GOL,D\VIN SMITH HARRIE.T°SJ>\ITM TTbe Dtctotia 1FMstor\> of the Counties of JStiQlanb EDITED BY H. ARTHUR DOUBLEDAY AND WILLIAM PAGE F.S.A. A HISTORY OF ESSEX VOLUME I A HISTORY OF ESSEX IN FOUR VOLUMES EDITED BY H. ARTHUR DOUBLEDAY AND WILLIAM PAGE F.S.A. THE VICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND ESSEX WESTMINSTER ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY LIMITED This History is issued to Subscribers only By Archibald Constable W Company Limited and printed by Butler iff Tanner of Frame and London INSCRIBED TO THE MEMORY OF HER LATE MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA WHO GRACIOUSLY GAVE THE TITLE TO AND ACCEPTED THE DEDICATION OF THIS HISTORY THE ADVISORY COUNCIL OF THE VICTORIA HISTORY Hit GRACE THE BEDFORD, K.G. Praident of tbi Zoological Society His GRACE THE DUKE OP DEVON- SHIRK, K.G. Chancellor of tbi Univeriily of Cam- bridge His GRACE THE DUKE OF RUTLAND, K.G. His GRACE THE DUKE OF PORTLAND, K.G. His GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.T. THE MOST HON. THE MARQUESS OF SALISBURY, K.G. Chancellor of tbi Univtrtity of Oxford THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF ROSEBERY, K.G., K.T. THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF COVENTRY President of tbi Royal Agricultural Society THE RT. HON. Tm VISCOUNT DILLON President of tbi Society of Antiquaries THE RT. HON. THE LORD LISTER Late President of tbi Royal Socitty THE RT. HON. THE LORD AL- TERSTONE, G.C.M.G. Lord Cbief Justice General DUKE OF THE HON. WALTER ROTHSCHILD, COL. DUNCAN A. JOHNSTON M.P. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. Director of the British Museum SIR CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.S.A. President of the Royal Geographical Society SIR HENRY C. MAXWELL-LYTE, K.C.B., M.A., F.S.A., ETC. Keeper of tbi Puttie Records COL. SIR J. FARQUHARSON, K.C.B. SIR Jos. HOOKER, G.C. S.I. , M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., ETC. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D., F.R.S., ETC. REV. J. CHARLES Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. LIONEL CUST, ESQ., M.A., M.V.O., F.S.A., ETC Director of the National Portrait Gallery ALBERT C. L.G. GUNTHER, M.A., F.R.S., M.D., PH.D. Late President of the Linnean Society Director General of tbi Ordnance Survey PROF. E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A., F.R.S., ETC. Director of tbi Natural History Museum, Soutb Kensington REGINALD L. POOLS, ESQ., M.A. University Lecturer in Diplomatic, Oxford F. YORK POWELL, ESQ., M.A., F.S.A., ETC. Regiut Profeuor of Modern History, Oxford J. HORACE ROUND, ESQ., M.A. WALTER RYE, ESQ. W.H.ST. JOHN HOPE, ESQ., M.A. Auiitant Secretary of rbe Society of Antiauaria Among the original members of the Council were THE LATE DR. MANDELL CREIGH- TON, BISHOP OP LONDON THE LATE DR. STUBBS, BISHOP OF OXFORD THE LATE LORD ACTON and THE LATE SIR WILLIAM FLOWER Editor, of the Series { H,;]ARTHUR DouB"D*Y WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. GENERAL ADVERTISEMENT The VICTORIA HISTORY of the Counties of England is a National Historic Survey, which, under the direction of a large staff comprising the foremost students in science, history, and archarology, is designed to record the history of every county of England in detail. This work was, by gracious permission, dedicated to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria, who gave it her own name. It is the endeavour of all who are associated with the undertaking to make it a worthy and permanent monument to her memory. Rich as every county of England is in materials for local history, there has hitherto been no attempt made to bring all these materials together into a coherent form. Although from the seventeenth century down to quite recent times numerous county histories have been issued, they are very unequal in merit ; the best of them are very rare and costly ; most of them are imperfect and all are now out of date. Moreover they were the work of one or two isolated scholars, who, however able, could not possibly deal adequately with all the varied subjects which go to the making of a county history. I VII In the VICTORIA HISTORY each county is not the labour of one or two men, but of several hundred, for the work is treated scientifically, and in order to embody in it all that modern scholarship can contribute, a system of co-operation between experts and local students is applied, whereby the history acquires a completeness and definite authority hitherto lacking in similar undertakings. THE SCOPE OF THE WORK The history of each county will be complete in itself, and its story will be told from the earliest times, commencing with the natural features and the flora and fauna. Thereafter will follow the antiquities, pre-Roman, Roman and post-Roman ; a new translation and critical study of the Domesday Survey ; articles on political, ecclesiastical, social and economic history ; architecture, arts, industries, biography, folk-lore and sport. The greater part of each history will be devoted to a detailed description and history of each parish, containing an account of the land and its owners from the Conquest to the present day. These manorial histories will be compiled from original documents in the national collections and from private papers. A special feature will be the wealth of illustrations afforded, for not only will all buildings of interest be pictured, but the coats of arms of past and present landowners will be given. HISTORICAL RESEARCH It has always been, and still is, a reproach to us that England, with a collection of public records greatly exceeding in extent and interest those of any other country in Europe, is yet far behind her neighbours in the study of the genesis and growth of her national and local institutions. Few Englishmen are probably aware that the national and local archives contain for a period of 800 years in an almost unbroken chain of evidence, ' not only the political, ecclesiastical, and constitutional history of the kingdom, but every detail of its financial and social progress and the history of the land and its successive owners from generation to generation.' The neglect of our public and local records is no doubt largely due to the fact that their interest and value is known to but a small number of people. But this again is directly attributable to the absence in this country of any endowment for historical research such as is to be found among other cultured nations. The government of this country has always left to private enterprise work which our continental neighbours entrust to a government department. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that although an immense amount of work has been done by individual effort, the entire absence of organization among the workers and the lack of intelligent direction has robbed the results of much of their value. In the VICTORIA HISTORY, for the first time, a serious attempt is made to utilize our national and local muniments to the best advantage by carefully organizing and supervising the researches required. Under the direction of the Records Committee a large staff of experts is engaged at the Public Record Office in calendaring those classes of records which are most fruitful in material for local history, and by a system of interchange of communication among local editors each county gains a mass of information which otherwise would be lost. THE RECORDS COMMITTEE SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B. C. T. MARTIN, B.A., F.S.A. SIR HENRY MAXWELL-LYTE, K.C.B. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A. W. J. HARDY, F.S.A. S. R. SCARGILL-BIRD, F.S.A. F. MADAN, M.A. W. H. STEVENSON, M.A. F. MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. G. F. WARNER, M.A., F.S.A. Many archaeological, historical and other societies are assisting in the compilation of this work ; and local supervision and aid are secured by the formation in each county, of a County Committee, the president of which is in nearly all cases the Lord Lieutenant. The names of the distinguished men who have joined the Advisory Council are a guarantee that the work will represent the results of the latest discoveries in every department of research. It will be observed that among them are representatives of science ; for the whole trend of modern thought, as influenced by the theory of evolution, favours the intelli- gent study of the past and of the social, institutional and political developments of national life. As these histories are the first in which this object has been kept in view, and modern principles applied, it is hoped that they will form a work of reference no less indispensable to the student than welcome to the man of culture. viii Family History will, both in the Histories and in the supplemental volumes of chart pedigrees, be dealt with by genealogical experts and in the modern spirit. Every effort will be made to secure accuracy of statement, and to avoid the insertion of those legendary pedigrees which have in the past brought discredit on the whole subject. It has been pointed out by the late Bishop of Oxford, a great master of historical research, that ' the expansion and extension of genealogical study is a very remarkable feature of our own times,' that 'it is an increasing pursuit both in America and England,' and that it can render the historian useful service. Heraldry will also in this Series occupy a prominent position, and the splendours of the coat-armour borne in the Middle Ages will be illustrated in colours on a scale that has never been attempted before. The general plan of Contents, and the names of the Sectional Editors (who will co-operate with local workers in every case) are as follows : — Natural History. Geology. By CLIMSNT Run, F.R.S, HORACE B. WOODWA«D, F.R.S, ind others Paleontology. Edited by R. LvDirjcn, F.R.S, etc. ^Contributions by G. A. BOULINGIR, F.R.S, F. O. PICKARD-CAMIRIDGI, M.A, H. N. DIION, F.L.S., Flora I G. C. DRUCI, M.A, F.L.S, WALTIR GARITANG, M.A, F.L.S, HI.II.T COM, F.L.S, F.E.S, Fauna 1 R- '• POCOCK, RET. T.R. R. STIRRING, M.A, F.R.S., etc., B. B. WOOOWAIO, F.G.S, F.R.M.S, V. etc., and other Specialists Prehistoric Remains. Edited by W. BOYD DAWKINI, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S, F.S.A. Roman Remains. Edited by F. HAVIRFIILD, M.A., F.S.A. Anglo-Saxon Remains. Edited by C. Huci-i.it READ, F.S.A, >nd REGINALD A. SMITH, B.A. Ethnography. Edited by G. LAURENCE Gouui, F.S.A. Dialect. Edited by JOSEFH WRIOHT, M.A, Ph.D. Place Names \ Folklore V Contributed by Various Authorities Physical Types I Domesday Book and other kindred Records. Edited by J. HORACE ROUND, M.A. Architecture. By Various Authorities. The Sections on the Cathedrals and Monattic Remains Edited by W. H. ST. JOHN HorE, M.A. Ecclesiastical History. Edited by R. L. Foot*, M.A. Political History. Edited by W. H. STEVENSON, M.A, J. HORACE ROUND, M.A, PROF-. T. F. Tour, M.A., JAMU TAIT, M.A., ind C. H. FIHTH, M.A. History of Schools. Edited by A. F. LEACH, M.A, F.S.A. Maritime History of Coast Counties. Edited by J. K. LAUGHTON, M.A., and M. OrriNHiiu Topographical Accounts of Parishes and Manors. By Various Authorities History of the Feudal Baronage. Edited by J. HORACE ROUND, M-A, and OSWALD BAIION, F.S.A. Family History and Heraldry. Edited by OSWALD BA««ON, F.S.A. Agriculture. Edited by SIR ERNEST CLARKE, M.A, Sec. to the Royal Agricultural Society Forestry. Edited by JOHN NISIET, D.Oic. Industries, Arts and Manufactures Social and Economic History [ By Various Authorities Persons Eminent in Art, Literature, Science Ancient and Modern Sport. Edited by the Duct or BIAUI-OIT Hunting 1 Shooting > By Various Authorities Fishing, etc. J Cricket. Edited by HOMI GORDON Football. Edited by C. W. ALCOCK Bibliographies Indexes Names of the Subscribers ILLUSTRATIONS Among the many thousands of subjects illustrated will be castles, cathedrals and churches, mansions and manor houses, moot halls and market halls, family portraits, etc. Particular attention will be given to the beautiful and quaint examples of architecture which, through decay or from other causes, are in danger of disappearing. The best examples of church brasses, coloured glass, and monumental effigies will be depicted. The Series will also contain 1 60 pictures in photogravure, showing the characteristic scenery of the counties. ix )By Vario CARTOGRAPHY Each History will contain Archaeological, Domesday, and Geological maps ; maps show- ing the Orography, and the Parliamentary and Ecclesiastical divisions ; and the map done by Speed in 1610. The Series will contain about four hundred maps in all. FAMILY HISTORY AND HERALDRY The Histories will contain, in the Topographical Section, manorial pedigrees, and accounts of the noble and gentle families connected with the local history ; and it is proposed to trace, wherever possible, their descendants in the Colonies and the United States of America. The Editors will be glad to receive information which may be of service to them in this branch of the work. The chart family pedigrees and the arms of the families mentioned in the Heralds' Visitations will be issued in a supplemental volume for each county. The Rolls of Arms are being completely collated for this work, and all the feudal coats will be given in colours. The arms of the local families will also be represented in connection with the Topographical Section. In order to secure the greatest possible accuracy in the descriptions of the Architecture, ecclesiastic, military and domestic, a committee has been formed of the following students of architectural history, who will supervise this department of the work : — ARCHITECTURAL COMMITTEE J. BILSON, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A. R. BLOMFIELD W. H. KNOWLES, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. HAROLD BRAKSPEAR, A.R.I.B.A. J. T. MICKLETHWAITE, F.S.A. PROF. BALDWIN BROWN ROLAND PAUL ARTHUR S. FLOWER, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A. GEORGE E. Fox, M.A., F.S.A. PERCY G. STONE, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. J. A. GOTCH, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. THACKERAY TURNER A special feature in connection with the Architecture will be a series of coloured ground plans showing the architectural history of castles, cathedrals and other monastic foundations. Plans of the most important country mansions will also be included. The issue of this work is limited to subscribers on/y, whose names will be printed at the end of each History. THE VICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTY OF ESSEX VOLUME ONE WESTMINSTER 2 WHITEHALL GARDENS 1903 DA v, ! Counts Committee for Eeaey THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF WARWICK Lord Lieutenant^ Chairman THE RT. HON. THK LORD CLAUD J. HAMILTON THE RT. REV. THE LORD BISHOP OF ST. ALBANS THE RT. HON. THE LORD RAYLEIGH THE RT. HON. THE LORD HAWKESBURY THE RT. HON. SIR JOSEPH C. DIMSDALE, BART., M.P. THE RT. HON. JAMES ROUND, M.P. THE HON. CHARLES HEDLEY STRUTT, M.P. SIR THOMAS L. H. NEAVE, BART. SIR WALTER GILBEY, BART. SIR JAMES BLYTH, BART. SIR EDMUND DU CANE, K.C.B. ADMIRAL SIR WILLIAM G. LUARD, K.C.B. SIR H. SEYMOUR KING, K.C.I.E., M.P. THE RT. REV. THE BISHOP OF COLCHESTER THE RT. REV. THE BISHOP OF BARKING THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF CHELMS- FORD THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF COL- CHESTER THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF HARWICH THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF MALDON COL. GEORGE BRAMSTON ARCHER-HOUBLON, J-P. JAMES BAILEY, ESQ., M.P., J.P. THOMAS BARRETT-LENNARD, Esq.,J.P.,D.L. THE REV. R. E. BARTLETT, M.A. G. F. BEAUMONT, ESQ., F.S.A. CHARLES E. BENHAM, ESQ. W. GURNEY BENHAM, ESQ., J.P. G. S. BOULGER, ESQ., F.L.S., F.G.S. E. N. BUXTON, ESQ. FREDERIC CHANCELLOR, ESQ., F.R.I. B.A. MILLER CHRISTY, ESQ., F.L.S. R. BEALE COLVIN, ESQ., J.P., D.L. GEORGE COURTAULD, ESQ., J.P. THE REV. CECIL DEEDES, M.A. CLAUDE E. EGERTON-GREEN, ESQ., M.A., J.P., D.L. E. A. FITCH, ESQ., F.L.S., F.E.S. JOHN LEWIS FFYTCHE, ESQ., F.S.A., J.P., D.L. THE REV. F. W. GALPIN, M.A., F.L.S. A. R. GODDARD, ESQ. I. C. GOULD, ESQ. HORACE G. EGERTON GREEN, ESQ., J.P., D.L. HUGH E. HOARE, ESQ. THOMAS VINCENT HOLMES, ESQ., F.G.S., M.A.I. DAVID HOWARD, ESQ., D.L. ELIOT HOWARD, ESQ., J.P., D.L. HENRY JOSLIN, ESQ., J.P., D.L. COMMANDER KELSO, R.N., J.P., D.L. THE REV. J. W. KENWORTHY FRANK LANDON, ESQ. HENRY LAVER, ESQ., F.S.A., F.L.S. COL. A. R. M. LOCKWOOD, M.P., J.P. GEORGE ALAN LOWNDES, ESQ., J.P., D.L. JAMES H. A. MAJENDIE, ESQ., M.P., J.P., D.L. WILSON MARRIAGE, ESQ., J.P. R. MELDOLA, ESQ., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. MAJOR F. L. NATHAN, R.A. W. NOCTON, ESQ., J.P. THE REV. CANON C. F. NORMAN, M.A., J.P. CHRISTOPHER W. PARKER, ESQ., J.P., D.L. JAMES N. PAXMAN, ESQ., J.P. J. TIMBRELL PIERCE, ESQ., F.R.G.S., J.P., D.L. THE REV. LEWIS N. PRANCE, M.A. J. HORACE ROUND, ESQ., D.L. A. W. RUGGLES-BRISE, ESQ., J.P., D.L. J. C. SHENSTONE, ESQ., F.L.S. CHARLES BROGDEN SPERLING, ESQ., J.P., D.L. C. F. D. SPERLING, ESQ., J.P. COL. NEVILL TUFNELL, J.P., D.L. COL. J. L. TUFNELL-TYRELL, J.P., D.L. W. CHAPMAN WALLER, ESQ., F.S.A. JAMES F. T. WISEMAN, ESQ. xiii CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE Dedication ....... The Advisory Council of the Victoria History . General Advertisement . . . . . The Essex County Committee . Contents ....... List of Illustrations . . . . . . . Preface Natural History Geology .... Palaeontology Botany .... Zoology Marine Mollusca (Snath, etc.) Insecta (Insects) Myriapoda (CentifeJei) . . Arachnida (Spiders) . . . Crustacea (Crabs, etc.) . , Pisces (Fishes) , Reptilia (Reptiles) and Batrachia (Batrachiani) . , Aves (BitJi) . Mammalia (Mammals) . . Early Man Ancient Earthworks . , Anglo-Saxon Remains Introduction to the Essex Domesday Text of the Essex Domesday Index to the Essex Domesday . , PAGE V VII vii xiii XV xvii xix By H. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S. By RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. By J. C. SHENSTONE, F.L.S. . By WALTER GARSTANC, assisted by H. C. SORBY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. . . . By B. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. . . By W. HARWOOD . . . . . ' By R. I. POCOCK . . . . . . - By F. O. PICKARD-CAMBRIDCE, M.A. . . . By the Rev. T. R. R. STEBBINC, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S ..... . . By H. LAVER, J.P., F.S.A., F.L.S., M.R.C.S. . ,, „ . . By MILLER CHRISTY, F.L.S ...... By H. LAVER, J.P., F.S.A., F.L.S., M.R.C.S. . By GEO. F. BEAUMONT, F.S.A., and I. CHALKLEY GOULD . . . . . . . . By I. CHALKLEY GOULD ..... By REGINALD A. SMITH, B.A ..... By J. HORACE ROUND, M.A. . . . 3" 69 89 9' 193 196 204 220 230 232 254 261 275 315 333 4*7 $79 xv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAC« Canvey Island. By WILLIAM HYDE fhatiifieee Palaeolithic Weapons from the Lea Valley \ full-pafe flatr, fadne 262 Neolithic Celts from Inworth and Stisted j Weapons from Walton, Shoebury, Dovercourt, near Stansgate and Colchester .......... „ „ „ 264 Pottery from Chcsterford, Great Clacton, Great Oakley and Colchester „ „ „ 265 Pcnannular Armlet and Palstave from Shoebury ..... • 266 Palstaves from Shoebury and Pleshcy . . .} . full-Met plate, faang 266 Bronze Socketed Celts from Hatfield Broad Oak J Bronze Spearheads from Plaistow Marshes, Walthamstow, and Hatfield Broad Oak „ „ „ 267 Handles of a Bronze Cauldron from Hatfield Broad Oak . Part of the Box of a Chariot Wheel, with Nails, found at Shoebury „ „ „ 268 Parts of the Rim of a large Vessel from Hatfield Broad Oak Late Celtic Vessels, etc „ „ » 269 Implements from Site of Fascine Dwellings 270 View of the Site of Fascine Dwellings at Braintrcc Loughton Camp .......... 277 Ambresbury Banks .......... Ring Hill Camp, Littlebury ..... 280 Uphall Entrenchments, near Barking .... .281 Wallbury Camp *8* Pitchbury Ramparts, Great Horkesley .... Shoeburyness .......... Witham Bury .288 Bcrden Mound ........... • *89 Great Canfield • *9° Covering .292 Great Easton .293 Mound in Castle Grove, Elmdon • *94 Hedingham Castle • 294 Ongar Castle • *97 Pleshey • 298 Rayleigh Mount Rickling 3°" Stansted . . 3°' xvii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Stebbing Mount ....... Sections of a Denehole and Ground Plan of Chambers Anglo-Saxon Objects ...... Bronze Pan from Broomfield ..... Iron Standing-Cup ....... Pottery Vase ....... Turold Milking Ewes Wallasea Island Canvey Island PAGE . 3°z • 3°9 coloured plate facing 322 . 3" • 323 • 3H full-page plate facing 342 » » » 369 LIST OF MAPS Geological Map Botanical Map Pre-Historical Map. Earthworks Map Anglo-Saxon Map . Domesday Map between xxii, I 30, 31 260, 261 274. 275 3H» 315 426, 427 XVlll PREFACE I only complete history of Essex hitherto issued is that of Philip Morant, published in 1768 and reprinted in i8i6.1 It may perhaps be reasonably claimed that the county is entitled to a newer history and one more complete than could be compiled in the eighteenth century. The aims of the series of which the Victoria History of Essex forms a part are to be found in the General Advertisement printed in this volume. It has been found impossible in the present instance to adhere to chronological order in the sequence of the articles included in this volume. It is hoped to print the section on the Romano-British Period in the second volume. Whilst the editors cannot as a rule make special reference to the services of contributors, they feel in the present instance it is only right to acknowledge their great indebtedness to Mr. J. Horace Round, not only for the infinite pains he has expended under adverse circumstances of health on the Domesday section, which in the case of Essex is one of peculiar difficulty, but also for the valuable help he has given to others in the preparation and revision of their articles. * It would appear that Morant did little more than edit materials collected by previous students of Essex history (see 'Historians of Essex,' Enex Review, iii. 27-41, 138-53). XIX A HISTORY OF ESSEX TH STORY OF ESSEX GEOLOC ff VEX !• v »W-»..«- • n,.,,.,,,, ,:,!,: '-•- , • ,^#? '^^m^^kA*'"^' fU*'A-' ^7- baVroRD^ TV. Eouilnn^i Geogi-npluc.1 Imtituic THE VICTORIA HISTORY 01 UAL MAP. • EXPLANATION OF COLOURING RECENT 1 .IHnnnin IMI, Mf«4MM«k. II ..J«M* «"rf /(-.I /...; ,.,..! M.llwl /«•'. County Boundary shown that HE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND GEOLOGY ESSEX occupies a large part of the irregular tract which is known to geologists as the London Basin, and which has for its frame- work the great Chalk formation. The southern rim of this Basin rises in the North Downs of Kent, whence the Chalk slopes gradually to the borders of the Thames at Erith and Gravesend, comes to the surface in south Essex at Purfleet and Grays, and then sinks below ground over the greater part of the county. The northern rim of the Basin appears in the downs of Dunstable, Luton and Royston, and in the uplands of Heydon and Saffron Walden in Essex. The contour of the Chalk Basin is to some extent modified by slight undulations and fractures along the Kentish side of the Thames between Greenwich and Erith, so that while the curvature is for the most part gentle, the inclination becomes somewhat steeper on the southern side of Essex. Hence at Dagenham, Rettenden and Southend the Chalk is about 400 feet below ground, at Chelmsford it is about 360 feet, and thence northward it more gradually approaches the surface. Near Hey- don however there are some striking evidences of local disturbance, to which further reference will be made. Resting in the hollow of the Basin, and conforming generally with its curvature, is a series of Eocene strata, the most important of which is the London Clay. The succeeding deposits include small outlying tracts of Crag, but they consist chiefly of the irregular and variable accumu- lations grouped as ' drift.' These lie scattered over the uplands in the form of gravel and Boulder Clay, and are spread along the river valleys in the form of gravel, brickearth and alluvium. The structure of the ground is thus comparatively simple, but there are difficulties in the determination of the relative ages of some of the scattered superficial deposits. There are grave difficulties also when it is sought to decipher the underground rocky structure beneath the Chalk and other Cretaceous strata. The problem is of the highest interest and practical importance, but it raises questions which deep borings alone can solve. Although the county is essentially a flat one, and especially along the river and sea coasts which are bordered by marshes, yet inland there is an abundant variety of soil, and these regions are very pleasantly diver- sified with arable land and pasture, with woodlands, commons and well- timbered hedgerows. Indeed to quote an old agricultural work, ' Every species of soil, from the most stubborn to the mildest loam, is to be found.'1 1 General firm of A 'grit. ofEtiex, by Messrs. Griggs, 410 (Lond. 1794), p. 7. I I ' A HISTORY OF ESSEX To the geologist the richly fossiliferous strata of the Red Crag at Walton-on-the-Naze, and the Pleistocene valley -deposits with their many notable remains of mammalia and mollusca, have attracted a large share of attention. Our knowledge of Essex geology, due chiefly to the labours of Prestwich, Searles V. Wood, jun., Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. W. Whitaker, has been augmented by the workers of the Essex Field Club and of the Geologists' Association, and notably by Mr. T. V. Holmes.1 The following is a Table of the Formations met with in Essex, the names in italics referring to those not exposed at the surface : — Period Formation Character of the strata Approximate thickness in feet Alluvium Silt, peat, clay 2O to 50 Recent to Blown Sand Fine sand about 1 5 Neolithic Marine Sand and Shingle . Sand with shells and pebbles of flint, quartz, etc about 10 Brickearth Loam i o to 30 Valley Gravel Sub-angular flint gravel . . 10 to 50 Pleistocene Boulder Clay Chalky clay, with flints and Palaeolithic erratics 2O to 70 and Glacial Loam Loam 10 to 15 Glacial Glacial Gravel and Sand Sub-angular gravel with flints, quart/.itc, etc 20 to 75 Older Plateau Gravel . . . Pebbles of flint and quartz . 5 to 12 Red Crag . Red shelly sand and gravel, Pliocene laminated clay, phosphatic nodules and ironstone . 5 to 21 Bagshot Beds Sand and pebble beds . 20 to 40 London Clay Brown and blue clay with 400 Eocene Blackheath or Oldhaven Beds . Sand with shells and flint i o to 50 Woolwich and Reading Beds . Mottled clay, sand, and flint 25 to 80 Thanet Beds Grey sand and sandy clay . • 10 to 85 Upper Chalk Chalk with flints .... 400 to 450 Middle Chalk Bedded chalk with few flints . 200 Upper Blocky chalk with curved Cretaceous Upper Greenland jointing, and marl Green sand and brown loam . 120 7O Gault 5O to I7O S'tlurion ^ (or older) unknown 1 See Bibliography in Whitaker's 'Geology of the London Basin,' Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. (1872) p. 393 ; and Geology of London, vol. i. (i 889) p. 87 ; also ' List of Works on the Geology, etc., of Essex,' by W. Whitaker and W. H. Dalton, Essex Nat., vol. iii. (1889) pp. 61-84. 2 GEOLOGY PALAEOZOIC ROCKS The question whether productive Coal Measures are likely to occur at a workable depth beneath Essex is one which has aroused keen interest of late years. So long ago as 1858 a boring at Harwich proved the occurrence of a dark slaty rock beneath the Gault, at a depth of 1,029 ^eet from the surface.1 It was then thought that this rock, which was pene- trated to a depth of 69 feet, was of Lower Carboniferous age owing to the supposed occurrence in it of the fossil mollusc Posidonomya. The specimen was however re-examined in 1896 by Prof. W. W. Watts, and he came to the conclusion that, while the rock itself was not at all like that of any known British Carboniferous rock, the supposed fossil was an inorganic structure.1 A somewhat similar dark slaty rock was touched at a depth of 994 feet in a trial boring in Suffolk, at Stutton on the northern side of the Stour estuary ; and again in a further trial in Essex, at Weeley between Colchester and Walton-on-the-Naze, where the old rock was reached at a depth of 1,094 feet.8 These two trials in search of Coal Measures were made after due deliberation with the highest geological authorities. That they were unsuccessful is an indication, not that the chances of obtaining coal beneath Essex are hopeless, but that scientific knowledge is insufficient to tell precisely where concealed coal-basins occur. Nevertheless en- terprise need not be damped. There is always a possibility of finding coal where the strata at the surface are newer than the Coal Measures ; but as the older rocks were bent and fractured and largely eroded before the Secondary and Tertiary strata were spread over them, it is evident how speculative must be the search for Coal Measures under these circumstances. Were the exposed coalfields to be covered up with a mantle of Chalk, we should have no certain guide from one successful boring as to the nature of the deep-seated rocks at a distance of a few miles, because there is no regularity in the preservation of coal-basins. Again if rocks much older are proved in a boring, it is quite possible that Coal Measures may exist near by, because in south Staffordshire, Leicestershire and Warwickshire the older Palaeozoic rocks occur in juxtaposition with productive Coal Measures. It has lately been suggested by Prof. W. J. Sollas that Enfield Lock, just across the Lea on the Hertfordshire side, is a likely place for a successful trial. It may be so, but there is no information that would prove that it is a more promising site than any other unproved locality in Essex or Hertfordshire.4 In Essex several deep borings have been made in search of water. Thus at Wickham Bishop a boring was carried to a depth of 1,180 feet, 1 Prestwich, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sot., vol. xiv. p. 252. * Ann. Report of Geol. Survey for 1896, p. 5. » Whitaker, Ref. Brit. Ante, for 1895. 4 For further information on the underground rocks see Whitaker, Geology of LenJen, vol. i. p. 10. (In this work full references are made to the suggestions of Godwin-Austen, Prestwich and others on the older deep-seated rocks.) 3 A HISTORY OF ESSEX including 703 feet of Chalk (base not reached). It is probable that the thickness of the Eocene strata was here to a certain extent duplicated by a reversed fault or fold.1 At Loughton a boring was made to a depth of 1,100 feet into Gault ; and at South Shoebury another was carried 1,048 feet, probably into Lower Chalk. An old boring at Saffron Walden was carried to a depth of a little over 1,000 feet, but the details of the strata cannot now be interpreted with certainty. In all of these borings, if we except the Palaeozoic rock, the oldest formation whose age has been proved is the Gault. GAULT AND UPPER GREENSAND The Gault consists of stiff blue and grey clay and marl, which was proved to have a thickness of 172 feet in the deep boring at Loughton. It was found below Harwich and Weeley, and is probably everywhere present beneath the Chalk under Essex ; but it evidently becomes thinner towards the north-east, as it was only 50 or 60 feet thick at Harwich. There is evidence of the presence of Upper Greensand beneath a portion of Essex along the Lea valley. Mr. Whitaker has remarked that this formation was found beneath the Chalk at Cheshunt, and was met with in the deep well at Loughton, the thickness being about 30 feet. Below the Gault at Loughton there was sand, which may possibly represent Lower Greensand.2 CHALK The Chalk appears at the surface over a comparatively small portion of Essex, but where it does occur its presence is usually indicated by pits and lime-kilns. The Lower Chalk in Cambridgeshire includes at its base the well- known bed of phosphatic nodules and phosphatized fossils termed the ' Cambridge Greensand,' but whether or not this bed occurs underground in the northern part of Essex is unknown. Above is the Chalk Marl, a mass of grey marl 50 or 60 feet thick, which yields Ammonites variant, Inoceramus latus and other fossils. Still higher we come to the Tottern- hoe Stone, a hard band of somewhat sandy rock, which north of Heydon is a noted water-bearing stratum, strong springs being thrown out at its junction with the Chalk Marl. The Totternhoe Stone is characterized by Rbynchonella mantelliana, Kingena lima, Pecten orbicularis and P. Jissi- costata. The uppermost portion of the Lower Chalk comprises a mass of grey chalk or clunch which yields Belemnitella (Actinocamax) plena and Ho/aster subglobosus? These portions of the Chalk do not appear at the surface in Essex, but they no doubt occur everywhere below ground. The Middle Chalk, which is exposed north of Heydon, at Great 1 See Whitaker, Trans. Essex Field Club, vol. iv. pp. 149, 1 68. 2 Ibid. vol. iv. pp. 158, 159 ; and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Ivi. p. Ixxv. ; and Jukes-Browne, Cretaceous Rocks of Britain, vol. i. p. 370. 3 See W. Hill and A. J. Jukes-Browne, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue., vol. xlii. p. 216. 4 GEOLOGY Chesterford, Hadstock, and Sturmer near Haverhill, includes at its base the Melbourn Rock, named from the Cambridgeshire village of Mel- bourn. This is a hard rocky chalk with marly and nodular layers, about ten feet in thickness. The mass of the Middle Chalk above is well bedded in layers that appear to be lenticular or wedge-shaped, and it has but few flints. Among the fossils are Rhynchonella cuvieri, Terebratulina, and Ho/aster subglobosus. The last-named fossil is found also in a band of hard cream-coloured limestone with green coated nodules and grains of glauconite, known as the Chalk Rock, which separates the Middle from the Upper Chalk. The Chalk Rock has been observed in several places in the northern portions of the county. Between Heydon and Chishall the Chalk is locally disturbed, and instead of the normal southerly or south-easterly dip at a gentle angle, the strata are inclined at an angle of 25° N.N.W., and the flints are fractured. This high dip increases to the south-west in Hertfordshire. Whether the disturbance is due to faulting or to the surface derange- ments produced by glacial agents has not been satisfactorily determined. That glacial action has been potent is manifest from the deeply excavated trough near Newport, to which reference will be made. The Upper Chalk, which lies about 43 feet below the surface near the Thames at Beckton, appears above ground at Grays and Purfleet in south Essex ; and in the north it may be seen at Farnham and Clavering in the Stort valley, at Quendon, Newport, Audley End and Saffron Walden in the Cam valley, and eastwards at Great Yeldham and Middleton, near Sudbury. It consists of soft chalk with layers of flints, and yields remains of the saurian Leiodon (allied to Mosasaurus), of fishes such as Ptycbodus polygyrus, molluscs including Inoceramus and Lima, brachiopods such as Terebratula carnea, the echinoderms Cu/aris and Goniaster, as well as crinoids and corals. At Purfleet, Grays and West Thurrock the Chalk has been largely used in the manufacture of whiting, lime and cement. At Hangman's Wood a remarkable series of excavations known as Deneholes occur. These are shafts carried through about 50 or 60 feet of gravel and Thanet Sand, and 20 feet or more into the Chalk, but as their interest is mainly archaeological they will be described else- where. There is no doubt that the Chalk has been used 'from time im- memorial ' for chalking the land, and more extensively in old days. Arthur Young in 1768, after remarking on the badness of the road between Billericay and Tilbury, observed that ' to add to all the infamous circumstances, which concur to plague a traveller, I must not forget the eternally meeting with chalk-waggons.' He mentioned also that Chalk was brought from Kent by sea to Maldon.1 At Stifford the Chalk has not only been worked in open pits, but also by means of shafts or ' chalk-wells,' evidence of which was brought 1 A Six Wteki Tour through the Southern Counties, p. 72 ; see also hi« General P'ten eftbe Agritulture of Essex, vol. ii. (1807) p. 206. 5 A HISTORY OF ESSEX to the notice of Mr. T. V. Holmes through subsidences having occurred on account of the old workings. In these cases the Chalk was reached at a depth of about 12 feet,1 and was probably dug for agricultural purposes. The Chalk itself has little direct influence on the agriculture, but open down-like tracts occur near Saffron Walden, and the soil generally on the uplands bordering the Cam valley and extending to Heydon is dry and more or less ' hurrocky,' that is mixed chalky and gravelly.2 Along the Cam valley below Newport many springs issue and there are good watercress beds. In very wet weather the valley is liable to be flooded from the drainage off the clay uplands. During excavations at Grays a former proprietor, Richard Meeson, opened up some copious springs which were afterwards utilized for the water supply of a considerable district.3 The Chalk indeed is of the greatest importance as a water-bearing formation, and from it supplies are obtained in many a well in Essex. The rain falling on the North Downs and on the downs in Hertfordshire and Cambridgeshire descends into the trough of Chalk which underlies Essex. Here the water is pent up beneath the mass of Tertiary strata, chiefly London Clay, and borings carried into the Chalk yield a varying supply. There is no doubt that the Chalk below sea-level is saturated, and this plane of saturation rises inland to some extent with the rise of the land and the amount of rainfall ; but when covered by a great thickness of Tertiary strata the Chalk itself is firmer and closer than it is near the surface. There are fewer fissures, and therefore a free supply at a great depth is not to be depended upon. Water may be pumped faster than it can be replaced. Saturated Chalk of course acts like an im- pervious stratum, and the additions flow away in springs. Thus overflows from this Basin escape at the surface on the margin of the Tertiary strata, as at Benfield Springs near Bishops Stortford on the north, and at Grays and Purfleet on the south. On the far northern side of the Chalk Basin there is a copious outflow beyond Heydon along the outcrop of the Totternhoe Stone, and numerous springs issue at and below Newport in the Cam valley. Pumping from deep wells takes so much from the body of the Chalk, and the amount is naturally lost to the springs. THANET BEDS Overlying the Chalk there is generally to be found a mass of pale and greenish-grey sand and sandy clay. This formation known as the Thanet Beds contains at its base a layer of green-coated flints, which appear to have originated from the dissolution of the upper layers of Chalk in which the flints were formerly embedded. The strata are exposed between Purfleet and Aveley, at StifFord, 1 Essex Nat., vol. iii. p. 183. 8 C. Vancouver, General View of the Agriculture of Essex (1795) pp. 104, 105. 3 Prestwich, Quart. Jount. Geol. Sac., vol. xxviii. p. xliii. ; see also Minutes of Evidence, Roy. Comm. on Metrop. Water Supply, 1893. 6 GEOLOGY Chadwell and West Tilbury. They have been opened up in pits north of Grays Thurrock station, and have been seen to a thickness of 53 feet by Mr. T. V. Holmes in one of the Deneholes in Hangman's Wood, north of Little Thurrock. Being in this area largely covered by valley gravel they have but little direct influence on the soil. Eastwards and westwards they are concealed beneath the alluvial deposits bordering the Thames, but over a great part of Essex they have been proved in borings and sinkings as at Stratford, Loughton and elsewhere. Along the northern margin of the county their presence has not everywhere been determined, and they have not been separated from the Woolwich and Reading Beds on the Geological Survey map, because in that area the strata are largely concealed by Glacial Drift, and it is known that although they occur at Sudbury, the Thanet Beds are not present to the north-west of the London Basin. WOOLWICH AND READING BEDS The Woolwich and Reading Beds comprise mottled clay, laminated clay and sand, also shelly clays and lignite, and usually at the base greenish-grey sand with flint pebbles. In composition and thickness this formation is as usual variable, and it is known better in Essex from the records of well-sections than from the surface exposures. The thick- ness varies from 25 to 60 feet or more. The beds occur beneath the valley gravels at West Ham and also at Beckton, and they come to the surface from near Wennington to Aveley, Stiffbrd, Orsett and Stanford-le-Hope, where they may be seen here and there in temporary excavations. Along the northern outcrop they appear at Roydon, and near Farn- ham and Stanstead Montfitchet. Near Elsenham and Debden they probably occur further north than the map indicates. They are seen again north of Thaxted and at Castle Hedingham. Among the fossils Melania inquinata, Cerithium funatum^ Cyrena cunei- formis and Osfrea bellavacina indicate estuarine conditions. BLACKHEATH OR OLDHAVEN BEDS The Blackheath (or Oldhaven) Beds consist locally of grey sands with flint pebbles, and contain marine shells like those of the London Clay, but they have been somewhat doubtfully recognized by Mr. Whitaker in borings in south Essex. Thicknesses of 1 1 feet at Barking Side, 50 feet at Stanford-le-Hope and 37 feet at Shoeburyness are thus assigned to this formation,1 which is well represented south of the Thames in the pebble-beds of Blackheath, and in the sands of Oldhaven or Bishopstone Gap. The occurrence of flint pebbles in the Blackheath Beds shows that in some areas the Chalk must have been upraised to form cliffs. This may have been in the area of the Weald from which the Chalk has since been removed. 1 See Whitaker, Grt/egy ef LoaJon, vol. i. p. 233. 7 A HISTORY OF ESSEX The soils furnished by these Lower Eocene strata between the Chalk and London Clay are on the whole loamy, being mixed soils of sand and clay. The formations themselves exercise no marked influence on the scenery. LONDON CLAY The London Clay occupies a large part of the surface of Essex, more especially in the south, and where well developed it is upwards of 400 feet thick. It is naturally exposed in the cliffs at Southend, Shoeburyness and Clacton-on-Sea, where it is capped by valley gravels, and it is seen again in the cliffs at Frinton, Walton-on-the-Naze, and also at Harwich. It occurs at the surface over considerable areas along the valley of the Crouch, around Langdon Hill, over Hainault and Epping Forests and near Waltham Abbey. In north Essex the London Clay is exposed along the Stour valley below Middleton ; along the Colne valley from Castle Hedingham and Gosfield ; along the Pant and Blackwater valleys from Wethersfield ; and along the Pods Brook, Ter and Chelmer valleys at Braintree, Terling, Thaxted and Dunmow. In the Stort valley it occurs in a few places along the Essex borders. The formation where it appears at the surface is a stiff brown clay, which soaks up a good deal of water in wet weather, and shrinks and cracks in very dry weather. Where dug from a depth it is bluish-grey in colour, and in this unweathered portion of the deposit, or in the cement-stones, the fossils which characterize the London Clay are more usually found. These include mammals allied to the hyrax and tapir, some remarkable birds, turtles, a large serpent, sharks and other fishes, crabs and lobsters, as well as mollusca such as the Nautilus, Foluta, Cypraa, and a boring-shell or ' ship-worm ' called Teredina. Among plant-remains there are fruits and seeds of palms, euphorbias, mimosa? and acaciae. Towards the base of the London Clay there are occasional flint pebbles and also hard and impersistent bands of calcareous sandstone, yielding Aporrhais sowerbyi, Natica, Cytherea orbicularis, Panopcea and Pectunculus.1 Blocks of this rock were obtained during an excavation at the gasworks at Beckton. As a rule however the London Clay rarely yields any fossils, and one may examine many a brick-pit or railway-cutting without finding a single specimen. The presence of selenite (or of moulds of its crystals) may have arisen from the decomposition of iron-pyrites and of calcareous organisms : hence in this and other formations the mineral may indicate the former occurrence of fossils. 2 The London Clay is characterized by nodules of argillaceous lime- stone known as cement-stones or septaria. These may be seen in the 1 See also Prestwich, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sac., vol. vi. p. 262. 8 See P. M. Duncan, ibid. vol. xxii. p. 12. 8 GEOLOGY cliffs at Clacton, and many were formerly dredged to the south of Harwich for the manufacture of Roman cement. The cracks or septa arc filled with calc-spar, and sometimes contain pyrites or ' copperas.' ' The septaria no doubt originated from the segregation of the more calcareous portions of the clayey mud after the deposition of the London Clay. Morant says these nodules were used in the walls of Colchester. The London Clay has been extensively dug for brick-making and especially for tile-making, as at Buckhurst Hill, Loughton and elsewhere. The loamy beds which occur at the junction with the Bagshot Beds, as at Brentwood, near Theydon Bois and on Epping Plain, are very suitable for brick-making. The soil is naturally thin and tenacious, and has been described as a cold, heavy and wet clay on tile-earth ; but it is ameliorated on the slopes where the higher grounds are covered by Bagshot Sands or drift gravels. On the stifFer grounds of Epping Forest the oak and hornbeam find a congenial soil. BAGSHOT BEDS Overlying the London Clay, and connected with it by alternations of sand, loam and clay, are the Bagshot Beds. These consist in mass of fine buff-coloured sand with thin layers of pipeclay, overlaid in places by pebble-beds which are mainly composed of flint pebbles. The occurrence of zircon among the minute materials of the Bagshot Sands at High Beech was detected by Mr. A. B. Dick.* The formation occurs in outliers, which are but remnants of a wide-spread deposit. These outliers constitute some of the higher and more picturesque tracts, as at Epping and High Beech (362 feet), Brentwood, Warley (360 feet), Billericay, Stock, Langdon Hill (385 feet), Rayleigh and a few other localities. The land is less cultivated than on other formations, and commons, village greens and much woodland help to diversify the scenes. From the fact of this gradual passage from the London Clay into the Bagshot Beds there has arisen considerable difference of opinion with regard to the boundary line that should be drawn on geological maps to separate the two formations. Those who, like S. V. Wood, jun., take the first prominent bed of sand in the ascending series to indicate the Bagshot Beds, would mark much larger areas of that formation, notably along the high grounds from High Beech to Epping, and between Theydon Mount and Northweald Basset. On the other hand those who in the downward succession take the first mass of clay to belong to the London Clay indicate much smaller areas of Bagshot Beds. In the one case we have to map clay in the Bagshot Sand, and in the other sand in the London Clay. Absolute consistency is not however to be obtained, and the difficulties met with in deciding about a boundary near Epping are encountered also near Brentwood and Rayleigh. Some casts of shells, apparently Turritella, Natica and Valuta were 1 Hence perhaps the name Copperas Bay, west of Harwich. Copperas (sulphate of iron) is manu- factured from pyrites. See also P. Morant, Hilt, and Antiq. »f Etiex (1768), vol. i. p. 500. 1 Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. p. 523. I 9 2 A HISTORY OF ESSEX found at Mill Green, north of Frierning, by Messrs. H. W. Monckton and R. S. Herries. Overlying the Bagshot Sands in some of the outliers there are pebble- beds composed almost wholly of flint, and these belong to the Bagshot Beds. The best section, to which attention was first drawn by S. V. Wood, jun., was at Langtons in South Weald Park near Brentwood. The pebble-bed was fifteen feet thick, and overlaid by about six feet of rearranged pebbly gravel, largely derived from the beds below. Other sections of the pebble-beds have been noted at Warley, Billericay and Stock, where also there are reconstructed pebbly gravels above the Bagshot Beds.1 While the Chalk indicates marine conditions of considerable depth and at a distance from any land, the succeeding Thanet Sands were formed in a shallow sea probably within the influence of the great Eocene river which directly brought succeeding sediments. There is a great break between the Chalk and Thanet Sand, as indicated in some areas by the destruction of the Chalk and its layers of flints, and everywhere by the change in the life of the periods : though locally the break is unaccom- panied by any discordance in the stratification of the two series. During the period of the Thanet Sand there is no evidence, as Mr. J. Starkie Gardner points out, that any elevated Chalk coast-line came locally into contact with the waves.2 After the deposition of the Thanet Beds the region underwent some elevation and came under the influence of freshwater and estuarine conditions. The Woolwich and Reading Beds indicate a temperate climate, which however was gradually changing towards the sub-tropical condi- tions which subsequently prevailed. The period was one dominated by the great Eocene river, and it was followed by subsidence which, as Mr. Gardner remarks, ushered in the Blackheath and London Clay deposits. The fossils of the London Clay indicate that the climate during its formation was almost tropical, while the deposit itself must have been laid down slowly and quietly in the wide estuary of the Eocene river. The succeeding Bagshot Sands were deposited in shallower water, probably estuarine in the Essex area, but passing westwards into freshwater beds with many plant-remains of sub-tropical character. The various Eocene strata up to the Bagshot Beds were spread over the entire area of Essex, and while as before mentioned some tracts of Chalk in the south of England were suffering denudation in Eocene times, yet later on in Oligocene and Miocene times the region was generally raised above water for an extended period. It was then that the curvature of the London Basin was produced, a disturbance accompanied by eleva- tion and followed by immense destruction of the land. Surface agents in the shape of rain and rivers began to erode channels and to wear away 1 See H. B. Woodward, in Whitaker's Geology of London, vol. i. pp. 270-279 ; Prestwich, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi. p. 165 ; H. W. Monckton and R. S. Herries, Pnc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. pp. 1 8 and Ixv. ; vol. xii. p. 108 ; and Monckton, Nature, June 26, 1890. * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxix. p. 202. IO GEOLOGY the strata — a process which continued into the Pliocene period, when the north-eastern portions of the area were submerged and received banks of the shelly sand known as Red Crag. How far this Pliocene submer- gence extended it is difficult to say, for although there are some high-level or plateau deposits of pebble-gravel which may date back to Pliocene times, there is no evidence from fossils to prove the point1 (see p. 12). Prior to the Glacial period the more prominent physical features of the country had been formed, as the Bagshot Beds must have been largely removed, only scattered outliers remaining on an irregular found- ation of London Clay ; and Mr. T. V. Holmes has pointed out that as a thickness of 400 feet of London Clay (nearly the full thickness) has been proved at Dagenham, it is probable that some outliers of Bagshot Beds may have diversified the surface in that neighbourhood just prior to the formation of the Thames valley.4 RED CRAG The Red Crag is one of the more attractive of geological formations, mainly because fossils are readily to be obtained and partly because the exposures occur for the most part in pleasant places. In Essex the most famous locality is Walton-on-the-Naze. As early as 1703 the fossils of Harwich cliff were noticed by S. Dale,* and they were more prominently brought before the public in the descriptions and figures published in his appendix to Silas Taylor's History and Antiquities of Harwich and Dovercourt* From this account we learn of an outlier of the shelly Crag that has since been destroyed by the ravages of the sea. Attention was drawn to another outlier at Beaumont, by John Brown of Stanway, while small tracts occur between Harwich and Little Oakley, at Mistley, and again in the country from Langham to near Boxted. Some of these remnants of the Crag have been noticed at the surface, others have been detected from the material brought up in occasional borings or well-sinkings. A phosphatic nodule-bed at the base of the Crag was at one time worked at Wrabness and also at Walton-on-the-Naze. The Red Crag in Essex is regarded as the oldest portion of the formation, and from its development at Walton-on-the-Naze, it has been termed the Waltonian stage by Mr. F. W. Harmer.6 He observes that the majority of the characteristic shells found in it are either extinct or south-European forms : they include Cyprcea ave/fana, Voluta lamberti, Purpura tetragona, Trophon (Neptunea) contrarius, and many others. A band of clay above the shelly Crag at Walton has been regarded as a representative of the Chillesford Clay of Suffolk, but this correlation is questioned by Mr. Harmer. 1 See Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. pp. 290, 494. * Eitex Nat., vol. vi. p. 145. • Phil. Trans., vol. xxiv. (1704) p. 1568, in a letter to Edward Lhwyd, 1703. « 1730, ed. 2, 1732. * Quart. Journ. Geol. Sot., vol. Ivi. p. 709 ; see also C. Reid, ' Pliocene Depotiu of Britain, Mtm. Geol. Survey, 1890. II A HISTORY OF ESSEX Most of the shells appear to have belonged to animals which lived on the spot : they do not bear evidence of having been shifted and rolled as in later stages of the Red Crag. The Crag at Little Oakley is regarded by Mr. Harmer as a slightly newer stage than that at Walton. He has lately reopened the pit at Beaumont and obtained a fine series of fossils. Occupying such small areas the Crag has no particular influence on the scenery and very little on the soils. As a rule the land is fertile, and the deposit itself when very shelly has been dug for marling ground deficient in lime. The Pliocene period affords evidence of temperate conditions which were slowly changing towards the more rigorous climate of the Pleisto- cene. At the close of the period England was still united across the Straits of Dover with the continent.1 There are several tracts of pebbly gravel in Essex, some mainly derived from the old Bagshot pebble-beds as at High Beech, near Brent- wood, Langdon Hill and Hadleigh, some derived probably from earlier Eocene pebble-beds. These are most largely formed of pebbles of flint and quartz, and in this respect they differ from the more mixed gravels of the other high grounds, which contain quartzites, various igneous rocks, and likewise fossils derived from many older formations, and which are definitely connected with the Glacial period. Some patches of pebbly gravel seen in the clifF at Walton-on-the- Naze, also near Marks Tey, Witham, Braintree and Thaxted, and near Epping, have been regarded as Westleton Beds by Prestwich,2 who took the name from the village of Westleton in Suffolk, and regarded the beds as the base of the Glacial series. The age of the Westleton Beds of Westleton is not undisputed : they may belong to the Glacial period.3 Hence it will be best not to attempt any full discussion of this vexed question, but to be content here to remark that as Prof. T. M'K. Hughes, S. V. Wood, jun., Prestwich, Mr. Whitaker and others have pointed out there may be gravels of Pliocene (or Pre-Glacial) age which were spread over the country and partially denuded prior to the great glaciation which came about in later times. To S. V. Wood, jun., we are particularly indebted for a knowledge of the Drift deposits of East Anglia. He was the first to commence their detailed and systematic study in Essex, and in 1867 he presented to the Geological Society copies of the Ordnance Sheets i and 2 (Old Series) on which he had surveyed the geology including the various superficial deposits. The maps were accompanied by a MS. Memoir on the Structure of the Glacial and Post- Glacial Beds in southern Essex. 1 See Reid, Origin of the British Flora, pp. 34, etc. 2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi. pp. 128, 162, etc., and Geol. Mag., 1898, p. 404 ; Monckton and Herries, Free. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. p. 18 and p. Ixv. and vol. xii. p. 108 (where further references are given). 3 H. B. Woodward, Geol. Mag., 1882, p. 452 ; and Geol. England and Wales, ed. 2, p. 505. 12 GEOLOGY GLACIAL DRIFT Glacial Drifts and especially Boulder Clay occupy a large portion of the surface of Essex and form some of the more fertile agricultural areas. The Boulder Clay is a tough unstratified clayey deposit of irregular thickness, containing numerous rounded fragments of Chalk of all sizes from that of a pea to large blocks ; hence it is known as the Chalky Boulder Clay. It contains also numerous unworn and angular fragments of flints, and pebbles of various rocks, fossils and rocks derived from different formations, together with schists, granites and greenstones.1 Essentially however it is a chalky clay, the soil being a ' strong loam ' which forms good land for wheat, barley and beans. This loam is a de- calcified portion of the Boulder Clay which in places resembles the soil on the London Clay, but is usually stony and very much thicker. Among the more abundant fossils are Gryphcea dilatata derived from the Oxford Clay, Belemnites abbreviatus from the Corallian, and Lucina minuscula from the Kimeridge Clay. The Boulder Clay lies somewhat irregularly on the strata beneath, chiefly London Clay and Chalk ; and there are remarkable instances of glacial erosion which took place prior to or during the Glacial epoch. Thus a deep gorge filled with Drift occurs along the Cam valley, partly in Essex and partly in Cambridgeshire. The evidence derived from well-borings has been published by Mr. Whitaker,* who notes the extraordinary thickness of Glacial Drift at Newport (340 feet), Wenden (272 feet), Littlebury (214 feet), and Great Chesterford (156 feet). It appears probable that this great trench was excavated and subsequently filled up during the time of most intense glaciation, and that possibly the disturbed Chalk near Chishall (previously noticed) may then have been tilted like the Chalk in several localities in Norfolk. Boulder Clay occurs on the Chalk uplands in the north-western part of the county in the neighbourhood of Heydon, Chrishall, and also around Debden and Broxted. Further south it forms a more or less continuous sheet at Hatfield Forest, Hatfield Broad Oak, High Easter and the Rodings. Eastwards it is broken up by valleys which divide the high grounds near Thaxted, Dunmow, Braintree, Halstead and Coggeshall. To the south the Boulder Clay extends to Chelmsford and Chipping Ongar and in patches to the heights, as at Havering-atte-Bower, over- looking the Thames valley. Its presence in this valley was unsuspected until in the making of the railway near Hornchurch a mass of tough Chalky Boulder Clay fifteen feet thick was found by Mr. T. V. Holmes to underlie one of the higher tracts of Thames valley gravel.1 This dis- covery is of the greatest interest as it was the first instance where Boulder Clay had been seen in connection with the Thames valley gravel. As Mr. Holmes points out it does not prove that the Thames valley was » Sec Rev. A..W. Rowe, 'On the Rocb of the Essex Drift,' Quart. Jour*. Geol. Sec., vol. xliii. p. 35 1. * Quart. Journ. Gtol. Sac., vol. xlvi. p. 333. 3 Ibid. vol. xlviii. p. 365 ; and Euex Nat., vol. vii. p. I. 13 A HISTORY OF ESSEX pre-glacial, but that an old hollow or valley was subsequently cut into during the excavation of the Thames valley. River gravel also overlies Boulder Clay in the Blackwater valley near Kelvedon. Underlying the valley gravel at Romford, Mr. Holmes has observed a deposit of silt and sand with pebbles of Chalk, and flint, evidently of subsequent date to the Boulder Clay from which it was largely derived.1 He looked upon it as evidence of an ancient silted-up stream whose course he would trace between Warley, Billericay and Maldon on the north and west, and Laindon, Rayleigh and Althorne on the south and east, and into the valley of the Blackwater below Maldon. In any case this silted-up channel, like that in the Cam valley, belongs to a more ancient period than the present Thames valley ; but whether these old valleys which are occupied by Boulder Clay were pre-glacial valleys, or were scooped out by ice-action during the Glacial period may fairly be questioned. There is however no doubt that the main features of the country were formed prior to the glaciation, and therefore we should expect here and there to find traces of old valleys. When the Ice age was brought about the surface of the land had long been subject to subaerial waste, the Chalk-tracts were covered with clay-with-flints, and there was generally much weathered material or soil over the land. Before any great movement of ice took place, the accu- mulation of snow led to the formation of much ice, and to the base of this the soil and weathered sub-strata were frozen. Eventually, when movement set in and there was coalescing of great sheets of ice which traversed regions of Jurassic rock and Chalk, the base of the ice tore off the frozen soil and debris^ and in some cases great strips of the strata ; in other cases impinging against higher ground the formations were locally disturbed, as may have been the case near Heydon. The debris thus removed would rise by overthrusts into higher hori- zons in the ice, and be then carried forward and widely distributed and commingled with local detritus during alternate recessions and readvances of the ice-margin ; the Boulder Clay being deposited, to a large extent, by the melting of the ice, as indicated many years ago by Mr. J. G. Good- child in his account of ice-work in Edenside. The abundant chalky detritus was no doubt carried along minor planes of movement in the ice, the chalk lumps being scored by frac- tured flint, and the material being transported far and wide at higher levels in the ice than the bulk of the more local material. In certain instances the soil frozen to the base of the ice-sheet was little if at all moved, being overridden by subsequent ice-movements ; and much Boulder Clay must also have been overridden after deposition, owing to its exceedingly tough character.2 1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue., vol. 1. p. 443 ; and ' Notes on the Ancient Physiography of South Essex,' Essex Nat., vol. ix. p. 193. 2 See H. B. Woodward, Geol. Mag., 1897, p. 485 ; J. E. Marr, ibid. 1887, p. 262 ; and J. Geikie, The Great Ice 4ge. GEOLOGY The intercalation of sand and gravel with the Chalky Boulder Clay is best explained as a marginal phenomenon produced at different stages in the advance and retreat of the ice-sheet. In the ancient hollow along the Cam valley the Boulder Clay was seen to be much mixed with sand and gravel in alternate irregular masses. This is also the case at Elsenham and elsewhere. Gravel over- lies Boulder Clay in some places on the higher ground, although not to any considerable extent, as at Mountnessing and near Chipping Ongar. Loam also associated with the Boulder Clay occurs over a large area in north-eastern Essex ; it rests mostly on gravel and sand, and from its mode of occurrence it might be taken to replace the Boulder Clay. It thus extends over the heaths of Boxted, Ardleigh, Crockleford and Elmstead, and around Wicks and Great Bentley, where the soil — a ' fertile loam ' — is regarded as good turnip-land. Minor patches of loam occur on the Boulder Clay between Peb- marsh and Twinstead, at Finchingfield, south of Terling, and on Hat- field Heath : in such situations the loam is usually a decalcified portion of the Chalky Boulder Clay. In former days the Boulder Clay was much used for claying or marling the ground for agricultural purposes ; hence numerous old pits, now for the most part ponds, may be noticed in the fields. Sands and gravels occur beneath the main mass of Boulder Clay, but their occurrence though widespread is uncertain. They were distri- buted during the earlier stages of the period of great glaciation, and occasionally, as in Hertfordshire, seams of Boulder Clay occur in the gravel. They may outcrop between Boulder Clay and London Clay on one side of a valley and be absent from the other side. Hence in sink- ing a well through Boulder Clay supplies of water cannot always be depended upon, although in many localities a good supply is obtained. These sands and gravels occur along the Cam valley at Quendon, along the Stort Valley at Clavering, Harlow and Roydon, below Sudbury in the Stour valley, along the Colne from Great Yeldham to Halstead and Gosfield, along the Pant from Radwinter, the Pods Brook from its source near Great Bardfield, and the Chelmer in places from Thaxted. In some of these valleys, as along the Chelmer, it is not easy to separate the Glacial gravels from the newer valley gravels which are principally derived from them. Occasionally, as near Roxwell, the gravel is cemented into a conglomerate. Gravel extends over the high grounds of Danbury, being perhaps in part the wreck of an outlier of older pebbly gravel. Towards the south and west Boulder Clay is intercalated with the gravel, while on the east, at Maldon and on Hazeleigh Common, Boulder Clay over- lies it. Glacial gravel occurs around Colchester, at Brightlingsea and St. Osyth ; and there are patches on Mersea Island, at Tolleshunt and on Tiptree Heath. Some of these tracts of gravel are not clearly to be separated from the range of old valley gravels which in east Essex A HISTORY OF ESSEX fringe the marshes near Burnham. Again, in the western portion of the county, near Loughton, on Buckhurst Hill and north of Chigwell, there are gravels which it is exceedingly difficult to distinguish from neighbouring gravels on a slightly lower level which seem to form part of the true valley gravels. Some of these deposits may indeed represent stages in the denudation of the country which followed the recession of the ice-sheet. While the action of land-ice was partly to efface the old scenery by thick accumulations of Drift, it tended also to degrade and soften the bolder features ; but these to some extent have reappeared through the influence of subsequent denudation. The passing away of icy conditions, the melting away of the land- ice which enveloped so much of the ground, must have been attended by the formation of torrential streams which initiated the present lines of drainage. Along the Stour, Colne and Blackwater, and along the Lea and Thames, we find evidence of later Pleistocene gravels and brick- earths, to which attention must now be directed. Along the Crouch however we find no such ancient deposits. Rising in the hills of Lang- don and Billericay, it drains an area of London Clay comparatively free from the Glacial gravels, which in other valleys afforded material ready- made for the accumulations of valley gravel. The Crouch may indeed have existed in Pleistocene times, and have simply eroded without depo- siting much material along its course : but there is no evidence to show that this was the case. VALLEY GRAVEL AND BRICKEARTH The deposits of valley gravel and brickearth are old accumulations of the 'rivers and their tributaries, and they occupy grounds higher than the Alluvium, but often extend beneath it. The more important tracts of valley gravel and brickearth are those which occupy the Thames valley. They occur from Leyton and Strat- ford to Barking, Romford and South Ockendon, in a belt which in places is four or five miles broad, and rises 100 feet above the river. These deposits belong to the earliest system of drainage along the pre- sent valleys, and to a period when palaeolithic man co-existed with a fauna many of the members of which are either extinct or no longer inhabitants of this country. The mammalian remains have been met with in notable abundance at Ilford and Grays, not because these were exceptionally favoured places of entombment, but because the brickearth at Ilford and the Chalk below the brickearth at Grays have been very extensively worked, and for many years the remains were carefully looked after by the late Sir Antonio Brady at Ilford and by Richard Meeson at Grays. Sir A. Brady observed that the bones near Ilford were mostly found in the sands and gravels and in a very decayed condition, but they were better preserved in the brickearth. The chief locality was the Uphall 16 GEOLOGY brickfield, on the right hand side of the lane leading from Ilford to Barking, a spot about twenty-eight feet above the river Thames.1 The mammals include fine examples of the mammoth or Elepbas primigenius, also E. antiquus, the hippopotamus, three species of rhino- ceros, the Irish elk, bison, urus, red deer, brown bear, grisly bear, wolf and many others. A few flint implements have likewise been found. Occasional remains of birds and fishes, and numerous land and freshwater mollusca also occur in the brickearth, a deposit laid down under more tranquil conditions than the gravel, and due largely to the destruction of Eocene beds and Drift sands and loams. The gravel has been derived mainly from pre-existing gravels formed of flint, with less abundant quartz and quartzite. The flint pebbles were derived from Eocene pebble-beds, and the sub-angular flints, quartz and quartzite mainly from the Boulder Clay or from old plateau or Glacial gravels which border the Thames valley from near Great Marlow to Rickmansworth, Hendon and Finchley. Occasional greywethers occur, as at Grays.1 The sheets of gravel and brickearth which extend from Southend and Shoeburyness northwards to Great Wakering, Burnham, Southmin- ster and Bradwell, and occur also on Osea Island, may originally have been connected with the tracts around Clacton and Little Holland. In- deed, it is considered that in old times the Thames turned northwards along the eastern margin of Essex, receiving the Blackwater as a tribu- tary. In this region its right bank has been wholly lost by the subse- quent waste of the land on that side. Thus the Thames was a much mightier river than it is now, but when we contemplate the broad ex- panse occupied by the old valley gravels and brickearths, we need not conclude that the river ever occupied, unless in seasons of flood, the entire area. Its tendency has been to alter its course, and, as pointed out by Mr. Whitaker, for the most part to diverge towards the south, so as to cut against the Kentish shores, while leaving broad tracts of loam and gravel to the north.8 It is difficult to say whether the land was higher or lower during the earlier stages of the formation of these valley deposits, if we accept the view that the lower terraces are of later age where the river cut deeper into the valley. On this subject opinions differ. The land originally may have been much higher, and the river, more or less torrential, cut deeper and deeper into its valley before reach- ing a base-level of erosion. In other valleys there are deposits of river gravel, as along the Colne at Dedham village, and the Cam at Wenden and Great Chester- 1 See Catalogue of the Pleistocene Vertebrata from the neighbourhood of Ilford, Etiex, in tin Colkction of Sir Antonio Brady, by William Davies, 8vo, London, 1874 ; also Henry Woodward, Geol. Mag., 1864, p. 241, 1868, p. 540 ; and M. A. C. Hinton, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 177. 1 For details relating to Grays see B. B. Woodward, Proc. Geol. AIIOC., vol. xi. pp. 363, 364 (herein are references to the labours of all previous workers) ; see also Prestwich, Geol. Mag., 1898, p. 409. * For a review of the literature of the Thames Valley Drift and of the origin of the Thames, see Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. pp. 353, 496 ; Ramsay, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sot., vol. xxviii. p. 148 ; Prestwich, ibid. vol. xlvi. p. 155 ; J. W. Gregory, Natural Science, vol. v. p. 97. i 17 3 A HISTORY OF ESSEX ford. Elsewhere in Essex there are sheets of valley gravel and brick- earth that have yielded interesting fossil remains, to which attention has been directed by the late John Brown of Stan way, by the Rev. Osmond Fisher, and others. Such deposits occur at Great Clacton, at Lexden, Copford and Marks Tey to the west of Colchester, at Kelvedon, Wit- ham and Chelmsford, and again at Great Yeldham. They comprise brickearth, peaty clay, and shell marl, with remains of mammalia, land and freshwater mollusca, and occasionally of beetles and plants. Among the mollusca the more noteworthy are Corbicula fluminalis which has been found at Clacton, Grays and Ilford, Unto littoralis found at Clacton and Grays, and Paludestrina marginata found at Copford, Clacton and Grays.1 These are extinct in Britain ; the majority however belong to species still existing in the district. A few plant-remains have been obtained at Grays : these include the ivy, and as remarked by Mr. C. Reid, they indicate a temperate climate with mild winters.2 In places the brickearth, as at Grays, exhibits a disturbed not to say contorted surface, recalling features that are seen in glaciated districts where the Chalky Boulder Clay rests on beds which have been disturbed during the process of its formation. The discovery at Hornchurch (previously mentioned) where Boul- der Clay underlies the Thames Valley Drift, proves that these superficial disturbances are of later date than the main glaciation. They may have arisen in part from the effects of river-ice, in part from the later influ- ences of freezing and thawing and slipping of the soil.3 At Wanstead Mr. Martin Hinton has observed in the ' High-Ter- race Drift ' much contorted gravel overlain by undisturbed gravel, affording ' evidence of the rivers having been frozen in winter ; and, on the breaking up of the ice, of huge ice-rafts floating down, contorting the deposits in process of formation wherever they grounded.' In the ' Low-Terrace Deposits ' at Ilford the brickearth and overlying gravel and sand are also in places remarkably contorted, evidently by ' the crushing action of ice.' 4 RECENT DEPOSITS The Alluvium is the tract of marshland bordering the rivers, and is in some cases six or seven feet below the level of high-water at spring- tides, It comprises some of the most recent deposits, and is a variable series of muds or silts, clays, shell-marls and peaty deposits with sand and gravel, attaining a thickness of fifty feet at Thames Haven and more 1 See B. B. Woodward, ' On the Pleistocene (Non-Marine) Mollusca of the London District,' Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. p. 335 ; and A. S. Kennard and B. B. Woodward, 'The Post-Pliocene Non- Marine Mollusca of Essex,' Essex Nat., vol. x. p. 87, and Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 282. In these articles references are given to other papers. See also J. P. Johnson and G. White, Essex Nat., vol. xi. P- '57- 8 Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue., vol. liii. p. 464. 3 See O. Fisher, ' On the Warp (of Mr. Trimmer),' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 553 ; and 'On the Ages of the "Trail" and "Warp,"' Geol. Mag. 1867, p. 193 ; see also F. C. J. Spurrell, ' History of Rivers and Denudation,' Proc. West Kent Nat. Hist. Soc., 1886. 4 M. A. C. Hinton, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 271. 18 GEOLOGY elsewhere. As might be expected the deposits are of an estuarinc char- acter where they border the Thames, the wide mouths of the Crouch, Blackwater and Colne, and the inlets between Walton-on-the-Naze and Harwich. Scrobicularia plana and Tellina balthica occur in the tidal clays.1 Along the left bank of the Lea there is a variable breadth of Allu- vium forming a succession of marshes. At Walthamstow during excav- ations for the filter-beds and reservoirs of the East London Waterworks Company in 1868—69, many interesting remains were found and described by Dr. Henry Woodward. Besides numerous land and freshwater shells of existing species, many bones of mammalia and a few of birds and fishes were obtained. There were skulls and portions of skeletons of man, of prehistoric and later age, as well as implements of stone, bone, bronze and iron. There were remains of dog, fox, horse, wild boar, red deer, reindeer, roebuck, elk, urus and short-horned ox, also remains of beaver in considerable abundance. As remarked by Dr. Woodward, the work and enjoyment of the beaver is to construct dams, forming large deep and clear pools of water, with a series of small waterfalls at in- tervals.8 From Felstead, Chignal St. James, Roxwell and other localities in Essex many land and freshwater mollusca have been obtained from shell- marl and other alluvial deposits.8 Along the borders of the Thames valley many interesting sections have been recorded. Thus an excavation made in 1890 for a new gas- holder at Beckton, North Woolwich, showed the following strata : — ft. in. {Soil i 6 Clay 26 Mud 14 o Peat 20 Mud 10 Valley Gravel. Ballast (gravel and sand) 200 Basement-bed of London Clay and Woolwich and Reading Beds. The peat yielded much wood, including bog-oak, while in the Alluvium down to a depth of twenty feet there were found human remains and bones of ox [Bos taurus, var. prim/genius and var. longifrons\t red deer, wild boar, dolphin and whale.4 In other localities remains of birch, alder, hazel and yew have been recognized. From the mouth of the Lea eastwards there is indeed a succession of 1 See F. C. J. Spurrell, • On the Estuary of the Thames and itt Alluvium,' Prac. Ceo/. Attec., roL xi. p. 210 ; H. Robinson, Prac. Init. C. £., vol. xv. p. 196. 1 Geol. Mag., 1869, p. 385 ; and 'The Ancient Fauna of Essex,' Trout. Eistx FitU Club, vol. iii. p. 1. See also Holmes, Enex Nat., vol. xii. p. I. » M. Christy, Enex Nat., vol. iii. p. I ; J. French, ibid. p. 1 1 ; A. S. Kennard and B. B. Wood- ward, ibid. vol. x. p. 87. For other fossils from alluvial deposits, see Whitaker, Geologj of Undo*, vol. i. p. 476. * The section was examined by Mr. T. V. Holmes and the writer, and the bone* were identified by Mr. E. T. Newton. 19 A HISTORY OF ESSEX broad levels, and on those of Plaistow and East Ham, where the land is comparatively cheap, the population has greatly increased despite the naturally undesirable character of the situation. The Gas-Light and Coke Company have created the village of Beckton, and other manu- factories have attracted many workers. The marshland disappears for a space at Purfleet and again at Grays, where the Thames in its windings almost touches the higher grounds of valley gravel. At Tilbury Fort there is again a wide spread of Allu- vium, to which attention has been specially directed because at the base of the clays and peaty beds at a depth of a little over thirty feet there was found a human skeleton of prehistoric, but not, as was originally supposed, of palaeolithic age. The beds above included peat and tidal clay, and the peat contained roots of birch and hazel, and remains of reeds, ferns and mosses. Above the uppermost layer of peat were evidences of Roman occupation.1 At Thames Haven and Canvey Island there is a broad tract of marshland, consisting of fifty feet of clay, silt, sand and peat. Marshlands border east Essex at Wakering, including Foulness and other islands, and northwards they extend along the Crouch valley below Rettenden, and from Burnham to Bradwell on the borders of the river Blackwater. On the opposite side Tollesbury Marsh is continued to the spit known as Shingle Head Point. At the mouth of the Colne St. Osyth marsh extends towards Clacton- on-Sea, where the peaty portion of the Alluvium, clay with plant- remains, and stools and prostrate trunks of trees, exposed at low-tide, has given rise to a submerged forest. On the south side the marshes are bordered by a ridge of shingle and sand, ' which rises above the level of the highest tides, and still continues to increase in width although freely used for road-metal and ballast.'2 South-west of Clacton there are thin fringes of Blown Sand, and there is a tiny patch at Stour Point between Walton-on-the-Naze and Harwich. Harwich itself appears to be built partly on marine sand. These alluvial tracts comprise not only the old embanked areas below high-water mark, including islands and other tracts of excellent loamy soil adapted for grazing as well as arable ground, but they include also salt marshes or saltings which rise ten feet and more above Ordnance Datum. The spring tides cover these salt marshes, and by leaving thin films of sediment, tend gradually to raise their level, until in the end the sea may be excluded. As the saltings continually widen seaward, fresh strips have been from time to time enclosed.3 The trouble with all these marshlands has been the want of fresh water in dry seasons, but deep wells carried through the London Clay have provided a remedy. 1 Holmes, Trans. Essex Field Club, vol. iv. (1885) ; Owen, Prof. Roy. Sue., vol. xxxvi. p. 136 ; and Antiquity of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton, etc., at Tilbury, 1884; see also Spurrell, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. p. 224. * W. H. Dalton, 'Geology of Colchester,' Geol. Survey, 1880, p. 11. 8 W. H. Dalton, Geol. Mag., 1876, p. 492. 20 GEOLOGY The age of the older embankments is unknown, but Mr. Spurrell says there are none below Purfleet so old as the Roman period ; ' and the fact that the marshes so protected are now in many places below the level of high-tide is attributed by Mr. Whitaker to the drying and con- traction of the alluvial deposits since they were preserved from inundation.* The drainage off the alluvial tracts before they were embanked led to the formation of irregular islands, which have retained their outlines since they were protected. Some like Canvey and Foulness are wholly alluvial and recent. Others like Osea and Northey in the Blackwater valley, are formed partly of London Clay and partly of Gravel or Allu- vium. In the Crouch valley there are ancient islets of London Clay no longer surrounded by water, but enclosed by marshland. Bricks arc made from the alluvial clay on Bridgemarsh Island south of Latch- ingdon. Although the tidal waters of the Thames ascend as far as Richmond and Teddington, nevertheless its estuary is sometimes taken to mean that portion east of a line drawn between Southend and Sheerness, onwards to the bank known as the Kentish Knock. The area off Essex is composed of broad banks and shoals of sand and mud with shells, trending north- east and divided by channels known as 'deeps' which are connected with the Thames, Crouch and Blackwater. Some of the isolated banks as well as the broad foreshore known as the Maplin Sands are dry at low- water. The Maplin Sands, though shifting sands, are mostly firm when uncovered, although there are muddy tracts near the shore. The condi- tion of the estuary is regarded by Capt. T. H. Tizard as due to the action of the sea in casting up banks, and of the tidal flow in cutting channels through the banks thus formed.* Changes in the depths of channels and banks are continually in progress, and their forms are liable to more abrupt alterations during gales. The presence of peaty beds in the Alluvium indicates that the land has subsided some twenty feet or more, and consequently that the tidal waters are enabled to extend higher up than was formerly the case. As the Rev. O. Fisher has remarked, ' The tidal rivers are evidently nothing more than a continuation of the valleys beneath the sea-level.' ' The estuarine character of the waters is favourable to the cultivation of oysters, and the Colne, Crouch and Blackwater form famous grounds for the Colchester and Burnham ' natives.' Nevertheless there has been much silting up of the tidal creeks, and Maldon in old times was a more important port than it is now. Much waste is going on along the coast between Harwich and Southend, waste which has in places been greatly accelerated by land- slips. The greater losses have taken place between the mouth of the 1 See C. Vancouver, General new of the Agriculture of Enex (1795) 5 and Spurrell, 'Early Sites »nd Embankments on the Margins of the Thames Estuary,' Artb. Jcnr*., vol. xliii. p. 269. * GuiJe to Geol. LonJm, ed. 5. (1889), p. 78. * Nature, April 10, 1890, p. 539; see also J. B. Redman, ' The River Thames,' Pne. Intl. C. S., vol. xlix. p. 67. * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xvii. p. I. 21 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Colne and Harwich. Mr. Redman observed in 1864, that ' At Holland the mere basements of the east buttresses of the church are left, indicat- ing the site of the ruins. Here, on a mile of frontage, three acres of land have been lost in eight years, equal to a recession of one yard per annum.'1 In January, 1901, an extensive landslip took place at Frinton, when hundreds of tons of the cliff fell away on to the foreshore and into the sea. That land is elsewhere growing by the process of reclamation has been indicated, but in this respect it is only a partial recovery of lost ground. That the sea has in comparatively recent times burst over the present artificial bounds is indicated by the marine beach-deposits of shelly sand and shingle which are found on Shoebury Common. Similar patches occur in Foulness Island, and in the marshes east of Burnham and Southminster, Tillingham and Bradwell.* Among the shells the periwinkle, mussel, and more especially the common cockle are to be found. Formerly the shelly deposit at Tillingham was dug for manur- ing the land. In early times the settlers being dependent on ready local supplies of drinking-water from wells and springs fixed their habitations on the Thames valley gravels or on the Bagshot Sands or Glacial gravels, or on the Chalk. Settlements on the areas of London Clay were rare, until with the finding of artesian water abundant supplies could be obtained below ground and transmitted from a short distance. It is noteworthy that along the western side of the Lea valley in Hertfordshire and Middlesex a number of important villages grew up on the broad tracts of valley gravel, while on the eastern and more clayey side in Essex the villages are few and far between, Waltham Abbey being the only place of particular note, and this is situated on gravel. The same remarks apply to large areas of London Clay between Brentwood and Rayleigh. Over great part of Essex however gravelly and sandy beds occur here and there in the Boulder Clay, and these throw out springs, some of which, however, are far from permanent, failing in dry summer weather. The larger independent masses of Glacial sand and gravel afford more enduring supplies. Among the noteworthy permanent springs is one known as Crom- well's Well, at Maldon, which issues from the Glacial gravels ; but there are numerous others, not the least important being those which issue from the Chalk (see p. 6). An old writer mentions a chalybeate spring at Witham, and another spring that issues from a hill (probably Chadwell) two miles from the river at Tilbury, remarking that 'It makes excellent Punch, and is ex- tremely good for Tea.' 3 Other mineral springs have been noted at Woodford, Chigwell, Brentwood and North Upminster. 1 J. B. Redman, ' The East Coast between the Thames and the Wash Estuaries,' Pnc . Inst. C. £., vol. xxiii. p. 1 86 ; see also W. H. Dalton, Geol. Mag. 1876, p. 492. 2 See Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. p. 478. 3 R. Russel, Dissertation on Sea Water, etc., ed. 5 (1769), p. 293 ; see also Morant, Hist, and Antij. of Essex (1768), vol. i. pp. 39, no, 164. 23 GEOLOGY Essex possesses one mineral water which attained a temporary reputation. This was at Hockley Spa, where a permanent spring issues from the base of the Bagshot Sand. Here about sixty years ago an endeavour was made ' to establish a Spa with pump-rooms, and a woman was employed to dispense them, whose strong healthy appearance visitors were led to believe was the result of the medicinal effects of the water,' but ' the speculation proved a failure.'1 Dr. A. B. Granville, writing in 1841, gives an account of the discovery of the mineral water, and states that it contained sulphates of magnesia and lime, carbonate of lime, and chloride of sodium.1 With the growth of population the supplies of water from shallow sources have in many cases become not only inadequate, but also con- taminated ; and even when the supply remains sufficient for a small country village the danger from pollution is great, especially if any serious illness arises. The whole aspect of Essex appears geologically to be one of some- what sluggish repose despite the constant waste of the ground by rain and rivers and sea. The force of the breakers is however broken by the shallow ground which borders a great part of Essex. Nevertheless geological action occasionally makes itself manifest in a more startling manner. In 1884 a remarkable earthquake was felt especially in the country between Colchester and the mouth of the Blackwater ; and according to the detailed investigations made by Prof. R. Meldola and Mr. W. White it was ' the most serious that has happened in the British Islands for about four centuries.' They state that the number of buildings damaged by the shock was between 1,200 and 1,300, including 20 churches and 11 chapels, and that the main axis of damage had a general direction from north-east to south- west, extending from Wivenhoe to Peldon. The effects produced may, in their opinion, have resulted from the rupture of deep-seated rocks under strain or pressure, such as the sudden production or extension of a line of faulting ; and the localization of the damage was probably due to the disturbance having originated under a clay area.3 i H. W. Bristow in Whitaker's Geo/egy of London, vol. i. p. 26 1. * The Sfai of England, vol. iii. p. 606. • 'Report on the East-Anglian Earthquake of April zznd, 1884,' Essex Field Club Special Memoirs, vol. i. (London, 1885). PALEONTOLOGY AS regards the past history of vertebrated animals (with which alone we are concerned on the present occasion) interest in Essex is chiefly concentrated on the wonderful series of mammalian remains which have been obtained from the Pleistocene gravels and brickearths of various localities in the Thames valley, and more especially at Ilford and Grays, as well as those from approximately contemporaneous deposits in other parts of the county, notably Clacton. From the brickearth at Grays has been obtained the sole evidence of the former occurrence of monkeys in the British Isles ; the so-called Macacus eoccenus from the Eocene of Suffolk being described on the evidence of a tooth which was subsequently ascertained to belong to the undermen- tioned Hyracotherium leporinum. A considerable amount of interest like- wise attaches to the remains of mammals from the valley of the Lea at Walthamstow ; but as these, on account of their later age, belong to existing species, their importance is far less than the remains from the brickearths. In this connection it may avoid confusion to mention that, in addition to this particular series of remains, certain other mammalian fossils, notably teeth of the mammoth, have been obtained at Waltham- stow which appear to belong to an older deposit, approximately equivalent to the valley gravels and brickearths of other parts of the county. Another important element in the palaeontological history of the county is represented by the vertebrate remains from the London Clay of Harwich, the majority of these belonging to extinct types of turtles, although at least one species of mammal has been recorded from this locality, while a second is represented by a specimen dredged off the coast between Harwich and St. Osyth. Although the Red Crag occurs in the county, it has very few vertebrate fossils in comparison with those found in the same formation in Suffolk. Since the nature of these various Tertiary formations, as well as the localities where they occur, are mentioned in the chapter on geology, no further reference is required in this place. The mammalian remains from the alluvium of the marshes at Walthamstow were first described by Dr. H. Woodward,1 but some emendations on the list of species then given have been made subse- quently. The species include the dog (Canis familiar -is), horse (Equus 1 Geological M agazint, vi. 385 (1869). I 25 4 A HISTORY OF ESSEX caballus]^ wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roebuck (Cap- reolus capreolus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus], elk (Alces machlis), Celtic shorthorn (Bos taurus), wild ox (Bos taurus primigenius], goat (Capra bircus) and beaver (Castor fiber). The Celtic shorthorn, it may be ob- served, is frequently alluded to as Bos longifrons or Bos taurus longifrons ; but since it is believed to be only a domesticated breed it has no more claim to a distinct name (other than Bos taurus) than has the modern shorthorn or any other existing breed. The alluvial marshes extend some way along the Lea valley, the British Museum possessing a fine pair of red deer antlers dug up at Edmundsea near Waltham Abbey. Remains of the Celtic shorthorn have also been recorded from Audley End, Clacton and Walton. The Walthamstow deposits have also yielded a wing-bone of a species of sea-eagle. This specimen, now in the British Museum, was at one time regarded by the present writer * as probably belonging to the Pacific HaliaStus pelagicus. The recent skeleton in the British Museum on which the determination was made has however been found to have been wrongly named, and the Walthamstow specimen probably belongs to the European H. albicilla. Remains of existing species of mammals have been found in the prehistoric deposits of other places in the county, but there would be no advantage in alluding to them in detail. Reference is made in the chapter on geology to the occurrence in the alluvium of Beckton, Woolwich, of remains of the wild boar, red deer, Celtic shorthorn, wild ox, dolphin (Delpbinus delpbis) and a whale. It may be added that from the marshes of East Ham have been disinterred remains of the bottle- nosed whale (Hyperob'don rostratus), a species which is one of the most common cetacean visitors to the British shores. A skull and vertebra? (now in the British Museum) of the blackfish (Globicepbalus me/as) have been dug up in the marshes at Barking Creek. Teeth of the sperm-whale (Physeter macrocephalus) have also been recorded from the estuarine turbary of the county. Passing on to the consideration of the vertebrate remains from the brickearths, valley gravels and other deposits which, from containing a percentage of extinct mammals, may be regarded as of Pleistocene rather than prehistoric age, it may be mentioned in the first place that many of these are not strictly contemporaneous with one another. Evidence of this is afforded by a difference in the mammalian fauna. At Chelms- ford 2 for instance we have the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros and the hippopotamus, whereas at Great Yeldham3 the hippopotamus is wanting and the woolly rhinoceros replaced by the slender-nosed species, the mammoth being common to both deposits. The most interesting of all these animals is the Essex monkey, the sole evidence of whose former existence is a single upper molar tooth in a fragment of the jaw which was obtained from Grays, and is now in the 1 Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus. p. 23 (1891). z See E. T. Newton, Essex Naturalist, ix. 16 (1895). 8 See Holmes, ibid. 115 (1896). 26 PALEONTOLOGY British Museum. It was described by Sir Richard Owen in 1846 under the name of Macacus pliocenus. Of Carnivora, the first on the list is the cave-lion (Felis leo speleca), of which remains have been obtained both at Ilford and Clacton, the specimens obtained by Sir A. Brady from the former locality including part of the lower jaw and one of the bones of the foot. The wild cat (F. catus) is known by a lower jaw from Grays preserved in the museum at Oxford. The extinct European race (Hyana crocuta spelaa) of the spotted hysena, a species now restricted to Africa, has been met with in the Pleistocene deposits of Grays and Walton ; and remains of the wolf (Cams lupus) occur at Grays, and those of the fox (C. \Vulpes~\ wipes) both at Grays and Ilford. Bones of the otter (Lutra lutra) have likewise been discovered at Grays. Remains of bears are recorded from Grays, Great Yeldham, Ilford and Walton ; some of these certainly be- long to the common European brown bear (Ursus arctus), but others have been assigned to the American grizzly bear. In view however of the numerous forms more or less closely allied to the typical brown bear which have recently been recognized in northern Asia and North America this determination is extremely doubtful. In his British Fossil Mammals and Biro's Sir R. Owen expressed the opinion that certain ursine remains from Clacton and Grays might pertain to the great -cave- bear (£7. spelaus), but this also requires confirmation. A jaw of some species of shrew (Sorex) from Grays seems to be the only known representative of the Insectivora in the Essex Pleistocene. Allusion has already been made to the occurrence of remains of the beaver at Walthamstow, and evidence of the presence of the same animal at Ilford and Grays has likewise been obtained. The beds at the former locality have yielded remains of two other rodents, namely the water-vole (Microtus amphibius) and the common field-vole (M. agrestis).1 The common mouse (Mus musculus) is recorded from Copford, where have likewise been obtained molar teeth of a large undetermined beaver- like rodent. The list of Ungulate, or hoofed, mammals from these deposits is very large indeed. From Clacton have been obtained antlers of a fallow deer which has been regarded as distinct from the ordinary European species and named Ceruus browni, in honour of the late Mr. John Brown of Stanway, who did so much to advance our knowledge of the fossil mammals of the Essex coast. Remains of the giant fallow deer (C. giganteus), so constantly miscalled ' Irish elk,' have been obtained from Audley End, Grays, Ilford and Walton-on-the-Naze. Of the red deer remains have been recorded from Clacton, Colchester, Grays, Great Yeldham and Walton, and those of the roe from Grays and Great Yeldham. The bison (Bos [Bison] priscus) is known from the coast, Ilford, Walton and possibly Chelmsford. Magnificent skulls of the wild ox were obtained by Sir Antonio Brady from Ilford, so large indeed that they were regarded as belonging to a peculiar species, for which the 1 Sec Hinton, Entx Naturafut, xi. 169 (1899). 27 A HISTORY OF ESSEX name Bos glganteus was suggested by Sir R. Owen. Its remains have likewise been found at Clacton, Grays, Great Yeldham and Walton. In addition to its occurrence at Walthamstow, the wild boar has been recorded from Clacton, Colchester and Grays, although, curiously enough, none of its remains were obtained by Sir A. Brady from Ilford. Of the extinct European race of the hippopotamus {Hippopotamus amphibius major) teeth and bones have been found in considerable numbers at Chelmsford, Grays, Ilford and Walton. The wild horse (Equus caballus fossilis) appears to have been widely distributed over the county, its remains being recorded from Audley End, Clacton, Grays, Ilford, Saffron Walden and Walton. Of much greater interest are the remains of rhinoceroses from the Essex deposits, these being more varied and occurring in greater perfection than perhaps in any other English county. They have been assigned to three species. Of the woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis), which was a two- horned species closely allied to the so-called white rhinoceros of Africa, remains have been recorded from Chelmsford, Clacton, Ilford and Walton. The second species, R. leptorhinus, which differs by the form of its cheek-teeth but has a similar bony partition dividing the two nostrils, occurs at Clacton, Grays, Great Yeldham, Ilford and Walton. It is represented in the British Museum by no less than four Essex skulls, two of which are from Walton and the others respectively from Grays and Clacton. The Clacton skull, which is figured in Sir R. Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Birds, has been the subject of much controversy. The third form, R. mercki or R. megarhinus, has teeth very similar to the last, with which indeed some have thought it to be identical ; but, according to a recent publication by Professor H. F. Osborn, it is perfectly distinct. It appears to have no partition between the nostrils. Its remains occur at Grays, Ilford and Walton, many of the molar teeth from the two former localities having been described by Professor W. B. Dawkins. Teeth and bones of the mammoth (Elepbas primigenius), a near rela- tive of the Indian elephant, have been obtained in great numbers from the Ilford pits, which have likewise yielded a nearly entire skull, with the tusks, of the same species, which is now preserved in the British Museum. Mammoth remains have likewise been recorded from Chelms- ford, Clacton, Grays, Great Yeldham, Harwich, Hedingham, Ilford, Isle of Dogs, Walthamstow and Walton. Neither is evidence wanting of the former presence in the county of the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus), its remains, although less abundant than those of the mammoth, occurring at Clacton, Grays, Harwich, Ilford, Saffron Walden and Walton. Of the older southern elephant (E. meridionalis] no remains appear to have been obtained on land within the confines of the county, although its molar teeth have been dredged up off the coast. Vertebras provisionally assigned to the bottle-nosed dolphin (fTursiops tursio) are known from the brickearth at Grays. One bird alone appears to have been identified as occurring in the 28 PALEONTOLOGY Essex Pleistocene, this being the wild swan (Cygnus musicus), of which the British Museum possesses a leg-bone from Grays. A few fish remains have been obtained from the brickearths of Essex, mainly from Grays, and have been provisionally assigned to the following species,1 viz. the pike (Esox lucius), ruff (Acerina vu/garis), roach (Leuciscus rutilus), dace (L. dobula), rudd (L. erythophthalmus)t and eel (Anguilla vu/garis). With the exception of the first, which also occurs at Copford and Ilford, all these forms are known from the deposits at Grays. Mammalian remains from the Red Crag at Walton and other localities where the same formation occurs in the county appear to be exceedingly rare. Fragments of the tusks of the Crag walrus (Odobanus huxleyi) are however recorded from Essex. At the time when the ' cement stones,' or septaria, of the London Clay were collected in the neighbourhood of Harwich, these when broken were occasionally found to be formed round part of a mammalian skeleton or the shell or skull of a turtle. In the winter of 1856-7 a portion of such a nodule containing bones, which had been obtained near Harwich, was brought to Sir R. Owen, who described the skull and other remains found therein as those of a new genus of mammal, under the name of Pliolophus vulpiceps. Subsequently however they were identified by Sir W. H. Flower with a mammal previously described by Owen from the London Clay of Kent as Hyracotberium leporinum. The animal in question, which was about the size of a fox ; was one of the ancestral types of the horse. The Essex specimen is in the British Museum. Of even greater interest is a fragment of the lower jaw of a much larger mammal in the same collection containing two teeth, which was dredged off the Essex coast between St. Osyth and Harwich some time previous to the year 1846, and appears to have been derived from the London Clay. This specimen is described and figured in Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Birds under the name of Coryphodon eoceenus, and forms the type of both the genus and the species. For many years the affinities of the Coryphodon were unknown, but from the evidence of complete skeletons obtained in North America it is now ascertained to have been a large hoofed mammal of very primitive type allied to the wonderful horned Uintatherium of the North American Eocene. Skulls and shells of large marine turtles belonging to the extinct genus Lytoloma are not uncommon in these Harwich cement stones, and there is a considerable series of such specimens in the British Museum. Some of these remains belong to L. crassicostatum, of which the type specimen is from Harwich, and was originally described by Sir R. Owen as Chelone crassicostata. The second species, originally described by the same palaeontologist on the evidence of a skull from Harwich, is L. planimentum. From the Chalk of Essex remains belonging to those gigantic 1 See E. T. Newton, Geol. Mag. Dec. 4, viii. 51 (1901). 29 A HISTORY OF ESSEX extinct marine lizards known as Mosasauria are occasionally met with, some of these belonging to Liodon anceps, while others indicate a species more nearly allied to, if not identical with, the typical genus Mosasaurus, whose remains are so abundant in the Upper Cretaceous formation of Belgium. Very few species of fishes appear to have been hitherto recorded from the Chalk of Essex. These include Ptychodus polygyrus^ a common species of a well known Cretaceous genus of pavement-toothed rays, teeth of which have been found both at Grays and Purfleet. Three species of sharks are known, all from Grays, namely Scapanorhynchus subulatus, Corax falcatus and Oxyrbina mantelli, the latter being repre- sented in the British Museum collection by an associated series of fifty- seven teeth and some vertebra from Grays. All are common Cretaceous forms. The same locality has also yielded teeth of Enchodus leivesiensis, an extinct barracuda-like fish with large teeth, originally named on the evidence of remains from the Sussex Chalk. HISTORY OF ESSEX BOTANICAI THE VI CTORIA HI STORY OF HSTRICTS. LIST OF BOTANICAL DISTRICTS I • Saffron Walden * . Brentuioott II. Halttead VI. Southend III. CM../M VII. IV. f oo/oo VIII. Colctltitir E COUNTIES OF ENGLAND BOTANY1 PLANTS first became of interest to man on account of their value as food, their medicinal virtues or the poisonous properties possessed by so many of them. Hence the first steps in the building up of our science consisted in attempts to describe plants with a degree of accuracy which would enable students to recognize those which could be utilized for food or medicine, or which should be avoided because of their poisonous character. Attempts of this kind slowly developed into the vast subject now known as vegetable biology. Owing no doubt to the fact that the metropolis, the home of many of the earlier English writers, is only a few miles from the borders of Essex, the history of the botany of our county is practically coterminous with that of the science tn Britain. Hence we must seek the early records of the Essex flora in the works of William Turner, the father of English botany, and in those of Gerard, Johnson, Parkinson, How, Robert Turner, Merrett, Ray, Morison and Dale. Since a brief outline of the botany of Essex is all that space permits of in this article, and an account of the ' History of the Botany of Essex,' by Professor G. S. Boulger is now appearing in the Essex Naturalist, I wish to refer my readers to that publication for details of this interesting subject. William Turner was born in Northumberland between 1510 and 1515. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Like many who adopted the principles of the Reformation of that period, Turner spent a portion of his time in prison and in foreign travel. His herbal, which was written just three centuries before the publication of Gibson's flora, contains the first records of Essex plants, viz. Ruscus aculeatus, a 7V/W, a hellebore and mistletoe. ' Butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus); he says, ' groweth verye plenteously in Essex.' The ' Lind tre,' he tells us, ' groweth very plenteously in Essekes in a parke within two miles of Colichester, in the possession of one maister Bogges,' but whether he alludes to the 1 I desire here to express my indebtedness to the following correspondents : Professor G. S. Boulger, F.L.S. ; Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D. ; Mr. Philip Lake, M.A. ; Mr. E. E. Turner. I am under special obligations to Mr. E. M. Holmes, F.L.S., for looking over MS. and proofs, and for revising and rearranging portions of the cryptogamic flora of Essex. 31 A HISTORY OF ESSEX indigenous or to the planted species is uncertain. Of hellebore he says, ' I dare not saye that ever I found the righte black hellebor, but thys I dare holde, that a man for defaut of it, may use verye well that kinde of bear foot that goeth every yeare into the grounde, whereof groweth greate plentye in a parke besyde Colchester.' Of the mistletoe he tells us that it grows more plentifully than elsewhere. Essex perhaps owes more to John Gerard than to any other early botanist. Gerard was born at Nantwich in Cheshire in 1545. He was educated in a neighbouring school, but at an early age he studied medi- cine and travelled in Denmark, Poland, Sweden and Russia. In 1577 he had charge of the gardens of Lord Burleigh in the Strand and at Theobalds in Hertfordshire, and at one time he had a house and garden of his own in Holborn. In 1597 he became a warden of the Barber- Surgeons Company, and issued his celebrated herbal, which was illus- trated by i, 800 woodcuts, mostly reproduced from the Eicones Stirpium of Taberncemontanus. This herbal records about seventy-five Essex plants. I must not pass from these pioneers in botanical science without referring to Ray, who filled an important place among the great founders of botany and zoology. To his works Linnaeus, BufFon, Jessieu, Brown, De Candolle and others were largely indebted. Ray was born at Black Notley near Braintree. The son of a blacksmith he studied at Cam- bridge, entering at St. Catharine College and subsequently at Trinity College. He was elected a fellow of Trinity in 1649. He was appointed Greek lecturer of his college, and at the age of twenty-five he was made mathematical tutor. He finally settled in our county, and the house he lived in was destroyed by fire quite recently. The county may well be proud to have given birth to this great man. More recent records of Essex botany are to be found in a catalogue of plants in Cough's edition of Camden's Britannia, in Warner's Plantce Woodfordiensis (pub. 1771), Watson's Botanical Guides, in the Phytologist, in Smith's English Flora, Withering's works and several herbaria which are preserved in the British Museum, and finally in Gibson, who, assisted by a band of workers, published the first complete Essex Flora in 1862, a work which will compare favourably with any county flora since published. During the last twenty years many lists of plants found in the county have been published in the journal of the Essex Field Club (Essex Naturalist, edited by W. Cole). The plants thus added to the records of the Essex flora are chiefly those belonging to the so-called critical genera, which were not recognized as species in Gibson's day, and casuals, some of which may establish themselves as permanent resi- dents. The cryptogamic plants included in this article are almost entirely derived from the above journal, and afford an example of the value of such publications. That the contributors include the names of Mr. E. A. L. Batters, Dr. M. C. Cooke, the Rev. James Crombie, Messrs. English, E. M. Holmes, G. P. Hope, Worthington Smith 32 BOTANY and E. G. Varenne is sufficient guarantee of the trustworthiness of those records. There is no reason to suppose that the flora of the county has changed since the publication of Gibson's Flora. I have botanized through that portion of the county which forms Gibson's district 8, Mr. E. E. Turner of Witham has done much work in district 7, and the Rev. J. T. Powell has contributed a paper to the Essex Naturalist (vi. i) on the existing flora of Epping Forest. I do not know of any species of flowering plants which have been certainly lost to us. Ft/ago gallica has not been found for some years, owing to the field from which it was formerly collected having been left uncultivated. In some districts of the county, more especially near the metro- polis, the rapid growth of town threatens the early destruction of the flora. Such abundant plants as the primrose and the wild hyacinth are said to have been almost exterminated in some neighbourhoods, and the advent of the bicycle has unfortunately extended the range through which this destruction may take place. DISTRIBUTION • The chief forces which influence the distribution of plants may be generalized as follows. When we travel north and south we observe considerable change in the flora, and though such changes are not very marked in a small country like England, the distinction between the flora of the tropical, subtropical, temperate and arctic latitudes has always greatly impressed travellers. Again, as we travel east and west a less marked change may be noted. In the latter case the difference in the climatic conditions is not great. In so small an area as that of Essex these changes may be neglected. When we climb a mountain, plants which were abundant at the lower levels gradually disappear and new ones take their place. The highest ground in Essex does not greatly exceed 400 feet above the sea ; we should therefore not expect to meet with representatives of the mountain flora, but strange though it may seem our coast produces several plants which are also found high up on mountains, though they do not grow at intervening altitudes. The most potent agent in regulating the distribution of plants is undoubtedly climate. The difference between tropical, subtropical, temperate and arctic vegetation is so marked that geologists do not hesitate to tell us that England was once a tropical and later an arctic country, because they find remains of tropical and arctic flora in different strata underlying our eastern counties. England was once part of the continent of Europe, and during at least a portion of that time was clothed by arctic plants ; these however gave place to our modern flora, which is similar in character to the flora of Europe, and is therefore no doubt derived from the adjacent continent. i 33 5 A HISTORY OF ESSEX The meteorological conditions of a district have a most important influence upon the flora, plants being peculiarly sensitive to drought or excessive moisture in the atmosphere, and also to winds and other atmospheric conditions. Perhaps next to climate the geological formations on the surface of the earth have the most potent influence upon the distribution of plants, and botanists can frequently identify a geological formation by plants which occur on its surface. In the county of Essex the distribution of plants is mainly determined by geological conditions. All plants are more or less adapted to their environment. Hence in those districts where the field boundaries are constructed of stone certain plants become more or less rare which elsewhere are com- paratively common ; and in counties from which stone is absent those plants which delight in stone walls are rare or absent. Again, if a wood is converted into arable land or pasturage, plants which need the shade and other forms of vegetable life peculiar to woodland country soon disappear. Pasturage, heath land, cultivated land and river banks have each their peculiar inhabitants. In order to show clearly the distribution of plants over any area it is necessary to divide it into districts. When possible it is better that these districts should coincide with the geological formation, or when this is impossible with the natural features of the country. Reference to the geological map of Essex will show that the surface geological formations are so scattered that any division of the county coinciding with the geological structure is practically impossible. Watson in his Cybele Britannica has subdivided Great Britain into its river beds, and although the distribution of plants does not in all cases coincide with river beds this system has many practical advantages. Professor G. S. Boulger has suggested the adoption of this system for the county of Essex,1 and has worked out the districts of Essex on that basis ; but I do not think that for practical purposes this arrangement is as convenient in this county as the purely artificial divisions adopted by Gibson. Therefore in the list of Essex flowering plants here given Gibson's divisions have been adhered to. As the geology of Essex is fully dealt with elsewhere it is only necessary here to summarize those features of the surface geology of our county which influence the flora. Essex occupies a large part of an irregular tract known as the London basin, which has for its foundation the great chalk formation, and the chalk comes to the surface at Purfleet and Grays in south Essex ; at Quendon, Newport, Audley End and Saffron Walden in north Essex ; and at Great Yeldham and Middleton eastwards. London clay, which lies upon the chalk, is a very stiff bluish-grey clay, brown on its surface ; it shrinks and cracks in dry weather, but absorbs much water in wet weather. It occupies a large part of the county, and is exposed over considerable areas. 1 Transactions of the Essex Field Club, ii. 69. 34 BOTANY Overlying the London clay we have various formations consisting of sands and gravels. Amongst these are: (i) Bagshot beds, which constitute some of the higher and more picturesque tracts, as at High Beech, Brentwood, Warley, Billericay, Stock, Langdon Hill and Ray- leigh ; (2) the glacial gravels occurring at Quendon, at Clavering, at Harlow and at Roydon, along the Colne from Great Yeldham, Halstead, Gosfield, Great Bardfield, Thaxted, over the high grounds of Danbury, around Colchester, Brightlingsea and St. Osyth, in patches at Mersca Island and Tolleshunt, and at Tiptree Heath ; (3) valley gravel in the Thames valley. Boulder clay, another glacial drift formation, occupies a large portion of the surface of Essex. Bordering on our rivers we have large tracts of alluvium recently deposited, forming extensive marshlands. These marshlands near the sea and riverine estuaries are either covered at high tides, when they are known as saltings, or the sea water permeates them, when they may be described as brackish marshes. We have also on the edges of the sea coast considerable stretches of shingle and sand. The long stretches of sea wall protecting the coast have a characteristic though limited flora. It will therefore be evident that Essex has an abundant variety of soil, and is very pleasantly diversified with arable land and pasture, with woodlands, commons and well timbered hedgerows. It includes every species of soil from the most stubborn to the mildest loam. For our present purposes we may group the geological formations as follows : — 1 . Chalk and Boulder Clay, which contains much chalk. 2. London Clay. 3. Gravels and Sands. 4. Alluvium. 5. Marine. Though chalk only comes to the surface over a small area in the county the chalk flora extends over a considerable portion of its surface, for the Essex boulder clay usually contains so much chalk that the chalk loving plants may always be met with upon this formation. It is upon this strata that the traveller's joy (Clematis Vitalba] flourishes more particularly. Both the green hellebore and the foetid hellebore also occur as natives upon the boulder clay. Berberis vu/garis is found at Saffron Walden on the chalk, also the common rockrose (Helianthemum •uulgare), which plant also occurs at other stations. The hairy violet (Viola hirta) is common both upon the chalk and upon the boulder clay. The following chalk plants are included in our flora : the buck- thorn (Rhamnus c atharticus) , ladies' fingers (Anthyllis Vu Ineraria) , the wild liquorice (Astragalus glycypbyllos), the purple milk-vetch (A. hypo- glottis'), the dropwort (Spiraea Filipendula), the salad burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba], common hare's ear (Bupleurum rotundifoliuni) , dwarf thistle (Carduus acau/is), yellow-wort (Cblora perfoliata), autumnal gentian 35 A HISTORY OF ESSEX (Gentiana amarelld), deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna), the dwarf orchis (Orchis ustulatd), the pyramidal orchis (O. pyramidalis), the green man orchis (Aceras anthropophord) , bee orchis (Opbrys apiferd), spider orchis (O. araniferd), the fly orchis (O. musciferd), large white helle- borine (Cephalanthera pat/ens), and other chalk plants. London clay is perhaps remarkable for the limited character of its flora. In the summer the surface dries and becomes so hard that a pick can scarcely penetrate it, whilst below it retains much moisture. It favours those plants which send their roots deep into the soil, e.g. colts- foot (Tussilago Farfard), which is common on undrained London clay. Thymus Chamcedrys also favours this formation, whilst wild oat (Avena fatud] is peculiarly abundant on it. The gravels and sands possibly stand next to chalk for the variety of characteristic plants which these soils produce in the county. The following may be mentioned as characteristic of these formations : the interesting mouse's-tail (Myosurus minimus), the small-flowered ranunculus (Ranunculus parviflorus) , flixweed (Sisymbrium Sophia], swine's cress (Sene- biera Coronopus), lesser swine's cress (S. didymd), dog violet (Viola canind), Deptford pink (Dianthus Armerid), English catchfly (Silene anglicd), purple sandwort (Spergula rubrd), trailing St. John's wort (Hypericum humifusum), upright St. John's wort (H. pulchrum), allseed (Radio/a millegrand), needle whin (Genista anglicd), hare's foot trefoil (Trifolium aruense), lesser trefoil (T. minus), slender trefoil ( T. Jiliforme), annual knawel (Scleranthus annuus), purple-tipped cudweed (Filago apiculatd), field cudweed (F. minima), narrow-leaved cudweed (F. Gallicd), slender-flowered thistle (Carduus tenuiftorus), common sheep's scabious (Jasione montand), downy hemp nettle (Galeopsis ochroleucd), and the pretty little orchid 'lady's tresses' (Spiranthes autumnalis] . The riverside and alluvium flora is well represented ; amongst these plants we have the common meadow-rue (Thalictrum flaiium), greater spearwort (Ranunculus Lingua), white water lily (Nymphcea alba), yellow water lily (Nuphar luteuni), bitter ladies' smock (Cardamine amard), purple loosetrife (Lythrum Salicaria, L.), the willow herbs (Epilobium), common hare's-tail (Hippuris vu/garis), whorled water-milfoil (Myriophyllum verti- cillatum), spiked water -milfoil (M. spicatum), meadow-sweet (Spiraea Ulmarid), common marsh wort (Helosciadium nodiflorum), the very poisonous water drop worts (CEnanthe), common valerian (Valeriana qfficinalis), small teasel (Dipsacus pilosus], hemp agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum), bur marigold (Bidens tripartita and B. cernud), yellow rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli), most species of the mints (Mentha rotundifolia, M. aquatica, M, syhatica, M. viridis, M. piperita, M. pratensis, M. sativa), scullcap (Scute llaria galericulatd), water violet (Hottonia palustris), yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia vu/garis), great water dock (Rumex Hydrolapathum), yellow flag (Iris pseudacorus], great flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus), sweet flag (Acorus Calamus), all the duckweeds (Lemnd), and bullrush (Scirpus lacustris) . Essex possesses a very representative marine flora. There are 36 BOTANY stretches of sand and shingle, upon which the following plants occur : horned poppy (Glaucium /uteum), sea rocket (Cakile maritima), sea kale (Crambe maritima), saltwort (Salsola Kali), various species of orache (Atrip/ex) and sea spurge (Euphorbia Par alia*). Our saltings are very extensive and their flora includes scurvy grass (Cocblearia anglica, C. officinalis, C. Danica), golden samphire (Inula critbmoides), thrift (Armeria maritima), sea lavenders (Statice Limonium, S. rariflora and S. occidentalis) , marsh samphires (Salicornia herbacea, S. radi- cans), sea aster (Aster Tripolium), sea blite (Suceda maritima). Upon our sea walls and waste ground near the sea we find whitlow pepperwort (Lepidium Draba), broad-leaved pepperwort or cress (L. lati- folium), smooth sea heath (Frankenia Icevis), sea campion (Silene maritima'), marsh-mallow (Altbaa officinalis), Alexanders (Smyrnium Olusatrum), sea wormwood (Artemisia maritima), sea lettuce (Lactuca saligna), shrubby sea blite (Suada fruticosa), shrubby sea purslane (Obione portulacoides), sea dock (Rumex maritimus), asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), round fruited rush (Juncus Gerardf), wild celery (Apium graveo/ens). Common mus- tard (Brassica sinapioides) is said to be a native of our coast, and upon sandy ground near our coast Medicago minima, M. maculata and M. denti- culata occur. The very extensive brackish marshes, covering thousands of acres, do not produce a great variety of plants ; but the rare Vicia lutea has been found upon them, and the uncommon Trifolium maritimum also occurs. The very interesting grass vetch, Lathyrus Nissolia, grows in con- siderable quantities on some of these marshes. In the dikes, or at the edges of the dikes bounding the marshes, the following plants are abundant : Slender hare's ear (Bupleurum tenuissimum), salt marsh club rush (Scirpus maritimus) and tassel pondweed (Ruppia maritima). Drainage and enclosure have been carried out in Essex so exten- sively that the bog flora has been almost exterminated, but boggy places remain at Danbury, at Warley and in Epping Forest, hence we have the following representatives of the bog flora : Drosera rotundifolia, Parnassia palustris, Hypericum elodes, Eriophorum angustifolium and E. latifolium. The old walls of Essex afford us the wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri), the Spanish catchfly (Silene Otites), which latter was planted on the walls in Colchester by a lepidopterist as a food plant for larvae, and has been well established for twenty years. The rue-leaved saxifrage (Saxifraga tridactylites), viper's bugloss (Ecbium vu/gare), mother of thousands (Linaria Cymbalaria), wall pellitory (Parietaria offidnalis) and wall veron- ica (Veronica arvensis). There is an abundant wood flora, waste ground flora, hedge flora and cornfield flora, but space will not permit the enumeration of the species which favour these situations. It will thus be evident that if Essex is not so rich in rarities, nor in the actual number of species as some of the southern counties of England, it nevertheless ranks high as a field for botanical research, and affords an abundant variety of species for the lover of wild plants. 37 A HISTORY OF ESSEX RARE AND INTERESTING PLANTS Among the rare plants of Essex may be mentioned Bupleurum falcatum, an interesting plant which appears to be truly indigenous, and is confined in Britain to one situation in Essex, where it is very plenti- ful and extends over an area of several square miles. It was discovered by Corder in 1831. Another is Lathyrus tuberosus ; this beautiful plant is still plentiful in the Essex locality. It was first noticed by O. Corder in 1859, but is figured in Gerard's herbal of 1597, and specimens occur in some old herbaria, but previous to Mr. Corder's rediscovery it was confused with L. macrorhizus. It occurs nowhere else in England. L. birsutus occurs in only a few other counties in Britain. It has been known in Essex since 1861. Galium Vaillantii was discovered in Britain by Gibson in 1844 in a field in Essex. It is spread over a large dis- trict, where it is abundant in fields, more particularly in those planted with potatoes. Besides the above we have the following plants which are only found in two or three of Watson's subprovinces : Fi/ago galllca (this plant has not been collected for some five years, but probably still occurs), Primula elatior, Cbenopodium botryoides, Peucedanum qfficinale, Crepis fcetida, Medicago falcata, Barbarea stricta, Diotis maritima (probably now lost). The following plants should also be mentioned as amongst the rarer plants of Essex : (Enantbe pimpinelloides, Galium Anglicum, Hypo- chceris maculata, Lactuca Scario/a, L. saligna, Cynoglossum montanum, Scropbularia verna/is, Melampyrum aruense, Galeopsis ocbroleuca, Suceda fruticosa, Aceras Anthropophora, Ceratopbyllum submersum, Fritillaria Me/eagris, Lepidium latifolium, Vicia gracilis, Actinocarpus Damasonium, Carex elongata, Pbleum Boehmeri, Polypogon Monspeliensis, Trifolium ochro- leucum, Spartina stricta, Salicornia radicans, Limnanthemum peltatum. One of the most interesting plants of Essex, and indeed of England, is Primula elatior, the true oxlip. This must not be confounded with the hybrids between the cowslip and the primrose so often mistaken for the oxlip. The true oxlip is a very beautiful primula. It is very diffi- cult to give any specific characters by which it can be distinguished from its relations. The peduncle is more slender, the calyx Jits more tightly to the corolla tube, the form of the umbel is peculiarly graceful, the pedicels varying in length so that the flowers are arranged one over the other, all facing in one direction, the petals of a pale buff colour quite distinct from that of other primulas. The free portions of the petals are peculiarly regular in outline and never overlap one another, whilst the folds or boxes in the neck of the corolla, present in all other species of primrose, are absent from the true oxlip. This plant is confined to an area of our county where it borders upon Suffolk, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, extending into those counties. It covers a stretch of country some 475 square miles in extent, having an irregular outline. There are some outlying patches, one in Cambridgeshire, one in Suffolk and one in Norfolk. Within the 38 BOTANY district where it grows it entirely replaces the primrose and is even more abundant. On the borders of the district, which in some parts divides woods into two portions, there is usually a narrow belt of country which is occupied by hybrids between the primrose and the true oxlip. Mr. Miller Christy suggests that the primrose, which is the more hardy plant, is gradually destroying the oxlip by hybridization and replacing it. I have visited the oxlip country upon several occasions with Mr. Miller Christy, and think that there is much to support his view. It will be interesting if botanists of a later period note the boundary" line between the oxlip and the primrose country, and observe whether the habitat of the former has been reduced. Mr. Miller Christy gives a carefully prepared map of the oxlip country in his paper.1 The oxlip is confined to the boulder clay. Another interesting plant of Essex is the sea holly (Eryngium mari- timum). A candy was prepared from the roots of this plant for which the town of Colchester was formerly celebrated, and in the chamber- lain's accounts for the borough items frequently appear for purchasing the roots to present to royal and other distinguished persons. It was first prepared by one Robert Buxton, an alderman of the borough, during the Civil War, and its manufacture was continued down to some forty years ago.1 The coast flora of Essex presents points of interest and should afford opportunities for scientific work to our county naturalists. The climatic conditions and the nature of the soil is rendered quite different from the climate and the soil of the inland portions of the county by the presence of salt, and consequently the character of the flora is quite distinctive. A thorough investigation of the variation of the coast plants and of their nearest allies growing inland would, I am sure, be profitable. The action of the salt water and atmosphere favours those plants known to botanists as xerophytes, as it reduces the amount of transpira- tion. Hence there is a similarity between the coast flora and that of rocky or dry situations ; but in the one case we have an abundance of water under conditions which reduce the amount of transpiration, in the other we have at times a dearth of water, and consequently those plants thrive which retain the water in their tissues. We find therefore that whilst the plants which favour our coast line are similar in character to those which we find in dry and rocky inland situations, yet they show distinct variations from the latter and are known as halophytes. On our sandy shores Silene maritima frequently occurs ; it is con- sidered by some a mere variety of S. Cucubalus, the latter growing in sandy and chalky situations ; thus we have two very near relations both having the characters of xerophytes, but one confined to the coast and the other to the inland districts of the county ; but strange as it may 1 • The Primula elatior in Great Britain,' Journal of the Ltnnxan Society, 1 897. » A full account of this manufacture will be found in the Eiiex Naturalist, 'Report on the Flower- ing Plants of Essex,' J. C. Shenstone, February, 1897. 39 A HISTORY OF ESSEX appear the marine species occurs also high up on mountains. Common thrift (Armeria marifima), which grows abundantly on our saltings, covered at every tide by salt water, also flourishes high up on mountains, where the conditions of soil and climate must be very different ; in fact it is difficult to imagine localities affording wider differences. In the sea plantain (Plantago maritima) and scurvy grass (Cochlearia officinalis] we have also two plants which flourish on our saltings and high up on mountains. The species of Atriplex on our coast should also provide material for investigation. On our sandy shores there is a wide range of variations, and inland another series of variations. The sandworts (Spergularia) give four forms : S. rubra^ growing in hot, sandy, inland situations ; S. sa/igna, found in muddy or rocky situations by the sea ; S. media, occurring on muddy sea marshes; and lastly a species found only in rocky places by the sea, S. rupestris. It is scarcely necessary to say that this latter does not occur in Essex. These plants are so closely related that botanists do not agree in dividing them into species and varieties, but the inland forms are quite distinct from the marine forms. It will thus be seen that the coast flora of Essex offers problems of great scientific interest. Insectivorous plants mostly occurring in bogs are represented in the county, though rare. We have the sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), the great bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), rue-leaved saxifrage (Saxi- fraga tridactylites), and that remarkable plant the tooth wort (Lathraa squamaria), which obtains its vegetable diet from the roots of plants to which it attaches itself, and its animal nourishment by catching small insects in its scale-like leaves, folded back at the edges to form traps for unwary insects. The plant only needs to come above the ground in the spring to form flowers and seeds, not requiring green leaves like other plants. Orchids remarkable for the mechanism of their flowers by which their fertilization is accomplished are well represented in the county, though not so abundant as in some of the southern counties of England. The poisonous plants growing in the county are both of scientific and also of practical interest to the farmer and country resident. They may be summarized as follows : The poppy, which is unwholesome, though not so deadly as those species favouring hot climates ; the com- mon celandine, which is an acrid and violent irritant ; the soapwort ; the Deptford pink ; the white campion, the red campion, and most plants of the natural order Caryophylleas, which contain the active principle saponine and are therefore either poisonous or unwholesome. Fortunately saponine is destroyed by heating, hence flour made from corn containing seeds of these plants is rendered harmless by cooking. Holly berries cause violent irritation of the bowels. The leafless vetchling (Latbyrus ap/jaca), the rough-podded vetchling (L. birsutus], and the broom (Cytisus Scoparius) are the only British plants of the pea-flower tribe which have been known to possess deleterious qualities, causing violent headache 40 BOTANY and vomiting. Many species of the rose family contain emulsin and amygdalin, and when the seeds are bruised these substances react and the deadly prussic acid is formed. The kernel of the sloe also contains these principles. Cattle have been poisoned by browsing on the leaves of the bird cherry, and the berries of the mountain ash have been known to cause symptoms of poisoning to children who have eaten them. Common bryony is a powerful and highly irritant purgative. The natural order Umbelliferaj affords perhaps some of the most virulent of British poisonous plants. There are found in Essex the hemlock (Conium maculatum), the water hemlock (Cicuta vtrosa), the water dropwort ((Enant6ejistu/osa),the parsley dropwort (CE. pimpinelloides), the hemlock dropwort (CE. crocatd), the fineleaved dropwort (CE. Pbellandriuni), and the fool's parsley (SEthusa Cynapiuni), all of which have caused fatal poisoning; and to these may be added the wild parsnip (Pastinaca satrva), though the cultivated plant is such a useful vegetable. Ivy has purga- tive and emetic properties, and common elder and honeysuckle are both unwholesome. The composite plants only afford us wormwood, containing an oil which is a narcotic poison, but the plant can scarcely be considered dangerous. Privet berries have certainly caused fatal poisoning, and in the root and herbage of great bindweed we have a strong emetic and purgative. The nightshade family is perhaps the most poisonous of all our orders of plants. Most if not all the plants of this order contain some one of the alkaloids known as the mydriatic alkaloids, though curiously the potatoes and tomatoes, both belonging to this order, are valuable vegetables. Potatoes are said to be poisonous when uncooked. We have in the county the following plants of this order: Bitter-sweet (Solatium Dulcamara), common nightshade (S. nigrum), deadly night- shade (Atropa Belladonna), thorn-apple (Datura Sframomium), the henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), most of which are still used in medicine. The foxglove is both very poisonous and much valued in medicine. The bark of the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum) and of the spurge laurel (D. Laureola) both afford us strong blistering agents. The spurges and perennial mercury are powerful irritant poisons. The poisonous properties of the yew are too well known : the branches in a half- faded condition are even more deadly than when fresh. It is stated that yew berries are not poisonous ; it is however wisest to leave them untasted. The wild hyacinth and herb Paris are very acrid. The meadow saffron is a narcotic irritant poison and is still used in medi- cine. The wild arum is very acrid, but the poison is destroyed by heat and the roots formerly provided a wholesome farina called Portland arrowroot, the manufacture of which was discontinued in 1853. Black bryony (Tamus communis) was formerly a favourite internal medicine, but was discontinued as it was found to be dangerous in its action. It is still used when grated as an application to blackened eyes. Common rye grass is apt to be attacked by a fungus known as ergot, 4i 6 A HISTORY OF ESSEX which is poisonous but useful in medicine. The darnel grass is the only British grass which is said to be poisonous. A LIST OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS FOUND IN ESSEX Showing the districts in which they are found.1 Clematis Vitalba, L.8 1-8 Thalictrum saxatile, Bab. I — flavum, L. i— 8 Anemone Pulsatilla, L. I — nemorosa, L. 1-8 [Adonis autumnalis, L.] 1-5 Myosurus minimus, L. z— 8 Ranunculus heterophyllus, Fries. I, 6, 7 — peltatus, Fries. 4, 7, 8 var. floribundus, Bab. 4 „ „ Hiern. Mon. 8 „ truncatus, Dumort. 8 „ penicillatus, Dumort. 8 — confusus, Godr. 6, 8 — Baudotii, F. Godr. 8 — trichophyllus, Chaix. I, 4, 7, 8 — Drouetii, F. Schultz. i, 4, 8 — fluitans, Lam. i, 4 — circinatus, Sibth. 1—8 — hederaceus, L. 1—8 — Lingua, L. i — Flammula, L. 1—8 — auricomus, L. 1-8 — sceleratus, L. 1—8 — acris, L. 1-8 — repens, L. i— 8 — bulbosus, L. 1-8 — hirsutus, L. 2, 4-8 — arvensis, L. 1-8 — parvi floras, L. 1-4, 6—8 — Ficaria, L. 1-8 Caltha palustris, L. 1-8 Helleborus viridis, L. i, 3, 4 — fcetidus, L. i, 3-5, 7 Aquilegia vulgaris, L. 1—3 Delphinium Ajacis, Reichb. I, 4, 6, 8 [Aconitum Napellus, L.] i, 3 Berberis vulgaris, L. I, 3, 4, 7 Nuphar luteum, Sm. 1-8 Nymphsea alba, L. 1-8 Papaver Argemone, L. 1-4, 6-8 — hybridum, L. i, 6, 8 — Rhceas, L. 1-8 — dubium, L. 1-8 — Lecoqii, Lamotte. 2, 5 [ — somniferum, L.] i, 5 Glaucium luteum, Scop. 6-8 Chelidonium majus, L. 1-8 1 The numbers refer to corresponding numbers marked upon the map, and indicate the districts in which the species occur. Those species enclosed in brackets are probably casuals. A hyphen be- tween two numbers indicates that the intermediate numbers are to be included. 8 The arrangement and nomenclature followed in this list is that of the Students' Flora of the British Islands, ed. 3 (1884), by Sir J. D. Hooker. Fumaria capreolata, L. 4, 5, 8 — officinalis, L. 1-8 — densiflora, DC. i — parviflora, Lamk. i var. Vaillantii, Loisel. i Corydalis claviculata, DC. 3, 4, 8 [— lutea, DC.] i, 3, 4, 7, 8 [ — solida, Hook.] i Cheiranthus Cheiri, L. i, 3, 4, 6, 8 Nasturtium officinale, Br. 1—8 — sylvestre, Br. 3, 4, 6 — palustre, DC. 1-8 — amphibium, Br. 3, 4, 6, 7 Barbarea vulgaris, Br. 1-8 [— praecox, Br.] 1-4, 7, 8 Arabis stricta, Huds. 5 — perfoliata, Lamk. 3, 4, 8 Cardamine hirsuta, L. 1-8 var. sylvatica, Link. 3, 5, 7 — pratensis, L. 1-8 — amara, L. 2—5, 7 Sisymbrium Thaliana, Hook. 1-8 — Irio, L. 3 — Sophia, L. 1-8 — officinale, Scop, i— 8 — Alliaria, Scop. 1-8 Erysimum Cheiranthoides, L. i— 8 Brassica oleracea, L. 6 — campestris, L. 4, 6, 8 — sinapioides, Roth, i, 2, 4-8 — sinapistrum, Boiss. 1-8 — alba, Boiss. 1—7 Diplotaxis muralis, DC. 5-8 — tenuifolia, DC. 4, 5, 8 Erophila vulgaris, DC. 1-8 Alyssum calycinum, L. i, 4, 7 — maritimum, L. 4, 5, 8 Cochlearia officinalis, L. 6-8 — Danica, L. 8 — Anglica, L. 4-8 — Armoracia, L. 1-8 Camelina sativa, Crantz. i, 4-6 Capsella Bursa-Pastoris, Mcench. i— 8 Senebiera didyma, Persoon. i, 3, 4 — Coronopus, Poiret. 1—8 Lepidium latifolium, L. 4-8 — ruderale, L. 3, 5-8 — campestre, Br. z-8 [— Draba, L.] 1,3,6,7 Thlaspi arvense, L. 1-4, 6-8 Iberis amara, L. 1,2 Teesdalia nudicaulis, Br. 4, 8 Isatis tinctoria, L. 1,4 Crambe maritima, L. 8 Cakile maritima, Scop. 6-8 Raphanus Raphanistrum, L. 1-8 Reseda lutea, L. 1-6, 8 — Luteola, L. 1-8 BOTANY Helianthemum vulgare, Garrtn. 1-4, 6 Viola palustris, L. J — odorau, L. 1—8 - hirta, L. 1-4, 6, j — canina, L. 7, 8 - sylvatica, Fries. 1-8 — tricolor, L. 1-8 Polygala vulgaris, L. 1-8 var. deprcssa, Wend. 5 Frankenia Izvis, L. 6-8 Dianthus Armcria, L. 1-4, 6, 7 [ — deltoides, L.] 3 [ — plumarius, L.] 4 Saponaria Officinalis, L. 1—5, 8 Silene Cucubalus, Wibel. 1-8 — maritima, With. 6-8 [ — conica, L.] 8 — Gallica, L. 8 var. Anglica, L. 2, 8 [ — Otites, L.] 8 — noctiflora, L. I, 3, 4 Lychnis Flos-cuculi, L. 1-8 — diurna, L. 1-8 — vespertina, Sibth. 1—8 Githago scgetum, Dcsf. 1-8 Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. 3-8 — tetrandrum, Curtis. 5, 6, 8 — semidecandrum, L. 1,4, 6—8 — glomeratum, Thuillier. 1-8 — triviale, Link. 1-8 — arvense, L. I, 3, 4, 6 Stellaria aqaatica, Scopoli. 1—8 - media, Vill. 1-8 — Holostea, L. 1-8 — palustris, Ehrh. 3, 4 — graminea, L. 1—8 — uliginosa, Murr. 1-8 Arenaria tenuifolia, L. I — trinerva, L. 1-8 — serpylli folia, L. 1-8 var. leptoclados, Guss. I, 5, 6 — peploides, L. 6-8 Sagina apetala, L. 1-8 — ciliata, Fries. 5, 7 — procumbcns, L. 1-8 — nodosa, Frenzl. 3 - maritima, Don. 6, 7 Spergula arvensis, L. 1-8 Spergularia rubra, Pers. I, 3-8 - salina, Pers. 4-8 var. medium, Fries. 5-8 Montia fontana, L. 2-8 Claytonia perfoliata, Don. 3, 8 Tamarix Gallica, L. 6, 8 Hypericum Androsxmum, L. 1-8 — quadrangulum, L. 1-8 — perforatum, L. 1-8 — humifusum, L. 1-8 — pukhrum, L. 1-8 — hirsutum, L. 1—8 - Elodes, Huds. 4, 5 Althaea oificinalis, L. 5-8 Malva sylvestris, L. 1-8 — rotundifolia, L. 1-8 — moschata, L. 1-8 [Lavatera arborea, L.] 6 [Tilia europaca, L.] 1-8. — parvifolia, Ehrh. 1-5, 7, 8 [ — platyphyllos, Scop.] 1-8 Linum catharticum, L. 1-8 - perenne, L. i — angustifolium, Huds. 2, 5, 6, 8 [ — usitatissimum, L.] 1-4, 6, 7 Radiola linoides, Gmel. 3, 4, 7, 8 Geranium sanguineum, L. I - pratense, L. 1-3, 6 [ — pyrcnaicum Burm. f.] 1-4, 7 - molle, L. I, 3-8 — rotundifblium, L. 4 — pusillum, L. 1—8 — columbinum, L. 1-3, 5—8 — dissectum, L. 1-8 — Robert ianum, L. 1—8 — lucidum, L. 1-4, 6-8 Erodium cicutarium, L'Hcrit. 1-8 [ — moschatum, L'Hcrit.] 1, 4, 8 Oxalis Acetosella, L. 1-8 Impatiens parviflora, DC. I, 4, 8 Ilex Aquifolium, L. 1-8 Euonymus europxus, L. 1-8 Rhamnus catharticus, L. 1-7 — Frangula, L. 2-8 Acer campestre, L. 1—8 — pscudoplatanus, L. 1—8 Genista tinctoria, L. I, 3-8 - Anglica, L. 3-5, 7, 8 Ulex europxus, L. 1-8 — nanus, Forster. 4, 5 Cytisus Scoparius, Link. 1-8 Ononis spinosa, L. I— 8 Trigonella ornithopodioides, DC. 3, 4, 7 Mcdicago falcata, L. 1-8 - saliva, L. I, 3 — lupulina, L. 1-8 - denticulata, Willd. I, 6-8 - maculata, L. 2-8 - minima, Desr. 4, 6, 8 Melilotus altissima, Thuill. 1-7 - alba, Desr. i, 4, 7, 8 - officinalis, Desr. I, 7, 8 Trifolium subterraneum, L. 3-8 - arvense, L. 1-8 — ochroleucum, L. 1-3, 5-7 - pratense, L. 1-8 — medium, Huds. 1—7 — maritimum, Huds. 4-8 — striatum, L. i-K - scabrum, L. I, 5-7 — glomeratum, L. 6 — hybridum, L. I, 3 - repcns, L. 1-8 — fragifcrum, L. 1-8 - procumbens, L. 1,2, 4-8 — dubium, Sibth. 1-8 — filiforme, L. 1-8 Anthyllis Vulneraria, L. I Lotus corniculatus, L. 1-8 — tenuis, Waldst. and Kit. I, 3-8 — uliginosa, Schlc. 1-8 Astragalus glycyphyllos, L. 1-3, J 43 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Astragalus hypoglottis, L. i Ornithopus perpusillus, L. 3—8 Hippocrepis comosa, L. i Onobrychis sativa, Lamk. i, 3-5 Vicia tetrasperma, Moench. 1-8 — gracilis, Loisel. i, 6 — hirsuta, Koch. 1-8 — Cracca, L. 1-8 — sepium, L. 1-8 — lutea, L. 8 — sativa, L. 1-8 — angustifolia, Roth. 1-4, 6-8 — bithynica, L. 2, 3, 6 Lathyrus Aphaca, L. 1-4, 6 — Nissolia, L. 1-8 — hirsutus, L. 4—6 — pratensis, L. 1-8 — sylvestris, L. I, 3, 4, 6 — tuberosus, L. 3 — macrorrhizus, Wimm. 3—7 Prunus communis, Huds. i— 8 — insititia, L. 1,2, 4-8 — cerasus, L. J, 2, 4, 7, 8 — Avium, L. 1-3, 6-8 Spiraea Ulmaria, L. i— 8 - Filipendula, L. i, 4 Rubus Idaeus, L. 1-8 — suberectus, Anders. var. plicatus, W. & N. 5, 8 „ affinis, W. & N. i, 4, 7 — rhamnifolius, W. & N. 1,2, 4, 5, 7, 8 — Lindleianus, Lees. 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 — corylifolius, Sm. 1—7 var. Balfourianus, Blox. 7 „ althaeifolius, Bab. 7 — csesius, L. i— 8 — discolor, W. & N. 1-8 var. thyrsoideus, Wimm. 7 — leucostachys, Sm. i, 2, 4, 7 — villicaulis, Weihe. I, 7 — umbrosus, Arrh. var. carpinifolius. 2, 4 — macrophyllus, Weihe. 5, 7, 8 — Sprengelii, Weihe. 4 — dumetorum, Weihe. var. nemorosus, Hayne. i, 7 „ diversifolius, Lind. 4 — radula, Weihe. 7 var. rudis. 2, 7, 8 — Bloxamii, Lees. var. scaber, Weihe. 7 „ fusco-ater. Weihe. 2, 7 — Ko:hleri, Weihe. I, 2, 4, 7 — hystrix, Weihe. 4 var. rosaceus, Weihe. 4 — pallidus, Weihe. 2, 4, 5, 7 var. hirtus, Weihe. 5, 7 — glandulosa, Bell. I, 4, 5, 7, 8 — saltum, Focke. var. Guntheri, Weihe. 5, 7 — pyramidalis, Kaltenb. 4 Geum urbanum, L. 1-8 — rivale, L. I, 2 var. intermedium, Ehrh. i Fragaria vesca, L. 1-8 Fragaria elatior, Ehrh. 2, 3 Potentilla Comarum, Nestl. 7, 8 — Tormentilla, Scop, i— 8 — reptans, L. 1—8 — Fragariastrum, Ehrh. 1—8 — argentea, L. 2—8 Alchemilla arvensis, Lamk. 1-8 — vulgaris, L. 1—3 Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. 1-8 — odorata, Mill. 6 Poterium Sanguisorba, L. I, 4—6 — muricatum, Spach. i, 2 Rosa spinossima, L. 5, 6, 8 — tomentosa, Sm. i— 8 — rubiginosa, L. 1-8 — micrantha, Sm. I, 3-8 — inodora, Freis. I, 4, 7 — canina, L. 1-8 — lutetiana, Leman. 8 — surculosa, Woods, i, 4 — sphaerica, Gren. 8 — sarmentacea, Woods, i, 4, 5 — urbica, Leman. 4, 5 — frondosa, Steven. 4 — Andevagensis, Bast. 8 — verticillacantha, Merat. 8 — collina, Jacq. 8 — decipiens, Dumort. 8 — arvensis, Huds. 1-8 — systyla, Woods. 1-4, 7 Pyrus communis, L. 1-7 — Malus, L. 1-8 - torminalis, Ehrh. 1-4, 6-8 [ — Aria, Sm.] 7 — Aucuparia, Gaertn. i, 3-8 Crataegus Oxyacantha, L. 1—8 Saxifraga tridactylites, L. 1—8 — granulata, L. i, 3-8 Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L. 2-4, '• • — oppositifolium, L. i— 6, 8 Parnassia palustris, L. I, 3, 4 [Ribes Grossularia, L.] 1-4, 6, 7 - rubrum, L. 1,2, 4, 5, 7, 8 — nigrum, L. 1—5, 7, 8 Sedum Telephium, L. 1-3, 7, 8 var. Fabaria, Koch. 7 — album, L. i, 3, 7 — dasyphyllum, L. 1,2 • — acre, L. 1-8 — reflexum, L. i, 3-8 Sempervivum tectorum, L. 1,2, 4-8 Drosera rotundifolia, L. 3-5, 7, 8 Hippuris vulgaris, L. 1,2 Myriophyllum verticillatum, L. 1-5, 7 — alterniflorum, L. 3, 4, 7 — spicatum, L. 1—8 Callitriche verna, L. 1-8 — platycarpa, Kuetz. i , 2, 4-7 — pedunculata, DC. I, 4, 8 Lythrum Salicaria, L. 1-8 Peplis Portula, L. 1-8 Epilobium angustifolium, L. 1-5, 7, 8 - hirsutum, L. 1—8 - parviflorum, Schreb. 1-8 — montanum, L. 1-8 44 BOTANY Epilobium roseum, Schreb. I— 8 — tetragonum, L. 1—8 — obscurum, Schreb. 2, 3, 5, 8 - palustrc, L. i, 3-8 [CEnothera biennis, L.] 8 Circza lutetiana, L. 1—8 Bryonia dioica, L. 1—8 Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L. 3-8 Eryngium maritimum, L. 6—8 Sanicula europsea, L. 1-8 Conium macul.it um, L. 1-8 Smyrnium Olusatrum, L. I, 3-8 Buplcurum rotundifolium, L. I, 3-5 — falcatum, L. 3 - tenuissimum, L. 4—8 Apium graveolens, L. 1,3-8 — nodiflorum, Reichb. 1-8 var. repens, Koch. 3—7 - inundatum, Reichb. I, 3-8 [Carum Carui, L.] 2, 6, 7 - segetum, Benth. I, 3-8 - Petroselinum, Benth. I, 3, 4, 7, 8 Sison Amomum, L. I— 8 Slum latifolium, L. 4, 8 — angustifolium, L. 1—8 .<£gopodium Podagraria, L. 1-5, 7, 8 Pimpinella Saxifraga, L. 1-8 - major, Huds. i, 3, 5 Conopodium denudatum, Koch. 1-8 Scandix Pecten-Veneris, L. 1-8 Chzrophyllum temulum, L. 1-8 Anthriscus vulgaris, Pers. 1—4, 6-8 — sylvestris, Hoffm. 1-8 - Ccrcfolium, Hoffm. 4, 7 [Crithmum maritimum, L.] 8 CEnanthe fistulosa, L. 1—4, 6-8 — pimpinelloides, L. 7 — Lachenalii, Gmel. 5-8 — crocata, L. 4-6 — phellandrium, Lamk. 2—8 - fluviatilis, Colera. 1-5, 7, 8 yEthusa Cynapium, L. 1-8 Silaus pratensis, Besser. 1-8 Angelica sylvestris, L. 1-8 Peutedanum officinale, L. 8 - palustre, Mcench. 4 Pastinaca sativa, L. 1,2, 4-8 Heracleum Sphondylium, L. 1-8 Daucus Carota, L. 1-8 Caucalis daucoides, L. 1,5 — latifolia, L. 3 — Anthriscus, Huds. 1-8 - nodosa, Scopoli. 1-8 Hedera Helix, L. 1-8 Corn us sanguinea, L. 1-8 Viburnum Lantana, L. I, 3—6 - Opulus, L. 1-8 Sambucus Ebulus, L. 1-8 — nigra, L. 1—8 Adoza Moschatellina, L. 1-8 Lonicera Periclymenum, L. 1-8 — Caprifolium, L. I, 2, 7 — Xylosteum, L. I, 3, 4 Galium verum, L. 1-8 — Cruciata, Scopoli. l, 3, 4, 6, 8 Galium palustre, L. 1-8 — uliginosum, L. 1-5, 7 — saxatile, L. 3-8 — Mollugo, L. 1-8 var. erectum, Huds. i — Aparine, L. i— 8 var. Vaillantii, DC. I — tricornc, With. 1-7. — Anglicum, Huds. I Asperula odorata, L. 1-4, 6-8 - cynanchica, L. I, 3, 5 Sherardia arvensis, L. 1-8 Valeriana dioica, L. 1-5, 7, 8 — officinalis, L. 1-6, 8 var. sambucifolia, Milan, i, z, 4, 5, 7 Valerianella olitoria, Mcench. 1-8 - carinata, Loisel. 3, 4, 7, 8 - Auricula, DC. 7, 8. - dentata, Poll, i, 3-8 Dipsacus sylvestris, L. 1-8 - pilosus, L. 1-8 Scabiosa succisa, L. 1-8 — Columbaria, L. i, 4, 5, 8 - arvensis, L. 1-8 Eupatorium cannabinum, L. 1-4, 6-8 Aster Tripolium, L. 4-8 Erigeron acre, L. I, 5, 6, 8 - Canadense, L. 4, 5, 8 Bell is perennis, L. 1—8 Solidago Virgaurea, L. 2—7 Inula Conyza, DC. 1-3, 5-8 - crithmoides, L. 6-8 [ — Helenium, L.] i, 3, 4, 6 Pulicaria dysenterica, Gaertn. i, 2, 4-8 - vulgaris, Gaertn. 3, 4, 6-8 Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L. 1—8 - uliginosum, L. 1-8 [Antennaria margaritacea, Br.] 2 Filago Germanica, L. 1-8 var. spathulata, Presl. i, 6-8 „ apiculata, G. E. Sm. 5, 7, 8 - minima, Fries. 3-5, 7, 8 - Gallica, L. 2, 8 Bidens cernua, L. 1-8 - tripartita, L. i— 8 Anthemis arvensis, L. 2—5, 7, 8 - Cotula, L. 1-8 — nobilis, L. i, 3-8 Achillea Ptarmica, L. 1-8 - Millefblium, L. 1-8 Diotis marititna, Cass. 7 Matricaria Chamomilla, L. 2, 4-8 - inodora, L. 1-8 Chrysanthemum segetum, L. 1-8 — Leucanthemum, L. 1-8 - Parthcnium, Pen. 1-8 Tanacetum vulgare, L. 1-8 Artemisia vulgaris, L. 1-8 — Absinthium, L. 1-8 — maritima, L. 5-8 var. Gallica, Willd. 6-8 Pctasites vulgaris, Desf. 1-4, 6-8 Tussilago Farfara, L. 1—8 [Doronicum Pardalianches, L.] i — plantagineum, L. 1,3 45 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Senecio vulgaris, L. 1-8 — sylvaticus, L. 2-8 — viscosus, L. 4 — Jacobaea, L. 1-8 — erucifolius, L. 1-8 — aquaticus, L. 1-8 — campestris, DC. I Arctium Lappa, L. var. majus, Schkuhr. i, z, 4—8 „ tomentosum, Bab. 4, 5 „ minus, Schkuhr. 1-8 „ intermedium, Langc. I, 3—7 Carlina vulgaris, L. I, 3—8 Centaurea nigra, L. 1—8 — Scabiosa, L. I— 8 — Cyanus, L. I— 8 — Calcitrapa, L. 2, 4-6 — solstitialis, L. i— 6, 8 Serratula tinctoria, L. 1,4 Carduus nutans, L. i, 3-6, 8 — crispus, L. 1-8 var. acanthoides, L. i, 4, 7, 8 — pycnocephalus, L. 3-8 Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. 1—8 — eriophorus, Hoffm. 1—3 — acaulis, Hoffm. 1—5, 7 — dubius, Willd. i — arvensis, Hoffm. 1—8 — palustris, Hoffm. 1-8 — pratensis, Willd. 4 Onopordium Acanthium, L. 1-8 Silybum Marianum, Gaertn. 1-8 Cichorium Intybus, L. i— 8 Arnoseris pusilla, Gaertn. 2-4, 8 Lapsana communis, L. 1-8 Picris hieracioides, L. 1-7 — echioides, L. 1-8 Crepis virens, L. 1—8 — biennis, L. 1-7 — foetida, L. i, 3, 5 — taraxacifolia, Thuill. 5, 6 [ — setosa, Haller fil.] i , 8 Hieracium Pilosella, L. 1-8 — umbellatum, L. 3-5, 7 — boreale, Fries. 2-5, 7, 8 — tridentatum, Fries. 3, 7, 8 — vulgatum, Fries. I, 3-5, 7, 8 Hypochoeris radicata, L. 1-8 — maculata, L. I Leontodon hirtus, L. [-8 — hispidus, L. 1-8 - autumnalis, L. 1-8 Taraxacum officinale, Web. 1-8 Lactuca virosa, L. i, 3—8 - Scariola, L. 5, 6 — saligna, L. 5, 6 — muralis, Fresen. 4, 8 Sonchus arvensis, L. 1—8 — palustris, L. 4 — oleraceus, L. i— 8 sub-sp. asper, Hoffm. 1—8 Tragopogon pratensis, L. 1,3-7 var. minor, Fries. 1-8 — porrifolius, L. 2, 4-8 Jasione montana, L. 2-8 Wahlenbergia hederacea, Reichb. 4 Campanula rotundifolia, L. 1-8 [ — Rapunculus, L.] 3, 4 [— patula, L.] 2, 3 [ — rapunculoides, L.] I — Trachelium, L. 1—5 — glomerata, L. 1—4 Specularia hybrida, DC. 1—8 Vaccinum Myrtillus, L. 3, 4 — Vitis-Idaea, L. 4 — Oxycoccos, L. 4 Erica Tetralix, L. 3-8 — cinerea, L. 4, 5, 7, 8 Calluna vulgaris, Salisb. 2-8 Hypopitys multi flora, Scop, i, 3, 4 Armeria maritima, Willd. 5-8 Statice Limonium, L. 5—8 sub-spec, rariflora, Drejer. 5-8 — auriculaefolia, Vahl. 8 Primula vulgaris, Huds. i— 8 — elatior, Jacq. 1—3 — veris, L. 1-8 Lysimachia vulgaris, L. 3, 4, 7, 8 — nemorum, L. 1—8 — Nummularia, L. 1-8 Glaux maritima, L. 4—8 Centunculus minimus, L. 4, 6, 7 Anagallis arvensis, L. i— 8 var. ccerulea, Schreb. 2-4, 6-8 — tenella, L. i, 3-5, 7 Hottonia palustris, L. 2-8 Samolus Valerandi, L. I, 3-8 Ligustrum vulgare, L. 1-8 Fraxinus excelsior, L. i— 8 Vinca minor, L. 1-8 — major, L. i— 8 Chlora perfoliata, L. 1-8 Erythrasa Centaurium, Pers. 1—4, 7 — pulchella, Fries. 5, 6 Gentiana Amarella, L. 1-3 Menyanthes trifoliata, L. i— 8 Limnanthemum peltatum, Gmel. 4 [Polemonium cceruleum, L.] i, 4 Echium vulgare, L. 1-8 Borago officinalis, L. i, 3, 4, 6-8 Symphytum officinale, L. 1—8 — tuberosum, L. 5, 8 Anchusa arvensis, Bieb. 1-8 — sempervirens, L. 2, 4, 7, 8 Lithospermum officinale, L. I, 3-8 — arvense, L. i— 8 Myosotis palustris, With. 1—8 — caespitosa, Schultz. 1—8 — sylvatica, Hoffm. i, 2, 4, 6, 8 — arvensis, Hoffm. 1-8 — collina, Hoffm. 1-4, 6-8 — versicolor, Reichb. 2—8 [Asperugo procumbens, L.] 5 Cynoglossum officinale, L. I, 3-8 — montanum, Lamk. 4, 5, 7 Convolvulus arvensis, L. 1-8 — sepium, L. 1—8 — Soldanella, L. 6-8 Cuscuta europaea, L. I, 2, 4 — Epithymum, Murr. 4—6, 8 46 BOTANY Cuscuta Epilinum, Weihe. I — Trifolii, Bab. 1-3, 6-8 Hyoscyamus niger, L. I, 3-8 Solarium Dulcamara, L. 1—8 — nigrum, L. 1—8 Atropa Belladonna, L. I, 4, 7, 8 Plantago major, L. I— 8 — media, L. I— 8 — lanceolata, L. 1-8 — maritima, L. 4—8 — Coronopus, L. I, 3-8 Littorella lacustris, L. 4 Verbascum Thapsus, L. 1-8 — nigrum, L. I, 3—6, 8 [— Blattaria, L.] 4, 7 Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill. 1-6, 8 — spuria, Mill. 1-8 — Elatine, Mill. 1-8 — vulgaris, Mill. 1-7 — minor, Desf. 1—8 Antirrhinum Orontium, L. I, 4, 7, 8 - majus, L. i, 4-6 Scrophularia nodosa, L. 1-8 - aquatica, L. 1-8 - vernal is, L. I, 3, 8 Limosella aquatica, L. 4 Digitalis purpurea, L. I, 3-8 Veronica agrestis, L. 1-8 sub-sp. polita, Fries. 1-8 — Buxbaumii, Ten. I— 8 - hederxfolia, L. 1-8 — arvensis, L. 1-8 — jcrpyllifolia, L. 1-8 — officinalis, L. 1,2, 4—8 — Chamzdiys, L. I— 8 - montana, L. 1-8 - scutellata, L. 1-5, 7, 8 — Beccabunga, L. 1-8 - Anagallis, L. 1-8 Bartsia Odontites, Huds. 1-8 Euphrasia officinalis, L. 1-8 Rhinanthus crista-Galli, L. 1-8 Pedicularis palustris, L. 1—5, 8 — sylvatica, L. 2-8 Melampyrum pratense, L. 2-8 — arvense, L. I, 3 — cristatum, L. I, 2 Lathrza Squamaria, L. 2 Orobanche major, L. 2-5, 7, 8 - elatior, Sutt. 1-3, 7 — minor, Sutt. I, 2, 6-8 Utricularia vulgaris, L. 2-5, 7 sub-sp. neglecta, Lehm. Verbena officinalis, L. 1-8 Mentha sylvestris, L. 1-8 — rotundifolia, L. 1-5, 7 — viridis, L. 1-5, 7 — pi peri ta, Huds. 1-8 — aquatica, L. 1-8 — sativa, L. 1-8 — rubra, Sm. 8 — pratcnsis, Sole. I, 2, 4, 5, 7 — arvensis, L. 1—8 - Pulegium, L. I, 4, 5, 7,8 Lycopus europxus, L. 1-8 Origanum vulgare, L. 1,2, 4-6 Thymus Serpyllum, L. I— 8 — Chamaedrys, Fries, i, 5-8 Calamintha officinalis, Moench. 1-6, 8 — Nepeta, Clairv. i, 3-8 — Clinopodium, L. 1-7 — Acinos, Clairv. i, 8 Melissa officinalis, L. 1—4, 6—8 Sal via Verbenaca, L. 1-8 Nepeta Cataria, L. 1-8 — Glechoma, Benth. 1-8 Prunella vulgaris, L. 1-8 Scutellaria galericulata, L. 1-8 — minor, L. 3 Marrubium vulgare, L. i, 3-8 Stachys sylvatica, L. 1-8 — palustris, L. 1—8 - ambigua, Sm. 1—4, 7 - arvensis, L. i, 3-8 - Betonica, Benth. 1-8 Galeopsis Ladanum, L. i— 8 - dubia, Leers. 8 - Tetrahit, L. 1-8 sub-sp. speciosa, Miller, i, 4, 7 Lamium purpureum, L. i-S sub-sp. hybridum, Vill. 1-3, 6-8 - amplexicaule, L. 1-5, 7, 8 - album, L. 1-8 - Galeobdolon, Crantz. 1-8 Ballota nigra, L. 1-8 Tcucrium Scorodonia, L. i, 3-8 Ajuga reptans, L. 1-8 - Chamzpitys, Schreber. 5 Scleranthus annuus, L. 1-8 Chenopodium Vulvaria, L. 4-8 - polyspermum, L. 1-8 — album, L. 1-8 - ficifolium, Sm. i, 2, 4-7 - urbicum, L. 3—7 - hybridum, L. 2, 4, 7 - murale, L. 1—7 - rubrum, L. i, 3-8 var. botryoides, Sm. 6, 7 - glaucum, L. 4, 7, 8 — Bonus-Henricus, L. 1-4, 6-8 Beta maritima, L. 4-8 Atriplez erecta, Huds. 1-8 - angustifolia, Sm. i— 8 — triangularis, Willd. 1-6, 8 — hastata, L. 1-8 - Babingtonii, Woods. 6, 8 — marina, L. 5, 6, 8 - laciniata, L. 6—8 - portulacoides, L. 5-8 Salicornia herbacea, L. 4-8 — rad leans, Sm. 6-8 Suaeda maritima, Dumort. 5-8 — fruticosa, Forsk. 6-8 Salsola Kali, L. 6-8 Amaranthus Blitum. i, 3-6, 8 Polygonum Bistorta, L. 1-4, 6, 8 — amphibium, L. 1-8 — lapathifolium, L. 1—8 — maculatum, Dyer & Trimen. 1-5, 7, 8 — Pcrsicaria, L. 1-8 47 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Polygonum mite, Schrank. 4, 5 — Hydropiper, L. 1-8 — minus, Huds. 3—5 — aviculare, L. 1-8 — Convolvulus, L. 1—8 Rumex obtusifolius, L. I— 8 - acutus, L. i, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 — pulcher, L. 1-8 — maritimus, L. 5, 8 — palustris, Sm. 4, 5 — crispus, L. 1-8 — sanguineus, L. 1-8 — conglomerates, Murray. 1-8 — Hydrolapathum, Huds. I— 8 - Acetosa, L. 1-8 — Acetosella, L. 1-8 [Aristolochia Clematitis, L.] 5 Daphne Laureola, L. 1-7 [ — Mezereum, L.] i, 7 [Hippophae rhamnoides, L.] 6 Viscum album, L. 1-4, 6, 7 Thesium linophyllum, L. i Euphorbia Helioscopia, L. 1—8 — platyphyllos, L. 1—7 • — amygdaloides, L. 1-8 [— dulcis, L.] 8 - peplus, L. i—8 — exigua, L. 1-8 — Paralias, L. 6, 8 - Cyparissias, L. 1,4 [ — Lathyris, L.] 1-3, 5 Mercurialis perennis, L. 1-8 - annua, L. i, 4, 6, 8 Ulmus montana, Sm. 1-8 — campestris, Sm. 1-8 — suberosa, Ehrh. I, 3—6, 8 — glabra, Mill. 1-7 Urtica urens, L. 1—8 — dioica, L. 1—8 — pilulifera, L. 4, 6—8 Parietaria officinalis, L. 1—8 Humulus Lupulus, L. 1-8 Betula alba, L. i, 3-5, 7, 8 sub-sp. glutinosa, Fries. 1-3, 5, 6 Alnus glutinosa, Gaertn. i— 8 Quercus Robur, L. 1-8 — sessiliflora, Salisb. i, 3, 4, 7 Fagus sylvatica, L. 1,2, 4—7 Corylus Avellana, L. 1-8 Carpinus Betulus, L. 1-7 Populus alba, L. 1-7 sub-sp. canescens, Sm. I, 3—5 — tremula, L. 1-8 - nigra, L. i, 3-5, 7 Salix triandra, L. 1-4, 8 var. Hoffmanniana, Sm. I, 3—5, 7 „ undulata, Ehrh. i, 4 — fragilis, L. 1,2, 4—6, 8 var. decipiens, Hoffm. i, 3, 5 — Russelliana, Sm. i, 2, 4, 5 — alba, L. 1,2, 4-8 var. vitellina, L. i, 4—7 — Caprea, L. 1-8 sub-sp. cinerea, L. 1—7 sub-var. aquatica, Sm. i, 4—6 Salix Caprea, sub-var. oleifolia, Sm. I, 3-5 — aurita, L. I, 3-5, 7, 8 — repens, L. 3-5, 7, 8 — incubacea, Sy. 3, 4 — viminalis, L. i, 4, 5, 7, 8 — Smithiana, Willd. i, 4, 5, 7 — stipularis, Sm. 4, 7 — ferruginea, G. And. I — acuminata, Sm. l, 2, 7 — purpurea, L. 4, 7 sub-sp. rubra, Huds. i, 4 var. Helix, L. i, 4, 7, 8 Ceratophyllum demersum, L. 1-4, 6-8 sub-sp. submersum, L. 4, 6, 7 [Pinus sylvestris, L.] 1-8 Juniperus communis, L. I, 4, 8 [Taxus baccata, L.] i, 4, 5 Hydrocharis Morsus-Ran*, L. 2, 4-6, 8 Stratiotes aloides, L. 2 Elodea Canadensis, Michx. 3, 8 Neottia Nidus-avis, L. i— 8 Listera ovata, Br. 1-8 Spiranthes autumnalis, Rich. 1—8 Epipactis latifolia, Sw. I, 3-8 var. media, Fries, l, 2, 4, 5, 7 — palustris, Sw. 1—4 Cephalanthera pallens, Rich. I, 4 Orchis mascula, L. 1—4, 6-8 — latifolia, L. 1-3, 7 sub-sp. incarnata, L. i, 3, 4 — maculata, L. 1-8 — Morio, L. 1-4, 6-8 — ustulata, L. i, 2 — pyramidalis, L. i, 3-6 Aceras anthropophora, Huds. 2, 3, 6 Ophrys apifera, Huds. 1-5, 7, 8 — aranifera, Huds. i, 2 — muscifera, Huds. i, 3, 7 Herminium Monorchis, Br. 1,3 Habenaria viridis, Br. i, 3 — conopsea, Benth. i, 3, 4 — bifolia, Br. i, 4, 7 sub-sp. chlorantha, Bab. 1-3, 5-8 Iris pseudacorus, L. 1-8 — foetidissima, L. i, 3—6 Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, L. i, 3, 4, 6-8 [ — biflorus, Curt.] I, 4 [Galanthus nivalis, L.] 1,3 [Leucojum aestivum, L.] 4 Tamus communis, L. 1-8 Ruscus aculeatus, L. 3-8 Asparagus officinalis, L. 6, 8 Polygonatum multiflorum, All. 4 Convallaria majalis, L. 2-8 Allium vineale, L. 1—4, 6-8 — oleraceum, L. I, 3 Muscari racemosum, Miller. 3, 4 Scilla nutans, Sm. 1-8 Ornithogalum umbellatum, L. i, 3, 8 [Lilium Martagon, L.] i Fritillaria Meleagris, L. i, 3, 4 [Tulipa sylvestris, L.] 3 Colchicum autumnale, L. i Paris quadrifolia, L. 1—4, 7 Juncus effusus, L. 1-8 48 BOTANY June us effusus, var. conglomeratus, L. 1-8 — glaucus, Ehrh. 1-8 . — diffusus, L. 2, 4, 7 — maritimus, Sm. 2, J-8 — squarrosus, L. 3-8 — compressus, Jacq. I, 4-8 sub-sp. Gerardi, Loisel. $-8 — obtusiflorus, Ehrh. I, 3-5, 7 — articulatus, L. 1-8 sub-sp. supinus, Moench. 3-5, 7, 8 — lamprocarpus, Ehrh. 1-8 - bufonius, L. 1—8 Luzula maxima, DC. 2-5, 7, 8 — vernalis, DC. 1-8 - Forsteri, DC. 4, 6 — campcstris, Willd. 1-8 var. crecta, Desv. 1-8 Sparganum ramosum, Huds. 1-8 — simplex, Huds. 1-7 — minimum, Fries. I, 3 Typha latifolia, L. 1-8 — angustifolia, L. 2-8 Arum maculatum, L. 1-8 Acorus Calamus, L. 3, 4 Lemna minor, L. 1-8 — trisulca, L. 1—8 — gibba, L. 2-8 - polyrhiza, L. 1-8 Alisma Plantago, L. 1-8 — ranunculoides, L. I, 4, ;, 7 Damasonium stellatum, Pen. 4, 5 Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. 1-8 Butomut umbellatus, L. 1-8 Triglochin palustre, L. 1-4, 6-8 — maritimum, L. 4-8 Potamogeton n a tans, L. 1-8 — polygonifolius, Pourr. 4, 5, 7, 8 — rufescens, Schrad. 2, 3, 7 — heterophyllui, Schreb. 4 — lucent, L. 1-4, 6-8 — przlongus, Wulfen. 3, 6, 7 — perfoliatus, L. 3, 4, 7, 8 — crispus, L. 1-8 — dens us, L. 1-4 — zosterzfolius, Schum. 3 — obtusifolius, Mert. & Kock. 3, 4 — pusillus, L. 1-4, 7, 8 — pectinatus, L. 2-4, 6—8 sub-sp. flabellatus, Bab. 7 Ruppia maritima, L. 6-8 sub-sp. rostellata, Kock. 5-8 Zannichellia palustris, L. I, 4-8 Zostera marina, L. 6-8 var. angustifolia, Symc. 6, 8 Heleocharis palustris, Br. 1-8 — multicaulis, Sm. 3, 4, 7, 8 — acicularis, Sm. 4 Scirpus lacuitris, L. 1-8 — Tabcrnzmontani, Gmel. 2, 6-8 — maritimus, L. 2, 4—8 — sylvaticns, L. 1-5, 7, 8 — setaccui, L. 1-8 - fluitans, L. 3-5, 7, 8 — caetpitosus, L. 5, 7 — pauciflorus, Lightf. 3, 4 Scirpus Caricis, Retz. 1—8 Eriophorum polystachion, L. I, 3-5, 8 sub-sp. latifolium, Hoppe. 1-3 Schcenus nigricans, L. 5 Carex pulicaris, L. I, 3, 4 [ — dioica, L.] 3 — divisa, Huds. 4-8 — disticha, Huds. I, 3, 4, 6-8 — arenaria, L. 6—8 — paniculata, L. 1-8 — teretiuscula, Good. 4 — muricata, L. 1-8 sub-sp. divulsa, Good. 1-8 — vulpina, L. 1-8 — echinata, Murr. I, 3-8 - re m ota, L. 1-8 - axillaris, Good. 1-8 - leporina, L. 1-5, 7, 8 - elongata, L. 2 - acuta, L. I, 3, 4, 6-8 - stricta, Good. I, 3-5 - Goodenovii, Gay. I, 3-5 — glauca, Murr. 1-8 — pallescens, L. 1-8 — panicea, L. I, 3-5, 7 — pendula, Huds. 1-8 - pnecox, Jacq. 1-8 - pilulifera, L. I, 3-8 — hirta, L. 1-8 — extensa, Good. 8 — flava, L. i, 3-7 sub-sp. CEdcri, Ehrh. 1, 3-7 - distans, L. I, 3, 5-8 - fulva, Good. I — bincrvis, Sm. I, 3—8 - Isevigata, Sm. 3, 5-7 — sylvatica, Huds. 1-8 - strigosa, Huds. 1-5, 7 — vesicaria, L. 2-5 - ampullacea, Good. I, 3, 4 — Pseudocyperus, L. 1-7 — paludosa, Good. 1-8 — riparia, Curtis. 1-8 Setaria viridis, Beauv. 8 Spartina stricta, Roth. 6-8 [Phalaris Canariensis, L.] I, 3, 4, 6-8 - arundinacea, L. 1-8 Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. 1-8 Alopecurus agrestis, L. 1-8 — pratensis, L. 1-8 — geniculatus, L. 1—8 sub-sp. fulvus, Sm. 1-4, 6, 7 „ bulbosus, Gouan. 5, 8 M ilium efFusum, L. 1-8 Phleum pratense, L. 1-8 — arenarium, L. 6-8 — phalaroides, Koel. I Agrostis canina, L. 1-8 — vulgar! », With. 1-8 var. pumila, L. i, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 — alba, L. 1-8 Polypogon Monspeliensit, Desf. 4-6 — littoralis, Sm. 5 Calamagrostis Epigejos, Roth. I, 3-8 — lanccolata, Roth. 6-8 49 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Gastridium lendigerum, Gaud. 2, 3, 5-8 Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. 4 , — interrupta, Beauv. 7 Ammophila arundinacea, Host. 6—8 Aira caryophyllea, L. I— 8 — pracox, L. I, 3-8 Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. 3-6 — caespitosa, Beauv. 1-8 Holcus lanatus, L. 1—8 — moll is, L. 1-8 Trisetum flavescens, Beauv. 1—8 Avena fatua, L. 1-8 [ — strigosa, Schreb.] I, 5 — pratensis, L. I — pubescens, Huds. i, 4 Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. 1-8 Triodia decumbens, Beauv. i, 3-8 Phragmites communis, Trin. 1-8 Cynosurus cristatus, L. 1—8 Koeleria cristata, Pers. I, 5, 6 Molinia caerulea, Moench. I, 3-8 var. depauperata, Lind. 7, 8 Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. 1—8 Melica uniflora, Retz. 1—8 Dactylis glomerata, L. 1—8 Briza media, L. I— 8 Poa annua, L. 1-8 — pratensis, L. I— 8 — couipressa, L. 1-6 — trivialis, L. 1—8 — nemoralis, L. 1-8 Glyceria aquatica, Sm. 1—8 — fluitans, Br. 1-8 — plicata, Fr. 1-3, 5, 7, 8 — maritima, Wahlb. 4-8 — Borreri, Bab. 4—8 — distans, Wahlb. 4-8 — procumbens, Dumort. 4-8 Festuca elatior, L. 1—6, 8 — pratensis, Huds. 1-8 — gigantea, Vill. 1-8 — ovina, L. 1-8 sub-sp. duriuscula, L. 1-8 „ rubra, L. i, 3-8 — Myuros, L. I, 3-8 sub-sp. sciuroides, Roth. 1-8 — uniglumis, Sol. 6, 7 — rigida, Kth. 1-8 — loliacea, Huds. 1-8 Bromus asper, Murr. 1-8 — erectus, Huds. I, 6 — sterilis, L. 1-8 — moll is, L. 1—8 — racemosus, L. i, 4, 6, 8 — commutatus, Schrad. 1-8 — secalinus, L. 1—4, 7, 8 — arvensis, L. 1,6 Brachypodium sylvaticum, R & S. 1-8 — pinnatum, Beauv. I, 3 Lojium perenne, L. 1—8 — temulentum, L. 1-4, 6, 8 Agropyrum caninum, Beauv. 1-8 — repens, Beauv. i— 8 sub-sp. pungens, R. & S. 5 — acutum, R. & S. 8 • — • junceum, Beauv. 5—8 Lepturus filiformis, Trin. 8 var. incurvatus, Trin. 5-8 Nardus stricta, L. i, 3—8 Hordeum sylvaticum, Huds. I, 2 — pratense, Huds. i— 8 — murinum, L. 1-8 — maritimum, With. 5-8 Elymus arenarius, L. 6, 7 Pteris aquilina, L. 1-8 Lomaria Spicant, Desv. 3-8 Asplenium Ruta-muraria, L. 1,3—7 — Trichomanes, L. 1-8 — Adiantum-nigrum, L. 1—8 — Filix-fcemina, Bernh. 2-8 — Ceterach, L. i, 4, 5 Scolopendrium vulgare, Sm. i— 8 Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. [var. alpina, Desv.] 4 Aspidium aculeatum, Sw. 1-5, 7, 8 — lobatum, Sw. 1—7 - angulare, Willd. 3-8 Nephrodium Filix-mas, Rich, i— 8 — spinulosum, Desv. 1-5, 7, 8 sub-sp. dilatatum, Desv. 2—8 — Thelypteris, Desv. 3, 4 — Oreopteris, Desv. 3—5, 7 Poly podium vulgare, L. 1—8 Osmunda regalis, L. 3-6, 8 Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. 1—5, 7, 8 [Botrychium Lunaria, Sw.] 8 Equisetum arvense, L. 1—8 — maximum, Lamk. 1—8 — sylvaticum, L. 3-5, 7, 8 — palustre, L. 1-6, 8 — limosum, L. 1-8 Lycopodium clavatum, L. 3—5 — inundatum, L. 4, 7 Pilularia globulifera, L. 4 Nitella flexilis, C. Ag. 1,5 — syncarpa, Kuetz. 7 — translucens, C. Ag. 7 — gracilis, C. Ag. 2 Chara polyacantha ?, Braun. I — vulgaris, L. I, S, 7 — hispida, L. I, 3, 6, 7 — aspera, Willd. i — fragilis, Desv. 7 MOSSES (Musci) The mosses of Essex have by no means been thoroughly investi- gated. The only records available are the list prepared from the col- lections of the late Mr. E. G. Varenne of Kelvedon (Essex Naturalist, v. i) and other notes issued at intervals in the same publication, and 50 BOTANY specimens collected by myself near Colchester. There is a herbarium of mosses collected by the late Mr. J. English in Epping Forest and its vicinity in the possession of the museum of the Essex Field Club at Stratford, but unfortunately it will not be available in time for use for this publication. The county, as far as explored, is comparatively rich in species occurring in bogs, and such as are found at ordinary elevations in woods, heaths, clayey and sandy soils, and in maritime situations ; but it is chiefly deficient, as might be expected, in species which occur on sub- alpine and alpine districts, and on limestone or granitic rocks. The occurrence of several species characteristic of calcareous soil, such as Weissia crispa, Pottia /anceo/ata, Anomodon viticu/osus, Campto- tbecium lutescens, Eurbynchium tenellum and Hypnum molluscum, render it probable that the calcareous districts in the north of the county would, on further exploration, yield many more species. One moss found in Essex has a special interest, since it is only found, so far as is known, in two other counties in England, viz. Somersetshire and Sussex, and is rare and local on the continent. This is Zygodon Forsteri, which was first found in this country on a felled tree in a timber yard in Walthamstow early in the last century, and was not again seen in Essex until detected in Epping Forest by Mr. E. M. Holmes a few years ago and shortly afterwards in another locality in the Forest by Mr. H. N. Dixon. The exact Sussex locality is unknown, so that Essex can boast of possessing one of the rarest of British mosses. Other rare species found in the 'county are Pottia Wiltoni and Zygodon conoideus, Ortbotricbum pollens and Hypnum giganteum. Comparatively few species of Sphagna are recorded, but the list of species of this genus will probably be largely increased by further investigation. Sphagnum cymbifolium, Ehrh. Dicranella cerviculata, Schimp. - squarrosulum, Nees & Hornsch. — varia, Schimp. — rigidum, Schimp. Dicranoweisia cirrhata, Lindb. — subsecundum, Nees Campylopus pyriformis, Brid. var. contortum, Schimp. - fragilis, Bruch. & Schimp. — acutifolium, Ehrh. Dicranum Bonjeani, De Not. var. purpureum, Schimp. — scoparium, Hedw. — intermedium, Hoffm. Leucobryum glaucum, Schimp. Tetraphis pcllucida, Hedw. Fissidens exilis, Hedw. Catharinea undulata, Web. & Mohr. — viridulus, Wahl. Polytrichum nanum, Neck. — incurvus, Starke - abides, Hedw. — bryoides, Hedw. - piliferum, Schreb. — taxifolius, Hedw. - juniperinum, Willd. Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw. - formosum, Hedw. - pulvinata, Smith — commune, Linn. Rhacomitrium canescens, Brid. Pleuridium axillare, Lindb. Acaulom muticum, C. Muell. — subulatum, Rabenh. Phascum cuspidatum, Schreb. - alternifolium, Rabenh. Pottia Heimii, C. Muell. Ditrichum homomallum, Hampe. — truncatula, Lindb. Ceratodon purpureus, Brid. — intermedia, Fuernr. Dicranella hcteromalla, Schimp. — Wilsoni, Bruch. & Schimp. A HISTORY OF ESSEX Pottia minutula, Fuernr. — Starkeana, C. Muell. — lanceolata, C. Muell. Tortula pusilla, Mitt. — ambigua, ^ngstr. — abides, De Not. — atrovirens, Lindb. — cuneifolia, Roth. — marginata, Spruce — muralis, Hedw. — mutica, Lindb. — laevipila, Schwaegr. — intermedia, Beck. — ruralis, Ehrh. — papillosa, Wils. Barbula rubella, Mitt. — fallax, Hedw. — rigidula, Mitt. — Hornschuchiana, Schultz. — revoluta, Hedw. — unguiculata, Hedw. Weisia crispa, Mitt. — microstoma, C. Muell. — viridula, Hedw. — mucronata, Bruch. & Schimp. Cinclidotus Brebissoni, Husnot. Zygodon viridissimus, Brown — conoideus, Hook. & Tayl. — Forsteri, Wils. Ulota Bruchii, Horrisch. — crispa, Brid. Orthotrichum anomalum, Hedw. — leiocarpum, Bruch. & Schimp. — Lyellii, Hook. & Tayl. — affine, Schrad. — Sprucei, Mont. — stramineum, Hornsch. — tenellum, Bruch. — pallens, Bruch. — pumilum, Dicks. — diaphanum, Schrad. Ephemerum serratum, Hampe. Physcomitrella patens, Bruch. & Schimp. — pyriforme, Brid. Funaria fascicularis, Schimp. — hygrometrica, Sibth. Aulacomnion palustre, Schwaegr. — androgynum, Schwaegr. Bartramia pomiformis, Hedw. Philonotis fontana, Brid. Leptobryum pyriforme, Wils. Webera nutans, Hedw. — carnea, Schimp. Bryum pendulum, Hornsch. — inclinatum, Bland. — pallens, Swartz. — bimum, Schreb. — intermedium, Brid. — caespiticum, Linn. — capillare, Linn. Bryum erythrocarpum, Schwaegr. — atropurpureum, Web. & Mohr. — argenteum, Linn. Mnium affine, Bland. — undulatum, Linn. — hornum, Linn. — punctatum, Linn. — subglobosum, Bruch. & Schimp. Fontinalis antipyretica, Linn. Cryphaea heteromalla, Mohr. Neckera complanata, Huebn. Homalia trichomanoides, Brid. Leucodon sciuroides, Schwaegr. Porotrichum alopecurum, Mitt. Leskea polycarpa, Ehrh. Anomodon viticulosus, Hook. & Tayl. Thuidium tamariscinum, Bruch. & Schimp. Pylaisia polyantha, Bruch. & Schimp. Isothecium myurum, Brid. Pleuropus sericeus, Dixon Camptothecium lutescens, Bruch. & Schimp. Brachythecium albicans, Bruch. & Schimp. — rutabulum, Bruch. & Schimp. — velutinum, Bruch. & Schimp. — purum, Dixon Eurhynchium piliferum, Bruch. & Schimp. — praelongum, Bruch. & Schimp. — Swartzii, Hobkirk — pumilum, Schimp. — tenellum, Milde — myosuroides, Schimp. — striatum, Bruch. & Schimp. — rusciforme, Milde — murale, Milde — confertum, Milde — megapolitanum, Milde Plagiothecium denticulatum, Bruch. & Schimp. — sylvaticum, Bruch. & Schimp. Amblystegium serpens, Bruch. & Schimp. — irriguum, Bruch. & Schimp. — filicinum, De Not. Hypnum riparium, Bruch. & Schimp. — stclla turn, Schreb. — aduncum, Hedw. — flu i tans, Linn. — uncinatum, Hedw. — intermedium, Hedw. — commutatum, Hedw. — cupressiforme, Linn. — resupinatum, Schimp. — molluscum, Hedw. — stramineum, Dicks. — cordifolium, Hedw. — giganteum, Schimp — cuspidatum, Linn. — Schreberi, Willd. Hylocomnium splendens, Bruch. & Schimp. — squarrosum, Bruch. & Schimp. — triquetrum, Bruch. & Schimp. BOTANY SCALE-MOSSES, LIVERWORTS AND CRYSTALWORTS The list of Essex Hepaticas includes only the commonest species, with the exception of Trichocolea tomentella and Ptilidium ci/iare, which are characteristic of subalpine boggy woods and moorlands, and where they occur there must almost certainly be other unrecorded species. The genera Kanft'a, Cephalozia, Lejeunia, yungermannia, Reboulia and Zegatella are almost certain to occur in the county. The list must therefore be considered an imperfect one. Frullania dilatata, Dumort Plagiochila asplenioides, Dumort Radula complanata, Dumort Aplozia crenulata, Dumort Porella platyphylla, Carr & Pears — inflata, Huds. Ptilidium ciliare, Nees Nardia scalaris, Carr Trichocolea tomentella, Ehrh. Pellia epiphylla, Corda Lepidozia reptans, Dumort Metzgeria furcata, Dumort Scapania undulata, Dumort Aneura multifida, Dumort — nemorosa, Dumort Marchantia polymorpha, Necs Diplophyllum albicans, Dumort Lunularia vulgaris, Mich. Lophocolea bidentata, Dumort Riccia glauca, Linn. — heterophylla, Dumort Ricciella fluitans, Braun. LICHENS (Lichenes] The Epping Forest district of Essex and the neighbourhood of Kelvedon are the only portions of the county from which the lichen flora has been at all fully recorded. It is therefore difficult to estimate what wealth of lichens the county possesses, for there are other districts, such as Hatfield Forest and some well wooded portions of the county, worth investigating. Lichens occur more particularly upon trees and upon rocks. The majority of lichens are of extremely slow development, remaining latent except when the moisture and other conditions of the atmosphere are favourable. It is therefore upon comparatively old trees and in situations suitable to their requirements that one would expect to find interesting species. Owing to the former bad management of the Epping Forest, the Rev. J. M. Crombie tells us in 1883 that its lichen flora was not so good as it would be under better conditions, and that the species had diminished in numbers since the time when he first visited it, but I am informed that under the new management of the forest the lichen flora is improving. Granitic sandstone and calcareous rocks which some lichens love so well do not occur in the county ; it is therefore only upon the stonework and upon the brickwork of old buildings that these species are represented. The first records of lichens are in Turner and Dillwyn's Botanist's Guide, published in 1805, where fifteen species are enumerated. The next list was by Mr. Edward Forster, to whom the county owes so much. More recently the Rev. James M. Crombie has brought our knowledge up to date.1 1 « On the Lichen Flora of Epping Forest and the causes of its recent diminution,' Transactlmu Eiiex Field Club, iv. 54, 1886. 53 A HISTORY OF ESSEX The late Mr. E. G. Varenne1 has also left us many records of lichens. It is from these records that the following list is compiled : — Collema furvum, Ach. — pulposum, Ach. — crispum, Ach. — cheileum, Ach. Collemodium biatorinum, Nyl. — microphyllum, Nyl. Leptogium tenuissimum, Koerb. — pusillum, Nyl. — palmatum, Mont. — lacerum, Gray sub-sp. pulvinatum, Nyl. Sphinctrina turbinata, Fr. Calicium chrysocephalum, Ach. — aciculare, Fr. — trichiale, Ach. — melanophaeum, Ach. var. ferrugineum, Schasrb. — hyperellum, Ach. — trachelinum, Ach. — quercinum, Pers. — curtum, Turn. & Bott. — subtile, Pers. Coniocybe furfuracea, Ach. Trachylia tigillaris, Fr. — tympanella, Fr. — stigonella, Fr. Bseomyces rufus, DC. — roseus, Pers. Cladonia alcicornis, Floerke — pyxidata, Fr. f. epiphylla, Nyl. var. chlorophaea, Flcerke — fimbriata, Fr. var. tubaeformis, Fr. f. exigua, Cromb. var. carneopallida, Nyl. sub-sp. fibula, Nyl. var. subcornuta, Nyl. f. nemoxyna, Nyl. — gracilis, Hoffin. — furcata, Hoffm. var. spinosa, Hook, sub-sp. racemosa, Nyl. — pungens, Flcerke — squamosa, Hoffm. sub-sp. adspersa, Nyl. — coccifera, Schaer. f. cornucopioides, Fr. — digitata, Hoffm. — caespiticia, Flcerke — macilenta, HofFm. var. scolecina, Nyl. „ maidenta, Hoffm. „ scabrosa, Nyl. „ coronata, Nyl. Cladonia macilenta, var. ostreata, Nyl. — flcerkeana, Fr. ; f. trachypoda, Nyl. — bacillaris, Nyl. Cladina sylvatica, Nyl. f. tenuis, Lamq. — rangiferina, Nyl. — uncialis, Nyl. Usnea hirta, Hoffm. — ceratina, Ach. ; var. scabrosa, Ach. ; f. ferruginascens, Cromb. Alectoria jubata, Nyl. Evernia furfuracea, Fr. — prunastri, Ach. Ramalina calicaris, Hoffm. — farinacea, Ach. — fraxinea, Ach. f. ampliata, Ach. — fastigiata, Ach. — -pollinaria, Ach. — evernioides, Nyl. Cetraria aculeata, Fr. ; f. hispida, Cromb. Platysma glaucum, Nyl. Sticta pulmonaria, Hook. Peltigera canina, Hoffm. — spuria, Leight. — polydactyla, Hoffm. Parmelia caperata, Ach. — subaurifera, Nyl. — exasperata, Nyl. — physodes, Ach. f. labrosa, Ach. — reddenda, Stirt. — perlata, Ach. — Borreri, Turn. — fuliginosa, Nyl. var. laetevirens — acetabulum, Dub. — saxatilis, Ach. — sulcata, Tayl. Physcia parietina, De Not var. aureola, Nyl. „ lychnea, Ach. „ polycarpa, Ehrh. „ cinerascens, Leight. — ciliaris, DC. — pulverulenta, Nyl. sub-sp. pityrea, Ach. var. angustata, Nyl. — stellaris, Nyl. var. leptalea, Nyl. sub-sp. tenella, Nyl. — aipolia, Nyl. — caesia, Nyl. — erosa, Leight. 1 'Cryptogamic Flora of Kelvedon and its neighbourhood,' Essex NaturaRst, v. i, 1891. 54 BOTANY Physcia astroidea, Nyl. — obscura, Nyl. — ulothrix, Nyl. var. virella, Crotnb. — adglutinata, Nyl. Pannaria nebulosa, Nyl. Squamaria saxicola, Sm. Placodium murorum, Lcight. — decipiens, Leight. — callopismum, Mudd. — miniatum, Hoffm. — chalybzum, Mudd. — citrinum, Ach. f. granulosa, Cromb. Lecanora vitellina, Ach. var. coruscans, Cromb. — epixantha, Nyl. - laciniosa, Nyl. - glaucocarpa, Ach. — pruinosa, Nyl. — squamulosa, Nyl. — fuscata, Nyl. — cinerca, Somm. — sarcopis, Ach. — varia, Ach. — atra, Ach. — circinata, Ach. — sulphurea, Ach. — symmicta, Ach. — oresthea, Ach. ; var. subli vescens, Nyl. — expallens, Ach. — subfusca, Nyl. var. campestris, Nyl. — allophana, Ach. — parisiensis, Nyl. — rugosa, Nyl. sub-sp. chlarona, Nyl. — intumescens, Koerb. — atrynea, Nyl. — cpibryon, Ach. — galactina, Ach. sub-sp. dispersa, Nyl. — Hageni, Ach. var. pallidior, Larb. — calcarea, Somm. f. concreta, Schzr. — gibbosa, Nyl. f. vulgaris, Th. Fr. — parella, Ach. — turned, Sm. — pallescens, Nyl. — irrubata, Nyl. sub-sp. calva, Nyl. — angulosa, Ach. — albella, Ach. — aurantiaca, Nyl. sub-sp. crythella, Nyl. var. inalpina, Nyl. — ferruginea, Nyl. f. corticola, Leight. Lecanora cerina, Ach. f. cyanolepra, Nyl. var. stillicidiorum, Nyl. sub-sp. chlorina, Nyl. — angulosa, Ach. var. sordidescens, Flcerke — pyracea, Nyl. sub-sp. holocarpa, Nyl. — lutea-alba, Nyl. — teicholyta, Ach. — phlogina, Nyl. — sophodes, Ach. f. roboris, Duf. f. exigua, Ach. f. metabolica, Ach. f. lecideoides, Nyl. — erysibe, Nyl. f. cinereo-fusca, Cromb. - syringea, Ach. — coccinea, Cromb. — conizaea, Nyl. — conizacoides, Nyl. Pertusaria dealbata, Nyl. — communis, DC. — melalcuca, Dub. - Wulfenii, DC. — lutescens, Lamy. — vclata, Nyl. f. aspergilla, Cromb. — amara, Nyl. — globulifera, Nyl. — pustulata, Nyl. - leioplaca, Schser. - coccodes, Nyl. ; f. bacillosa, Nyl. Phlyctis agelza, Koerb. — argena, Koerb. Thelotrema lepadinum, Ach. Urceolaria scruposa, Ach. Lecidea Friesii, Ach. — ostreata, Hoffm. — fuliginosa, Tayl. - dispansa, Nyl. - crustulata, Ach. — flexuosa f. zruginosa, Borr. - sphaeroides, Dicks. — decolorans, Floerke - quernea, Dicks. - enteroleuca, Ach. — minuta, Schzr. - tenebricosa, Ach. — parasema, Ach. var. tabescens, Koerb. „ flavens, Nyl. „ elzochroma, Ach. — uliginosa, Schrad. f. fuliginosa, Fr. — coarctata, Sm. f. elacista, Ach. f. involuta, Tayl. f. globulosa, Sm. 55 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Lecidea coarctata, f. ornata, Smrf. — fuscoatra, Ach. f. fumosa, Ach. f. meiosporiza, Nyl. — sub-Kochiana, Nyl. — Taylori, Salw. — contigua, Fr. — confluens, Leight. — canescens, Dicks. — disciformis, Fr. — myriocarpa, DC. f. chloropolia, DC. f. pinicola, Ach. f. leprosa, DC. f. quercicola, Rabh. f. saprophila, Ach. — nigritula, Nyl. — chalybeia, Borr. — grossa, Pers. — Lightfootii, Sm. — anomala, Fr. — tricolor, With. — Ehrhartiana, Ach. — Caradocensis, Leight. — incompta, Borr. — alboatra, Hoffm. f. populorum, Mass. f. epipolia, Ach. — Dilleniana, Ach. — aromatica, Sm. — umbrina, Ach. — milliaria, Fr. ; f. terrestris, Fr. — endoleuca, Nyl. — premnea, Ach. — phacodes, Kcerb. — sabuletorum, Floerke — rubella, Ehr. — effiisa, Sm. — contigua, Ach. — petraea, Wulf. f. fuscescens, Leight. — tantilla, Nyl. — parmeliarum, Smrft. — parasitica, Flcerke Opegrapha herpetica, Ach. f. vera, Leight. f. rubella, Pers. f. rufescens, Pers. — atra, Pers. f. denigrata, Ach. f. nigrita, Leight. f. parallela, Leight. f. hapalea, Ach. f. arthonoidea, Leight. — Turneri, Leight. — saxicola, Ach. var. Chevallieri, Leight. — varia, Pers. f. pulicaris, Leight. f. notha, Ach. Opegrapha varia, f. diaphora, Ach. f. tigrina, Ach. f. tridens, Ach. — vulgata, Ach. f. vulgata, Ach. f. stenocarpa, Ach. f. subsiderella, Nyl. — lyncea, Sm. Stigmatidium crassum, Dub. Arthonia lurida, Ach. — vinosa, Leight. — punctiformis, Ach. — astroidea, Ach. — epipasta, Ach. — Swartziana, Ach. — cinnabarina, Wallr. var. kermesina, Nyl. f. rosacea, Turn. & Borr. f. marginata, Turn. & Borr. var. pruinata, Del. f. dubia, Turn. & Borr. var. anerythraea, Nyl. f. detrita, Turn. & Borr. — pruinosa, Ach. — anastomosans, Ach. Graphis elegans, Sm. — scripta, Ach. f. minuta, Leight. f. varia, Leight. f. horizontalis, Leight. var. pulverulenta, Ach. f. betuligna, Ach. var. serpentina, Ach. — dendritica, Ach. f. Smithii, Leight. f. obtusa, Leight. — inusta, Ach. f. vera, Leight. f. simpliuscula, Leight. f. macularis, Leight. — sophistica, Nyl. f. flexuosa, Leight. f. radiata, Leight. f. divaricata, Leight. var. pulverulenta, Sm. „ dendriticoides, Leight. Endocarpum hepaticum, Ach. f. trapeziformis, Zoega. Mycoporum miserrimum, Nyl. Verrucaria papillosa, Ach. — mutabilis, Borr. — mauroides, Schaer. — nigrescens, Pers. — plumbea, Ach. — fucella, Turn. — glaucina, Ach. — macrostoma, Duf. — viridula, Schrad. — rupestris, Schrad. var. muralis, Ach. BOTANY Verrucaria, var. subalbicans, Leight. Verrucaria Salweii, Leight. — calciseda, DC. — rugulosa, Borr. — gemmata, Ach. — chlorotica, Ach. — conformis, Nyl. — nitida, Weig. — epidermidis, Ach. — glabrata, Ach. var. analepta, Ach. — albissima, Ach. f. fallax, Nyl. - epipolytropa, Mudd. var. cinereopruinosa, Schaer. - hymenogonia, Nyl. — punctiformis, Ach. Melanotheca gelatinosa, Chev. — biformis, Borr. FRESHWATER ALG^E Probably Essex is one of the best counties in England for fresh- water algae. It has plenty of small ponds, pools, streams, fresh and brackish ditches, and other conditions so favourable to their growth. Dr. M. C. Cooke writes to me that the Epping Forest district is the best anywhere around London. Of course such species as are to be found only on rocks and in mountainous districts are absent from Essex. The Conjugate and Conferva are well represented, also the Zygne- macea, Desmidiacea and (Edogoniacece. Dr. Cooke has never found CEdogonium crassiusculum anywhere else, nor does he recollect receiving (E. plirviale from any other locality. He says : ' As to species of interest, I fancy that the constant and perennial excursions of the Quekett Club will show that there is always the prospect of something worth going after if it is only Volvox and Gom'um, and Eudorina, the latter especially. For myself, I have never been disappointed in a trip to the Forest district when in search of alga?, having always managed to secure something new, or comparatively interesting.' The following list is by Dr. M. C. Cooke1 and includes records by himself, Dr. Hassall, E. G. Varenne, Mr. C. E. Mainland, and the excursion lists of the Quekett Microscopic Club. They are from the Epping Forest district and from Kelvedon. No doubt this list would be very considerably extended if the whole county had been explored. Plcurococcus vulgaris, Menegh Pediastrum Boryanum, Menegh Palmella hyalina, Rabenh. — rotula, A. Br. — Mooreana, Harv. Hydrianum heteromorphum, Reinsert. Porphyridium cruentum, Nzg. Chlamydococcus nivalis, A. Br. Tetraspora bullosa, Ag. Volvox globator, Ehr. — lubrica, C. Ag. — minor, Stein. — gelatinosa, Desv. Gonium pectorale, Muell. Apiocystis Brauniana, Naeg. Eudorina elegans, Ehrenb. Raphidium falcatum, Cooke Sphaerozosma secedens, De Bary Protococcus viridis, C. Ag. Hyalotheca dissiliens, Breb. Chlorococcum gigas, Grun. — mucosa, Ehrenb. Scenedesmus obtusus, Meyen Desmidium Swartzii, Ag. — acutus, Meyen Docidium Ehrenbergii, Ralfs. — quadricauda, Brcb. — nodulosum, Br£b. Hydrodictyon utriculatum, Roth. — baculum, Breb. 1 Eiitx Naturalist, vii. 1 70. i 57 8 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Closterium Lunula, Ehrenb. — acerosum, Ehrenb. — gracile, Breb. — Ehrenbergii, Menegh — moniliferum, Ehrenb. — Jenneri, Ralfs — Leibleinii, Kuetz. — Dianse, Ehrenb. — striolatum, Ehrenb. — intermedium, Ralfs — lineatum, Ehrenb. — rostratum, Ehrenb. — setaceum, Ehrenb. — linea, Perty. Penium margaritaceum, Breb. — digitus, Br£b. — closteroides, Ralfs — Brebissonii, Ralfs Mesotaenium Braunii, De Bary Tetmemorus Brebissonii, Ralfs — granulatus, Ralfs Spirotaenia condensata, Breb. Micrasterias denticulata, Breb. — rotata, Ralfs Euastrum oblongum, Ralfs — crassum, Kuetz. — affine, Ralfs — ansatum, Ehrenb. — circulare, Hass. — elegans, Kuetz. — inerme, Lund. Cosmarium cucumis, Corda — Meneghinii, Br£b. — Brebissonii, Menegh — margaritiferum, Menegh — botrytis, Menegh Xanthidium armatum, Br6b. Arthodesmus octocornis, Ehrenb. — incus, Hass. — convergens, Ehrenb. Staurastrum dejectum, Brdb. — cuspidatum, Breb. — orbiculare, Ralfs — muricatum, Brib. — punctulatum, Br6b. — alternans, Br6b. — polymorphum, Breb. — Arachne, Ralfs Zygnema cruciatum, C. Ag. — Vaucherii, C. Ag. var. stagnale, Kirchn. — anomalum, Cooke Spirogyra crassa, Kuetz. — nitida, Link. — orthospira, Naeg. — setiformis, Kuetz. — orbicularis, Hass. — bellis, Crouan — porticalis, Cleve — condensata, Kuetz. Spirogyra longata, Kuetz. — flavescens, Kuetz. — insignis, Kuetz. — quadrata, Petit — Weberi, Kuetz. — tenuissima, Kuetz. Zygogonium ericetorum, Kuetz. Mesocarpus parvulus, De Bary. — scalaris, Hass. — pleurocarpus, De Bary Staurospermum gracillimum, Kuetz. — capucinum, Kuetz. — viride, Kuetz. Botrydium granulatum, Grcv. Vaucheria aversa, Hass. — sericea, Lyngb. — Dillwynii, C. Ag. - sessilis, DC. — geminata, DC. var. racemosa, Walz. — hamata, Lyngb. — terrestris, Lyngb. Prasiola crispa, C. Ag. Enteromorpha intestinalis, Link. Microspora floccosa, Thur. — vulgaris, Rabenh. — fugacissima, Rabenh. Chaetomorpha Linum, Kuetz. Conferva bombycina, C. Ag. Cladophora crispata, Kuetz. — glomerata, Kuetz. — flavescens, Kuetz. — fracta, Kuetz. CEdogonium vernale, Wittr. — paludosum, Kuetz. — Rothii, Pringsh. — pluviale, Nordst — flavescens, Kuetz. — crassiusculum, Wittr. — capillare, Kuetz. — Boscii, Breb. — hexagonum, Kuetz. — fasciatum, Kuetz. — longatum, Kuetz. — sphasricum, Kuetz. — Muelleri, Kuetz. Bulbochaete setigera, C. Ag. Hormiscia zonata, Aresch. Ulothrix tenuis, Kuetz. — tenerrima, Kuetz. — radicans, Kuetz. Chroolepus aureum, Kuetz. Stigeoclonium thermale, A. Br. — nanum, Kuetz. Draparnaldia glomerata, C. Ag. — plumosa, C. Ag. Chaetophora pisiformis, C. Ag. — tuberculosa, Hook. — elegans, C. Ag. — endivcasfolia, C. Ag. BOTANY Coleochaete scutata, Breb. Aphanothece prasina, A. Br. Nostoc commune, Vauch. Anabaena Hassalii, Wittr. Cylindrospermum macrospermum, Kuctz. Spirulina Jenneri, Kuetz. — oscillarioides, Kuetz. Oscillatoria amphibia, C. Ag. — tenuis, C. Ag. Sympluea muscorum, Gom. Symploea limosa, C. Ag. — nigra, Vauch. Phormidium autumnale, Gom. Microcoleus terrestris, Desmaz. Gloiotrichia natans, Rabenh. — Pisum, Thur. Batrachospermum moniliforme, Roth. — vagum, C. Ag. — ectocarpum, Sirod. — Dillenii, Bory. MARINE ALG^E The flat muddy coast of the county, without any natural rocks capable of affording a stable anchorage, is not a favourable locality for seaweeds, hence the list of Essex seaweeds is not large. A list of the marine algae of Essex has been compiled by Mr. E. A. L. Batters, chiefly from the herbarium of Mr. G. P. Hope,1 and it is from this source that I have obtained the following list. A few species are added from a list of seaweeds quite recently collected by Dr. H. C. Sorby and named by Mr. E. M. Holmes. So far as is at present known the marine flora of Essex consists of 158 species included in 95 genera, and is marked as much by the absence of many species common and abundant elsewhere as for the presence of a few which are very rarely met with on the shores of our islands. As examples of the latter class, Ectocarpus erectus, Phyllitis Jiliformis, Scinaia furcellata and Grateloupia Jilicina may be mentioned ; while as examples of the former, Calotbrix confervico/a, Desmarestia acu/eafa, Dictyosiphon fceniculaceui^ Asperococcus echinatus, Spbacelaria cirr&osa, Chordaria Jiagelliformis, Leatbesia difformis^ Laminaria digitata^ Saccorhiza bulbosa, Pehetia canaliculata^ Chantransia secundata^ Gelidium crina/e, Gigartina mammillosa, Callopbyllis /aciniata, Lomentaria c/ave//osa, Nitophyllum punctatum, Ceramium echionotum, C. acanthonotum^ C. ci/iafum, Polysiphonia fastigiafa, all of them common species, are ' conspicuous by their absence ' from the flora of Essex. The marine flora of Essex is southern in its character. The following have been recorded : — Gloeocapsa crepidinum, Thur. Aphanocapsa marina, Hansg. Dermocarpa prasina, Born. Hyella caespitosa, Born. & Flah. Spirulina subsalsa, CErsted Oscillatoria corallina, Gom. Lyngbya semiplena, J. Ag. — aestuarii, Liebman. Symploea hydnoides, Kuetz. Microcoleus chthonoplastes, Thur. Calothrix scopulorum, C. Ag. — pulvinata, C. Ag. - confervicola, C. Ag. Isactis plana, Thur. Rivularia atra, Roth. Mastigocoleus testarum, Lagerh. Anabaena variabilis, Kuetz. Chlorochytrium inclusum, Kjellm. Monostroma laceratum, Thur. Enteromorpha ramulosa, Hook. - erecta, J. Ag. — clathrata, C. Ag. — canaliculate, Halt. — percursa, Harv. — compressa, L. — intestinalis, L. - Linza, J. Ag. — tubulosa, Kuetz. 1 Enex Naturalist, viii. i, and species recorded by E. M. Holmes in the same publication. 59 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Enteromorpha minima, Naeg. Ulva latissima, J. Ag. Epicladia Flustrae, Reinke Urospora penicilliformis, Aresch. — flacca, Holm. & Batt. Chaetomorpha aerea, Kuetz. — Melagonium, Kuetz. — Linum, Kuetz. — litorea, Holm. & Batt. — tortuosa, Kuetz. Rhizoclonium riparium, Harv. Cladophora rupestris, Kuetz. — Hutchinsias, Kuetz. — utriculosa, Kuetz. — glaucescens, Harv. — fracta, Kuetz. — albida, Kuetz. — 7 uncialis, Harv. Bryopsis plumosa, C. Ag. Vaucheria sphaerospora, Nordst. Punctaria plantaginea, Grev. Ectocarpus erectus, Kuetz. — Crouani, Thur. — confervoides, Le Jol. — siliculosus, Lyngb. — granulosus, C. Ag. — tomentosus, Lyngb. Pylaiella litoralis, Kjellm. Elachista fucicola, Aresch. Sphacelaria plumigera, Holmes Stypocaulon scoparium, Kuetz. Cladostephus verticillatus, C. Ag. — spongiosus, C. Ag. Myrionema strangulans, Grev. Hecatonema reptans, Saur. Ralfsia verrucosa, Aresch. — clavata, Crouan Phyllitis filiformis, Batt. Scytosiphon lomentarius, Endl. Chorda Filum, Stackh. Laminaria saccharina, Lamour. Cutleria multifida, Grev. Fucus ceranoides, L. — vesiculosus, L. ; f. spiralis, L. f. Baltica, J. Ag. — platycarpus, Thur. — serratus, L. Ascophyllum nodosum, Le Jol. f. scorpoides, Hauck. Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb. Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb. Dictyota dichotoma, Lamour. Taonia atomaria, J. Ag. Padina pavonia, Gaillon. Porphyra laciniata, C. Ag. — f. typica, Holm, and Batt. — linearis, Grev. — leucosticta, Thur. Bangia fusco-purpurea, Lyngb. Scinaia furcellata, Bivona. 60 Harveyella mirabilis, Reinke Chondrus crispus, Stackh. Phyllophora rubens, Grev. — membranifolia, J. Ag. Gymnogongrus Griffithsias, Mart. — Norvegicus, J. Ag. Ahnfeltia plicata, Fr. Actinococcus aggregatus, Schmitz. — peltaeformis, Schmitz. Colacolepis incrustans, Schmitz. Sterrocolax decipiens, Schmitz. Cystoclonium purpurascens, Kuetz. Catenella Opuntia, Grev. Gracilaria confervoides, Grev. Calliblepharis ciliata, Kuetz. Rhodymenia palmata, Grev. Lementaria clavellosa, Gaill. Chylocladia kaliformis, Grev. f. squarrosa, Harv. Plocamium coccineum, Lyngb. Nitophyllum laceratum, Grev. Delesseria alata, Lamour. — Hypoglossum, Lamour. — sinuosa, Lamour. — sanguinea, Lamx. Bostrychia scorpioides, Montg. Rhodomela subfusca, C. Ag. Laurencia hybrida, Lam. — pinnatifida, Lamx. Chondria dasyphylla, C. Ag. Polysiphonia urceolata, Grev. — elongata, Harv. — atro-rubescens, Grev. — nigrescens, Grev. — affinis, Moore Brongniartella byssoides, Bory Dasya coccinea, C. Ag. Spermothamnion Turneri, Aresch. Griffithsia setacea, C. Ag. — corallina, C. Ag. Halurus equisetifolius, Kuetz. Pleonosporium Borreri, Naeg. Rhodochorton Rothii, Naeg. — floridulum, Nag. Callithamnion polyspermum, C. Ag. — roseum, C. Ag. — corymbosum, C. Ag. — pseudobyssoides, Crouan Plumaria elegans, Schmitz. Antithamnion Plumula, Thur. Ceramium tenuissimum, J. Ag. — Deslongchampsii, Chauv. — strictum, Harv. — diaphanum, Roth. — rubrum, C. Ag. — flabelligerum, J. Ag. Grateloupia filicina, C. Ag. Dumontia filiformis, Grev. Dilsea edulis, Schmitz. Fastigiaria furcellata, Stackh. BOTANY Polyides rotundus, Grev. Cruoriella Dubyi, Schmitz. Hildenbrandtia prototypus, Nardo. Melobesia membranacea, Lamour. — corticiformis, Kuetz. Melobesia Corallinae, Crouan Lithophyllum Lenormandi, Rosan Corallina officinalis, L. — rubens, L. — corniculata, L. FUNGI It is difficult to compare the cryptogamic flora of one county with that of another, because cryptogamic botanists are few and the record of cryptogamic plants for all counties is very incomplete. Probably the Epping Forest district is one of the most thoroughly investigated of England. For many years a large party of members of the Essex Field Club have explored the Forest each autumn in search of fungi. Messrs/ English and Worthington Smith have also collected fungi in this county. In spite of these many workers, Dr. M. C. Cooke says that it may be taken for granted that the mycology of the Forest has been by no means exhausted. Altogether 406 species of Hymenomycetous fungi have been re- corded in Epping Forest.1 This is a good record, as only 1,338 species are recorded as occurring in Great Britain. It is evident that Essex is not an unfavourable county for the development of fungi. Several species new to Britain have been first detected in Epping Forest. E. G. Varenne contributed a list of the cryptogamic plants in the neighbourhood of Kelvedon,8 a part of Essex which is possibly more in character with the county generally than the Epping Forest. A short list of Ustilaginei and ./Ecidiomycetes was also contributed by M. C. Cooke.* Of these Delitschia insignis, Mont., and Sporodesmium pyriforme, Corda, are new to Britain. The following is a list of the Essex fungi, found mostly in the Epping Forest and in the neighbourhood of Kelvedon. A few were observed by myself in the neighbourhood of Colchester. Agaricus (Amanita) phalloides, Fr. „ vernus, Bull. „ mappa, Fr. „ muscarius, Fr. „ pantherinus, Fr. „ strobiliformis, Fr. „ excelsus, Fr. „ rubescens, Fr. „ spissus, Fr. „ nitidus, Fr. „ vaginatus, Fr. var. nivalis, Grev. „ strangulatus, Fr. Agaricus (Lepiota) procerus, Scop. „ rachodes, Vitt. „ excoriatus, Schaeff. „ acutesquamosus, Weinm. „ cristatus, A. & S. „ carcharias, Pers. „ granulosus, Batsch. (Armillaria) constrictus, Fr. „ melleus, Vahl. „ mucidus, Schrad. (Tricholoma) sejunctus, Sow. „ portentosus, Fr. „ resplendens, Fr. 1 The arrangement and nomenclature followed in this list is that of the Handbook of British Fungi, by M. C. Cooke (1871), and of the British Uredinett and Uiti/agiaete by Chas. B. Plowright (1889). * ' Hymenomycetal Fungi of Epping Forest,' by M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., Essex Naturafut, iii. 248. 8 Essex NaturaKst, v. 2 1 . * Ibid. i. 1 84, and 'Recent Additions to the Fungi of Epping Forest,' by Geo. Massee, F.L.S., in »• 3>3- 6l A HISTORY OF ESSEX Agaricus (Tricholoma) acerbus, Bull. „ nictitans, Fr. — ,, fulvellus, Fr. — • „ flavo-brunneus, Fr. „ albo-brunneus, Pers. „ ustalis, Fr. „ rutilans, SchaefF. „ variegatum, Schaeff. „ columbetta, Fr. „ scalpturatus, Fr. „ imbricatus, Fr. „ vaccinus, Pers. „ terreus, SchaefF. „ saponaceus, Fr. „ cuneifolius, Fr. „ carneus, Bull. „ gambosus, Fr. „ civilis, Fr. „ personatus, Fr. „ nudus, Bull. „ grammopodius, Bull. „ subpulverulentus, Pers. „ sordidus, Fr. (Clitocybe) nebularis, Fr. „ clavipes, Pers. „ odorus, Bull. „ cerussatus, Fr. „ phyllophilus, Fr. „ dealbatus, Sw. „ elixus, Sow. „ gallinaceus, Fr. „ rumosus, Pers. „ maximus, Fr. „ infundibuliformis, SchaefF. „ flaccidus, Fr. „ geotrupus, Bull. „ inversus, Fr. „ catinus, Fr. „ ericetorum, Bull. „ cyathiformis, Fr. „ brumalis, Fr. „ metachrous, Fr. „ ditopus, Fr. „ fragrans, Sow. „ obsoletus, Batsch. „ bellus, Fr. „ laccatus, Fr. (Collybia) radicatus, Bull. „ platyphyllus, Fr. „ fusipes, Bull. „ maculatus, A. & S. „ distortus, Fr. „ butyraceus, Bull. „ velutipes, Curt. „ confluens, P. „ cirrhatus, Schum. „ tuberosus, Bull. „ psathyroides, Cke. „ dryophilus, Bull. „ ocellatus, Fr. 62 Agaricus (Collybia) muscigenus, Schum. ,, atratus, Fr. „ laceratus, Lasch. (Mycena) elegans, Pers. „ purus, Pers. „ adonis, Bull. „ lacteus, Pers. „ gypseus, Fr. „ rugosus, Fr. „ galericulatus, Scop. var. calopus, Fr. » polygrammus, Bull. „ parabolicus, Fr. „ tintinnabulum, Fr. „ pullatus, Berk. & Cke. „ leptocephalus, Pers. „ alcalinus, Fr. „ ammoniacus, Fr. „ metatus, Fr. „ tenuis, Bolt. „ filopes, Bull. „ amictus, Fr. „ vitilis, Fr. „ haematopus, Fr. „ sanguinolentus, Fr. „ galopus, Fr. „ leucogalus, Cke. „ epipterygius, Fr. „ clavicularis, Fr. „ roridus, Fr. „ corticola, Schum. „ capillaris, Schum. „ griseus, Fr. „ fibula, Bull. var. Swartzii, Fr. (Omphalia) hydrogrammus, Fr. „ pyxidatus, Bull. „ oniscus, Fr. „ demissus, Fr. „ pseudoandrosaceus, Bull (Pleurotus) corticatus, Fr. „ dryinus, Pers. „ spongiosus, Fr. „ petaloides, Bull. ,, Leightonii, Berk. ., ulmarius, Bull. „ ostreatus, Jacq. var. euosmus, Berk. „ acerosus, Fr. „ septicus, Fr. „ mastrucatus, Fr. „ Leightoni, Berk. „ chioneus, Berk. „ acerinus, Fr. „ mitis, Pers. „ limpidus, Fr. (Volvaria) medius, Schum. (Pluteus) cervinus, SchaefF. „ umbrosus, Pers. „ nanus, Pers. BOTANY Agaricus (Entoloma) sinuatus, Fr. Agaricus (Galera) mniophilus, Fr. „ lividus, Bull. (Tubaria) furfuraceus, P. „ prunuloides, Fr. var. trigonophyllus, Fr. „ Saundersii, Fr. „ stagninus, Fr. „ jubatus, Fr. (Crepidotus) mollis, Schaeff. „ sericellus, Fr. (Psalliota) arvensis, SchaefF. „ sericeus, Bull. „ cretaccus, Fr. „ nidorosus, Fr. „ campestris, Fr. (Clitopilus) prunulus, Scop. „ sylvaticus, Schaeff. „ orcella, Bull. (Stropharia) aeruginosus, Curt. „ carneo-albus, With. „ albocyaneus, Dcsmaz. (Nolanea) pascuus, Pers. „ inunctus, Fr. „ pisciodorus, Ces. „ coronillus, Bull. „ subglobosus, A. & S. „ squamosus, Fr. (Claudopus) cuosmus, Berk. „ thraustus, Kalchbr. „ variabilis, Pers. „ Worthingtonii, Fr. (Pholiota) tcrrigenus, Fr. „ merdarius, Fr. „ prsecox, Fr. „ stercorarius, Fr. „ radicosus, Bull. „ semi-globatus, Batsch. „ comosus, Fr. „ spintrigcr, Fr. „ squarrosus, Mucll. (Hypholoma) sublateritius, Schceff. var. Muelleri, Fr. „ epixanthus, Fr. var. verruculosuSjLasch. — „ fascicularis, Huds. „ durus, Bolt. „ dispersus, Fr. „ spectabilis, Fr. „ storea var. ccespitosus, „ adiposus, Fr. Cookc „ mutabilis, SchaefF. „ lachrymabundus, Fr. „ marginatus, Batsch. „ vclutinus, Pers. (Inocybe) pyriodorus, P. „ pyrotrichus, Holmsk. „ maritimus, Fr. „ Candolleanus, Fr. „ lacerus, Fr. „ append iculatus, Bull. „ perlatus, Cke. (Psilocybe) hydrophilus, Bull. „ fastigiatus, Schaeff. „ ericseus, Pers. „ rimosus, Bull. „ udus, Pers. „ asterosporus, Q. „ semilanceatus, Fr. „ eutheles, B. it Br. „ spadiceus, Fr. „ destrictus, Fr. (Psathyra) foenisecii, Pers. „ geophyllus, Sow. „ conopileus, Fr. (Hebeloma) fastibilis, Fr. „ corrugis, Pers. „ mesopheus, Fr. „ fibrillosus, Pers. „ sinapizans, Fr. „ pennatus, Fr. „ crustuliniformis, Bull. „ semivestitus, Berk. (Flammula) decipiens, Sm. (Panseolus) separatus, Fr. „ gummosus, Lasch. „ fimiputris, Bull. „ spumosus, Fr. „ phalenarum, Fr. ,, carbonarius, Fr. „ retirugis, Fr. ,, alnicola, Fr. „ sphinctrinus, Fr. „ flavidus, SchaefF. „ campanulatus, L. „ inopus, Fr. „ papilionaceus, Bull. „ hybridus, Fr. „ caliginosus, Jungh. (Naucoria) centunculus, Fr. (Psathyrella) trepidus, Pers. „ melinoides, Fr. „ disseminatus, Pers. „ pediades, Fr. „ pronus, Fr. „ semiorbicularis, Bull. Coprinus comatus, Fr. „ carpophilus, Fr. — ovatus, SchaefF. (Galera) tcner, SchaefF. — atramentarius, Fr. „ ovalis, Fr. — picaceus, Bull. „ rubiginosus, P. — niveus, Pers. „ hypnorum, Batsch. — micaccus, Bull. var. sphagnorurn, Fr. — aratus, Berk, it Br. 63 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Coprinus radians, Desmaz. — deliquescens, Bull. — congregatus, Bull. — radiatus, Bolt. — plicatilis, Curt. Bolbitius Boltoni, Pers. — fragilis, Fr. Cortinarius (Phlegmacium) varius, Fr. „ cyanopus, Fr. „ largus, Fr. — „ Riederi, Weinm. „ infractus, Fr. „ multiformis, Fr. „ talus, Fr. „ glaucopus, Schaeff. „ purpurascens, Fr. var. subpurpur- escens, Bat. „ turbinatus, Bull. „ decoloratus, Fr. „ decolorans, Pers. (Myxacium) collinitus, Fr. „ elatior, Fr. (Inoloma) argentatus, Pers. „ violaceus, Linn. „ albo-violaceus, Pers. „ bolaris, Pers. „ pholideus, Fr. (Dermocybe) ochroleucus, Schaeff. „ decumbens, Pers. „ tabularis, Bull. „ camurus, Bull. „ caninus, Fr. „ anomalus, Fr. „ lepidopus, Cke. — „ cinnabarinus, Fr. „ sanguineus, Wulf. „ cinnamomeus, L. „ orellanus, Fr. (Telamonia) torvus, Fr. „ evernius, Fr. „ armillatus, Fr. „ hinnuleus, Fr. „ brunneus, Fr. „ hemitrichus, Fr. „ rigidus, Fr. „ paleaceus, Fr. „ scutulatus, Fr. (Hydrocybe) dilutus, Pers. „ saturninus, Fr. „ renidens, Fr. „ dolabratus, Fr. „ rigens, Pers. „ decipiens, Pers. — „ germanus, Fr. — „ obtusus, Fr. Gomphidius glutinosus, Schaeff. — maculatus, Scop. Paxillus involutus, Batsch. Paxillus atrotomentosus, Batsch. — Alexandri, Gill. Hygrophorus chrysodon, Batsch. — eburneus, Bull. — cossus, Sow. — penarius, Fr. — pratensis, Pers. — virgineus, Wulr. — russo-coriaceus, Berk. & Br. — Colemannianus, Blox. — laetus, Fr. — ceraceus, Wulf. — coccineus, Schaeff. — miniatus, Fr. — turundus, Fr. — conicus, Scop. — calyptrae formis, Berk. — chlorophanus, Fr. — psittacinus, Schaeff. Lactarius torminosus, Fr. — turpis, Fr. — controversus, Fr. — insulsus, Fr. — blennius, Fr. — trivialis, Fr. — pyrogalus, Fr. — chrysorrhoeus, Fr. — pergamenus, Fr. — piperatus, Fr. — vellereus, Fr. — deliciosus, Fr. — pallidus, Fr. — quietus, Fr. — aurantiacus, Fr. — rufus, Fr. — glyciosmus, Fr. — fuliginosus, Fr. — lilacinus, Lasch. — volemum, Fr. — serifluus, Fr. — mitissimus, Fr. — subdulcis, Fr. — cimicarius, Batsch. — camphoratus, Fr. — subumbonatus, Lindgr. Russula nigricans, Fr. — adusta, Fr. — delica, Fr. — furcata, Fr. — rosacea, Fr. — maculata, Quel. — granulosa, Cke. — depallens, Fr. — lactea, Fr. var. incarnata, Quel. — virescens, Fr. — cutefracta, Cke. — lepida, Fr. — rubra, Fr. var. mitis, Cke. 64 BOTANY Russula xerampclina, Fr. — Linnaci, Fr. — vesca, Fr. — cyanoxantha, Fr. — heterophylla, Fr. — consobrina, Fr. var. sororia, Fr. — foetens, Fr. — fellea, Fr. — subfoetens, Sm. — emetica, Fr. - fallax, Schaeff. — pectinata, Fr. — ochroleuca, Fr. — citrina, Gillet — fragilis, Fr. var. violacea, Pcrs. — integra, Fr. — Armeniaca, Ckc. — alutacea, Fr. — lutea, Fr. — Chameleontina, Fr. Cantharellus cibarius, Fr. — aurantiacus, Fr. — tubaeformis, Fr. — infundibuliformis, Fr. Nyctalis asterophora, Fr. — parasitica, Fr. Marasmius urens, Fr. — peronatus, Fr. — oreades, Fr. — fuscopurpureus, Fr. — terginus, Fr. — erythropus, Fr. — cohaerens, Fr. — ramealis, Fr. — rotula, Fr. — androsaceus, Fr. — Hudsoni, Fr. - cpiphyllus, Fr. Lentinus lepideus, Fr. — cochleatus, Fr. Pan us torulosus, Fr. - stypticus, Fr. — farinaceus, Fr. Lenzites betulina, Fr. Boletus elegans, Schum. — flavus, With. — bovinus, Fr. — tenuipes, Cke. — bad i us, Fr. — piperatus, Bull. — chrysenteron, Fr. — subtomentosus, Linn. var. radicatus, Qucl. — rubinus, Sm. — versicolor, Rostk. — parasiticus, Fr. — calopus, Fr. — pachypus, Fr. Boletus candicans, Fr. — edulis. Bull. — impolitus, Fr. — aestivalis, Fr. — satanas, Fr. — luridus, Fr. — purpureus, Fr. — eyrthropus, Fr. — laricinus, Fr. — versipellis, Fr. — duriusculus, Schulz. — scaber, Fr. — felleus, Bull. Fistulina hepatica, Fr. Polyporus Schweinitzii, Fr. — rufescens, Fr. — squamosus, Huds. — picipes, Fr. — varius, Fr. — elegans, Fr. — um be Hat us, Fr. — intybaceus, Fr. — giganteus, Fr. — sulphureus, Fr. — imbricatus, Fr. — cxsius, Fr. — chioncus, Fr. — adust us, Fr. — adiposus, B. — cuticularis, Fr. — hispidus, Fr. — dryadeus, Fr. — betulinus, Fr. — fulvus, Fr. — salignus, Fr. Fomes lucidus, Fr. — applanatus, Fr. — fomentarius, Fr. — igniarius, Fr. — roseus, Fr. — annosus, Fr. — fraxineus, Fr. Polystictus perennes, Linn. — radiatus, Fr. — fibula, Fries — versicolor, Fr. Poria vaporaria, Fr. — medula-panis, Fr. — vulgaris, Fr. Trametes gibbosa, Fr. — mollis, Somm. Dzdalea quercina, P. — confragosa, Fr. — unicolor, Fr. Merulius tremellosus, Fr. — corium, Fr. Hydnum repandum, Fr. — zonatum, Fr. — erinaceum, Fr. — cirrhatum, Fr. A HISTORY OF ESSEX Hydnum diversidens, Fr. — ferruginosum, Fr. Sistotrema confluens, Fr. Radulum quercinum, Fr. — fagineum, Fr. Grandinia granulosa, Fr. Craterellus cornucopioides, Fr. — crispus, Fr. Thelephora multizonata, Berk. & Br. — caryophyllea, Fr. — anthocephala, Fr. — clavularis, Fr. — palmata, Fr. — laciniata, P. — cristata, Fr. — Crustacea, Fr. Stereum purpureum, Fr. — hirsutum, Fr. — spadiceum, Fr. — sanguinolentum, Fr. — rugosum, Fr. Hymenochoete rubiginosa, Fr. — tabacina, Fr. Peniophora quercina, Cke. — incarnata, Fr. Corticium laeve, Fr. — serum, Fr. — comedens, Fr. — sebaceum, Fr. Coniophora puteana, Fr. — olivacea, Fr. — cellare, Pers. Phlebia radiata, Fr. — merismoides, Fr. Auricularia mesenterica, Fr. Cyphella Curreyi, Berk. & Br. — villosa, Pers. Clavaria amethystina, Fr. — fastigiata, Fr. — coralloides, Fr. — cinerea, Fr. — cristata, Fr. — rugosa, Fr. — aurea, Schaeff. — grisea, Pers. — fusiformis, Sow. — inaequalis, Fr. — fragilis, Holms. — vermicularis, Scop. — pistillaris, Linn. — contorta, Holms. Calocera viscosa, Fr. — cornea, Fr. Typhula phacorhiza, Fr. Pistillaria quisquiliaris, Fr. Tremella foliacea, Pers. — mesenterica, Retz. — albida, Huds. Exidia glandulosa, Fr. Dacryomyces deliquescens, Duby. 66 Dacryomyces stillatus, Nees — chrysocoma, Bull. Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch. — saccatum, Vahl. Didymium physarioides, Fr. Arcyria punicea, Pers. Cyathus striatus, Hoffm. — vernicosus, DC. Phoma radula, Berk. & Br. — depressum, Berk. & Br. Leptothyrium Ribis, Lib. — Juglandis, Lib. Dothiora sphaeroides, Fr. Piggottia astroidea, Berk. & Br. Discclla carbonacea, Berk. & Br. Torula ovalispora, Berk. — pulvillus, Berk. & Br. — pulveracea, Corda Sporidesmium pyriforme, Corda Sterigmatocystis dubia, Sacc. Phragmidium mucronatum, Link. — bulbosum, Sch. — gracile, Grev. — Fragariastri, DC. — Potentillae, Schrcet. Triphragmium Ulmarias, Link. Puccinia Graminis, Pers. — arundinacea, Hedw. — striola, Link. — coronata, Corda — Polygonorum, Link. — bupleuri, DC. — Menthae, Pers. — Vincae, Berk. — sparsa, Cooke — Compositarum, Sch. — syngenesiarum, Link. — Malvacearum, Corda — discoidearum, Link. — glomerata, Grev. — albescens, Plowr. — Tragopogi, Wint. — umbelliferarum, DC. — Apii, Corda — Anemones, Pers. — Violarum, Link. — Lychnidearum, Link. — Epilobii, DC. — Prunorum, Link. — Circaeae, Pers. — pulverulenta, Grev. — Hydrocotyles, Cke. — acuminata, Fckl. — Centaufeae, DC. — Lapsanae, Fckl. — obtegens, Tul. — amphibii, Fckl. — Xrailii, Plow. — Primulae, Wint. — Variabilis, Grev. BOTANY Puccinia Caricis, Schum. Tilletia caries, Tul. — striae formis, Schroet. Ustilago carbo, Tul. — longissima, Tul. — hypodytes, Fr. — Salveii, B. & Br. — utriculosa, Tul. — receptaculorum, Fr. — antherarum, Fr. Uromyces Fabz, Pcrs. — Betz, Wint. — apiculosa, Lev. — Ficariz, Wint. — Geranii, Wint. — Trifolii, DC. — Valerianz, Schum. — avicularae, DC. — Rumicum, Lev. — Scillarum, Grev. — Poz, Raben. Coleosporium Tussilaginis, Lev. — Campanulas, Lev. — Senecionis, Lev. — Rhinanthaccarum, Lev. Schinzia Alni, Woron. Gymnosporangium Sabinz, Wint. — clavariz forme, Wint. Mclampsora Populina, Lev. — Salicina, Lev. — Euphorbiz, Cast. — Tremulz, Tul. Cystopus candidus, Lev. — cuhicus, Str. CEdocephalum fimetarium, Sacc. Tubercularia granulata, Pers. Fusidium griscum, Link. Helminthosporium Tiliz, Fr. Macrosporium Sarcinula, Berk. — Cheiranthi, Fr. — Brassicz, Berk. — concinnum, Berk. Cladosporium dendriticum, Wallr. — epiphyllum, Nees Peronospora infestans, Mont. — pangliformis, Berk. — Urticz, Casp. — Schliedeniana, De Bany. Polyactis vulgaris, Link. — fascicularis, Corda Oidium concentricum, Berk. & Br. — Erysiphoides, Berk. Pilobolus crystallinus, Pers. Sphzrotheca Castagnei, Lev. Uncinula adunca, Lev. — bicornis, Lev. Phyllactinia guttata, Lev. Podosphzria Kunzei, Lev. — clandestina, Lev. Microsphzria Grossulariz, Lev. — Mougeotii, Lev. — penicillata, Lev. — Martii, Link. — Montagnei, Lev. — Tortilis, Link. — communis, Schl. Erysiphe lamprocarpa, Lev. — Martii, Link. — Montagnei, Lev. — tortilis, Link. — communis, Schl. Peziza salmonicolor, Br. — aurantia, Fr. — coccinea, Jacq. — domestica, Sow. Lachnea crucipila, Cooke Mollisia cinerea, Karst. Helotiun virgultorum, Fr. Orbilia xanthostigma, Pers. Ascobolus furfuraceus, Pers. — venosus, Berk. — glaber, Fr. Rhyparobius sexdecemsporus, Crouan Ascophanus granuliformis, Bornet Patellaria lignyota, Fr. Claviceps purpurea, Tul. Rhytisma acerinum, Pers. Hysterium angustatum, A. & S. Epichloe typhina, Berk. Polystigma rubrum, Pers. Dothidea Ulmi, Fr. — trifolii, Fr. Diatrype quercina, Tul. — verruczformis, Fr. Massaria Curreyi, Tul. Sphzria apotheciorum, Mass. Sordaria decipiens, Wint. — coprophila, De Not — curvula, Fr. Sporormia intermedia, De Not — minima, Anersw. Delitschia insignis, Mouton Gymnoascus Recsii, Baran. ZOOLOGY MARINE ZOOLOGY DURING the summer months for the last twenty years I have lived on board my yacht the Glimpse more or less in Essex waters, and have devoted much of my time to the study of the marine animals, either by dredging or collecting on shore. I have also done much from the deck of the yacht, which has enabled me to obtain various specimens floating in the tide. Having thus had a somewhat unusual experience, I venture to do the best I can for my subject, although I feel that it is very incomplete, and that a great deal remains to be learned both as to specific identity and local distribution. If in years gone by I had known that it would have been my lot to write an essay on the marine invertebrata of the coast of Essex I should have collected the necessary material and studied several groups of animals which I have almost entirely neglected. My aim has chiefly been to find out how to kill certain animals in a fully expanded condition, and permanently to preserve them with their natural colours, either as transparent lantern slides, mounted in Canada balsam, or kept in glass vessels in undiluted glycerine. Animals not suited for these purposes have been almost entirely neglected, and I have directed far more attention to experiments with species easily procured than to making a complete and accurately named collection of those living on the coast. Though I have a large amount of the above-named preparations, show- ing the general character of the animals extremely well, they are some- times not suitable for specific identification, since they cannot be turned about or dissected, and the characteristic structure may be lost or hidden. In connection with the distribution of the animals along the coast it must be borne in mind that living on the yacht has led to the special study of places where the anchorage was secure and where we could obtain what is necessary, and to the neglect of other localities open to objection from a yachtsman's point of view. Since my collecting has thus been done from the side of the water the rarity or abundance of particular species may probably appear different to what it would be to any one collecting from the shore. There are also great changes from 69 A HISTORY OF ESSEX year to year, so that what was common at one time may be rare at another, and particular species may have ceased to occur in one locality and have established themselves in another. In addition to the animals I have collected myself I give the Hydroids, Polyzoa, etc., collected near Harwich by Mr. S. P. Hope, lent to me by Mr. William Cole, and identified by Mr. Walter Garstang ; and those of various groups collected near Brightlingsea by Mr. H. W. Unthank, as described in his paper, ' Natural History Work at Brightling- sea,' published in the ^Journal of the Essex Technical Laboratories, No. 19, April, 1896, pp. 206—10. These additions are more especially valuable because they give a number of species in groups of animals to which I have paid little attention. I also give a very complete and well- arranged list of the Mollusca drawn up by Mr. William Cole. In concluding this introduction I must express my best thanks to a number of friends who have assisted me in identifying the various species. These belong to so many groups, and my time has been so much taken up with other matters, that I did not feel confident in my own determina- tion. My thanks are especially due to Mr. Walter Garstang, who has examined and named many of the sponges, Ccelenterata, Nemertians, Chsetopoda and Polyzoa. Professor Herdman has assisted me in naming the Ascidians and Nudibranchs. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing has examined some of my crustaceans ; and my Sheffield friends, Professor Denny, Mr. Arnold T. Watson and Mr. E. Howarth, have assisted me over sundry animals. I hope therefore that on the whole the names are correct, but fear that some may not be, owing to the want of suitable specimens collected and preserved for this special purpose. The diffi- culties are also apparently increased by the probable existence of varieties differing from the recognized types, owing to local conditions and other causes. In several cases species which at one time were extremely com- mon and in some respects have been well preserved could not lately be procured for exact specific identification. I may also here say that in the Essex district some of the animals are abnormally small, as if dwarfed by unfavourable conditions. In some cases also only single specimens have been found, and it is uncertain whether they are full-grown animals. On the whole there are ten or a dozen doubtful identifica- tions. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE COAST Before describing the various animals it seems to me desirable to give a short account of the chief characters of the coast, along the whole of which I have passed more or less frequently, since they must have such a great influence on the kind of animals found along it. My knowledge of the Thames is chiefly confined to the vicinity of Erith and Greenhithe, at both which places I lived on the yacht for some weeks in 1882. Though the free-swimming animals and plants are of much interest, the district cannot be looked upon as marine ; and I do not know exactly how far the influence of fresh water extends, 70 MARINE ZOOLOGY which must vary much with the season. Passing down the river to beyond Shoeburyness there is the large flat tract of the Maplin Sands, in some parts 3! miles wide at low water. I have examined this imperfectly off Havengore and at the east end of Foulness. In the Swin, off the Maplin Sands, the water is deeper than anywhere else along the coast of Essex, but yet its maximum depth is only 1 3 fathoms, maintained by the strong tidal currents. Passing westwards along the northern side of Foulness we have the estuaries of the Crouch and Roche, as well as sundry channels and creeks, all having muddy shores, but no extensive flat tracts left dry at low water. In these estuaries and creeks oyster culture is of such importance that hundreds of men are employed, and some of the river beds are worth one hundred times as much as the adjoining meadow land. I am best acquainted with the Crouch, having remained in it off Burnham many times for weeks. When there in summer I have found the low water more salt than the high water, which is an unusual thing in an estuary ; and the water at Battle Bridge, 12 miles from the mouth, more salt than the North Sea, no doubt owing to small rainfall and great evaporation. North of Foulness to the estuary of the Blackwater is a sandy tract left dry at low water for a width of a mile, which I have never examined for marine animals. In the estuary of the Blackwater, often called ' Pont,' I have examined the shores near Bradwell, and have dredged off an island called Osea. Between the Blackwater and the Colne are sundry creeks near West Mersea, and a tract of more or less sandy mud, left dry at low water for a width of ^ mile, the east end of which I have examined to some extent. I have lived in the estuary of the Colne for weeks at a time almost every year for more than twenty years, and have examined the shores and creeks in every direction, and dredged and trawled in the open water off Mersea. On the east side of the Colne, both above and below Brightlingsea, there is good ground for collecting at low water from a boat or in long waterproof boots. Between the Colne and Walton-on- Naze is a long extent of coast with narrow sands, which I have never examined. The open water off this, in the Wallet, is seldom more than 6 fathoms deep, which is no more than in some of the estuaries. On one occasion I dredged in this near the Gunfleet Bank, but in many places the ground is too full of large stones for dredging purposes. The creeks on the east side of Walton-on-Naze are very good collecting ground. In 1889 I remained some time in what is marked on the charts as ' Walton Channel,' but I know nothing of its present condition, since the sewage discharge from Walton was so objectionable that I have not gone there again. But for this it would be the best place on the coast for collecting, since there is no oyster culture and no disturbance by steamboats. East of the Naze is a tract of coast which I have never examined, except near Harwich. Both outside and inside the harbour is or was excellent collecting ground in fine calm weather, but when it is windy little or nothing can be done. Passing up the Stour are vast tracts of mud, covered with Zostera marina, which are left dry at low A HISTORY OF ESSEX water in some places for a mile in width ; but my more intimate know- ledge of the upper part is confined to near Mistley, where I have often collected and dredged, though it is too far up to be satisfactory. It will thus be seen that though I have fairly well studied some districts there are large tracts which I have never examined, on account of being too far from any convenient anchorage. It must also be borne in mind that my account of the marine invertebrata of Essex has been made much less complete than it would have been owing to difficulties connected with the oyster fisheries. One cannot dredge in some most suitable and convenient places, and in some cannot even use a small light trawl. In some no one is, or was, allowed to collect on the shore at low water, or to dredge even where there are no oysters. If special facilities had not been conceded to me this article could not have been written. The total length of the coast, including the chief estuaries and creeks, is considerably over 200 miles, and it would take a long time to examine properly the whole. Some of the animals found are so rare and so local that possibly many more species occur than I have been able to collect, though there may not be so much variation along the exposed coasts as in the estuaries. These play a most important part, since the total length of their shores is fully three times that of the more open coast. In summer the water is not much less salt than in the sea, and in some special cases even more salt. The extremes of temperature are also great, since there is relatively such a large extent of very shallow water and of mud banks left dry when the tide is low. In summer in the Orwell I have known it as high as 74°, and in winter some of the estuaries are occasionally filled with masses of ice. The conditions are therefore very unsuitable for certain kinds of animals, and they probably explain why some common species are of smaller size than elsewhere. At the same time there is a tendency for the colder water to sink and pass out to sea, and for the warmer to remain in the estuaries and creeks, and therefore in the long run for these to have a higher temperature than the more open water. This is probably one great reason why some parts of the Essex district are so admirably fitted for oyster culture, since the proper development of spat depends so much on a sufficiently high temperature. Along the coast of Essex there are thus no quiet deep water, and no rocks, and no clear rock-pools, but strong currents and great stretches of gravel, sand and mud ; so that the animals found are necessarily of a restricted character. At the same time these circumstances seem favour- able for certain kinds, and some are common which may be very rare in other districts. The coast of Essex is thus peculiar, and estuarine conditions must have great influence as compared with the coast of Norfolk. The following table shows the number of species of such groups of animals as seem to have attracted a fair amount of attention in both counties. Those of Norfolk are taken from a proof of a portion of the Victoria History lent to me by Mr. Walter Garstang. This did not include the 72 MARINE ZOOLOGY Crustacea or the Mollusca. Those of Essex are from my own list, including those collected by Mr. Hope and Mr. Unthank : — In Essex In both Essex and Norfolk In Norfolk Hydrozoa 17 1-7 2Q Actinia I 2 I i 2 Medusae 6 2 2 Echinoderms 7 7 / 2 I 2 Chztopoda 28 21 Polyzoa 22 c 14 Simple Ascidians .... 9 97 2 39 5 86 It will thus be seen that there is a remarkable difference, and that whilst fifty-eight species found in Essex are not found in Norfolk, and forty-seven in Norfolk not in Essex, there are only thirty-nine common to both. These results are no doubt in part due to imperfect collecting, but yet, I think, still more to the materially different characters of the coasts. MARINE AND FRESHWATER PLANKTON During the years 1882 to 1889, from the early part of May to the middle of September, I carried out continuous observations of the num- ber of small free-swimming animals per gallon of water. The method adopted was to collect the water near the surface, half way down and near the bottom, in a bottle sunk empty, and filled by pulling out the cork. Usually 2\ gallons were collected, and passed through a fine sieve, not allowing any animal larger than ^ of an inch in diameter to pass. The material so separated was then washed out by pouring a few ounces of sea water on the back of the sieve, care being taken that none of the animals should be killed by drying. I had a glass trough 3 inches deep, i inch broad, and | inch from front to back, into which the water containing the animals was poured, and the number of the various kinds counted, the process being repeated until the whole had been examined. The different sorts could in general be easily dis- tinguished by their different form or manner of swimming. It would be out of place to go into detail, but it seems desirable to give some of the general results which, though never printed, were repeatedly described by me in public lectures at a time when this subject had attracted little or no attention. In the following tables I give the number of the animals per 10 gallons of water, but omit those which on an average do not amount to one in that quantity. These were determined from my first three years' observations, and might be somewhat modified by the later, which have not yet been adequately discussed. As might be expected larval forms play a very important part. 73 10 A HISTORY OF ESSEX TABLE I Excess of density per 1000 . i-i 8-8 12-9 18-8 22-0 24-5 25-3 26-0 26-5 Larval fish j | Larval Ascidians . Appendicularia . Copepoda 21 171 I J.I 2 124. I 7 86 I 14 108 IO i 204 2 2 IOC 8 QQ Larval Copepoda . Cladocera 3 8 348 2OO 124 39 54 355 28 77 28 Ostracoda iq i I Larval Balani .... Larval Chjetopoda Rotifera I A. i I 18 4 17 149 45 A.Q 83 89 87 '7 43 06 43 33 20 i 8 8 Cyphonautes, etc. . Small Medusae .... Noctiluca IO 1 / 29 vy 2 I 880 "/ i 5012 7W I 26 5 i 612 7 383 Totals in 10 gallons . 65 521 1624 316 1259 5397 753 852 543 TABLE II Surface 4 feet Bottom High Low Ascidians IO 2 4. 7 •3 Copepoda 78 26 I A.O e-j A.1 Larval Copepoda /•* 172 8<5 Q4. jj 2Q TO 118 Larval Balani 28 IO 9 22 66 Larval Chaetopoda Rotifera '3 58 15 I "JO 28 84 8 3 H 1 02 Noctiluca 24.O 7OI 24.2 672 /" "/— Totals eon q6q 601 77o 1018 TABLE III Totals in 10 gallons ( Clear rivers IO „ , I Heybridge canal 50 Freshwater \ ,-, , -t , • j i- • Heybndge basin and ditches 270 \. Weedy stagnant ponds I73° Mean for sea water including the estuaries . . 2060 One great object I had in view was to trace the changes in passing from freshwater conditions down to the sea. The density of the water was therefore determined by observing the excess in weight of the measure of 1,000 grains of fresh water, which is given in the upper line of Table I. In preparing this table I made no distinction between Essex, Suffolk or Kent ; and the results are derived from observations made in the Crouch, Roche, Blackwater, Colne, Stour, Orwell, Aide, Bentley and Medway. As will be seen from Table I. there is a most striking difference in the character and number of the different animals as we proceed from freshwater conditions to the open sea, but there are very few kinds more numerous in this than where the water is less salt. On the whole there are most in the somewhat sheltered estuaries, where the 74 MARINE ZOOLOGY excess of density is about 23 or 24. This fact is of much interest in connection with the culture of oysters, which is such an impor- tant industry in Essex, since it is in such localities that they are laid down to fatten ; and although they probably do not feed on some of the animals included in the table, it seems almost certain that there is a corresponding excess of the more minute animals and plants on which they do feed. The relatively great number of larval Balani and Ascidians is also to be noticed, and agrees with the fact that the bottoms of vessels become so much covered with them when lying long in such water. It will also be seen that there is a well marked secondary maximum where the excess of density is about I2|, due almost entirely to the great development of Copepoda. Table II. shows the distribution of some of the minute animals from the top to the bottom, and also according to the state of the tide. Table III. shows what a remarkable increase occurs in the number of free-swimming animals as we proceed from clear running rivers to more stagnant water, in which they have time to multiply. This fact was confirmed in a striking manner by my observations in the rivers and broads of Norfolk. As will be seen, the mean number in the sheltered estuaries and the more open water just outside them is comparable to that in the stagnant freshwater ponds, probably because it also is not so changed, by the introduction of plankton-free water, as to prevent the accumulation of the animals. THAMES In August and September of 1882 I lived at anchor for about six weeks at Greenhithe and Erith, carrying out researches for the Board of Works in connection with the main drainage of London. For this purpose it seemed important to study the Entomostraca and the free- swimming organisms, since the combination of various facts indicated that minute animals and plants played a very, important part in removing sewage from the river. Though the Thames in the district studied cannot be looked upon as sea water, yet it forms such a long stretch of coast in Essex that it seems desirable to describe some of the observed facts, it being of course understood that they relate only to a particular season of the year. The extraordinary strength of the tidal currents, and the great amount of mud held in suspension, make this river very unlike any other in Essex. Table IV. shows the mean number of Entomostraca and larval shrimps in 10 gallons of water, combining half flood with high water and half ebb with low water, and shows well the variation in the num- bers of these animals which are more especially characteristic of fresh water and salt water, the extreme variations being at Erith combined half ebb and low, and at Greenhithe combined half flood and high. One effect of this great and constant change in the character of the water 75 A HISTORY OF ESSEX is that few kinds of animals can establish themselves permanently, which is very unlike what occurs in other tidal estuaries in the county. TABLE IV Half flood and high Half ebb and low At Er'ith— 1-4. 14*0 •4 O At Greenhitbe — 2"? 5'4 1-8 1-2 Mean of all per 10 gallons 6-6 I. PROTOZOA Noctiluca mlliaris. This varies greatly in numbers at different places and in different seasons. Sometimes there are few, but on one occasion I found that the average number in the water of Harwich harbour, from the surface to the bottom, was about 4,000 per gallon. II. PORIFERA (Sponges) The best locality in the county seems to be the creeks east of Walton-on-Naze. The following species have been identified, but probably others occur, which have been ob- tained in the Orwell. I. CALCAREA 1. Leucosolenia lacunosa, Johnston. Dredged in the Wallet by Mr. H. W. Unthank. 2. Leucosolenia botryoides, Ellis & Sol. Pin Mill on the Orwell ; also dredged in the Wallet by Mr. Unthank. 3. Sycon coronatum, Ellis & Sol. In the creek east of Walton-on-Naze and in the Colne. Mr. Unthank records it from the Wallet. 4. Sycon compressum, Auctt. The only place in the county where I have found this species is in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze. II. SILICEA I. Cbalina oculata, Pallas. Possibly all my preserved specimens have been collected just outside Essex, but it is almost certain that it occurs at Harwich and Walton. 2. Halichtmdria panicea, Pallas. This occurs in the Colne, but not abund- antly, and I think I have seen it near Harwich and at Walton. 3. Isodictya fucorum (Bowerbank). Dredged in the Wallet by Mr. Unthank. 4. Isodictya palmata ? (Bowerbank). Dredged in the Wallet by Mr. Unthank. 5. C liana celata (Grant). This sponge does some injury to the oysters. My friend, the late Mr. Fred. Wiseman, told me he had found that by keeping the shells dry for a time the sponges could be killed, and the oysters restored to a healthy state. I have found several other species not yet identified, and probably many more occur, since some seem to be very local, and not to be met with every year. III. CCELENTERATA (Jellyfish, Sea Anemones, etc.} I. HYDROZOA i. HYDROID ZOOPHYTES I have never made any effort to collect the more minute species, and the list would have been much more incomplete than it is if Mr. Wm. Cole had not lent me a collection made by Mr. Hope near Harwich, the species of which are distinguished by his name. They have been identified by Mr. Walter Garstang. 1. Coryne vaginata, Hincks. Taken by Mr. S. P. Hope in Essex waters near Harwich in June and July. 2. Syncoryne eximia. Off Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank). 76 MARINE ZOOLOGY 3. Tubularia larynxy Ellis & Sol. My specimens have usually been obtained from the bottom of my yacht, and dead ones are so often seen in such situations that the species must be common all along the coast. Small groups are also occasionally dredged off Mersea. It is interesting to note that the original description of this species (1755) was probably based on Essex specimens, since Ellis refers to the abundance of the ' windpipe coralline ' ' near the mouth of the Thames, adhering to other marine bodies, and often to the bottoms of ships.' 4. Tubularia indivisa. Mr. Unthank gives this as found off Brightlingsea. Unfortunately in 1901 I was unable to obtain any specimens in order to be sure that I had found this species as well as T. larynx. 5. Eudendrium ramosum. Off Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank). 6. Okelia gelatinosa (Pallas). Several fine specimens in my collection from the Orwell, and there can be little doubt as to its occurrence in Essex waters. 7. Clytia jahnstoni (Alder). Off Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank). 8. Haledum halednum, Linn. The specimens collected were probably dredged off Mersea. 9. Sertularella po/yzoniai (Linn.). Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich. 0 O. Sertularia putni/a, Linn. Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich at all seasons. The specimens show considerable variation in the thickness of the stems and attenuation of the internodes, some having all the characters of HassaU's species gracilis, which Mr. Hope thinks should probably be regarded as a variety of pumila. 1 1. Sertularia operculata, Linn. Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich. 12. Sertularia abietina, Linn. Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich. 13. Sertularia argentea, Ellis & Sol. Near Harwich (S. P. Hope). 14. Hytlrallmania falcata (Linn.). Near Harwich (S. P. Hope), and often dredged off Mersea and in other localities of Essex. 15. Antennularia antennina (Linn.). Near Harwich (S. P. Hope), and dredged in various other localities. 1 6. Plumularia setacea (Ellis). Specimens bearing gonophores from the Orwell, and probably occurs also in the neighbouring estuaries of Essex. 17. Plumularia echinulata, Lamarck. This appears to be a common species in Essex waters. Specimens taken near Harwich by Mr. Hope in June and October bear gonophores, and are attached to pieces of filamentous weeds and Zostera. 2. MEDUSJE The smaller medusae (Hydromedusar) are produced by lateral budding from various Hydroid stocks, e.g. Syncoryne, Obelia. The larger medusae (Discomedusae) do not always exhibit a similar alternation of stages in their life history, but Aurella and Chrysaora are known to be produced by a remarkable process of successive fission from minute Hydra-like polyps which form extensive colonies on old oyster shells and similar objects. A. Hydromeduste 1. Phia/idium, sp. var. Caught in a tow-net in the Wallet, but not well preserved. Probably many other species could be obtained if carefully looked for. B. Discomeduste 2. Chrysaora isosceles (Linn.). I have collected this in the Crouch at Burnham and in the Stour at Mistley, but more off Harwich than elsewhere, though I have never seen many. The colour seems to vary a good deal in different years, the upper surface being sometimes beautifully striped with brown, and sometimes scarcely marked at all. In 1899 I saw off Felixstowe one estimated to have a disk a foot in diameter and the appendages five or six feet long, but such are extremely rare. 3. Cyanea capillata (Linn.). This species occurs in nearly all localities, but is seldom or never very abundant. It grows to be more than a foot in diameter, and the tentacles are some few yards in length when fully extended. The usual colour is a creamy white, varying to a sort of orange colour. In 1901 I caught a specimen which seemed to differ from the above in having much shorter tentacles, but it was accidently destroyed before having been 77 A HISTORY OF ESSEX sufficiently examined to decide whether it was a different species or only a variety. 4. Cyanea lamarckii. In July, 1888, this was very abundant in the Aide at Shingle Street, and I think I have seen it, or an unusually blue C. capillata, in the Stour or Colne, but so many years ago that I am not certain, and the specimens were not caught and examined carefully. In any case it seems to occur only now and then. 5. Cyanea imporcata, A. M. Norman. On July 26, 1884, I caught in the Colne off Mersea a medusa of a beautiful purple- blue colour. At that time I was studying the spectra of the colouring matters of marine animals, and after making a careful drawing I destroyed the specimen in studying the pigment, not knowing that it was such a rare species. In the seventeen subsequent years I have looked in vain for another specimen. On sending my drawing to Mr. Garstang, he recognised it as a Cyaneid medusa, on account of the sixteen radial gastric pouches indicated in my figure, the deep and much folded oral membranes, the absence of marginal tentacles and the presence of eight crescentic groups of tentacles attached to the under side of the disk at some distance from the edge. The tentacles are seen to be of various lengths, but many exceed twice the length of the oral appendages. The medusa, on the other hand, differs from the common Cyanete of our coasts in the cup-shaped disk, the diameter of which is less than twice the height. In this re- spect the medusa closely resembles the Cyanea imporcata of Norman (Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, 1865, i. 58— 60, pi. xi.), of which only a single specimen has hitherto been recorded, and that also in the North Sea, between the Dogger Bank and Newcastle. Mr. Garstang believes the two to belong to the same species, although my specimen was probably devoid of the super- ficial markings on the disk which Norman figured, and which he tentatively but errone- ously described as radiating and secondary canals. Possibly the species inhabits the deeper waters to the north of our islands, from which region stray specimens have drifted from time to time down our east coast. Further information is much to be desired to clear up several doubts connected with this species, which is evidently very rare in the English seas. 6. Aurelia aurita (Linn.) Though there seems to be a great variation in number in different years, yet on the whole this is by far the most common medusa on the coast. Occasionally it is extremely abundant. By far the larger number are under 6 inches in diameter, but those of at least double that size are sometimes numerous in the latter part of the season. I have col- lected and preserved a considerable number of abnormal varieties, differing much in the number of the different organs. 1 . Rhizostoma octopus. Linn. I have occasionally seen very fine speci- mens in the Wallet and in the Swin. I have collected many small ones in the Crouch at Burnham and one in the Colne, but none in any other of the Essex estuaries. II. CTENOPHORA Jellyfish devoid of a muscular umbrella and provided with eight vertical (meridional) rows of iridescent paddles. Pleurobrachia pileus, Modeer. Formerly common at most places, but during the last few years has become less and less abundant, and in 1900-1 comparatively scarce. The best way to preserve it is to take it out of the water by means of a sieve, and put it at once into diluted formalin. Trawled or dredged specimens are almost worthless. I have a mounted specimen which had been swallowed by another only a little larger. III. ANTHOZOA (Sea Anemones and Corals') Nomenclature : Gosse, British Sea Ane- mones and Corals (1860). 1. Alcyonium digitatum, Linn. The only locality in which I have found this is in the open water off Harwich, never having dredged it in the estuaries. Mr. Un- thank has met with it in the Wallet. 2. Actinoloba dianthus, Ellis. The white, the flesh-coloured and the brown varieties all occur abundantly in the Crouch at Burnham, attached to large stones on the south shore, and can be easily ob- tained when the tide is very low. Some years ago I found some on the oyster beacons in Pyefleet, but I have not seen any for several seasons. The white and the flesh- coloured varieties are abundant on the timber of the pier at Harwich, but are exposed only when the tide is very low. By using men- thol it may be killed and preserved in a fully expanded condition. MARINE ZOOLOGY 3. Sagartia viduata (O. F. Mailer). This is common in the Crouch at Burn- ham on the south shore, but seen only when the tide is low. It can be killed in an ex- panded state by using menthol. 4. Sagartia troglodytes. What are probably young or somewhat small individuals of this species are common in the Orwell, a short distance outside Essex. 5. Ttalia crassicornis (O. F. Mtlllcr). I have occasionally caught this in the Crouch when trawling, and it is often dredged in the more open sea. I have collected a fair number of specimens at low water on both the east and west shores of the Colne near Brightlingsea. In 1901 it was very abundant on the shore off Harwich, near the level of extreme low water. 6. Halcampa chrysanthellum (Gosse). Found in sandy gravel near the mouth of the Colne, but the colour of the disk differs somewhat from the Cornish specimens de- scribed by Gosse. Though Actinia mesembryanthemum is so common on the coast of Kent, I have never seen one in Essex. IV. NEMERTINEA 1. Lineui obscurus, Desor. The only place where I have found this is in the mud at Mistley. 2. Amphiporus lactifloreus, Johnston. I have found only one specimen, which was obtained in the Orwell a short distance out- side Essex. V. NEMATODA (?) Nectontma (?) I have never seen more than one specimen, which was caught wriggling about at the sur- face in the Stour off Harwich. It is 11$ inches long and ^ inch thick and full of eggs, and is almost certainly a fish parasite which had escaped from its host when mature. VI. ANNELIDA I. POLYCH^ETA I. Aphrodita aculeata (Linn.). This used to be fairly common in the Stour off Harwich, but lately I have not obtained it there. It is much more common in the Wallet near the Gunfleet bank. 2. Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn. This occurs commonly in most parts of the district. It is often found in the tubes of Amphitrite Johnstons. 3. Nereis diver sicoler, Mull. Very abundant in the mud banks of St. Osyth's creek and found in most other Essex estuaries, though comparatively rare in the Crouch. In some places it is much coloured by a fugitive green pigment, and in others coloured red by the great amount of hemo- globin which is comparatively absent in others. In some places almost at high water mark and up the estuaries far from the sea it is abundant to the exclusion of other similar animals. 4. Nereis cultrifera (Grube). Common in particular places in sandy mud near low water mark at the mouth of the Colne and off Harwich. 5. Nereis pt/agica, Linn. All the specimens I have procured were dredged outside Harwich harbour, where it occurred amongst the sandy tubes built by Sabellaria spinulosa. 6. Nereis dumeriliiy Aud. & M. Edw. Readily distinguished from the three other species by having very long tentacular cirri. I have always found it in tubes built amongst alga. When kept in a small aquarium it built a semi-transparent tube open at both ends and came out and ate Ulva and returned to its tube. It laid very many eggs without passing into the Hettranereis condition. What I believe was the same species passed into that condition in my larger aquarium, but they may have been males. Though I have lived in the Orwell and Stour for a total period of between one and two years I seldom if ever saw Heteronereis except in the early morning of July 1 6, 1898, when males of about 2 inches long were swimming on the sur- face in Harwich harbour in such numbers that I estimated them at something like a million. When dried and mounted in Canada balsam this species differs from all the others in turning deep brown, but this does not hap- pen in the case of the male Heteronereis. 7. Nephthys hambergii (Cuvier). Common in the more or less sandy mud exposed at low water in the Colne and near Harwich but much rarer near Burnham. It varies considerably in colour owing to the greater or less amount of hzmoglobin and of a brown pigment. 79 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 8. Nephthys cteca (Fabr.). Much larger than the above and not so common, but occurs in sandy mud at the mouth of the Colne and off Harwich. 9. Phyllodoce maculata (?) (Johnston). Only one specimen has been found, which occurred in the sandy mud at low water off Harwich. 10. Glycera capitata(l) (Oerst.). Apparently rare in the Essex district since I have found only two specimens which oc- curred in the mud of the Crouch at Burnham and corresponded with the figures given at plate xvb of the Brit. Mus. Catalogue (1865). 1 1 . Syllis armillaris (Mull.). Possibly not uncommon but easily over- looked from being so small. It is interesting from the manner in which it divides into two or more individuals. 12. Goniada maculata (?) (Grube). Only one specimen was found in the sandy mud near the mouth of the Colne. It seems to agree with the description in the Brit. Mus. Catalogue (1865). 13. Nerine foliosa (Aud. & M. Edw.). Occurs in the sandy mud near the mouth of the Colne near low water, but it is almost impossible to obtain perfect specimens. 14. Nerine cirratulus (Delle Chiaje). Common in sandy gravel near Mersea stones much above low water mark. 15. Scoloplos armiger (O. F. Muller). Occurs in considerable numbers in gravelly sand at the mouth of the Colne. 1 6. Cirratulus cirratus (Malmgren). Found in sandy mud near low water mark at the mouth of the Colne, but not common, and the specimens small. 17. Flabelligera affinis (Sars). Though all my specimens have been ob- tained in the Orwell, yet when floating as it often does in the tide it must have sometimes passed into Essex. 1 8. Notomastus latericeus (Sars). Occurs in sandy mud near the mouth of the Colne and off Harwich. 19. Arenicola marina, Linn. This is very abundant in sandy gravel near the mouth of the Colne and off Harwich, and dug extensively for bait. 20. Lanice conchi/ega, Pall. I have found this over nearly the whole district. It occurs in large numbers on the east side of the Colne below Brightlingsea near low water mark. 21. Amphitrite Johnston! (Holmgren). Common in particular places in sandy mud near the mouth of the Colne. 22. Nicolea zostericola, Orst. This used to be very common in the Orwell just outside Essex, but was not found in 1901. 23. Polycirrus aurantiacus, Grube. This is common at the mouth of the Colne in sandy gravel at about half-tide level, but only in restricted areas, where it occurs along with Phascolosoma. It seems surprising that such a long tender animal can move about in such coarse rough material. 24. Melinna cristata, Sars. Occurs in the sandy mud near the mouth of the Colne, but all the specimens found were of small size. 25. Pectinaria belgica, Pallas. I have never found this alive, but empty tubes are common off Mersea. 26. Terebe Hides strcemii. This interesting species, of which only one specimen had been found in British waters, over a hundred years ago, in Scotland, used to be fairly common in the Orwell near Pin Mill, a few miles outside Essex, but was rare in 1901. 27. Sabellaria spinulosa, Leuck. I have dredged this off Harwich and off the Colne, and it must be common in many other places in the more open water but not in the estuaries. It builds the sandy tubes locally called ross, 28. Sabella pavonina, Sav. This is more or less common over the whole district and occurs in enormous num- bers along the east side of the Colne above Brightlingsea Creek at the level of low water. Some years ago I found in that district a con- siderable number of what was either a dwarfed variety or a somewhat different species not met with lately. II. GEPHYREA I. Phascolosoma, sp. I have never found this except in one small tract of sandy gravel at about half-tide level 80 MARINE ZOOLOGY on the east shore of the Colne just below the mouth of Blake-stone Hole. This tract is kept constantly wet and soft by water oozing out, and the animals are so abundant that several are often found in each spadeful of material. A number of these have been ex- amined by Mr. A. E. Shipley, and though he cannot identify them with any named species he does not like to give them a new specific name. 2. Priapulus caudatus. This occurs in small numbers at most stations along the coast in mud banks left dry at low water. I have specimens with tails one and a half times as long as the body. Occasionally there are two tails. VII. ARTHROPODA I. COPEPODA A considerable amount of material was collected but had deteriorated too much by long keeping before being properly examined. When the material was fresh I identified the following species with more or less certainty, but probably many others occur in the dis- trict : — 1. Dactylopus titboides. 2. Dias longirtmis. 3. Harpacticus c he lifer. 4. Laophontt curticauda, 5. — longicaudata. 6. — simi/is. •J. Psrudocalanus elongatut. 8. Timor a longicornis. II. PANTOPODA (Sea Spiders) 1. Pycnogonum Httorale (StrOm.). An occasional specimen collected at most stations, but it was very abundant in the Crouch at Burnham, living amongst the ten- tacles and on the bodies of the Actinia?, and I think even inside them without apparent in- jury. 2. Nymphon rubrum (Hoda.). A few specimens found in most places, but not so fine or abundant as in the Deben in Suffolk. VIII. MOLLUSCA On the whole I have paid but little atten- tion to the shells, one reason being that they are not of much interest in connection with my special studies, and another being that it seems to me to be a poor district except for a limited number of species, the individuals of which are extremely abundant. I have often been surprised to find so very few species in dredging, and at the great number of dead shells in many places where the living animals arc rare or altogether absent. In some cases this may be due to the extra amount of fresh water at flood time now that the land is better drained, and in others to sewage discharge or to the operations connected with oyster cul- ture. The following list is given mainly to show what are the commonest species, not including those of small size. It might have been made much longer by including dead shells of species which must have lived in the district not many years ago. I mention only those found near the coast alive or very recently dead. The names adopted are those recommended by the Conchological Society. I. AMPHINEURA 1. Craspedochilui onyx (Spengl.). 2. Acantboc hitei fascicularis (Linn.). In the Colne district and probably else- where. II. LAMELLIBRANCHIA 1. Nucula nucleus (Linn.). Dredged off Essex. 2. Mytilui eJu/is, Linn. Common along the coast and largely dredged for manure. 3. Ostrea edulit, Linn. Naturally common, and its culture is the chief industry in some localities. Enormous numbers of dead shells occur where the living animals are seldom, if ever, found, which may have been exposed at the bottom for a very long period ; since, unlike some shells, they decompose very slowly. I often think that many of these dead shells are of more elongated shape than the modem living varieties. These also vary, and those who have paid much attention to the subject can recognize them as coming from particular localities, and how they have been moved from one to another. The large oysters dredged in the North Sea differ greatly from those of the Essex estuaries. The contrast between the comparatively young and well- fed Colchester and Burnham natives, and some of the very old oysters I have occa- sionally dredged from places little, if ever, disturbed is very remarkable. Instead of having large fat animals and thin shells, the animals may be relatively small, and the shell a solid, heavy mass, something like i $ inch in thickness. 8l II A HISTORY OF ESSEX The question of the food of the oysters in different localities is one of great importance, and may vary so much as to account for the difference in flavour, and why they become green in some localities and not in others, and lose that colour when moved elsewhere. This question of the food can be properly studied only on the spot, by examining the contents of the stomachs immediately after the animals have been taken out of the water in which they have lived, before the food has been digested. Large numbers of the French oysters and of the specifically distinct Portuguese and American have been laid down in particular localities. Mr. T. Newman, the manager of the Colne fishery, informs me that the Portu- guese have reproduced, though not in such a manner as to be of commercial value ; but the general temperature of the water is too low for the successful reproduction of the American or for that of the somewhat delicate French variety of our native species, which unfortunately for the same reason often fails to arrive at maturity, to the great loss of those interested in the fishery. 4. Scrobicularia plana (Da Costa). Occurs in great numbers in Pye Fleet and in some other estuaries. It is interesting to keep it alive in an aquarium at the bottom of which is a depth of 2 or 3 inches of mud, and to see how it projects its longer syphon to an extent of 5 inches and scoops up the mud, which it swallows and afterwards ejects. It may be killed with the syphons elongated by keeping it in a vessel from which all air is carefully excluded. 5. Macoma balthica (Linn.). Common in the mud of the estuaries. I have kept it alive in an aquarium with a mud bottom and bred hundreds of small ones, so that the surface of the mud seemed alive with the protruded syphons. Some grew to be \ inch in diameter in three or four months. 6. Tellina tenuis (Da Costa) and 7. Tellina fabula, Gronovius. These also occur, but are not so common as Macoma balthica. 8. Mactra stultorum, Linn. Not common but has been seen. 9. Tapes aureus (Gmelin). This may be obtained alive from the mud off Mersea when left dry at low water, being fairly abundant. 10. Cardium edule, Linn. Common in many localities. Some years ago it was very abundant in the sandy mud off Foulness, but living individuals were com- paratively rare in 1894, after the previous very severe winters. 1 1 . Mya arenaria, Linn. This is very common in most of the estu- aries, and judging from the great number of dead shells in the living position it seems to have been still more common in some locali- ties than it now is. 12. Mya truncata, Linn. Probably lives off Mersea since the shells of recently dead individuals are not uncommon. 13. Borneo Candida (Linn.). Abundant in Blakestone Hole near Bright- lingsea and in the mud above Harwich. III. GASTROPODA PROSOBRANCHIA 1. Gibbula cineraria (Linn.). Common in various places. 2. Littorina littorea (Linn.). This is so extremely abundant on the mud flats left dry at low water that it must out- number all other associated mollusca com- bined. Many men and boys are employed in collecting it for food. 3. Littorina obtusata (Linn.). Found in sundry places, but not abun- dantly. Rissoa and Zippora. These small shells are common in the estuaries, and dead ones sometimes collect in vast numbers on the shores. My specimens seem to be chiefly — 4. Rissoa inctmspicua, Alder. 5. Zippora membranacea, J. Adams. Probably others could be found by careful searching. 6. Buccinum undatum, Linn. This is more or less common all along the coast and dredged at almost every station. 7. Purpura lapillus (Linn.). This is commonly known as the 'dog whelk,' and is collected and destroyed on account of the damage it does in the oyster grounds, by killing the animals. 82 MARINE ZOOLOGY 8. Nasia reticulata (Linn.). I have found this in the Colne and I think elsewhere, but it is not abundant. IV. GASTROPODA OPISTHO- BRANCHIA 1. Acer a tullata, M tiller. This must be common in the upper part of the Stour, and I think I have collected it in the Colne. 2. Philine aperta (Linn.). Common off Mersea and met with in most other places. Nudibranchiata 1. Galvina cingu/atat var. vittata (?) Specimens dredged off the Gunflcet bank in 1895, but not preserved or identified, were as far as I can remember more like E. vittata than any other figured by Alder and Han- cock. 2. Facelina coronata, Forbes and Goodsir. Some years ago this was not uncommon at a depth of a few fathoms off Mersea but always of small size, and lately has been rare. In 1889 good specimens were common in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze. Specimens carefully dried on glass, and well soaked with gum arabic to protect them from the solvent action of the Canada balsam in which they were afterwards mounted, have kept their colour well for ten years, and are in every way satisfactory. 3. Fiona marina (Forskal). Many years ago I dredged in Harwich harbour a Nudibranch which I did not again find until 1901, when I obtained two in the Orwell, a short distance outside Essex. They seem to differ from the figures in Alder and Hancock's Ray Society's monograph only in being smaller, which is not surprising, since the two which they had found were obtained off Falmouth. 4. Acantkodoris pilota (Mailer). This is common amongst the Fuci on the banks of the Crouch at Burnham, and is also dredged off Mersea. By proper management both the form and colour may be well pre- served in undiluted glycerine. 5. Goniodoris castanea, Aid. & Han. I obtained in the Orwell a specimen of this which corresponds with the figure of the only specimen which Alder and Hancock had found, and is quite unlike any other. ///. Cephalopoda 1. Sepia offtcinafisy Linn. In 1899 I caught a number of small speci- mens off Mersea, but had never seen one before. They are rather too young for accurate determination, but probably belong to this species. 2. Sepio/a at/antica, D'Orb. Eleven years ago this was very abundant in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze, and not uncommon at all other stations, but latterly has become more and more rare. 3. Loligo media (Linn.). Some years ago this was fairly common in the Stour near Harwich, but latterly it has become more and more rare. This has been kindly identified for me by Mr. W. E. Hoyle. At my request Mr. Wm. Cole has very kindly supplied me with the following list of the marine testaceous mollusca of the Essex coast, which have come under his notice in connection with the Essex Field Club and the museum at West Ham. It will show the species which occur outside the district which I have more especially studied. A HISTORY OF ESSEX LIST OF THE MARINE MOLLUSCA No. Name • Estuaries of Orwell and Stour River Colne River Black- water River Crouch Other localities 12 15 AMPHINEURA Craspedochilus onyx (Spengl.) ( = Chiton cinereus) . Acanthochites ( = Chiton) fasci- 2,4 IO I I — 18 19 46 60 PELECYPODA Nucula nucleus (L.) .... — nitida, G. B. Sowerby . . . Anomia ephippium, L 2,4 4 2. 4. 6 IO I I I I 3 5 <5 Clacton (8) 61 62 Volsella ( = Modiolus) modiolus, L. I 5 66 69 77 Modiolaria marmorata (Forbes) . — discrepans (Leach) ( = nigra) . 4 2, 4. IO I I 5 5 IO / / 79 81 117 Pecten maximus (L.) .... Chlamys ( = Pecten) varius (L.) . 2,4 IO I 5 1 * J 142 Syndosmya ( = Scrobicularia) alba (Wood) A c 145 Scrobicularia plana (Da Costa) ( — piperita^ . A 7, IO I Foulness (8) 154 I56 I 60 Tellina tenuis (Da Costa) . Macoma (Tellina) balthica (L.) . Mactra stultorum, L 4 I I 5 Foulness (8) Foulness (8) 162 164 I78 I7Q Spisula ( = Mactra) solida (L.) — subtruncata (Da Costa) Tapes aureus (Gmelin) .... — virgineus (L.) 4 s79 I I I I 5 180 181 — pullastra (Montagu) — decussatus (L.) 2,4 A. 8,9 7 I 5 [Mount Sales •J Burnham Mar. 1 86 189 IQ2 Cardium echinatum, L. — exiguum, Gmelin .... — edule, L 4 2 A / IO 9 IO I I I 5 5 IO (8) Walton N. (8) Foulness (8) I9O Mya arenaria, L *J t 2 A. IO I e Foulness (8) 2OO — truncata, L. . 8 10 I C IO 207 2OQ Ensis ( = Solen) ensis (L.) . Solen vagina, L 8,9,10 j, 1VJ 212 Saxicava rugosa (L.) 2 Foulness (8, 9) NOTE. — The numbers in the first column correspond with those in the ' List of British Marine Mollusca and Brachiopoda' given in the Journal of Conchohgy (1901), x. 9. The numbers in columns three to seven refer to the following : 7. Dr. Sorby, Essex 'Naturalist, x. 166. 8. W. Dalton, MS. Catalogue. i. W. Crouch, Essex 'Naturalist, ii. 248. 2. W. Crouch 3. E. A. Fitch 4. W. Crouch 5. W. Crouch 6. Dr. Sorby iv. 169. v. 145-52. v. 244. vi. 81-92 v. 259. 9. Dalton Collection, Essex Museum Nat. Hist. 10. Cole „ „ „ „ „ 1 1 . Colchester „ „ „ „ „ 1 2. W. Crouch. 84 MARINE ZOOLOGY No. Name Estuaries of Orwell and Stour River Colne River Black- water River Crouch Other localities 21 C Pholas dactylus L. . . 7. IO Foulness (8 9) 216 221 222 Barnea ( = Pholas) Candida (L.) . Teredo norvegica, Spengler — navalis, L • • 4 /> * 10 9 I 3 c 227 — fiinbriata, JefF. Clacton (8) 239 265 274. Thraciafragilis,Penn.(= papyracea) SCAPHOPODA Dentalium entalis, L GASTROPODA Patella vulgata, L. .... — — I I 3 3 •*/4- 295 296 207 Gibbula ( = Trochus) majus (L.) . - tumida (Montagu) .... - cineraria (L.) 2 A. 8,9 I I fT. cinereus, •y/ 298 305 - ( = Trochus)umbilicata(Mont.) Calliostoma ( = Trochus) zizyphi- nus (L.} . IO I (Foulness (8) Walton (8, n) 324 326 327 328 77O Lacuna crassior (Montagu) . . - parva (Da Costa) ( = puteolus) - pallidula (Da Costa) . . . Littorina obtusata (L.) .... — rudis (Maton) 4 2. 4. 6 8 6 IO 6 i i 5 JJ" »> •771 „ v. tenebrosa, Mont. . . - littorea (L.) .... 2 ± IO i — Foulness (8) Foulness (8) Jj' - littoralis IO Foulness (8) 346 Zippora ( = Rissoa) membranacea, v. labiosa, Mont. ( = membra- nacea) 6 8,0 i 359 37' Paludestrina ( = Hydrobia) stagna- lis (Baster), ( = ulvse) . . . Truncatella truncata (Mont.) . — subcylindrica 4 6,8 6 8,9 i — Foulness (8) 374 38' 389 454 Crepidula (fornicata, L.) . . . Natica catena (Da Costa) . . . Velutina laevigata (Penn.) . . . Turbonilla ( = Odostomia) lactea (L.) . — 6, 10 i IO 3 5 Foulness (8) 489 495 508 5'5 518 5i9 53' 553 554 572 580 Buccinum undatum, L. Neptunea ( = Fusus) antiqua (L.). Ocinebra ( = Murex) erinacea (L.) Purpura lapillus (L.) .... Nassa reticulata (L.) .... — incrassata (Strom.) .... Bela ( = Pleurotoma) rufa (Mont.) Tornatina ( = Utriculus and Cyli- chna truncatula (Bruguiere) . — obtusata (Mont.) .... OPISTHOBRANCHIA Accra bullata, Mailer .... Philine aperta (L.) 2,4 4 4 2,4 2 A. 8, 10 10 IO 6 IO i i 3 3 3 3 Walton (8) Walton (8) Foulness (8) /C. truncata, \Foulness (8) Foulness (8) •*» T 85 MARINE ZOOLOGY No. Name Estuaries of Orwell and Stour River Colne River Black- water River Crouch Other localities f>ni NUDIBRANCHIATA 5 614 63S 636 648 658 Cratena ( = Eolis) concinna (Alder and Hancock) Facelina( = Eolis) coronata, Forbes and Goodsir — drummondi, Thomson . . . Doto coronata (Gmelin) . . . Archidoris ( = Doris) tuberculata (Cuvier) 2 — — 5 5 5 5 5 674 Acanthodoris ( = Doris) pilosa (Mall ) 4 5 700 707 710 Alexia ( = Melampus) denticulata van myosotis (Drap.) . . . CEPHALOPODA Loligo forbesi (Steenstrup) . Sepia officinalis, L 10 IO I 5 Foulness (8) Petricola pholadiformis .... [A North American species ; has been introduced recently, and is spreading both here and on the North Kent coast] ••™ ~— 12 IX. POLYZOA 1. Gemellaria loricata. Linn. Brightlingsea (H.W.U.), Harwich (G.P.H.). 2. Scrupocellaria reptans, Linn. Harwich (G.P.H.). 3. Bicellaria ciliata, Linn. Brightlingsea, Orwell. 4. Bugula plumosa, Pallas. Brightlingsea. 5. Notamia tursaria, Linn. Brightlingsea. 6. Flustra foliacea. Linn. Met with in the open water, but not common. 7. Flustra papyracea. Ell. & Sol. Harwich (G.P.H.). 8. Membranipora lacroixii, Audouin. Common on old mussel shells, etc. Orwell, Brightlingsea. The larva Cyphonantes is abundant. 9. Membranipora pilosay Linn. Brightlingsea (H.W.U.), Harwich (G.P.H.). 86 10. Membraniporella melo/antba, Busk. Dredged in the Orwell (Harmcr). 1 1 . Schizoporella linearis, Hassall. Brightlingsea. 12. Crisia eburnea, Linn. Often growing on other forms, especially Hydrallmania falcata and Flustra foliacea, Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank). 13. Alcyonidium ge/atinosum, Linn. So extremely abundant in some of the estuaries that the bottom must to a large extent be covered by it. By the local fisher- men it is called 'pipe-weed.' 14. Alcyonidium mytili, Dalzell. A whitish or yellowish incrustation on stones and shells. Brightlingsea (H.W.U.). 15. Alcyonidium birsutum, Fleming. 1 6. Flustrella bispida, Fabr. 17. Vesicularia spinosa, Linn. Common ; Brightlingsea, Orwell. 1 8. Amathia lendigera, Linn. Brightlingsea (H.W.U.), Harwich (G.P.H.). 1 9. Bowerbankia pustulosa, Solander. A HISTORY OF ESSEX 20. Anguinella palmetto, V. Ben. Common ; Dovercourt, Orwell (Harmer). 21. Valkcria uva (var. cuicuta). Harwich (G. P. Hope). 22. Pedicel Una cernua, Pallas. Brightlingsea. X. ECHINODERMATA 1. Echinus mi/iarii, Linn. This is extremely abundant in Harwich harbour, and less so in the open water off Mersea. 2. So/aster pappasus (Fabr.). Fairly common at all the places I have examined. Though some specimens are of a fine red colour, there is considerable variation, due to the varying amount of several different pigments. 3. Asterias rubens, Linn. This is common all along the coast, and dredged in large quantities for manure. 4. Ophiura ciliaris, Linn. Extremely abundant in the open water near the mouth of the Colne, and common in many other localities. 5. Ophiothrix jragilis (O. F. Mailer). This is fairly common in Harwich har- bour, though it cannot be said to be abun- dant. 6. Synapta inherent, O. F. Muller. I do not remember ever finding this in Essex, but at one time it was common in a restricted area in the Orwell, a few miles outside the county. 7. Ciuumaria, sp. (?) At one time a Holothurian, something like a Cucumaria, was fairly common in the Stour off Parkeston, but lately I have dredged for it in vain. Unfortunately all my early speci- mens seem to have been destroyed, and only the tentacles and digestive organs preserved, mounted as a lantern slide. This may be an abnormal specimen, since it shows only eight tentacles, which are of dark brown colour, and until other specimens have been found identification is impossible. 8. Thyme fisus, O. F. Mflller. Many years ago I dredged this in Harwich harbour, and lately in the Orwell, but in each case only one specimen. XI. TUNICATA (Sea-squirts) 1. Styelopsis grossulariay Van Beneden. This flesh-coloured ascidian is very common all along the coast and in the estuaries, attached to stones, shells and algae. 2. Polycarpa cantata, Alder. Small specimens occur in the Stour, and larger in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze, often so covered with attached sand as to look like a ball of hardened sand. 3. Polycarpa pomaria, Savigny. Much less common than the other species. 4. Aiddiella aspersa, O. F. Muller. 5. Ascidiella virginea, O. F. Muller. These two species occur in greater or less abundance all along the coast, and in the estuaries ; in some cases fixed objects being covered by them. 6. Ascidia plebeia, Alder. Found in the Stour near Harwich, but not common. 7. Atcidia producta, Hancock. Fairly common in some parts of the Colne, often much attached along its side to algse. 8. Clona intestinalis, Linn. Though less abundant than the above named Ascidia, this is also common all along the coast. 9. C/ave/ina lepadifirmis, O. F. Muller. This occurs in bunches of many individuals on the east bank of the Colne below Bright- lingsea and at Walton-on-Naze. Compound ascidians. — These are sometimes difficult to preserve for future identification. Much remains to be learned about their colouring matters. 10. Botryllus, spp. Specimens of this genus are common along the coast. The exact species cannot be properly identified from preserved specimens, but amongst them appear to be probably B. ichlosseri and polycyclus. The colours are various and due to a mixture of two or three different pigments. The blue one is changed into a deep red one by formalin. The yellow and flesh-coloured specimens turn to a dirty dark brown in alcohol, owing to the formation of a new pigment by oxidization ; but by careful management they may be fairly well preserved in undiluted glycerine. 1 1 . Botrylloidei rubrum, M. Edw. This is found below Brightlingsea and on A HISTORY OF ESSEX the pier at Harwich. Mounted in Canada balsam specimens show the structure well, and have retained the natural colour for a good many years. 12. Botrylloides leachii, Sav. Common in the Orwell just outside Essex, and I think I have also found it in the Stour. By proper management both the form and natural colour may be well preserved in un- diluted glycerine. 13. Polyclinum aurantium. In 1889 fine specimens were common in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze. Sections mounted in Canada balsam show the structure very well, and have retained the natural orange colour for many years without any apparent change. 14. Didemnum, 15. Leptoclinum, and 1 6. Diplosoma. Some species of these genera occur in the Orwell, just outside Essex, and probably could be found in the Stour and in the creeks near Walton-on-Naze. 17. Oikopleura, sp. Appendicularians are common in sievings of the sea water all along the coast. 88 MOLLUSCS A coastal county with numerous estuaries, marshes, streams, and many woodlands and heaths, Essex is an ideal spot from the molluscan point of view. Accordingly we find that out of a possible 139 species for the whole of the British Islands 1 10 are now living in the area while 10 more have been met with in the numerous Post-pliocene deposits, viz. Vitrea excavata, Helicella cartusiana^ Acanthinula lamellata, Pupa ang/ica, Vertigo minufissima, V. a/pesfris, V. angustior, Clausilia rolphii, Succinea oblonga and Acicula line at a. Some of these, and one or two more slugs, may yet be discovered in the county. In addition the Post-pliocene deposits have yielded the following which no longer live in this country, viz. Pyramidula ruderata^ Eulota fruticum, Paludestrina marginata, Unto littoralis and Corbicula fluminalisy with two entirely extinct forms Vivipara clacktonensis and Pisidium astartoides. The notable absentees from the list are consequently the species peculiar to the south-western portions of England. The principal sources of information are papers by Mr. W. M. Webb, A. S. Kennard and B. B. Woodward in the Essex Naturalist, vol. x. 1897. A. GASTROPODA I. PULMONATA Anon ater (Linn.) a. STYLOMMATOPHORA ' horten"s> .f*r> . . — circumscrtptuS) John. Teitactlla kaliotidea, Drap. Sisted, Widford — subfuscus (Drap.). Warley — scutulum, Sby. Buckhurst Hill ; Wanstead Punctum pygmaum (Drap.) Limax maximus, Linn. Pryamidula rupeitris (Drap.). Barking Side — flavin^ Linn. - rotundata (Mall.) — arborum, Bouch.-Chant. Saling ; Chignal ; Helicella virgata (Da C.) Weald Hall Park, Brentwood ; Ingrave — itala (Linn.) Agriolimax agrestis (Linn.) — captrata (Mont.) — LeviSj Mflll. Wanstead ; Warley ; Hal- — cantiana (Mont.) stead ; Chelmsford Hygromia fusca (Mont.). Saffron Walden Amalia sowerbii (Fer.). Barking Side ; Chelms- — granulate (Aid.) ford ; Brentwood — hispida (Linn.) Vitrina pellucida (Mall.) — rufesctns (Penn.) Vitrea crystallina (Mall.) Acanthinula aculeata (Mflll.) — alliaria (Miller) Vallonia pulthella (Mall.) — glabra (Brit. Auct.) Helicigona lapicida (Linn.) — cellaria (Mall.) — arbuitorwn (Linn.) — nitidula (Drap.) Helix aspersa, Mall. — pura (Aid.) — pomatia. Linn. Great Bardfield ; Chappel ; — radiatula (Aid.) Chalkney Wood ; Witham ; Chignal — nitida (Mall.) Smealey — fuhia (Mall.) — nemoralit, Linn. I 89 12 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Helix bortensis, Mttll. Buliminus montanus (Drap.). ' Essex ' (Brit. Mus.) — etscurus (Mall.) Cocblicopa lubrica (Mall.) Azeca tridens (Pult.) Ctectlianella acicula (Mall.) Pupa cylindracea (Da C.) — muscorum (Linn.) Sphyradium edentulum (Drap.) Vertigo anti-vertigo (Drap.) — substriata (Jeff.) — pygm*a (Drap.) — moulinsiana (Dup.). Roydon — pusilla, Mull. Bardfield (?) Balea pervena (Linn.) Clausilia laminata (Mont.) — bidentata (Strom.) Succinea putris (Linn.) — elegansy Risso. b. BASOMMATOPHORA Carychium minimum, Mall. Melampus denticulatus (Mont.). River Colne, Wyvenhoe Alexia myosotii (Drap.). Grays ; Purfleet ; Dovercourt Leuconia bidentata (Mont.). Brightlingsea ; Dovercourt Ancylus ftuviatilis, Mall. Velletia lacuitris (Linn.) Limntea auricularia (Linn.) — pereger (Mall.) — palustris (Mull.) — truncatula (Mall.) — stagnalis (Linn.) — glabra (Mall.). Woodford ; Barking Side ; Colchester Planorbis corneus (Linn.) — albus, Mull. — g/aber, Jeff. Carswell Pond ; Dagenham — nautileus (Linn.) — carinatus, Mall. — marginatus, Drap. — vortex (Linn.) — spirorbis, Mall. — contortus (Linn.) — fontanus (Lightf.) — lineatus (Walker) Physa fontinalis (Linn.) — hypnorum (Linn.) II. PROSOBRANCHIATA Paludestrina confusa (Frau.). Becton (probably now extinct) — jenkinsi (Smith). Becton ; Rainham ; Tilbury • — ventrosa (Mont.). Coldharbour Point to Tilbury ; Thurrock Marsh ; between Walton and Thorpe-le-Soken — stagnalis (Bast.). Grays ; Tilbury ; Wy- venhoe ; Colchester Bithynia tentaculata (Linn.) — leachii (Shepp.) V'mipara vivipara (Linn.) — contecta (Millett). Old River Lea ; Col- chester ; River Stour Valvata piscina/is (Mall.). — cristata, Mttll. Assiminea grayana, Leach. Grays and other spots along the Thames ; River Colne, Colchester. (Becoming extinct) Pomatias elegans (Mull.). Felstead ; Coggles- hall ; Saffron Walden ; Wicken Bon- hunt ; Belchamp Neritina flwviatilii (Linn.). B. PELECYPODA Dreissensia polymorpha (Pall.). River Lea Unto pictorum (Linn.) — tumulus, Retz. Anodonta cygneea (Linn.) Spharium rivicola (Leach). River Stort — corneum (Linn.) — male (Fir.). Woodford Spkterium lacustre (Mall.) Pisidium amnicum (Mall.) — pusillum (Gmel.) — nitidum, Jenyns. Colchester — fontinale (Drap.) — milium (Held.). Lea Marshes 90 INSECTS Entomology, though the most extensive of all the domains of natural history, would not at one time have occupied the space which is accorded to it here; but knowledge has been making rapid strides in recent years, and it is hoped that the information now given will be of value as well to the student of economic entomology as to the collector. In compiling the lists that follow, the entomologist has been at a great disadvantage as compared with some of his fellow contributors, for in several other branches of natural history admirable and exhaustive monographs have already been published, whereas as far as can be ascertained the only complete list of any of the Essex insects is Mr. Fitch's list of the butterflies, which appeared in the Essex Naturalist for March, 1891, et seq. In the same publication (iii. 123) there is a long annotated list of * The Lepidoptera of Leigh and its Neighbour- hood ' by the late Mr. Howard Vaughan, and Mr. F. G. Whittle published a similar list of the ' Lepidoptera of South-east Essex ' in Science Gossip for 1899, vol. v. n.s. Besides these sources of information there are innumerable short lists and records of individual captures scattered through the entomo- logical literature of the past century, and for many years Mr. Fitch has been making notes of these ; but as pressure of other work has pre- vented him from completing his contemplated list of the insect fauna of the county, he has very kindly placed the whole of his material at the disposal of the writer, and from this many interesting particu- lars have been obtained ; but as a general rule it has been thought preferable to rely upon the more recent observations of competent living authorities whose accuracy need not be questioned.1 If it be noticed that a very large proportion of the records are from certain limited localities, it is because these have been more assiduously and thoroughly worked than other parts of the county, and not because the species mentioned are confined to them, for nearly all would probably be found if well looked for in other places where sufficient food supplies and other favourable conditions exist. 1 For local lists and assistance in other ways the writer wishes to acknowledge the courtesy and kindness of Mr. F. C. Adams, F.E.S. ; Mr. Percy Adams ; Rev. E. N. Bloomfield, M.A., F.E.S. ; Mr. Malcolm Burr, F.Z.S., F.L.S., F.E.S. ; Mr. G. C. Champion, F.E.S. ; Mr. F. B. Jennings, F.E.S. ; Mr. W. J. Lucas, B.A., F.E.S. ; Mr. R. McLachlan, F.R.S., etc. ; Rev. F. D. Morice, M.A. ; Mr. L. B. Prout, F.E.S. ; Mr. Percy Reid, F.E.S. ; Mr. C. R. V. Perkins, B.A. ; Mr. A. Thurnall ; Mr. G. H. Verrall, F.E.S. ; Mr. W. West. 91 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Owing to the unsatisfactory condition of natural history nomencla- ture and the frequent mistakes made by early writers and observers many ancient records are of more than doubtful value, and where any such have been used the authorities for them have been given, but as a rule they have been ignored. All reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and completeness, and insufficient and unsatisfactory as some of the lists are, it is yet hoped that on the whole they will compare not unfavourably with those of other counties, and that they very fairly represent the extent of our knowledge at the present day. ORTHOPTERA Our list of British Orthoptera is a very short one, and of the few recorded as having been met with a large proportion must be regarded as casual immigrants or naturalized foreigners. In Essex little attention seems hitherto to have been paid to these insects, but those named below have been identified in the Colchester district, and doubtless several more will be found there and elsewhere in the county when they are sytematically sought for. FORFICULARIA Earwigs The Lesser Earwig (Labia minor] may occasionally be found in some numbers in manure heaps, but does not generally obtrude itself upon our notice after the manner of its larger relative. The Common Earwig (Forficula auricularia) is much too common, and is one of the most troublesome insect pests we have, as scarcely any- thing comes amiss to it in the way of food, and no place seems to be secure from its invasion. It varies considerably, especially in the length of the forceps, and formerly some of its varieties were described as distinct species. Forficula /esnei, Finot., has only recently been identified as British, though it probably existed previously as an old inhabitant under another name. It is far from common, but seems to be well distributed and may be beaten from trees and bushes and shaken out of rubbish in damp places. BLATTODEA Cockroaches FjCtobiida. Ectobia panzeri, Steph., is not uncommon in several places on our coast sands. The variety nigripes, Steph., is of much less frequent occurrence. Pbyllodromiidez. Phyllodromia germanica, L., was formerly excessively abundant in one of the principal hotels in Colchester, where it was said to have been introduced in officers' luggage. Mr. G. F. Mathew reports it as common at Dovercourt. 92 INSECTS Periplanetidee. The Common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis) is such a well-known and widely distributed household pest that few can have failed to make its acquaintance. ACRIDIODEA Grasshoppers Truxalidce. Stenobothrus rufipes, Zett., seems to be fairly well distri- buted, but has not hitherto been noticed in any great numbers. S. bicolor^ Charp., is very abundant in all directions and appears to be the commonest member of the family. 5. elegans, Charp., is considered scarce and local, but may sometimes be met with rather freely on our coast sands in August. S. parallelus, Zett., has been found and is probably common, but as it has only partially developed wings and elytra, it is likely to be passed over by the inexperienced collector as an immature form. Gomphocerus macu/afus, Thunb. A pretty little species with clubbed antenna?, much smaller than any of the above, is common in dry places. QLdipodidee. Pachytylus danicus, L. This conspicuous locust is not a native of Britain but only a casual straggler to our shores. 'Locusts' have been reported from Colchester, Epping and Southend, under the names of Gryllus or Pachytylus migratorius and P. cinerascens, but apparently they were all referable to one species, which in accordance with the law of priority is now known as P. danicus. Tettigidce. Tettix bipunctatus, L., frequently turns up unexpectedly, especially in open spaces in woods, and would probably prove a common insect if systematically sought for. LOCUSTODEA Locusts Pbaneropteridce. Leptopbyes punctatissima, Bosc., has been found near Colchester, and is probably as generally common throughout the county as it is in other parts of England. Meconemidce. Meconema varium, Fabr. This pretty green insect is generally common, especially about oak trees, from the boughs of which it may be freely beaten in the autumn. It is also frequently found in a semi-torpid state on the boles of the trees as soon as the nights become colder. Conocephalida. Xiphidium dorsale, Latr., is considered rare in this country, but may frequently be found in grassy places, especially on certain of our sea walls. As a rule it is a micropterous insect, that is, its elytra and wings are only partially developed, and it is therefore quite incapable of flight ; but in August, 1899, two examples of a form with fully developed wings and elytra were met with near Clacton-on-Sea, and one of them was disporting itself in the air somewhat after the manner of a dragonfly. No previous record of such a form is known, and these may have been examples of a rare local variety or of a new 93 A HISTORY OF ESSEX species. Others were searched for in 1 900 but only ordinary specimens were found. Locustidce. Locusta viridissima, L., is the largest of our indigenous Orthoptera, and it may appear strange to some that the creatures we have so long known as locusts should be placed with the grasshoppers, while this giant grasshopper is classed with the locusts ; but it must be remembered that those who are responsible for the present classification of the Orthoptera are not responsible for their popular English names. This conspicuous insect is sometimes brought to the entomologist as a great curiosity, but to him it is generally a very familiar object, for it is often common in his hunting grounds, though the ordinary passer-by may fail to see it. Decticidce. Tbamnotrizon dnereum, L. This large brown species is frequently found in nettles and other herbage in the autumn and in the larva stage earlier in the year ; it is very plentiful in some of the lanes about Colchester. Platycleis grisea, Fabr., is very much more local and has so far only been found on the sea coast among rest harrow. GRYLLODEA Crickets Gryllldce. The House Cricket (Gryllus domesticus] is very common in bakehouses, where it excavates extensive burrows between the brick- work near the oven and increases and multiplies prodigiously. Its shrill chirp is also a familiar sound in many an English house that has been a home for several generations, though it appears to be incompatible with new houses and the methods of the modern builder. Gryllotalpidrt. The Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpai) is very rare in the county. Two specimens have been found near Colchester, Mr. Fitch has secured two or three near Maldon, and it has also been reported from Dovercourt by Mr. G. F. Mathew, and from the Southend district. As it makes an effective illustration it is often figured in books on injurious insects, whereby an erroneous impression is apt to be conveyed, for though on the continent it really seems harmful sometimes, the British collector always considers it a good find. NEUROPTERA ODONATA Dragonflies There are some who affect to despise popular science, and who especially object to the employment of trivial names for our native animals and plants. But happily for our literature — and especially for our poetry — the popular names of many of our wild flowers, birds and insects, were definitely fixed long before the scientific pedant appeared upon the scene. And any one who has watched the larger Odonata hawking for their prey and has marked their rapid evolutions among 94 INSECTS their helpless victims, must admit that the term ' dragonflies ' came as a happy inspiration to the person who first employed it ; since in their relation to their fellow insects these powerful and voracious creatures are well calculated to produce a vivid conception of ' the dragons of the prime.' They are so well known that no description of them and their methods can be needed here. We have some forty British species, of which about three-fourths have been found in the county. Leucorrhinia dubia, Lind., is generally accounted a northern species, but has been reported by the late Mr. Henry Doubleday as occurring, though rarely, on Coopersale Common near Epping. Sympetrum strio/afum, Charp., is abundant in many places about Colchester. It has also been reported from Wanstead and Epping and probably occurs freely throughout the county. S. Jtaveolum, L., is as a rule rare, but has occurred recently at Colchester and St. Osyth, and according to Mr. Doubleday was formerly periodically common about Epping. S. sanguineum, Miill., seems to have a much more restricted range than its commoner relative S. strio/atum, with which it may frequently be found on the coast at St. Osyth and elsewhere. It has also occurred at Epping. S. scotium, Don. 'Epping, about old gravel pits ' (H. Doubleday). Libellula depressa^ L. This handsome insect is one of the earliest to appear, and is generally distributed and usually common, but also very wary and more frequently seen than captured. The variety hageni is much scarcer. L. quadrimaculata, L., appears to occur pretty regularly in many places in Britain, but is a migratory species of which large swarms are occasionally reported. Such a swarm was observed off the Essex coast in June, 1888. In June, 1900, for one day only, many specimens were seen at Wivenhoe, but most contrived to elude capture. Colchester and Epping are other localities for it, and the var. prcenubila has been met with near Clacton-on-Sea. L.fuha, Miill. Very rare, but Doubleday reports it from Ongar Park woods and a single specimen has occurred at Colchester. Cordulia cenea, L., is extremely local, the only records being Cooper- sale Common (Doubleday) and Woodford (Harcourt Bath). Gomphus vu/gatissimus, L., is also very local and is only reported by Mr. Doubleday from High Beech and elsewhere near Epping. Anax imperator, Leach, the largest European dragonfly, is now a rarity in the county, though like several others it seems to have been less uncommon in the Epping district formerly. A single specimen was captured in the High Woods at Colchester several years ago, but no others have since been seen. Erachytron pratense, Miill., is widely distributed but seldom met with ; it has occurred at Colchester, Epping and St. Osyth. Mschna mixfa, Latr., is considered a rare and local insect, but during the past two years has extended its range and appeared in larger 95 A HISTORY OF ESSEX numbers ; owing however to its cautious habits, lofty flight and extreme rapidity of movement, its capture is attended with some difficulty. It is now well distributed in the Colchester district, and as all the inland examples seem to be mature, while the majority of those found on the coast are immature, this may afford a clue to a fuller knowledge of its earlier stages than we at present possess. flL. cyanea, Miill., is by far the commonest as well as one of the handsomest and most widely distributed of its family. SE. grandis, L., though recorded only from Colchester, Epping, Wanstead, and St. Osyth, is so powerful on the wing that he would be rash who ventured to set bounds to its local distribution, and probably it is acquainted with every parish in the county. The Demoiselle Dragonflies (Calopteryx virgo and C. splendent) both occur ; the former appears in the Epping list and is not uncommon near Birch Park. The latter abounds beside ditches and streams in all directions. Lestes dryas, Kirby, is one of our rarest species. A single specimen was taken by Mr. C. R. Briggs near Leigh in 1891. L. sponsa, Hansem, occurs at Epping (Doubleday) and Wanstead (F. A. Walker), and has recently been found at St. Osyth. [i/. virens, Charp.] is doubtfully British, and its only claim to appear in our list is that Mr. Doubleday believed several specimens had been taken by himself at Epping. Platycnemis pennipes, Pall., is also recorded from Epping by Double- day, and there is a later record by Mr. C. R. Briggs. Erythromma naias, Hansem. Epping (H. Doubleday), Wanstead (F. A. Walker). Pyrrhosoma nymphula, Sulz. (minium, Charp.), is common at Colchester, Birch, Epping, and in many other localities. P. tenellum, Vill., formerly occurred at Epping, but there is no evidence of any recent captures. Ischnura pumi/io, Charp., was stated by Doubleday in 1871 to be ' rare about the red gravel pits in the Epping district.' L e/egans, Lind., is very common in the county, especially beside marsh ditches near the coast. Agrion pulchellum, Lind. 'Epping, not common ' (Doubleday). A. puella^ L., is very common everywhere. Enallagma cyathigerum, Charp., has probably been generally over- looked by Essex naturalists, as it is widely distributed elsewhere, and should occur in many places besides Epping. The other sections of the Neuroptera occurring in this country include the diminutive Psocidte, which are among the smallest British insects, the Perlidte or Stoneflies, and the Ephemeridae or Mayflies. These are known as Pseudo-Neuroptera. The curiously constructed Snake and Scorpion flies and the beautiful golden-eyed Lacewings are classed as Neuroptera Planipennia, and the Caddisflies as Trichoptera. All the species included in the following list have been found in the 96 INSECTS Colchester district, except a few recorded by Mr. J. J. King from Epping Forest. Hitherto these insects have received little attention from Essex entomologists, or many others would have been identified. PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA Psocus, Latr. — longicornis, Fabr. Colchester, Epping — nebulosus, Steph. Colchester — variegatus, Fabr. Epping — fasciatus, Fabr. Colchester Stenopsocus, Hag. — immaculutus, Steph. Epping — cruciatus, L. Colchester, Epping Czcilius, Curt. - vittatus, Dalm. Epping Peripsocus, Hag. — phaeopterus, Steph. Epping Elipsocus, Hag. — unipunctatus, Mull. Colchester, Epping — hyalinus, Steph. Epping PERLIDJE Leuctra, Steph. — geniculata, Steph. Colchester Nemoura, Latr. — variegata, Oliv. Colchester EPHEMERIDA: Ephemera, L. ,, . , Ctkh"ter Epping OSMYLID.* Osmylus, Latr. — chrysops, L. Sisyra, Burin. — fuscata, Fabr. Colchester, Loughton HEMEROBIID^E Micromus, Ram. — variegatus, Fabr. " -pagarTus,!, Hemerobius, L. — elegans, Steph. — micans, Oliv. ) - humuli, L. } — subnebulosus, Steph. — stigma, Steph. — concinnus, Steph. CHRYSOPID.* Chrysopa, Leach — flava, Scop. ) _, . , - vittata,Wesm.}C'/ Colchester, Epping TRICHOPTERA PHRYOANEID^ Phryganea, L. — grand is, L. 1 — striata, L. I Colchester — minor, Curt. J LlMNOPHILIDJE Colpotaulius, Kol. - incisus, Curt. Colchester Grammotaulius, Kol. - atomarius, Fabr. Colchester, Epping Glyphotaslius, Steph. — pellucidus, Retz. Colchester LIMNOPHILID^ (continued) Limnophilus, Leach — rhombicus, L. — marmoratus, Curt. — lunatus, Curt. \ Colchester — politus, McLach. — griscus, L. — affinis, Curt. Colchester, Epping — auricula, Curt. 1 ,, . , _ vittatus, Fab. » CMester — centralis, Curt. 1 /-, , i „,. . >, } Colchester, Epptnr — sparsus, Curt. J 97 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Colchester LIMNOPHILID^ (continued) Limnophilus fuscicornis, Ramb. Ded- ham Anabolia, Steph. — nervosa (Leach) Curt. Colchester Stenophylax, Kol. — stellatus, Curt. \ — concentricus, Zett. J Micropterna, Stein. — sequax, McLach. Colchester Halesus, Steph. — digitatus, Schrank. Colchester Chsetopteryx, Steph. — villosa, Fab. Colchester SERICOSTOMATID.S: Sericostoma, Latr. — personatum, Spence. Colchester Notidobia, Steph. — ciliaris, L. Colchester LEPTOCERID^ Molanna, Curt. LEPTOCERID^; (continued) Molanna angustata, Curt. Colchester Leptocerus, Leach — senilis, Burm. "1 — cinereus, Curt. J Mystacides, Latr. - l°ng'cornis, L. } ^^ — azurea, L. J HYDROPSYCHID^ Hydropsyche, Pict. — instabilis, Curt. \ — angustipennis, Curt. J Polycentropus, Curt. — flavo-maculatus, Pict. Colchester Cyrnus, Steph. — trimaculatus, Curt. Tinodes, Leach. — waeneri, L. R.HYACOPHIUD.ffi Agapetus, Curt. — fuscipes, Curt. Colchester Colchester HYMENOPTERA ACULEATA The order Hymenoptera is an extensive one, consisting of insects which as a rule have four membranous wings, though certain among them are wingless. In the Aculeate section, which comprises ants, sand wasps, wasps and bees, the female is provided with a sting, which, being connected with a poison bag, constitutes a formidable weapon of offence or defence. The solitary species consist of fully developed males and females only, but in the social species — ants, hive bees and humble bees — there are also undeveloped females, known, and very fittingly known, as workers, on whose labour depends the welfare of the community. In recent years, owing principally to the admirable work which has been done in them by Mr. Edward Saunders, these insects have received more attention than was accorded to them formerly, and as a conse- quence their local distribution is much more fully understood and addi- tional species are being frequently added to our list. The late Mr. Frederick Smith, author of A Catalogue of British Bees in the British Museum, occasionally collected at Southend, and more re- cently the Colchester district has been pretty well worked, though it is probable that additional species will for a long time result from further investigation, for while some are excessively local or very erratic in their appearances, others more given to wandering are constantly on the look out for suitable places in which to found fresh colonies ; and seeing that their habitations are constantly liable to adverse influences either by the dense growth of vegetation, the ravages of mankind, or other causes, the Aculeate fauna of a particular district may be materially modified in the course of a few years. Where no locality is given in the list that follows the Colchester district is to be understood, and this includes not only the neighbourhood 98 INSECTS of the town but also the sea coast between the mouth of the Colne and Walton-on-the-Naze. Among the more interesting species the Great Wood Ant (Formica rttfa) may be mentioned, for though excessively abundant in some of our larger woods, it is worthy of notice for the important part it plays in the destruction of other insects. Sometimes about the end of May the caterpillars of certain moths occur in such prodigious numbers that they completely strip the oaks and other large trees, and then descending upon the underwood speedily effect a similar clearance there. Not long ago the High Woods at Colchester were for a time so denuded of their leaves at the beginning of June that they appeared almost as bare as they had been during the previous winter, but there was one corner, which at a distance seemed to be marked off from the rest by a sharp boundary line, within which the foliage had not suffered. Closer investigation revealed the fact that the ground under the trees was covered with ants, multitudes of which were busily engaged descending the boles with caterpillars in their mouths or ascend- ing them for fresh burdens. The House Ant (Monomorium pbaraonis), a very minute species, is exceedingly troublesome in those houses in which it effects a settlement, as some Colchester householders can testify. Mr. Gervase F. Mathew also reports it as a pest in houses at Dovercourt. The rare Ponera punc- tatissima has been found in a bakehouse at Colchester ; and another ant worthy of mention is Solenopsis fugax, which lives in galleries in the walls of other ants' nests. Mr. F. Smith took this at Southend. Mutilla euro- peea is a very handsome insect, which is parasitic in the nests of humble bees ; it is always scarce, but the apterous female may sometimes be found on our coast sands, while the winged male is occasionally captured on umbelliferous flowers. Methoca ichneumonides and the scarce Pompilus unicolor are also reported from Southend by Mr. F. Smith, while P. bicolor^ P. comobrinus, P. minutulus and P. ivesmae/i, which, according to Mr. Saunders, ' are among the desiderata of most of us,' are found in the Colchester district, where also Pseudagenia carbonaria (punctum) and Agenia hircana may be occasionally met with. Tachytes unicolor has only been found on the coast, where hitherto it has apparently been confined to a patch of sand a few yards square. Ceratophorus morio is extremely rare, only three specimens having so far been met with ; and Mimesa equestris and M. dahlbomi have hitherto proved as scarce here as in other parts of the country. Gorytes campestris is an uncertain insect, and some years may be sought for to little purpose, but in 1900 it was found in larger numbers than usual on umbelliferous flowers. Hoplisus bicinctus, a very beautiful and elegant species, is apparently also local and rare, few collectors having ever met with it, but it may sometimes be found run- ning over leaves in August ; while Nysson frimacu/afus, another scarce species with a similar habit, may occasionally turn up if Hoplisus is looked for in vain. Didineis lunicornis has twice been captured at Col- chester, and the very rare Philanthus trlangulum is recorded from Snares- brook by Mr. F. Smith. Cerceris ornata in recent years seems to have 99 A HISTORY OF ESSEX been having a very good time, for while its old settlements have been considerably extended many new ones have been formed ; it provisions its nest with bees of the genus Ha/ictus, and may often be seen dragging its victims down its burrows in trodden paths in the late summer. It is a handsome insect with bright yellow markings, but in 1899 an example was captured near Donyland Heath in which the yellow was replaced by white. This is apparently a very rare if not an altogether unique form. Cerceris quadricincta has only been reported from Kent and Essex. At Colchester it seems to be mainly an urban insect, for it forms its burrows in the public streets, where, owing to alterations, two colonies have been destroyed recently ; it is very partial to mignonette flowers. Oxybelus mucronatus has occurred at Alresford, where a single specimen was found in 1900. In the extensive genus Crabro, C. tibialis, C. clampes and C. capitosus are occasionally noticed ; and the very rare C. signatus has been taken at Colchester and St. Osyth, where C. lituratus is also to be found in favour- able seasons, for it does not occur regularly. This seems to be a very local species, as it has rarely been recorded from other parts of the country. The Hornet (Ye spa crabrd) cannot be called a rarity, but is neither common or generally distributed. Probably it was much commoner formerly than it is now, as the violent antipathy which exists against it in the rustic mind leads to its speedy extirpation when it can be attacked with impunity. It may not be generally known that this powerful insect sometimes carries on its operations by night as well as by day, and occa- sionally comes freely to ' sugar ' placed on the trees to attract moths. V. norvegica is a much scarcer insect in this part of the country, but has been found at St. Osyth, and in 1893 a nest was discovered in a thick hedge at Lexden. In the genus Odynerus several good species occur, including O. crassicornis, of which only two recent British examples are known, and O. reniformis, which has only been reported from two other localities in Surrey. O. fictus, O. melanocephalus and O. gracilis are also far from common species. Among the bees Colletes succincta is worthy of notice. In other parts of the country it seems to frequent heath flowers, but with us it is exclusively a coast species, and confines itself to the flowers of maritime plants, the sea holly and starwort being especial favourites. Extensive colonies exist at several places between the Colne and Stour, and the males have a curious habit of congregating together late in the afternoon on flower heads of the marram grass, ragwort and other plants, where they form dense masses that are often conspicuous at a distance. Occa- sionally a female may be found among them, but this is exceptional. Prosopis pictipes, though* usually regarded as scarce and local, has been found rather freely on several occasions in a garden at Colchester in flowers of geranium and campanula. The red bodied genus Sphecodes is well represented, S. rubicundus, S. spinulosus, S. puncticeps and the rare 100 INSECTS S. ferruginatus being the most noteworthy species. At sallow flowers in the spring Andrena bimaculata, A. rosa var. spinigera, A. dorsata and many others are found. The scarce and local A. fasciata has occurred at Dovercourt, but only one example was seen. 'Its near relative, A.ful- -uicrus, was for many years scarce near Colchester, but recently extensive colonies have been found, and it is now quite a common insect. A. pilipes also, which was for long represented by a single specimen, has during the past two years been turning up in all directions. The beautiful A. cineraria, one of the early spring bees, is found near Walthamstow. A. hattorfiana, the finest species of the genus, has been met with at Alresford, Donyland and Lexden. As a rule only the black form is found, but one year nearly all the specimens seen were highly coloured red ones. A. cetii is another very local and extremely variable insect, though in this the red forms predominate. It is occa- sionally found at Aldham and Alresford, but more frequently at Colches- ter. It seems to be somewhat uncertain in its appearances, and may often be looked for to little purpose. A. rosce is also generally scarce in its summer form, but during the past year or two has occurred pretty freely at bramble flowers, while A. nigriceps has been far from scarce on ragwort. Of the rare A. tridentata only a single specimen has so far been found, but A. fucata and A. fufaago seem to occur regularly. A. fafwfiirwM seen in prodigious numbers in 1898, especially on the sea walls at St. Osyth, where its males were observed congregating together after the manner of Colletes succincta, their bright yellow faces rendering the masses they formed very noticeable and curious objects. The genus Nomada, which is largely parasitic on Andrena, is naturally also well represented, N. armata and N. obtusifrons being its most noteworthy species as regards rarity; but N. sexfasciata seems also to be strangely rare in north Essex, seeing that the Long-horned Bee (Eucera longicornis) to which it is attached is abundant. Only a single specimen of the parasite has been discovered, at Walton-on-the-Naze. Mr. Smith how- ever formerly found it in some numbers near Southend. The little Blue Bee (Ceratina cyanea) seems to be seldom met with in other parts of the country ; it is not infrequent on daisies in the spring and on composite flowers later in the year. The Rose-cutter Bees are well in evidence throughout the summer. Megachile maritima is principally a coast species, while M. circumcincta and M. ligniseca are found inland. The scarcer M. versicolor, which has only recently been reinstated in our list, was also met with in August, 1900. Osmia pilicornis is a rare species ; two females were captured in 1883, but others have since been sought for in vain. O. bicolor, which forms its cells in empty snail-shells, is occasionally met with at Lexden but more frequently at Aldham, where there is a fairly strong colony. The genus Stelis, which is parasitic on Osmia, is represented by 5. ater- rima and S. phceoptera, the latter being much the rarer. Melecta luctuosa, which is the ' cuckoo' of Anthophora retusa, is very rarely met with, though its 'host' from being a rarity has recently become quite 101 A HISTORY OF ESSEX common. A. furcata, which forms its cells in decaying posts, though far from common, may often be heard even before it is seen busily engaged among the flowers of Stacbys syhatica and other labiates. The velvet coated humble bees and their parasites of the genus Psitbyrus, which so closely resemble them, may be met with in all parts of the county during the warmer portion of the year ; but two species are very rare. Of Bombus lapponicus only a single specimen, which was cap- tured on a sea holly flower at St. Osyth, has been found ; it is a moun- tain species, and as far as can be ascertained no other specimen has been recorded from the south of England. B. cullumanus has only been found at Southend, where the late Mr. Frederick Smith took six examples many years ago. A LIST OF THE ACULEATE HYMENOPTERA OCCURRING IN THE COUNTY HETEROGYNA FORMICIDJE Formica, L. — rufa, L. — fiisca, Latr. — race i. cunicularia, Latr. Lasius, Fabr. — fiiliginosus, Latr. — niger, L. — race i. alienus, Forst — flavus, De Geer PONERID.* Ponera, Latr. — punctatissima, Rog. MYRMICID.S: Leptothorax, Mayr. — tuberum, Fabr. race Nylanderi, Ffirst Myrmica, Latr. — rubra, L. — race laevinodis, Nyl. — ,, ruginodis, Nyl. — „ scabrinodis, Nyl. — „ lobicornis, Nyl. Solenopsis, Westw. — fugax, Latr. Monomorium pharaonis, L. FOSSORES MUTILLID.S Mutilla, L. — europaea, L. — rufipes, Latr. Myrmosa, Latr. — melanocephala, Fabr. Methoca, Latr. — ichneumon ides, Fabr. Southend (F. Smith) TlPHIID-ffi Tiphia, Fabr. — femorata, Fabr. Colchester, Southend SAPYGID.*: Sapyga, Latr. — quinque punctata, Fabr. POMPILID^ Pompilus, Fabr. — unicolor, Spin. — bicolor, Lep. — rufipes, L. — cinctellus, Spin. — plumbeus, Fabr. — consobrinus, Dahlb. — minutulus, Dahlb. — spissus, Schiodte — chalybeatus, SchiSdte — gibbus, Fabr. — unguicularis, Thorns. — wesmaeli, Thorns. — pectinipes, V. de Lind. Salius, Fabr. — fuscus, L. — afBnis, V. de Lind. Soutbend (F. Smith) — exaltatus, Fabr. — pusillus, Schiodte. — parvulus, Dahlb. Calicurgus, Lep. — hyalinatus, Fabr. Pseudagenia, Kohl. — carbonaria, Scop. Agenia, Schiodte. — hircana, Fabr. Ceropales, Latr. — maculata, Fabr. SPHEGID^E Astatus, Latr. — boops, Schr. Tachytes, Pz. — unicolor, Pz. — pectinipes, L. 102 INSECTS SPHEGID^C (continued) Trypoxylon, Latr. — figulus, L. — claviccrum, Lep. — attenuatum, Smith Ammophila, Kirb. — sabulosa, L. - lutaria, Fabr. St. Osyth and Southmd Stigmus, Jur. — solskyi, Moraw. Pcmphredon, Latr. — lugubris, Latr. — shuckardi, Moraw. — wesmaeli, Moraw. — lethifcr, Shuck. — morio, V. dc Lind. Diodontus, Curt. — minutus, Fabr. — tristis, V. dc Lind. Passakecus, Shuck. — corniger, Shuck. — insignis, V. de Lind. — monilicornis, Dhlb. Mimesa, Shuck. — equestris, Fabr. — bicolor, Fabr. — dahlbomi, Wesm. Psen, Latr. — pallipes, Pz. Gorytes, Latr. — tumidus, Pz. — mystaceus, L. — campestris, L. Hoplisus, Lcp. — quadrifasciatus, Fabr. — bicinctus, Rossi Nysson, Latr. — spinosus, Fabr. — trimaculatus, Rossi - dimidiatus, Jur. Didineis, Wesm. — lunicornis, Fabr. Mellinus, Fabr. — arvensis, L. Philanthus, Fabr. — triangulum, Fabr. Smith) Cerceris, Latr. - ornata, Schaeff. — quadricincta, Pz. — arenaria, L. — interrupta, Pz. — labiata, Fabr. Oxybelus, Latr. — uniglumis, L. — mucronatus, Fabr. Crabro, Fabr. — tibialis, Fab. — clavipes, L. — leucostomus, L. SPHEGID.C (continued') Crabro pubescens, Shuck. — capitosus, Shuck. — podagricus, V. de Lind. — palmarius, Schreb. Southmd — palmipes, L. — varius, Lep. — wesmaeli, V. de Lind. — elongatulus, V. de Lind. — quadrimaculatus, Dhlb. — signatus, Pz. — vagabundus, Pz. — cephalotes, Pz. — chrysostomus, Lep. — vagus, L. — cribrarius, L. — interruptus, De G. — lituratus, Pz. - albilabris, Fabr. Entomognathus, Dahlb. — brevis, V. de Lind. DIPLOPTERA VESPIDJE Vespa, L. - crabro, L. — vulgaris, L. — germanica, Fabr. — rufa, L. — sylvestris, Scop. norvegica, Fabr. Snaresbrook (F. Odynerus, Latr. — spinipes, L. - melanocephalus, Gmel. - reniformis, Gmel. - callosus, Thorns. - parietum, L. - pictus, Curt. - trimarginatus, Zett. - trifasciatus, Oliv. — prietinus, L. - antilope, Pz. - crassicornis, Pz. - gracilis, Hrulld- sinuatus, Fabr. ANTHOPHILA OBTUSILINGUES COLLETID.* Colletes, Latr. - succincta, L. - fodiens, Kirb. - picistigma, Thorns. — marginata, Smith — daviesana, Smith Prosopis, Fab. — communis, Nyl. — signata, Pz. — hyalinata, Smith 103 A HISTORY OF ESSEX COLLETIDX (continued) Prosopis confusa, Nyl. — brevicornis, Nyl. — pictipes, Nyl. ACUTILINGUES ANDRENIDJE Sphecodes, Latr. — gibbus, L. — subquadratus, Smith — spinulosus, v. Hag. — puncticeps, Thorns. — pilifrons, Thorns. - similis, Wesm. - rubicundus, v. Hag. - ferruginatus, Schenck. -— hyalinatus, Schenck. — variegatus, v. Hag. — dimidiatus, v. Hag. — affinis, v. Hag. Hal ictus, Latr. — rubicundus, Christ. — xanthopus, Kirb. — leucozonius, Schrank. — quadrinotatus, Kirb. - sexnotatus, Kirb. - cylindricus, Fabr. - albipes, Kirb. - subfasciatus, Nyl. - villosulus, Kirb. — breviceps, Saund. — punctatissimus, Schenck. — nitidiusculus, Kirb. — minutissimus, Kirb. — tumulorum, L. - smeathmanellus, Kirb. - morio, Fabr. - leucopus, Kirb. Andrena, Fabr. — albicans, Kirb. — pilipes, Fabr. — bimaculata, Kirb. - rosse, Pz. - v. trimmerana, Kirb. - v. spinigera, Kirb. - nitida, Fourc. — cineraria, L. — fulva, Schr. - clarkella, Kirb. — nigroaenea, Kirb. — gwynana, Kirb. — v. bicolor, Fabr. — angustior, Kirb. — praecox, Scop. — varians, Rossi — ambigua, Perk. - helvola, L. - fucata, Smith - nigriceps, Kirb. — tridentata, Kirb. — denticulata, Kirb. ANDRENID.S: (continued) Andrena fulvicrus, Kirb. — fasciata, Nyl. — hattorfiana, Fabr. — cetii, Schr. — cingulata, Fabr. — albicrus, Kirb. — chrysoceles, Kirb. - coitana, Kirb. - fulvago, Christ. - humilis, Imhoff. — labialis, Kirb. — minutula, Kirb. — nana, Kirb. — dorsata, Kirb. — similis, Smith - wilkella, Kirb. — afzeliella, Kirb. Cilissa, Leach — haemorrhoidalis, Fabr. — leporina, Pz. Dasypoda, Latr. — hirtipes, Latr. Nomada, Fabr. — obtusifrons, Nyl. — solidaginis, Pz. — sexfasciata, Pz. — succincta, Pz. — lineola, Pz. — alternata, Kirb. — jacobaeze, Pz. — ruficornis, L. — bifida, Thorns. — borealis, Zett. — ochrostoma, Kirb. — armata, H. SchfF. — ferruginata, Kirb. — fabriciana, L. — flavoguttata, Kirb. — furva, Pz. APID.S Epeolus, Latr. — productus, Thorns. — rufipes, Thorns. Ceratina, Latr. — cyanea, Kirb. Chelostoma, Latr. — florisomne, L. — campanularum, Kirb. Ccelioxys, Latr. — rufescens, Lep. — elongata, Lep. — acuminata, Nyl. Megachile, Latr. — maritima, Kirb. St. Osyth, Soutbend — willoughbiella, Kirb. — circumcincta, Lep. - ligniseca, Kirb. - centuncularis, L. — versicolor, Smith 104 INSECTS APID/E (continued} APID.AE (continued] Megachile argentata, Fabr. St. Osyth, Psithyrus, Lep. Southcnd — rupestris, Fabr. Osmia, Pz. — vestalis, Fourc. — rufa, L. — barbutellus, Kirb. — pilicornis, Smith — campestris, Pz. — cacrulcscens, L. — quadricolor, Lcp. — fulvivcntris, Pz. Bombus, Latr. — bicolor, Schr. — venustus, Smith — spinulosa, Kirb. — agrorum, Fabr. Stelis, Pz. — hortorum, L. — aterrima, Pz. — v. harrisellus, Kirb. — phoeoptera, Kirb. — latreillellus, Kirb. Anthidium, Fabr. — sylvarum, L. — manicatum, L. — derhamellus, Kirb. Eucera, Scop. — lapidarius, L. — longicornis, L. — lapponicus, Fabr. Mclecta, Latr. — pratorum, L. — luctuosa, Scop. — cullumanus, Kirb. Seuthend (F. Smith) — armata, Pz. — tcrrestris, L. Anthophora, Latr. — v. lucorum, Smith — retusa, L. Apis, L. — pilipes, Fabr. — mellifica, L. — furcata, Pz. PHYTOPHAGA The Phytophagous Hymenoptera comprise the Sawflies (Tenthre- dinida] and their allies, and the great majority of the Gallflies (Cynipidce). The females of these insects have the ovipositor modified into a saw or borer, and in some cases into an instrument which combines the properties of saw, lance and file all in one ; for they vary considerably in their structure according to the work which they have to do, such species as deposit their ova in hard woody substances requiring stronger implements than those which simply make incisions between upper and lower leaf surfaces. As the name implies they are as a rule plant feeders in the larval state, and the majority feed up during the summer and autumn and appear in the perfect state during the following spring, but some are to be met with much later in the season, and Emphytus serotinus is often abundant on herbage under oak trees during fine weather in October. The early species may be found on leaves and at the flowers of various plants, the Umbelliferce being especially attractive to them. Angelica sy/vestris is also a great favourite with those which appear in the late summer and autumn. So far as our present knowledge goes, we have about 400 Sawflies in Britain, but many of them are extremely local or excessively rare, and as the great majority of the individuals are females they are not nearly so much in evidence as many other insects, and consequently they rarely do much damage to vegetation in ordinary seasons. Occasionally however certain among them appear in immense numbers and prove harmful to particular crops. Prominent among these is the Turnip Sawfly, Athalia spinarum, of which vast migratory swarms sometimes invade our shores, and dispersing themselves over considerable tracts of country proceed to lay their eggs on the turnip leaves, and the i 105 14 A HISTORY OF ESSEX resulting larvas, which are speedily developed, are so numerous and voracious that they soon make extensive clearances in all directions. In 1782—3 many thousands of acres were destroyed by them, and in 1835—6 our own county suffered very severely from their ravages. At a later period they devastated the fields in the neighbourhood of Tollesbury, but happily their visits are few and far between, and during many recent years entomologists who have been desirous of obtaining specimens for their cabinets have sought for them in vain, though a few were obtained in Essex, Suffolk and elsewhere in 1900. It is said to feed also on charlock and to prefer that plant to turnip when there is a sufficient supply. The Gooseberry Sawfly (Pteronus ribesii) is also occasionally very destructive to the currant and gooseberry crop. A few years ago it entirely denuded all the bushes about Colchester of their leaves, but the disease speedily produced its own remedy, for so numerous were the larvae that they consumed all the available food long before they reached maturity, and apparently the whole brood perished from starvation. After leaving the naked bushes they wandered about seeking vainly for food elsewhere, and at this time the pathways in the neighbourhood of market gardens were black with their dead bodies, which for several days emitted a sickly odour that compelled attention. Another species (Hoplocampa testudinea) deposits its eggs in the apple blossom, and the larvas feed in the young fruit, causing it to fall when about half-grown. Probably the damage thus done is generally set down to the Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) for both feed after a similar fashion ; the Sawfly however does not seem to be very abundant, at least in north Essex, and has only been found there in the early summer fruit. As soon as the fruit falls to the ground the larvae proceed to make themselves scarce, so that many apples may be opened and few larvas found, and as these are by no means easy to rear, the insect is very scarce in collections and probably few entomologists have ever seen it. The Corn Sawfly (Cephus pygmceus) is another insect with an evil reputation on the continent, its larvas feed in the interior of corn stems, but any damage they may do in this country is seldom if ever brought home to them, though seeing how very abundant the perfect insect is in our own fields in the early summer, one would think it must be to some extent injurious. The two species of Sirex (S. gigas and S. juvencus) are large handsome insects with powerful ovipositors adapted for boring into the solid wood of fir trees, to which they are accused of being very destructive. In this country they are far from common, and though they are sometimes met with about Colchester they never there attack healthy standing trees, but only such as are dying or have been felled. No doubt they do attack larch and spruce posts and take possession of any trees that have been left unduly long on the ground after they have been felled, and speedily render these good for nothing but firewood. Many of the Sawflies are very beautiful, and the problems connected 1 06 INSECTS with their life history are so intensely interesting that they are well worthy of far greater attention than they have hitherto received. It has been already stated that the females greatly outnumber the males, but in many cases the males are quite unknown and in some species only females are believed to be produced. Parthenogenesis is extremely common among them, and though in some instances ova deposited by virgin females have produced males, as a rule such ova produce only females, and it has been abundantly proved that these possess the faculty of reproducing their like without any male assistance for an indefinite number of generations. Among the more noteworthy species found in the county, attention may be drawn to those of the very handsome genera Lyda, Abia and Arge , which are well represented. Three species of Do/erus (D. rugu/osus, D. fumosus and D. gibbosus) are as yet only known as British from examples captured near Colchester, where Loderus palmatus is occasionally found. The rare Macrophya rufipes is also worthy of mention, and Allantus jlavipes is from a collector's point of view a good insect, as it is not often obtained in Britain and is scarce elsewhere. Several specimens were found on charlock flowers near Langham Lodge Wood many years ago, but none have occurred recently. The male of Strongylogaster cingu- latus is accounted a rarity though the female is abundant, but one day in the spring of 1899, in Donyland Wood, several males were captured before any females had been seen, which is contrary to Mr. Cameron's experience, as he states that though he has bred hundreds of females he only succeeded in getting one male, which curiously enough appeared some days after all the females of the same batch had emerged. As two of his virgin females produced fertile eggs he concludes that partheno- genesis plays a constant r61e with this species. Allantus zona is another scarce species which has occurred at St. Osyth. The Gallflies (Cynipida) form those abnormal growths upon trees and plants of which the oakapple, the marble and woody galls of the oak, and the moss-like Bedeguar gall of the rose are familiar and conspicuous examples, but all gall-producing insects are not Hymenopterous, as many of them belong to other orders, such as the Gall-gnats (Cecidomyida) among the Diptera and certain of the Aphides and beetles. The facts and problems connected with the reproduction of the Cynipidce are even more interesting and complicated than in the case of the Tenthredinida, and though it is impossible to go fully into them here, it may be briefly stated that some insects which were formerly believed to be distinct are now known to be different forms of the same species, which inhabit totally dissimilar galls and appear at different times of the year, the earlier brood consisting of both males and females and the later brood of females only, which lay fertile eggs and produce the bisexual brood of the following season. But besides this alternation of generations, there are other species which are well known to be single brooded and which consist of females only, for though they have been bred by hundreds of thousands by different investigators, all endeavours to discover the males have been 107 A HISTORY OF ESSEX unavailing, and among other theories it has been suggested that in their case males formerly existed, but owing to the increase in the faculty of virgin reproduction they have ceased to be produced, being no longer necessary. There is a very able and valuable paper on the ' Galls of Essex ' by Mr. Fitch in the Transactions of the Essex Field Club (ii. 98-156), which deals with all the gall-feeding insects, and to which the reader who desires further information can be confidently referred. In the following list of T'enthredinidce some names will be found which do not appear in Cameron's Phytophagous Hymenoptera. Certain of these belong to species which were not known as British when that work was written, and in other cases it has been deemed advisable to follow the more recent classification and nomenclature of Konow, which is partially adopted in Cameron's fourth volume. Some of the Sawflies are extremely difficult to determine correctly, and all such have been sub- mitted either to the Rev. F. D. Morice or Pastor Konow, to whom we are indebted for much of the most recent work done in the group here and on the continent. All the Tenthredinidte named below have been found in the Colchester district with one exception, for which the locality is given. The list of Cynipidee is taken from Mr. Fitch's ' Galls of Essex.' A LIST OF THE PHYTOPHAGOUS HYMENOPTERA OCCURRING IN THE COUNTY TENTHREDINID^E LYDIT/E Lyda, Fabr. — flaviventris, Retz. — inanita, Vill. — sylvatica, L. — hortorum, Klug. — cingulata, Latr. — pallipes, Zett. — albopicta, Thorns. — depressa, Schr. Cephus, Latr. — phthisicus, Fabr. — pygmaeus, L. — tabidus, Fabr. — pusillus, Steph. Macrocephus, Schlecht. — satyrus, Pz. SIRICET.*: Xiphydria, Latr. — dromedarius, Fabr. Sirex, L. — juvencus, L. - gigas, L. TENTHREDINET.S Cimbex, Ol. — lutea, L. — femorata, L. Trichiosoma, Leach — vitellinae, L. TENTHREDINETVE (continued) Trichiosoma betuleti, Klug. Ahia, Leach — fasciata, L. — sericea, L. Arge, Schr. — enodis, L. — gracilicornis, Klug. — fuscipes, Fall. — ustulata, L. — pagana, Pz. — cyanocrocea, FOrst. - rosae, De Geer Lophyrus, Latr. — sertiferus, Fourc. Cladius, 111. — pectinicornis, Fourc. Trichiocampus, Htg. — viminalis, Fall. — rufipes, Lep. — eradiatus, Htg. Priophorus, Latr. — padi, L. Leptopus, Htg. — luridiventris, Fall. Hemichroa, Steph. — alni, L. — rufa, Pz. Dineura, Dhlb. — stilata, Klug. 1 08 INSECTS TENTHREDINETVE (continued) Cryptocampus, Htg. — amerinse, L. Pontania, Costa — leucosticta, Htg. — vallisnicrii, Htg. — xanthogastra, FOrst. Pteronus, Jur. — pa v id us, Lcp. - miliaris, Pz. — salicivorus, Cam. — curtispinus, Thorns. — vircscens, Htg. — melanaspis, Htg. — nigricornis, Lep. — hortcnsis, Htg. — myosotidis, Fabr. — leucotrochus, Htg. — ribcsii, Scop. — melanocephalus, Htg. — salicis, L. Amauronematus, Knw. — histrio, Lep. — leucolenus, '/add. - viduatus, Zett. Croesus, Leach — septentrionalis, L. - latipes, Vill. — varus, Vill. Holcocneme, Knw. — crassa, Fall. — corruleocarpa, Htg. - lucida, Pz. Nematus, Jur. — abdominalis, Pz. luteus, Pz. - acuminatus, Thorns. Pachynematus, Knw. — capreae, Pz. — einersbergensis, Htg. — xanthocarpus, Htg. Pristiphora, Latr. — betulae, Retz. — quercus, Htg. — appendiculata, Htg. - ruficornis, Ol. Eriocampoides, Knw. — cinxius, Klug. — varipes, Klug. — annulipes, Klug. — limacinus, Rctz. Hoplocampa, Htg. — cratzgi, Klug. — pectoralis, Thorns. - testudinea, Klug. Mcsoneura, Htg. — verna, Klug. Periclista, Knw. — melanocephala, Fabr. Pareophora, Knw. TENTHREDINET.* (continued) Pareophora nigripes, Klug. Tomostethus, Knw. — nigritus, Fabr. - fuliginosus, Schr. — dubius, Gmel. — luteiventris, Klug. Blennocampa, Htg. — assimilis, Fall. - pusilla, Klug. — subcana, Zadd. — tenuicornis, Klug. Monophadnus, Htg. — geniculatus, Htg. — ruficruris, Brull6 — albipes, Gmel. Kaliosysphinga, Tischb. — ulmi, Sundev. Stratford (Healy) Athalia, Leach - ancilla, Cam. — spin arum, Fabr. — rosae, L. - lugens, Klug. - annulata, Fabr. Selandria, Klug. — serva, Fabr. - sixii, Voll. - stramineipes, Klug. - aperta, Htg. Thrinax, Knw. — macula, Klug. Strongylogaster, Dhlb. — cingulatus, Fabr. Eriocampa, Htg. - ovata, L. Pcecilosoma, Thorns. — pulverata, Retz. — carbonaria, Knw. - immersa, Klug. - submutica, Thorns. - excisa, Thorns. - tridens, Knw. Emphytus, Klug. - succinctus, Klug. - cinctus, L. - togatus, Fabr. — rufocinctus, Retz. — calceatus, Klug. — tibialis, Pz. — serotinus, Klug. — grossulariz, Klug. Taxonus, Htg. — glabratus, Fall. — equiseti, Fall. — agrorum, Fall. Dolerus, Jur. — fulviventris, Klug. — madidus, Klug. — puncticollis, Thorns. — gonager, Fabr. 109 A HISTORY OF ESSEX TENTHREDINETVE (continued) Dolerus picipes, Klug. — nigritus, Mttll. — fumosus, Zadd. — coruscans, Knw. — gibbosus, Htg. — niger, Klug. — haematodes, Schr. — rugulosus, v. D. Torre. — asneus, Htg. Loderus, Knw. — palmatus, Klug. — vestigialis, Klug. Rhogogastera, Knw. — picta, Klug. — viridis, L. — punctulata, Klug. — lateralis, Fabr. — aucupariae, Klug. Tenthredopsis, Costa — coqueberti, Klug. var. cordata, Fourc. var. microcephala, Lep. var. femoralis, Steph. var. caliginosa, Steph. var. nigricollis, Cam. — nassata, L. — raddatzi, Knw. — dorsalis, Lep. — excisa, Thorns. — litterata, Geoff. — campestris, L. — dorsivittata, Cam. Pachyprotasis, Htg. — variegata, Klug. — antennata, Klug. — rapae, L. Macrophya, Dhlb. — rustica, L. — rufipes, L. — punctum-album, L. — ribis, Schr. — albicincta, Schr. — 12-punctata, L. — blanda, Fabr. — neglecta, Klug. Allantus, Jur. — maculatus, Fourc. — bicinctus, L. — vespa, Retz. — scrophulariae, L. — zona, Klug. — cingulum, Klug. — arcuatus, Forst — flavipes, Fourc. Tenthredo, L. — rufiventris, Pz. — atra, L. var. dispar, Klug. — livitla, L. TENTHREDINET.S: (continued) Tenthredo solitaria, Scop. — mesomela, L. CYNIPID^ Rhodites, Htg. — eglanterise, Htg. — rosae, L. fnervosa, Curt. ~ \rosarum, Gir. Aulax, Htg. — glechomae, Htg. frhosadis, Htg. \papaveris, Perris. — hieracii, Bouch6. Xestophanes, F5rst — potentillae, Vill. Diastrophus, Htg. — rubi, Htg. Andricus, Htg. — ostreus, Gir. _ ffecundatrix, Htg. \gemmae, L. _/globuli, Htg. \inflator, Htg. _fradicis, Fabr. ~\noduli, Htg. — sieboldi, Htg. — corticis, L. fcollaris, Htg. \curvator, Htg. framuli, L. \autumnalis, L. — quadrilineatus, Htg. _ fcirratus, Adler. \callidoma, Gir. — solitarius, Fonsc. — albopunctatus, Schlecht. Cynips, Htg. — kollari, Htg. Trigonaspis, Htg. _fmegaptera, Pz. \renum, Gir. Biorhiza, Westw. fterminalis, Fabr. \aptera, Fabr. Dryophanta, Ffirst — folii, L. — divisa, Htg. — agama, Htg. Neuroterus, Htg. Jlenticularis, Oliv. \baccarum, L. _ ffumipennis, Htg. \tricolor, Htg. _ flaeviusculus, Schr. \albipes, Schr. _ fnumismatis, Oliv. \vesicatrix, Schlecht. no INSECTS ENTOMOPHAGA Ichneumons and their Allies This group comprises several thousands of species, of which, though some are of moderate size, the great majority are very small .and obscure, and in the present imperfect state of our knowledge the study of most of them is attended with considerable difficulty ; for while many are excessively variable, others though abundantly distinct are superficially so much alike, and their specific distinctions are so minute and so easily overlooked, that only a very few experts are able to deter- mine them with certainty. They are divided into several sections, which include the Cbrysididte, the Icbneumonidcf, the Braconida, the E-vaniidee, the Chalcidida and the Proctotrupida. As a rule they are parasitic upon other insects, a large proportion of them passing their earlier stages in the larva? of the Lepi- doptera. The Chrysididce or Ruby-tailed flies are not very numerous in Britain, and their proper place is perhaps rather with the Aculeata than the Entomophaga. They prey upon certain of the bees and wasps, laying their eggs in the burrows of their victims after the manner of the cuckoo bees. They are extremely beautiful insects, being resplendent with brilliant blue, green, crimson, burnished copper and other gorgeous colours. The Ichneumonidce, Eraconidce and E-vaniida deposit their eggs principally upon or in the larva? and ova of the Lepidoptera, but they attack other insects and also spiders ; and upon the efficient discharge of their important functions the welfare of the world depends to a far greater extent than the world generally is at present aware of. For if all insects were allowed to increase without let or hindrance, they would multiply at such a prodigious rate that every green leaf would speedily be devoured by them. It is quite true that other agencies, such as insectivorous birds, are also at work in keeping them in check, but it is probably not going too far to say that the birds are but the Sauls who slay their thousands while the ichneumons are the Davids who slay their tens of thousands. Nay, it is highly probable that by far the larger portion of those larva? which are consumed by birds would perish in any case from the attacks of ichneumons, and more than possible that in many instances the attacks of birds, though immediately fatal to multi- tudes of individual larvae, may be ultimately beneficial to the species to which they belong by the wholesale destruction of its far more inveterate and insidious foes. But while of the innumerable larva? that emerge from the egg very few escape from the attacks of the ichneumon, Nature is also careful of her children in more ways than one ; for when a parasite becomes so numerous as to threaten the extinction of a race, it is very frequently itself preyed upon by a hyper-parasite, which attacks it after a similar fashion. The Chalcididee are for the most part extremely minute brilliantly coloured insects, with habits similar to those of the Ichneumonidcc. The in A HISTORY OF ESSEX Proctotrupidce are still smaller and of soberer hues. They also appear to be largely parasitic, but with regard to the transformations of many of them more seems to be at present conjectured than is actually known. Of course it is quite impossible to deal adequately with this impor- tant class of insects in a few brief paragraphs, and unfortunately we have at present no reliable monograph on any of its component sections. Much was done among the Ghalcidida, etc., by the late Mr. Francis Walker at Wanstead, who left behind him voluminous notes, which are now in Mr. Fitch's possession ; but they require very careful revision before publication. Many pages could have been filled with Walker's names, but a mere list of names where no intelligible and reliable pub- lished accounts and descriptions exist would be .worse than useless. Mr. Fitch, in conjunction with the late Mr. Bridgman, commenced a series of valuable outline descriptions of the Ichneumonida in the Entom- ologist for February, 1880, and continued them at intervals for several years, but unfortunately circumstances for a time prevented their com- pletion. It is to be hoped that Mr. Fitch, who is still our leading British authority on the Entomophaga, and who is abundantly supplied with material and well equipped for the task in every way, will at no distant date be able to resume his labours, and obtain for this branch of British Entomology the high position which a few years ago it seemed so likely to take, and which of late it has appeared in such imminent danger of losing. In the following list of Ichneumonidce the species marked M. have only been identified from the Maldon district by Mr. Fitch. The others have all been obtained near Colchester, many being common to both districts. For the incompleted list of Braconidee Mr. Fitch is solely responsible. A LIST OF THE ENTOMOPHAGOUS HYMENOPTERA OCCURRING IN THE COUNTY CHRYSIDIDJE Cleptes, Latr. — semiauratus, L. — nitidulus, Fabr. Btnfleet (Billups) Homalus, Pz. — auratus, L. — caeruleus, Dahlb. Hedychrum, Latr. — lucidulum, Fabr. — ardens, Curtis Chrysis, L. — ignita, L. — viridula, L. — cyanea, L. PUPIVORA. ICHNEUMONID^: ICHNEUMONIDES Chasmodes, Wesm. — motatorius, Fabr. Ichneumon, L. ICHNEUMONIDES (continued) Ichneumon bilineatus, Gmel. — sinister, Wesm. — leucocerus, Gr. — lineator, Fabr. — impressor, Zett. — derasus, Wesm. — castaneiventris, Gr. — fuscipes, Gmel. M. — periscelis, Wesm. — pistorius, Gr. — trilineatus, Gmel. — multiannulatus, Gr. — molitorius, L. — tempestivus, Holmgr. M. — vaginatorius, L. — xanthorius, Ffirst — confusorius, Gr. — suspiciosus, Holmgr. — gracilentus, Wesm. M. 112 INSECTS ICHNEUMONIDES (continued) Ichneumon luctatorius, L. — latrator, Fabr. — multipictus, Gr. — primatorius, FOrst. M. — gracilicornis, Gr. - caloscelus, Wesm. - variegatorius, Pz. — qu;tsitorius, L. M. — analis, Gr. - saturatorius, L. M. - faunus, Gr. — nigritarius, Gr. — fabricator, Fabr. — curvinervis, Holmgr. — pallidifrons, Gr. — varipes, Gr. — Ian i us, Gr. — leucomelas, Gmel. M. — vestigator, Wesm. — lepidus, Gr. — octoguttatus, Gr. — anator, Fabr. M. — ruficeps, Gr. — albifrons, Stc. — obator, Desv. Hoplismenus, Gr. — perniciosus, Gr. Limerodes, Wesm. — arctiventris, Boie. Amblyteles, Wesm. — palliatorius, Gr. M. — armatorius, FOrst — oratorius, Fabr. — flavocinctus, Desv. — notatorius, Fabr. — subsericans, Gr. — crispatorius, L. — glaucatorius, Fabr. — occisorius, Fabr. — negatorius, Fabr. — uniguttatus, Gr. — castanopygus, Ste. — castigator, Fabr. — fbssorius, Gr. — divisorius, Gr. — messorius, Gr. — funereus, Fourc. — proteus, Christ. M. — fusorius, L. — alticola, Gr. Trogus, Pz. — lutorius, Fabr. M. — exaltatorius, Pz. M. Eurylabus, Wesm. — torvus, Wesm. — dims, Wesm. M. — tristis, Gr. Platylabus, Wesm. — rufus, Wesm. ICHNEUMONIDES (continued) Platylabus orbitalis, Gr. — tricingulatus, Gr. — dimidiatus, Gr. — nigricollis, Wesm. M. Herpestomus, Wesm. — brunnicornis, Gr. Colpognathus, Wesm. — celerator, Gr. Diccelotus, Wesm. — pumilus, Gr. Phseogenes, Wesm. — melanogonus, Gmel. M. — scutellaris, Wesm. — calopus, Wesm. M. — fulvitarsis, Wesm. M. — ischiomelinus, Gr. Alomyia, Pz. — debellator, Fabr. CRYPTIDES Stilpnus, Gr. — gagates, Gr. M. — pavoniae, Scop. M. Phygadeuon, Gr. — variabilis, Gr. M. — fumator, Gr. M. — troglodytes, Gr. M. — jejunator, Gr. M. - vagans, Gr. M. - erythrogaster, Gr. M. — hopei, Marshall — vagabundus, Gr. — cinctorius, Fabr. — quadrispinus, Gr. - abdominator, Gr. M. - jucundus, Gr. M. — procerus, Gr. Cryptus, Fabr. — viduatorius, Fabr. - tarsoleucus, Schr. - moschator, Fabr. — cyanator, Gr. — parvulus, Gr. - anatorius, Gr. M. - attentorius, Schaef. - titillator, Gr. — albatorius, Vill. — dianae, Gr. — obscurus, Gr. - analis, Gr. M. — leucotarsus, Gr. - peregrinator, L. M. — migrator, Fabr. — cimbicis, Tschck. — pygoleucus, Gr. M. — signatories, Fabr. M. Mesostenus, Gr. — obnoxius, Gr. M. — ligator, Gr. Hemiteles, Gr. A HISTORY OF ESSEX CRYPTIDES (continued) Hemiteles furcatus, Tasch. M. — tenebricosus, Gr. M. — micator, Gr. M. — oxyphimus, Gr. M. — crassicornis, Gr. M. — similis, Gr. M. — fiilvipes, Gr. M. — formosus, Desv. — bicolorinus, Gr. M. — sstivalis, Gr. M. — areator, Pz. — inimicus, Gr. M. — floricolator, Gr. M. — fragilis, Gr. — cingulator, Gr. M. Cecidonomus, Bridg. — westoni, Bridg. M. — gallicola, Bridg. M. Orthopelma, Tasch. — luteolator, Gr. M. Agrothereutes, Ffirst — hopei, Gr. Aptesis, Ffirst — nigrocincta, Gr. Hemimachus, Ratz. — rufocinctus, Gr. M. — fasciatus, Fabr. Pezomachus, Gr. — tener, Ffirst. M. — ochraceus, FSrst. M. — corruptor, FOrst. M. — viduus, Forst — transfuga, Ffirst — insolens, Ffirst. M. — xylocophilus, Ffirst — analis, Ffirst. M. — nigricornis, Ffirst — intermedius, Ffirst OPHIONIDES Henicospilus, Ste. — merdarius, Gr. M. — ramidulus, L. — combustus, Gr. — repentinus, Holmgr. Ophion, Fabr. — obscurum, Fabr. — luteum, L. — minutum, Kriechb. M. — ventricosum, Gr. Schizoloma, Wesm. — amicta, Fabr. Heteropelma, Wesm. — calcator, Wesm. Anomalon, Jurine — xanthopus, Schr. M. — mirabile, Desv. — bellicosum, Wesm. M. — cerinops, Gr. — fibulator, Gr. OPHIONIDES (continued) Anomalon tenuitarsum, Gr. — clandestinum, Gr. M. — anomelas, Grav. — cylindricum, Bridg. M. — melanobatum, Gr. M. Agrypon, FOrst — flaveolatum, Gr. — tenuicorne, Gr. — canaliculatum, Ratz. Trichomma, Wesm. — enecator, Rossi Paniscus, Schr. — cephalotes, Holmgr. M. — virgatus, Fourc. — testaceus, Gr. — tarsatus, Brischke. — fuscicornis, Holmgr. M. Absyrtus, Holmgr. — luteus, Holmgr. Campoplex, Gr. — mixtus, Gr. — bucculentus, Holmgr. M. — erythrogaster, Ffirst. M. — carinifrons, Holmgr. — falcator, Thunb. M. — ebeninus, Gr. — oxyacanthae, Boie. M. — tenuis, Ffirst. M. — eurynotus, Ffirst. M. — punctatus, Bridg. M. — costulatus, Bridg. M. Sagaritis, Holmgr. — zonata, Gr. — postica, Bridg. M. Casinaria, Holmgr. — orbitalis, Gr. M. — vidua, Gr. M. Limneria, Holmgr. — crassicornis, Gr. — elishae, Bridg. M. — ensator, Gr. — erucator, Zett. M. — exareolata, Ratz. M. — faunus, Gr. M. — geniculata, Gr. — interrupta, Holmgr. M. — longipes, Milll. — majalis, Gr. — mutabilis, Holmgr. — rapax, Gr. — rufipes, Gr. M. — ruficincta, Gr. — tibialis, Gr. M. — vestigialis, Ratz. M. — vulgaris, Tschck. M. — virginalis, Gr. M. Atractodes, Gr. — bicolor, Gr. Exolytus, Holmgr. 114 INSECTS OPHIONIDES (continued) Exolytus laevigatus, Gr. Mesochorus, Gr. — sylvarum, Hal. — (?) pic til is, Holmgr. Collyria, SchiOdte — calcitrator, Gr. Exetastes, Gr. — osculatorius, Fabr. — guttatorius, Gr. — alhitarsus, Gr. Banchus, Fabr. — variegator, Fabr. — falcator, Fabr. — moniliatus, Gr. TRYPHONIDES Mesoleptus, Gr. — insolens, Gr. — sternoleucus, Gr. Catoglyptus, Holmgr. — fuscicornis, Gmcl. Euryproctus, Holmgr. — atomator, Gr. Perilissus, Holmgr. — przrogator, Gr. Mcsoleius, Holmgr. — aulicus, Gr. — caligatus, Gr. — alacer, Gr. — niger, Gr. — insolens, Gr. Trematopygus, Holmgr. — procurator, Gr. Tryphon, Fallen. — elongator, Fabr. — rutilator, L. — trochanteratus, Holmgr. Eumesius, Westw. — albitarsus, Cur. Polyblastus, Hart. — vari tarsus, Gr. Acrotomus, Holmgr. — lucidulus, Gr. Cteniscus, Hal. — mesoleptoides, Stc. — apiarius, Gr. Colpotrochia, Holmgr. — elegantula, Schr. Exochus, Gr. — alpinus, Zctt. Bassus, Fabr. — lartatorius, Fabr. — nigritarsus, Gr. Metopius, Pz. — dissectorius, Pz. PlMPLIDES Rhyssa, Gr. — persuasoria, L. Ephialtes, Gr. — imperator, Kriechb. PlMPLIDES (continued) Ephialtes rex, Kriechb. Perithous, Holmgr. — mediator, Fabr. — varius, Gr. Pimpla, Fabr. — instigator, Fabr. — examinator, Fabr. — turionellse, L. — rufata, Gmel. — flavonotata, Holmgr. — roborator, Fabr. — scanica, Vill. — oculatoria, Fabr. — arctica, Zett. — graminellas, Schr. — stercorator, Fabr. — brevicornis, Gr. Glypta, Gr. — monoceros, Gr. — ceratites, Gr. — lugubrina, Holmgr. — incisa, Gr. — bifoveolata, Gr. — rubicunda, Bridg. Lampronota, Hal. — caligata, Gr. Lissonota, Gr. — parallela, Gr. — decimator, Gr. — bellator, Gr. — cylindrator, Vill. — sulphurifera, Gr. — semirufa, Desv. Meniscus, Schifidte — setosus, Fourc. — impressor, Gr. — hi li neat us, Gr. — murinus, Gr. Phytodiaetus, Gr. — plantarius, Gr. — segmentator, Gr. BRACONID^E Bracon, Fabr. — pectoralis, Wesm. — erythrostictus, Marshall — minutator, Fabr. — fiilvipes, Nees — longicollis, Wesm. — variegator, Nees — stahilis, Wesm. — brevicornis, Wesm. — erraticus, Wesm. — Isevigatus, Ratz. — mediator, Nees — fuscicoxis, Wesm. — tornator, Marshall — satanas, Wesm. — epitriptus, Marshall A HISTORY OF ESSEX HUACONID./K (continued) Hi:io>n pi'.rtri missus, Marshall - colpophorus, Wcsm. — discoidcus, Wcsm. - rcgularis, Wcsm. Icn-l.rlhi, VVcsm. - otiosus, Marshall - variator, Nees - obscurator, Nccs • - anthracinus, Nees bisignatus, Wcsm. Phanomcris, FOrst - fragilis, Hal. Bathystomus, Forst - f'uncstus, Hal. Rhysipolis, Forst - mediator, Hal. Rhyssalus, Hal. — indagator, Hal. Colastes, Hal. - braconius, Hal. Oncophanes, Fflr&t - lanccolator, Nees Spathius, Nccs - cxarator, L. Hecabolus, Curt. - sulcatus, Curt. i 'i rloi.lf., Wcsm. - melanotus, Wcsm. Chrcmylus, Hal. - rubiginosus, Nees Hormius, Nccs - moniliatus, Nees Clinoccntrus, Hal. - cxsertor, Necs Pelecystoma, Wcsm. - lutea, Nccs Rhogas, Necs - irrcgularis, Wcsm. — tristis, Wesm. - bicolor, Spin. - nigricornis, Wcsm. — circumscriptus, Nccs - armatus, Wcsm. - tcstaccus, Spin. Sigalphus, Latr. — floricola, Wcsm. - obscurcllus, Nccs - lutcipcs, Thorns. Chclonus, Jurine - lll.lllllus, L. - submuticus, Wcsm. - wcsmaclii, Curt. — carbonator, Marshall - oculator, Fabr. - cancsccns, Wcsm. — parcicornis, Sch.lrT. — sulcatus, Nccs — latrunculus, Marshall Ascogastcr, Wcsm. HRACONID.* (continued) Ascogastcr instabilis, Wesm. - annularis, Necs - rufipcs, Latr. - rufideus, Wcsm. - varipes, Wesm. - armatus, Wcsm. - quadridcntatus, Wesm. Mirax, Hal. - spartii, Hal. Accelius, Hal. - sulii.iM i.itus, Hal. A pan teles, Forst — ruficrus, Hal. — ordinarius, Ratz. — congcstus, Nccs - anal is, Nccs - rubripes, Hal. — glomeratus, L. - scriccus, Nccs - spurius, Wcsm. - jucundus, Marshall — caise, Bouchd — junipcratac, Bouch6 - difficilis, Nccs - l.-rtus, Marshall - falcatus, Nccs - cultrator, Marshall - ultor, Rcinh. - xanthostigmus, Hal. - cmarginatus, Nees - albipcnnis, Necs - impurus, Necs - conifcrae, Hal. ? - longicaudis, Wcsm. - abjcctus, Marshall - pallidipcs, Rcinh. - bicolor, Nees - latcralis, Hal. - fulvipes, Hal. Microplitis, Forst - spinolae, Necs - lit rll.ll.l-. Unlit llr - tristis, Nccs - dolens, Marshall - spcctabilis, Hal. — mediator, Hal. - tubcrculifera, Wesm. Microgastcr, Latr. - alvcarius, Fabr. - conncxus, Necs - tiro, Rcinh. - russatus, Hal. — rugulosus, Necs — subcompletus, Nccs — globatus, Necs — tibialis, Nccs Earinus, Wcsm. — gloriatorius, Pz. Microdus, Necs i K. INSECTS BRACONIDA (continutd) Microdus cingulipes, Nces — mediator, Nces Orgilus, Hal. — obscurator, Nccs Euphorus, Nces — pallidipes, Curt. — similis, Curt. - intactus, Hal. - apicalis, Curt. Microctonus, Wcsm. - cultus, Marshall Meteorus, Hal. — albiditarsus, Curt. — chrysophthalmus, Nces — caligatus, Hal. — ictericus, Nees — obfuscatus, Nccs - jaculator, Hal. BRACONIDX (c»ntinut• Colchester — continua, Thorns. — plebeia, Gyll. Calathus cisteloides, Pz. — fuscus, Fabr. — mollis, Marsh. — melanocephalus, L. — piceus, Marsh. ^ Taphria nivalis, Pz. Pristonychus terricola, Herbst \ Colchester Sphodrus leucophthalmus, L. Anchomenus angusticollis, Fabr Essex coast 120 INSECTS Colchester Colchester CARABID^ (continued) Anchomenus dorsalis, Mall. — albipes, Fabr. — oblongus, Sturm — marginatus, L. — sexpunctatus, L. Epping (E. Doubleday) — parumpunctatus, Fabr. — atratus, Duft. — viduus, Pz. var. moestus, Duft. — micans, Nic. — fuliginosus, Pz. - gracilis, Gyll. — thoreyi, Dej. — puellus, Dej. Olisthopus rotundatus, Payk. Lymnaeum nigropiceum, Marsh. Southend (Janson) Bembidium rufescens, Gu6r.' — obtusum, Sturm — guttula, Fabr. — mannerheimi, Sahl. — biguttatum, Fabr. — riparium, Ol. — zneum, Germ. — fumigatum, Duft. Dagenham (Hudson- Beare) — clarki, Daws. Essex coast articulatum, Pz. Loughton (Lewcock) Colchester Colchester CARABID.* (continued) Demetrias atricapillus, L. Dromius linearis, Ol. — agilis, Fabr. — meridionals, Dej. — quadrimaculatus, L. — quadrinotatus, Pz. — melanocephalus, Dej. — nigriventris, Thorns. Blechms maurus, Sturm Metabletus foveola, Gyll. — truncatellus, L. — obscuro-guttatus, Duft.J Lionychus quadrillum, Dutt. Polystichus vittatus, Brull. Brachinus crepitans, L. Colchester — sclopeta, Fabr. Southend (Hope) HALIPLIDJE Brychius elevatus, Pz. Colchester Haliplus fulvus, Fabr. Donyland — variegatus, Sturm. Rainham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — ruficollis, DeG. Colchester fluviatilis, Aube. North Woolwich (West) Cnemidotus impressus, Fabr. Donyland Colcheste Essex coast Colchester Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — mnmum, Fabr. Essex coast — normannum, Dej. — gilvipes, Sturm — lampros, Herbst. — nitidulum, Marsh — quadriguttatum, Fabr. — quadrimaculatum, Gyll.- — lunatum, Duft. Rainham (Lewcock) — concinnum, Steph. \ — femoratum, Sturm V Colchester — littorale, Ol. — pallidipenne, 111. Essex coast (Dawson, Geod. Brit.) — ephippium, Marsh. St. Osyth — flam mu la turn, Clairv. Colchester — varium, Ol. Essex coast — paludosum, Pz. North Woolwich (West) Tachypus flavipes, L. Colchester Trechus discus, Fabr. Boxted — lapidosus, Daws. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — minutus, Fabr. \ Patrobus excavatus, Payk.J Pogonus littoralis, Duft. — chalceus, Marsh. Masoreus wetterhalii, Gyll. J Odacantha melanura, Payk. I/ford (Cham- pion) Lebia chloroccphala, Hoff. Colchester ACtophorus imperialis, Germ. 1 Colne Demetrias unipunctatus, Germ./ marshes Colchester Colchester Colchester Essex coast — Pelobius tardus, Herbst. Donyland DYTISCID^B Noterus clavicornis, DeG. Boxted — sparsus, Marsh. Colne marshes Laccophilus interruptus, Pz. Boxted Bidessus geminus, Fabr. North Woolwich (West) Hyphydrus ovatus, L. \ Coelambus inaequalis, Fabr. f — decoratus, Gyll. North Woolwich (West) - confluens, Fabr. — parallelogrammus, Ahr. — impressopunctatus, Sch. Deronectes depressus, Fabr. — 1 2-pustulatus, Fabr. Hydroporus pictus, Fabr. — granularis, L. - rivalis, Gyll. Hainault (J. S. Nor- man) - halensis, Fabr. \ — dorsalis, Fabr. / — umbrosus, Gyll. Hainault (J. S. Nor- man) angustatus, Sturm gyllenhali, SchiOd. palustris, L. erythrocephalus, L. longulus, Muls. memnonius, Nic. nigrita, Fabr. Colchester Colchester I 121 16 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Colchester DYTISCIDJE (continued) Hydroporous discretus, Fairm. Birdbrook (Power) — pubescens, Gyll. — planus, Fabr. — lituratus, Fabr. Agabus biguttatus, Ol. — paludosus, Fabr. — nebulosus, Forst. — conspersus, Marsh. — femoralis, Payk. Walthamstow (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — abbreviates, Fabr. Hainault (J. S. Nor- man) HYDROPHILID^: (continued) Limnebius truncatellus, Thorns. 'I sturmii, Gyll. Colchester — chalconotus, Pz. — bipustulatus, L. Ilybius fuliginosus, Fabr.) — fenestratus, Fabr. Epping (E. Double- day) — ater, De G. 1 ,-, , , ,., , J- Colchester — obscurus, Marsh. J Copelatus agilis, Fabr. ] p . Rhantus exoletus, Forst. V A? r£ ui j \ c ' , (E. Doubleday) — pulverosus, Steph. J — notatus, Berg. North Woolwich (West) — adspersus, Fabr. Epping (E. Double- day) Colymbetes fuscus, L. Colchester Dytiscus punctulatus, Fabr. Epping (Lew- cock) — marginalis, L. "j — circumflexus, Fabr. J- Colchester Acilius sulcatus, L. J GYRINID.S: Gyrinus elongatus, Aub6. Harwich (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — marinus, Gyll. Colchester HYDROPHILID.S: Hydrophilus piceus, L. \ North Woolwich Hydrous caraboides, L. J (West) Hydrobius fuscipes, L. Colchester — oblongus, Herbst 1 „ T> • o , i r Lssex coast raracymus nigroaeneus, Sahl. J Anacasna limbata, Fabr. "| — globulus, Payk. \ Colchester Philhydrus testaceus, Fabr.J — maritimus, Thorns. Essex coast — nigricans, Zett. — melanocephalus, Ol. — coarctatus, Gredl. Cymbiodyta ovalis, Thorns. Helochares lividus, Forst. Laccobius sinuatus, Mots.] — alutaceus, Thorns. J- Colchester - bipunctatus, Fabr. J Berosus luridus, L. Epping (E. Doubleday) — affinis, Brulle\ Rainham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — spinosus, Stev. Essex coast Colchester Donyland — papposus. Muls. - Colchester West Ham Colchester — nitidus, Marsh. Spercheus emarginatus, Schall. (Billups) Helophorus rugosus, Ol. — nubilus, Fabr. — intermedius, Muls. Walton-on-Naze (Fowler, Brit. Col.) aquaticus, L. Colchester dorsalis, Marsh. North Woolwich (West) — aeneipennis, Thorns. Colchester — affinis, Marsh. Northey Isle (Janson) — brevipalpis, Bedel. Hydrochus angustatus, Germ. I Octhebius marinus, Payk. \ Colchester — pygmaeus, Fabr. — bicolon, Germ. — rufimarginatus, Steph. Birdbrook (Ent. xvii. 1 60) — exaratus, Muls. Essex coast — aeneus, Steph. Birdbrook (Power) — asratus, Steph. Southend (Ent. xvii. 1 60) — punctatus, Steph. Essex coast Hydraena testacea, Curt. Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — riparia, Kug. Colchester — nigrita, Germ. Epping Cyclonotum orbiculare, Fabr. 1 Sphaeridium scarabaeoides, Fabr. V Colchester — bipustulatum, Fabr. Cercyon littoralis, Gyll. Essex coast — depressus, Steph. North Woolwich (West) — haemorrhous, Gyll. — haemorrhoidalis, Herbst — obsoletus, Gyll. — flavipes, Fabr. — lateralis, Marsh. — melanocephalus, L. — unipunctatus, L. — quisquilius, L. — nigriceps, Marsh. >• Colchester — pygmaeus, 111. — terminatus, Marsh. — analis, Payk. — lugubris, Payk. Megasternum boletophagum, Marsh. Cryptopleurum atomarium, Fabr. STAPHYLINID.S Aieochara ruficornis, Grav.] — fuscipes, Fabr. j- Colchester - lata, Grav. — brevipennis, Grav. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) 122 INSECTS Colchester Birdbrook — Colchester Loughton (Fowler, Brit. (Fow- STAPHYLINID.* (continued) Aleochara bipunctata, Ol. ^ — cuniculorum, Kr. — lanuginosa, Grav. — succicola, Thorns. — nitida, Grav. — grisea, Kr. — algarum, Faur. — obscurella, Er. Microglossa suturalis, Sahl. — nidicola, Fairm. — gentilis, Mark. Colchester, (Power) Oxypoda spectabilis, Mark. — vittata, Mark. — opaca, Grav. — alternans, Grav. — exoleta, Er. — lentula, Er. — umbrata, Grav. — nigrina, Wat. — longiuscula, Er. — recondita, Kr. Col.) — hzmorrhoa, Mann. Colchester — waterhousei, Rye. Weit Ham Icr, Brit. Col.) — annularis, Sahl. Colchester — brachyptera, Steph. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Thiasophila angulata, Er. Southend (Gor- ham) — inquilina, Mark. Birdbrook (Power) Ischnoglossa corticina, Er.l Stichoglossa semirufa, Er. V Colchester Ocyusa maura, Er. — picina, Aub£. Dagenham (Hudson- Beare) Phlceopora reptans, Grav. — corticalis, Grav. Ocalea badia, Er. Ilyobates nigricollis, Payk. Calodera nigrita, Mann. — riparia, Er. — zthiops, Grav. Chilopora longitarsis, Steph. Atemeles emarginatus, Payk. Myrmedonia haworthi, Steph. Southend (Gorham) — collaris, Payk. — limbata, Payk. — funesta, Grav. — humeralis, Grav. — lugens, Grav. — laticollis, Mark. Astilbus canaliculatus, Fabr. Callicerus obscurus, Grav. — rigidicornis, Er. Notothecta confusa, Mark. Birdbrook (Power) Colchester > Colchester Colchester Colchester Colchester Colchester Colchester, STAPHYLINID.* (continued) Alianta incana, Er. ) Homalota gregaria, Er. / — luteipes, Er. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — fallax, Kr. — luridipennis, Mann. — gyllenhali, Xhoms. — hygrotopora, Kr. — elongatula, Grav. volans, Scrib. vestita, Grav. silvicola, Fuss. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) vicina, Steph. Colchester pagana, Er. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) graminicola, Gyll. Colchester halobrectha, Sharp. Northey Isle (O. E. Jansen) puncticeps, Thorns. ) occulta, Er. / fungivora, Thorns. Loughton (Cham- pion) nigella, Er. angustula, Gyll. - linearis, Grav. - pilicornis, Thorns. — circellaris, Grav. — asgra, Heer - immersa, Heer — cuspidata, Er. — gemina, Er. - analis, Grav. — decipiens, Sharp. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — soror, Kr. Loughton (Champion), Col- chester - depressa, Gyll. — hepatica, Er. - aeneicollis, Sharp \- Colchester - euryptera, Steph. — trinotata, Kr. — xanthopus, Thorns. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) triangulum, Kr. "1 fungicola, Thorns./ ignobilis, Sharp. Loughton (Champion) coriaria, Kr. Colchester sodalis, Er. Loughton (Champion) palustris, Kies. Northey Isle (Janson) corvina, Thorns. Loughton (Cham- pion) atomaria, Kr. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) autumnal is, Er. "I sericea, Muls. / indubia. Sharp. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) atricolor, Sharp. Colchester Colchester Colchester 123 A HISTORY OF ESSEX STAPHYLINID^; (continued') Homalota inquinula, Grav. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — nigra, Kr. Colchester — sordidula, Er. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — canescens, Sharp. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — villosula, Kr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — cinnamoptera, Thorns."! Loughton — cadaverina, Bris. J (Champion) — marcida, Er. Colchester — intermedia, Thorns. Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — longicornis, Grav.l — sordida, Marsh. J- Colchester — testudinea, Er. J — muscorum, Bris. Loughton (Champion) — laticollis, Steph. Colchester — montivagans, Woll. Birdbrook (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — fungi, Grav. 1 n , , /-i I u-i- T? r Colchester Gnypeta labilis, Er.J Xenusa uvida, Er. 1 ,-, - sulcata, Kies. } Es"* ""« Falagria sulcata, Payk. Colchester — sulcatula, Grav. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — thoracica, Curt. Southend (Gorham) — obscura, Grav. Autalia impressa, Ol. — rivularis, Grav. Encephalus complicans, Westw. Gyrophaena affinis, Mann. — minima, Er. — Isevipennis, Kr. — lucidula, Er. — strictula, Er. Agaricochara laevicollis, Kr. Euryusa laticollis, Heer. Loughton (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Leptusa rumida, Er. Sipalia ruficollis, Er. Bolitochara bella, Mark. | Phytosus spinifer, Curt. Diglossa mersa, Hal. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Hygronoma dimidiata, Grav."| Oligota pusillima, Grav. j- Colchester — punctulata, Heer. — flavicornis, Lac. Wanstead (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Myllaena dubia, Grav. Colchester — intermedia, Er. Essex coast — brevicornis, Matth. Colchester Gymnusa brevicollis, Payk. Loughton (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Hypocyptus discoideus, Er. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Colchester Colchester STAPHYLINID^ (continued) Conosoma littoreum, L. — pubescens, Grav. — immaculatum, Steph. — pedicularium, Grav. — lividum, Er. Tachyporus obtusus, L. — pallidus, Sharp. — chrysomelinus, L. — hypnorum, Fabr. — pusillus, Grav. — brunneus, Fabr. Cilea silphoides, L. Tachinus humeralis, Grav. — rufipes, L. — subterraneus, L. — marginellus, Fabr. Colchester — elongatus, Gyll. Megacronus analis, Fabr. — inclinans, Grav. Bolitobius lunulatus, L. — trinotatus, Er. — pygmaeus, Fabr. Mycetoporus splendens, Marsh. — lepidus, Grav. — longulus, Mann. — angularis, Rey. — clavicornis, Steph. — splendidus, Grav. Habrocerus capillaricornis, Grav. Heterothops binotata, Er. Essex coast — dissimilis, Grav. \ — quadripunctula, Gyll./ Velleius dilatatus, Fabr. Wanstead (Whit- tingham) Quedius microps, Grav. Loughton (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — lateralis, Grav. "1 — mesomelinus, Marsh. J- Colchester var. fageti, Thorns. J — brevicornis, Thorns. Birdbrook (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — cruentus, Ol. Colchester — scitus, Grav. Birdbrook and Loughton (Power) — cinctus, Payk. ^ — brevis, Er. — fuliginosus, Grav. — tristis, Grav. — molochinus, Grav. — picipes, Mann. — nigriceps, Kr. Colchester — fumatus, Steph. — maurorufus, Grav. — umbrinus, Er. — suturalis, Kies. — scintillans, Grav. — rufipes, Grav. j Colchester 124 INSECTS Colchester Colchester Colchester STAPHYLINID.* (continued) Quedius attenuatus, Gyll.1 — semiaeneus, Steph. — boops, Grav. Creophilus maxillosus, L. Emus hirtus, L. Southend (Haward) Leistotrophus nebulosus, Fabr. — murinus, L. Staphylinus pubescens, DeG. North Wool- wich (West) — stercorarius, Ol. — cassareus, Ceder. Ocypus olens, Mall. — similis, Fabr. — cyaneus, Payk. — brunnipes, Fabr. - fu scat us, Grav. — cupreus, Rossi — pedator, Grav. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — ater, Grav. Essex coast — morio, Grav. — compressus, Marsh. Philonthus splendens, Fabr. — laminatus, Creutz. — seneus, Rossi — proximus, Kr. — addendus, Sharp. — carbonarius, Gyll. - decorus, Grav. - politus, Fabr. — varius, Gyll. var. bimaculatus, Grav. — marginatus, Fabr. — albipes, Grav. — umbratilis, Grav. — cephalotes, Grav. — fimetarius, Grav. — sordidus, Grav. - fuscus, Grav. Southend, 1858 (Water- house) — ebeninus, Grav. var. corruscus, Grav. — debilis, Grav. — sanguinolentus, Grav. — crucntatus, Gmel. — longicornis, Steph. — varians, Payk. — agilis, Grav. — ventralis, Grav. — discoideus, Grav. — quisquiliarius, Gyll. var. dimidiatus, Er. — splendidulus, Grav. "1 — thermarum, Aubc J — micans, Grav. \ — nigritulus, Grav. I Colchester — trossulus, Nord. J — punctus, Grav. North Essex coast, Southend district (West) Colchester Colchester Essex coast Colchester I Colchester Colchester STAPHYLINID.* (continued) Cafius xantholoma, Grav. \ — sericeus, Holme. J Xantholinus fulgidus, Fabr. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — glabratus, Grav. ") — punctulatus, Payk. J — tricolor, Fabr. Essex coast — linearis, Ol. Colchester Leptacinus parumpunctatus, Gyll. Bird- brook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — batychrus, Gyll. — linearis, Grav. — formicetorum, Mark. Baptolinus alternans, Grav. Othius fulvipennis, Fabr. — melanocephalus, Grav. — myrmecophilus, Kies. Lathrobium elongatum, L. — boreale, Hoch. — fulvipenne, Grav. — brunnipes, Fabr. — longulum, Grav. — punctatum, Zett. llford (Champion) — terminatum, Grav. — multipunctum, Grav. Achenium depressum, Grav. — humilc, Nic. Cryptobium glaberrimum, Herbst. Essex coast Stilicus mfipes, Germ.^ — orbiculatus, Er. > Colchester — affinis, Er. Scopxus sulcicollis, Steph. Southend (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Medon fusculus, Mann. Essex coast — propinquus, Bris. — obsoletus, Nord. > Colchester Lithocharis ochracea, Grav.J Sunius filiformis, Latr. Southend (Gor- ham) — intermedius, Er. \ — angustatus, Payk. >• Colchester Paederus littoralis, Grav.J — riparius, L. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Evzsthetus scaber, Thorns.^ — ruficapillus, Lac. Dianous coerulescens, Gyll. Stenus bipunctatus, Er. — bimaculatus, Gyll. — juno, Fabr. — speculator, Er. ) Colchester — providus, Er. — buphthalmus, Grav. — incrassatus, Er. — melanarius, Steph. — circularis, Grav. — declaratus, Er. — carbonarius, Gyll. llford (Champion) 125 A HISTORY OF ESSEX STAPHYLINID^E (continued] Stenus argus, Grav. •) — brunnipes, Steph. — subaeneus, Er. — ossium, Steph. >• Colchester — fuscicornis, Er. — impressus, Germ. — aerosus, Er. — erichsoni, Rye. Dagenham (Hudson- Beare) — pallipes, Grav. — flavipes, Steph. — pubescens, Steph. — binotatus, Ljun. — canescens, Ros. — bifoveolatus, Gyll. — nitidiusculus, Steph. — picipennis, Er. Colchester — picipes, Steph. — cicindeloides, Grav. — similis, Herbst — solutus, Er. — tarsalis, Ljun. — paganus, Er. — latifrons, Er. — fornicatus, Steph. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.} Oxyporus rufus, L. Colchester Bledius spectabilis, Kr. Essex coast — longulus, Er. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — opacus, Block. Essex coast — atricapillus, Germ. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Platystethus arenarius, Fourc.' — cornutus, Gyll. — capito, Heer Oxytelus rugosus, Grav. — insecatus, Grav. \ Colchester — sculptus, Grav. — laqueatus, Marsh. — inustus, Grav. — sculpturatus, Grav. maritimus, Thorns. Essex coast — nitidulus, Grav. — complanatus, Er. — tetracarinatus, Block. Haploderus ccelatus, Grav. Trogophkeus bilineatus, Steph. — rivularis, Mots. — elongatulus, Er. — fuliginosus, Grav. — foveolatus, Sahl. Colchester — corticinus. Grav. Essex coast Colchester Mull. Syntomium aeneum, Mull. Colchester, Southend (Gorham) Coprophilus striatulus, Fabr. Col- chester Acrognathus mandibularis, Gyll. Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) STAPHYLINIDJE (continued) Deleaster dichrous, Grav. Lesteva longelytrata, Goeze — pubescens, Mann. — sicula, Er. Acidota cruentata, Mann. ;• Colchester Olophrum piceum, Gyll. Lathrimaeum atrocephalum, Gyll. — unicolor, Steph. Micralymma brevipenne, Gyll. Essex coast Philorhinum sordidum, Steph. Coryphium angusticolle, Steph. Omalium rivulare, Payk. — riparium, Thorns. — exiguum, Gyll. — oxyacanthas, Grav. — excavatum, Steph. — cassum, Grav. — nigriceps, Kies. \ ^ , , 1 r ' ) Colchester — runpes, rourc. — iopterum, Steph. — concinnum, Marsh. Hapalaraea pygmasa, Gyll. Anthobium torquatum, Marsh. Proteinus ovalis, Steph. Megarthrus affinis, Mill. — sinuatocollis, Lac. Phloeobium clypeatum, Mtlll. PSELAPHID.* Pselaphus heisei, Herbst Tychus niger, Payk. Bythinus puncticollis, Denny \ Colchester — bulbifer, Reich. — curtisi, Denny Batrisus venustus, Reich. Loughton (Cham- pion) Bryaxis sanguinea, L. Colchester — waterhousei, Rye. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — fossulata, Reich. Colchester — helferi, Schmidt. Essex coast — haematica, Reich. "1 „ , , \ Colchester — juncorum, Leach J — impressa, Pz. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Bibloporus bicolor, Denny. Loughton (Champion) Euplectus karsteni, Reich. Loughton (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — signatus, Reich. "I — sanguineus, Denny j- Colchester — piceus, Mots. Colchester Neuraphes elongatulus, Mtlll. "j — angulatus, Mall. } — sparshalli, Denny Scydma?nus godarti, Latr. Loughton (Cham- pion) 126 INSECTS Colcheste SCYDM/ENID* (continued) Scydmznus scutellaris, Moll. \ — collaris, Moll. J — power!, Fowler. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — exilis, Er. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Eumicrus tarsatus, Mall. Eutheia schaumi, Kies. — plicata, Gyll. Cephennium thoracicum, Mttll.j SILPHIDX Calyptomerus dubius, Marsh. ' Agathidium nigripenne, Kug. — atrum, Payk. — seminulum, L. — Izvigatum, Er. — marginatum, Sturm. — varians, Beck. — convexum, Sharp. Colchester — nigrinum, Sturm. Colchester, Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Amphicyllis globus, Fabr."| Liodes humeralis, Kug. j- Colchester — orbicularis, Herbst Anisotoma cinnamomea, Er. Saffron IPal- den (Curtis) — oblonga, Er. (grandis, Fairm). — dubia, Kug. Colchester — punctulata, Gyll. — calcarata, Er. — curvipes, Schmidt. Northey Isle (O. Janson) Colenis dentipes, Gyll. Colchester Hydnobius strigosus, Schmidt. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Necrophorus humator, Fabr.' — mortuorum, Fabr. — vestigator, Heer Colchester — ruspator, Er. — vespillo, L. Silpha tristis, 111. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — obscura, L. — quadripunctata, L. — opaca, L. — thoracica, L. — rugosa, L. — sinuata, Fabr. — dispar, Herbst — atrata, L. var. brunnea, Herbst Colchester Choleva cisteloides, FrOhl. — agilis, 111. — velox, Spence — wilkini, Spence — anisotomoides, Spence - fusca, Pz. — nigricans, Spence — morio, Fabr. Colchester • Colchester Harwich (Fowler, Southend (Fowler, SILPHID.AE (continued) Choleva grandicollis, Er. nigrita, Er. tristis, Pz. kirbyi, Spence — chrysomeloides, Pz. — fumata, Spence — watsoni, Spence Ptomaphagus sericeus, Fabr. Colon serripes, Sahl. - — brunneum, Latr. Wrabness (Fowler, Brit. Col.) HISTERID.S Hister quadrimaculatus, L. Essex coast — merdarius, Hoff. Epping Forest (F. B. Jennings) — cadaverinus, HofF. fpurpurascens, Herbst ~\ var. niger, Er. — marginatus, Er. — neglectus, Germ. Brit. Col.) — bissexstriatus, Fabr. Brit. Col.) — 12-striatus, Schr. "j — bimaculatus, L. f Colchester Carcinops minima, Aubi J Paromalus flavicornis, Herbst. Southend (Gorham) Dendrophilus punctatus, Herbst. Hainault (Norman) - pygmsus, L. ) Saprinus nitidulus, Payk. J- Colchester — zeneus, Fabr. — immundus, Gyll. Loughton (West) — virescens, Payk. Colchester — rugifrons, Payk. Southend, Harwich (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — maritimus, Steph. Essex coast Abraeus globosus, HofF. Near Maldon — granulum, Er. IPalthamstow (Jan- son) SCAPHIDIIDJE Scaphidium quadrimaculatum,] Ol. [ Colchester Scaphiosoma agaricinum, L. J TRICHOPTERYGID.S Trichopteryx brevicornis,| ^ Ram Mots" .... (Billups) — guerinn, All. — ambigua, Matth. Loughton (West) Actidium coarctatum, Hal. Walton-on- Naze (Champion) Ptenidium fuscicorne, Er. I n , , .„ Y Colchester — evanescens, Marsh. J CORYLOPHID^ Orthoperus kluki, Wank. Loughton (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Sericoderus lateralis, Gyll. Colchester 127 A HISTORY OF ESSEX COCCINELLIDJE Subcoccinella 24-punctata, L. Colchester, Southend Hippodamia variegata, Goeze. Colchester Anisosticta I g-punctata, L. Essex coast Adalia obliterata, L. Birch — bipunctata, L. Colchester Anatis ocellata, L. Essex coast Coccinella decempunctata, — n-punctata, L. — 7-punctata, L. Halyzia 14-guttata, L. — conglobata, L. — 22-punctata, L. Micraspis i6-punctata, L. Hyperaspis reppensis, Herbst f Colchester Scymnus nigrinus, Kug. — pygmaeus, Fourc. — frontalis, Fabr. — suturalis, Thunb. — testaceus, Mots. — haemorrhoidalis, Herbst — capitatus, Fabr. — minimus, Rossi. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Chilocorus similis, Rossi Exochomus quadripustulatus, L. [ Colchester Colchester J Colchester Colchester Colchester Rhizobius litura, Fabr. Coccidula rufa, Herbst — scutellata, Herbst ENDOMYCHID^E Symbiotes latus, Redt. Southend (Gorham) Mycetaea hirta, Marsh. Alexia pilifera, Mall. Lycoperdina bovistae, Fabr. Endomychus coccineus, L. EROTYLID.S: Dacne humeralis, Fabr. — rufifrons, Fabr. Triplax russica, L. Cyrtotriplax bipustulata, Fab: PHALACRIDJE Phalacrus corruscus, Payk. Colchester — brisouti, Rye. Rainham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — caricis, Sturm. Boxted Olibrus corticalis, Pz.) „ , , T-. , \ Colchester — aeneus, va.br. } — bicolor, Fabr. Harwich (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — millefolii, Payk. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Eustilbus testaceus, Pz. Colchester — oblongus, Er. Essex coast MlCR.OPEPLID.ffi Micropeplus staphylinoides,"! Marsh. I Colchester — margaritae, Duv. NITIDULID.S: Brachypterus urticae, Fabr. Colchester NITIDULID^E (continued) Cercus pedicularius, L. \ — bipustulatus, Payk. ( Colchester — rufilabris, Latr. ) Epurasa decemguttata, Fabr. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — asstiva, L. — melina, Er. — florea, Er. — deleta, Er. — obsoleta, Fabr. — pusilla, Er. Micrurula melanocephala, Marsh. Lough- ton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Nitidula bipustulata, L. — rufipes, L. — quadripustulata, Fabr. Soronia punctatissima, 111. — grisea, L. Amphotis marginata, Er. Omosita colon, L. — discoidea, Fabr. Thalycra sericea, Sturm. Pocadius ferrugineus, Fabr. Pria dulcamaras, Scop. Meligethes rufipes, Gyll. — lumbaris, Sturm. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — fulvipes, Bris. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — aeneus, Fabr. viridescens, Fabr. ovatus, Sturm. — picipes, Sturm. ,-, , , . .-, „ > Colchester — erythropus, Gyll. Cychramus luteus, Fabr. Cryptarcha strigata, Fabr. — imperialis, Fabr. Ips quadriguttata, Fabr.) Hainault — quadripustulata, L. j (Norman) TROGOSITID^ Tenebrioides mauritanicus, L. Colchester COLYDIID.E: Aglenus brunneus, Gyll. Birdbrook (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Orthocerus muticus, L. Essex coast Ditoma crenata, Fabr. Hainault (Norman) Cicones variegatus, Hellw. Loughton (Champion) Cerylon histeroides, Fabr.~> n , , ', . cur Colchester — ferrugmeum, Steph. ) CUCVJIDJE Rhizophagus perforatus, Er."! — ferrugineus, Payk. j- Colchester — bipustulatus, Fabr. Pediacus dermestoides, Fabr. Loughton (Power) Lasmophloeus bimaculatus, Payk. Lough- ton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — pusillus, Sch6n. Maldon (Fitch) 128 INSECTS Colcheste Hainault Forest — > Colchester CUCUJID.* (continued) Psammcechus bipunctatus, "1 Fabr. V Colcheiter Silvanus surinamensis, L. J — unidentatus, Fabr. Hainault (Norman) MONOTOMID.* Monotoma formicetorum,' Thorns. — spinicollis, Aub£ — picipes, Herbst — sub-4-foveolata, Wat. (E. W. Janson) LATHRIDIID.* Anommatus 12-striatus, Mull."! Lathridius lardarius, DeG. j- Colchester Coninomus nodifer, Westw. J — carinatus, Gyll. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Enicmus minutus, L.) /-, , , .-(. } Colchester — transvcrsus, Ol. j — rugosus, Herbst. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — testaceus, Steph. Cartodere ruficollis, Marsh. — elongata, Curt. Corticaria pubescens, Gyll. — crenulata, Gyll. — denticulata, Gyll. ; — serrata, Payk. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — elongata, Humm. Colchester Melanophthalma transversalis, Gyll. South- end (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — fuscula, Humm.l /> , , ,,.'.-, } Colchester — rulvipes, Com. J CRYPTOPHAGID.* Telmatophilus caricis, Ol. St. Osyth — typhae, Fall. "I Antherophagus nigricornis, j- Colchester Fabr. J — pallens, Gyll. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Cryptophagus lycoperdi, ' Herbst — setulosus, Sturm — pilosus, Gyll. — saginatus, Sturm — umbratus, Er. — scanicus, L. — bad i us, Sturm — den tat us, Herbst — distinguendus, Sturm - bicolor, Sturm Micrambe vini, Pz. Caenoscelis ferruginea, Sahl. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Atomaria fimctarii, Herbst — barani, Bris. — nigriventris, Steph. — umbrina, Er. > Colchester Colcheste Colchester Colchester CRYPTOPHAGID.* (continued) Atomaria linearis, Steph. Colchester and Maldon — fuscipes, Gyll. — peltata, Kr. — fuscata, SchOn. — atra, Herbst — atricapilla, Steph. — berolinensis, Kr. mesomelas, Herbst gutta, Steph. — apicalis, Er. Essex coast — analis, Er. \ — ruficornis, Marsh./ — versicolor, Er. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Ephistemus gyrinoides, Marsh. Colchester MYCETOPHAGID^ Typhsea fumata, L. Colchester Triphyllus suturalis, Fabr. West Bergholt — punctatus, Fabr. Boxted Litargus bifasciatus, Fabr. Loughton (West) Mycetophagus quadripustulatus, L. St. Osyth — piceus, Fabr. Donyland — atomarius, Fabr. Effing (F. Jennings) — populi, Fabr. Effing (G. Stockley) — quadriguttatus, Mall. Colchester — multipunctatus, Hellw. Donyland BYTURID^ Byturus tomentosus, Fabr. Colchester DERMESTID.S Dermestes vulpinus, Fabr.") „ , , } Colchester — munnus, L. — undulatus, Brahm. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — lardarius, L. West Bergholt Attagenus pellio, L. Megatoma undata, Er. i ~ , T^. ° . T, ,' \ Colchester I iresias serra, rabr. Anthrenus claviger, Er. BTULHIDJB Byrrhus pilula, L. — fasciatus, Fabr. Cytilus varius, Fabr. Simplocaria semistriata, Fabr. Limnichus pygmaeus, Sturm. Harwich (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Aspidiphorus orbiculatus, Gyll. Colchester B. Colchester Elmis zeneus, Mull.l — volkmari, Pz. — cupreus, Mull. West Bergholt Parnus prolifericornis, Fabr. Essex coast — auriculatus, Pz. Colchester HETEROCERIDJE Heterocerus flexuosus, Steph. Essex coast — laevigatus, Pz. Colchester — sericans, Kies. ) „ f*, \ Essex coast — obsoletus, Curt. J 129 A HISTORY OF ESSEX LUCANIDJE Lucanus cervus, L. "1 „ , , r-. 11 i • j T } Colchester Dorcus parallelepiped us, LJ Colchester /o , , . Colchester Colchester bten (West) Onthophagus nutans, Fabr. Loughton (West) — coenobita, Herbst. Essex coast — vacca, L. Epping (F. B. Jennings) — nuchicornis, L. Donyland Aphodius erraticus, L. — subterraneus, L. — fossor, L. — haemorrhoidalis, L. — foetens, Fabr. — fimetarius, L. - ater, DeG. — constans, Duft. Epping Forest (F. B. Jennings) — granarius, L. \ — nitidulus, Fabr./ — sordidus, Fabr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — rufescens, Fabr. — lividus, Ol. — porcus, Fabr. — pusillus, Herbst - merdarius, Fabr. — inquinatus, Fabr. — tessulatus, Payk. Hainault Forest (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — conspurcatus, L.I T , • • T> r Lought — sticticus, Pz. J — punctato-sulcatus, Stm. Colchester — contaminatus, Herbst. Essex coast — zenkeri, Germ. Epping (F. B. Jen- nings) — luridus, Fabr. \ — rufipes, L. V Colchester — depressus, Kug.J Heptaulacus testudinarius, Fabr. Loughton (West) ^gialia arenaria, Fabr. Essex coast Geotrupes typhoeus, — spiniger, Marsh. — stercorarius, L. \ Colchester Trox sabulosus, L. — scaber, L. Hoplia philanthus, Ftiss. Donyland Serica brunnea, L. "I Rhizotrogus solstitialis, L. j- Colchester Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.J Phyllopertha horticola, L. Donyland Cetonia aurata, L. Colchester Gnorimus nobilis, L. Colchester, Black-wall (West) BUPRESTID.S: Agrilus angustulus, 111. Colchester Aphanisticus pusillus, Ol. Southend (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Trachys troglodytes, Gyll. Loughton (West) Colchester • Colchester THROSCID.S: Throscus carinifrons, Bonv. Colchester — obtusus, Curt, llford (Champion) EUCNEMIDJE Melasis buprestoides, L. Colchester ELATERID^E Lacon murinus, L. Essex coast Cryptohypnus riparius, Fabr. Colchester Elater praeustus, Fabr. Hainault (Norman) — sanguinolentus, Schr. Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — miniatus, Gorham. Hainault (Norman) — balteatus, L. Donyland Ischnodes sanguinicollis, Pz. Hainault (Norman) Melanotus rufipes, Herbst "j Athous niger, L. .-, , , i • iv /^i r Colchester — longicollis, Ol. — haemorrhoidalis, Fabr. ' — vittatus, Fabr. St. Osyth Limonius minutus, L. Agriotes sputator, L. — obscurus, L. — lineatus, L. — sordidus, 111. Southend (Wollaston) — sobrinus, Kies. — pallidulus, 111. Dolopius marginatus, L. Corymbites pectinicornis, L. — tessellatus, Fabr. - quercus, Gyll. var. ochropterus, Steph. — holosericeus, Fabr. -— metallicus, Payk. — bipustulatus, L. Wrabness (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Campylus linearis, L. Donyland DASCILLID.S: Helodes minuta, L. West Bergholt Microcara livida, Fabr. Cyphon coarctatus, Payk. — variabilis, Thunb. — padi, L. Scirtes hemisphaericus, L.. — orbicularis, Pz. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) MALACODERMIDJE Lampyris noctiluca, L. Colchester Silis ruficollis, Fabr. Dagenham and Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Podabrus alpinus, Payk.^ Telephorus fuscus, L. — rusticus, Fall. — lividus, L. — pellucidus, Fabr. — nigricans, Mull. — lituratus, Fabr. Essex coast — bicolor, Fabr. \ — haemorrhoidalis, Fabr./ — oralis, Germ. Essex coast Colchester t- Colchester Colchester 130 INSECTS caast Essex coast MALACODERMID.* (continued) Telephorus flavilabris, Fall. Colchester — thoracicus, Ol. Northey Island (O. E. Janson) Rhagonycha fuscicornis, Ol.\ — fulva, Scop. — limbata, Thorns. — pallida, Fabr. Malthinus punctatus, Fourc. — fasciatus, Ol. ) Colchester — frontalis, Marsh. Malthodes marginatus, Latr. — minimus, L. Malachius xneus, L. — bipustulatus, L. — viridis, Fabr. — marginellus, Ol. Axinotarsus pulicarius, Fabr. Colchester — ruficollis, Ol. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Anthocomus rufus, Herbst. Colne marshes — fasciatus, L. \ Dasytes flavipes, Fabr. >- Colchester — aerosus, Kies. Psilothrix nobilis, 111. \ Dolichosoma lineare, Rossi J Haplocnemus nigricornis, Fabr. St. Osyth, Birch CLERIDJE Tillus elongatus, L. Colchester Opilo mollis, L. Loughton (West) Thanasimus formicarius, L. Hainault (Norman) Necrobia ruficollis, Fabr. — violacea, L. — rufipes, De G. Corynetes coeruleus, De G. PTINID.S Ptinus germanus, Fabr. Colchester — lichenum, Marsh. Hainault (Norman) - fur, L. I Niptus hololeucus, Fald. > Colchester Hedobia imperialis, L. J Dryophilus pusillus, Gyll. Birch Priobium castaneum, Fabr. \ Anobium domesticum, Fourc. I Xestobium tessellatum, Fabr. r Colchester Ernobius mollis, L. Ochina hederz, Mall. / Dorcatoma chrysomelina,' Sturm. Southend — flavicornis, Fabr. (Gorham) Anitys rubens, HofF. LYCTIDA Lyctus canaliculatus, Fabr. Colchester Colchester Colchester Cis boleti, Scop. ) — villosulus, Marsh, j — micans, Fabr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) CISSID.* (continued) Cis hispidus, Payk. Essex (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — bidentatus, Ol. \ — alni, Gyll. V Colchester — nitidus, Herbst J — festivus, Pz. Ulting near Maldon (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — fuscatus, Mell. Colchester Ennearthron affine, Gyll. Loughton (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — cornutum, Gyll. ) /-, ; , , n I L • i /-• ii f Colchester Ottotemnus glabnculus, Ciyll. ) CERAMBVCID/E Prionus coriarius, L. Colchester Aromia moschata, L. Near Chelmsford Hylotrupes bajulus, L. Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Callidium violaceum,L. Hainault (Norman) — variabile, L. Colchester — alni, L. Hainault (Norman) — sanguineum, L. Plaistow (Hindley, recorded by S. Stevens) Clytus arcuatus, L. Loughton (Power) — arietis, L. Colchester — mysticus, L. Loughton and Chingford (West) Gracilia minuta, Fabr. Essex coast Obrium cantharinum, L. ff^anstead (Power), Epping and Leytonstone (Stephens) Molorchus minor, L. ) • • T? u f Rhagium inquisitor, rabr. ) — bifasciatum, Fabr. Great Horkesley Toxotus meridianus, Pz. West Bergholt Leptura scutellata, Fabr. Epping and Hainault (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — livida, Fabr. Colchester Strangalia quadrifasciata, L. Colchester district — revestita, L. Hainault (Norman) — armata, Herbst. Colchester — attenuata, L. Southend (Stephens, Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — nigra, L. Hainault (Norman) — melanura, L. Grammoptera tabacicolor, De G. — ruficornis, Fabr. Leiopus nebulosus, L. Pogonochaerus bidentatus, Thorns. - dentatus, Fourc. Colchester Mesosa nubila, Ol. Colchester district Saperda carcharias, L. j Ctlthatn. — populnea, L. Tetrops przusta, L. Colchester Phytoecia cylindrica, L. Aldham BRUCHIDA Bruchus rufimanus, Roh. Colchester — luteicornis, 111. Southend and Maldon (Fowler, Brit. Col.) er t Colchester A HISTORY OF ESSEX r , , .„ Colchester Colchester BRUCHID.S: (continued) Bruchus loti, Payk. j — villosulus, Fabr. / CHRYSOMELIDJE Orsodacna cerasi, L. 1 — lineola, Pz. var. humeralis, Latr.J Donacia dentata, Hoppe. Effing (Keeley) — versicolorea, Brahm. Loughton (West) — dentipes, Fabr. Effing (Keeley) - limbata, Pz. Northey Isle (O. E. Janson) — bicolora, Zsch. "j — thalassina, Germ. J- Effing (Keeley) — impressa, Payk. J — simplex, Fabr. Colchester — vulgaris, Zsch. Effing (Keeley) — clavipes, Fabr. ) — semicuprea, Pz. ) - cinerea, Herbst. Effing (Keeley) — sericea, L. Colchester — braccata, Scop. Essex coast — affinis, Kunze. Effing (F. B. Jenn- ings) Haemonia curtisi, Lac. Essex coast Zeugophora subspinosa, Fabr. ^ — flavicollis, Marsh. Lema cyanella, L. — lichenis, Vcet. — melanopa, L. Crioceris asparagi, L. Clythra quadripunctata, L. Cryptocephalus sexpunctatus, L. — bipunctatus, L. var. line- ola, Fabr. j — aureolus, Suffr. "> — parvulus, Mall. / — moraei, L. Colchester — bilineatus, L. Essex coast — fulvus, Goeze > - pusillus, Fabr. — labiatus, L. Timarcha tenebricosa, Fabr. — violaceonigra, De G. Chrysomela marginalis, Duft. > — marginata, L. Southend (Champion) — banksi, Fabr. — staphylea, L. — polita, L. - orichalcia, Mall. — haemoptera, L. — varians, Schall. — menthastri, SufFr. - hyperici, Forst. Melasoma longicolle, SufFr. \ c n , Phytodecta rufipes, De G. J c — olivacea, Forst. Colchester Gastroidea viridula, De G. Dedham >• Colchester Colchester • Colchester Colchester >- Colchester — CHRYSOMELID^ (continued) Gastroidea polygon!, L. Plagiodera versicolora, Laich. Phaedon tumidulus, Germ. — armoraciae, L. - cochleariae, Fabr. Phyllodecta cavifrons, Thorns. — vitellinae, L. Hydrothassa aucta, Fabr. — marginella, L. Prasocuris junci, Brahm. — phellandrii, L. Luperus nigrofasciatus, Goeze — rufipes, Scop. Dedham Lochmasa capreas, L. A — suturalis, Thorns. — crataegi, Forst. J- Colchester Gallerucella viburni, Payk. — sagittariae, Gyll. J — calmariensis, L. Boxted — tenella, L. Effing (Lewcock) Adimonia tanaceti, L. Effing (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Sermyla halensis, L. Colchester Longitarsus absinthii, Kuts. Essex coast — dorsalis, Fabr. Southend (Power) — castaneus, Duft. — luridus, Scop. — suturellus, Duft, var. fusci- collis, Steph. atricillus, L. melanocephalus, All. - suturalis, Marsh. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) - nasturtii, Fabr. Colchester — ballotae, Marsh. Walton-on-Naze (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — femoralis, Marsh. "1 n , , ... U „ f Colchester — pusillus, (jyll. J — jacobasas, Wat. Essex coast — gracilis, Kuts. Colchester — laevis, Duft. Essex coast — pellucidus, Foudr. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Haltica lythri, Aube". Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — coryli, Brit. Col. — pusilla, Duft. Hermaeophaga mercurialis, Bergholt Phyllotreta consobrina, Curt/ — punctulata, Marsh. — atra, Payk. — cruciferae, Goeze — undulata, Kuts. — nemorum, L. — ochripes, Curt. — exclamation is, Thunb. Aphthona nonstriata, Goeze. Wivenhoe — venustula, Kuts. Colchester \ Colchester Fabr. Wat Colchester 132 INSECTS • Colchester Colchester Gyll. Loughton Colchester CHRYSOMELID.* (continued) Aphthona atrocoerulea, Steph. Colchester — virescens, Foudr. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Batophila rubi, Payk. West Bergholt Sphaeroderma testaceum, Fabr. — cardui, Gyll. Apteropeda orbiculata, Marsh. Podagrica fuscicornis, L. Mantura rustica, L. — obtusata, Gyll. Crepidodera transversa, Marsh. — fcrruginea, Scop. — rufipes, L. — ventralis, 111. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — nitidula, L. — helxines, L. — chloris, Foudr. — aurata, Marsh. — smaragdina, Foudr. Hippuriphila modeeri, L. ( Chaetocnema aridula, (Champion) - hortensis, Fourc. \ Plectroscelis concinna, Marsh. / Psylliodes chrysocephala, L. Essex coast — napi, Koch. Colchester — cuprea, Koch. West Bergholt — affinis, Payk. Colchester — marcida, 111. Harwich, Southend (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — picina, Marsh. Colchester Cassida murraea, L. Plaistow marshes (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — nebulosa, L. Colchester — vibex, Fabr. Essex coast — sanguinolenta, Fabr. Southend^ (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — vittata, Vill. — nobilis, L. — flaveola, Thunb. — viridis, Fabr. — hemisphaerica, (West) TENEBRIONID.* Blaps mucronata, Latr. Colchester Crypticus quisquilius, L. Heliopathes gibbus, Fabr. Opatrum sabulosum, Gyll. Microzoum tibiale, Fabr. Phaleria cadaverina, Fabr. Heledona agaricola, Fabr. 1 /-. f i c . -. r . t Co/chester Scaphidema metallicum, Fabr. J Alphitophagus quadripustulatus, Steph. Maldon (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Tenebrio molitor, L. — obscurus, Fabr. Gnathocerus cornutus, Fabr. Tribolium confusum, Duv. . Epping • Colchester Herbst. Loughton Essex coast Colchester TENEBRIONID.S (continued) Palorus melinus, Herbst. Birdbrook (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) Hypophkeus bicolor, Ol. West Bergholt Helops cceruleus, L. Colchester — pallidus, Curt. Essex coast — striatus, Fourc. Colchester CISTELID.S Cistela luperus, Herbst. Wrabness (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) - ceramboides, L. | ^ — murma, L. J Eryx ater, Fabr. Wivenhoe Mycetochares bipustulata, 111. Epping (F. B. Jennings) LAGRIID.K Lagria hirta, L. Colchester MELANDRYID.K Tetratoma fungorum, Fabr. Boxted — desmaresti, Latr. Hainault (Edward Janson) — ancora, Fabr. Loughton (West) Orchesia micans, Pz. Colchester Clinocara tetratoma, Thorns. Birdbrook (Power) Hallomenus humeralis, Pz. "j Conopalpus testaceus, Ol. >• Colchester Melandrya caraboides, L. J Abdera quadrifasciata, Steph. Hainault Salpingus castaneus, Pz. Colchester Lissodema quadripustulata, Marsh. South- end (Gorham) Rhinosimus ruficollis, L. "j - viridipennis, Steph. j- Colchester — planirostris, Fabr. OEDEMERID^: Oedemera nobilis, Scop. West Bergholt Nascerdes melanura, Schmidt ) ^ » . T , \ Colchester Ischnomera ccerulea, L. PYROCHROIDJE Pyrochroa coccinea, L. Epping (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — serraticornis, Scop. Colchester MORDELLID.S Mordellistena abdominalis, Fabr. Wrab- ness (Fowler, Brit. Col.) - humeralis, L. \ - brunnea, Fabr. J- Colchester — pumila, Gyll. J — brevicauda, Boh. Essex coast Anaspis frontalis, L. ' — pulicaria, Costa. — geoffroyi, Mall. — ruficollis, Fabr. — flava, L. — subtestacea, Steph. — maculata, Fourc. , RHIPIDOPHORID^ Metoecus paradoxus, L. Colchester f Colchester 133 A HISTORY OF ESSEX ANTHICIDJE Notoxus monoceros, L. 1 c ... ... .i, * hssex coast Anthicus humihs, Germ. J — floralis, L. Colchester — instabilis, Schmidt. Essex coast — angustatus, Curt. Wrabness, Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — antherinus, L. Colchester XYLOPHILIDJE Xylophilus populneus, Fabr. Colchester M.ELO1DJE Meloe proscarabaeus, L.\ var. cyaneus, Muls. J — cicatricosus, Leach. Brit. Col.) — rugosus, Marsh. Southend (Smith Gorham), Prittlewell (Power) Lytta vesicatoria, L. Colchester ANTHRIBID.S: Brachytarsus varius, Fabr. Colchester Platyrrhinus latirostris, Fabr. Hainault (Norman) Choragus sheppardi, Kirby. CURCULIONIDJE Apoderus coryli, L. "j Attelabus curculionoides, L. Byctiscus betuleti, Fabr. J — populi, L. St. Osyth Rhynchites cupreus, L. Southend (Fowler, and Southend Colchester — aequatus, L. Colchester aeneovirens, Marsh. — cceruleus, De G. West Bergholt — minutus, Herbst. Colchester — interpunctatus, Steph. \ Loughton — pauxillus, Germ. J (Lewcock) — nanus, Payk. \ — sericeus, Herbst ]• Colchester — pubescens, Fabr. J DeporaUs megacephalus, Germ. Wrabness (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — betulae, L. 1 /-. / ; . . r< L r Colchester Apion pomonae, Fabr. J — craccas, L. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — subulatum, Kirby. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — ulicis, Forst. Colchester — genistae, Kirby. Epping (Lewcock) — fuscirostre, Fabr. — malvae, Fabr. — urticarium, Herbst — miniatum, Germ. — haematodes, Kirby — rubens, Steph. — pallipes, Kirby. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — rufirostre, Fabr. 1 — diffbrme, Germ. V Colchester — varipes, Germ. J — laevicolle, Kirby. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Colchester Colchester CURCULIONID^E (continued) Apion schfinherri, Boh. Southend (Rye and Gorham) — apricans, Herbst. Colchester — bohemani, Thorns. Essex coast — trifolii, L. — dichroum, Bedel — nigritarse, Kirby — stolidum, Germ. — hookeri, Kirby — asneum, Fabr. — radiolus, Kirby — onopordi, Kirby — carduorum, Kirby — virens, Herbst — pisi, Fabr. — aethiops, Herbst — ebeninum, Kirby — striatum, Kirby — immune, Kirby — ervi, Kirby — vorax, Herbst — unicolor, Kirby — livescerum, Gyll. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — loti, Kirby — seniculum, Kirby — simile, Kirby }• Colchester — pubescens, Kirby — curtisi, Walt. — limonii, Kirby. Essex coast — sedi, Germ. Southend, Harwich (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — marchicum, Herbst — affine, Kirby — violaceum, Kirby — hydrolapathi, Kirby — humile, Germ. Otiorrhynchus raucus, Fabr. — scabrosus, Marsh. — ligneus, Ol. Essex coast — picipes, Fabr. — sulcatus, Fabr. — ovatus, L. Trachyphloeus aristatus, Gyll. — scaber, L. — scabriculus, L. ~\ Southend — spinimanus, Germ. J (Gorham) — alternans, Gyll. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Caenopsis waltoni, Schon. Great Horkesley Strophosomus coryli, Fabr. — capitatus, De G. — retusus, Marsh. — faber, Herbst Exomias araneiformis, Schr. Omias mollinus, Boh. Southend (Gorham) Sciaphilus muricatus, Fabr. Colchester Tropiphorus carinatus, Mull.\ West — tomentosus, Marsh. J Bergholt • Colchester Colchester • Colchester 134 INSECTS coast Colchester CURCULIONID.S (continued) LiophUeus nubilus, Fabr. ' Polydrusus micans, Fabr. — tereticollis, De G. — pterygomalis, Boh. — flavipes, De G. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — cervinus, L. Colchester — chrysomela, Ol. 1 r. "J , \ Essex — connuens, Steph. ) Phyllobius oblongus, L. — calcaratus, Fabr. — urticas, De G. - PF', L. — argentatus, L. — maculicornis, Germ. — pomonae, Ol. — viridiaeris, Laich. Tanymecus palliatus, Fabr. Marts Tey Philopedon geminatus, Fabr. Essex coast Barynotus obscurus, Fabr. Colchester — elevatus, Marsh. \ res * n LI* - , V West Bergholt Alophus tnguttatus, fabr.J Sitones cambricus, Steph. — regensteinensis, Herbst — tibialis, Herbst — hispidulus, Fabr. — humeralis, Steph. — flavescens, Marsh. — puncticollis, Steph. — lineatus, L. Hypera punctata, Fabr. f Colchester — rumicis, L. — pollux, Fabr. — polygon!, L. — variabilis, Herbst — murina, Fabr. — plantaginis, De G. — trilineata, Marsh. — nigrirostris, Fabr. Cleonus sulcirostris, L. \ p - albidus, Fabr. I 1 Liosoma ovatulum, Clairv. ) West var. collaris, Rye. J Bergholt — oblongulum, Boh. Wrabneu (J. J. Walker) Liparus coronatus, Goeze Orchestes quercus, L. — alni, L. — ilicis, Fabr. — avellana?, Don. 1 ,,... ,r .. — fagi, L. J Eppmg (Lewcock) — rusci, Herbst — stigma, Germ. — salicis, L. Rhamphus flavicornis, Clairv. \ Colchester Orthocaetes setiger, Beck. Grypidius equiseti, Fabr. Erirrhinus scirpi, Fabr. coast Colchester Colcheste Colchester (J- J- Colchester CURCULIONIDJE (continued) Erirrhinus bimaculatus, Fabr. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — acridulus, L. Thryogenes festucae, Herbst — nereis, Payk. Dorytomus vorax, Fabr. — tortrix, L. — hirtipennis, Bedel. Birdbrook (Power) — validirostris, Gyll. ' — maculatus, Marsh. — pectoralis, Gyll. Tanysphyrus lemnas, Fabr. Bagous alismatis, Marsh. — petro, Herbst. Harwich Walker) — cylindrus, Payk. Essex coast — argillaceus, Gyll. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — limosus, Gyll. — tempestivus, Herbst !• Essex coast — subcarinatus, Brit. Coll. J Anoplus plantaris, Naez. • — roboris, Suffr. Tychius venustus, Fabr. — meliloti, Steph. — tibialis, Boh. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Miccotrogus picirostris, Fabr. Colchester Sibinia arenarias, Steph. Harwich (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Miarus companulae, L. Colchester — plantarum, Germ. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Gymnetron beccabungae, L. Colchester — rostellum, Herbst — pascuorum, Gyll. - antirrhini, Payk. \ Colchester Mecinus pyraster, Herbst ) — collaris, Germ. Essex coast Anthonomus ulmi, De G. West Berg- holt — pedicularius, L. Colchester — rubi, Herbst. West Bergholt Cionus scrophulariae, L. — hortulanus, Marsh. — blattariae, Fabr. — pulchellus, Herbst Orobitis cyaneus, L. Cryptorrhynchus lapathi, L. Acalles ptinoides, Marsh. — turbatus, Boh. Cxeliodes rubicundus, Herbst — quercus, Fabr. — ruber, Marsh. — erythroleucus, Gmel. — cardui, Herbst — quadrimaculatus, L. — exiguus, Ol. IPalton-en-Naze, South- end (Gorham) Colchester 135 A HISTORY OF ESSEX Colchester CURCULIONIDJE (continued') Poophagus sisymbrii, Fabr. — nasturtii, Germ. Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis, Payk. \ Colchester — cochleariae, Gyll. — erysimi, Fabr. — contractus, Marsh. — cyanipennis, Germ. ) Southend — chalybaeus, Germ. ) (Gorham) — quadridens, Pz. Colchester — geographicus, Goeze. Purfleet (Fow- ler, Brit. Col.) — pollinarius, Forst. Colchester — viduatus, Gyll. Ilford (Champion) — pleurostigma, Marsh. Colchester — verrucatus, Gyll. Southend (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — rugulosus, Herbst — melanostictus, Marsh. — asperifoliarum, Gyll. — chrysanthemi, Germ. — triangulum, Boh. Wrabness (J. J. Walker) — litura, Fabr. j Ceuthorrhynchideus floralis, \ Colchester Payk. j — pyrrorhynchus, Marsh. Southend (Gor- ham) — melanarius, Steph. — troglodytes, Fabr. Amalus haemorrhous, Herbst Rhinoncus pericarpius, L. Y Colchester — gramineus, Herbst — perpendicularis, Reich. — castor, Fabr. — bruchoides, Herbst. Northey Isle (O. E. Janson) Litodactylus leucogaster, Marsh. Colchester Phytobius comari, Herbst. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.) — waltoni, Boh. Loughton (Lewcock) — quadrituberculatus, Fabr. Colchester — canaliculatus, Fabr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.) Limnobaris t-album, L. ") „ , , „ . . . . ,, ' > Colchester Bans picicorms, Marsh. J CURCULIONID^E (continued) Baris lepidii, Germ. ham) Balaninus venosus, Grav. — nucum, L. — turbatus, Gyll. — betulae, Steph. — villosus, Fabr. — salicivorus, Payk. — pyrrhoceras, Marsh. Magdalis armigera, Fourc. Southend (Gor- cerasi, L. — pruni, L. Calandra granaria, L. — oryzae, L. Colchester Rhyncolus lignarius, Marsh. — ater, L. Walton-on-Naze (W. G. Blatch) Stereocorynes truncorum, Germ. Epping (W.G. Blatch), Leytonstone(Gorhzm), Wanstead (Power) Caulotrypis aeneopiceus, Boh. Loughton (West) Codiosoma spadix, Herbst. Essex coast SCOLYTIDJE Scolytus destructor, Ol. — pruni, Ratz. • Colchester — rugulosus, Ratz. Hylastes cunicularius, Er. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit. Col.\ Southend (Gor- ham) — angustatus, Herbst. Epping (G. Stock- ley) — palliatus, Gyll. Birdbrook Brit. Col.) Hylastinus obscurus, Marsh. Hylesinus crenatus, Fabr. — fraxini, Pz. Phloeophthorus rhododactylus, Marsh. Xylocleptes bispinus, Duft. Dryocaetes villosus, Fabr. Tomicus nigritus, Gyll. Xyleborus saxeseni, Ratz. ler, Brit. Col.) STYLOPID^ Stylops melittae, Kirby. Colchester (Fowler, Colchester West Bergholt Colchester Loughton (Fow- LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA i Butterflies The Swallow-tail (Papilio machaon) is met with occasionally, espe- cially on the coast — Southend, Shoebury, Tillingham, Walton-on-the- Naze and Maldon are recorded localities ; but whatever may have been the case formerly it cannot now be considered a native of the county, 136 INSECTS the few examples noticed being doubtless immigrants from the continent, stragglers from the fens, or released captives. The Large, Small and Green-veined Whites (Pieris brassica, P. rapee and P. napi) abound in every direction. About twelve years ago more than a dozen larva? of the Large White were seen busily engaged feeding on savoys near Colchester on Christmas Day. The Chequered or Bath White (P. daplidice] is a very rare immi- grant, but has been taken at Berechurch by the late Dr. Maclean, at Colchester by Mr. Norman Halls, at Epping by Mr. Walter Nash and at Southend by Mr. V. E. L. Young. The Orange Tip (Eucblo? cardamines) occurs freely throughout the county, and occasionally very beautiful and striking varieties are bred or captured. In 1899 a form with lemon instead of orange tips was bred at Colchester, where during the previous summer many larva? were found in company with those of the Large and Small Whites, feeding on the seed vessels of the charlock in cornfields. The Wood White (Leucophasia sinapis), according to Dr. Maclean, was common in several woods near Colchester in the early years of the past century ; it also occurred freely near Epping in 1839 (J. English), but has rarely been seen in recent years, one at Donyland, one at Coggeshall and one in Ongar Park Woods being the only trustworthy records. The Clouded Yellow (Co/ias edusa) is generally scarce, but occa- sionally occurs in the greatest profusion. In 1877 it appeared to be the commonest butterfly throughout the county, and was fairly common in 1892 and 1900. The pale variety of the female (be lice) and interme- diate forms occur sparingly with the type in favourable seasons. The Pale Clouded Yellow (C. hyale] is usually much scarcer than its deeper coloured relative, but in 1900 the reverse was the case. Both are very uncertain in their appearances, but as a rule hyale is absent for much longer periods than edusa. It was plentiful in 1857, 1868 and 1875, and was then scarcely seen till 1892, after which it quite dis- appeared as an Essex species till 1 900, when it probably occurred in larger or smaller numbers in every clover and lucerne field in the county. In 1901 it again appeared sparingly in the northern and more commonly in the southern districts. The Brimstone (Gonopteryx rhamni) is common and generally dis- tributed. Hibernated specimens sometimes appear very early in the year if the weather be mild, and one was once observed on the wing in the High Woods at Colchester on Christmas Day. The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (Argynnis selene) is fairly com- mon and sometimes abundant in flowery places in woods. The first brood appears at the end of May, but is more numerous in June ; and in some localities there is frequently a second brood in August, the examples of which are far fewer in number and smaller in size. The Pearl-bordered Fritillary (A. euphrosyne) frequents similar places, but is more often found, and as a rule in larger numbers ; but i 137 18 A HISTORY OF ESSEX both species have their good and bad seasons, and a year of unusual abundance is frequently followed by a period of comparative scarcity. The Queen of Spain Fritillary (A. latona) is a migratory species which is seldom met with. According to Haworth only six British specimens were known previous to 1818, when it occurred in some numbers and was taken in many places, including Colchester (probably by the late Dr. Maclean and Mr. L. Brock, who obtained specimens at Berechurch). Several others were taken at Colchester from 1857 to 1868. It has also been reported from Braintree by Mr. B. Holland; from Southend, where three were captured, by Mr. J. Russell ; and from Rainham by Mr. F. Venables. A single specimen which occurred at St. Osyth on September 14, 1881, appears to have been the last found in the county. The Dark Green Fritillary (A. aglaia] is recorded by old authors as occurring near Colchester, at Lexden Heath, Dedham Birch Wood, Bromley Thicks, and woods at West Bergholt ; but all these localities have undergone extensive changes, and if aglaia ever was a north Essex species it must have long ago disappeared ; and there are no trustworthy records from any other quarter, for though examples are occasionally reported they always prove to be the next species. The High-brown Fritillary (A. adippe] is common at Colchester and in several of the larger woods in the north-east of the county, but seems scarce in the south, though the Rev. G. H. Raynor says it is not uncommon at Brentwood and occurs sparingly at Hazeleigh and Wood- ham Mortimer. It is also reported from the Southend district, and appears formerly to have been frequently taken at Epping and Hainault. The Silver-washed Fritillary (A. papbia) is much more restricted in its range about Colchester than adippe^ but is common in several woods, including those at Donyland and St. Osyth. Mr. G. F. Mathew reports it from the Harwich district, Mr. Raynor from Hazeleigh and Warley, and Professor Meldola from Leyton. It has practically dis- appeared from Epping Forest, where it formerly abounded. The Greasy Fritillary (Melitcea aurinia) was formerly found in several localities near Epping, but since June, 1872, 'when three speci- mens were taken near the Robin Hood,' no others have been seen. In Newman's British Butterflies Colchester is quite erroneously given as a locality for the species, and in the same work Mr. W. R. Jeffrey is made responsible for its occurrence at Saffron Walden. The Heath Fritillary (M. athalid] according to tradition was formerly found in several woods in north Essex, but in the latter half of the past century it was practically confined to those ' woods bordering the road from Colchester to Ipswich,' where Mr. Edward Doubleday found it many years previously. In his day they were 700 acres in extent and constituted one of the very best localities for insects in the country, but now they are reduced to about 120 acres, which are strictly preserved. In one of the woods athalia abounded till about 1890, when, as more cover was required for game, the underwood was allowed 138 INSECTS to grow over its whole extent, and no fresh clearance was made for several years. The glades were also kept closely clipped and mown, which resulted in the total disappearance of all the sun-loving plants, including the Melampyrum and Digitalis on which the larva? of athalia feed, nor were any bramble or other flowers left for the perfect insects. Consequently the species was literally starved out and completely exter- minated ; for though at the commencement of its evil days stragglers might be met with miles away from their native home, it is to be feared that none of them succeeded in establishing a new colony elsewhere, which is greatly to be regretted, as the Essex form of this beautiful insect was larger and more richly coloured than any occurring else- where. The Comma (Vanessa C-album) seems to have abounded at Epping in the early part of the nineteenth century, but only occasional stragglers have been met with in the county in more recent times. About 1850 several specimens were captured near Colchester by the late W. Tillaney. Mr. Jeffrey records it from Saffron Walden, and Mr. R. E. Stuart cap- tured an example at Mundon, near Maldon, in 1871. The Large Tortoiseshell (V. polycbloros) is very widely distributed and frequently common, though it seems to have its adverse periods. The larvae most frequently feed on elm, but may also be found on sallow, osier, cherry, pear, etc., and Mr. J. A. Tawell once found a brood at Earles Colne feeding on nettle. The Small Tortoiseshell (V. urticce) abounds everywhere from early spring till late autumn, and has been seen flying briskly along the streets in Colchester on an exceptionally warm day in January. The Peacock (V, id) is very common in some seasons. In 1900 the nettles about Colchester were black with the larvae in the early part of July, and in August the perfect insects visited the clover fields in enormous numbers. The Camberwell Beauty (V. antiopa) is usually very rare and cannot be considered a native of Britain, but from the numerous records it seems to have been at some time noticed in all parts of the county. In 1872 it was comparatively common, but has been extremely rare since. A single specimen was taken at Middlewick, Colchester, in 1880. Single specimens were also taken at Hornchurch, near Dunmow, and at Chelmsford in 1900, and one was seen near Chelmsford on September 7, 1901. The Red Admiral (V. atalanta] is common and generally distributed, and has been exceptionally abundant in recent years. The Painted Lady (V. cardui) is an erratic insect, as uncertain in its appearances as are the 'Clouded Yellows.' After being extremely rare or entirely absent for long periods it will suddenly turn up in great abundance everywhere. Whether it often hibernates in the perfect state in this country is doubtful, but there can be no doubt that most of the specimens found here in the autumn are the progeny of immigrants which reach our shores earlier in the year. A HISTORY OF ESSEX The White Admiral (Limenitis sibylla) is found in most of the larger woods in north Essex, and in the closing year of the past century was very abundant in some of them. It seems however to be scarce in the other districts. Mr. Fitch reports a single specimen from Hazeleigh in 1899, Mr. Jeffrey gives Saffron Walden as a locality, and formerly it occurred in Epping Forest. As the larvas feed on the honeysuckle that grows among the tallest underwood, it follows that large numbers of them must perish every winter when the annual clearances are made, and where these are unusually extensive and continued for three or four years the species may be reduced to the verge of extinction ; and this is probably the main cause of the fluctuation in its numbers in restricted localities. The Purple Emperor (Apatura iris) doubtless suffers from the same cause. The larvae hibernate upon the sallow, and in some of its most favoured haunts there are only a few scattered bushes, and when these are cut the larva? necessarily perish. In many woods sallows abound, and there the struggle for existence is carried on under more favourable conditions ; but in these days the species must always be much scarcer than it was formerly when thousands of acres of grand old trees stood where only a few miserable sticks stand to-day. For the green woods of England have disappeared in all directions, and their beautiful wild flowers, birds and insects have to a very considerable extent gone with them. But even under the most favourable circumstances this butterfly was always more or less sporadic. In 1855-6 it was common in the Colchester district, and again for two or three years in the early eighties was comparatively common ; but since then it has become exceedingly rare, not only in Essex but also in Kent, where it occurred freely about the same time. There its disappearance has been attributed to the rapacity of collectors, but here it cannot have been due to this cause, for certainly not more than five per cent, of the specimens seen were captured, as far as can be ascertained. It seems to have occurred in all the larger Essex woods in past years, and doubtless still exists in some of them, and may again recover its lost ground for a time in the near future. The Marbled White (Melanargia galated] was formerly abundant near the wood on Mersea Island, but disappeared with the wood many years ago. Hartley Wood, St. Osyth, also produced it in great plenty ; but only a small remnant of that wood is still standing, and to the few entomologists of this generation who have visited it galatea is only a tradition not a memory. It still occurs pretty freely in south Essex, where it is found at Laindon, on Canvey Island, on the slopes near Had- leigh Castle and elsewhere, but has disappeared from several other districts. In 1858-9 specimens were found on the railway embank- ment at Lexden, and much more recently a single example was captured on the railway near Wivenhoe ; but whether these were stragglers from the south or from an undiscovered colony which may possibly still exist in the north is a moot point. 140 INSECTS The Speckled Wood (Pararge egeria) was common in the eastern counties in the middle of the past century, but ere its close had vanished completely from nearly all its former haunts, though Mr. B. G. Cole found it still common in Epping Forest about 1890. Why it dis- appeared is a mystery, for it was common in nearly every copse and shady place, and abounded in some woods where it was quite unmolested by collectors. The Wall (P. megcera) is common everywhere in grassy places, though the spring brood is usually much less numerous than that which appears at the close of the summer. The Grayling (Satyrus seme/e) is with us very rare and local. Stragglers turn up occasionally, and have occurred at Dedham and Colchester, where after an interval of many years a single specimen was found on September 9, 1900. Probably it abounded on some of the extensive heaths and moors that surrounded Colchester in past times. The Large and Small Meadow Browns (Epinephele janira and £. fit&onus), the Wood Ringlet (E. byperanthus] and the Small Heath (Ccenonympha pamphilus) are all abundant and widely distributed. The Brown Hair-streak (Thecla betula) is common some seasons in Epping Forest, but scarce elsewhere. It is recorded from Hazeleigh by Mr. Raynor and from Mundon Furze by Messrs. Raynor, Fitch and others. Previous to 1860 it was found sparingly on blackthorn hedges to the north of Colchester and at Langham, but has not been seen there in recent years. The White Hair-streak (T. iv-album) appears to be found wherever the wych-elm grows, and is so very generally distributed that it is need- less to mention any special localities. In favourable seasons it is fairly common, and sometimes abounds. The Purple Hair-streak and the Green Hair-streak (T. quercus and T. rubt) are common and generally distributed, the former in oak woods and the latter in rough places where broom and furze grow freely. The Small Copper (Polyommatus phloeas) is generally common during the summer, especially on the coast. Silvery white, pale golden, nearly black, black-banded and other varieties have at various times been found. The Silver Studded Blue (Lycana agon) occurs freely in one or two places in the Epping district, to which it seems to be entirely restricted. The Brown Argus (L. astrarche) has recently become one of our commonest butterflies. Previous to 1896 it was quite a rarity in the neighbourhood of Colchester, but in that year many thousands of speci- mens might have been taken ; for they abounded in all directions, and the species has continued to hold its ground since, though in lesser numbers. Mr. Fitch had previously taken it commonly at Purleigh and on Osey Island, and Mr. Raynor at Warley, and it is probably at the present time generally common in the county. The Common Blue (L. icarus] is abundant everywhere, especially on the coast, where vast numbers may be seen at rest on grass stems towards the close of the day. 141 A HISTORY OF ESSEX The Clifden or Dartford Blue (L. bellargus) is stated by Mr. Joseph Clarke to have certainly been taken once or twice near Saffron Walden, where there are old specimens in the museum presumably of local origin. The Chalk-hill Blue (L. corydori) is rare in Essex though common elsewhere. Previous to 1860 it occasionally occurred on the railway embankments near Colchester, while several specimens were once met with in the High Woods, though none had been found there previously or have been seen since. It seems to have been common near Epping about 1859, and single specimens were taken in 1885 and 1892. The latest records are one example at Havering-atte-Bower by Miss Ger- trude Pemberton-Barnes in 1899, and one at Great Horkesley in 1901. The Azure Blue (L. argiolus) is widely distributed, but often scarce in some districts; but in 1900—1 it appeared in far greater numbers than had ever been observed before, and seems to have abounded every- where. The Mazarine Blue (L. semiargus) appears to be almost extinct in England, but is reported by Mr. Joseph Clarke to have been formerly taken near Saffron Walden. The Small Blue (L. minima) is reported from the Epping district by Messrs. J. A. Clarke and W. Machin, and Mr. Joseph Clarke records a single specimen captured by himself ' a mile south of Walden.' The Duke of Burgundy (Nemeobius lucina) is uncommon and local. It is however sometimes met with in several woods in the Tendring Hundred. Mr. Raynor finds it sparingly at Woodham Ferris, and Mr. Howard Vaughan found it at Eastwood near Southend. The Grizzled Skipper (Syrichtbus mafoce) is widely distributed and common in many places. The Dingy Skipper (Nisoniactes tages) seems to have always been considered a common insect in Epping Forest, where Professor Meldola and Mr. W. Cole found it in abundance in 1889—90 ; but previous to 1893 only a single example had occurred in the Colchester district. In that year several were found in the High Woods, and since then it has been quite common. Mr. G. F. Mathew states that it also occurs near Harwich. The Small Skipper (Hesperia thaumas] is abundant everywhere in rough grassy places. The Essex Skipper (H. lineola) is common all along the coast, but does not seem to be found far inland. Before 1890 it was mixed up in our collections with the previous species, of which it was considered to be a variety, till Mr. Hawes when looking over the plates of Lang's Rhopalocera Europte found it to be distinct. The Large Skipper (H. syhanus) is the most generally distributed species of the family, and is common everywhere from the end of May till August. The Silver-spotted Skipper (H. comma) is reported from Danbury by Mr. Fitch, who states that three examples were taken there on 142 INSECTS August 2, 1884, and there are specimens in the Saffron Walden Museum which Mr. Joseph Clarke says were caught in that neighbourhood. It does not seem to have occurred elsewhere in the county. HETEROCERA Moths SPHINGES AND BOMBYCES The Death's Head Hawk Moth (Acherontia atropos) is usually scarce, but occasionally the larvae and pupae are found in some numbers. In 1900 it was exceptionally common throughout the county. The Convolvulus Hawk (Sphinx convo/vu/i) seems to be found in larger or smaller numbers every season ; from its powerful flight no limit can be set to its range, and if looked for at dusk on a warm September evening it would probably be found everywhere. The Privet Hawk (S. /igustri) is also of general occurrence, and in the larva state frequently common on privet, lilac, ash and other trees. The Bedstraw Hawk (Deilephila galii) is nearly always rare, but occasionally occurs in some numbers. In 1888 its larvas abounded on various species of Galium all along the coast in August and September, and many Were found dead on the sands when the nights became cold. In previous seasons it has been found on Glarkia and (Enothra at Colchester, and has been recorded from several other localities. The last occurred in 1895 when five larvae were found between Brightlingsea and Clacton-on-Sea. The Striped Hawk (D. Iruornica) is an occasional migrant like the last, but is always very rare. Colchester, Mistley, Upton Park, Walton-on-the- Naze and Walthamstow are recorded localities. The Silver Striped Hawk (Chcerocampa ce/erio), another rare migrant, has repeatedly occurred, larvae having been found feeding on vine at Colchester, Coggeshall and Chelmsford, and perfect insects at Great Baddow, Chelmsford, Harwich, Walton-on-the-Naze and other places. The Small Elephant Hawk (C. porcellus) is very widely distributed, especially near the coast. The Large Elephant Hawk (C. elpenor) is occasionally found rather freely in the larva state on willow-herb and bedstraw in damp meadows at Colchester and sometimes in gardens on Clarkia and fuchsia, and doubtless occurs under similar conditions throughout the county. The Eyed, Poplar and Lime Hawk Moths (Smerinthus oce//atus, S. populi and S. tilice) are generally common among the trees and shrubs upon which their larvae respectively feed. The Humming Bird Hawk (Macroglossa stellatarum) occurs everywhere, and though usually scarce and sometimes absent from some districts for long periods is occa- sionally quite common, as was the case in 1899 and 1900. The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk (M. fuciformis) seems to be found in all woods where bugle and campion flowers abound ; its larva feeds on the honeysuckle and may sometimes be found in hedges. The Narrow- bordered Bee Hawk (M. bombyliformis), the larva of which feeds on Scabiosa succisa, is extremely rare and local. A single specimen was M3 A HISTORY OF ESSEX captured at Colchester in June, 1896. Mr. H. C. Cole has found it at High Beech, and Mr. Doubleday formerly took it at Epping. Little dependence can be placed in other records, as the specific name of each of these two species is often erroneously applied to the other. The Poplar Hornet Clearwing (Trochilium apiformis] was commoner some years ago than it is now. Its larva feeds on the solid wood of the black and balsam poplar and aspen, preferring trees that are in the full vigour of their growth ; but so many poplars have been felled and so few planted in recent years that it is no longer an easy species to obtain. The Sallow Hornet Clearwing (T. crabroniformis) occurs everywhere where sallows and osiers abound, but though the holes in the stems from which it has emerged are very much in evidence, the perfect insect is generally much more difficult to discover. The Dusky Clearwing (Sesia tabaniformis] can scarcely be considered a British insect in these days, and its only claim to a place in our list rests on its capture at Epping by Mr. H. Doubleday in 1839. The White-barred Clearwing (S. sphegi- formis) is also extremely rare and local, but has been taken in south Essex by Mr. J. A. Cooper in 1890 and by Mr. Thurnall in 1888. The Currant Clearwing (S. tlpuliformis] is common in gardens, where its larvae are said to be very injurious ; but however this may be elsewhere, certain old currant bushes at Colchester which have been affected for more than forty years were producing their usual prolific crop of fruit quite recently. The Yellow-belted Clearwing (S. asilifor- mis) is found in the larva state nearly everywhere in oak stumps where the trees have been felled the previous year. The Red-belted Clear- wing (S. myopiformis) is often common in gardens and orchards, and is probably the greatest enemy of the apple grower that exists ; for though the Codling Moth takes heavy toll of the fruit this insect often slowly but surely destroys the trees themselves. The Large Red- belted Clearwing (S. culiciformis) affects freshly cut birch stumps, and would be very common but for the woodpeckers ; it seems to occur in all woods where birch grows freely. A white-belted variety has been captured at Colchester. The Red-tipped Clearwing (S. formiciformis) is local and less frequently found now than when osiers — on the pith of which the larvas feed — were more extensively cultivated. It occurs at Colchester, Mark's Tey and Coggeshall, and probably elsewhere where old osier grounds still exist. The Six-belted Clearwing (S. ichneumoni- formis] occurs sparingly at Southend, where Mr. Whittle met with it in 1900. The Rev. C. R. N. Burrows also finds it at Benfleet, and it has been seen on Northey Island. The Fiery Clearwing (S. cbrysidiformis) formerly occurred near Southend, but does not seem to have been found since 1860, which was probably the most disastrous year experi- enced by Lepidoptera in recent times. The Green Forester (Ino statices) is found in the Epping district, and has been taken at Warley by Mr. Willament. The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet (Zygcena trlfolii) is reported from Epping and Hainault by Mr. Machin and from Warley Gap by 144 INSECTS Mr. Willament. The Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet (Z. loniceree) is also recorded from Hainault by Mr. Machin. The Six-spotted Burnet (Z. JUipendulce) occurs in many places, including Southend, Warley Gap, Maldon, Clacton and Walton-on-the-Naze. The pale yellow form has been captured at Leigh, and quite recently there was a large colony near Colchester which produced very beautiful pink, orange and terra cotta forms. Owing to changes effected since 1896 it is to be feared that this colony is now practically extinct. Sarothripus undulanus is scarce and local. A few were taken at Mucking by Mr. Burrows in 1900, and examples have been captured at Colchester and St. Osyth. Earias chlorana is sometimes common among osiers. The Green Silver-lines (Hylophila prasinana) is of general occurrence among oak, birch and beech, and the Scarce Silver-lines (H. bicolorana) though far from common is widely distributed in parks and oak woods. The Short-cloaked (No/a cucullatella) is common among white- thorn and blackthorn and also about fruit trees. The Small Black Arches (N. strigula} is scarce and local, but has been found at Brentwood and Hazeleigh by Mr. Raynor, at Southend by Mr. Howard Vaughan, near Harwich by Mr. Mathew, and also at Colchester and St. Osyth. The Least Black Arches (N. confusalis) is found sparingly in the same localities and seems to be more generally distributed. Nudaria senex is found at Dovercourt by Mr. Mathew, at Mucking by Mr. Burrows, and at Halstead by Mr. Percy Adams, and is also recorded from Epping and Leigh. N. mundana has occurred sparingly at Colchester, Mucking and St. Osyth. The Dew Moth (Setina irrorella} was reported by Mr. Edward Doubleday to have been found commonly in the larva state on Lichen caninus at Mersea and St. Osyth many years ago. There are no other records for the county, and this may have been a mistake ; for though the larva of an allied species (Lithosia complana) has been frequently obtained since on Lichen caninus at St. Osyth no irrorella have been found. The Rosy Footman (Calligenia miniata) is fairly common in woods. A yellow form has been twice met with at Colchester. The Four-dotted Footman (Lithosia mesomella) is widely distributed, but not generally common. The Orange Footman (L. sororcula) was common for a period some twenty-five years ago, but afterwards became very scarce ; it has again occurred rather more frequently during the past three or four years, and in 1899 Mr. Raynor met with it in some numbers at Hazeleigh. The Dingy Footman (L. griseola) is of frequent occurrence in many places, and its variety, L. Jiava (stramineola, Dbl.), is recorded from the Epping and Harwich districts. The Common Footman (L. lurideola) is of general distribution, but is seldom so common as to be abundant. The Scarce Footman (L. complana) is more local, but not really scarcer where it occurs than the last species ; it seems to be more i 145 19 A HISTORY OF ESSEX frequently met with on or near the coast than inland. The Large Foot- man (L. quadra} has been taken among other places at Colchester, Harwich and Hazeleigh, but was always rare, and has not been found recently. The Red-necked Footman (L. rubricollis), like most members of its family, is a somewhat uncertain species. It was at one time very abundant at Langham and Little Bentley, but is not of frequent occurrence now, though it may still be occasionally found in some woods in the Tendring Hundred. The Crimson-speckled Footman (Deiopeia pulchella) is a rare migrant which was captured at Epping in 1846, at Southend in 1882, and at St. Osyth, where Mr. Fitch found two specimens on June 6, 1892. The Cinnabar (Euchelia jacobcece] occurs sparingly in many places, but seems only to be well established and common in two or three localities in the Epping and Southend districts. The Clouded Buff (Nemeophila russuld) is scarce and local, but has been taken in Epping Forest by Professor Meldola, at Eastwood by Mr. Whittle, and near Brentwood by Messrs. Burrows and Raynor. It formerly occurred sparingly near Colchester, but has not been seen since 1867. ' The Wood Tiger (N. plantaginls] was not uncommon twenty years ago in one of the St. Osyth woods, but has died out or gone elsewhere. The Common Tiger (Arctia cajd) was until recently extremely common everywhere, but for several years has been very uncommon in the northern part of the county. The last time the larvas abounded they were largely infested with ichneumons, and it may very probably be to this cause that their present scarcity is due. The Cream-spot Tiger (A. •villica] is now much commoner than it was formerly, especially on the coast, where the larvae in some seasons abound. Several specimens of a very beautiful and striking variety have been obtained by Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt, and other fine forms have been bred from larva? found else- where. The Ruby Tiger (Spilosoma fuliginosa) appears to be scarce and local, for it is only reported for the Colchester district in recent years, though there are old records of its occurrence at Epping and Witham. The Muslin Moth (S. mendicd) is found sparingly all over the county. The Buff Ermine (S. lubricipedd] and the White Ermine (S. menthastri) are generally common, but the Water Ermine (S. urticce) is scarce and local. It has occurred at Colchester and Frinton. The Ghost (Hepialus humult) is common in grassy places everywhere. The Wood Swift (H. sylvanus) may sometimes be found on the coast, but more frequently among bracken in woods. The Common Swift (H. lupulinus) abounds in all directions, and the Golden Swift (H. hectus) is common for a few minutes about sunset in damp places in woods. The Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda], though still common, is less abundant than formerly, as large numbers of infested trees have been removed and the wood- peckers have been unremitting in their attentions to those that still re- main. The Wood Leopard (Zeuzera pyrina] is far from common generally, but occurs sparingly in many places, including Colchester, Ilford, Maldon 146 INSECTS and St. Osyth. Heferogenea limacodes (testudo) is fairly common in many oak woods, but does not seem to frequent those near Harwich and St. Osyth. H. asella is very local, but is widely distributed in the Epping Forest district, and single examples have occurred at Colchester and Little Bent- ley. The Brown-tail (Porthesia cbrysorrbaea) is a very uncertain insect. It suddenly became extremely abundant for a short period about twenty- five years ago, after which it entirely disappeared and was supposed to be extinct ; but during the past three years it has again been found com- monly near Colchester, and Mr. Mathew has also found it plentifully near Harwich. The Yellow-tail (P. similis) abounds everywhere. The White Satin (Leucoma salicis) is widely distributed and frequently com- mon about poplars and willows, but of somewhat irregular occurrence. It is probably to a large extent a migratory species, as Mr. Kerry reports it coming in from the sea in thousands at Harwich on June 27, 1878. The Black Arches (Psilura monacha) occurs freely in oak woods. The Dark Tussock (Dasychira fascelina) was formerly common on the railway embankments between Colchester and Mark's Tey, where the larvae fed on broom and sallow, but since the system of firing the herbage has been regularly practised it has disappeared with many other species, though possibly stragglers may still linger somewhere in the district. It has also occurred sparingly at Great Bentley and Southend. The Light Tussock (D. pudibunda) is common throughout the county. The Scarce Vapourer (Orgyia gonostigma) is found in the neighbourhood of Brentwood, where Mr. Raynor says it is very local. It has also occurred at Danbury. The Common Vapourer (O. antiqua) abounds everywhere, and may sometimes be seen flying even in the main streets of the more populous towns. The Pale Eggar (Tricbiura crateegi) is very generally distributed, but seems to be nowhere common. The December Moth (Pcecilocampa populi) must have received its English name from a belated specimen, as it usually appears in November, when the male comes rather freely to light. It is of general occurrence, but both this and the last species have been scarce of late. The Small Eggar (Eriogaster lanestris] some- times occurs in extreme abundance, and the webs of its gregarious larva? may be seen in all directions. A few may be found almost any year, but occasionally they are scarce for indefinite periods. The Lackey (Eombyx neustria) is of similar habits to the last, and the same account will serve equally well for it. The Coast Lackey (B. castrensis] inhabits the salt marshes, from which its ova are frequently borne by the tides to the higher levels of the sea walls and coast sands. Though sometimes difficult to find, they are extremely abundant in favourable seasons — such as 1899 and 1900 — and occur in suitable places all along the coast from Southend to Harwich. The Fox Moth (B. rubi) is often abundant on the coast and elsewhere in the larva state in the late autumn, and the perfect insect may sometimes be seen flying over rough uncultivated places in June. The Oak Eggar (B. quercus) is generally common, but there are often periods of scarcity during which its larvae may be looked for to very little purpose. The Drinker (Odonestis potatoria) was ex- 147 A HISTORY OF ESSEX tremely common before the great drought of 1893, but smce then has been very scarce, at least in the Colchester district. As it has been found in immense numbers in the Fens of late, it may perhaps have forsaken its former sunburnt haunts for a time for more congenial sur- roundings. The Lappet (Lasiocampa quercifolia), though far from common, is widely distributed, and may be sought for with a good chance of suc- cess in any district where sloe abounds. The Emperor Moth (Saturnia pavonia) is frequently met with in the larva state, and being gregarious and polyphagous it is easy to obtain a good supply of the perfect insect. The Scalloped Hook Tip (Drepana lacertinarid) has of late been absent from Dedham and St. Osyth, where it was at one time not uncommon. It has also been found at Warley and Epping, and probably occurs periodically in most birch districts. The Pebble Hook Tip (D. falca- taria) is common, and speedily avails itself of fresh opportunities for extending its boundaries. The Oak Hook Tip (D. binaria) is generally distributed among oaks, and seems to have been commoner recently than it was formerly. The Beech Hook Tip (D. cultrarid] is found in some numbers in Epping Forest and also more sparingly at Brentwood, but has been assiduously sought for in vain in north Essex. The Chinese Character (Cilix glaucata) abounds everywhere. The Sallow Kitten (Dicranura furcula) and the Poplar Kitten (D. bifidd] are of general occurrence but cannot be called common, the latter being much the scarcer of the two. The Puss (D. vinuld) is common everywhere. The Lobster (Stauropus fagi) is scarce, but seems to be found in all parts of the county, especially where beech grows freely, as at Epping and Brent- wood, but it also occurs in most of the larger woods. The Dusky Marbled Brown (Glyphisia crenata) is extremely rare in Britain, but two specimens were captured by Mr. H. Doubleday in Ongar Park Woods in 1839 and 1841. The Pale Prominent (Pterostoma palpina) is found sparingly among poplars and willows. The Coxcomb Prominent (Lophopteryx cametina) is common everywhere. The Maple Prominent (L. cuculla) is scarce and local, but occurs pretty regularly on the boulder clay to the north-west of Colchester. The Birch Prominent (L. car- melita) has only been recorded from the Epping district, where Mr. Doubleday occasionally met with it many years ago. The Swallow Prominent (Notodonta dictcea) is fairly common among poplars, and the Lesser Swallow Prominent (N. dictczoides), though scarce, is sometimes found at Epping, Colchester, St. Osyth and elsewhere. The Iron Prominent (N. dromedaritts) will frequently be found if well looked for on birch and alder, from which its larva may be beaten in the autumn. The Three Humped Prominent (N. trilopbus) is one of our greatest rarities. The only known Essex specimen was bred by Mr. J. W. Douglas on August 10, 1842, from a larva found on aspen at St. Osyth. The Pebble Prominent (N. ziczac) is common in the larva state on aspen, poplar and sallow. The Great Prominent (N. trepida], the Lunar Marbled Brown (N. chaonid] and the Marbled Brown (N. trimacula) are found in parks and oak woods ; they are widely distributed but always 148 INSECTS scarce. The Buff Tip (Pbaleria bucephala) is found everywhere and often in superabundance. The Chocolate Tip (Pygcera curtula) occurs freely in the larva state on aspen, and the Small Chocolate Tip (P. pigra] abounds on aspen and sallow. The Buff Arches (Thyatira derasa) and the Peach Blossom (T. batis) occur generally among brambles, but are not usually found in large numbers. The Figure of Eighty (Cymatophora octogesima) is scarce but cannot be considered local, as nobody acquainted with its habits need despair of finding it in any part of the county where poplars abound. The Poplar Lutestring (C. or) is of general occurrence among aspens, especially in woods. The Lesser Satin Lutestring (C. duplaris) may be found flying among birches at dusk in June. The Lesser Lute- string (Asphalia diluta) comes freely to ' sugar ' in the autumn. The Yellow Horned (A. Jia-vicornis) is to be looked for on birch twigs and stems on mild days in March, but though very widely distributed, it seems to be less common in Essex than in some other counties. The Frosted Green (A. ridens), being attached to the oak, occurs in all the well wooded districts, but is not nearly so common in our county as in the New Forest. NOCTUM BRYOPHILID^ Bryophila perla is generally common on old walls. BOMBYCOID^: Moma orion is widely distributed in oak woods, especially near Colchester and in the Tendring Hundred. Demas coryll is fairly com- mon among birch and beech. Acronycta tridens and A. psi are generally distributed, the former being the scarcer, but both have been much less common since 1893 than they were previously. A. leporina is far from common. It was formerly found occasionally near Colchester, and has more recently occurred at Brentwood and Epping. A. aceris was a common Colchester insect some years ago, but gradually decreased in numbers and at last entirely disappeared. Larva? were always to be found on two old sycamores that formerly stood in the Abbey Field, and it was after their removal that the period of scarcity set in. It still occurs in several localities in south Essex. A. megacephala is generally common about poplars. A. alni is very rare, but has occurred at Colchester and Wormingford. A. ligustri is scarce at Alresford and Colchester, but doubtless has a wide distribution among ash and privet. A. rumicis and Diloba cceruleocephala abound everywhere. LEUCANIIDjE Leucania conigera during the recent period of extreme agricultural depression swarmed at thistle flowers, which then abounded in some of the forsaken fields, but since these have again come under the plough the insect has been much less numerous. L. vitellina is unique for the county, and has only recently obtained a place in our list, a single specimen having been taken by the Rev. W. Claxton at Navestock in 149 A HISTORY OF ESSEX September, 1900. L. turca does not seem to occur in north Essex, but is found in the Epping district, and Mr. Raynor says it is periodically common at Brentwood. L. lithargyria occurs freely everywhere. L. obsoleta is scarce and local, but has been taken in the Southend district by Mr. Whittle and others, and at Rainham and Mucking by Mr. Burrows. L,. littoralis is found by Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt, and occurs sparingly at Clacton-on-Sea. L. impudens (pudorina, Hb.) has been taken by Mr. Whittle near Southend. L. comma sometimes comes pretty freely to ' sugar.' L. straminea is not common, but occurs generally on the coast and probably elsewhere among reeds. Mr. Cansdale used to find it at Witham. L. impura and L. pallens are generally common. L. favico/or, a comparatively recent addition to the British list, was discovered by Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt, and a single specimen has been taken by Mr. Whittle at Great Wakering. These are the only captures at present recorded. Calamia phragmitidis is of general occurrence among reeds, in the stems of which its larvae feed. Senta maritima (u/v.(?) ga/eata, Sars, and D.(?) cucullata, Sars. It would be pleasing 1 It may be sufficient to refer here once for all to Mr. Scourfield's Papers on ' The Entomostraca of Epping Forest, with some General Remarks on the Group,' in The Essex NaturaRit, vol. x. pp. 193- tio (1897); vol. x. pp. 159-74 (1898); vol. x. pp. 313-34 (1898), the last part containing a valuable bibliography of the subject, in addition to a detailed list of the Epping Forest species, to which my quotations refer when not otherwise noted. 1 British Entomtstraea, Ray Soc. p. 1 1 o. 211 A HISTORY OF ESSEX to discriminate all these by a few luminous strokes of the pen, but no more can be attempted here than to indicate the difficulties of such an undertaking. Always, everywhere, and by all men, the common water flea has been known as D. pu/ex, de Geer. Why then does M. Jules Richard in his important Revision des Cladoceres write it down as D. pu/ex, Leydig ? His reason is simple: that Leydig in 1860 was the first to give a really satisfactory description of a species under that name, earlier writers having left it uncertain what particular species or what jumble of species may have been intended by what they chose or chanced to call D.pulex. Only Zenker, he says, in 1851 had already noted ' the long ciliated abdominal prolongation of the male,' which is highly characteristic for that sex, the females being recognizable by the very small first antennas, the concave ventral border of the head, and the general shape.1 Dr. G. S. Brady, citing both de Geer and Leydig, describes and figures both sexes of this species, the male from a pond at Whipscross Road, Essex, whence Mr. Scourfield had supplied him with specimens.2 For D. magna a characteristic feature is found, not in the abdomen, but in the post-abdomen. This in the female has the dentate parts of its dorsal margin separated by a deep sinus. In the male it ' bears in front of the terminal unguis a finger-like lobe,' in allusion to which Dr. Brady calls the new genus in which he places it Dactylura, finger-tail.3 Of his 'Daphnia(1} ga/eata, Sars,' Mr. Scourfield says : ' By comparison with specimens of D. ga/eata kindly sent to me by Prof. Sars, I have been able to see that our Epping Forest form is not only not a typical representative of the species, but that it may even be quite distinct. As I cannot decide, however, to which of the other hyaline species it belongs, I have preferred to continue to refer it doubt- fully to D. ga/eata. The typical D, ga/eata has been recorded as British by Prof. Brady.' According to Brady's figures this ' helmeted ' form is very variable and sometimes of rather comical aspect. Upon his other doubtful species, Mr. Scourfield remarks : ' This form, which I have recorded in the paper on the Entomostraca of Wanstead Park [Journ. Quekett Micro. C/ut>, 1893] as D. cucu//ata, is almost exactly similar to the foregoing species, but is without the eye-spot. It is certainly not a characteristic representative of D. cucu//ata, but, on the other hand, it cannot with greater certainty be referred to any other species.' He suggests its possible identity with ' D. kablbergensis, Brady' (1898), but this reference is a little inexact, since Brady writes * Hyalodaphnia kabl- bergensis (Schcedler),' though in regard to Schodler's Hyalodaphnia he agrees with Richard that it scarcely differs from Dapbnia except by the absence of an eye-spot. In both of these genera the first antennae of the female are immovable ; in Ceriodapbnia, Dana, they are movable, and of this genus Mr. Scourfield finds five species in Essex, C. mega/ops, Sars, C. rotunda (Straus), C. reticulata (Jurine), C. quadrangula (O. F. Miiller) 1 Annales des Sdencei Naturellet, ser. 8, vol. ii. p. 235 (1896). 2 Nat. Hiit. Trans. 'Northumberland, etc., vol. xiii. pt. 2, p. 223 (1898). s Loc. cit. p. 240. 212 CRUSTACEANS and C. scitu/a, Herrick. The first four are noted by Baird under the genus Daphnia, but he regards quadrangula as only a variety of reticu/ata. Herrick's species, being new to the British fauna, is described and figured by Mr. Scourfield. After noting its rather large size and the comparatively small hexagons in the reticulation of its valves, he con- tinues : * The fornices1 are prominent, but not angulated, though in the males there may be an indication of a tooth at the point of greatest extension. The antennules in the female are small, but those of the male are large, being, in fact, probably larger than in any other known species, with the exception of C. megalops. The post-abdomen is tapered towards the end, and is furnished with about ten anal teeth. The terminal claws are without combs. The females carry about eight eggs in the brood chamber, and these are retained in position by a very large spur, which quite overshadows the little projection occupying the place of the second spur.' In Scapholeberis the ventral margin of the valves is almost straight, with no convergence between it and the dorsal margin as in Dapbnia. In Simocephalus the reticulation of the valves is formed by long transverse lines instead of small meshes. Both these genera were separated from Daphnia by Schodler. They yield to Essex Scapboleberis mucronata (O. F. M tiller), with its variety cornuta, and the very common Simo- cephalus vetu/us (O. F. Miiller), together with 5. exspinosus (de Geer), a species so near to its neighbour that Mr. Scourfield apologizes for the smallness of the distinctions between them. Of the Scapholeberis , he says : * The evidence from the whole of Epping Forest is the same as that already recorded from Wanstead Park, namely, that during the earlier part of the annual period of activity only the cornuta form is to be found, the typical form not making its appearance until August at the earliest.' Of Moina rectirostris (O. F. Miiller), from the margin of the Warren Pond, Chingford, he notes that the ephippium contained only one egg. Generally in the Daphniidae this ' saddle ' contains two eggs. The eggs laid in this strange casket are called ' resting-eggs ' or winter eggs, and will not hatch without fertilization. When this has occurred, at the next change of the mother's skin, the ephippium or case formed for sheltering them is thrown off along with it, and they can rest in patient security till a favourable season for their development comes round. The ordinary eggs develop parthenogenetically within the matrix, and without need of a father. From the small family Bosminidae Essex is credited with Bosmina longirostris (O. F. Miiller) and its near ally B. cornuta (Jurine). For the next family Mr. Scourfield adopts the name Lyncodaphnidae, but this from its earliest genus should rather be called Macrotrichidas. It is illustrated in this county by Ilyocryptus sordidus (Lievin), a non- swimming species, with an unflattering name that means 'the mud-hidden dirty one,' and by two species of the typical genus, Macrothrix laticornis 1 The»e so-called arches are chitinous projections at the sides of the head, uniting it with the thorax. 213 A HISTORY OF ESSEX (Jurine), and M. hirsuticornis, Norman and Brady, of which Mr. Scour- field writes : ' Without doubt this is one of the best records in the whole list of Epping Forest Entomostraca. Since the species was first described in 1867, it appears to have been only once again recorded in the British Isles,1 and on the continent it has only been found by a few observers. It is a fine species, being in fact the largest of the genus. Numerous specimens were taken in Connaught Water on March 10, 1894, but curiously enough none could be found about a month later, nor has the species been seen again.' The fourth family of this section has been called by several writers Lynceidse, a name which properly belongs to the phyllopod family Limnetidae, and which cannot in any case be used for a group in which there is now no such genus as Lynceus. The present family must be called Chydoridas, from its earliest genus Chydorus, instituted in 1 8 1 6 by W. E. Leach, who may be regarded as the founder of English carcinology. To Essex are assigned Chydorus sphcericus (O. F. Miiller),one of the excessively common species ; C. ccelatus, Schodler ; C. latus, Sars ; C. globosus, Baird. From the numerous other genera Mr. Scourfield records Eurycercus lamellatus (O. F. Miiller) ; Acroperus harpa, Baird, with a large variety perhaps equivalent to Koch's Lynceus leucocephalus ; Camptocercus rectirostris, Schodler, which is perhaps Baird's C. macrourus ; Leydigia quadrangularis (Leydig), with a name of rather doubtful validity ; Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer) ; Alona guttata, Sars ; A. tenuicaudis, Sars ; A. quadrangular is (O. F. Miiller) ; A. ajpnis, Leydig ; A. costata, Sars ; A. rectangula, Sars, to take the place of A. intermedia, Sars, an earlier record now cancelled ; A. rustica, T. Scott, ' only obtained by washing pieces of wet moss'; Alonella excisa (Fischer) ; A. nana (Baird), smallest of known arthropods ; A. rostrata (Koch) ; Pleuroxus trigonellus (O. F. Miiller) ; P. uncinatus, Baird ; Peracantha truncata (O. F. Miiller) ; and Monospilus tenuirostris (Fischer). Of the last Mr. Scourfield says : 'The presence of this very peculiar species in the forest district was first ascertained by its being found in the stomach of a roach from the Eagle Pond. It has since been taken with the net from the same piece of water.' The genus Monospilus, Sars, has more than one character that may well claim to arrest the student's attention. Thus M. Jules Richard observes, ' Exuviation is the rule among Cladocera, but in some cases the old carapace is not shed ; it remains on the new one, so that we have the appearance of lines of growth fringed with setae as in Ilyocryptus and Monospilus? 2 This, it will be remembered, is a regular and prominent feature in the bivalved phyllopods. Another character is enjoyed by Monospilus uniquely among the Cladocera, and to this it is indebted for its rather singular name, meaning ' with only a spot.' The rest of the Cladocera have each a single median eye, composed of more or less numerous elements, and in addition to this they sometimes have, and sometimes have not, on the ventral face of the head a small mass of 1 Scott and Duthie, Fishery Board for Scotland, \\th Ann. Rep. p. 229 (1896). * Annales des Science Naturelles, ser. 7, vol. xviii. p. 309 (1895). 214 CRUSTACEANS pigment, called the eye-spot. What may be its precise function is not perhaps precisely known, but if that function be not visual the species of Monospilus must be blind, for they have the eye-spot, but apart from that they have no eye. In Mr. Scourfield's various papers many interesting observations are given on the species above enumerated. It would take up too much space to give adequately even a summary of all this valuable information, but attention may be called to one branch of his researches which may be regarded as exceptionally important. In a paper on Leydigia acantho- cercoides (Fischer), a species closely related to L. quadrangular^ (Leydig), he says : ' There seems no room for doubt at the present day that the production of winter or resting eggs is of universal occurrence among the little animals belonging to the Crustacean sub-order Cladocera, not- withstanding the fact that in many species such eggs have not yet been observed. In the most representative family, the Daphnidas, these special eggs are always enclosed in a very remarkable and complex modification of the shell of the mother, commonly known as the ' ephippium,' because of its resemblance to a saddle both as regards shape and position. In the other Cladoceran families the production of an ephippium, similar in all respects to that found among the Daphnida?, is extremely rare, the only certain instance, so far as I know, being Macrothrix spinosa, King, recorded by Professor G. O. Sars in Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera raised from Dried Mud. Nevertheless structures clearly homologous to true ephippia, though usually very much simpler, are found in the families Bosminidae, Lyncodaphnidae and Lynceida?. The species belonging to the remaining families of the Cladocera appear to allow their resting eggs to escape freely into the water without providing them with any auxiliary coverings.' ' Mr. Scourfield then proceeds to point out that already in 1820 Jurine ' distinctly refers to the saddle or ephippium in the case of Cbydorus sphcericus, that Schodler in 1846 records of Eurycercus lamel- fatus, ' that a number of winter eggs were deposited at one time in the almost unmodified cast shell of the mother, a fact which has since been confirmed by Weismann,' that by Kurz in 1874 protective coverings for the winter eggs were reported ' in some sixteen species belonging to the genera Camptocercus, Alona, Plearoxus, Chydorus, etc.,' and that slightly later, in 1 877, ' Weismann independently discovered the resting eggs of several species of the same family ' [Chydoridas], while since that time ' the resting eggs of many other species have been alluded to, in more or less detail, by various writers.' In an earlier paper Mr. Scourfield says : ' Compared with the highly evolved " ephippium " which is formed by the Daphnidz for the protection of their resting eggs, the arrange- ment in Cbydorus spbcericus (and other species of the Lynceidse) is manifestly very primitive, and although both are fundamentally the same I would suggest that the simpler structure be distinguished as a proto- 1 Journal ef the Quekett Microscopical Club, vol vii. p. 171 (1899). 215 A HISTORY OF ESSEX ephippium.' * Subsequently however he found that although this structure in the Chydorus might be regarded as the most highly evolved of the proto-ephippia hitherto recorded, an advance upon it was made in no less than three respects by the homologous structure in Leydigia acanthocercoides, of which he says : ' First, it is formed, as in the Daphnidae, from a much more limited portion of the shell, bounded approximately by a semicircle described upon the dorsal margin ; secondly, it possesses a thick inner coat of specially formed spongy tissue ; and thirdly, it is provided with large hook-like appendages. In spite of these advances in complexity however it does not quite reach the level of the Daphnidan ephippium, because its outer coat is not specially altered beyond the mere deposit of pigment and some extra chitin perhaps, whereas in typical ephippia there is always a more or less abundant development of closely-set hexagonal prismatic cells which are quite independent of the original cell structure, and which, becoming readily filled with air, render the ephippium lighter than water.' Of the Ostracoda all but one in Mr. Scourfield's list belong to the family Cypridids, in which the valves are usually smooth and the hinge not toothed. They are Cypria exsculpta (Fischer) ; C. ophthalmica (Jurine) ; Cyclocypris serena (Koch) ; C. /avis (O. F. Miiller) ; Cypris fuscata, Jurine ; C. incongruens (Ramdohr) ; C. virens, Jurine, a large species which ' is essentially an inhabitant of very small pieces of water, especially such as are well stocked with aquatic vegetation ' ; C. (?) reticu/ata, Zaddach ; ' C. tessellata (in part), Brady [1868] : only the immature " tessellata " forms from Wanstead Park have hitherto been seen, so that it is still a little uncertain whether they should be referred to C. reticulata or not ' ; C. obliqua, Brady ; Erpetocypris reptans (Baird) ; E. strigata (O. F. Miiller) ; E. tumefacta (Brady and Robertson), this and the two preceding species belonging properly to Erpetocypris as instituted in 1889, not to Herpetocypris as proposed in 1896, the name in either form alluding to the creeping habit, as to which Norman and Brady write : ' The power of swimming is lost, and the habits of the animals, which creep along the bottom, are thus very different from those of Cypris ' ; 2 Prionocypris serrata, Norman ; Cypridopsis vi//osa (Jurine) ; Pionocypris vidua (O. F. Miiller) ; Notodromas monacha (O. F. Miiller) ; Ilyocypris gibba (Ramdohr) ; Candona candiaa (O. F. Miiller) ; C. /actea, Baird ; C. compressa (Koch) ; C, pubescent (Koch) ; C.fabceformis (Fischer). In regard to C. pubescens the remark is made that ' within the Epping Forest area it has only been found at Wanstead Park, and this is in fact its only known British locality, as the reference to Pavenham [Bedford- shire] in Brady and Norman's Monograph [part z] p. 729 was made under a misunderstanding.' The name of the genus Notodromas, Lillje- borg, signifies a dorsal runner. Of animals that can move easily with the back downwards house-flies on our ceilings are familiar examples. Many kinds of Entomostraca swim by preference on their backs. In 1 The Annual of Microicopy, p. 64 (Oct. 1898). * Trans. Royal Dublin Soc. ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 84 (1889). 216 CRUSTACEANS respect to a limited number of these, among which Notodromas monacba is included, Mr. Scourfield has pointed out an interesting special adapt- ation. To several of the minute Crustacea the surface-film of water proves a dangerous trap. When accidentally placed upon it they are disabled from effecting a return by their own exertions to its underside. But by help of a flattened ventral area, water-repellent surfaces and film- piercing ridges, Notodromas monacba turns the risky situation to its own advantage. ' Close attention to the movements of an isolated specimen will show that although it swims nearly vertically, the moment it touches the surface it assumes a horizontal position, back downwards, thus bringing its straight ventral margin into close contact with the surface-film. ... In this position the animal may continue to move about for an indefinite period, usually rather briskly, but sometimes so leisurely that no doubt is left in the observer's mind that the weight of its body is actually supported by the surface-film.' For further details and the philosophy of the matter whether as a question of physics or as affecting the safety of the animal and its chances of food supply, the "Journal of the Linnean Society should be consulted.1 The ostracode that remains to be mentioned is Limnicythere inopinata (Baird). This belongs to the family Cytherida?, which is almost exclu- sively marine, among the few exceptions being the species of Limnicythere. Of L. inopinata Brady and Norman say that it is ' generally distributed in ditches, lakes and slowly running streams throughout the British Islands ; found also not uncommonly in estuarine localities, and sometimes dredged at sea, though in these cases it has probably been washed down out of fresh water.'1 The Copepoda of Essex are distributed among three families. One of these is called Calanidae by Dr. G. S. Brady in 1891, but more recent classification allots that name to a different set of species. Accordingly Mr. Scourfield follows the high authority of Giesbrecht and Schmeil in using the name Centropagidas, but it is clear that the family ought to take its name from the earliest genus within it, and therefore it will properly be called the Diaptomida? from Diaptomus, Westwood, 1836. This genus gives to Essex D. castor (Jurine), a large species ' practically confined to small weedy pools, such as occur plentifully on Leyton Flats ' ; D. graci/is, Sars ; D. vu/garis, Schmeil, * one of the commonest of the genus on the continent, or at any rate in Germany,' not hitherto known as British except from 'The Lake,' Wanstead Park, though probably not really uncommon, ' as it is more than likely that this form has been mistaken for D. graci/is, to which it is very closely allied ' ; Eurytemora lacinulata (Fischer), of which the usual habitat 'is in brackish pools near the coast : as a freshwater animal it is decidedly rare,' Mr. Scourfield only knowing of four British freshwater localities for it. The question of its range appears to be rather complicated by an intricate synonymy. 1 Journ. Linn. Soc. Lentlon, vol. xzv. p. 10 (1896). * Trani. Royal Dub. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 170 (1889). 1 217 28 A HISTORY OF ESSEX The next family, the Cyclopidae, derives its name from the old, much restricted, but still very extensive genus Cyclops^ O. F. Mviller. In this the county possesses C. strenuus, Fischer ; C. leuckarti, Claus ; C. oithonoides, Sars ; C. dybowskii, Lande, an addition to the British fauna ; C. bicuspidatus, Claus ; C. languidus, Sars ; C. verna/is, Fischer ; C. bisetosus, Rehberg ; C. viridis (Jurine), of which Lubbock's C. brevicornis and the C. gigas of Claus are now usually regarded as synonyms, but Scourfield urges that in Epping Forest gigas (the typical viridis) is not connected by any intermediate links with brevicornis ; that the former is an exceed- ingly widely distributed form, but rarely occurs in the open waters of ponds of moderate size, whilst the latter, on the contrary, is practically only found in such situations'; in addition to which he notices that gigas can always be distinguished from brevicornis by the presence of a line of hairs on the inner margin of each caudal ramus and by its longer ovisacs ; C. bicolor, Sars; C.fuscus (Jurine); C. albidus (Jurine); C. bistriatus, Koch, a peculiar and rare form, of which it has been suggested that it ' is really a hybrid between C.fuscus and C. albidus,' but with some peculiarities of its own ; * as stated by Koch the anterior portion of the carapace [in the Essex specimens] was finely spotted with brown whilst the posterior thoracic segments and the feet were blue or rather blue-green : to the naked eye the whole animal appeared of a blue-green colour, and attracted attention at once as something out of the common ' ; the specimens were found in ponds at Rectory Lane, Loughton, Ambresbury Banks and Lodge Road leading to Copped Hall ; C. serrulatus, Fischer ; C. (?) macrurus, Sars, ' a very doubtful Epping Forest species,' perhaps a variety of C. serrulatus with exceptionally long caudal rami ; C. prasinus (Jurine) ; C. ajfinis, Sars ; C. pbaleratus, Koch ; C.Jimbriatus, Fischer. The third family is named Harpacticidas, after the genus which Milne-Edwards in 1 840 named Arpacticus. But this family should be called the Canthocampidae, if we include in it the earlier genus Cantho- campus, Westwood, 1836. Of this genus Essex is credited with seven species, C. stapbylinus (Jurine) ; C. minutus, Claus ; C. trispinosus, Brady ; C. nortbumbricus, Brady ; C. crassus, Sars ; C. pygmaus, Sars, of which it is remarked that ' next to C. staphylinus this is the commonest species of the genus : the records would not have been nearly so numerous however if the practice of washing wet mosses had not been adopted'; C. zscbokkei, Schmeil. To these must be added Nitocra hibernica (Brady) and Moraria anderson-smithi, T. and A. Scott, of which it is observed that ' on each of the three occasions when this species has been taken it has been associated with sphagnum moss.' For the sake of completeness in the history of the county one may regret that its marine Entomostraca have not been investigated with the assiduity, the trustworthy skill and ample learning which Mr. Scourfield has brought to bear upon those of its inland waters. But, on the other hand, had all sections of the Crustacean class been made the objects of equally thorough research, to have drawn up an adequate account of them within any reasonable compass might have proved an almost 218 CRUSTACEANS impracticable task. Dr. Sorby reports the curious parasitic copepod, Lerneonema spratta (Sowerby), 'found on the eyes of sprats caught in the open water off Essex,' and the sessile cirripede ' Balanus punctatus ' as ' common all along the coast, and especially in the estuaries, where the number of larvae is sometimes so great that in a few days the bottom of a yacht is completely covered with the young shells.' In regard to ' B. punctatus ' a reference to Darwin's celebrated work shows that the name is rather deeply afflicted by chronic vagueness. Under his account of B. balanoides (Linn.) Darwin explains that this species, 'in its corroded and therefore punctured state, is certainly the B. punctatus of most British collections ; but,' he adds, ' I do not believe it is the B. punctatus of Montagu, which I have scarcely any doubt is the Chthamalus stellatus so often found in the southern shores of England, and even in some of the best arranged collections, mingled with our present species.'1 Under C. stellatus (Poli) he says, ' On the coast-rocks of the southern shores of England it is, in parts, even more numerous than the Ba/anus balanoides, with which it often grows mingled. As already stated, it is often con- founded in British collections with this species of Balanus under the name of B. punctatus \ that Montagu had this Chthamalus in view when describing his Lepas punctatus is certain, from his original specimen in the British Museum, but whether this was the case with his predecessor Pulteney in the Dorset Catalogue 1 do not feel so sure.' 1 As Dr. Sorby has kindly furnished me with some of his specimens, I can testify that they include Chthamalus stellatus, and, as I believe, also Balanus crenatus, Bruguiere, which has a calcareous basis, whereas that of B. balanoides is membranous. On the whole it may be concluded that there are at least three species of Thyrostraca or Cirripcdes on the Essex coast. Apart however from Dr. Sorby's interesting manuscript notes, the crustacean parasites of fishes and of many other aquatic animals, the barnacles, stalked or sessile, fixed or floating, and several important groups of the Malacostraca have hitherto had few records or none by which their relative prominence in this locality can be determined. Some future faunistic description of Essex will show, certainly that they are not absent, probably that they are present in abundance. 1 Balmidae, Ray Soc. pp. 208, 456 (1854). 219 FISHES The Essex coast is a very favourable one for those species of fish whose habitat is mainly confined to a shallow sea with a bottom of sand or mud, but to those requiring deeper waters and rocks these conditions are not the most suitable, as there is no hard rock in the county or in the adjoining seas, and these rock loving species are therefore to a great extent absent from our fauna, and when found are usually stragglers from the rocky districts of the more northern counties. Nevertheless the list of Essex fish, incomplete as it must be from causes to be referred to further on, is a comparatively large one in consequence of the shallow estuaries, creeks and channels forming such excellent feeding grounds and nurseries. Considerable difficulties occur to any one endeavouring to compile a list of the fish of a county unless there are some records to refer to, for it is impossible for any single observer to be thoroughly acquainted with all the captures which have occurred in every part of such an extensive coast line as that of Essex. Many species will certainly be omitted, and but little help can be obtained in increasing the list from those fishermen who pursue this calling for a living, as they pay attention only to those species which are marketable, and even amongst these they lump together several under some local name, probably used elsewhere to designate an entirely different species or genus. This difficulty is however not confined to Essex, it is common to the whole coast of the kingdom and is a great drawback to the value of lists in which the captures are described and recorded under their local designations. It might have been expected that in at least one of our numerous fishing villages there would have been found some educated and intelligent observer who would interest himself to discover and record the dif- ferent species of fish caught and to ascertain the nature of the food on which the marketable fish thrive. Unfortunately however this branch of natural history appears to have been entirely neglected in all our districts, with the result that records of captures in the natural history journals are very scanty. Residents in the county who have been interested in natural history have given their attention to other branches to the utter neglect of this one, which is perhaps the most important of all in so far as the well being of the population is concerned. Cause for complaint may possibly soon be removed, for a competent naturalist has lately interested himself in the fisheries of the Thames estuary, so that it may be hoped that our list will be considerably added to in the future. It has unfortunately not been possible to get any list from him up to the present. The writer of this article has therefore laboured 220 FISHES under a great disadvantage, since there are but few Essex records to consult and there are unfortunately no early lists for the county, the only exception being that in Dale's History of Harwich and Dovercourt, published in 1732, which has been used by later writers who have copied from it without making any additions of value. The few records in Yarrell, Day and Donovan, and the occasional notes in the Zoologist, The Field and Land and Water, comprise all, or nearly all, the material that the compiler has been able to procure to assist him in making the following list. He has therefore had but little to add to the notes and records which he had put together from his own knowledge and observation. Free use has been made of the information contained in the list which he had previously compiled and which appeared in one of the special volumes issued by the Essex Field Club, but he has added, so far as his information enables him to do so, all those species which are known to have been captured since the publication of this volume. In the following list an asterisk (*) is placed opposite the names of those species which are found only in freshwater, and two asterisks (**) against those that may be found in both fresh water and salt. TELEOSTEANS ACANTHOPTERYGII *i. Perch. Ptrca ftuviatilis, Linn. Occurs commonly in all the rivers of the county. One weighing 4 Ib. is reported from Dagenham Lake (Field, October, 29, 1881). 2. Ruff or Pope. Acerina cernua, Linn. Lieutenant Croft in a paper (Tram. Herts Nat. Hht. Soc. 1881) says this species is an inhabitant of the river Lea, but it appears to be absent from all the other Essex rivers, un- less there may be some in that portion of the Cam which is within the Essex boundary. ** 3. Sea Bass. Morone labrax, Linn. Taken occasionally in all the Essex estu- aries. 4. Ballan Wrasse. Labrus maculatus, Bloch. Very rare ; three specimens only recorded ; muddy and sandy shores do not suit the habits of this family. 5. Baillon's Wrasse. Crenilabrui melops, Linn. Specimens from the Thames estuary have been presented to the British Museum by Dr. J. Murie, as I am informed by Mr. Boulenger. *6. Miller's Thumb. Coitus gobio, Linn. Occurs plentifully in all our streams, espe- cially those with a gravelly bottom. 7. Greenland Bullhead. Coitus grtenlandicus, Cuv. & Val. Dr. Day confirmed Mr. J. T. Carrington's identification of several specimens of this fish which had been captured in the whitebait nets in the Thames (Zool. 1880, p. 147). They have never been seen to approach the size they are said to attain in Greenland. 8. Father-lasher, Bullhead. Cottus scorpius, Linn. Very frequent all round the coast. C. grtenlandicus is considered by many to be a variety of this species. 9. Bubal is. Cottus bubalis, Euphr. Another very common species. The local name for all these three species is Bullhead. 10. Four-horned Cottus. Cottus q uadricornit, Linn. This is very rare, but Leonard Jenyns says (British Vertebrate Animals, 1835, p. 346) some specimens in the British Museum were found among sprats taken at the mouth of the Thames. 11. Grey Gurnard. Trig/a gurnardus, Linn. Caught sometimes during September in some numbers. In Dale's History of Harwich, p. 431, under grey gurnard, is the following statement : ' This I have seen caught in the sea before this (i.e. Harwich) harbour.' 221 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 12. Red Gurnard. Trig/a cum/us, Linn. Sometimes frequent on the coasts, at others it is rare or entirely absent for several seasons in succession. 13. Tubfish or Sapphirine Gurnard. Trigla hirundo, Linn. This gaily coloured fish is occasionally taken in all the Essex estuaries. 14. Piper. Trigla lyra, Linn. Dale (loc. cit.) says, ' This was caught near Harwich.' !$• Pogge. Agonus cataphractus, Linn. This curious fish is very frequently taken in the shrimp nets, and small ones may be often seen amongst the boiled shrimps. Yar- rell says (British Fishes, i. 71), «on the eastern coast it is very plentiful.' 1 6. Lump-sucker. Cyclopterus lumpus, Linn. Is frequently caught on the coast and in the mouths of the rivers. 1 7. Sea Snail. Lifaris vulgaris, Flem. This is very common, and frequently taken in shrimp and eel trawls. It is a very vari- able fish, some specimens being beautifully coloured and others almost without markings. Couch says (Hist, of Fishes of Brit. Islands, 1860, ii. 191), 'it is found even at the mouth of the Thames.' 1 8. Network or Montagu's Sucker. Liparis montagui, Donov. Not infrequently taken in shrimp trawls. Day says (Fishes of Great Britain, i. 187) ' it is common off the mouth of the Thames.' 19. Doubly- spotted Sucker. Lepadogaster bimaculatus, Penn. Has been rarely recognized, but there is one specimen in Brightlingsea marine station caught in the mouth of the Colne. 20. Spotted Goby. Gobius minutus, Gmel. Common. Yarrell says (British Fishes, i. 260), ' It is apparently a new species from Colchester.' Day (Fishes of Great Britain, \. 1 66) calls it numerous at the mouth of the Thames, and says it ' is commonly found amongst whitebait brought to the London market.' 2 1 . Two-spotted Goby. Gobius ruthensparri, Euphr. This little fish is common on the shores of the Wallet opposite Clacton, where it flourishes on the hard, almost rock-like London clay. It is frequently caught and boiled with the shrimps. 22. Transparent Goby. Aphia pelludda, Nardo. Possibly this may be common on the Essex coasts, but as the shrimpers throw away all the unsaleable fish they catch the opportuni- ties for seeing it are few. I have seen examples that were captured in the Wallet by the fishermen employed at the Biological Station at Brightlingsea. 23. John Dory. Zeus faber, Linn. Occasionally taken in the shrimp trawls, but the specimens are usually small. 24. Boar-fish. Capros aper, Linn. According to Day (Fishes of Great Britain, i. 137) numbers were caught at Harwich and Southend about May, 1879. Mr. Carrington further records (Zoologist, 1879, p. 342) the fact of the capture of these specimens in a shrimp trawl. 25. Mackerel. Scomber scombrus, Linn. Dale says (Hist, of Harwich, 1732, p. 429), ' These in their season are here to be caught.' As they are so plentiful both on the Kentish coasts and on those of Suffolk they are no doubt equally frequent on the Essex coast, although there is no regular fishery for them. 26. Common Tunny. Linn. Orcynus thynnus, Jenyns (British Vertebrate Animals, p. 363) calls it rare, and quoting Donovan he states that three were captured in the mouth of the Thames in 1801 and brought to Billingsgate market. In Essex County Chronicle of October 26. 1897, Mr. H. L. Matthams records the finding of a specimen of this fish on the shore at Foulness on the 20th of that month. It measured 9 feet in length and weighed about 5 or 6 cwt. (see also Zoologist, 1897, P- 579)- 27. Blackfish. Centrolophus pompilus, Linn. One was captured in the Colne and for- warded to Dr. Gtlnther at the British Museum, and was described by him in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1882, pp. 204, 338 ; also in Zoo- logist, 1882, pp. 75, 152. 28. Swordfish. Xiphias gladius, Linn. Mr. Montford records (Zoologist, 1847, P- 1911) the finding of a dead one off the coast of Essex in 1834. C. Parsons also mentions (Zoologist, 1862, p. 8289) the capture of a living one in Potton creek, the sword of which was 3 feet long. An Essex specimen mentioned by Day (Fishes of Great Britain, i. 148) was probably the same fish. Buckland (Familiar Hist, of Brit. Fishes, p. 37) says a 222 FISHES fine specimen 8 feet 8$ inches long, of which he made a cast, was caught at Leigh near Southend in November, 1866 (see also Field, November 3, 1896, p. 362). 29. Greater Weever. Trachinus draco, Linn. A fish which is caught occasionally in eel trawls on the muddy Zostera covered shores. Mr. E. A. Fitch records (Essex Nat. iii. 188) the capture of one in the Blackwater by hook. 30. Common Weever, Viper Weever. 7ra- cbinus vipera, Cuv. This is also taken in the eel trawls in the same situations as the last, but much more commonly. 31. Dragonet or Dusky Skulpin. Callionymus lyra, Linn. The shrimp trawlers very often capture this species in their shrimp nets on our sandy shores, a locality just suited to its habits. Day's figure (Fishes of Great Britain, pi. liv.) was taken from a fish captured at Southend, where the reddish specimens are called ' foxes.' 32. Angler. Lophius piscatorius, Linn. Locally, Toad-fish. This ungainly fish has been frequently captured on the Essex coast, but it is not often brought on shore by the fishermen. 33. Wolf-fish. Anarrhichas lupus, Linn. This fish has been captured at Walton-on- Naze (Essex Standard, August 29, 1885). Common as it is on many parts of the English seaboard it appears only as a straggler off Essex ; the sandy shallow shores do not suit its habits. 34. Gattorugine. Bltnnius gattorugine, Bloch. Mr. E. A. Fitch records in Zoologist, iii. 326, ser. 4 the capture of one at Stansgate in the Blackwater on August 19, 1898. 35. Butterfish. Centronotus gunnellus, Linn. This is another fish frequently caught in eel trawls. I find it very commonly on the Zostera covered ooze at Mersea. Yarrell (Brit. Fishes, i. 240) says it is found in the mouth of the Thames. 36. Viviparous Blenny. Zoarces viviparus, Linn. Not a rare fish. It is taken occasionally among sprats by the stow-boat fishermen, also by eel trawlers. ANACANTHINI 37. Cod. Gadus morrhua, Linn. The value of this fish as food is well known, but most of those of large size captured it the Essex estuaries are not in a fit condition for the table, being more or less diseased. Many young ones called ' codling ' are how- ever captured in the finest condition all round the coasts by hooks or nets. 38. Large-headed Cod. Gadus macrocephalus, Tiles. Dr. Day (Journ. Linn. Sec. vol. xiv. No. 80, p. 689) describes a specimen caught in the mouth of the Thames at Southend. (This is also recorded in Zoologist, 1880, p. 26.) Yar- rell saw a large one from the mouth of the Thames, but he considered the abnormal size to be due to disease. The local fishermen call this variety 'Lord- fish ' (see Day's Fishes of Great Britain, i. 278). 39. Haddock. Gadus #gle/inus, Linn. I have occasionally taken this species in some numbers in the Crouch, but I do not think it is a very common fish on the Essex coast. A large number were observed and taken off Purfleet by the officers of the training ship Cornwall in 1879 (Land and Water, March i, 1879, p. 179). They have also been noted in Dagenham Breach (ibid. March 22, 1879, p. 236) by Mr. P. Hood, who communicated his surprise at finding them in freshwater to F. Buckland. The latter's explanation that the water of Dagenham Breach was brackish probably ac- counted for their presence. 40. Bib, Whiting Pout. Gadus luscus, Linn. Locally, Wule or Whiting Wule. This is extremely common during the early winter months, large numbers being caught by all those who fish either from piers or from boats with hooks. 41. Power or Poor Cod. Gadus minutus, Linn. Mr. E. A. Fitch informs me it is not alto- gether rare at times in the Thames estuary. 42. Whiting. Gadus merlangus, Linn. In some seasons very abundant ; it arrives in our estuaries about the middle or end of September, and is a great favourite with those who practise the form of fishing which is locally called 'spruling.' 43. Pollack, or Whiting Pollack. Gadus pollachius, Linn. Dale says (Hist, of Harwich, 1732, p. 428) that in his time the whiting pollack was sometimes caught and brought to Braintree market with the other varieties of whiting. 223 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 44. Hake. Merluccius vulgarls, Linn. Although this fish is so common on the south and west coasts of this island I never remember seeing more than one specimen which had been captured on the Essex coast. The fish was sent me by a dealer to name. Dale says (Hist, of Harwich, p. 429), 'Hake is sometimes caught here, and when salted and dried is called " Poor Jack." ' 45. Ling. Molva vulgaris, Flem. Mr. E. A. Fitch writes me that his in- formant, G. Gibson, has seen several Thames examples 9 to 12 inches long during the winter and spring months, and one was ob- tained in the trawl below Southend pier on April i, 1897. It measured I foot in length and contained in its stomach a rockling half as big as itself. 46. Five-bearded Rockling. Motella mustela, Linn. This is not common, our muddy shores not suiting its habits, but I possess a specimen taken in the Colne. Day (Fishes of Great Britain, i. 316) gives the mouth of the Thames among its haunts. 47. Three-bearded Rockling. Motella tri- cirrata, Linn. Mr. E. A. Fitch has taken this in the Blackwater. 48. Lesser Fork-beard. Raniceps raninus, Linn. Day records (Fishes of Great Britain, i. 321) the capture of one by Mr. S. W. Wand in May, 1858, in the river Crouch. 49. Holibut. Hippoglossus vulgaris, Flem. Mr. H. L. Matthams informs me this is sometimes taken in the ' keddles ' on the sands at Foulness, but it may be considered a rare visitor to the Thames estuary. One was captured in 1856 by hook and line. It was 3 ft. long. Another 5 ft. long is reported to have been captured about thirty years ago. 50. Long Rough Dab. Hippoglossus liman- doides, Bloch. Mr. E. A. Fitch informs me that speci- mens of this fish have been taken in the Blackwater in the spring. 51. Turbot. Rhombus maximus, Linn. This well known fish is taken on all parts of our coast where suitable ground occurs. It is most frequently captured by trawling, but many are caught on the sandy shores or Foulness in ' keddles,' that is, in V-shaped nets the apex of which points seawards. 52. Brill. Rhombus leevis, Linn. This fish is captured in the same manner and is not rare. 53. EckstrSm's Topknot. Zeugopterus uni- maculatus, Risso. Occasionally taken, but very rare. 54. Muller's Topknot, Common Topknot. Zeugopterus punctatus, Bloch. As an Essex fish is very rare. Mr. E. A. Fitch informs me one was caught in the Blackwater, September 6, 1900. Another in the Crouch, November 6, 1900. And as both of these were considered by the fisher- men to be young brill, it is probable that they may be more common than they are gener- ally considered to be. 55. Scaldfish or Megrim. Arnoghssus laterna, Walb. Mr. Fitch informs me that one of these fish was caught in a trawl near the Chapman on April 21, 1900. It measured 5 in. long. 56. Plaice. Pleuronectes platessa, Linn. Small sized plaice are very common on all parts of the coast, and if light tackle and small hooks are used they afford good sport. 57. Smear Dab, Lemon Dab or Mary Sole. Pleuronectes microcephalus, Donovan. This is taken frequently on the coast and in the estuaries only by trawling or other forms of netting. Is one of the best flavoured of the family. 58. Pole, Craig Fluke or Long Flounder. Pleuronectes cynoglossus, Linn. Very rare. Mr. E. A. Fitch writes me that he has a specimen from the Blackwater. 59. Dab, Sand Dab. Pleuronectes limanda, Linn. Very common on all our coasts. ** 60. Flounder. Pleuronectes flesus, Linn. A fish common everywhere on all parts of the coast, ascending rivers much beyond the tideway and frequently seen in the slightly brackish water of the marsh ditches. 61. Sole. Solea vulgaris, Quensel. This very common and delicious fish occurs on all our sandy coasts in great but largely diminishing numbers. 224 FISHES 62. Lemon Sole. Solea lascaris, Risso. Very rare as an Essex fish. There is one Essex specimen at the biological station at Brightlingsea. 63. Little Sole. Solea lutea, Risso. This also is rare. An Essex specimen is preserved at Brightlingsea station. PLECTOGNATHI 64. Short Sun-fish. Orthagoriscus mo/a, Linn. Lindsey says (A Season at Harwich, p. 102) this 'occurs but occasionally on the Essex coast.' Mr. E. A. Fitch informs me he saw a very large one which had been taken in the river Crouch, at Battles Bridge, on October 21, 1874. It was a female, measur- ing 4 ft. 6 in. in length, and was carried about and exhibited (see Land and Water, October 31, 1874, p. 340). Mr. Fitch also saw another in the same river at Burnham. 65. Oblong Sun -fish. Orthagoriscus trun- catus, Retz. Lindsey says (A Season at Harwich, pt. 2, p. 101) the oblong sun-fish is rare. PERCESOCES ** 66. Grey Mullet. Mugil capita, Cuv. Yarrell says (British Fishes, i. 202) it occurs constantly on the Essex coast. It still is found commonly in the season. ••67. Lesser Grey Mullet. Mugil chelo, Cuv. Is not so common as the last-mentioned species. 68. Atherine, Sand Smelt. Atherina pres- byter, Jenyns. Occasionally captured by the smelt fisher- men at the mouth of the Colne. This year, 1901, they were very common about Walton and Clacton piers. 69. Larger Launce or Sand-Eel. Ammodytes lanceolatus, Le Sauvage. This is found, but not so commonly as the next species. 70. Lesser Launce or Sand-Eel. Ammodytes tobianus, Linn. This is common, but I do not think it is ever especially fished for, as is the case in the west of England, where large numbers are caught for bait. 71. Gar-fish. Be/one vulgaris, Flem. Large numbers of this are taken at certain seasons round the coast. They meet with a ready sale in London. HEMIBRANCHII **72. Three-spined Stickleback. Gastrosteus aculeatus, Linn. Common everywhere in streams, ponds and ditches. Doing very well in the brackish waters of the marsh ditches. ** 73. Ten-spined Stickleback or Tinker. Gastrosteus pungitius, Linn. This is not nearly so common as the last species, being found more frequently in small streams rather than ponds, although it occurs in the latter situations. I have never found it in brackish water. Many of our specimens have only nine spines. 74. Fifteen-spined Stickleback. Gastrosteus spinachia, Linn. I have found this species very commonly in trawling for eels amongst the Zostera marina, on the muddy shores of the Blackwater at Mersea. Unlike the rest of the family this species is entirely confined to the sea. LOPHOBRANCHII 75. Broad - nosed Pipe-fish. Siphonostoma typhle, Linn. Very common amongst the Zostera. 76. Greater Pipe-fish. Syngnathus acus, Linn. This, the commonest species of the family, is found on all parts of the coast, especially in the beds of Zostera. 77. Ocean or Snake Pipe-fish. Nerophis aquoreus, Linn. Although not so common as the last two, this is found in some quantity in the eel trawls, in the same situation amongst the Zostera. Day (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 262) gives the estuary of the Thames as their habitat. 78. Straight-nosed or Snake Pipe-fish. Nero- phis ophidian, Linn. Buckland says (Fam. Hist, of Brit. Fishes, p. 197) this is often taken with whitebait in the mouth of the Thames. 79. Sea - horse. Hippocampus antiquorum, Leach. Dr. Bree records (Field, Dec. i, 1866, p. 420) the capture of two specimens of rhis rare fish at Brit'htlinp-sea. 225 p. 420; tne capture 01 two this rare fish at Brightlingsea. A HISTORY OF ESSEX HAPLOMI * 80. Pike. Esox lucius, Linn. This fish is found in all parts of the county, both in rivers and ponds, but never appears to attain the size sometimes found in those counties where more extensive tracts of water are found. The largest one of which we have any record was taken at Dagenham on November 22, 1896. It weighed 30 Ib. (Badminton Mag. 1897, p. 628). OSTARIOPHYSI * 8 1 . Carp. Cyprinus carpio, Linn. Occurs in many of the sluggish streams and also in numerous ponds. *8a. Crucian or Prussian Carp. Cyprinus carassius, Linn. Has been introduced into many of our ponds, but it does not appear to occur in any of our rivers excepting the Lea, where one was caught by Mr. Williams near Tot- tenham (Land and Water, November, 1887, p. 412). Day says (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 1 66) it is very common about London. * 83. Goldfish. Cyprinus auratus, Linn. Does not occur in any of our rivers. It is however naturalized in ponds throughout the county. * 84. Barbel. Barbus vulgaris, Flem. This is probably another introduced species as far as Essex is concerned. According to Day (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 171) and Yarrell (British Fishes, i. 322) it occurs in the Lea. *85. Gudgeon. Gobio fluviatilh, Flem. A fish that occurs in numbers in all our rivers, but is mostly local. It abounds in the Lea and Stort. *86. Roach. Leuciscus rutilus, Linn. Found everywhere in streams and ponds. Rudd. Leuciscus erythrophthalmus, Linn. Considerable numbers of this fish occur in the Suffolk Stour. It is rare in the Colne and common in the Lea. Mr. Pennell found (Day's Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 1 84) a lemon or yellow-coloured variety in some ponds near Romford. Another variety called a blue roach occurs in the small stream entering the sea near Clacton. It is described in Land and Water, 1876, p. 153. *88. Dace. Leuciscus dobula, Linn. A fish found in the Chelmer, the Stour, and according to Lieutenant Croft (Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Sac. ii. 13) in the Lea. It occurs probably in other streams also. * 89. Chubb. Leuciscus cephalus, Linn. Until quite recently this was another in- habitant of the Lea only among Essex rivers. Now it must be added to the list of Black- water fish, as the Witham Angling Society has turned into that river 350 specimens (Field, Feb. 29, 1896, p. 320). *9O. Minnow. Leuciscus phoxinus, Linn. Frequent in most of the rivers of Essex. *9i. Tench. Tinea vulgaris, Cuv. Is an inhabitant of many ponds in all parts of the county, and occurs also in the Stour, Colne, Lea and probably in all the other rivers. *92. Lake Bream. Abramis brama, Linn. This is found in considerable numbers in the Essex and Suffolk Stour and in some other Essex rivers. The variety called Pomeranian bream is found, according to Day (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 195), on the authority of Yarrell, in Dagenham Breach, where it is still plentiful (Land and Water, Aug. 4, 1888, P- 134)- *93> White Bream. Abramis blicca, Bloch. It occurs in the Essex and Suffolk Stour, also in the Lea (Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc. ii. 12), but not so commonly as the last species. *94. Bleak. Alburnus lucidus, Heckel. Day says (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 200) this is found in the Lea, but does not appear to be known in any other Essex river. *95. Loach. Nemachilus barbatulus, Linn. Found in all our smaller streams where there is a gravelly bottom. A specimen of the continental sheat-fish (Silurus glanis, Linn.) was captured in the Stour and recorded (Field, Sept. 8, 1894, p. 411), and a full account was therein given of the attempts made to acclimatize this species in English waters, fortunately I think without success. But as it has been taken in Essex waters many years after the attempts referred to, allusion to it may be made in this list. 226 FISHES MALACOPTERYGII ** 96. Salmon. Salmo salar, Linn. Although salmon have disappeared from all our Essex rivers, they are still taken in nets on various portions of the coast and in the mouths of most of the rivers. And few years pass without several being taken in the ' keddles ' on the sands of Foulness. Com- mon as they were in years gone by in the Thames it seems hopeless to expect them ever again to ascend that river to their old ' redds.' **97. Sea Trout. Salmo trutta, Linn. The same statements may be made with reference to this fish as the last. They are occasionally caught in the mouths of the rivers and in the Foulness ' keddles,' and would no doubt pass on to the fresh waters of several of our streams were it not for obstacles or impurities rendering such a proceeding im- possible. "98. Brown Trout. So/mo fario, Linn. Common as this fish is all over Britain it is rare in Essex, and excepting in the Lea it only occurs in our streams as the result of artificial stocking. And generally speaking it may be said that wherever introduced it has done well. In the Roding it was introduced about 1 88 1 by Mr. Rodwell, and in the Roman river, a feeder of the Colne, by the Rev. Mr. Marsh about 1860. Since this time it has been introduced into the Chelmer, Black- water and Stour. *99- Grayling. Thymallus vexiilifer, Linn. This is said to occur in the Cam, and therefore is possibly an inhabitant of that part of this river which rises in and flows through Essex. Day says (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 135) a large batch of fry were placed in the Lea in 1863. ** 100. Smelt. Osmerus eper Janus, Linn. Considerable numbers of this delicious fish are caught in all our rivers when they come up to spawn. They appear to be generally abundant up to the tide limit, and where it is possible for them to get still higher they are also frequent, but are only fished for in the mouths of the rivers. **IOI. Houting. Coregonus oxyrhynchus, Linn. Of this apparently rare British fish I saw in 1886 several examples which had been captured in the smelt nets in the Colne. And as it is frequently seen in boxes of Dutch smelts it is probably much more common in Holland than in this country. This is rather strange when we consider the nearness of the Dutch coast. 0 O2. Anchovy. Engraulis encrasicholus, Linn. Day (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 207) gives instances of the capture of this fish on the Essex coast, and Yarrell (i. 153) says : 'It is reported to be at this time an inhabitant of the piece of water below Blackwall called Dagenham Breach. 103. Herring. Clupea harengus, Linn. This occurs commonly all round the coast, but there is no special fishery for it, although a few are still taken in drift nets in the estuary of the Blackwater. 104. Pilchard. Clupea pilcbardus, Linn. Is occasionally taken on the coast. Dale gives it in his list of Harwich fish, and says (Hist, of Harwich, p. 432) : ' It is rare, but is occasionally brought among herrings to market.' Day says (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 230) Yarrell obtained one in May, 1838, from the mouth of the Thames. 105. Sprat. Clupea sprattus, Linn. Enormous numbers of this fish are taken off" our coast by the stow-boat fishermen, and used for manure, besides those sent to market in London and the northern towns for food. Unfortunately for our fishermen they have been comparatively scarce for the last two or three seasons, apparently having changed their habitat, and are now found in all parts of the English Channel as far west as Cornwall. **IO6. Allis Shad. Clupea alosa, Linn. Rare. Day (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 236), quoting Yarrell, mentions one being taken in the Thames above Putney in 1831. Jenyns describes it (Brit. Pert. Animals, p. 438) as 'occasionally, though rarely, taken in the Thames.' ** 107. Twait Shad. Clupea finta, Cuv. This is occasionally common in the Colne. Many were taken by the smelt fishermen in August, 1 886, and one was caught on Novem- ber 29, 1886, at East Bridge, Colchester, which point is the tide limit. Jenyns says (Brit. ytrt. Animals, p. 438) it is very abundant in the Thames. APODES ** 1 08. Eel. /fnguilla vu/garis, Turton. Very common in streams and ponds every- where. 227 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 109. Conger. Conger vulgaris, Cuv. Taken occasionally. One of 40 Ib. weight is recorded (Essex Standard, Jan. 31, 1885) as having been picked up on the beach at Clacton- on-Sea. Day, quoting Donovan, says (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 253) one of 130 Ib. weight was captured at the Nore. In the Zoologist (1869, p. 1520) a record is given of several which were caught in the Thames as high as Woolwich. GANOIDS HO. Sturgeon. Aclpenser sturio, Linn. Is occasionally taken in all our rivers, but it is rare. When captured in the Thames, within the jurisdiction of the City of London, it is usually judged a proper present for the Lord Mayor's table. The capture of a sturgeon, weighing 131 Ib., in the Blackwater river near Beeleigh Mills, Maldon, is noted as a re- markable circumstance (Donovan, British Fishes, vol. iii. pi. Ixv.). Mr. E. A. Fitch records the capture of two very large sturgeons in the Blackwater on May 9, 1886, and May 15, 1890. The latter, which weighed 212 Ib. and measured 7 feet 1 1 inches in length, went eventually to Sweetings in Cheapside (Ettae Naturalist, iv. 1 20). Others are mentioned (Zoologist, 1879, p. 383; 1883, p. 341). CHONDROPTERYGIANS in. Toper or Sweet William. Galeus vul- garis, Flem. This shark is but rarely taken on our coast. One caught by trawling in the Wallet on October 23, 1886, was thought by its captor of sufficient rarity to make it worth exhibit- ing in the town of Colchester. The capture of one below Brightlingsea, 4 ft. 9 in. long, in a shrimp trawl, and another, 5 ft. 6 in. long, at Clacton are noted in the Essex Naturalist, ii. 137, 236. These were both females. 112. Porbeagle. Lamna cornubica, Gmel. A specimen of this shark was captured near the coast in 1874. It measured 8 ft. 2 in. long (Land and Water, 1874^.285). Another captured off Harwich measured nearly 10 ft. in length (Essex Naturalist, vi. 154). Several others have been taken since. 113. Picked Dogfish. Acanthias vulgaris, Risso. This voracious fish is always much too common, and in some years especially so, on all our coasts. 114. Angel or Monk-fish. Rhina squatina, Linn. Frequent on all the coasts of Essex. 115. Skate. Raia bails, Linn. Very common on all our sandy shores. The small ones are called maids. 1 1 6. Thornback. Raia clavata, Linn. This is also very common. 117. Sharp-nosed Skate. Raia alba, Lac£p. Lindsey says (A Season at Harwich, pt. 2, p. 98) the French, who are great con- sumers of skate, this species being their favourite, would come to Harwich for this fish if greater encouragenjent were given to the fishery. As it is they go to Plymouth and purchase large quantities during the sea- son of Lent. 1 1 8. Sting Ray. Trygon pastinaca, Linn. It is frequently taken in the channels between the sands if one may judge from the number of needles made from the spines upon its tail that are to be seen in the posses- sion of fishermen, who use them for stringing flat fish together through the gills for the convenience of carriage. CYCLOSTOMES ** 119. Sea Lamprey. Petromyzon marinus, Linn. This is captured occasionally in the mouths of all our rivers. In Essex Naturalist, v. 134 is recorded the capture of two in the Colne. Day (Fishes of Great Britain, ii. 358) gives for their habitat the mouth of the Thames. 228 FISHES * 1 20. Lampern or Silver Lampern. Petromy- zon fitfvia ti/is, Linn. Day (Fishes of Great Britain^ ii. 360, 361) says they are captured in the Thames, where they abound in quantities. Jenyns says (British Pert, jfnimak, p. 521) they are common in many of our rivers, especially in the Thames. Yarrell makes the same re- mark. They are stated to be very common in the Stour. *I2I. Planer's Lamprey, Mud Lamprey. Petromyzon branchialis, Linn. According to my experience this is rare in Essex. I have however observed it in the Colne in two localities. 229 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS The greater portion of the land of the county of Essex is arable, mostly in a condition of high cultivation, and there is no large sandy waste, open common, or bog, and with the exception of Epping Forest, no extensive woodland. Any large area of this character does not present the most favour- able condition for the habitat of some of the members of these classes, and therefore it may be readily understood that those species, to which an open sandy district is almost a necessity of their existence, will not be found ; but these are few in number, and do not prevent the total species of the Essex list from comparing favourably with, in this respect, more richly endowed counties. The number of species of reptiles recognized as inhabiting Great Britain is seven, and including the edible frog (Rana esculenta) six batrachians. Of this number, Essex possesses four reptiles and six batrachians, but the evidence is hardly sufficient to enable it to be said that the edible frog has succeeded in becoming established in those localities, in Epping Forest and elsewhere, where various attempts have been made to naturalize it. Those introduced by the late Mr. Doubleday in Epping Forest did well for a time, but every colony would seem to have disappeared. This frog is claimed for several counties as a member of their fauna, but wherever found there can be no doubt of its having been introduced from the continent. The absence of sandy wastes from all parts of Essex accounts for the sand lizard never having been found in this county, and probably also the same cause is responsible for the fact of the smooth snake having never been seen, its favourite food, the sand lizard, not occurring. The slow worm is not found so frequently as it was some years ago, and one of the causes of the diminution in numbers of this species, and of the snakes generally, for they also are less abundant, is the great alterations that have been made in the hedgerows within the last half or three-quarters of a century. Before that time hedges were higher and broader, and often the hedge and bank occupied perhaps three times the space they do at the present time, and this diminution of their place of refuge and hunting ground has not only affected reptiles unfavourably, but mammals and birds as well. 230 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS The grass or ring snake and the adder or viper are both frequent in some districts, more so perhaps on the marshes and the localities bordering on the marshes than elsewhere, but even where most common they do not occur in anything like the numbers they did fifty years ago. In some parts of the county both species would appear to be almost approaching extinction, so rarely are they found. The common frog is abundant everywhere in suitable localities, and the toad is here, as everywhere else, common alike in dry and wet situations. The absence of the natterjack in Essex is difficult to account for, as it is to be found in both Norfolk and Suffolk. The other batrachians, the newts, are well represented, all the species being common. REPTILES LACERTILIA OPHIDIA 1. Common or Viviparous Lizard. viv'ipara, Jacq. Locally, ' Swift.' Is common in most parts of the county wherever the district is dry enough to suit its habits, but like many of the other reptiles, inclosure and cultivation are telling on its numbers. 2. Slow-worm. Angult fragilis , Linn. Occurs commonly still in most parts of Essex. It is much feared by many people who dread to touch it, in consequence of its supposed venomous powers. Lacerta 3- Common or Ringed Snake. Tropidonotui natrix, Linn. Fairly numerous, especially near water. 4. Adder or Viper. Vipera berus, Linn. Still found in some numbers in wooded districts, but not confined to them. It is generally stated to be most common in dry districts, but in this country it is found quite as frequently on the marshes inside the sea walls. The red variety has there been found, as also has more commonly the black viper. This last is considered by the country people to be especially venomous. BATRACHIANS ECAUDATA 1. Common Frog. Rana temporaria^ Linn. Extremely common, and generally dis- tributed, especially in the neighbourhood of water. 2. Common Toad. Bufo vulgarity Laur. Common, and generally distributed. CAUDATA 3. Great Crested Newt. Molge cristata, Laur. Locally, Water Swift. Common, and found throughout the county. 4. Common Newt or Eft. Molge vulgaris, Linn. Locally, Water Swift. Very common in almost every stagnant pool in summer ; in winter often found in cellars and other damp places. 5. Palmated Newt. Molge palmata, Schneid. This is not rare. Mr. G. A. Boulenger, who first discovered this species in Epping Forest (Essex Naturalist, i. 8), gives the dis- tribution of this species in Scotland and Eng- land, and the distinguishing marks of the two allied species in their winter attire. 231 BIRDS The avi-fauna of the county of Essex is rich in respect both of number of species and abundance of individuals. From the ornitholo- gist's point of view indeed the county has been favoured in many ways, both by Nature and by circumstance. Essex is, in the first place, a maritime county, and as such it possesses naturally a far richer avi-fauna than any inland county, however large. It is also exceptionally well placed, ornithologically speaking, even for a maritime county. Situated on the east coast of England, in close proximity to continental shores, it lies upon the main highway followed by the majority of our migrant species as they pass and repass across the North Sea. Furthermore the county is of great extent, covering some 1,542 square miles and standing, in respect of area, tenth among the English counties. Its surface is considerably diversified, and therefore offers attractions to many different species. The regions or districts into which the county may be divided, according to its natural and physical features, require brief notice. First come what may be called the lowlands, covering probably at least two-thirds of the county and occupying the whole of its central portion. This is, for the greater part, a region of stiff clay — mainly the London Clay, though this is overlaid in places by the Chalky Boulder Clay. It presents everywhere the same features, with very little varia- tion. It is, and long has been, generally under cultivation, a small pro- portion of pasture mingling with a much larger proportion of arable land. In all parts old hedgerows, wide overgrown ditches and quiet lanes abound, while there is a large number of small copses. These afford homes for innumerable warblers, finches, and other small birds. Interspersed throughout this region, and forming strictly speaking a part of it, are several fairly extensive stretches of forest and woodland. The aggregate area covered by them is not however very large. They occupy for the most part the high ground and hill-tops, where the pre- valence of Bagshot Sands and gravels renders the soil of little value for agricultural purposes. Such are Epping Forest (about 6,000 acres), in the south-western portion of the county ; Takeley or Hatfield Forest (about 1,500 acres), near the western border ; the Writtle High Woods and the woods around Danbury and Little Baddow, near the centre ; the Bull Wood at Hockley, in the south-east ; the woods around Thorndon Park ; and others of less extent elsewhere. These still form a home for many woodland species, but the hand of the game preserver has greatly reduced, even exterminated, many others, especially the larger birds of 232 BIRDS prey, such as the kite and the buzzard, which were still fairly common a century ago. The hobby is on the verge of extinction, if not quite extinct, as a breeding species ; but sparrow-hawks and kestrels are still pretty numerous. In the central parts of the county the magpie, once common, is all but extinct, though the jay remains abundant, probably because it is a more retiring bird and builds a less conspicuous nest. Epping Forest is and long has been a stronghold for the hawfinch, which is possibly more abundant there and at Danbury than elsewhere in England. Our uplands — if one may call them by that name — are of small extent, being confined to the extreme north-west corner of the county, where the elevated undulating chalk downs which occupy so large an area in the adjacent counties of Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire extend into Essex. This down country, though generally open, is wooded in places. On it the stone-curlew, which nests nowhere else in the county, still breeds occasionally. Turning from the most inland portion of the county to that nearest the sea, we find another region which, like the last-named, is of com- paratively small extent, though possessed of marked individual features — namely the marshes, saltings, and mudflats of the coast. This kind of country is probably of greater extent in Essex than in any other English county. It lies chiefly round the estuaries of our rivers, especially the Crouch, the Blackwater, the Colne, and the Stour. ' Marshes ' in Essex are tracts of land which have been reclaimed from the sea and are now protected from its inroads by strong sea-walls of mud. They are grass- covered and valuable for grazing purposes. They form favourable breed- ing haunts for the redshank, the peewit, and the sky-lark ; while the wide ditches known as ' fleets,' by which they are intersected, and the quiet reedy pools which are scattered here and there, are the homes of the black-headed gull, the coot, the dabchick, the pochard, and not a few other water birds. * Saltings ' (sometimes called ' bentlings ') lie on the outer side of the sea-wall, yet are not strictly speaking sea-shore, for they are covered only by the highest tides and support a rich flora of coast plants. The saltings are intersected by innumerable muddy dykes which slowly fill and empty with the rise and fall of every tide. Out- side the saltings again — and occupying, in fact, the very beds of the river estuaries — are very extensive mudflats, which are left uncovered regularly at low water. Taking the whole of our coast, the area of our mudflats at low tide must approach a hundred square miles. Here during the periods of spring and autumn migration, and to a lesser extent during winter, one may meet with myriads of wading birds, of which the dunlin (called locally the * oxb'd ') is the most numerous ; while curlews, whimbrels, godwits, knots, sanderlings, ring-plovers and many others are more or less abundant, and not a few scarce and interesting species have been met with from time to time. So numerous, indeed, are the dunlins that over 300 are reported credibly to have been killed on more than one occasion by a single discharge of the gun. From 1 233 3° A HISTORY OF ESSEX the ornithologist's point of view, no part of Essex equals our coast in interest. Among the more interesting of the birds breeding round our coast is the black-headed gull, called formerly in Essex the ' pewit ' or ' puit.' Though now much reduced in number and having only one or two breeding-stations, its former abundance may be inferred from the fact that no fewer than three islands round our coast bear the name ' Pewit Island,' because each had formerly upon it a large nesting-colony of this species : (i) a large island in Hamford Water ; (2) a smaller one near Mersea ; and (3) another near Bradwell. As long ago as 1662, Fuller made the following quaint reference to the breeding of this gull on the the first-named island (Worthies^ p. 318) : — There is an island of some two hundred acres, near Harwich, in the parish of Little Okeley, in the manour of Matthew Gilly, Esquire, called the Puit Island, from Puits [which are] in effect the sole inhabitants thereof. . . . On Saint George his day [April 23rd] precisely (so I am informed by Captain Farmer, of Newgate Market, copyholder of the Island), they pitch on the Island, seldom laying fewer than four or more than six eggs. Great [is] their love to their young ones ; for though against foul weather they make to the mainland (a certain Prognostick of Tempests), yet they always weather it out on the Island when hatching their young ones, seldom sleeping whilst they sit on their eggs (afraid, it seems, of Spring-tides), which signifieth nothing as to securing their eggs from the inundation, but is an argument of their great Affection. Being [i.e. when] young, they consist onely of bones, feathers, and lean flesh, which hath a raw gust [i.e. taste] of the sea. But Poulterers take them and feed them with Gravel and Curds (that is Physick and Food), the one to scour, the other to fat them in a fortnight, and their flesh thus recruited is most delicious. Fuller's statements as to the habits of the bird must not, however, be taken too literally. The seas adjacent to our coast require notice in connection with the county. During summer they are singularly devoid of bird life, for our coast is totally unprovided with those rocky cliffs and eminences which most sea-birds require as breeding places. From the end of summer however right on to the beginning of the following breeding season the sea off our coast and the estuaries of our rivers swarm with gulls, divers, grebes, shearwaters, petrels, guillemots, razorbills, ducks, and geese. The brent goose (called locally 'black goose'), which formerly appeared off our coast in almost fabulous numbers, is still numerous whenever the weather becomes severe. Old sportsmen tell of these birds having appeared formerly ' by the acre ' on the Main and in our larger estuaries, making huge areas of the sea appear black from a distance ; while the numbers reported as having been killed by a single discharge of a punt gun, or by several such guns fired simultaneously into a flock, seem almost incredible. Thus a Maldon gunner, shooting by himself, is said to have killed on one occasion fifty geese by a single discharge of his gun ; while, as to organized shoots, it is said that, on various occasions, the following numbers have been obtained: 145 birds by two gunners; 160 birds by several gunners; 300 birds by twelve gunners; 360 birds by seventeen gunners ; and 704 birds by thirty-two gunners. Nowadays, however, the geese are so much disturbed, owing 234 BIRDS to the increase of the number of gunners and the use of steam-yachts, that their numbers are reduced greatly and such ' shoots ' as those mentioned above occur only in the severest weather, as in January, 1891, when a number of gunners (how many not stated) secured nearly 300 birds by a single joint discharge of their guns in the Blackwater estuary, which was then filled with ice. Further information on this subject must be sought in the chapter on wildfowling. Thus the surface of the county is considerably diversified, though it lacks entirely those tracts of mountain and wide open moorland which add so much to the richness of the avi-fauna of some more northerly counties. Large inland sheets of fresh water are also entirely lacking ; but there are not a few smaller sheets of ornamental water, chiefly arti- ficial, in parks and pleasure grounds. The largest are those in Wanstead, Gosfield, and Debden Parks. Allusion must be made here to the existence of wildfowl decoys. The large number of which traces may yet be found proves that decoy- ing was once an important industry in the county, and old records tell of the immense numbers of wildfowl formerly taken. A large amount of information on this subject is given in the present writer's work, the Birds of Essex (1890), pp. 47—71. In all there are, or have been, in the county some thirty-five decoys, of which only two are now worked regularly. Of these thirty-five, all but two are situated close to the coast — in most cases actually on the marshes. The two southern- most lie in the parishes of Paglesham and Southminster. Around the shores of the large Blackwater Estuary there are no fewer than twenty (ten on each side), lying chiefly in the parishes of Tillingham (two — both still used), Bradwell (two), Steeple, Mayland, Latchingdon, Gold- hanger (four), Tolleshunt D'Arcy (several — one still used occasionally), and West Mersea. At Kirby-le-Soken there is one. Around the shores of the Colne Estuary are two decoys ; around those of Hamford Water four ; and on the southern (or Essex) side of the estuary of the Stour four. The remaining two Essex decoys are those already mentioned as being situated inland — one (nine acres in extent) beside the river Stour at Wormingford : the other still further inland, between Pond Park Farm and the site of Leighs Priory at Little Leighs, almost in the centre of the county.1 The only decoys now worked regularly are the Grange and Marsh House decoys, which lie within a mile or so of one another in Tillingham parish. Their annual ' catches ' of fowl have of course fallen off enormously of late, but are still large enough to pay the expenses of working. Fuller information on this subject must be sought, however, in the chapter on wildfowling. Essex has been in the past the home of a considerable number of good working ornithologists, who have left us, either in the pages of the natural history journals or among their private papers, many records of 1 Since the foregoing was written, I have heard of, but not definitely established, the existence of another decoy (the thirty-sixth) at Fobbing. This is the only decoy I ever heard of in Essex anywhere on the banks of the Thames. 235 A HISTORY OF ESSEX rare occurrences or interesting observations, which have been made use of in the following list. Among the chief of these may be noticed the Rev. Canon J. C. Atkinson (1814-1900), of Danby, Yorkshire, who spent the earlier portion of his life in Essex ; Charles R. Bree, M.D. (1811-86), of Colchester; Mr. Joseph Clarke, F.S.A. (1802-95), of Saffron Walden ; Henry Doubleday (1808-75), of Epping ; Christopher Parsons (1807-82), of Southchurch ; and Colonel Champion Russell (1820-82), of Stubbers, Romford. Among living ornithologists who are resident in the county and have assisted the writer with information during the compilation of the following list are Mr. G. H. Baxter, F.Z.S., of Hutton Park ; Mr. E. A. Fitch, F.L.S., of Maldon ; Mr. G. P. Hope, of Havering Grange ; Mr. F. Kerry, of Harwich ; Dr. Henry Laver, F.L.S., and Mr. F. Spalding, both of Colchester ; Mr. Walter B. Nichols, of Bradfield ; Mr. Champion B. Russell, of Stubbers ; Dr. J. H. Salter, of Tolleshunt Darcy ; Mr. Charles Smoothy, of Danbury ; and various others. The number of practical working ornithologists now resident in the county is small and, it is to be feared, decreasing. The Essex County Council is to be congratulated on the intelligent and practical interest it has long taken in the legal protection of the wild birds frequenting the area under its control. Upon several occa- sions the Home Secretary, upon the application of the Council, has made Orders varying, as occasion required, the close time mentioned in the Wild Birds Protection Acts, 1880 to 1896, thus extending the pro- tection afforded to certain species in certain areas. The most recent order bears date May 3, 1901. These variations have been made, as a rule, on the initiative of Messrs. E. N. Buxton, E. A. Fitch, and Champion B. Russell, working in co-operation with the Essex Field Club. At present, the close time is from March 15 to August 15, both inclusive. The kingfisher is protected all the year round. The barn-owl and kestrel — most useful of birds — might well be similarly protected. A number of other species are also protected all the year round, but only in that portion of the county lying within the Metropolitan Police District and in certain parishes adjacent thereto. All birds are protected on Sundays in six Poor Law Unions. In that portion of the county lying within the Metropolitan Police District, the taking of eggs of a considerable number of species (some of which are, however, hardly likely to be found breeding there) is prohibited ; while along practically the whole of the foreshore of the county, from Harwich to Shoeburyness, the taking of the eggs of all breeding species is similarly prohibited for a period of five years from May 3, 1901. The latter provision is of especial value. It will lead probably to a sub- stantial increase in the number of certain species, such as the lesser tern, the ringed plover, the sheld duck, and others, whose nests are especially liable to destruction. The lesser tern was, when the order first came into force, hovering on the very verge of extinction as a breeding species in Essex. Conceivably, too, the protection thus afforded might lead to 236 BIRDS a return of certain species which have ceased to breed with us, as the common and Sandwich terns. These provisions, though somewhat com- plicated, are judicious and are working satisfactorily. The present writer's work, the Birds of Essex (1890), may be consulted with advantage for fuller information as to occurrences, etc., of earlier date than the year of its publication. A supplement to this work is now in preparation, and will appear hereafter in the Essex Naturalist. NOTE. — I have used, throughout the following list, the nomenclature employed in Mr. Howard Saunders' admirable List of British Birdi (1899). This I have done, by the Editor's wish, in order to secure uniformity with other lists in this series ; but I am permitted to state that I am unable to approve the treatment, in that list, of certain forms which show regional divergence from recognized type*. — M.C. 1. Missel-Thrush. Turdus viscivorus, Linn. A fairly common resident in all districts. 2. Song-Thrush. Turdus musicus, Linn. A very abundant resident. 3. Redwing. Turdus iliacus, Linn. A common winter visitor, especially abun- dant during severe weather. 4. Fieldfare. Turdus pliant, Linn. As the last species. It usually arrives late in September, and remains till the beginning or middle of May, but has been recorded as early as September 6 and as late as the end of May (Birds of Essex, p. 73). 5. White's Thrush. Turdus varius, Pallas. A rare and occasional straggler. The only example known to have been obtained in the county was shot, in January 1894, in Lang- ley High Wood. It now belongs to Mr. W. H. Rolfe of Clavering, who has been good enough to submit it to me for identifi- cation. 6. Blackbird. Turdus merula, Linn. A very abundant resident, but varies greatly in numbers from time to time. 7. Ring-Ouzel. Turdus torquatus, Linn. An uncommon spring and autumn migrant, seen usually in April and October. A pair bred at Wickham Bishops in 1879 (Zoologist, 1879, p. 267). 8. Wheatear. Saxicola cenanthe (Linn.). A summer visitor, though local, breeding only round the coast and among the chalky uplands in the north-western corner of the county. Known elsewhere as a fairly com- mon passing migrant in spring and autumn. 9. Whinchat. Pratincola rubetra (Linn.). A regular summer visitor, fairly common on furze-covered commons and similar open spaces. 10. Stonechat. Pratincola rubicola (Linn.). An uncommon resident, though partially migratory. It breeds on open commons where furze abounds, but varies unaccount- ably in number from time to time. 1 1 . Redstart. Ruticilla phcenicurus (Linn.). A . regular summer visitor, rather un- common, though locally abundant. 12. Black Redstart. Ruticilla titys (Scopoli). A rare autumn and winter visitor, chiefly to the coast. 13. Red-spotted Bluethroat. Cyanecula sue- cica (Linn.). A rare straggler. Reported to have occurred once near Harwich (Birds of Essex, p. 80). 14. Robin or Redbreast. Erithacus rubecula (Linn.). A very abundant and familiar resident. 15. Nightingale. Daulias luscinia (Linn.). A common summer visitor. 1 6. Whitethroat. Sylvia cinerea (Bechstein). An abundant summer visitor. It has occurred once in winter. Sy/vi ta curruca 17. Lesser Whitethroat. (Linn.). A fairly common summer visitor. One was shot near Colchester on December 6, 1892. 1 8. Blackcap. Sylvia atricapilla (Linn.). As the last-named. A few occasionally winter with us. 237 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 1 9. Garden-Warbler. Sylvia hortensis (Bech- stein). As the last named. 20. Dartford Warbler. Sylvia undata (Bod- daert). A resident, but very rare and local. 21. Goldcrest. Regulus cristatus, K. L. Koch. A resident, but nowhere very common. In winter its numbers are increased by im- migration. 22. Firecrest. Regulus ignicapillus (Brehm). A rare visitor, though perhaps often mis- taken for the foregoing. 23. Chiffchaff. Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein). A regular summer visitor, but decidedly local and nowhere abundant. It is most numerous when on migration in spring and autumn. It is our earliest migrant to arrive, being often heard in March and occasionally early in that month. 24. Willow - Warbler. Phylloscopus trochilus (Linn.). A common summer visitor. 25. Wood - Warbler. Phylloscopus slbilatrtx (Bechstein). A summer visitor, though very local and nowhere common. 26. Reed - Warbler. Acrocephalus streperus (Vieillot). A regular summer visitor, but decidedly local and apparently confined to the coast, or nearly so. [Marsh Warbler. Acrocephalus palustris (Bechstein). Occurs in all probability, but not as yet actually identified, so far as I know.] 27. Sedge- Warbler. Acrocephalus phragmitis (Bechstein). An abundant summer visitor. 28. Grasshopper-Warbler. Locustella narvia (Boddaert). A summer visitor, but decidedly uncommon and seldom heard, except round Danbury and Maldon, where it is fairly common (Fitch). 29. Savi's Warbler. Locustella luscinio'ides (Savi). A rare summer visitor. The only record (Zoologist, 1850, p. 2849) of its occurrence in the county (a nest said to have been taken at Dagenham on May 24, 1850) is somewhat unsatisfactory. 238 30. Hedge - Sparrow. Accentor modularis (Linn.). Locally, Hedge-Betty. An abundant resident. 31. Alpine Accentor. Accentor collarh (Sco- poli). A rare and accidental visitor. The first British and only recorded Essex example was shot at Walthamstow in August 1817 (Birds of Essex ; p. 89). 32. Dipper. Cinclus aquaticus, Bechstein. A rare and accidental visitor. There are about a dozen records of its occurrence in the county. 33. Black-bellied Dipper. Cinclus melano- gaster, Brehm. Most of the occurrences noted under the foregoing species relate, in all probability, to this form, which is probably only sub-specific- ally distinct ; but only one is known to do so (see Biro's of Essex, p. 90). 34. Bearded Tit. Panurus biarmicus (Linn.). Formerly a resident, common in suitable localities, such as the reed-beds round the coast : now extinct, or nearly so, in the county. Probably however it still breeds with us occasionally, as specimens have been seen within recent years (see Birds of Essex, p. 92). One was found dead near Harwich on March 30, 1895 (Essex Nat. ix. 52), and Dr. Salter watched one for some time at Goldhanger, on April 21, 1896, when it was probably breeding. 35. British Long-tailed Tit. Acredula rosea (Blyth). Locally, Bottle-Tit, Oven-builder, etc. A fairly common resident, but apparently decreasing, probably because it builds so large and conspicuous a nest so early in the spring. 36. Great Tit. Parus major, Linn. Locally, Saw-sharpener, etc. A common resident, more abundant or more apparent in winter than in summer. 37. British Coal-Tit. Parus britannicus, Sharpe and Dresser. A resident, but local and nowhere common. 38. British Marsh-Tit. Parus dresseri, Stej- neger. A common resident. 39. Blue Tit. Parus cceruleus, Linn. Locally, Pick-cheese and Bluecap. A very abundant resident. BIRDS \ 40. Crested Tit. Parus cristatus, Linn. A rare and occasional straggler. One or two examples are said (Birds of Essex, p. 94) to have been obtained near Saffron Walden early in last century, but none have been seen since. 41. Nuthatch. Sitta aesia, Wolf. A fairly common resident, especially in parks and wooded districts where fine old timber exists. 42. Wren. Troglodytes parvulus, Koch. Locally, Tiddy-Wren, Jenny- Wren, etc. A common resident. 43. Tree-Creeper. Certhia familiaris, Linn. Resident and fairly common everywhere, but too retiring to be seen very often. 44. Pied Wagtail. Motacilla lugubris, Temm. A common resident, though comparatively few remain through severe winters. 45. White Wagtail. Motacilla alba, Linn. An uncommon visitor, chiefly in spring : often mistaken, no doubt, for the last-named species. 46. Grey Wagtail. Motacilla melanope, Pallas. A regular but uncommon visitor in autumn and winter. It is not known to have nested in the county. 47. Blue-headed Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla flava, Linn. An occasional spring visitor : often mis- taken, doubtless, for the next species. The first example detected in Britain was shot by Henry Doubleday on the cliffs at Walton- on-the-Naze on October 3, 1834 (Birds of Essex, p. 98). Probably it has bred in the county, as it has been observed in pairs in May. 48. Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla rait (Bona- parte). A summer visitor, breeding commonly beside the marsh ditches near the coast, though never inland, so far as my experience goes. 49. Tree-Pipit. Antbus trivialis (Linn.). A fairly common summer visitor. 50. Meadow-Pipit. Anthus pratensis (Linn.). Locally, Tit-lark. A resident, abundant in the meadows and on the marshes and saltings round the coast : much less numerous inland. 51. Rock-Pipit. Anthus obscurus (Latham). Common during winter among the saltings and mudflats in the estuaries of our rivers, where it is generally found running about, singly or in small parties, upon the mud under the ' brew' of the ditches inside the sea-walls. It is said to have bred formerly on our coast, and has been known to do so on one recent occasion — at East Mersea, in 1892 (Fitch). 52. Golden Oriole. Oriolus galbula, Linn. A summer visitor, but uncommon. The appearance of individuals, singly and in pairs, in the county of late years during early sum- mer seems to leave little doubt that it has bred recently with us, and that it would have done so oftener had it not been molested ; but there is no actual record of its having done so which is wholly satisfactory. 53. Great Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor, Linn. A regular though uncommon winter visitor, some occurring every year. A few indi- viduals have been seen in the county during summer, but it is not known to have bred in Britain. The Eastern form of the bird (L. major) has occasionally occurred in Essex, while at least one other sub-specific form is likely to occur, and these should be carefully discriminated. 54. Red-backed Shrike. Lanius collurio, Linn. A fairly common summer visitor, but steadily decreasing, I believe, in numbers, probably because the large thorn-hedges in which it used to nest are now largely cut down. 55. Woodchat Shrike. Lanius pomeranus, Sparrman. A rare and occasional summer visitor. A pair were shot at Arkesden late in August 1880, and one or two other individuals have been reported as seen from time to time (see Birds of Essex, p. 1 06). 56. Waxwing. Ampelis garrulus, Linn. An irregular winter visitor. In some years (for instance, 1835, 1850, 1866 and 1893) it has occurred in considerable numbers : in others, none have been seen. 57. Pied Flycatcher. Muscicapa atricapilla, Linn. A passing migrant, occasionally seen in spring and autumn when going to or from its breeding haunts further north. It is said (Harting's Summer Migrants, p. 163) to have bred in the county on one occasion. 239 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 58. Spotted Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisola, Linn. A fairly common summer visitor. 59. Swallow. Hirundo rustica, Linn. An abundant summer visitor. 60. House-Martin. CheKdon urb'ua (Linn.). As the last-named. 61. Sand-Martin. Cotile riparia (Linn.). A very common summer visitor wherever sandy banks suited to its nesting requirements exist. 62. Greenfinch. Ligurinus Moris (Linn.). Everywhere an abundant resident. 63. Hawfinch. Coccothraustes vulgaris, Pallas. A resident and fairly common, though not very often seen, owing to its shyness. It breeds occasionally, I believe, in nearly all parts of the county, and is certainly increas- ing in numbers. Epping Forest has long been known as a stronghold of the species. 64. Goldfinch. Carduelis elegans, Stephens. A resident, but local, uncommon, and cer- tainly decreasing in numbers, owing to the efforts of bird-catchers. 65. Siskin. Carduelis spinus (Linn.). A regular winter visitor, occasionally in some numbers, but generally uncommon. [Serin Finch. Serinus hortulanus, Koch. There is reason to believe (see Zoologist, 1889, p. 29) that this rare visitor to Britain has been taken in the county, but no in- dividual has been, as yet, identified satisfac- torily.] 66. House-Sparrow. Passer domesticus (Linn.). Everywhere too abundant. 67. Tree-Sparrow. Passer montanus (Linn.). A resident, breeding sparingly in some parts of the county, especially the south- western portion. In winter it is often common, owing to arrivals from elsewhere. 68. Chaffinch. Fringilla Calebs, Linn. An abundant resident. 69. Brambling. Fringilla montifringilla, Linn. A winter visitor, generally uncommon, but often fairly numerous during severe weather. 70. Linnet. Linota cannabina (Linn.). An abundant resident, especially near the coast. 71. Mealy Redpoll. Linota linaria (Linn.). An irregular and uncommon winter visitor. Linota rufescens (Vieil- 72. Lesser Redpoll. lot). A common winter visitor, especially nu- merous round the coast : less common, appar- ently, than formerly. It breeds in the county occasionally, though not, I believe, with any regularity. 73. Twite. Linota fla virostris (Linn.). A common winter visitor to our coast, where it is often to be seen in company with redpolls and linnets. 74. Bullfinch. Pyrrhula europaa, Vieillot. A fairly common resident, most often seen in winter : certainly becoming more numer- ous, especially among the uncultivated lands in Dengie Hundred. 75. Crossbill. Loxia curvirostra, Linn. An irregular and uncertain visitor, appear- ing usually in late summer or winter : some- times common. It has bred in the county not very infrequently. 76. Parrot Crossbill. Bechstein. Loxia pityopsittacus, A rare visitor, though no fewer than nine examples are recorded from our county — a pair at Saffron Walden about 1823 ; one in Epping Forest in 1835 ; three at Lamborne on September 21, 1861 ; and three at Col- chester in 1862 (see Birds of Essex, p. 126). In my opinion this is merely a sub-specific form. 77. Two-barred Crossbill. Loxia bifasciata (Brehm). A very rare straggler which has twice occurred in the county — at Epping in or about 1846, and at Dedham in 1866 (see Birds of Essex, p. 126). 78. Corn-Bunting. Emberiza miliaria, Linn. A resident, but local, uncommon, and certainly decreasing in numbers. 79 Yellow Hammer. Emberiza citrinella, Linn. Everywhere an abundant resident. 240 BIRDS 80. Cirl Bunting. Emberiza cir/us, Linn. Possibly a resident, but so rare that it seems best to regard it as an occasional visitor merely. 81. Little Bunting. Emberiza pusilla, Pallas. A very rare straggler to Britain. A female bird of the year was taken with some linnets and yellow hammers by some bird-catchers at Southchurch in September 1892. It was kept alive for some days, but soon died and was thrown away, though not till it had been seen and identified by Mr. J. G. Keulemans. 82. Reed-Bunting. Emberiza schainiclus, Linn. A fairly common resident in suitable localities throughout the county. 83. Snow -Bunting. Plectrophtnax niva/is (Linn.). A winter visitor. In mild seasons it is uncommon, but during severe weather it is abundant on our coast and sometimes appears inland. 84. Lapland Bunting. Calcarius lapponicus (Linn.). An occasional visitor. One was shot near Waltham Abbey in 1872 (Essex Naturalist, iv. 1 1 8). The bird has probably occurred and been overlooked on other occasions. 85. Starling. Sturnus vu/garis, Linn. A very abundant resident which is rapidly becoming increasingly numerous. Enormous flocks are sometimes seen. Cream-coloured, white, and pied varieties are by no means uncommon. 86. Starling. Pastor roseus Rose - coloured (Linn.). A rare and occasional visitor. Some half- dozen individuals only are known to have been met with in Essex during the last half- century. 87. Chough. Pyrrhocorax graculus (Linn.). A rare and occasional visitor. Two indi- viduals were observed off Harwich on April 2, 1888 (Zoologist, 1888, p. !8s). Formerly, when it was a more abundant species, it visited us doubtless more often ; but it is now everywhere decreasing in numbers. 88. Nucifraga caryocatacttt Nutcracker. (Linn.). A rare and irregular straggler. In or about 1859, in the month of September, one was shot at Horkesley, another at Ardleigh, and another at Boxted, all adjoining parishes. Another was killed at Tollesbury in Sep- tember 1872 (see Birds of Essex, p. 131). Two examples were obtained in the county in the autumn of 1900 — one (which had been seen about for a fortnight) at Bradwell- on-Sea on October 27, and one in Epping Forest on November 5. 89. Jay. A common Garrulus glandarius (Linn.), resident in well wooded dis- tricts, in spite of incessant persecution. 90. Magpie. Pica rustica (Scopoli). Formerly a common resident in all parts of the county, but now almost exterminated in most districts through persecution. It is now more numerous round our coast than elsewhere, especially, I think, in the Dengie Hundred, where it is, possibly, increasing in number. 91. Jackdaw. Corvus monedula, Linn. An abundant resident, breeding commonly in places where an abundance of ancient timber affords suitable nesting sites. 92. Raven. Corvus corax, Linn. Now only, it is to be feared, a rare autumn or winter visitor, though until quite recently a resi- dent in small numbers. Early in last century it was fairly common in the county, and not a few ' raven trees,' in which it bred regularly, are still pointed out. It continued to breed occasionally in the inland parts of the county up to about the year 1865. In the vicinity of the coast it lingered somewhat longer. There were nests annually near Thundersley up to the year 1880, and a pair bred every year from 1871 to about 1878 in a clump of firs in the park of Lawford Hall. Up to at least the year 1890 the raven continued to breed regularly though in very small numbers among the islands and lowlands on the coast, in Dengie Hundred and the vicinity of the Blackwater Estuary — within forty miles of the Metropolis — making its nest in the tall elms which stand in the hedgerows and form a striking feature of the landscape in the district indicated. On April 15, 1889, I visited a ' raven tree ' — a tall elm — on Osey Island, in which a pair had been known to breed for many years, but found it unoccupied. The nest used the year before lay rotting in a ditch below the tree, having been poked down by a lad with a stick the previous summer because a pair of hawks had laid COB in it after the ravens had left it. The old birds had been seen about the island however a few weeks before, and had commenced a 241 3» A HISTORY OF ESSEX nest in another tree, but had afterwards de- parted and had probably nested, or attempted to nest, somewhere on the adjacent mainland. This survival of the raven as a breeding species until so recent a period is of much interest, for at the date in question it had long ceased to breed in any other county in the east of England. Mr. Fitch saw, on the shore at Fambridge, as lately as Sep- tember 1901, a bird which may possibly have bred in the vicinity. 93. Carrion-Crow. Corvus corone, Linn. A resident, though uncommon, local, and decreasing in numbers through persecution, except in the south-western portion of the county, where it seems to be increasing, probably because of the large amount of refuse it finds among the London manure now used so largely in that district. It is now most abundant among the poorly-cultivated lands in Dengie Hundred and elsewhere round our coast. 94. Grey or Hooded Crow. Corvus comix, Linn. A winter visitor, common enough as a rule on and near the coast : much scarcer inland. It is reported (see Birds of Essex, p. 135) to have bred formerly on the coast in Dengie Hundred. 95. Rook. Corvus frugilegus, Linn. An abundant resident. In its nesting habits it appears to be very erratic. Often a few pairs will nest in the late autumn or winter if the weather be mild : at other times old and well established rookeries are suddenly deserted in the middle of the breeding season without apparent reason : sometimes too a single pair or several will establish a new rookery which is often quickly deserted. Dun-coloured, creamy, or white varieties are not uncommon. 96. Sky-Lark. Alauda arvensis, Linn. An abundant resident. In winter, espe- cially if the weather be severe, large flocks arrive from elsewhere. 97. Wood-Lark. Alauda arborea, Linn. Formerly, a resident, though scarce and local. Now it seems to have almost entirely dis- appeared from the county through some un- known cause. 98. Shore-Lark. Otocorys alpestris (Linn.). A scarce and irregular winter visitor to our coast. 99. Swift. Cypselus apus (Linn.). Locally, Shriek-Owl and Tommy-Devil. A common summer visitor, breeding wher- ever there are buildings which afford it suit- able nesting sites. It leaves early, about August 15 as a rule, but one was shot at Chesterford on October 27, 1877 — an ex- tremely late occurrence. 100. Alpine Swift. Cypselus melba (Linn.). A rare straggler which has been reported, though on somewhat weak authority (see Birds of Essex, p. 145), as occurring in Essex on one or two occasions. 1 O I . Needle-Tailed Swift. Acanthyllis cauda- cuta (Latham). The first recorded example of this very rare straggler to Britain was shot at Great Horkes- ley on July 8, 1846 (Zoologist, 1846, p. 1492). 0 O2. Nightjar. Caprimu/gus europxus, Linn. A regular summer visitor, common in dis- tricts where woods and bracken-covered commons abound, but elsewhere scarce and seen only when on migration. 103. Wryneck. lynx torquilla, Linn. A fairly common summer visitor. It ap- pears to vary considerably in its numbers from year to year. 104. Green Woodpecker. Gecinus viridis (Linn.). Locally, Whetile, Yaffle, etc. A fairly common resident in parks and wooded districts, but scarce in the more open parts : rapidly decreasing, it is to be feared, in the county, owing to frequent eviction from its breeding holes by the starling. 105. Great Spotted Woodpecker. Dendrocopus major (Linn.). A resident and widely distributed, but de- cidedly uncommon and seldom seen, 1 06. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. Dendro- copus minor (Linn.). As the last-named. 107. Kingfisher. Alcedo ispida, Linn. A resident in all parts of the county but everywhere rather scarce and, I think, decreas- ing in numbers. A correspondent knew, how- ever, of six nests during 1901 within five miles of Maldon. With the additional legal protection now afforded, the bird may hold its own and even increase. 242 BIRDS 108. Roller. Caractas garrulus, Linn. A very rare straggler. One shot at Great Chesterford in 1865 is now in the Saffron Walden Museum. 109. Bee-Eater. M 'traps apiaster, Linn. A very rare straggler. One was shot at Peering about June 21, 1854, and another has been seen near Wanstead (see Birds of Essex, p. 150). no. Hoopoe. I] pupa epops, Linn. A not uncommon though somewhat irregu- lar passing migrant, at least one example being met with almost every year. It is most often seen during the latter half of April or early in May ; but it sometimes occurs in autumn, usually during September. It has bred in some other of the southern counties, but no instance of its having done so in Essex has been recorded. Its frequent appearance in pairs in spring leaves no doubt, however, that it would do so occasionally if not so mercilessly shot. in. Cuckoo. Cucultu canorui, Linn. A common summer visitor. 112. White or Barn-Owl. Strix ftammea, Linn. A fairly common resident in most parts of the county. No British bird more richly deserves the protection of landowners, farmers, and game preservers. All such should strictly enjoin their gamekeepers and other servants on no account to molest it. Its food consists almost exclusively of rats, mice, voles and shrews, though occasionally small birds are eaten. The damage it does to game is in- considerable : its services to the farmer are immense. 113. Long-eared Owl. Asia otus (Linn.). A resident, though in very small numbers, except at Alresford, where it breeds freely (Laver). Better known as an uncommon winter visitor. 114. Short-eared Owl. A sit accipitrinus (Pallas). Locally, Woodcock Owl, Cabbage Owl, etc. A winter visitor, common in some years, especially those in which the short-tailed field vole (Microtus agrestis) is abnormally abundant, but usually uncommon. Of late years how- ever it has been known to breed on the Essex marshes on several occasions — as at Little Oakley from 1884 to 1897 (Kerry), on Northey Island in 1896 (Fitch, Zoologist, 1896, p. 233), and at Bradwcll-on-Sca. 115. Tawny Owl. Syrnium aluco (Linn.). A resident, but local and not common, though fairly numerous in some of our more extensive woods, where, however, it is much persecuted by game-preservers. 1 1 6. Tengmalm's Owl. Nyctala tengmalmi (Gmelin). A rare and accidental straggler to Britain. One was killed at Poplar at the end of January, 1877 (Zoologist, 1877, p. 176). 117. Little Owl. Athene noctua (Scopoli). A rare and occasional visitor which has occurred several times in the county. All now met with must be regarded with sus- picion, as many have been turned out of late years. 1 1 8. Snowy Owl. Nyctea scandiaca (Linn.). A rare and occasional winter visitor which is said to have been seen in the county several times (see Birds of Essex, p. 159). 119. Scops-Owl. Scops giu (Scopoli). A rare and occasional visitor. Some five or six examples are recorded as having occur- red in the county. There is also some reason to think a pair may have bred more than once between the years 1886 and 1889 in the vicinity of Heydon, but the evidence is far from conclusive (see Essex Natura- list, iii. 17). 1 20. Eagle-Owl. Bubo ignavus, T. Forster. Said to have been seen in the county (sec Birds of Essex, p. 161). The individuals observed had perhaps escaped from confine- ment. 121. Egyptian Vulture. Neophron percnopterus (Linn.). An occasional straggler to Britain. On September 28, 1868, an immature individual was shot at Peldon (Zoologist, 1868, p. 1456). 1 22. Marsh - Harrier. Circus teruginosus (Linn.). Formerly a common resident, breeding in numbers, especially in the marshy districts near the coast : now only an occasional visi- tor though not very rare. 1 23. Hen-Harrier. Circus cyaneus (Linn.). As the preceding. 124. Montagu's Harrier. Circus cintraceus (Montagu). Also as above, but less often met with. 243 A HISTORY OF ESSEX 125. Buzzard. Buteo vulgaris, Leach. Locally, Puttock. Formerly a common resident, breeding in all parts of the county. In the Epping dis- trict it was practically exterminated by the year 1830, but at that time it still bred in the extensive woodlands in Rochfbrd Hundred and elsewhere. Fields in many parts of the county still known as ' Puttock's Lees ' attest its former prevalence. Now it is no more than a casual visitor, usually seen when passing on migration. 126. Rough-legged Buzzard. Buteo lagopus (Gmelin). An uncommon and irregular visitor, chiefly during autumn and winter. 127. Spotted Eagle. Aqulla maculata (Gme- lin). A very rare straggler to Britain. One was captured alive in a very exhausted state at Elmsteadon October 29, 1891 (see Zool. 1891, p. 470 and Essex Nat. v. 2 1 8), and another, also much exhausted, was shot five days later, on November 3, at Leigh (see Essex Nat. \. 2 1 8, and Zool. 1892, p. 76). An eagle which was seen about Bardfield, Lindsell and Thaxted throughout the month of December following was probably of the same species. At least one other individual was shot and another seen about the same time in Suffolk, showing that the eastern counties must have been visited by something like a small flock of these birds — blown out of their way probably by a severe gale which occurred just before they were seen. 128. Golden Eagle. Aqulla chrysa'etus (Linn.). An occasional winter visitor. 129. White-tailed Eagle. Haliaetus albidlla (Linn.). A winter visitor, seen not very uncom- monly on the coast, especially during severe weather. 130. Goshawk. Astur palumbarius (Linn.). A rare straggler which has been reported once or twice as occurring in the county, but under somewhat doubtful circumstances (see Birds of Essex, p. 168). 131. Sparrow- Hawk. Accipiter nisus (Linn.). A resident and still fairly common, though steadily decreasing through constant persecu- tion. 132. Kite. Milvus ictinus, Savigny. Locally, Crotch-tailed Puttock. Formerly a common resident. It bred in the county in some numbers up to about the year 1830, and has done so occasionally since then. A pair is said to have nested at Mer- sea about 1845, and I have seen a fine male said to have been shot at Sampford about 1870 in the middle of summer (see Birds of Essex, p. 170). As no Essex specimen has been reported for many years it may be re- garded as extinct in the county, though its occurrence as a casual visitor would not be surprising. 133. Honey-Buzzard. Perms apivorus(L,inn.). Formerly a not uncommon summer visitor. There is no record of its having bred in the county for many years, but it has not improb- ably done so, as individuals have occurred from time to time in the height of sum- mer. Now however it is with us not more than a passing migrant, usually seen during September when passing southward. 134. Gyr-Falcon. Fa lea gyrfalco (Linn.). A rare winter visitor. A falcon shot beside the lake in Hatfield Forest about nine years ago by the late forest ranger is, I believe, a male of this species (or race), and leading authorities who have examined it have held the same view, though others have pronounced it a large female peregrine. It is exceedingly dark in colour, the back being almost black and the breast darkly striped. Another gyr- falcon, shot near Coggeshall in 1855, but no longer in existence, may have belonged also to this or the nearly allied species (or race) known as the Greenland gyr-falcon {Falco candicans). 135. Peregrine Falcon. Falco peregrinus, Tunstall. Formerly no doubt resident in small num- bers, and a pair is said to have nested in a tree at Sampford in the summer of 1843 (see Birds of Essex, p. 173). Now however it is only a winter visitor, though un- doubtedly commoner than is usually supposed. 136. Hobby. Falco subbuteo, Linn. Once a fairly common summer visitor, breeding regularly in the county. It nested at Felstead in 1877, near Belhus Park in 1879, at Great Waltham about 1885, and near Bishops Stortford in 1887. Doubtless it has done so since, but no instance has come under my notice. Individuals still occur however from time to time. 137. Merlin. Falco ant^ Dale (Hist, of Harwich, p. 412) mentions another specimen. 7. Risso's Grampus. Grampus griseus, Cuvier. One of this species was found stranded in the Crouch about September 5, 1885, just above the spot where Rudolphi's rorqual, previously mentioned, was stranded. The remains of the skull and lower jaw were deposited in the British Museum, and Pro- fessor Flower, after examining them, con- firmed the identification (see Zoologist, 1888, p. 260). 8. Porpoise. Phoctena communis, Cuvier. Very common on the coasts and often seen in the rivers. 9. Bottle-Nosed Dolphin. Tursiops tursio, Fabricius. Bell — Delphlnus tursio. Generally considered rare, but it is not so on the Essex coasts, where it may often be seen. There are records of many captures (Zoologist, 1882, pp. 147-351). 10. White-beaked Dolphin. Delphinus albi- rostris, J. E. Gray. On September n, 1889, a school of nine specimens of this rare cetacean visited the Colne ; five of them were captured (see Zoologist, 1889, p. 382). 259 HISTORY OF KSSEX PRE-HISTOI THE VICTORIA HISTORY'; ID REMAINS. _~ PatoOlllhlo Implement! A Neolithic C*IU, Ae. X Ironie Wemponi and Implement* HE COUNT US Of tNGLANO EARLY MAN REGARD being had to the necessarily uncertain date of the various archaeological remains of early man, the period covered by this section of the local history cannot be arbitrarily limited, but may broadly be said to include the vast succession of ages between the appearance of man, as evidenced by his earliest handiwork, and the dawn of British history faintly traced in the writings of Roman historians. Nor can a terminal limit be fixed at the advent of the imperial power, for many stone, bronze and iron implements and much rude pottery must necessarily be classed as prehistoric, some of which may, for ought we know, have been fabricated in Romano-British days, while British coins were struck long after the Romans first attempted the conquest of the island. THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD In Essex few finds have been unearthed which raise the question of the existence of human beings in preglacial days ' ; nevertheless, to ages so remote that no approximation of date is possible must be assigned the first traces of man's presence. Our land was then separated from the north-west of Europe only by the waters of a great river flowing northward, occupying a minute part of the space now covered by the North Sea, and no channel separated the chalk hills of Dover from Cape Gris Nez. The waters which flowed through ancient valleys have left deposits of loam, sand and gravel, forming the strata yielding the major part of the implements of palaeolithic man. Some of these valleys remain,* but so altered by geological changes since that period that the gravel terraces, once below water, now form the building ground of (for example) parts of Leyton, Walthamstow, Clapton and Stoke Newington. It was from these terraces that Mr. Worthington G. Smith obtained many specimens which now enrich the British Museum, and from that source came numerous finds presented by the Rev. J. W. Kenworthy to the Essex Field Club collections. The Thames valley has yielded evidence of the presence of man at many points on its old terraces. 1 Mr. J. E. Greenhill expressed the opinion that there was proof of the presence of man in both interglacial and preglacial ages, and referred specially to an implement found below chalky boulder drift at Newport in Essex (Eistx Field Club Journal, iv. 95). * The broad rivers which eroded the valleys are now represented by narrower streams flowing at lower levels. 261 33 A A HISTORY OF ESSEX Other Essex examples have been found in the Roding and smaller river valleys, while some finds have been made in the gravel on higher ground. Coeval with the mammoth and Rhinoceros tichorkinus, now long extinct, and with the reindeer, hippopotamus, bison, hyaena and other animals no longer habitant in England, man waged war against beasts of forest and fen, his weapons being of wood or stone. The paucity in variety of weapons indicates a savage condition in which man's wants were few ; while the chipped, but never ground or polished, tools show the narrow limit of his ideas of fabrication ; but within those lines his works were excellent for their purpose, and dis- play judgment in the selection of material and skill in shaping it. Flint was in most cases the material used for the palaeolithic weapons which have survived, and the varieties consist mainly of flakes, oval cutters and tongue or pear-shaped pointed implements ; no relics which can with certainty be described as arrowheads have been discovered, but the sharply-pointed little triangular flints may have been used for arrow- heads or served as javelin points. The flakes, which probably were used as scraping and cutting instruments, are of much the same character as those of the neolithic period to be presently mentioned, but generally speaking they may be described as larger, coarser, thicker and broader.1 The tools referred to as oval cutters partake sometimes of more circular shape ; they are flat in form and usually carefully chipped round the edge. It has been suggested that they were frequently used as missiles, but probably their use was multiplex (fig. i). The implements which are best described as tongue-shaped or pear- shaped are the most characteristic weapons of palaeolithic man, serving probably as his constant companions in war, the chase and everyday life. They vary considerably in size, as in gradations of form, though all may be regarded as pointed implements. Most of our examples have a rounded butt, from which the sides taper. Some were probably hafted to handles, others possibly fixed to the end of wooden spears, but most would be suitable for use in the hand alone. Though not exactly of the celt or chisel form, these weapons may have been the embryo of the neolithic celt, which in its turn was the parent of bronze and iron axes, hatchets and adzes (fig. 2). A ' palaeolithic floor ' at Little or East Thurrock provided Mr. Worthington G. Smith with a fossilized antler, showing an artificial fracture produced by the straight edge of a palaeolithic weapon, but it is rare to find relics of man of this period in any material other than stone.2 Cave dwellings of later palaeolithic men have in some parts of the kingdom yielded a great variety of weapons of stone and of bone, and examples of rudimentary art in incised pictures, but we have discovered 1 Evans' Ancient Stone Implements (1897), p. 642. 2 Wood has been found on the palaeolithic ground of the Lea gravels, and may have been used for stakes, clubs, hut roof timbers or other purposes. 262 Fie. i. Sole | PALEOLITHIC WEAPON OF OVAL FORM FROM THE LEA VALLEY. (Forest Museum, Chingford) Fic. 2. Scale J PALEOLITHIC WEAPON FROM THE LEA VALLEY. (Foreit Museum, Chingford) Fiot j. Scale J NEOLITHIC CELT FROM INXVORTH. (Mr. Beaumont'i Collection) FIG. 4. Scale § NEOLITHIC CELT FROM STISTED. (Mr. Beaumont's Collection) To fat pegt 262. EARLY MAN no traces of cave-dwellers in Essex, though it is possible that the chalk range of the north-west or the outcrop on the south afforded opportunity for excavating such homes.1 THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD Ere neolithic man appeared great geological changes occurred, separating our lands from the continent by a channel. How long a time elapsed before the new race occupied the land we know not, nor where the continuity of the human species was maintained. We do know that man survived in more favoured regions of the earth, if not here, and migrated thence, bringing with him a higher civilization than had existed in the older times. That he was far in advance of his palaeolithic predecessors is amply evidenced by the greater variety of implements, the higher finish of many, and the introduction of pottery. The most prolific sources of relics have been burial barrows (generally long in shape and with skeleton remains, showing that the practice of inhumation prevailed), the sites of lake or mere-dwellings, and those of neolithic manufac- tories. That the characteristic long barrows of neolithic man have existed in Essex is likely, but probably in the days of prosperous agricultural operations every example was destroyed, and we can only surmise the possibility of their existence at places where many relics have been found together. Nor have we yet discovered any example of a pile or fascine dwelling of undoubted neolithic date, though it seems possible that the recently-discovered traces of early habitation in the hollow of the Brain or Pod river near Braintree are of very early origin (see p. 270). It is tolerably certain that a ' factory ' existed near Walton-on-the- Naze, where so many neolithic weapons have been unearthed, as chips and waste are also found. The wide range of articles of the neolithic period makes it necessary to refer to the principal forms only. Typical neolithic celts are of well-polished flint or other hard stone, but some which we know to be of the same period, from the circumstances of the discoveries, are rough-hewn or chipped, as were the palaeolithic weapons. The celts were used as hatchets, adzes or axes, the cutting end of the weapon being sharpened to an efficient edge by grinding.1 Stone imple- ments of similar form are still used by the North American Indians as skinners for removing the hides of animals from the flesh (figs. 3, 4). Wheresoever neolithic man's traces are observable, we find flakes of flint — some mere wasters thrown aside when the parent block was struck 1 The Hon. R. C. Neville (afterwards Lord Braybrooke) in 1848 opened a chamber at Heydon on the extreme north-west of Essex, which contained Roman remains. The chamber may possibly have been excavated long before Romano-British days, though used in that period. * A remarkable example from Walton, of greenstone, with grooves worked vertically to its cutting edge, is in Dr. Layer's collection. 263 A HISTORY OF ESSEX in manufacturing knives, scrapers, etc.1 — others carefully chipped at the edge, suggesting their use as cutting or rasping instruments. Small circular or oval implements chipped to a sharp edge are frequently found. It is generally thought that these were used as scrapers in preparing the skins of animals for clothing, for shaping wood for implements, etc. (fig. 5). In arrowheads our Essex collections are poor, though some have been found (figs. 6, 7). To the legends and folklore gathered round these ' fairy weapons ' space will not allow us to refer ; suffice it to say that even to this day a certain or uncertain power of preservation from evil is in some quarters attributed to them. The use of arrowheads of flint and obsidian continued long after the neolithic period, and has hardly yet died out in certain remote parts of the world. Longer pieces of flint, pointed and chipped to a cutting edge, served as spearheads, or maybe were hafted to handles for use as daggers and knives (figs. 8, 9, 10). Pestles for pounding or grinding corn and food are occasionally found, but as their use extended to later days it is impossible to say with certainty that all appertain to the neolithic age. From the sur- roundings there can be no doubt that an example in Mr. Spalding's collection belongs to the period, but a remarkable implement from Epping Forest (Loughton parish) may have been fashioned by those Late Celtic men who built the earthwork fort near. It is composed of hornblendic granite, or hornblendic gneiss, 12^ inches long, tapering from a diameter of 2 inches to if inches, and has been pecked and partially ground into shape. It is fully described by Mr. Worthington G. Smith in the Essex Naturalist (1888, vol. ii.), and may be seen in the Forest Museum at Chingford. Occasionally, holed hammerheads, axes, or maces of hard stone are found3 (figs. 11, 12). A fine hammerhead, discovered at Epping, is illustrated in the Essex Naturalist, viii. 1 64. The discovery of spindle-whorls indicates a knowledge of that primitive method of spinning, while finds of weavers' weights show that weaving was practised, at all events, in the later part of the period. Of neolithic pottery Essex has few or no recorded examples, though doubtless in the recent dark ages of archaeology many an urn may have been smashed by the plough or the spade.3 Though the advent of a people who understood the art of smelting metals stopped the exclusive use of stone and bone for weapons, it must be remembered that stone implements were used for a long period after 1 In the shed of one of the present-day workers of gun flints at Brandon a bushel of such wasters was heaped. 2 Sir John Evans considers that perforated implements belong to the very late neolithic or early bronze ages. An example in Saffron Walden Museum of basaltic stone has a clean-cut hole, apparently bored with a metal tool. 3 Near Birdbrook two tumuli were levelled to the ground, when, according to the testimony of an agricultural labourer, ' some rubbishy pots were found instead of gold.' The tumuli may have been Romano-British, but their shape was suggestive of the neolithic period. 264 FIG. 5. Scale } SCRAPER FROM WALTON. (Dr. Layer's Collection) FIG. 8. Scale ij WEAPON FROM SHOEBURY. (Dr. Layer's Collection) FIG. 6. Scale \ LEAF-SHAPED ARROWHEAD FROM WALTON. (Dr. Laver's Collection) FIG. 9. Scale | KNIFE FROM DOVERCOURT. (Dr. Layer's Collection) FIG. 7. Scale \ BARBED ARROWHEAD FROM WALTON. (Dr. Layer's Collection) Fie. 10. Scale 'J SPEARHEAD FROM WALTON. (Mr. Spalding's Collection) FIG. u. Scale | FROM THE BLACKWATER NEAR STANSGATE. (Dr. Layer's Collection) FIG. 12. Scale | FROM COLCHESTER. (Dr. Layer's Collection) To Jaft 2 *».( . FIG. 13. 5 inches high. FROM CHESTERFORD. (Saffron Walden Museum) FIG. 14. 5^ inches high. FROM GREAT CLACTON. (Colchester Museum) FIG. i 5. 5 inches high. FROM GREAT CLACTON. (Colchester Museum) FIG. 1 6. 4| inches high. FROM GREAT OAKLEY. (Colchester Museum) FIG. 17. 22.J inches high. FROM COLCHESTER. (Colchester Museum) To face page 265. EARLY MAN the passing away of the neolithic age, and indeed have been fashioned and used to the present day by uncivilized races.1 THE BRONZE PERIOD It is tolerably certain that the introduction of the use of metals here was accomplished by the advent of an alien race. They practised a different mode of sepulture, generally burning the body instead of burying it, as was usually the neolithic habit. They reared round instead of long barrows over the dead, and their osseous remains indicate a broader-headed people than is shown by the skulls of neolithic men. Though the two races continued to a large extent co-existent, the strangers (who are generally recognized as the first of ' Celtic ' race to touch our shores) drove neolithic men from the more temperate and fruitful parts of the land. Sir John Evans thinks that the bronze period may have com- menced here c. 1200 to 1400 years B.C. and endured for not less than eight or ten centuries, which would bring it down to about 500 B.C. ; but weapons to some extent, and ornaments more largely, were made of bronze long after the introduction of iron.* Swords and beautiful orna- ments of this material are found in many collections of Romano-British relics, and it has been said that even at the battle of Hastings (1066 A.D.) some use was made of bronze weapons. This however is open to grave doubt, the notion being based upon an expression in Wace's poem, writ- ten in the twelfth century. It is to the bronze age we must assign the dawn of decorative art. It gave vast variety of weapons, implements, ornaments and pottery, while some of the hill fortresses of our land owe their creation to that period. The antiquities are too numerous to admit of more than the brief- est reference ; they include pottery, celts or hatchets and adzes, spear- heads, gouges, sickles, knives and other implements of bronze, and personal ornaments and domestic articles of metal, stone, bone and horn. Pottery was made and decorated with an art in advance of neolithic efforts. We give illustrations of four vessels probably of the earliest part of the bronze period (figs. 13, 14, 15, 16). Among the various vessels of this age in the Colchester Museum is the large example which we illustrate. It was found in the town in 1889, is ^^\ inches high and 15 inches wide at the top, and is of a pale red colour roughly decorated in the manner shown. The chevron pattern on the upper band is formed of three rows of distinct impres- sions ; below this is a raised cordon ornamented, while the body is covered with simple indentations (fig. 17). Workers in bronze (a mixture of copper and tin) seem to have 1 In Borneo timber is still felled with adzes of stone, though the natives possess beautifully finished and decorated steel weapons (Ironwork, by J. Starlde Gardner, 1893). 1 Some scholars are inclined to an earlier date and estimate it at about 2000 B.C. Dr. Schrader considers that it is to Babylonia we owe the discovery of the art of making bronze (Athenaeum, June 8, 1 90 1 ). i 265 34 A HISTORY OF ESSEX travelled the land, carrying their material and casting it into weapons as required. Though isolated celts have occasionally been found, it is mainly to the hoards of the workers that we are indebted for the finds of bronze weapons in Essex, a county devoid of traces of such burial mounds of that age as have in other counties yielded a harvest of anti- quities. Some of the hoards may have been the property of dealers or merchants rather than founders, but when we discover lumps of raw metal and broken weapons (with or without the finished articles), there can be little doubt that they were the stock-in-trade of a bronze founder. The founder's hoard discovered on Lord Rookwood's estate in Hat- field Broad Oak parish in 1893 included not only the metal for fusing FIG. i 8. PENANNULAR ARMLET FROM SnoEBURY.1 FIG. 19. PALSTAVE FROM SnoEBURY.1 but the remains of the earthen pot in which the hoard was contained. In addition to perfect socketed celts, broken weapons, cauldron handles, etc., a noticeable socketed hammer and the rim of a vessel decorated with line-ornament were discovered (figs. 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33). This valuable hoard was presented by Lord Rookwood to the Essex Archaeological Society, and is exhibited in the museum at Colchester, where may also be seen a smaller hoard found at Southchurch, including a handle with rivet-holes (possibly of a sickle). Shoebury was the source of discovery in 1891 of a hoard which is now exhibited in the British Museum, consisting of socketed celts, pal- staves, part of a sword blade, etc. A penannular armlet decorated with diagonal hatching is of exceptional interest from the rarity of such dis- coveries, and is illustrated, together with a palstave showing details not usual on British examples (figs. 18, 19). 1 Cast from blocks kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries. 266 FIG. 20. Scale jj PALSTAVE FROM SHOEBURY. (British Museum) FIG. 21. Scale | PALSTAVE FROM PLESHEY. (Dr. Laver's Collection) FIG. 22. ; J inchet high. BRONZE SOCKETED CELT FROM HATFIELO BROAD OAK. (Colcheiter Museum) FIG. 23. 44 inches high. BRONZE SOCKETED CELT FROM HATFIELD BROAD OAK. (Colchester Museum) Ti fact fmgf 266. FIG. 24. Scale £ BRONZE SPEARHEAD FROM PLAISTOW MARSHES. (British Museum) FIG. 25. Scale J BRONZE SPEARHEAD FROM WALTHAMSTOW. (British Museum) FIGS. 26, 27. Scale £ BRONZE SPEARHEADS FROM HATFIELD BROAD OAK. (Colchester Museum) To face fagt 267. EARLY MAN A hoard found at High Roding, exhibited at the British Museum, consists of twelve socketed celts and eight lumps of metal for fusing. In the same collection is part of a hoard from Chrishall containing some socketed celts, a broken sword blade, a spearhead, etc. At Arkesden many weapons were found, also masses of metal and a mould used in casting a socketed celt.1 A small hoard from Romford is in the Saffron Walden Museum. Hoards of bronze have also been found at Baddow, Elmdon, Danbury, Grays, Fyfield, Thundersley and Wendon. Fifty or more celts were discovered together in a cleared portion of Hainault Forest near Hog Hill. Thanks mainly to the works of Sir John Evans, the evolution of the bronze celt is generally known. The earliest type is that of the flat celt, a copy in metal of the most advanced axe of the stone age. The second or palstave type has wings at the side, and is usually provided with a stop-ridge to regulate the position of the weapon in its handle, while some are also provided with a loop at the side for attach- ment (figs. 19, 20, 21). Occasionally, though rarely, a loop is on each side. The third and latest development has a hollow socket for insertion of the haft and a loop for attachment (figs. 22, 23). In decoration of their celts the workers in bronze occasionally dis- played considerable art, but for illustrations of this fact and for minor developments and variations of form we must refer our readers to Sir John Evans' Ancient Bronze Implements, wherein the subject is so fully and lucidly treated. In addition to those already mentioned, celts are recorded from Barking, Brentwood, Chelmsford (3), Felstead (3), Navestock, Panfield (5), Rayne (with spearheads) and Shoebury. A sword about 2 feet in length discovered in the river Lea has rivet-holes for attachment to the haft, and is in the British Museum collection, together with a dagger from Bow Bridge and a knife from Walthamstow. Barking yielded a leaf-shaped sword 1 8 inches long with four rivet-holes, and at Grays Thurrock there was found a bayonet-shaped blade 15^ inches long and i inch broad In the British Museum is a bronze spearhead from Plaistow Marshes curiously barbed and riveted (fig. 24). At Walthamstow, in addition to the specimen shown (fig. 25), a leaf-shaped spearhead was discovered having a broad socket extending only an inch below the blade. A spearhead is also recorded from Hull bridge in the parish of Hockley. In the Cambridge Museum of Archaeology is a spear or dagger- head of uncommon form, found at Saffron Walden. It is perfectly flat, 1 The late Joseph Clarke, F.S.A., added an illustrated account of the Arkesden finds to his paper, entitled, 'Notes on Objects in the Mayer Collection (Liverpool) relating to Essex' (1891). This hoard unfortunately got scattered ; a portion is in the Saffron Walden Museum and three of its celts are in Mr. Edward Taylor's collection, but we are unable to discover the whereabouts of the mould and many other articles. 267 A HISTORY OF ESSEX of lozenge shape, and provided with a flat tang ; the blade is 3! inches in length by i^ inches in width at the widest point, the tang being i| inches long by \ inch in width. A very fine sword or dagger of bronze was found on Cains farm in North Weald. It is 15! inches in total length and is illustrated in the Essex Naturalist (viii. 163). Space will not allow mention of the numerous other weapons and implements of the bronze age, but we may note in conclusion the remains of a fine bronze bowl from Walthamstow in the British Museum. It is of about 1 6 inches diameter, and retains the heads of the rivets by which the plates were attached. THE LATE CELTIC PERIOD OR IRON AGE At a date which may be approximated at about 400 B.C. a fresh swarm of invaders came, bringing knowledge of the preparation of iron, and the habit of using the metal, which caused this period to be known as the ' early iron age.' Iron did not entirely supplant bronze, indeed the latter continued long in use, sometimes in conjunction with iron, as in knives or swords, of which the blades were of iron and the handles of bronze, sometimes alone, as in body armour of Roman soldiers — the first armour known to British archaeologists. Finds of early iron are comparatively rare notwithstanding the enormous use to which the metal was doubtless put, for unfortunately iron is as perishable as it is useful. In Neville's Sepulchra Exposita (p. 10) is an account of the dis- covery at Wendon * of iron spearheads and the iron boss of a buckler, together with a vase of unbaked clay, apparently of early iron age. Belonging probably to the same period were the finds on Fambridge farm,2 where in 1851 a hand-made urn was found on a crescent of burnt flints, together with other vessels in fragmentary condition.3 In the marshes of the Lea by Walthamstow relics have been found which indicate the existence of settlements in the iron age ; notable among these is the iron celt with loop, now in the British Museum. Its form is peculiar, while its interest is increased by the fact that fragments of its wooden handle remain in the socket (fig. 34). Celts of iron are rare, but Sir John Evans records one 5^ inches long, with a rounded socket and no loop, found at Grays Thurrock in Essex.4 Two coarse cylindrical urns thought to belong to this age and found at Great Bentley are in the Colchester collection. They stand about 9! inches high with a diameter of 7 inches. Associated with fragments of early pottery, coarse, heavy rings of 1 It is not clear whether Wendon Lofts is intended or Wendens Ambo. 8 This farm is partly in Cressing and partly in White Notley parish. 8 Essex Arch. Soc. Trans, ii. 240. 4 Ancient Bronze Implements, p. 144. 268 FIGS. 28, 29. Scale Two HANDLES OF A BRONZE CAULDRON OR LARGE VESSEL. (Part of the HatticM Broad Oak hoard in Colchester Museum) Fics. 30, 31. Scale J PART OF THE Box OF A CHARIOT WHEEL FOUND AT SHOEBURV, TOGETHER WITH THREE BRONZE NAILS PROBABLY USED FOR HOLDING THE TIRE. (Dr. Laver's Collection) FIGS. 32, 33. Scale PARTS OF THE RIM OF A LARGE VESSEL, DECORATED WITH PUNCHED LINES, AND SOCKETED BRONZE HAMMER. (From the HatfieM Broad Oak hoard) To fact faft 268. FIGS. 35, 36, 37, 38. Scale J LATE CKLTIC VESSELS FOUND AT SHOKBURY. (Colchester Museum). From negative kindly lent by Mr. J. C. Shenstone. FIG. 40. 4^ inches high. LATE CELTIC VESSEL. (Colchester Museum) FIG. 42. Full size. FOUND AT COLCHESTER. (British Museum) FIG. 39. 8$ inches high. LATE CELTIC VESSEL FOUND AT COLCHESTER. (Colchester Museum) To face page 269. FIG. 41. 15 inches high. LATE CELTIC VESSEL FOUND AT COLCHESTER. (Colchester Museum) FIG. 34. Scale ^ IRON CELT FROM WALTHAMSTOW. (British Museum) EARLY MAN burnt clay have been found at Southminster and other places. These are usually styled ' net sinkers,' but it is open to question whether they were not used to support pots in burning in the kiln.1 Other collections contain articles found in Essex appertaining to the early iron age, but the exigences of space compel us to pass to the later portion of the period under consideration, the time that produced those vessels upon which so much light has been shed by Dr. Arthur Evans in his paper on a late Celtic urn field at Aylesford, Kent.1 Dr. Evans lucidly shows how this late (probably Belgic-Celtic) pottery was developed from bronze models, both in decoration and, in some instances, in shape also, and the course of the migration from northern Italy is indicated. We may not dwell on this, but use for illustration the vessels now in Colchester Museum which came from the rich ground of Shoe- bury in i896s (figs. 35, 36, 37, 38). In the same museum we see an urn of this period 8| inches in height which was found in Colchester ; this we illustrate (fig. 39), as well as a beautifully turned vessel 4^ inches high discovered in the neighbourhood (fig. 40). These are of dark grey colour. In the Joslin collection at Colchester may be seen examples of this late Celtic workmanship, showing sometimes by their juxtaposition that the earlier tradition of this form had survived in Romano-British days. Fragile bronze fibulas of remarkable beauty accompanied an earthenware vase of polished red surface with a handle and the * carinated ' form suggestive of a bronze model* (fig. 41). Lord Braybrooke has some late Celtic pottery at Audley End, and it is not difficult to find examples in other Romano-British collections. Chigwell has provided some fragments, and one vessel found at Southend is preserved in the Technical Schools in that town. To the late Celtic period is assigned work in gold and some enamel decorations found in various counties, but in Essex we have no definite record of such finds, though possibly the beautifully enamelled vase, discovered in one of the Bartlow Hills in 1835, and attributed to the Romans, was the work of Celtic enamellers to a Roman design.8 In the British Museum is a small wheel-like article of unknown purpose, which (judging from somewhat similar forms found in Gaulish contemporary cemeteries) is of the late Celtic period. It is I \ inches in diameter, has four spokes, and is not pierced in the centre of the hub, as would be the case were it part of a toy. This was found at Col- chester some years since (fig. 42). Here it may be well to refer to the recent discovery of a British dug-out boat or canoe, near Walthamstow, in the course of excavations 1 See similar articles from continental lake dwellings in British Museum. 1 Arthttotogia (1890), lii. 8 Essex Arch. Sor. Trant. n.s. vi. 222. * Group 30, No. 178, Joslin collection, Colchester Museum. 1 This vase was greatly injured in the fire which destroyed Easton Lodge in 1847. A portion of it is in the British Museum, and a facsimile of the whole vessel stands by its side. It was illustrated in colours in Arckteologia (1836), xxvi. A facsimile is also in Saffron Walden Museum. i 269 34 A A HISTORY OF ESSEX carried on in forming new reservoirs for the East London Water Com- pany.1 Though not, strictly speaking, found within the county of Essex, as now understood, its discovery in the border river bed may excuse reference here. It is hollowed out of a piece of oak, is nearly 15 feet long by 2 feet 4 inches in extreme breadth, and is i foot 4 inches in its extreme depth. A rib is left across (6 inches wide and 7 inches deep) at 8 feet from the stern, while nearer the bow a smaller rib has been left. These measurements are quoted from a note in the Reliquary (vol. vii.). In the Essex Naturalist (vol. xii.), is a full page illustration of the boat in situ at the excavations, with some particulars as to the geological conditions of the valley of the Lea. Our sketch of antiquities would not be complete without a chronicle of the British coins found in Essex, or relating to the county, were not that subject dealt with by another writer. In a separate chapter will be found our notes on the Ancient Earthworks. So far as those relics of antiquity are concerned which can be classed as palaeolithic, neolithic, bronze or late Celtic our task is accomplished, but it remains to notice the antiquities from the fascine dwellings at Braintree, which it is impossible at present to assign to a definite period, the question of its date awaiting the result of further examination. Our thanks are due to C. H. Read, Esq., F.S.A. ; W. Cole, Esq., F.L.S. ; to the curators of Colchester, Saffron Walden and Chingford Museums and others for permission to photograph objects ; and espe- cially to H. Laver, Esq., F.S.A., for ever-ready access to his valuable collection. FASCINE DWELLINGS AT BRAINTREE Near to the town of Braintree a mere or lake was in early times formed by the silting up of the stream now known as the Pod or Brain, and there below the accumulated alluvial soil traces of ' fascine ' dwelling places have been found. To the Rev. J. W. Kenworthy, vicar of Braintree, we are indebted for much information published in the Essex Naturalist (vol. xi.) as the result of some years watching of the excavations carried on for obtaining brickearth from the site.2 It appears that an artificial floor was raised in the manner usual with fascine dwellings. ' To support and secure this artificial concretion, wooden stakes were driven into the ballast of the lake or river. Out- side the raised platform there was still water, in which the peaty mud has accumulated until it has levelled all up ; and it was no doubt into this water which surrounded the floor on which the huts were built that numerous relics fell or were swept by the dwellers. So large was the 1 This valuable relic has been secured for the British Museum. 2 In addition to Mr. Kenworthy's paper the journal contains valuable supplements — archaeological by Mr. F. W. Reader and geological by Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. 270 Fic«. 45, 44, 45. Scale | THREE IMPLEMENTS MADE FROM RED DEER ANTLERS, FROM SITE OF FASCINE DWELLINGS. (From blocks kindly lent by the Essex Field Club) FIG. 4.6. VIEW op THE SITE OF THE FASCINE DWELLINGS AT BRAINTREE. (From block kindly lent by the Eurx Field Club) To fact fugi 170. EARLY MAN quantity of wood and other material used to construct this platform that in the course of years some tons have been dug out.' ' The relics discovered include the bones of the ox (Bos longifrons) and those of a larger ox, the bones and antlers of the red deer (Cervus elaphus), the roe deer (Capreolus caprea) and other animal remains, burnt bones and charcoal, an arrowhead of finely chipped flint, numerous worked flakes, a sandstone sharpener, bone and horn implements, of which some are perforated artificially, three picks made from deer's ant- lers, etc. Of pottery it is difficult to say that the relics came from the fas- cine strata, as the site has been occupied in after ages. The great question of the date of this settlement is still sub judice^ and must so remain till further explorations throw more light on the point ; the absence of metal weapons (even of the almost imperishable bronze) suggests neolithic origin, but on the other hand there has not been discovered a single relic which is incompatible with a Late Celtic origin, while some of the sawn antlers and wood indicate the use of metal tools unknown to neolithic man. Whatever the date may be, it must be acknowledged that archaeologists owe a deep debt to the inde- fatigable exertions of the vicar of Braintree. INDEX AND SUMMARY The following abbreviations are used to indicate the principal publications referred to in this index : — A. = Archteologia. A.J. = Archieological 'Journal. A.B.I. = Evans' Ancient Bronze Implements. A.S.I. = Evans* Ancient Stone Implements (ed. 2). B.B. = Britton and Brayley's Beauties of England and (Fales. B.A.A. = British Archaeological Association Journal. B.R.H. = Benton's Rochford Hundred. C.B.G. = Camden's Britannia (Cough's, ed. 2). E.A.T. = Essex Archteohgical Society's Transactions. E.F.C.J. = Essex Field Club Journal of Proceedings. E.F.C.T. = Essex Field Club Transactions. E.N. = Essex Naturalist. E.R. = Essex Review. G.M. — Gentleman's Magazine. G.M.L. = Gentleman's Magazine Library. N.S.E. = Neville's Sepulchra Exposita. S.S. = Surtees Society. P.S.A. = Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries. ABBERTON. — Palaeolithic implement : Colchester Museum. ARDLEIGH. — Palaeolithic implements : Colchester Museum. ARKESDEN. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante. ASHDON. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. Neolithic weapons : Saffron Walden Museum [A.J. xxi. 178]. BADDOW (GREAT and LITTLE). — Neolithic implement [E.N. x. 306]. Bronze finds : p. 267 ante [A. ix. 378 ; A.B.I. 43 ; E.A.T. \. 199 ; E.F.C.T. ii. 31]. 1 Etitx Naturalist, xi. 100. 271 A HISTORY OF ESSEX BARKING. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. 1 1 1 ; E.N. ii. 262]. Neolithic implements [A.S.I. 603]. Bronze celt [A.B.I, no]. Bronze sword: p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 284; P.S.A. ser. 2, i. 144]. BARLING. — Late Celtic pottery : Colchester Museum. BENTLEY (GREAT). — Early iron age vessels : Colchester Museum. BERECHURCH. — Bronze socketed celt : Dr. Layer's collection. BERGHOLT (WEST). — Palaeolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. BOXTED. — Neolithic celt : Colchester Museum. BRADWELL-ON-SEA. — Celtic ' ring money ' of gold : British Museum (Franks Bequest). BRAINTREE. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.J. iv. 177]. Fascine dwelling relics: p. 270 ante [E.N. xi. 94-126]. Bronze celts, etc. : Saffron Walden Museum. BRENTWOOD. — Bronze palstave : British Museum. BROOMFIELD. — Palaeolithic implements: Mr. Mothersole's collection [E.N.ji. 305]. BURNHAM. — Palaeolithic implement : Mr. Mothersole's collection. BURSTEAD (GREAT). — In Norsey Wood, near Billericay, have been found stone implements of palaeolithic and later times, as well as British pottery, probably of pre-Roman date. A bronze ring or rim was discovered, which was decided to be of the late Celtic age, and much material of the Roman period. [Information supplied by General B. R. Branfill.] CHELMSFORD. — Palaeolithic flakes : Mr. Mothersole's collection. Neolithic spearhead [E.F.C.T. ii. 30]. Bronze celts [A.B.I. 90 ; E.N. x. 306]. CHESTERFORD. — Palaeolithic and neolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. Holed stone hammerhead : Saffron Walden Museum [B.A.A. xxv. 272]. Bronze age pottery : Saffron Walden Museum. Bronze palstave [B.A.A. xxii. 451]. CHIGNAL. — Neolithic implement [E.F.C.T. ii. 30]. CHIGWELL. — Neolithic flakes [E.F.C.J. iv. 19]. CHRISHALL. — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 117, 283 ; N.S.E. 2]. CLACTON (GREAT). — Bronze age pottery : p. 265 ante ; Colchester Museum. CLAVERING. — Bronze celts, etc. : Saffron Walden Museum. COGGESHALL. — Neolithic celts : Mr. Beaumont's collection and Stratford Museum. COLCHESTER. — Palaeolithic implement [E.N. ii. 187]. Neolithic implement : Dr. Laver's collection [A.S.I. 578]. Bronze age pottery: p. 265 ante ; Colchester Museum. Bronze article (wheel) : p. 269 ante ; British Museum. Late Celtic pottery : p. 269 ante ; Colchester Museum. COLNE ENGAINE. — Neolithic whetstone : Colchester Museum. DANBURY. — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [A. v. 116 ; E.A.T. i. 199]. DOVERCOURT. — Palaeolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. Neolithic implement : p. 264 ante. DUNMOW (GREAT). — Neolithic implements [A.S.I. 351] : Saffron Walden Museum. EASTON (GREAT). — Neolithic pick [A.S.I. 173]. ELMSTEAD. — Neolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. EPPING. — Holed stone implement : p. 264 ante [A.S.I. 229 ; E.N. vi. 17 ; viii. 164]. FARNHAM. — Neolithic implement : Saffron Walden Museum. FELSTEAD. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.J. iv. 97]. Neolithic celt [E.N. i. 62]. Bronze celts [P.S.A. ser. 2, v. 428]. FINGRINGHOE. — Bronze age pottery : Colchester Museum. FOREST GATE. — Neolithic implements [E.N. iv. 17]. FYFIELD. — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [A. v. 116 ; A.B.I. 424 ; B.A.A. iii. 322 ; B.B. v. 423 ; C.B.G. ii. 130 ; S.S. Ixxvi. 157]. GRAYS THURROCK. — Palaeolithic implements [E.N. xii. 52]. Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [P.S.A. ser. 2, xvi. 327]. Bronze blade : p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 254 ; A.J. xxvi. 191 ; P.S.A. ser. 2, iii. 406]. Iron celt [A.B.I. 144]. HAINAULT FOREST (Dagenham Parish). — Hoard of bronze celts discovered about 1883. [Information supplied by Mr. G. P. Hope of Havering Grange.] HALLINGBURY (LITTLE). — British urns [E.N. iii. 226]. HALSTEAD. — Bronze mass : Colchester Museum. HAM (EAST). — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. in]. Bronze celt : British Museum. HAM (WEST). — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. in]. HATFIELD BROAD OAK. — Bronze hoard : p. 266 ante [E.A.T. n.s. iv. 301, vi. 172 ; E.R. iii. 273 ; P.S.A. ser. 2, xvi. 96]. 272 EARLY MAN HENHAM. — Neolithic implement : Saffron Walden Museum. HORKESLEY (GREAT). — Palaeolithic implements : Colchester Museum. HOCKLEY. — Bronze spearhead : p. 267 ante [B.A.A. iv. 74]. HORNCHURCH. — Palaeolithic implement of ovate form about 6^ inches long by 3^ inches at widest part. [Information supplied by Mr. G. P. Hope.] ILFORD. — Palaeolithic implements [E.N. xii. 52]. INWORTH. — Neolithic celt : Mr. Beaumont's collection. K.ELVEDON. — Neolithic celts and leaf-shape javelin head : Stratford Museum. LEXDEN. — Palaeolithic implement : Dr. Layer's collection. LEYTON. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. in] ; British Museum. Neolithic celts : Capt. J. M. Knight's collection. LITTLEBURY. — Palaeolithic implements [A.S.I. 538]. LOUGHTON. — Stone pestle : p. 264 ante [E.N. ii. 4]. Neolithic implement [E.A.T. n.s. viii. 229]. MALDON. — Palaeolithic and neolithic finds [Fitch's Maldon, p. 3]. MISTLEY. — Neolithic implements : Mr. Brook's collection. MUCKING. — Palaeolithic implements [A.S.I. 603 ; E.F.C.T. iii. in]. NAVESTOCK. — Bronze celt [S.S. Ixxvi. 164]. NEWPORT. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.jf. iv. 95]. NOTLEY (WHITE). — Neolithic flakes [E.A. T. n.s. vii. 340]. OAKLEY (GREAT). — Neolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. Bronze age pottery : p. 265 ante. ORSETT. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. 1 1 1]. PANFIELD. — Bronze celts (5) [A.B.I. 468 ; P.S.A. ser. 2, v. 428]. PARNDON (GREAT). — Neolithic implement [E.F.C.J. ii. 58]. PLAISTOW. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. ill]. Bronze spearhead: p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 338]. PLESHEY. — Bronze celts : Dr. Laver's collection. PRITTLEWELL. — Neolithic implements : late Mr. Benton's collection. QUENDON. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum [A.S.I. 538]. Neolithic celt : Saffron Walden Museum. RAINHAM. — Palaeolithic implement [A.S.I. 603]. RAYNE.— Bronze celt, etc. [G.M. (1844) i. 299 ; G.M.L. Arch. \. 74 ; G.M.L. Top. 164]. RIVENHALL. — Bronze socketed celts : Mr. Mothersole's collection. ROCHFORD. — Palaeolithic implement lent to Stratford Museum by the Rev. J. W. Kenworthy. RODING (HIGH). — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 109, 1 16, 424 ; P.S.A. ser. 2, xvi. 328]. ROMFORD. — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 86, 172, 424 ; A.J. ix. 303], ROYDON. — Neolithic weapon : Stratford Museum. SAFFRON WALDEN. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. Neolithic imple- ments : [A.S.I. 254, 336] ; Saffron Walden Museum. Bronze spear or daggerhead : Archaeological Museum, Cambridge. ST. OSYTH. — Palaeolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. SAMPFORD. — Neolithic implement : Saffron Walden Museum. SHOEBURY. — Neolithic implements : p. 264 ante. Bronze hoard : p. 266 ante [E.R. ii. 101 ; P.S.A. ser. 2, xiv. 174]. Bronze implements, etc. p. 266 ante [E.A.T. iv. 120] Early Celtic pottery : Colchester Museum. Late Celtic pottery : p. 269 ante [E.A.T. n.s. vi. 222]. Weaver's weight : Colchester Museum. SOUTHCHURCH. — Celtic pottery : Colchester Museum. Bronze hoard : p. 266 ante [E.A.T. n.s. vi. 173]. SOUTHEND. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. III]. Celtic pottery : p. 269 ante. SOUTHMINSTER. — Net sinkers (?) : p. 269 ante. Celtic pottery : Colchester Museum. STANSTED. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. STANWAY. — Palaeolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. Neolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. STEEPLE (STANGATE). — Holed stone implement : p. 264 ante. STIFFORD. — Neolithic celt [A.S.I. 93]. Circular hammerhead [A.S.I. 229]. Bronze sword [E.A.T. iv. 120]. STISTED. — Neolithic celt : Mr. Beaumont's collection. TEY (GREAT). — Bronze socketed celt : Dr. Laver's collection. THAXTED. — Celtic penannular ring ornament of gold : British Museum [A."J. vi. 56]. i 273 35 A HISTORY OF ESSEX THUNDERSLEY. — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante [B.R.H. 771]. THURROCK (£AST). — Palaeolithic relic : p. 262 ante [E.N. i. 129]. TILBURY. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. in]. TIPTREE HEATH. — Neolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection and Stratford Museum. WAKERING. — Celtic pottery : Colchester Museum. WALTHAM ABBEY. — Neolithic flakes [E.F.C.y. iv. 19]. WALTHAM (GREAT). — Neolithic implement : Stratford Museum. WALTHAMSTOW. — Palaeolithic implements [E.F.C.T. iii. in]. Bronze implements : p. 267 ante [A.B.I. 317]. Bone implements [E.F.C.T. iii. 147]. Iron celt : p. 268 ante. WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE. — Palaeolithic implements : Dr. Laver's collection. Neolithic im- plements : pp. 263, 264 ante. WANSTEAD. — Palaeolithic implement [E.F.C.T. iii. in]. Neolithic axe [E.F.C.y. iv. 95]. WEALD (NORTH). — Bronze weapon : p. 268 ante [E.N. viii. 163]. WENDENS AMBO. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. WENDON LOFTS. — Bronze hoard : p. 267 ante ; Clarke's Mayer collection, p. 9. Iron age finds : p. 268 ante. WICKEN BONANT. — Palaeolithic implements : Saffron Walden Museum. WITHAM. — Neolithic celt [A.S.I. 75]. Celtic vessels [B.A.A. ix. 60]. WORMINGFORD. — Curious implement of a stag's antler, about 13 inches long and if inches broad. A hole is perforated at one end, the other end is cut and rubbed to a chisel shape. Now in Stratford Museum [E.N. x. 310]. WRITTLE. — Neolithic hammerhead [E.F.C.T. ii. 30]. 274 HISTORY OF ESSEX EARTh so' JO' ILr 1 dmlmrgU GrogL-.pliic*! tnjtitnl. THE VICTORIA HISTORY C /ORKS . REFERENCE I Barrows. Tumuli, and " Red Hill " A Moated Mounds —M " CampK," Enclosures and Dykei Doubtful Mound* LJJ Doubtful ' ' Camp* " • Denehole* O Traces of Moated Village Enclosures Homtittad Moat* an not tmdicattd. Tht nriaftoournoodt in w*ic* thr "ffvrf Hilli " an found an marked with tht lymbo/ for Barmuit ttiu* I . but no atttmpt ft madt to indicatt individual mpttt. Seal* of HtU, — 3D' HE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND ANCIENT EARTHWORKS UNDER this heading we include both defensive earthworks, and those constructed for other purposes, but as interest largely centres upon the former, we confine our notes mainly thereto, mentioning tumuli, etc., in brief, among miscellaneous works. Throughout the large county of Essex, we find no examples of the earliest defensive works such as can be attributed to the stone age or bronze period ; perhaps the marshy nature of the low-lying districts and the thickly-wooded character of the other parts were not favourable to the settlements of early man, or it may be that long years of cultivation have swept away all traces of the earliest defences. In the succeeding periods of time, from the earliest part of the iron age, our land has been cultivated, and homes have been established, but of purely defensive works we have no example which can with cer- tainty claim earlier date than the Celtic iron age. Of that time, or about the period of the Roman invasions, we have important fortified positions, but of demonstrably Roman ' camps,' perhaps none. Passing to later days, Essex can boast of some of the most charac- teristic examples of the ' mount and court ' type of castles ; the earth- works of these we may describe, but the castles of masonry which in some instances afterwards occupied the same sites, will be referred to by other writers. In the following notes the aim has been to group defensive works of each class or character together, with but little attempt at chronolo- gical order ; for it must be remembered that some of the earliest types of works were repeated in after days, and that it is therefore, in the absence of the invaluable aid of spade-labour, impossible to judge the age by the form of earthwork. On account of the simplicity of its plan, rather than of evidence of early construction, we mention Gryme's Dyke first among the defensive earthworks of Essex, passing next to enclosures defended by rampart and fosse. Such defensive works are usually known as * camps,' but the word is not to be regarded as signifying temporary occupation only, as in many instances these fortified positions may have been intended for permanent use. 275 A HISTORY OF ESSEX GRYME'S DYKE AND OTHER RAMPARTS NEAR COLCHESTER Gryme's Dyke, which forms the subject of an interesting paper by Dr. H. Laver, F.S.A.,1 is to be traced through the greater portion of its original length, still retaining in parts the rampart with deep fosse on its western side. It was about 3! miles long, extending from the Colne on the north to the Roman river on the south, forming a defence to the west of the British oppidum, the side which was unprotected by water.2 Though there is no positive proof, we are probably safe in assigning a Celtic origin to this work, for as Dr. Laver says : — There is no recorded instance of anything later than the British period ever having been found under any portion of this dyke, although Roman remains abound on the eastern side, and quite up to it. A very large part of what has been destroyed has been levelled during the last forty years ; and, as several observers have during this period sought carefully for relics of the Roman period and never found anything that could be identified with that people, it may fairly be concluded, that this work was raised before they came, especially if it is borne in mind that fragments of pottery of a distinctly British character have been unearthed at various points. Though the remains vary in section, Gryme's Dyke consists mainly of a fosse on the west, about 1 2 feet deep, with a rampart on the east, raised some 20 feet above the bottom of the fosse. The work, which otherwise runs north and south, has, at Butcher's Green, a rectangular break j-l throwing the southern portion of the defence more westward ; this curious break may represent the site of a fort on the long line of rampart, but the traces of further work are very indistinct. Another line of entrenchment, about a mile in length, extends nearly parallel with Gryme's Dyke on the eastern side of the latter, but is so much destroyed that it is impossible to speculate upon its age or purpose. Lexden Park Ramparts which lie still more to the east, extend far beyond the limits of the park on the north and south, being traceable for about two miles from the Bergholt road on the north, passing the ancient moated enclosure (now occupied by Lexden Lodge), across the river Colne, up the slope to Lexden Park, where the rampart is carried along the brow of a steep slope, forming a picture of great beauty in this well-timbered domain, then southward to the old London road. For the greater part of its length, this un-named work (which we have called Lexden Park Ramparts) is similar in construction to Gryme's Dyke, but there is no evidence of its age. Dr. H. Laver has admirably summed up all that has been said of it, but commits himself to no theory on the subject.3 1 Essex Arch. Soc. Trans, n.s. vi. 1 7. 2 It should be noted that entrenchments are partly traceable on the south side of the Roman river, suggesting an extension of Gryme's Dyke in that direction. 3 Essex Arch. Soc. Trans, n.s. viii. 108. 276 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS CAMPS, ETC. LOUGHTON CAMP. — Among those which retain sufficiently definite form to be classed as early defensive earthworks we place Loughton first, as, like Ambresbury, it has the advantage of having been scientifically examined by means of excavation. It is in the heart of the old Forest of Waltham, now known as Epping Forest, and is situated about a mile and a half from Loughton railway station. The position of the camp is remarkable ; and, considered from a military point of view, it is perhaps the most advantageous in the whole Forest district. It occupies the southern headland of an elevated plateau, many parts of which are densely wooded. From the southern side of the camp an extensive view may be had looking towards the south-east, bounded by the Kentish hills beyond the Thames . . . At the northern angle of the camp, the elevation is about 310 feet above the Ordnance datum. The ground gradually trends away towards the southern rampart, and then suddenly dips down to Debden Slade, a low marshy valley distant about i,OOO feet to the south, and the level of which is only 160 feet above datum, show- ing a fell of about 120 feet from the southern aspect of the camp, or 150 feet from the higher plateau ground at the northern end. From the western side the ground descends even more abruptly to form a smaller valley, the levels showing a fall of about 70 feet. * tni'i ^>M*4ta ^L <(Wf I1* I J ^ iiiW^fe' ' la&^iSS^ J^"" " .^^ 1 I :1\ •4 \ ^ The investigations of the Euex Field Club proved that * fowe between 6 and 7 t'eet deep existed at A, but hai been entirely lilted up. The Cone on the north tide, now 4 feet below the counterscarp, wai originally nearly 5 feet deeper. The tectiont show the present condition. Our plan ii bated upon one iiiued in the Tram, of ibt Euex FiclJ Glut. 1 Eisex field Club Tram. iii. zia. 277 A HISTORY OF ESSEX In 1882 four cuttings were made by the Essex Field Club through or into the bank, and one of them was carried to the bottom of the ditch. The ditch, like that of Ambresbury, was found to be pointed. Many flint flakes, a flint chisel or celt, and fragments of pottery were found in the excavations. From the evidence obtained in these explora- tions, General Pitt-Rivers was of opinion that the camp was pre-Roman. Pits of various shapes and size exist on the enclosed area, and more numerously on the plateau adjoining on the northern side. These may have been the result of digging for sandy material, or, as some think, the regular circular form of many may indicate habitations of early men. Personally we incline to think their material was excavated as an ingredient of the plaster so commonly and long used in wattle-and-daub houses 379 *~ «.. XT.. ... j_ ./_ ,<: ^ ^362 " »«.-.\,wvs^V\s,«.V\\V*. 8 .v^~-*vvt"»"-Vx. <«**" ^^vx,. ^vx. A, 7 feet of silt had accumulated here since fosse was cut. B, Present summit of rampart, originally higher. The shaded line indicates present surface. c, D, Position at which the trench was cut for examination by the Essex Field Club. E, T, Banks cut in the sixteenth century to form a roadway. The figures indicate feet above sea level. The section is copied from Essex Field Club Transactions, 1881. 278 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS AMBRESBURY BANKS. — This fortified position, lying about 2 miles from Loughton Camp, we may next describe, although its relics show it to be somewhat later in date. Variously known as Amesbury, Ambersbury and Ambresbury,1 it is situated in the forest, but close to the modern high road at the fourteenth milestone on the way from London to Epping, partly in the latter parish and partly in that of Waltham Holy Cross. Although at one time this earthwork, from its somewhat angular form was supposed to have been constructed by the Romans, the exca- vation which was carried out by the Essex Field Club in 1881 under the direction of the late General Pitt-Rivers led that eminent authority to conclude that the camp was of British origin, but whether it was erected before or after the Roman conquest he considered could only be decided by further exploration. The excavation which was made consisted of a section near the centre of the north-western side of the camp. The objects found comprised several fragments of imperfectly-baked pottery without ornamentation and a few flint flakes.* The original ditch was found, like that of Loughton Camp, to be triangular and pointed at the bottom, a feature somewhat unusual in ditches of British camps. The escarp rises at an angle of 45° and the counter-scarp probably at the same angle ; the fosse was 22 feet wide at the top and 10 feet deep, and as the annexed plan shows has become silted up 7 feet from the bottom.* NAVESTOCK : Fortification Wood. — About 4 acres are enclosed by a low bank, with shallow moat traceable on three sides and part of the fourth. At the southern end of the enclosure is a deep excavation forming a pond nearly across from east to west, possibly more recent work than the banks. During some period long past, the bank was more exposed to weather and it is consequently reduced in height, while its moat or fosse has been partially filled up by the deposit of leaves of many summers. The dense growth of tangled wood has of late prevented further destruction of the bank, but at the same time it renders detailed exam- ination of the work very difficult. The late Rev. S. Coode Hore, in a paper read before the Essex Field Club in 1894, said he was 'strongly inclined to think this earth- work and wood may be identified with a certain wood known in the year 1222 as The Defence of Navestock. . . .' We find in an eccle- siastical visitation of that date known as the Domesday of St. Paul's4 the following entry : * Stephen son of Robert holds . . . half an acre, juxta defensum de Nastok . . .' The expression might suggest the existence of some military work 1 Some local guides add to the attraction of the camps by styling this the Roman Camp, and the Loughton earthwork Boadicea's Camp, but there is no authority for either statement. 1 The flakes may have belonged to the soil when the rampart was constructed. 8 See Essex Field Club Transactions, ii. 55-68. « Domes Jay of St. PauPs, Camden Soc. 1858. 279 A HISTORY OF ESSEX in Navestock, but that the word defensum was applied to any enclosure or fenced ground (see Bailey's Dictionary, 1733). We may fairly conclude that so long ago as 1222 the area was producing timber, but whether the earthwork had previously an inde- pendent existence or was simply formed to protect the wood is not apparent. SAFFRON WALDEN : The Repell or Faille Ditches. — The Faille, Repell, Peddle or Paigle Ditches which are the remains of a Roman camp or of a British oppidum are situated on ground gently rising from the course of the Slade, a stream once of sufficient volume to give added security to the north of the earthworks. On all sides was probably a rampart of earth with its ditch or moat outside and a slighter ditch within. Of this defensive work only part remains, about 480 feet on the west and 500 feet on the south sides. Buildings, gardens, etc., have largely destroyed the inner ditch and altered the levels of the interior space ; the eastern side of the oppidum is completely covered with build- ings. Within the area was found a large number of skeletons and many objects which had been buried or subsequently thrown aside on the site.1 The antiquities discovered when the skeletons were unearthed do not fall within our province to describe, as the cemetery is generally thought to belong to the Saxon period, although we consider some of the pottery indicates ' late Celtic ' days, or at all events the influence of the art of that period, in its decoration. However that may be, there is no doubt of the important fact that beneath the burials referred to were found traces of earlier occupants of the site, probably the men who made the early defensive ram- part and moat. LITTLEBURY : Ring Hill Camp. — The earthwork is about 1,100 yards in circum- ference, occupies the eastern end of a chalk range on the western side of Lord Bray- brooke's park at Audley End, and covers about 1 8 acres of ground. It is an oval fortifi- cation originally provided with rampart and exterior fosse, but the construction of a drive above the fosse has largely obliterated the inner bank. Though known to 1 H. Ecroyd Smith in Essex Arch. Soc. Trans, n.s. vol. ii. gives a full account of the discoveries, a plan of the cemetery and numerous illustrations of the finds. 280 Hill Camp l.i|-Heburi| . near Audleij End ESSEX u ^sg^sg -v • ANCIENT EARTHWORKS antiquaries of the early eighteenth century,1 and apparently referred to long before in Holinshed's Chronicles (1577),* no careful survey has been published and no record of explorations exists. We need not enter into the views and opinions expressed by Stukeley, Salmon and others as to its date and origin, but it is well to note the fact that Roman coins have been recorded as found on the spot, although this of course shows only that the place was occupied in the time of the imperial domination of Britain. UPHALL ENTRENCHMENTS NEAR BARKING. — These entrenchments were described by Smart Lethieullier, about 1750,* as 'not regular but uphaii Enrrtnchmtnrt near Barking ESSEX From plan by Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S. tending to a square ; the circumference is 1792 yards . . . enclosing an area of forty-eight acres, one rood, and thirty-four perches. On the north, east and south sides it is single-trenched ; on the north and east sides the ground is dry and level (being arable land), and the trench from frequent ploughing almost filled up ; on the south side is a deep morass ; on the west side, which runs parallel with the river Roding, and at a short distance from it, is a double trench and bank ; at the north-west corner was an outlet to a very fine spring of water, which was guarded by an inner work and a high keep or mound of earth.' By far the best 1 See reference to Dr. Stukeley's and Roger Gale's opinions in Cough's Additions to Cam Jen. ' The reference in Holinshed is to ' Starbirie hils." Ring Hill was locally known as Starberry Hill long after Holinshed's time. 8 Lyson's Envinmt of London (1796), vol. iv. I 28l 36 A HISTORY OF ESSEX modern account of this camp is that by Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S.,1 who, from its form and position and by comparison with other early works, was of opinion that it was probably a British settlement subsequently occu- pied during the Roman period,2 though others regard it as of Danish origin, the view eloquently maintained by Mr. F. J. Norris.8 The peculiar position of the mound on the rampart is suggestive of the much smaller work at Tempsford, Bedfordshire, which the Saxon Chronicle leads us to believe was Danish and it is quite possible the Danes altered an existing work at Uphall and added the mound. It is with sadness we have to record that little is left of the ancient defences except the fragment of the rampart with the mound as shown at the north-west end on plan. On the side facing the river Roding, the rampart rises about 15 feet from the marsh, the mound being some 14 feet higher. WALLBURY, GREAT HALLINGBURY. — Wallbury is of somewhat simi- lar form to Loughton Camp in Epping Forest, but is of much larger extent, containing about 35 acres, and instead of depending upon a single bank and ditch, is mainly protected by a double rampart and two ditches. 1 Essex Naturalist, vol. vii. 131. 3 This view is strengthened by the recent discovery of Roman remains within the camp. 3 Gentleman's Magazine, 1888, p. 370. 282 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS On part of the west side, a steep natural slope to the valley of the Stort rendered much ramparting unnecessary, though even here we find traces of the outer rampart in places. The camp seems to have been made in the later period of pre- Roman days, when men had learned to dispense with tortuous entrances, and required forts not for defence alone but rather as places in which a body of fighting men could be protected and rapidly issue thence to attack an opposing force in strength. Cultivation has destroyed all trace of huts or houses, but probably this and other of these late level- surfaced enclosures had many such. It is not improbable that this great earthwork, which stands on the high ground overlooking the valley of the Stort, was an oppidum of the Trinobantes, as a defence against the Catuvellauni, their neighbours on the west. Though likely, if already in existence, to have been occupied by the imperial soldiers, no Roman antiquities are recorded as having been found within the camp, but this may be due to the fact that very little excavation has been made within its area.1 It should be noted that Sir James H. Ramsay* suggests the identi- fication of Wallbury with the position ' established ' by Hasten the Dane in A.D. 894 (? 895). This shows the need for keeping an open mind upon the question of the date of the creation of such earthworks.8 Of one thing we may be sure : whensoever made, this was one of the largest and most important fortresses of these eastern lands. SOUTH WEALD CAMP. — The camp occupies an elevated position partly within the bounds of Weald Hall Park, and partly on cultivated land to the east. The area enclosed was about 7 acres. It is difficult to trace the lines of the work — excepting the bank within the confines of the park, all have been mutilated or destroyed ; but it is still possible by careful examination of the ground east of the road which adjoins the park to ascertain where the rampart and fosse were carried. There is nothing in its form inconsistent with Celtic work, but Salmon* thought this of Roman origin ' too small to contain an army and fit only for castra exploratorum? Of the majority of the following ' camps ' but faint traces exist, while some have disappeared since their mention by our old historians. In form they approximate to the class of works under consideration. ASHDON. — An ancient entrenchment is to be seen parallel with the Bourne stream near the Bartlow Hills, consisting of bank and ditch over 300 feet long measuring about 30 feet across. The bank is now about 4 or 5 feet in height and the ditch which is V-shaped is of corre- sponding depth, but was originally 5 feet deeper. There is a rectangular 1 Mr. G. E. Pritchett, F.S.A., about the year 1876 reported the discovery of at least seven ossuary urns and ampulla: in a gravel-pit near the encampment. * Foundations of England (1898). 3 It may be that the Danish work was on the south bank of the Lea at Hertford. Vallans wrote in the sixteenth century : ' There remayneth yet the ruines of an old castel or fort bctweene Hartford Castel and the Mill, which I doe undoubtedly beleeve was the verie selfe same fort that the Danes builded ' (see Lcland, Hearne's ed. 1744, v. zz). * History ofEsiex, p. z6j. 283 A HISTORY OF ESSEX enclosure at one end. Mr. A. R. Goddard in an account of this earth- work 1 calls attention to the fact that the fosse is on the interior side of the enclosed space and the agger beyond it.2 ASHELDHAM. — Entrenchments for the most part levelled but ap- parently originally of somewhat oval form, enclosing about 16 acres near Asheldham church at the corner of the road to Southminster. From the remains there is not sufficient to justify more than a con- jecture that the works may have been British. BILLERICAY : Elunfs Walls. — Salmon speaks of the earthworks here as consisting of a ditch and rampart surrounding about 4 acres, one part of which was once separated by ditches within which enclosure there were several artificial mounds, then for the most- part levelled. Since Salmon's time, the ditch, ramparts and mounds have disappeared. BILLERICAY (Norsey Wood). — General B. R. Branfill has drawn attention to entrenchments surrounding this wood, and to a number of excavations which may have been ancient habitations. The protecting bank is reported to be about 5 to 6 feet high, with a ditch outside, completely surrounding the wood of about 195 acres area. Towards the southern end are remains of ancient dams where, by the fall in the level, water naturally accumulates. It is suggested that the extensive banks surrounding the wood may be due to the great rising of the peasants in the time of Richard II. when, according to John Stow the historian, * a new multitude at Byllerica ' seem to have 'fortified themselves with ditches and carriages.' BIRCH. — * Birch Castle,' as it is called, is a small much-destroyed enclosure, partly protected by a rampart and trench. Morant said it was connected with the earthworks on Lexden Heath, but there is no trace of the connection to be found at the present day.3 BIRDBROOK. — At Watsoe Bridge the ancient road from Colchester to Cambridge crosses a stream which flows into the Stour from the south ; here was situated an earthwork, probably of Roman origin. Few traces remain, there are deep depressions here and there which may indicate the line of the fosse, and there is a rectangular corner, but the plough has left little to mark the spot. Thomas Walford, in a communication published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1801, shows the camp or station, but even in his day all that remained to be recorded was a part of the west vallum, that ' at the north-west end was taken down in January, 1793.' Many Roman coins were discovered near by, and the site of a cemetery was found. Morant refers to the spot (under Bumpsted Steple) and thinks a tower of some sort stood here. Wright suggests that there had been a camp on the summit of Bailey Hill, Birdbrook parish, but his evidence is not satisfactory. BRAINTREE. — An embankment with fosse stands on the south side 1 Trans. Essex Arch. Sot. vii. 349. * A plan of the work appeared in Archtfohgia, xxv. 3. 8 It should be recorded that a field adjoining the enclosure is locally known by the suggestive name ' the bailey.' 284 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS of Stane Street. Cottages occupy part of the fosse, the rampart is in the grounds of Mount House, and there is no doubt that we have here part of one side of a large, otherwise destroyed camp. CANEWDON. — There is said to have been a camp here of oblong form, which enclosed about 6 acres. At the beginning of last century the vallum had been levelled, but the fosse was still visible. Mr. Benton considered that ' Duckett's Mead,' which adjoins the fosse before men- tioned, and had a ditch a rod wide on its northern side, probably occu- pied the site of the camp. HARWICH. — No remains of a camp are now to be seen, but from Morant we learn that in his day traces existed at least half a mile long, one side of the work running southerly from without the Town-gate to the Beacon Hill field, in the midst of which was a tumulus. The rampart was in many places 12 feet high, and the ditch, though chiefly filled up, at least 6 feet deep and 40 feet wide. The sea had devoured the rest. On the top of the hill another work ran across from the former in an easterly direction. The Essex historian considered the camp a work of the Romans. HORKESLEY (GREAT). — Here are some remains of an earthwork known as ' Pitchbury ' or ' Pitsbury Ramparts.' When the late Rev. Henry Jenkins described the camp in 1841, he stated that it was of oval shape, X!^'3SS^* t and contained about 6 acres. Most of ^^^^("\'''w'\\yl!^ *"V<^ (|i"'\^n'" it was levelled for agricultural operations /!^>*'«X* ffffjr ^^JUfXf Pirch about fifty years ago, but there are still A fafjjr J .J • . c *~^/f* Pihchbury some remains, consisting or two banks with their accompanying ditches. The lines moreover of that part which was destroyed can be partially traced in the adjoining fields. Gretrf Horkesley LAYER MARNEY. — The Rev. H. Jenkins writing in 1863 said that until /•\--B lately there were at Haynes Green, ~^*/*tr^"J- „, 2?t. s,t; between Layer Marney Wood and Pods- From measurement, kindly .uPPucd \>Y wood, the remains of a double-trenched Roman camp, which was then gradually disappearing beneath the encroachments of the plough.1 Its condition is now so fragmentary that it is impossible to guess its purpose. It has not the slightest appearance of ever having formed part of the entrenchments of a Roman camp. LEYTON. — In the grounds of Rukholt Manor there were, in the early part of last century, the remains of an ancient entrenchment on a small eminence rising from the river Lea, which appeared to consist of a square embankment enclosing a circular one. The latter was about 33 feet in diameter, surrounded by a moat about 6 yards in width ; the 1 The remains are doubtless the same as those a plan of which was published in the Traniaetiotii a/ the Essex Arc hfo logical Society in 1895. 285 A HISTORY OF ESSEX former had traces of a double rampart divided by a ditch. Nothing now remains of this work. ORSETT. — According to Morant there were in his time some ancient entrenchments enclosing 4 or 5 acres, but it is possible he was misled by the appearance of the remains of moats, banks and fishponds appertaining to the site of a mansion of Bishop Bonner. PRITTLEWELL. — There are remains of an entrenchment on Fossett's farm. The enclosure is situate upon rising ground, and is of somewhat oval shape, having on two sides the bank well denned, with outer fosse in part. It embraced about 8 acres, and can still be traced in several fields. At one point of the work was possibly a circular mound, but it has been lowered, now rising only about 8 feet above the surrounding land. SAFFRON WALDEN. — Grimsditch Wood has a fosse along what was probably one side of a camp or station, a purpose for which the com- manding site would render it suitable. Of other sides of the fortress there are traces, but nearly all the banks have been partially destroyed and the ditches correspondingly lessened in importance. Though the features of the following five earthworks are, or were, in the main similar to those of camps such as we have been considering, it seems well to separate them therefrom and to group them together as, happily, the period of their construction may be assumed with confidence. BENFLEET. — In the Saxon Chronicle, under the date of A. 894, we hear of Beamfleote having been already constructed by Hasten, the Danish leader (Hcefde Hasten cer geworbt beet geiveorc a gegaderode begen to Sceobyrlg on Eastseaxum & freer geweorc worhtun). As there are no traces of other earthworks, it may be assumed that those fragments 1 Essex Arch. Trans, n.s. viii. 233. 286 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS which remain on the coast are of Hasten's construction. Though originally an inland fortress, as is proved in Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell's papers,1 the sea has washed away about half of it, and the „ Shoeiarynta Essex. banks of the re- maining portion have been sadly mu- tilated by the War Office authorities, who now occupy the site. Rampart and ditch remain on the south side while Rampart Street marks the north line. A fraction exists, or did till recently, on the west side, show- ing a ditch 40 feet wide outside a bank of about 12 feet in height. In the words of Dr. H. Laver2 : — It is probable that the few remains of this historical camp will soon disappear, unless an effort is made to enlist the help of the War Office authorities in its preserva- tion, a matter which should not be difficult, seeing its value as an historical monument, and that the cost of preservation would be next to nothing. MALDON. — If any reliance can be placed upon the plan shown by Strutt,3 the earthwork at Maldon must have been of the most simple form — a rampart with a wide moat, surrounding an open space ; but it is practically certain that in Strutt's days it was by no means so complete as indicated, for Salmon, who wrote earlier (1740), speaks of part being built upon and defaced. In his day three sides of the fortification remained ; but now, alas ! Mr. E. A. Fitch in his description of Maldon (1898) can only say : * The site of this Saxon camp can still be faintly traced.' Salmon * says : — There are the remains of a camp on the west side of the town, through the middle of which the Road to Chelmsford goes ; three sides of the Fortification are visible. The ground within the Vallum seems to be of about twenty-two Acres . . . We see three sides of a Square or Oblong, the rest being built upon and defaced. This has a fair Pretence to be Roman ; but as Edward the elder encamped here, it is not certain whether he fortified it, or found it ready done to his hands. There are two references in the Saxon Chronicle. The first (A. 913) simply states that King Edward went to Maldon with some of his force and encamped while his burb at Witham was being constructed. 1 Essex Naturalist, iv. and Artbtrokgical Journal, xlii. ' Manneri, Customs, etc. (1774). 287 * Essex Arch. 1 'rani. n.s. vi. 97. 4 History of Essex (1740), p. 419. A HISTORY OF ESSEX N (pa flr Eadweard cyn'mg mid sumum his fultume on Eastseaxe to Mteldune £«f wlcode peer }>a hwile J>e man pa burh worhte y getimbrede tet Witbam?) (Then went King Edward with some of his force to Maldon in Essex, and there encamped, while the burh at Witham was being wrought and built.) The second (A. 920) reference is as follows : — (Her on pys gere foran to middum sumera for Eadweard cyn'mg to Mteldune & getimbrede j)a burg is" gestaffolode t moat about 8 feet in depth, the mound of about zo feet altitude and the moat again. the grantee in Norman William's reign. This view is perhaps strengthened if we can regard the scanty traces of outer work on the south as part and parcel of the whole. ELMDON. — Close to Elmdonbury, now the chief manor-place of this parish, is a wood for generations past known as Castle Grove ; within it is a circular moated mound, to which no reference is made in our county histories. It may have been, probably was, the first site of the castle or manor-house of the manor mentioned in Domesday, then held of Count Eustace of Boulogne by Roger de Sumeri.1 1 It may be well to note that the present house of Elmdonbury, though of some antiquity, is not on the site of the late-mediaeval manor house, it occupied the square moated enclosure about 400 yards to the west. 293 W £ 2; /|i 5 A HISTORY OF ESSEX The mound with its surrounding moat is only about 1 50 feet in diameter, and the moat has been lessened in depth by centuries of accumulation of leaves and decayed vegetation. Along the inner edge of the moat runs a bank, as at Berden, giving a saucer-like form to the top of the mound. Tw = =i /«=5 E. FELSTEAD. — There is a small mound %^/jijf^^ at Bannister Green known as the Quakers' Mount. Mr. J. French writes 1: 'It is from 15 to 20 feet high and some- what oval, with a flat top, being about 20 paces long at the top and 18 broad. Its sides incline at an angle of 45°, and it was formerly surrounded by a moat Mound in Castle Grove * J about o or 10 feet broad. Not quite half of this moat still exists, the rest having been filled in in great part by earth removed from one end of the mound. The original symmetry can be well made out in spite of this mutilation.' HEDINGHAM (CASTLE). — The noble twelfth century tower of Hedingham Castle has been the subject of artists' pencils and antiquaries' ELMDON ESSEX. tee' 900' too' AMttStipS**^^ wi'A^V^x\\f*w%/mvr «^"^iP ^mfa?;,,.^ ^Pf ...r,^'-,.,W«p -^^ , •""'"%, te\«- v--\c\ ^m \WM goo' 300 Mecf/ny/tam Cersf/e, Sssex. pens, but the great fosse and ramparts have seldom, if ever, been depicted or described. That they were here long before the stone keep is probable, but how long before we may not assert. 1 Essex Naturalist, vi. loo. 294 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS A natural hill projecting towards the west, near the junction of two roads of ancient importance, was seized upon as a suitable site for defence. Across the promontory was cut a fosse (c), separating the high west end from the rest ; this fosse remains, but partially filled up and spanned by a Tudor bridge. Then a great dyke was scored around the steep sides of the high ground, and the material largely thrown outwards, forming a protecting rampart. Either at the same time or probably later, a base-court or bailey was formed on the east of the mound, protected by its own high rampart and deep fosse. The fosse of the bailey is discontinued on its north-west at a point where a sheet of water appears to have existed. It is noteworthy that in exactly the same relative position at the castle of Canfield, water was provided in abundance if needful. At the west end of the earthworks a narrow pass is cut through the outer rampart, the banks being continued outwards for its defence. Down this pass water trickles, probably the overflow of that which supplies the castle well on the height above, and the path here is the only existing original entrance to the works. The terracing of the gardens in front of the mansion long ago destroyed traces of the bailey rampart and fosse on the south, but probably it was there that the main entrance to the castle was placed. LATTON. — Within the parish of Latton, but close to Harlow station, is a low hill rising about 23 feet above the general level of meadows. It is an open question whether man's handiwork is traceable on this hill, which has been long associated by local tradition with a fort of some sort. So long ago as 1821 tradition found voice in the Gentleman's Maga- zine^ and in Archceologia, where very strong walls are said to have been found a few feet below the surface. The hill or mound was practically an island in early days, as the waters of the Stort gave a morass-like character to the surrounding valley. The opinion that some modifications have been made of the natural form of the hill, that relics of Roman occupation have been found, and that the deep trackway to the hill, coupled with local tradition, points to some defensive work having existed, will be found in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society.1 The view that the whole hill is of unmodified natural creation is expressed by Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.1 The riddle must remain unsolved, unless perchance the pick and shovel some day throw light on the matter. NAVESTOCK. — Early in the eighteenth century Dr. Stukeley, the celebrated antiquary, discovered somewhere on Navestock Common ' 1 Eitex Arch. Tram. n.s. v. 95 ; viii. 239. * Eitex NaturaRit, ix. 59. 1 Then waste land, but enclosed and cultivated since 1768. 295 A HISTORY OF ESSEX an earthwork which he imagined to be an 'Alate Temple of the Druids.' Extracts from Stukeley's diary1 show that he was at his Alate Temple at least four times (from 1725 to 1761). The entry of August 5, 1761, says : ' 'Tis much overgrown with fern, and but lately, so that 'tis difficult fully to discern it. They have dug gravel there lately.' Fortunately Stukeley not only specifically described the position of the earthwork but also made a sketch of its form,2 and we may recognize in the main the lines of a ' mound and court ' fortress such as we have some splendid examples of in Essex, though here the mound by Stukeley's time had lost some of its altitude or he could not have found it ' diffi- cult fully to discern.' The late Rev. S. Coode Hore of Navestock and Professor Meldola, F.R.S. (of course without any faith in Stukeley's Druid theory), deter- mined to discover the site, and after a prolonged search they arrived at the conclusion that the excavation by the roadside near Princes' Gate is part of the work. The solitary remnant of an excavation fails to convey any definite impression, but its position tallies with Stukeley's description of the site. ONGAR. — The altitude and bulk of the great mound of Ongar Castle, the depth and width of the moat, the solid rampart round the bailey, and its height above its moat, tell us that we have here the remains of a once important fortress. Part of the rampart and fosse of a second bailey extends for about 400 feet on the west, the rest having been mainly destroyed in the growth of the town of Ongar, though here and there further traces of the sweep of the defences may be found. There are indications also of a court to the east of the mound, and perhaps of a second beyond, or possibly of an outwork cutting off the site of the fortress on that side. Careful examination is necessary to realize the physical conditions of the site in the days when it was first fortified — a promontory project- ing southward from the tableland above, with the then marshy valley of the Roding on the east, a narrower stretch to the south, and the little valley on the west, through which the Cripsey flowed to meet the Rod- ing. Only on the north was natural protection entirely lacking, and across that side the earliest occupiers seem to have constructed some slight protective work. It was probably long subsequent to the first occupation of the site that the great earthworks of Ongar Castle were constructed. Without going into detail as to their date, we may say that our view is that though there may have been works here in pre-Norman days which had fallen into disuse when Count Eustace of Boulogne 1 Essex 'Naturalist, viii. 221, 222. 2 Reproduced in facsimile in Essex Naturalist, ix. 214. 296 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS obtained the grant and probably made Ongar the * caput ' of his great Essex fief,1 he materially altered the defences, and that it was not till Richard de Luci's lordship in the twelfth century that the final develop- ment took place, a development which made Ongar Castle a huge fortress. The plan shows all that is left of the ramparts, but it is necessary to add that solidly built rubble and tile masonry occurs at e, probably the only gateway from the outer to the inner bailey. The earthen ramparts were mainly crowned with stockades or palisading of timber, but here and there towers of masonry may have been erected, as rubble is found at one or two points on the bank. The Sff ON CAR CASTLE. I r, Remains of tile and rubble masonry. old local idea was that the masonry which is exposed at e ran round, forming a core to the bailey rampart, but excavations have proved that chalky boulder-clay, gravel and sand rammed together are the main constituents of the wall. PLESHEY. — It has usually been considered that the construction of the outer entrenchment at Pleshey took place long anterior to the time when the great mound and court castle was thrown up, perhaps destroy- ing a portion of the older work on the southern side. The outer work consisted of a rampart of earth with a fosse or moat without, both are well defined in a portion of the circuit but much reduced in the height 1 See Mr. J. H. Round in Essex Arch. Tram. n.i. vii. 143, and Chisenhale-Marsh's Domesday, be. 1 297 38 A HISTORY OF ESSEX of the bank, and correspondingly lessened in the depth of the fosse, while in some parts the rampart has been levelled. Its complete circuit was doubtlessly much longer, but about 1,100 yards remain. Though numerous finds of early pottery and some bronze implements have been made within the area enclosed by the outer } / f*******^ "*<: ttt " ''/* "?N Xx % •V '/ %fej^ ^% >>- % \\ v^ ^ \\ '',. '', %^ ' *»' i