of the stream - tin that another stratum of tin ore, and so on sue- deposits and the comparative ease with which cessively, stratum on stratum, according to their they could be shovelled out, as contrasted with gravity, and the different periods of their coming, the difficulties of driving shafts through the rock. Mine ore,' he goes on to say, ' is the original it goes without saying that of the two methods lode, buried usually in rocky substances in the the former was the first to be employed. All hills or the cliffs.' discoveries of ancient tin mines have been made in We cannot end this description of the tin beds, diluvial ground,^ and it may be stated with some so essential to the proper understanding of the degree of certainty that stream tinning prevailed history of Cornish mining, better than by an in the early and the mediaeval periods, to the account of an old stream work discovered about exclusion of lode mining, save possibly when the a century ago, and mentioned by the historian latter was carried on upon remarkably rich lodes Polwhele. ' They (the Porth stream works) and in shallow depths. ^ A few facts may be cited were situated near the shore of Trewardreth in support of this statement. The composition Bay ; the ore was of the purest kind, and con- tained two-thirds metal. The pebbles from which ' Polwhele, Hisi. of Comw. blc. 2, p. 10. * For an example of this see * Description of a Stream ^ Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress oj Work at Drift Moor, near Penzance,' by Jos. Carne, Mining Skill, 5. Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornw. iv, 47-56. * Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 66. ' Polwhele, Hist, of Comw. i, Supplement, 64. 541 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL of the tools of the ancient and mediaeval tinner which, as we have just seen, were of wood and unfitted for piercing rock ; the fact that whenever mention is made of the specific nature of a tin work it is invariably described as a moor or stream work and never as a mine work ;^ the mining customs of Cornwall which, in their total lack of provision for the occurrence of veins of mixed metals, are evidently adapted only to stream-tin works — all point to this as the proper solution of the question. Similar conclusions may be drawn from the continual complaints in which the landlords set forth the destructivcness of the stannary works to their crops. A single example will suffice. In 1 36 1 John of Treeures complains to the prince and his council ' that, whereas the tin- ners have warrant of the Prince to dig and raise tin where they can find it, and have dug and collected it for a long time on the moor waste of the said John and his ancestors in the vill of Treeures, who received from the tinners a third part of the tin for toll, according to ancient ordinance, for the damage done to the lord of the place ; but now of late more than sixty tin- ners have entered on his demesne and have con- ducted water to the vill of Treeures over his demesne and soil, so that by reason of the great quantity of water they deluge the land there where they work upon the moor, and nothing remains of the good land there but stones and gravel, so that corn will not grow there ; that the tinners refuse to give more toll for waste done to the demesne than for damage on the waste moor ; wherefore the said John prays, for the love of Christ, that you may be pleased to ordain a remedy, that is to increase the toll in the demesne beyond the toll in the waste in propor- tion to its greater value.' ^ Complaints of this sort, so numerous during the Middle Ages, ^ could not have been occasioned by the driving of shafts in rocky edges, but by the wholesale up- turning of the soil by trenching and excavating for alluvial deposits. Finally we may have recourse to a quasi- mathematical argument. Stream tin, as we know from the testimony of Thomas Beare,^ was considered far superior in quality to mine tin. Three foot- fates of the former (about eight quarts)* sufficed for 105 pounds of refined ^ See Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. 26, citing from the White Book of Cornwall, the complaint of Henry Nanfan; also Proceedings in the Chancery of Elizabeth, \, p. xiii. It should be noted also that the statutes of Henry VIII against the choking of the rivers with silt from the tin mines, refers expressly to stream works as the offenders (Stat. 23 Hen. VIII, c. 8 ; 27 Hen. VIII, c. 23 ; P. R. O. Ct. R. bdle. 159, No. 26). * Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. 25, citing the White Book of Cornwall. ' Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), i, 297, 312, 382 ; ii, 190. * Harl. MS. 6380. " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 35. metal. If we turn now to the account given in the sole surviving Pipe Roll of Edmund of Cornwall of that earl's operations with regard to the preemption of the black tin in 1297 ^ we find that, having purchased the black tin at 18^. the foot-fate, to produce a thousand-weight of white tin he used twenty-eight and one-half feet of ore, figures which almost exactly tally with the account of the stream tin given by Beare three centuries later. The inference is that Edmund's tin (and he seems to have preempted the entire output) was obtained from stream works. With the progress of tin mining during the Middle Ages the scene of operations shifted steadily from the east to the west. During the twelfth century the rich Devon stream works produced almost all the tin used in Europe, and Cornish mining, such as it was, lay near the Devon boundary. In 1198 De Wrotham on occasion of his reforms held two inquests, at Exeter and at Launceston. In Devon he had twenty-six witnesses and in Cornwall only eighteen,^ facts which indicate fairly clearly about what centres most of the mining was con- ducted. Devon tin however was soon exhausted, and in the thirteenth century Cornwall came to the forefront.^ Devon, which in 11 89 had produced over 600 thousand-weight,' had pro- duced only seventy-four in 1243,^° ^^^ although in later centuries it sometimes exceeded this amount, Cornwall never failed to maintain its preeminence with the greatest ease. In the latter county the centres of activity moved ever to the west. In 1305, out of a total yield for Cornwall of 850 thousand- weight, the tin coined at Lostwithiel and Bodmin, the two eastern markets, amounted to 716 thousand weight, while the western parts, represented by Helston and Truro, produced only 134." During the forty or fifty years of accounts during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I,^^ however, the average annual product of the two eastern stannaries, as represented by the coinage at Lostwithiel and Liskeard, was but 135 thousand-weight as compared with 807 for the west. ^^ Penzance, in the Land's End district, * Exch. K. R. Bailiffs' Accts. of Edmund of Cornwall, 24-25 Edw. I. ' Black Book of the Exchequer, No. i o. ^ In 1220 the Devon stannaries were farmed for but 200 marks, while those of Cornwall brought five times as much (Pat. 5 Hen. Ill, m. 4, 8 ; Close, 5 Hen. Ill, m. 8, 9 ; 9 Hen. Ill, m. 4, 9 ; 10 Hen. Ill, m. 27 ; Fine R, 5 Hen. Ill, m. 7). ^ Pipe R. I Ric. I, Devon. '"Ibid. 27 Hen. Ill, Devon. " P. R. O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 261, Nos. i and 2. " Receiver's Rolls. " An examination of the tribulage accounts (Mins. Accts. Duchy of Cornw.) shows an enormous increase in tinning in the Penwith and Kerrier district, and a falling ofl' in Blackmore in the cist. 542 INDUSTRIES was first made a coinage town in 1663,^ and in 1778, according to Pryce, coined more tin each quarter than all the towns of Liskeard, Lost- withiel, and Helston for a whole year,^ and the shifting of tinning toward the west even more recently is shown by the fact that in 1892, while the output for West Cornwall was 7,751 tons, that of East Cornwall was but 628 tons, while Devon produced only ninety-six. ' For detailed accounts of former methods of prospecting we cannot go behind the seventeenth century. But it must be constantly borne in mind that the mining customs and practices of Cornwall, even to-day, antedate, in many cases, all printed records, and that we shall therefore not be far wrong in ascribing the primitive methods in use in the seventeenth century to the Middle Ages, or even earlier. If we omit from consideration the use of the divining-rod,* dreams,* and other popular super- stitions, as guides to the deposits of tin, we shall find that the tinner's first aim was to discover *shodes,' or tin-stones.^ An anonymous Cor- nishman writing in 167 1 states : — * Where we suspect any mines to be, we diligently search that hill and countrey, its situation, the earth or grewt, its colour, and nature, and what sort of stones it yields ; the reason thereof being only this, that we may the better know the grewt and stones when we meet with them at a distance, in the neighbouring valley ; for mineral stones may be found 2, 3, 4, 5 miles distant from the hills or loads they belong unto. 'After any great land flood (in which it is supposed there are some new frets made in the sides of the banks), we go and diligently observe such frets ... to see if, happily, we can discover any metallic stones in the sides or bottoms thereof . . . which is a great help to direct us which side or hill to search into. Neither will it be much amiss in this place to subjoyn the few but sure characters of mineral stones, by which we know the kind of metal, and how much it yields. The first is, by its ponderousness, which easily informs us whether it be metal or no. The second is its porosity, for most tin-stones are porous, not unlike great bones, almost thoroughly calcined ; yet tin sometimes lies in the firmest stones. The third is by water, which we term vanning, and that is performed by pulverizing the stone, or clay, or what else may be suspected to con- tain any mineral body, and placing It on a vanning shovel ; the gravel remains in the hinder ' Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries, 103. ' Pryce, Mineralogta Cornubiensis, 293. * 'The Tin Trade of Cornwall In the Reigns of Elizabeth and James,' by Sir John Maclean, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. iv, 189 ; xlli, pt. Iv, p. 432. * 'Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,' Ph'dosoph. Trans, vl, 2101. " Chlldrey, Britannia, p. 6. ^ Carew, Survey of Cornwall (ed. 18 1 1), pp. 8, 9 ; ' Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vl, 2097-2098. part and the metal at the point of the shovel, whereby the kind, nature, and quantity of the ore Is guessed at ; and indeed, most commonly without any great deception, especially If the vanner have any judgement at all. * But If no shoad may be found In such frets, . . . then we go to the sides of those hills most suspected to have any loads In them, where there may be a conveniency of bringing a little stream of water . . . and cut a leat or trench, about 2 foot over, and as deep as the shelf, in which we turn the water to run two or three dayes ; by which time the water, by washing away the filth from the stones and the loose parts of the earth, will easily discover what shoad Is there. If we find any, we have a certainty of a load. . . . Sometimes shoad may be found upon the open surface of the ground, as being thrust up by moles In their hillock, or turned up by the plow, or by some other accident ; for It Is seldom found on the open surface of the ground unless brought there by an accident. . . . ' When all these ways have been attempted for finding shoad, if we find any, it makes us pro- ceed with the greater confidence, having an assurance of load ; but In case we find not any, then we must go by guess. ... In the next place we sink down about the foot or bottom of the hill an Essay hatch (an orifice made for the search of a vein, about 6 foot long and 4 foot broad) as deep as the shelf. And It is observable they are always to be as deep as the shelf, for this reason, that otherwise you may come short of the shoad. But If we meet with none before, or when we come to the shelf or fast countrey there Is none to be expected ; yet sometimes the shoad Is washed away clean, when you come within 2 or 3 foot from the load, and then the load is a foot or two farther up the hill. If we find any shoad in this first Essay hatch, our certainty Is either increased, if any shoad were found before, or begun. Neither doth It add a little to make a right conjecture, how high up the hill or how far off the load ... is, care- fully to mark how deep from the surface of the earth our shoad lies ; for this Is held an Infallible rule, that the nigher the shoad lies to the shelf, the nigher the load is at hand, and vice versa, * Albeit we finde no shoad In this first hatch, having found some before by the ways afore- mentioned, or having found none, we are not . . . altogether discouraged ; but ascend com- monly about 1 2 fathom and sink a second hatch, as the former. And In case none appear in this, we go then as many fathom on each hand, at the same height, and sink there as before, and so ascend proportionally with three or more hatches (If the space of ground requires) as It were on brest, till we come to the top of the hill, and If we find none in any of these hatches — then farewell to that hill. * But If we find any shoad . . . we keep our ascending hatches In a direct line ; and as we draw nearer the load the deeper the shoad Is from the surface, but the nigher the shelf . . . ' Sometimes It falls out that we may overshoot a load, that Is, get the upper side of It, and so we loose it ; for which we have another . . . rule, viz., that finding shoad lying near the shelf 543 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL in this hatch, and finding none in the next ascending, we have overshot our load. The remedie is easie, which is to sink nigher the hatch wherein we last found shoad.' ' The first form assumed by the ancient mines was that of pits open to the sky, the mineral at this early stage cropping out at the surface, and requiring only to be shovelled out like gravel, or else hew^n in blocks.^ This method has been followed where suitable almost continuously ever since the date of its adoption, examples being at hand in Carclase, near St. Austell,' and the Gwennap pit at the present day.* Another form of ' daylight mining ' is that of following the course of lodes, by trenches known as 'coffins.' A good instance of the survival of this method is still to be found in the Goonbarrow lode, a little to the north of Rock Hill, near St. Austell.* ' Costeaning ' was still another mode of pro- cedure adopted by the early miners, much as it was used, centuries later, by the tinners of Banca, in the East Indies.^ A succession of small pits was sunk, from 6 to 12 feet deep, and drifts carried from one to the other across the direction of the veins or tin layers.^ Probably subsequent to the introduction of these methods came that of the ' shammel,' * which seems to have been a mode of transition from open workings to mining proper, and was carried on both in the open pits and under- ground, in stream works or in lodes. It is, perhaps, best described by the anonymous writer previously quoted. The lode found, * we sink down about a fathom, and then leave a little long square place called a shamble, and so continue sinking from cast to cast (i.e. as high as a man can conveniently throw up the ore with a shovel), till we find the lode grow too small, or degenerate into some kind of weed. . . . Then we begin to drive either west or east as the goodness of the lode, or convenience of the hill invite, which we term a shift, 3 foot over and 7 foot high, so a man may stand upright and work, but in case the loade be not broad enough of itself, as some are scarce ^ foot, ' ' Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2097-2100. * This seems to have been the case in Derbyshire (Farey, General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derby shi)-e,\, "il^. See also Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 1 9, 1 9 1 ). ' Hunt, British Mining, 418. * Worth, Historical Notes on the Origin and Progress of Mining Skill, 10. Ubid. II. * Le Neve Foster, Banca and its Tin Stream Works, 57. ' Worth, Historical Notes on the Origin and Progress of Mining Skill, 7 ; Borlase, Natural History of Cornwall, 166 ; Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensis, 124, 166 ; Polwhele, History of Cornwall, i, Supplement 63. * This method was known to the lead miners of Derbyshire (Farey, General View of the Agriculture and Miner ah of Derbyshire, i, 359 . then we usually break down the deads, first on the north side of the loade . . . and then we begin to rip up the loade itself.' * The shaft was thus divided into a series of step- like stages, each so high that a man could con- veniently heave stuff from one to the next above with a shovel. All of these processes proving useless for the discovery and raising of any tin beyond a certain shallow depth, it became necessary to contrive some other way to follow downward the tin- stone. Thereupon they sunk shafts down upon the lode, to cut it at some depth, and then to drive and stope, cast and west, along its course. Thus, by a process of gradual transition, there crept in the system of lode mining such as exists to-day in Cornwall, to the exclusion of almost every other method.^" Shaft mining of some sort is probably of great antiquity in Cornwall, although Pryce did not think it had been introduced earlier than the year 1450.^° But although we may, perhaps, admit the existence in Cornwall in early times of examples of mining in the modern sense, the tin was probably for the most part still obtained from alluvial deposits, and the shafts were no deeper than was necessary to reach the layer of stanniferous gravel. The transitional period, during which the approaching exhaustion of the stream works rendered necessary the tapping of the lode itself, occurred probably in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.^^ At about this period we find unmistakable signs that mining was being pursued at depths which taxed to their utmost the rude machines for drainage. Stream works were all of limited depth, ^^ it being a ques- tion merely of digging to the bed rock through the substratum, a distance varying according to the locality, but which could not well be greater than 50 or 60 feet. Thirty-six feet is the depth to which the miners had driven a tin stream work exhumed about half a century ago,^' and, ' * Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2102 ; Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, p. 141. For examples of old shammel works, see Polwhele, History of Cornwall, bk. 2, p. 10, note ; bk. I, p. 175. " Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 141. Shaft mining was surely employed somewhere in England as early as 1366, for Bartholomacus Anglicus, who wrote in that year, has described it in terms which show that it had already passed its infancy (Bartholomacus Anglicus, De Proprietatibus Rerum (ed. 1582), p. 212). " Thomas Beare (Harl. MS. 6380) speaks only of stream tinning in i 586 ; Carew, in 1602, refers to both methods ; and Merrest and the anonymous writer already cited refer only to lode mining {Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2107 ; xii, 949). " 'The Antiquity of Mining in the West of Eng- land,' by R. N. Worth, Journ. Plymouth Inst, v, 131- I3+- " * Description of the Stream Work at Drift Moor, near Penzance,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzu. iv, 47-56. 544 INDUSTRIES from what has already been said, we know that which it entailed on the men working it.' To tin gravel might be found at still slighter depths, drain a mine of any depth, a series of these was in fact immediately beneath the surface. necessary, and a 4-inch pump drawing 20 ft. With the advent of shaft mining in the rock, employed from twenty to twenty-four men work- however, all this became changed, and pits were ing five or six at a time in six-hour spells.^'^ sunk 40, 50, and occasionally 60 fathoms.^ At once the question of drainage assumed the im- portance which has clung to it ever since.^ In the old stream works, wooden bowls seem to have been used at first for bailing purposes,^ or the ' level,' a deep trench, running from stream work to river, served After that came the human power, and bearing to clear it of water."* windlass, as yet turned by up the water in leathern bags or buckets,* and then the use of small hand or force pumps,^ and, at the same time, in the lareer works, the adit,^ similar to larger For the introduction of hydraulic drainage engines it is impossible to fix a date. They took the form usually of overshot waterwheels of i o or 1 5 ft. diameter, turning in shallow shafts and operating rag-and-chain pumps, or their improve- ments the plate-and-chain and the bucket-and- chain. In deep mines, a half-dozen of these wheels, one above another, might be called into service. It is equally out of the question to attempt to say when each of the above drainage devices came into use, flourished, and disappeared. All have been used side by side. The level. the level, but in the form of a drainage tunnel, which had probably been familiar from prehistoric driven through the hillside to meet the shaft at its foot. The adit, however, was too expensive an undertaking to be within reach of all, and, even where employed, its usefulness was limited, since when the shaft was driven deeper than the level of free drainage, other devices had to be to imply that it was at that time no innovation, ^^ used to bring the water to the adit head. Mean- Rag-and-chain pumps appear first at a somewhat while the windlass took various developments as later period.^* The typical mine described in times,^^ was practicable only in the most shallow works. The introduction of the adit in the stannaries cannot be traced back beyond the be- ginning of the seventeenth century,^^ although Carew in i6o2 refers to it in terms which seem Philosophical Transactions in 1 67 1 would seem to have been drained, when on the hillside, by an adit, to which the water was lifted by windlass and buckets, while if it were on a plain the latter arrangements alone could be relied upon.^* At regards application of power, the best-known being the horse whimsey, or whim, in which the rope from the shaft passed around a huge upright drum, turned by a team of horses.^ In other mines recourse was had to rag-and-chain pumps, each consisting of an endless chain, broadened at the close of the eighteenth century the famous intervals by leathern bindings, to fit snugly into Wherry Mine at Penzance was drained by a rag- a long pipe of from 12 to 22 ft. in length. It and-chain pump, worked by thirty-six men, a was worked by a windlass at the surface, and mode of drainage still resorted to in shallow pits.^' catching up as it did a series of short columns of Apart from the forms assumed by drainage, water, served quite well to clear a small mine, its certain other features of the early tin mine de- chief drawback being the severity of the labour serve mention. For raising the ore and rubbish, buckets or ' kibbles ' were used in Carew's time,^^ and have in some cases been employed ever since. In the older mines a simple windlass lifted and J. Childrey, Britannia, 8 ; Worth, Concerning the Progress of Mining ^ * The Relation of Tin Mines and the Work- ing of Tin in Cornwall/ by Dr. Merrest, Philosoph. Trans, xii, 949 Historical Notes Skill, 15. ' The increased price of materials, added to the ex- pense of drainage, brought about a period of great depression throughout the tin mines (S. P. Dom. Chas. I, cccxxii, i). ' Worth, Historical Notes Concemng the Progress of Mining Skill, z%. * * Notes on the Remains of Early British Tin Works,' by Robt, Hunt, Gent. Mag. xiii, 696. ^ ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Carne, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comto. iii, 48. See also * An Indenture and Ordinance respecting the Working of Silver Mines in Devon and Cornwall,' by E. Smirke, j4rch. Journ. xxvii, 37. ^ Worth, Historical Notes Concerning the Progress of Mining Skill, 30. ^ * An Indenture and Ordinance respecting the Working of Silver Mines in Devon and Cornwall,' by E. Smirke, yir-ch. Joui~n. xxvii, 133 ; Del Mar, History of the Precious Metals, 63, 72. * Worth, Historical Notes Concerning the Progress of Mining Skill, 30. I 545 ' Cf. G. Agricola, De Re Metallica, (ed. 1536), p. 1 3 1 et seq. '" Vrycc, Mineralogia Comubiensis, 150. " Polwhele has found the remains of one at the end of a prehistoric tinwork in the Scilly Isles {Hist, of Cornw. bk. ii, 10, note). " Convoc, Cornw. 12 Chas. I, c. 28, 31. " Carew, Surv. of Cornw. " Convoc. Cornw. 1687, c. 5, Cf. Pryce, Miner- alogia Comubiensis, 141 ; Polwhele {Hist, of Cornzv. bk. iv, 136) makes it a century earlier. '* * Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2107. Cf. Geo. Sin- clair, Hydrostaticks, 298 ; John Houghton, Collections for the Improvement of Husbandry and Trade, 2 1 April, 1693 ; Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, l\-l\, 1 57-159- '^ Report on the Stannary Act Amendment Bill{iSSy), Q. 291. " Carew, Surv. of Cornw. (ed. 181 1), p. 11. Worth, Historical Notes on the Progress of Mi?iing Skill, 27. * Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2104. 69 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL lowered them ; later came the horse-whim/ and is shown by a list of the tools of the ancient perhaps the water-wheel as well, just as we have 'streamer,'^ which consisted simply of a pick and seen to have been the case with drainage. shovel, with perhaps a bowl for bailing.^^ A In some tin mines also similar devices served working tinner of the Middle Ages was one of for the descent and ascent of the workmen. No the poorest of men, and his poverty was so well difficulty would be likely to arise with regard to recognized that it became proverbial, and was this matter as long as the works were shallow handed down in such local sayings as ' A tinner stream-tin affairs. In shammel workings, too, has nothing to lose,' * A tinner is never broke the shammels or terraces themselves furnished a until his neck's broke.' Discoveries in old stream means for men to go up and down. Lode works ^^ show that as late as the sixteenth century works, however, required the adoption of special wooden implements were not uncommon, al- facilities. In Carew's day the workmen were let though in Carew's time the pick was usually of up and down in a stirrup operated by two men iron and the shovel iron-shod. ^^ who turned a windlass at the top,^ for a long time the only system in use besides ladders, but employable only in perpendicular shafts. Lad- ders in the small single-shaft concerns of early times would have taken up too much space,^ In the lode works, before the invention of blasting, the sole additional tools were gads and wedges to split the rocks, the miner's pick being flat at one end to serve as a hammer. A few stone hammers have been found in Cornwall. but when levels and winzes became developed, In most other mining districts they abound, but they grew to be indispensable, and in time all in tin streaming they were not needed, and in but universal.* Among the chief advantages lode-mining the poll-pick answered all purposes which their use entailed was the economizing until the utilization of gunpowder for blasting, of lifting power and the avoidance of the me- when hammers were required to beat the drills, chanical difficulties of stopping cages or buckets Until then rock-splitting was done by wedges, at the entrance of different levels ; but it must Into holes bored in the same way as at present, be added that the use of ladders as the shafts deepened brought with it a terrible increase in the miners' toil, although it was not until the eighteenth century that this drawback became very apparent. The ventilation of tin works was probably not a pressing question until the sixteenth or seven- teenth century, when galleries began to be driven far and shafts extended in depth.* The old lode workers were much troubled by foul air, and went as far only from the shaft as the air would yield them breath. When it failed they sank another shaft, and as time went on this practice led to the establishment at regular intervals of air-shafts in the mines, leading up to the sur- face. With a few trifling exceptions, such as, perhaps, the use of large ventilating bellows at St. Agnes in 1696,^ after the manner in which Bushell had purified his Cardigan mines some fifty years before,^ these few words sum up the subject of mine ventilation in the stannaries until a com- paratively modern date.^ The primitive nature of early Cornish mining ' Cf. Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 74, 168. Pettus, fleta Minor, 307. ^ Carew, 5urv. ofCorniv. (ed. 181 1), 36. ^ Cf. Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 185. Fhilosoph. Trans, iii, 770. ^ Worth, Historical Notes on the Progress of Mining Skill, 26. * Carew {Surv. of Cornzv. ed. 1 8 1 1 , 37) speaks of ' unsavourie damps which here and there distemper their heads.' ® Worth, Historical Notes on the Progress of Mining Skill, 33. ' Bushell, Tracts on Mines, * The Case of Thomas Bushell truly Stated.' * Cf. Childrey, Britannia, 8. except that the bit ended in a quadrangular point instead of in a single edge, were put two semi- cylindrical rods of iron or steel, called ' feathers,' of the same length as the hole itself. A steel wedge was then driven between them, and the rock broken off piecemeal. Sometimes also wooden wedges were driven into clefts, and then soaked with water to cause the wood to swell. When the ground was more than usually hard the miners wore away the face of the rock in the same manner as that in which masons cut stone for building.^^ From the work of actual excavation let us turn to the treatment which the ore received upon the surface. The process spoken of as smelting comprises two distinct operations — the prepara- tion of the ore, and its conversion into white tin. ' For those used in a mediaeval Devonshire silver mine, see ' An Indenture and Ordinance respecting the Working of Silver Mines in Devon and Cornwall,' by E. Smirke, Arch. Journ. xxvii, 314-322. Cf. also Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 5 3 . '" ' The Antiquity of Mining in the West of Eng- land,' by R. N. Worth, Journ. Plymouth Inst, v, 127. " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. i. Carew, Surv. of Cornw. 8. " These shovels were rude but elaborate. The handle was stuck slantingwise into a hole in the face, or, in the case of another specimen, in the Truro Museum, the entire shovel was of one piece, and shaped like a huge wooden spoon ('The Antiquity of Mining in the West of England,' by R. N. Worth, Journ. Plymouth Inst, v, 121). " * The State of the Tin Mines at Different Periods,' by John Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. iv, 85. Fire was used in the Mendip mines to break the rocks {Philosoph. Trans, iii, 769), and also, at an early period, in Derbyshire (Houghton, The Compleat Miner, 20, art. xl). 546 INDUSTRIES In the infancy of mining only the massive and was of granite, and dome-shaped, and with it productive pieces were dealt with before melting. have usually been associated the granite moulds, The richest stones were smelted in the block, of which many have been discovered on Dart- and the metal disengaged by the direct action of moor,^ and other stream-tin fields.^ heat. The poorer were subsequently pounded No written records exist for the course of with rocks, and washed. The first improvement smelting operations until we reach the year upon this method was the working of these stones 1198.^*' De Wrotham's letter of that date in- in something of the fashion of a mortar and forms us that there were two smeltings, the first pestle. Next came the use of mills to reduce the apparently a rude process, taking place near the ore to a still finer state of pulverization. In mine itself ; while the second could not be Loe Pool Valley are still to be seen boulders of done except at certain towns designated by the hard elvan, with surface indented into deep hoi- warden, the reason being the connexion of the lows where the tin stone was battered, prepara- smelting with stannary taxation. From other tory to its reduction in the furnace,^ and Pol- sources we learn a few details concerning the whele has left an account of an ancient mill preliminary treatment of the ore. Twenty years discovered in the Scilly Isles,^ as well as that of ago there existed at Retallack Farm, Cornwall, the remains of an old ' huddle,' or washing the remains of a mediaeval ' crazing-mill,' in place.^ which the tin stones were reduced to sand before Smelting at its inception was carried on by being treated with fire. The house measured the miners themselves. A small pit was dug, 20 ft. by 13 ft., and in the gable wall was a and a fire kindled in it, close to where the ore rectangular opening, 2 ft. square, where passed was found. Upon this the stones were thrown, the axle of the water-wheel. Within and with- and the metal afterwards gathered from among out were granite millstones, three or four feet in the ashes and sand.^ Several antiquarian dis- diameter, grooved on the face in a circular direc- coveries in Cornwall have led Pryce to the con- tion. In the vicinity were also found stones elusion that this was the form of operation pre- with basin-shaped hollows, similar to many vailing at the time the Phoenicians visited found in different parts of Cornwall and Devon, Britain.' By the time of Diodorus Siculus, and probably used for pounding the ore ; and one however, an advance had been made. The stone, a rough granite block 4 ft. in length astragalus block, which figures so prominently in by 14 in. in breadth and depth, which showed, his account, must have been the product of a by the regularity of the hollows worn in it, that furnace from which the flow of metal could be the pounders were probably worked by machinery, directed. Of such there are many remains, vary- like the present-day stamps. Other stones were ing in character, but passing under the common found, apparently used for pulverizing the sand name of ' Jews' Houses.' Some were built into by hand ; and also a rough stone huddle, about the shape of inverted cones of hard clay,^ about two feet in diameter.^^ three feet broad at the top, and three feet deep. A With the advent of improved methods of blast of air, conveyed by common bellows to the smelting it became no longer necessary to fuse lower part of the furnace, served to create an the tin twice to obtain a proper fineness, and intense heat, and the molten tin was discharged from the first and second smeltings instanced by from an opening at the foot. De Wrotham arose the single blowing-house Another fairly advanced but probably excep- process known to Beare and to Carew. To set tional smelting furnace has been discovered in even an approximate date for its introduction is the Land's End district, near St. Michael's impossible ; but it seems to have been in common Mount — namely, a bronze cauldron, resting upon use by the middle of the fourteenth century, as a layer of charcoal. This specimen has been we find the Black Prince sharing in the profits held to be a Phoenician vessel introduced into of several at Lostwithiel in 1359.^^ In 1426 the mining districts in the days before Strabo.^ occurs the case of John Aunger of Cornwall, Still another early type of smelting furnace ' husbandman and blower ';^^ and in 1495 the ^ Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of ^ Bate, 'Historical Antiquities of Dartmoor,' Rep. Mining Skill, 35. Roy. Comzv. Polytechnic Soc. 1872, 149. ' Polwhele, History of Cornwall, i, Supplement, 64. " Gent. Mag. Ixi, 34. Some time ago, in East Corn- ' Ibid. 65. wall was unearthed an entire mining village, containing * Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensis, 281. Louis, The three of these granite furnaces, in various stages of Production of Tin, 6. ' Notes on an Ancient Smelting- preservation ; while scattered about were pieces of place for Tin,' by Le Grice, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. slag, and occasionally of metallic tin ('Notes on Some Cornzv. vi, 43, Antiquities in East Cornwall,' by R. N. Worth, * Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 281. Journ. Roy. Inst. Comw. iv, 75, 76). ®* Notes on an Ancient Smelting-place for Tin,' '" Black Book of the Exchequer, No. 10. by Le Grice, Trans. Roy. Geol Soc. Cornzv. vi, 44,45. " 'An Ancient Crazing Mill,' by James Bryant, ' * On the Fragments of a Bronze Furnace dis- Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzv. vii, 213-214. covered near St. Michael's Mount,' by R. Edmonds, '^ White Book of Cornw. 32 Edw. Ill, c. 89*/. Proc. Penzance Nat. Hist, and Ant. Soc. i-ii, 347. " Cal of Pat. 1426, 308. 547 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL new ordinances put in force by Prince Arthur dealt among other subjects with the entering of blowing-house marks and the swearing in of blowers.^ The buddle and the crazing-mill, it is safe to say, figured also during this period anterior to the reduction of the ore. The molten metal was cast into slabs and blocks of from 200 to 300 pounds each in weight,^ During the first half of the sixteenth century many notable improvements were introduced into the Cornish mines from the continent. The English kings at an early period had been impressed with the superior skill of the Germans in mining and metallurgy, and repeated entries are to be found in mediaeval state documents of mineral concessions made to foreign workmen to induce them to immigrate.^ It may have been the royal patronage given these foreigners, and the report of their great skill, which induced Sir Francis Godolphin, a large tin producer, to send for the person mentioned by Carew as * a Dutch mineral man,' by whose aid were efiPected all those important improvements which he notes in the management of the great Godolphin tin works.* These were probably the use of the hydraulic stamp, already considerably employed in the German mines,* various improvements in the dressing of tin ore, and possibly the use of charcoal for smelting instead of peat, which is mentioned as the usual fuel in all stannary grants of privilege.* The first detailed account of tin dressing is given by Carew. The ore was broken small with hammers,^ and then carried in carts, or on horses, to a stamp-mill of three, and sometimes six, iron-shod heads, driven by a water-wheel. Previously the practice had been to stamp the tin while dry, but wet stamps had by this time come into use, with the result that only the roughest part of the ore now had to go from stamp to crazing-mill,^ whereas under the dry method all must go. The next operation was completely distinctive, and no longer has a parallel in Cornwall. The water, after it had left the mill, was made to descend a series of stages, at each of which it fell upon ' green turfe, three or four feet square, and one foot thick.' ^ ' Add. MS. 6713, fols. 101-104. ' Exch. K. R. Tin Coinage Rolls. ^ 'The Germans in the Stannaries,' by J. B. Cor- nish, Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornzc. xiii, pt. 4, 430-434. Atkinson, The Dhcoverie and Historic of the Gold Mynes of Scotland, 18-20, 33. Watson, Compendium of Bri- tish Mining, 58. Calvert, Gold Rocks of Great Britain and Ireland, 52, 87, 98, 103, 109, 130, 131, 139, 144. S. P. Dom. Eliz. clxvii, 24 ; clxix, 16. * Carew, Survey of Cornwall (ed. l8l i), 42. * Reyer, Zinn, 81. ' Chart. R. 36 Hen. Ill, m. 18 ; 33 Edvsr. I, m. 40, 41. ' Carew, Survey of Cornwall {tA.. 181 1), 39. * Ibid. 39, 40. ® Ibid. 40. See also Harl. MS. 6380, f. 106. Here the sandy ore was laid, and gently tossed to and fro, so that the lighter particles of waste might wash away, and the tin remain entangled in the fibres. Finally the ore was washed ' in a wooden dish, flat and round, being 2 feet over, and having two handles fastened at the sides, by which they softly shogge the same to and fro in the water between their legges, as they sit over it, until whatever of the earthie substance that was yet left be flitted away.' ^° ' Some, of later times,' says Carew, evidently referring to the present practice of huddling, ' with a slighter in- vention, and lighter labour, doe cause certain boyes to stir it up and downe with their feete, which worketh the same effect.' ^^ The blowing-house, at which the smelting of the ore finally took place, was a rude structure, probably of rock and turf, with a thatched roof; the whole being so inexpensive that every few years it was burned down in order to save the particles of tin which the blast had driven up into the thatch. ^^ Here the prepared ore was made into parcels, according to its quality,^' and then smelted on the hearth of the granite furnace by a charcoal fire fed by a blast from a large pair of bellows worked by a water-wheel. Abundant evidence exists that the white tin produced in this fashion was as pure in quality as that pro- duced by the smelters of to-day.^* The slight accounts of tinning given by Norden ^* and Childrey ^* substantiate Carew's evidence in most details, and bring our account down to the year 1660, at about which date we may say that the modern period of tin mining begins, as opposed to that of the Middle Ages. In the course of the next few years began a regime of improvements both in mining and in smelting, which, closely following the great impetus given the mines during the Common- wealth by the abolition of the coinage, sent up the production to 2,141 thousand-weight in 1673," 3,133 thousand-weight in 1683,^^ 4,800 thousand-weight in 1 7 1 0,^' and by slow advances to nearly double the latter figure in 1837,^° the year in which the stannary system was remodelled. The first manifestation of this movement seems to have been a series of improvements in the dressing and smelting. According to the anonymous writer already quoted, the ore dressing by 1 671 was done chiefly by boys. After '" Carew, Survey of Cornwall {eA.. 1811), 40. " Ibid. Buddies, moreover, had already been men- tioned in an Act of Henry VIII, to restrain tinners from filling harbours with their silt (Stat. 23 Hen. VIII, c. 8). " Fuller, History of the Worthies of England (ed. 1 662), 195. " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 107. " Cornish Mining, 1 3 . '* Norden, Speculi Britanniae Pars (Cornwall), 13. ^^ Childrey, Britannia, 10. '' Receiver's View, 1673. " Ibid. 1683. '» Ibid. 1 7 10. »" Hunt, British Mining, 887. 548 INDUSTRIES the stones had been broken to convenient size, place, when choked up, emptied, and the they were carried to a stamping-mill, whose mixture of ore and ashes retrambled. Rude mechanism by this time had become so improved as many of these operations were, they show that it would work for a couple of hours without a great advance in mining skill since the time attention,^ one John Tomes, when a boy thirty of Carew. years before, having patented an invention by Dr. Merrest, a few years later, describes the means of which, when there was not enough ore tin stuff as dried in a furnace on an iron plate ^ in the coffer, the water was turned off, whereas before being crazed, which seems an inexact before this a bell had been used which only reference to calcining. He says, also, that stuff gave warning when the coffer was empty, by not worth working was thrown into heaps which time the mill was often broken.' One which, in six or seven years, would be fit for re- wheel could now work the stamps in three or working. The germ of truth in this statement, four coffers. Leaving the stamp heads, the ore undoubtedly made in all honesty, seems to be was subjected to a series of operations, the object that, just at that date, advances in dressing were of which was to grade and concentrate it by unusually rapid, and every few years operations application of running water. From the stamps became more precise. it was washed through a grate into a ' launder,' Improvements had also been made in smelting, or shallow trench, where it was divided into The slovenly habit of burning the blowing- * forehead,' * middle,* and * tails,' according to its house to catch the tin in the thatch, which specific gravity. After having been * trambled * Fuller mentions in 1662, had been replaced by or huddled, it was ' sezed,' ' dilleughed,' crazed the construction of chambers in the chimneys or * framed,' as required. for the deposit of metallic dust.^ Although The huddle is described as a long square tye smelting with pit coal was still unknown, a of boards or slate about I foot deep, 6 feet long, difference had been made in the fuels used and 3 feet broad, wherein stood a man barefooted, for various grades of ore. Moor, or stream who, with a * trambling shovel,' cast up ore tin was fused by charked peat ; lode tin by upon the buddle head as high as his middle.^ charcoal and peat mixed ; and slag by charcoal The stuff was worked both with the shovel and alone. ^° with the feet, and, as the buddle was traversed Following closely upon this advance in ore- by a gentle flow of water, the effect of the dressing came the invention of improved devices operation was to separate the ore into several for mine drainage. As the tin districts of Corn- qualities, the heaviest remaining at the head, and wall became further developed, mining had taken the lightest being deposited at the foot.* There on more of the character of lode-mining. The also were * drawing buddies ' for * retrambling,' stream works were still largely in evidence in which had no tye, but a plain, sloping board.* 1765,-^^ but in 1778 Pryce gives us to understand Sezing consisted in the use of a hair sieve, in- that they were of minor importance. Few stead of the drawing-buddle, to grade the tin.* changes had taken place in their operations since Dilleughing was performed by putting the the days of Carew. The adventurer sank a * forehead ' of the doubly-trambled tin into a hatch, three or five fathoms, to the shelf on canvas sieve, and shaking it in a large tub of which the tin stones were deposited. When he water. The tails from the buddle were thrown had found, by a rough washing on the point of into strakes, or tyes, of which there were com- a shovel, that it was * paying ' tin, he drained monly three or four in succession, where the his work by a level, and continued working ' slimes,' or finer ores, were separated from the with the aid of a few helpers until the spot was coarser * roughs.' * The latter were crazed and exhausted. ^^ retrambled,* the former were framed,* the frame In lode mines the accumulation of water called being a rack 6 feet long by 3^ feet broad, sus- for more advanced methods. At the beginning pended on two pivots like a cradle. of the eighteenth century John Coster had taught In this account we find mention, for the first the Cornish miners to use one large water-wheel, time, of the process known as calcining, to burn 40 feet in diameter, instead of the half-dozen away the impurities of the ore. It was done in smaller ones then used for a single mine.^^ His a square kiln, heated by furze,^ the ore being invention, however, was overshadowed by that spread over a flat granite slab, placed above the furnace, over which the flame played. Having s .^he Relations of Tin Mines and the Working been stirred on the slab with a rake,^ the of Tin in Cornwall,' by Dr. Merrest, Fhilosoph. "Trans. ore was finally pushed into the fire, the fire- xii, 952. ® Worth, Historical Notes on the Progress of Mining ' * Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornw. Skill, 50. and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2108. ^^ 'Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornw. Ibid. 2 1 08-2 1 09. and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2113. 3 Ibid. 2109. " Jars, Voyages Metallurgiques, iii, 187. * Ibid. 21 10. * Ibid. 21 1 1. " Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 132-133. « Ibid. ' Ibid. 21 12. "Ibid. 307. 549 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL of the steam-engine. It is not clear when mined. From 1720 to 1778, 90 fathoms repre- or at what place the latter first appeared in sented the maximum depth as attained by the Cornwall. Pryce dates its introduction at about aid of the Newcomen engine ; but the advent of the year 1708.^ Came declares that the first Watt's improved machines is marked by a sudden was at work at Wheal Vor from 17 10 to 1714.^ increase of this maximum to about 200 fathoms Redding, on the other hand, says that the earliest in the years approximately from 1778 to 1 812. was erected in 1725 at Wheal Rose.^ It was During the following quarter-century 200 was still believed that water could be raised only reached," and the progress during the remainder 32 feet, and at first the new invention took the of the century was correspondingly rapid. The form of a series of steam suction pumps which, in Dolcoath Mine, in 1 900, had reached a depth mines of any depth, were so multiplied that the of 470 fathoms below adit,^^ and several other first outlay and subsequent cost were enormous. Cornish works were little less extensive.^' The scale on which Cornish mines were oper- Nearly contemporaneous with the great ad- ated, and the increasing amount of work thrown vances in ore-dressing and mine-drainage appears upon the engine, soon rendered it imperative an almost equally important improvement in the that some forcing arrangement be adopted, apparatus for mining itself. A description of an Morland had patented the plunger in 1675,* but ordinary tin miner's tools is given in Philosophical its development was slow, and the first note we Transactions in 167 1, showing that, with the have of its adoption in any mine is in 1796, in exception of tamping-iron and borer, they were the United Mines, Gwennap.* practically the same as to-day. A beele, or Meanwhile, Savery's engine of 1696 had been Cornish tubber, was used, with double points, superseded by Newcomen's in 1705, yet so con- 8 or 10 pounds in weight, and well steeled, servative were the tinners that in 1742 only With care it might last six months, but had to one steam-engine was to be found in the whole be new-pointed every fortnight. A sledge county.^ Then came a rapid advance, and in weighed from 10 to 20 pounds, and should last the next 36 years more than sixty were erected, 7 years. Gads, or wedges, were of 2 pounds and more than half had been rebuilt and en- weight with steel points. They lasted for about larged.^ Newcomen's engine, effective as it was a week, but required sharpening every two or in comparison with previous efforts, was com- three days.^* These and the ubiquitous shovel pletely displaced in the latter years of the eigh- and barrow constituted the tinner's kit. teenth century by that of Boulton and Watt. The drilling and splitting of the lode were Their first engine in Cornwall was erected in rendered obsolete by the introduction of blasting. 1777^ at Chacewater. In five years' time It seems to have been introduced in Hungary or twenty-one had been set up, and only one of Germany in about the year 1620, but England Newcomen's remained, that, too, disappearing in did not take it up until 1670, when we find it 1790.^ Further improvements at the hands of introduced into the copper mines at Ecton, Trevithick, Hornblower, and Woolf brought Staffordshire, by German miners brought in by the Cornish mine-engine to a high state of Prince Rupert.^* From there it spread into efficiency in the early decades of the nineteenth Somerset in 1684,^' and soon afterwards entered century,^ while the practice of draining the sur- Cornwall, where it seems to have been employed face of the mines, and the greater attention given at St. Agnes in the beginning of the eighteenth to the tightness of the adits and pit work, lessened century.^^ After that its universal adoption was materially the work required of the engines. ^*^ simply a matter of time. The result of these improvements was a rapid For more than a century blasting was carried increase in the depths at which tin could be on in Cornwall in a dangerous way.^' After the " Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of ' Pryce, Mineralogia Comubiensis, 153. Mining Skill, 24. ^ ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. '^ Records of the London and West Country Chamber of Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. iii, 50. Mines, vol. i. pt. i, 16. " Ibid. 18. ' Yesterday and To-Day, i, 1 28. " ' Mineral Observations on the Mines of Cornwall ■* A similar kind of pump was known to the and Devon,' Philosoph. Trans, vi, 2 1 04. ancients, but had lacked the most important part of '* ' State of the Tin Mines at Different Periods,' by Morland's invention, the stufHng-box. J. Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comw. iv, 84. * 'Cornish Mine Drainage,' by Mitchell and 'History of Mining in Cornwall and Devon,' by John Letchies, Rep. Roy. Cornzv. Polytechnic Soc. 1874, ^35- Taylor, Tilloch's Philosoph. Magazine, v, 357. Gallo- ® Worth, Historical Notes Concerning the Progress of way, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 226, Mining Skill, zz. 227. ' Pryce, Mineralogia Coranbiensis, xiv. ^^ Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of ^ Ibid-.3 1 3. Mining Skill, 17;' State of the Tin Mines at Different ' ' Improvements in Mining, by Jos. Came, Trans. Periods,' by J. Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comzo. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. iii, 52, 53, 56. Worth, His- iv, 86. torical Notes Concerning the Progress of Mining Skill, zi. ^'' Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. i, 78, et seq. ; '" ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Carne, Trans. Worth., Historical Notes concerning the Progress of Mining Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. iii, 66. Skill, 18. 550 INDUSTRIES powder had been introduced and tamped an iron iron furnaces.^ Close upon this patent came the rod called the ' needle ' was driven through the invention of the reverbatory furnace of masonry, tamping, and in this aperture was placed a hollow in which the finely divided ore could be smelted rush filled with powder to act as fuse. Some- easily, and at the same time direct contact with times quills were used, in which case the tamp- the fuel be avoided.^ This was the origin of the ing was put around them and the needle not so-called Cornish method of tin-smelting. The inserted. The iron needle and tamping-bar were ore, mixed with finely crushed anthracite or culm the cause of many casualties, but it was not until was charged upon the bed of the furnace and within the nineteenth century that the safety fuse, heated until reduction was complete. The less and safety tamping-bar, shod with copper, were fusible and pasty slag was then drawn from the suggested, and even then it required some time furnace, while the completely melted portion, or for them to enter into general use.^ In recent ' glass,' was tapped out with the liquid metal, decades the use of dynamite or gun-cotton has The former was then removed and the metal driven out that of gunpowder in open workings purified. ^'^ Pryce described this method in 1778, or wide levels. Rock-borers worked by com- and in all essential points it was the same as now, pressed air have likewise made considerable head- except that his furnace charge was but five or six way in the larger tin mines,^ but the primitive hundredweight of ore, while nowadays a two or methods of the pick and drill are still far from three ton charge is preferred. ^^ being completely displaced. The first reverberatory furnace is said by Contemporaneous with the introduction of tradition to have been set up at Treloweth, the steam-engine, but more rapid in its develop- although, according to another statement, it was ments, came the reduction of the ore by the use established in 1706 at Newham by Monatt, a of pit coal. This problem (and the growing German, and after a few years transferred to scarcity of wood fuel made it a serious one) had Calenick.^^ Many years were still to elapse long been a favourite hobby of inventors. As before the blowing-house was superseded, early as 1632 Dr. Jorden had asserted its Charcoal tin being of a slightly superior grade practicability,^ and had tried, unsuccessfully, to fetched a higher price,^^ and as long as sufficient solve it.^ At about the same period a similar stream tin could be found to charge them, blast attempt was made by Sir Bevil Grenville,® but furnaces still persisted. In 1765 Jars found this also failing, the matter seems to have dropped both methods used side by side.^* Pryce's testi- from public notice. Meanwhile, with the deca- mony in 1778 is to the same effect,^* and it was dence of the steam works came an added impulse not until about sixty years ago that the last toward the supersession of the still primitive blowing-house at St. Austell was finally dis- charcoal blast. The alluvial ore, occurring in continued. ^^ rounded masses and grains in a high state of The successive developments in the industry purity, was especially adapted to this method, which set it upon a modern footing, namely, im- The charcoal ashes formed the necessary flux, provements in ore-dressing, drainage by the steam- while the fuel contained no elements capable of engine, the introduction of blasting, and smelting injuring the metal. Lode ore was somewhat with pit coal, need not blind us to smaller im- more refractory, and this fact, added to that of provements. First we have to note an almost the scarcity of charcoal, resulted in a series of continuous series of improvements in ore-dress- fresh attempts to utilize the cheaper fuel. ing, continuing from the first spurt in the seven- The invention of the process has usually been teenth century down to the present. Hardly ascribed to Beccher, a German chemist residing had the eighteenth century begun when the in Cornwall in the latter years of the seventeenth crazing-mill fell into disuse ^^ owing to im- century,^ but little, if any, use was made of it provements in stamping and dressing, which for some years, and Beccher's claims, depending rendered it unnecessary. The former process merely on his own assertion in the preface to one between 167 1 and 1778 had undergone great of his works,' are possibly open to question. It was not until 1705 that a Mr. Liddell obtained ^Viyce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 282. a patent for smelting black tin with fossil coal in ^ Louis, Production of Tin, 8. '" Ibid. ' Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of " Ibid. 9 ; Cornish Mining, 9. Mining Skill, 18. ''Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of 'Ibid. 19, 20. Hunt, British Mining, 507-528, Mining Skill, 50. 537—539, 561. '^ Borlase, Natural Hist, of Comwall, 182. ' Jorden, Discourse of Natural Baths, 50. " Jars, Voyages Metallurgiques, iii, 21 2-2 1 3 . * Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal '* He tells us that the blowing-houses smelted from Trade, 215. eight to twelve hundredweight of tin in twelve hours, ^ Yryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, ip. 282. by the use of from eighteen to twenty-four sixty- ® For an account of his life see * The State of the gallon pecks of charcoal {Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 136). Tin Mines at Different Periods,' by J. Hawkins, '" Cornish Mining, 1 3-1 5 ; Worth, Historical Notes Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornw. iv, 87-91. concerning the Progi'ess of Mining Skill, 51. '' Alphabetum Minerale (ed, 1682). ^'' Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornw. i, 179. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL changes, the stamps becoming six times as effec- tive as they had been before. The Hfters were of ash, and their iron heads weighed 140 pounds.^ Pryce's description also seems to show that all the heads in a coffer operated upon the tin in succession, the blow, of the first sending it to the second, and that of the second to the third, after which it was permitted to emerge.^ We find huddling,^ sezing,* dilleughing, and framing* practised as before, but with greater delicacy of manipulation.^ *Trunking' also had been introduced ^ for the stamped tin stuff which ran from the coffer to the two farther pits. At the semicircular head of the trunk (a pit much like the huddle) a boy stirred these slimes with a small shovel so that the water which ran in might wash both filth and tin over a cross-board about 10 inches deep, from which it passed into the body of the trunk. What remained at the head was framed, and the residue trunked again, and then framed also. The calciners, formerly of moor-stone, were now built of brick,® and the burnt leavings, which until 1735 had been thrown away as useless, were after that date reduced to metal. ^ The great work of the nineteenth century has been the provision of more precise and efficient arrangements for dressing, chiefly by the substi- tution of automatic mechanism for human labour, the motive power in almost every case being de- rived from steam. ^"^ The stamps, for example, are worked almost entirely by steam, and are heavier and more numerous, running in many cases to forty-eight in a set.^^ Among other im- provements have been the crushing mill, the stone breaker, the sizing trommel, the classifier, the continuous jigger, ^^ the round huddle, the automatic frame, and the self-acting calciner. The crushing mill was introduced shortly after 1806, by Mr. John Taylor, and from that time to this has formed the chief apparatus for redu- ' Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of Mini7ig Skill, 39. ^ Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensis, 221. 'Add MS. 6682, fol. 294-295. 'Ibid. fol. 295. Mbid.fol. 296. '' Pryce, Miner alogia Cornubiensis, 133-135. ^ Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of Mining Skill, 39. * Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 224. ' Ibid. 230. "* Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of Mining Skill, 40-4 1 . " ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comw. iii, 61-62. The first steam stamp was at Wheal Vor in 181 2 (Hunt, British Mining, p. 725). '^ The first jigging machine erected in Cornwall was introduced by Richard Taylor at the Consolidated Mines, Gwennap, in 183 1, and the first continuous jigger was patented in 1843 (Hunt, British Mining, 694-695. See also Proc. of Mining Inst. Comw. i, No. 3, pp. 34-53)- cing ores for the jigger, huddle, and other con- centrating apparatus.^^ Framing has been so far improved that one hundred frames can now be managed by a girl and a boy.^* Trunking by machinery was introduced at St. Ives in about the year 1825. The huddle, formerly a shallow oblong trench, is now a circular concave or convex frame revolving slowly beneath a jet of water, centri frugal force classifying the ores according to their weight. In mining itself more scientific methods of prospecting came into vogue during the eighteenth century. Costeaning and shoding,'* although now abandoned,^® were still practised in the days of Pryce, but already they had been supplemented by boring,^' and by a better know- ledge of geology. Our ancestors were satisfied to pursue a single vein without suspecting that others might exist near at hand, or if aware of their existence they were apt from want of capital or disinclination to invest it, or perhaps from want of a greater spirit of enterprise to leave them unexplored. At present the lodes are more speedily and fully searched by the practice of driving across the country from north to south, and vice versa, as well as by other methods too technical to be here described. Ventilation, in the eighteenth century, was extended by the provision of boarded channels in the bottoms of adits, by which streams of pure air were carried into the mine.^® Another method was that of a stream of water passing into one of the shafts, the accompanying air being carried by a pipe placed close to the discharge of the water to the extreme end of the level where required.'^ This process, still used in i860, was sometimes assisted by small fans worked by boys.^ Other apparatus have been suggested from time to time,^^ but none have proved especially effec- tive, and the ventilation of the tin mines is largely natural, the air finding its way in by certain channels, and out by others.^^ Save where a drift is very long the air is fairly good. Im- proved ventilation brought increased health to the labourer, and added efficiency to his work. " Hunt, British Mining, p. 693. " Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Process of Mining Skill, 40-4 1 . '* Ray, A Collection of English Words, 131. '* * Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comw. iii, 74-75. •"Add. MS. 6682, fol. 281. '' Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensis, 146-147. '' ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Comw. iii, 64. There does not seem to have been any application of the method of puri- f>'ing the air by fire, such as took place in the coal mines at this time (Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 326-327, 253-254). *" Worth, Historical Notes conceming the Progress of Mining Skill, 32. »' Ibid. 33. ^"■Report on Stannary Act Amendment Bill (1887), Q. 366. 552 INDUSTRIES In 1586 and 1602 four hours in the twenty-four sede the pack-horse, their introduction into was the longest time during which a tinner could Cornwall occurring in i8i8,^° but in the course remain at work,^ but by Pryce's time it had of a few decades we find them pushed aside by become possible to extend this to six hours,^ and, the steam railway, with its branch lines reach- fifty years afterwards, to eight.^ Another result ing to the shaft's mouth. of the better ventilation was that instead of With the deepening and better drainage of being forced to sink air shafts at a distance of the tin mines, came improvements in their about 30 fathoms from one another, the miners, general engineering. Originally the lodes were by the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth followed from the shafts at points where they century, could proceed 100 fathoms from a shaft were rich, and without any attention to order or without feeling discomfort.^ regularity, the workmen throwing the deads The old-fashioned methods of descent into behind them into the worked-out places as they the mines by means of long ladders, so injurious proceeded. They were led on by a bunch of to the health of the men, have, within the last ore, and when that failed their work was done, century, been superseded in the larger mines by While lifting power was limited, this was, un- the use of the man-engine, which was first intro- doubtedly, the most economic mode of pro- duced in 1842.* The expense of this arrange- cedure, but it remained at best a hand-to-mouth ment, however, has proved too great to allow of sort of arrangement, inevitably destined to give its use in all works, and even where in operation way to other and better forms, the plan of the Cornish tin mines is usually so It was probably difficult to pursue this system irregular that the use of ladders can be only where the water was 'quick,' so another was partially superseded. In other mines is used the adopted, namely, that of stoping downward from wire rope and cage method of descent so well the shaft (i.e. hewing away the lode in stairs, or known in the collieries.® steps, of 6 or 8 ft. in height, one man following Some time after the improvements in drainage another). On this system, as soon as the shaft came the introduction of the steam-engine for is sunk 6 or 8 ft. under the adit, if the lode is drawing ore and rubbish from the mine, a work productive the first step is commenced, a second previously done by application of horse power, follows it, and a third as soon as the shaft is A saving of 50 per cent, hastened its adoption, sufficiently deep.^^ especially in view of the fact that a modern The facilities for exploring the lode, and mine of any depth could not employ horses making new discoveries, were scarcely greater enough to raise its rubbish.' ' Kibbles,' or by this system than by the last, and a further heavy iron buckets, are still clung to in many of improvement soon followed, namely, that of the works. In others this clumsy method of driving levels, or horizontal galleries, on the lode haulage has been supplanted by the use of 'skips,' from the shafts, and stoping the lode downward which travel between guides after the fashion of from one level to another. On this plan, al- ordinary freight lifts.^ though the mine was explored by the levels, the The transportation of ore had been effected by ore was taken away almost as fast as the shaft means of pack-horses, but, as mines became was sunk, and if any unexpected changes took deeper and more extensive, this method grew place, if, for instance, the lode should, even for not only expensive, but entirely inadequate. So a short space, become unproductive, the mine much ore was raised in 1750 at Polberran, had no resources in itself to furnish the means St. Agnes, that carts had to be pressed into ser- of paying its ordinary expenses.^^ Independently vice. The Fowey Consols, one of the larger of the risk, this system was enormously expen- mines, maintained in its service mules by the sive, for, in the first place, obviously, even if all hundred.^ Tramways were the first to super- the lode were ore, a mass can be taken away • ChMrcy, Briiannia, 8. R. Czrew, Survey 0/ Com- ^^°"^ ^^ove at much less cost than from below. tva// (ed. 181 1), p. 35. This, however, was the least important part. In ^ Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, lyS. stoping downward the whole lode, good or bad, ^ ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans, had to be removed, as it was impossible to get Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornw. iii, 64. R. N. Worth, Hiitori- at the ore without removing the dead ground also, ca/ Notes coftcerning tie Progress 0/ Mining Ski//, 58. all of which work had to be done before the * ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans, lodg was properly drained. The mixture of ore Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornw. iii, 6^—6^. ^ Worth, Historica/ Notes concerning the Progress of ^° There is no mention to be found of any use of Mining Ski//, 26. Re/>. on Stannary Act Amend. Bi// the self-acting planes and other devices preceding the (1887), Q. 710, 71 1. tram in the northern coal mines. The Cornish ^ Galloway, Anna/s of Coa/ Mining and t/ie Coa/ mines are very tardy in their introduction of the tram. Trade, 283. It had been employed in the coal mines as early as ' * Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. 1765 (Galloway, Anna/s of Coa/ Mining and the Coa/ Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornw. iii, 61. Trade, 283, 318, 329-331, 370). ^ Hunt, British Mining, 596-597. '' ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. ^ Worth, Historica/ Notes concerning the Progress oj Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornw. iii, 67. Mining S/ii//, 48. '' Ibid. 69. I 553 70 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL with rubbish meant extra expense in dressing, and caused considerable waste, as, when so much washing was necessary, the finer parts of the ore were liable to be carried off by the water.^ The downward stope began to be abandoned towards the end of the eighteenth century ^ for the system which prevails at present, namely, that of driving levels and stoping upwards. As soon as a shaft is sunk to sufficient depths be- neath the adit, a level is commenced upon the lode, and carried both east and west. If the latter is rich at the commencement of the level as the workman goes forward, another is em- ployed to dig down the ore above the level, and, as he makes progress, a third follows him in another stope, and so they proceed, until the intermediate part of the lode (or as much of it as is productive of ore) is wholly removed.^ Meanwhile the shaft becomes deep enough for several other levels long before the ore above the first is exhausted. If the lode is poor in the first level nothing more is done. If it becomes productive in some parts at a distance from the shaft, there the miners begin to stope. The advantages of this system are several. In the first place it is easy to find what part of the lode is rich and what barren, and the miners have it in their power to take away the valuable parts and leave the worthless. Even the latter are useful, as they serve the purpose of timber in keeping the mines open. Every part of the works is better drained. The ore, by being taken from the lode when comparatively dry, is more easily kept separate from the worthless ground, and is therefore subject to little waste and costs much less to dress. The riches of the lode may be extracted more speedily, and the produce is far less fluctuating. The ability exists also to make greater efforts for the dis- covery of new bunches of ore in other parts of the lode, and, as a general consequence, the mine is not only more profitable but much more permanent.^ I have left until the last the history of the internal organization of the mines and of the classes who operated them. To trace through a thousand years the development of the tin works from shallow pits owned and worked by groups of labourers to the vast companies of to- day which employ in their works thousands of hired labourers, is a task which calls for great discrimination, and which, perhaps, may be best accomplished by a reversal of the usual order of • * Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. iii, 69-70. ^ Worth, Historical Notes concerning the Progress of Mining Skill, 14. ^ ' Improvements in Mining,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geol Soc. Cornw. iii, 70. * Ibid. 70, 71. Hunt, British Mining, 602 et seq. procedure, and an exposition first of the present and then of the past. The mines to-day are run either as corpora- tions,* or, by virtue of local mining law, as cost- book companies.^ The latter form is the older of the two. Under the cost-book system two or three men secure a lease of a property^ and in- duce some others to join them ; if the property seems promising, these few would include a banker, a smelter, an iron, timber, candle, and cordage merchant, and possibly a dealer in new and second-hand machinery. They then register, under the cost-book, a company of, say, 512 shares, and are ready to begin business. They hold a meeting, elect a purser to manage the accounts, and call up, say, ^{^i per share. At the next meeting perhaps a call ol £1 or more is made, and so matters continue until one of three things happens : the mine becomes self-support- ing ; it earns profits, in which case there is a division ; there comes a call to which the chief adventurer refuses to respond, in which case if the others refuse, or are unable, to take up the defaulter's shares, the mine closes. If the pro- ceeds from the sale of lease and machinery are insufficient to liquidate the mine's liabilities, then the adventurers are called upon to contribute pro rata ; and as long as a single moneyed man remains among them the creditors are sure of recovering. Such is the system as it was in the days when Cornish tin mining was at its height. With the advent of modern speculative enter- prise the number of shareholders has increased® in most cost-book concerns, and 'out-adventurers'® have entered — that is, partners not residing in the district. A new system has now become engrafted upon the old, and the general body of adventurers usually delegate their powers to a managing committee,^° consisting as a rule of the largest resident shareholders. In spite of these changes, however, the under- taking has remained quite unlike the usual cor- poration or partnership, and its main features still hold true. These are : first, absence of fixed capital ; secondly, the right to transfer shares by giving written notice to the purser,^^ and without the consent of one's partners ; thirdly, the right of any adventurer to relinquish his interest upon * James, Pseudo-Cosi-Book Companies, 22. ® The Companies Act of 1862 brought the limited liability system into the stannaries. Before that, all the mines were cost-book concerns {Rep. on Stannary Act Amend. Bill (i 887), Q. 119). ' Cornish Mining, 1 1 ; Bartlett, Treatise on British Mining, 24. ^ Cost-book companies are now so extensive that meetings are usually held, not monthly, but at in- tervals of sixteen weeks, so as to allow distant share- holders to attend {Rep. on Stannary Act Amend. Bill (1887), Q. 17). ^ James, Pseudo-Cost-Book Companies, 31. ^^ Watson, Compendium of Brit. Mining, 11. " Pike, Britain's Metal Mines, 52. 554 INDUSTRIES written notice ; ^ fourthly, the right of joint management ; fifthly, the continuance of the adventure as long as any remained to work it ; sixthly, the frequent settlement of accounts in the periodic cost-book, and the enforcement of contributions by the purser in the stannary court ; seventhly, the right of excluding de- faulters from participation in the profits ; eighthly, the liability of mine, machinery, and produce to the claims of creditors ; and, lastly, the fact that the adventurer's interest lies, not in any capital which he may have advanced, but simply in the mine itself.^ It should be noted that the liability of the adventurer, though restricted in kind, is un- limited in amount, so that during his partnership he is liable for the whole of the engagements incurred in the ordinary course of mine manage- ment. Should a mining company attempt to default its dues, its creditors have action, solely against the purser,^ by petition, in the vice- warden's court, and, upon non-payment, the court will order a sale of the mine materials and produce.^ On the other hand, the purser may obtain his remedy in the stannary courts against an adventurer who defaults his obligations.* Under this system the control of operations rests with the purser.® He keeps the accounts, authorizes the purchases of materials and stores, hires the labourers, recommends assessments upon the adventurers, summons the shareholders to monthly or bi-monthly meetings, and, at each, reads his report and prepares his statements.^ Next in importance to the purser stands the chief captain, or manager, who superintends the entire mine^ and the general routine of surface- work, and under him are sub-captains, usually selected from the most intelligent workmen, who act as foremen or inspectors of the work under- ground, are held strictly responsible for the work of their section, and are stimulated by prospects of advancement.^ It is, however, the wages system which has attracted most attention. The Cornish miner's year is divided into various periods, and at the end of each occurs a * setting day.' Some time before, the agents or captains go through the mine and decide what work is to be done in the succeeding period — that is, what shafts are to be sunk and what levels driven. They also de- ^ The retiring shareholder is entitled to withdraw in cash his share of the mine machinery and materials, the value of which is usually left to arbitration {Ref. on Stannary Act Amend. BUI {\%%']), Q. 14). * James, Pseudo-Cost-Book Companies, 22, 45. ^ Convoc. Cornw. 2 Jas. II, c. 6. *■ James, Pseudo-Cost-Book Companies, 15. * Cf. Pryce, MineralogLa Cornubiensis, 173. ^ Bartlett, Treatise oh British Mining, 24 ; Watson, Compendium of British Mining, II. ' Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 174. * ' The Economy of Mining,' English's Quart. Mining Rev. iv, 265. termine how many * pitches ' or divisions of the lode are to be worked. They estimate the quantity and quality of the ore which these pitches are likely to yield, and the amount of labour that must be devoted to the work ; and, in a similar manner, they decide upon the amount of labour which can be done in a given time, in preparing the way for the extraction of the ore, and determine, for example, the quality of the ground through which the shafts, or winzes, are to be sunk, or the levels driven. On the setting day, the men employed in the mine, with those who have come from else- where, desirous of work, assemble around the account-houses or a platform, where the chief agent, or captain, takes his stand. He reads the rules under which the mine is to be worked, and then auctions off, to small groups of workmen, different pitches or pieces of work in the mine, to the lowest bidders, who, in this case, represent bodies of from two to eight men and boys, who work together. When the men go to work they are charged for the materials they use, in the shape of tools, candles, powder, and other necessaries, as well as for the cost of hauling the rubbish to the surface. At the end of the period for which the contract is let, a balance-sheet is prepared ; they are credited with the amount of work they have done and debited with its cost, and frequently also with a subscription for medical attendance and the maintenance of a club, which supplies them or their families with aid in case of accident. Sometimes, in addition, these * tut workers,' as they are called, are credited with the small percentage of ore that may be extracted in the course of their operations in order to induce them to keep it as separate as possible from the rubbish, and, during the pro- gress of the work, they frequently receive pay- ments on account. So far, then, for the work of preparing the way. We have next to consider the actual work of excavation. In this case the work to be done is divided into small compartments, or pitches, and, in like manner, put up to auction, except that here the men offer to do the work in con- sideration of receiving a percentage of the price realized from the ore, after paying the cost of reducing it to a saleable state. This is the so- called ' tribute system.' As is the case with * tut ' work, the miners pay their own costs in tools and materials, while to provide for their support, until the balance is handed over to them, they obtain certain customary advances from the adventurers known as ' subsist.* ® This system, described in the nineteenth century by Tuckett,^° Laing,^^ and Watson,^^ to ' * West Barbary,' by L. L. Price, Joum. Roy. Statist. Soc. li, 494-566. ^" Tuckett, Present State of the Labouring Population (ed. 1846), 223-226. " Laing, National Distress, 40, 41. '* Watson, Compendium of British Mining, 1 1-14. 555 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL say nothing of many others,^ is one of great gradually ceasing to work their mines, and giving antiquity. It certainly existed in 1778, for it them to small masters on tribute. But the small is described at that time by Pryce. * Mining,' masters in the following years were ousted from he says, * is so expensive and uncertain that few their position by aggregations of working tinners Cornish mines are carried on at the risk of one themselves. or two persons. Many partners are united ; Further information is furnished by Jars, who four, ten, sixteen, twenty-four, or thirty-two in visited Cornwall in 1765. His words are as number.' ^ He then describes the meetings of follows : — ' L'usage dtabli dans toutes les mines these companies, the familiar cost-book system est de donner I'extraction du minerai par enter- being the one almost invariably employed, and the prise, les entrepreneurs ont des ouvriers k leurs funds of the adventurers being vested in a purser, gages, qui travaillent sous leurs ordres ; quelques as we have seen. ' Deep and chargeable mines uns sont ouvriers eux-memes.' ^ On a day pre- are carried on by persons of fortune or great skill, viously set, the account continues, those interested but shallow mines are occupied indifferently by in a mine assemble, and the contractors make such, or by the labouring miners, and, frequently, offers, bidding downwards. The workmen find by both.' ^ themselves the necessary tools, light, and powder. He then proceeds to speak of the wages system. The adventurers provide for the maintenance of 'It is a good and customary way* for the owners machinery and ropes. The number of work- to set their dead ground, either in or out of the men who do the work is usually from seven lode, to be sunk, driven, stoped, or cut down by to nine, and the time of contract six months, the fathom, but if there is no choice in respect to The contract is determined by a portion of saving the ore drawn, or the like, they set it to the mineral extracted — that is, the contractors be sunk . . . upon tut — that is, a piece or part receive a third, a fourth, or a fifth of the value of unmeasured ground by the lump for such price raised. as can be agreed upon ; ' and from the same pas- Here, again, we have the main outlines with sage we learn that, as at present, the work was some of the details of the system already described, done by a small gang of workmen who supplied The actual workmen appear for the most part to their own tools and materials. When the lode have been hired for wages, and to be under con- had been tapped two methods again might be tractors who agree to excavate the ore for a certain used. The ore might be broken by the fathom,' proportion of the selling price ; and it is to be or, secondly, by the tribute system, only instead noted that although the entrepreneurs are said of being simply a matter of bargain between elsewhere to be compelled to have workmen of workmen's gangs and the adventurers, it was all kinds, yet no express mention is made by Jars more complex. First to be noted is the fact that of the work to be done in preparation for the tin works were often given over to a single extraction itself. It will be remembered that the tributer.^ ' Adventurers very often lease a mine work of extraction, according to the description on tribute. Some miner takes the mine of the already given of the work of the present day, was adventurers for a determined time — that is, for assigned to tributers, and the work of preparation half a year, a whole year, or seven years. If it is to tut workers, who approach more closely to the a tin mine he articles, first, to pay the lord his ordinary wage earners ; yet Jars, confining his share or dole free of all cost. . . This must be attention to the work of extraction, speaks of the such a proportion of all the tin-stuff as shall be actual workmen as hired for wages. But he also raised during the limited time. Of the remainder states that in some cases the entrepreneurs are he pays the adventurers one moiety, or one-fourth actual workmen, and in other passages says part, according to the agreement, it being more that simple workmen often commence the ex- or less in proportion to the richness of the mine.' ploitation of a mine at their own risk. Often also the tributer was associated with several Can we trace these systems farther? Tut others, who clubbed together to provide the neces- work we do not find until 1778, and it seems to sary capital for machinery and wages.^ More have had as predecessor the piece-work system, commonly, especially in the larger works, the concomitant with it at that date. But the tribute mine was divided into pitches, as at present, and system is much older. Carew tells us that small auctioned off to small gangs.® undertakings were worked by men single-handed. We may draw from these facts the conclusion but that usually the discoverer of a lode took that the entire mining system was undergoing a others into association, because ' the charge transition. The gentlemen adventurers were amounteth mostly verie high for any one man's purse except lined beyond ordinarie.' ^"^ The ad- ''The Economy of Mining,' English's Qu,,t. ^^"turers were either working miners or cap i- Mimng Rev. iv, 266 ; Babbage, Economy of Machinery ^^^'^^^ ^^o P^^ ^^ ^^^^^ \2h0nr. Large works and Manufactures (ed. 4), § 307. were carried on under the direction of a captain, ^ Pryce, Minerahgia Comubiens'ts, 173. and toll was paid to the lord of the soil, or the lord ' Ibid. 174. « Ibid. 180. ' Ibid. 175, 180. « Ibid. 187. 5 Jars, Voyages Mdtallurgiques, iii, 202. ' Ibid. 188. « Ibid. 1 89. '» Carew, A Survey of Cornwall (ed. 1 8 1 1), 33, 34. 556 INDUSTRIES and bounder. Here we have the same gradations sense that one exists to-day. He states, however, as exist at present, and here, moreover, we find that most of the spah'ards work for wages, with the germs of the cost-book system. The produce the implication that the tribute system was corn- is shared out in ' doles,' and a proportionate paratively limited. division made of the charges.^ Instead of divi- We have then, first, independent miners work- dends each adventurer had his share of black ing their own mines; secondly, that system tin, after the payment of toll, and each man under which the adventurers relinquished the carried his share to the blowing-house, and, after actual work to miners on the tribute system, coinage, sold the white tin either to the London leaving parts of the mines for various percentages merchants or to the wealthier tinners. of the product ; thirdly, a system was, without Carew's account is preceded by that of Beare doubt, coming in by virtue of which the adven- in 1586. He begins by enumerating the various turers worked their claims, as small entrepre- classes of stannary workers. There are the char- neurs, with hired labour. * The tinner,' says coal pedlars, who go from blowing-house to Beare, ' in my judgement is he that giveth wages blowing-house with their packs.^ There were by the year to another to work his right in a the blowers ' and the owners of blowing-houses, tinwork for him as a dole, or half dole, more or There were smiths, carpenters, and other artisans less, or else works his right himself, as many do.' ® employed about the mines, and, finally, the miner These labourers were paid by the amount of ore himself. ' The most part of the workers of the excavated, and received part at least of their black tyn and spaliers are very poor men, and, wages in tin.® no doubt, that occupation can never make them The process of transformation, although we rich, and chiefly such tyn workers as have no cannot trace its various phases distinctly, seems bargain, but only trust to their wages, although quite clear. The working adventurer has main- they have never so rich a tyn work, for they have tained his standing. Beare refers to him;^° Carew no profit of their tyn, if they be hired men, sav- mentions him in 1602 ;^^ his case is dealt with in ing only the wages, for their masters have their the stannary laws of partnership ; ^^ Jars in 1765 tyn. Now, if they should chance to be farmers speaks of him ; ^' and Pryce in 1778.^* By the themselves, and their worke fall bad, then run nineteenth century, if not earlier, this class was they most chiefly in their master's debt, and confined mainly to stream tinners,^* but it still likely to incur more and more rather than to survives, although in diminished numbers. The requite any part thereof, for of these two choyses, cost-book system, as it exists to-day, had its to be a hired man or farmer, the one is a cer- origin in the voluntary association of groups of taintie, and the other an uncertaintie. The several of these men, for the purpose of exploiting farmer knoweth not how his work will doe, until a mine too large for any to work single-handed, tyme that he have proved it, and must needs live By 1586, however, if not before, there had arisen in hope all the yere, which for the most part a class of gentlemen adventurers who, instead of deceiveth him.'* working their shares, let them out to tributers. Putting this with what we have learned con- The latter became in due time small entre- cerning the practice later, and supplying other preneurs, as some of the gentlemen adventurers portions of the manuscript, the situation becomes already were, with hired labourers, and this was clear. Many of the mines were worked by the prevailing method when Jars wrote. But groups of miners adventuring in partnership,^ and by that time the labourer in turn had begun to these are meant when reference is made to the improve his position, and accordingly we find wealthier sort of tinners who work side by side him in the latter part of the eighteenth century with the poor spaliard, the latter in this case being superseding his erstwhile employer, and taking the former's hired man.^ Other mines were up the tribute system on his own account, farmed in shares by the adventurers to other Finally the hired labourer, or *spalier,' who in spaliards, who to all intents worked under the Beare's time was probably, as when Jars wrote, tribute system. If we read on further we find employedto open amine, gradually advanced from other curious coincidences. There is a captain, time wages to piece wages, and by 1778 to tut and, as at the present day, he represents the ad- work. venturers with this difference, that instead of Other classes of tinners remain to be noted, being the mere agent of the mine owners, whose We find in Cornwall two groups of middlemen, duty it was to auction off the shares, he was the chosen head of a body of adventuring miners,^ 8 j^,|(j_ 6380, fol. 6. and assigned to his fellows their pitches for the 9 L^nsd. MS.' -j^, fol. 34. Doddridge, Hist. ofComw. next term. Beare gives us no hint as to 94, 95. whether there was at this time a captain in the 10 Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 6. " Carew, Survey of Cornwall {tdi. 181 1), 30-34. ' Carew, A Survey of Cornwall (ed. 181 1), 40. '' Convoc. Cornw. 22 Jas. I, c. 19. ' Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 37. ' Ibid. fol. 32-39. '' Jars, Voyages Metallurgtques, 111, § 10. * Ibid. fol. 56, 57. * Ibid. fol. 6. " Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 178. « Ibid. fol. 6. ' Ibid. fol. 58. '' Literary Panorama, iii, 1 238-1 241. 557 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL the one purchasing the ore from the miner/ and having it blown at one of the houses, or perhaps himself a smelter ; the other purchasing and re- selling the tin when smelted.^ The presence of these men gave rise to an interesting system of money advances, which has left traces even at the present day.' Let us begin by a review of the conditions as they are depicted by Carew. ' When a western gentleman,' says the latter, 'wants money to defray his expenses at London, he goes to a tin merchant for a loan. Usually he has to give bond for a thousand-weight of tin for every j^20 he borrows, the said tin to be delivered at the next coinage.^ But the business goes still farther. The merchant, that he may be sure to have tin for his money at the time of coinage, lays out great sums beforehand unto owners of tin works, who are bound to deliver for the same so many thousands of tin as the money shall amount to after the price agreed upon at the coinage. To them resorts the poor labourer desiring some money before the time of his payment at the coinage time. The other at first says he has none . . . and in the end ... he delivers to him wares instead of money, and the labourer is under bond to deliver tin at the coinage. And this extreme dealing of the London merchants and country chapmen in white tin is imitated by the wealthier sort of dealers in black tin.* ' The wealthier tinners, laying out part of their money beforehand, buy black tin from the poor labourers at so much per mark, i.e., look how many marks there are in the price made at the coinage for the thousand-weight, so many two- pence halfpenny, threepence, or fourpence, partly after the goodness, and partly according to the hard conscience of the one and the necessity of the other, shall he have for the foot, as if the price ;^26 135. 4^. per thousand-weight, therein are forty marks, then shall the poor tinner get of him who deals most friendly, per foot of black tin, forty times fourpence, or ^20 per thousand- weight, and less for the worst.'® These facts, besides being recognized by stannary law itself,' receive confirmation from other writers of the same period. Beare, who wrote in 1586, corroborates the account,^ and further particulars even have been added by a manuscript of the year 1595.^ The result of the system under which the merchants at the top drove hard bargains with the dealers in black tin, ^ Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 35. * S.P. Dom. Eliz. ccllii, 46. ^ * West Barbary,' by L. L. Price, Joum. Roy. Statist. Soc. li, 532, 533. * Carew, Survey of Cornwall (ed. 181 1), 48. * Carew, Suwey of Cofnwall {eA. 181 1), 49. « Ibid. 50. ' Smirke, Vice v. Thomas, App. 58. Presentment of Customs, Tywarnhail, 1 604. « Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 109. * Lansd. MS. 76, fol. 34. S.P. Dom. Eliz. ccliii, 46. or diredily with the gentlemen adventurers or small independent miners, and the adventurers repeated the operation upon their dependents, was the de- pression of the labourer.^^ Thus in 1586 the wage worker received but ^^3 a year for the working of a dole, from which he was obliged to support himself and family. ^^ Raleigh, a few years later, according to his own claims, was instrumental in getting this raised from 2;. to 41. per week.^^ In 1602 Carew mentions the wages of the 'hireling as 8c/. per day, or from ^4 to £b per annum.' ^' In 1667, coincident with the gradual rise in wages throughout England, we find that the pickman received Js. per week, where formerly he had had four, the common tinner 55. in place of three, and others ^s. instead of two and a half.^* Already the evils of this system of tin purchase had become so notorious that the preemption monopolies then projected were actuated largely by the humane motive of freeing the miners from the London merchants by supplying them with a permanent market. Pursued intelligently, this plan might have borne good fruit ; but, as it was frequently interrupted, it subjected the stannary system to repeated and violent wrenches, causing the tinners to forfeit their bonds ^* to the dealers, and giving them much hardship in other ways. The terms, besides, under which the monopolists purchased the miners' product were rarely generous,^® although in many cases pro- vision was made for a loan fund, upon which the stannary workers might draw in advance upon security of tin.^' The weight, of course, which bore the tinners down, was the fact that they could not sell their product save twice a year, at the coinages ; and this becomes apparent during the brief period of the Commonwealth, when the coinage system fell into disuse. ^^ The removal of all restriction *° The plight of the tin-mine owners, caught, as it were, between the exactions of the dealers and the difficulties in mine drainage, was like that of the colliery owners at the same period (Galloway, Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade, 1 5 1 ; Cal. S. P. Dom. 1 637-1 638, 387). The lead smelters in Yorkshire similarly preyed upon the lead miners (Malynes, Lex Mercaioria (ed. 1622), 269). " Harl. MS. 6380, fol. 57. " Dewes, Parliamentary Debates, 299. " Carew, Survey of Cornwall {ed.. 181 1), 34. This would be about the wage of unskilled labour (Rogers, History of Agriculture and Prices in England, vi, 623). " From an old manuscript volume in the Duchy of Cornwall Office. See also Westcote, Fiew of Devon, 52, 53 ; Norden, Speculi Britanniae Pars, 12. " S. P. Dom. Mary, iv, 5. Cotton MS. Titus B. v, fol. 402. S. P. Dom. Jas. I, viii, 136. '® Lansd. MS. 1,215, ^o^- 226-230. S. P. Dom. Eliz. cclxxiii, 74 ; cclxxxvi, 26. Receivers' Rolls, 1 1 & 1 3 Jas, I, 9 Chas. I. ^' Lansd. MS. 24, fols. 44, 47, 48, 50. S. P. Dom. Eliz. cclxxxvi, 26. Add. MS. 6713, fol. 437- 442. Treas. Papers, ccviii, 30. '® The Tinners' Grievance. 558 INDUSTRIES upon sales sent the price of tin far above its men who present amounts varying from thirty- former level, and the labourer's wages rose three to 294 thousand- weight.^ The same accordingly ; but with the Restoration the coinage might be repeated for almost any year. Even as was reimposed, and matters fell into their old late as 1524 432 tinners presented less than ways, the century ending in a long depression a thousand-weight each, amounts which in many among the mining classes of Cornwall, during cases must have been supplemented from the which thousands of miners were driven to semi- earnings of by-occupations.^ starvation.^ At the expiration of the last pre- Many of the tinners were doubtless small emption in 1717, the dealers again closed in,^ farmers or fishermen. John Aunger, the blower, and the situation in 181 1 is described by Carew's was, as we know, a husbandman as well ;^° and in editor as no better than two centuries before.^ later years, when the mines were said to be The task of tracing these various institutions decaying, a constant subject for complaint was back into the Middle Ages is one which the that the tinners were leaving the stannaries and absence of all stannery account rolls renders ex- turning to husbandry. ^^ During the Common- tremely difficult. Of the most primitive type of wealth, on the other hand, we find the process miner, the working adventurer, we again find reversed, and artisans and clerks forsaking their traces in 15 10.* The further back we go the callings to become tinners.^^ more likely are we to find these small stream Another point which seems indubitable is the works carried on by associations of labourers, fact that at an early stage in history we meet Scattered references in mediaeval records point to with tin works of considerable extent run upon such an organization. Henry Nanfan et socii sui capitalistic lines. Just how far this tendency had complain to the Black Prince that they are gone by the fourteenth century we are unable to molested in their tin work at Lamorna Moor.^ say, but it should be remembered that one of the Entries in a coinage roll of 1305 show certain chief complaints which the two shires continu- quantities of tin accounted for by Ben Rynwald ally made was that not only the stannary work- and his associates.^ As late as 1495 so little did men but their masters were claiming the fran- the custom of the stanneries contemplate the chises of the mines.^^ Of Abraham the tinner possession of tin bounds by any but working we are told that he owned six large stream tinners, that Prince Arthur's ordinances provided works, where he employed over three hundred that 'no persone, neyther persones, having pos- workmen. The Statute of Labourers was, as session of lands and tenements above the yerely we know, enforced in the mines,^^ and in 1342 value of ;^io,ornoone other to theyruse,beowners occurs the case of Michael Trenewyth, and of eny tynwork or parcell of any tynwork, with others, large tin producers,^* who ' usurped works, the exception of persons claming by inheritance and compelled stannary men to labour there for or possessed of tynworks in their own freeholds.' ^ a penny a day, whereas before they worked But the tinner was probably not dependent above twenty pence worth of tin each day, with wholly upon his mine. An analysis of several of the result that the tinners have all left their the coinage accounts result in figures of no small mines.'^^ interest. Thus in Cornwall in 1300 we find Yet, side by side with the entries of miners' that nineteen men presented tin in amounts of associations and of large tin producers, appear on less than a thousand-weight ; fifty-five, from one the coinage rolls the names of persons who to three thousand ; twenty-nine, from three to could not have worked the mines with their own seven ; thirteen, from seven to twelve ; eleven, hands, and who could not all have been pur- from thirteen to seventeen ; and, finally, seven chasers of ore, and the smallness of whose ac- » TAe Tinners^ Grievance. Yarranton, England's ^^""'^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ey could not have been Improvement, pt. ii, 149. small entrepreneurs. We find, for example, that ^Lansd. MS. 1 2 15, fol. 230. ^ Carew, Survey of Cornwall {t^. 181 1), 50, ». *P. R. O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 260, Nos, 20, 21. Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, fol. 293. 'Ibid. bdle. 271, Nos. 9, 12. Mdd. MS. 6713, fol. 251. "C^/. of Pat. 1426, 108. ^White Book of Cornwall, cited by Smirke, Vice "Lansd. MS. 86, fol. 67 ; 19, fol. 99. v. Thomas, App. 26. ^^The Tinners' Grievance. «P. R. O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 261, No. i. ^^ Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), ii, 3+3-344- ?• R- O. 'Add. MS. 6713, fols. 101-104. The laws of Lay Subs. R. bdle. 95, No. 12. Smirke, Vice v. other free miners abound with passages which show Thmas, App. i$,cking Jnnales Monasterii Burtonienses, that this type was the prevailing one in the Middle 290 (1237). Hired labourers were common enough Ages. Thus one of the Mendip laws provided that in the Mendip mines in the fifteenth century to be whoever should 'throw the axe,' in any 'groof or subject to special regulations. (' Certain Peculiarities gribb ' should be one of the eldest partners {Trans. in the old Mining Law of Mendip,' by C. Lemon, Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornzv. vi, 331). It is a curious fact Trans. Roy Geol. Soc. Cornzo. vi, 327-333). that in the Tasmanian tin districts to-day a system of "P. R. O. Ct. R. bdle. 156, No. 27 ; bdle. 161, co-operative 'streaming' is prevalent ('Tin Fields of No. 81. Tasmania, ' by John Muffotd, Proc. Mining Inst. Cornw. " P. R. O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 262, No 26. i, No 5, pt. 1 61-162). '^Pat. 16 Edw. Ill, pt. ii, m. i^d. 559 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL John the mercer presents five hundredweight ; ^ Henry, earl of Devon, one hundredw^eight ; ^ John, earl of Cornw^all, ninety-four thousand- w^eight ; ^ Thomas the goldsmith, four thousand- weight ; * while Richard the smith, Thomas the pewterer,* John TrenagofF the clerk,* Michael the skinner,^ John vicar of Bodmin,* Ralph rector of the church of St. Ladoce, Johanna the widow of Ralf Barson,' Ralph the chapman,^ John the merchant,^ and Alfred the prior of Mt. St. Michael's,^^ all figure in the lists. It may be stated with confidence that most of these people were simply members of mediaeval cost-book companies, such as those to which the Black Prince referred when, after the Plague, he for- bade the tinners to withdraw from the mines either the labour or the expense that had usually been bestowed. As to the wage system, whether the workmen were paid by the piece, day, or tribute system, it is not for us to say. Probably several methods were employed. One of the complaints against Trenewyth was that he gave his men but a penny a day, while it would seem from the state- ment of John Thomas, a small mine owner early in the fifteenth century,^^ that he paid his men by the piece, or by the tribute method. In endeavouring to trace back the contract system of tin purchases, so prevalent in the days of Elizabeth, it will be necessary to bear in mind, first, that the great factor making for the system, namely, the prohibition of sales except at the coinages, was in force as early as we have definite knowledge ;^^ secondly, that already in 1 198 a distinct class differentiation existed, including diggers, smelters, ore buyers, and tin dealers. Our earliest authority has hitherto been Beare, whose account dates back to 1586. But in 1553 the system was employed, as we learn by an ' P. R. O. Exch. K. R. Accts. bdle. 265, No. 25 (1463). ' Ibid. bdle. 271, No. 13 (1524). ' Ibid. bdle. 262, No. 26 (1333). * Ibid. bdle. 265, No. 20 (1456). * Ibid. No. 12 (1432). Mbid. bdle. 261, No. 6. ' Ibid. bdle. 262, No, 29 (1333). ^ Ibid. bdle. 263, No. i (1334). ' Ibid. bdle. 262, No. 21 (1331). '» Ibid. bdle. 261, No. i (1305). " Chancery Proc. in the Reign of Elizabeth, i, p. xiii. In the accounts for the king's silver mines in Devon, all sorts of payments appear side by side. The miners were paid by the day, and occasionally by the piece, with also special payments for special jobs. As we might expect in a mine of that sort, no trace of tribute appears, but tut work was not uncommon. The hands not actually engaged in excavation were usually paid by the day or by the piece, and many of the miners seem to have turned their hands to all sorts of surface work as well (P. R. O. Exch. K. R, Accts. bdle. 260, No. 3 ; bdle. 266, No. 25). " Before 1198 (Black Book of Exchequer, No. 10). 56. inspection of the papers relating to the Broke- house preemption.^' Still earlier we have in 1492 a proclamation from Henry VII, appoint- ing Southampton the staple for tin, and decree- ing two extra coinages ' because the poor tinners have not been able to keep their tin for a good price, when there are only two.' ^* In 1405 com- plaint was made in Parliament of the * merchants with ready money who go about Cornwall, and, taking advantage of the poor tinners, buy their tin cheap, and so keep down the price.' ^* In 1347, on occasion of the grant of the preemption to Tideman of Limberg, the ' merchants of England * petitioned that the patent be revoked. They had, in the past, been used to purchase Cornish tin, but now no one can buy except the patentee.^^ In 131 5, in the tinners' petition against the exactions of Antonio of Pisa," they mention the fact that, before his patent, they sold their tin to merchants coming to Cornwall in exchange for wines, cloths, and wares. In 1 304 the merchant buyers of Cornish tin petitioned the king that they might have two days in which to pay their coinage duties.^^ But why should they pay coinage duties rather than the tinners themselves ? Evidently because, at this time, as m the sixteenth century and later, the tinners pledged their metal in advance to the dealers, and, on getting the vouchers for their tin from the coinage officers, delivered them to their mer- chant creditors, who then, as later, discharged the dues, and claimed the tin.^* In the absence of data to the contrary, the evidence presented, although meagre, points to no important change in stannary economy from the Middle Ages down to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There was still the cost- book system, still the non-working shareholder, and still the working adventurer, who, together with the employes in the larger works, was depressed by the coinage, with the forced sales which it engendered. The preceding pages, with some exceptions, have been devoted to a description of the mines as they existed until within the last century. " S. P. Dom. Mary, iv, 5. '*Pat.7 Hen. VII, pt. i. '* Pari. R. (Rec. Com.), v, 334^. 'Mbid. ii, 180, 188. "Ibid, i, 308. •Mbid. i, 163J. '* There is plenty of evidence in support of the view that the relations of the tinners with the dealers were but typical of conditions throughout the mining districts of England in the Middle Ages. A provision of the Derbyshire customs confirmed in 1288 is to the effect that the barmaster is not to prevent the pay- ' ment of debts by any miner to any man who has given him money beforehand for his ore (Add. MS. 6682, fol. 65, 69 ; Pike, Britain's Metal Mines, 31). In the Forest of Dean, an attempt was made to keep down the evil by the provision that no free miners could become smiths (who were the purchasers of the ore) and still retain their mining privileges (Houghton, The Compleat Miner, pt. ii, art. 33). INDUSTRIES The years following have brought many changes. Of the stannary courts, those of the stewards have been merged in the common-law courts since the Stannary Act of 1837,^ and that of the vice-warden reformed and given cognizance over all mining cases in the two counties. The old customs and privileges have for the most part fallen into disuse. Freedom from ordinary taxa- tion vanished long ago.^ Bounding, although never formally abolished, is no longer practised. The courts eventually decided that the landlord of a proposed claim must be given three months in which to take it himself, thus effectually nullifying the bounder's ancient right. The custom therefore arose of leasing the desired plot under terms of toll which even now remain much as in former centuries.^ The mines are still largely cost-book companies, but in the wages system a change has become noticeable. By 1827 the tribute system had apparently assumed its modern form. The pitches at this time, however, were generally let for two months, and seem to have been usually appor- tioned to from two to four men only.^ In the Penny Magazine for 1 836 the system is described in identical general terms, but it is also men- tioned that the pitches, which were let at one time for periods of six months, were now let from month to month.* Laing's description in 1842,^ and Babbage's in 1846,'' bear out, in general terms, the ideas we have already set forth ; but in 1875, although shafts were sunk, and levels driven, at tut, with the ' takes ' usually for one or two months, the ore itself was excavated, often by tribute, but sometimes by tut, and the significant remark is added that ' tributing of late had gone much out of use.' These statements receive confirmation at still earlier dates. The Mining journal \n 1836^ states that ' latterly, in some mines, the contrary practice (to setting pitches on tribute) has pre- vailed, and the lode is stoped at so much per fathom,' although it is said such practices were then rare. John Taylor in 1 8 14 describes tut ' Stat. 6 & 7 Will. IV, c. 106. ' See The Tinners' Grievance (1697), and a pam- phlet on the tin duties (1833). The abolition of the coinage duty in 1837, and its replacement by a small royalty, removed all excuse for any further exemption from ordinary rates. ' Cornish Mining, 32. To-day, the lord's dues amount to about one-twentieth of the ores raised — plus rental and damages. The leases are oppressive, not only because of the exacting terms above described, but also since they prescribe so minutely the disposi- tion of the black tin that it would be difficult for a leaseholder to smelt his own tin. * * West Barbary,' by L. L. Price, Journ. Roy. Statist. Soc. li, 519. '" Ibid. 520. * Laing, National Distress, i, 66. ' Babbage, Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, (ed. 4), § 307. * 3 Sept. 1836. work as used in shafts, levels, and in stoping ground,^ and it will be recalled that Pryce states that in some mines the adventurers set the tin to break by the fathom. ^° At the time of the com- mission on mines, the amount of work let upon tribute was decreasing,^^ and the commissioners themselves state in their report that, in the event of a rich lode being discovered it is frequently worked by tut. One witness stated that in con- sequence of the * starts ' (a piece of unexpected good fortune in the yield of a lode) mine agents had grown cautious, and, instead of setting the workers to tribute, paid them a certain amount per ton of what was fit for stamping, when brought to the surface.^^ Evidence to a similar effect was given before a committee of the House of Commons in 1887.^^ Captain Bishop, for example, the manager ot the East Pool Mine, affirmed that there were, at present, no tributers there,^^ and a working miner alleged that tut work was by far the most extensive system,^* while another declared that tribute was grow- ing less all the time, and now was seldom practised.^® The facts, then, thrown into prominence by our review of the history of the system of wages in the Cornish mines, are the encroach- ment of tut work upon tribute, and the diminu- tion of the intervals at which the payment of wages is made. The coincidence can scarcely be termed accidental. The avoidance of irregularity of earnings, has hardly been pos- sible without a decrease in responsibility and independence, and this decrease has implied greater frequency in the payment of wages. It is not difficult to see why matters have been drifting in this direction. Under the system of tribute, the miners' earnings are apt to be irregu- lar. Should a lode turn out poorer than expected, a tributer may work for weeks without earning a penny,^^ a fact which Pryce had noted in 1778.^^ Added to this, we have to reckon with a growth of knowledge on the part of mine-captains. Metallic mining is no longer haphazard, and the mine-officers can now estimate the probable yield of a lode so closely, that the element of specula- tion in the tribute bargain, which, after all has always been its chief raison d^itrey is now reduced to a minimum. ^ * West Barbary,' by L. L. Price, Journ. Roy. Statist. Soc. li, 522. '" Pryce, Minera/ogia Cornubiensis, 192. " * West Barbary,' by L. L. Price, Journ. Roy. Statist. Soc. li, 522-523. '^ Ibid. 523, '^ Rep. on Stannary Act Amend. Bill (1887), Q. 244, 313, 1301, 1338, 1477-81, 1324-26. " Ibid. Q. 1 9 10. " Ibid. Q. 1980, 1981, 2222, 2223. •« Ibid. Q. 2372, 2373. '' * West Barbary,' by L. L. Price, Journ. Roy. Statist. Soc. li, 560. '^ Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 192. 561 71 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Before closing we have to consider what is perhaps the most noteworthy feature of Cornish tin mining at present, namely, the relations between tinner and smelter. Originally, as stated, the miner smelted his own ores, but blowing-houses, when established, became separate ventures, the owners fusing the miners' tin for a percentage of the product,^ the smelter having bargained for the parcel brought him, and given his note to deliver the quantity of white tin agreed upon at the ensuing coinage. ^ These notes, which were transferable by endorsement, ^ the tinners, being usually in want of ready money, sold to the merchant dealers, as we have already seen. In the eighteenth century, however, came a change, the merchant dealers giving place to the smelters, who, from that day, have acted as financiers of the stannaries. At first, the smel- ters simply bought back, at a discount, their notes from the tin owners,^ and as long as the coin- age system continued this system of indirect pur- chase was bound to continue ; for to buy an article of fluctuating price, which could not be sold save at periodical coinages, would have been too speculative a business for the smelter, to under- take. To the tinner it obviously made no differ- ence where he took his ore, inasmuch as all the smelters made similar assays and charged the same toll. * Since the abolition of the coinage, the smelters have laid aside their former methods and bought the ore from the mine owner direct. To understand how heavily this bears upon the mines, it will be necessary to examine more closely into the conditions under which the ore is sold. Of these, the chief is known as the Tin Standard. This is an amount paid by the smelter per hundredweight of metal contained in the ore, as calculated from a dry assay, after the deduction of one and one-fourth from the product for every twenty for returning charges. ® By an old custom there is also a deduction on the weight of the parcel of tin ore of three pounds per hundredweight, and it is customary also to reckon the price by the nearest eighth of a pound above or below the calculated price. These provisions are anything but fair. The smelter buys, not on actual contents of the ore, but on the contents he assumes he will recover by the process of smelting. The difference between that and the wet assay, which gives the actual contents of the ore, is variously stated at from five to ten per cent, in favour of the latter, but as we have to deal with commercial values that consideration may for the present be dis- missed, by taking it for granted that the smelter • Add. MS. 6682, fol. 297. ^ Borlase, Natural Hist, of Cornwall, 181. ^ Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 292. ^ Ibid. 292, 293. * * The System of Selling Tin Ore in Cornwall,' Salmon'' s Mining and Smelting Magazine, v, 6—8 . ^ Conish Mining, 1 6. loses such a percentage in the process of smelting, and is therefore entitled to this allowance. ^ But this is not all which the smelter claims, for since the standard is the price which he pays for the metallic contents of the ore, it follows that the difference between such a price and that at which he sells (the market value) represents gross profits. A second consideration is the * returning charges,' or the assumed cost of smelting, deducted in mineral from each batch of black tin sold by the miner. To be fair the charges for smelting should be upon a cash basis, varying solely with the rise or fall in the cost of labour, fuel and fluxes. As it is in kind, the higher the price of black tin the higher the price which the miner must pay the smelter. ^ Thus the miners in the years of 1883 to 1900, paid a yearly average of forty per cent, over even what the smelters claimed as their actual cost,® and the returning charge which, according to the standard, the miner believes to be only six and one-fourth per cent., because it is one and one- fourth per cent, of twenty, is on an average quality of black tin really ten per cent. ® By ' draftage,' another trade custom, the smelter is allowed three pounds per hundred- weight on every parcel of black tin he buys. At its inception this was given for ' the turn of the scale ' on all the black tin purchased by the smelter, on condition that he allowed the same draftage on all the white tin he delivered. In the days of barter, pure and simple, the arrange- ment was perfectly equitable, but with the pass- ing of the coinage dues the smelter, who might reasonably have been expected either to abolish draftage in its entirety or retain it so, continued to enforce the clause so far as receiving it from the miner was concerned, while he waived it in his delivery of white tin. It can easily be figured that the miner, under the draftage allow- ance, has to turn over to the smelter the rough equivalent of five per cent, in cash on his gross turnover, while the smelter will have the assurance that, even at the worst of times, the allowance is not likely to be worth less than forty-four per cent, on his working costs (as it was in 1896), and, with a good price for tin, it may be worth ninety-three, as it was in 1900.^" The smelter is sure of a handsome profit, there- fore, even when the miner works at a loss. The actual loss of metal in the smelting of the tin has never been accurately determined ; ^^ but, in any case, it is a question for which the ' Cornish Mining, 16. ^ Ibid. 16. Four pounds sterling per ton of metal would be a liberal estimate of the cost of smelting, yet, since 1883, only once has the smelter received less, while, on an average, he received almost fifty per cent. more. ° Cornish Mining, 17. '"Ibid. 18. " Ibid. 20. 562 INDUSTRIES smelter can hardly claim serious consideration, since he buys his black tin on the dry assay, not on the actual metal contents, but on the assumed contents which he will recover by his method of smelting. As, therefore, by his conditions of purchase he has already safe-guarded himself by securing an allowance equal to his probable loss in smelting, he can hardly ask for further con- sideration. Moreover, as he sells his ' ashes ' at prices based on their tin contents, he is actually reimbursed for at least a portion of the loss in smelting, which the miner has already allowed him in full and in kind.^ The relations between tinner and smelter are a result largely of the apathy of the Cornish mining companies and their slowness to grasp the ordinary principles of business management. At present, however, it would be difficult, in the face of organized opposition on the part of the smelting monopoly, as well as the existence of the present sysWem of leases, under which the tinner is usually debarred from smelting his own tin, to bring about the much needed consolidation of mixing and smelting. Yet, until this takes place, and more chance for profit is given the tinner, it is hard to see much hope for the tin mines of Cornwall. Since the early seventies the discovery of vast and easily worked deposits of stream tin in Australia and Tasmania, to say nothing of a huge increase in the output of the East Indies, have depressed prices so far that although the Cornish lodes are still rich, most of the mines have been forced to close. The present output of about 8,000 tons comes almost entirely from a half-dozen large mines, headed by Dolcoath, while the scores of aban- doned shafts which dot the tin districts point to the fact that a land which once suppHed the world with tin, is for the time, at least, hopelessly superseded. COPPER MINING The copper deposits of Cornwall present no such features of historical and economic interest as do the stannaries. Occurring only in lodes, and comparatively deep at a level, they were late in being developed, and in consequence carried for their miners no charters of privilege or codes of mining law, unless we except the fact that in 1837 copper mining in Cornwall and Devon was brought under the operation of the then modified stannary laws and courts.^ No trace is to be found of mines or of mining tools ^ among the cupriferous rocks of Cornwall which would lead one to believe in the fact of their having been worked at a period before or contemporaneous with the Romans,^ although the latter erected several brass foundries in Britain,* and probably were acquainted with the copper of Keswick and Anglesey.^ During the Middle Ages a more or less desultory quest for the metal was carried on in England, but mainly in other counties. Several documents of the period of Henry III refer to the discovery of gold and copper mines in Devon, and the king's claim upon them as mines royal,' while the same ' Cornish Mining, 20. The smelter's profits are subject to wide fluctuations. Thus, in 1900, they were only 3 percent., but in 1899 25. For the period 1883 to 1900, an average of iz\ per cent, was realized. ^ Statutes 6 &i 7 Will. IV, c. 106. ^ ' Copper Mining in Cornwall,' by Jos. Carne, Trans, of Royal Geol. Soc. Cornw. ii, 37. ^ * Antiquity of Mining in the West of England,' by R. N. Worth, Joui-n. Plymouth Inst, v, 127 ; Caesar, De Bello Gallico, bk. v, c. 12. '" Borlase, Antiquities of Cornwall, bk. iii, c. 15. ^ Pennant, J Tour in Wales, iii, 59. ' Pat. 47 Hen. Ill, m. 12 ; Close, 47 Hen. Ill, m. 15. county figures in a grant of the sole rights of gold, silver, and copper mines, issued by Edward III.^ At the same time there is evi- dence that copper was worked in the Keswick district in Cumberland.^ The total amount raised from these several sources must always have been scanty, inasmuch as during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI Parliament pro- hibited the export of brass and copper, the reason given being the small quantity produced. ^'^ With the Elizabethan period came a revival of mining pursuits, and in particular the re-working of the Newlands and Keswick lodes by the newly incorporated Company of the Mines Royal. ^^ Yet it cannot be doubted that most of the copper of this period was imported, and even at a much later date the British yield appears to have been small, as is shown by a memorial to the House of Commons, presented by the brass manufac- turers, to the effect that ' JEngland, by reason of the inexhaustible plenty of calamine (not of cop- per), might become the staple of the brass manu- factory, for itself and foreign parts, and that the continuing of the brass works in England would occasion plenty of rough copper to be brought in. » 12 No records exist of the production of copper in Cornwall until the latter part of the sixteenth century. Camden in 1580, had ventured the ^ Pat. 32 Edw. Ill, m. 4. ^ Phillips and Darlington, Records of Mining and Metallurgy, 19. '0 Stat. 21 Hen. VIII, c. 10 ; 33 Hen. VIII, c. 7 ; 2 & 3 Edw. VI, c. 37. " S. P. Dom. Eliz. xx, 103 ; xxxvii, 34 ; cclxxv, 145. '^ Printed in Moses Stringer, Opera Mineralia Ex- plica ta, 156, 157. 563 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL erroneous ^ statement that veins of copper and lead were to be seen on the rocky cliffs of Land's End at low water,^ and later, we learn from a document among Elizabeth's state papers,' that several copper mines were operated in the St. Just district. These may have been the same works mentioned a year or two earlier by Ulricke Frosse, a German metallurgist, who had been connected with the mines at Keswick, and who was, in 1585, overseer of the mineral works at Perranzabuloe. He is represented at the latter place as smelting twenty-four hundredweight of copper ore per day in each furnace, with the assistance of skilled German workmen from Cumberland.* In one of his letters, Frosse refers to a copper mine in Cornwall from seventeen to twenty fathoms in depth. ^ From what evidence is available it seems that the copper lodes were regarded by the crown as in the nature of mines royal, as we find occasional references to the appointment of a royal surveyor to overlook operations,^ while James I included the Cornish mines in a grant of a fifteenth of all copper works in a considerable array of counties.^ In spite of the evidence that Cornwall's copper deposits shared the general movement toward industrial exploitation in the sixteenth century, it may be stated as almost certain that the mines referred to did not continue long in operation. In no part of the county has copper ever been found at the surface ; in fact, the lodes, as a general rule, lie deeper even than those of tin,^ and at a time when the difficulties of drainage, as shown by the history of tin mining, were at a maximum, it is not easy to see how much copper could have been raised.® This is probably the reason why so little is said upon the subject in most of the early local histories. Next in point of time after Camden's account, comes that of Norden, who states that at the time of his writing, copper abounded in the Duchy in great quantities, ^'^ and in an address to James I at the end of the book, he informs the king that * it is a metall whose qualitie and quantitie would so farre exceede the former (tin) as, were the workes assumed into Your Majestie's own handes, duly searched, trulie managed, and effectually followed, would rayse a greater yearlie profite than the value of Your Majestie's land revenues, so riche are the workes, especially some lately founde, as by the opinion of the skilful in that misterie the like have not been elsewhere founde.' In almost all of his particulars, how- ever, Norden is incorrect. In the first place, he says that there is much copper about Morvale, ' Sener,' and * Lalante,' ^^ and, in another part, says that Sener is a parish upon the North Sea, where there are rich copper mines.^^ Of Lalante, he says, there are there great stores of tin and copper.^' These statements could not possibly have been true. In Morvale, copper is hardly known, and no veins there have yielded metal in any former period.^* In Zennor, copper has never been discovered save in slight amounts, and it is almost equally rare in Lelant. Furthermore, in neither parish is there any trace of old works save for tin.^* Menege in Kerrier, says Norden, is a fruitful place for tin and copper.^^ Yet tin has never been found there, and there are no remains to be seen of ancient tin works. Some small bunches of copper exist, but no ordinary metallic veins.^* Carew's information is brief. ' Copper,' he says, ' is found in sundry places, but with what gain to the searcher I have not been curious to enquire, nor they hasty to reveal, for at one mine (of which I took a view), the ore was shipped to be refined in Wales.' ^^ These accounts show that copper ore was pro- duced in Cornwall at that period, and that a few individuals (probably foreigners) were acquainted with its value, and profited by their knowledge. But it cannot be doubted that at a much later time the Cornish miners in general knew little of the nature and value of copper ore, as it is well known that in the latter part of the seven- teenth century it was in several cases sold, under the name of ' poder,' for small sums,^^ while most of the tin used in Britain came from Sweden, Germany, Spain, and the Barbary States.^' Upon the whole, it is probable that before, approxi- mately, the year 1700, the copper ores of Corn- wall were chiefly, or wholly from tin mines, or, at least, from mines originally wrought for tin, and, although it is not true that it was not until the close of the seventeenth century that copper ore was first discovered in Cornwall, as was stated to a committee of the House of Commons in 1799,^*' yet that seems to have been the period when mines were first set to work purposely for ' * Copper Mining in Cornwall,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geo/. Soc. Cornzv. iil, 41. ^ William Camden, Britannia (Cough's ed. of 1 789), i, 3- ^ S. P. Dom. Eliz. cxcv, 39. * Documents printed in Grant Francis, The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District, 5, 23, 24. ' Ibid. 10. ® S. P. Dom. Jas. I, Ixvi, 47. ' Ibid, xxii, 5 i. Pryce, Minerakgia Cornuiiensis, Introd. p. viii. 8 ® S. p. Dom. Chas. I, clxxiv, i. '" Nordtn, Specu/i Britanniae Pars. (ed. 1728), p. 17. " Ibid. 40. " Ibid. 41. '» Ibid. 42. " ' Copper Mining in Cornwall,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geo/. Soc. Comtv. iii, 42. '^ Norden, Specu/i Britanniae Pars.Xcd. 1728), p. 49. '^ * Copper Mining in Cornwall,' by Jos. Came, Trans. Roy. Geo/. Soc. Comtv. iii, 43. '' Carew, Survey 0/ Comtva// (ed. 181 1), 21. '^ Borlase, Natura/ Hist, of Cornzva//, 205. '' Houghton, Co//ection for the Improvement of Hus- bandry and Trade, 18 June, 1697. ^° ' Testimony of Thomas Williams, M.P.,' printed in Robert Hunt, British Mining, 106. 564 INDUSTRIES copper. This statement is corroborated by the fact that, although a charter for making brass was granted as early as 1565,^ Tonkin does not fix the date of the discovery of the value of copper ore earlier than 1679,^ and it was not until 169 1 that a charter was granted to Sir Joseph Hearne and others, for refining and purifying copper, under the name of Governor and Company of the Copper Mines of England.^ Another cir- cumstance favouring the same conclusion is that the copper currency of Great Britain was not coined from British metal until 1717.^ The new industry, however, was encouraged by the repeal of the old prohibition of the exportation of cop- per,* and active operations made at once con- siderable headway. Pryce was familiar with a Cornish memorial dated about the year 1730, which prays that facilities be given for the importation of coals on account of the distressed state of the mines, and the necessity for deepening them. The exis- tence, therefore, of Cornish copper mines seems at that time to have depended upon the applica- tion of the new power brought in by steam, and it is evident that the discovery of the power of the steam engine in drawing water was almost co- incident with the rise of copper mines on a great scale, and that its history is parallel with that of the mines themselves throughout their course. During this period we meet for the first time with records of the sale of copper ore in Corn- wall. According to Pryce a yearly average of 6,480 tons of ore was sold from 1726 to 1735; 7,552 tons from 1736 to 1745; 9,879 tons from 1746 to 1755 ; 16,970 tons from 1756 to 1765; and 26,427 tons from 1766 to 1775.^ In 1786, 39,895 tons of ore were mined, and in 1796 43,313 tons, producing 4,950 tons of pure copper.^ The first successful copper mines were those of Blanchland in Kea, belonging to the earl of Falmouth,^ but in early years the most productive were Poldice (which, according to Hals, employed for forty years from 800 to 1,000 men), Huel Fortune in Ludgvan, Roskear in Camborne, Pool Adit in Illogan, and Huel Virgin in Gwennap.^ The greatest and most sudden gain ever heard of is said to have been in Huel Virgin during July and August, 1757. In the first fortnight ;^5,700 worth of ore was extracted, and in the next three weeks and two days ;^9,6oo worth.^ In 1758 the best ^ Moses Stringer, Opera Mineralia Expllcata, p. iii. * Carew, Survey of Cornwall (ed. 181 1), p. 21, note. ^ ' Copper Mining in Cornwall,' by Jos. Carne, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornw. iii, 44. ^ ' Statistics of the Copper Mines of Cornwall,' by Sir Chas. Lemon, "Journ. Roy. Statist. Soc. i, 66. * Stat. 5 & 6 Will, and Mary, c. 16. * Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, Introd. p. xiv. ' hysons, Magfia Britannia (ed. 1 806-22,) iii, p. ccviii. ® Ibid, iii, p. ccvii. Polwhele, Hist, of Cornwall, bk. 4, p. 134. ^ Lysons, Magna Britannia (ed. 1 806-22), iii,p.ccviii. producing mines were those of Chacewater in Kenwyn, North Downs in Redruth, Huelros in St. Agnes, Dolcoath, Bullen Garden, Roskear, Huel Kitty, Entral, and Longclose in Camborne, Huel Fortune in Ludgvan, Pool in Illogan, Metal Works and Trejenvivian in Gwennap, Binner Downs and Clowance Downs in Crowan, Huel Cock and Rosmoran in St. Just, and Her- land in Gwinnear.^'^ The close of the eighteenth century saw forty-five copper mines in Cornwall, of which eleven were in the Gwennap district, six in St. Agnes, five in Camborne, four in Gwinnear, four in St. Hilary, three each in Germoe, Crowan, and Illogan, two in St. Neol, and the rest scattered. Besides these were eighteen mines of copper and tin, one in Gwin- near for copper and silver, and one in Camborne for copper and cobalt. ^^ To attempt a description of the various im- provements which were introduced into the sink- ing of copper mines would be to duplicate in great measure what is given under the heading ' tin,' and the more so as it is a well-known fact that many of the best copper mines have pro- duced tin as well, the ores usually coming in regular alternation. As copper mining on any scale did not begin in Cornwall until the eighteenth century, the mines at once obtained the benefit of the steam engine for draining the levels and hoisting the ore,^^ blasting powder for smashing the rocks, as well as a host of other improvements elsewhere enumerated. Most of them were, at an early period, comparatively deep. One hundred fathoms seems to have been considered the necessary minimum at the time when Pryce wrote,^"* while, thirty years later, in 1808, Crenver and Oalfield mines had reached 200, Cook's Kitchen 210, and Dolcoath 228 fathoms.^* From the massive character of the copper ores it is probable that, in the early days of mining, little or no dressing took place, the ores of less homogeneous nature being rejected. Hence, in all probability, arose those traditions of waste which are, in this sense, confirmed by the fact that hedges have been torn down in the nineteenth century for the sake of the stones of copper ore built up in them.^* No earlier record exists of the processes of copper dressing in Cornwall than that given by Borlase ; and as he could not have spoken to the fact from his own personal knowledge, it seems not unlikely '" Polwhele, Hist, of Cornwall, bk. 4, p. 134, " Lysons, Magna Britannia (ed. 1806—22), iii, p. ccviii. '^ ' Statistics of the Copper Mines in Cornwall,' by Sir Chas. Lemon, Journ. Roy. Statist. Soc. i, 68. '^ Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis (1778), Introd. p. viii. " Polwhele, Hist, of Cornwall, bk. 4, p. 134. '^ R. N. Worth, Historical Notes Concerning the Origin and Progress of Mining Skill in Comw. and Devon, 43. 565 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL that his account nearly represents the indebted- ness of the county to the smelter Costar, of whom he speaks so highly. According to Borlase,^ the ore was either spalled (broken with hammers), or bucked (bruised upon a rock with a bar of iron), and then re-sorted. The best part was washed and sifted into a tub through a griddle of inch-square meshes. Of this, the finer portion was jigged in water in another and smaller sieve, while the *■ dredged ore ' was washed and picked, and the poorer part stamped, as was the case with tin, the crushed stones passing as usual from the stamp coffer to several pits, where it was distributed in accordance with its specific gravity. The heavier part remaining nearest the stamps was then jigged (a process brought in from the Derbyshire lead mines),^ and the rest trunked, huddled, and tossed.^ Pryce, in 1778, writes in much the same strain, but goes into wider detail. The dressing of copper ore, he says, cannot be according to one uniform method.* The hard and poor ores require much bruising and roasting before being clean, but the better grades are easier to operate.* The manner of dressing and cleansing is much like that for tin, but as good copper is usually dug and raised in large masses, as little as possible mixed with other matter, a great part of it is solid ore, and requires no washing. When it comes to the surface they sort out the big stones from the small and break them, throwing aside the poorer part, which is afterward to be straked and washed. But when the ore rises plentifully, and with little waste, it may be perhaps a loss to wash it, and therefore if it comes moderately dry a person near the shaft where it rises sifts it on a griddle or iron wire sieve.* The part that runs through, if not clean enough for sale, is washed, and it is seldom that griddled or small ore is so pure and clean as not to require this. The poorer and smaller part is usually carried to the strakes, sometimes after being griddled, but more often before, and as it comes from the mine.* This strake is made of two boards laid flat for a bottom, fourteen inches in the ground, on an inclined plane, with two sides formed of one deal board each, resembling a narrow, shallow chest without a cover. In it runs a rapid stream. One man throws the foul ore into the strake while another moves and tosses it with a shovel in the stream, and thus the slime, or finer ore, is carried by the water into a pit just below, and the stony, coarse, poor parts settling largely on the lower end of the boards are, at times, divided and cast aside to be stamped.® The better ore, ' Borlase, Natural History of Cornwall, 203. * Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensis, 243. ^ Borlase's account is substantiated by an eighteenth- century document of slightly later date. Add. MS, 6682, fol. 302-303. ■* Yryct, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 236-238. by its gravity, is deposited at the head of the strake. But if it contains much pure mundic this settles also at the head of the stream because of its weight, and is separated and laid by itself. Moreover, the largest stones, either of ore or of waste, which, by the motion of the shovel, rise uppermost, the dresser throws on one side and women and children pick the good stones from the bad. The rest is laid by to be bucked smaller with flat iron hammers, if the ore is worth it, otherwise it is taken to the stamps. The picked ore, which is rich, is given to girls called cobbers to break on big stones with ham- mers, after which it goes by the name of cobbed ore. It requires no water or further dressing, being fit to mix at once for sale. The stony ore being left by the pickers (dredge ore) is carried to the bucking-mill, which is something like a wooden coalscuttle placed on a low hedge, with a hard stone at its lower end, whereon a strong wench with a hammer breaks the ore to the size of small beans. Then it goes to the vat or kieve and is jigged. They fill the kieve half full of water, on the surface of which the jigger holds a coarse wire sieve into which another man throws the unclean ore. The jigger dips it into the water and shakes it there several times until the smaller part falls through to the bottom of the kieve. What remains in the sieve he reserves by itself until there is a quantity. This coarser size made by the sieve is jigged pure and clean if it be well given for ore. If not it is picked and the refuse bucked over again pursuant to its richness or poverty, and the dresser's direction and judgment.^ When the kieve is almost full they pour off the water and take out the small ore, which, perhaps, they sort again after the same measure in sieves with smaller holes. Being thus divided they dress each sort apart in kieves half full of water with the proper sieves, whose holes are small enough to keep the ore from running through. The jigger has a peculiar movement which he gives the sieve, which causes the light waste to rise uppermost in it, and after that the ore, and then, at the bottom, the heavy mundic. To separate these, he takes a small semi-circular piece of wood, called the limp, with which he skims or rakes off the light refuse to be re-jigged, and then the ore, which he places by for sale, leaving the mundic to be jigged once more,^ The light refuse of the ore is frequently straked again. The slimy fine ore which falls through the fine sieve to the bottom of the kieve is often cleansed by the tye (which is the same as the strake, but with a very slow and small stream of water), or by huddling or framing like tin ore, and, also, by jigging in a small close sieve.^ Another method of dressing very fine and delicate copper and lead ores — much speedier than buck- ing them — is to give them over to dry stamps.^ Ibid. 233. Ibid. '34- Ibid. 235. Ibid. 244. 566 INDUSTRIES Having finally passed into the hands of the smelter, the ore is reduced to metal, says Pryce, in furnaces of four sorts, the calciner, the operation, the roaster, and the refiner.^ In the calciner, which is reverberatory, the ore is stirred about for twelve hours in such a fire as will not melt it. From two to five hundred- weight is then put with from five to two hun- dredweight of raw ore into an operation furnace, and submitted to an intense heat. The slag is skimmed off, and another like quantity of ore inserted, and finally the molten copper is run into pigs.^ These last are plunged into cold water, and then carried to a horse-mill and ground to powder, or, as in some places, bucked or broken by women, girls, and boys. The copper is then carried to a furnace called a metal calciner, spread upon the bottom and calcined again,^ then drawn out, cooled by water, and carried to the metal furnace, where it is melted, skimmed, and run into pigs. It then goes to the roasting furnace for sixteen or eighteen hours, where it is melted and skimmed as before, and this operation of roasting and skimming is repeated three or four times. From there it is taken to the coarse refining furnace, where it is melted, fluxed,* skimmed, and put into moulds. Finally, it is sent to the refining furnace and melted and skimmed once more,^ after which it is ready for market. After every skimming the slag is treated in much the same fashion, and from it is extracted copper of inferior grades.^ The smelting of tin ore has always been done locally, in the county itself, but copper smelting never had a firm hold in Cornwall, and has long since left it. As early as the sixteenth century, Frosse, the German already mentioned in another connexion, had ascertained the fact that, by having at hand a variety of ores, a smelter might render an ore profitable that w^ould otherwise be useless — in other words, that frequently copper can be extracted at less cost by smelting ores in a mixture than by smelting one ore by itself.* Accordingly, although at £rst he seems to have smelted upon the spot small quantities from the works at Perranza- buloe, of which he was manager,^ we find him announcing, in 1584, that the ores would be transported out of Cornwall to Neath, in Wales,' where a few years later Carew suggests that all Cornish copper was taken.^ Had the mines been continued throughout the seventeenth century, it is probable that the advantages which Wales possessed, in having a plentiful supply of cheap ' Pryce, Mineralo^a Comubiensu, 272. * Ibid. 274. ^ Ibid. 275. ■* Ibid. 262-263. ^ Grant Francis, The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District, 23. ^ Ibid. 5, 23, 24. ' Ibid. 24. * Carew, Survey of Cornwall (ed. 1 8 1 1), 21. fuel, and in being the centre for copper smelt- ing for other districts, would have thenceforth attracted all Cornish ores. The mines, how- ever, were discontinued throughout this period, and when they were revived the old traditions of a Welsh smelting had apparently been for- gotten. First to discover the value of the ores were a few Bristol gentlemen in 1690, who, buying them at the low price of from £2 los. to £^ per ton, reaped a considerable profit from their refining operations.^ Their success having called in other dealers from the same city, about the year 1 7 1 8 ^'^ an agreement was reached by which the mine owners consented to sell all their copper for a term of years at prices which, although as a rule low, varied considerably with the quality of stock raised from mine to mine. Matters continued thus for about ten years.^° The huge quantities of copper ore raised in the Huel For- tune, Roskear, and Pool Adit mines were dis- posed of to the Bristol men, who, confederated into the four companies — the Brass Wire Com- pany, the English Copper Company, Wayne and Company, and Chambers and Company ^° — en- joyed a complete monopoly of purchase, and took the ore at practically their own price. ^'^ Just at this moment, however, Thomas Costar, a Welsh smelter, visited Cornwall for the pur- pose of improving his business in the same way. Fourteen hundred tons of ore, which for some years had been lying unsold at Roskear and Huel Kitty, were offered him, for which the confederated smelters had been ready to give only j^4 55. per ton.^*^ The Welshman took it at £b 55., ready money, and yet so compara- tively low was even this price, that he gained 30 per cent, by the transaction. He bought 900 tons more in Roskear, at £'j per ton, and in less than six months before leaving Cornwall had purchased 3,000 tons, and on them realized a profit of 40 per cent.^° From that day the smelting works at Bristol declined, and the Welsh companies at Swansea secured almost the entire Cornish yield.^^ A few attempts had been made to smelt the copper in Cornwall itself. ' Seventy years ago,' wrote Pryce in 1778, 'Mr. Scobell, at St. Austell, was joined by Sir Talbot Clarke and Mr. Vin- cent, and there was smelted the first piece of copper in Cornwall. ^^ After this, John Pollard, of Redruth, and Thomas Worth, of St. Ives, made a second trial, but both these attempts failed, more by reason of the knavery of work- men, ill-management, and the improper situation of the works, than any great cost of fuel.' After these had failed, Gideon Collier, of Perranza- buloe, erected a smelting-house in Phillack, and ^ Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 277, 286. ■" Ibid. 287. " Ibid. 277. '^ Ibid. 278. Czrew, Survey of Cornwall (g^6.. 181 i), 22 note. 567 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL at his death the work was carried on by Sir William Pendarves and Robert Corker for some years, but after their decease the business was abandoned.^ In Lenobrey, in St. Agnes, a small beginning was also made, which failed for lack of capital.^ To prevent this passing of copper ore out of Cornwall, a proposal was made to some of the chief gentlemen of the county, to petition Queen Anne to have the copper mines subjected to the laws of the stannaries in all respects save being under bounds, and to have ' The samplers (who are agents of the smelters) meet at the spot according to appointment, and fix on the third, fourth, or sixth dole of a parcel, according as it is great or small, to take their samples from. The miners then cut or part that dole athwart and across, down to the ground, so that it is divided into quarters by these channels. Then the sampler, with a shovel, pares down a little of the ore from all parts of the channels, to take as equal and regular a sample throughout the whole as he can, to the amount of 200 or 300 pounds.' This he carries to a clean floor, and mixes it into a heap by itself, which heap he also cuts into quarters and mixes and quarters again, until he finally gets a small quantity, which, when sifted through a small coarse sieve, he mixes several times, and so quarters and remixes as before, till it is re- duced to a small heap. At last he puts a pound or two in a bag,' '" the copper stamped, like tin, at the proper towns under payment of a duty — a proceeding which would have made it necessary to smelt the ores in the county.^ Fortunately for Cornwall, the sudden death of the queen occurring at this juncture, the insane proposal to burden the grow- ing industry with trammels which the tinners were trying in vain to throw off, was never consummated. In 1754, one Sampson Swayne ^^^'^^ he carries away with him to be assayed tlemen of Camborne erected '" °"^ °^ several ways." On the basis of his assays, a smelter will make his offer for the ores of different works. The standard of copper, a phrase which one invariably hears used in connexion with ticket- ing, denotes the price of a ton of metal in the ore, from which standard the smelter deducts and a few gentlemc smelting works at Entral, in Camborne parish, but their situation was too far removed from the coal centres, and so they removed to Hayle.^ In 1770 another company erected works at Redruth, but later removed to Tregew,* where after continuing in business for some years they were obliged to shut down.* The Hayle com- pany succeeded in surviving the opposition of the Welsh operators,' and in 1820 was smelting 6,000 tons of ore per annum.' It closed only in 1832.^ Friendly relations between the smelters and the mine owners have been maintained for ai least a century and a half by the so-called ticketing system of ore purchase. Mr. Pryce writes : — ' When dressed and made saleable, the piles of ore are either kept separate for a market, if the quantities are large, or else the different sorts are well mixed together in one pile, very rarely exceeding 180 or 200 tons in a single parcel, and from thence down to £q. 105. per ton, or as much as may be required, according to its richness, to produce a ton of copper, a sum which the smelter considers an equivalent for his expenses.^^ A fortnight after the assaying comes the ticketing, during which interval the smelters' agents receive answers from their principals as to the price they are to offer. The tickets containing the offers from the different companies are produced, founded upon the assays they have made, and the company making the highest offer receives the ore. The internal arrangements of the Cornish copper mines have differed little, if at all, from those of the tin mines. In both we find examples of the familiar cost-book system,^' and in both the workmen were, and are, either 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 20, 10, 5, or even i per tribute, tut, or day men, the tributer leasing a parcel, if the seller pleases, which is seldom the pitch, or part of a mine, with perhaps one or case, and never for his advantage.® A dressed two partners, excavating, raising, and dressing the parcel of ore, before^ the day of sampling, is ore at his own expense, and receiving as reward a certain percentage of the proceeds, ^^ the tut of ore, well mixed by several men, who turn it over and over again with shovels. The parcel, if less than 10 tons, is divided in 3 doles or piles, and if over i o tons, 4 doles ; if ever so many more than 19 tons, 6 doles, and then it is at last ready to be sampled. ' Pryce, Mineralogta Cornubiensis, 287. * Ibid. 279, citing the Tonkin MS. ' Ibid. 279. * Ibid. 280. * Lysons, Magna Britannia, iii, p. ccix. Polwhele, History of Cornwall, bk. 4, 137. * Worth, Historical Notes on the Ori^n and Progress of Mining Skill in Devon and Cornw. 5 i . ' Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 287. Add. MS. 6682, fol. 303. * Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 244-245. worker contracting, at a certain rate, for the sinking of shafts and winzes and the driving of levels, and the day labourer employed mainly above ground about the engines, or else concerned with the dressing of the ores. The dressers of copper ore sometimes worked for a monthly wage in Pryce's time, or at a fixed rate per ton of pre- pared ore. But these arrangements making it ' Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensis, 245. '" Ibid. 246. " Ibid. 264. " Watson, Compendium of British Mining, 19. " Such seems to be Pryce's meaning. Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 188. " Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, 188. 568 INDUSTRIES to the dressers' interest either to be lazy, or to be hurried and slipshod in their work, the favourite way was to set the ore to dress in proportion to the price it brought at the smelter's.^ In the stannaries the tributer paid the land- lord, bounder, and adventurers their respective dues in piles of tin-stone ready for the stamps, and retained the residue. In the copper mines the tributer excavated, raised, and prepared the ore for smelting at his own expense. It was then given over to the adventurers, who disposed of it at the ticketing, and from the cash pro- ceeds paid the workmen according to the rate previously agreed.^ Another anomaly is ex- emplified by the system of private sampling described by Pryce. * The takers of tribute pitches in copper are also obliged to mix their ores with those of other pitches, or with the owners' ores, and to sample them according to the will and discretion of the captains, otherwise the parcels of ore would be small, where there may be twenty pitches on tribute in one mine. Before the parcels are mixed together, they take from each a fair sample. The assay master, who buys at the public ticketing or sale a mixed parcel of ore, has these private samples given him, which he assays for zs. dd. each, with all the judgment and dexterity he is capable of, to make the most of each, and it is a very rare thing for any com- plaint to arise, so expert are they in their business.'^ ' The use of private samples is this. Although the sundry parcels of ore mixed for sale may appear nearly of one value at sight, yet it must necessarily follow that some difference will arise from the different management in the dressing and other incidental causes. In a mixed parcel of 50 tons A may have 20 of j^i5 per ton, B 25 of £^\\ 10s., and C 5 of £16 per ton, according to private samples, yet the gross 50 tons may sell for j^l5 5/. per ton. Never- theless the amount must be divided among the tributers according to the selling price, subject to regulation by private samples ; in other words, the excess or diminution for what It sells must be proportioned by the produce of the private samples, for if 50 tons sell at j^i5 5/., the amount Is equal to £762 los. Pursuant to the above private samples, A's 20 tons at ^^15 bring j^300 ; B's 25 tons at j^i4 10/. bring £362 los. ; C's 5 tons at j^l6 bring j^8o, a total of £']\2 10/., or j^20 short, by private sample. This Is called a _^20 Increase.' * The method of proportioning this among the tributers, says Pryce, Is by the rule of three.* ' It Is evident,' he continues, * that if the adventurers were to account to the tributers at the private prices, they would deprive them oi £20, of which they ought to have their respective proportions. It being the absolute value for which the copper was sold. It is clear also that by mixing these ' Pryce, Mineralo^a Cornubiensls, 240. Mbid. 188. 'Ibid. 190. * Ibid. 191. three parcels they have altogether brought a better price by ^^20 than If they had been sold separately.' * As in the tin mines, the element of luck in taking pitches, resulting sometimes in leaving the workman half starved, the fact of the system being open to innumerable opportunities for crooked dealing on the part of the miners, and the consequences of the practice of auctioning the tut and tribute pitches to the lowest bidder, resulting too often in a fierce competition for work, which reduces the price paid the miner to a merely nominal sum,^ are combining gradually to make tribute working a phenomenon of the past. Improvements in copper dressing in the century and a quarter since Pryce wrote, may be summed up in the statement that the various processes which the latter so thoroughly described have been simplified by the application of machinery. The first great improvement effected upon this basis was the substitution of crushing machines for bucking. The first crusher is said to have been erected at Dolcoath by Trevithick in 1804.' Others were used in the Tavistock district about 1814,^ and in the course of a few years were introduced into all large concerns,^ under the name of halvan crushers. In every operation common to both, copper dressing has since advanced with that of tin. A distinctive feature in the nineteenth century has been the attention paid to the sizing of the stuff, effected by revolving riddles and sizing wheels, which greatly facilitates subsequent treatment.^ A further economy was effected by the process known as precipitation. Costar, early in the eighteenth century, had observed at Chacewater,^ that copper held in solution in mine water might be precipitated by means of iron. Precipitation was tried at Wheal Crofty, and although aban- doned there, was introduced at Cronebane, Wicklow, under the superintendence of a Cornish mine captain.^*' From Ireland it went to Cuba, and in 1854 from Cuba to Cornwall again, where it was applied to the waters of the Gwennap adit. Its practice at present has become uniform throughout the county. The various vicissitudes which the copper mines have suffered since their establishment on a sound basis by the smelting arrangements made with the Swansea companies, have been due not so much to the exhaustion of their lodes as to underselling by newer and richer mining fields. The first conflict was with the enormously rich ^ Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensls, 191. * English, Mining Almanack, i, 1 20-1 29. ' Worth, Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of Mining Skill in Devon and Cornzv. 44. * De la Beche, Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, 594, ® * Copper Mining in Cornwall,' by Jos. Came. Irans. Roy. Geol. Soc. of Cornw. Ill, 63. '" Worth, Historical Notes on the Origin and Process of Mining Skill in Devon and Comtv. 44.. 569 72 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Anglesey mines, which were reopened in 1778. The competition of the two districts, eagerly fanned by the Welsh smelters, sent the price of copper down to a point 20 per cent, below the cost of production,^ and was stopped after seven years of rivalry, only by a combination formed among the mine owners to regulate the supply,^ which lasted until the speedy exhaustion of the Anglesey deposits removed all danger of com- petition. In 1800, the Cornish mines produced 55,000 tons of copper ore, yielding about 5,000 tons of metal. In 18 10 the latter figures had increased to 5,680, in 1820 to 7,500, in 1850 to 10,700, and in 1856 to 13,274.' This last figure proved to be the maximum. Directly following upon it came the growing competition of the American and Australian districts. As the price of copper fell lower and lower, mine after mine in Cornwall was forced to the wall, production fell off from year to year, and to-day, although a few large mines still earn good dividends, the Cornish copper industry, like that of tin, represents but a small fraction of its former importance. FOUNDRIES AND ENGINEERING WORKS The origin, progress, and decline of the foundry industry of Cornwall, and the important services it has rendered in the development of the mines are closely connected with the mining industry. The first attempt to use steam in Cornish mines was made by Captain Thomas Savery at the end of the 17th century, though his engine was of little practical utility. Thomas New- comen's ' Atmospheric ' engine, which quickly followed, was the first piece of machinery in which steam was used with any measure of practical success. But notwithstanding the various improvements by Smeaton and the Cornish en- gineers the Newcomen engine was slow working, cumbrous, and excessively wasteful of fuel, and the limits of its utility were soon reached. As a consequence, at the end of the 1 8th century mining was very much hampered, and in many instances suspended. There were no iron foundries in Cornwall until the i8th century was well advanced. The art of iron founding was in a backward state up to the time of the introduction of Watt's engine, in 1770. The castings for Trevithick's steam- carriage, about the year 1 800-1, were made at the Hayle Foundry, and there was much trouble in getting the parts to fit together. The high- pressure whim-engine erected at Wheal Crenver and Abraham by Trevithick in i8o6 was made at Neath Abbey, South Wales. Writing to Mr. Pengilly of that place as late as 22 May, 1 8 1 3, relative to the engines for the Peruvian mines, Richard Trevithick says: — * All these castings (for the engines and pitwork) must be delivered iji Cornwall in four months ' ; he also says, * A great part of the wrought-iron work and the boilers I have arranged for in Cornwall.' The cylinder of Trevithick's 76-inch Dolcoath engine, erected in 1 816 (ceased working in 1869), ' Thomas Williams, Letter to Lord Uxbridge ; printed in Hunt, British Mining, 105. ^ Geo. Unwin, Letters and Remarks, 37. Thomas Williams, Letter to Lord Uxbridge ; printed In Hunt, British Mining, 105. was cast in South Wales (very probably at Neath Abbey) ; the beam (still working in the new engine of 1869) was cast at Perran Foundry. At Tarrandean, Perranarworthal, there was a small foundry in existence before the Perran Foundry ; and as that was originated in 1791, it is evident that the old Tarrandean Foundry, established by a Mr. Read, ranks as one of the earliest in Cornwall. The little maritime town of Hayle owes what- ever of importance it has possessed to the exist- ence of the two large foundries, the Hayle Foundry and the Copperhouse Foundry, which for many years were engaged in the manufacture of mining and other machinery. The Hayle Foundry was situated in the parish of St. Erth, and had the advantage of commodious waterside premises. It appears to have been founded between 1765 and 1775, and became ultimately the largest and most important of the engineering works of the county, though at first it probably comprised only a forge and a fitting shop. The founder was Mr. John Harvey, who lived at Carnhell, in the parish of Gwinear. He was evidently an enterprising and a somewhat remarkable man, who, finding no scope for his energies in his native village, re- moved to Hayle, the nearest seaport, and there- fore the most likely place for developing his business. The first authentic reference to John Harvey occurs in the account-book of Richard Trevi- thick, sen. In the items of ' Dolcoath New Engine Cost Account,' 1775, is the following: 'John Harvey and partners for putting in the boiler and building the shed-wall, &c., ^^33 is. 9^.' The following further reference in the same work, Francis Trevithick's Life of Richard Trevithick^ is of interest : * The John Harvey who worked to fix the improved boiler in its house was then a country smith at Carnhell Green, a small village a few miles from Dolcoath. He established the now famous Harvey & Co.'s engineering foundry at Hayle.' ' Hunt, British Mining, 830. 57^ INDUSTRIES He discovered in some way the art of casting enlarging their premises and laying down the pumps, and other parts of machines, but when is requisite plant. Experienced shipbuilders were unknown — doubtless between the years 1776 imported from the north, and a considerable and 1790. It has been stated that he found number of additional men were employed; but out the method in South Wales, possibly at the the enterprise proved a failure and involved the Neath works, which it appears he visited in 1776. company in a great loss. During this period, This enterprising man died in October 1803, 1 888-1 893, the total number of men and boys at the age of 73 years, and was interred at employed was about i,200, including the Gwinear Churchyard, the 14th day of the same foundry employes. Previous to this the number month. He was succeeded by his son Henry, employed was about 700 to 800. 'the great Mr. Harvey,' as he was called, who Shipbuilding was abandoned in 1893 ; not was not an engineer in the technical sense. He long afterwards it became only too apparent that regarded the foundry as only a factor in the the engineering business was rapidly declining, development of the port. The foundry being and that the closing of the works sooner or well established, he threw his energies into the later was inevitable. This calamitous event for work of developing the harbour and its trading the town of Hayle took place in October, advantages, in which he was fortunate in having 1903. the advice of his brother-in-law, Richard The smelting works of the Cornish Copper Trevithick, the great engineer. Company, built about or soon after the middle Henry Harvey died 7 May, 1850, aged 75 of the eighteenth century and situated at the years. The tombstone in Gwinear Churchyard eastern end of Copperhouse, and to the right of records * After an active life in which he largely and alongside the main road leading to Camborne developed the Harbour of Hayle, together with and facing Phillack Church, being unremunera- the Foundry, and the trade at that Port.' Mr. tive by reason of the cost of bringing coal to the Nicholas Oliver Harvey succeeded to the man- works, were abandoned about the year 1806. agement. He was a great nephew of the In the same or the following year Messrs. founder, and died on 7 June, 1 86 1. Later Sandys, Carne, and Vivian having become managers of the foundry were Mr. William owners of the property, including Ventonleague Husband, who died on 10 April, 1887 (he was and part of Trevassack, the works were con- a man of striking personality, and was one of verted into a foundry. Later, on the retirement the most able of Cornwall's modern engineers) ; of Mr. Carne, who removed to Penzance and Mr. Nicholas John West ; Mr. Henry Nicholas engaged in banking with others under the title Harvey, who died 14 December, 1892, and Mr. of Batten, Carne & Carne, the name of the Francis Haniel Harvey. The late Mr. Jebus firm was changed to Sandys, Vivian & Co. Bickle was for a great many years the superin- The greatest number of persons employed at tending and consulting engineer of the works; anytime was from 300 to 350. he was a man of great experience, and his The works were conducted on a scale of opinion was always highly valued. considerable magnitude, as might have been seen It is impossible to convey an adequate idea of a few years ago from the abandoned buildings, the quantity and diversity of the machinery which extended from the present Market House which has been supplied to mines in all parts of to Ventonleague. The firm made their own the world by Messrs. Harvey & Co. In this gas ; the remains of the gas-works could be seen country there were few mining districts forty a few years ago. years ago where the Hayle engines were not The foundry was closed in the year 1869. to be found. Metalliferous and coal mines The decline of these important works was due throughout Great Britain have been indebted to to the closing of the local mines, the com- this firm for some of the largest pumping, winding, petition of other works and, it is stated, the lack crushing and other machines for which for a long of enterprise. series of years they had an unrivalled reputation. As a locally well-known fact it may be stated Abroad, their engines have been used exten- that there was always a great deal of rivalry sively for all kinds of mining. It is worthy of between the Copperhouse and Hayle foundries, mention that the first pumping engine on the and as a consequence between the two places, compound principle employed on any considerable The Tuckingmill Foundry was established scale was made by them for Great Wheal Alfred about the year 1833 by Mr. William Vivian, in 1823, WolfF being the engineer. who up to that time and for several years The principal extensions of the works and previously was employed by the Copperhouse developments of the business were in the years Foundry Company. About ten years later he 1847, 1854, 1 888-1 890. In the year 1883, acquired the hammer mills and forges at Rose- for family convenience, the business was con- worthy belonging to his cousins, Joseph and verted into a limited liability company. John Vivian. These had been carried on since In the year 1888 the company laid them- about the year 181 5, the originator being selves out for large shipbuilding operations, and Mr. John Vivian, the father of the two gentle- expended a very large sum of money in men named. 571 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Mr. William Vivian carried on the works conjointly until about the year 1865, when he found it necessary, owing to the severe strain on his financial resources through mining under- takings, to transfer a large proportion of his interest to a company with fresh capital. Soon afterwards Mr. Vivian's connexion with the two concerns ceased. He acquired a small foundry at St. Agnes, the centre of an important mining district, and died September, 1870. Subsequent proprietors have been : 1840— i860, William Vivian, junr. and his sons ; 1 860-1 868, Captain Wm. Teague, J. P. (the well-known mine proprietor) ; Richard Trevi- thick (Devon), Edward Burgess (mine proprietor), George Smith, LL.D., J. P., etc. (safety-fuse maker). Major John Bickford (safety-fuse maker); 1 868-1 904, William Bickford-Smith, M.P. (died 1898, safety-fuse maker); John Pike (died 1874), Sir George J. Smith, J.P. (fuse maker), John R. Daniell (solicitor), H. P. Vivian. Since 1904 Sir G. J. Smith has been the sole proprietor. Besides being extensive makers of general mining machinery, the Tuckingmill Foundry Company began, about the year 1889, to make rock drills for the Rio Tinto mines, and have since to a great extent specialized in drills and air-compressors. Their 'Little Hercules' rock drill and ' Economic ' compressors have been supplied in great numbers throughout the world. At the old Roseworthy hammer mills are made, in addition to ordinary work, the Cornish steel-faced shovels which, owing to their superior quality, appear to have ousted other kinds from the Cornish mines. Numbers are exported to various foreign mining camps where Cornishmen are at work. The greatest number of persons employed at any time is from 200 to 300. The Perran Foundry was situated in the charming Kennal Vale, on the right of the main road leading to Truro, and at the head of Restronguet Creek, about midway between Penryn and Truro. From its magnitude and the importance of its manufactures, as well as from its interesting history, the Perran Foundry ranks next to that of Hayle. It was established in the year 1791.^ The original founders were George Fox, of Perran Wharf, ancestor of the well-known family of that name at Falmouth, and Peter Price, of Neath Abbey. Several changes of proprietorship have taken place. Mr. Price died 13 September, 1821, when it is probable the connexion with the Neath ' The catalogue issued by the company in August, 1870, gives 1795 as the date ; this is an error, as on three arches in buildings still standing the figures 1 79 1 are clearly discernible. works and also with Mr. Price's family was severed.^ About this time it appears that Mr. Benjamin Sampson, one of the principal share- holders of Tresavean mine, whence he derived great wealth, and also the principal owner of the Kennal Vale gunpowder works, became connected with the foundry. He built TuUi- maar House, a short distance from the foundry, in the year 1828, at which time and for some years previously, he was manager of the works. He died on 7 November, 1840, aged seventy years, leaving with other property his interest in Tremough, the Kennal Vale works, and the Perran Foundry to his nephew of the same name. About the year 1848 or 1849 Mr. Michael Williams, of Trevince (born 1784) became the principal partner, and appointed his son, Mr. Michael Henry Williams, of Tredrea, manager, under whom Mr. James R. Carnall was works manager. In 1857 the Fox family disposed of their interest or the remaining part of it to Mr. Michael Williams. A year later, on the death of that gentleman at Trevince (15 June), Mr. John Michael Williams, of Pengreep, his eldest son, succeeded to his large interest in the works, which shortly afterwards were closed for a brief period. Evidently negotiations took place about this time or soon after between various members of the Williams family relative to the foundry, for we find that Mr. John Michael Williams retained his interest for only a short time, selling it to his uncle Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Williams, of Tregullow. There were recon- structions and alterations, and the firm assumed the title of Williams' Perran Foundry Company. On the death of Mr. Benjamin Sampson, in 1864, his share and other property passed by will to Mr. William Shilson, of St. Austell. Sir William Williams died March, 1870, his eldest son, Sir Frederick M. Williams, Bart., M.P., becoming the principal partner and manager ; the other partners were Mr. George Williams, of Scorrier ; Mr. Michael Williams, of Tregullow ; and Mr. Shilson, of Tremough. For several years after the starting of the business only small machinery and comparatively light forgings were made. ' Shingling,' the faggoting or welding together of scrap wrought iron with tilt hammers, was extensively carried on. Heavy forgings and castings were made at the Neath Abbey works. The days of the Nasmyth steam hammer were not yet ; it is doubtful whether it was adopted in any Cornish foundry earlier than about the middle of the century. It is stated that the first heavy forging * In Francis Trevithick's Life of Richard Trevithicky vol. ii, p. 169, it is stated that the steam-cylinder of Dolcoath 76-inch engine was cast in South Wales (presumably at the Neath Abbey works) in 1816 ; * the beam, still working in the new engine of 1 869, was cast in the foundry of the Williams at Perran.' 572 INDUSTRIES done at Perran Foundry was a gudgeon for the were the erection of a steam capstan at South beam of the 85-inch pumping engine for Tresa- Hue Mine about the year 1835, the first of its vean mine. At this time, about the year 1828 kind ever put up, and the erection, with Mr. or 1830, the firm began to make heavy castings. William Petherick, of the famous Austen's The foundry gradually grew in size and im- engine at Fowey Consols, which later played a portance. A notable development occurred most important part in the history of the Cornish when the machinery for the Haarlem Lake engine. The demands made upon Mr. West Drainage and the East London Waterworks were very numerous. It is stated that he could was made, about the year 1842. A Mr. Bow- not get his orders carried out with sufficient dis- man of London was then the manager, having patch and to his satisfaction. He therefore succeeded Mr. Benjamin Sampson. decided, in the year named, to start a foundry of The boiler-building works originally located at his own. Devoran were removed to Modling, near Pon- The manufactures included mining machinery sanooth, about the year i860. The company of all kinds, machinery for smelting works, water- made their own gas and supplied private houses works, and railways. Although not of a mag- at the wharf. They were fortunate in having a nitude comparable with the Hayle and Perran good supply of water, which in dry summers was foundries, and employing not more than about supplemented by steam-power. sixty persons, many important undertakings for The greatest number of persons employed at home and foreign mines were successfully carried any time was about 400. out. Several Cornish mines, particularly in the When, in the year 1870, nine years previously, middle and eastern parts of the county, were the extensive mines in the parish of Gwennap, supplied with pumping and other engines, pit- which drew nearly the whole of their machinery work, and general machinery. Mines in other supplies from Perran and sent thither all their parts of the country placed orders for important breakages, and other mines were closed, it was engines with Mr. West, notably the Rhymney generally felt that a serious blow had befallen Iron Company, in 1865, who were supplied these works. On such a gigantic scale were the with a 70-inch pumping engine and pit work. Clifford Amalgamated Mines carried on, with Orders for engines of very large size — beyond nearly a score of large engines at work, and with 60 or 70 inch cylinders — were passed on to the an enormous quantity of pitwork, that, with the larger foundries at Hayle and Perran. other Gwennap mines, they were well-nigh suffi- Some important contracts outside the ordinary cient to keep a moderate sized foundry running, scope of founders were successfully carried out. In the death of Mr. William Shilson on 28 including the construction of the Newquay and March, 1875, the company lost a far-seeing and Cornwall Junction Railway, begun in 1865, ^"^ able financier. Whilst sharing with the Hayle in 1867 the Bodmin and Camborne Water- Foundry the misfortune of a decaying home works respectively were supplied with the market and keen competition in this and foreign necessary pumping plant. In conjunction with countries, and other untoward circumstances, the Mr. Darlington, Mr. West patented, in 1867, perhaps inevitable close was precipitated by the a method of working mines by a combination of death of Sir F. M. Williams on 3 September, steam-power and hydraulic apparatus. Many 1878; and the failure in the same year of years earlier Mr. West invented the well-known the well-known banking firm of Tweedy, valve for pumps, known as Harvey and West's Williams & Co. sealed the fate of Perran double-beat valve, patented 12 June, 1839. Foundry, which ceased working in March, 1879. Mr. West died on 16 June, 1879, in his When the foundry was closed the Tuckingmill 78th year. The business was carried on by his Foundry Company took over the lease and sons William and Charles West, who were carried on the business in a small way, under in partnership with their father under the name Mr. James Edwards' management ; but not sue- of William West & Sons. The death of the ceeding, after two years they disposed of the head of the firm, followed so quickly by that of lease to Messrs. W. H. & T. P. Edwards, who, one of the sons, was a great blow to the business, under the name of Edwards Brothers, adapted The circumstances named as exemplary of the the premises to their requirements, and do an ex- decline of the Hayle and Perran foundries are tensive milling and corn business, and employ a equally applicable to this foundry, which was great many men. The works are now known closed in December, 1891. as Perran Mills. It is worthy of remark that Mr. West The St. Blazey Foundry was built by Mr. amassed a considerable fortune by his mining in- William West in the year 1848. Mr. vestments and his engineering business. His West had a long and distinguished career as adventurous courage in resuscitating single-handed a mining engineer of nearly half a century — Phoenix Mine, which he worked with great 1 83 1 to 1879. As an engineer Mr. West was vigour, will be long remembered. Employment much sought after, and carried out some of the was given to a large number of persons, and in most important works in the county and else- other ways the enterprise was a great benefit to where. His most noteworthy achievements the neighbourhood. 573 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL The Camborne Engineering Works, owned by Messrs. Holman Brothers, were established in the year 1839, by Mr. John Holman, father of the present proprietors. The name of Holman has been long and honourably associated with mine engineering and manu- facture. The genesis of the present works and their successful career must be sought in the family annals. As far back as the 1 8th century the Holmans were men of repute as smiths and mechanics. In the year 1802 Nicholas Holman, grandfather of Messrs. John H. and James M. Holman, established what is now known as the Cornwall Boiler Works, at Roskear. This was mainly due to the large demands of Richard Trevithick, who in the same year ran the first successful locomotive on the turnpike roads of Camborne. The progress of the Boiler Works was greatly helped by the introduction of high- pressure steam, which revolutionized the existing form of boilers. Nicholas Holman had four sons, all of whom became boiler-makers, or iron founders, namely : Nicholas Holman, at St. Just, James Holman who carried on the boiler works at Pool, William Holman, manager of the boiler works at Cop- perhouse, and John Holman, of the works at Camborne. In 1880 Mr. Holman handed over the business to his two sons, since when the works have been considerably enlarged, and the business has been developed to an extent that has placed it in a foremost position amongst mining engi- neering firms. The works at Wesley Street, Camborne, known as the * Engineering Department,' cover over six-and-a-half acres of land, and employ many hundreds of persons, and are equipped with the most modern machinery. In another part of the town the firm have a Rock Drill Depart- ment, with a capacity for an annual output of more than a thousand drills. As far back as 1882 the 'Holman,' then known as the * Cornish ' Drill, had established a high reputa- tion for excellence and efficiency. A large num- ber of the Holman drills are in use in the South African and other foreign mines. At Roskear are situated Messrs. Holman's Cornwall Boiler Works which date back a century, and are equipped with every appli- ance for coping with present-day demands. Here boilers of all descriptions are made. The Docks Foundry, Falmouth, belonging to Messrs. Cox & Co., was established for the pur- pose of building iron and steel vessels, marine engines, etc., and for ships' repairs, and em- ployed at the beginning from 1 5 to 20 persons only. The work carried out by this enterprising firm includes the building of steam trawlers, steel, iron and composite steam yachts, barges, tugs, passen- ger tenders, and marine engineering of all kinds. Shipbreaking is a branch of the business added of late years. 5 The works are equipped with the most mod- ern pneumatic and hydraulic plant for drilling, riveting, caulking, and other operations. They comprise two forge shops, with three steam ham- mers, fitting and erecting shops, brass and iron foundry, with three large drying stoves, copper- smiths' shop, boiler-yard, and two ship-yards, with six covered building sheds ; also pattern- makers', boat-builders' and joiners' departments fitted with up-to-date machinery. Messrs. Cox & Co. have a private wharf with large lifting shears at the end ; from the wharf a branch line runs past the various portions of the works to the Great Western Railway system. The firm make their own forgings, and can turn in lathe to 10 ft., and build boilers up to 14 ft. in diameter. On the closing of Perran Foundry the firm made provision for dealing with heavier castings and forgings and larger general engine work than they had hitherto attempted. The number of workpeople varies according to the work in hand, from about 500 to 600. The works were originated in the year 1868 by Joseph G. Cox, Henry H. Cox, and C. Far- ley, trading as Cox, Farley & Co. Ten years later Mr. Farley's connexion with the firm ceased, the remaining partners continuing as Cox & Co. In December, 1 90 1, these gentle- men disposed of the business to the present proprietors, Messrs. Herbert Henry Cox, Walter R. Cox, Ernest G. Cox, Alfred Cox, and William D. Cox. With regard to Budge's Foundry at Tucking- mill, one of the earliest, perhaps the earliest in the county, the following references appear in Francis Trevithick's Life of Richard Trevi- thick : — ' Richard Trevithick, senr.'s account- book, closing in 1775, states that Mr. Budge was paid, for erecting Dolcoath engine, £62-' Elsewhere we read : ' Mr. Budge was the work- ing engineer erecting it (Dolcoath engine).' We also read of ' Budge's Foundry ' and ' Budge, a clever mechanic, who had a foundry at Tuck- ingmill.' The writer has been informed by Mr. Leonard W. B. Smith, that in turning over family documents he found that a Mr. Budge was resident in Tuckingmill in 1 765. This person was probably the iron-founder of that name. One of the earliest of Cornish foundries was that of Messrs. Thomas Reed and Co., situated at Tarrandean, Perranarworthal, and was built some years before the Perran Foundry in the same parish. It was known as Tarrandean Foundry. The foundry was closed before 1805. The St. Agnes Foundry, situated about half a mile from Trevaunance Quay, St. Agnes, was originated by Messrs. Thomas and Son, and some years later was acquired by Mr. William Vivian, founder of the Tuckingmill Works. A Mr. Curtis afterwards took over the works, but owing to his bankruptcy, they were closed for about ten years. 74 INDUSTRIES The foundry was a very small one, never utmost importance to the Dust Allayer as a employing more than ten persons. It vv^as closed preventive of miners' phthisis. in 1904. It was worked for a short time by About the year 1854 Mr. John Jewell and Redruth Foundry Company. a Mr. Hosken erected a small foundry at Basset Several foundries have been established at Wharf, Tarrandean, in the parish of Perranar- Redruth, all on a comparatively small scale, the worthal. Employment was afforded for about most important being that originated by the late ten or a dozen persons who were engaged on Mr. G. H. Prout about the year 1875. It was general mine repairs. With the closing of the carried on for some years in a small way as a local mines this work fell ofiF. It was then con- private concern. By enterprise and ability Mr. verted into a bone-crushing mill, but was closed Prout developed the concern to such an extent without actually being set to work as such, that after about a dozen years it became neces- Mr. Jewell died about the year 188 7- 1888. sary to introduce additional capital. Friends In November, 1893, Mr. Walter Visick of joined the founder and formed a limited com- the same parish, an enterprising mechanic and pany, further development of the business engineer, acquired the property from Mr. Basset resulting. Owing, however, to shortage of of Tehidy, and began operations under the name money and depression in mining the company of W. Visick and Sons. Beginning in a very became insolvent, and was wound up in the year small way, a good business has been developed, 1899. and employment is now given to about thirty The present company — the Redruth Foundry persons. The usual work is hand and steam Company, Limited, of which Captain Joseph derrick and other cranes, steam winches for Pryor, M.I.M.E., C.E., is the managing direc- ships, steam blondins or aerial railways, motor tor, purchased the works as a going concern, work, railway and other contractors' plant, loco- With ample capital and the infusion of good motive and traction repairs. business ability and energy, the company have A small foundry was established at Saltash in been very successful, and now employ nearly 100 the year 1877 by Messrs. Loam and Son for persons. making rock drills, and was worked for thirteen The machinery is driven by electricity. All years, being closed in 1890 in consequence of kinds of mining machinery are made ; a speciality the expiration of the patent and the unremunera- is the patent Automatic Feed Amalgamator or tive nature of the business. Pulverizer for crushing gold, tin, etc. The In the Parochial History of the County of company also do a good business with their Cornwall^ vol. iv, published by William Lake, well-known Cornish Cooking Ranges ; they also Truro, in 1872, reference is made under the build carriages. heading of Stithians to 'Bryant's Foundry,' and For a short period the company worked the to the village of * Foundry ' in the parish. The St. Agnes Foundry as a branch. term is a misnomer, and is a mere localism. Messrs. R. Stephens and Son's Works at Carn About a century ago a small hammer mill was Brea are almost exclusively devoted to the manu- built by a John Bryant, and afterwards worked facture of rock drills. Their ' Climax ' drill has by one John Bache. In the year 1891, a achieved a high reputation in the mining world. Mr, Randle acquired the property, the mill The works were originated in the year 1880 by having been idle for several years ; it was closed the late Mr. Richard Stephens, the father of the between the years 1875— 1885. The only articles present proprietor, Mr. W. C. Stephens. They that were made, it appears, were shovels ; never were laid down on a somewhat small scale for more than three persons were employed, the manufacture of rock drills, which has been The foundry of Messrs. Sara and Burgess steadily followed to the present time. The was originated in the year 1857 by the late development of the works has been gradual, Mr. Nicholas Sara, at one time a foreman at necessitating from time to time the acquisition Perran Foundry. On his retirement in 1887 and laying-down of additional and up-to-date his son, Mr. E. B. Sara, was joined by Mr. John plant. The number of employes has increased Burgess, formerly of Perran Foundry, and the from less than a dozen in the early stages of the business of marine and mining engineering, works to nearly 200. boiler-making, etc., was carried on in the name Having concentrated their thoughts and ener- of Sara and Burgess. On the death of the latter gies on the design and production of rock drills, in 1889, Mr. Sara was joined by his son, the firm may claim to be specialists for these General mining machinery has been made for machines. Enormous numbers of their drills South Africa and Spain. For home industries have been supplied to the South African, Indian, and local concerns a good business has been Australian, and other markets, where they are as done. The works formerly employed from 140 familiar as in the Cornish mines, and where the to 150 persons, but owing to depression, com- firm claim to have attained record boring results, petition, and other causes the number is now Latest improvements in their drills are the only about fifty. Mr. Nicholas Sara, the founder patent Climax Dust Allayer and the patent of the business, died at Falmouth in 1895, aged Simplex Tool-holder. The firm attach the eighty-three. 575 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL On the 9 April, i860, the late Mr. William plements. When the mining industry declined Sara began business as a founder at Tolgus, Red- the firm developed their agricultural implement ruth, for making light castings, stamps' heads, and general business, making windmills, water- etc, for the local mines. During the years wheel pumps, cooking ranges, etc. i860 to 1870 a good business was done, and In the year 1867 the founder died at the employment was found for from fifty to sixty comparatively early age of 63. Since 1894 the persons. ^i"™ has been a limited liability company under Mr. Sara died in 1883. The foundry has the name of Nicholas Holman & Sons, Ltd. been carried on since then by his sons. During The foundry at Truro, known as Dingey's, the past few years operations have been very was originated by two persons, named Burnett largely curtailed owing to the closing of so many and Jeffery in or about the year 1835. After of the neighbouring mines. There are now not a few years they were bought out by a Mr. more than about half a dozen mines at work in Webb. Mr. Jeffery subsequently re-purchased the district, and the number employed in the the business, and in a few years took his son foundry at this time does not exceed ten. into partnership, built new workshops and Mr. W. H. Sara, the only surviving son, is the developed it into a prosperous business for five present proprietor. or six years. Ruined by mining speculations The Penzance Foundry had its origin in the the property was acquired by Messrs. Hamilton & small foundry carried on by a Mr. Jeffery which Dingey. This partnership lasted about fourteen Mr. Nicholas Holman of St. Just purchased in years, when Mr. Dingey bought Mr. Hamilton's 1840. He carried on this branch for several share. The business was then carried on under years in conjunction with the business at St. the title of Francis Dingey & Sons. The Just. Additions were made from time to time, number employed was about twenty, the most noteworthy being Symons' Shipbuilding All kinds of mining machinery were made Yard in 1862. During the following thirty including the pulverizer bearing Mr. Dingey's years attention was paid specially to mining name. A considerable quantity of work was plant. In 1893 the engineering premises and done for the Perran iron mines. The require- plant of Mr. John Bond in Market Jew Street ments of the city and agriculture found much were purchased and worked in connexion with useful work for this little foundry, the foundry on the wharf. In 1895 a cycle Owing principally to the want of capital the business was established, to which later was foundry was closed about seventeen years ago. added a motor department. Two years later In the year 1840 the late Mr. John Toy the Jubilee Hall in Market Jew Street was pur- began business at Meneage Street, Helston, as chased and added to the engineering premises, a general machinist, and a few years later started and in 1899 the workshops were pulled down a foundry which has continued to the present and rebuilt. The Penzance Graving Dock and time. Originally all kinds of agricultural ma- premises were purchased and put into good chinery and implements were made — threshing repair and equipped with the necessary machinery and winnowing machines, ploughs, etc. The for the building and repairing of ships. These hay tedder, which has had a very large sale, was premises were formerly known as Mathews' Dry invented by him. A little later Mr. Toy began Docks, and were used for many years by the making such general mining machinery as came defunct firm of Messrs. Martin, Matthews & Co., within the range of the limited capacity of his Ltd. works, and doing repair work. The product The St. Just Foundry was built in the year by which he was best known was his useful 1834 by Mr. Nicholas Holman of Pool, Illogan, lifting jack, which was made in several sizes, up and the business is still carried on by his sons to 25 tons lifting capacity. It is stated that many and grandsons. Beginning in a small way in thousands of these have been supplied to mines smithery and casting and the manufacture of and other works at home and broad, agricultural implements, Mr. Holman, by per- When mining declined Mr. Toy turned his severance, energy, and good business ability, made attention to the requirements of shipping and considerable progress and added a large fitting fishing, and by cultivating this business and and engineering shop, and began making Cornish pushing the agricultural implement trade, and mine boilers. In the year 1855 hammer mills general house work, etc., sought compensation were built and two tilt hammers installed — since for the loss of the mine work, replaced by Nasmyth hammers, for which a Mr. Toy died in the year 1900. The busi- separate engine was built. Six years later a ness is carried on by his son, Mr. John Toy, wheelwrights' branch was added. In i860 a who has introduced pulverizing machinery for complete gas plant was laid down for supplying the reduction and extraction of ore from mine the works and the town with light. In 1872 refuse, larger fitting and erecting shops were built. The Charlestown Foundry, owned by the In 1840 Mr. Holman started a branch Charlestown Foundry and Iron Works Co., Ltd., business at Penzance. All kinds of mining was established by Mr. James Thomas about the machinery are made, as well as agricultural im- year 1845, on a small scale, to meet the demands 576 INDUSTRIES of local mines. Mr. Thomas died in 1861, leaving the works to his two sons, James and Edwin Thomas. After the death in 1880 of the former, who survived his brother, the works were carried on by the beneficiaries until 1884, when they were purchased by Mr. Martyn of St. Austell, for the purpose of starting them under a limited liability company. The present com- pany was accordingly formed, and by them the works were greatly enlarged and improved, and a bridge-building department added, with modern appliances and tools. Owing, however, to the heavy carriage expenses of sending bridges long distances this part of the business was not remunerative and was abandoned, the plant being utilized for boiler-making. A good business is done in large Lancashire and Cornish boilers for the china clay works and local mines, and for Plymouth. The works are well equipped, and are capable of dealing with the entire engineering require- ments of the mines, and more particularly of the china clay industry. Mining machinery of every description is manufactured, besides bridges, roofs, girders, tanks and other constructional iron work. Bartle's Foundry was established about the year i860 by Messrs. Bartle, William Dunkin, Thomas Henry Tregoning and Joseph Lugg, at Carn Brea, the centre of a busy and populous district, and in the midst of mines for the purpose of supplying the latter with general foundry and iron work. By dint of hard work a good business was formed. After a few years Mr. Lugg retired, and the concern was carried on by the remaining partners until the year 1884 when, owing to disagreement, it was suspended and was offered for sale. Mr. F. Bartle, one of the founders, became the purchaser, and with his sons, Mr. Charles D. Bartle and Mr. William Bartle, who returned from America for the purpose, has carried on the business ever since under the title of F. Bartle & Sons. The works have been enlarged, and the business considerably developed, being well known in the mining world. The persons employed number from 70 to 100. The manufactures include the Murdoch Rock Drill and tube mills. The patent of the latter was held by this firm, and was formerly known as the Barrel Pulverizer. Michell and Tregon- ing's Pulverizers are also made ; large numbers of both kinds are working in Cornwall and other places. The firm also make a speciality of slime-dressing machinery, and have just patented an improved Slime Concentrator. They are also well-known makers of double faggoted iron, large quantities of which they send to South Africa. CHINA CLAY No account of Cornish Industries can claim to be complete which does not include a sketch, however brief, of that industry which is, and has always been, since its inception about the middle of the eighteenth century, the most uniformly progressive of them all. The causes, mechanical and chemical, which have led to the formation of china clay are well known. On the one hand, variations of tempera- ture and the congelation and consequent expansion of water within the minute pores of granite rock ; on the other,the concurrent chemical action of car- bonic acid, robbing the felspar and mica contained in the granite of their potash ; these are com- monly held to have been the chief causes of that process of disintegration by which china clay, or kaolin, has been formed.^ Wherever in Cornwall there is a granite formation — the Carnmenellis district excepted — china clay has been formed. West Penwith, Breage, the moors north of Bodmin, all contain deposits ; but by far the most considerable as well as the most valuable clay beds are those of the Hensbarrow district which embraces large portions of the parishes of St. Austell, St. Blazey, 1 It should be mentioned that a very competent writer, Robert Hunt, F.R.S., considers china clay to be granite which has never properly been formed, rather than granite which has undergone decomposition, See British Mining, p. 196. Luxulian, Roche, St. Denys, St. Enoder and St. Stephen in Brannel. About the middle of the eighteenth century the presence of this valuable product became known to the potter. Mr. William Cookworthy, who had established a pottery in Plymouth in 1733, obtained in conjunction with Lord Camelford a patent for the use of china clay in 1768. In 1 8 1 3 there were seven clay beds being worked in the Hensbarrow district, the largest of which produced about 300 tons of clay per annum. ^ The amount of china stone shipped at Charlestown in 1816-17 ^^^ 2,135 tons, and of china clay 1,775 tons.^ Since that time the returns have steadily increased, as will be seen from the following table ^ : — Year, China Clay. China Stone. Total. 1816 1,775 2,135 . 3,910 3 1826 7,538 5,252 , 12,790^ 1838 13,440 7,344 20,784^ 1855 60,188 19,961 . 80,149* 1864 95,730 . 21,570 . 117,300* 1874 150,500 . 42,500 . 193,000* 1894 386,648* 1903 490,881 . 53,680 • 544,561' 1904 515,451 • 66,994 . 582,445' 2 Annals of Philosophy , vol. ii, p. 475. * Trans, of the Geo). Soc. ofCornw. * Mineral Statisticsy published by Department. 577 the Home 73 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL For the purpose of raising the china clay to fordshire Potteries and Lancashire, there is a con- the surface and preparing it for export, the fol- siderable export to the United States, Holland, lowing method is generally adopted, allowance Belgium, Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and being made for such modifications as the nature Austria. of the locality and economical working require. A good clay-bed will produce from i to 2^ A shaft having been sunk to the required depth tons of clay to every cubic fathom. The alongside the deposit, a level is then driven under- selling price of china clay per ton is from 13J. to neath the clay which is to be raised. From the 25J. ; but the larger amount consists of medium level thus made another shaft or ' rise ' is carried, clays. The official estimate of the value of the through the clay, to the surface. The over- output for the year 1904 was evidently calcu- burden of earth and foreign matter having been lated upon a much lower selling price, for the removed, a square wooden pipe or * launder ' is purpose, doubtless, of including inferior products, inserted in the ' rise ' which is then filled up with mica-clay, etc. Even so, considerably over clay. This Maunder' is furnished at intervals ^^3 2 0,000 was realized by the merchants in that with holes which, until occasion requires, are kept year, and there are at present no signs of a closed. Arrangements having been made for the decline. supply of a small but continuous stream of water China Stone is granitic rock consisting of to the clay bed, the surface of the clay bed is quartz, decomposed felspar, and white mica. It now broken up with picks so as to enable the occurs chiefly in the parishes of St. Austell, St. clay to mix readily with the water. The water, Denys, and St. Stephen in Brannel, and has holding the clay in suspension, is then carried long been used in these and in the neighbouring down the ' launder ' and along the level to the parishes for building purposes. The towers of shaft, whence it is pumped to the surface. The Probus and St. Stephen's churches are built of milk-white liquid is next conveyed by a series of china stone. In 18 17 the amount shipped for channels to the clay pit, the channels being so the manufacture of pottery exceeded that of arranged, and the rate of flow so regulated by china clay ; but of recent years, although the hatches, as to ensure the deposition of all the output has steadily increased, it has formed less heavier particles of sand and mica on the way. than one-eighth of the whole. Its price varies. In the clay pit the clay is allowed to settle and according to the quality of the stone, from Ss. the water is drawn off, to be used over again for to 12s. per ton. China stone is obtained by the same purpose. From the pit the clay is quarrying, and before being used, requires to be ' landed ' into an adjacent tank by the removal finely ground. The grinding is sometimes per- of a plug near the bottom of the pit. While in formed in Cornwall, but usually it is done at the the tank the surface water is drawn off from potteries, where also an addition of felspar and time to time until the clay assumes the consis- other ingredients is made to meet the require- tency of thick cream. From the tank the clay is ments of the particular ware it is sought to conveyed to the kiln, where it is cut up into manufacture.^ squares, and the remaining moisture driven off by the application of artificial heat. It is now ready 1 a carefully written and exhaustive account of the for transit. « Hensbarrow Granite District ' by J. H. Collins, The uses of china clay are various. It has F.G.S., appeared in 1878. To this and to the been stated, on good authority, that probably not mineral statistics published by the Home Department, more than one-third of the clay now produced is and also to Mr. F. N. Olver of St. Just for advice, used in the manufacture of porcelain. In the the present writer is chiefly indebted for the fore- sizing of cotton goods and in paper-making— for ^^^"8 ^^^^^^- ^^^^ interesting matter may be the purpose of adding weight and consistency ; ^""/^ '" ' ^ ^l^^^''^ T ^^'"^ S^'^''- ^I ^^""i.^ and in the manufacture of alum, ultramarine, ??\ ^^ J^^?^^^ '^''^'''^ '° '}"}' /"'^"f^ ^^^ , > 1 • -1 Mr. Brenton Symons, r.C.S., in his 'Geology of crayons, water colours and other similar pro- Cornwall,' is for the most part a verbatim reprint ducts, vast quantities of china clay are required, of the account given by Mr. Collins, to whose both at home and abroad. Besides supplying the work the reader is referred for a fuller treatment home markets, the chief of which are the Staf- of the subject. HORTICULTURE The warm and equable climate rather than steps which have led to its present importance, the nature of the soil of che south-western por- The home of the industry is Tresco, one of the tion of Cornwall and of the isles of Scilly has islands of Scilly, and its parent and prototype, within recent years led to the extensive culti- the narcissus. Various theories have been pro- vation of flowers for the London and other pounded to account for the presence, from time markets. Inasmuch as this particular industry immemorial, of some half-dozen varieties of this has grown up within living memory, it be- flower, chiefly at Holy Vale and at Tresco. comes necessary to indicate briefly the successive Whether these were introduced by some mem- 578 INDUSTRIES indifferent success. In 1880 flower culture first became remunerative on a small scale. In 1883 Mr. T. A. Dorrien-Smith, nephew of Mr. Augustus Smith, who had succeeded his uncle as lord proprietor, determined to study closely the cultivation of the narcissus, and for this pur- pose he visited Holland, Belgium, and the Channel Islands. Finding that the flowers were a month earlier in Scilly than in those places, he purchased bulbs largely, for himself and for his tenantry. The export of flowers, from the Scilly Isles alone, rose in 1885 to 65 tons. The amount was 100 tons in 1887, and has continued to increase, with slight fluctuations, the returns for the last few years having been as follows : — * In 1 90 1 the export amounted to 650 tons. 1902 1903 1904 1905 j> )> >> » » 750 700 800 700 )) ber of the great family of Blanchminster, whose castle was at Enor and prison at La Val,^ or by the Bendictine monks who had a cell at Tresco,^ These other flames, The spirits of men contemplative, were all Enliven'd by the warmth, whose kindly force Gives birth to flowers and fruits of holiness.* or, at some later period, perchance by some officer of the garrison stationed at St. Mary's, it IS now impossible to determine. But there the flowers were, and there they flourished luxuri- antly. The isolation of Scilly had always thrown the inhabitants largely on their own resources. For generations their only marketable com- modity was kelp, which they obtained in large amount by burning the ore- weed which has always been very abundant on the rocky shores of the islands. The kelp industry was ruined by a right of pre-emption which was claimed by the lord proprietor and injudiciously exercised by his steward, and also by the discovery of chemical substitutes for kelp. Various attempts were made to introduce fisheries, but all these proved abortive. The cultivation of early potatoes followed and ivas attended with success, but it also served to remind the Scillonians of their extremely pre- carious means of subsistence. A hard frost or a sudden gale meant the utter destruction and loss of the crop. In or about the year 1870, Mr. Augustus Smith, lord proprietor of the isles of Scilly, advised some of his tenants to send a con- signment of narcissus flowers to Covent Garden market. The credit of acting upon this advice is shared between Mr. Richard Mumford of Holy Vale and Mr. William Trevellick of Rocky Hill. The first consignment was small and vealized only ^i. Thenceforward, however, for a few years, at Tresco Abbey gardens and on a few farms, flowers were cultivated, but with 1 Pat. Roll, 3 Edw. II, May 10. * This conjecture, which has hitherto been based solely upon the known habits and tastes of the hedges of veronica, escallonia, and privet. The Benedictine monks, receives some support from the flower harvest begins on the islands in January, fact that also on the slopes of St. Michael's Mount the and continues until the end of May. On the variety of the narcissus known as the Scilly White, mainland it is, roughly speaking, ten days or a which grows wild in Scilly, has flourished from time fortnight later. This affords employment to immemorial. Until the reign of Henry IV the ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ children. On the mainland the cultivation of the nar- cissus for the market was first undertaken by Mr. Andrew Lawrey of Varfell, in the parish of Ludgvan, in the year 1885. Since that date flower farms have been formed in the parishes of St. Burian, Gulval, Lelant, Madron, Mylor, and Paul, but Varfell continues to occupy a leading position both for flowers and vegetables in West Cornwall. On the islands little is done by way of manuring the land for narcissus, the chief thing being the separation, removal, and transplanting of the bulbs every three years to prevent deterior- ation. On the mainland, however, sea- weed and bone meal are extensively used. It is also claimed that the heavier soil of Ludgvan and elsewhere produces more robust plants and better blooms than the sandy soil of the islands. In order to protect the flowers from the fierce equinoctial gales the land is cut up into rectangular strips, and these are surrounded by monks of St. Michael's Mount and those of Tresco were of the same order — the order of St. Benedict. It was Henry V who granted St. Michael's to the abbess and convent of Syon {Cal. of Pat. 2 Henry VI, p. 205). Assuming therefore a Benedictine origin for the flower, its introduction to Scilly and St. Michael's Mount must have taken place in or before the beginning of the fifteenth century. From recent enquiries which the writer has caused to be instituted The flowers are gathered and tied up in bunches of twelve each, and are then packed in boxes and sent to most of the large towns of the United Kingdom. The price of the flowers varies ; early in the season a dozen bunches will fetch as much as 3;. or 45., late in the season the price will sometimes be less than one-third of that sum. The narcissus is not cultivated ex- at the Jardin des Plantes it would appear that the ^e^sively under glass except at Tresco, where a Scilly White is also found growing wild on Mont St Michel, the seat of the original foundation of the Benedictine order — a further corroboration of the theory that the Benedictines introduced the narcissus into Cornwall. * Dante, Paradise, xxii, 44. flower crop, followed by tomatoes, has proved very remunerative. The varieties of the nar- cissus which may be considered indigenous to * The writer is indebted to the Great Western Railway for these returns. 579 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL Scilly are : — The Scilly IVhite^ and the old thing more than this has been attempted and has English daffodil (both of which grew in abun- been achieved. The magnificent collections of dance at Holy Vale, Newford, Trenoweth, and rhododendrons (sikkims) and other effective trees elsewhere on the islands), and Grand Monarque^ and shrubs at Tregothnan, Heligan, Killiow, of which great quantities were to be found on Carclew, Tremough, and Pentillie Castle (which Garrison Hill. For some years the only other is also famed for its azaleas), the flowering sub- varieties cultivated were : — Soleil d'or^ Glorioso^ tropical shrubs and orange trees of Mount and Ornatus. Every year, however, brought fresh Edgcumbe, the sub-tropical shrubs and plants of cultivators into the field, and new varieties to the Tresco, Menabilly, Killiow, Trewidden, and stock, which now number over 200. The chief Penjerrick, the herbaceous and Alpine plants of varieties in addition to those already mentioned, Trehane and Ludgvan Rectory, the flowering which are extensively grown, are : — Sir JVatkirty shrubs and tree ferns of Caerhayes and Bosahan ; Horsfeldii^ Emperor^ EmpresSy Sir Henry Irving, these are but a few of the many gardens in Corn- Princepsy Golden Spur, and Incomparabilis. Of wall which bear witness to the perseverance, these Princeps znA Incomparabilis crop heavily only enterprise, and knowledge of the owners of those once in three years. Time brings its revenges, famous houses. and Holland which formerly supplied the bulk of Equally important, if somewhat less interest- the bulbs for Cornish cultivation is now a large ing, is the cultivation of vegetables. The West importer of Cornish bulbs. The Cornwall Cornwall potato trade has been in existence Spring Show in April, and the Scilly Flower since the year 1820, but it is only within the Show, which formerly took place in March, have last twenty-five years that market gardeners have done much to encourage this industry both by given special attention to it. It is noteworthy, calling attention to the beauty and perfection of however, that as soon as their efforts were the flowers grown in Cornwall, and by intro- directed towards the growing of early potatoes ducing Cornish growers to new varieties of the they met with complete success. The fact that narcissus. potatoes could be produced in the open eight or The narcissus is not the only flower grown for ten weeks earlier in Scilly than in the Midland sale. Before its cultivation was seriously re- counties led to extensive operations, not only on solved upon, the wall-flower had been profitably the islands but also on the sunny southern slopes grown for years. At the present time besides of West Cornwall. At first round potatoes wall-flowers and narcissi (and, to a much less were tilled, but very soon these gave place to extent, tulips, freesias, hyacinths, ixias, and spar- Myatt's Early Ashleaf and other modern axis), the gladiolus, iris, and violet on the main- varieties. The seed potatoes usually arrive in land, and the arum, marguerite, and blood-red October. They are immediately placed in a anemone on the islands, are grown in great pro- storeroom to shoot, and are planted in January fusion. Moreover there is good reason to believe and February. On the islands fishing nets are that owing to its mild and salubrious climate the used as a protection against the devastating inhabitants of West Cornwall especially will in winds which sweep across the islands in early years to come be drawn more and more strongly spring. The potato season extends from the towards an industry which already affords employ- beginning of May to the end of June. The ment to a very large number of persons of both average yield per acre on well-cultivated farms sexes, and which, involving as it does the con- of elvan soils amounts to 10 tons in May and stant exercise of the powers of observation and to 14 tons in June. On the islands, however, no little scientific knowledge, seems eminently it is much less. The crop depends largely upon suited to the genius of the Cornish people. That the amount of manure supplied, a ton of guano it can become a source of considerable profit, and 160 loads of dressing to the acre being used wherever intelligence and industry are found where a heavy crop is expected. The cultivation combined, is beyond question. of potatoes under glass is not generally adopted. So far the cultivation of flowers has been Now that steam navigation has replaced the treated exclusively as a source of profit. With- slower methods of transit and the cost of freight out going into detail, however, it may be allow- is so small, a supply of early potatoes, grown in able, at this point, to call attention to the excep- the open, can be procured from abroad for the tional interest which attaches to the gardens of greater part of the year ; and hence there is no some of the larger country seats in the county. likelihood of artificial modes of cultivation ever The same conditions which have contributed to becoming general. The railway company's the profitable cultivation of flowers have also returns, hereunder given, represent approximately contributed to the singular success which has the potato crop of West Cornwall for the years attended the efforts of those who have grown referred to : — flowers and shrubs as a source of pleasure and Tons sent off by train. recreation, and as affording a subject for scienti- 1 901 4,600 fie study. Wherever the gardener's art is 1902 6,100 allowed free scope, pretty and picturesque effects 1903 ^j300 can always be obtained ; but in Cornwall some- 1904 5,200 t^So INDUSTRIES No sooner has the potato crop been gathered than preparations are made for the planting of cauliflower and broccoli.^ This accordingly takes place from the middle to the end of June, the seeds having been sown about the middle of March. A continuous supply of these vegetables is secured from November to April by selecting several varieties of seed. For the successful cultivation of broccoli, heavy soil is chosen and ammoniacal manure is used. Reckoning 1 00 crates to the acre, and 14 crates to the ton, land suitably chosen will yield between 7 and 8 tons to the acre. The farmer seldom gathers his own broccoli harvest. It pays him better to receive ^^15 to ^^20 per acre for the standing crop than to cut, pack, and send it off in crates ; while at the same time the buyer, whose opera- tions usually extend over a wide area, is enabled to meet the demands of the markets by a steady and constant supply. The amount of broccoli from West Cornwall (chiefly from the parishes of Gulval, Madron, Paul, Lelant, Ludgvan, St. Ives, and St. Burian) during the last five years is supplied by the following table : — Tons of broccoli sent off by train. I9OI 16,900 1902 15,200 1903 17,000 1904 14,400 1905 19,100 From this it will be seen how extensively this vegetable is cultivated and also that its cultivation is steadily increasing. Asparagus is grown successfully at Tregirls, near Padstow, at Varfell in Ludgvan, and, on a smaller scale, in a few other places. Lack of capital deters many from engaging in this very profitable industry. Four years — the time required for the plants to mature — is considered too long a time to wait for a return. At the same time, it is agreed by all who have given attention to the subject, that the deep sandy loamy soils bordering the Cornish coast, well manured from time to time with seaweed and shell sand, are especially adapted for the culture of asparagus ; and here it may be noted that seaweed as a manure is valuable for every crop, and is very extensively used by market gardeners. It requires to be buried immediately, otherwise the potash, its chief fertilizing ingredient, escapes. * A note in the Bath and West of England Journal, by the late Rev. Thomas Phillpotts, of Porthgwidden, explains the origin of this industry. It states that Mr. Dupen, of Hayle, in the year 1836, took to Bristol, in a boat which plied between those ports, 4 dozen of broccoli and sold them at a profit. On his next voyage, in the same year, he took 14 dozen. In the following year one Temby, of Redruth, bought a consignment of broccoli from Benjamin Roberts, of Boscathnoe, and disposed of the same in London. 58 At Tregirls asparagus farm as much as 'js. ()d. has been obtained for early cuttings of 1 00 sticks, and the price seldom falls below 2s. At Varfell lOO sticks have been known to weigh as much as 16^ lb. Seakale is another vegetable which thrives in Cornwall. It has been and is still grown in various places with good results. Tomatoes, owing to the humidity of the atmosphere, seldom ripen in the open ; but under glass, following an early crop of flowers or other vegetables, they have been found profitable. Formerly cucumbers yielded a large margin of profit, as much as 20s. a dozen having been obtained ; but now, owing to the general intro- duction of glass-houses, the supply has increased and the price is no longer sufliicient to induce gardeners to devote much attention to their cultivation. Fruit-growing is also an important industry. In West Cornwall it has never been extensive, and is probably declining. The raspberry has suffered from the weevil pest, and the strawberry and currant are less cultivated than they were fifty years ago. In Kea parish the plum orchards are still famous both for the black Kea plum, which is peculiar to that parish, and also for red and grey varieties, the latter of which resembles the greengage, though somewhat smaller, and is valuable principally because it is the first to ripen. Apples are grown chiefly in the hundred of Stratton. In East Cornwall fruit-growing has assumed considerable dimensions, and now ranks amongst its most profitable industries. To a successful and well-known horticulturist to whose enter- prise ^ the district owes much of its present prosperity, the writer is indebted for the following account of the industry. The district in which cherries (mazzards), strawberries, and raspberries are largely grown comprises the land adjoining or within three miles of the Tamar, from Saltash to Horsebridge in Stoke Climsland ; and embraces the parishes of St. Stephen's by Saltash, Botusfleming, Pillaton, St. Mellion, Landulph, St. Dominick, Calstock, and Stoke Climsland. Of the fruit grown, by far the most important is the straw- berry, of which the annual output from the district named is, at present, from 200 to 300 tons. Next in importance is the raspberry, which produces from 100 to 150 tons annually, and realizes on an average about £21 per ton, the cost of gathering amounting to about 25 per cent. At the time of the fruit harvest work is so urgent that very high wages are paid, women and children earning 35. and men 45. per day. It is doubtful if cherry-growing has increased during the last thirty years. The cherry is the most uncertain of fruits, and, unlike other fruit, » Mr. J. W. Lawrey, J.P., C.C., of Calstock. A HISTORY OF CORNWALL does not find a ready sale beyond the two westernmost counties. In connexion with the cultivation of straw- berries the punnet-making industry has attained to large dimensions. Almost all the fruit sold for dessert purposes is sent to market in small chip baskets (punnets) containing less than i lb. each. These are packed in cases which hold 4j dozen punnets. The demand for these latter is so great as to provide work for all the women and children of the district during the winter months. As the result of the fruit industry the rent of land suitable for the purpose has doubled and in some cases quadrupled in value. Both fruit-growers and labourers have prospered. As regards the latter, the high wages earned by the men, supplemented by the earn- ings of their wives and children, enable them to live in a way unknown to the ordinary peasant. A beginning has also been made in the cultivation of tomatoes under glass, and the results obtained warrant the belief that it will be greatly extended. The effect of the fruit industry generally upon the intelligence of the people is also very marked. Besides educating the faculty of observation, the daily business done with persons at a distance has given the inhabitants a wider outlook than that possessed by those who only trade with their neighbours, so that, in every way, fruit- growing has proved a blessing to the entire district.* THE FISHERIES Although * Mackrell ' are mentioned by R. Carew ^ among the fish taken off the coast of Cornwall as early as 1602, the taking of them was apparently at that time a matter of small importance in comparison with the pilchard fishery. Dr. Borlase,^ writing in 1758, mentions that ' the mackrel is taken in great plenty on the southern coast of Cornwall ' ; but it would seem, from his observation that the fish is * not only of use when fresh, but is salted and pickled and kept all the winter to the great relief of the poor,' that there was no sale except in the immediate local market. This was, no doubt, due to the difficulties of transport. The fact that such enormous quantities of these fish are to be found in the western waters in the spring must have been attracting attention very soon after Dr. Borlase's time, and the know- ledge of this led to efforts to convey the fish to larger and more distant markets. In 181 5 Dr. Paris ^ remarked of Mousehole and Newlyn that 'the pilchard and mackerel fisheries are here carried on to a very great extent . . . and in the early part of the season they supply the London market with mackerel which are conveyed by way of Portsmouth.* The trade thus once established grew steadily in importance, and as a consequence the boats engaged increased both in size and numbers, decked boats of 40 ft. keel and upwards taking the place of the smaller open or half-decked boats previously used. In 1850 a lugger large enough to carry 1,400 fathoms (more than a mile and a half) of nets was fitted out at Polperro.'* The opening of through railway communication between Penzance and London in 1859 naturally had a great effect on an industry to which quick transport is so essential. 'In i860 fish to the ^ R. Carew, Surv. o/Cofnzv. 35. " D. W, Borlase, Naf. Hist, of Comw. 269. ' A Guide to Mount's Bay, 72. * J. Couch, The Hist, of Polperro (1871), 113. value of j^8 0,000 was sent from the Land's End district to the London and large provincial markets.'" Mr. Edmonds, writing in 1862, says ' there has never been so great a number of men employed in building large fishing boats in Mount's Bay as during the last year or two . . . the boats, too, which are now built are larger by some tons than their predecessors.' About 1875 the number of boats engaged was between 300 and 400, including several from Lowestoft and other ports on the east coast of England, which had then recently begun to come west for this object. At that time the quantity of fish landed was on an average about fifty tons per day amounting to 3,000 or 4,000 tons for the whole season, while each boat carried from a half to three-quarters of a mile of nets. The number of boats coming from the east coast to take part has steadily increased, and since 1896 they have come from Yarmouth and other ports, as well as Lowestoft. During the last three or four years a large number of steam- boats from the east coast ports have taken part. These are much larger craft than the sailing boats, and carry as much as three miles of nets each. The number of boats engaged in this parti- cular fishery during the season of 1905 was estimated at 500, of which 20 hailed from * Beyond a few newspaper notices and magazine articles, very little has been written upon horticulture as a Cornish industry. For this reason the writer is especially indebted to the following gentlemen who have generously given him the benefit of their know- ledge and experience in the composition of the foregoing article : — The Rev. A. T. Boscawen, of Ludgvan Rectory ; Mr. J. C. Daubuz, of Killiow ; Mr. Andrew Lawrey, of Varfell ; Mr. W. M. Gluyas, of Scilly ; Mr. J. W. Lawrey, of Calstock ; and Mr. R. M. Martyn, of Padstow. To Mr. T. A. Williams, of the G.W.R. Office, Penzance, he is indebted for the statistics of the flowers and vegetables sent by train. ® R. Edmonds, The Lanis End District {1^62), 226. 582 INDUSTRIES Porthleven, 80 from Newlyn, 50 from Mouse- near the shore in the bays on the south coast hole, 80 from St. Ives, and 270, of which the during the summer in small schools, each of majority (more than 200) were steamers, from which is a number of fish from 5,000 down, Lowestoft, Yarmouth, and the other east coast travelling in a crowd huddled together. They ports. are then caught in seines made and kept for the In quantities of fish the season of 1905 was purpose. Unlike the drift fishery, most of the unprecedented. The total value of fish of all mackerel seine fishery is to the east of the kinds landed at Newlyn for the three months Lizard, and out of some forty-seven seines thirty- March, April, and May was j^i 68,000. This one are at these ports and sixteen in Mount's includes trawl fish, but the mackerel represent Bay,* and none at St. Ives. In addition to these probably at least three-quarters of the total, and large industries mackerel, which are to be caught this would mean about 30,000 tons of fish, all the year round, are taken on hand lines, but giving an average of 400 tons or 600,000 fish the quantity landed from this source is insignifi- per day.^ In consequence of the enormous cant, and is readily absorbed in the locality where catches, the fish were selling on several occasions they are caught. in May at is. per 120,^ and large quantities were The pilchard fishery, which is now second in carted oflF for use as manure. In addition to the importance to the spring mackerel fishery, was fish landed it was estimated that not less than until about thirty years ago the most important, 500,000, for which no sale could be obtained, in as it is by far the oldest. There is no record of consequence of the glutted condition of the its origin, but in 1594 it was of sufficient im- market, were thrown overboard from the fishing- portance to be recognized in an Act of Parlia- boats into the sea. ment (35 Eliz. c. xi), which provided that no This spring mackerel fishery, which has now stranger should transport any ' pilchers ' or other become one of the great industries of England, is fish in cask unless such person should previously carried on by drift nets exclusively, and the have brought in a proportionate amount of habits of the fish which lead them to congregate * Clapboard fit for cask or else of Cask.' in enormous numbers oflf the extreme south- Richard Carew ® mentions that in his time western coast make Newlyn in Mount's Bay the pilchards were exported to France, Spain, and natural headquarters and the fish market. The Italy. He gives no figures of the quantity of fish appear first at the end of February or the fish caught or exported, but he states clearly beginning of March to the south of the Lizard, that ' the deare Sale beyond the seas ' affected and gradually move westward, until at the end of both the supply and the prices in the local May they are found to the south and west of the markets. In more recent times the bulk of the isles of Scilly. export trade has been to Italy. The fishery Mr. Pezzack reported that in the middle of flourished steadily through the seventeenth and May, 1905, the fish extended over an area of the eighteenth centuries, and Dr. Borlase, in more than 100 miles west-south-west of the 1758, after a short account of the method in Wolf, and in such quantities that although the which the fish were caught, wrote concerning the catches were enormous and continuous the shoal pilchard that ' ships are often freighted hither did not appear to diminish. In addition to the with salt, and into foreign Countries with the fish caught on the south and west which are fish carrying off at the same time part of our tin, landed at Newlyn, a considerable quantity are The usual produce of this beneficial article in taken in the mouth of the Bristol Channel to money is as follows : — By an exact computation the north-west of St. Ives by drift boats from of the number of hogsheads exported each year that port. The season comes to an end with for ten years, from 1747 to 1756 inclusive, from the month of May, when the great mass of fish the four ports of Fawy, Falmouth, Penzance, and disappears. In some years they come off the St. Ives, it appears that Fawy has exported yearly coast again in the autumn in sufficient quantities i>732 hogsheads, Falmouth 14,63 if, Penzance to enable the large boats to use their drift nets. and Mount's Bay 12,149^, St. Ives 1,282 ; in There are altogether in the ports of Cornwall all amounting to 29,795 hogsheads. Every hogs- about 300 boats engaged in the mackerel drift- head for ten years last past, together with the net fishery, of which about sixty are east of the bounty allowed for each hogshead exported, and Lizard, 150 in Mount's Bay, and eighty at St. the oyl made out of each hogshead, has amounted, Ives.^ one year with another at an average, to the price Mackerel appear in considerable quantities of one Pound sixteen shillings and threepence, so , ^, . . , ^ , , T that the cash paid for pilchards exported has at a 'These figures are from the report of Mr. T. ,• ,, ^ j ^ ^u c r ■o 1 .u £ u a: c r< 11 r^ medmm annually amounted to the Sum of Pezzack, the fishery omcer of Cornwall County /. > 6 Council. £49)532 loj. » Mackerel are always counted by the 'hundred,' Pilchards have always been counted by the which contains 120 fish, or in large quantities by the hogshead, and the uncertamty as to the exact *last,' which contains 10,000. They are sold by the * hundred.' * Ibid. * R. Carew, Surv. ofComw. 35. ' Mr. Pezzack' s Report. « Borlase, Nat. Hist. zj'^. 583 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL size of this measure at difF^ent times makes it square nets athwart the tide thorou which the somewhat difficult to compare the figures of one schoell of pilchard passing leave many behind period with those of another. About 1600 the entangled in the meshes'; a short but accurate contents of the hogshead were apparently mea- description equally applicable to the drift fishery sured by the number of fish, for Richard Carew ^ now. says that ' on packing they keepe a juste tale of It would seem from his remark that ' the the number that every hogshead contayneth, Sayners complayne with open mouth, that these which otherwise may turn to the marchants pre- drovers worke much prejudice to the common iudice : for I have heard that when they are wealth of fishermen and reape thereby small gaine brought to the place for sale, the buyer openeth to themselves ; for (say they) the taking of some one hogshead at adventures ; and if hee finde the few breaketh and scattereth the whole Schools same not to answere the number figured on the and frayeth them from approaching the shore outside he abateth a like proportion in every . . . ,' as though the drift fishery was at that other, as there wanted in that.* time a comparatively new thing, but he does not But the traditional size of a hogshead of pil- say so definitely. As the pilchard fishery is chards is 4^ cwt.^ when packed, and as the oldest everywhere conducted close to the shore, and in of the fishermen learnt this from their fathers and the bays on the coast, the boats engaged in the grandfathers, it may be fairly assumed that the drift-net work are much smaller than the hogshead of Dr. Borlase's time was of this mackerel drivers, being usually about thirty feet capacity. It contains about 3,000 fish, and this long ; even smaller boats are sometimes used, and gives an annual average export in the middle of the men go out driving in the fine summer even- the eighteenth century of more than eighty-nine ings in open hookers or gigs of as little as twenty- millions of fish. two or twenty-five feet. One hundred years later the average an- St. Ives has the largest number of these pil- nual export was 21,732 hogsheads,^ or about chard drivers, the total being about 200. A large sixty-five millions of fish. In 1847 the total number of these come to Newlyn in July, as at was 40,883 hogsheads (l22 millions of fish), that time the fish are more plentiful on the south which is probably the largest on record for a coast, returning to St. Ives in August, as the single year. quantity of fish increases on that side of the In consequence of a decreasing demand for the land, fish by Italian markets, and an increase in the The Mount's Bay ports have about 170 boats pilchard fishery off the north-west coast of Spain, (Porthleven 90, Mousehole 50, Newlyn 30), and the export from Cornwall has diminished to a there is a goodly fleet of about 60 at Port Isaac, great extent in the last thirty years. The fish which are largely engaged in pilchard driving in are still plentiful enough, and, as Mr. T. Cornish the autumn. In the ports east of the Lizard said in 1883,* 'we could easily find thirty or there are altogether about lOO® (Polperro 40, forty millions of fish for the supply of a fresh Mevagissey 30, Looe 20), and many of these fish market without feeling the loss of them.' boats are also used for the local mackerel drift The pilchard is a small fish of the ' herring ' fishery, which is not the case west of the Lizard, family, generally about ten inches long, and less where the smaller boats are not suitable, than half a pound in weight. Although it is The pilchard seine fishery is even more of an occasionally caught off Exmouth and Seaton in inshore fishery than the drift. The seines are of South Devon, it practically confines itself to the the same kind as are used everywhere, but have coast west of the Start Point in Devonshire and a smaller mesh than those used for mackerel, and Trevose Head in Cornwall. In these waters it the method of saving the fish is slightly different, usually appears in July, coming from the west in In catching mackerel the seine, when shot round large schools. A small quantity of scattered fish the school, is towed into shallow water, and the are sometimes taken in the drift nets in June. foot of the net hauled up into the seine boat so During July the bulk of the fishery is in as to enclose the fish in the net itself ; but the Mount's Bay ; in August and September, in enormous size of a school of pilchards,^ com- Mount's Bay and to the east of the Lizard ; and pared with one of mackerel, makes this method in September and October, chiefly off St. Ives and impracticable in dealing with the local fish, the north coast. When the fish are safely surrounded by the seine, It is caught both in drift nets and in seines, and the methods in use to-day are the same as , ^''- P'^'^^f' ^'P''^\' .1 1- 1 • ' T ^ * A school of mackerel averages from 2,000 to C, 000 those which were m use 300 years ago. In 1602 r 1 a u 1 r 1 u j »u »u . r • ■n r^ 1 / 1 T-. P ■ nsh. A school 01 pilchards on the south coast (i.e. in R. Carew wrote that 'the Drouers hang certain ^^^ ^^^j^ p^^, „f JJ^^ ^^^^^^^ ,^,,,g,3 1^33 ,},,„ ^^^ ^ R. Carew, Surv. of Cornw. 33. hogsheads, or 1,500,000 fish ; on the north (i.e. the * Of recent years the fish have been packed in later part of the season) they are usually larger. The * half-hogsheads,' each containing 236 lb. greatest recorded number taken in one seine was at * Trans. Penzance Nat. Hist. Soc. i, 444. St. Ives in 1868, when 5,600 hogsheads, or more than ** The Mackerel and Pilchard Fisheries.' Inter- 16,500,000 fish, were saved. Almost as many were national Fisheries Exhibition Conference, 1883. taken there in one seine in 185 1. 584 INDUSTRIES another net called the * tuck-net ' is passed under tinuall fire, from whence they purchased the name the fish inside the seine itself, and the fish are of fumados ; but now, though the terme still lifted bodily to the surface and so taken into the remaine, that trade is given over . . . . ' and the boats. fish were packed in hogsheads just as they are At all the chief places of the pilchard seine to-day. fishery the local fishing ground is divided by The herring is an inhabitant of the cold water, shore marks into regular areas or ' stems,' and the and is not found off the coast of Cornwall in such boats take up their stations on these * stems ' in quantities as in the northern and eastern waters regular rotation. When a school of fish comes of England. In fact Cornwall lies across the into the * stem ' the boat whose turn it then extreme southern limit of the range of this fish happens to be has the first right to shoot her net. so exactly, that whereas there is a regular herring This custom, intended to prevent quarrelling fishery from the ports on the north coast, amongst the seiners, was of great service in the especially Port Isaac and St. Ives in the late days when there were large numbers of pilchard autumn, it is only occasionally that they are seines in use, and is enforced at St. Ives by an taken in any quantity on the south coast. It is Act of Parliament.^ curious that the southern limit of the range of The seine fishery for pilchards has declined the herring is so closely identified with the very largely in the last twenty or thirty years, northern limit of the range of the warm water and there are now fewer boats engaged in the pilchard. St. Ives is the chief centre of the whole county than there formerly were at St. Cornish herring fishery, and there the average Ives alone. The total now is about forty-four, annual export amounts to about 2,000 tons, or of which ten are at St. Ives, twelve at Cadgwith perhaps six millions of fish. They are caught and MuUion on either side of the Lizard, the exclusively in drift nets, and usually in the only four in Mount's Bay are at Porthleven, larger boats, but in some seasons the fish are there are nine in the coves near Falmouth, and so near the shore that open boats and large gigs single ones at Penberth, Porthgwarra, and New- can be used. The fish are sent to English quay, and six at Sennen, whose fishing ground is markets by rail, in Whitsand Bay, near the Land's End.^ The common shellfish, crab, lobster, and The fish intended for export were until crayfish, are caught all round the coast, and the recently prepared by a method known as *bulk- fishing employs about 370 boats, the majority of ing,' which had been used for more than 300 which (about 250) are in the ports east of the years ; they were placed in the fish cellars in Lizard on the south coast, the largest number layers with alternate layers of salt, and pressed being at Mevagissey. This distribution of the with heavy weights until the oil and blood were fleet is probably due not to any absence of the driven out, which result was attained in two or fish from the western or northern waters, but to three weeks. The fish were then taken out and the fact that the sea to the east of the Lizard is washed and packed in hogsheads and again more sheltered, and not so continuously troubled pressed. For some years now it has become the by the great seas and strong tides which make more usual practice to put the fish with salt into fishing in small open boats so precarious off the large tanks and leave them for some two or three cliffs and headlands of the south-western and weeks until they are thoroughly pickled, instead northern shores. Of late years a considerable of * bulking,' and to press them with screw presses number of French fishing boats from the neigh- when they are in the hogsheads. bourhood of Brest have been employed in taking The oil, of which the pilchard contains an shellfish in the deep waters off the coast, especially enormous quantity in proportion to its size, is between the Land's End and the isles of Scilly, collected in tanks, and finds a steady sale in with success. These are decked boats of about English markets. twenty or thirty tons, while the local boats are The fish, when packed in this manner, are usually open boats of about twenty-five feet in called locally ' fermades ' (fumados), a name length. The fish are caught in crabpots, those derived from the fact that at one time they were made of withy being most commonly used. The smoked ; the term still survives, although that season is confined to the summer months, method of curing went out of use more than 300 The grey mullet has a habit of congregating years ago. in an enormous school at Whitsand Bay, by the R. Carew,^ after describing the custom of Land's End, and sometimes in the smaller bights ' bulking,' which was the same in his time (1602) of the coast between that and St. Ives, in the as it is now, adds * those that serve for the hotter winter months. The fish are often seen lying Countries of Spaine and Italic they used at first for many days in some inaccessible place under to fume by hanging them up on long sticks one the clifife, and the men wait until the school by one in a house built for the nonce, and there moves into shoaler water over a sandy bottom drying them with the smoake of a soft and con- where they can shoot a seine. A catch when it occurs is a great boon to the local fishermen, as ' 4 & 5 Vic. c. 57. " Mr. Pezzack's Report. the fish are taken in many thousands and sell for ' Carew, Surv. ofComw. as much as 10^. or \i. each at the boat side, and I 585 74 A HISTORY OF CORNWALL this at the time of the year when no other fishing quantities of the large pollack (a fish which is possible. The fish are exported to French reaches a size of as much as 15 or 1 6 lb., and is markets. locally esteemed a great delicacy) and conger, with The deep-sea trawling off the coast is carried other bottom fish, on chiefly by the large trawlers from Plymouth The oyster fishery in the Helford estuaries and Brixham, and much fish from this source is and the several creeks of the Fal was at one time landed at Newlyn in the spring and early sum- a large and remunerative industry, but from mer ; but many of these boats, which are much various reasons has fallen off very considerably, larger than those of the local fleets, carry their Of late years there has been a fair improvement, catches to their home ports. A small amount of and about twenty-five boats are engaged more or trawling is done by local boats near the shore, less regularly at the work. especially in Mount's Bay. With the exception of Falmouth, where the Trammels are chiefly used by the crabbers to boats used are the well-known yawl-rigged Kca catch Ballan Wrasse (locally known as John Ray punts, and Mevagissey and Polperro, where or Jocky Ralph) and other coarse fish for use as many of the boats are cutter-rigged, the Cornish bait in the crabpots, but the surmullet, pollack, fishermen, as a whole, adhere to the old-fashioned and other high-class fish caught command a ready dipping lugsail for their boats, in defiance of the market. common opinion that the inconvenience of work- There is a small number of boats employed ing these sails more than outweighs their in fishing with boulters, catching considerable undoubted sailing qualities. 586 ,,?f",9"|*M YOUNG UNIVERSITY 3 1197 20227 6439 Date Due A" library i.e.s are subjecco recall a, an, rin.e. Brigham Young Univereity